1

Practical Summer Training Report on

STUDY OF RFID TAG

AT

INDIAN SPACE RECEARCH ORGANIZATION

submitted in

partial fulfilment of

award of degree

of

Bachelor of Technology

Submitted To Submitted By

SANJAY B.C. GAUR NEHA SHARMA

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR AND HEAD B.T ECH VII SEMESTER

DEPARTMENT OF ECE ECE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS &COMMUNICATION ENGINEERIN

JIET School of Engineering & Technology of Girls
RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY 2010-11
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A
SUMMER TRAINING REPORT ON
STUDY OF RFID TAG

AT

REGIONAL REMOTE SENSING SERVICE CENTRE

CAZRI CAMPUS, JODHPUR (RAJ)

B.TECH.3rd YEAR

RAJASTHAN TECHNICAL UNIVERSIYY, KOTA

2007-2011

SUBMITTED TO: - SUBMITTED BY:-

MANOJ JOSEPH NEHA SHARMA

SCIENTIST/ ENGINEER ‘SC’ (STUDENT OF JIET-SET G)

RRSC/ NRSC BRANCH:-ELECTRONIC & COMMUNICATION ENGG.

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CONTAIN

1) Acknowledgment 4
2) Organization chart 5
3) About ISRO 6-9
4) About Remote Sensing ,Digital Image Processing & 10-14
it’s applications
5) About Geographical Information System (GIS) & 15-21
it’s applications
6) Theoretical Background of the project 22
a) RFID Tag 23-32
b) Antenna 33-44

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
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An acknowledgment should be the expression of gratitude and not a set of platitude. Here

with we pen down the thank fullness. It is matter of immense pleasure for as to submit this

project report to the competent authorities as a part of summer training.

We are grateful and thankful to our esteemed guide MR. MANOJ JOSEPH who imply

deserves the credit to enable us to carry out this project with then step wise scholarly guidance,

helping gestures and attitude to help us, encourage us and give us new ideas.

ORGANIZATION CHART

NRSC :- National Remote Sensing Centre

PRL :- Physical Research Laboratory

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NARL :- National Atmospheric Research Laboratory

NE- SAC :- North Eastern Space Application Centre

SCL :- Semi-conductor Laboratory

ISRO :- Indian Space Research organization

ANTRIX :- Anthrax Corporation Limited

VSSC :- Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre

LASC :- Liquid propulsion System Centre

SDSC :- Satish Dhawan Space Centre

ISAC :- ISRO Satellite Centre

SAC :- Space Application Centre

IISU :- ISRO Inertial System Unit

DECU :- Development and Educational Communication Unit

MCF :- Master Control Facility

RRSSCs :- Regional Remote Sensing Service Centers

ISTRAC :- ISRO Telemetry Tracking and Command Network

LEOs :- laboratory for Electro-optic Systems

IIST :- Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology

ABOUT ISRO :-
Space activities in the country started during early 1960s with the
scientific investigation of upper atmosphere and ionosphere over the magnetic
equator that passes over Thumba near Thiruvanathapuram using small sounding
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rockets Realizing the immense potential of space technology for national

development, Dr. Vikram Sarabhai, the visitors leader envisioned that this
powerful technology could play a meaningful ro;e in nation development and
solving the problems of common man.

Thus, Indians Space programe born in the church beginning, space

activities in the county, concentrated on achieving self and developing capability
to build and launch communication satellites for television broadcast, telecomm
nations and meteorological applications; remote sensing satellites for management
of natural resources.

The objective of ISRO is to develop space technology and its

application to various national tasks. ISRO has established two major space
systems, INSAT for commutation, television broadcasting and meteorological
services, and Indian Remote Sensing Satellites (IRS) system for resources
monitoring and management. ISRO has developed two satellite launch vehicles,
PSLV and GSLV, to place INSAT and IRS satellites in the required orbits.

The Indian space programe to promote the development and

application of space science and technology for the socio-economic benefit of the
country.
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Dr. Vikram Sarabhai , The father of Indian Space Program.

There are some who question the relevance of space activities in a developing nation. To us,
there is no ambiguity of purpose. We do not have the fantasy of competing with the
economically advanced nations in the exploration of the moon or the plants or manned space-
flight. But we are convinced that if we are to play a meaningful role nationally, and in the
community of nations, we must be second to none in the application of advanced technologies
to the real problems of man and society.
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Launch vehicle fleet

Comparison of Indian carrier rockets. Left to right: SLV, ASLV, PSLV, GSLV, GSLV III.

Geopolitical and economic considerations during the 1960s and 1970s compelled India to initiate
its own launch vehicle program. During the first phase (1960s-1970s) the country successfully
developed a sounding rockets program, and by the 1980s, research had yielded the Satellite
Launch Vehicle-3 and the more advanced Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV),
complete with operational supporting infrastructure. ISRO further applied its energies to the
advancement of launch vehicle technology resulting in the creation of Polar Satellite Launch
Vehicle (PSLV) and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) technologies.
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Satellite Launch Vehicle (SLV)

The Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation SLV or SLV-3 was a 4-stage
solid-fuel light launcher. It was intended to reach a height of 500 km and carry a payload of
40 kg. Its first launch took place in 1979 with 2 more in each subsequent year, and the final
launch in 1983. Only two of its four test flights were successful.

Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV)

The Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation ASLV was a 5-
stage solid propellant rocket with the capability of placing a 150 kg satellite into LEO. This
project was started by the ISRO during the early 1980s to develop technologies needed for a
payload to be placed into a geostationary orbit. Its design was based on Satellite Launch Vehicle.
The first launch test was held in 1987, and after that 3 others followed in 1988, 1992 and 1994,
out of which only 2 were successful, before it was decommissioned.

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)

The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation PSLV, is an expendable
launch system developed to allow India to launch its Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites into
sun synchronous orbits, a service that was, until the advent of the PSLV, commercially viable
only from Russia. PSLV can also launch small satellites into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO).
The reliability and versatility of the PSLV is proven by the fact that it has launched 30 spacecraft
(14 Indian and 16 from other countries) into a variety of orbits so far. In April 2008, it
successfully launched 10 satellites at once, breaking a world record held by Russia.

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) The Geosynchronous Satellite

Launch Vehicle, usually known by its abbreviation GSLV, is an expendable launch system
developed to enable India to launch its INSAT-type satellites into geostationary orbit and to
make India less dependent on foreign rockets. At present, it is ISRO's heaviest satellite launch
vehicle and is capable of putting a total payload of up to 5 tons to Low Earth Orbit.
 10

ABOUT REMOTE SENSING, DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING & it’s

APPLICATION:-

REMOTE SENSING:-
Remote sensing is broadly defined as science and art of collection information about objects,
area or phenomena from a distance without being in physical contact with them.

The term Remote Sensing is commonly restricted to methods that employ electromagnetic
energy as means of detecting and measuring target characteristics.

Remote sensing is broadly classified into two categories:-

a) Active remote sensing:-

It uses its own source of EM energy which is directed towards the object and return
energy is measured.
b) Passive remote sensing:-
It uses sun as a source of EM energy and records the energy that is naturally radiated or
reflected from the objects.

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF REMOTE SENSING:-

Remote sensing to a great extent relies on the interaction of electromagnetic energy with
the matter. It refers to the sensing of EM radiation, which is reflected, scattered or
emitted from the object.
APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING:-
1) Agriculture
2) Forestry
3) Land use and soils
4) Geology
5) Urban land use
6) Water resources
7) Coastal environment
8) Watershed
9) Environment
10) Digital elevation models
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Remote sensing is the small- or large-scale acquisition of information of an object or

phenomenon, by the use of either recording or real-time sensing device(s) that are wireless, or
not in physical or intimate contact with the object (such as by way of aircraft, spacecraft,
satellite, buoy, or ship). In practice, remote sensing is the stand-off collection through the use of
a variety of devices for gathering information on a given object or area. Thus, Earth observation
or weather satellite collection platforms, ocean and atmospheric observing weather buoy
platforms, the monitoring of a parolee via an ultrasound identification system, Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI), Positron Emission Tomography (PET), X-radiation (X-RAY) and
space probes are all examples of remote sensing. In modern usage, the term generally refers to
the use of imaging sensor technologies including: instruments found in aircraft and spacecraft as
well as those used in electrophysiology, and is distinct from other imaging-related fields such as
medical image There are two main types of remote sensing: passive remote sensing and active
remote sensing. Passive sensors detect natural radiation that is emitted or reflected by the object
or surrounding area being observed. Reflected sunlight is the most common source of radiation
measured by passive sensors. Examples of passive remote sensors include film photography,
Infrared, charge-coupled devices, and radiometers. Active collection, on the other hand, emits
energy in order to scan objects and areas whereupon a sensor then detects and measures the
radiation that is reflected or backscattered from the target. Remote sensing makes it possible to
collect data on dangerous or inaccessible areas. Remote sensing applications include monitoring
deforestation in areas such as the Amazon Basin, the effects of climate change on glaciers and
Arctic and Antarctic regions, and depth sounding of coastal and ocean depths. Military collection
during the cold war made use of stand-off collection of data about dangerous border areas.
Remote sensing also replaces costly and slow data collection on the ground, ensuring in the
process that areas or objects are not disturbed.
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Application of remote sensing data:-

 Conventional radar is mostly associated aerial traffic control, early warning, and
certain large scale meteorological data. Doppler radar is used by local law
enforcements' monitoring of speed limits and in enhanced meteorological collection
such as wind speed and direction within weather systems. Laser and radar
altimeters on satellites have provided a wide range of data. By measuring the bulges
of water caused by gravity, they map features on the seafloor to a resolution of a
mile or so. By measuring the height and wave-length of ocean waves, the altimeters
measure wind speeds and direction, and surface ocean currents and directions.

 Light detection and ranging (LIDAR) is well known in the examples of weapon
ranging, laser illuminated homing of projectiles. LIDAR is used to detect and
measure the concentration of various chemicals in the atmosphere, while airborne
LIDAR can be used to measure heights of objects and features on the ground more
accurately than with radar technology. Vegetation remote sensing is a principle
application of LIDAR.
 Radiometers and photometers are the most common instrument in use, collecting
reflected and emitted radiation in a wide range of frequencies. The most common are
visible and infrared sensors, followed by microwave, gamma ray and rarely,
ultraviolet. They may also be used to detect the emission spectra of various
chemicals, providing data on chemical concentrations in the atmosphere.
 Stereographic pairs of aerial photographs have often been used to make topographic
maps by imagery and terrain analysts in traffic ability and highway departments for
potential routes.
 Simultaneous multi-spectral platforms such as Land sat have been in use since the
70's. These thematic pampers take images in multiple wavelengths of electro-
magnetic radiation (multi-spectral) and are usually found on earth observation
satellites, including (for example) the Land sat program or the IKONOS satellite.
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Remote Sensing software

Remote Sensing data is processed and analyzed with computer software, known as a remote
sensing application. A large number of proprietary and open source applications exist to process
remote sensing data. According to an NOAA Sponsored Research by Global Marketing Insights,
Inc. the most used applications among Asian academic groups involved in remote sensing are as
follows: ERDAS 36% (ERDAS IMAGINE 25% & remapped 11%); ESRI 30%; ITT Visual
Information Solutions ENVI 17%; MapInfo 17%. Among Western Academic respondents as
follows: ESRI 39%, ERDAS IMAGINE 27%, MapInfo 9%, Autodesk 7%, ITT Visual
Information Solutions ENVI 17%. Other important Remote Sensing Software packages include
PCI Geometrics who makes PCI Geometrical, the leading remote sensing software package in
Canada, IDRISI from Clark Labs, and the original object based image analysis software
recognition from Definiteness. Dragon is one of the oldest remote sensing packages still
available, and is in some cases free. Open source remote sensing software includes GRASS GIS,
QGIS, OSSIM, Optics (software) and Oreo toolbox.

The TR-1 reconnaissance/surveillance aircraft.

The 2001 Mars Odyssey used spectrometers and imagers to hunt

for evidence of past or present water and volcanic activity on mars.
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DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING:-

The data recorded by remote sensing satellite sensors are analogue electrical signal with
voltage variation measured in different spectral bands, which are then transformed into
digital values.
The processing of the digital format data for various applications is known as Digital
Image processing (DIP).
Basically image processing method may be grouped into three major functional
categories:-
a) Image Restoration: - Compensates for data errors, noise, geometric and radiometric
distortions.
b) Image Enhancement: - Alters the visual impact of an image for better interpretation
and improves the delectability or targets.
c) Information Extraction:- utilizes the decision-making capability of computer to
recognize and classify pixels on the basis of their digital signature.

APPLICATION OF DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING:-

1) Computer vision
2) Optical sorting
3) Augmented reality
4) Face detection
5) Feature detection
6) Lane departure warning system
7) Non-photorealistic rendering
8) Medical image processing
9) Microscope image processing
10) Morphological image processing
11) Remote sensing
GIS OBJECTIVES:-
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1) Maximize the efficiency of planning and decision making

2) Provide efficient means for data distribution and handling
3) Capacity to integrate information from many sources

GIS COMPONENTS:-

Hardware- used to store, process and display data. Hardware capabilities affect processing speed,
ease of use and type of outputs available.

Software- performs GIS operation. It contains procedures for performing various tasks.

Expertise- people, who provide the intelligence to use the system, develop procedures and define
the tasks of GIS.

Spatial information- represents geographic features associated with the real world locations and
their relationship to other features.

Non-spatial information- descriptive information about the characteristics of the feature .

ERRORS IN GIS:-

Errors in GIS environment can be classified into following major groups:-

1) Error associated with data

Age of data
Map data
Density of observations
2) Errors associated with processing
Map digitization errors
Special integration errors
Generalization errors

GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM: -

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A geographic information system (GIS) is any system that captures, stores, analyzes, manages,
and presents data that are linked to location. In the simplest terms, GIS is the merging of
cartography and database technology. GIS systems are used in cartography, remote sensing, land
surveying, utility management, photogrammetric, geography, urban planning, emergency
management, navigation, and localized search engines.

As GIS is a system, it has boundaries that may be jurisdictional, purpose or application oriented
for which a specific GIS is developed. Hence, a GIS developed for an application jurisdiction or
purpose may not be necessarily interoperable or compatible with a GIS that has been developed
for some other application, jurisdiction or purpose. What goes beyond GIS is spatial data
infrastructure (SDI), a concept that has no such restrictive boundaries.

Therefore, in a general sense, the term describes any information system integrates, stores,
edits, analyzes, shares, and displays geographic information. In a more generic sense, GIS
applications are tools that allow users to create interactive queries (user-created searches),
analyze spatial information, edit data, maps, and present the results of all these operations.
Geographic information science is the science underlying the geographic concepts, applications
and systems, taught in degree and certificate programs at many universities.

Applications

GIS technology can be used for: earth surface based scientific investigations; resource
management, reference, and projections of a geospatial nature--both manmade and natural; asset
management and location planning; archaeology; environmental impact study; infrastructure
assessment and development; urban planning; cartography, for a thematic and/or time based
purpose; criminology; GIS data development geographic history; marketing; logistics;
population and demographic studies; prospectively mapping; location attributes statistical
analysis; warfare assessments; and other purposes. Examples of use are: GIS may allow
emergency planners to easily calculate emergency response times and the movement of response
resources (for logistics) in the case of a natural disaster; GIS might be used too to find wetlands
that need protection strategies regarding pollution; or GIS can be used by a company to site a
new business location to take advantage of GIS data identified trends to respond to a previously
under-served market. Most city and transportation systems planning offices have GIS sections.

GIS techniques and technology

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Modern GIS technologies use digital information, for which various digitized data creation
methods are used. The most common method of data creation is digitization, where a hard copy
map or survey plan is transferred into a digital medium through the use of a computer-aided
design (CAD) program, and geo-referencing capabilities. With the wide availability of Roth-
rectified imagery (both from satellite and aerial sources), heads-up digitizing is becoming the
main avenue through which geographic data is extracted. Heads-up digitizing involves the
tracing of geographic data directly on top of the aerial imagery instead of by the traditional
method of tracing the geographic form on a separate digitizing tablet (heads-down digitizing).

Relating information from different sources

Location may be annotated by x, y, and z coordinates of longitude, latitude, and elevation, or by

other genocide systems like ZIP codes or by highway mile markers. Any variable that can be
located spatially can be fed into a GIS. Several computer databases that can be directly entered
into a GIS are being produced by government agencies and nongovernment organizations.

Data representation

GIS data represents real objects (such as roads, land use, elevation) with digital data. Real
objects can be divided into two abstractions: discrete objects (a house) and continuous fields
(such as rainfall amount, or elevation). Traditionally, there are two broad methods used to store
data in a GIS for both abstractions: raster and vector. A new hybrid method of storing data is
point clouds, which combine three-dimensional points with RGB information at each point,
returning a "3D color image".
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Raster

A raster data type is, in essence, any type of digital image represented in grids. Anyone who is
familiar with digital photography will recognize the pixel as the smallest individual unit of an
image. A combination of these pixels will create an image, distinct from the commonly used
scalable vector graphics which are the basis of the vector model. While a digital image is
concerned with the output as representation of reality, in a photograph or art transferred to
computer, the raster data type will reflect an abstraction of reality. Aerial photos are one
commonly used form of raster data, with only one purpose, to display a detailed image on a map
or for the purposes of digitization. Other raster data sets will contain information regarding
elevation, a digital elevation model, or reflectance of a particular wavelength of light, Land sat.

Raster data type consists of rows and

columns of cells, with each cell storing a
single value. Raster data can be images (raster
images) with each pixel (or cell) containing a
color value. Additional values recorded
for each cell may be a discrete value, such as
land use, a continuous value, such as
temperature, or a null value if no data is
available. While a raster cell stores a single
value, it can be extended by using raster
bands to represent RGB (red, green, blue)
colors, color maps (a mapping between a thematic code and RGB value), or an extended attribute
table with one row for each unique cell value. The resolution of the raster data set is its cell width
in ground units.

Vector

In a GIS, geographical features are often expressed as vectors, by considering those features as
geometrical shapes. Different geographical features are expressed by different types of geometry:

Points
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A simple vector map, using each of the vector elements: points for wells, lines for rivers, and a
polygon for the lake.
Zero-dimensional points are used for geographical features that can best be expressed by a single
point reference — in other words, by simple location. Examples include wells, peaks, features of
interest, and trailheads. Points convey the least amount of information of these file types. Points
can also be used to represent areas when displayed at a small scale. For example, cities on a map
of the world might be represented by points rather than polygons. No measurements are possible
with point features.
Two-dimensional polygons are used for geographical features that cover a particular area of the
earth's surface. Such features may include lakes, park boundaries, buildings, city boundaries, or
land uses. Polygons convey the most amount of information of the file types. Polygon features
can measure perimeter and area.
Vector features can be made to respect spatial integrity through the application of topology rules
such as 'polygons must not overlap'. Vector data can also be used to represent continuously
varying phenomena. Contour lines and triangulated irregular networks (TIN) are used to
represent elevation or other continuously changing values. TINs record values at point locations,
which are connected by lines to form an irregular mesh of triangles. The face of the triangles
represent the terrain surface.

Spatial analysis with GIS:-

Given the vast range of spatial analysis techniques that have been developed over the past half
century, any summary or review can only cover the subject to a limited depth. This is a rapidly
changing field, and GIS packages are increasingly including analytical tools as standard built-in
facilities or as optional toolsets, add-ins or 'analysts'. In many instances such facilities are
provided by the original software suppliers (commercial vendors or collaborative non
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commercial development teams), whilst in other cases facilities have been developed and are
provided by third parties.

Cartographic modeling

An example of use of layers in a GIS application. In this example, the forest cover layer (light
green) is at the bottom, with the topographic layer over it. Next up is the stream layer, then the
boundary layer, then the road layer. The order is very important in order to properly display the
final result. Note that the pond layer was located just below the stream layer, so that a stream line
can be seen overlying one of the ponds.

Map overlay

The combination of several spatial datasets (points, lines or polygons) creates a new output
vector dataset, visually similar to stacking several maps of the same region. These overlays are
similar to mathematical Venn diagram overlays. A union overlay combines the geographic
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features and attribute tables of both inputs into a single new output. An intersect overlay defines
the area where both inputs overlap and retains a set of attribute fields for each.

GIS developments

Many disciplines can benefit from GIS technology. An active GIS market has resulted in lower
costs and continual improvements in the hardware and software components of GIS. These
developments will, in turn, result in a much wider use of the technology throughout science,
government, business, and industry, with applications including real estate, national defense,
sustainable development, natural resources, landscape, public health, crime mappingape
architecture, archaeology, regional and community planning, transportation and logistics. GIS is
also diverging into location based serviced (LBS). LBS allows GPS enabled mobile devices to
display their location in relation to fixed assets (nearest restaurant, gas station, fire hydrant),
mobile assets (friends, children, police car) or to relay their position back to a central server for
display or other processing. These services continue to develop with the increased integration of
GPS functionality with increasingly powerful mobile electronics (cell phones, PDAs, laptops).

THEORITICAL BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT:-

RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION:-
RFID is the use of an object applied to an incorporated into a product animal or person for the
purpose of identification and tracking using radio waves.
RFID contain at least two parts, one is an integrated circuit for storing and processing
information modulating and demodulating a radio frequency signal and other specialized. The
second is an antenna for receiving and transmitting the signal.
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There are two types of RFID tags:-

1) Active tag
2) Passive tag

Active tag: - It contains a battery that can be used as a partial or complete source of power for
the tag’s circuitry and antenna.

ADVATAGES OF AN ACTIVE TAG:-

1) It can be read at distances of one hundred feet or more.
2) It may have other sensors that can use electricity for power.
DISADVANTAGES OF AN ACTIVE TAGS:-
1) The tag is typically more expensive, often costing $20 or more each.
2) The tag is physically larger, which may limit applications.
PASSIVE TAG:-
A passive tag that does not contain a battery, the power is supplied by the reader.

ADVANTAGES OF A PASSIVE TAG:-

1) The tag functions without a battery, these tags have a useful life of twenty years or more.
2) The tag is typically much less expensive to manufacture.
DISADVATAGES OF A PASSIVE TAG:-
1) The can be read only at very short distances.
2) It may not be possible to include sensors that can use electricity for power.

RFID:-

Radio frequency identification (RFID) is a generic term that is used to describe a system that
transmits the identity (in the form of a unique serial number) of an object or person wirelessly,
using radio waves. It's grouped under the broad category of automatic identification
technologies.
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RFID is in use all around us. If you have ever chipped your pet with an ID tag, used espies
through a toll booth, or paid for gas using Speed Pass, you've used RFID. In addition, RFID is
increasingly used with biometric technologies for security.

Unlike ubiquitous UPC bar-code technology, RFID technology does not require contact or line
of sight for communication. RFID data can be read through the human body, clothing and non-
metallic materials.

Components

A basic RFID system consists of three components:

 An antenna or coil
 A transceiver (with decoder)
 A transponder (RF tag)

1. An antenna emits radio signals to activate the tag and to read and write data to it.
2. The reader emits radio waves in ranges of anywhere from one inch to 100 feet or more,
depending upon its power output and the radio frequency used.
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3. The reader decodes the data encoded in the tag’s integrated circuit and the data is passed
to the host computer for processing.

The purpose of an RFID system is to enable data to be transmitted by a portable device,

called a tag, which is read by an RFID reader and processed according to the needs of a
particular application. The data transmitted by the tag may provide identification or
location information, or specifics about the product tagged, such as price, color, date of
purchase, etc. RFID technology has been used by thousands of companies for a decade or
more. . RFID quickly gained attention because of its ability to track moving objects. As
the technology is refined, more pervasive - and invasive - uses for RFID tags are in the
works.

A typical RFID tag consists of a microchip attached to a radio antenna mounted on a

substrate. The chip can store as much as 2 kilobytes of data.

To retrieve the data stored on an RFID tag, you need a reader. A typical reader is a device
that has one or more antennas that emit radio waves and receive signals back from the
tag. The reader then passes the information in digital form to a computer system.

CURRENT AND POTENTIAL USES OF RFID

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ASSET TRACKING:-It's no surprise that asset tracking is one of the most common uses of
RFID. Companies can put RFID tags on assets that are lost or stolen often, that are underutilized
or that are just hard to locate at the time they are needed. Just about every type of RFID system is
used for asset management. NYK Logistics, a third-party logistics provider based in Secaucus,
N.J., needed to track containers at its Long Beach, Calif., distribution center. It chose a real-time
locating system that uses active RFID beacons to locate container to within 10 feet.

Manufacturing
RFID has been used in manufacturing plants for more than a decade. It's used to track parts and
work in process and to reduce defects, increase throughput and manage the production of
different versions of the same product.

Supply Chain Management

RFID technology has been used in closed loop supply chains or to automate parts of the supply
chain within a company's control for years.

As standards emerge, companies are increasingly turning to RFID to track shipments among
supply chain partners.

Retailing
Retailers such as Best Buy, Metro, Target, Tesco and Wal-Mart are in the forefront of RFID
adoption. These retailers are currently focused on improving supply chain efficiency and making
sure product is on the shelf when customers want to buy it.
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Two main types of RFID Tag: -

Passive RFID Tags
Passive RFID tags have no internal power supply. The minute electrical current induced in the
antenna by the incoming radio frequency signal provides just enough power for the CMOS
integrated circuit in the tag to power up and transmit a response. The lack of an onboard
power supply means that the device can be quite small: commercially available products exist
that can be embedded in a sticker, or under the skin.

Active RFID Tags

Unlike passive RFID tags, active RFID tags have their own internal power source which is
used to power any ICs that generate the outgoing signal. Active tags are typically much more
reliable (e.g. fewer errors) than passive tags due to the ability for active tags to conduct a
"session" with a reader.
Active tags, due to their onboard power supply, also transmit at higher power levels than
passive tags, allowing them to be more effective in "RF challenged" environments like water
(including humans/cattle, which are mostly water), metal (shipping containers, vehicles), or at
longer distances. Many active tags have practical ranges of hundreds of meters, and a battery life
of up to 10 years. Some active RFID tags include sensors such as temperature logging which
have been used in concrete maturity monitoring or to monitor the temperature of perishable
goods.
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Radio-frequency identification
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is the use of an object (typically referred to as an RFID
tag) applied to or incorporated into a product, animal, or person for the purpose of identification
and tracking using radio waves. Some tags can be read from several meters away and beyond the
line of sight of the reader.
Radio-frequency identification comprises interrogators (also known as readers), and tags (also
known as labels).
Most RFID tags contain at least two parts. One is an integrated circuit for storing and processing
information, modulating and demodulating a radio-frequency (RF) signal, and other specialized
functions. The second is an antenna for receiving and transmitting the signal.
There are generally three types of RFID tags: active RFID tags, which contain a battery and can
transmit signals autonomously, passive RFID tags, which have no battery and require an external
source to provoke signal transmission, and battery assisted passive (BAP) RFID tags, which
require an external source to wake up but have significant higher forward link capability
providing greater range.
There are a variety of groups defining standards and regulating the use of RFID, including:
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), International Electro technical Commission
(IEC), ASTM International, DASH7 Alliance, RFID has many applications; for example, it is
used in enterprise supply chain management to improve the efficiency of inventory tracking and
management.
 28

History and technology background

History of radar

In 1945 Leon Theremin invented an espionage tool for the Soviet Union which retransmitted
incident radio waves with audio information. Sound waves vibrated a diaphragm which slightly
altered the shape of the resonator, which modulated the reflected radio frequency. Even though
this device was a covert listening device, not an identification tag, it is considered to be a
predecessor of RFID technology, because it was likewise passive, being energized and activated
by electromagnetic waves from an outside source.
Similar technology, such as the IFF transponder invented in the United Kingdom in 1915, was
routinely used by the allies in World War II to identify aircraft as friend or foe. Transponders are
still used by most powered aircraft to this day. Another early work exploring RFID is the
landmark 1948 paper by Harry Stockman, titled "Communication by Means of Reflected Power"
(Proceedings of the IRE, pp 1196–1204, October 1948). Stockman predicted that "...
considerable research and development work has to be done before the remaining basic problems
in reflected-power communication are solved, and before the field of useful applications is
explored
 29

Application: -
Animal identification

A sheep with an ear tag.

Animal management using RFID technology. Santa Gertrudis cattle: The calf has an electronic ear
tag and herd management tag (yellow).

RFID tags for animals represent one of the oldest uses of RFID technology. Originally meant for
large ranches and rough terrain, since the outbreak of mad-cow disease, RFID has become
crucial in animal identification management.

Microchip implant (animal)

An implantable variety of RFID tags or transponders can also be used for animal identification.
The transponders are more well-known as passive RFID technology, or simply "chips" on
animals.
 30

Inventory systems
An advanced automatic identification technology such as the Auto-ID Labs system based on the
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology has significant value for inventory systems.
Notably, the technology provides an accurate knowledge of the current inventory. In an
academic study performed at Wal-Mart, RFID reduced Out-of-Stocks by 30 percent for products
selling between 0.1 and 15 units a day. Other benefits of using RFID include the reduction of
labor costs, the simplification of business processes, and the reduction of inventory inaccuracies.
In 2004, Boeing integrated the use of RFID technology to help reduce maintenance and
inventory costs on the Boeing 787 Dream liner. With the high costs of aircraft parts, RFID
technology allowed Boeing to keep track of inventory despite the unique sizes, shapes and
environmental concerns. During the first six months after integration, the company was able to
save $29,000 in labor alone.

Hospital operating rooms

In 2008, Clear Count Medical introduced the Smart Sponge System, the first RFID-based system
approved for use in the operating room. The system, consisting of an electronic reader and high
frequency RFID-tagged disposable gauze, sponges, and towels, is designed to improve patient
safety and O.R. efficiency. The system aims to reduce or eliminate the most common and costly
surgical "never event", unintentionally retained foreign objects in surgery. The system
automatically provides a device-reconciled count by directly matching the unique identifier on
each tagged item both entering into and then out of the surgical case. The system also provides a
reusable wand which may be used to scan the patient as an additional safety measure or to assist
in locating misplaced sponges.
 31

Human implants

Hand with the planned location of the RFID chip.

Just after the operation to insert the RFID tag was completed. The yellow is from the iodine
disinfection before inserting the chip.
Microchip implant (human)
Implantable RFID chips designed for animal tagging are now being used in humans. An early
experiment with RFID implants was conducted by British professor of cybernetics Kevin
Warwick, who implanted a chip in his arm in 1998. In 2004 Conrad Chase offered implanted
chips in his night clubs in Barcelona and Rotterdam to identify their VIP customers, who in turn
use it to pay for drinks.
In 2004, the Mexican Attorney General's office implanted 18 of its staff members with the
Verichip to control access to a secure data room.
Security experts have warned against using RFID for authenticating people due to the risk of
identity theft. For instance a man-in-the-middle attack would make it possible for an attacker to
steal the identity of a person in real-time.
 32

Problems and concerns: -

Data flooding

Each tag generating a message each time when passing a reader may be a desired outcome.
However, event filtering is required to reduce this data inflow to a meaningful depiction of
moving goods passing a threshold. Various concepts have been designed, mainly offered as
middleware performing the filtering from noisy and redundant raw data to significant processed
data.

Global standardization
The frequencies used for RFID in the USA are currently incompatible with those of Europe or
Japan. Furthermore, no emerging standard has yet become as universal as the barcode.
To address international trade concerns, it is necessary to utilize a tag that is operational within
all of the international frequency domains. An example of such a tag is a Sentry-M WW from
RCD Technology. This mount on metal asset tag provides typical read range of 2 meters (6 ft.).
It is functional across the worldwide UHF frequency bands between 860– 960 MHZ. Basic
Functional Requirements for Data Center Assets in the North American, European and Japanese
frequency bands.

Exploitation:-

Ares Technical reported in March 2006 an RFID buffer overflow bug that could infect airport
terminal RFID databases for baggage, and also passport databases to obtain confidential
information on the passport holder.

Passports

In an effort to make passports more secure, several countries have implemented RFID in
passports. However, the encryption on UK chips was broken in under 48 hours. Since that
incident, further efforts have allowed researchers to clone passport data while the passport is
being mailed to its owner. Where a criminal used to need to secretly open and then reseal the
envelope, now it can be done without detection, adding some degree of insecurity to the passport
system.
 33

Micro strip antenna

In telecommunication, there are several types of micro strip antennas (also known as printed
antennas) the most common of which is the micro strip patch antenna or patch antenna. A
patch antenna is a narrowband, wide-beam antenna fabricated by etching the antenna element
pattern in metal trace bonded to an insulating dielectric substrate with a continuous metal layer
bonded to the opposite side of the substrate which forms a ground plane. Common micro strip
antenna radiator shapes are square, rectangular, circular and elliptical, but any continuous shape
is possible. Some patch antennas eschew a dielectric substrate ground plane using dielectric
spacers; the resulting structure is less robust but provides better bandwidth. Because such
antennas have a very low profile, are mechanically rugged and can be conformable, they are
often mounted on the exterior of aircraft and spacecraft, or are incorporated into mobile radio
communications devices.
 34

Micro strip antennas are also relatively inexpensive to manufacture and design because of the
simple 2-dimensional physical geometry. They are usually employed at UHF and higher
frequencies because the size of the antenna is directly tied to the wavelength at the resonance
frequency. A single patch antenna provides a maximum directive gain of around 6-9 dB. It is
relatively easy to print an array of patches on a single (large) substrate using lithographic
techniques. Patch arrays can provide much higher gains than a single patch at little additional
cost; matching and phase adjustment can be performed with printed micro strip feed structures,
again in the same operations that form the radiating patches. The ability to create high gain
arrays in a low-profile antenna is one reason that patch arrays are common on airplanes and in
other military applications.

Such an array of patch antennas is an easy way to make a phased array of antennas with dynamic
beam forming ability.

The most commonly employed micro strip antenna is a rectangular patch. The rectangular patch
antenna is approximately a one-half wavelength long section of rectangular micro strip
transmission line. When air is the antenna substrate, the length of the rectangular micro strip
antenna is approximately one-half of a free-space wavelength. As the antenna is loaded with a
dielectric as its substrate, the length of the antenna decreases as the relative dielectric constant of
the substrate increases. The resonant length of the antenna is slightly shorter because of the
extended electric "fringing fields" which increase the electrical length of the antenna slightly. An
early model of the micro strip antenna is a section of micro strip transmission line with
equivalent loads on either end to represent the radiation loss.

The dielectric loading of a micro strip antenna affects both its radiation pattern and impedance
bandwidth. As the dielectric constant of the substrate increases, the antenna bandwidth decreases
which increases the Q factor of the antenna and therefore decreases the impedance bandwidth.
This relationship did not immediately follow when using the transmission line model of the
antenna, but is apparent when using the cavity model which was introduced in the late 1970s by
Lo et al. The radiation from a rectangular micro strip antenna may be understood as a pair of
equivalent slots. These slots act as an array and have the highest directivity when the antenna has
an air dielectric and decreases as the antenna is loaded by material with increasing relative
dielectric constant.
 35

An advantage inherent to patch antennas is the ability to have polarization diversity. Patch
antennas can easily be designed to have Vertical, Horizontal, Right Hand Circular (RHCP) or
Left Hand Circular (LHCP) Polarizations, using multiple feed points, or a single feed point with
asymmetric patch structures. This unique property allows patch antennas to be used in many
types of communications links that may have varied requirements.

The half-wave rectangular micro strip antenna has a virtual shorting plane along its center. This
may be replaced with a physical shorting plane to create a quarter-wavelength micro strip
antenna. This is sometimes called a half-patch. The antenna only has a single radiation edge
(equivalent slot) which lowers the directivity/gain of the antenna. The impedance bandwidth is
slightly lower than a half-wavelength full patch as the coupling between radiating edges has been
eliminated.

Another type of patch antenna is the Planar Inverted F Antenna (PIFA) common in cellular
phones with built-in antennas. These antennas are derived from a quarter-wave half-patch
antenna. The shorting plane of the half-patch is reduced in length which decreases the resonance
frequency. Often PIFA antennas have multiple branches to resonate at the various cellular bands.
On some phones, grounded parasitic elements are used to enhance the radiation bandwidth
characteristics.

The Folded Inverted Conformal Antenna (FICA) has some advantages with respect to the PIFA,
because it allows a better volume
 36

Antenna (radio) An antenna (or aerial) is a transducer that transmits or receives

electromagnetic waves. In other words, antennas convert electromagnetic radiation into electrical
current, or vice versa. Antennas generally deal in the transmission and reception of radio waves,
and are a necessary part of all radio equipment. Antennas are used in systems such as radio and
television broadcasting, point-to-point radio communication, wireless LAN, cell phones, radar,
and spacecraft communication. Antennas are most commonly employed in air or outer space, but
can also be operated under water or even through soil and rock at certain frequencies for short
distances.

Physically, an antenna is an arrangement of one or more conductors, usually called elements in

this context. In transmission, an alternating current is created in the elements by applying a
voltage at the antenna terminals, causing the elements to radiate an electromagnetic field. In
reception, the inverse occurs: an electromagnetic field from another source induces an alternating
current in the elements and a corresponding voltage at the antenna's terminals. Some receiving
antennas (such as parabolic and horn types) incorporate shaped reflective surfaces to collect the
radio waves striking them and direct or focus them onto the actual conductive elements.

Short wave "curtain" antenna (Moosbrunn, Austria)

 37

Antenna:-

Antennas have practical uses for the transmission and reception of radio frequency signals such
as radio and television. In air, those signals travel very quickly and with a very low transmission
loss. The signals are absorbed when moving through more conductive materials, such as concrete
walls or rock. When encountering an interface, the waves are partially reflected and partially
transmitted through.
A common antenna is a vertical rod a quarter of a wavelength long. Such antennas are simple in
construction, usually inexpensive, and both radiate in and receive from all horizontal directions
(unidirectional). One limitation of this antenna is that it does not radiate or receive in the
direction in which the rod points. This region is called the antenna blind cone or null.
There are two fundamental types of antenna directional patterns, which, with reference to a
specific two dimensional plane (usually horizontal [parallel to the ground] or vertical
[perpendicular to the ground]), are either:

1. Omni-directional (radiates equally in all directions), such as a vertical rod (in the horizontal
plane) or
2. Directional (radiates more in one direction than in the other).

In colloquial usage "unidirectional" usually refers to all horizontal directions with reception
above and below the antenna being reduced in favor of better reception (and thus range) near the
horizon. A "directional" antenna usually refers to one focusing a narrow beam in a single specific
direction such as a telescope or satellite dish, or, at least, focusing in a sector such as a 120°
horizontal fan pattern in the case of a panel antenna at a cell site.
All antennas radiate some energy in all directions in free space but careful construction results in
substantial transmission of energy in a preferred direction and negligible energy radiated in other
directions. By adding additional elements (such as rods, loops or plates) and carefully arranging
their length, spacing, and orientation, an antenna with desired directional properties can be
created.
An antenna array is two or more simple antennas combined to produce a specific directional
radiation pattern. In common usage an array is composed of active elements, such as a linear
array of parallel dipoles fed as a "broadside array". A slightly different feed method could cause
this same array of dipoles to radiate as an "end-fire array". Antenna arrays may be built up from
any basic antenna type, such as dipoles, loops or slots.
 38

The directionality of the array is due to the spatial relationships and the electrical feed
relationships between individual antennas. Usually all of the elements are active (electrically fed)
as in the log-periodic dipole array which offers modest gain and broad bandwidth and is
traditionally used for television reception. Alternatively, a superficially similar dipole array, the
Yagi-Uda Antenna (often abbreviated to "Yagi"), has only one active dipole element in a chain
of parasitic dipole elements, and a very different performance with high gain over a narrow
bandwidth.

An active element is electrically connected to the antenna terminals leading to the receiver or
transmitter, as opposed to a parasitic element that modifies the antenna pattern without being
connected directly. The active element(s) couple energy between the electromagnetic wave and
the antenna terminals, thus any functioning antenna has at least one active element. A careful
arrangement of parasitic elements, such as rods or coils, can improve the radiation pattern of the
active element(s). Directors and reflectors are common parasitic elements.

An antenna lead-in is the medium, for example, a transmission line or feed line for conveying the
signal energy between the signal source or receiver and the antenna. The antenna feed refers to
the components between the antenna and an amplifier.

An antenna counterpoise is a structure of conductive material most closely associated with

ground that may be insulated from or capacitive coupled to the natural ground. It aids in the
function of the natural ground, particularly where variations (or limitations) of the characteristics
of the natural ground interfere with its proper function. Such structures are usually connected to
the terminal of a receiver or source opposite to the antenna terminal.

An antenna component is a portion of the antenna performing a distinct function and limited for
use in an antenna, as for example, a reflector, director, or active antenna.

An electromagnetic wave refractor is a structure which is shaped or positioned to delay or

accelerate transmitted electromagnetic waves, passing through such structure, an amount which
varies over the wave front. The refractor alters the direction of propagation of the waves emitted
from the structure with respect to the waves impinging on the structure. It can alternatively bring
the wave to a focus or alter the wave front in other ways, such as to convert a spherical wave
front to a planar wave front (or vice-versa).
 39

A director is a parasitic element, usually a metallic conductive structure, which re-radiates into
free space impinging electromagnetic radiation coming from or going to the active antenna, the
velocity of the re-radiated wave having a component in the direction of the velocity of the
impinging wave.
A reflector is a parasitic element, usually a metallic conductive structure (e.g., screen, rod or
plate), which re-radiates back into free space impinging electromagnetic radiation coming from
or going to the active antenna. The velocity of the returned wave has a component in a direction
opposite to the direction of the velocity of the impinging wave. The reflector modifies the
radiation of the active antenna.
An antenna coupling network is a passive network (which may be any combination of a resistive,
inductive or capacitive circuit(s)) for transmitting the signal energy between the active antenna
and a source (or receiver) of such signal energy.
Typically, antennas are designed to operate in a relatively narrow frequency range. The design
criteria for receiving and transmitting antennas differ slightly, but generally an antenna can
receive and transmit equally well. This property is called reciprocity.

Parameters

There are several critical parameters affecting an antenna's performance that can be adjusted
during the design process. These are resonant frequency, impedance, gain, aperture or radiation
pattern, polarization, efficiency and bandwidth. Transmit antennas may also have a maximum
power rating, and receive antennas differ in their noise rejection properties. All of these
parameters can be measured through various means.
 40

Resonant frequency
The “resonant frequency" and "electrical resonance" is related to the electrical length of an
antenna. The electrical length is usually the physical length of the wire divided by its
velocity factor (the ratio of the speed of wave propagation in the wire to c0, the speed of
light in a vacuum).
However, other properties of an antenna change with frequency, in particular the radiation
pattern and impedance, so the antenna's resonant frequency may merely be close to the center
frequency of these other more important properties.
Antennas can be made resonant on harmonic frequencies with lengths that are fractions of the
target wavelength; this resonance gives much better coupling to the electromagnetic wave, and
makes the aerial act as if it were physically larger.
Some antenna designs have multiple resonant frequencies, and some are relatively effective over
a very broad range of frequencies. The most commonly known type of wide band aerial is the
logarithmic or log periodic, but its gain is usually much lower than that of a specific or narrower
band aerial.

Gain
Gain as a parameter measures the efficiency of a given antenna with respect to a given norm,
usually achieved by modification of its directionality. An antenna with a low gain emits radiation
with about the same power in all directions, whereas a high-gain antenna will preferentially
radiate in particular directions. Specifically, the Gain, Directive gain or Power gain of an antenna
is defined as the ratio of the intensity (power per unit surface) radiated by the antenna in a given
direction at an arbitrary distance divided by the intensity radiated at the same distance by a
hypothetical isotropic antenna.
 41

Radiation pattern

The radiation pattern of an antenna is the geometric pattern of the relative field strengths of the
field emitted by the antenna. For the ideal isotropic antenna, this would be a sphere. For a typical
dipole, this would be a toroid. The radiation pattern of an antenna is typically represented by a
three dimensional graph, or polar plots of the horizontal and vertical cross sections. The graph
should show side lobes and back lobes, where the antenna's gain is at a minima or maxima.

Impedance

As an electro-magnetic wave travels through the different parts of the antenna system (radio,
feed line, antenna, free space) it may encounter differences in impedance (E/H, V/I, etc.). At
each interface, depending on the impedance match, some fraction of the wave's energy will
reflect back to the source, forming a standing wave in the feed line. The ratio of maximum
power to minimum power in the wave can be measured and is called the standing wave ratio
(SWR). A SWR of 1:1 is ideal. A SWR of 1.5:1 is considered to be marginally acceptable in low
power applications where power loss is more critical, although an SWR as high as 6:1 may still
be usable with the right equipment. Minimizing impedance differences at each interface
(impedance matching) will reduce SWR and maximize power transfer through each part of the
antenna system.
 42

Efficiency: -
Efficiency is the ratio of power actually radiated to the power put into the antenna terminals. A
dummy load may have an SWR of 1:1 but an efficiency of 0, as it absorbs all power and radiates
heat but not RF energy, showing that SWR alone is not an effective measure of an antenna's
efficiency. Radiation in an antenna is caused by radiation resistance which can only be measured
as part of total resistance including loss resistance. Loss resistance usually results in heat
generation rather than radiation, and reduces efficiency. Mathematically, efficiency is calculated
as radiation resistance divided by total resistance.

Bandwidth:

The bandwidth of an antenna is the range of frequencies over which it is effective, usually
centered on the resonant frequency. The bandwidth of an antenna may be increased by several
techniques, including using thicker wires, replacing wires with cages to simulate a thicker wire,
tapering antenna components (like in a feed horn), and combining multiple antennas into a single
assembly and allowing the natural impedance to select the correct antenna. Small antennas are
usually preferred for convenience, but there is a fundamental limit relating bandwidth, size and
efficiency.

Polarization:

The polarization of an antenna is the orientation of the electric field (E-plane) of the radio wave
with respect to the Earth's surface and is determined by the physical structure of the antenna and
by its orientation. It has nothing in common with antenna directionality terms: "horizontal",
"vertical" and "circular". Thus, a simple straight wire antenna will have one polarization when
mounted vertically, and a different polarization when mounted horizontally. "Electromagnetic
wave polarization filters" are structures which can be employed to act directly on the
electromagnetic wave to filter out wave energy of an undesired polarization and to pass wave
energy of a desired polarization.
 43

Transmission and reception:

All of the antenna parameters are expressed in terms of a transmission antenna, but are
identically applicable to a receiving antenna, due to reciprocity. Impedance, however, is not
applied in an obvious way; for impedance, the impedance at the load (where the power is
consumed) is most critical. For a transmitting antenna, this is the antenna itself. For a receiving
antenna, this is at the (radio) receiver rather than at the antenna. Tuning is done by adjusting the
length of an electrically long linear antenna to alter the electrical resonance of the antenna.

Antenna tuning is done by adjusting an inductance or capacitance combined with the active
antenna (but distinct and separate from the active antenna). The inductance or capacitance
provides the reactance which combines with the inherent reactance of the active antenna to
establish a resonance in a circuit including the active antenna. The established resonance being at
a frequency other than the natural electrical resonant frequency of the active antenna. Adjustment
of the inductance or capacitance changes this resonance.

Antennas used for transmission have a maximum power rating, beyond which heating, arcing or
sparking may occur in the components, which may cause them to be damaged or destroyed.
Raising this maximum power rating usually requires larger and heavier components, which may
require larger and heavier supporting structures. This is a concern only for transmitting antennas,
as the power received by an antenna rarely exceeds the microwatt range.

Antennas designed specifically for reception might be optimized for noise rejection capabilities.
An antenna shield is a conductive or low reluctance structure (such as a wire, plate or grid)
which is adapted to be placed in the vicinity of an antenna to reduce, as by dissipation through a
resistance or by conduction to ground, undesired electromagnetic radiation, or electric or
magnetic fields, which are directed toward the active antenna from an external source or which
emanate from the active antenna. Other methods to optimize for noise rejection can be done by
selecting a narrow bandwidth so that noise from other frequencies is rejected, or selecting a
specific radiation pattern to reject noise from a specific direction, or by selecting a polarization
different from the noise polarization, or by selecting an antenna that favors either the electric or
magnetic field.

Basic antenna models:

 44

There are many variations of antennas. Below are a few basic models. More can be found in
Category: Radio frequency antenna types.

 The isotropic radiator is a purely theoretical antenna that radiates equally in all
directions. It is considered to be a point in space with no dimensions and no mass. This
antenna cannot physically exist, but is useful as a theoretical model for comparison with
all other antennas. Most antennas' gains are measured with reference to an isotropic
radiator, and are rated in dB (decibels with respect to an isotropic radiator).
 The dipole antenna is simply two wires pointed in opposite directions arranged either
horizontally or vertically, with one end of each wire connected to the radio and the
other end hanging free in space. Since this is the simplest practical antenna, it is also
used as a reference model for other antennas; gain with respect to a dipole is labeled as
dB. Generally, the dipole is considered to be unidirectional in the plane perpendicular to
the axis of the antenna, but it has deep nulls in the directions of the axis. Variations of
the dipole include the folded dipole, the half wave antenna, the ground plane antenna,
the whip, and the J-pole.
 The Yagi-Uda antenna is a directional variation of the dipole with parasitic elements
added which are functionality similar to adding a reflector and lenses (directors) to focus
a filament light bulb.
 The random wire antenna is simply a very long (at least one quarter wavelength) wire
with one end connected to the radio and the other in free space, arranged in any way
most convenient for the space available.The horn is used where high gain is needed, the
wavelength is short (microwave) and space is not an issue. Horns can be narrow band or
wide band, depending on their shape. A horn can be built for any frequency, but horns
for lower frequencies are typically impractical. Horns are also frequently used as
reference antennas.
 The parabolic antenna consists of an active element at the focus of a parabolic reflector
to reflect the waves into a plane wave. Like the horn it is used for high gain, microwave
applications, such as satellite dishes.
 The patch antenna consists mainly of a square conductor mounted over a ground plane.
Another example of a planar antenna is the tapered slot antenna (TSA), as the Vivaldi-
antenna.