ADVANCED TECHNIQUES USED

FOR LOCATING PROPOSED

CONSTRUCTION STRUCTURES

Apurva Kotkar -701030

Ronak Lahoti -701031
Sampada Mane -701032

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• Traditionally surveyors used theodolites for angle
measurements
• Also methods of triangulation were used
• Distances were measured with a steel band or
Electronic Distance Measurement(EDM) device to
propagate coordinates from one point to another
using the technique of traversing
• But problems associated with triangulations are:
-Fixation of permanent markers.
-Bearings at large distances.
-Instruments used are not easily portable.
-Requires more manpower.
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• However all these methods also need to have lot of
measurements within short intervals for better
accuracy and needs lot of corrections.
• Also the results obtained depends on the type of
instrument used , skills of person using the
equipments etc.
• So advanced techniques like
- use of Total Station
- use of Global Positioning System (GPS)
- use of laser technology

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TOTAL STATION

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• Total station is a new revolutionary system also called
as a Smart Station now a days
• It is a perfect combination of TPS and GPS
• There is no need for control points, long traverses or
resections
• The GPS determines the positions while total station
carries out the survey
• All data is stored on the database on the Compact
Flash card
• There is no need for external batteries, cables, data
loggers, etc.

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• The total station consists of smart antenna on a pole
as a RTK cover
• The TPS plug in battery also powers the GPS smart
antenna and RTK communication device
• Due to its modular design the smart station is flexible
and has versatile purposes
• Thus a total station can be used for location of sites in
rural areas, for topographic survey, in remote areas
and also for boundary survey

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 Real Time Kinematic (RTK)
• RTK satellite navigation technique is a technique used
in land survey and hydrographic survey
• It is based on the use of career phase measurements of
the GPS and GLONASS signals
• A single reference station provides the real time
correction providing up to centimeter level accuracy
• It uses a single base station receiver and a number of
mobile units

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• The mobile units compare their own phase
measurements with the ones received from the base
station
• The base station re-broadcasts the phase of the carrier
that it measured, and the mobile units compare their
own phase measurements with the ones received from
the base station
• Most land survey equipments have a built in UHF band
radio modem as a standard option
• In surveying the base station is located at a known
surveyed location, a benchmark, and the mobile units
can then produce a highly accurate map by taking fixes
relative to that point
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 Use of smart station for topographic
survey in remote areas
• Set up smart station at a convenient place where there
is a reasonably open view of the sky
• At the first point P1, determine the position with RTK
• Orient towards second point P2
• Positions with respect to RTK are known
• Smart Station will automatically transform the
coordinates of all of the detail points

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 Advantages
• Control points established where required by RTK
• Points occupied only once
• Only Smart Station is needed
• Only one crew is needed
• Transformations made automatically in Smart Station
• The survey takes less time

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 Property survey in a rural locality

• There are trees and hedges along the boundary line

• The nearest control points that can be used by a total
station are 5km away, but data for RTK can be
received from a distant GPS reference station.
• The boundary is surveyed using pairs of clusters of
smart station points

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 Advantages
• No long traverses needed
• Less set ups needed
• Two people are sufficient
• Uniform and higher accuracy

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 Stakeout on a large construction site
• A large number of markers have to be placed and
many components positioned
• Control points are not required.
• Smart station is set up wherever necessary while RTK
determines the position
• The pairs or group of points do not have to be
connected by total station measurements
• The stakeout is carried faster and thus the
construction activities

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Surveying Utilities in an Urban Environment

• The positions of all manholes, covers, hydrants,

distribution boxes etc. for water, gas and electricity
have to be determined
• Smart station is set up at places such as at road
intersections, open spaces and even on top of the
buildings
• Angles and distances to be surveyed are measured
• The correct circle orientation is only available after
the measurements have been taken
• Smart station will transform all the coordinates
correctly and automatically. 18
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• Both commercial and residential concrete contractors
are using robotic total stations for building layout
work
• Residential foundation contractors often provide
control points for footing excavation work, then
reshoot the points for footing layout, and make a third
trip to locate foundation walls on the footings
• Commercially, contractors use total robotic stations to
check elevations, locate columns and walls, lay out
anchor bolt patterns, and lay out utilities for each
floor of a building
• The amount of cut and fill also can be determined

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• Reflector less robotic total stations can make
reflectorless measurements up to 4000 ft and prism
measurement to 23000 ft.
• RTK determines the position to centimeter accuracy
within a few seconds at ranges up to 50km or more
from a reference station

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Total Station in Transportation

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Use of smart station in road alignment
• More ground is covered with fewer instruments setup
• Dual sensor connection allows instant switching eg.
In cases of environment change
• Software is seamless for measuring points and feature
codes
• Development in integrated surveying has helped in
significant time saving and increasing productivity
• Thus it gives good return on investments

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Trimble Access Software with Road Module

• The Trimble access field software is versatile

• It is highly graphical software making survey
tasks fast and efficient
• The road module offers a specialized workflow
for road surveys
• It simplifies the project and reduces learning
curves

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 Construction of High Rise structure
• The high rise structure has an ideal axis relative to the
gravity vector
• Three reference points are determined by GPS of the
smart station
• The position of an electro-optical geodesic instrument
assigned to the structure is determined relative to the
three reference points
• The tilt of a real line developing from the ideal axis
under tilt effects acting on the structure is acquired
gravimetrically, more particularly with a gravimetric
tilt sensor 25
• By acquisitions of real line and gravimetric positions
a co-ordinate system can be obtained
• Thus a precise and reliable surveying procedure can
be provided to a structure
• Thus any structure can be built avoiding tilt effects
and it hampers the use of ground level reference
points

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Total Station in Tunnel Engineering

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Case Study:- E18 Bjorvika project in Oslo, Norway
• It involved construction of under water tunnel-a
subsea tunnel
• It made use of the Leica total station and Leica Scan
station
• The shape was a challenge as it involved curved
elements
• It consisted of six elements of 100 metre long walls,
1 m thick and roofs and floors 1.20 m thick
• The horizontal surfaces were measured with a total
station while vertical surfaces were measured by
single point lines
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• Laser scanner were used to scan various positions on
the inside and outside.
• The total station was used to measure the break lines
inside the elements
• The mesh operation was easier to accomplish with
predefined break lines in the post processing phase

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 Post Processing Phase
• The difference between ordinary surveying and
modern laser scanning is that the survey sites
physically have to be tided up before scanning
• This helps in minimizing garbage points that have to
be edited out of the point cloud afterwards
• When a scene is scanned, everything gets measured,
so the scene should be nice and clean
• The area often has lots of scrap, scaffolding, lifts and
machinery from the building process

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• In editing the concrete surface, it is irregular and it is
quite difficult to decide which points to remove and
which to leave in
• It is a part of the rough editing of the point cloud
• The unwanted points are fenced
• With the help of Leica cyclone editing the redundant
points are placed in their own layers instead of
deleting
• Thus data can be retrieved

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GPS

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 GPS
• GPS, which stands for Global Positioning System, is
a radio navigation system that allows land, sea, and
airborne users to determine their exact location,
velocity, and time 24 hours a day, in all weather
conditions, anywhere in the world.
• GPS was created and realized by the U.S. Department
of Defence (USDOD) and was originally run with
24 satellites. It was established in 1973 .

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 Three major segments of GPS
1.Space segment (SS)
2.Control segment (CS)
3.User segment (US)
The U.S. Air Force develops, maintains, and operates
the space and control segments.
• GPS satellites broadcast signals from space, and each
GPS receiver uses these signals to calculate its three-
dimensional location (latitude, longitude, and
altitude) and the current time.

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1.Space segment

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• The space segment (SS) is composed of the
orbiting GPS satellites, or Space Vehicles (SV) in
GPS parlance.
• The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs,
eight each in three circular orbital planes, but this
was modified to six planes with four satellites
each. The orbital planes are centred on the Earth,
not rotating with respect to the distant stars.
• The six planes have approximately 55° inclination
(tilt relative to Earth's equator) and are separated
by 60° . (angle along the equator from a reference
point to the orbit's intersection).

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• The orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites
are always within line of sight from almost
everywhere on Earth's surface.
• The result of this objective is that the four satellites
are not evenly spaced (90 degrees) apart within each
orbit.
• In general terms, the angular difference between
satellites in each orbit is 30, 105, 120, and 105
degrees apart which, of course, sum to 360 degrees.

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2.Control segments

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• The control segment is composed of
1.a master control station (MCS)
2.an alternate master control station
3.four dedicated ground antennas and
4.six dedicated monitor stations.

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3.User segments
GPS receivers

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• In general, GPS receivers are composed of an
antenna, tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the
satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly stable
clock .
• They may also include a display for providing
location and speed information to the user.
• A receiver is often described by its number of
channels: this signifies how many satellites it can
monitor simultaneously.

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 How the GPS Works
• A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely
timing the signals sent by GPS satellites high above
the Earth. Each satellite continually transmits
messages that include
- the time when the message was transmitted
- precise orbital information
- the general system health and rough orbits of all
GPS satellites

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• The receiver uses the messages it receives to
determine the transit time of each message and
computes the distance to each satellite.
• These distances along with the satellites' locations are
used with the possible aid of trilateration, depending
on which algorithm is used, to compute the position
of the receiver.
• This position is then displayed, perhaps with a
moving map display or latitude and longitude;
elevation information may be included.

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• Many GPS units show derived information such as
direction and speed, calculated from position
changes.
• The receivers use four or more satellites to solve for
the receiver's location and time.

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 Position calculation

• Using messages received from a minimum of four

visible satellites, a GPS receiver is able to determine
the times sent and then the satellite positions
corresponding to these times sent.
• The x, y, and z components of position, and the time
sent, are designated as [xi,yi,zi,ti] where the subscript
i is the satellite number and has the value 1, 2, 3, or 4.
• Knowing the indicated time when the message was
received tr , the GPS receiver can compute the transit
time of the message as[tr-ti] .
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• Assuming the message travelled at the speed of
light say c, the distance travelled or pseudo
range, pi can be computed as[tr-ti]c .
• A satellite's position and pseudo range define a
sphere, centred on the satellite with radius equal
to the pseudo range. The position of the receiver
is somewhere on the surface of this sphere. Thus
with four satellites, the indicated position of the
GPS receiver is at or near the intersection of the
surfaces of four spheres.
• In the ideal case of no errors, the GPS receiver
would be at a precise intersection of the four
surfaces.
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 Applications

• Cellular telephony: Clock synchronization enables

time transfer, which is critical for synchronizing its
spreading codes with other base stations to facilitate
inter-cell handoff and support hybrid GPS/cellular
position detection for mobile emergency calls and
other applications.
• Disaster relief/emergency service : Depend upon
GPS for location and timing capabilities.

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 Applications
• Geofencing: Vehicle tracking systems, person
tracking systems, and pet tracking systems use GPS
to locate a vehicle, person, or pet. These devices
attach to the vehicle, person, or the pet collar.
• Geotagging: Applying location coordinates to digital
objects such as photographs and other documents for
purposes such as creating map overlays.

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 Applications
• GPS Aircraft Tracking
• GPS tours: Location determines what content to
display; for instance, information about an
approaching point of interest.
• Map-making: Both civilian and military
cartographers use GPS extensively.
• Navigation:

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 Applications
• Phasor measurement units: GPS enables highly
accurate time stamping of power system
measurements, making it possible to compute
phasors.
• Recreation: For example, geocaching, geodashing,
GPS drawing and waymarking.
• Surveying: Surveyors use absolute locations to make
maps and determine property boundaries.
• Tectonics: GPS enables direct fault motion
measurement in earthquakes.
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 GPS Compared to Total Station

• Until recently the Total Station Theodolite (TST) has

become the preferred tool for setting out of trenches,
surveying sites or topographical surveys. Frequently
in archaeological work, Now GPS has become the
popular tool for many surveying professionals. It
outperformed TST when the work has to be done.

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 Total station can not be used in following situations
• Where sites are remote and has limited access, hard
details are not available, and positioning may be
unreliable.
• Where more man power is not available.
• where line of sight cannot be maintained between the
instrument and prism.
• where no dependency can be maintained on
permanent landscape features.

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• In addition, GPS may need less man power and less
time to complete same coverage of TST. In other
words, both setting up and surveying time is
considerably reduced.
• There are limitations associated with GPS. Since,
this system depends on communication with satellite
system, when carrying out surveys, clear sky have to
be there. Similarly, you may notice poor satellite
signal reception when in thick forest cover or close to
tall buildings.

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 How to locate the under water locations
using GPS
• Of course a GPS doesn't work underwater, since
water prevents communication from the unit's
antenna to the GPS satellites.
• So, the GPS floats on the surface, in a housing
attached to the dive flag.
• The diver records sufficient data to effect the
translation of the surface flag position to the
underwater site itself.

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GPS Floating on water

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• Before the dive it is turned on, set to record tracks at
10 second increments, then sealed in the housing.
• The flag line has been calibrated with 10 foot marks.
When the diver reaches a point he wishes to map, he
allows the flag/GPS time to settle out from surface
conditions, then records depth, deployed line length,
time of day, and compass bearing of the flag line with
respect to north on his underwater notebook or slate.

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Recording on under water slate

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• After returning to land, the GPS track file is dumped
to a PC computer using it's interface cable.

• The flag/GPS location near the underwater site is

determined by corresponding the diver's time mark
with the GPS track of the same time.

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• Then, using the depth, line length, compass data, and
a little trigonometry, the offset between the GPS
system and the diver can be calculated, and the
lat/long of the underwater object determined.

With care, the offset can be determined to well within

the GPS error itself, so the underwater object is
mapped to the accuracy of the GPS.

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• The next step, usually
shore side, is to
download the track
data from the GPS,
then correct the offset
errors between where
the flag/GPS was and
the diver's actual
location.

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• The underwater data from the slate (depth, line
length, compass heading, and time) can now be used
to find the flag/GPS location and it's offsets from the
underwater site. A corrected Lat/Long will result.

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A Case Study from Agricultural
faculty area of Tekirdag

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The objective of this study was digitizing and
preparing application and setting plan of Tekirda
Agricultural Faculty Area by using handling type
GPS. Three different methods-
1.) To measure the area and surrounding by using
electronic planimeter.
2.) To measure the area by using electronic
thedolite.
3.) To measure with GPS.
the results of the measurement compared to the
deed of real estate value.

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• The campus area of Tekirdag Agricultural Faculty
was selected as research area to determine its
settlement and application plan using Global
Positioning System (GPS).
• The area of Tekirdag Agricultural Faculty takes part
within Tekirdag city border in Thrace Region.

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Location

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• The size of Tekirda Agricultural Faculty’s
campus area is approximately 93.7 ha according
to the official registrations.
• Instruments, equipment and hardware used
• An electronic theodolite of was used in survey
measurement to determine topographic and
physical characteristics of the campus area
(Figure 2a).
• An electronic planimeter was used to determine
the size and surrounding length of the campus
area on the plan which was drawn using the
results of measurements done by electronic
theodolite (Figure 2b).
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• Three GPS, devices were used to determine
coordinates of the campus area (Figure 3). Table 1
shows the technical specifications of the GPS
devices.
• The data obtained from the electronic theodolite
were transferred into MS Excel program in the
computer and necessary computations were done
in this program.
• Data obtained from the GPS devices were
transferred into computer by RS-232 adaptor and
Trackmaker software was used to work on this
data. Then, three dimensional analysis of this data
were done in the computer using ArcGIS and
ArcView 3D Analyst software.
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2a Electronic Theodolite
2b Planimeter
3 GPS

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Technical Specifications of GPS
:Table1

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 GPS and Digitizing

• Three GPS devices did the measurements in

Tekirdag Agricultural Faculty’s area. In these
measurements, the corner point in the entrance
of the campus was selected as a landmark.
• The reason for using three GPS devices at the
same time was to decrease possible errors
resulting from usage and device during the
measurements to minimum and data from these
three devices were presented together on the
same figure.

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• The measurements done with GPS devices were
transferred to computer as digitized by Map
Source and Trackmaker software.
• The Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN)
command in ArcGIS was used to obtain a three
dimensional view and to determine the slope of
the research area on digitized data.
• The principle of the TIN model is a structure
arising from point, line and area between itself
of each height value transferred from GPS and
other neighbouring data.

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Area comparisons by different
methods:Table 2

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Area by Theodolite Calculations

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GPS Mapping

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Arranging the area with ArcGIS

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Triangulated irregular network

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Drawings of 5m spaced leveling
curves on the 3 D vision

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 Results and Conclusions

• The size and surrounding length of the area

calculated from the electronic theodolite, GPS
and electronic planimeter measurement on
1/5000 plot were compared each other in
Table 2.

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• The size and surrounding length of the campus
area are calculated from title deed and the
measurement methods were different.
- minimum area 936 703 m2
- maximum area 957 434 m2
• The result of the electronic planimeter and GPS
measurements were between 941 000 m2 and
947 000 m2.

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Laser Technology

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INTRODUCTION
• Laser is "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation".
• It uses a quantum mechanical effect, stimulated
emission, to generate a very collimated ,
monochromatic beam of light.
• Common light sources, such as the electric light bulb
emit photons in all directions.
• Most light sources are also incoherent, i.e., there is no
fixed phase relationship between the photons emitted
by the light source.
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•By contrast, a laser emits photons in a narrow,
well-defined beam of light
• The light is often near-monochromatic, consisting
of a single wavelength or color is highly coherent
and is often polarised.
• Laser system generally consists of three important
parts:
a) An energy source (usually referred to as the
pump or pump source) : they provides energy to
the laser system.

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Examples of pump sources include electrical
discharges, arc lamps, chemical reactions and even
explosive devices.
b) A gain medium or laser medium : determining
factor of the wavelength of operation, and other
properties of the laser
• It is excited by pump source for spontaneous and
stimulated emission of photons leading to the
phenomena of optical gain or optical amplification

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Examples of different gain media include:
a) Liquids: such as dye lasers.
b) Gases: carbon dioxide, argon, krypton and
mixtures such as helium-neon.
c) Solids: crystals and glasses
d) Semiconductors : in which the movement of
electrons between material with differing dopant
levels can cause laser action.

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3) System of mirrors, forming an optical
resonator :is two parallel mirrors placed around
the gain medium.
• Light reflected by the mirrors back into the
medium, where it amplified by stimulated
emission.
• The light may reflect from the mirrors (and thus
pass through the gain medium) many hundreds of
times before exiting the cavity.

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LASER USED IN CONSTRUCTION

• Two types of laser beams used in construction,

visible beam and infrared

• Visible beams (635nm to 532nm for the Green

Beam®) are generally used in the interior and
utility/pipe markets.

• Infrared lasers are used in general construction

(concrete, small excavation), and heavy
earthmoving markets.

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The construction laser advantage

• lasers are replacing many traditional tools.

• Qualities inherent in lasers have overcome many

of the limitations of traditional tools

• Ex: Contractor places a rotating laser in its

vertical position so the beam sweeps across the
ceiling, down the far wall and across the floor.

• From that single setup he or she can hang a wall

bracket from the ceiling, the floor, and place the
studs exactly vertically by themselves. 87
• The savings realized from using a laser is two-fold:
first the setup time is reduced by at least 50%
because same reference is used for the floor, ceiling
and everything in between.

• Second, a two person job was reduced to a single

person, saving labor so finishing job faster.

construction laser types

Interior laser :
• Using visible beams, they are used to hang ceiling
grids, align and mount floor and ceiling brackets for
walls, align studs.
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• Their visible beams replace the need for
cumbersome bubble vials, ceiling string, and chalk
lines that require time consuming setups

General Construction Lasers:

• Using infrared beams, GC lasers are lasers used for
exterior applications like, Setting concrete forms,
checking grade on flat pads, checking depth of footers
and trenches, and even providing elevation indication
for laser receivers mounted on excavators, backhoes.

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Slope/Machine Control Lasers:
•Using high power infrared, they are used for Land
leveling , road and runway construction require
slope for rain drainage, long trenching jobs requiring
a constant fall for the pipes.

Pipe Lasers:
•In this case visible laser light used for laying pipes

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3D LASER SCANNING

• Technique used to gather data about an object or

environment used to create a 3D model .

• Laser scanners emit a narrow laser beam and then

receive and process the signal returned by reflection
from the object.

• Depending on the model selected, laser scanners

can measure between 100 and 500,000 points per
second. The range varies between 20 and 100
metres , with an accuracy of between ± 1mm and
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5cm.
• devices generate a ‘point cloud’ of hundreds of
thousands of surveyed points.

• They used to create an exact but rudimentary 3D

model of the object, which can be converted by
software into a fully-fledged 3D model, recognizable
by anyone.

The Technology

• It is suitable for rapid and detailed non-contact

measurement and mapping; the 3D image obtained
can then be analyzed and edited off-site.
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•The method is particularly suitable for modeling
highly complex sites and objects made up of irregular
shapes.

3D SCANNING –APPLICATION IN TUNNLE

Professional Surveyor Magazine - December 2009

•The Turkey Creek Diversion Tunnel is very

impressively constructed circa 1920 at 28 feet in
diameter and 1,400 feet long, concrete-lined, and in
desperate need of repair.

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•Turkey Creek runs under Interstate 35 in Kansas and
into the Kansas River.

•The nearly 100 years of diverting massive amounts of

water from it (and several notable natural disasters)
had taken its toll on the tunnel.

•Task given to surveyor was to document the existing

conditions of the tunnel for determining the extent of
damage and designing the much-needed repairs.

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Steps carried for this case as follows :
Step 1 : perform a terrestrial lidar scan of the
entire length of the tunnel.

Step 2 : with the help laser scanner ,map the entire

circumference of a tunnel at a very high accuracy
and speed, producing a 3D cloud of point data.

Step 3 : produce cross sections at any point in the

tunnel by using data

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96
The scanner

• Lidar technology
captures 3D survey-
grade data points at a
rate of up to 50,000
points per second and a
range of up to 300
meters to a 90 percent
reflective surface.
• The medium the scanner uses is a pulsed or
.
time-of-flight laser.

97
• It uses two mirrors to direct the laser throughout its
360° x 270° field of view.

• The scanner we used, also possesses a survey-

grade dual axis tilt compensator, it has the ability to
acquire this data at a 6mm positional accuracy of
each individual point.

• The scanner has an onboard digital camera that

captures low resolution digital photos.

• The photos are output, through a program inside

the software, into a 360° x 270°panoramic digital
photograph. 98
• This allows the technician to look at photos when
drafting as well as the point cloud.

•The pixels from the photos can

be mapped to the
corresponding point in the point
cloud, creating a photo
realistic 3D model

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Scan plan

• Transfer survey control from the surface of the

tunnel to invert.

• for that purpose they deployed global positioning

systems (GPS) and robotic total stations to transfer
control information into the invert of the tunnel

•dewatering effort was taking place in the way of a

coffer dam and installation of a 48” pipe to slow the
flow and carry the water out of the invert to
establish a working environment.
100
• Once the invert had been dewatered, they sent
laser scanning team into the tunnel.

• Plan was to traverse through the tunnel, making

a setup approximately every 200 to 400 feet

• Set scanning resolution at 0.30 feet in the

horizontal and 0.10 feet in the vertical at a range
of 300 feet from the scanner.

101
• This made scan time approximately 30 minutes
per setup.

• The entire tunnel was scanned from six

locations.

102
Office Processing

• Used Lecia Cyclone software to produce 2D

cross sections at a rate of approximately one cross
section per hour.

•Once the cross sections produced the software

creating the 3D wireframe
.
•Then exported the wireframe to a CAD-compatible
format.

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3D SCANNING –APPLICATION UNDER SEA

The Girassol Oilfield

104
•Girassol is the world’s largest ‘Floating Production,
Storage and Offloading vessel’.

•With a hull 300m long, 60m wide and 30m deep, this
ship-like vessel is permanently but flexibly moored to
sixteen ‘suction anchors’ on the unstable seabed in
1,350 metres of water 210km north-north-west of
Luanda, the capital of Angola

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• The vessel is connected to a large number of
drilling platforms pumping oil from the gigantic
Girassol reservoir, some 1,200 metres beneath the
seabed.

• Operators of Girassol, Total Exploration

Production Angola, wish to exploit new oilfields
in the vicinity, entailing a doubling of production
and processing capacity onboard the existing
vessel.

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Survey Team at Work

• The survey carried out with reflectorless total

station and two laser scanners.

• During the seventeen days spent onboard, 101 flat

adhesive targets were measured in ship coordinates
using the total station so as to provide control for
laser scanning from around seventy different scanner
stations; a total of more than 100 million points were
scanned.

•Accuracy, after combining all the individual models

in Real Works Survey software, was ± 20mm.
107
Successful Outcome

• One week of post-processing included combining

the datasets, cleaning point-clouds and exporting
the data , installing the results in systems to make
3D modeling.
Difficulties during survey:

• ‘static’ deformations caused by loading and

unloading the vessel in the course of the job.

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•dynamic deformations caused by waves and
associated motion of the ship.

•Continuous operation of the vessel itself and of

the plant installed on it caused unaccustomed
vibrations

•These, together with relative movements between

the various components of the deck assembly,
made for unfavourable observing conditions.

•Tropical conditions of temperature and humidity.

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THANK YOU!

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