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Aircraft mooring device

The present invention relates to a device for mooring an aircraft. To avoid the movement of
an aircraft in case of strong wind, its front landing gear is moored with the help of at least one
line to at least one ring anchored in the ground. Also, the parking places for aircraft comprise
at ground level flush rings which do not extend above ground level.

To carry out mooring, a first technique consists in providing at least one line whose first end
is secured to a ring in the ground and the second end to an anchoring point on the aircraft. To
obtain effective anchoring, it is preferable to use two lines which are connected to the aircraft
symmetrically so as better to distribute the forces. A second technique consists in providing a
single line whose ends are secured to two rings in the ground, disposed symmetrically relative
to the front landing gear, the line passing through an anchoring point on the aircraft. This
solution has the advantage of distributing symmetrically the forces and requiring only a single
line.

Moreover, the mooring of the aircraft can also be necessary at the time of loading or
unloading the aircraft so as to prevent it from tipping rearwardly. In this case, the mooring is
carried out on the front landing gear.

These mooring techniques are not satisfactory for the following reasons. Even if the lines can
comprise tensioning devices such as a ratchet tensioner, the tension is static and provided for
only one condition of the aircraft. However, during its loading or unloading, the suspension of
the front landing gear compresses or extends as a function of the load. In the case of
extension, if the line or line were already tensioned, the supplemental tension by reason of the
elevation of the aircraft can give rise to damage to the mooring. In case of compression, the
line or line which were previously tensioned become slack because of the lowering of the
aircraft and free in their movements, rendering mooring ineffective.

Also, the present invention seeks to overcome the drawbacks of the existing aircraft mooring
devices, by providing a new device providing effective mooring continuously, despite
changes in the posture of the aircraft.

To this end, the invention has for its object a mooring device adapted particularly for an
aircraft, comprising at least one line or the like ensuring connection between an anchoring
point on the aircraft and the ground, characterized in that it comprises dynamic control means
of the tension of the line as a function of variations of the distance between the anchoring
point on the aircraft and the ground. This arrangement permits having a line that is always
tensioned despite variations of load on the suspension device, during loading or unloading of
the aircraft.
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Preferably, the device is adapted to occupy two conditions, the first so-called free condition in
which it is adapted to follow the variations of distance between the anchoring point on the
aircraft and the ground, by permitting elongation or shortening of the line, and a second
so-called blocked condition, in which it opposes the unwinding of the line. According to
another characteristic, the device comprises means adapted to measure the speed of
unwinding of the line, said device passing from the free condition to the blocked condition
when the unwinding speed exceeds a certain threshold or is subject to abrupt acceleration.

This arrangement permits limiting the risk of swinging of the aircraft rearwardly or its
movement during a strong gust of wind.

Other characteristics and advantages will become apparent from the description which
follows, of the invention, which description is given only by way of example, with respect to
the accompanying drawings, in which:

FIG. 1 is a side elevational view of an aircraft.

FIG. 2 is a view showing the mooring device of the front landing gear of the aircraft.

FIG. 3 is a detailed view showing one embodiment of a device for dynamic control of the
tension of the line according to the invention, and

FIG. 4 is a schematic view illustrating the fluid circuits of the device of FIG. 3.

In FIG. 1, there is shown at 10 an aircraft comprising particularly a front landing gear 12


shown in detail in FIG. 2.

So as to immobilize the aircraft 10 and/or to avoid its rearward swinging during loading or
unloading, the upper portion of the front landing gear 12 disposed above the suspension (not
shown) and secured to the body of the aircraft, is connected to the ground with the help of a
mooring device 14.

One or more so-called anchoring rings 16 are provided at ground level so as to permit easier
anchoring. These rings are preferably flush in horizontal position and disposed on each side
of the front landing gear 12 so as to obtain symmetric distribution of the forces due to
mooring.

According to techniques used, the mooring device 14 comprises one or more lines 18
connecting the upper part of the front landing gear to the ground. According to a preferred
embodiment shown in FIG. 2, the securing device comprises a line 18 whose ends are
connected to anchoring rings 16, said line passing through a ring or opening 20, called
anchoring point of the aircraft, provided in the upper portion of the front landing gear. As a
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modification, there could be provided two lines 18, each having a first end connected to the
anchoring point of the aircraft and a second end connected to the ground.

To permit easy securement, the line or lines comprise at their ends hooks 22, preferably with
a tongue or in the form of a snap hook.

The line or lines 18 have a suitable length, and are made of suitable material to permit
withstanding the forces. Moreover, a line can be made in a single piece or from several
elements disposed end to end. Finally, the line can have different cross-sectional shapes, said
sections being constituted by a single element or several elements disposed parallel or
twisted.

In known manner, the line can be provided or not with static tensioning means 24 such as a
ratchet tensioner.

According to the invention, the mooring device 14 comprises means 26 to control the tension
of a line 18 dynamically, adapted to adjust the unwinding of the line 18 as a function of the
variation or variations of the distance separating the anchoring point 20 on the aircraft with
the anchoring point 16 on the ground.

According to a preferred embodiment shown in FIG. 2, the mooring device 14 comprises a


carriage 28, with preferably at its lower portion rollers 30 and at its upper portion a handle 32
facilitating its movement, and a line 18 connected to a first end of the carriage 18 and
comprising at the other end a hook 22, a ratchet tensioner 24 being preferably provided on the
line. Preferably, the carriage 28 comprises means 34 for storing the line which can or not
permit the automatic rewinding of said line 18.

In its lower portion, the carriage 28 comprises means for securement to the ground in the
form for example of a hook 36 permitting the securement of the carriage and hence its line 18
to an anchoring ring.

As a modification, the carriage 28 can be connected to several lines 18.

According to the invention, the dynamic control device 26 for the tension of a line 18 is
disposed on the carriage 28. This device 26 permits adjusting automatically and continuously
the length of the line 18, when the distance separating the anchoring point 20 on the aircraft
and the anchoring point on the ground varies, particularly during loading or unloading of the
aircraft.

Preferably, this device 26 comprises means adapted to measure the speed of unwinding of the
line 18. Thus, as soon as the speed of unwinding exceeds a certain threshold or is subject to
abrupt acceleration, particularly when the aircraft tends to swing rearwardly or during a gust
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of wind, the device opposes the unwinding of the line so as to maintain a constant length
between the anchoring point 20 on the aircraft and the anchoring point 16 on the ground.

The dynamic control device 26 for the tension of a line comprises means 38 which tend to
tension the line 18, said means 38 being adapted to occupy two conditions, a first so-called
free condition in which it is adapted to follow the variations of distance between the
anchoring point 20 of the aircraft and the anchoring point 16 on the ground, by exerting on
the line 18 a substantially constant tension and by permitting the elongation or shortening of
the line, and a second so-called blocked condition, in which it opposes the unwinding of the
line.

According to a preferred embodiment and shown in FIGS. 3 and 4, the means 38 are present
in the form of a single acting jack 40, or preferably two jacks, whose base 42 of the body is
connected to the upper portion of the carriage 28 and whose piston 44 oriented downwardly
comprises at its end a shell 46 supporting a pulley or roller 48 adapted to apply tension to the
line 18, whose first length at its end connected to the upper portion of the carriage 88 and
second length 52 leave by an opening 54 also provided in the upper portion of the carriage 28.
The jack or jacks 40 are single acting and tend to tension the line 18, as shown by the arrow
56. Thus, for a path of X mm of the piston 44, there is obtained a variation in the length of the
line of 2X mm. In FIG. 3, there is shown the assembly in two different positions, pistons
compressed and pistons extended.

As shown in FIG. 4, the jack or jacks 40 are connected to a reservoir 58 of fluid so as to


ensure permanent adjustable tension in the line 18, particularly when the distance between the
anchoring point 20 of the aircraft and the anchoring point to the ground decreases.

A unidirectional flow rate regulator 60, provided between the jack or jacks 40 and the
reservoir 58, ensures a shock absorbing function to the unwinding of the line 18 and permits
the compression of the jack or jacks 40, particularly when the distance between the anchoring
point 20 of the aircraft and the anchoring point 16 on the ground increases. This regulator 60
also permits controlling the speed of unwinding of the line 18. Thus, as soon as the speed
exceeds a certain threshold or is subject to abrupt acceleration, the regulator opposes the flow
of fluid between the jack or jacks 40 and the reservoir 58, such that the jack or jacks 40 are in
the blocked condition and oppose the unwinding of the line 18.

A so-called bypass valve 62 can be provided in parallel to the regulator 60 to connect the jack
or jacks to the reservoir 58.

The operation of the device of the invention will now be described.

The carriage 28 is moved near the front landing gear 12 and its hook 36 is hooked to an
anchoring ring 16. Then, the operator passes the line 18 through the anchoring point 20 of the
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aircraft and hooks the hook 22 to a second anchoring ring 16. He exerts a tension on the line
18 with the help of the ratchet tensioner 24 so as to place the tensioning means 38 in an
appropriate condition. If the aircraft is loaded and the shock absorber of the front landing gear
must extend, the tensioning means 38 will be almost not compressed. On the contrary, if the
aircraft must be loaded and the front landing gear shock absorber must compress, the tension
means will be compressed so as to be able to exert tension on the line.

During hooking and adjustment of the tension, the exhaust of the jack or jacks is open, the
valve 52 being open. Afterward, in operation, the exhaust of the jack or jacks is controlled,
and the valve 62 is closed.

According to another characteristic of the invention, visual information can be provided to


permit adjustment of the tension at the time of correct mooring.
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Unit - 4: Auxiliary system (also called utility system)

Terminal Objectives: Upon completion of this chapter, you will have a working knowledge of
bleed-air, liquid cooling, windshield wiper/ washer, rain repellant, fire extinguishing, and
thermal radiation protection utility systems.

The utility systems of an aircraft provide an additional measure of flight safety, pilot comfort
and convenience, and contributes to the overall mission capability of the aircraft. Those utility
systems of primary concern to you that are included in this chapter are the various bleed-air,
liquid cooling, fire extinguishing, and thermal radiation protection systems.

AUXILIARY BLEED-AIR SYSTEMS Learning Objective: Recognize the operating


principles and functions of auxiliary bleed-air utility systems. An aircraft's auxiliary bleed-air
system furnishes supply air for air-conditioning and pressurization systems, as well as for
electronic equipment cooling, windshield washing, anti-icing, and anti-g systems. The
bleed-air system also pressurizes fuel tanks, hydraulic reservoirs, and radar waveguides on
several types of aircraft.

The air for these systems is tapped off downstream of the air-conditioning turbine before any
cooling takes place, or at various points within the air-conditioning system. Bleed air for
these systems can range Up to 400° F (205° C) at pressures of up to 125 psi. Because each
type of aircraft has a somewhat different approach in system design, temperatures, and
pressures, the systems and components in this manual will be representative of types found
throughout the Navy. Under no circumstances should this manual be regarded as the final
source of technical data used to perform aircraft maintenance. For the

most up-to-date information, refer to the proper Maintenance Instructions Manual (MIM) for
the system concerned.

WINDSHIELD ANTI-ICE/ RAIN REMOVAL SYSTEM This system is designed to


provide a means of maintaining visibility from the aircraft. The F-18 windshield anti-ice/ rain
removal system is typical of systems found in jet air-craft. This system supplies controlled
temperature air from the air cycle air-conditioning system (ACS) to provide airflow over the
external surface of the windshield for rain removal and windshield anti-icing.

System Control The system is electrically controlled and pneumatically operated. There are
three modes of operation controlled by the windshield anti-ice/ rain removal switch.
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1. OFF. The anti-ice/ rain removal air control regulating valve is closed, and there is no
airflow over the windshield. 2. RAIN. Low-pressure (2.5 psig) and low-volume (20 lbs/ min)
air at 250° F directed across the windshield through the anti-ice/ rain removal nozzle.

3. ANTI-ICE. High-pressure (16 psig) and high-volume (57 lbs/ min) air at 250° F directed
across the windshield through the anti-ice/ rain removal nozzle.

Low Limit Temperature Control Refer to figure 1-1 for component location. The supply air
temperature is controlled to a lower limit of 290° F by the warm air temperature control valve
and the warm air temperature sensor. If air temperature supplied by the air cycle ACS exceeds
290° F, the warm air temperature control valve will close and stop airflow from the bleed-air
system. The 290° F supply temperature is cooled as it passes through the ducting to
approximately 250° F at the nozzle. The 250° F temperature provides enough heat for
windshield deicing, yet is low enough to prevent damage to the windshield.

High Limit Temperature Control The warm air over temperature sensor actuates when
supply air temperature reaches 375°± 25° F and signals the flow/ temperature limiting anti-ice
modulating valve. This valve regulates airflow supply, which reduces bleed airflow through
the primary heat exchanger and reduces airflow

Figure 1-1.- Windshield Anti-ice and rain removal system component locator.

supply temperature to below 375°± 25° F. The combined action of the warm air over
temperature sensor and flow/ temperature limiting anti-ice modulating valve also provides the
required protection against a defective warm air temperature control valve.

Anti-Ice/ Rain Removal Air Control Regulating -Valve The anti-ice/ rain removal air
control regulating valve completes the final pressure regulation and flow control before
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airflow reaches the anti-ice/ rain removal nozzle. The valve regulates pressure and flow rate
depending on the position of the windshield anti-ice/ rain removal s w i t c h.

Windshield Overheat Temperature Sensor The windshield overheat temperature sensor,


located downstream of the anti-ice/ rain removal air control regulating valve, is a
temperature-activated switch, which opens if airflow temperature reaches 290°± 5° F. It
closes when airflow temperature drops to 280°± 5° F. When the switch is open, a ground is
lost to the signal data converter and the signal data computer, which causes the digital display
indicator to display a (WDSHLD HOT) caution message.

ANTI-G SYSTEM The anti-g system supplies and controls the flow of air pressure to the
pilot's anti-g suit to compensate for forces exerted upon the human body during flight
conditions. This system is designed to accomplish the following:

1. Provide protection against grayout, blackout, and unconsciousness

2. Alleviate fatigue and decreased mental alertness, which may result from repeated
accelerations below the blackout level

3. Provide a method by which the pilot may relieve leg stiffness and physical tension during
flight

4. Provide the pilot with a physical indication of the approximate acceleration to which the
air-craft is being subjected
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Engineering Aerospace: Aircraft Fuel


Systems

Minimal functional requirement of fuel systems is to supply fuel to the engine in sufficient
quantity and quality and at a certain pressure. The system contains of two sub-systems; the
fuselage fuel system and the engine fuel system. This web page deals with the former
sub-system.

The construction of the fuel tank system largely depends on the task of getting the fuel from
the tank to the tank's exit, and from the tank's exit to the engine. The location of the tanks is
usually determined by the platform's structure, available space and impact on CG (centre of
gravity) location. In some aircraft, external tanks, belly tanks or tip tanks may be fitted. When
additional fuel is needed, for example, for an extended range, ferry tanks are employed.

Belly Tank External Tank


[http://www.airglas.com/belly_tank/index [http://aeroweb.brooklyn.cuny.edu/specs/mcdodoug/fa
.html] -18b.htm]

Tip Tank Ferry Tank

Components of fuel system


Low pressure feed system

Plumbing

· Plumbing is the name given to the fuel supply lines. They are depicted as solid in the
illustration but in real life obviously this is not true.

· Lines are generally made from metallic tubing, not pipes.

· Routing must be placed on the opposite side of the aircraft from the oxygen supply
and below any electrical wiring.

· The flow of fuel inside the fuel lines may produce static electricity. The lines are
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therefore electrically connected to prevent any electrical charge accumulation.

Fuel tank

· This is the fuel storage component. It must be large enough to carry fuel for the whole
mission.

· Fuel tanks must have means of dumping fuel in cases of emergency.

· They must be vented so that used fuel may be replaced by air or inert gases. If there is
insufficient flow of air into the tank, it may collapse (due to loading caused by high
performance or steep descend from altitude to sea level). For integral wing tanks, the
pressure difference may cause structural damage and component failure.

· Fuel tanks may have a sump which collects water and solid particles in fuel.

Level indicator

· As the name suggests, this component provides the flight crew with the current
measurement of fuel content.

· Fuel measurement are difficult to measure as they depend on fuel tank shape and
aircraft attitude.

Pumps

· The pumps may be mounted externally or immersed in the fuel.

· It is important that the pumps are free of fuel vapour intrusion as they supply fuel to
the engine. To avoid this, air separators are installed at the pump inlets.

Pressure switch

· The switch gives no indicator of the pressure value but rather reacts to the presence of
pressure which is above the pre-set lower limit of the switch.

· Relying solely on pump power indication is insufficient because even though power
switch may be on, the pump may not be working due to seized rotor or blocked inlet.
The pressure switch accounts for this.

· It gives the flight crew an indication of which pumps are operating since not all pumps
are switched on during operation (during take-off and aerobatics, both pumps are on).

Non Return Valves (NRV's)

· Since during operation only one pump may be working, the NRV ensures that fuel
pumped from the operating pump is not returned to the fuel tank via inoperative
pump.

Pump by-pass valve

· This valve allows the fuel from other tanks to enter the indicated tank.

· If incorporated with a cross feed valve, it becomes a three way valve.


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Tank isolation valve

· This valve isolates the tank from the fuel system. This is usually done in cases of
emergency or if a fuel leak develops in the tank, thus draining the remaining aircraft
fuel.

· Under normal operating conditions, this valve is open.

Cross feed valve

· Requirements state that the engine may only be supplied with fuel from one tank at a
time. The cross feed valve allows for this. It supplies fuel from other tanks.

· This valve is usually closed under normal operating conditions.

Low pressure valve

· This valve is fitted after all tanks have had access to the fuel line.

· It allows maintenance on any part of the fuel circuit in the fuselage that is not
connected to the tank fuel distribution circuit.

Power drain valve

· This valve allows quick discharge of fuel from the system for maintenance or
emergency purposes.

· Power drain valve must be closed before engine start up.

High pressure feed system

Backing pump

· This is not an essential component, however, in case the engine requires a fuel
pressure higher than that produced by tank pumps, this pump is able to do so.

· It is required that the engine must still operate without the use of this pump.

Fuel Cool Oil Cool (FCOC)

· The volatility (ability of evaporate) of fuel may be increased by heating it. This is
particularly important if fuel is supplied from wing tanks where it has been exposed to
low temperature soak at altitude.

· The hot oil from engine heats up the cool fuel and in the process cools itself off, thus
reducing the number of oil cooling components in the platform.

Fuel heater

· If additional fuel heating is required, the fuel heater is able to do this by the use of
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high pressure compressor gas.

Fuel filter

· As the name suggests, this component filters out unwanted particles contained in the
fuel.

· The filter may be configured to trap water, in which case, it may become blocked up
due to ice formation.

· To avoid clogging when contaminants and/or ice are trapped, a bypass valve is
installed to get around a blocked filter.

· Regular inspection is essential unless the filter is equipped with an electrical


signalling device which indicates blockage.

Generally, change over from fuselage to engine occurs between these two components.

Flow meter

· Quantity of fuel supplied to the engine is an important piece of information for


management of flight fuel use.

· If installed as it is depicted in the above illustration, it doesn't account for the fuel
bypassing the engine and returning to tanks.

· To give a correct fuel flow to engine indication, it can be installed after the fuel
control unit (FCU) where any fuel flowing must go to the engine.

Pressure transmitter

· This transmitter measures the pressure of the fuel entering the engine.

· If there is a problem during the mission, the flight crew can eliminate the fuel pressure
as a cause of this problem by reading the value off the pressure transmitter.

Pressure switch

· This switch monitors the pressure of fuel entering the engine. If a low pressure is
sensed, the switch automatically alerts the crew and activates master caution warning.

High Pressure pump (HP pump)

· This gear pump supplies the engine with fuel and is driven through an accessory
gearbox mounted to the engine.

· It is capable of producing pressures of up to 5.5 MPa.

Aircraft Engine instruments


Here is a brief description of the recommended instruments for 2 and 4 stroke Aircraft
Engine monitoring and the reasons why they are necessary. These informations and much
more can be found in our Engine Maintenance Logs.
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At Aero Propulsion
Technologies, we designed a
cheat sheet in business card
format which shows you the
allowable temperatures for
your 2-stroke engine. Ask us
for one or print one yourself by
downloading the following
file:

2-stroke Aircraft Engines


· Cylinder Head Temperature (CHT) and Liquid Temperature
The cylinder head temperature instrument is very useful on an air-cooled engine. It is
less so on a liquid-cooled engine, where it is replaced by a liquid temperature
instrument.
On an air cooled engine, it is recommended to have a probe for each cylinder, as both
cylinder heads are separate. A liquid cooled engine, with its joined cylinder head, only
requires one probe.
In both cases, it is important to regularly monitor the temperatures in flight as
abnormal overheating can indicate a cooling problem, faulty lubrication or too lean a
fuel/air mixture.

· Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)


This instrument is very useful on any type of engine as it offers an insight on
combustion temperatures. It is wise to monitor it in flight but it is particularly useful
on the ground for carburetor tuning. Too high a temperature indicates too lean a
fuel/air mixture, while too cold a temperature indicates a rich mixture. Adjusting
mixture to the ideal temperatures allows the engine to run at optimal efficiency.
It is recommended to use one probe for each cylinder to ensure they run in unison.
Please note that the readings of certain CHT and EGT probes are affected by ambient
temperature. Check your instrument and probe instructions for details.

· Tachometer
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The tachometer measures the number of revolutions the engine performs per minute.
It is useful in evaluating engine performance. For example, too low or too high a
maximum engine speed at takeoff can reveal a problem. It is also useful in setting the
propeller pitch to allow the engine to reach its optimal takeoff and cruise speeds.

· Hourmeter
This instrument counts the number of hours your engine has been running. It is
particularly useful in keeping a maintenance log!

· Aero Propulsion Technologies offers a full range of engine instruments

At Aero Propulsion
Technologies, we designed a
cheat sheet in bookmark
format which shows you the
allowable temperatures for
your 4-stroke engine. Ask us
for one or print one yourself by
downloading the following
file:
4STref.pdf / 153Kb /
Adobe Acrobat forma

4-stroke Aircraft Engines


· Oil Pressure
The oil pressure instrument monitors the proper operation of your engine’s lubrication
system. It may reveal a low oil level, leaks, restrictions and other system malfunctions.

· Oil Temperature
The oil temperature instrument allows you to ensure that your engine’s lubricant is
operating at the proper temperature. Oil lubricates optimally only within a specific
range of temperatures which should be reached at warmup and preserved at all times.
It may reveal insufficient or excessive oil radiator cooling and may reveal some
lubrication system malfunctions.
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· Cylinder Head Temperature (CHT)


We found that many pilots confuse this instrument with a coolant temperature
instrument, and sometimes label it as such. The probe to this instrument actually
measures the temperature of the metal in your cylinder head. It allows you to monitor
the proper operation of the liquid cooling system that cools your cylinder heads yet it
does not measure the actual temperature of that liquid.

· Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)


This instrument measures the temperature of your exhaust gases as they exit the
combustion chamber and pass through the exhaust manifold. It offers an insight on
combustion temperatures and allows you to monitor the quality of the air/fuel mixture.
Too high a temperature would indicate a lean mixture, while too low would indicate a
rich mixture. It may also reveal loss of compression in the cylinders.

· Fuel Pressure
The fuel pressure instrument indicates the proper operation of your fuel pump and fuel
supply system. It may reveal leaks, restrictions or a malfunction of the carburetor float
valve system.

· Manifold Pressure
This instrument offers an insight on how hard the engine is working. The more
air/fuel mixture entering the engine, the higher the manifold pressure will be. It is
particularly useful in setting the propeller pitch for optimal engine efficiency at
different power settings. It may also reveal leaks in the intake system.

· Coolant temperature
No provision for a coolant temperature probe is provided on Rotax 4-stroke engines
and for good reason: the Cylinder Head Temperature instrument offers a better insight
into the proper operation of the liquid cooling system and may reveal problems, such
as the formation of air bubbles, that a coolant temperature instrument would not.

· Coolant pressure
A coolant pressure probe may be installed, as it can help monitor the general operation
of the cooling system and may reveal leaks and restrictions.

· Tachometer
The tachometer measures the number of revolutions the engine performs per minute.
It is useful in evaluating engine performance. For example, too low or too high a
maximum engine speed at takeoff can reveal a problem. It is also useful in setting the
propeller pitch to allow the engine to reach its optimal takeoff and cruise speeds.

· Hourmeter
This instrument counts the number of hours your engine has been running. It is
particularly useful in keeping a maintenance log!

· Aero Propulsion Technologies offers a full range of engine instruments


V.S.Venkataraman
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Providing Superior Products and Unparalleled Customer


Service Since 1979
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Glass Panel
MVP-50P Piston
MVP-50P Turboprop
Engine Analyzers
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UBG-16 Bar Graph
US-8A (16 Channels)
SR-8A (8 Channels)
Fuel Flow/Pressure
Primary
Standard
RPM
R-1 Tachometer
Manifold Pressure
M-1 Manifold Pressure
Volts & Amps
VA-1A Voltammeter
Oil Pressure/Temp
OPT-1 Press/Temp
Fuel Level
FL-2 Dual Level
FL-1 Single Level
Temp Instruments
Single Channel
Multi-Channel
Remote Switches
Primary Remote Switches
Clocks
ASC-5A Altitude Clock
SC-5 Super Clock
Turboprop
R-1 N1 (NG)
R-1 N2 (NP)
M-1-ITT
M-1-T (Torque)
M-1-TOT
Accessories
Annunciators
Probes
Pressure Transducers
Flow Transducers
Product Overview

Every EI product is proudly designed, manufactured and


supported in Bend, Oregon, USA

THE MVP-50P is NOW STC'D for Single and TWIN


UBG-16 REBATES!!
Aircraft!
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STC'd, TSO'd Piston TSO'd Turboprop STC'd EGT/CHT Bar Graph

STC'd, TSO'd Fuel Flow & STC'd, TSO'd Digital STC'd, TSO'd Manifold
Pressure Tachometer Pressure

STC'd, TSO'd Oil


Fuel Level STC'd Volts & Amps
Pressure/Temp

STC'd, TSO'd Single Channel STC'd, TSO'd Multi Channel Digital Clocks
Temp Temp
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STC'd, TSO'd Probes STC'd, TSO'd Annunciators

A gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining orientation, based on the principles of


conservation of angular momentum.A mechanical gyroscope is essentially a spinning wheel
or disk whose axle is free to take any orientation. This orientation changes much less in
response to a given external torque than it would without the large angular momentum
associated with the gyroscope's high rate of spin. Since external torque is minimized by
mounting the device in gimbals, its orientation remains nearly fixed, regardless of any motion
of the platform on which it is mounted.

Gyroscopes based on other operating principles also exist, such as the electronic,
microchip-packaged MEMS gyroscope devices found in consumer electronic devices, solid
state ring lasers, fibre optic gyroscopes and the extremely sensitive quantum gyroscope.

Applications of gyroscopes include navigation (INS) when magnetic compasses do not work
(as in the Hubble telescope) or are not precise enough (as in ICBMs) or for the stabilization of
flying vehicles like radio-controlled helicopters or UAVs. Due to their high precision,
gyroscopes are also used to maintain direction in tunnel mining.[2]
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Contents

· 1 Description and diagram

· 2 History

· 3 Properties

· 4 Variations

· 4.1 Gyrostat

· 4.2 MEMS

· 4.3 FOG

· 4.4 VSG or CVG

· 4.5 DTG

· 4.6 London moment

· 5 Modern uses

· 6 See also

· 7 References

· 8 Further reading

· 9 External links

Description and diagram

Diagram of a gyro wheel. Reaction arrows about the output axis (blue) correspond to forces
applied about the input axis (green), and vice versa.
Within mechanical systems or devices, a conventional gyroscope is a mechanism comprising
a rotor journalled to spin about one axis, the journals of the rotor being mounted in an inner
gimbal or ring, the inner gimbal is journalled for oscillation in an outer gimbal which is
journalled in another gimbal for a total of three gimbals.
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The outer gimbal or ring which is the gyroscope frame is mounted so as to pivot about an
axis in its own plane determined by the support. This outer gimbal possesses one degree of
rotational freedom and its axis possesses none. The next inner gimbal is mounted in the
gyroscope frame (outer gimbal) so as to pivot about an axis in its own plane that is always
perpendicular to the pivotal axis of the gyroscope frame (outer gimbal). This inner gimbal has
two degrees of rotational freedom. Similarly, next innermost gimbal is attached to the inner
gimbal which has three degrees of rotational freedom and its axis possesses two.

The axle of the spinning wheel defines the spin axis. The rotor is journaled to spin about an
axis which is always perpendicular to the axis of the innermost gimbal. So, the rotor
possesses four degrees of rotational freedom and its axis possesses three. The wheel responds
to a force applied about the input axis by a reaction force about the output axis.

The behaviour of a gyroscope can be most easily appreciated by consideration of the front
wheel of a bicycle. If the wheel is leaned away from the vertical so that the top of the wheel
moves to the left, the forward rim of the wheel also turns to the left. In other words, rotation
on one axis of the turning wheel produces rotation of the third axis.

A gyroscope flywheel will roll or resist about the output axis depending upon whether the
output gimbals are of a free- or fixed- configuration. Examples of some free-output-gimbal
devices would be the attitude reference gyroscopes used to sense or measure the pitch, roll
and yaw attitude angles in a spacecraft or aircraft.

Animation of a gyro wheel in action


The centre of gravity of the rotor can be in a fixed position. The rotor simultaneously spins
about one axis and is capable of oscillating about the two other axes, and thus, except for its
inherent resistance due to rotor spin, it is free to turn in any direction about the fixed point.
Some gyroscopes have mechanical equivalents substituted for one or more of the elements,
e.g., the spinning rotor may be suspended in a fluid, instead of being pivotally mounted in
gimbals. A control moment gyroscope (CMG) is an example of a fixed-output-gimbal device
that is used on spacecraft to hold or maintain a desired attitude angle or pointing direction
using the gyroscopic resistance force.

In some special cases, the outer gimbal (or its equivalent) may be omitted so that the rotor has
only two degrees of freedom. In other cases, the centre of gravity of the rotor may be offset
from the axis of oscillation and thus the centre of gravity of the rotor and the centre of
suspension of the rotor may not coincide.

[edit] History
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Gyroscope invented by Léon Foucault in 1852. Replica built by Dumoulin-Froment for the
Exposition universelle in 1867. National Conservatory of Arts and Crafts museum, Paris.
The earliest known gyroscope-like instrument was made by German Johann Bohnenberger,
who first wrote about it in 1817. At first he called it the "Machine".[3][4] Bohnenberger's
machine was based on a rotating massive sphere.[5] In 1832, American Walter R. Johnson
developed a similar device that was based on a rotating disk.[6][7] The French mathematician
Pierre-Simon Laplace, working at the École Polytechnique in Paris, recommended the
machine for use as a teaching aid, and thus it came to the attention of Léon Foucault.[8] In
1852, Foucault used it in an experiment involving the rotation of the Earth.[9][10] It was
Foucault who gave the device its modern name, in an experiment to see (Greek skopeein, to
see) the Earth's rotation (Greek gyros, circle or rotation), which was visible in the 8 to 10
minutes before friction slowed the spinning rotor.

In the 1860s, electric motors made the concept usable, leading to the first prototype
gyrocompasses; the first functional marine gyrocompass was patented in 1908 by German
inventor Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe. The American Elmer Sperry followed with his own
design later that year, and other nations soon realized the military importance of the
invention—in an age in which naval prowess was the most significant measure of military
power—and created their own gyroscope industries. The Sperry Gyroscope Company quickly
expanded to provide aircraft and naval stabilizers as well, and other gyroscope developers
followed suit.[11]

In 1917, the Chandler Company of Indianapolis, Indiana, created the "Chandler gyroscope", a
toy gyroscope with a pull string and pedestal. Chandler continued to produce the toy until the
company was purchased by TEDCO inc. in 1982. The chandler toy is still produced by
TEDCO today.[12]

In the first several decades of the 20th century, other inventors attempted (unsuccessfully) to
use gyroscopes as the basis for early black box navigational systems by creating a stable
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platform from which accurate acceleration measurements could be performed (in order to
bypass the need for star sightings to calculate position). Similar principles were later
employed in the development of inertial guidance systems for ballistic missiles.[13]

During World War Two, the gyroscope became the prime component for aircraft and
anti-aircraft gun sights.[14]

[edit] Properties

A gyroscope in operation with freedom in all three axes. The rotor will maintain its spin axis
direction regardless of the orientation of the outer frame.
A gyroscope exhibits a number of behaviours including precession and nutation. Gyroscopes
can be used to construct gyrocompasses which complement or replace magnetic compasses
(in ships, aircraft and spacecraft, vehicles in general), to assist in stability (Hubble Space
Telescope, bicycles, motorcycles, and ships) or be used as part of an inertial guidance system.
Gyroscopic effects are used in tops, boomerangs, yo-yos, and Powerballs. Many other rotating
devices, such as flywheels, behave gyroscopically although the gyroscopic effect is not being
used.

The fundamental equation describing the behavior of the gyroscope is:

where the vectors τ and L are, respectively, the torque on the gyroscope and its angular
momentum, the scalar I is its moment of inertia, the vector ω is its angular velocity, and the
vector α is its angular acceleration.

It follows from this that a torque τ applied perpendicular to the axis of rotation, and therefore
perpendicular to L, results in a rotation about an axis perpendicular to both τ and L. This
motion is called precession. The angular velocity of precession ΩP is given by the cross
product:
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Precession on a gyroscope
Precession can be demonstrated by placing a spinning gyroscope with its axis horizontal and
supported loosely (frictionless toward precession) at one end. Instead of falling, as might be
expected, the gyroscope appears to defy gravity by remaining with its axis horizontal, when
the other end of the axis is left unsupported and the free end of the axis slowly describes a
circle in a horizontal plane, the resulting precession turning. This effect is explained by the
above equations. The torque on the gyroscope is supplied by a couple of forces: gravity acting
downwards on the device's centre of mass, and an equal force acting upwards to support one
end of the device. The rotation resulting from this torque is not downwards, as might be
intuitively expected, causing the device to fall, but perpendicular to both the gravitational
torque (horizontal and perpendicular to the axis of rotation) and the axis of rotation
(horizontal and outwards from the point of support), i.e. about a vertical axis, causing the
device to rotate slowly about the supporting point.

Under a constant torque of magnitude τ, the gyroscope's speed of precession ΩP is inversely


proportional to L, the magnitude of its angular momentum:

where θ is the angle between the vectors ΩP and L. Thus if the gyroscope's spin slows down
(for example, due to friction), its angular momentum decreases and so the rate of precession
increases. This continues until the device is unable to rotate fast enough to support its own
weight, when it stops precessing and falls off its support, mostly because friction against
precession cause another precession that goes to cause the fall.

By convention, these three vectors, torque, spin, and precession, are all oriented with respect
to each other according to the right-hand rule.

To easily ascertain the direction of gyro effect, simply remember that a rolling wheel tends,
when it leans to the side, to turn in the direction of the lean.

Variations
Gyrostat
A gyrostat is a variant of the gyroscope. It consists of a massive flywheel concealed in a solid
casing. Its behaviour on a table, or with various modes of suspension or support, serves to
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illustrate the curious reversal of the ordinary laws of static equilibrium due to the gyrostatic
behaviour of the interior invisible flywheel when rotated rapidly. The first gyrostat was
designed by Lord Kelvin to illustrate the more complicated state of motion of a spinning body
when free to wander about on a horizontal plane, like a top spun on the pavement, or a hoop
or bicycle on the road.

MEMS
A MEMS gyroscope takes the idea of the Foucault pendulum and uses a vibrating element,
known as a MEMS (Micro Electro-Mechanical System). The MEMS-based gyro was initially
made practical and producible by Systron Donner Inertial (SDI). Today, SDI is a large
manufacturer of MEMS gyroscopes.

FOG
A fiber optic gyroscope (FOG) is a gyroscope that uses the interference of light to detect
mechanical rotation. The sensor is a coil of as much as 5 km of optical fiber. The
development of low loss single mode optical fiber in the early 1970s for the
telecommunications industry enabled the development of Sagnac effect fiber optic gyros.

VSG or CVG

A vibrating structure gyroscope (VSG), also called a coriolis vibratory gyroscope (CVG)
uses a resonator made of different metallic alloys. It takes a position between the low
accuracy, low cost MEMS gyroscope and the higher accuracy and higher cost fiber optic
gyroscope (FOG). Accuracy parameters are increased by using low intrinsic damping
materials, resonator vacuumization, and digital electronics to reduce temperature dependent
drift and instability of control signals.

High-Q Wine-Glass Resonators for precise sensors like HRG or CRG are based on Bryan's
"wave inertia effect". They are made from high-purity quartz glass or from single-crystalline
sapphire.

DTG
A dynamically tuned gyroscope (DTG) is a rotor suspended by a universal joint with flexure
pivots.[] The flexure spring stiffness is independent of spin rate. However, the dynamic
inertia (from the gyroscopic reaction effect) from the gimbal provides negative spring
stiffness proportional to the square of the spin speed (Howe and Savet, 1964; Lawrence,
1998). Therefore, at a particular speed, called the tuning speed, the two moments cancel each
other, freeing the rotor from torque, a necessary condition for an ideal gyroscope.
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The basic principles of air navigation are identical to general navigation, which includes the
process of planning, recording, and controlling the movement of a craft from one place to
another.[1]

Successful air navigation involves piloting an aircraft from place to place without getting lost,
breaking the laws applying to aircraft, or endangering the safety of those on board or on the
ground. Air navigation differs from the navigation of surface craft in several ways: Aircraft
travel at relatively high speeds, leaving less time to calculate their position en route. Aircraft
normally cannot stop in mid-air to ascertain their position at leisure. Aircraft are
safety-limited by the amount of fuel they can carry; a surface vehicle can usually get lost, run
out of fuel, then simply await rescue. There is no in-flight rescue for most aircraft. And
collisions with obstructions are usually fatal. Therefore, constant awareness of position is
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critical for aircraft pilots.

The techniques used for navigation in the air will depend on whether the aircraft is flying
under the visual flight rules (VFR) or the instrument flight rules (IFR). In the latter case, the
pilot will navigate exclusively using instruments and radio navigation aids such as beacons,
or as directed under radar control by air traffic control. In the VFR case, a pilot will largely
navigate using dead reckoning combined with visual observations (known as pilotage), with
reference to appropriate maps. This may be supplemented using radio navigation aids.

Contents
· 1 Route planning

· 1.1 IFR planning

· 2 In flight

· 3 Navigation aids

· 4 References

· 5 See also

· 6 External links

Route planning
The first step in navigation is deciding where one wishes to go. A private pilot planning a
flight under VFR will usually use an aeronautical chart of the area which is published
specifically for the use of pilots. This map will depict controlled airspace, radio navigation
aids and airfields prominently, as well as hazards to flying such as mountains, tall radio
masts, etc. It also includes sufficient ground detail - towns, roads, wooded areas - to aid visual
navigation. In the UK, the CAA publishes a series of maps covering the whole of the UK at
various scales, updated annually. The information is also updated in the notices to airmen, or
NOTAMs.

The pilot will choose a route, taking care to avoid controlled airspace that is not permitted for
the flight, restricted areas, danger areas and so on. The chosen route is plotted on the map,
and the lines drawn are called the track. The aim of all subsequent navigation is to follow the
chosen track as accurately as possible. Occasionally, the pilot may elect on one leg to follow a
clearly visible feature on the ground such as a railway track, river, highway, or coast.
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Adjustment of an aircraft's heading to compensate for wind flow perpendicular to the ground
track
When an aircraft is in flight, it is moving relative to the body of air through which it is flying;
therefore maintaining an accurate ground track is not as easy as it might appear, unless there
is no wind at all — a very rare occurrence. The pilot must adjust heading to compensate for
the wind, in order to follow the ground track. Initially the pilot will calculate headings to fly
for each leg of the trip prior to departure, using the forecast wind directions and speeds
supplied by the meteorological authorities for the purpose. These figures are generally
accurate and updated several times per day, but the unpredictable nature of the weather means
that the pilot must be prepared to make further adjustments in flight. A general aviation (GA)
pilot will often make use of either the E6B flight computer - a type of slide rule - or a
purpose-designed electronic navigational computer to calculate initial headings.

The primary instrument of navigation is the magnetic compass. The needle or card aligns
itself to magnetic north, which does not coincide with true north, so the pilot must also allow
for this, called the magnetic variation (or declination). The variation that applies locally is
also shown on the flight map. Once the pilot has calculated the actual headings required, the
next step is to calculate the flight times for each leg. This is necessary to perform accurate
dead reckoning. The pilot also needs to take into account the slower initial airspeed during
climb to calculate the time to top of climb. It is also helpful to calculate the top of descent, or
the point at which the pilot would plan to commence the descent for landing.

The flight time will depend on both the desired cruising speed of the aircraft, and the wind - a
tailwind will shorten flight times, a headwind will increase them. The E6B has scales to help
pilots compute these easily.

The point of no return, sometimes referred to as the PNR, is the point on a flight at which a
plane has just enough fuel, plus any mandatory reserve, to return to the airfield from which it
departed. Beyond this point that option is closed, and the plane must proceed to some other
destination. Alternatively, with respect to a large region without airfields, e.g. an ocean, it can
mean the point before which it is closer to turn around and after which it is closer to continue.
Similarly, the Equal time point, referred to as the ETP (also Critical point(CP)), is the point in
the flight where it would take the same time to continue flying straight, or track back to the
departure aerodrome. the ETP is not dependant on fuel, but wind, giving a change in ground
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speed out from, and back to the departure aerodrome. In Nil wind conditions, the ETP is
located halfway between the two aerodromes, but in reality it is shifted depending on the
windspeed and direction.

The aircraft that is flying across the Ocean for example, would be required to calculate ETPs
for one engine inoperative, depressurization, and a normal ETP; all of which could actually
be different points along the route. For example, in one engine inoperative and
depressurization situations the aircraft would be forced to lower operational altitudes, which
would affect its fuel consumption, cruise speed and ground speed. Each situation therefore
would have a different ETP.

Commercial aircraft are not allowed to operate along a route that is out of range of a suitable
place to land if an emergency such as an engine failure occurs. The ETP calculations serve as
a planning strategy, so flight crews always have an 'out' in an emergency event, allowing a
safe diversion to their chosen alternate.

The final stage is to note which areas the route will pass through or over, and to make a note
of all of the things to be done - which ATC units to contact, the appropriate frequencies,
visual reporting points, and so on. It is also important to note which pressure setting regions
will be entered, so that the pilot can ask for the QNH (air pressure) of those regions. Finally,
the pilot should have in mind some alternative plans in case the route cannot be flown for
some reason - unexpected weather conditions being the most common. At times the pilot may
be required to file a flight plan for an alternate destination and to carry adequate fuel for this.
The more work a pilot can do on the ground prior to departure, the easier it will be in the air.

IFR planning
In many respects this is similar to VFR flight planning except that the task is generally made
simpler by the use of special charts that show IFR routes from beacon to beacon with the
lowest safe altitude (LSALT), bearings (in both directions) and distance marked for each
route. IFR pilots may fly on other routes but they then have to do all of these calculations
themselves with the LSALT calculation being the most difficult. The pilot then needs to look
at the weather and minimum specifications for landing at the destination airport and the
alternate requirements. The pilot must also comply with all the rules including their legal
ability to use a particular instrument approach depending on how recently they last performed
one.

In recent years, strict beacon-to-beacon flight paths have started to be replaced by routes
derived through Performance Based Navigation (PBN) techniques. When operators are
developing flight plans for their aircraft, the PBN approach encourages them to assess the
overall accuracy, integrity, availability, continuity and functionality of the aggregate
navigation aids present within the applicable airspace. Once these determinations have been
made, the operator develops a route that is the most time and fuel efficient while respecting
all applicable safety concerns — thereby maximizing both the aircraft's and the airspace's
overall performance capabilities.

Under the PBN approach, technologies are able to evolve over time (ground beacons become
satellites become...) without requiring the underlying aircraft operation to be recalculated. As
well, navigation specifications used to assess the sensors and equipment that are available in
an airspace can be cataloged and shared to inform equipment upgrade decisions and the
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ongoing harmonization of the world's various air navigation systems.

In flight
Once in flight, the pilot must take pains to stick to plan, otherwise getting lost is all too easy.
This is especially true if flying in the dark or over featureless terrain. This means that the pilot
must stick to the calculated headings, heights and speeds as accurately as possible, unless
flying under visual flight rules. The visual pilot must regularly compare the ground with the
map, (pilotage) to ensure that the track is being followed although adjustments are generally
calculated and planned. Usually, the pilot will fly for some time as planned to a point where
features on the ground are easily recognised. If the wind is different from that expected, the
pilot must adjust heading accordingly, but this is not done by guesswork, but by mental
calculation - often using the 1 in 60 rule. For example a two degree error at the halfway stage
can be corrected by adjusting heading by four degrees the other way to arrive in position at
the end of the leg. This is also a point to reassess the estimated time for the leg. A good pilot
will become adept at applying a variety of techniques to stay on track.

While the compass is the primary instrument used to determine one's heading, pilots will
usually refer instead to the direction indicator (DI), a gyroscopically driven device which is
much more stable than a compass. The compass reading will be used to correct for any drift
(precession) of the DI periodically. The compass itself will only show a steady reading when
the aircraft has been in straight and level flight long enough to allow it to settle.

Should the pilot be unable to complete a leg - for example bad weather arises, or the visibility
falls below the minima permitted by the pilot's license, the pilot must divert to another route.
Since this is an unplanned leg, the pilot must be able to mentally calculate suitable headings
to give the desired new track. Using the E6B in flight is usually impractical, so mental
techniques to give rough and ready results are used. The wind is usually allowed for by
assuming that sine A = A, for angles less than 60° (when expressed in terms of a fraction of
60° - e.g. 30° is 1/2 of 60°, and sine 30° = 0.5), which is adequately accurate. A method for
computing this mentally is the clock code. However the pilot must be extra vigilant when
flying diversions to maintain awareness of position.

Some diversions can be temporary - for example to skirt around a local storm cloud. In such
cases, the pilot can turn 60 degrees away his desired heading for a given period of time. Once
clear of the storm, he can then turn back in the opposite direction 120 degrees, and fly this
heading for the same length of time. This is a 'wind-star' maneuver and, with no winds aloft,
will place him back on his original track with his trip time increased by the length of one
diversion leg.

Navigation aids
Main article: Radio navigation
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Good pilots use all means available to help navigate. Many GA aircraft are fitted with a
variety of navigation aids, such as Automatic direction finder (ADF), inertial navigation,
compasses, radar navigation, VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) and GNSS.

ADF uses non-directional beacons (NDBs) on the ground to drive a display which shows
the direction of the beacon from the aircraft. The pilot may use this bearing to draw a line on
the map to show the bearing from the beacon. By using a second beacon, two lines may be
drawn to locate the aircraft at the intersection of the lines. This is called a cross-cut.
Alternatively, if the track takes the flight directly overhead a beacon, the pilot can use the
ADF instrument to maintain heading relative to the beacon, though "following the needle" is
bad practice, especially in the presence of a strong cross wind - the pilot's actual track will
spiral in towards the beacon, not what was intended. NDBs also can give erroneous readings
because they use very long wavelengths, which are easily bent and reflected by ground
features and the atmosphere. NDBs continue to be used as a common form of navigation in
some countries with relatively few navigational aids.

VOR is a more sophisticated system, and is still the primary air navigation system established
for aircraft flying under IFR in those countries with many navigational aids. In this system, a
beacon emits a specially modulated signal which consists of two sine waves which are out of
phase. The phase difference corresponds to the actual bearing relative to true north that the
receiver is from the station. The upshot is that the receiver can determine with certainty the
exact bearing from the station. Again, a cross-cut is used to pinpoint the location. Many VOR
stations also have additional equipment called DME (distance measuring equipment) which
will allow a suitable receiver to determine the exact distance from the station. Together with
the bearing, this allows an exact position to be determined from a single beacon alone. For
convenience, some VOR stations also transmit local weather information which the pilot can
listen in to, perhaps generated by an Automated Surface Observing System.

Prior to the advent of GNSS, Celestial Navigation was also used by trained navigators on
military bombers and transport aircraft in the event of all electronic navigational aids being
turned off in time of war. Originally navigators used an astrodome and regular sextant but the
more streamlined periscopic sextant was used from the 1940s to the 1990s. From the 1970s
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airliners used inertial navigation systems, especially on inter-continental routes, until the
shooting down of Korean Air Lines Flight 007 in 1983 prompted the US government to make
GPS available for civilian use.

Finally, an aircraft may be supervised from the ground using surveillance information from
e.g. radar or multilateration. ATC can then feed back information to the pilot to help establish
position, or can actually tell the pilot the position of the aircraft, depending on the level of
ATC service the pilot is receiving.

The use of GNSS in aircraft is becoming increasingly common. GNSS provides very precise
aircraft position, altitude, heading and ground speed information. GNSS makes navigation
precision once reserved to large RNAV-equipped aircraft available to the GA pilot. Recently,
more and more airports include GNSS instrument approaches. GNSS approaches consist of
either overlays to existing non-precision approaches or stand-alone GNSS non-precision
approaches.

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