Chapter 2 – Cell structure and cell organization

2.1 Cell Structure and Function

1. The cell is the basic unit of all organisms. It is made up of a cell membrane that encloses the
cytoplasm.
2. Contained within the cytoplasm are not only the nucleus but also organelles, whose specific
functions help the cell perform a range of activities.
3. While plant and animal cells are similar, the plant cell has, in addition to the cell membrane,
another boundary that separates it from its external environment. This is called the cell wall.
4. As most plant cells carry out photosynthesis - the synthesis of organic substances - they
contain chloroplasts.
5. In plant cells, vacuoles also tend to be larger in size and smaller in number than those found in
animal cells.

The double line Onion Skin Cell

shows the
structure of cell
Chromatin that
are condensed
The inner line and appearing
next to as
cytoplasm chromosomes
which are
The little round getting ready
structure shows for cell division
the nucleus.

Notes: when you draw the onion epidermal cells, remember to draw double line layer to show the cell
wall. When you label the cell membrane, you should point to inner line which is next to the
cytoplasm. The vacuole is not clearly seen in the above picture. The onion epidermal cells are
normally stained with iodine. The iodine turns the starch into blue black colour.

Cheek Squamous Epithelial Cells

Magnified view (400x). The
cells are stained with
methylene blue. The
nucleus and cell
membrane are clearly
visible. These cells has
irregular shape, unlike the
rectangular onion cells.

Cellular components of animal and plant cells (you may also refer to the
photocopied pocket note No.1)

Cellular Structure / characteristics Function

component
Cell - Made of proteins and - Encloses cell contents
membrane phospholipids - Separates content of cell from
- Semi-permeable outside environment

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Chapter 2 – Cell structure and cell organization

- Regulates movements of
substances into and out of
cytoplasm
Cell wall - Composed of cellulose - Provides shape and mechanical
- Has tiny pores that are support to plant cells
permeable to all fluids - Protects plant cells from rupturing
(bursting) due to excess water
intake
Cytoplasm - Jelly-like matrix - Place where organelles of cell are
- Contains organic and suspended
inorganic substances - Medium for biochemical reactions
Nucleus - Spherical - Controls all activities in cell
- Contains chromatins that
carries genetic information
Vacuole - Fluid-filled sac surrounded - Act as storage place in cell
by tonoplast - In microorganisms have
- Contains cell sap contractile vacuoles (regulate
water balance) & food vacuoles
(food storage)
- Supports herbaceous plants
Mitochondria - Spherical / cylindrical- - Site for cellular respiration
shaped - Generates energy in form of ATP
Ribosomes - Spherical organelles on RER - Synthesis proteins
surface
- Consists of 2 sub-units
- Comprises a type of RNA &
protein
Rough - A network of folded - Transport proteins made by
endoplasmic membrane ribosomes via transport vesicles
reticulum - Has ribosomes on surface to Golgi apparatus / other parts in
cell
Smooth - A network of folded - Site for metabolic reactions
endoplasmic membrane forming (synthesis of lipids, detoxifications
reticulum interconnected of drugs or poisons)
tubules/sacs
- Does not has ribosomes on
surface
Golgi - A stack of flatten - Process / modify, packaging and
apparatus membranous sacs transporting proteins from RER via
secretory vesicle
Lysosomes - Membrane-bound sacs - Digest/break down complex
- Contains hydrolytic organic molecules (proteins,
enzymes lipids, polysaccharides, nucleic
acid)
- Digest bacteria
Centrioles - Small cylindrical structures - Form spindle fibres during cell
- Composed of complex division in animal cells
arrangement of
microtubules
Chloroplasts - Lens-shape - Chlorophyll traps sunlight, convert
- Contains chlorophyll light energy to chemical energy
during photosynthesis

2.2 Cell Organisation

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Chapter 2 – Cell structure and cell organization

Living processes in unicellular organisms (Amoeba sp.)

Living process Explanations

Movement/locomot Moves by extending pseudopodia
ion
Response to Change shapes when meets obstacles
stimuli Retreat when meets acidic condition / bright light
Feeding Holozoic organism: feeds on microorganisms such as bacteria
By phagocytosis: extends pseudopodia to engulf food particles.
Food particles enclosed in food vacuole. Food vacuole fuses with
lysosome. Food is digested by hydrolytic enzyme (lysozyme) and
nutrients absorbed into cytoplasm.
Exchange of gases, By diffusion: amoeba lives in freshwater. Water diffuses into cell by
nutrients and osmosis, filling the contractile vacuole. Contractile vacuole is
waste substances important for osmoregulation. It contracts to expel contents from
time to time when the vacuole is filled to maximum size.
Reproduction By binary fission when environment is favourable.
By forming spores when environment is not conducive/not
favourable for reproduction.

Cell specialisation in multicellular organisms

A Zygote is the result of fertilization between a

zygote male gamete & a female gamete. The zygote
starts to divide into 2 identical cells, then 4, 8,
2 cells 16 … until it forms an embryo which later
undergoes cell specialisation to form different
type of cells. These different type of cells carry
4 cells
out specific functions.

8 cells Specialisation enable the cells in multicellular

organisms to perform more efficiently.

A ball of cells
(embryo)
Cell specialisation /
differentiation
White blood Nerve cells Red blood cells
cells

Cell Organisation in Animals

1. Tissues – made up of a group of similar cells that
2. Four main types of tissues:
a Epithelial Consist of one or more layers
) tissues of cells.
Can be found as a continuous
layer over body surfaces
(skin) or inner linings of
cavities (digestive tracts,
lungs, blood capillaries)
b Muscle Most abundant tissue in the
) tissues body.
Made up of muscle fibres.
carry out a specific function.
- Protective barrier against
infections, mechanical
injuries, dehydration
- Form mucus-secreting goblet
cells which secretes mucus
into digestive tract.
- Form elongated cells with
cilia (in trachea)
- Act to absorb food and water
by diffusion
Contraction and relaxation of
smooth muscles are involuntary
(i.e. for peristalsis). Smooth

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Chapter 2 – Cell structure and cell organization

Smooth muscles (found in muscles contract slowly and

intestines, blood vessels,
urinary & reproductive
tracts)
Cardiac muscles (found in
the walls of the heart)
Skeletal muscles (found in
arms, legs, abdomen)
c Nerve Made up of neurones / nerve
) tissues cells.
3 types: sensory neurones
(afferent neurone),
interneurone, motor
neurones (efferent neurone).
d Connective a) loose connective
) tissues tissues
b) dense connective
tissues
-contains collagenous
fibres which packed
closely together
c) Bone
d) Blood cells
e) Adipose tissue
remained contracted for longer
period. Cardiac muscles contract
& relax involuntary (pumping
the heart). Skeletal muscles
contract & relax to move the
body (voluntary action)
Each neurone consists of a cell
body and nerve fibres called
dendrites & axons.
Neurones detect stimuli,
transmit electrical signals (nerve
impulses) to control &
coordinate activities of the body.
Most widespread in the body.
Binding epithelia to underlying
tissues & holds organs in place.
Tendons – connect muscles to
bones
Ligaments – connect bone to
bone at the joints
Cartilage – strong and flexible
connective tissue. Provide
support to nose, ear, covers the
ends of bones. Also can be found
in between the vertebrae (back
bone) which act as cushions to
absorb pressure and shock.
Provides protection to organs &
support the body
Blood has regulating,
transporting and protective
function.
Stores fats (energy reserve,
provide insulation & protection).
Found in the dermis of skin or
around major organs.

3. Organs
a) Examples of organs in animals: heart, skin, stomach, kidneys, lungs, etc.
b) An organ is made up of two or more types of tissues that work together to
perform a function.
c) Example: Heart – made up of epithelial tissue, muscle tissue (cardiac muscles),
nerve tissues, connective tissues which all work together to carry out a specific
function that is to pump blood to all parts of the body.

4. Systems
a) Several organs work together to perform a specific function.
b) 11 major systems in human body. (refer textbook page 29)

Cell organisation in plants (refer photocopied pocket notes No.3 & textbook Page.30
& 31)

Cells Epidermal cells, guard cells, mesophyl palisade, spongy mesophyl cells etc.

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Chapter 2 – Cell structure and cell organization

Tissues Meristematic tissues (apical & lateral meristems); epidermal tissues; vascular
tissues (xylems & phloems); ground tissues (parenchyma, collenchyma,
sclerenchyma)
Organs Leaves, stems, roots, flower
Systems Root system (all roots); shoot system (stems, leaves, buds, flowers, fruits);
support system (stems & branches)

Regulating the internal environment

1. Internal environment – Consists of interstitial fluid & blood plasma.

2. Interstitial fluid – Fluid that fills the spaces between the cells and constantly
bathes the cells. It exchanges nutrients and waste substances with blood plasma
in the blood capillaries.

Necessity for maintaining an optimal internal environment

1. Physical factors : temperature, blood pressure, osmotic pressure

2. Chemical factors: salt content, sugar content, pH value
3. Homeostasis: The maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment so
that cells can function optimally.
4. Homeostatic mechanism:

Notes:
Negative feedback mechanism is the
mechanism that governs the
homeostasis.
Any increase / decrease in the value of a
physical / chemical factor will trigger the
homeostatic mechanism to bring it back

The involvement of various systems in maintaining an optimal internal environment

1. Regulation of body temperature:
a) Involves integumentary system, nervous system, circulatory system, muscular
system, endocrine system

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Chapter 2 – Cell structure and cell organization

raise
d

lowere
d

Notes: vasoconstriction – blood capillaries contract to restrict blood flow hence reduce
heat loss.
Vasodilation – blood capillaries dilate and allow more blood to flow near surface
of body to increase
heat loss to external environment.
2. Regulation of concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide in bloodstream.
a) Respiratory system: breathe in (inhale) oxygen that is needed by the body and
breathe out (exhale) carbon dioxide that is excreted from the body.
b) Circulatory system: transport oxygen from lungs to body cells. Carbon dioxide
is removed from body cells to bloodstreams and transported back to lungs.
c) Nervous system: detects the changes of concentration of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the blood during vigorous physical activities. As a result, the
breathing and pulse rates are increased to bring in more oxygen and excrete
carbon dioxide at a faster rate.

3. Regulation of blood glucose level:

a) Involves endocrine system, circulatory system, digestive system.

4. Regulation
of blood
osmotic pressure (amount of water and dissolved substances in body fluids)

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Chapter 2 – Cell structure and cell organization

a) Nervous system: detects any changes in osmotic pressure (i.e. too much / little
water or too much/little content of dissolved mineral salts)
b) Endocrine system: secretes required hormones (to command the body to
absorb / excrete more water / mineral salts)
c) Excretory system: excretes excess water / mineral salts (through urination /
sweating / faeces etc)
d) Circulatory system: transport hormones to kidneys

5. Regulation of chemical contents (such as waste products of metabolism – i.e.

urea)
a) Involves excretory system, circulatory system, nervous system, endocrine
system.

6. Regulation of pH level (by controlling concentrations of H+, OH-, HCO3-):

a) Involves respiratory system, circulatory system, excretory system.