UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY

Subtle Energy: Healing and Transformation

by

Giuseppe Rosato

A THESIS

SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS

INTERDISCIPLINARY GRADUATE PROGRAM

CALGARY, ALBERTA

JULY, 2010

© Giuseppe Rosato 2010

 Abstract

The purpose of this hermeneutic phenomenological study was to make intelligible

order out of the whole phenomenon of subtle body energy in relation to healing and

transformation in the present day meaning of health, psychology and spirituality. This

was done by drawing on meditational, transpersonal and health science literature.

Health science literature on the application of specific yogic subtle body

modalities supports the initial notion that these are non-invasive, safe and effective.

However, this study argues for a further implementation of research on the transpersonal

multidimensionality of individuals, as this could produce effective application of

alternative subtle energy modalities.

My final overall conclusion, based on the interpretative phenomenological

analysis of the interdisciplinary literature and experiential data, is that the theory of subtle

energy in healing is quite likely to be more than mere speculation.

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 Acknowledgements

I would like to express the deepest appreciation to my supervisor, Dr. A. W.

Barber, who has continually and convincingly conveyed a spirit of adventure and

encouragement from the very early stage of the thesis. Without his guidance and

persistent help this thesis would not have been possible.

I would like to thank my committee members, Dr. Nancy Dudley and Professor

Darcy McGehee for their encouragement, guidance and support from the initial to the

final writing of my thesis. Their talent and originality triggered and nourished my

intellectual maturity.

I am much indebted to Dr. Thomas Mouat for supporting me in fine tuning the

thesis, and using his precious time to provide his valuable and critical comments about it.

Words fail me to express my appreciation to my loving life long friend and

partner Sunitha who shares a passion for yoga and ―point of awareness‖ with me. I am

grateful for her love, patience, and persistent confidence in me.

A special thank you to Vladimir, my yoga teacher, who more than other yoga

teachers gave me a strong foundation in understanding and mastering yogasanas and kept

the flame of yoga alive; to Sonia, my Reiki teacher, who introduced me to the healing art

of subtle energy; to Swami Shyam Lal, who with his siddhi powers helped me focus on

various chakras causing an activation of that specific energy; and, finally, to Sujata and

Captain Menon for their keen interest in the subject of my thesis and their inspiring

mantras towards the success of the project.

Finally, I prostrate myself at the feet of ―my‖ Guru Ji.

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 Dedication

This thesis is dedicated to my father, who taught me that knowledge has no value

unless it was put into practice. It is also dedicated to my mother, who taught me the value

of perseverance and patience. Finally, I dedicate my hard work to Lakshmi and Daisy

who bestowed me with oodles of love and care that I will treasure forever.

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 Table of Contents

Abstract ............................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iii
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iv
Table of Contents .................................................................................................................v
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii
Epigraph ............................................................................................................................. ix

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................1

Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................2
Personal Framework ................................................................................................6
Purpose and Rationale............................................................................................12
Potential Significance ............................................................................................14
Thesis Overview ....................................................................................................14
Methodological Background ..................................................................................15
The methodological rationale behind the study. ...........................................15
Phenomenology and hermeneutics. ..............................................................18
Applying hermeneutic phenomenology. .......................................................23
Philosophical Background .....................................................................................26
Historical Background: Indic Meditational Literature on Subtle Body System ....31
Hindu tantric literature. .................................................................................32
Hindu non-tantric literature...........................................................................34
Buddhist tantric literature. ............................................................................36
Background and Definitions Related to the Subtle Body System .........................38
Background of Transpersonal Psychology and Integral Theories .........................45
Definitions of transpersonal psychology. .....................................................47
Therapeutic framework of transpersonal psychology. ..................................48

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ....................................................................52

Introduction ............................................................................................................52
Yoga as a way of personal development.......................................................53
Kundalini yoga as a new opportunity. ..........................................................59
New understanding of human evolution. ......................................................60
Personal development and spiritual growth. .................................................61
Subtle body system. ......................................................................................67
Main structure.....................................................................................67
Healing and transformation. ...............................................................68
Ontological and phenomenological meanings. ..................................69
Therapeutic benefits. ..........................................................................71
Measurement of yoga practices. ...................................................................72
Conclusion .............................................................................................................73
Integral Framework ................................................................................................74
Subtle energy-consciousness. .......................................................................74
Conundrum of consciousness. ......................................................................76
Spectrum of consciousness. ..........................................................................80

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 Pinnacle of consciousness: Transcendence. ..................................................82
Overview ................................................................................................................83
Integral development model of growth: Chakras & psychological stages. ..86
Body-mind and spiritual awareness. .............................................................88
Creativity and transcendent consciousness. .......................................88
Body-mind relationship. .....................................................................93
Summary and Conclusion. .....................................................................................95

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ..............................................................97

Descriptive Phenomenological Analysis of Literature ..........................................98
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis of Experiential Literature.................100
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis of the Overall Study.........................101

CHAPTER 4: EXAMINATION OF MEDITATIONAL LITERATURE......................103

Examination of Ancient Meditational Literature .................................................103
Hindu tantric literature. ...............................................................................103
Hindu non-tantric literature.........................................................................105
Buddhist tantric literature. ..........................................................................110
A Comparative Study of the Main ‗Subtle Body Systems‘ .................................116
Two main chakras models. .........................................................................117
The main nadis system................................................................................118
The life-force-energy and its mechanics. ....................................................120
Yogic subtle body practice and its purpose. ...............................................120
Interpretation of the subtle body system. ....................................................124
Summary of comparative findings. .............................................................126
Some conclusions to the preliminary section..............................................129

CHAPTER 5: A BROAD STUDY OF ‘ENERGY-HEALING-THEORY’ ...................131

Consciousness: A Theoretical Study ...................................................................131
Conundrum of defining and sorting out consciousness. .............................132
Theoretical systems. ....................................................................................133
Western scientific-materialistic group. .............................................133
Towards integral vision. ...................................................................135
East-West integral movement. .........................................................139
Tripartite system of consciousness: Body-mind and spirit integration. ......141
Spectrum of consciousness. ........................................................................145
A brief summary of consciousness theories................................................146
Conclusion. ..........................................................................................................147
Integral Framework ..............................................................................................149
Basis for integral psycho-therapeutics. .......................................................149
Integrating yoga and psychotherapy. ..........................................................150
Integrating yoga and western medicine. .....................................................151
The raison d‘être of integral practice. .........................................................152
Chakras as psychotherapeutic development models. .................................153
Characterization of the development stages. ..............................................154
Energy-Healing Theory: A Study ........................................................................157
Examination of yoga based modalities. ......................................................158

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 Measurement of psychosomatic health benefits. ...............................158
Neuro measurement of altered state of consciousness. ......................162
Summary/overview. ....................................................................................164
The work of energy as a basis in yoga practice. .........................................166
Relationship between health and spirituality in yoga. ................................167
A case study of mantra application. ...........................................................170
Energy activation through mantra. ...................................................171
Possible implication of mantra modality. ........................................174
Applying sonic entrainment. ............................................................175
Discussion and Conclusion ..................................................................................177
Self-experiential Study on Subtle Body Patterns .................................................180
An integral creative approach to energy activation. ...................................180
Tantra and artistic inquiry: Integral approaches. ........................................184
Summary and preamble. .............................................................................189
Identify the main constituents of this self-experiential study. ....................191
Self-experiential laboratory. .............................................................191
Participant: Myself. ..........................................................................195
Chakras as an integral developmental model...................................197
Journaling. ........................................................................................203
Methodology. ...................................................................................203
Main direction and purposes of self-experiential study. .............................204
Report of journal and chakra analysis. .......................................................204
Discussion of findings and conclusion. ...............................................................215

CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ......................................................222

Ontological Meaning of the Subtle Body System................................................222
Consciousness and Energy Interrelations ............................................................226
Overview. .............................................................................................................228
Conundrum of Sorting Out Consciousness. .........................................................229
Chakra System: An Integral Psychotherapeutic Development Model. ...............230
Implication of Yoga and Mantra Modalities .......................................................232
Intepretative Phenomenological Analysis of the Subtle Energy Phenomenon ....234
Conclusion to the Methodology ...........................................................................237
Overall Conclusion ..............................................................................................240
Disclaimer ............................................................................................................241

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................243

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 List of Tables

Table A: Hindu Chakra Model ...................................................................................... 109

Table B: The Hevajra Tantra Chakra Model ................................................................. 112

Table C - The Inner Kalachakratantra Chakra Model .................................................... 112

Table D - Kalacakratantra Chakra Model ...................................................................... 116

Table E - Hindu and Buddhist Anatomy of Channels .................................................... 119

Table F - Vedic and Buddhist Structure of Mind-Consciousness................................... 143

Table G - Yoga‘s Therapeutic Paradigm ........................................................................ 168

Table H - Chakras‘ Psychological Energies/Emotions and Tasks ................................. 201

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 Epigraph

―There are numberless energy rays in the Universe…All rays…come from the

subtle nature of the Universe…The interwoven energy net influences the

lives of individual human beings, whole societies and entire races…A virtuous

individual who responds to the high, pure, harmonious Subtle Energy rays

and integrates them with the positive elements of his own inner being may

strengthen his life, enhance his health and power and lengthen his years‖

Lao Tzu (500 B.C., 1979)

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 1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

This thesis is about the subtle energy phenomenon that positively affected my

psychosomatic system, resolving physical health issues and enhancing my sense of

psychological well-being and spiritual perception. When I use the words health, healing

and transformation, I am talking about the holistic welfare of the individual, which

includes physical and psychosomatic health and well-being, as well as the expansion of

consciousness and spiritual evolution. In my experience, confirmed by the main classic

literature on subtle energy phenomenon, wellness does not simply occur on its own

accord; rather, a systematic self-awareness and spiritual discipline is needed so that this

subtle energy can be purposefully activated and directed. One of the few systems of self-

awareness and spiritual discipline that affirms entirely the prescribed phenomenon and its

mode of operation is Tantric yoga, which in the West is more commonly known as

Kundalini yoga. In this thesis, by focusing through the lens of Kundalini yoga and other

Indic spiritual traditions such as Hinduism and Buddhism, that were directly influenced

by the tantra body of knowledge, I endeavour to understand the fundamental theoretical

and practical principles that govern the subtle energy phenomenon. My aim is to broaden

my potential for personal and professional development, while enhancing my spiritual

growth.

I am physically and psychologically involved with the phenomenon; because, in

practical terms, I directly experience its therapeutic work. In addition, I am also involved

with it at the intuitive and conscious levels; because I feel driven by unfathomable forces

to investigate academically the prescribed phenomenon in the context of ancient Indic

traditions and Western modes and principles of artistic inquiry, in a present-day integral
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meaning. In a very broad sense, this research is not only meant to resolve issues of

personal development and spiritual purpose in my life; but also to contribute, albeit little,

to the huge effort that scholars and professionals around the world are making to

understand this putative energy phenomenon and its governing system. My thesis is

inspired by the great spiritual traditions of the East, particularly tantric yoga; new

emerging integral science of the West, particularly transpersonal psychology; and the

inspiring modes and principles of artistic inquiry.

Theoretical Framework

Many Eastern spiritual traditions hold that that the prime element permeating all

living beings is vital energy. Vital energy is also referred to as vital breath, life-force,

life-energy and subtle energy in Western culture, and as chi in China, ki in Japan, and

prana in Sanskrit. Vital energy is one of the underlying theoretical and practical

principles that many Eastern spiritual and therapeutic traditions share. In simplistic terms,

vital energy can be understood as energy that is important for sustaining life. Also,

another prime principle of the Eastern philosophies is that subtle energy responds to

human awareness or consciousness. Moreover, these Eastern traditions share the common

belief that this vital energy can be channelled along a complex energetic body positioned

within and without the human anatomical structure. This complex energetic body system

is also referred to as the subtle body system or anatomy.

Although many Eastern traditions incorporate the concept of vital energy, all

research requires some degree of focus. Therefore, notwithstanding the fact that China

has produced a rich systemic knowledge and literature (e.g., for example, the spiritual

tradition of Taoism with its traditional materia medica of Acupuncture) that directly
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works with the ‗subtle energy‘ (chi) and ‗subtle body anatomy‘ (meridians); and,

however interesting and fruitful the contribution of Chinese thought would be to this

thesis, my research tackles the prescribed topic by focusing on another important Eastern

geographical area: the Indian subcontinent.

Early on in my research, for reasons which will be made clear in the section that

elucidates my personal framework, I proposed to concentrate solely on the spiritual and

practical discipline of Kundalini yoga--the specific yoga that deals with the phenomenon

of subtle energy and its subtle body system. However, the importance of including

mainstream Indian spiritual traditions, namely Hindu and Buddhist, which have been

influenced by the practical disciplines of tantrism and yoga, became clear after a

scrupulous examination of the issues with my academic supervisor, Dr. A. W. Barber. As

I discovered, an examination of the literature of these traditions allows the research to

have a multidisciplinary framework, which is a fundamental aspect of the research. It also

allows more exact, accurate data to be obtained. This breadth increases accuracy because

the intermingling of the mainstream spiritual traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism with

tantric yoga movements, and the commingling of them all, otherwise makes

distinguishing where one thought or practices ends and the next begins extremely

difficult. However, with regards to the topic of study, the specific literature that deals

with the phenomenon of subtle energy and its sustaining subtle body system is the Tantra.

The word Tantra applies to any of the Indic spiritual scriptures that are commonly

identified with the worship of Shakti (Brahmacharini, 1990, p. 77). Feuerstein (2003)

defines ―Shakti (―power‖)‖ as ―The dynamic or creative principle of existence‖ (p. 269),

which, in conjunction with prana or kundalini, comes to represent a creative force found
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in life-energy (prana/kundalini-shakti), which is essential to healing and transformation.

A review of the Tantra literature permits an interdisciplinary perspective on how subtle

energy operates, for example, in relation to healing and transformation, within the Indic

spiritual and meditational context. This is a necessary prelude to contextualizing the

researched topic within a present-day meaning.

Parenthetically, according to the Indic meditational traditions, the subtle body

anatomy comprises chakras, which are ―the psychoenergetic vortices from the major

‗organs‘ of the body composed of life energy (prana)‖ (Feuerstein, 1997, pp. 67-69) and

nadis, which are ―the flow of the psychosomatic energy‖ (Feuerstein, 2003, pp. 193-194)

and/or ―the networks of subtle energy channels that sustain the physical body‖

(Feuerstein, 1997, p. 194). Therefore, I will interchangeably use the word prana with

vital energy, life-energy or subtle energy; and, I will use the terms subtle body system,

chakras system or pranic body/anatomy interchangeably, when I refer to the subtle

energy body/anatomy.

The Indic meditational traditions broadly assert that subtle energy manifests

within and without the subtle body system or anatomy, both in gross and subtle forms.

For example, it manifests as oxygen, which is a less subtle aspect of vital energy; and it

manifests as a subtle energy or prana that permits healing and transformation. Of course,

a variety of Indic traditions presupposes diversity of interpretation. Nevertheless, I

believe that by focusing on the intersecting commonalities, clarity can be achieved. For

example, anticipating some of the findings illustrated in chapter 4, these traditions share

many systemic concepts of particular interest for this study. This occurs with the notion

of subtle energy or prana, the subtle body system or chakras and nadis, and their modus
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operandi; and, most notably, in their common quest for transformation and evolution of

consciousness and spiritual enlightenment or samadhi (in skt.). Samadhi can be defined

as ―liberation‖ from bondage (Bhattacharyya, 1986, p. 174), thus, in ultimate analysis is

―the prevailing of a person‘s true nature, and the overcoming of limitations and suffering‖

(Fields, 2001, p. 6). These traditions unanimously affirm that a prerequisite for the

obtainment of samadhi is the strict observation of a practice of realization or ―spiritual

practice‖ (Flood, 1996, pp. 92, 156, 160, 167) or sadhana (in skt.). Specifically, what

these traditions describe in their literature is the prime notion that subtle energy is an

essential and common life-force, which one needs to bring to a focus in the practice of

self-realization or sadhana. In other words, life-energy is not only accepted and

understood through philosophical and theological constructs, but also through direct

experience obtained through the employment of a subtle practice taught in all the Indic

spiritual traditions. Moreover, many of the tantric techniques are used as remedies in

Indic whole medical systems such as Ayurveda. In this regard, Wallace (2001) points out

that ―the early Buddhist materia medica was also similar to that of the Ayurveda‖ (p. 49).

Healing is another aspect that is directly related to subtle energy and the yoga that

governs it. Healing, in its holistic definition, is very much a tantric way of seeing: Tantric

teaching admits that we need ―a sound mind in a sound body,‖ (Fields, 2001, p. 6) with

the aim of ―recovering the wholeness‖ ( p. 6). This perspective includes an evolutionary

spiritual path, leading to transformative consciousness. Fields (2001) further explains

that, although ―recovering the wholeness‖ (p. 6) or samadhi is the ultimate goal of yoga,

nonetheless, a practice of realization (or sadhana) is required to recover such wholeness;

and the practice always deals with the spectrum of an individual‘s development, ranging
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from physical to emotional and from mental to spiritual, which is ultimately necessary in

order to achieve healing in the holistic sense, including transformation of consciousness.

Also implicit in the tantric traditions is the concept that imbalance in and

stagnation of the flow of vital energy or prana, within and without the gross (e.g., vital

organs) and subtle body anatomy, results in illness and lack of well-being. Therefore,

health and well-being are achieved by restoring the balance and the flow of subtle energy.

However, the Indic spiritual traditions argue that health and well-being are only the

preliminary and necessary stage for a third stage associated with healing that involves

consciousness development and spiritual transformation.

Personal Framework

The phenomenon of the subtle body system, which I scrutinize in this research, is

of great personal interest. I have, since I was very young, felt an existential need to make

sense of my life outside the realm of materialism. When I speak of materialism, I mean

both a view of life as being governed by the pursuit of capital for consumerist power and

a vision of reality confined to logical sensory perceptions. I seek to surpass materialism;

because, in the past, the feelings that had been most constant in my life-pattern were

characterized by an intuitive awareness that something was missing in my life and a

subconscious sense that the absence was causing a deep feeling of being disjointed. At

that time I was not equipped to comprehend the possible reasons for such feelings and I

was not ready to explore in-depth the possibility of extension beyond the parameters of

logical thought. This disjointed condition aggravated my moods, which were

characterized, at best, by a temporary frustration, sensed as a painful isolation from my

surroundings, an incapacity to relate to others (e.g., family and friends), and a lack of
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personal fulfilment, and, at worst, by a depressive psychological state, full of negative

thought patterns.

Despite my lack of professional training in psychology, I had learned to associate

these moods with neurotic futures. Nonetheless, I have so far experienced a fairly normal

life, with many personal and professional accomplishments. As a matter of fact, neurosis

seems to be a very general kind of mental disorder. A quick Google search on the

meaning of neurosis yields comforting results. For example, Dorland‘s medical

dictionary defines neurosis as:

Former name for a category of mental disorders characterized by anxiety and

avoidance behavior. In general, the term has been used to refer to disorders in

which the symptoms are distressing to the person, but reality testing does not

yield unusual results, behavior is not outside the socially acceptable, and there is

no apparent physical condition to cause it. Disorders that used to be called

neuroses are now classified as anxiety disorders, dissociative disorders, mood

disorders, sexual disorders, and somatoform disorders. (Dorland, 2007)

This initial explanation for my interest in this field is important to my thesis,

because it links my research and earlier intuition of what Jung (1990) considers the

importance of energising with spiritual forces. I also believe that it was this visceral quest

that led me to future life-events characterised by an ever increasing inner awareness. In

my case, such enlightenment as I have gained has been achieved through exploration of

the Eastern spiritual discipline, yoga.

Today, yoga accounts for many authoritative schools and manuals, which are the

collected knowledge of a written and oral collection of ancestral, ―scientific‖ knowledge.

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I learnt to understand that each of these schools is like an appendage to something larger

or more important. However, this something can somehow still perform a primary

function with or without this appendage. My first experience with this discipline was in

Hatha yoga. Generally, in the Western context, Hatha yoga is related with a form of yoga

mistakenly taken to be the simple practice of asanas (physical postures), pranayama

(breathing techniques) and mind concentration techniques. Moreover, based on my

experience during the first five years of practice in England, where I had enrolled in

many Hatha yoga courses, a typical class of 1 to 1.5 hour duration, only 5 to 10 minutes

was dedicated to pranayamas and meditation. Thus, yoga is generally thought in the

West to be mere physical gymnastics of the body. Fortunately, some of my teachers were

genuine about the discipline, and I benefited immensely from the repetitive and strenuous

physical exercise and the communication of theoretical knowledge. I became more aware

of my body and mind in those years of practice. I also noticed that my mental

concentration skills were enormously enhanced, which is a prerequisite for body control

and physically demanding postures. Moreover, to achieve certain advances in performing

the postures, I had to train mentally to manage pain, to make use of proper breathing

techniques, and to enhance endurance in holding these postures. Another element that is

proper to yoga postures and its relation to mind is the initiation to cumbersome postures,

which I felt not only enabled my body to be more flexible but also made my mind more

receptive to difficult situations, in other words, more elastic and receptive. However,

eager to know more, after a few years I began a self-practice using readily available

manuals that contained mostly practical explanations about how to perform exercises, but

very little detail about yoga theory. After almost ten years of ups and downs in the
 9

practice, I committed myself to training that prepared me to teach professionally and that

taught more advanced techniques, specifically in breathing and meditation. During the

years 1998 to 2001, I began an intense training schedule. I progressed to creatively

exploring with pranayamas, kriyas, meditation and other subtle body practices, which

gradually revealed to me insights into the complex relation between the body, mind and

breath. During these years I noticed slow but steadily advancing result from this

continuous exploration of the various aspects of the complex yogic discipline: my

lifestyle changes were leading me to increasing physiological harmony; my mental poise

was improving; and my mental outlook was more positive. Usually, after a yogic

practice, I felt more graceful, rejuvenated, grounded, relaxed, balanced and clear-minded.

The benefits increased after longer periods of subtle body practice and diminished when I

stopped or reduced the practice. However, until 2004, I had not truly glimpsed the power

of subtle energy and its connection with the subtle body system of the chakras. In 2004, I

was experiencing a period in my life that I would describe, in a non-medical term, as a

‗mental breakdown‘, due to emotional imbalances. (I will omit the personal details as I

believe they are not germane to this thesis). A series of critical events during this period

weakened my immune system and psychological equilibrium, manifesting in disorders.

For example, I experienced upper gastrointestinal bleeding (i.e., acute ulcer), skin rash,

panic attacks, anxiety, low self-esteem and so forth. Moreover, during this crisis, I

decreased my yoga practice and teaching significantly. Phenomenally, I was introduced

to a local healer, a combination of Reiki master, chakra healer and medium (at time I was

living in Cuba), who introduced me to the concept of subtle energy and chakras in a

practical way. She systematically instructed me in various techniques for becoming aware
 10

of the subtle energy present within and without my body; and, most important, she

trained me to channel subtle energy to the various chakras centres. As part of my

training, I was given a fortnight of self healing treatment that consisted mainly of

attuning the chakras centres with the channelling of subtle energy through self hands

application, meditation on visualization of my chakras as healthy, and so forth. At the

end of the treatment I was given a series of healing sessions and subsequently initiated

into becoming a Reiki master, at which time I had the visual experience of the forefront

chakra, so that theoretical and corporeal understanding became even more a sensible

manifestation.

This period of training, with a mix of theory, practice, and application of

therapeutic treatments, either by this healer or self applied, allowed me not only to

become physically, mentally and spiritually aware of the subtle energy and the chakras

subtle body system, but also to experience, in a relatively short time of about three

months, a general enhancement of health and well-being at the physical, emotional,

mental and spiritual levels. This improvement could be measured in terms of improved

health, my ulcer was cured completely; mentally and emotionally I was more balanced, I

had become more reliable to myself and others; and my panic attacks and anxiety

subsided. In a few months, I was not only feeling a higher self-esteem that brought

meaningfulness back to my personal life but I also advanced my professional life as a

yoga teacher and Reiki healer. Worth mentioning is that, during the some period, I had

taken parts in various professional workshops on psychosomatic disciplines relating to

such artistic inquiry modalities as dance movement, creative writing, and drama. Like

yoga and Reiki, these workshops suggested to me, albeit based on a short exposure, the
 11

validity of certain principles (e.g., creativity, aesthetic motifs, and movement) as possible

factors enhancing energy and aiding healing and transformation.

While in Cuba, I completed Reiki masters initiations and certifications. As a result

of these events, I travelled in India during 2005, taking the opportunity to retrain in

various yoga ashrams and Reiki centres. In that year, I completed intensive yoga teacher

training, at the Sivananda International School of Yoga, and further Reiki master training

and certification. Upon returning to Europe, I started teaching yoga full time in various

community centers, and discovered the possibilities of working with others by sharing

my newfound knowledge of subtle energy at a theoretical and practical level, specifically

by giving Reiki healing sessions.

At the personal level, since that stage of my life, I have noticed a slow but

gradual increase in experiences with subtle energy and chakras that I have learnt to

associate with psychological characteristics, some of which have been mentioned above,

that are recognised as clear signs of consciousness expansion, also broadly known as

altered states of consciousness. Expansion of consciousness includes changes in

emotional expression, alterations in thinking, an altered sense of time, perceptual

alterations, perceived changes in the body, unitive experiences, loss of control, changes in

meaning or significance, feelings of grace and rejuvenation, development of the noetic

sense and the sense of the ineffable (Deikman, 1963; Grof, 1975; Levine, Ludwig, and

Lyle, 1963; Ludwig, 1966; Tart 1990, 1969).

What I consider important from this retrospective analysis of personal experience

is the realization that I have reached a stage in my life where I want to commit to the

study of the phenomenon of the subtle body system, and, thus of the employment of life-
 12

energy at a more conceptual and empirical level. Also, I have a keen interest in exploring

such principles of artistic inquiry as creativity that, although I had already explored from

one perspective through the practice of artistic disciplines, seemed also to be implicit in

the tantric yoga discipline.

Purpose and Rationale

The purpose of this study is to make intelligible the phenomenon of subtle energy,

which includes its subtle body system, its mechanics and its practices, in relation to

healing and transformation. The terms healing and transformation imply a holistic

meaning that includes such issues as health, well-being, personal development, expansion

of consciousness and spiritual growth. The intelligible order which I attempt, draws its

foundations from newly emerging integral theories and practices on the subtle energy

phenomenon. This integral construct is based on my experience with Eastern practices

such as yoga and Reiki, Western psychosomatic therapies related to expressive and

artistic practices such as dance, and my literature review, that proposes an integral

approach to the scrutinized phenomenon and related issues. Therefore, these integral

theoretical and practical approaches to the interpretation of subtle energy in healing and

transformation may lead to the validation of this phenomenon, for example, in terms of

applying ancient subtle body practices or techniques in a present day alternative health

system or in terms offering new interpretative possibilities of the meaning and purpose of

the phenomenon as a tool for personal development and spiritual growth.

The study was conducted by strictly adhering to hermeneutic phenomenological

approaches. In the attempt to come to an intelligible interpretation that could uncover the

inherent meaning and purpose of the phenomenon, I began an intense study of tantric
 13

literature with a strong desire to further my knowledge: 1) of the phenomenon of subtle

energy and its chakra system; 2) with a present horizon of meaning, ―on being able to

hear what the text did not say‖ (Palmer and Heidegger, 1969, p. 234); and 3) in finding

answers, ―in the temporal context of work and, also in the present day .... to hear, in other

words, what it [the text] did not and could not say‖ (p. 235). Thus, I needed to come in

direct contact with the phenomenon through a self-experiential study, within whose safe

boundaries I could engage, observe and report findings. Naturally, I could not eschew my

personal background in such body-mind disciplines as yoga and Reiki (i.e. energy

medicine), given that I had developed knowledge in their practice of techniques for the

arousal and control of subtle energy and other general theoretical principles and

techniques of self-awareness that aid the understanding and investigation of energetic

fields such as body sensations, emotions, thoughts and consciousness (Carleton, 2002;

Rogers, 1993). However, although my direct experience of practical and theoretical

principles of Kundalini yoga are adequate, as Rama et al. (1976) explain, achieving a

focused inward awareness of subtle energy by means of yoga requires a proficient level

of practice. Thus, based on the positive results obtained during my previous, brief

exploration of artistic inquiry into drama, dance movement, and creative writing, I opted

for an integral laboratory, where I engaged directly with theoretical and practical Western

dance movement course-work. Various forces of a personal, interpersonal and

transpersonal nature, previously experienced by me, were allowed to come together so

that possible embodiment of life-energy could be aided and explored. Examples of these

forces are creativity, aesthetic motifs, dance movement and music, intuition and self-

awareness (these forces are described in both tantric literature and artistic inquiry).
 14

Potential Significance

This thesis endeavours to investigate, at a theoretical and pragmatic level, within a

strict academic framework, Indic energy-based principles and modalities, and explore

integral, new opportunities to employ such knowledge. I foresee that the work presented

in this thesis could provide some basis for therapists, health care professional, and others

to actively support the newly emerged theoretical discourse and pragmatic approaches to

an integral vision of health and well-being, where spiritual-energetic constructs of the

complex human body are taken into consideration, based on integral approaches that

include Eastern experiential understanding of the nature of reality or ―being in the world‖

(Myss, 1996, pp. 129-130). This thesis aims to contribute, albeit modestly, qualitative and

critical data which maintain the efficacy of energy-based modalities for healing; and are

thus apt for employment in the alternative and standard health-care system. However, the

original principles need to be thoroughly explored before adoption.

Thesis Overview

Specifically, in this thesis I proceed as follows: First, within the introduction, I

provide a theoretical and personal framework of the study, including directions and

overview. In the sections that follow I provide a philosophical background of the given

disciplines, a historical background of the Indic meditational literature and glossary of

technical yogic terminologies and definitions. In chapter 2, I review primary topics that

relate to my personal involvement with the subject of this thesis, which basically cover

my self-discovery journey through yoga and the events that brought me into direct

contact with the subtle energy phenomenon and the yoga that governs it. Subsequently, in

an attempt to look at the prescribed phenomenon holistically, I cover primary issues that
 15

develop around personal and concrete, and transpersonal and abstract themes. In chapter

3, I expound on the methodology employed in this thesis, hermeneutic phenomenology.

Then, in chapter 4, I conduct an analysis of the specified Indic meditational literature and

present the findings of a comparative study of the main models of the subtle body system

and its mechanics. After that, in chapter 5, I conduct a broad study of energy-healing

theory, where the integral mode of understanding and applying energy modalities is

considered. Finally, within the conclusive chapter 6, I discussed the overall findings of

this research in regards to the controversial theoretical and practical interrelatedness (e.g.,

energy-consciousness) and implications (e.g., in healing and transformation) of the

scrutinized subtle energy phenomenon.

Methodological Background

The methodological rationale behind the study.

In this study, the methodological design emerged from a creative and intuitive

learning process that attempts to holistically understand the phenomenon of subtle energy

in healing. These general design criteria fit well within the broad framework of

qualitative research and naturalistic methods of inquiry. Creswell (2007) describes

qualitative research as follow:

Qualitative research is an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct

methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem. The

researcher builds a complex, holistic picture, analyzes words, report detailed

views of informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting. (p. 249)

According to Polit and Beck (2004) ―qualitative research involves an emergent

design--a design that emerges in the field as the study unfolds‖ (p. 267). In other words,
 16

according to them, qualitative research admits to ―ongoing decisions reflecting what has

already been learned‖ (p. 245), which is hardly ―known or understood at the outset‖ (p.

245) of the study. Furthermore, they (2004) explain, ―qualitative researchers tend to be

creative and intuitive, putting together an array of data drawn from many sources to

arrive at a holistic understanding of phenomena‖ (p. 267). According to Polit and Beck

(2004) another important factor that is implicit in qualitative research in the naturalistic

methods of inquiry, which:

Attempt to deal with the issue of human complexity by exploring it directly.

Researchers in the naturalistic tradition emphasize the inherent complexity of

humans, their ability to shape and create their own experiences, and the idea that

truth is a composite of realities. Consequently, naturalistic investigations place a

heavy emphasis on understanding the human experience as it is lived, usually

through the careful collection and analysis of qualitative materials that are

narrative and subjective.... Naturalistic researchers tend to emphasize the

dynamic, holistic, and individual aspects of human experience and attempt to

capture those aspects in their entirety, within the context of those who are

experiencing them. (p. 16)

On the collection and analysis of data Polit and Beck (2004) affirm:

In naturalistic research, the collection of information and its analysis typically

progress concurrently; as the researcher sift though information, insights are

gained, new questions emerge, and further evidence is sought to amplify or

confirm insights. Through an inductive process, researchers integrate information

to develop a theory or description that helps explicate processes under

 17

observation.... Naturalistic studies result in rich, in-depth information that has the

potential to elucidate varied dimensions of a complicated phenomenon. Because

of this feature-and the relative ease with which qualitative findings can be

communicated to lay audiences--it has been argued that qualitative methods will

play a more prominent role in health care policy and development in the future.

(p. 17)

Polit and Beck (2004) acknowledge that ―findings from in-depth qualitative

research are rarely superficial, but there are several limitations of the approach‖ (p. 17)

amongst these concerns are the ―idiosyncratic nature of the conclusions‖ (p. 17) and the

―small group of people under study‖ (p. 17). However, she maintains, in response to the

many scholars who argue that quantitative research is scientifically more exact than

qualitative research, that ―qualitative studies often serve as a crucial starting point for

more controlled quantitative studies‖ (p. 17). Kuhn (1961) suggests that the two are co-

dependent and that ―large amounts of qualitative work have usually been prerequisite to

fruitful quantification in the physical sciences‖ (p. 162). Thus, I will argue here that the

above assumption that favours quantitative research over qualitative research needs to be

structurally revised. It is in this broad framework of qualitative research that I selected a

specific method that served my research purposes.

The overall purpose of my study is to understand the phenomenon of subtle

energy in healing and transformation. To this end, the study ttempts to determine the

conscientious claims of ancient and modern meditational literature and therapeutic

specialists alike, by relying whenever possible on existing quantitative measurements.

However, for reasons that span from the inability of present-day scientific technology to
 18

measure phenomena of a spiritual nature, to a systematic disregard by conservative

scientists of the need to investigate transpersonal phenomena, I had to rely heavily on

experiential, thus qualitative, data.

In my endeavour to scrutinize the subtle energy phenomenon under strict

scientific parameters, I considered hermeneutic phenomenology the ideal research

method to be employed. First, hermeneutic phenomenology borrows largely from

qualitative and naturalistic modes of inquiry (Giorgi, 2000). Second, the breadth of

inquiry in qualitative research ―is necessitated by phenomenological principles‖ (Giorgi,

2000, p. 62). And third, as we will see in the chapter on methodology, hermeneutic

phenomenology provides a precise method to describe, structure and interpret textual and

experiential data in an equitable scientific procedure and framework (Giorgi, 2000).

Phenomenology and hermeneutics.

Leading philosophers such as Heidegger, Gadamer, Merleau-Ponty and Sartre

moved, with their valuable contributions, phenomenological philosophy from a focus

upon the matter of interpretation [or hermeneutics] itself (Smith, Flowers, Larkin, 2009,

pp.11- 39), towards:

The view of the person as embedded and immersed in a world of objects and

relationships, language and culture, projects and concerns …. toward a more

interpretative and worldly position with a focus on understanding the perspectival

directness of our involvement in the lived world--something which is personal to

each of us, but which is a property of our relationship to the world and others,

rather than to us as creatures in isolation. (p. 21)

 19

Hermeneutic phenomenology is a research method informed specifically by the

phenomenology philosophy and inquiry and hermeneutics principles (Smith et al., 2009).

Polit and Beck, in their 2004 writing, affirm that phenomenology philosophy ―is an

approach to discovering the meaning of people‘s life experiences. Phenomenological

researchers ask: What is the essence of this phenomenon?‖ (p. 253). This essence is

understood as ―an essential invariant structure‖ (p. 253), which can be investigated as

―subjective phenomenon in the belief that critical truths about reality are grounded in

people‘s lived experiences‖ (p. 253). Thus, the essence of the phenomenon under

research, subtle energy in healing, is investigated here by asking the questions: What is

the nature or meaning of subtle energy? What is the nature or meaning of healing? And,

what is the nature or meaning of the subtle body system?

According to Polit and Beck (2004), ―the focus of phenomenological inquiry,

then, is the meaning of people‘s experience in regard to a phenomenon (descriptive

phenomenology), and how those experiences are interpreted (hermeneutics)‖ (p. 253).

Finally, in accordance to A. Giorgi (2000), ―the phenomenological method [requires] that

the phenomenon be given directly to one‘s own experience‖ (p. 64).

Palmer and Heidegger (1969) state that hermeneutics poses ―major challenges to

widely held ideas in prevailing [literary] criticism .... Hermeneutics can and should serve

as a foundational and preliminary discipline for all literary interpretation‖ (p. 4). Thus,

hermeneutics is a methodology of choice when interpreting texts (texts in a broad sense).

Palmer and Heidegger (1969) point out that ―one of the essential elements for an

adequate hermeneutical theory, and by extension an adequate theory of literary

 20

interpretation, is a sufficiently broad conception of interpretation itself‖ (p. 8). Smith et

al. state (2009):

Our attempts to understand other people‘s relationship to the world are

necessarily interpretative, and will focus upon their attempts to make meaning out

of their activities and to things happening to them …. Thus … the complex

understanding of experience invokes a lived process; an unfurling of perspectives

and meanings, which are unique to the person‘s embodied and perpetuated

relationship to the world. (p. 21)

Husserl‘s call to return to the investigation of the things as they appear, tried to

overcome examining and explaining only their material conditions, extrinsic causes etc.,

without finding out what they are and mean intrinsically. He extended the Cartesian

cogito, ergo sum (I think therefore I am) to cogito, ergo die Welt ist (I think, therefore the

world exists). Accordingly, the objective world is ―proved‖ through subjective

identification. Thereby, ontology is consequently founded upon epistemology, more

precisely on transcendental (inter-)subjectivity that is a reflection of the possibility for

knowledge and experience. (Küpers, 2009, pp. 54-55).

Küpers (2009) argues that there is a need ―for a proper understanding of

transcendence, for not falling into solipsism‖ (p. 71), and he further affirms that this

argument was already made explicit in classical phenomenology by Husserl, who

asserted:

Is phenomenological research therefore solipsistic research? Does it restrict the

research to the individual ego and precisely to the province of its individual

psychic phenomenon? Not in the least. [A] misunderstanding of the particular

 21

meaning of transcendence and its exclusion leads to a confusion of psychological

immanence (that which is precisely solipsistic) and phenomenological

[immanence] (Husserl, 1910-11, p. 154). (p. 71)

Küpers (2009) further explains:

At the heart of the phenomenological method is the assumption that human

experience follows fundamental structural principles that express themselves

differently and contingently. Experience is necessarily personal, but not

necessarily private. Therefore, phenomenology is not reiteration of introspective

solipsism, for it assumes that the study of particular experience leads to the

recognition of generative structures that are common to human beings more

generally. (p. 71)

Küpers (2009) further elucidates on the important notion characterizing

phenomenology:

The program of phenomenology aims for disclosing and clarifying the true

epistemic [of or relating to knowledge or to the degree of its validation] and

ontological significance of consciousness. As mentioned before, phenomenology

is specifically dedicated to describing and reconstructing the structures of

experience as they present themselves to consciousness. This implies a systematic

study of the structures of consciousness that enable consciousness to refer to

objects outside itself. Thereby, phenomenology deals with phenomenon, that is,

with those objects as we experience them in consciousness and with our different

ways of relating to these objects experientially as contents of consciousness.

Accordingly, phenomenology investigates conscious experience [as experienced]

 22

by analysing the structure, that is the types, intentional forms and meanings,

dynamics, and [certain] enabling conditions of various forms of experiences. (p.

55)

Heidegger and Gadamer, amongst others, forged the phenomenological and

hermeneutics approaches into one: hermeneutic phenomenology (Smith et al., 2009, pp.

11-39). Smith et al. (2009) manage to convey concisely and precisely the existing relation

between hermeneutics and phenomenology:

Hermeneutics is the theory of interpretation. It enters our story as a much older

and entirely separate body of thought from phenomenology, but ... the two strands

are due to meet, in the work of hermeneutic phenomenologists - notably

Heidegger. Originally, hermeneutics represented an attempt to provide surer

foundations for the interpretation of an increasingly wider range of texts, such as

historical documents and literary works. The sorts of things which concern

hermeneutic theorists are: what are the methods and purposes of interpretation

itself? Is it possible to uncover the intentions or original meaning of an author?

What is the relation between the context of a text‘s production (e.g. its historical

genesis in the distant past) and the context of a text‘s interpretation (e.g. its

relevance to life in the present day)? (pp. 21-22)

For Schleiermacher:

Interpretation involved what he called grammatical and psychological

interpretation. The former [Heidegger] is concerned with exact and objective

textual meaning, while the latter with the individuality of the author or speaker ....

For Schleiermacher, interpretation is not a matter of following mechanical rules.

 23

Rather it is a craft or art, involving the combination of a range of skills, including

intuition. Part of the aim of the interpretative process is to understand the writer,

as well as the text, and Schleiermacher believes that if one has engaged in a

detailed, comprehensive and holistic analysis, one can end up with ‗an

understanding of the utterer better than he understand himself‘. (Smith et al.,

2009, pp. 21-22).

Applying hermeneutic phenomenology.

Heidegger stated, ―The phenomenology….is a hermeneutic in the primordial

significance of this world, where it designates this business of interpreting‖ (2005/1962,

p. 62). Palmer and Heidegger (1969) see ―in phenomenological hermeneutics, as against

other forms, the most adequate context for exploring the question [what is

interpretation?] (p. 5). However, because Palmer and Heidegger (1969) admit that

―interpretation ... is a complex and pervasive phenomenon‖ (p. 10) he explains that ―… a

radical critique of realistic conceptions of perceiving and interpretation is

phenomenology‖ (p. 6). Palmer and Heidegger (1969) give the following suggestion to a

researcher preoccupied with the task of applying hermeneutic phenomenology in literary

interpretation:

A work of literature in not an object we understand by conceptualizing or

analyzing it; is a voice we must hear .... understanding is both an epistemological

and an ontological phenomenon. Understanding of literature must be rooted in the

more primal and encompassing modes of understanding that have to do with our

being-in-the-world. Understanding a literary work, therefore, is not a scientific

kind of knowing which flees away from existence into a world of concepts; it is a
 24

historical encounter which calls forth personal experience of being here in the

world. (pp. 9-10)

Palmer and Heidegger (1969) expand these precepts to the fields of ―humanities‖

and ―sciences‖ and affirms that ―through a study of hermeneutical theory, the humanities

can achieve a fuller measure of self-knowledge and a better understanding of their

character of their task‖ (p. 10)

Guba and Lincoln (1994, p. 108) categorize alternative inquiry paradigms

according to their stance on the following three questions: (1) the ontological question--

What is the form and nature of reality? And, therefore, what is there that can be known

about it? (2) The epistemological question--What is the nature of the relationship between

the knower or would-be knower and what can be known? (3) The methodological

question--How can the inquirer go about finding out whatever he or she believes can be

known?

Furthermore, Palmer and Heidegger‘s (1969) attempt to answer this fundamental

question: What is interpretation?, leads to the set up of a fundamental principle that,

according to him, elucidates another fundamental question: What does understanding a

text mean?

Understanding is always positional; it stands at a given point in history .... A

genuine comprehension of the way that history is constantly at work in

understanding, and a consciousness of the creative tension between the horizon of

the work and that of one‘s own present time. (p. 224)

Within this framework of ideas, I conducted my examination of the texts on the

subtle body system. Most importantly, I used contemporary phenomenological

 25

interpretation of these texts (e.g., Zimmer, 1951 and Eliade, 1969-1973), in an attempt to

experience the literature in terms of a present horizon of meaning (Palmer and Heidegger,

1969, pp. 231-235). For example, the subtle body system (of chakras, prana, nadis) is

decontextualized from its past historical context and interpreted in line with a modern

theory of energy-healing, in other words, within a transpersonal and integral psychology

framework.

Another important element that characterizes hermeneutic phenomenology is

― being able to hear what the text did not say‖ (Palmer and Heidegger, 1969, p. 234). This

allows, according to Palmer and Heidegger (1969), finding answers ―in the temporal

context of work and also in the present day .... to hear, in other words, what it did not and

could not say‖ (p. 235). Armed with this principle, I have interpreted the teaching of

tantric and yogic texts by cultivating Palmer and Heidegger‘s (1969) horizons:

A dialectical questioning which does not simply interrogate the text but allows the

thing said in the text to interrogate back, to call the interpreter‘s own horizon into

question and to work a fundamental transformation of one‘s understanding of the

subject. This does not mean a denial of the interpreter's horizon, nor does it mean

making one‘s own horizon absolute, as implicit in most analysis and method; it

means a creative fusion of horizons .... In true experience there is a partial

negation of one‘s own horizon, and through this a more encompassing

understanding emerges. (p. 234)

I have intentionally conducted the research by examining and interpreting

important literature on the subtle energy in healing and other related aspects of this

phenomenon such as the subtle body system, mechanics and practice. Specifically, I
 26

examined: classical Eastern meditational literature; prime interpretational contemporary

literature on the classical texts; contemporary literature on energy-healing theory; and

literature on contemporary experimental studies on the healing effect of energy-based

interventions. Finally, I have also included an interpretative phenomenological analysis

of data on experienced subtle energy through the subtle body work results of a self-

experiential study in contemporary dance movement.

Philosophical Background

At the time when Western society is experiencing a revolutionary encounter with

the East, the need arises for a cultural symmetry, for the ability to look beyond cultural

perspectives. Since mental processes are partially related to body processes, the

descriptions of human beings that the natural sciences provide play an important role in

the philosophy of mind. Many scientific disciplines study body processes related to the

mental processes (e.g., biology, computer science, cognitive science, cybernetics,

linguistics, medicine, pharmacology and psychology). Most of these scientific

disciplines, with traditional scientific psychology in the forefront, attempt to apply

quantitative measurements to the mind‘s psychological processes or phenomenon.

However, none of these disciplines account for the spirit component as proposed by

Eastern traditions.

In the case of scientific psychology Wilber (2000) affirms:

‗... the law of the connection between the mind and body can be found in

statements of quantitative relation between mental sensation and material

stimulus‘. Fechner‘s law, as it was soon known, is stated as S = log I (the mental

sensation varies as the logarithm of the material stimulus). (p. viii)

 27

Nevertheless, according to Wilber (2000), it is certain that ―because of Fechner‘s

work, for the first time scientists could measure the mind‖ (p. viii). This, however ―... had

saved psychology from contamination of the … spirit, and had happily reduced the mind

to measurable empirical doodles‖ (Wilber, 2000, p. viii). He further notes that Fechner

had stated in his book Life after Death (1835) the following:

In the first stage man lives in the dark, alone; in the second, he lives associated

with, yet separated from, his-fellow-men, in a light reflected from the surface of

things; in the third, his life, interwoven with ... universal spirit ... is a higher life.

(Wilber, 2000, pp. viii-ix)

According to Wilber (2000), this statement proves beyond doubt that Fechner

believed in the ―spirit‖ (pp. viii-ix).

In this thesis, ‗consciousness‘ plays an important role. However, as we will see,

consciousness is a conundrum. When the attempt is made to define, classify and identify

it, two fierce contenders arise, ready to fight for the rights to interpretation: Pure

spiritualism and pure materialism. The current research attempts to avoid these two

extreme poles of interpretation, by mediating between the two with a comprehensive

interpretation. This comprehensive interpretation can be found, for example, in the

integral theory/movement (which includes disciplines such as integral philosophy and

integral psychology). Integral Theory attempts to synthesize the map of consciousness

into a cross-cultural one, where major Western and non-Western psychologies, the

perennial philosophy, and religious practices come together. According to Huxley (1969)

―perennial philosophy‖ can be described as:

 28

The metaphysic that recognizes a divine Reality substantial to the world of things

and lives and minds; the psychology that finds in the soul something similar to,

or even identical with, divine Reality; the ethic that places man's final end in the

knowledge of the immanent and transcendence Ground of all being; the thing is

immemorial and universal. Rudiments of the perennial philosophy may be found

among the traditional lore of primitive peoples in every region of the world, and

in its fully developed forms it has a place in every one of the higher religions. (p.

vii)

Within the refrain of time and the space of this master thesis, it will suffice to

synthesize its complexity by saying that the advocates of extreme ‗materialism‘ (e.g., in

science) deny the existence of ‗spirituality‘ and all its manifestations, by understanding

them simply as brain-biology input-output. This approach is reductive and sectarian. On

the other hand, the advocates of extreme ‗spiritualism‘ reduce the body and its

manifestation as a simple obstacle in the way of pure spirit. In this thesis, the discussion

of spiritual extremism (usually associated with the sectarian form of fanatical

religiousness) will be omitted, as it would not contribute to our study and would

completely distract our research from its center. However, the ‗materialism‘ orthodox

point of view needs to be discussed, as it often corresponds with an established scientific

paradigm that refrains from any form of integration between, the material and the spirit.

This thesis will further illustrate studies where results assert that the scientific

dismissiveness of spirit, consciousness, and energy is incorrect. Such data could play an

important role in the establishment of a paradigmatic shift from a dichotomy of

mechanistic science of mind and body, to a trichotomy of spiritualistic science working

 29

with a tripartite human anatomy: body, mind and spirit. However, a strong urge exists to

explain and demonstrate that the physical and mental body, together with the spiritual-

energetic one, is paramount for the achievement of healthy human beings. Thus, this

work attempts to integrate a substantial body of evidence, wherein mainstream medicine

can operate within a ―tripartite system of body, mind and spirit [versus] nociceptive

model of pain [where] human beings are conceived of as extreme machines‖ (Leskowitz,

2008, p. 226). Hopefully, this integration of knowledge will help to establish the

theological and philosophical beliefs that human consists of three parts (i.e., a body,

mind, and spirit), and most importantly, pave the way to an increase in (1) the popularity

of holistic health interventions and practices in the West, and (2) a comprehensive

employment of putative ‗Energy Medicine‘ as CAM in the conventional health care

system. Cornell (1994) states:

Despite the great advances in modern medicine, there is growing discontent with

the restrictive view of Western medical science and the practice that focuses

exclusively on the biochemical operations of the body, disregarding the human

mind and spirit. A growing number of physicians have begun to incorporate

holistic techniques such as the art of the mandala, yoga, creative visualization,

and meditation into their practice. (p. 3)

In view of the different conceptualization of the ‗I‘ in East-West paradigms,

Meadow (1993) notes:

The individual's growth and personal development are common threads of

concern in both modern psychology and religious or spiritual traditions. Each

 30

discipline has strategies and techniques for fostering growth, and each has

likewise produced models of the manner in which growth occurs. (p.67)

The philosophy of yoga and its meditative yogic practice are continuous sources

of inspiration for new theories found, for example, in directive disciplines such as

Transpersonal Psychology, and an ever-increasing mode of alternative holistic healing—

based not only on physical and mental dictates but also on the spiritual one.

In ancient cultures, the subtle body system and its mechanics held center stage in

the maintenance of body-mind and spiritual well-being (Flood, 2005; Samuel, 1989;

Campbell, 1991; Campbell, 1968; Eliade, 1969; Avalon, 1951) and, within this broad

mark of reference subtle body system theory makes its entrance: firstly, in the Western

philosophical construct (e.g., through the Integral Movement); secondly, in the field of

applied psychology (e.g., through transpersonal and integral psychology); and, finally, in

the field of modern health science (e.g., through alternative medicine, embracing

umbrella fields such as CAM, Holistic Medicine, Body Energy Psychotherapy, Energy

Medicine‘).

This ever increasing and systematic appearance in the global scene of ―existing

new technology[ies] of healing‖ as Judith Cornell (1994) aptly affirms, ―brings together

the body, mind, and spirit and focuses on the whole person‖ (p. 5). This tripartite body

system, with a pivotal ‗energy-consciousness‘ element, points to a holistic health

approach by some, referred to as the ‗new Art of Healing‘. For example, according to

Carleton (2002):

Energy and consciousness are the two dimensions of the life force, which operate

at all levels of the personal reality. Consciousness shapes and directs our energy
 31

…. Energy is a living force that emanates from each level of consciousness. It is

characterized by pulsation, motility, rhythm, abundance, flexibility and

malleability. Human consciousness uses energy to sculpt the shape of the body

and determine the basic form of existence. The physical body is the laboratory of

life and the vehicle through which emotions, thoughts, and spiritual self are

expressed. (p. 37)

Thus, this thesis is also intended as a convergence of Eastern and Western thought

towards an integral vision, wherein recognition of the ‗ancient theory of life energy‘ by

mainstream health professionals (e.g., in psychology, medicine, nursing, etc.) is

considered and added to the framework for the construction of a comprehensive (i.e.,

integral) theoretical work.

Historical Background of Indic Meditational Literature on Subtle Body System

The Indic meditational literature was eventually narrowed down, for sake of

convenience and clarity, into texts gathered from three main Indic spiritual traditions:

Hindu and Buddhist tantric and the Hindu non-tantric Hatha yoga. As a result, the

specified literature is a mix of Indic spiritual doctrines. With regard to this Indic

meditational literature, I determined to provide some historical background for each text,

in line with the dictates of Asian Religious Studies, who deem it necessary to discuss the

original sources for contemporary investigation; nevertheless, it important to

acknowledge that, because of the extreme intermingling of these traditions, for some of

the texts studied, ascertaining with absolute accuracy their historical origins is not

possible. However, most of the material available on the subtle body system and its

mechanics is dealt primarily within the tantra literature, and most material on the subtle
 32

body practice is found within the Hatha yoga literature. However, the subtle body system,

its mechanics and practice is also dealt with in others Hindu and Buddhist texts.

The primary source of information on the phenomenon of subtle energy, the

subtle body system and its mechanics and practice is ancient Indic (e.g., yogic)

meditational literature, including root and non-root text sources. Texts that have

traditionally been dictated by Hindu deities or Buddhas are considered root texts (it has

been recorded that the description of the subtle body system and its mechanics were

presented in Hindu and Buddhist literature at least 1000 years ago and therefore these

texts are considered the earliest texts) and texts written by historic individuals (e.g.,

yogis) are considered non-root texts (e.g., commentaries). According to the Hindu

tradition, a text written by a yogi is not as important as one uttered by a god. It is

important to mention here that root texts have been written in Sanskrit, the classical

language of India, and others in regional languages (some preserved in Tibetan

translations). I have selected for this study only root texts that are available in English

translations from Indic classical languages.

This section is to be considered the foundational basis for the review of Indic

meditational literature, since it compiles information from classic manuscripts that have

been the subject of investigation in identifying data on the subtle body system and its

relation with healing and transformation, as reported in chapters 2 and 4.

Hindu tantric literature.

The most comprehensive text available in English translation on the subtle body

system has been, perhaps, the Sat-Cakra-Nirupana. This text was written more than five

hundred years ago, in Sanskrit, by the Bengali tantric yogi ―Purnananda-Svami‖ (Avalon,
 33

1974, p. xi). Although this text is a part of the commentary tradition and not a root text, it

has nevertheless been highly esteemed through the centuries and has, itself, been the

subject of numerous commentaries.

The manuscript of Sat-cakra-nirupana, in the original Sanskrit, was obtained by

Arthur Avalon (also known as Sir John Woodroffe), who was the first to translate the text

into English. The translation was subsequently included, with an introduction, a

commentary, and other unpublished tantric work, in the book entitled The serpent power;

being t -cakra-nirupana and Paduka-pañcaka: Two works on Laya-yoga (first

published in 1919). The Sat-cakra-nirupana ―forms the sixth chapter of his [Purnananda-

Svami] extensive and unpublished work on Tantric Ritual entitled ‗Sri-tattvacintamani‘‖

(Avalon,1974, p. xi), whose work belongs to ―a particular form of Tantric Yoga named

Kundalini Yoga‖ (Avalon, 1974, p. 1). The word sat-cakra-nirupana means ―‗description

of an investigation into the six bodily centres‘‖ (Avalon, 1974, p. xi) or ‗cakras‘ (please

note that Avalon spells ―cakra‖ instead of chakra). Ultimately, in this text the essence

and purpose of the primary system of the subtle body is revealed from the first verse

throughout the remaining fifty-four verses. It is noteworthy that Avalon‘s commentary

and translation of the Sat-cakra-nirupana became so famed that Carl Gustav Jung, in his

1932 seminar given to present findings on kundalini, made extensive use of Avalon‘s

commentaries. Heinrich Zimmer (Zimmer, 1951) states that Avalon‘s studies ―are the

most important examinations of the Tantra published in modern times‖ (p. 570).

The Tantraraja tantra (King of Tantras) as the name implies is an important work

of ‗tantric‘ literature. The specific text scrutinized in this thesis is the 1981 edition by

Arthur Avalon (translator and commentator) and Lakshmana Shastri (Ed.) who wrote a
 34

short analysis of the chapters and introduction (the first edition of the some authors is

1926). Arthur Avalon, in the introduction (pp. 1-11), affirms that this is a root text

supposed to have been dictated by Siva to Devi to remove any possible confusion

existing in the previous tantric texts. He further states that the first transmission of this

work, with a commentary called Manorama by Subhaganandanatha of the Kashmir

School (the philosophical school of consciousness that started in Kashmir about 1200

years ago), deals with the multifaceted aspects of the tantric theological doctrines and

myths. Specifically, the work considers the principles involved in tantric worship and

practices—which are mantra, chakras, and so forth—in the larger context of Hindu

tantric tradition.

The Vijnanabhairava (Divine Consciousness - A Treasury of 112 Types of Yoga)

is considered a root text. While this text cannot be exactly dated, there are recorded

accounts of its existence and popularity in the 8th century C.E (Singh, 1979, p. x). This

manuscript has also ―been referred to as Agama‖ (Singh, 1979, p. ix) and by other

various names. Throughout the text we find multiple accounts on practical ways of

obtaining self-realization. The specific text reviewed in this thesis is the one translated

and commented on by Jaideva Singh (1979).

Hindu non-tantric literature.

The Hathayoga-pradipika of Svatmarama was written by Svatmarama in 15th

C.E., and is one of the most treasured treatises on yoga. The specific edition studied

herewith is the English translation by Srinivasa Iyangar with commentaries Jyotsna of

Brahmananda (Svatmarama, 1972). According to Brahmananda (Svatmarama, 1972),

Svatmarama compiled the Hathayogapradipika ―in view of the combined advantage of

 35

the two systems [Raja-yoga and Hatha yoga]‖ (p. xvii). Brahmananda also affirms that

this is perhaps the text that most attempts ―the task of reconciling the [two yoga]

systems‖ (1972, p. vii). Brahmananda goes on to explain that the Hathayoga-pradipika

contains the yoga-sastra (or the science of yoga), which is a body of knowledge on

metaphysical and practical aspects of the human consciousness, the means to attain self

realization (moksha); overall, this ancient treatise is a comprehensive manual on specific

yogic techniques (e.g., physical postures [asana], breathing exercises [pranayama],

attitude [mudras] aimed at rousing prana for the obtainment of ultimate absorption

[samadhi]) (1972, pp. vii-xvii).

The Gheranda samhita (The collection of verses of Gheranda) is a late 17th

century Sanskrit text considered to be the most detailed encyclopaedic text amongst the

three classical Hatha yoga texts. The text used in this study is the commentary by James

Mallison with the original Sanskrit and English translation (Gheranda and Mallison,

2004). According to Mallison this text ―was copied in Bengal in 1802 C.E.‖ (p. xiii) and

―it was never cited by medieval commentators in their works on Hatha yoga‖ (p. xiii).

Mallison further affirms that ―the early texts of Hatha yoga showed no trace of Vedanta

and that their doctrinal framework was Tantric‖ (p. xiv). However, ―Tantric influences

have been toned down considerably‖ (p. xiv). The Gheranda samhita speaks of a

sevenfold yoga aiming at activating the subtle body system.

The Siva samhita, (The Collection [of Verses] of Shiva) was, according to

Mallison (2007), a root text ―composed over five centuries ago‖ as many ―eminent

medieval authors‖ have mentioned this root text (p. x) and ―it proclaims a Yoga teaching,

yet also calls itself a tantra‖ (p. xi). For example, Svatmarama in the Hathayoga-
 36

pradipika (1972) states that the Siva samhita gives the yoga-sastra‘s ―discipleship and

method of their observance‖ (p. viii). The particular Siva samhita text studied here is the

English translation and critical version by James Mallison (2007). The Siva samhita

provides a thorough account of the subtle body system and its mechanics (Mallison,

2007, p. x). Of particular interest for the aim of this thesis are the thorough description of

the microcosmic model of the subtle body system in the second chapter; of the mudras,

which are considered psycho-spiritual techniques of rising energy thus, considered more

than mere asanas (as described in the Gheranda Samhita) in the fourth chapter; and, of

the ―esoteric centres and energies in the body‖ in the fifth chapter (Mallison, 2007, p. x).

Buddhist tantric literature.

The Hevajra tantra (Hevajra tantraraja nama), possibly published in India

between the seventh and eighth century C.E. (Snellgrove, 1959) or "late ninth or early

tenth century" (Davidson, 2005, p. 41), is one of the prime (root) texts in the Buddhist

tantric classification system (Wayman, 1977; Snellgrove, 1959). According to

Chattopadhyana (1970), Tāranāthaa Lama of the Jonang school of Tibetan Buddhism

(1575-1634 C.E), lists Saroruha and Kampala (also known as "Lva-va-pā, "Kambhalī",

and "Śrī-prabhada") as its "bringers" (pp. 245-246). A translation of the Hevajra tantra

into English from Sanskrit and Tibetan was published by Snellgrove in 1959, from

Chinese by Wellman in 1983, and with a complete translation of the commentaries

Yogaratnamala by Farrow and Menon in 1992. The texts reviewed in this thesis are The

Hevajra tantra: A critical study by Snellgrove (1959 -composed of two volumes: Vol. I,

introduction and translation; and, Vol. II, Sanskrit and Tibetan text); and, The concealed

essence of the Hevajra tantra, with the Commentary Yogaratnamala, translated into
 37

English and edited by Farrow and Menon (1992). The theories described in the Hevajra

tantra teach Buddhist Vajrayana philosophy in correlation with the yogic method of

subtle body practices. Thus, this text is strictly focused on the subtle body system and its

mechanics.

The Kalacakratantra ―is an early eleventh-century esoteric treatise belonging to

the class of unexcelled yoga-tantras (anuttara-yoga-tantra). This is believed to be the

last manuscript of this tradition that was ‗published‘ in India‖ (Wallace, 2001, p. 3). The

main classic commentaries reviewed for this thesis were: A Commentary on the

Kalachakra Tantra taught by Geshe Lharampa Ngawang Dhargyey, translated by Gelong

Jhampa Kelsang and commented on by Allan Wallace (1985); The Practice of

kalachakra by Glenn H. Mullin, which includes a translation of important texts on the

Kalachakra tantra, with foreword by H. H. the Dalai Lama (1991); and, Wallace‘s work

(2001).

The inner kalacakratantra: A Buddhist tantric view of the individual is a rich

textual source that expresses the relevant doctrinal and social theories ―of the individual

as cosmos, society and gnosis‖ (Wallace, 2001, p. vi), and tantric practices deliniating

―the path of spiritual transformation‖ (Wallace, 2001, p. vi). ―In this text the topics of the

inner Kālacakratantra are dealt with in their relationship to the larger context of

Kālacakratantra‘s theory of ‗nonduality‘‖ (Wallace, 2001, p. vi). Wallace‘s work (2001),

the text I am using for this study, profoundly analyzes: ―The kalacakratantra‘s view of

the nature of the individual and one‘s place in the universe and society‖ (p. v); and the

Kālacakratantra's practical tradition giving the relevant tantric practices for spiritual

transformation that were characteristic of north Indian Buddhism in its final stages.
 38

Nevertheless, for this thesis specific attention was given to the practical aspect, which is

dealt with in the form of a textual, historical, and philosophical analysis of the second

chapter of the Kālacakratantra, the ―Chapter on the Individual‖ (adhyātma-paala), and

the Vimalaprabhā, its primary commentary.

The Vimalaprabhā (the Stainless Light) by Pundarika ―became the most

authoritative commentary on the Kalacakratantra and served as the basis for all

subsequent commentarial literature of that literary corpus‖ (Wallace, 2001, p. 3).

Moreover, as Wallace (2001) says, the Vimalaprabhā commentary on the

Kalacakratantra was of great importance to her translation of the Kalacakratantra work,

as without this commentary it would have been practically impossible to penetrate ―the

Kalacakratantra's cryptic verses and often grammatically corrupt sentences‖ (pp. 3-4).

Referring to the notorious openness and directness of the tantric teachings, Wallace

(2001) states, this ―is actually far more characteristic of the Vimalaprabhā than of the

Kalacakratantra itself‖ (p.4). This text makes cumbersome reading for a non specialist in

Buddhism. However, when the attempt to study this text is made, one thing that becomes

clear is that the Kālacakra tradition's theory of the human being permeates all the chapters

of the Kālacakratantra. Thus, all the chapters on tantra are intimately related to the other

chapters.

Background and Definitions Related to the Subtle Body System

The Doctrines of Yoga: According to Bhattacharya (1992), Yoga means

―disciplining of the body for various purposes-physical, mental and spiritual‖ (p. 483).

According to Eliade (1969), ―Four basic and interdependent concepts, four ‗kinetic

ideas,‘ bring us directly to the core of Indian spirituality. They are karma, maya, nirvana,
 39

and yoga‖ (p. 3). These four concepts are the fundamental philosophy underpinning

Indian doctrines. Yoga, according to Eliade (1969) is ―the means of attaining to Being,

the effectual techniques for gaining liberation‖ (p. 3) or ―to ‗free oneself‘ is equivalent to

forcing another plane of existence, to appropriating another mode of being transcending

the human condition‖ (p.4).

―Patanjali defines yoga as the suspension of the modification of thinking

principles…‖ (Jyotsna, 1972, p. x) which can be achieved in many ways but none of them

―without controlling the … breath, which is intimately connected with the mind…‖ (p. x).

―Prana is the chief principle of motion in the … gross … subtle … and casual bodies‖ (p.

xii). ―The regulation of breath for the purpose of checking modification of the thinking

principle is called Hatha yoga‖ (p. xii). According to (Bhattacharyya, 1982) Hatha yoga

is ―a form of physical exercise for making the body so disciplined as to serve all spiritual

purposes …. In the Hathayogapradipika I. 10 it is regarded as the source of all forms of

Yoga‖ (p. 428)

According to Eliade (1969):

There is a ‗classic‘ Yoga, a ‗system of philosophy‘ expounded by Patanjali in his

celebrated Yoga-sutras; and it is from the ‗system‘ that we must set out in order to

understand the position of Yoga in the history of Indian thought. But, side by side

with this ‗classic‘ Yoga, there are countless forms of ‗popular,‘ non-systematic

yoga; there also non-Brahmanic yogas (Buddhist, Jain); above all, there are yogas

whose structure are ‗magical,‘ ‗mystical,‘ and so on. (p. 4)

Thus, yoga is characterized not only by ―its practical side, but also by its

initiatory structure‖ (Eliade, 1969, p.5). One concept linked to this ―initiatory structure‖
 40

is the rite ―that pursues the creation of a ―‗new body,‘ a ‗mystical body,‘‖ that ―plays a

considerable part in all forms of Yoga, and especially in tantrism‖ (Eliade, 1969, p. 6).

According to the Yoga-sastra, each individual has the power to undergo

transformation, including spiritual transformation, or in other words, expand his/her

consciousness. This power is achieved and made possible through the mechanics of

awakening and raising life-force (prana) (e.g., through the psychic centres, channels and

so on). The initiatory rebirth is defined, by all forms of Yoga, as access to a nonprofane

and hardly describable mode of being, to which the Indian schools give various names:

moksa, nirvana, asamkrta, et cetera (Eliade, 1969, p. 6).

Now, an important factor of all Indian philosophies and all Indian mysticisms is

―pain‖ or ―suffering‖ and the emancipation from it (Eliade, 1969, p. 12). Most of the

Indian doctrines—Vedanta and Samkya, for example—teach that the emancipation from

―suffering‖ and the ultimate liberation from the human conditions is possible through

means of ―knowledge‖; however, others doctrines—Yoga and Buddhism—by means of

experience. (Eliade, 1969, p. 12).

Chakra derived from the Sanskrit cakram, is a Sanskrit word that translates as

spinning vortex or wheel or disc (―wheel‖ from root car, ―to move‖; adopted into the

English language as chakra) (Feuerstein, 1997, pp. 67-69).

Yoga asana: “Posture, seat, pedestal. The term denotes a mystic or any attitude

exhibited in the lower limbs‖ (Bhattacharyya, 1982, p. 410)

Yoga-tantra: ―In principle, the Buddhist tantras are divided into four classes:

kriya-tantra, carya-tantra, yoga-tantra, and anuttara-tantra, the first two focusing on

rituals and the others on yogic procedures for attaining supreme truth (Eliade, 1969, p.
 41

201). According to Lessing and Wayman (1978) ―that which is held in common between

the two Tantras, Yoga and Anuttarayoga, is called yoga-tantra‖ (p. 251).

Tantra or tantram: ―Tantra was a body of religious practice that evolved through

similar phases both within India and throughout its expansion into greater Asia ... all the

features, however, are specific to tenth-century Indian Tantra, whether Hindu, Buddhist,

or Jain‖ (White, 2000, p. 24). According to Brahmacharini (1990), Hindu tantra is a

religious philosophy in which Shakti is usually the main deity worshipped, and the

universe is regarded as the divine play of Shakti and Shiva. The word Tantra also applies

to any of the Hindu scriptures commonly identified with the worship of Shakti

(Brahmacharini, 1990, p. 77). Flood (2006) explains that the ―Buddhist Tantras‖ are

―believed to be the word of the Buddha, which became incorporated into the vast

Buddhist canon between c. 400 and 750 CE ...‖ (p. 7). Tantra deals primarily with

spiritual practices and ritual forms of worship, which aim at liberation from ignorance

and at rebirth (Brahmacharini, 1990, p. 77). The tantric movement has influenced the

Hindu, Buddhist and others religious traditions. Tantra in its various forms has existed in

India, Nepal, China, Japan, Tibet and others Asiatic countries (D. G. White, 2000, p. 7).

White (2000), while being cautious in providing a rigid definition of tantra in a

Hindu context, offers the following definition:

Tantra is that Asian body of beliefs and practices which, working from the

principle that the universe we experience is nothing other than the concrete

manifestation of the divine energy of the Godhead that creates and maintains that

universe, seeks to ritually appropriate and channel that energy, within the human

microcosm, in creative and emancipatory ways. (p. 9)

 42

According to Flood (2006):

Arriving at definitions of 'Tantra' and 'Tantrism' has been notoriously difficult and

has varied between presenting external accounts of a phenomenon named

'Tantrism' … and internal accounts of what the term tantra refers to. An important

indigenous distinction is between tantrika, a follower of the Tantras, and vaidika,

a follower of the Vedas. This distinction operates across the sectarian divides of

Saivas, Vaisnavas and so on. The former refers to those who follow a system of

ritual and teaching found within the Tantras, in contrast to those, especially the

Brahman caste, who follow the Veda as primary revelation or sruti (and so called

Srautas), or who follow the later texts of secondary revelation called smrti (and so

called Smartas). (p. 8)

Kundalini yoga (or tantric yoga): According to Avalon (1974) this yoga is related

to the principles of kundalini-shakti (e.g., its arousal), which are dealt extensively in the

various definitions of the Tantra scriptures and practices (pp. 285-289). According to

Geoffrey Samuel (1989), ―The Tantras are a well-known, if not always well-understood,

part of Hindu and Buddhist religious practice .... The Buddhist and Hindu Tantras employ

a non-dualist conceptualization of body and mind based upon the anatomy of the subtle

body with its ‗centres‘ (chakra), ‗channels‘ (nadi) and flows of ‗energy‘ (prana)‖ (p.

197). The ―Tantras contains description of ritual practices, sacred formulae (mantras),

mystical diagrams (yantras), gestures (mudras), postures (asanas), initiations (diksa), and

yoga or mystic practices‖ (J. Singh, 1979, p. x).

 43

Kundalini: “The serpent power remaining latent in the muladhara .... as the

source of all energy, kundalini reveals itself when aroused by Yogic exercise ... It has

two-forms, dynamic or kinetic, and static or potential …‖ (Bhattacharyya, 1982, p. 443)

Kalacakra Tantric tradition: ―The Kalacakra Tantric cycle was conceived in

Northwest India around the X-XI centuries (C.E.) and is an exact historical and

chronological reconstruction of the Kalacakra Tantric tradition (protagonists, events and

works) is not realistic, mainly because of history-myth entanglement‖ (Cicuzza, 2001, p.

11). However, the works that belongs to the ―Kalacakra literary corpus … express … the

relevant Tantric practices … of north Indian Buddhism in its final stages … and role of

Indian tantric Buddhism of that era in particular‖ (Wallace, 2001, p. v).

Nadi (or yoganadi): is generally translated as ―conduit‖, ―channel‖ ―vein‖, or

―artery‖ and can refer either to ―any of the blood-carrying veins or arteries‖ but ―also, any

of the subtle (sukshma) channels in or along which the life force (prana) circulates. ―Nadi

is derived from the root nad, ‗motion,‘ and means a channel (Vivara)‖ (Avalon, 1974, p.

318), ―a nerve which carries the vital air‖ (Bhattacharyya, 1982, p. 483)

Prana (―life‖; lit. ―breathing forth,‖ from the prefix pra and the root an, ―to

breathe‖), in the Rig Veda (10.90.13) stands for the breath of the cosmic purusha and for

the breath of life in general. In the sacred scriptures of Hinduism, prana almost invariably

signifies the universal life force, which is a vibrant psychophysical energy similar to the

pneuma of the ancient Greeks. Fields (2001) explains: ―Prana means breath, but, more

important, it means vital energy, life-force, spirit, and power‖ (p. 117). Singh (1988)

defines prana as ―vital power; vital energy; life energy ...‖ (p. 249).
 44

Mantras: ―Mantra [is] a verbal formula or sound, which is full of power‖ (Knott,

1998, p. 125). Bhattacharyya‘s (1982) technical definition of the word mantra is

―Brahman or ultimate reality in the form of sound. Letters, words, and sentences are its

different forms‖ (p. 448) and also ―Sakti or power in the form of sound, words and letters

.... which appears in the individual‖ (p. 448). However, in its most literal sense, mantra

means ―getting rid (trai, trana) of worldly fetters‖ (p. 448) or "to free from the mind"

(Radha, 2005, p. 23; Russil, 1983, p. xi) and at its core it is used for this purpose

Bhattacharyya, 1982, p. 448; Radha, 2005, p. 23; Russil, 1983, p. xi).

While the notion that sound reverberates spiritual and healing experience is

embedded in most of the ancient civilizations and cultures (Alvin, 1975, pp. 7-15;

Ashley-Farrand, 2006, p. 1; Blofeld, 1977, pp. 83-95; Beck, 2006, pp. 5-6; Newham,

1999, p. 123; Lavezzoli, 2006, ¶ 2), one geographical hub has preserved its essence right

until the present day: the Indian Subcontinent. In the Indian subcontinent it is believed

that the methodical recitation of Sanskrit Vedic hymns and sacred formulas, mantras,

over thousands of years has generated powerful fields of energy in sacred places and

mystical seers. Mystical seers are known to be endowed with psychic powers, used in the

attempt to obtain freedom from mental and physical illness and, ultimately, to experience

transcendence and the expansion of consciousness (Beck, 2006, ¶ 4).

Accounts of the nature of mantra energy may vary according to the various

degree of described experience, ―spiritual‖ (Radha, 2005, p. 23), ―psychic‖ (Blofeld,

1977, p. 100) ―auditory‖ (Russil, 2004, p. 46) or ―physical as well as subtle‖ (Ashley-

Farrand, 2006, p. 14).

 45

Samadhi: according to Bhattacharyya (1982), samadhi is the last of ―six Yogic

practices‖, which is described in the Buddhist and non-Buddhist tantras as ―obtaining

perfect wisdom‖ (p. 230), or a ―state of perfect bliss in which the world of senses

disappears from mind of the aspirant. It is the aim of all yogic exercises…‖ (p. 467).

Feuerstein (1997) affirms that samadhi or ―the final limb (anga) of the yogic path‖ (p.

251) is described by various texts as a ―spectrum of ecstasy‖ (pp. 251-252); Mallison

(Gheranda and Mallison, 2004), in his English translation of the Gheranda Samhita, talks

of samadhi as the last of the sevenfold yoga, namely ―isolation‖, aimed at activating the

psycho-spiritual possibilities closely inherent in the subtle body system; specifically, the

chapter on Dhyana teaches ―three types of samadhi‖ (p. xii) or psycho-spiritual

transformational stages obtained by means of specific yogic practices. The

kalacakratantra, ch. 4, v.117, and the Vimalaprabhā speak of the yoga of samadhi ―a

meditative concentration of the form of gnosis (jnana-bimba). It is also interpreted as the

imperishable bliss that arises from the union of the apprehended object (grahya) and the

apprehending subject (grahaka)‖ (Wallace, 2001, pp. 203-207).

Background of Transpersonal Psychology and Integral Theories

From the beginning of the twentieth century, researchers, mostly in the fields of

psychiatry and psychology (humanistic psychology, behaviourism and psychoanalysis),

took an ever-increasing interest in the study of broader perspectives on consciousness.

This resulted later on in the twentieth century in the formation of a new discipline of

psychology, transpersonal psychology. Transpersonal psychology is considered by many

the natural prolongation of other major schools of psychology such as the school of

Psychosynthesis founded by Roberto Assagioli, the Analytical school of C. G. Jung and

 46

the Humanistic psychology of Dr. Abraham Maslow. For example, transpersonal

psychology‘s particular focus in studying transpersonal psychological phenomena was

one of the pioneering aims proposed by Dr. Abraham Maslow (1970). Maslow (1970)

considered that the scientific study of transpersonal events, that he had defined as ―peak-

experiences‖ could enhance a better understanding of man's existence. Since Maslow‘s

preposition many psychologists and psychiatrists have incorporated in their study a

broader perspectives on consciousness (for example, altered states of consciousness), and

many transpersonal psychologists are theorizing on the phenomenon of expansion of

consciousness (Grof, 1988; Deikman, 1966; Ludwig, 1966; Ornstein, 1972; Tart, 1975).

Transpersonal psychology perhaps has been the discipline that has completely

originated from specific interest in the study of consciousness and its assumed

phenomena of expansion, also known as Altered States of Consciousness (Grof, 1988;

Deikman, 1966; Ludwig, 1966; Ornstein, 1972; Tart, 1975). Nevertheless, there are also

leading exponents of transpersonal psychology who are already talking of the exigency of

a more comprehensive psychology where the full range of the human consciousness, its

full ―spectrum‖ is taken into consideration, the notable example being Ken Wilber (1993,

1996, 1995, 2000). Wilber (2000) explains the aim of Integral psychology:

For an integral psychology, this means that the basic levels of consciousness

available to men and women need to be carefully differentiated into various

developmental lines. Through the levels or waves of the Great Nest (body, mind,

soul, spirit) run numerous different developmental lines or streams (cognitive,

moral, aesthetic, affective, needs, identities, perspective, etc.). It is the job of an

 47

integral psychology to track all of these various waves and streams as they unfold

in any given individual. (p. 191)

Among the forerunners to the development of integral and transpersonal theories

of consciousness we find the Integral Philosophies of Sri Aurobindo Ghose, Jean Gebser,

Haridas Chaudhuri, and Indra Sen amongst others. Other contemporary transpersonal

and/or integral theorists that conducted bold research and studies on consciousness are

Michael Murphy, Michael Washburn, Allan Combs, Jean Gebser, Don Beck, Clare

Grave, Sean Esbjörn-Hargens, Ashok Gangadean, Ervin László, George Leonard, Steve

McIntosh, Michael Murphy, Richard Tarnas, William Irwin Thompson, Peter Wilberg,

Michael E. Zimmerman, just to mention a few.

In the last two decades we have witnessed a somewhat natural development

toward integral models and theories of consciousness and the application of these integral

perspectives to therapeutics applications. Transpersonal Psychology has a new discipline

has played an active part to host together the diverse cluster of theories on man‘s

psychological spectrum including transpersonal consciousness in a contemporary East-

West integral paradigm.

Definitions of transpersonal psychology.

There are many recognised definitions and aims of transpersonal psychology.

However, it can be stated that transpersonal psychology is a discipline in psychology

aiming at bridging the East-West perspective on the nature of consciousness and reality.

Its strength comes from its attempt to unify modern psychological theory, which draws

upon scientific disciplines (such as neurology, biopsychology, physics, and chemistry),

with different forms of Eastern knowledge, which draws upon mysticism.

 48

Charles Tart (1975) states:

Transpersonal psychology is a fundamental area of research, scholarship, and

application based on experiences of temporarily transcending our usual

identification with our limited biological, historical, cultural and personal self

and, at the deepest and most profound levels of experience possible, recognising

‗‗something‘‘ of vast intelligence and compassion that encompasses the entire

universe. From this perspective our ordinary, ‗‗normal‘‘ biological, historical,

cultural, and personal self is seen as an important, but quite partial (and often

pathologically distorted) manifestation or expression of this much greater

‗‗something‘‘ that is our deeper origin and destination. (p. 156)

According to Lajoie and Shapiro (1992) transpersonal psychology is "the study of

humanity‘s highest potential, and with the recognition, understanding, and realization of

unitive, spiritual, and transcendent states of consciousness" (p. 91). Visser (2003)

describes transpersonal psychology as ―a school of religious psychology set up at the end

of the sixties which endeavours to study the field of mystical spirituality in a

scientifically sound way‖ (p. 1).

Therapeutic framework of transpersonal psychology.

As we have seen so far, transpersonal psychology attempts to unify modern

Western psychology, with Eastern spiritual disciplines. However, transpersonal

psychology does not seem to have in its main agenda exclusively the study of higher

states of consciousness; rather, it includes the study of many others aspect of

consciousness related to healing and transformation; in other words, transpersonal

psychology is also concerned with the health and well being of individuals.
 49

This therapeutic concern of transpersonal psychology can be found right from

conception. For example, the term transpersonal psychology is closely associated with

the work of Abraham Maslow and his understanding of ―peak experiences‖ (1970, pp.

97-99, appendix H). He clearly expounds the therapeutic concern and aims in his work:

Descriptively, we can see in each person his own (weak) tendencies to grow

toward self-actualization; and, also descriptively, we can see his various (weak)

tendencies toward regressing (out of fear, hostility, or laziness). It is the task of

education, therapy, marriage, and the family to ally themselves to the former, and

to be conducive to individual growth. But why? How to prove this? Why is this

not just a covert smuggling in of the arbitrary, concealed values of the therapist?

(1970, p. 97)

Caplan, Hartelius and Rardin (2003) conducted a survey that represents a sizeable

spectrum of perspectives and ―offers a framework around which the reader is invited to

contemplate both foundational themes and shifting emphases within transpersonal

psychology‖ (p. 143). The survey shows how contemporary viewpoints on transpersonal

psychology are ―multifaceted and wide-ranging‖ (Caplan et al., 2003, p. 143), and

generally they are in line with the therapeutic aim of humanistic psychology and other

Integral disciplines (Caplan et al., 2003).

Grof (2000) defines transpersonal psychology as a discipline that includes various

aspects of concerns including the therapeutic one:

Transpersonal psychology is a discipline that expands, complements, and

modifies the conceptual framework of mainstream psychology and psychotherapy

in several important ways: (a) field of study and source of research data (uses
 50

scientific methods to study the full spectrum of human experience, including an

important subgroup of non-ordinary states of consciousness ... (b) model of the

psyche (c) architecture of ―psychopathology‖ (d) therapeutic mechanisms (e)

spirituality. (p. 148-149)

We could readily include in the ―full spectrum of human experience‖ the

visualization and use of ‗the subtle body system‘, the ‗kundalini awakening‘, or healing

energy, the topic of this thesis. According to Sovatsky (1998):

Transpersonal Psychology sees all psychological maturation and pathology as

forward-moving struggles with faith (confidence combined with humility), hope

(optimism), love (deepening powers of gratitude, appropriate contrition,

forgiveness, and ecstasy), the palpability of eternal time (awe, endlessness) and

the mystery of time-passage (anicca (Sanskrit) in Buddhism, Kali-Shaivism in

Hinduism, grace in Judaism and Christianity), and the attainment of

‗‗extraordinary‘‘ mental, moral, and emotional intelligence/maturity. It holds

special regard for nonlinguistic gnosis (meditation, ecstatic states and bodily

sensations such as ‗‗Kundalini,‘‘ ‗‗chi,‘‘ ... et cetera) and for the limitations of

linguistic ‗‗knowledge‘‘ in general. (p. 154)

Walsh and Vaughan (1980) stress, more than do others, transpersonal

psychology‘s therapeutic (and transpersonal studies in general) proposal and main agenda

of implementing psycho-spiritual growth and well-being; thus, they explain:

Transpersonal Psychology is concerned with expanding the field of psychological

inquiry to include the study of optimal psychological health and well-being. It

recognizes the potential for experiencing a broad range of states of consciousness,

 51

in some of which identity may extend beyond the usual limits of the ego and

personality. (p. 16)

In the above sentence Walsh and Vaughan (1980) are clearly pointing to the full

spectrum of human consciousness, which will be extensively examined within this thesis.

Furthermore, Walsh and Vaughan (1980), referring to the importance that the therapeutic

aspect has for transpersonal psychology, state ―… it is the aspect of therapy that goes

beyond ego goals and bridges psychological and spiritual practices‖ (p. 161).

Thus, transpersonal psychology‘s perspective spans many research interests and fields

(such as meditation, consciousness, near death experience [NDE], kundalini awakening,

health, nursing, et cetera), and, as already mentioned, is also preoccupied with bridging

and integrating them (notable example is given by Wilber‘s 2000 work, Integral

Psychology).
 52

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Introduction

With the following review of literature, I intend to unfold to the reader the diverse

themes that I have encountered, and struggled with, and meditated upon. I will briefly

narrate, first, how my thesis research derives from my interest in personal development;

then, I will explore topics extracted from my personal and professional life-narrative;

subsequently, I will introduce the literature review that inspired my research proposal;

finally, I will describe, as comprehensively as possible, the topics that inspired the

literature review throughout the writing of this thesis. The main themes abridge the need

for an in-depth explanation of what personal development and spiritual growth (which I

understand as being a part of human development that spans the entire life) imply for the

therapist and nonprofessional alike. The main topic is a specific phenomenon reflected in

yoga: subtle energy in healing and transformation.

The sections that follow are in many ways a retrospective journey through my inner

effort to understand the meaning of human development. This journey, as any journey,

has been full of obstacles. It has taken me through topics of personal and professional

interest, topics assimilated first through a commitment to deeply contemplate them.

Contemplation led to a thorough examination of the relevant literature. This examination

has been structured by a precise interdisciplinary framework, already identified in the

introductory chapter and elsewhere in this thesis. Finally, my examination of the

literature, coupled with my commitment to direct experience, has led me to reach a

phenomenological understanding of what the phenomenon of self development implies,

for me.
 53

In my quest to understand self development, Yoga constitutes one of the

fundamental lenses, as this holistic discipline integrated organically complex prospective

principles for understanding human development and human nature. Thus, yoga as a

method for personal development becomes the first topic that needs to be dealt with in

this review of the literature.

Yoga as a way of personal development.

My thesis research and the literature review that it inspired derive from my

interest in personal development, which became apparent at about the age of twenty one.

As I moved into my adult years, I joined a class in the ancient self-care discipline of

yoga. I see my partaking of this first yoga workshop as a personal life landmark that

initiated my journey to discover and learn how to integrate new modes of understanding

personal development, so that I could better understand myself. For example, yoga

introduced me, in a pragmatic way, to principles entirely new to me, such as body-mind

awareness and the concept of an inner spirituality that had nothing to do with the

religious beliefs that had been imparted to me since my early childhood. Many years have

passed since that first yoga course. Since then, a strong commitment to further my self-

knowledge through practical training and theoretical literature about yoga principles has

gradually shaped me into a yoga practitioner and therapist. Nonetheless, despite the fact I

have accumulated some teaching experience in the yoga discipline and have experienced

its therapeutic benefits for a few years now, I feel a complete beginner and that I am a far

away from reaching the peak of my potential. Moreover, I have reached a stage at which I

am aware that yoga discipline as a tool for working with oneself and others, on issues

related to personal development, is a path constructed, step by step, through a continuous

 54

process of learning and growth that eventually takes the practitioner beyond a logical (by

logic I mean here reasoning conducted or assessed according to strict principles of

present day scientific understanding) understanding of what personal development, and

for that matter, human evolution and life structure might involve. The words that describe

the sentence ‗beyond a logical understanding‘ are many: Spirituality, transcendence,

mysticism, transpersonal or higher consciousness are but a few of them.

The first issue that I had to resolve within me was the need to better understand

yoga as an ancient discipline. The second was yoga‘s significance in a present-day

context of personal development. While this process of resolution had begun at a

preliminary stage, when I was still contemplating my specific thesis proposal, and was to

a certain degree an issue that I had resolved within the preliminary review of literature

that informed my master‘s proposal, I believe that a brief review holds significance, since

it helps explain how I arrived the specific area of interest for my overall master‘s degree

and thesis, which is ‗subtle energy: healing and transformation.‘

Although I originally engaged in the practice of yoga from an interest in personal

development, in recent years I have had the opportunity to further train myself in this

discipline, so that I have become a professional yoga teacher and therapist (my personal

framework has been dealt with already in the thesis‘ introduction). I saw, in the

opportunity to teach yoga professionally, an opportunity to share and pass on to others

the self care and therapeutics principles implied in the whole system of yoga, more than

an opportunity to make a living. Within the true yoga philosophy, which had been my

overall approach to this systemic discipline, a strong spiritual bond exists with the idea of

sharing without expecting anything in exchange. Essentially, the idea of teaching yoga or
 55

employing yoga as a therapeutic tool in exchange for monetary benefits does not lie at the

foundation of the discipline, in the way it is ‗unfortunately‘ conceived nowadays. Instead,

yogi adepts have traditionally relied on ‗trust‘ that their survival and basic needs would

be met. Whatever the term ‗professional‘ might imply in a present-day context, I share

here in short my idea of becoming a professional yoga teacher and therapist: Professional

yoga teachers have the spiritual opportunity to share their knowledge of yoga, in

whatever form possible, for the physical, mental and spiritual benefit of others, in

exchange for energy, in whatever form it may appear, including, but not necessarily,

money. I understand this principle to be related significantly to my pursuit of personal

development and spiritual growth. However, my primary need to address issues related

to my personal development and spiritual growth were much later merged with the need

to address issues related with the need to teach a yoga true to its teachings, which

ultimately aims at healing and transformation (in the broad sense explained in the

introduction chapter of this thesis), and to achieve a better understanding of certain

evolving issues. Examples of concerns are: difficulty in relating to others; life-style

issues; self-management; and personal balance. Thus, in the process of reviewing the

main literature on yoga, I was determined to find a literature that could provide new

information that addressed my personal and professional misgivings.

The study by Valente and Marotta (2005), The impact of yoga on the professional

and personal life of the psychotherapist, which explores the impact of a regular practice

of yoga in the personal and professional lives of psychotherapists, provided, in a

conclusive way, definitions and clarifications of yoga and its complex and fundamental

meanings for personal and professional development. These definitions, in my opinion,

 56

more than others, capture the complex yoga discipline in a way that resolved my

uncertainty about yoga as a path to personal development and spiritual growth, and

satisfied my need to bridge past and present understanding of yoga as a holistic system.

Valente and Marotta explain that: ―Yoga is an ancient form of meditation used to bring

awareness and balance to one‘s life and to develop human physiological, psychological,

and spiritual potentials‖ (p. 71). Moreover, they provided a comprehensive categorization

of ―… common patterns … addressing professional growth and the self care of the

therapist‖, ―that emerged as four themes …. These themes are: internal/self awareness,

balance, acceptance of self and others, and yoga as a way of life‖ (p. 65). Although the

authors concentrate specifically on psychotherapists, I believe that these patterns are

universal and can be applied to any professional therapists. They are, therefore, indicative

of my need for personal and professional fulfilment. Moreover, I believe that Valente and

Marotta conceptualize the holism implied in yoga, as well as meditation, and for that

matter in other disciplines, in a way that is very clarifying and inspiring to my own search

for meaning, since they seem to understand well the implication of this discipline. A

description by these authors encapsulates the whole implication of the yoga discipline:

―The movement involved in yoga not only prepares the mind and body for sitting

meditation, but is itself a meditation. Beyond being a meditation, yoga is a system of

physical and mental practices aimed at intellectual and spiritual growth‖ (p. 70). This

study, perhaps more than other, reaffirmed my belief in ‗yoga as a way of life,‘ and

nourished my life-long commitment to a practice which is holistic, thus multifaceted for

excellence, wherein the physical (primordial), emotional (relational), mental (intellectual)

and spiritual (intuitional) aspects of the self-individual growth are included. I found this
 57

study inspiring in many ways, but also I felt that I could personally relate to their

explanations. For example, a reference in Valente and Marotta addresses an issue that

mirrors my current dichotomy as yoga professional amd graduate student:

For therapists to reach an optimum level of self-regulation, they must work to

prevent their energy from being consumed by a single aspect of their life. A

highly demanding and frantic schedule initiated upon entering graduate school

and continued throughout professional training can perpetuate a lifestyle that is

imbalanced and consuming. (pp. 67-68)

On the other hand, what surprised me is that Valente and Marotta (2005) in

directing in many ways a valid study on the impact of yoga on the professional and

personal life of the psychotherapist, display a lack of basic knowledge of the yoga

principle of subtle energy and the subtle body system as a medium for healing and

transformation in general. For example, Valente and Marotta, in the above statement that

highlights the need for the therapist ―to work to prevent their energy from being

consumed by a single aspect of their life,‖ do not point out as either a preventive measure

or a remedy the value of subtle energy work. This oversight comes as no surprise when

one considers that the authors, in an attempt to summarize the main understanding of

yoga in the West, draw heavily from classic and classical citations on Patanjali‘s Yoga

Sutras. For example, they explain:

Yoga is one of the six orthodox systems of Indian philosophy and has been used

for millennia to study, explain, and experience the complexities of the mind and

human existence (Feuerstein, 1998). Patanjali, an ancient yoga sage, defines yoga

as a technique used to still the mental fluctuations of the mind to reach the central
 58

reality of the true self (Iyengar, 1966). Patanjali‘s Yoga Sutras, dated around 200

C.E., outlines a skillful way of conducting life that fosters moderation and

harmony (Becker, 2000). These guidelines, which include ethical and moral

standards of living in addition to postural and breathing exercises, are used to

foster spiritual growth and evolve one‘s consciousness. (p. 70)

This litany is common to accounts of Yoga reported in the West, based on

Patanjali‘s yoga sutras. Although Patanjali was the first to record in written form sutras

collected in a manuscript format, and hence the first to codify the ancient spiritual

tradition of yoga, which until that time had only been passed orally, and while his work

remains an authoritative source on a specific type of yoga, it does not report on the subtle

body phenomenon (Kundalini yoga‘s principles of the prana energy, chakra system, its

related techniques, mechanics, purpose and so forth) that was later observed and reported

in tantra literature. Also, Patanjali-yoga only relates the general outline and not the details

of such specific yoga techniques as asanas and pranayamas.

What is rare knowledge is that yoga consists of many schools, and many of the

most popular yoga techniques, such as asanas and pranayamas, come from the Hatha

yoga tradition, which is also an integral constituent of Kundalini yoga practice. The main

difference between Hatha yoga and Kundalini-yoga lies in the fact that the latter

discipline has a specific focus on directing the practice so as to enable life-energy and its

governing subtle body system (e.g., chakras) to work in favour of the practitioner‘s

personal development, which is healing and tranformation. As Swami Sivananda Radha

(2006) explains:
 59

Hatha yoga is one aspect of Kundalini Yoga and plays an important part in the

development of the aspirant. The scriptural interpretation of the word Hatha

expresses the polarity in which all beings function. Ha is said to be the positive or

active principle of existence, symbolized by the sun, heat, light and creativity. Tha

is correspondingly the negative or reflective principle, symbolized by the moon,

cold, darkness and receptivity. (pp. 249-250)

Preceding the proper review of the literature that directly informed the writing of

this thesis, I will relate in the next section more on my personal experience, specifically

on how I first come across Kundalini yoga, the yoga that deals with the specific interest

of my thesis, the kundalini phenomenon and its yoga practice and metaphysical principles

that has been observed and reported predominantly in tantra literature.

Kundalini yoga as a new opportunity.

I first came across Kundalini yoga and its governing principles of subtle energy

and chakras system through reading yoga training manuals such as Asana, pranayama,

mudra, and bandha by Saraswati, Swami Satyananda (1996), who limits his account to a

brief explanation of the existence of an esoteric subtle body that permeates our physical

body. His writing introduced me to a new and obscure knowledge that, in turn, led me to

ponder to such questions as: How is it that in our Western culture there is no record of

such knowledge? How is it that, during my many years of yoga training, no one has ever

mentioned the existence of another aspect of my body? However, what I initially

discovered of the subtle energy (and chakras system) and its potential for healing and

transformation did not come from text, but from direct experience at a time of personal

difficulties. An account of this direct experience is comprehensibly described in the

 60

section ―Personal Framework‖ of the Introduction. Through this personal framework

narrative, I retrace my own progress to the point of discovering the specific subject of

interest for my thesis, a single phenomenon: subtle energy. I believe that this personal

framework also provides a solid platform upon which the main topics that I intend to

research in my review of literature should be laid out. The topics are: human evolution,

characterized by personal development and spiritual growth; and transformation,

characterized by healing. Since these issues are addressed elsewhere, I will simply affirm,

here, that my personal narrative in essence relates to human evolution (personal

development and spiritual growth) and was transformed (healed) by the discovery of a

single phenomenon: subtle energy. The topics that have subsequently been assessed to

broaden my understanding of human evolution are informed by the subtle body system

phenomenon and other aspects that will unfold in the following sections of this review of

the literature.

What follows encapsulates my exploration of these two topics: human evolution

and the subtle body system, so ordered, because I believe that they inform subsequent

themes in this review of the literature. I hope that the review of the literature that follows

will provide the reader with a satisfactory theoretical framework for and a clear

understanding of the principles of my thesis.

New understanding of human evolution.

To meet the contextual requirements for my interdisciplinary study in Asian

Religious Studies, Transpersonal Psychology and Arts therapy, the literature had to be

selected according to disciplines and according to ancient and contemporary authors. At

the same time, I was determined to achieve an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon
 61

under study, subtle energy. As a result, although I reviewed the literature in a

chronological and disciplinary manner, my exposition focuses on specific topics that

concerned my personal development and spiritual growth as part of a bigger framework,

human evolution. Thus, the literature was approached as follows: first, I read the ancient

sources, the Indic meditational literature, for the specific purpose of collecting data on the

subtle body system. I undertook this reading with the aim of determining the main

anatomical model, mechanics, practice, purpose and meaning. Subsequently, I had to rely

on contemporary commentaries to increase the coherence of my understanding of the

phenomenon. Finally, I began to look for theoretical and practical evidence of how this

ancient knowledge has been and can be further integrated in a present day context.

Nevertheless, the topic that follows, human evolution, abstains from the chronological

set-up explained above; since, I feel a need to better contextualize the subject of human

evolution within the broad intention of this thesis.

Personal development and spiritual growth.

Committed to yoga as a way of life, I have experienced a phenomenon, subtle

energy in healing and transformation, which I understand as a prospective body of

knowledge (generally referred to as Kundalini yoga or tantric yoga) that can be used to

empower human evolutionary self-development. However, human evolution is a term

that leaves open boundaries to its interpretation. My spontaneous understanding relates it

to stages of development that an individual, or the human race as a single unit, has to

traverse to improve circumstances which are essentially marked by material, intellectual

and spiritual requirements. I feel that the different stages mark the order of importance

given to the requirements; in other words, an individual or the human race in its totality,
 62

at a specific stage of development, transforms necessities in an ascending manner, from

material needs at the bottom, to spiritual at the top.

The pioneering contribution to my intuitive understanding comes from the

Integral philosophy of Aurobindo Ghose. According to Varma (1990) ―Aurobindo‘s

philosophy of the universe emphasizes the double mechanism of involution and

evolution‖ (p. 9). He further states that the single concept was central to Aurobindo‘s

philosophy, which is the ―Satchidananda” or ―supermind‖ or ―supramental truth-

consciousness‖ that includes the ―infinite‖ static and infinite ―movement‖ (p. 9). Cosmic

creation, with human beings in it, is an energetic manifestation of this supra-conscious

movement. This movement is an instrument for the creation of infinite forms of

consciousness energy that seek progression from its involutive state to its original

evolutive one (Varma, 1990, p. 9). A deep philosophical explanation of these ideas is out

of the scope of this thesis; instead, here I am concerned more with an understanding of

theories that include in the concept of human evolution the idea of evolution of

consciousness. However, a clear understanding of how this study was conceptualized and

executed cannot refrain from introducing the researcher‘s personal frame of reference,

which is profoundly spiritual in form, although also aspired by an understanding of

psychosomatic developmental stages. Varma (1990) explains that Aurobindo‘s

understanding of ―the universe then is a refraction of the divine existence, and inverted

order of ascent and descent‖ (p. 10); thus, spanning from existence that is matter,

consciousness-force that is life, bliss that is psyche to supermind that is mind (Varma,

1990, p. 10). From what is just said, it is my understanding that pragmatic aspects of

human existence are energetic reflections of consciousness and seek evolution through
 63

movement that creates bliss, which is ascension toward divine life. Consciousness is thus,

for Aurobindo, the primary element necessary for evolution to occur, ―the mechanism of

liberation of the supreme spirit from its involuntary imprisonment to the material

inconscience‖ (Varma, 1990, p. 11). Finally, also of importance is the idea that

―evolution is a mechanism of two significant processes, ascent and integration .... Ascent

signifies the growing manifestation of the inherent unmanifest consciousness-force ....

Integration as a process in evolution signifies the reconciliation and harmonization of the

higher and the lower states of being ....‖ (Varma, 1990, p. 11); whereas, higher

consciousness intervenes to reconcile and permit the ―processual transformation and the

transmutation of the lower by the higher‖ (Varma, 1990, p. 13).

Similarly, the above concept of the evolution of spirit is also found in the concept

of Divine Ground in Aldous Huxley‘s perennial philosophy (1945), revisited by Wilber

(2000) in his concept of The Nest of Being (chapter titled ―the Great Nest of Being‖, p.6),

which posits that all cosmic manifestations are grounded in the divine and that human

consciousness has the power to transform and integrate their duality, which is governed

by lower, ego centred mind, and higher, divine centred mind, into union with the Divine.

While Aurobindo attempted to translate into practice this grand philosophy of

evolution (1990) through a new integral yoga (1993), Wilber transplanted his grand

theory of evolution into a new integral psychology (2000) based on the idea that human

consciousness spans from pre-personal, to personal and on to transpersonal qualities that

are the manifestation of the same Divine Ground. He termed this range of qualities in

human consciousness as ―Spectrum of Consciousness‖ (1993). Wilber‘s (2000)

―Spectrum of Consciousness‖ and integral psychology, however, can be traced back to

 64

Aurobindo and his close correspondents. For example, Satprem (1968) throughout his

subjective analytical exploration, premieres the essence of Aurobindo‘s new

philosophical and spiritual theory (1990) of the transformation of human evolution, that

operating from the level of the corporal-cellular to the energetic-spiritual, marks the

beginning of a new phase of physical-energetic evolution, which foresees humanity

replaced by a ―supramental consciousnesses,‖ a sort of superior being, spiritual in its

Essence. Haridas Chaudhuri was already proposing the idea of an integral psychology

back in the 1970s. Chaudhuri (1974) postulated ―a triadic principle of uniqueness,

relatedness and transcendence, corresponding to the personal, interpersonal and

transpersonal domains of human existence‖ (pp. 7-15).

A larger group of researchers deserve to be mentioned in this literature review,

however, I believe that due to space and time constraint it will suffice to say that this

group, generically defined as the ‗integral movement,‘ is composed of the forerunners of

integral philosophy and transpersonal and integral psychology; amongst them we find

exponents such as Abraham Maslow, Jean Gebser, Indra Sen, Roberto Assagioli (founder

of the school of psycho-synthesis), and C.G. Jung (founder of the analytical school of

psychology). This group, characterized by a strong commitment to interdisciplinary and

cross-cultural research, contributed to a paradigm shift in the West, from the vision of

human evolution as measurable only with brain-mechanisms or biological life, to the

vision of human evolution as part of a spectrum of consciousness that equally

incorporates materialistic and spiritualistic life-dimensions. This paradigm shift was

made possible through the integration of Eastern-contemplative and Western-empirical

investigative approaches and the body of knowledge for understanding human evolution
 65

that includes the spiritual phenomenon. For example, after a life dedicated to extensive

exploration of the depths of the human psyche, Carl Gustav Jung gives indications that

man‘s essential nature is spiritual (2001). In fact, he states: ―the psychologist must ...

remember that certain religious convictions not founded on reason are necessity of life

for many persons‖ (p. 198). And, more clearly, he states this reality of the human‘s nature

by saying:

I am accused of mysticism. I do not, however, hold myself responsible for the fact

that man has, everywhere and always, spontaneously developed religious forms of

expression, and that the human psyche from time immemorial has been shot

though with religious feelings and ideas. Whoever cannot see this aspect of the

human psyche is blind, and whoever chooses to explain it away, or to ‗enlighten‘

it away, has no sense of reality. (2001, p. 124)

I believe that with this intimation, already implied in the above mentioned

philosophical and psychological ideas (i.e., the Divine Ground, the Supermind and The

Nest of Being) and others similar, that spirituality is, apart from any possible dispute on

its psychological sustainability, nonetheless, an irrefutable reality of human

psychological structure. With regard to its disputable psychological sustainability, it

seems to me that Jung (1990) admits to the prime importance of spiritual values or self-

realization in what he names ―individuation‖ (p. 173), a well-known Jungian concept that

describes the innate human growth process necessary for psychologically sound

individuals. For example, he believes that psychologically unsound individuals, affected

by neurosis, although possibly appearing at a superficial level to be coping well enough

with everyday life, are not. As he states:

 66

As a result of their narrow conscious outlook and their cramped existence they

save energy; bit by bit it accumulates in the unconscious and finally explodes in

the form of a more or less acute neurosis. This simple mechanism does not

necessarily conceal a ‗plan.‘ A perfect understandable urge towards self-

realization [‗higher consciousnesses‘] would provide a quite explanatory

explanation. (Jung, 1990, p.184)

This self-realization is, according to Jung, individuated: ―a process of

psychological development that fulfills the individual qualities given …‖ (1990, p.155).

Jung seems to acknowledge that an individual, by consciously recognizing the

―unconscious processes … would extend the range of consciousness‖ (p. 184), though, he

affirms that, at a neurotic level of personality, ―we are still a long way from the summit

of absolute consciousness‖ (p. 184). Thus, for Jung, the impelling motive of neurosis

seems to be an outburst of forces towards self-realization, and a realization of spiritual

meaning and purpose is a possible solution to neurosis and requires the realization that

the unconscious has a connection to life-giving spiritual forces and subsequently a willing

commitment of the whole person to experience directly this evolutionary process, which

is a possible way to resolve the conflicting struggle of the ego (Jung, 1990).

To conclude, all the Indic meditational literature reviewed has one, common,

identifiable concept that implies this holism in human evolution, and this is the concept

of samadhi. The commentaries and studies on the tantric doctrines understand this

concept as the ability of the individual to recover the wholeness or unite the personal with

the universal and other similar descriptions (Radha, 2006; Flood, 1996; Bhattacharyya,

1982, 1986; Fields, 2001; Brahmacharini, 1990; Feuerstein, 1997).

 67

Subtle body system.

As result of my direct experience with subtle energy and the subtle body system,

by now I knew that an in-depth theoretical understanding of the phenomenon and its

governing principle was paramount to me achieving further understanding of the way

human consciousness evolves in body-mind and spirit. The specific texts of Indic tantric

and non tantric literature (available in English translation) that I reviewed are: The Sat-

Cakra-Nirupana (Avalon, 1974); The Tantraraja tantra (Avalon,1981); The

Vijnanabhairava (Singh, 1979); The Hathayoga-pradipika of Svatmarama (Svatmarama,

1972); The Gheranda samhita (Gheranda and Mallison, 2004); The Siva samhita

(Mallison, 2007); The Hevajra tantra: A critical study (Snellgrove, 1959); The concealed

essence of the hevajra tantra (Farrow and Menon, 1992); The Kalacakratantra (Wallace,

2001); The Inner kālacakratantra (Wallace, 2001); A commentary on the kalacakra

tantra (Ngawang, 1985); The Practice of kalachakra (Mullin, 1991). For an in-depth

historical background on these texts, please refer to the section ―Historical Background of

Ancient Indic Meditational Literature‖ in the introduction.

Main structure.

The specific Indic meditational literature reviewed here presents accounts of a

subtle energy that is contingent to a complex subtle body system. According to these

accounts, this subtle body system is organized mainly by conduits (nadis) and vortex or

centres (chakras) of consciousness. After reviewing all of the Hindu texts, I found that I

had descriptions of six chakras (Avalon, 1974, 1981; Singh, 1979; Svatmarama, 1972;

Mallison, 2004, 2007). By contrast, Buddhist tantric texts variously describe a system of

four, five, or six chakras. However, general consensus identifies four main chakras
 68

(Snellgrove, 1959; Farrow and Menon, 1992; Wayman, 1977; Wallace, 2001; Ngawang,

1985; Guenther, 1972). All the Indic texts and other contemporary scholars (e.g.,

Feuerstein, 2003) agree that there are three main nadis and that the central channel is the

one paramount to freely convey or channel the purified subtle energy in its ascension

along the axis of the chakras, which is located along the spine and opens out from the

fontanelle on the top of the head.

Healing and transformation.

Each specific tradition or author uses different language to describe the subtle

body system‘s structure, mechanism, purpose and so forth. For example, Avalon (1974)

describes ―a process technically known as … piercing of the Six Centres … of the body

… by the agency of … Cosmic Energy in bodies…‖ (p. 1). Singh (1979), in his

commentary of the Hindu tantric text The Vijnanabhairava, reports that this specific text

(belonging to the Kashmir Saivism or ideal of Saivagama philosophical school) teaches

various ways of centring awareness and entering divine consciousness, which include

ordinary and extraordinary experiences (e.g., kundalini) obtained by the individual

through tantric methods of spiritual practice (e.g., chanting mantras and practicing

pranayamas). The aim of the practitioner is to assimilate, and not reject, the universal

divine source. Singh (1979) explains this process as ―the integration of the individual self

to the Universal Self [Lord Shiva] … and the realization of the universe as the expression

of His Sakti or spiritual Energy‖ (p. ix). In my own interpretation of these texts, the

chakras can be understood as catalysers that administer and regulate energy to the human

system, producing fundamentally psychosomatic healing and spiritual transformation.

Moreover, it seems that the work of the chakras (e.g., to administer and convey energy)
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is also subjected to consciousness; for this reason, besides being translated into English as

centres of energy, they are also translated using such terms as psychic centres, centres of

consciousness, and spiritual-energetic centres. The reviewed texts also agree about the

need for a practice of realization, consisting mainly of physical postures, breathing

exercises and meditative techniques, to activate subtle energy found positioned in a static

and dense form in the lower or base chakra; and, subsequently, purify such subtle energy

with an intensified practice, consisting of more advanced techniques that include various

meditative techniques such as chanting mantras. For example, the yogic subtle body

practices taught in the Hevajra tantra, which include mundane and non mundane rituals,

yogas, visualization meditation, mantras, mandalas, consecration, and so forth, are aimed

at generating energy (prana) affecting the psychic centres (chakra/padmas) for spiritual

realization (Snellgrove, 1959; Wayman, 1977; Farrow and Menon, 1992). Thus, each

chakra centre seems to be responsible for employing subtle energy for transformation of

consciousness. When the subtle energy reaches its final course, the top chakra, it allows

the adept to reach the pinnacle of human consciousness, the ultimate stage of human

evolution or development, that is identified by various names according to the tradition (a

tradition‘s specific examination will be the subject of concentration in chapter 4 and other

data also can be found in the introduction and throughout the thesis). Clearly, the various

descriptions indicate an interrelation that exists between consciousness and energy forces

that, through a diversified practice, work for healing and spiritual transformation.

Ontological and phenomenological meanings.

In a present day context, commentators and scholars of this Indic meditational

literature are debating how to interpret this body of knowledge. One of the main
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questions that unanimously arises from leading scholars is: Should we understand the

subtle body system as a figurative or literal representation? (Flood, 1996; Snellgrove,

1959; Avalon, 1951, 1974; Zimmer, 1951; Samuel, 1989). Snellgrove (1959) seems to

suggest that the illustration of the subtle body system might work as an external device

like a mandala; thus, it is a representation of a macrocosmic reality that the tantric adept

can meditate upon and attempt to embody. Avalon (1974) reiterates this important

principle of man being a microcosmic correspondence of the macrocosmic reality. By

contrast, Zimmer (1951) propose that the transformation mechanism happens for real in

the physical body and is not an imagined process (p. 592). Avalon (1951) points to a

topic that is of prime importance in an attempt to answer the above dilemma. He puts

forward the tantric principle that ―the realization of divine absolute is obtained through an

empowerment of the self through the understanding that we can embody the power of the

Brahman‖ (pp. 259-260). Samuel (1989) indicates that the non dual principle of self and

universe is conveyed in tantras through the subtle body structure. What I would like to

introduce here is my opinion that, although the debate is very significant in terms of

scientifically measuring and thus proving the existence of a physical subtle body system

made of chakras and nadis and so forth, the significant factor that scholars of tantric

literature have collectively not undermined is the certainty that the employment of the

subtle body system, in either way, as a representation or as a real physical system, is

ontologically and phenomenologically important, because it affects the nature of being

(i.e., self-related) and the existence or reality (i.e., related to consciousness). The

phenomenological importance is reaffirmed by psychologists and therapists, with

transpersonal researchers at the forefront, employing the chakra system as a

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psychological model of personal development. Again here, the debate is quite animated

in terms of coming to an agreement as to the true meaning of this system; nevertheless,

the chakras are ever-increasingly gaining importance as assessment and psycho-

therapeutic tools. (Breaux, 1998; Meadow, 1993; Judith, 1987; Myss, 1996; Rama et

al.,1976).

Therapeutic benefits.

All the texts comprising the Indic meditational literature point out, to a greater or

lesser extent, that adepts who actively engage in yogic tantric practices experience an

evolutionary process, which involves healing and transformation at the various levels of

body-mind and spirit. Moreover, contemporary hermeneutics scholars (Fields, 2001;

Avalon, 1974; Bhattacharyya, 1982; Feuerstein, 2003; Flood, 2002; Mallison, 2007;

Samuel, 1989; Singh, 1979; Wallace, 2001) and authors who have had direct experience

with the phenomenon of kundalini (Krishna, 1971; Krieger, 2002) seem to unanimously

agree upon the healing and transformative power that this develops.

Another question that naturally arises here is: Does healing and transformation

occur because the adept has to subject himself/herself to an assiduous practice of

realization? If we consider that these practices of realization are comprised of physical

postures/exercises, breathing exercises and meditative activities that enhance the human

system at both the physical and mental levels (cardiovascular, nervous, muscular and so

forth) and also induce relaxation, concentration and so forth, then it is no wonder, some

would argue, that practitioners have to experience, to a greater or lesser degree, some

therapeutic benefits in their complex psychosomatic system. In other words, we are faced

with the dilemma of whether or not it is the practice that causes healing and
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transformation of the putative subtle energy. Again, the opinions expressed regarding this

proposal are varied. Studies are being conducted in various scientific fields; and, despite

findings that are sometime inconsistent, what I reiterate is important, again, is the fact

that there is unanimous consent that yogic practices, at any or all of the physical, mental

and spiritual levels, induce benefits for the practitioners. The following section presents

studies that corroborate this assertion through encouraging findings.

Measurement of yoga practices.

Determined to integrate some of the theoretical data with quantifiable data, I have

surveyed scientific studies that were able to show a relationship between spirituality,

better health and improved quality of life. Bormann and Carrico (2009) report a long list

of studies that show ―growing evidence supports the premise that spirituality is associated

with better health outcomes (Seeman et al., 2003) and improved quality of life (Aguirre,

1998; Brady et al., 1999; Paloutzian and Ellison, 1982)‖ (p. 359). Other studies reported

by Bormann and Carrico (2009) show that ―both religious and spiritually-based practices

may buffer the effects of stress‖ (p. 359). For example, studies on mantra applications

display positive findings ―associated with stress reduction .... reduced hypertension ...

improved pain management ... improved cerebral blood flow ... and EEG changes‖ (p.

359). Bormann and Carrico (2009) also point to studies, one conducted by Bernardi,

Sleight, Bandinelli, Cencetti, Fattorini, Wdowczyc-Szulc, and Lagi (2001) which ―found

that reciting the rosary prayer or yoga mantras enhanced cardiovascular rhythms and

slowed respirations in healthy adults‖ (p. 360) and another by Janowaik and Hackman

(1994), which ―found a positive association between mantra chanting and stress

reduction‖ (p. 360). Moreover, many studies surveyed show that ―meditative techniques
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are believed to reduce stress by initiating the relaxation response, a state of subjective and

physiological calm opposite to the fight or flight response‖ (Bormann and Carrico, 2009,

p. 360)

I have personally examined studies by Bormann and Carrico (2009) and Bernardi et

al. (2001) on mantra application; by Carson, J. W., Carson, K. M., Porter, Keefe, Shaw,

Miller (2007) Khalsa and Cope (2006) and Khalsa, Shorter, Cope, Wyshak, and Sklar

(2009) on yoga applications; by Singh, Kyizom, Singh, Tandon, and Madhu, (2008) and

Arambula, Peper, Kawakami and Gibney (2001) on pranayamas. All these studies

demonstrate that a certain degree of psychosomatic enhancement and/or psychological

well-being occurred in participants. Also, I have examined studies by Carter, Presti,

Callistemon, Liu, Ungerer, and Pettigrew (2005), Newberg, D‘Aquili and Rause, V.

(2001), Newberg and D‘Aquili (1999), Baijal and Narayanan (2009) on various types of

meditation. These studies were specifically aimed at measuring neurological patterns of

brain activation in participants undergoing altered states of consciousness during

meditation. The findings corroborate neurological activities in all participant meditators,

where different neurological activities correspond with different accounts on the content

of altered states of consciousness. In chapter 5, these studies will be further described and

their findings will constitute the basis for an analytic attempt to establish the significant

implications of my thesis.

Conclusion

From the review of the meditational literature, I understand that two theories

account for the subtle body system: one portrays it as a figurative model; the other holds

that it is literal. However, in either case, agreement exists about the ontological and
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phenomenological importance of the subtle body system. Also, the confirmation, through

scientific measurement, of the therapeutic and transpersonal effects of such yoga subtle

body practices as mantras, pranayamas, and meditation are extremely important to the

validation of this thesis. Moreover, based upon my personal experience with the

phenomenon and its practice, I conclude that despite the difficulty of reaching a general

agreement on the specificity of the meaning of the chakra system, its employments,

either as a literal or metaphorical tool, positively affects healing and transformation. Thus

it influences personal development and spiritual growth, producing human evolution.

In the next section, I explore an integrative model of human development

interpreted through the hierarchical lens of personal, interpersonal, transpersonal. In other

words, personal development is an opportunity for enhancing the interpersonal

relationship with the external; and, in this integration, a subsequent exploration of the

transpersonal reality can be initiated, leading to spiritual growth and the pinnacle of

human evolution.

Integral Framework

Subtle energy-consciousness.

The foregoing examination of meditational literature regarding the phenomenon

of subtle energy seems to interrelate with the phenomenon of expansion of

consciousness. In other words, both connect to personal development and spiritual

growth. Meditational tantric literature also describes the possibility of placing in motion

evolutionary processes through the employment of subtle energy. Moreover, the

meditative and aesthetic enactment of its systemic representation of evolutionary stages

of consciousness, despite expanding boundaries of consciousness to transpersonal realms,

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does not deny or degrade the personal constructs of individuals. In truth, some of the

doctrines that have been examined teach that reality is configured by the transpersonal

and that the personal, body and mind, are mere illusions. Such interpretations tend to

exclude rather than include the body-mind. However, this is not the approach of the

tantric traditions, in which, contrary to classical yoga or other Vedantic philosophies, the

body plays an important role and becomes the materialization of the divine transpersonal

reality. In other words, the personal reality includes the transpersonal by realization of a

greater reality. Tantric doctrines are also distinguished by their favorable orientation

towards aesthetic experience; whereas, divinity is realized only through embodying its

essence (e.g., qualities, etc.) and rituals play an important role for the embodiment of

divine of consciousness. Basically, the individual employs his or her physical body to

become a true representation of the macrocosmic dimension, by means of personal

realization. Thus, there is no denial of the personal, but a union of the personal with the

transpersonal or a reincarnation of the spiritual experience. In a way, I see this is similar

to when a tantric says something like, ―I am this and now I realize that I am that also‖;

rather than the Vedantic dictum so’ham ―I am that,‖ a realizer would state that, ―because

I realize I am that; I also realize I am not this.‖

Finally, according to my understanding, tantric disciplines admit various stage of

personal consciousness and use each stage as a building block for higher stages; so that,

in the end, the final building is made from all the blocks and not simply by its roof. On

the other hand, there is a clear acknowledgment in tantric philosophy of the full spectrum

of human consciousness as proposed now-days by leading integral psychologists (i.e.,

Wilber and companions); or, to return to my metaphor, there is a clear recognition of

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foundations and roof, without excluding the blocks that fill the in-between. The chakra

system should, as I understand it, be seen in this way, as different stages of the building

process; prana is the building material present in each block and other building materials

employed for the construction; consciousness is different in different stages, can be the

builder, the architect, the engineer or the house owner who will enjoy the final

construction; however, all these characters had and have something in common: the

ability to step back and look at what is being built or has been built. However, there are

various hierarchies in the various doers and viewers; the builder, architect, engineer can

enjoy the building process and the final result of the construction; however, they must

recognize that they are simply intermediaries, metaphors for the mind; finally, however,

they need to admit that only the owner will be able to enjoy living in the building, the

metaphor for consciousness; lastly, the owner can learn to enjoy living within or without

the building, the metaphor of non-duality. This non-duality is the commonality found

within all the Indic meditational traditions: where the implicit or explicit awareness is the

moment that the viewer, builder and so forth realize that there are no boundaries between

the doer and the doing; then, the ultimate spiritual realization will occur.

Conundrum of consciousness.

The importance of analyzing diverse modes of understanding consciousness made

me realize that consciousness, which is ultimately our conscious experience of self and

world, must be important in setting, for better or worse, personal limits for development

and growth, thus, affecting, for example, according to meditational literature, the

potential for healing and transformation.

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I gathered sufficient information from the meditation literature on the matter of

consciousness and I was now determined to survey scientific studies, which would

provide me with further valid reasons to break away, conclusively, from the scientific

materialistic perspective. Naturally, to comply with an unbiased analysis of the diverse

orientations on consciousness, I first looked at theories of consciousness based on

scientific materialistic literature. From my review of this scientific materialistic literature,

I learned that it promotes, first, an orientation that envisions the mind, thus

consciousness, as a mere brain construct, solely in terms of neuro-brain mechanisms

resulting from neurological processes and reducible to methods of research and

interpretation measurable only with mechanical equipment (Dennett, 2005; Humphrey

2006), and, second, that when man‘s brain-mind structure experiences expansion of

consciousness beyond an ordinary understanding of life/universal structure and so forth,

this is deemed to be a pathological brain-mind distortions of reality. In other words, the

firing of neurons in the brain-mind mechanical structure created a dysfunctional

(psychological, etc.) non-reality. It would certainly be puzzling and difficult for many

mystics throughout the ages, including present day meditators, transpersonal therapists

and people of various backgrounds, to try to comprehend this explanation based on their

personal experience; and I think that hermeneutic phenomenological methods of research

have provided an important medium to make their voices heard in the scientific forums.

Moreover, at a personal level, based on limited experience, through yoga and other

healing arts, of higher states of consciousness, the materialistic point of view, which has

categorized higher states of consciousness as mere pathologies and excludes spirituality

all-together, does not match my inner intuition regarding personal development and
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growth. However, I was deeply reassured to discover some important literature that

expounds on scientific work that provides some grounding and reassurance for the

infinite possibility and reality of the phenomenon of transcendence or expansion of

consciousness. Reading the book Why God won’t go away: Brain science and the biology

of belief, (A. Newberg, E. D‘aquili V. and Rause, 2001) was revelatory, in that I learned

something was changing in the way science interprets spirituality and related experiences.

This specific book condensed many years of neurological research studies on functional

brain imaging of meditators (e.g., included the use of SPECT (single photon emission

computed tomography). The findings, according to the authors, led to an understanding

of key brain structures, for example, how the neural pathways conduct perception to the

brain, or the way information is channelled along neural pathways, and how the processes

of the brain finally result in the creation of the phenomenon of mind that can be identified

in expansion and transformation of consciousness. This study resulted in the hypothesis

that the brain possesses a neurological mechanism for self-transcendence and that when

driven to its farthest viewpoint constitutes the groundwork for the transpersonal state of

conscious awareness ―from the mildest case of religious uplift, to the profound states of

union described by mystics‖ (p. 146). According to Newberg et al. (2001), transpersonal

states of consciousness are possible in the brain as a neurological commotion. Yet,

Newberg et al. (2001) argue that if all perceptions are scientifically explained to exist in

the mind as ―blips and flashes racing along the neural pathway inside the skull‖ (p. 146)

and we assume that our perception of the material world is real, then we can equally

assume the same to be true of spiritual experience. This work is important for the purpose

of my research, as it provides a scientific basis for understanding that higher or

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transcendental states of consciousnesses are neurologically as real as the material world

as we understand it. The authors‘ breakthrough is to openly admit that spiritual

transcendence is not a theory or fictitious pathological illusion, but more like a real

healthy reality existing as a neurological structure of the brain — already the subject of

study in the new scientific field of Neurotheology (Newberg et al., 2001).

Dr. A. W. Tiller‘s Science and Human Transformation: Subtle Energies,

Intentionality and Consciousness (1997) draws conclusions that support the idea of mind-

consciousness being a significant factor responsible for shaping, for better or worse, the

physical structure of the universe. Tiller‘s effort is oriented to postulating the existence

and evolvement of subtle energies, with the aim of presenting a theory of physical reality.

He presents a fascinating model of the universe as being multidimensional by

incorporating more than the familiar four fundamental forces including the spiritual

component. More extraordinary are his studies on demonstrating that human conscious

intention does affect the physical world we live in. Tiller and Dibble (1999) state:

Although it has been a long-standing postulate of the general scientific

community that there is no meaningful interaction between human experimenters

and their experiments, a variety of recent studies (Dossey, 1993; Keller, 1986;

Krieger, 1973; Quinn, 1984; Quinn and Strelkauskas, 1993) suggest that it is

perhaps time to seriously question this postulate. Effects associated with what

have been termed "subtle energies" (Tiller, 1993) appear to indicate that humans

can, at times, produce robust changes in physical phenomena (Jahn and Dunne,

1987; Tiller, 1997). (p. 155)

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These findings are not simply speculation towards a theory of a universe affected

by a subtle energy that is driven by a conscious spiritual force, but groundbreaking

technological discoveries that will have redundant effects on the way we experience the

world. Also important is the fact that Tiller‘s theory does account for spirituality to the

extent that in his 1997 writing he used new metaphors such as ―biobodysuits‖ to suggest

the idea that we are spirits dressed in human beings, which ultimately span from physical

to spiritual subtle dimensions, where consciousness is as integral an aspect of this

spirituality ―as an aspect of the biobodysuit, representing spirit as it exists in matter, and

relates these layers to theories of physics‖ (Tiller, 2003, p. 2).

Spectrum of consciousness.

My research into the realm of personal development and spiritual growth, along

with the realization that consciousness plays a pivotal role in understanding the subtle

body system and human life structure, shifted my focus of attention to transpersonal

psychology. Transpersonal psychology is considered by many as the natural extension of

other major schools of psychology: psychoanalysis, behaviourism, and humanistic

psychology. However, I became aware, as a result of my review of the literature that

transpersonal psychologists, although moving away from a specific interest in the study

on the phenomenon of the expansion of consciousness, had very soon broadened their

field of interest to consciousness that included various psychological stages already the

subject of study for the forerunner schools of psychology. A single theory postulated by

the transpersonal and integral psychologists encloses the various levels of human

consciousness and psychological stages, namely ―the spectrum of consciousness‖. Wilber

(1995) aptly explains the theory of the spectrum of consciousness as below:

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Man, as Absolute Subjectivity, is the Godhead--this is the concern of the East;

man, as an object of knowledge, is the phenomenal ego--this is the concern of the

West. Taken together they span the entire spectrum of consciousness. If Western

investigators--confirmed as they are to the Existential, Ego, and Shadow Levels,

feel that they shall have the last word in consciousness, then so much the worse

for them and their delusions of adequacy. On the other hand, the Eastern

investigators--who have the final say on consciousness--nevertheless sorely

neglect the levels of the spectrum on which most of us are destined to remain. So

while we completely agree with the pronouncements of Eastern sages, we have

slightly shifted emphasis by supplementing their psychologies with the findings of

Western scientists. The weary chemist, the frantic businessman, the depressed

housewife--they neither understand enlightenment nor seeks it. If they do, so

much the better; if not, shouldn‘t we address ourselves to the levels on which they

now exist? (p. 165)

With regard to the final point that Wilber makes on the necessity of addressing the

lower psychological developmental stages of individuals, I believe that his reference to

the ―Great metaphysical traditions‘‖ (p. 165) understanding that ―all of the levels of the

spectrum (except the ―no-level of Mind‖) do exist, but only in an illusory fashions‖ (p.

165), is partially true. Personally, I believe that he is undermining the fact that these

―Great metaphysical traditions‖ have delivered pragmatic disciplines, such as yoga, and

whole medical systems, such as Ayurveda, that offer a practice that is suitable for all

levels of human needs and furthermore identify the different typologies (physical,

emotional, intellectual and so forth) of human beings, thus identifying weaknesses and
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providing remedies for their healing (e.g., specific treatments) and transformation

(Douillard, 2004; Kak, 1997). However, the integration of Eastern models of

understanding consciousness, as proposed in the theory of the spectrum of consciousness,

further reassures me that the subtle body system, as a prime principle of such ancient

Eastern traditions as Hinduism and Buddhism, can be adopted, albeit by integration, to a

present-day context of personal psychological and spiritual development.

Pinnacle of consciousness: Transcendence.

Wilber (1975, 1995), in asserting the idea of the ―spectrum of consciousness,‖

describes some of the fundamentals of Huxley‘s (1945) ‗perennial philosophy‘ in

psychological terms. Wilber (1975) names it ―psychologia perennis,‖ which means

perennial psychology. In it, he attempts an amalgamation of Eastern doctrines and

Western psychology, including a wide-ranging explanation of the nature of consciousness

that he later defines as ―integral psychology‖ (Wilber, 2000). However, one of the aspects

that Huxley (1945) stressed in his perennial philosophy is that the purpose of human

evolution is the transformation of consciousness ―in the knowledge of the immanent and

transcendence‖ (1969, p. vii), thus, union with the divine or absolute. This topic lays the

groundwork for all the Indic philosophies considered in this study (Hindu, Buddhist,

tantra and yoga). Along these lines, Carl Gustav Jung (1962) made an important

contribution to the concept of personal development and spiritual growth with his idea of

‗individuation,‘ that is: a holistic integration of the individual. It is though this integration

that the individual experiences a profound healing, which involves physical and mental

health; and, it is through this healing that expansion of consciousness and transformation

is experienced. Ultimately, healing and transformation is measurable in terms of changed

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personality, where generally ethical values mature and understanding about human life

(e.g., life-structure) and nature (e.g., universe structure) broadens extensively (Jung,

1962). Walsh and Vaughan (1996) clearly state that:

… the depth psychology of Carl Jung—also called analytical psychology—has

been … concerned with transpersonal levels of experience. The in-depth

exploration of the psyche in Jungian work extends beyond both the ego and

existential levels when it deals with archetypes and the collective unconscious.

Jung himself affirm[s] the importance of transpersonal experience for mental

health (p. 26).

Overview

My first approach in reviewing the literature around the topic of subtle energy in

healing and transformation was to determine how ancient and contemporary meditational

literature and subsequently psychologists (e.g., transpersonal or integral theorists) and

other related fields‘ specialists were theoretically explaining such phenomena, and, most

importantly, to look at theories that integrated such knowledge within the present day

body of knowledge.

My encounters with a rich bioenergetics and neuroscience literature that by

studying brain and energetic phenomena are somehow measuring the phenomenon of

expansion of consciousness to transcendence, confirmed my initial beliefs, personally

tested in the yoga discipline. What entailed the notion of the existence of a subtle body

system being an active part of our human life structure (and the structure of the universe)

was obviously an issue much more complex than anticipated. Nevertheless, we have seen

that scientists can measure the effects of the subtle energy phenomenon on our physical
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realm (e.g., in terms of therapeutic and spiritual benefits). Experiments such as the one

conducted by Tiller (1997) and others (e.g., Jahn and Dunne, 1987) are prominent

examples indicating that we need to seriously reconsider how the power of human

consciousness, informed by the subtle energy phenomenon, can shape our physical

reality, which can include our health and well-being.

As I have made clear from the very beginning of this thesis, a genuine interest

galvanises my pursuit of an in-depth understanding of what personal development and

spiritual growth, or healing and transformation, imply. To accomplish this, I had to

address any reservations that could arise and in any way threaten the trust that I have for

self care development and growth through the practice of body-mind and energy-based

modalities such as yoga (where I had the opportunity to learn how to manage subtle

energy throughout the subtle body system of the chakras and experience healing and

transformation). Thus, I carefully considered various points of view on consciousness,

from the scientific materialistic point of view (Dennett, 2005; Humphrey, 2006 and

generally expressed by other materialist scientists) that do not often ―support the

investigation of extreme psychological well-being‖ (Walsh and Vaughan, 1980, p. 26),

and when it does, parameters are limited to materialistic reality, such as biological life

(Walsh and Vaughan, 1980), to the transpersonal, that on the contrary highlight the

possibility for human consciousness to reach a pinnacle of psycho-spiritual

transcendence.

As a result of my investigation, I have aligned with the interesting groundwork

theories advanced by transpersonal theorists and therapists. I have been allowed to do this

as the result of the freedom inherent in the methodology adopted in this thesis,
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hermeneutic phenomenology. According to Guignon (2009), ―this involves resolutely

taking responsibility for one‘s actions and knitting those actions together into a

meaningful whole that one can stand up for and own‖ (p. 6). Although I will illustrate in

depth the thesis‘method in the next chapter, at this point I will give a brief example that

illustrates how I processed and mediated, in a sensible way, certain breakthrough neuro-

scientific discoveries that claim through neuro-imaging data on brain activities to

corroborate, neurologically speaking, higher states of consciousness as being as real as

any other given reality (Newberg et al., 2001; Newberg and D'Aquili, 1999). To mediate

sensibly, I make a meaningful choice by taking a step further than the step proposed by

the arguments of Newberg et al. (2001) and Newberg and D'Aquili (1999). They argue

that neurological activity demonstrates the existentence of a transpersonal potential in

humankind, at the brain level, but leave unresolved the possibility that such potential

exists outside of the brain‘s structure. By so doing, they stand in a middle way between

the materialist scientists and the transpersonal theorists. In contrast, I pronounce in unison

with the transpersonal psychologists that the reality of a transpersonal state of

consciousness can be identified in the spiritual phenomena. In a hermeneutic

phenomenological mode of understanding, I, in line with Guignon (2009),

run counter to naturalism as an approach to the study of humans. First, this sort of

phenomenology brackets the uncritical presuppositions that make up common

sense and the sciences. These presuppositions include the seemingly self-evident

assumption that human reality must consist of physical organisms, products of

evolution, who function and interact with the physical world in ways

characterizable in terms of scientific principles .... [In other words] these structural
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aspects of the human cannot be reduced to empirically discovered, law-like causal

determinants of objects. They are instead characteristics of what we might think of

as the ‗‗scaffolding‘‘ or underlying ‗‗armature‘‘ that makes possible the creative,

constantly changing self-interpretations of humans‖ (p. 3)

Finally, as a result of comprehensive contemplation, I have aligned with the

outreaching pragmatic approach proposed and employed by integral philosopher and

therapists. This integral view, which focuses the object of study not on the transcendental

phenomena, but on the experience directly, that is, on the transpersonal phenomena, by

embodying it, thus comes to a direct understanding of the given phenomena and shares its

findings through hermeneutics phenomenology procedures.

Integral development model of growth: Chakras and psychological stages.

During my review of the main literature in transpersonal psychology and

transpersonal therapies, I came across a selection of texts that illustrate similarities

between the chakra development models of growth and Western psychological

development models of growth. As for the Indic meditational literature explored, the

Western transpersonal and integral psychology literature tends to illustrate growth that

ascend similarly from lower to higher stages and that transits through physical,

emotional, intellectual and spiritual (Breaux, 1998; Leskowitz, 2008; Maslow, 1968;

Meadow, 1993; Nixon, 2001; Kak, 1997; Krieger, 2002; Jung, 1996; and Wilber, 1996).

Significant examples of these similarities are Maslow‘s (1968) hierarchy of needs (i.e.,

stages of physiological safety, survival and self-protection, belongingness and love, self-

actualization, self-esteem and transcendence), and Meadow‘s (1993) development stages

(i.e., sexual and sensual impulses, concern with power, turning to issues of heart and
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responsibility and possessions, development of higher sensitivities, and a high level of

personal integration). Meadow (1993) explains the following:

Western psychology has spawned many models of personal development; most

major personality theories describe an understanding of personality growth. These

models focus on different components of personal growth according to what each

theorist emphasizes as important among the different aspects of personal

functioning. The highly sophisticated ego model of Jane Loevinger agrees with

other psychosexual, moral, and cognitive development frameworks in positing

that development occurs in an orderly sequence of stages. She conceives of ego

development as consisting of four main streams of personal growth: impulse

control, interpersonal style, conscious preoccupations, and cognitive style. These

can easily be considered "secular" representations of traditional religious

concerns. (pp. 67-68)

Noteworthy is the diverse background of some of the scholars that provide

accounts of stages of development. For example, Leskowitz (2008) is a psychiatrist and

fervent exponent of the energy healing theory; John Douillard (2004) is a doctor in

Ayurvedic Medicine; Kak (1997) is a quantum and neuroscience researcher; Wilber

(1996) is an integral thinker; Gary Nixon (2001) is a psychologist working with

alcoholism; and, Krieger (2002) is a transpersonal healer; just to mention a few amongst

others. All these authors confirm the principle of a transformation of consciousness based

on a spectrum interacting at each stage of the human tripartite system made of physical,

mental and spiritual elements. Some of them even go further, acknowledging subtle

energy as an important medium for this transformation. For example, Krieger (2002)
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affirms, ―The transpersonal is always grounded by experience. For the therapist, this

occurs during the enactment of the TT [Therapeutic Touch]. One can, in fact, see a

progression in the stages of the transition to the transpersonal ...‖ (p.p. 94-95) and in these

transition stages she places subtle energy as a significant medium activating progression.

And looking further back, one of the first and perhaps most prominent authors to clearly

point out that the chakra system plays an important role, not only in the potential

development of consciousness, but also in the psyche or the psychological stages of

individual development, was Carl Gustav Jung (1996).

Body-mind and spiritual awareness.

Creativity and transcendent consciousness.

One concept that clearly comes from the study of the Indic meditational literature

is creativity as ―the dynamic or creative principle of existence‖ (Feuerstein, 2003, p.

269), a force which activates subtle energy and is essential to the transformation of

consciousness. This principle is defined in the Hindu texts as kundalini-shakti (Singh,

1979; Avalon, 1974; Jyotsna, 1972; Mallison, 2004, 2007; Bhattacharyya, 1982), or the

Chandali (Snellgrove, 1959; Wallace, 2001), or ―red bodhicitta” (Samuel, 1989) in

Buddhist texts. According to Bhattacharyya (1982), the concept of creative energy is

found in mantra. Swami Sivananda Radha (2006) explains that creativity is expressed

through Hatha yoga‘s ―positive or active principle of existence‖ (p. 49). Feuerstein

(1989) defines the kundalini phenomenon as ―a microcosmic manifestation of the

primordial Energy, or Shakti. It is the Universal Power as it is connected with the finite

body-mind‖ (p. 264). Kason (2000) includes inspired creativity, symbolized in tantric

yoga as kundalini awakening, as one of the factors that provokes the journey of
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transformation that can transform ordinary life; in other words, creativity is placed as a

prime factor that she calls Spiritually Transformative Experiences (STEs). Miller (Miller

and Jung 2004) affirms that Jung identifies, in the notion of ―active imagination,‖ the

capacity for individuals to regenerate the primordial creative process, links to the concept

of ‗psychic energy‘. More precisely, Miller (Miller and Jung 2004) states that ―active

imagination is used to coax material from the unconscious toward the threshold of

consciousness and, in turn, can act as a mediator to bring unconscious imagery into

dialogue with consciousness and, in a sense, catalyze the transcendent function …‖ (p.

24). Miller further affirms that Jung identifies two ways to deal with the psychic energy

emerging from stirring the unconscious: one would be ―in the way of creative

formulation, or response in an intuitive or artistic way, processing the material by

generating aesthetic motifs …‖ (p. 24); and, the other would be in understanding the

meaning intellectually (p. 24). However, it is most important here to place emphasis on

Jung‘s notion of ―the role of the transcendence function and active imagination in

restoring equilibrium to the relationship between consciousness and the unconscious‖ (p.

22), where psychic energy, which in the ultimate analysis is creativity manifest as

―‗undifferentiated biological form‘‖ (p. 198), needs to be transformed into a ―‗cultural-

spiritual form of aesthetic activity‘‖ (p. 198).

Mary Whitehouse (1979) developed dance movements on the premises of Jung's

‗active imagination,‘ however she adjusted Jung‘s techniques for therapeutic purposes

and created an offshoot of DMT known as Authentic Movement (AT). Joan Chodorow

(1991), a leading pioneer in DMT and AT, in line with Mary Whitehouse (1979), speaks

in the same Jungian terms and proposes that DMT originates from the Jungian notion
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(1916) of ―active imagination‖ that implies the capacity to regenerate a primordial

creative process linked with the concept of ―psychic energy‖ (p. 48), what Freud defines

as sexual energy or ―libido‖, which for Jung represents a more broadened notion that

includes descriptions as ―dynamic, energetic, transformative … basically creative

energy‖ (p. 48). We should not overlook the fact that Carl Jung was directly influenced

by his study of Eastern thought, specifically Kundalini yoga. He actively studied the

psychological implication of Kundalini yoga and reported some of his findings in his

1932 seminars notes (Jung, 1996). For example, if we consider the importance that Carl

Jung assigns to the unconscious creative processes as healing and transformative forces

leading to the ―transcendent: connection with a greater consciousness‖ (Miller and Jung,

2004, p. 115), there is evidence of a close parallelism with the tantric notion of static

creative force or the shakti power, which is represented as a coiled dormant serpent on

the base of the human spine, that through its activation leads the adept to union with the

absolute transcendental reality (i.e. shiva in tantric mythology). Similar concepts are

found also in Buddhism and are referred to as ―...‗residues,‘ ‗latencies‘ [samasara]-that

constitute what depth psychology calls the contents and structures of the unconscious‖

(Eliade, 1973, p. xvii). Another parallel can be drawn between the actualization of the

sadhana or path of yoga in all Indic meditational traditions, which consists of practical

(e.g., ritual, postures, mantra) and intellectual realizations (e.g., meditation), resulting in

the liberation from obstacles (samsara) that leads to transcendent reality, and Carl Jung‘s

role of active imagination that through creativity in practice (e.g., aesthetic motifs) and

intellect (e.g., in the understanding of meaning) results in healing and transformation.

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Walsh and Vaughan (1996) aptly individualized the major gap between a scientific

approach such as Jung‘s depth psychology and a meditative discipline such as Yoga:

Analytical psychology recognizes that the psyche has within it the capacity for

self-healing and self-realization [with ―creative imagination‖ as one of the

―powerful therapeutic agents‖] …. However, Jungian work remains

predominantly concerned with the contents of consciousness rather than with

consciousness itself as the context of all experience. It therefore stops short of

valuing the direct, imageless awareness attained in the practice of some

meditative disciplines. (p. 27)

However, when we move into the field of expressive therapies, such as DMT and

AM, we find a wealth of literature in which there is a determination to explore further

Jung‘s depth psychology and overcome its possible limits by directly engaging with the

phenomenon of consciousness. For example, Adler (2007) states:

Direct experience is at the core of energetic phenomena ... [or] unitive

phenomenon, occurring when the felt separation between the moving self and the

more familiar experience of the inner witness dissolve. There is an awareness of

and immersion in the ineffable experience of nonduality. This description of

direct experience with nonduality is similar to the description of the concept of

samadhi in the Indic spiritual traditions. (p. 29)

Also artistic inquiry modalities are employing approaches very much parallel to

those already found in the spiritual tantric discipline, for example, direct experience,

embodiment of consciousness, creativity, mind-body relationship. Similarly, the two

poles of the spectrum of consciousness, the source and the aim, are found in both
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Kundalini yoga, where they are symbolized as Shakti and Siva, and in Jung‘s

psychoanalysis, where they are characterized as the unconscious and the transcendent. It

is through this re-conciliation that artistic modalities are developing into holistic therapies

(e.g. DMT and AM). Moreover, in the new framework of integral and transpersonal

movement and psychotherapies, it is my analyses/understanding that Tantric yoga (which

is the means of union) and Expressive Arts therapies such as DMT and AM, moreover if

rooted in the Jungian‘s psychotherapeutic analysis and techniques, are concerned equally

with the source, body; the aim, mind; and the journey, healing and transformation.

Healing and transformation distinguished/underlined by creativity give rise to the new art

of healing, which is living in the experience of the now.

In an attempt to draw a holistic map, marked with possible routes of the healing

and transformation journeys, what I understand to be significant is the ability to draw a

comprehensive map of the entire territory. Thus, both tantric thoughts and artistic inquiry

methods (which include Jungian integral thought) place at the core of the map and/or the

journey the exploration of the body-mind relationship. And both do this by creative

means such as performance-enactment or movement, energy and aesthetic experience.

These creative means are reminiscent of evolutive or involutive understandings of the

integral universe (Aurobindo, 1993). Moreover, these theories of creativity are generally

considered a prime source of all arts, for example as a basis for DMT (Meekums, 2002--

develops, based on case studies, a new theory of creativity divided into ―four cycles‖ [pp.

3-14]). While the tantric texts describe the creative force (kundalini) awakened by the

power of tantric rituals performed through artistic or intellectual means (e.g., dance,

music) of the practitioner, which ultimately employ the body to channel the psychic
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energy created and consciousness (i.e. contemplative power of the mind) to realise the

evolutionary journey back to absolute reality (Fields, 2001)

Body-mind relationship.

In my search for a basic understanding of how to make sense of the body and the

mind within a latent/potentiality of creation that is not yet realized, the static energy of

the shakti or Jung‘s unconscious, and the realization of a transpersonal consciousness

which is realized beyond the limits of the rational ‗self‘, I struggled once more with an

interdisciplinary literature that can inspire my personal journey of self development and

realization. Most importantly, I needed to answer the questions: How do tantric yoga and

the expressive arts therapies, with their obvious focus on spirituality, contextualize the

body and the mind? In other words, how do I make sense of my corporal experience and

mental understanding in my inquiry for a personal development that includes spirituality?

Another question that arises is: Can integration of Tantric and Western body-mind

therapeutic practices be actualized?

We have already seen that, within expressive body-mind therapies such as Dance

Movement Therapy in general and Authentic Movement in particular, a prime connection

with Jungian therapeutic principles exists that acknowledges both latent inner and

transcendental forces, or, to use Penny Parker Lewis‘s (2007) own words, ―Authentic

movements provides direct access to unconscious material [and] …. utilize transpersonal,

ultraconscious or archetypal collective phenomena‖ (p. 74). Thus, within movement

therapy, the inclusion of spiritual development ultimately implies transformation of

consciousness. However, as I penetrated within the cutting-edge literature on Authentic

Movement, I discovered a clear acknowledgement of the direct influence that tantric

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thought has had on this movement therapy. Penny Parker Lewis reports that ―movement

has been employed in rituals throughout the ages as a trance inducer, which has allowed

individuals to bridge the gap between themselves and their universe in order to have

access to healing and wisdom …‖ (p. 74).

Janet Adler (2007) point outs that:

In the discipline of Authentic Movement I find the term direct experience, which

originates within mystical traditions of monotheistic religions, to describe best

moments of purely embodied awareness … This term is proving helpful as we

attempt to bridge such experience as it moves from body, through language,

toward consciousness …. What occurs in this practice has occurred similarly in

different ancient and contemporary mystical traditions. (p. 261)

Adler (2007) goes on to analyze experiences reported by individuals participating

in Authentic Movement workshops, by using concepts such as ―Here there is an

experience of non-duality …. Moving from embodied relationship with associative

phenomena toward direct experience of energetic phenomena‖ (p. 262). She further

accounts for possible contradiction when speaking of esoteric ―direct experience‖ of

―higher realms,‖ ―kundalini experiences‖ (p. 263), experienced as real in the ―‗the chakra

system of yogic body‘‖ (p. 263) and the importance within Authentic Movement:

to practice toward speaking the experience, not speaking about it .... toward the

words energetically becoming the vibrations that they are, and thus directly being

the meaning themselves. Practising in this way opens pathways for a natural

process of integration, which reduces the tremendous intensity of the longing to

speak such unnamable forces as they become directly embodied. (pp. 263-264)
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These processes, Adler (2007) affirms:

Are practicing awareness of the grace of direct experience when it occurs. The

meaning, if any occurs beyond the experience itself, cannot be known until after

the experience of conscious embodiment. We are trusting that insight will appear

within inherent, synchronistic order of inner process, developed within the

intuitive realm. (p. 264)

Once again, my analysis of authentic movement theorists and therapists (e.g.,

Adler) is that, though not reproducing tantric doctrines, they are integrating tantric virtues

into a present day therapy in such a way that it shifts the focus from the profane mind to

the body as a sacred vessel of healing energy and to a transformation of consciousness

anchored to the supreme mystery of life.

Summary and Conclusion

My journey to personal and professional development underpinned by a single

Eastern discipline, yoga, led to a contemplative investigation that transited through

central themes such human evolution with its cosmic theories, human life-structure with

its energy-consciousness theories, holistic therapeutics or healing implications with its de

facto scientific measurements of yogic modalities and un-unanimous theories of

expansion of consciousness and, finally, back to the body-mind relationship and its

significance for an integral approach to the phenomenon of human energy-

consciousness.

An anticipated conclusion is that a single theory, which crosses ancient and

modern knowledge, is the ―Spectrum of Consciousness‖ theory that allows investigators

to look upon personal development in stages, each worthy of attention in terms of

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positively accepting the specific psycho-somatic and spiritual tasks they require.

However, most important is to understand that the spectrum of consciousness is a

perspective on psycho-physical or spiritual developmental stages of growth that is shared

by various Eastern philosophical traditions and practical disciplines, such as Hinduism,

Buddhism and tantric yoga, and Western philosophies and disciplines, such as ―perennial

philosophy‖ (Huxley 1969) and ―psychologia perennis‖ (Wilber, 1975), to mention a few

of them. Thus, in the light of this shared, albeit sometimes divisive understanding of the

broad framework that could imply human evolution, my main achievement in reviewing

such an inspiring literature is the proposition put forward by many, with the integral

theorists at the forefront, of an integral approach to theoretical prospects and therapeutic

applications (in a very broad sense which includes healing and transformation).

Since this thesis cannot eschew rigid methodological approaches, I will proceed

to: first, discuss the methodology employed in this thesis, hermeneutic phenomenology;

second, investigate the main meditational literature for the purpose of further

understanding ancient theories of human life structure, which adds the energetic body to

the physical and mental bodies; third, attempt a broad study of the energy-healing theory

by blending critical analysis of the theories and practices of subtle energy in healing and

transformation; and, finally, I will discuss the main findings and attempt to draw some

conclusions.
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CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In this research, the primary literary source of information on the phenomenon

under scrutiny, subtle energy and its related subtle body system, mechanics, subtle body

practice and so on, is found in the ancient tantric literature. These texts belong to a

cultural, historical and linguistic extraction which is extremely different from the one in

the Western hemisphere. However, we can avail ourselves of many leading contemporary

Western commentaries on these classical Indic texts, in which such commentators as

Eliade and Zimmer apply a hermeneutic phenomenological approach in their attempt to

unfold the present-day meanings of these literary works. I have chosen texts that take this

approach, because I believe that hermeneutic phenomenology is the methodological

approach that best serves the specific interdisciplinary framework of my master‘s thesis.

My belief is based upon the observation that hermeneutic phenomenology employs a

combination of descriptive and interpretative processes for the analysis of written texts

and experiential data of the specific phenomenon or phenomena under study. Since I am

including the data from a self-experiential laboratory in this study, which naturally lends

itself to a hermeneutic phenomenological approach, I see all the more reason for

conducting literary analysis and data collection using an interpretative phenomenological

analysis. However, ultimately, the report of my experience needs to be organized in a

relatively linear, textual format, specifically a written journal, and as with any other

written text, needs to be subsequently described (organized and structured) and, finally,

interpreted, so that an understanding of the phenomenon can be gained.

Purposely, a descriptive phenomenological approach is employed in Chapter 4,

where I examine the ancient meditational literature by creating a synthetic structure of the
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subtle body system by means of describing, comparing, distinguishing, and inferring the

essence of the information provided by the texts. Later on in the same chapter, a present-

day horizon of meaning of the phenomenon under scrutiny is presented by describing

modern interpretations. However, yet later within the thesis, specifically in the self-

experiential stage of the study, although I use a descriptive phenomenological approach

to structure and describe the gathered data, I engage in a direct interpretation of the

phenomenon by means of hermeneutic phenomenology principles (i.e., IPA). The overall

phenomenon is then interpreted in the final ―Discussion and Conclusion‖ chapter by

means of hermeneutic phenomenology, specifically, by employing Interpretative

Phenomenological Analysis.

I will now proceed to illustrate the precise research method employed in this study.

I will subdivide the research methodology, for the sake of transparency, into three

sections: Descriptive Phenomenological Analysis of Literature; Interpretative

Phenomenological Analysis of Experiential Literature; and Interpretative

Phenomenological Analysis of the Overall Study.

Descriptive Phenomenological Analysis of Literature

Descriptive phenomenology, in the Husserlian tradition, aims to capture the

essence of participants‘ experience through structuring phenomena. In descriptive

phenomenology, participants are considered the experts, and the researcher is an

instrument for describing, comparing, distinguishing, and inferring information provided

by participants, then constructing the information into a structured description (Giorgi,

2000). In the specific case of my study, in Chapter 4: Examination of Meditational

Literature, I treat the ancient meditational literature, including Hindu and Buddhist tantric
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and non-tantric texts and their commentarial meditational literature (texts of leading

authors--amongst them hermeneutical phenomenologists of the calibre of Eliade and

Zimmer) as ―the experts,‖ and myself, ―the researcher,‖ as ―an instrument‖ who

structures, describes, compares, distinguishes and infers literary information in order to

structure and capture the essence of the researched phenomenon. My aim in so doing has

been to create a synthetic model of the subtle body system by means of a comparative

study.

For the purpose of textual analysis, I have opted for a descriptive

phenomenological approach that is in line with the broad specification of descriptive

phenomenological approaches, and that specifically embraces ―the descriptive

commitments and transcendental interests of Husserl‖ (Smith, 2009, p. 21); wherein, the

researcher is an instrument for constructing and structuring the experience of a

phenomenon provided by participants who are considered the experts (Giorgi, 2000). My

specific aim in using the descriptive phenomenology method was to gather and structure

significant data provided in the selected literature, with the aim of broadening the

theoretical framework of the phenomenon under study, so that, in the latter stage,

interpreting the experiential data, the framework would be sound and hopefully allow for

a more in-depth understanding of the whole phenomenon, while suggesting the possible

meanings that govern such phenomenon. In other words, my objective has not just been

to investigate the what, where, when of the phenomenon, but also the why and how: the

meaning of the phenomenon.

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Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis of Experiential Literature

The Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis of the self-experiential study is

sustained by qualitative research and inquiry throughout the entire research. For example,

the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis conducted in the chapter ―Examination of

Meditational Literature‖ was made possible by the theoretical data obtained from the

chapter ―Review of Literature‖. Ultimately, the in-depth research conducted for the

compilation of both chapters two and four provided the necessary understanding of the

underlying principles and concomitant perspectives present in the classical and classic

meditational literature, which served as a basis for Chapter 5: ―A Broad Study of Energy-

Healing-Theory‖. Consequently, it is in chapter five that this research will look at the

entire phenomenon of subtle energy in healing and transformation, and qualitatively

describe and structure the subtle energy phenomenon in its full spectrum of possibilities,

from theories of transpersonal states of consciousness (i.e., higher states of

consciousness), to energy theories of personal states of consciousness and their pragmatic

application and integration in body-mind therapies.

The specific methodology selected to analyze experiential data in this thesis was

interpretative (hermeneutic) phenomenology. Interpretive (hermeneutic)

phenomenologists take the liberty of interpreting the unspoken, unconscious, and hidden

meaning that they perceive to exist in the phenomenon under investigation, rather than

simply providing a full description of the data. This approach permits researchers to make

inferences about informants‘ experiences beyond that which is conveyed (Cohen and

Omery, 1994). Thus, the approach is ideal for interpreting the data gathered in the overall

research on the phenomenon of subtle energy in healing and, specifically, for gathering
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data in the self-experiential laboratory, including the possible meaning of experiencing

the researched phenomenon, subtle energy and the subtle body system.

As per Schleiermacher‘s hermeneutic theory, a ―combination of a range of skills,

including intuition‖ (Smith et al., 2009, pp. 21-22) can and should be employed in the

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis of the phenomenon. In my specific case, such

skills originate from many years of theoretical research and experimental practice in the

fields of arts, with a specific focus on performing arts, and the East-West

psychotherapeutic and energy based modalities, yoga and Reiki. These years of research

and training have enhanced my self-awareness of body-mind and energy, and developed

my practical skills for managing subtle energy in personal healing and transformation

through the experience of Reiki and Kundalini yoga.

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis of the Overall Study

The final chapter, Discussion and Conclusion, will provide an interpretative

phenomenological evaluation of the theoretical and practical framework constituting my

study. The Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis and evaluation of the theory will

make use of qualitative approaches such as comparative analysis and critical theory

building to show relationships between the findings in this study and the examined

literature. The experiments will be further surveyed and interpreted in a synthetic mode,

to clearly demonstrate evidence-based results. The self-experiential laboratory will be

summarized by expounding on its experimental and personal creative purpose.

Creative process is one of the perennial themes that transverses the

interdisciplinary fields of this research. Meditational and transpersonal theories

acknowledge the contribution of creative processes to synthesizing and analyzing

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theoretical and evidence-based data. Qualitative methods of inquiry and, most

importantly, fundamental Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis acknowledge the

creative process. In Art-based research, creative process is also considered fundamental.

For example, according to Hervey, writing in 2000, Shaun McNiff defines constitutive

elements of creative research in this statement:

If experimentation is to correspond to the spontaneous and complex movements

of art and the therapeutic process, it cannot be planned and controlled. We can

observe patterns, receptions and similarities, but the conditions of art and

psychotherapy are not subject to experimental replication. (p. 59).

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CHAPTER 4: EXAMINATION OF MEDITATIONAL LITERATURE

This chapter is meant as a thorough investigative study of the rich Eastern

spiritual body of knowledge on ‗the subtle body system.‘ The texts that are examined

range from ancient primary sources of Hindu tantric and non-tantric literature and

Buddhist tantric literature, to contemporary commentary on Hindu and Buddhist

traditions.

Examination of Ancient Meditational Literature

Purposely, in this section I will evaluate the primary ancient literature in an

attempt to determine: (1) the anatomical representation; (2) the governing principles and

mechanics through which it works; and, (3) the purpose of ‗the subtle-body system,‘ (i.e.,

individuate the assumed therapeutic value of practices and energy).

Hindu tantric literature.

In the Sat-Cakra-Nirupana, the essence and purpose of the primary system of the

subtle body is revealed from the first verse throughout the remaining fifty-four verses.

For example, in verse 1 it is stated: ―Now I speak of the first sprouting shoot (of the Yoga

plant) of complete realization of the Brahman [italics added], which is to be achieved,

according to the Tantras, by means of the six Cakras [italic added] and so forth in their

proper order‖ (Avalon, 1974, p. 317 - verse 1).

Specifically, we learn from this text that each of the six centres (chakras) is

placed in a particular body location: the perineum; genitals; solar plexus (or navel); heart;

throat; and, the third eye centre (between the eyebrows). Also, we learn their

corresponding Sanskrit names, viz.: ―Muladhara, Svadhisthana, Manipura, Anahata,

Visuddha, and Ajna‖ (p. 317 - footnote n. 2). In addition, we learn that each chakra,
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visualized as a lotus, is characterized by a specific number of petals, seed syllable (i.e.,

lam, vam, ram, yam, hum, and om), elements, and so forth. Also, the text illustrates that

the flow of the ‗energy‘ (prana) happens mainly in ‗channels‘ (nadis). According to this

text, by meditating on these subtle centres centresand their entire interconnected system

(of nadis), one can achieve ―‗complete realization‘‖ also referred to as ―the union of Siva

and Sakti” or ―Nirvaha‖ (Avalon, 1974, pp. 318-319).

Of particular interest to our study is Avalon‘s (1974) commentary on verse 1 (pp.

320-325), in which a detailed description is provided of the whole organization of the

channels, which can be summarized as follows: In the space in front of the spinal column

there are placed two channels, on the left the ida nadi, is of the essence of the Moon, pale

and ‗female‘ in nature; on the right pingala nadi, is of the essence of the Sun, lustrous red

and ‗male‘ in nature; and, ―These two Nadis go upward singly from the Mula [i.e.,

Muladhara or base chakra], and, having reached the Ajna Cakra, [i.e., the penultimate

chakra], proceed to the nostrils‖ (p. 321). The ‗susumna‘ channel ―is in the middle‖ and

―she is the form of Moon, Sun and Fire‖ (Avalon, 1974, p. 320 - see also footnote n. 5 on

pp. 320-321). This main nadi ―extend from the middle of the Kanda‖ (p.320) or bulb

located in the perineum between the anus and urethra, ―and the Vajra inside Her extends,

shining, from the Medhra [Penis] to the head‖ (Avalon, 1974, p. 320 - see also footnote n.

5 on pp. 320-321). More precisely, the susumna is described as ―she who extends from

Mula to the place of Brahman is the fiery Susumna, the very self of all knowledge‖

(Avalon, 1974, p. 321 - see also footnote n. 2 on p. 321 for the exact source of this

description).
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Avalon (1974) suggests that this text ―speaks of the good to be gained by the

study of the verses relating to the six Cakras‖ (p. 479 commentary of v. 55): ―heart

unperturbed ... i.e., engrossed in his own true spiritual being‖ (p. 479 commentary of v.

55), and ―concentrated mind ... i.e., he who by practice of Yoga has steadied and

concentrated his mind on the inner spirit‖ (p. 479 commentary of v. 55). This

commentary on the conclusive descriptive verses of the six chakras by suggesting that

with the application of the subtle body practice described in the scriptures psycho-

spiritual benefits are obtained, highlights one of the reasons for my study, which is the

healing and transformative aspect of the yogic system of practice.

The Tantraraja Tantra, (Avalon, 1981), and the Vijnanabhairava (Singh, 1979)

do not describe the psychic centres in an organized and structured way as does the Sat-

Cakra-Nirupana. Nevertheless, both texts concur with the Sat-Cakra-Nirupana in the

description of the structural model of the subtle body system and confirm the existence of

a subtle body practice. Avalon in his 1981 writing explains that the Tantraraja Tantra

confirms the existence of the subtle body system and expounds on its structure, agreeing

with the main Hindu Tantric and non-Tantric literature (p. 3). Also, fundamentally all

these text relates the psychic centres to the therapeutic purpose of practice and energy.

For example Singh (1979) talks of the ―yogic practice of healing energy ... development

of pranasakti ... [and] awakening of kundalini” (pp. xiii-xiv).

Hindu non-tantric literature.

The model of the subtle body system described in the three classical Hindu non-

tantric (Hatha yoga) texts (Hathayoga-pradipika; Gheranda Samhita; and the Shiva

Samhita) is fundamentally the same as in Hindu Tantric Literature. In particular, this

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literature, like modern comprehensive manuals, instructs us on yogic techniques: physical

postures (asana); breath control (pranayama); mental attitudes (mudras); and so forth.

Ultimately, these yogic techniques form the ―limb‖ or practice of yoga that is

characterized by its therapeutic benefits and spiritual aim of reaching samadhi or ―the

final limb (anga) of the yogic path‖ (Feuerstein, 1997, p. 251).

The Hathayoga-pradipika instructs the practitioner on the subtle body system

with its centres or wheels (chakra), channels (nadi), energy or life-force (prana) and its

mechanics and practice (Svatmarama, 1972, p. vii). More precise connections between

life-force (prana), mind/consciousness (citta), conduits (nadis), and yogic techniques are

established in chapter two (Svatmarama, 1972). The Hathayoga-pradipika (of

Svatmarama with commentary by Jyotsna, 1972), describes in great detail the yoga

practice with its techniques (e.g., asanas, mudras and bhandas), mechanics and

therapeutic value. For example, in verse 17 it is taught, ―asanas make one firm, free from

maladies and light of limb‖ (p.11); verse 27 (p. 13) instructs that with the regular practice

of one of the postures, namely matsyendrasana, (see verse 26, pp. 12-13 for its

description) one stimulates ―gastric fire‖ that ―destroys all terrible diseases of the body‖

(p. 13). Also, this posture is believed to be one of the most effective practice of

generating body healing energy, the mechanics named ―kundalini awakening‖ in the

Hindu Tantric tradition; verse 29 teaches the pascimatanasana posture that is supposed to

aid ―the breath flow through the Susumna‖ (p. 13), which is believed to be the main

channel for the flow of ‗energy‘ along the subtle body psychic centres that generate

healing: ―stimulates the gastric fire, makes the loins lean and removes all diseases of

men‖ (p. 14); verse 39 states that ―one should always practice siddhasana [see verses 35
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and 36 for a detailed description of this posture]‖ (p. 16) as ―it purifies the 72,000 Nadi-s

[the conduits of energy]‖ (p. 16).

The verses mentioned above refer to ‗the practice and mechanics of generating

body energy‘ and reveal that, together with ‗spiritual‘ purposes, they also serve ‗healing‘

purposes. This observation is affirmed in Hathayoga-pradipika, which states that the

practice of yoga removes ―diseases‖ and ―facilitates concentration‖, and activates

―various nerve centres‖ (Jyotsna, 1972, p. 11).

Regarding the spiritual aim of such practice, we are informed in verse 33 that

there are in total 84 ‗postures‘ that largely account for the practice of awakening the

―subtle healing energy‖ (Jyotsna, 1972, p. 15). For example, verses 104-124 (pp. 56-59)

illustrate the entire process of ―liberation by [the power of] kundalini‖ (verse 104, p. 56).

The Gheranda Samhita (Gheranda and Mallison, 2004) speaks of a sevenfold

yoga aimed at activating the subtle body system: shatkarma for purification; asana for

strengthening; mudra for steadying; pratyahara for calming; pranayama for lightness;

dhyana for perception; and, samadhi for isolation. The text within this sevenfold yogic

practice reveals many facets of the psycho-spiritual possibilities closely inherent in the

subtle body system. Specifically, the chapter on Dhyana teaches ―three types of samadhi‖

(p. xii) or psycho-spiritual transformational stages obtained by means of specific yogic

practices. Examples of these yoga practices are the three mudras: shambhavi, khechari,

and yoni (pp. xi-xii) and other meditational techniques enhancing the human potential to

perceive and therefore activate various body forms from gross to subtle, for example

being able to visualize ―Light between the eyebrows‖ (p. xi).

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The Siva Samhita (Mallison‘s translation, 2007, chapter 2) contains a detailed

description of the ‗microcosmic‘ model of the subtle body system; this description

corresponds to the previous main models illustrated in other Hindu texts presented so far.

Also, as in other Hindu Hatha yoga texts, the Siva Samhita includes relevant yogic

techniques and practices (e.g. asana, mudra, etc.) that ultimately aim at awakening and

raising life-force (prana) for the obtainment of spiritual transformation. Through the

description and analysis of these texts it can be deduced that this transformation in turn

results in the achievement of body-mind and spirit health; thus, it is holistic.

A few examples of the verses found throughout Mallison‘s translation (2007) of

the Siva Samhita may help clarify these main points: Verse 21 states ―when the sleeping

kundalini awakens through the grace of the Guru, all the lotuses and knots are pierced‖

(p.77); verse 22 stresses the importance of mudras for energetic awakening; verse 23

goes further by citing the best mudras to awaken energy: mahamudra, mahabanda,

mahavedha, khechari, jalandhara, mulabandha, viparikarani, udyana, vajiroli, and the

tenth, shaktichalana (p.77). And, verse 1 of chapter 4 of the mudra states ―The Lord said,

‗Now I shall teach the sublime Yoga of mudras. Just by practicing mudras the yogi is

freed from all disease‘‖ (p. 72). All the above verses and specifically verse 1 confirm the

energy-healing mechanic and the therapeutics benefits of the ‗practice‘ (p.77).

In the Siva Samhita the location of all the six centres are described throughout

verses 56 (p. 62) -101 (p. 70): verses 56-74 muladhara chakra, “Two fingers above the

rectum and two fingers below the linga [genital]‖; verses 75-82 swadhistana chakra,

―situated at the base organ [or prostatic plexus]‖ (p. 65); verses 79-82 manipura chakra,

―near the navel‖ (p. 66); verses 83-89 anahata chakra, ―in the heart‖ (p. 67); verses 90-95
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vishuddha chakra, ―in the throat‖ (p. 68); and verses 96-101 ajna cakra, ―between the

two eye-brows‖ (p. 69).

In the Siva Samhita, throughout verses 57 to 62 (pp. 62-63), ―goddess Kundalini”

(energy) is described as residing in ―the root‖ (v. 57); ―luminous by its own light‖ (v. 58);

―Full of energy‖ (v. 59); ―It is also called the great energy‖ (v. 61), ―which rests in the

perineum, and is called the … self-born‖ (v. 62); ―It is endowed with the power of action

(motion) and sensation, and circulates throughout the body. It is, and has a flame of fire;

some times rises up…‖ (v. 62).

The main model of the subtle body system that is recurrent both in the Hindu

Tantric texts and Hindu Hatha yoga texts is summarized below:

Table A: Hindu Chakra Model

Name Of Chakra Number of Lotus Name of Bija Elements and Its Seat

Petals (Seed) Letters Colors

1. Muladhara Four Lam Red Perineum

2. Svadhisthana Six Vam Orange Genitals

3. Manipura Ten Ram Yellow Solar plexus/navel

4. Anahata Twelve Yam Green or pink Heart

5. Visuddha Sixteen Ham Light Blue Throat

6. Ajna Two Om Indigo/deep Region between the

blue/white two eyebrows

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Buddhist tantric literature.

The critical study of the Hevajra Tantra by Snellgrove (1959) introduces us to the

subtle body system and its mechanics (including visualization meditation, mantras,

mandalas, consecration and various other yogic practices). According to Snellgrove

(1959), within the Hevajra Tantra there is a detailed description of the structure,

governing principles and mechanics of the subtle body system:

To the left and right are two ‗veins‘ Lalana and Rasana, corresponding with

Wisdom and Means in their separate condition, which is the state of samsara. Up

and down these channels passes the breath, conceived of as vital force .... so long

as breath continues in this manner, so thought continues to wander uncontrolled.

The initial part of the process consists therefore in harnessing through to breath,

achieved by concentrating the thought upon the breathing process .... Running up

the centre of the body a third vein is imagined … Avadhuti that represents the

union of Wisdom and Means. Meeting it at cross section, at the navel, the heart,

the throat, and the head, there are imagined four lotuses .... or radiating circles

(chakra) .... These four lotuses correspond with the four stages of spiritual

advance viz., the four Joys [see table B] .... At the base of the genitals where all

the three channels come together … there resides the bodhicitta in its relative

condition ... and quiescent. At the summit of the head (brahmarandra) there

resides the bodhicitta in its absolute condition … also quiescent and known as

Moon. (p. 36)

Farrow and Menon (1992) explain bodhicitta as:

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Enlightened consciousness. The Enlightened Consciousness is said to be of two

kinds, absolute or unlimited and relative or limited. In its limited, restricted

aspect it is said to be semen. The goal of the tantra is to experience the

Enlightened Consciousness and to achieve this, a refined utilization and activation

of the seminal energy becomes the means. (p. 298)

The subtle body mechanic described in the Hevajra Tantra (Snellgrove, 1959) can

be summarized as follows: The bodhicitta found at the base aroused by the meeting of

―the two psychic stream‖ ―envisaged as Fire which is Candali [kundalini] ... burns ...

moving upward‖ through the central channel ―from navel to the heart and thence to the

throat and the head .... reaches the bodhicitta in the head ‖ (Snellgrove, 1959, pp. 36-37).

The Hevajra-tantra recognizes that breath control technique plays a predominant

role in advanced yoga practice, which also requires ―control of the physical process of the

body‖ for the achievement of a ―desired mental condition‖ (Snellgrove, 1959, p. 39).

The Hevajra Tantra’s main description of the subtle body system is of four

psychic centres (chakras/padmas) (Snellgrove, 1959, p. 38 - The English translation of

the Four Joys taken from Glossary of Special Terms - p. 134). According to Snellgrove

(1959), within this fourfold scheme are fitted all possible terms of reference of the whole

Buddhist doctrine and philosophy which ―is comprehended within the body‖ (p. 38), ―in

which the place of importance is at the top, namely, in the head‖ (p. 38). Snellgrove‘s

(1959, p. 38) interpretation is detailed in the table below:

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Table B: The Hevajra Tantra Chakra Model

Chakras/ Bodies of a Joys Four Syllable
Padmas Buddha Elements
Head Svabhavikakaya Sahajananda (Joy Air HAM

(Self-Existent Innate)

Body)

Throat Sambhogakaya Viramandana (Joy of Fire OM

Cessation)

Heart Dharmakaya Paramananda (Perfect Water HUM

Joy)

Navel Nirmanakaya Ananda (Just Joy) Earth A

The Inner Kalachakra tantra is main description of the model of the

chakras/padmas (Wallace, 2001, p. 159) is summarized below:

Table C - The Inner Kalachakratantra Chakra Model

Chakras/Padmas Bodies of a Buddha Joys Elements Syllable

Secret/Head Sahajakaya Sahajananda gnosis HAM

Navel space

Forehead earth

Heart Dharmakaya Paramananda wind HUM

Throat Sambhogakaya Viramandana fire OM

Forehead Nirmanakaya Ananda water A

According to the Inner Kalachakra tantra (Wallace, 2001):

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The four bodies of the Buddha, which are latently present within the individual,

are located within the six cakras of the individual's body due to the gunas

(qualities) of those cakras. Thus, the Sahajakaya, which is free of ideation and is

similar to a prognostic mirror, is in the secret cakra, in the usnisa [head], and in

the navel-cakra, which arise from the elements of gnosis, space, and earth,

respectively. The Dharmakaya is located in the heart-cakra, which arises from the

wind-element. The Sambhogakaya is in the throat-cakra, which arises from the

fire-element. The Nirmanakaya is in the lalata (3rd eyes center) which arises from

the water-element. (pp. 158-159)

The locations of the four bodies of the Buddha and of the six families within the

individual's four cakras are expounded in the second section of the Inner kālacakratantra

(vs. 27-47). Wallace (2001, ¶ 8) further depicts the ways in which the presence of time

and the universe is to be recognized in one's own body and shows the correspondences

between the passage of time in the world and the passage of pranas within the body; this

last section also discusses the different functions and locations of the diverse types of

pranas in the body (p. 23).

The rationale for the Kālacakratantra practices for eliminating mental afflictions

and actualizing the four bodies of the Buddha (see table C above) is provided in the first

part of the last section/chapter of A commentary on the kalacakra tantra (Ngawang,

1985). Particularly, this text discusses the path of actualizing spiritual knowledge in

relation to the individual: The Kālacakratantra consists of the theory of the nature of

gnosis, pranas (life force or life winds), spiritual ignorance, and mental afflictions, as

well as the relationships between them.

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In the Inner Kalachakra tantra (Wallace, 2001), we find a detailed description of

the yoga practice defined to be ―six-phased yoga (sad-anga-yoga)‖ (p. 203). This yoga

begins with the manifestation of the mentally nonconstructed appearance of one‘s own

mind [everyday thought and night dreams], and ends with the manifestation of one‘s

universal form. In this way, the whole process of the sad-anga-yoga is a meditative

process of bringing into manifestation the successively more subtle and more

encompassing aspects of one‘s own mind. (p. 203)

The six types of yoga are respectively (1) the yoga of retraction (pratyahara); (2)

the yoga of meditative stabilization (dhyana); (3) the yoga of pranayama; (4) the yoga of

retention (dharana); (5) the yoga of recollection (anusmrti); and, (6) the yoga of samadhi

(Wallace, 2001, pp. 203-206). Wallace (2001) aptly précis the meaning and function of

samadhi yoga, which appear to include two facets:

In the samadhi phase, the object of gnosis (jñeya) and gnosis (jñana) itself

become unified and give rise to supreme, imperishable bliss. For that reason, the

samadhi that is practiced here is defined as ‗a meditative concentration on the

form of gnosis (jñana-bimba).‘ [The Kalacakratantra, Ch. 44, v. 117, and the

Vimalaprabha] It is also interpreted as the imperishable bliss that arises from the

union of the apprehended object (grahya) and the apprehending subject (grahaka)

[The Vimalaprabha commentary on the Kalacakratantra, Ch. 44, v. 119]. (pp.

206-207)

Due to a lack of space, I will not be able to describe what each path of yoga

consists of and how they actively relate to working with the subtle body system.
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However, I will report on the first type of yoga, which will serve as an example of the

possible mechanisms and processes involved in the phased yoga:

The yoga of retraction (pratyahara) involves the meditative practice of retracting

the pranas from the right and left nadis and bringing them into the central nadi. In

this phase of practice, the contemplative stabilizes his mind by concentrating on

the aperture of the central nadi in the lalata, having the eyes opened with an

upward gaze called the gaze of the ferocious deity, Usnisacakri. As a result of

that, the pranas cease to flow in the left and right nadis and begin to flow in the

central nadi. The cessation of the prana's flow within the left and right nadis

severs the connections between the five sense-faculties and their objects.

Consequently, the five sense-faculties and their objects become inactive, meaning,

the six types of consciousness cease to engage with their corresponding objects,

and bodily craving for material things diminishes. This disregard for the pleasures

of the body, speech, mind, and sexual bliss is what is meant here by worship. As

the ordinary sense-faculties disengage, the extraordinary sense-faculties arise ....

Wisdom and gnosis become the apprehending mind, and the ten signs, which are

like an image in a prognostic mirror, become the apprehended objects. Thus,

gnosis apprehends itself in the same way that the eye sees its own reflection in a

mirror. This entering of the apprehending mind (grahaka-citta) into the

apprehended mind (grahya-citta) constitutes its nonengagement with external

objects. (Wallace, 2001, pp. 203-204)

According to Dhargyey (1985, p. 114-116), the Kalacakratantra talks of four

energy-centres according to the table below:

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Table D - Kalacakratantra Chakra Model

Cakras Location Etymology Element Color
(Sanskrit)
Khor.Lo
(Tibetan)
Mahasukha Crown Of Centre Of Great Space White, Green,

The Head Bliss Red And Black

Sambhoga Throat Centre Of Fire Red

Enjoyment

Dharma Heart Centre Of Water White

Dharma

Nirmana Navel Centre Of Earth Multicolored

Emanation

Kalacakratantra, when presenting the five energy-centers, adds the cakra below:

Genital Bliss Guarding

Centre

Dhargyey (1985) notes that, ―there is also a presentation of the six-energy

centers‖ (p. 114; Waymen, 1977, p. 63). The six branches of yogic practices are

described in the some manner as in the Inner Kalachakra tantra (Dhargyey, 1985, pp.

128-133).

A Comparative Study of the Main ‘Subtle Body Systems’

Throughout the examination of this primary ancient literature and assisted by the

secondary contemporary literature, I will conduct a comparative study of the various

existing main models of the subtle body system and its assumed practice, as well as the
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mechanics of generating body healing energy. Initially, I will identify and compare the

main existing models of psychic centres (chakras), channels (nadis), the subtle energy

(prana) and its mechanics, and the subtle body practice and its purpose; subsequently, I

will present interpretations of the subtle body system; consequently, I will provide a

summary of the comparative findings; and, lastly, I will draw some conclusions.

Two main chakras models.

After a thorough analysis of the primary literature, I have determined that there

are two main chakra models: the Hindu (tantric and non-tantric) model with six chakras

(see Table A), located at the perineum, genitals, solar plexus (navel), heart, throat and

forehead (3rd eye centre); and, the Buddhist tantric model with four chakras (see Tables

B, C, D), namely navel, heart, throat, and head or forehead (3rd eye centre). These two

main models were determined according to the main emphasis that seems predominant in

each tradition.

Specifically, during the study of the cited Hindu literature I found reference only to

the representation of six chakras models (however other models do exist); on the

contrary, in the study of the main Buddhist Tantric literature, I found reference to the

representation of four, five and six chakras models (Wayman, 1977; Ngawang, 1985).

However, ―a fourfold correspondence is especially prevalent in the [Buddhist] Yoga-

tantra [specific subject of our study]‖ (Wayman, 1977, p. 63), and, I also determined that,

generally, the main model accepted by Buddhist tantric tradition is of four chakras, and

that this results because the model corresponds to the four qualities of the Buddha; thus,

the others do not seem to play much of a role in practice (Guenther, 1972). On the other
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hand, both traditions agree on the actual location of the psychic centres (chakras) along

the spinal column or the primary central nadi.

The main nadis system.

The exact number of nadis is hard to determine due to a lack of consistency in the

textual tradition. Generally, they are affirmed to be any number between 72,000 (e.g., the

Hathayoga-pradipika) and 350,000 (e.g., The Gheranda Samhita). However, ―some

works state 72 nadis are particularly important, but most mention only 10, 12, or 14 by

name‖ (Feuerstein, 2003, p. 194).

In particular, in all the Indic literature used in this thesis, three prime nadis of

vital-force (prana) are considered key: sushmna-nadi; ida-nadi and the pingala-nadi

(Avalon, 1974; Avalon, 1981; Singh, 1979-1988). Feuerstein (2003) substantiates such

evaluation by affirming that according to Hindu terminology ―among the multitude of the

pathways of life force, three have special esoteric significance: the central channel called

sushmna-nadi and the two channels that wind around it in helical fashion, which are

known as the ida-nadi and the pingala-nadi‖ (p. 194); The Hevajra tantra (Snellgrove,

1959) describes the structure of the channels in the same mode: three main ―veins‖

(nadis), but terms them as ―lalana, rasana and avadhuti‖ (pp. 35-38), as do the other

main Buddhist Tantric texts. For example, Wayman (1977) affirms ―This body is said to

have 72,000 ‗veins‘ (nadi), of which three are the chief ones located in the position of the

backbone. These three, the chief conduits of the ‗winds‘, are differently named in the

Hindu and Buddhist Tantras‖ (p. 65). Fundamentally, the entire primary literature

examined in this research agrees upon the existence of three main channels and with the
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description of their mechanics and position in the body, despite the differences in their

respective names.

The following table (E) attempts to summarize the main Hindu and Buddhist

symbolic and metaphysical structure of the channels:

Table E - Hindu and Buddhist Anatomy of Channels

Name of Nadis Name of Nadis Location in Its nature Its motion
Buddhist Hindu reference with
spinal column
1. Avadhuti 1. Susumna In the middle or The form of Extend from the

in front of the Moon, Sun and middle of the perineum

spinal column Fire to the head

2. Lalana 2. Ida In the space in Is of the nature Upward from the

front of the of the Moon, perineum and having

spinal column: pale and reached the head

on the left ‗female‘ or proceed to the nostrils.

white moon-like Contains descending

vitality--apana.

3. Rasana 3. Pingala In the space Is of the nature Upward from the

outside the of the Sun, perineum and having

spinal column: lustrous red and reached the head

on the right ‗male‘; or the proceed to the nostrils.

red sun-like Contains ascending

vitality--prana.
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The life-force-energy and its mechanics.

Feuerstein (2003) defines ―Shakti (―power‖)‖ as ―The dynamic or creative

principle of existence‖ (p. 269), which in conjunction with prana comes to represent

creative life-force (prana-sakti); and, ‗the mechanics‘ of this life-force as ―the mode of

operation for the arousal of the ‗serpent power‘ (kundalini sakti)‖ (p. 224). Describing the

various forms of shakti, Feuerstein (2003) adds ―practically speaking, the most

significant form of shakti is Kundalini-Shakti‖ (p. 224); this Kundalini-Shakti is the

creative life-energy that by an advanced and intense yogic practice (e.g., asanas and

pranayamas) can be aroused until it enters the central channel (susumna), starting the

process known in the various Hindu philosophical doctrines and yogic traditions as

‗Kundalini awakening-arising‘ through ‗the piercing of chakras‘ (p. 224). Within the

Buddhist Tantric philosophy, life-force-energy is known as the ―Fire which is Chandali‖

(Snellgrove, 1959, p. 36) or ―red bodhicitta” (Samuel, 1989, pp. 197-210).

According to Singh (1979) the tantric yogi aims to direct the subtle energy

(prana) from the two main side channels into the primary channel, activating the flow of

the latent energy-power (kundalini-shakti) from the base chakra (Muladhara), to the

crown chakra, ‗Brahmarandhra‘, thus achieving ‗Liberation‘ (p. 152).

Yogic subtle body practice and its purpose.

The ancient literature strongly concurs that the body, from the grossest to the

subtlest forms (i.e., body, mind and energy-spirit), is the vehicle of spiritual

transformation. In support of this, Fields (2001) states:

In tantric practice, body is central in the quest for liberative self-knowledge …. A

main tenet of Tantric practice or sadhana is that ‗the Absolute is to be realized in

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and through the human body …. The body is the quintessence of the

physioconscious creation, and the Tantric practitioner or sadhaka awakens the

divinity within him-or herself. (pp. 34-35)

Eliade (1969) supports Fields assertion by stating: ―In the Hevajra-tantra, the

Buddha ... proclaims that without a perfectly healthy body, one cannot know bliss‖ (p.

227). Moreover, according to Eliade (1969):

we can distinguish at least two orientations, different yet convergent, in this

emphatic valuation of the body and its possibilities: (1) there is the importance

accorded to the total experience of life as constituting an integral part of sadhana,

and this is the general position of all tantric schools; (2) there is, in addition, the

will to master the body in order to transmute it into a divine body, and this is

especially the position of Hatha yoga. (p. 228)

Fields (2001) restates this idea that seeking health and achieving health are both

purposes and marks of success, when he quotes Upanisadic:

Although liberation is the highest aim of Upanisadic yoga, the Upanisads note the

health benefits of yoga: sickness, old age, and death are avoided by one ‗who has

obtained a body made out of the fire of yoga‘ (Svetasvatara Upanishad 2:12a).

Health is named as one of the signs of progress in yoga (Svetasvatara Upanishad

2:13a). (p. 89)

Each specific technique of this complex subtle body practice is designed for the

attainment of a healthy (e.g., purified) psychosomatic system that is able to channel life

force or energy for the achievement of absolute pure-consciousness. Thus, the pranic

activation is not feasible without a previous purification of the psychosomatic system (or
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gross body) and the subtle body system. The prerequisites are the purification of the gross

body or sense organs (achieved through the practice of asana, mudras, and kriyas);

control of the life-force-energy or prana (e.g., achieved through the practice of

pranayama); control of the thought-mind wave and concentration on the divine essence

(e.g., achieved through the practice of mindfulness meditation, sound repetition mantra,

etc.). The process of consciousness transformation is also obtained by eliminating mental

afflictions and actualizing body cleansing and purification techniques that will result in

the novice awakening the dormant life-force-energy (prana-shakti) for spiritual

enhancement (Avalon, 1974; Bhattacharyya, 1982; Feuerstein, 2003; Flood, 2002;

Mallison, 2007; Samuel, 1989; Singh, 1979; Wallace, 2001).

Singh (1979) adds that the ―Tantras contains descriptions of ritual practices,

sacred formulae (mantras), mystical diagrams (yantras), gestures (mudras), postures

(asanas), initiations (diksa), yoga or mystic practices‖ (p. x). Bhattacharyya (1982)

affirms that there are in the Buddhist and non-Buddhist tantras ―six Yogic practices‖,

which are ―control of the sense organs (pratyahara); meditation (dhyana); breath control

(pranayama), concentration on mantra (dharana); remembrance (anusmrti) and obtaining

perfect wisdom (samadhi)‖ (p. 230).

The Hatha yoga texts studied here (Hatha yoga-Pradipika, Gheranda-Samhita

and Siva Samhita) describe advanced Hatha yoga subtle body practices, which originate

from the classical yoga of Patanjali. Avalon (1974) states:

The practice and exercise connected with Hatha yoga are divided into seven parts

or stages–namely, cleansing…; the attainment of strength or firmness…by bodily

postures (Asanas); of fortitude…by bodily positions (Mudras); of steadiness of

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mind…by restraint of the senses (Pratyahara); of lightness …by Pranayama; of

realization…by meditation (Dhyana); and of detachment…in Samadhi. (p. 200)

Mallison (2007) argues that the Hindu Hatha yoga texts (e.g. Siva Samhita)

typically are non tantric but generally are in agreement with the Hindu tantric texts (e.g.

Sat-chakra-nirupana) in terms of their described subtle body practice: They teach that

through the practice of the various complex postures, breath control, ‗locks‘ (the

muscular constrictions of breath and energy flowing through the body), and so forth, the

novice aims to awaken the energy lying dormant at the base of the central channel for

spiritual enhancements (pp. xiii-xiv). According to Flood (2002) this process of

transformation is obtained by eliminating mental afflictions and actualizing ―the

purification of the elements in the body‖ (p. 25). Wallace (2001) states that such

transformation is achievable through the rationale of the Kalacakratantra practices:

Thus, in the context of the Kalacakratantra, by completely extinguishing one's

own psycho-physiological constitution and processes, one extinguishes the source

of one's own cycle of rebirth and attains the state of the eternal manifestation of

the gnosis of supreme, immutable bliss. From the premise that one's ordinary

psychophysical factors, which are composed of atomic particles, are the source of

one's mental obscuration, arises the necessity of transforming the ordinary,

physical nature of one's body and mind into their blissful nature. The Kalacakra

tradition considers that process of transformation as the most direct means to the

state of the mutual pervasiveness and unification of one's own body, speech, and

the mind of immutable bliss. (p. 183)

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Elaborating on the significance of body, speech and mind, Guenther (1972)

explains that in tantra:

The body is a god, speech a mantra, and mind absolute Being. To see the body,

by which the body as lived by me is meant, as a god is to appreciate it as a value

in its own right; similarly speech as mantra is not empty talk, rather it is

communication which does not depend on words with their conventional meaning

in usage. Lastly, mind as absolute Being is not the absolutization of subjectivism,

it is rather the cognitiveness of Being-as-such which expresses itself in and

through the activity of our Mind. (p. 62)

Taking into consideration that the Buddhist and the Hindu traditions vary in

certain metaphysical and ontological aspects of their doctrines, which will be dealt with

in the Summary of Comparative Findings subsection, we can readily state that the same

principles apply within both traditions in respect to what appears to be the fundamental

reason for the need of a yogic practice: It is generally agreed that the objective of yoga-

tantra practice is to create a harmonious balance between the physical body, the vital

energy (prana) and mind (citta); whereas, the evolution of consciousness is possible only

when the impulses generated by this harmonious balance stimulate the awakening of the

central force (Sushumna Nadi). The original objective of yoga and tantra is lost if it is not

used for this purpose.

Interpretation of the subtle body system.

The subtle body system is interpreted in the tantric scriptures as a microcosmic

manifestation in the human body of a macrocosmic reality (Avalon, 1974; Fields, 2001;

Feuerstein, 1989, Rama et al., 1976; White, 2000). Samuel (1989) indicates that, ―the
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Buddhist and Hindu Tantras employ a non-dualist conceptualization of body and mind or

self and universe based upon the anatomy of the subtle body with its ‗centres‘ (chakra),

‗channels‘ (nadi) and flows of ‗energy‘ (prana)…‖ (p. 197). Wayman (1977) states, ―The

remarkable occult physiology of the tantric books is really based on the theories of this

subtle body” (p. 65). Flood (1996) comments on ―whether such systems of esoteric

anatomy were meant to be understood in a literal or ontological sense‖ (p. 99); and he

further speculates ―they were rather systems of visualization in meditation for the purpose

of achieving Samadhi‖ (p. 99). Snellgrove (1959) puts forth questions such as: ―Are the

chakras within the body conceived of as real psychic centres, or are they an imagined

device like the external mandala?‖ (p. 33 – footnote n.3) However, he is aware that such

questions would probably contradict ―the whole basic theory from the standpoint of the

texts‖ (1959, p. 33 - footnote n. 3). He asserts:

For them the whole process, internal and external, is bhavana (mental

production), and the mandala, although imagined (bhavita) exists on a higher

plane of reality than the phenomenal world it represents. Likewise the idealized

representation of the body, consisting of the veins and cakras, exists on a higher

plane than the normal physical structure of the body. (1959, p. 33 - footnote 3)

Zimmer (1951), on the other hand, does not hesitate to assert that through

Kundalini yoga the adept manages to lead the kundalini force up the chakras system

initializing a real and not imagined process of transformation and transcendence in the

practitioner. Zimmer (1951) describes the mechanics of the subtle body system as

follows:
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Whereas the ... devotee practicing bhutasuddhi (the ritual purification of the

elements of the body in preparation for an act of dualistic worship) has to imagine

the purifying ascent of the Kundalini through the centres or lotuses (cakras,

padmas) of the susumna, the ... adept in the exercises of the tantric Kundalini

Yoga, actually brings this psychosomatic miracle to pass. Asana and mudra

(proper set and posture), pranayam (control of the breath), dhyana and mantra

(interior visualization and the concentrated recitation of certain ―seed‖ sounds and

formulae), following a long and severe preliminary training in physical and

emotional self-purification, led actually to a physical effect which is described as

the channeling of all the energies of the body into a subtle channel up the interior

of the spine (susumna). In this case, the rise of the ―Serpent Power‖ (kundalini)

and awakening of the lotuses (padmas) does not have to be imagined, it actually

comes to pass. And when the sixth center is attained--the ―Lotus of Command‖

(ajna) between the eyebrows--the Lord (isvara) is actually seen, not simply

imagined, and the beholder is completely lost in savikalpa samadhi--communion

with the Brahman ―with limitations‖ (savikalpa), where the distinction between

the subject and the personal God is retained. Whereas the moment the rising force

enters the ultimate thousand-petalled lotus at the crown of the head (the

sahasrara) ... the experience of duality is in sheer experience ... . (p. 592)

Summary of comparative findings.

Bringing the various Tantric and non Tantric theories into accord with one

another has been challenging. However, I have come up with some conclusions

regarding the fundamental similarities that are found across traditions regarding the
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ontological meaning of the subtle body system, its structure, its mechanics, its practice,

and its purpose. The first and most important similarity is the recurrent reference in all

tantra to an etheric body – the subtle body system empowered by life-force energy.

Regarding the actual structure of the subtle body system, in spite of some fundamental

differences between Buddhist and Hindu models that have already been mentioned and

examined above, important similarities exist. For example, all the traditional texts

examined in this study indicate the spinal column as the anatomical axial for the whole

organization of the subtle body system. In addition, in both traditions, the description of

the principal structure of the ‗channels‘ correspond and three are given prime importance:

Hindu with pingala, sushumna and ida; Buddhist with rasana, avadhuti and lalana, to

the right, middle and left of the spinal column respectively. Moreover, ‗the central

channel‘ (avadhuti in Buddhism and sushumna in Hindu) always seems to play a major

role, for example, when it comes to the mechanics of raising pranic subtle energy, which

is similarly described in both traditions of the tantric literature that has been analyzed.

Thus, the tantra traditions share the actual internal mechanics of subtle energy or ‗prana’

activation that is always initiated from the base chakra (normally associated with the

physical body and physical consciousness) and flows upward through the central channel

to the top, the place of psycho-spiritual importance (Snellgrove, 1959).

With reference to the various interpretations and English translations found in our

primary and secondary literature on the concept of prana-sakti, Singh (1979) affirms that

nevertheless it can be summarized in a few terms: ‗life force‘; ‗vital breath‘; ‗biological

energy‘; ‗bio-plasma‘ or ‗vital energy‘ (p. 156). More peculiar to Buddhism is the

correspondence of the word ‗prana’ with ‗karmic winds‘ doctrines; or, as Samuel (1989)
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asserts: ―The Buddhist Tantra adds the central concept of Boddhicitta, which is conceived

of as both a motivational state and a pattern of energy-distribution within the subtle

body‖ (p. 197). He (1989) further notes that:

It is interesting that it is only the Buddhists who describe the internal processes of

Tantric yoga in terms of bodhicitta. As far I know there is no real Hindu analogue

here. However the processes themselves occur in recognizable similar forms

within both Buddhist and Hindu Tantric practices. (p. 200)

In fact, the classical Tantric Buddhist texts recurrently describe this pattern of

energy-distribution within the subtle body system as the ―Fire which is Chandali‖ or ―red

bodhicitta” (Snellgrove, 1959, p. 36; Samuel, 1989, pp. 197-210). These Buddhist terms

correspond with the Hatha yoga terminology of the Hindu tradition to the fierce hot

energy or ―The Serpent Power‖ ‗kundalini’ (Samuel, 1989; Avalon, 1974). Of significant

importance, this process, in both Buddhist and Hindu traditions, symbolizes a sort of

psycho-spiritual development of the practitioner.

In respect to the assumed aims of the complex tantric practice, the perennial

concept is that the practices were employed by the yogis as a means of physical and

mental purification, a necessary preliminary and preparatory stage that either anticipated

or led the advocate to a psycho-spiritual journey of transformation and final redemption

from suffering. The yogis, through the employment of such direct practices, would

benefit from optimal health, which is both psychophysical and spiritual.

Finally, the idea of ―union,‖ shared by both traditions, should not be overlooked.

It is constantly portrayed as the unification of the body, speech and mind in Buddhist

tantra or in the union of the female and male (Red and white Boddhicitta in Buddhism;
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Shakti and Siva in Hindu). The concept of union is also an intrinsic aspect of yoga, which

means yoking: ―yoking of a team or equipment, union, contact, combination, mixture,

connection, relation‖ (Fields, 2001, p. 85). Fields, in his 2001 writing, further states:

Liberation in classical Yoga is thus .... integral to the meaning of Yoga in that the

practice of Yoga—physical and meditational—entails an effort of one-pointed

focusing. One-pointed concentration helps to yoke together the activities of body,

breath, senses, and mind, which supports the achievement of non-fragmented

mental stillness in the state of Samadhi. (p. 86).

Some conclusions to the preliminary section.

Despite the lack of unanimous agreement on the representation and the assumed

meaning of the models of the subtle body system and its mechanics, fundamental

similarities exist: the perennial element involved in the entire process is life energy;

complex mechanics are implicated in the work of life energy; the free energetic flow is

always ascending and corresponds to a psycho-spiritual journey—i.e. body, mind and

spirit transformation. For both models, the ultimate aim of this transformation is

metaphysical and can be conceptualized according to whichever traditional system one

decides to adhere: Buddhist or Hindu. Despite discord over the representation of the

subtle body system and its interpretation as literal or figurative, broad agreement exists

that the representation of the subtle body structure is employed as a visualization tool in

meditation for the purpose of achieving psycho-spiritual transformation. Ever increasing

evidence substantiates the claim that through specific subtle body practices such as

chanting mantra or performing breathing exercises pranayamas, the individual is able to

activate a positive psychophysical response. If this response is subtle energy flow, then
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we can affirm that this translates to extreme psychophysical health and spiritual well-

being--healing. Purposely, later in chapter 5, in the subsection ―Energy-healing theory: A

study‖, I will further corroborate, using contemporary scientific findings, the importance

of yogic and tantric subtle body practice in enhancing psychophysical health, and I will

elaborate on the subtle body system as a transpersonal model for the transformation of

consciousness.
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CHAPTER 5: A BROAD STUDY OF ‘ENERGY-HEALING-THEORY’

Consciousness: A Theoretical Study

In the preliminary examination reported in Chapter 4 of this thesis, I endeavoured

to study the significant Buddhist and Hindu tantric and non tantric literature relating to

the subtle body system. This study was mainly intended to provide multiple accounts of

the assumed existence of the subtle body system and its mechanics. In other words, I

attempted to present some ancient mystical theories of life-vital energy, that are

documented in this meditational literature and, subsequently, to scrutinise the governing

systems. I concluded that, although secondary differences exist in respective to subtle

body models and yogic practices, primary similarities occur in the adjoining subtle body

mechanics and energetic-spiritual healing principle. This energetic-spiritual system is

based on the belief that a life structure, including all natural phenomena, is governed by

mechanisms going beyond biological existence. These traditions believe that the subtle

body system‘s mechanism affects the individual‘s consciousness, and can transcend the

limits of personal psycho-physical identity, expanding to transpersonal or higher states of

consciousness.

Although the ancient tantric and non tantric literature reviewed in Chapter 4 posits

a ‗subtle body system‘ whose existence is beyond current scientific validation, as

expressed through the empirical, mechanical explanation which requires observable

measurement through physical and chemical means, in recent years, an ever-increasing,

significant body of evidence has been assembled by health care professionals, scientists,

and scholars, that seem to increasingly validate ancient mystical theories of life energy

and promote its current medical employment. This body of knowledge, which within a
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modern context can be defined as energy-healing theory, poses two important notions:

human nature is made of a tripartite system that essentially asserts the existence and

significance of a subtle-body-system or energetic-spiritual system along with physical

and psychological body systems, namely the spectrum of consciousness; and, the

integration of the subtle body system and other constitutive elements of the tripartite

system could have significance for healing and transformation. Putting forward these

important notions not only opens up the platform for the study‘s examination, but

broadens it enormously—a cumbersome task—since there are strong disagreements

among scholars (e.g., scientists and transpersonal-integral researchers such as

philosophers, psychologists and therapists) about the theoretical and practical principles

underlying and forming energy-healing theory. As a result, in the next section I will be

dealing largely with sorting out the conundrum of consciousness, which I do in

consideration of my thesis‘ interdisciplinary and integral framework. This examination of

consciousness and the solution that I foresee in the integral development model, ―the

spectrum of consciousness,‖ will be a source for a more pragmatic section where I will be

dealing largely with the practical implications inherent in the ―spectrum of

consciousness‖ model and integral theory and applications in general.

Conundrum of defining and sorting out consciousness.

Perhaps no aspect of mind is more familiar or more puzzling than consciousness

and our conscious experience of self and world. The problem of consciousness is

arguably the central issue in current theorizing about the mind. Despite the lack of

any agreed upon theory of consciousness, there is a widespread, if less than

universal, consensus that an adequate account of mind requires a clear

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understanding of it and its place in nature. We need to understand both what

consciousness is and how it relates to other, nonconscious, aspects of reality. (Van

Gulick, 2009, ¶ Introduction )

In an endeavour to conduct a theoretical study of consciousness within a scientific

framework, I came across contrasting paradigms. This in turn led me to the realization

that perhaps no aspect of human nature can be more subtle and subjective than

consciousness, which relates to our ability to experience within the self and without. In

this study, I acknowledged that the lack of an agreed universal theory of consciousness is

too huge a problem to be solved within the space and time given for this subsection; I

will, however, attempt to integrate divergent (complex and extensive) theoretical systems

on consciousness into the theory known as the ―spectrum of consciousness‖. The theory

of the spectrum of consciousness fundamentally projects the idea that when considering

consciousness we are facing ―an extraordinary spectrum ... reaching from prepersonal to

personal to transpersonal states … spanning subconscious to self-conscious to

superconscious‖ (Brad Reynolds, 2004, p. 315).

Theoretical systems.

In order to conduct a more comprehensible examination of consciousness

theories, I will integrate and organize the diverse theoretical systems into two groups: the

Western traditional scientific-materialistic perspective and the East-West integral

movement.

Western scientific-materialistic group.

Traditional Western scientific models of consciousness can be as multifaceted as

are the disciplines of natural and social sciences, but they all share a common approach
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―that starts with objective, empirical, and often quantifiable observables‖ (Wilber, 1995,

p. 5). We can identify approaches such as classical behaviourism and cognitive

behaviourism in psychology; classical positivism, structural-functionalism and system

theory in sociology (where cultural productions are considered significant insofar as they

are aspects of an objective social action system). Even in theology and metaphysics, we

find objectivist or naturalistic approaches, where the attempts to deduce the existence of

transcendental realities are still based on ―empirical and natural events‖ (Wilber, 1995, p.

111), as opposed to subjective and introspective approaches that ―turns the light of

consciousness directly onto the interior domain itself‖ (Wilber, 1995, p. 111). Ultimately,

scientists whose approaches are materialistic, deny the validity of the existence of

spiritual knowledge and any of its predicates (for example, the existence of a universal

consciousness residing outside the neurological brain-mind structure). According to Kak

(1997) ―The innermost aspect of consciousness … considered to be beyond a finite

enumeration of categories" (p. 10), as proposed by Vedic and yogic doctrines, is denied in

its entirety.

Dennett (2005), in the following statement, epitomizes the approach to

consciousness of the Western material-scientific establishment:

It seems to many people that consciousness is a mystery, the most wonderful

magic show imaginable, and an unending series of special effects that defy

explanation. I think that they are mistaken: consciousness is a physical, biological

phenomenon – that like metabolism or reproduction or self-repair – that is

exquisitely ingenious in its operation, but not miraculous or even, in the end,

mysterious. (p. 57)

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Dennett (2005), furthermore, is convinced that the mystery of consciousness is a

simple ―state of magic” and explains that:

Part of the problem of explaining consciousness is that there are powerful forces

acting to make us think it is more marvellous than it is … a set of phenomena that

exploit our gullibility, and even our desire to be fooled, bamboozled, awestruck.

(p. 57)

Nicholas Humphrey (2006), known for his work on the evolution of human

intelligence and consciousness, in reply to one of the ―big questions‖ that one of his

‗anxious‘ readers puts forward on whether or not consciousness survives the biological

death, states:

It‘s the most natural of all questions to ask. I think we human beings are made to

ask it. I even think that in asking it we become better people. But my straight

answer, as a scientist, is: not a chance. Consciousness is something we do with our

brains. (p. 133)

Towards integral vision.

When spirituality becomes a subject of scientific research (e.g., cognitive

psychology, behaviourism, biology and neurology) it is drained of its metaphysic, and

treated and analysed as mere physical experience. In other words, a scientific

materialistic parameter is used for the study of certain spiritual phenomena. On the

contrary, transpersonal psychology (and all the integral movement) attempts to study

transcendental and mystical experiences, without the dissipation typically obtained by

natural science, while, instead, preserving the intrinsic value, the spirituality, of these

experiences whenever possible. Most importantly, in my opinion, as the following quote

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from Walsh and Vaughan (1980) makes clear, is that the nature of reality is in the eye of

the beholder:

Every point of view rests on certain assumptions about the nature of reality. When

this is recognized, assumptions function as hypotheses; when it is forgotten, they

function as beliefs. Clusters of hypotheses create models or theories, and clusters

of theories constitute paradigms …. It is in the view of this realization that

whenever the hypothetical nature of paradigms, indeed any model, is forgotten

that ―they act as distorting perceptual filters‖. (pp. 25-26)

Newberg et al. (2002, pp. 3-4) conducted specific studies (that will be described

later in this chapter) on neurological brain processes. Their research used imaging

techniques to detect brain activity during altered states of consciousness or spiritual

experiences. One important finding was that a quieting of sensory activity led the OAA

(orientation association area) in the brain to fail to see the duality between self and the

outside. This finding describes exactly the type of spiritual experience recounted by

―generations of Eastern mystics‖ (p. 6). Newberg et al. (2002) affirm that, since research

demonstrates that spiritual contemplation affects brain activity, the experience gains

validation as a demonstrable reality that psychologists and neuroscientists had long

denied. They also argue that this research explains why people experience altered states

of consciousness. Moreover, Newberg et al. (2002) are certain, ―based upon our current

understanding [of brain science] of the manner which the brain turns neural input into

perceptions of human experience ...‖ and of the fact that ―all spirituality and any

experience of the ultimate nature of God‖ can ― be reduced to a fleeting rush of

electrochemical blips and flashes, racing along the neural pathways of the brain...‖ (p.
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143). However, they deny the conception that spirituality or ―God is just an idea, with no

more substance than fantasy or dream...‖ (p. 143). They state this ―based upon‖ their

scientific ―understanding of how mind interprets the perceptions of the brain‖ (p. 143).

Ultimately, Newberg et al. (2002), embrace a new tendency in the scientific world to

overcome the strong sense of divergence between structured perspectives of

consciousness based on religious or scientific orthodoxy, and mitigate the scientific-

materialistic discourses by clearly asserting that ―our own brain science can neither prove

nor disprove the existence of God, at least not with simple answers‖ (p. 143)

In their role as neuroscientists, Newberg et al. (2002) are openly admitting the

inability of science to prove the non existence of a spiritual source outside our brain and

their current inability to find answers to a plethora of provocative questions, such as: Is

consciousness only a neurological brain-mind process, which therefore ceases with the

biological-death of the body? What is spirituality, transcendence or consciousness for that

matter? However, Newberg and colleagues manage, I believe, to create the foundation

and the focal point from which the contemporary integral movement can further

investigate. As Newberg et al. (2002) admit, questions about the nature of absolute reality

are the subject of much research in philosophy of mind, psychology, neuroscience,

cognitive science, and artificial intelligence (just to mention a few of the disciplines

involved). Even as scientists (psychologists, and also physicists, biologists, cognitive

psychologists, neurologists, etc.) all over the world are making concerted efforts to

understand various topics that belong to the vast spectrum of consciousness, there is a

need to integrate these theories (for example, with Eastern scientific investigations of
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inner spirituality) as proposed by exponents of the integral movement and transpersonal

disciplines.

Obviously, scientific investigations such as the one conducted by Newberg and

colleagues (2002) are not undertaken to produce simple literature with which to

mesmerize laymen. They are undertaken to investigate such serious scientific questions

as: How do we understand and expand consciousness? In the process, they seek to show

whether man is more than a physical body, even if only in the neurological system. Thus,

we can talk of a major shift: from the critical opinions that considered expansion of

consciousness to such higher states as divine bliss, enlightenment, and union with the

universe, as mere fictitious accounts or pathological mind constructs, to the search for

empirical, quantifiable data, with which understand the expansion of consciousness from

a scientific perspective. However, the search may be long, and any merger between the

current scientific paradigm and those who study consciousness through direct experience,

may still be some way off. Underpinning the Eastern thought (Hinduism, Buddhism) and

integral research is the theory that one can experience altered state of consciousness by

means of direct, subjective experience that certain traditions describe, in their ultimate

essence, as absolute objectivity. This absolute objectivity or absolute consciousness is, as

far I understand, the whole idea of the spectrum of consciousness theory and exists at

least one step beyond the limits of the traditional-scientific paradigm.

Newberg et al. (2002), in the practice of analyzing and describing such complex

phenomena, do not attempt to affirm that religion is nothing more than brain function.

They simply state that religion is the province of philosophy and epistemology. Many

scientists before them have marvelled at this mystery. According to Wilber (1995),
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modern physicists such as Einstein, Heisenberg, Schrödinger, Broglie, Planck, Pauli, and

Sir Eddington ―were united in the belief that the universe simply does not make sense--

and cannot satisfactorily be explained--without the inclusion, in some profound way, of

consciousness itself‖ (p. 107). Wilber (1995) adds that ―the vast majority of them were

idealists or transcendentalists of one variety or another‖ (p.107). According to Wilber,

writing in 1995, Broglie asserted, ―the mechanism demands a mysticism‖ (p. 107) and,

Sir James stated ―using words that virtually none of these pioneering physicists would

object to … that it looks increasingly certain that that the only way to explain the

universe is to maintain that it exists in the mind of some eternal spirit‖ (p.107). It is in the

light of this attempt to provide some answers to the many unanswered questions of the

universe‘s structure that the integral movement provides a new vision to bridge the gap

between the two extremes: scientific-materialistic realities and spiritual-metaphysical

realities. Kak (1997) points out that experiments conducted by quantum theorists ―led

many to argue that basic advances in physics would eventually require one to include

consciousness in the scientific framework‖ (p. 3).

East-West integral movement.

Models of consciousness can be as multifaceted as there are consciousness

research groups and individuals directly or indirectly investigating this topic. These

research groups consist of psychologists, philosophers, neuroscientists, physicists,

engineers working in artificial intelligence, anthropologists, artists, and exponents of

ancient Eastern tradition, as well as people working in other, emerging disciplines. Since

it is unlikely that any single theoretical perspective can suffice to explain all the features

of consciousness that we wish to understand, one might ―without contradiction accept a

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diversity of models, that each in their own way, aims respectively to explain the physical,

neural, cognitive, functional, representational and higher-order aspects of consciousness‖

(Van Gulick, 2009, ¶ 10. Conclusion). Thus, a comprehensive understanding of

consciousness will likely require synthetic and pluralistic approach of many types.

Contemporary health professionals, scientists and scholars prone to adhering to

the ideal of a balanced integration between mechanistic and mystic theories of

consciousness may provide the best perspective for future progress. Expressly, within the

framework of this study, we are dealing with Eastern spiritual and Western scientific

theorists, who are in line with evolutionary models that maintain the importance of

science and spirituality in testing lower, ordinary, and higher level--spiritual or

transcendent--states of consciousness; and, are increasingly sharing their vision on

consciousness models as creative living art.

Based on this broad orientation, I will continue to further discuss in this subsection

the East-West integral theory of consciousness. Specifically, I will deal with disciplines

such as integral and transpersonal psychology, both preoccupied with an all

encompassing, universal holistic approach, where notions of lower, ordinary, and

spiritual--transcendent states of consciousness are investigated. In this examination, I will

further elucidate the energy-healing theory by illustrating the ideal of the unity of

consciousness found in the interconnection of the elements constituting the tripartite

system. Expectantly, I will attempt to create a solid foundation for the next section to be

examined, which deals with the integral framework and proposes a therapeutic

application of the energy-healing theory.

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Tripartite system of consciousness: Body-mind and spirit integration.

Leskowitz (2008), a fervent exponent of the energy healing theory, explains the

fundamentals of the tripartite system of consciousness:

In Western medicine, human beings are conceived of as extremely complex

machines …. Within this model, the sense of the ―I,‖ the individual awareness

that we all experience, is simply an artefact or by-product of our incredibly

complex nervous system and brain; there is no independent self or consciousness.

In the energy model, however, human beings are conceived of as

multidimensional organisms.... The ―I-ness‖ of consciousness is seen as primary,

operating within the tripartite system of body, mind and spirit. Mind is composed

of thoughts and emotions, while spirit includes the transcendent level of soul as

well as the more tangible force of subtle energy. (pp. 226-227)

Thus, the third constitutive element of the human structure is stated to be an

independent consciousness.

Leskowitz (2008) referring to the energy model explains:

The yogis described a series of nested sheaths ranging from the densest one, the

physical body, to the most ethereal, the Spirit. One of these layers, the subtle

energy sheaths [i.e., the tantric subtle body system of chakras, nadis, and prana]

…. is considered ... to be merely another subdivision of the physical body ….

energy and matter were thought of as poles of a continuous spectrum of which

Western medicine [and psychology] considers only a very limited portion. (p.

227)
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The subtle body system ―regulates the flow of subtle energy in the body. It uses

prana (subtle energy), the nadis (subtle nerve flow), and chakras (subtle-energy centers)

to transform thoughts into action allowing the mind to affect and direct the body. It is

here that many of the [therapeutic] benefits ... are experienced‖ (Douillard, 2004, pp. 24-

25) (the therapeutic benefits will be further discussed in the next sections). Kak (1997)

elaborates on the tripartite system by commenting on certain yogic doctrines, ―One may

look at an individual in three different levels. At the lowest level is the physical body, at

the next higher level is the energy systems at work, and at the next higher level are the

thoughts [mind]. Since the three levels are interrelated, the energy situation may be

changed by inputs either at the physical level or at the mental level‖ (p. 9).

According to Kak (1997), these yogic doctrines, because they provide a detailed

illustration of the structure of the mind, help us to understand how consciousness works.

The mind is composed of: an external ―lower mind, which collects impressions‖ (p. 10)

through the five senses; and, three other levels of the mind that "are collectively called

the internal instruments of the mind" (p. 10) consisting of "the sense of I-ness that

associates some perceptions to a subjective and personal experience" (p. 10), the intellect,

which makes evaluations and takes decisions; and, lastly an extremely complex level,

which works as ―the memory bank of the mind. These memories constitute the

foundation on which the rest of the mind operates.…The organization of the new

impressions throws up instinctual or primitive urges that creates different emotional

states" (p. 10). This complex aspect of the mind "surrounds the innermost aspect of

consciousness … [which is] considered to be beyond a finite enumeration of categories"

(p. 10). To an attentive analysis, Kak‘s (1997) illustration of the Vedic view of mind-
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consciousness structure corresponds to the Buddhist theory of five aggregates, which are

form, feeling, perception, volition, and consciousness.

In the following table, Kak‘s (1997) illustration of the Vedic Mind (consciousness)

structure is compared with Buddhist aggregates of being:

Table F - Vedic and Buddhist Structure of Mind-Consciousness

Being‘s Aggregates: Buddhist Structure of the Mind: Vedic

system system

Form Body

Feelings Primitive urges

Perceptions Lower mind

Volitions (includes memory) Intellect

Consciousness ―I-ness‖

Kak (1997) provides further clarification of the agents interrelated to the tripartite

system:

Since the state of mind is mediated by the pranic energy, it becomes useful to

determine how this is related to the focus on the various parts of the body. In the

tantras … points of primary focus which are called cakras are described …. Their

positions appear to be areas in the brain which map to different points on the

spinal cord …. It may be assumed that the stimulation of these cakras in a proper

way leads to the development of certain neural structures that allow the I-ness to

experience the self. In other words, the cakras are points of basic focus inside the

brain that lead to the explication of the cognitive process. (pp. 10-11)
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According to Kak (1997), current research on consciousness mirrors ideas ―in the

Vedic theory, which dates back to at least 2000 BC,‖ (p. 2) since both view ―awareness in

terms of the reflection that the hardware of the brain provides to an underlying

illuminating or awareness principle called the self‘‘ (p. 2). Specifically, earlier yogic

ideas allude to the notion that ―Consciousness is the Self‖ (p. 11) and that the ―The

knowledge of one's innate nature leads to Siva's state [transcendental/universal

consciousness]‖ (p. 11- Similar ideas are reiterated in Abhinavagupta, 1989; Singh, 1979;

Dyczkowski, 1987).

Woods (1927), in his translation and annotation of Patanjali‘s sutras, points to the

attainment of non-violent consciousness and possibly the subduing of the affliction

(kleshas); in addition, to the neutralization of the law of cause and effect (law of karma)

through the progressive awakening of discriminative insight and intuitive wisdom by

effortlessly and gently mind directed prana (p. xxxvi). Wilber (1996) aptly points out that

―beginning with … the sixth chakra . . . consciousness starts to go trans-personal‖ (pp.

76-77). A similar concept is presented also in Walsh and Vaughan (1980), where they

explain that the word transpersonal refers to stages of human development through which

a person's self-awareness extends beyond the personal and the rational, going beyond the

mystical.

This section delves into the effects of the full range of potential energy, which,

through its variegated agents and processes, stimulates the growth of the individual‘s

psycho-physiological system. Such stimulation ultimately leads to the discovery of the

self, thus unfolding the potential of consciousness, including transcendental stages. Kak

(1997) clearly states, "Ordinary consciousness is bound by cognitive categories related to

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conditioned behavior. By exploring the true springwells of ordinary consciousness one

comes to recognize its universal …. potential energy that leads to continuing

transformation ... and pure consciousness‖ (pp. 11-13).

In 1992, the Association for Transpersonal Psychology described transpersonal

psychology as follows: Today, a more comprehensive view of human nature is

developing. It recognizes our personal uniqueness, as well as a transpersonal

dimension -- something which is beyond our individual egos, and yet still a part

of us. This perspective offers an expanded view of human capabilities, and

combines a probing assessment of personality with an affirming vision of the full

range of human psychological and spiritual development. Based on observations

and practices from many cultures, the transpersonal perspective is informed by

modern psychology, the humanities and human sciences, as well as contemporary

spiritual disciplines and the wisdom traditions. (Waldman, 2006, p. 1)

Spectrum of consciousness.

Ken Wilber (1993) recapitulates the aforementioned idea in his theory of psycho-

spiritual-transformation and multifaceted consciousness-evolution in the ‗the spectrum of

consciousness‘. This spectrum was already identified in ancient Eastern traditions and

Charles T. Tart, one of the founders of the field of transpersonal psychology, reiterates

this when he states, ―mind, or consciousness, has multiple significant facets, and that this

high diversity is well known …. Sanskrit, for example, has more than twenty terms that

are translated into English as various aspects of mind or consciousness‖ (Krieger, 2002,

p. 50). According to Kak (1997), ―The Vedic theory of consciousness speaks of a process

of evolution‖ (p.15) ―devoted to the question of consciousness. Although a part of this

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tradition deals with philosophical issues, there are other aspects, as in yoga and tantra,

that deal with structural aspects [e.g., physical and mental]‖ (p. 2).

The spectrum of consciousness is a complex model that in Indic tantric traditions

(e.g., Hinduism and Buddhism) has been thoroughly defined and illustrated by the chakra

system. This system is seen as a development model that addresses ordinary and non-

ordinary states of consciousness. Kundalini is the potential energetic force that ascends

from the lower emotional chakras centres, concerned with the primal survival needs such

as shelter, food, emotion and ambition, to the psycho-spiritual medium and higher

chakras centres, concerned with such issues related to consciousness as communication,

encompassing love, and expanded consciousness. So, the chakras are a full manifestation

in the human body of the spectrum of consciousness.

A brief summary of consciousness theories.

When we refer to personal consciousness, we are considering the individual-ego

consciousness of the subjective my, his, her, your, their, ours; thus, consciousness is

normally synonymous with body-mind or existence-thought, the two Cartesian status

quos for excellence: ―I think therefore I am‖ or ―I am therefore I think‖. These two

approaches to consciousness are predominant in the Western paradigm (Chaudhuri, 1974,

pp. 34-35; Krieger, 2002, p. 47). Conversely, when we talk about transpersonal

consciousness, we are transcending the body-mind parameters, moving into abstract

realms. These realms are abstract because the simple reasoning process of the mind

cannot possibly grasp them. They are named differently, according to the religious,

philosophical or cultural context: God, divine, absolute joy or absolute bliss (Brahma),

cosmic, radiant, enlightenment (Nirvana), and so forth. These mystic approaches to

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consciousness are predominant in the Eastern paradigm. A third contemporary approach

blends the best (hopefully) of Eastern and Western paradigms. It is the product of the

progressive and integral thinking of East-West minds (by minds here I mean to include

brainpower and the consciousness element), conveyed in the ideal of unity between

psychology that is investigating the personal--psychosomatic--and transpersonal

psychology that is investigating the transpersonal—psycho-energetic and spiritual.

Conclusion

In this study of a cross-disciplinary subject such as consciousness, we were faced

with various theories. If we consider the models of consciousness surveyed by the natural

and social science, we need to consider them more as a rich biological phenomenon,

likely requiring the specification of detailed mechanistic models. Naturally, this

subsection accounts for and acknowledges the importance of ground breaking scientific

discoveries and revolutionary theories, as upon these are built definitive models.

Nevertheless, I conclude that most of the scientific-materialist approaches lack a

structural basis; more precisely, they lack a will to relate to the arrangement of and

relations between the parts or elements of a complex whole, which, on the other hand,

seems to be the central element of the Integral movement.

Although, the scientific-materialistic group has obvious merits, for example,

highly accurate tests that are readily quantifiable and replicable, they seem to collapse

under the analysis and judgment of their faults. For example, there are strong critics,

which this study agrees with, that accuse the proposal of the traditional scientific-

materialistic exponents as having a bias tendency. In other words, they seem to want to

dictate their norms, and do not often ―… support the investigation of extreme
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psychological well-being and higher states of consciousness‖ (Walsh and Vaughan, 1980,

p. 26); and, when they do, the parameters are limited to materialistic reality, such as

biological life. In the opinion of many integral scholars, with Wilber (1995) in the

forefront, scientists of the calibre of Dennett and Humphrey constitute a sort of scientific-

materialistic conspiracy against the spirit, encouraging the view of the universe as a

material reality. Dennett (2005) responds to these criticisms by accusing his detractors of

strong sectarian religious orthodoxy aimed at exploiting our trustfulness. This study

posits that scientific-materialistic exponents (e.g., Humphrey and Dennett), by conveying

a lack of tolerance for the idea of spiritual-transcendental consciousness, obstruct the way

to scientific progress. Therefore, scientific experiments of any kind (such as the one by

Newberg et al., 2002), where the limitations of science are acknowledged in explaining

the full range of mind-consciousness manifestations, are needed, if progress is to be

made.

Finally, in this conclusive section, I admit that, at present, no single model of

consciousness appears sufficient to fully account for the multidimensional properties of

conscious experience; and that the hypothesized subtle energy system is still beyond the

grasp of scientific and rational minds, much like the Higgs Boson physicists so ardently

seek. However, balanced scientific research should, in my opinion, put emphasis on

balanced orientations: For example, balanced research should promote the scientific

investigation of extreme psychological well-being and higher states of consciousness,

without refraining from exploring Eastern cross-cultural beliefs (e.g., in the spiritual-

energetic existence). Researchers ought to constantly place in ballot the validity of any

given theories by testing them through experimentation and open discussion, especially
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when they do not adhere to the currently dominant scientific theories. It comes as no

surprise that principles of energy-healing theory and energy-healing practices are making

their entry into the health science domain and the health care system, contributing

significantly. One proposed energy system model is the Indic model of the subtle body

system, the subject of my current study, which proposes to scrutinize some of the modus

operandi of such energy-healing modalities.

Integral Framework

In the light of a new integral understanding, I will attempt in this section to

explore the intricacies of intertwining and inextricable psychophysical and spiritual

interventions (e.g., Eastern and Western psychotherapies) that are contributing to the

establishment of an alternative holistic health care system.

Basis for integral psycho-therapeutics.

In the preceding argument, I have tried to: fundamentally delineate, at the

theoretical level, the subtle body system, as reported in the tantric and yogic belief

systems; decontextualize it from its mystical ontology; and recontextualize it in a modern

integral orientation. When this is achieved, the result becomes an energy-healing-theory.

It is well worth mentioning here that the integral movement, with transpersonal

psychologists in the forefront, has played an important role in the integration process of

Eastern and Western parameters on consciousness. In other words, quoting Walsh and

Vaughan (1980), ―transpersonal psychology represents a paradigm shift in Western

psychology, resulting in part from exposure to cross-cultural beliefs about the nature of

consciousness and reality‖ (p. 26).

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Based on the principle of integration of the tripartite system (i.e., body-mind and

spirit) for psycho-physical and spiritual growth and transformation, the subtle body

system is primarily proposed as a consciousness development model that from its lowest

to its highest expansion intersects in the spectrum of consciousness.

In the preparatory and exploratory theoretical subsection, the emphasis had been

given to higher or transpersonal development stages of mind-consciousness, within

integral world-view theories (Indic doctrines, transpersonal psychology, etc.); thus, only a

fraction of the spectrum of consciousness has been substantially examined so far. In this

subsection, I will investigate a substantial body of knowledge that is not simply

preoccupied with metaphysical reasoning on transpersonal aspects of consciousness, but

more often seeks to explain ordinary ego-functioning as a normal feature of

psychosomatic categories. These categories are not only a prelude to transcendental states

of consciousness, but often equally significant to the enhancement of psycho-somatic

health and spiritual well-being and growth. The psychotherapeutic facet, which comprises

the scientific modus operandi of the integral movement and transpersonal psychology, is

a subject of great interest for this study as the emphasis is switched from the inability to

explain and test metaphysical phenomena, to the ability to test and corroborate the results

of the energy-healing theory at a more pragmatic level, directly on ‗what‘ is being

delivered in term of the psychosomatic health and spiritual well-being of individuals.

Integrating yoga and psychotherapy.

Rama et al. (1976) suggest:

Yoga psychology offers a perspective from which these two theories [Hierarchy

of consciousness--spectrum of consciousness--proposed by Freud and Jung] can

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be integrated. Its concept of a hierarchy of consciousness is more extensive than

Freud‘s, extending beyond the level of functioning which can be described

verbally to include the more transpersonal areas of consciousness explored by

Jung as those which stretch far beyond. (p. 107)

They, (Rama et al.,1976), conclude:

Because modern psychotherapy has its roots in the treatment of illness, whereas

yoga is oriented toward developing beyond ordinary adaptation; they complement

one another very nicely. Yoga may provide the concepts and philosophical

framework which enable Western psychotherapy to escape its illness-orientation

and respond more fully to each person‘s search for growth and evolution. (p. 107)

Integrating yoga and western medicine.

Fields (2001) rightly points out that the dominant Western medical conception of

physical health does not include attention to the spiritual dimensions of life. Rather, with

regard to body and spirit, it is dualistic and, with regard to the body, it is mechanistic (pp.

14-19, 70). By contrast, the Hindu conception of spiritual health tends to regard spiritual

self-realization as completely transcending the physical dimension. Similarly, classical

Yoga supposes that the ultimate experience of the sacred entails separation of the sacred

self from the psychophysical entity. However, classical yoga adds that the

psychophysical entity must be healed and clarified at a step prior to experiencing the

sacred (pp. 69, 140, 153-157, 164-168). In distinction to the Western, Hindu and classical

yoga concepts, Tantra holds that religious experience entails physical and aesthetic

aspects. Fields (2001) further suggests that a complete conception of health must entail,

in addition to a holistic conception of the psychophysical person, a religious component

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or a relation to the sacred (pp. 47-50). He notes that practices such as classical yoga and

tantra (including Ayurveda) regard embodied life as being inherently connected to the

spiritual state (pp. 112-121), and holistic (p. 64). According to him, this holistic view

could serve as an instructive model for the present medical system (p. 64) and perhaps aid

the alternative health care system that is currently developing in the West.

Eastern practices, or for that matter any practice that targets such different areas

of personal development as physical, emotional, creative and psychosocial in a combined,

synergistic fashion, can be defined in a contemporary context and considered all inclusive

or integral self-care practices. All inclusive self-care practices may receive different

emphasis, depending on the theory that supports each approach, but most include a

tripartite view of the human system and the importance of their integration. According to

Kak (1997), integration occurs through ―prana, or energy, [which] is described as the

currency or the medium of exchange of the psychophysiological system‖ (p. 9).

The raison d’être of integral practice.

My understanding is that integral practice should be aiming at various facets of

personal development and spiritual growth, thus addressing the broader topic of human

evolution. Integral practice should also take into consideration research methodologies

and practices that incorporate contemplative or meditative processes and principles, since

these methodologies augment the spiritual evolutive journey that is an underpinning

element of humankind--in this thesis such methodology is embodied by hermeneutic

phenomenology. However, integral practice is primarily an outgrowth of different

integral theories and philosophies (Dacher, 2006; Aurobindo, 1993) as they intersect with

various spiritual, alternative health, self-care practices (e.g., holistic health modalities),
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and self-transformative regimens (e.g., Buddhism and human potential movement).

Ultimately, integral practice can be described as the experiential application of integral

theory (Bowman, 2008; Wilber et al., 2008).

Chakras as psychotherapeutic development models.

In order to pave the way for a new Integral practice, theories of the psychological

stages of personal development need to be supplemented with the rich chakras

psychology model, employing terms recognisable by both professionals and lay-persons

(in the Eastern ancient doctrines the chakra system is hermetically enclosed in an

anachronistic ontological language).

Many researchers, with Carl Gustav Jung in the forefront, have put significant

effort into transliterating the tantric subtle body‘s rich symbology into the contemporary

parameter of Western psychology. We have nowadays an extensive experiential chakra

literature to draw from. Perhaps one validation of this literature is that it arises from a

contemplative, thus phenomenological approach to the chakras system. Many scholars

have directly experienced the power of the chakras as psychological development model

and as therapeutic tools; others have employed them as meditational tools, which not only

bring about healing, but also personal growth and the transformation of consciousness.

As already mentioned elsewhere in this thesis, contrasting opinions exist regarding the

assumed literal existence of the chakras; however, even a figurative interpretation

acknowledges to some extent the ontological and phenomenological significance of the

chakra system.

Meadow (1993), in a study titled Yogic chakra symbols: Mirrors of the human

mind/heart, discusses how the classic understanding of the tantric system of chakras, or
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centres of spiritual energy and consciousness, can be transliterated into the theory of

contemporary psychological stages of personal development; however, this requires the

adjunction of a new element: spirituality. Dr. Gary Nixon (2001), in a study on alcoholic

treatments, identifies the chakras model as one of the existing development models used

by theorists who have ―been preoccupied with the problem of full recovery [of the

alcoholics]‖ (p. 82). He further affirms that:

For a basic model of full recovery, one can look to Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs,

which moves through stages of physiological, safety, belongingness and love,

self-esteem, self-actualization and transcendence (Maslow, 1968). Alternatively,

Whitfield (1984) pointed to a hierarchy of consciousness in accordance with the

perennial philosophy (Huxley, 1945). Similarly, Small (1982) describes seven

levels of chakras or psycho-spiritual energy centers to be worked through in the

journey of transformation from addictions. (p. 82)

Characterization of the development stages.

Looking in more detail into the characterisation of the development stages in both

Western personality models and models of yogic spiritual development, Meadow (1993)

elucidates:

The stage descriptions in both models cover many aspects of human functioning,

including expected behavior, bases for decision making, interpersonal relations,

self-management, principal motivating forces, goals and aspirations, concerns and

interests, tasks for the stage, and mode of conceptualizing one's existence. (p. 68)

Meadow (1993) further explains:

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Earlier stages must be successfully traversed before later stages can be reached,

and no stages are skipped. Growth requires successively dealing with the tasks of

each stage, as each lays the groundwork for stages to come. Individuals progress

through the stages at different paces, and differ also in the highest level of

development attained. Growth can occur across an entire lifetime or be aborted at

any point. (p. 68)

Concerns about growth (i.e., growth as a spiritual challenge) were already

explained by Maslow (1970):

Descriptively, we can see in each person his own (weak) tendencies to grow

toward self-actualization; and, also descriptively, we can see his various (weak)

tendencies toward regressing (out of fear, hostility, or laziness). It is the task of

education, therapy, marriage, and the family to ally themselves to the former, and

to be conducive to individual growth. (p. 97)

Rama et al. (1976) point out:

Growth is a unitary process: Biological evolution from protozoan to man,

psychological evolution from child to adult, therapeutic evolution from mental

illness to health and the development of universal consciousness in the mystic are

all included in this process of growth. Each deals with one leg of a long journey.

Each describes one segment of the whole. (p. xxiv)

Rama et al. (1976) further assert:

Having viewed the process of growth as it can be conceptualized in yoga

psychology, we have seen how a limited sense of ―I‖ is progressively replaced by

a more expanded one. This process extends from infancy when a fragile and
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tentative I-ness is first created through the acquisition and development of an ego

to stages of development in which the ego is transcended. (p. 156)

According to Fields (2001), growth implies not simply biological growth; but also

intellectual growth, social growth, and progress towards self-awareness, which moves

one towards development, ―without such lifelong development, a person tends more

towards stagnation than towards optimum health‖ (p. 51). He further explains ―nature‘s

tendency is towards thriving--adaptation, equilibrium and development. In the religious

domain, the human being in its true nature is whole and well, needing only the healing

that removes impediments to its perfect nature‖ (Fields (2001, p. 172).

Meadow (1993) elaborates:

In both Western and the yogic models, development progresses through the same

arenas of concern in the same order: survival and self-protection, sexual and

sensual impulses, concern with power and possessions, turning to issues of heart

and responsibility, development of higher sensitivities, and then a high level of

personal integration. It must, however, be noted that progression through stages of

similar content in psychological models does not mean the level of attainment that

controlling the chakra energies means. Rather, the completion of each chakra's

work implies a prior high level of personality integration in the areas related to

that chakra. (p. 77)

Rama et al. (1976) assert:

All understanding is distilled here [in the chakras] …. This is what is meant by

saying that ‗the microcosm reflects the macrocosm‘. By immersing oneself in this
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inner experience, an understanding of the coordination between the various

aspects of oneself and the universe begins to grow. (p. 176)

Thus, according to Meadow (1993), ―Yogic chakra development appears to begin

during later stages of spiritual development [than is] described in Western understanding‖

(p. 69). In addition, she (1993) explains, ―chakra psychology asserts that each person's

spiritual energy tends to concentrate around one of these centers of energy‖ (p. 69).

Therefore, the preoccupations, concerns, and attitudes associated with each chakra are

portrayed as a mirror of the human developmental stages when spiritual energy is

concentrated in that location.

Energy-Healing Theory: A Study

In this section, I will: present specific psychosomatic and neurological brain

studies conducted on yoga applications, and briefly illustrate findings suggested by the

authors. The findings generally suggest that yoga interventions positively enhance the

psychophysical health of individuals and acknowledge the importance of further

exploring elements directly related to transpersonal aspects of human consciousness and

spiritual well-being. In addition, later on in this section I will discuss studies that expound

on holistic yogic theories that elucidate such fundamental principles as the relationship

between health and spirituality in yoga; the fact that energy seems to be one of the

underpinning elements of yoga; and the relationship existing between the activation of

energy and the various yoga practices. Finally, in an attempt to identify the holistic

implications of the neuro-brain and health studies, I will discuss, in a case-study, the rich

Indic traditional body of knowledge. In doing this, I will look at an existing traditional
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theoretical construct and new scientific knowledge that throws light on and expands upon

fundamental yoga principles such as energy-healing theory.

Examination of yoga based modalities.

Various health care professionals (for example, Registered Nurses) are increasingly

focusing their attention on transformative spiritual practices. We have already seen in the

review of the literature that there are many significant scientific studies that support the

principle that spirituality-based practices may reduce the effects of stress that weaken the

immune system. Bormann and Carrico (2009) provide a good survey of studies that have

been conducted (the list is already provided in the Chapter, Review of Literature). Similar

suggestions that portray the validity of traditional techniques, which make up the

complex Eastern traditions, associate better health outcomes and improvement in quality

of life with the application of these practices. For this thesis I have examined a few

studies that concentrate on such yoga modalities as asanas, pranayams, and meditation

techniques (e.g., mantra), which I will describe below:

Measurement of psychosomatic health benefits.

Bormann and Carrico, in their 2009 study, clearly indicate that the verbal or

mental (silent) repetition of a mantra, word or phrase with spiritual significance, may

reduce stress and anxiety, and improved quality of life and spiritual well being, as well as

reducing related symptoms in HIV-Positive patients. Bernardi et al. (2001), in their study,

observed that reciting yoga mantras, spiritual rhythmic formulas, ―slowed respiration to

almost exactly six breaths per minute, and enhanced heart rate variability and baroreflex

sensitivity‖ (abstract); whereas, ―Rhythm formulas that involve breathing at six breaths
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per minute induce favourable psychological and possibly physiological effects‖

(abstract).

Carson et al. (2007) affirm that ―Yoga is one of a variety of complementary and

alternative medicine [CAM] adjunctive approaches that cancer patients of all cultural

backgrounds have been seeking out in dramatically larger numbers in recent years‖ (p.

332). Carson et al. (2007) further affirm that cancer studies are increasingly indicating

positive findings, with the result that yoga ―is now offered at several major treatment

centers (e.g., M.D. Anderson, Memorial Sloan-Kettering, UCLA/Jonsson) via their

complementary therapy services‖ (p. 332). They themselves, Carson et al. (2007),

conducted a pilot study, in which they observed the efficacy of yoga-based palliative

interventions ―in a sample of women with MBC‖ (p. 331). This study, named Yoga of

Awareness Program, ―systematically integrated a broad spectrum of traditional yogic

techniques and tenets‖ (p. 335), such as ―gentle asanas (physical stretching postures),

pranayama (breathing exercises), dhyana (e.g., awareness of breath, awareness of

awareness itself), group discussions, etc.‖ (p. 335). ―The results were assessed through a

personal diary kept by the participants to evaluate their quality of life at the beginning

and end of the program‖ (p. 332). The results of this study prove interesting, as the

authors observed that the participants assigned to the yoga program, compared to the

participants in the control group, showed marked reduction of depression, increased

feeling of peace and well being, and improved energy (p. 336). The study further

demonstrated that the participants who practiced yoga regularly experienced

―significantly lower levels of pain and fatigue, and higher levels of invigoration,

acceptance, and relaxation‖ (p. 331). Khalsa and Cope, in their 2006 study, noted that
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yoga and meditation practices helped alleviate anxiety and musculoskeletal problems,

improve mood, and improve cognitive and physical performance (p. 325) on

performance-related characteristics of musicians. Furthering the findings from this study,

Khalsa, Shorter, Cope, Wyshak, and Sklar (2009) studied the effects of yoga practice on

musicians. The authors specifically selected musicians as they note ―musicians

experience a number of challenges in their profession, including high levels of stress,

performance anxiety, and performance-related musculoskeletal conditions (PRMD)‖ (p.

279). The authors gathered qualitative data that indicate participants enrolled in the yoga

program were able to manage performance anxiety better than the control group; and they

all experienced an extraordinary ―life changing clarity‖ (p. 286), which included benefits

such as improved stamina and concentration, increased self confidence, increased

enjoyment of music performances, lessened fatigue from the intensive music program,

and improved ability to manage the fellowship program.

Singh, Kyizom, Singh, Tandon, and Madhu, (2008), in a study on the use of

various yoga-asana and pranayama techniques by type 2 diabetes sufferers for a period

of forty-five days, found that such practices ―modify certain biochemical parameters on

type 2 diabetes participants, which may be the direct cause of an overall improvement in

rejuvenating cells of the pancreas‖ (p. 366). They conclude that, from the ―beneficial

effects of yoga on diabetes patients shown in this study, the adoption of yoga on a long

term basis would bring proper control of blood sugar, lipid profile and insulin levels in

diabetes‖ (p. 368). Besides these physical effects, participants reported an improved

feeling of well-being. Some of the indicators reported by the participants included: a

sense of relief from anxiety; increased satisfaction, alertness and energy; alleviation of
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apprehension and stress; feelings of well being; and hormonal balance (p. 367-368). The

authors conclude that diabetes can be better controlled if yoga can also be simultaneously

administered along with the conventional medicines.

Arambula, Peper, Kawakami and Gibney (2001) studied the physiological

correlates of an advanced Kundalini yoga meditator (the specific form of meditation was

not classified). They collected ―physiological data‖ (p. 58) and recorded the yogi‘s

abdominal and thoracic respiration. The subject was continuously observed while he

meditated in the yoga posture called siddha asana (a position similar to half lotus), with

eyes closed. The authors reported a noticeable ―decrease in respiration rate during the

meditation (M = 5 [breaths/minute]) when compared to the pre- (M = 11 breaths/min)

and post-baseline periods (M = 13 breaths/min)‖ (p. 149), and ―an increase in theta EEG

activity immediately following the meditation‖ (p. 147). The authors affirm that:

Many of the findings here are similar to those in previous reports on the

physiological correlates of meditation and yoga .... The uniqueness of this

investigation is in the level and expertise of the subject that was studied. Examining

such individuals may help to better identify the physiological correlates, and

benefits of the exercise by revealing development that takes place only after

achieving a high level of proficiency. This may help explain the contradictory

findings surrounding the physiological correlates of meditation by creating a more

accurate and complete picture of physiology during meditative practices.

(Arambula, 2001, p. 152)

Although respiration patterns have often been associated with meditation, few

studies report on this data. The finding that a subject can breathe continuously at about 5
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breaths/min without experiencing any air hunger or excessive arousal, with a concurrent

increase in occipital alpha EEG activity, demonstrates the meditative skills of the subject.

Breathing may also be one of the physiological mechanisms by which the meditation

experience can easily be integrated and anchored into daily life. By refocusing on

breathing during the day, the meditative state may be re-established. Further studies

comparing advanced practitioners of yoga to those who are less proficient would be

desirable, as would research on larger groups of expert practitioners so that meaningful

statistical analyses could be done (Arambula, 2001, p. 151-152).

Neuro measurement of altered state of consciousness.

In his comparative study of various Eastern meditation techniques, Hankey (2006)

states:

Long-term practice of traditional South Asian meditation techniques, be they of

Buddhist or Vedic origin, result in changes in cognitive style consistent with the

development of a more balanced and stable mode of awareness, characterized by

increased wakefulness, and simultaneous sensitivity to outer stimuli and inner

patterns of cognitive and mental processing. Such changes are consistent with

improved mental health. (p. 520)

Generally, psychological characteristics that are recognized as clear signs of

expanded consciousness, also broadly known as ‗altered states of consciousness‘ or

‗higher states of consciousness,‘ are changes or alterations in emotional expression,

thinking, sensorial perception, bodily structure, feelings (e.g., a sudden sense of grace,

joy, rejuvenation), meaning, intellectual qualities amongst others (Deikman, 1963; Grof,

1975; Levine et al., 1963; Tart, 1990, 1969).

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As Hankey (2006) notes:

Many techniques used in contemporary mind–body medicine have as their

ultimate goal states of improved psychophysiological functioning, similar, or

directly related to enlightenment such as meditation techniques and forms of

psychotherapy based on transpersonal psychology, neurolinguistic programming

and their various outgrowths. (pp. 513-514)

Hankey (2006), reporting on a study by Carter, Presti, Callistemon, Liu, Ungerer,

and Pettigrew (2005), reaffirms, in agreement with the authors, that the experienced

monks who reported perfect visual stability during their entire practice may prove that

―long-term meditation practice can improve psychophysiological stability‖ (p. 515).

Newberg et al. (2001) conducted specific studies on meditators‘s neurological brain

process, using imaging techniques to detect which regions of the brain are active during

spiritual contemplation that induces altered states of consciousness. They observe that

neuron-cerebral activity experienced by meditators engaged in spiritual contemplative

practices explains overwhelmingly the realism of transcendent experience. The

researchers Baijal and Narayanan (2009) investigated the neural activity underlying a

concentrative type of kundalini meditation (that has as the objective the purification and

balance of the subtle body system and the activation of subtle energy). Baijal and

Narayanan (2009) conclude that ―reduced theta over posterior areas of the brain

especially the left hemispheric sensory regions potentially linked to the increase in frontal

theta activity‖ (p. 37) during deep meditation, achieved only by participants who are well

advanced in meditation, may be the principal factor responsible for experiencing altered
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states of consciousness, ―associated with timelessness and reduced awareness of one‘s

surroundings‖ (p. 37).

The authors Lehmann, Faber, Achermann, Jeanmonod, Gianotti and Pizzagalli

(2001) used repeated measurements to research different meditations repeatedly practiced

in sequence by a Buddhist Lama and noted that each meditation produced unique

neurological measurements. Lehmann et al. (2001) state:

Our results add to a growing body of evidence suggesting that altered states of

consciousness are associated with different patterns of brain activation depending

on the content of consciousness .... The different meditations were consciously

self-induced, volitionally generated by the subject without systematic input of

external origin …. The present results confirm a key role of brain electric activity

of the gamma frequency band in the mechanisms implementing states of

consciousness. (pp. 115-116)

Summary/overview.

The above surveyed studies systematically demonstrate to one degree or another

that increasingly researchers are carrying on studies on the psycho-somatic effects of

yoga body-mind techniques. And that findings support the incorporation of these yoga

body-mind modalities in the health care system. Examples of somatic effects include

enhanced immune function, chronic pain relief, lowered blood pressure, decreased heart

and respiratory rates, increased blood flow, and other measurable signs of the relaxation

response. Examples of psychological effects include increased cognition emotions such

as compassion and empathy that generate a positive feeling toward others, and other

improvements in psychological factors that enhance a strong sense of self-esteem.

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However, it is important to note that the above described scientific experiments, and for

that matter most of the current experiments, reveal findings that do not focus as much on

‗whys‘ and ‗how‘ yoga techniques such as mantras work, but, more exclusively on the

specificity of ‗what‘ these yoga interventions delivered to the patient‘s overall quality of

life; thus, it is my opinion, because very few studies consider that these yoga modalities

are energy-based, the overall implication of these studies and their findings are somehow

altered. Consequently, in this section, I argue that, although the findings of such studies

are extremely valuable as a step toward the integration of these yoga modalities in the

orthodox Western health system, in a truly new, integral and holistic health care system

that sustains personal development, including higher states of psychological well-being,

spirituality, and higher states of consciousness, there is a need to understand and

therefore augment, the complex theoretical and practical spiritual framework that is a

fundamental pre-requisite of Whole Medical Systems such as yoga.

So, while attempting to place the findings of scientific studies on yoga

interventions back in their original spiritual context, I am also asserting the importance of

an integral approach; and that, in the specific case of the studies conducted on the yoga

interventions, they may have consistently overlooked, amongst others aspects, the fact

that yoga as a whole Medical System is sustained upon the fundamental principle that

human beings are infused with a subtle energy. Moreover, another fundamental principle

attached to the yoga system is that the activation of biofields or putative energy fields is

supposed to occurs through a complex practice of self-realization, such as asanas,

pranayamas, mantras, meditation and so forth. Finally, according to the yoga discipline,

it is this energy activation that brings about healing and transformation.

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The work of energy as a basis in yoga practice.

Meadow (1993), in her analysis of the chakras model, rightly posits that, for

growth to occur, the flow of energy must be enacted by working with specific yogic

practices such as asanas, pranayamas and mantras; ―typically, an aspirant practices some

other form of meditation before being given a Kundalini [energy] initiation, which

heralds serious work on movement through the chakras …. The spiritual task is to draw

this energy [Kundalini] upward from the lower to the higher centers‖ (p. 69). More

precisely, when the spiritual energy is stagnant at a particular chakra, one has to activate

its flow for a full ignition of the psycho-spiritual transformation of the practitioner. Rama

et al. (1976) in their comparative analysis of the Western psychotherapies and Yoga

psychotherapy explain:

A great deal of energy is tied up in keeping repressed material outside awareness.

Work is involved in holding a memory or impulse away from the conscious mind.

This energy can be released and made once more accessible when the

unconscious material is brought into consciousness. The patient in psychotherapy

which is able to bring repressed material to consciousness is usually found to have

more energy available. This reduces chronic fatigue and makes work more

effective and dynamic. This is usually a gradual process .… Similarly, the person

who successfully through the discipline of meditation enters the unknown world

and explores the increasing amount of energy that ‗rises up‘ and becomes

symbolized by a raising serpent which is called kundalini …. As the process of

meditation continues and the unconscious is gradually made conscious, the

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kundalini ‗rises‘; the energy it was absorbing is released, and one feels an upsurge

of vitality. (p. 108)

Relationship between health and spirituality in yoga.

Georg Feuerstein (2001), in his attempt to contextualize yoga in a Western

context, states ―In our struggle for self-understanding and psycho spiritual growth, we

can benefit immensely from a liberal exposure to India‘s spiritual legacy. We need not, of

course ... accept yogic ideas and practices without questioning‖ (pp. xx-xii). However, he

further notes that millions of Westerners benefit from the practice of Hatha yoga and

other meditational techniques:

Yet only few people deeply and consistently commit themselves to exploring the

intricate psychotechnology of the various branches of the Yoga tradition. It is they

who are discovering that consciousness, the human-body-mind, is a well-

equipped laboratory in which [its full potential] can be found. (p. 567)

Ultimately, Feuerstein (2001) recapitulates:

Yoga deserves far more careful attention from scientists than it has so far been

granted .... Scientists, who are after all committed to understanding reality, have a

special obligation to explore the great intuitions of the spiritual traditions of the

East, which vigorously challenge the current scientific view of the world. (p. 427)

These challenges are captured by Fields (2001, p. 131), when he says:

Analysis of Yoga reveals two major domains of the relationship between health

and religiousness [or spirituality]:

1. Health as an aid to religious progress: purification and conditioning of the

body and mind in order to support greater spiritual awareness and progress.
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2. Liberation as healing: attainment of freedom from limitations and suffering,

resulting from realization of one‘s true Self-nature as consciousness.

Fields (2001) further points out that, as per Yoga-Bhyasa (2.15 - commentary to

Patanjali‘s Yoga Sastra by Vyasa, a yogi of fifth/sixth century C.E.) there is a ―common

therapeutic paradigm‖ between yoga and medical science, which is illustrated in the

following table (p. 132):

Table G - Yoga’s Therapeutic Paradigm

Medical Science Yoga

Illness Cycle of suffering and rebirth (samsara)

Cause of Illness Cause of samsara: ignorance (avidya)

Goal: Restoration of health Liberation (moksha): Independence (kaivalya)

Remedy Discriminative Knowledge (vivekakhyati)

Fields (2001), in his study based on the classical Yoga of Patanjali (along with its

commentaries the Yoga-bhyasa of Vyasa [c. fifth/sixth century C.E.] and the Tattva-

vaisaradi of Vacaspati Misra [ninth century C.E.] (p. 83), observes how yoga can be seen

―as a comprehensive system of psychophysical healing and religious liberation. Yoga

accounts for the human body/mind and spirit so as to guide practitioners in ethics, health,

and progress toward enlightened embodiment‖ (p. 83); a system that ultimately portrays a

model of yogic spiritual therapeutics. However, Fields (2001), in his further analysis of

the therapeutic significance of yoga notes:

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In Yoga, health in the psychophysical domain is subsidiary to the wholeness and

well-being of the Self‘s abiding in its true nature.... Therefore in Yoga, the

fundamental meaning of health is the well-being of liberated consciousness....

[Where] one attains immunity ... of the material natural world and those of one‘s

own body and mind. (p. 137)

Moving to the tantric tradition, Fields (2001) affirms that tantra ―is the form of

yoga that most strongly emphasizes physical health and the soteriological role of the

body‖ (p. 139).

According to my understanding, the theoretical construct expounded above gives

clear signs of the importance of considering, in the scientific study of yoga, the

modalities‘ original essence: spirituality. In other words, I am referring here to the need

to remove any bias against spirituality, and I second criticisms such as the one put

forward by Wilber (1995) (already included in the first section of this chapter), where he

says that science denies spiritual knowledge when it attempts to deduce the existence of

transcendental realities based on objectivist or naturalistic approaches or ―empirical and

natural events‖ (p. 111). Such concepts are reiterated in this section for example by

Georg Feuerstein (2001), when he states that science should not be afraid to explore

theories that ―challenge the current scientific view of the world‖ (p. 427), such as those

provided by ―the great intuitions of the spiritual traditions of the East‖ (p. 427). Similarly,

Fields (2001) emphasises the holistic meaning of health in yoga that looks at the whole

picture of the human essence and not at specific parts, like physical health. This holistic

meaning is what, within this study, has been identified as healing and transformation. It is
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my opinion that in order for scientists to conduct a holistic investigation, they should

consider the specificity of Eastern spiritual heritage.

A case study of mantra application.

In this sub-section, I endeavour to put forward the ideas that while certain yoga

modalities have been progressively given far more attention as a CAM, thanks to the

slow but steady increase in interest from scientists and researchers determined to study

the effects of yoga mind-body modalities, mantras intervention, on the contrary, has been

almost entirely neglected. Reasons for its relative absence in the health care system (for

example, as complementary treatment for integrative oncology) were uncertain to me.

However, through a review of the literature, I have arrived at some of the possible

reasons for the slow inclusion of mantra by the alternative health care system: mantra

application is totally based on less measurable principles, such as the newly discovered

sonic entrainment law (Goldman, 1991). Moreover, because mantra modality is less

understood than other alternative yoga techniques, I believe that it is wrongly categorised

as a mind-body therapy (Wesa, Gubili and Cassileth, 2008 ). These topics will be dealt

with in the next sections to follow.

I have already corroborated, by examining the experiments above, how yoga

techniques such as mantras can enhance the health and well-being of individuals;

however, I have also argued that science does not seem to be interested in the possible

implications of yoga techniques such as mantra that would fully explain why it works. I

am also arguing that, in my opinion, possible answers can be found in both the ancient

meditational literature and new scientific discoveries. I have partially anticipated some

definitions and a theory of the significance of mantra in the introductory chapter; except
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that they will not suffice to support the many implications that mantra seems to have for

psychosomatic healing and spiritual transformation. Thus, I will provide an extra

theoretical framework on mantra that will form the foundation for my later presentation

of a case-study suggesting that the newly discovered sonic entrainment law can be one of

the implications that make mantra meditation an effective means of healing and

transformation.

Energy activation through mantra.

Fields (2001) explains that ―Tantra shares classical Yoga‘s aim of spiritual Self-

realization‖ (p. 140). However, ―while Self-realization [in Yoga] entails ... independence

of consciousness from material and psychological nature‖ (p. 39), in tantra, the

importance of spiritual incarnation or the notion that ―the body is a vehicle for the

attainment of spiritual aims‖ (p. 139) is prime. This fact is evident, for example, in the

specificity of ―kundalini‖ or ―one‘s vital cosmic energy‖ that ascends by piercing through

the several energy-centers or chakras ...‖ (p. 147) located along the physical body, in the

attainment of absolute consciousness. Moreover, it is through a path of inner self-

discovery that one controls the undalini energy. Rama et al. (1976) explain the difficulty

of achieving a focused inward awareness of subtle energy by means of yoga:

In yoga, energy is studied as it is sensed during the inward focusing of the

attention, a practice not usually cultivated or developed in the West. The result is

a sort of constantly evolving ―internal map‖ of experiential ―energy patterns‖ as

they are discovered during one‘s personal exploration on inner space. (p. 35)

Fields (2001) affirms that ―both classical Yoga and Tantra incorporate the power

of mantra as a focal point for meditation‖ (p. 158). From this description, it seems that
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mantra in all Indic meditational traditions plays a central role in terms of its possibility as

a medium for gaining the ―inward focusing of the attention‖ on subtle energy. However,

from a thorough study of meditational literature and contemporary scientific research,

mantra seems to be much more than a simple technique. That is the reason why mantras

have been employed in the East as a religion ritual, psycho-spiritual practice (a branch of

the Indian yoga discipline) and holistic remedy (a branch of Ayurvedic medicine).

Ultimately, mantra is a multifaceted topic; each spiritual traditions and schools of yoga

and the Ayurveda Whole Medical System include mantra either as an important

meditational techniques, therapeutic remedy, or spiritual-energetic formula.

Frawley and Vedacharya (2008), the first being a pandit and latter an oriental

medical doctor, assert ―Yogic concentration, mantra, and meditation practices are

important for treating all psychological disorders, according to Ayurveda, and are a

necessary part of any healthy lifestyle for body and mind‖ (p. 23). Both in the Hindu and

Buddhist Tantras, the power and efficacy of mantras are indisputable. For example, ―it is

said in the Buddhist Tantras that if the mantras are applied according to the proper rules

anything can be performed; their power and efficacy are beyond dispute. They can even

confer Buddhahood on the aspirant‖ (Bhattacharyya, 1982, p. 230). Ultimately, the

purpose of mantras is to keep a thread of continuity, a relationship between this physical

world and the subtle inner worlds. Paul Newham (1999) concisely and appropriately

explains the underlying holistic approach to healing through mantras:

The Sanskrit chanting is connected to a perception of the human body quite

different from the westerner allopathic body-map [the subtle body system

described in this thesis made of chakras, nadis and prana] .... In Hindu and yogic
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literature the unique source which activates the energy of the chakras and assists

in the awakening of higher consciousness is called Kundalini .... The most widely

practiced means to achieve this awakening and rising of energy is that of

meditation, which, when practiced regularly over a long period of time causes the

chakras to open and clear ... One of the means to achieve this meditation is

through vocalization and in Hindu chanting, certain sounds [mantras] stimulate

and purify the chakras, serving not only to awaken the soul and the spirit but to

awaken the body‘s energetic and spiritual aspiration to health. (p. 50)

Katz‘s (2000) research on ancient texts shows that mantras are listed as the first

element used in treatments in therapeutics based on symptomatology and in elaborated

medical material lists. He further affirms that ―there is clear enough recognition in the

classical Indian medical treatises of the ritual and therapeutic importance of … mantra ...

both in the collection and preparation of medicines and in the treatment of certain

symptomatic, psychosomatic and spiritual conditions‖ (p. 85). The author notes that

authoritative ancient texts recognize that there are ―…three distinct type of therapy …

‗resting on the spiritual‘… ‗resting on the rational‘ (consisting on the rational

administration of diet, drugs, and so on) and the … ‗subjugation of the mental

disposition‘‖ (p. 85-86) normally, obtained through the application of mantras.

Since the principles that govern mantra are both extensive and differ somewhat

from tradition to tradition and since specific principles could be the cause of the

effectiveness of mantra in healing and transformation, a full understanding of its

governing principles and mode of employment is prerequisite to a full assessment of

utility, but too complex a topic of study to be tackled in this thesis. Therefore, in this
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section I will limit my focus to a single aspect of mantra that is increasingly finding

scientific favour, namely: the sonic entrainment principle.

Possible implication of mantra modality.

Sonic entrainment is explained by Jonathan S. Goldman (1991) in this way:

All life consists of rhythmic processes. From the simple pulsations of a single-cell

organism to the rising and falling of the breath, life is filled with rhythm. This is

also called ―periodicity‖ meaning that the activity of something falls in cycle.

Much of life is directed by external rhythms of nature …. Sound can be

understood as being rhythmic. Sound takes the form of waves, which are

measured in cycles per second (hertz or hz). This periodicity is rhythmic in nature

…. Entrainment is an aspect of sound that is closely related to rhythms and the

way these rhythms affect us. It is a phenomenon of sound in which the powerful

rhythmic vibrations of one object will cause the less powerful vibrations of

another object to lock in step and oscillate at the first object‘s rate. This

phenomenon of nature has to do with the conservation of energy …. Within our

bodies, we are constantly locking in our own rhythms. Our heart rate, respiration

and brain waves all entrain to each other. Slow down your breath, for example,

and you slow down your heart beat and your brain waves. Conversely, if you are

able to slow your brain waves, you can affect your heart rate and respiration. This

is one of the principles of biofeedback. (p. 217-218)

Gordon Limbrick (1991, pp. 307-316) clearly explains: ― Scientifics have

affirmed that, in terms of vibrational possibilities, all that is the universe is present in

man. In fact, man is the vibrational reality of Sound, Color and Form, the different states
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of which are only differences of vibrations‖ (p. 307). He further refers to the ―Logoic

modes of operation‖ that relate to the ―descending‖ flow of the spirit that becomes matter

and ―ascending‖ flow ―upon which life essence appears to be returning to its Source … or

highest spiritual planes‖ (p. 309). This higher plane is also described as the ―Voice of the

Silence‖ or ―the Soundless Sound. So called because it is beyond the range of acoustical

frequency‖ (p. 309). He further explains that ―eastern Philosophy, describes Integrated

Sound (Nada) as ‗a super-integration of all possible kinds of vibrations which can find

expression‖ (p. 309) in Nature. And, that ancient Indic scripture describes exactly how

this vibration can be expressed in each chakra, with specific sounds for the awakening of

subtle energy kundalini that ultimately is absorbed in the soundless dimension

(represented by the seventh chakra). The adept can learn how to listen to these vibrations

and transcend them one by one through ―Nada Yoga‖. However, he/she needs to master

specific postures, explained in ―Hatha yoga‖ (p. 311), to be properly enabled to listen to

the vibrations.

Applying sonic entrainment.

Mantra can be described, obviously, as a sound. We know that one of the

distinguishing attributes of sound is vibration (Bunt, 1994, p. 158). Sound can be

described as a form of vibrating energy, which operates in ways best described in the

language of physics or music as entrainment. We have seen that the entrainment law is

defined as a synchronization of two or more rhythmic cycles. In other words, when two

closely related rhythmic cycles interacts, they synchronize with each other to conserve

energy (Goldman, 1991). For example, an individual‘s brainwaves, respiration and

heartbeat can be altered by other vibrations, such as sound that emanates when mantras
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are chanted (Goldman, 1992, pp. 194-197). The musical elements of rhythm in mantra

chanting cause rhythmic entrainment, which in turn produces synergy (Goldman, 1992);

also, the combined action of sound and breath produces such synergy (Russil, 2004, pp.

134-135). The mantra directly affects the vibrations of the energy system and through

repetition, over time, it overrides (entrains) all the weaker vibrations. Ultimately, the

mantra produces a state in which the living organism vibrates completely in tune with the

spiritual state or energy contained within the mantra. These reasons could give some

explanation of why mantras can be used to re-pattern or re-programme undesirable and

blocked energy patterns within the subtle body system. For example, we have seen that,

in the study conducted by Bernardi et al. (2001), mantra repetition slowed respiration to

almost exactly six breaths per minute, inducing psychological and physiological benefits.

Referring to combined action of sound and breath, Fields (2001) states ―the breath-

patterns required for chanting [mantras] is another feature of Sanskrit that supports

meditative awareness‖ (p. 163). According to Fields (2001), chanting Sanskrit mantras

requires:

Correct pronunciation ... and cultivates breath control ... thus chant ... has qualities

like those of pranayama: regulation of breath leads to calming of the vrttis, the

activities of the mind that produce bondage and suffering. Meditative awareness

gained in Sanskrit chant is thus rooted in the physical experience …‖ (p. 163).

Furthermore, Fields (2001) explains ―Sanskrit is a language designed for

maximum uninterrupted resonance‖ (p. 163) and ―‗Sanskrit sounds are combined

according to rules of euphonic combination ... [which] permits the most perfect

uninterrupted flow of the most euphonic blending of letters and words and verse‘‖
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(Fields, 2001, p. 163). ―In the chanting of Sanskrit scripture or of mantras, the experience

of unbroken resonation pervades one‘s entire body and extends beyond oneself‖ (Fields,

2001, p. 163).

Discussion and Conclusion

Currently, as we have seen, there are systematic studies that support the

incorporation of yoga body-mind-energy modalities in the health care system. This is due

mainly to the fact that yogic techniques have enacted a positive health response.

Physically, they have yielded dramatic results in many areas, like effective management

of pain. Psychologically, they have eased anxiety, depression and hostility; they have

increased participants‘ ability to relax; and participants have improved self-esteem,

greater energy and enthusiasm for life, an increased the ability to cope with stress, and so

forth. Spiritually, they have helped patients going through crisis by producing an enriched

and expanded sense of consciousness. Most importantly, Eastern yoga techniques,

specifically asanas, pranayamas, mantra and meditation interventions have not only

shown positive outcomes towards enhancing physical and psycho-spiritual comforts, but

have also supported the initial notion that these are a non-invasive and safe therapies.

However, in this section, I also put forward the notion that a better understanding

of the fundamental principles of such ancient traditions as mantra meditation would most

probably result in a holistic benefit to individuals, allowing not only enhancement of

body-mind health and well-being, but also a psycho-spiritual transformation of

consciousness, which in this thesis is termed as healing and transformation, fundamental

requirements of comprehensive human evolution—which is the original aim of the Indic

spiritual tradition. Moreover, it is my opinion that, because a psycho-spiritual

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transformation is intricate and because measuring these phenomena, even when using the

most sophisticated technological devices existing nowadays, remains mostly impossible,

mantra therapy has not been fully understood and has been misconceived in its entirety.

Clear support for my contention regarding the misconception surrounding mantra therapy

was found by me while reviewing a study focused on surveying complementary therapies

for cancer survivors that was included in the field of Integrative Oncology. A study by

Wesa, Gubili and Cassileth (2008) confirms that ―the different meditation techniques

produce similar physiologic response, with the resulting benefit of stress reduction and

improved mood‖ (p. 347); and, that rigorous scientific research has produced evidence

that ―complementary therapies are noninvasive, inexpensive, and useful in controlling

symptoms and improving quality of life, and they may be accessed by patients

themselves‖ (p. 347). However, I find arguable their categorization of ―mantra

meditation‖ (p. 347) as a ―less intense meditation‖ (p. 347) and equally arguable their

inclusion of mantra meditation in the category of the mind-body therapies (pp. 345-347).

Moreover, Wesa et al. exclude ―Energy medicine, [which is] the manipulation of

purported energy fields‖ (p. 344) from the ―evidence-based therapies that can serve well

as adjuncts to mainstream cancer care‖ (p. 344). Personally, after a thorough review of

the main literature showing new evidence on the efficacy for health and improved quality

of life of spirituality (Aguirre, 1998; Brady et al., 1999; Paloutzian and Ellison, 1982;

Seeman et al., 2003) and mantra (Bormann and Carrico, 2009; Bernardi et al., 2001; Lee,

Lin, Wrensch, Adler and Eisenberg, 2000; Murray, 1995), I have serious doubts about the

conclusion drawn by Wesa et al. (2008). For example, Lee et al. (2000) specifically

include mantra in a report of alternative therapies used by individuals affected by cancer;

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they state that ―these techniques have been shown to produce distinct biochemical

changes in the body, including the lowering of blood pressure, pulse rates, and levels of

stress hormones in the blood‖ (p. 46). Murray (1995) also seems to believe that mantra is

effective in meliorating the health of cancer patients.

However little is known by science about the putative energetic fields claimed by

the meditational literature. I attempted in this section to present a theoretical framework

that support my statements that mantra meditation is clearly based on sound-energy

principles and that this modality should be included in the energy medicine category. I

also attempted to argue that there is a fundamental need to revise certain limitations

imposed on Energy Medicine in this section, I have explored some possibilities why yoga

modalities such as mantra can work; I have mentioned that one field that should be

explored in the search for answers is the still relatively unknown ‗sonic entrainment‘ law,

which applies, for example, to sound and breath, and which seems to have the potential to

effect the function of the brain, and thus the whole human system.

I would like to further infer that in consideration of the aforementioned point of

views, the above described studies on mantra (including Wesa et al.‘s, 2008, survey) may

have overlooked, amongst others: the sound-entrainment phenomenon in mantra

recitation; the notion of biofields or putative energy fields, based on the concept that

human beings are infused with a subtle form of energy; and the fact that mantra therapy

originated as and is sustained upon a complex system of theory and practice, which is a

pre-requisite of Whole Medical Systems. In fact, to conclude, according to the Vedas

(Sanskrit, véda, "knowledge"), the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature originating in

Ancient India and the foundation of the Hindu philosophy, ‗the fundamental reality‘ or
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‗divine essence‘ (in Sanskrit Nada Brahman) is sacred sound (in Sanskrit Shabda)

vibration, mantra (Blofeld, 1977, p. 84; Lavezzoli, 2006, ¶ 2; Beck, 2006, ¶ 4).

Self-experiential Study on Subtle Body Patterns

An integral creative approach to energy activation.

In the following section, I put forward some of the principles that I interpret as

fundamental to contextualizing the specific self-experiential study that is a hermeneutic

or interpretative phenomenological analysis of the subtle energy directly experienced by

myself, the researcher and participant subject. Thus, the whole or integral body (physical,

psychological, energetic and spiritual) is taken into consideration, in the specific

laboratory of dance movement. This study is informed by artistic inquiry principles,

through the employment of personal skills, which include various body-mind disciplines

that cross the boundaries of the dance movement practice. The specific principles are

integration, creativity and the body as medium for personal development or self-

realisation. We will look closer at these principles through a theoretical lens, based on the

review of the literature and through my interpretation of my own background experience

with these principles.

What I imply here with ―self-realization‖ is in line with the definition given for

this term in Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary: ―the fulfilment by oneself of the

possibilities of one's character or personality‖ (Self-realization). I purposely use the term

self-realization as a synonym for personal development, since I intend to create a

parallelism with the same term employed in the Indic, meditational, non tantric traditions.

This synonym implies a spiritual awakening that uncovers the divine and transpersonal

dimension of the self. As I understand it, this requires doing away with a false to facts
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personality as it is identified by the true personality. This false to facts personality is

usually recognized in Western tradition as residing in the ego, which is nothing more than

a fictitious construction of our true identity. The meaning given here moves away from

the Eastern concept of self-realization and brings to center stage the character and

personality of the individual: the healthily realized ego. I will avoid going into any

ontological or mystical discussion of this topic; however, I will simply argue here based

on my personal point of view that human beings have a duty to realize their true nature as

human beings confronted with personal and interpersonal issues, before they can aspire to

realizing themselves in transpersonal dimensions.

In a certain way, we can talk of a non hierarchical model of development, a

spectrum that is simply progressive, evolutionary or integral. This concept has been

reiterated throughout the thesis and embodied by the theory that human consciousness

manifests itself as a spectrum. When personal-psychosomatic and transpersonal-spiritual

possibilities are taken into consideration, the emphasis is on the importance of dealing

with the task at hand, whatever that task may be, given that each individual is at a

particular and unique stage of his/her life (Ken Wilber, 1993, 1996, 1995, 2000; Grof,

2000; Walsh and Vaughan, 1980; Maslow, 1970; Meadow, 1993). I strongly feel that in

our present day context of human evolution, as a race, we are far from being directly

concerned with transpersonal development; we are more concerned with and aware of

issues of the personal and interpersonal. For me, the proof of what I am stating is the

current world situation, which is dominated by ego centred societies, and where violence

manifests in the form of wars, famine, crimes, domestic abuse, child pornography, racism

and so forth. Violence, in whichever form it manifests, is a clear sign of lack of self-
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realization. In my experience teaching yoga, and I am confident that this is the case for

most body-mind therapists and health professionals, I have been engaging with

individuals who are in need of resolving issues of basic personal and interpersonal

development. These issues are dictated by our physicality, our basic need to integrate

body-mind, our need to develop body-mind awareness, and our need to learn breath

awareness. In other words, ordinary individuals are concerned with being able to become

aware of their bodies and the world, and in working with a body-mind discipline they are

expecting through the practice (movement, action and so forth) they conduct in the 'lab'

(mat or studio) to achieve the ability to ‗integrate sensing,‘ and to enhance through the

practice their personal and interpersonal relationships, once they are off the mat.

I personally recall that, as a beginning yoga student, everyday was a discovery

about my personal awareness of sensing my body (e.g., perception) and how it improved

my relationship with the outside world; that is to say my ability to interact with people

and to interpret events. For example, in my personal yoga practice journey, the simple

fact of learning to become aware of and use my breath, influenced or aided a stretching

movement, with the subsequent cascading effect of inducing relaxation. This, in turn, was

significant in releasing and managing my stress and pain, which subsequently allowed

others‘ positive feeling to surface that could be broadly described as enhancement of self-

esteem, general sense of well-being and so forth. These personal improvements had

important repercussions in my interpersonal sphere. Thus, I realized that a practice such

as yoga was not only an enormous journey of inner of self-discovery, but also a journey

of outer or world discovery. In my yoga practice, as a novice, achieving even a modest

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level of self-awareness was important in shaping the way I reacted to external

determinants.

Creativity expressed through performance and aesthetic experience is another

principle that becomes prominent in my journey of self-realization. Creativity has been

an underlying constant denominator in my life, in marked difference to the societal

construct that I grew up in, where creativity wasn‘t encouraged. Thus, as I started to work

later on with practices underlined by the principle of artistic inquiry and which promoted

creative outlets such as aesthetic motifs, movement, sound and so forth, I finally

experienced the importance of these mediums (proper in tantric yoga or artistic inquiry),

to empower my whole self by activating an energising force capable of provoking

immediate and tangible changes and integration. Working at the energetic level through

creative modes was more like doing away with the necessity of a bridge (with its

supporting pillars) in order to cross into an integrated zone necessary for growth; and

allowing myself to be catapulted from a state disintegration, where the body, mind and

breath were madly splintered and rushing in clashing directions, which in real term I can

describe as psychosomatic turmoil, with symptoms such as panic attacks and anxiety

states, to a state of absolute integration of body, mind and breath, which I could describe

as a sense of being at peace, relaxed, aware, fulfilled and grounded.

It was in this state of being grounded in a physical reality, in a relaxed, aware and

fulfilled state that I became aware of my personal identity, tuned with the everyday tasks

that needed to be carried out, and so forth. Being able to be simply Giuseppe and being

OK to be Giuseppe and nothing more than Giuseppe, without disjointed fears,

preoccupations, and emotional distress was, perhaps, more extraordinary and

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enlightening than being able to visualize in my forefront space spiralling colors or feeling

a sense of the absolute through meditation. Again, I will not debate here the possible

ontological meaning of this ordinary state of consciousness (related to personal

experience), or how it could contrast with the extraordinary state of consciousness

(related to transpersonal experience), as at this experiential stage of my thesis I am

exploring consciousness phenomenologically ―as experienced from the first-person point

of view‖ (Woodruff, 2009, ¶ Phenomenology).

My phenomenological interpretation of the state of being integrated that I

achieved, also through creative mediums, made me realize the interrelatedness between

energy and consciousness. They were, in my experience, both prone to be easily activated

in creativity and movement. As a matter of fact, I also realized that these forces were

most observable when they were moving, and their movement corresponded to occurring

transformation and change. For example, in the case of energy, I can easily observe it

while it is flowing, and in the case of consciousness, while is expanding. Also, the way

that I observe these forces, when they are in a realised state, is through the simple feeling

of being fulfilled or integrated with my newly found or rediscovered character or

personal identity. Thus, while both are part of the underlining element constituting a

newly integrated identity, what one is aware of is ultimately the experience of being one,

not necessarily merged with the external, thus transpersonal and non-dual, but also being

one in relation with the external, thus personal and dualistic, but integral.

Tantra and artistic inquiry: Integral approaches.

Based on my examination of the tantric literature, I have found sound evidence

that the ancient tantric doctrines (e.g., Hinduism and Buddhism), and disciplines (e.g.,
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Kundalini yoga) support the notion that, in the journey of self discovery, an integral

approach is essential. The term integral approach is employed here to describe, first, its

attempts to integrate body (personal), mind (intrapersonal) and spirit (transpersonal) and,

second, its employment of a complex subtle body practice (e.g., rituals, meditation,

recitations, etc.). For example, one reason that I became wholehearted in a practice such

as tantric yoga was that it ―provides useful articulations of the spiritual potential of

engagement with art‖ (Fields, 2001, p. 157). As Fields (2001) explains: ―Tantra embraces

the somatic and the aesthetic within its religious domain, and provides a conception of art

that is both therapeutic and religious‖ (p. 157). In other words, ―tantra adds to the model

of religious therapeutics [already discussed above and described in Table G] the domain

of aesthetic therapeutics, that is, healing of body/mind and spirit through sensory

experience and religious arts, such as music and dance‖ (Fields, 2001, p. 140).

Noticeably, the tantric literature acknowledges the body as a preliminary element for self-

realization and not a mere obstacle to this as for others types of yoga. Flood (2006)

explains this specificity of the tantra doctrines by stating:

The tantric practitioner ... identifies his body with the cosmos and deity in daily

ritual and in yogic practice, identifying himself with something outside of himself

that then he becomes .... Any distinctions between knowing and acting, mind and

body, are disrupted by the tantric body in the sense that what might be called

imagination becomes a kind of action in tantric ritual and the forms that the body

takes in ritual are a kind of knowing .... the tantric body is a corporeal

understanding. This corporeal understanding shows itself in the great emphasis on

transformative practices in the tantric traditions, ritual inseparable from vision, the
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body becoming alive with the universe within it, and vibrant with futurity in the

anticipation of the goal of the tantric paths. (p. 6)

Fields (2001) reiterates this concept when he explains that ―Central to Tantra is

the polarity of macrocosm and microcosm, wherein the human body is realized—through

the interiorization of ritual—as a microcosm of the universe‖ (p. 35); or when he states:

―Tantra, embodiedness and sacredness remain compatible‖ (Fields, 2001, p. 140).

In practical terms, although I have been confronting myself with classical Hatha

yoga practice for the last twenty years, and I have discovered that tantric yoga differs

from classical yoga in two major ways: one, for its aim, which is to directly acknowledge

and work with the subtle energetic body present in us; and, two, for its diverse

approaches that allow for exploring different dominions of the human possibility, such as

creativity. What I have come to realize is that the tantric point of view allows existing

boundaries in the practice to be eliminated; and, moreover, that it openly invites you to

cross boundaries of practice in any sphere of life. The tantric approach is very much in

line with my natural inclination to explore the possibility for self-realization/personal

development in a practice such as dance, creative writing, or acting, as each of these

practices allows me to tackle unexplored territory and increases my energetic level and

psychosomatic health and well-being.

Bringing this personal experience into the arena of thesis research has allowed me

to combine practice with theory. For instance, as I was reviewing literature for my dance

movement coursework, I found reference of the fact that artistic inquiry such as dance

movement invites the application of similar principles to those found in tantric literature,
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which had already been intuited by me. Hervey (2000) encapsulates my understanding

when she says:

Art offers an aesthetic experience .... which can be described as cognitive,

perceptual, emotional, and spiritual (Csikszentmihalyi and Robinson, 1990) and

could therefore be understood as one impacting most dimensions of human

consciousness …. those familiar with dance and music would probably argue that

the aesthetic experience is also kinaesthetic, making it veritably holistic. (pp. 15-

16)

Hervey (2000) goes on to explain that arts-based inquiry professionals, such as:

Dance/movement therapists also value the body as a vehicle of expression and a

rich source of information …. [they] assess meaning through the expression of the

body. Therefore they trust the body as a source of data and rely on their

understanding of body experience as a form of data analysis. (p. 83)

Payne, in her 2006 writing, defines dance movement therapy as ―The

psychotherapeutic use of movement and dance through which a person can engage

creatively in a process to further their emotional, cognitive, physical and social

integration‖ (p. 3). Grow, in his 1990 writing, conveys the notion that:

Older ideas, based on a compartmentalization of "mind," "body," "reason," and

"emotion," have thoroughly changed in current psychosomatic practice. Though no

single new paradigm has gained wide acceptance, what used to be dismissed

mechanically as "the body" is now widely discussed (e.g., in Bliss) as a knowing,

conscious, and wise organism which has a multifaceted relationship to other

human faculties. (¶ The Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence)

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There is a belief in current psychosomatic practices, which I agree with, that

intelligence pervades every aspect of the human being, but also the interpersonal. Janet

Adler in her 1999 writing captures my feeling quite accurately, when she emphasizes:

Willing membership just with our minds cannot create the shift in consciousness

for which we long. The shift must be an embodied shift. It is in our bodies where

the phenomenon of life energy, a physical reality, is directly experienced. One by

one, knowing (and knowing implies consciousness), knowing in our bodies that

we belong, creates a collective body in which life energy is shared. I imagine the

collective body as the energetic consciousness of the earth body, which includes

all living beings. It is the body-felt connectedness among people profoundly

related to the source of our humanity (pp. 192-193).

Adler (2007) accounts for an energetic experience that weakened her physically.

―During this time‖ she realized the importance of ―the need for a strong enough body ego

to contain energetic material that was arising—the up welling of feelings, imagery and

life energy that rose from the ground up, through the spine and out through the crown

chakra, often described in yogic practices and in East Indian spiritual literature‖ (p. 247).

However, Adler (2007) recognises the importance of dance moment (that she defines as

―Authentic Movement‖) to prepare her body (e.g., ―the pelvis‖ [p. 247]) to channel such

powerful energy; and, also that ―Authentic Movement‖ teaches individuals to ―attend to

one‘s own natural bodily experience, [which] can provide an outlet for the development

of this awareness, which in turn fosters embodied consciousness‖ (p. 247). Moreover, she

emphasises the importance of the experience of the body ―from the inside out,‖

―subjective body,‖ and the safe environment that an ―Authentic Movement practice‖
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provides for someone who wants to explore this (p. 247). These accounts are, to me, clear

expressions of the interrelatedness of personal, interpersonal and transpersonal, necessary

to achieve integration. Subtle energy is recognised both in tantric and artistic inquiry as

being at the centre of growth, which is ultimately a matter of allowing integration at the

personal, interpersonal and transpersonal levels.

Summary and preamble.

There is a clear understanding, according to my reading of the literature, in both

tantra and dance movement, that integration and creativity, and therefore spirituality,

need to be explored through the body. As amply discussed elsewhere within this thesis

and chapter, the spiritual discipline of tantra avails itself to ―aesthetic therapeutics, that is,

healing of body/mind and spirit through sensory-motor experience and religious arts,

such as music and dance‖ (Fields, 2001, p. 140); and, most importantly, ―Tantra

embraces the somatic and the aesthetic within its religious domain, and provides a

conception of art that is both therapeutic and religious‖ (Fields, 2001, p. 157). It becomes

evident to me that there is a sort of common thread between these two disciplines, with

the only main difference being that the two depart at the extremes, but gradually meet at a

midpoint where the body is accepted and thus integrated in the evolutive human process

and not simply discarded as an unwanted impediment to spiritual growth.

This commonality is unsurprising, since Dance Movement Therapy borrows

heavily from the Indic traditions, an exemplar case being Adler‘s Authentic Movement,

which is sourced from her personal experience with the kundalini phenomenon. She

developed this movement based therapy in order to prepare bodies to channel such

powerful energy (1999). Many professional body-mind therapists are discovering,

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willingly or unwillingly, the power of kundalini awakening, through direct experience or

through incorporating its principles and practices into their daily practice and therapy.

Noteworthy are the kundalini awakening experience had by Gopi Krishna (recounted in

his 1971 writing), Krieger (accounts of her experience can found in her 2002 writing) and

Adler (a detailed account of her experience is found in Stromsted, 2007).

The above expounded theoretical framework constitutes the groundwork for my

self-experiential study. Within this self-experiential study, I engaged in a Western

contemporary dance movement course, which I employ in the broader framework of

expressive and creative arts therapy theories, as a laboratory to explore creativity and

movement. In this specific case, the laboratory was inspired by dance movement and

music, as possible forces to set in motions the flow of subtle energy within me, so that I

could subsequently describe its patterns and, finally, interpret its meanings.

Purposely, I searched for an alternative discipline that included the basic tantric

principles and in a way expanded them through Western artistic and scientific

approaches. (This is the main reason why I decided not to work directly in the medium of

tantric disciplines.) For example, I have followed hermeneutic phenomenological

directives, which suggest approaches such as direct experience, employment of personal

and intuitional skills and so forth. Also, it is my deduction that only through hermeneutic

phenomenology I am able to understand and, hopefully, augment meanings of

phenomenon scrutinized in this self-experiential study.

Finally, I endeavour, in line with the general integral precepts and propositions of

this thesis, to give specific emphasis to the fact that there are many practices that have the

potential to create and enact the activation of life-energy (in tantric tradition the Shakti
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power), in a similar way to the tantric discipline; creative and expressive arts therapies in

their multifaceted forms (e.g. dance, music, etc.) embody, as we have already seen, many

of the tantric principles.

Identify the main constituents of this self-experiential study.

Self-experiential laboratory.

My laboratory was comprised by a three-month practical course on Western

dance movement, which met twice a week for two hours per session. Although the course

was designed to teach foundational theory on the practical aspects of dance movement, in

effect it served as a laboratory that allowed me to conduct a self-experiential study of the

phenomenon. In other words, the dance movement practice provided the means to

investigate my body-mind connection, to arouse and subsequently observe the subtle

energy phenomenon. Furthermore, because the course was comprised by self-directed

comparative studies that required a thorough review of the literature on diverse topics,

traversing disciplines from expressive arts therapies to psychotherapies, somatics, and

transpersonal psychology, amongst others, the coursework in dance movement was

identified as an ideal self-experiential laboratory. I say ideal, because the self-experiential

laboratory demanded research that could gather concrete data, albeit at a very experiential

level. Specifically, dance movement was selected as a mode of ‗artistic inquiry‘ as it is

assumed to provide an aesthetic experience similar to the tantric yoga discipline, for the

―awakening of sensation, emotion, and imagination‖ (Hervey, 2000, p. 15). On the

whole, dance movement disciplines that have a therapeutic focus, such as Dance

Movement Therapy and Authentic Movement, and are grounded in the ‗artistic inquiry‘

methodology, can be, similarly to tantric yoga, connected to earlier discussions that imply
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integrative healing in creative endeavours (I will expounding more on this theme in the

discussion section in this chapter).

My participation in the Western dance movement course was designed to meet a

series of other objectives, in addition to my investigation of subtle energy. One was to

research holistic approaches to mapping the body-mind-spirit experience. This objective

was met through a review of the interdisciplinary literature that covered this theme, the

findings of which were presented in the theoretical section introducing the self-

experiential study. Another was to embody an ability to communicate and re-pattern the

experience of the scrutinized phenomenon. Meeting this objective was made possible by

the employment of hermeneutic phenomenology and artistic inquiry methodological

approaches. Yet another objective was to frame personal research questions in a body-

based experiential paradigm, where creative body-mind expressions (e.g., aesthetic

experience) could be enacted to activate subtle energy patterns. This objective was

achieved through cognitive and learning processes that include sensorial awareness,

psychological reasoning and intuitional understanding. One last objective was also

important: I needed the data collection to take place within a safe and active environment,

which the University of Calgary presented, as the ability to relax, coupled with physical

activity, aids creativity that sparks the flow of energy. This flow of energy can be

observed through body-mind awareness, and its patterns described in a journal, which in

this thesis constitutes the self-experiential study and forms the basis from which to

extract sample data for further examination and interpretation.

All of these objectives were met. Moreover, this dance movement coursework

provided a safe and scientific laboratory in which to observe subtle energy patterns
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(blockages, release, etc.) -- safe because it was conducted within an enclosed professional

environment where I found, within a self oriented research, direct supervision by

Professor Darcy McGehee, an academic professional; and scientific because it was

oriented by a precise methodological exploration, hermeneutic phenomenology,

combined, obviously, with qualitative aspects of artistic inquiry, dance movement

therapy and yoga theory and practice.

To conclude, this coursework allowed me to intentionally explore aspects known

in the Indic tantric tradition as ―Chakras and Kundalini‖, and in a Western context

respectively as the subtle body system and the subtle energy, with a view to gathering

data (in a journal and paper) to be further organized, described and interpreted in this

self-experiential study.

In my self-experiential study, I am not comparing tantric yoga with dance

movement, although I might comparatively reflect upon the two disciplines in my

interpretative phenomenological analysis. I have already determined, for example in the

theory preamble, that through my personal experience, I have many times crossed the

information boundaries between disciplines and crossed boundaries of practice that have

made me realize that tantric yoga is a philosophy and a discipline that truly allows for

exploration into any discipline that tackles the energetic possibility and the realisation of

transcendence. I affirm this by realising that the body and artistic inquiry are, as far I am

concerned, an extension of tantric yoga. I believe that sometimes it is not the practice that

makes the discipline, but the practitioner. Thus, finally, I am not arguing that tantric yoga

and dance movement are the same practice, despite the fact that certain dance movement

therapists are increasingly incorporating spirituality through the practice of tantric

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techniques and concepts such as the chakra system and the raising of energy through this.

What I am arguing is that a tantric practitioner can adopt a tantric approach in any

mundane act of life. In the case of dance movement as a practice, for reasons already

delineated above, it is an ideal candidate to enhance a tantric practice, which is ultimately

aimed at activating and transforming subtle energy for realizing one‘s character and

personality, and subsequently reaching a unitive state with the transpersonal.

My intuition tells me that spirituality implies acknowledging the natural limits

that the body has; the body is destined to perish; thus, we self-realize within the body as a

preparatory training to explore the transcendental dimension. However, only a man or

woman who realizes with their body can think of exploring the spiritual. In a way, I am

inclined, as I need to make clear that this is me talking in first person, to believe that the

potential of the chakras system, as with many western development models, lies in the

non hierarchical order of the various psychic-consciousness centres, each of which, if

realized in its qualities, is perfect and ready to carry on the journey to growth. None is

better or worse; comparison is futile; no growth stage has authority over another; the

integration is organic; and the realization of a the tasks residing in a specific chakra

becomes the foundation for the next building block that rises toward the spiritual

dimension of reality. Finally, my personal experiences with dance practice and other

artistic inquiry practices are very similar to my experience with tantric practice. However,

in my opinion, dance movement could be included in tantric practice, but not vice versa;

because tantric yoga is a practice with a precise philosophy that clearly aims at

transcendence, at the union of the spiritual essence of self with the absolute.
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Participant: Myself.

This experiential study demanded a certain degree of background foundation in

the psycho-physiological and spiritual structure governing our being, and an ability to

sustain psychosomatic body-mind-energy activities and training. Most important, the

conduct of this self-experiential study required a certain degree of confidence that one

possesses the necessary self-awareness skills for an adequate, if not full, cognition of

organic changes in our integral persona—body, mind, and energy.

Working with mind-body disciplines, ―which includes … creative outlets such as

art, music, and dance‖ (Wesa et al., 2008, p. 344) can be physically and mentally

overwhelming, and is certain to prove demanding of any individual. In this specific study,

besides being actively engaged in performing dance movement, I needed to be focused on

becoming aware of reactions naturally produced in myself, the human organism under

study; wherein, together with the physical and mental elements, I had to observe a third

element, namely, subtle energy.

I embarked on this study with a full understanding that it was going to be

challenging, albeit possible to achieve some results in terms of observing and collecting

data. My confidence arose from my past, successful experiential training in yogic and

Reiki techniques, during which I was able to learn how to associate psychophysical

symptoms (e.g., emotional distress, mental stress, digestive ailments, etc.) with energy

blockage in specific chakra centres. Similarly, I had been trained within yoga and Reiki

modalities to meditate by focusing on the chakras model (i.e., subtle body system) and to

use the inherent subtle energy as a medium for self-healing and personal growth. This

specific aspect was also improved upon by an enthusiastic review of the main relevant
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literature, which I began reading right from the moment when I committed to my

master‘s research. As described in the personal framework section of the introduction,

and which I believe it will not be superfluous to restate here, I have accumulated

knowledge throughout years of continuous professional in-depth studies and training in

psychosomatic, somatopsychic and spiritual practices such as Yoga and Reiki that

directly work with both body-mind and energy states. I participated in intense

professional workshops on many of the psychosomatic disciplines, including: performing

arts (e.g., dance movement and creative performing arts such as acting), martial arts (e.g.,

karate and tae-kwon-do), healing arts (e.g., Hatha yoga and meditation) and other

modalities specifically related to energy-healing, for instance, Kundalini yoga, chakra

meditation and Reiki healing. Through the application of specific techniques, derived

from yoga and Reiki, I have learned to direct pranic energy from within and without the

subtle body, to and through affected areas (at the physical, mental and emotional levels)

of my whole body. With time, I developed a certain degree of self-awareness of psycho-

physical processes (e.g., change of mental mood from negative to positive, release of

physical tension, etc.) and changes in my state of consciousness, in which I experienced a

general sense of knowing my true inner nature as being different from my body-brain-

mental structure. As a result, I can sense being pure energy and experience the flow of

energy throughout the chakras by channelling energy (using Reiki technique) and

balancing energy (with chakra meditation and channelling of subtle energy through the

application of the hands on each chakra or affected areas) at various levels of chakra

centres (subtle body). This personal background is also important, because a participant

who is not used to an active engagement in physically demanding disciplines would most
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probably be overwhelmed by physical and mental fatigue that would impede directing

attention to the task of observing. In my case, I was extremely confident that I would not

be mentally and physically exhausted from participating in the dance movement practical

coursework, and that I would be able to direct attention to the task of actively observing

within and without for the purposes of this study.

Chakras as an integral developmental model.

The chakras as an integral development model for psychological and spiritual

growth are used as a measurement instrument, where the inputs provided are the data

observed in the laboratory, that due the ―naturalistic‖ design of the self-experiential study

(as already mentioned in methodological background in the introduction chapter) ―…

place a heavy emphasis on understanding the human experience as it is lived, usually

through the careful collection and analysis of qualitative materials that are narrative and

subjective ― (Polit and Beck, 2004, p. 16). These ―qualitative materials‖ are recognized

as energy patterns that are, as we have seen throughout the thesis, manifested in a

spectrum that goes through different levels of subtleness; in other words, energy can be

manifested at the physical, mental and spiritual or transpersonal level. As it will become

clearer in the section that concludes this study, examples of energy manifestation are

superficial corporeal sensations such as blushing, flushing, tickling, temperature, goose

bumps and tingling; mental vibration-patterns manifest as emotions, thoughts, feelings

and moods; and, intuitions are detected as driving forces that create awareness of change

and transformation at distinct stages of transpersonal consciousness (e.g., experience of

the absolute reality, etc.).

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Because energy bridges the various aspects of our human body, its patterns can be

multiform. However, my understanding holds that a conscious awareness is needed to

employ such energy for personal development and spiritual growth, human evolution.

Growth is the underlining theme of evolution. But, growth, to become active (as I have

already pointed out), needs combustion to activate it. The purpose of integral body-mind

practices, and yoga and dance movement as part of them, is to produce such propelling

forces that can start the process of growth, against stages of stagnation and regression

(Fields, p. 51; Maslow, 1970, pp. 97-99; Rama, p. 156). Meadow (1993) proposes that

―growth‖ can be subject to arrested development (p. 68). Artistic inquiry, in my opinion,

is one of such propelling forces.

Thus, I need to clarify here that the dance movement classroom was in effect the

laboratory that allowed the dance movement practice that was observed; on the other

hand, another laboratory was my self; and through this container I am allowed to explore

by moving creatively, drawing in psychic energy, connecting distant memory with the

present, and amplifying consciousness. So my entire sensory motor or inside-out

integration has been observed in a sort of integral laboratory, comprising both the dance

movement classroom and my body, where inputs (e.g., theoretical and practical

knowledge, skills, intuition) from various sources are allowed to pour in at any given

time.

Moreover, admittedly, the groundwork for the self-experiential study wasn‘t in

my opinion the practice employed, since the practice, sometimes, in my opinion, is

limited by imposed boundaries, but what was truly relevant to my self-experiential study

was the employment of the principles that governed it. I have already discussed some of
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the principles of artistic inquiry and identified that they can be similarly recognised in the

tantric and dance movement practices. And I have also discussed some of the tantric

philosophical principles that can be similarly recognized in dance movement. That is why

dance movement as a form of artistic inquiry was chosen; however, I could have used any

other practice that is trustworthy as a vehicle for exploring one‘s personal inner/outer

space.

As we have already mentioned, artistic inquiry (e.g., arts and expressive

therapies) has identified in aesthetic experience a means to direct focus inward, on one‘s

personal investigation of how the macrocosm is experienced in the microcosm and the

discovery that there are no boundaries within and without the inner space (Hervey, 2000).

However, I believe that the boundaries are drawn by the functional mind in a functional

world, the true mystery of life; it is the functional life itself, in other words, the real

mystery is that human consciousness is able to engage with an independent observation

of life-processes including complex mental processes. A question that I would like to

propose here for a possible reflection concerns the mystery of life: are we human beings

trying to be soul or souls trying to be human beings?

Throughout the dance movement laboratory, my observations were systematically

reported in a journal. At a later stage these observations were analysed within the

parameters of an integral chakras psychological model that is based upon ancient tantra

yoga and the literature on interpretative psychology and the symptomatic reading of

chakras centres (e.g. Breaux, 1998; Meadow, 1993; Judith, 1987; Myss, 1996). This

literature and other relevant literature on meditational, body-mind, nursing, and health

science topics was used as reference for the hermeneutic phenomenological analysis of
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subtle energy-patterns, body-mind emotional experience, and the specific interpretation

of the symptomatic chakras psychology. Moreover, although in this self-study I have

made ample use of the integral chakras development models to determine symptomatic

signs of energy-blockage or free-flow, the integral principle of the chakra model also has

philosophical and practical correspondence. Judith (1987) aptly explains this yogic

principle as follow:

Each chakra receives its charge of energy by being in alignment with the sushmna,

as the central column of energy. If we are not in balance with ourselves, our

chakras fall out of alignment, much as the vertebrae in the spine can fall out of

alignment. (p. 205)

She also explains how the same principles of balancing not only apply to the

chakras but also ―between the mind and the body ... inner and outer ... self and

transcendence‖ (p. 205)

On the experiential level, I have learned by training with energy-based applications

(e.g., Reiki and Kundalini yoga) that one of the fundamental rules for reaching a state of

meditation and allowing the energy to flow from one chakra to the other in an ascending

motion is to sit in a steady posture and keep the spine erect at all times. Although I cannot

possibly explain what the relation is between the physical body, the spine, and the subtle

energetic body, at the experiential level, keeping the spine erect can be clearly observed

as beneficial for the flow of energy. Rama et al. (1976) explain:

The chakras provide a sort of central point, an underlying framework, in which a

multitude of factors intersect and interact. It should be clear that the experience of

these centers is a highly intricate and complex affair. Any attempt to express it in
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words is certain to prove to be only partially successful. The experience of the

centers of consciousness or chakras is a non-verbal one. (p. 175)

Meadow‘s (1993) psychological interpretation of development stages found in the

subtle body system of six chakras (p. 68) was synthesised in Table H below. This table is

meant to facilitate an understanding of the main psychological symptoms attached to each

chakra. Moreover, Meadow‘s interpretation of the chakra system, synthesised in a table

for the convenience of the reader, is suggestive of contemporary theories of the chakra

system portrayed as a model of psychological development (e.g., preoccupation,

concerns, and attitudes) thus corresponding in general with other prominent literature

(such as Breaux, 1998; Meadow, 1993; Myss, 1996; Judith, 1987). In fact, in the analysis

of my observation on subtle energy patterns and the attempt to give meaning, I will use

randomly the above-mentioned literature.

In the creation of this table, I intentionally placed a specific emphasis on the

principal of ―motivating forces‖ or ‗energy/motivation‘ and ‗tasks‘ that the individual has

to manage to surpass each stage of development, as I believe that these two factors are

significant in establishing psychosomatic symptoms and understanding possible issues

related to each centre:

Table H - Chakras’ Psychological Energies/Emotions and Tasks

Chakras Energy/Emotions Tasks

Muladhara Not conscious; under control of By learning to control impulses one

Root instincts; fear; paranoia advances toward the beginning of wisdom

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Chakras Energy/Emotions Tasks

Svadhisthan Sexuality and sensuality; pleasure and Transform/channel instinctual energy in

Genital fertility; lust, greed and cravings for spiritual force

sensual delights

Manipura Associated with the autonomic Develop power to cast out, reject and eject

Navel nervous system and emotional arousal and refuse to allow something to be part of

(e.g., anger and violence); centre of one‘s life. One is a step away from higher

digestive heat; urge to be powerful energy so by dominating the energy in this

and influences others; psycho- chakra one achieve mastery of material and

physiological disorders manifest in the phenomenal world thus creating a higher

digestive system, etc. vibration at the heart chakra.

Anahata Maturity; Om, the sound of the One must acquire selfless and caring for

Heart creative energy of the universe; others, clear-sighted detachment with

creative nature of love. compassion in order to bestow both

nurturing and healing.

Visuddha Accepting nurture, being receptive Realize one‘s true identity, and trusts in the

Throat and acquiring a full sense of trust; goodness of that which lays behind the

awareness of things; realization of manifest self. To become sensitive to when

oneself as an active centre of creative surrendered receptivity is appropriate; the

energy and as a unique individual with outpouring in symbolic form of what has

intrinsic values; artistic endeavor, true been received.

art.
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Chakras Energy/Emotions Tasks

Ajna Perfect control of the personality; In the divine union at this level, however,

Eyebrow Intuition begins operating and there is still a duality the "thou" and "I". The

becomes a reliable source of task is to leave all images, symbols, and

knowledge and information. From a dualities. One need to know directly with

higher consciousness, this new way of one's entire being, rather than piecemeal by

knowing brings an integrated laborious discursive thought.

awareness.

Journaling.

I will briefly identify the key-points for journaling. First, I wanted to document

patterns of internal body energy characterised either by observed blockages or subsequent

the releases of blockage, characterised by patterns of free-flow of internal subtle energy.

Second, I wanted to document whether creative dance movement was useful for

stimulating the free-flow of internal body energy and improving relationships between

receptive and expressive. Third, I wanted to compare, when present, experiential relations

between dance movement and yoga practices.

Methodology.

Although this self-experiential study was conducted within the methodological

framework of hermeneutic phenomenology, nonetheless, the creative framework of dance

movement methodology, embedded with arts' essential qualitative principles and methods

of inquiry, is strongly present.

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Main direction and purposes of self-experiential study.

The report that follows will present significant information from the journal,

which was used to record direct experience during the dance movement self-experiential

laboratory. The report will provide, in an organized way, information on the presence of

my psychosomatic symptoms, energy patterns, and other intuitive reflections related to

dance movement and/or its relation to the tantric yoga discipline. Psychosomatic issues

will be defined and thus identified in a common non-medical language; for example, I

will use words such as tension, pain, stress, discomfort (either emotional, mental or

physical), mood, feeling, low or high energy and so forth. I will attempt subsequently to

identify the specific chakra centres that psychometric issues and observed subtle energy-

patterns are related to, as per the synthetic table. I will also relate these to the main

literature and my personal skills. In the conclusive section, I will summarize and further

discuss the findings.

Report of journal and chakra analysis.

I will now provide some extracts on energy-pattern observation that I documented

in my dance movement journal and attempt a subsequent analysis using classical

psychological understanding of the chakra system.

Week # 2 - January 21, 2008.

Observation prior to dance movement class: Before the class, I was experiencing

mental agitation, a state of anxiety or nervous excitement; I was also feeling physically

tired due to accumulated tension and lack of inner peace.

Observation prior to and during dance movement warm-up: Despite this general

lack of well-being, I carried on the dance movement class determined to experiment with
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my body (within what I judged to be a safe environment). As I continued with the warm

up movements (basic leg exercises in parallel and first position: for example, pressing the

floor with the toes, lifting the feet, raising the feet at joint level) I started to connect with

my physicality and became vividly aware of a burning sensation present in the area

around my solar plexus (i.e., navel chakra) which caused a sudden shooting feeling of

hunger. After a few warm-up dance movement exercises, I felt a slow, gradual release of

tension and I started to feel more relaxed in body and mind.

During the class: We started exercises that incorporated swinging of arms up and

down, and then as we moved to a freestyle dance movement, the dance instructor asked

us to simply let ourselves connect with the music and our body. I engaged my self (body

and mind) in a spiraling/whirling dance for some time. I placed one hand palm facing

down and the other palm facing up (like a Sufi dance) which cleared the prior sense of

negativity and replenished me with new vigor and energy. I recall that when I was

engaged in these movements, there was, in my core, a still, calm place from which the

movement could emanate. With an open, quiet centre operating, I felt awake and able to

observe positive energy concentration while negativity dissolved in the whirlwind of

movement. Furthermore, I was able to determine that no effort was actually necessary to

accomplish the movement, the body (perhaps my full-being) seemed to know exactly

what it wanted.

Final observations: I felt somewhat lighter and generally more joyful and playful

in spirit. My body, mind and spirit felt invigorated and awakened by the combination of

technical and expressive dance movements and energy awareness. For example, the
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twirling and frantic ―dervish‖ like dance movement helped clear the old energies out of

my body.

Chakra Analysis: In my own analysis I foresee a probable imbalance of energy in

the third chakra. I was obviously conscious of the main causes that were affecting me,

which were mostly emotional (in relation with close individuals). In Breaux‘s (1998)

analysis of the third chakra, he informs us that this chakra ―regulates the flow of vital

energies throughout the body‖ (p. 81). Moreover, this chakra tends to get blocked from

emotional struggle and as a result brings on physical lethargy, depression and irritability.

―Self-expression can be used positively to channel emotions and serve as a vehicle of

self-discovery ...‖ (p. 83). ―Creative endeavors, such as dancing ... or art, encourage

emotional expression and generate feelings of satisfaction and accomplishment‖ (p. 92).

According to Breaux (1998), ―emotions‖ (pp. 19, 81, 89-93) can be transmuted into

positive energy by the sentiment of acceptance alone that occurs though the third chakra,

which‖ regulates the flow of vital energies through the body‖ (p. 81).

Week # 7 - February 25, 2008.

Observation prior to dance movement class: The instructor reminds us of the

importance of respecting other participants‘ movements and affirming our own

movements; the importance of the diversity in unity and unity in diversity. I need to

admit that I am curious to observe, thus perceive and feel the group‘s energy. Until now I

have observed an uneasy unwillingness of participants to open up to each other. The lack

of fusion is aggravated in my own perception of the subdivision during the course into

small, isolated groups. I sense, uneasiness to mingle, open, and relate to others. Without

attempting to analyze the possible reason, I always find it interesting in trying to discern
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how much the picture of a given situation is a source of one‘s own imagination or truthful

interpretation of reality. My personal experience of the rest of the class begins in me each

time I enter the dance studio. To my enthusiastic ―hi everyone‖ I seldom meet with any

response. I mentally repeat to myself to discard any of the negative thoughts ―hey guys, I

am cool! I have backpacked around the world! I keep young at heart despite my apparent

age‖. I have formulated the theory that it could be a generation gap, since I am the oldest

in the class. This is a speculation, if somewhat confirmed from the fact that I always get a

warm response from Mario, the musician, and the teacher, who are much closer to my

age. Another exception to this general rule of indifference is a particular participant who

is always extremely warm and assertive in her attitude toward everyone including me.

During the class: I had asserted myself in front of the class by moving, even if I

wasn‘t particularly inspired today. I empathize with various individuals, especially who

revealed, in my perception, vulnerability in expressing themselves. On the other hand, I

was able to spot a few individuals with paramount confidence, perhaps aided by a strong

familiarity with certain dance or body techniques like jazz, ballet, acrobatics. I naturally

admire their dance techniques, but see in a few of them no emotions or vulnerability.

Final observations: Today the class was exposed to free dance movements

accompanied by music or without music, with a theme or without a theme, single or in

groups, with particular emphasis on the lower body, upper-body, space, dimension, and

input from other styles. This kind of class was reminiscent of the first class; but, contrary

to the first class, I was able to be aware of other people‘s tendency to move in different

styles and characters, wherein at times, technicalities, tensions, fear, limits, strength,

emotions are revealed. I would like to emphasize that I particularly enjoyed this class. In
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part, I liked it because we were able to reaffirm the importance of full deep breathing that

I learned from the yogic discipline. In part I liked it because it allowed my to restore the

right of asserting my existence, wherein determination and expressiveness are important

elements. And in part I liked it because it allowed me to begin establishing connection

with others. Somehow, it provided me with a space within and without, where I could

determine that what I am feeling is sourced in actions and not mere imagination. Action,

which I understand as being the direct-experience, reveals the reality of a lived-

experience; thought is a possibility based on insight, which can be based on thousands of

(my) fears. Ultimately, how do I know what is real if I do not intervene with actions,

perhaps what I am feeling toward my surroundings is simply nourished by my

imagination, not only of myself, but of other people, and others people‘s imagination of

me. To put it in Bernstein‘s (1975) words ―motion or dancing is a direct means of

expression. It is often more direct than verbalization, for its origin quite often stems from

an unconscious spontaneous reaction to how the person perceives his environment‖ (p.

xi).

Chakra Analysis: In an analysis of this class, I indentified its themes: relationship

and asserting oneself. Myss (1996) relates that ―form of relationship, and explore their

[one‘s] power of choice‖ (p. 129) is related to the second chakra. She further states

(1996) ―with the second chakra energy shifts from obeying tribal authority to discovering

other relationships that satisfy personal, physical needs. ... a lower chakra energy that

pushes up toward relating to external forces‖ (p. 130). Further more she adds:

This chakra resonates to our need for relationship with other people and our need

to control to some extent the dynamics of our physical environment .... The
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energy in this chakra enables us to generate a sense of personal identity and

protective psychological boundaries. As we continually assess our personal

strength in regard to the external world and its physically seductive forces. ...

energy of self-sufficiency, a survival instinct for being in the world. (Myss, 1996,

pp. 129-130)

Without the need to go more in-depth, I can recognize these energy patterns going

on within others and myself. The class was an opportunity to remind myself of a

fundamental principle, conveyed to the group by the dance teacher, during the initial

orientation: the importance of ‗honouring one another‘. Myss, (1996) emphasizes:

This truth applies to our interactions with each other and with all forms of life.

From a spiritual perspective every relationship we develop, from the most casual to

the most intimate, serves the purpose of helping us to become more conscious.

Some relationships are necessarily painful because learning about ourselves and

facing our own limitations are not things we tend to do with enthusiasm. We often

need to be spiritually ‗set up‘ for such encounters .... release our compulsion to

judge what and who has value and instead focus on honoring the person and the

task with which we are involved. (p. 131)

Week # 9 - March 10, 2008.

Observation prior dance movement class: It had become clear to me in the days

prior to this class that while working many hours on the computer I had completely

forgotten to stay connected with my body. Without going into details and analysis of the

mind-body process, I will simply state here that as a result of spending many hours

working on a PC and being completely absorbed with finishing the task at hand, I was not
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paying attention to the tension in my shoulders, or maintaining a correct posture and

natural breathing pattern. I arrived in this class with a painful sore-knot in my left

shoulder, a slight soreness in my lower back, and a tight pressure on my chest.

During the class: This class gave me a chance to explore a more sophisticated

sequence that required a greater extent of concentration and coordination than I had

needed in the previous classes. Although generally speaking class is becoming more

difficult in terms of remembering long sequences of dance movements, I am particularly

enjoying the sense of understanding how intention and meaning can be added to the

movements. For example, by linking sight to each movement I can contract or expand the

explored territory. By rotating the arms from an upward stretch to a downward one I can

shift my visualization from an unlimited space to limited one. More precisely, by

stretching my body and simultaneously extending my sight upward I can visualize a

space above that is broader, opened, unlimited, free flowing as the sky, the universe, the

ether, the air, et cetera. If I contract downward and I direct my sight to the floor, I can see

that it is by its nature limited, constrained; but, on the other hand, that it can enhance a

sense of being grounded, rooted, firm, et cetera. I am gradually incorporating the dance

movements in a way that I can experience integration of both body and mind towards

expanding self-awareness in relation with its inner-outer space. I find myself

continuously working to assimilate outer vibes – in the form of instruction from the

teacher and fellow students – and the inner one – within my personal body-mind needs. I

feel I am grounding to the necessity of the self.

Final observations: I have grasped today that with full awareness one is able to

intrinsically shift between light/subtle and heavier/gross movements, between the need
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for the mind to portray its ethereal dreams and the need for the body to stay grounded. In

real terms, each stage can be the given necessity of a different moment. However,

without awareness, which include the body, one is condemning their body to illness and

mind to homelessness.

Chakra Analysis: Grounding, as a vehicle for motion, seems to be a quality

related with the first chakra. Analyzing the correspondent meaning of what was

occurring in relation with chakra psychology, I learnt that the importance of being rooted

is a predominant characteristic of this first chakra, symbolized by the elephant and the

square earth symbol, both of which represent the necessity to be grounded in the body

(Breaux, 1998, pp. 38-47; Judith, 1987, pp. 61-73; Avalon, 1974, pp. 355-364). Breaux

(1998) states:

In general, the primary function of the root chakra is to translate the life force into

the survival needs and activities of the physical organism. Feelings of physical

security and confidence instil in us the trust necessary for the positive expression

of the root chakra. Without the sense of feeling safe in the body and the physical

environment, a deep fear undermines all other levels of consciousness. (p. 39)

Breaux continues on this theme, explaining that the body is directly affected by

the mind and further describes the mechanism and effects:

Thoughts and feelings as psychic energy in the aura affect the physical body via

nerve centers and endocrine glands, altering its apparent structure and function. ...

On the cellular level, the processes that maintain a whole and healthy body are

constantly disrupted by a war between actions: emotions and concepts. For

example, when emotions are triggered (sexual excitement, crying, anger), energy
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begins to flow from the emotional body into the physical, preparing for action.

The ego says ―No!‖ and the action is suppressed. ―No‖ means contraction in the

body-the muscles tighten, the breath becomes shallow, and the body is frozen in

conflict. ... This repression of awareness in the body protects us from

unacceptable feelings, but is also curtails vitality and pleasurable feelings. ... We

deprive ourselves of what we need to grow and thrive ... . (pp. 43-44)

In a retrospective analysis, I can recognize many channels of the energy-flow

disruption in the root chakra. Naturally, I have only scratched the surface of the unlimited

possibility of analysis corresponding with this specific chakra. Nevertheless, I believe I

can see the autonomous conflicts between an ego centered mind and the body segregated

from the conscious mind, of the ego that refuses to acknowledge the importance of the

body in the given task, and the unhealthier tendency for the ego manoeuvred mind to be

greedy for achievements at the cost of its own body. Ultimately, as Breaux (1998)

affirms:

The contemporary wave of bodywork techniques [and I can place dance

movement here, from my own experience] clearly demonstrates the protean

qualities of the body. Blocked emotions and inner tensions can be released and the

body can become free, loose, and healthy. ... In addition to the release of blocked

pain and frozen emotions, the ability to experience pleasure in the body can be re-

established. (p. 44)

In dealing with symptomatic signs of our own limitations, distress, pain, et cetera,

there is a need to feel firsthand the exact meaning of such symptoms. Investigating

further the possible causes of the shoulder knot, or the possibility of more severe shoulder
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and neck issues, I quote Breaux‘s (1998) statement that ―tension in the neck and

shoulder‖ (p.124) can also be a manifestation of dysfunction of the fifth or throat chakra.

This chakra works as a ―mediator between mental and emotional stimuli‖ (p. 124). When

this chakra ―overloads‖ (p. 124) through continuous ―conflict between mental and

emotional stimuli‖ one can feel severe forms of body tension, mostly around the neck and

shoulder, or be affected by psychosis, a mental illness where the mind is completely

disconnected from the physical realities, resulting in serious harm to the body (pp. 124-

125).

Week # 2 - January 23, 2008.

This class was characterised by an analytical thinking process, corroborated by

direct experience of the intuitive relation between Hatha yoga, Kundalini yoga and

Western dance movement. In my position as a yoga teacher, I had noted that the dance

movement discipline emphasises the need to focus on full awareness of the entire body in

a similar fashion as the Hatha yoga discipline. Also, the two disciplines shares similar

body posture and mind projection. For example, both in dance and yoga, stretching

exercise can be used in conjunction with mental intentions such as expansion, opening,

receiving, releasing and so forth. It seems to me that, in dance movement, aesthetic

motifs, sometime suggested by the teacher or simply improvised, when enacted in

movement, are able to stir energy and can transform the dancer. A yoga adept,

performing physical postures in a different way but with similar results, learns that each

posture has an aesthetic motif and that by associating with this, transformation can occur.

In yoga, each asana represents a figure, for example, an animal (e.g. lion) or a human

character (e.g. warrior) and the practitioner mentally and physically associates with the
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particular qualities of each representation. Moreover, there are specific techniques called

mudras that are specifically designed to shape the mental attitude of the yoga adept.

Many other exercises could be illustrated as examples to demonstrate my comment,

however, let this suffice. Thus, it is my understanding that movement is allowed to

embody meanings, and awareness of meanings always brings about change.

Another observation that I made as a result of this class was that dance movement

most probably is an important body-mind and spiritual medium. This intuition that I had

during the class relates to the ability to experience transformation during the practice or

to be completely absorbed in the practice, which most of the time is based around an

aesthetic motif, and by living in a momentary transcendence, to experience the creative

inside and outside integration which brings change and transformation. In other words,

the entire process of experimenting with dance movement is reminiscent of Hatha yoga

and Kundalini yoga practices. A pertinent example could be the employment of the

chakra system and the flow of energy as a figurative development model, and thus as a

tool to embody the psychological and spiritual.

Another contemplative process I went through in the dance movement class that

made me comment later on in my journal was that Kundalini yoga, in distinction from

Hatha yoga, employs the subtle body energy, kundalini, to raise awareness to each centre

of consciousness present in the individual. However, the kundalini energy in its original

stage lies dormant, in a state of potentiality. It is only through the work of a creative

practice that it is activated and the latent potential released in full. This creative force–

the kundalini energy – is then conveyed by a conscious adept to the peak of human

evolution. However, intuitively, I feel that while dance movement and Kundalini yoga
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share the idea of creativity as the fundamental base for their practice, Hatha yoga

transcends creativity by taking the adept on a journey of faithful observance to doctrines

that teach body and mind austerities, thus negating personal creativity. It is my personal

opinion that Kundalini yoga differs from Hatha yoga in the process and means of

reaching the ultimate aim of spiritual transcendence. Conversely, dance movement theory

is not specifically preoccupied with the spiritual transcendence of the dancer; however, it

places no limits on the creative process of the individual. A conclusive idea that I have is

that various types of yoga (Kundalini yoga, Hatha yoga, Patanjali yoga and so forth)

stand together within what is sometimes referred to as ―the yoga science‖ and are the

ultimate source of guidance for various type of adepts, each with a different

predisposition and different needs and possibilities. That is why, in my experience and

understanding, a true yoga adept seeks a specific Guru, rather than a specific type of

yoga.

Discussion and Conclusion

In my opinion, the ability to observe and embody patterns of internal body energy

and subsequent releases of blockage or stimulation of the free-flow of internal body

energy patterns, it is my conclusion that dance movement, with its aesthetic motifs and

other qualities such as the ability to relax the body and the mind, allows for creative

responses to take place and for energy to be set free to flow. However, within this

specific self-experiential laboratory, self-awareness was brought in from my personal

yoga experience. This accumulated experiential knowledge was what allowed me to

observe, with a heightened awareness, the subtle energy phenomenon. During the dance

movement classes, I felt my whole self, the corporeal, the psychological, and the
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intuitional, engaged in experiencing. Examples of the perceived sensation that I intuited

as energy were superficial corporeal sensations such as blushing, flushing, tickling,

temperature, goose bumps and tingling; mental vibration-patterns such as emotions,

thoughts, feelings and moods; and, intuitional driving forces that created vivid awareness

of changes and transformation at distinct stages of consciousness. These stages of

consciousness were felt through a holistic personal identity that eschewed the tripartite

division of the self-composed body-mind and spirit (the tripartite human system is

understood here as a spectrum spanning from the personal psychological state governed

by material-psychological needs to transpersonal spiritual-energetic transcendence from

the material realms). So that I could interpret the self-experiential laboratory according to

the reviewed classic and classical meditational literature, I investigated subtle energy

flow, and found that, according to Indic texts, subtle energy flows from a lower energy-

consciousness centre to a higher one. In classic western psychology, this raising of

energy is described somewhat differently, according to the different schools of

psychology, but generally corresponds to a sense of personal development and growth. In

the case of transpersonal psychology, this flow is defined as an ‗expansion of

consciousness‘, also broadly known as an ‗altered state of consciousness‘. Possible ways

to measure this expansion of consciousness have already been indicated in the

introduction; however, it may be worth reiterating that general psychosomatic (e.g.,

emotional, mental and perceptual) changes occur (Deikman, 1963; Grof, 1975; Levine et

al., 1963; Tart, 1990, 1969). Thus, to recapitulate: the self-laboratory was able to

stimulate, similar to a tantric approach, body and mind. This permitted the self to re-enact

and perceive, to a certain degree, activated energy-patterns that function as a medium of

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healing and transformation. In my opinion the different degrees of conscious awareness

are noticeable during work with the body and mind. However, there is a superior

observer--already identified in the Indic traditions, but also by notable psychologists such

as Freud and Jung—that is generally understood as transpersonal consciousness, where

the specific body-mind awareness is integrated and transcended. I feel that energy-

consciousness work is a compound that integrates and transcends. Moreover, from my

own experience, I believe that healing and transformation do not necessarily imply major

sublime life-events that reform our sense of reality entirely, in a short time. They can also

occur at a very slow pace in sensible, progression. Also, based on my own personal

experience of growth and transformation, I agree here with the major school of

psychology that suggests regression stages occur in the development of individuals.

Maslow (1970) terms these as ―Regression-Values‖ (pp. 97-99, appendix H); while

Meadow (1993) talks about the necessity of ―successively dealing with the tasks of each

stage‖ for ―growth‖ to occur (p. 68). In other words, the individual is prone to experience

critical stages that can raise temporary or permanent obstacles (e.g., illness and or

sufferings) that halt the individual‘s development. These obstacles can also cause relapse

to a prior stage (Meadow, 1993, p. 70). I will not discuss here the many implications that

these regressive development stages have, according to the different Indic meditational

doctrinal traditions. It suffices here to say that the Whole Medical System of yoga, which

operates within the concepts of subtle energy and the chakras developmental model,

acknowledges and understands these negative stages as symptomatic, recognizable signs

of blockage of energy, which eventually lead to illness of body and mind. In response,

yoga prescribes remedies which might consist of performing physical or breathing

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exercises, chanting of a specific mantra, or performing other rituals or actions to reassert

the free-flow of energy, which can occur only when the individual achieves a certain

level of psycho-physical and spiritual purification. Also, Meadow (1993) affirms that:

Most Western models allow for regression under stress, saying that occasional

lower level behavior always remains possible. The yogic model considers it

possible to control completely the manifestation of energy at a particular level;

this level has then been absolutely transcended. (p. 70)

In respect to regression, I personally have experienced many regression stages,

and I believe these are a clear sign that there is a lack of integration and balance between

the direction of the body, mind and spirit.

Personally, when I experience the release of energetic blockage, I find an overall

improvement in the relationship between sensory and motor and receptive and

expressive. For example, occasionally, I find myself shifting from a situation of physical

and mental contraction, where I fold towards pain, discomfort, and an inability to be

receptive to the external and expressive, to a more balanced situation, in which I feel

comfortable, receptive, expressive, opened, stable and creative. When this occurs, there is

always an integral correspondence of physical and mental, receptive and expressive,

interpersonal, spiritual and transpersonal. I also believe that this connectedness can exist

at any stage of human evolution, as individuals can fulfil their unique potential in the

specific organism they are presently embodying. In regard to purification, I do agree with

the meditational literature that purification is a key to integration and self-realization. The

act of cleansing, at the physical, mental and spiritual levels, is the act of getting rid of the

unhealthy; thus removing an obstacle in the way of fulfilment and self-realization. This
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requires a constant conscious effort to balance the personal, interpersonal and

transpersonal, which affirms the right of individuality within the universality of all things.

Purification makes one realize that they are one with the all.

The dance movement aesthetic experience is ―cognitive, perceptual, emotional,

and spiritual‖ (Hervey, 2000, p. 15), and awakens the ―sensation, emotion, and

imagination‖ (Hervey, 2000, p. 15). Within this mode of ‗artistic inquiry‘, the self-

experiential study determined that dance movement is validated because it generates

―active imagination‖ (Miller and Jung 2004, p. 24). It is further validated through the

emergence of psychic energy, which arises from stirring the unconscious through creative

representation or ―in the way of creative formulation‖ (p. 24) such as ―drawing, painting

... and even movements‖ (p. 24). In the dance movement laboratory, I personally

experienced the free-flow of internal body energy in response to blockage or stagnation.

Moreover, dance movements allowed me through methodology such as artistic inquiry to

influence uninformed as well as informed emotional material. The hermeneutic

phenomenological approach allowed me to describe and interpret, in an organized way.

My analysis of the observed patterns of subtle energy utilized the chakra integral

development model, by first identifying psychosomatic issues that were observed prior to

and during each dance movement section. Subsequently, I observed any discharge of

such psychosomatic symptoms. Although the researcher possessed a strong intuition in

assessing psychosomatic symptoms and some knowledge of main literature on

psychological interpretation of chakras, it was necessary to employ the reviewed

literature for a better analysis of symptoms and their relation to various chakras. Overall,

I reviewed a few leading authors, who wrote extensively on the chakra development
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model, and I found many matching similarities in their content. For this specific study, I

have extensively used Meadow‘s (1991) understanding of the chakras, together with

other authors such as Breaux (1998), Judith (1987) Myss (1996), and Avalon (1974).

However, for the purposes of this thesis, I intended simply to communicate and re-pattern

my personal experiences with the process, by using an ever-increasing integral

psychological understanding of the psychosomatic issue that stands in the way of

personal development and spiritual growth (or well-being). Nevertheless, my attempt

should be understood as a learning process, in which I endeavour to interpret, through the

application of ready available psychological methods, the blockage or flow of energy in

the chakras. In other words, in this study, I have attempted to become aware of healing

and transformation or the stasis of these positive processes by using Applied Psychology,

a field unfamiliar to my personal and professional knowledge. My experience in spiritual

or energetic modalities such as Reiki and to certain extent yoga, is based purely on

cognitive knowledge (e.g., intuition, trust, ability to embody understanding in a non

verbal or non intellectual level, etc.). However, in order to keep such possibilities alive,

one has to adhere to a strict spiritual discipline, so that the human system remains

receptive to channelling such knowledge. I would be interested in conducting a similar

study, using participants who are highly advanced in a spiritual practice such as yoga, but

have no knowledge of ‗psychology‘, so that I could test to see whether their interpretation

of psychosomatic symptoms based on cognitive knowledge would match contemporary

psychological interpretations.

Finally, I believe that in a present day context, information needs to be shared

across boundaries of practice. Basically, there is a need for more interdisciplinary and
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integral research, as integration holds answers and solutions for a more organic human

evolution.
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CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

In this final chapter, I will consider seven interrelated aspects of my research and

then draw overall conclusions based upon my findings. First, I will evaluate the possible

meanings of the subtle body system; and then, I will look at what I have discovered about

consciousness and energy interrelations. Since consciousness is seriously complex, I will

dwell briefly on the conundrum of sorting out consciousness. Having, hopefully, built a

stable platform, I will return to the integral aims of this research and look at the chakra

system interpreted as an integral psychotherapeutic development model; then at the

implications of yoga and mantra modalities for integral psychology. At the penultimate

stage, I will discuss what I have learned about interpretative phenomenological analysis

of the subtle energy phenomenon; and draw conclusions about this methodology. Finally,

I will attempt to create unity, by drawing overall conclusions to my research. Subsequent

to my conclusions, and as a final act, I will provide a brief disclaimer, as I feel that I

might have sometimes throughout this thesis conveyed the false idea that an East-West

dichotomy exists.

Ontological Meaning of the Subtle Body System

During this thesis research, within the section ―Examination of Meditational

Literature‖ in chapter 4, I progressed from a preliminary stage of investigating ancient

Indic meditational literature in search of descriptions of existing models of the subtle

body system, to a subsequent comparative study of the dominant models presented in the

literature. I will now proceed to restate the detailed results of my comparative study of

the main subtle body systems before discussing its possible meanings.
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In the classic meditational literature, two similar representations of the chakra

system model are presented, one from Buddhism and one from Hinduism. However, a

further result of this preliminary investigation established that, despite the lack of

unanimous agreement on the representation and assumed meaning of the models of the

subtle body system, there are nonetheless fundamental similarities to the main structures,

mechanics and purposes. The perennial element involved in the entire life process is

subtle energy; complex mechanics are implicated in the work of subtle energy; the work

of subtle energy is aimed at cleansing the subtle channels (nadis); free flow of life energy

releases blockages existing at the various centres of consciousness (chakras); and the

energetic flow is always ascending and corresponds to a sort of evolutionary psycho-

spiritual journey.

Some contemporary scholars on meditational literature, as we have seen, suggest

the importance of thinking about the perspective that the subtle body system or chakra

system should perhaps be viewed as a figurative rather than a literal tool used for

meditation. For example, in his 1996 writing, Flood asks ―whether such systems of

esoteric anatomy were meant to be understood in a literal or ontological [figurative]

sense‖ (p. 99). This query will be left unresolved in this thesis. Notwithstanding, there is

a need to emphasize here that a conclusion that favours the figurative understanding

would be based on the examination of contemporary meditational literature, where there

seems to be a predominant agreement that the representation of the subtle body system is

employed as a visualization tool in meditation, as an aid to and focus for the psycho-

spiritual journey the yogi adept has to traverse in an ascending motion, a sort of Eastern

psychological growth model. This model is prospected by many Western transpersonal

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and integral psychologists as a psychotherapeutic model that can be used to assess and

resolve possible psychological stages in which individuals may find themselves stranded.

The individual that meditates upon the model of the chakra system can associate the need

to deal with certain psychological tasks in order to be able to move forward to the next

psychological stage of the growth development model (i.e., always ascending, with the

implication of healing and transformation). However, I favour a literal understanding of

the subtle body system, which I consider more likely to be the valid hypothesis. This

belief, which I cannot currently prove, is based, firstly, on the classic meditational

literature, where the initial descriptions of the chakra system are found. This literature

affirms that ancient seers discovered the subtle body system through a contemplative

process, during which they sensed such psychic-energetic centres and progressively drew

an illustrative map of their characteristic attributes. (Parenthetically, while some literature

holds that such knowledge has been passed on directly from the gods, I believe that these

accounts still include the contemplative aspect of human beings processing such

information.) Secondly, while denied by a scientific materialistic approach, this

conclusion is supported by an interpretative hermeneutic phenomenological approach, the

approach utilized in this thesis, which holds that the lived experience is valid. The

interpretative phenomenological analysis that I make is based on two primary sources,

the descriptive literature of the subtle energy phenomenon and my lived experience. As

regards the literature, we can look to, for example, the case of pundit Gopi Krishna, who,

in his 1971 autobiography, recounted extensively his lived experience with Kundalini

awakening or subtle energy phenomenon. And, as I have already discussed in other parts

of this thesis, we can look at my direct experience with the phenomenon of subtle energy.
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My experience has enabled me to visualize, occasionally, specific chakras and to be

aware on a regular basis of the chakra system and subtle energy on the corporal, mental

and spiritual level. According to first person accounts and my experience, both the chakra

centre and subtle energy seem to respond to psychosomatic and spiritual, internal and

external stimulus that can increase, decrease or bring to a halt the flow of life-energy.

These stimuli can be controlled by contemplative techniques that directly or indirectly

influence the flow of energy, thus affecting the subtle body system‘s functionality that is

directly related with the psychosomatic health and spiritual well-being of individuals.

Flow of energy corresponds to improvement of health and/ spiritual well-being, and

blockage of energy correspond to poor health and/or spiritual regression.

Having said this, I acknowledge here that the literal hypothesis, although

corroborated by others‘ notorious and more significant qualitative testimony (e.g. Krisna,

1971), when confronted by a rigorous scientific materialistic methodology requires a

research methodology and instruments that produce more quantifiable/measurable data.

Nonetheless, I should also reiterate that, according to a hermeneutic phenomenological

approach, the qualitative case studies of individual/s that experience a given

phenomenon, (e.g., subtle energy in relation with healing and transformation) represent

an unquestionable reality for such individuals, and are thus factual and not figurative.

Moreover, if I had to prospect a final conclusion based on my interpretative

phenomenological analysis of subtle energy literature and personal experience with the

phenomenon, I would need to add that that, in order to be able to literally perceive the

subtle body system, the most sensible approach would be a full commitment to a practice
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of realization designed to enhance the inner process of attuning oneself to these subtle

dimensions.

Finally, I believe, that one conclusion that more than others finds a general

acceptance, both within the examined literature (i.e., the ancient Indic and commentarial

meditational literature; present day interpretative and integrative therapeutic literature)

and my own experiential findings, is that both interpretations, whether we believe in a

figurative or literal existence of the subtle body system, do account for the ontological

capital importance of the subtle body system for personal development at the

psychosomatic and spiritual level. Thus, I propose that, regardless of the factual or

figurative meaning one can give to the subtle body system, the basic application of its

governing principles would be of great benefit for those individuals who are working for

the development and growth of others or themselves.

Consciousness and Energy Interrelations

So far, we should be clear that this subtle body system, arising from Eastern

classic literature, but also utilized in a variety of methodological approaches by

contemporary scholars, is governed by very complex phenomena. Clearly, it was not the

aim of this thesis to attempt a complex and far reaching explanation; instead, the aim was

to inspect and elucidate such resilient elements that permeate the phenomenon as its

working mechanisms. However, I have found the contemplation of subtle energy and

consciousness to be interesting and thought-provoking, both as regards the comparative

study and the overall interpretative phenomenological analysis. Since these concepts are

described recurrently in the Indic meditational literature, they have been a continuous

source of self contemplation during the entire process of writing this thesis.
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These two concepts, which can also be thought of as two main mechanisms that

govern healing and transformation, form a theme that is the ‗interrelatedness between

consciousness and subtle energy‘. What remains ambiguous, as far I am concerned, is the

question of which mechanism stirs the other: Is consciousness, alone, responsible for

stirring or creating and governing subtle energy? Or, is life-energy the igniting impulse

from which consciousness emanates at each centre, each chakra of the subtle body

system?

From my study of the meditational literature, I gather that the activation of this

dormant subtle energy in the lower centre of consciousness, the genital area, is started by

a realization practice, or sadhana. As we have seen, the practice of realization consists,

for the most part, of a rigorous yogic practice that interestingly enough reflects the

ascending order that is a recurrent theme of all Indian spiritual traditions and many

Western psychological models of growth. First, the adept needs to work on aspects of the

gross body, for example the body has to be calmed by the performance of physical

postures or asanas. Then, the same work is required by the mind; exercises for focusing

the mind are performed for this purpose. When the foregoing has been accomplished,

breathing exercises, pranayamas, are supposed to stir subtle prana and also prepare the

adept for more advanced, sophisticated work in subtle practice, which includes the

chanting of mantras and the performance of rituals aimed at transforming and expanding

the consciousness of the adept. In short, once the gross body is purified or healed, subtle-

energy is stirred and human consciousness expands. However, it is my assumption that,

for any adept to take action towards the realization of a practice, whether physical, mental

or spiritual, s/he has to experience an expansion of consciousness, which leads to my

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final understanding: that one has to look at consciousness and life energy as

interconnected elements – two faces of the some coin – in healing and transformation.

Overview

I would like to suggest that this discussion served perhaps as a prelude or the

groundwork for another important and controversial issue tackled in my essay: the

conundrum of defining and sorting out consciousness. I believe that the discussion of this

issue opens a space for each of us to reflect on how we perceive the lived world. The

notion that the perceived world is fundamentally subject to personal interpretation is

primary for the evaluation and understanding of the hermeneutic phenomenological

methodology used in this thesis. At the same time, sorting out consciousness also serves

as a basis for understanding the whole subtle energy phenomenon related to healing and

transformation. As I have discussed, life-energy and consciousness go hand in hand, and

both play an important role in delivering healing and transformation.

Incidentally, the spiritual aspect and, broadly, the approach that one has toward

consciousness are, in my opinion, important, as upon these, according to the meditational

literature, depends the process of healing and transformation that subtle energy is

supposed to deliver. In other words, we should not forget that the classic meditational

texts are scripture, to be taken on faith, which suggests that adepts trust the entire process.

I believe that the faith issue goes a bit astray from the main purposes of the research and

is too great of a dilemma to be attempted in this thesis, or, for that matter, in any

scholarly paper. Rather, belief should be left to each individual to reflect upon. However,

it suffices here to say that spirituality, referred to as an ultimate reality or transcendent

dimension of the world, or as an inner path enabling healing and transformation, or as the
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―deepest values and meanings by which people live‖ (Sheldrake, 2007, pp. 1-2), is a

central point of the conundrum of sorting out consciousness.

Conundrum of Sorting Out Consciousness.

Determined to further investigate within the interdisciplinary framework of this

study, the many facets of the governing theoretical principle and practical aspects of the

subtle body system and its mechanics, I moved within this thesis from a reflective stage

to the acknowledgment that one single notion, namely consciousness, permeates directly

or indirectly the raison d'être of the overall Indian spiritual doctrines and is, furthermore,

―the central issue in current theorizing about the mind‖ (Van Gulick, 2009, ¶

Introduction). Thus, in the second stage of my research, I accepted that a further

investigation of the scientific understanding of structural models of consciousness was

indeed necessary. With this purpose in mind, within chapter 5, in the ‗Consciousness: A

Theoretical Study‘ section, I investigated and discussed variegated theoretical approaches

to the issue of consciousnesses. The scenarios of current researchers shift the focus back

and forth from Indic modes of understanding consciousness, which illustrates a thorough

knowledge of subtle energy as it relates to healing and transformation, to Western

science, which is governed by the need for quantifiable and reproducible experimental

results. Yet, in the ultimate analysis, after considering pro and contra of the variegated

theories spanning from mechanistic to spiritual understanding, I embraced a pioneering

scientific orientation known as integral theory (leading philosophers, scientists, and

educators that contributed to this theory include Aurobindo, Jean Gebser and Ken

Wilber); wherein, consciousness is studied by considering the full human spectrum of

spirituality, together with psychological and biological functioning. The idea of the
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spectrum of human consciousness proposes that human consciousness evolves along the

ascent or axis of a spiritual evolution, predetermined by cosmological patterns describing

existence at large or personal patterns describing the development of the individual, or

both. Within this thesis, I leave out the theological debate over whether the theory of

spiritual evolution, reflected in the spectrum of consciousness model, has to be

understood as holistic, holding that higher realities emerge from and are not reducible to

the lower, idealist, holding that reality is primarily mental or spiritual, or non-dual,

holding that there is no ultimate distinction between mental and physical reality.

However, it is most important to mention here that transpersonal and integral

psychology advanced human models of development that expanded the holistic concept

of health, by integrating personal, interpersonal, and transpersonal concepts. In the next

section I will briefly describe how.

Chakra System: An Integral Psychotherapeutic Development Model

The integral theorists have designed a psychotherapeutic development model by

suggesting that the chakra subtle body system and the Western psychological system can

be understood, if not as similarly characterized by growth stages, at least as fitting well

together to produce an integral model that includes all the personal, interpersonal and

transpersonal growth stages. This suggestion proposes that the chakras system integrates

in such a way that the framework expands to include higher states of consciousness. This

integral model has been systematically advanced by such leading transpersonal

psychologists and therapists as Leskowitz (2008), Maslow (1970), Meadow (1993), and

Nixon (2001). This progressive theory has made a significant contribution to my

research, as it constitutes the grounds for applying interpretative phenomenological

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analysis in the self-experiential study. In the larger context transpersonal and integral

modes of understanding consciousness as a spectrum encompass the notions of a tripartite

system and an energy-healing theory.

Having reached, as far as this thesis is concerned, a fairly comprehensive

understanding of the governing principles and structure of life-energy phenomenon, its

subtle body system and its mechanics; and having further identified the solution to the

conundrum of defining and sorting out consciousness within an integral framework,

which ultimately proposes the chakra system as a personal developmental model that

allows for a better appreciation of the phenomenon of consciousness--subtle energy in

healing and transformation, the section that follows will restate the scientific findings on

the study of the subtle body practices or the yogic practice of realization, sadhana

(Sadhana are, by definition, spiritual practices, including: meditation, chanting mantras,

and so forth, which are intended to develop an individual's inner life and a more holistic

self than a self defined by separate physical, mental and spiritual aspects).

The scientific findings relate to a positive response in psychophysical health and

spiritual well-being of yoga practitioners. However, due to the fact that the scientific

understanding of how subtle energy relates to psycho-physical health and spiritual well-

being is an issue that is being almost neglected in current studies, as the survey on

energy-based intervention clearly shows, I have within this thesis attempted to illustrate

that the subtle body practices are essentially energy-based modalities, and that the study

of applications of these subtle techniques require the understanding of possible

implications, mostly deduced by a comprehensive analysis of the Indic meditational

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literature, and by further inclusion of such pioneering theories as sonic entrainment

theory.

Implication of Yoga and Mantra Modalities

In the section ‗Energy-Healing Theory: A study,‘ I have surveyed contemporary

scientific studies which remarkably show that an ever increasing body of evidence is

documenting that, through specific yogic subtle body practices such as chanting mantra

and performing breathing exercises, pranayamas, the individual is able to activate a

positive psychophysical response. Specifically, significant results were provided in such

areas as effective management of pain, anxiety, depression, and hostility, as well as

increased ability to relax, improved self-esteem, greater energy and enthusiasm for life,

and the ability to cope with stress. They also support alternative yogic mind-body

therapies as being non-invasive and safe modalities. On the basis of these results, such

yogic body-mind modalities as asanas, pranayamas, mantras and meditation are

progressively being incorporated into the health care system. This research also

delineates the now sustained point of view that, to provide the best assessment and care to

affected patients, mental, emotional, energetic, and spiritual dimensions need to be

incorporated into the physical one.

Also, studying the transformation of consciousness and subjective awareness

associated with various meditation techniques, in long-term meditation, requires

empirical research that should aim to study and characterize such changes using

psychological and physiological tests, and correlating them with subjectively experienced

changes in awareness reported by the advanced meditators. Thus, this final issue posits

the importance of further elaborating on the subtle body system as a transpersonal model
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for transformation of consciousness that does not necessarily exclude the importance of

the personal psychophysical level, but simply adds other transpersonal levels such as

energetic, consciousness and spiritual toward supporting the theory of a spectrum of

consciousness.

Finally, I acknowledge the great difficulty that science has in effectively

measuring putative phenomenon such as subtle energy. Thus, it is my assumption that

yogic applications such as mantra have been entirely misconceived as simple mind-body

therapies. I feel that qualified scientists should be looking into ancient knowledge and

current scientific theories, and designing new experiments based upon this contemplative

and innovative knowledge. It my belief that, if researchers decide to tackle this area

firmly, using less explored and break-through knowledge, they should be able to gain a

greater understanding of the subtle energy phenomenon and subtle body practices. For

example, the experiments surveyed in this thesis, although able to confirm that chanting

mantras or breathing to a certain rhythm brings positive psychosomatic and spiritual

benefits to individuals, were unable to, and in some case unwilling to, investigate the

implications of why such modalities work. I have personally, previously, proposed,

following my analysis of the ancient literature, that yoga modalities such as mantra are

de facto described as energy-charged sounds. In an attempt to further my exploration into

possible implications of why the mantra modality works, I have endeavoured to link

ancient knowledge with the still relatively unexplored scientific theory based on ‗the

sonic entrainment law.‘ The sonic entrainment law observes that powerful rhythmic

vibrations, proper to sound, but also appropriately applied to breath or other rhythmic

phenomena, cause the less powerful vibrations of one entity to tune with the more
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powerful vibrations of another. Mantras are undoubtedly sounds, and, if we admit, for the

various reasons expounded in meditational literature, for example that the methodical

recitation of Sanskrit Vedic hymns and sacred formulas, mantras, over thousands of years

have shown the potential of mantra to charge this sound with powerful vibrations, we can

assume that these sounds, by reason of the entrainment law, have the potential to effect

the function of individuals that systematically chant mantras. Therefore, we should not be

sceptical of the findings in the surveyed studies that sustain mantra meditation as

affecting physical correlates of the neurological activities in the brain and thus the whole

human system.

Intepretative Phenomenological Analysis of the Subtle Energy Phenomenon

In the finale of chapter 5 in the section Self-Experiential Study on Subtle Body

Patterns, I engaged in a self-experiential investigation of energy patterns and attempted to

interpret them into recognizable developmental meanings. I have done this based on

hermeneutic phenomenological directives that allowed for the employment of a

combination of personal practical skills and interpretative literature.

The coursework in dance movement was identified as an ideal self-experiential

laboratory, where creative body-mind expressions, like aesthetic experience, could be

enacted in delivering observable data on such things as subtle body energy patterns.

Specifically, the self-experiential laboratory demanded research that could gather

concrete data, albeit at a very qualitative, naturalistic and cognitive level, as intended by

Polit and Beck (2004). Working with body-mind disciplines can be overwhelming for

and demanding of any individual. In this specific study, besides being aware of the

physical and mental reactions naturally produced in the human organism, I had to observe
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a third element, namely subtle energy. In the process of gathering this data, I relied

heavily on past experiential training in yogic and Reiki techniques and meditative

practices, through which I had learned to associate psychophysical symptoms such as

emotional distress, mental stress, and digestive ailments with energy blockages in

specific chakra centres.

However, I believe that the self-experiential laboratory was most important in

terms of observing subtle energy patterns. This was true, not only because at a subjective

cognitive level these observations corroborate the presence of subtle energy phenomenon

that can be recognised in variegated parallel and systematic patterns which shift between

corporeal, mental and spiritual awareness; but also, because the subsequent interpretative

phenomenological analysis required, aside from an ability for critical thinking, immersion

in a continuously contemplative state. This state requires engaging in direct experience,

knowing, not with body, mind or spirit; instead, knowing in pure consciousness,

holistically.

In summary, the dance movement laboratory was an attempt to open up new

explorative and therapeutic spaces in tantric ritual (Flood, 2006, p. 6). Highlights were

given to the significance of employing integral creative approaches as a unique way of

opening imagination and narrative that becomes a kind of action for personal healing and

transformation to take place. The intent was to allow the creative processes of inner

evaluation to be experienced by employing mixed modes of personal inquiry. For

example, the employment of the chakra system as a tool for conducting an interpretative

phenomenological analysis was possible because the application and integration with

Western models of psychological growth allows for further elaboration on integral

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growth. Meadow, in her 1993 writing, rightly points out that a close parallel exists

between Western and yogic models of development:

Development progresses through the same arenas of concern in the same order:

survival and self-protection, sexual and sensual impulses, concern with power and

possessions, turning to issues of heart and responsibility, development of higher

sensitivities, and then a high level of personal integration. It must, however, be

noted that progression through stages of similar content in psychological models

does not mean the level of attainment that controlling the chakra energies means.

Rather, the completion of each chakra's work implies a prior high level of

personality integration in the areas related to that chakra. (p. 77)

To sum up, I employed an expressive body-mind intervention, contemporary

dance movement, as a medium for understanding tantric perspectives on dance and sound

as a ritualistic mode of enacting energy and developing consciousness. The employment

of body-mind and subtle energy techniques – from yoga and Reiki – aided the process of

insight into body-mind and energy patterns, which were recognized as positive or

negative thought patterns and consciously dissociated from. In addition, these techniques

allowed me to recognize blockages of energy and gave me the ability to work with these

energy-patterns in an attempt to attenuate or release blockages and ultimately transform

negative energy patterns into a positive response. Such positive responses raised my

energy level, allowing various psychophysical and spiritual phenomena to manifest. In

classic Western psychology, the term that describes the various phenomena is ―expansion

of consciousness.‖ This expansion of consciousness, also known as ―altered states of

consciousness‖ is measurable through changes in emotional expression, alterations in

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thinking, an altered sense of time, an expansion of consciousness, and so forth (Deikman,

1963; Grof, 1975; Levine et al., 1963; Tart, 1990, 1969).

Conclusion to the Methodology

This thesis comprises a phenomenological inquiry. Descriptive phenomenology is

the lens that allowed me to describe ―the meaning of people‘s experience‖ (Polit and

Beck, 2004, p. 253), which in this study is textual. This descriptive focus was achieved in

the first stage through an in-depth analysis that considered the phenomenon within its

classic meditational literary traditions--the result was a synthetic model of the

phenomenon. Hermeneutic phenomenology is the lens that allowed me to interpret the

phenomenon of the subtle energy in healing and transformation in a present-day context,

which in this study is experiential. The hermeneutic focus was achieved in the second

stage, through an Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis that considered the

phenomenon first, within its present-day literary interpretations, which engaged fields

such as philosophy, psychology and health; and, second, within a dance movement

laboratory, which engaged the self-experiential study.

I will now discuss further the hermeneutic phenomenological approach as it

marks this in-depth study. This thesis is a hermeneutic phenomenological study, as ‗I‘ the

researcher attempt to come in contact with the phenomenon of subtle energy in relation

with healing and transformation and understand the extremely varied and divergent

religious data existing around the phenomenon. The hermeneutics principles used are in

line with those suggested by Palmer and Heidegger (1969), Polit and Beck (2004) and

other hermeneutic phenomenologists. For example, with reference to the present-day

literary interpretation this thesis is in line with the phenomenological approach outlined
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by Kristensen (1971) and Palmer and Heidegger (1969). Kristensen (1971) states that

phenomenology seeks the ―meaning that the religious phenomena have for the believers

themselves‖ (p. 11), which correspond to the descriptive approach to phenomenology;

however, Kristensen (1971) further argues that phenomenology is not complete in

grouping or classifying the phenomenon according to their (descriptive) meanings, but in

the act of understanding (hermeneutics) (p. 11). Kristensen (1971) explains,

―Phenomenology has as its objects to come as far as possible into contact with and to

understand the extremely varied and divergent religious data‖ (p. 11). Palmer and

Heidegger (1969) believe that ―one of the essential elements for an adequate

hermeneutical theory, and by extension adequate theory of literary‖ (p. 8) should be a

―broad conception of interpretation itself‖ (p. 8). They further affirm that hermeneutics is

a methodology of choice when interpreting texts (texts in a broad sense, it could mean

any accounted written experience) (p. 8).

I found that only through a contemporary view was I able to make sense of the

hermeneutic meaning of past truths. The openness of interpretation proved very liberating

and provided me with a significant stimulus as I attempted to integrate classic textual

accounts on the phenomenon of subtle energy in healing with such contemporary views

as those expounded by integral philosophers, transpersonal theorists, healthcare

professional and so forth.

Purposely, in this study I dissect the phenomenon and interpret its details as seen

through the eyes of ancient yogi adepts (past experiencers accounts=descriptive

phenomenology), by utilizing their surviving scriptures (tantras). However, later on, I

attempt to reassemble the dissected phenomenon within the context of a contemporary

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health system. I do this by borrowing heavily from such contemporary holistic and

integral principles as energy-based therapies that dominate the complementary and

alternative health care approaches to healing, and which are currently working their way

into the traditional health care systems.

To give an example that could explain the above, yogic practice that was adopted

by ancient yogis resulted in the scientific discovery of energy-pattern stimulation.

Nevertheless, in a contemporary context, distant from, for example, societal and cultural

modus operandi of the yogis, certain techniques could prove less effective or obsolete; in

contrast, we can argue that new techniques that account for the new modus operandi of a

society and culture could be more effective in delivering important results. Purposely, in

my self-experiential study on subtle energy patterns, I choose to interpret principles of the

tantric practice in which the body is ―central in the quest for self-knowledge‖ (Fields,

2001, p. 34) and is considered ―the quintessence of the physioconscious creation as the

vehicle of spiritual transformation‖ (p. 35). In tantric thought a close relation exists

between body and spirit. The spirit manifests through the body its qualities, and the

energy is the conductor of the spiritual manifestation in the material world (Fields, 2001,

p. 6). Thus, in the self-experiential study, I intended to experiment with the aid of a

somatic practice such as dance movement on the body as a means of channelling subtle

energy and thereby translating into current understanding the tantric thought of the

physical body as a laboratory of life and the vehicle through which motional,

psychological and spiritual self growth are expressed. I have described the lived

experience of the phenomenon in a journal, subsequently structured the information in

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relation to psychophysical data, and finally interpreted the data by stressing the

importance of Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis procedures.

Overall Conclusion

My final, overall conclusion of the phenomenon under scrutiny, based on an

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis of the interdisciplinary literature and a self-

experiential laboratory, is that it is indeed likely there is much more than speculative

thought behind the classical yoga and tantric literature on the existence of a subtle energy

and its relation to healing and transformation. The main achievement of the examination

of ancient Eastern meditational literature was the drawing of a broad outline on the body

of knowledge that includes directives on the controlled arousal of subtle energy, achieved

through intense yogic subtle body practice. Moreover, from the findings expounded in the

surveyed experiments and my self-experiential laboratory, there is a relationship between

yogic subtle practices and healing and transformation. This justifies the employment of

mind-body and energy-based modalities. Finally, further studies should investigate the

multidimensionality of human beings, since a multidimensional framework would

provide a significantly more effective application of energy-based modalities.

In the scientific world, the ever increasing number of experiments conducted on

specific practitioners of Eastern body-mind and energy-based modalities and spiritual

practice such as yoga, mantra, meditation and pranayamas is resulting, over time, in

findings that confirm and reconfirm the occurrence of positive psychosomatic and

spiritual changes achieved through these practices. Healthcare professionals should

employ such scientific data to offer highly effective solutions that allow, for example,

individuals to manage their own health, vitality and healing. Noteworthy, the research
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further suggests that the health care system should acknowledge as fundamental the

psycho-spiritual assessment of the patient and actively investigate spiritual principles

surrounding such Whole Medical Systems as yoga.

Disclaimer

For the sake of this study, I might have sometimes conveyed throughout the thesis

the idea that a dichotomy exists between Eastern and Western spirituality, science and

alternative medicine. However, I realize that a better case can be made against this myth

of an east-west dichotomy. The reality is that spirituality and science are not bound by

east-west dichotomies. Further, fanciful metaphysical healing systems are not limited to

Eastern cultures. For example, homeopathy, herbalism and chiropracty all derive from the

West. Similarly, spiritual traditions as an insight into understanding the true nature of the

human phenomenon are not limited to the East, for example, Western cultures are rich in

a broad spectrum of spiritual traditions. This includes, but is not limited to, Western

hermetic tradition, Western mysticism, Western inner tradition, Western occult tradition,

and the Western mystery traditions that includes the very foundation of science as we

know it. These are alchemy, theosophy, herbalism, occult tarot, astrology,

Rosicrucianism and Western forms of ritual magic. These traditions do not have one

source or unifying text, nor do they adhere to a specific, unifying dogma; instead, they

place their emphasis on inner knowledge or Gnosis. In reference to the false idea that

Eastern knowledge is not scientific, again, a strong case refutes such claims. It suffices

here to say that I believe that the issue is an epistemological concern. In particular,

theories of knowledge are concerned with whether or not there is more than one way of

acquiring knowledge, and if such methods for seeking knowledge can be improved upon
 242

(Williams, 2001). Regardless, there is unanimous agreement that all epistemologies are

based on some or all of four basic premises, which are logic, intuition, authority, and

observation (Graziano and Raulin, 1993, pp. 8, 16, 115, 125-126, 143). Thus, we can

argue that every knowledge system, including Western science and Eastern traditional

knowledge, utilizes some or all of these four basic premises. What defines each

knowledge system is how they use these premises to distinguish truth from fiction. I

argue throughout this thesis that an integral approach where both Eastern and Western

knowledge can be brought together is taking roots in the Western scientific world, thus

confirming that there must be scientific method in both societies.

 243

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