MATERIALES

AERONÁUTICOS

Aluminium and its Alloys

Profesor: J. L. Arana

Asignatura: Materiales Aeronáuticos

Alumnos: Rivero González, Álvaro

13 de Noviembre de 2009
Aluminium and its Alloys 2

Index:

1. Introduction p.3
2. Definition of Aluminium Alloys p.4
2.1. Alloy 2324-T39 p.4
2.2. Alloy 7055-T7751 p.8
3. Comparison of Alloys p.10
4. Appendixes p.12
5. Bibliography p.14
Aluminium and its Alloys 3

1. Introduction:

Aluminium and its alloys are characterized by the relatively low density (2,7 g/cm³
compared to steel’s 7,9 g/cm³), high electrical and thermal conductivity and corrosion resistance in
some environments, including atmospheric environment. A lot of these alloys are easily forged
because of the high ductility. Aluminium has a FCC structure and it’s ductile even at ambient
temperature. Aluminum’s main limitation is the low melting temperature (660ºC), which restricts its
application field.

Aluminium alloys are usually classified in forging alloys and molding alloys. The
compositions of both types are designated by four digits that indicate the major solutes and, in some
cases, the purity level. After these digits there is a space and the designation of the disposition: one
letter and possibly a one to three-figure number, which shows the thermal and/or mechanical treatment
applied to the alloy.

Nowadays a lot of attention is paid to aluminum alloys and other low density metals as
materials used in transports due to fuel economy. An important characteristic of these materials is the
specific resistance, quantified as the relationship between tensile strength and density. Although one
of these metals has a tensile strength lower than that of a denser material (steel e.g.), for a given
weight can withstand a much greater load.

2. Definition of Aluminium Alloys:

We will now focus on forging alloys that are, from the point of view of the design of
aeronautical structures, the most interesting. Each type of alloy presents a different behavior, which is
due to the composition and the structure that govern the deformation characteristics and properties that
later are developed; hence the importance of studying the effects and properties of each of the three
hardening mechanisms:

 Solid solution hardening or strengthening (valid for all series).

 Precipitation hardening, age hardening or aging (valid only for 2xxx, 6xxx and 7xxx series).
 Work hardening or cold working (valid for all series, because we are only considering forging
alloys).

In the Aircraft Industry heat treatable aluminum alloys are the most used, and specifically
those in the 2xxx and 7xxx series, so that we will go on studying and comparing them. We must add
that all the information used in the following sections has been taken from Alcoa’s webpage.
Aluminium and its Alloys 4

Fig. 1.- 777 Advanced Materials Use.

2.1. Alloy 2324-T39 Plate (Al-Cu-Mg Alloy):

 Description: Alloy 2324-T39 plate is a higher strength version of alloy 2024-T351 and is a
high-purity controlled composition variant of alloy 2024. It was developed for tension-dominated,
fatigue and fracture critical plate applications. The T39 temper, developed through special fabricating
practices, improves both strength and fracture toughness properties over alloy 2024 plate. Alcoa
guarantees long transverse mechanical properties of 2324-T39 plate.

 Applications: Alloy 2324-T39 plate should be considered as a replacement for 2024-T351

where higher strength, toughness and good resistance to fatigue crack propagation is required. It is
being used successfully on lower wing skin and center wing box components of new commercial
transport aircraft.

In fact, the latest and longest-range version of Boeing’s 777® airliner features wing panels
produced with Alcoa’s 2324-T39 Type 2 aluminum alloy. Using this alloy in its first production
application, Boeing maximizes the 777-300ER’s performance as a result of Alcoa’s extensive
metallics experience. The 2324-T39 Type 2 alloy provides important weight savings, which translate
Aluminium and its Alloys 5

into increased range for the long-haul Boeing airliner. The 777-300ER wing uses three large
underwing panels manufactured with this latest Alcoa alloy. The alloy’s strength, combined with heat-
treatment and stretching used in the production process, enables the panels to be thinner while still
providing the support needed for the aircraft’s massive wing-structure.

Fig. 2.- Boeing 777-300ER.

 Mechanical properties:

Fig. 3.- Mechanical properties of 2024 and 2324.

 Fracture toughness: Alloy 2324-T39 plate exhibits higher fracture toughness values
compared with alloy 2024-T351. Typical KIc values shown are measured in the L-T test direction.

Fig. 4.- Fracture toughness comparison.

Aluminium and its Alloys 6

 Fatigue properties:

Fig. 5.- Approximate bands for axial-stress notch fatigue data.

 Corrosion resistance:

o General corrosion: All alloys of the 2XXX series are susceptible to atmospheric
corrosion, especially in industrial or seacoast atmospheres. These alloys should be protected, at least
on faying surfaces, when exposed to these conditions. Alcladding these alloys provides high resistance
to atmospheric corrosion. The clad surface is resistant to corrosive attack and also provides additional
cathodic protection to the core alloy.
o Stress Corrosion Cracking Resistance: It is similar to 2024-T351. In the T851 temper,
alloy 2024 has very good resistance to SCC. Control of quenching and artificial aging of 2XXX high
strength alloys that have been heat treated has been effective in developing a high resistance to stress-
corrosion cracking. In over 20 years of service experience there have been no reported incidents of
SCC failures in 2024-T351 or 2024-T851 materials.

 Thermal treatments: As its name shows (Alloy 2324-T39), this alloy is solution heat treated,
cold worked and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition.

o Precipitation hardening: Precipitation hardening consists of three main steps: solution

treatment, quenching, and aging. Solution treatment involves heating the alloy to a temperature that
allows the alloying atoms (called the solute) to dissolve into the solution. This results in a
homogeneous solid solution of one phase. Quenching rapidly cools the solution and freezes the atoms
in solution. In more technical terms, the quenching cools the material so fast that the atoms of the
alloying elements do not have time to diffuse out of the solution. In the as-quenched condition, the
solute is supersaturated meaning that the lattice is overly stressed by the alloying atoms. Natural
aging, which takes places at room temperature, is the process where the solute particles diffuse out of
solution and into clusters that distort and strengthen the material.
Aluminium and its Alloys 7

Fig. 6.- Precipitation hardening process for a copper-aluminum alloy

o Cold working (also called strain hardening or work-hardening): It is the process of

making a metal harder and stronger through plastic deformation. When a metal is plastically deformed,
dislocations move and additional dislocations are generated. The more dislocations within a material,
the more they will interact and become pinned or
tangled. This will result in a decrease in the mobility
of the dislocations and a strengthening of the material.
It is called cold-working because the plastic
deformation must occur at a temperature low enough
that atoms cannot rearrange themselves. When a metal
is worked at higher temperatures (hot-working) the
dislocations can rearrange and little strengthening is
achieved. It should be understood, however, that
increasing the strength by cold-working will also
result in a reduction in ductility.

Fig. 7.- Effects of cold working

Note 1.- Its composition and some properties are summed up in Appendix A.
Aluminium and its Alloys 8

2.2. Alloy 7055-T7751 (Al-Zn-Mg-Cu Alloy):

 Description: Alcoa introduced alloy 7055 in the -T7751 temper for plate and the -T77511 for
extrusions in 1991. This new 7XXX alloy was specifically developed for use in compression-
dominated structures and provides advantages over alloy 7150 in compressive and tensile strengths
while maintaining other important properties such as fracture toughness and corrosion resistance.

 Applications: Alloy 7055 in the -T77 temper is best suited for applications where compressive
strength is the critical design criteria such as upper wing structures, horizontal stabilizer, and keel
beams. Other potential applications include seat and cargo tracks. When compared to 7150-T651 or -
T7751, 7055-T77 typically provides a 7 to 10% increase in specific minimum compressive and tensile
yield strength. The advantage of increased compressive strength of alloy 7055 permits significant
weight savings when compared to alloy 7150.

 Mechanical properties:

Fig. 8.- Mechanical properties of Alloy 7055.

This alloy provides higher compressive yield strength in comparison with conventional 7xxx series
alloys.

 Fracture toughness:

Fig. 9.- Fracture toughness typical properties.

Aluminium and its Alloys 9

 Corrosion Resistance: Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) Resistance: The SCC capability has
not been fully defined in the short transverse direction for alloy 7055-T77. Based on data currently
available, a 15 ksi (103 MPa) capability is expected for both -T7751 plate and -T77511 extrusions
when tested according to ASTM G47.

 Thermal treatments: As its name shows (alloy 7055-T77), this alloy is solution heat treated
and then overaged/stabilized.

o Precipitation hardening: Solution treatment and quenching are explained in the previous
section (see page 5). In this case, the alloy is overaged: Overaging is a result of annealing for
extremely long times which results in coarsening of second phases used for strengthening age-or
precipitation hardenable alloys. This is undesirable especially if attempts are made to strengthen the
alloy with fine second phases.

Fig. 10.- The hardness and tensile strength variation during aging and overaging

Note 2.- Its composition is shown in Appendix B.

Aluminium and its Alloys 10

3. Comparison of Alloys:

As we have seen in previous pages, both Aluminium Alloys (Alloy 2324-T39 Plate and
Alloy 7055-T77) have certain differences:

 Obviously, both alloys have a different composition. This will affect their mechanical
properties.
 Alloy 7055-T77 has a higher ultimate tensile strength than Alloy 2324-T39.
 Alloy 7055-T77 has a higher yield tensile strength than Alloy 2324-T39 (both tensile and
compressive).
 Alloy 7055-T77 also has a higher elongation at break than Alloy 2324-T39.
 Alloy 2324-T39 plate exhibits higher fracture toughness values compared with Alloy 7055-
T77.

This implies that each alloy will be used in different parts or zones of the aircraft. In order
to determine which alloy must be used in each part, we will see how a wing works.

Fig. 11.- Pressure distribution over the wing.

The figure represents the typical pressure distribution over the wing profile. As can be
seen, the extrados (upper profile) is subjected to greater pressure than the intrados (the bottom of the
profile), and therefore, to higher compressive load.

Moreover, if we look at the layout of the wing in steady-state flight, we see that it is
slightly deformed. Consequently, the upper skin will be compressed and the lower wing skin will be
subjected to pulling stress.
Aluminium and its Alloys 11

Fig. 12.- Layout of the wing in steady-state flight.

Because of this all, the upper wing structure (where compressive strength is the critical
design criteria) will be manufactured with Alloy 7055-T7751; and the lower wing skin (where higher
toughness, high strength and good resistance to fatigue crack propagation is required) will be
manufactured with Alloy 2324-T39.

Finally, we can add that both alloys have very good resistance to SCC (Stress corrosion
cracking is cracking due to a process involving conjoint corrosion and straining of a metal due to
residual or applied stresses):

 In the 2324-T39, control of quenching and natural aging develops a high resistance to stress-
corrosion cracking.
 In the 7055-T77, the SCC capability has not been fully defined in the short transverse
direction, but it is known that the 7055-T77 SCC capability is comparable to those of 7150-T77 and
7150-T6 products.
Aluminium and its Alloys 12

Appendix A:
Aluminium and its Alloys 13

Appendix B:
Aluminium and its Alloys 14

4. Bibliography:

[1] Hufnagel, W.: Manual de Aluminio, 2ª ed. Editorial Reverté S.A., 1992.
[2] William D. Callister, Jr.: Ciencia e Ingeniería de los Materiales, Editorial Reverté S.A.
[3] Arana, J. L.: Materiales Aeronáuticos, Módulo II. Metálicos, ETSI Bilbao, 2009.
[4] http://www.alcoa.com/aerospace/en/home.asp
[5] http://www.matweb.com/
[6] http://www.ndt-ed.org/
[7] http://www.azom.com/
[8] http://info.lu.farmingdale.edu/depts/met/met205/index.html