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Technology

Tidal Energy  OTEC

Wave Energy
Current Energy Salinity Gradient

Unlike other RES, Ocean Energy is not captured from a single source, but, instead, is stored
in a variety of forms: the energy of waves, the kinetic energy of marine and tidal currents,
the potential energy of tides, and salinity or thermal gradients. As a consequence of this
variety the number of concepts for ocean energy conversion is very large. A first, basic
division is grounded on the specific source of energy that the technology is tapping into:
waves,  tides,  currents,  salinity gradient, and  thermal gradient.

Major achievements have taken place over the last few years with various ocean energy
systems having been deployed at sea in several countries and these technologies are making
the transition from research to demonstration to market penetration.

Though ocean energy technologies are not yet economically competitive with more mature
renewable energy technologies such as wind, in the medium term these technologies will
become significant contributors to those markets adjacent to the resource.
In the longer term, ocean energy could become a much more important part of the world's
energy portfolio. The potential worldwide wave energy contribution to the electricity
market is estimated to be of the order of 1-10 TW, which is the same order of magnitude as
world electrical energy production capacity. Wave energy has the highest density among all
renewable energy sources The best resource is found between 40 - 60 degrees of latitude
where the available resource is 30 to 70 kW/m with peaks to 100 kW/m. The supply
potential is estimated to be 7 TWh/y from ~200000 MW installed wave and tidal energy
power by 2050 with a load factor of 0.35 (DTI and Carbon Trust estimates).

To date wave and tidal energy are the most advanced types of ocean energy systems under
development. More information on the different types of ocean energy systems and their
current status of development can be found by clicking on the links on the right

Click on the links above for more information about the status of each technology, work
currently underway, and the challenges that remain.
New Cell
Wave Energy

Background
The possibility of generating electrical power from the sea
has been recognized for many years (the first patent on
wave energy conversion was issued as early as 1799, and,
already in 1909, a harbour lighting system in California was
powered with a wave energy system). However, significant
research and development of wave energy conversion began Seawave Slot-Cone
only rather recently: in fact, although there was a renewed Converter
interest on wave energy after the oil crisis of 1973, it (Wave Energy AS)
subsided again a few years later.

Five years ago, especially in Europe, the sector experienced

a resurgent interest. Today, wave energy conversion is
being investigated in a number of EU countries, major
activity is also ongoing outside Europe, mainly in Canada,
China, India, Japan, Russia, and the USA. Nascent wave
energy companies have been highly involved in the
development of new wave energy converters such as the
Pelamis, the Archimedes Wave Swing, AquaBuOY,
Oceanlinx, Wave Star, Wave Dragon, etc.

Wave Energy Potential

The global wave power resource in deep water (i.e. 100 m
or more) is estimated to be ~ 110 TW (Panicker, 1976). The Aquabuoy
economically exploitable resource varies from 140-750 (Finavera Renewables Ltd.)
TWh/y for current designs of devices when fully mature
(Wavenet, 2003) and could rise as high as 2,000 TWh/y
(Thorpe, 1999), if the potential improvements to existing
devices are realised. Global electricity consumption is about
15,400 TWh/y (BP, IEA), hence wave could supply up to
13% of current world electricity consumption which is
equivalent to about 70% of what is currently supplies by
hydroelectric schemes. Oyster
(Aquamarine Power)
Cost
The predicted electricity generating costs from wave energy
converters have shown a significant improvement in the last
20 years, which has reached an average price below 10
c€/kWh. Compared to e.g. the average electricity price in
the EU, which is approx. 4 c€/kWh, the electricity price
produced from wave is still high, but it is forecasted to
decrease further with the development of the technologies.

Objectives
The most important objective for the wave energy sector is Wave Dragon
to deploy full size prototypes to prove performance at sea (WaveDragon ApS)
and to bring the technology to a point where it becomes
comparible with other renewable energy technologies such
as wind energy. This step is crucial in order to gain greater
confidence in ocean energy as a reliable energy source. This
requires suitable funding.

Technologies
Wave energy systems can be divided into 3 groups :

Shoreline devices: are fixed to the or embedded in the

shoreline, having the advantage of easier installation and Wavestar
maintenance. In addition shoreline devices do not require (Wave Star Energy)
deep-water moorings or long lengths of underwater
electrical cable. The disavantage shoreline devices
experience is that they experience a much less powerful
wave regime. The most advanced type of shoreline device
is the oscillating water column (OWC).

One example is the Pico plant, a 400 kW rated shoreline

OWC equiped with a Wells turbine that was constructed
between 1995 and 1999. Due to malfunction problems the
testing programme was delayed. In 2003, the Wave Energy
Centre, a Portuguese Association dedicated to the
development and promotion of wave energy, refurbished
the plant and restarted testing, resulting in real sea testing in
September 2005. Based on the experience a 'wave energy
breakwater' project is being developed at the Douro estuary
in Oporto, Portugal mainly financed by the EDP-group.
LIMPET
Another wave energy system that can be integrated into a (Wavegen)
breakwater is the Seawave Slot-Cone converter (SSG). The
SSG concept will then give the breakwater an added value
in therms of income through sale of electricity. The SSG
will provide the breakwater with infrastructure, including
electricity and may be combined with fresh water
production.

Near shore devices: are deployed at moderate water depths

(~20-25), at distances up to ~500 m from the shore. They
have nearly the same advantages as shoreline devices, being
at the same time exposed to higher power levels. Several
point absorber systems are near shore devices.

Offshore devices: exploit the more powerful wave regimes

available in deep water (> 25 m depth). More recent designs
for offshore devices concentrate on small, modular devices,
yielding high power output when deployed in arrays. The
AquaBuOY system is an example of an offshore wave
energy device. The AquaBuOY system is a freely floating
heaving point absorber system that reacts against a
submersed tube, filled with water. Another example based
on the overtopping principle is the Wave Dragon. The
Wave Dragon used a wave reflector design to focus the
wave towards a ramp and fill a higher-level reservoir.
Back to top
Tidal Energy.

Background
Tidal energy conversion techniques exploit the natural rise
and fall of the level of the oceans and of the seas caused
principally by the interaction of the gravitational fields in
the Earth-Sun-Moon system. Some coastlines, particularly
estuaries, accentuate this effect creating tidal ranges of up
to ~17 m.

The vertical water movements associated with the rise and

fall of the body of water, and horizontal water motions
(tidal currents), accompany the tides. These resources
therefore have to be distinguished between tidal range
energy (the potential energy from the difference in height
between high and low tides), and tidal current energy (the La Rance
horizontal movement, i.e. the kinetic energy of the water in
a tidal current).

 Tidal range:
Potential energy associated with tides can be harnessed by
building barrages or other forms of engineering
constructions across an estuary. Tidal barrages consist of a
large, dam-like structure built across the mouth of a bay or
an estuary in an area with a large tidal range. As the level of
the water changes with the tides, a difference in height
develops across the barrage. Water is allowed to flow Rotech tida currentl turbine
through the barrage via turbines, which can provide power (Lunar Energy)
during the ebb tide (receding), flood tide (allowing water to
fill the reservoir via sluice gates), or during both tides. This
generation cycle means that, depending on the site, power
can be delivered twice or four times per day on a highly
predictable basis.
The principle of conversion is very similar to the
technology used in traditional hydroelectric power plants.
Therefore, tidal barrages represent the oldest and most
mature of all OE technologies. In France, the La Rance
Barrage has a capacity of 240 MW, and has been producing
600GWh/year since 1966. Other barrages for hundreds of
MW of installed power are currently under discussion in the
U.K.

Potential
The global tidal range energy potential is estimated to be SeaGen
about 200 TWh/y, about 1 TW being available at (Marine Current Turbines)
comparable shallow waters. Within the European Union,
France and the UK have sufficiently high tidal ranges of
over 10 metres. Beyond the EU, Canada, the CIS,
Argentina, Western Australia and Korea have potentially
interesting sites. At present 3 tidal barrages operate as
commercial power plants, amounting to a worldwide total
of 260 MW of installed capacity.
 
Cost
Tidal range energy projects require normally higher capital
investment at the outset, having relatively long construction
periods and long payback periods. Consequently, the
electricity cost is highly sensitive to the discount rate used.
This problem could be solved by government funding or
large organisations getting involved with tidal power.

In terms of long term costs, once the construction of the

barrage is complete, there are very small maintenance and
running costs and the turbines only need replacing once
around every 30 years. The life of the plant is indefinite and
for its entire life it will receive free fuel from the tide.

The economics of a tidal barrage are very complicated. The Stingray

optimum design would be the one that produced the most (IHC Engineering
power but also had the smallest barrage possible. Business )

Technologies
The technology required to convert tidal range energy into
electricity is very similar to the technology used in
traditional hydroelectric power plants. Tidal range energy
conversion technology is considered mature, but, as with all
large civil engineering projects, there would be a series of
technical and environmental risks to address.

Tidal Range Energy Projects

At present, three tidal barrages operate as commercial
power plants. One of them is the tidal plant that was built
on the Rance estuary in France during the 1960's and has
now completed over 40 years of successful operation.
Because of the high generation costs and the long payback
times and their environmental impact on local ecosystems it
is unlikely that tidal range energy will be commercially
developed.

Tidal currents:
Rather than using a dam structure, tidal current devices are
placed directly “in-stream” and generate energy from the
flow of the tidal current. There are a number of different
technologies for extracting energy from tidal currents.
Many are similar to those used for wind energy conversion,
i.e. turbines of horizontal or vertical axis (“cross flow”
turbine, as well as others such as, venturis and oscillating
foils). Additionally, there are a variety of methods for fixing
tidal current devices in place, including seabed anchoring,
via a gravity base or driven piles, as well as floating or
semi-floating platforms fixed to the sea-bottom via mooring
lines.
In contrast to atmospheric airflows, the availability of tidal
currents can be predicted very accurately, as their motion
will be tuned with the local tidal conditions. Because the
density of water is some 850 times higher than that of air,
the power intensity in water currents is significantly higher
than in airflows. Consequently, a water current turbine can
be built considerably smaller than an equivalent powered
wind turbine.

Potential:
The global tidal current energy resource is very large.
Countries with an exceptionally high resource in tidal or
current energy include the UK (E&PDC, 1993), Ireland,
Italy, the Philippines, Japan and parts of the United States.

Cost:
Marine current energy is one of the most promising new
renewable energy sources. The know-how is available to
combine existing technologies. Marine currents have the
potential to supply significant quantities of energy into the
grid systems of many countries. As interest grows, marine
current energy is likely to play an increasing role in
complementing other energy technologies and contributing
to the future global energy supply mix.

Technology:
Recent technologies open up prospects for commercial
deployment of some projects in the near future. The
economical viability is yet to be proven but it is a
anticipated that the production costs will decrease as the
technology advances. Most devices rely on the horizontal or
vertical axis turbine concepts. Turbines may be suspended
from a floating structure or fixed to the sea bed. In large
areas with high currents, it will be possible to install water
turbines in groups or clusters to make up a marine current
farm. Variants of these two types have been investigated,
including turbines using concentrators or shrouds, and tidal
fences.

Horizontal axis turbines: (axial flow turbine). This is similar

in concept to the widespread horizontal axis wind turbine.
Prototype turbines of up to 10 kW have been built and
tested using this concept. One example is the Rotech Tidal
Turbine (RTT). The RTT is a bi-directional horizontal axis
turbine housed in a symmetrical venturi duct. The venturi
draws the existing ocean currents into the RTT in order to
capture and convert energy into electricity.

Vertical axis turbines: (cross flow turbine). Both drag and

lift turbines have been investigated, although the lift devices
offer more potential. Some stand-alone prototypes have
been tested, including a 5 kW Darrieus turbine in the
Kurushima Straits, Japan. The concept of installing a
number of vertical axis turbines in a tidal fence is being
pursued in Canada, with plans to install a 30 MW
demonstration system in the Philippines (Blue Energy,
2000).
Back to top
Salinity Gradient 

At the mouth of rivers where fresh water mixes with salt

water, energy associated with the salinity gradient can be
harnessed using pressure-retarded reverse osmosis process
and associated conversion technologies. Another system is
based on using freshwater upwelling through a turbine
immersed in seawater, and one involving electrochemical
reactions is also in development.

Background
Significant research took place from 1975 to 1985 and gave
various results regarding the economy of PRO and RED
plants. It is important to note that small-scale investigations
into salinity power production take place in other countries
like Japan, Israel, and the United States. The principle of
salinity gradient energy is the exploitation of the entropy of
mixing freshwater with saltwater. This energy source is not
easy to understand, as it is not directly sensed in nature in
the form of heat, waterfalls, wind, waves, or radiation.

Salinity Energy Potential

Salinity power is one of the largest sources of renewable
energy that is still not exploited. The potential energy is
large, corresponding to 2.6 MW m3/sec freshwater when
mixed with seawater. The exploitable potential world-wide
is estimated to be 2000 TWh/y. The potential cost of energy
from this source is higher than most traditional hydropower,
but is comparable to other forms of renewable energy that
are already produced in full-scale plants.

Technologies
Several methods have been proposed to extract this power.
Among them are the difference in vapor pressure above
freshwater and saline water and the difference in swelling
between fresh and saline waters by organic polymers.
However, the most promising method is the use of semi-
permeable membranes. The energy can then be extracted as
pressurized brackish water by pressure retarded osmosis
(PRO) or direct electrical current by reverse electrodialysis
(RED).
Back to top
Ocean (Marine) Current 

Currents are not generated by tides only, but also by winds,

and temperature and salinity differences. The concept for
harvesting the kinetic energy from marine, also known as
ocean currents, is essentially the same as with tidal currents.

Marine current energy converters are based on the same

principle of the tidal current ones. At present, marine
current energy is at an early stage of development, different
pilot plants are in operation or about to be installed. Most
devices rely on the horizontal or vertical axis turbine
concept. . There are no commercial grid-connected turbines
currently operating

Background
Tidal current energy devices harness the kinetic energy of
the water particles in a tide. There are a number of different
technologies for extracting energy from marine currents,
including horizontal and vertical axis turbines as well as
others such as, venturis and oscillating foils. Additionally,
there are a variety of methods for fixing tidal current
devices in place, including seabed anchoring, via a gravity
base or driven piles, as well as floating or semi-floating
platforms fixed in place via mooring lines.

Marine current are based on the same principle. At present,

marine current energy is at an early stage of development,
different pilot plants are in operation or about to be
installed. Most devices rely on the horizontal or vertical
axis turbine concept. . There are no commercial grid-
connected turbines currently operating.
 
Ocean Current Energy Potential
 Few studies have been carried out to determine the total
global marine current resource, although it is estimated to
exceed 450 GW (Blue Energy, 2000). The potential for
marine current turbines in Europe is estimated to exceed 12
000 MW of installed capacity. Locations with especially
intense currents are found around the British Islands and
Ireland, between the Channel Islands and France, in the
Straits of Messina between Italy and Sicily and in various
channels between the Greek Islands in the Aegean. Other
large marine current resources can be found in regions such
as South East Asia, both the east and west coasts of Canada
and certainly in many other places around the globe that
require further investigation. The UK has the major
component of the EU resource at approximately 4.3 GW

Cost
Marine current energy is one of the most promising new
renewable energy sources. The know-how is available to
combine existing technologies. Marine currents have the
potential to supply significant quantities of energy into the
grid systems of many countries. As interest grows, marine
current energy is likely to play an increasing role in
complementing other energy technologies and contributing
to the future global energy supply mix.

Technologies
Recent technologies open up prospects for commercial
deployment of some projects in the near future. The
economical viability is yet to be proven but it is a
anticipated that the production costs will decrease as the
technology advances. Most devices rely on the horizontal or
vertical axis turbine concepts. Turbines may be suspended
from a floating structure or fixed to the sea bed. In large
areas with high currents, it will be possible to install water
turbines in groups or clusters to make up a marine current
farm. Variants of these two types have been investigated,
including turbines using concentrators or shrouds, and tidal
fences.

Horizontal axis turbines: (axial flow turbine). This is similar

in concept to the widespread horizontal axis wind turbine.
Prototype turbines of up to 10 kW have been built and
tested using this concept. One example is the Rotech Tidal
Turbine (RTT). The RTT is a bi-directional horizontal axis
turbine housed in a symmetrical venturi duct. The venturi
draws the existing ocean currents into the RTT in order to
capture and convert energy into electricity.

Vertical axis turbines: (cross flow turbine). Both drag and

lift turbines have been investigated, although the lift devices
offer more potential. Some stand-alone prototypes have
been tested, including a 5 kW Darrieus turbine in the
Kurushima Straits, Japan. The concept of installing a
number of vertical axis turbines in a tidal fence is being
pursued in Canada, with plans to install a 30 MW
demonstration system in the Philippines (Blue Energy,
2000).
Back to top
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion

Background
The principle of ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC),
consisting in using the heat stored in the oceans to generate
electricity, originated with a French physicist, Jacques
D'Arsonval, in 1881. His pupil, Georges Claude, built the
first plant at Matanzas Bay, Cuba in 1930, with a gross
output of up to 22 kilowatts. The United States became
involved in OTEC research in 1974, when the Natural
Energy Laboratory of Hawaiii Authority was established.
The Laboratory has become one of the world's leading test
facilities for OTEC technology. Japan also continues to
fund research and development in OTEC technology.

Due to solar heating, the top layer of the water is much

warmer than deep ocean water. Where the temperature
difference between the warmer, top layer of the ocean and
the colder, deep ocean water is about 20°C (36°F), the
conditions for OTEC are most favourable. These conditions
exist mainly in coastal areas located close to the Equator.
The amount of energy available in the temperature gradient
between hot and cold seawater can be substantially larger
than the energy required to pump the cold seawater up from
the lower layers of the ocean. To convert this thermal
gradient into electrical energy, the warm water can be used
to heat and vaporize a liquid (known as a working fluid).
The working fluid develops pressure as it is caused to
evaporate. This expanding vapor runs through a turbine
generator and is then condensed back into a liquid by cold
water brought up from depth, and the cycle is repeated.
Some energy experts claim that once it reaches cost-
competitiveness with conventional power technologies,
OTEC could produce billions of watts of electrical power.

Thermal Energy Potential

The world's largest solar collector absorbs a tremendous
amount of the sun's energy, averaging about 65 million
gigawatts (a gigawatt is one million kilowatts), or 570
quadrillion kWh/y - more than 5,000 times the amount of
energy used in all forms by humans on the planet. A typical
square mile of that collector - otherwise known as the
surface waters of the Earth's vast oceans - absorbs an
average of about 500 MW, or annually more energy than
the equivalent of 2.6 million barrels of oil. The estimated
global resource is 10,000 TWh/y.

Cost
OTEC power plants require substantial capital investment
upfront.

Technologies
There are potentially three basic types of OTEC power
plants: closed-cycle, open-cycle, and various blendings of
the two. All three types can be built on land, on offshore
platforms fixed to the seafloor, on floating platforms
 anchored to the seafloor, or on ships that move from place
to place.

Offshore OTEC is technically difficult because of the need

to pipe large volumes of water from the seabed to a floating
system, the huge areas of heat exchanger needed, and the
difficulty of transmitting power from a device floating in
deep water to the shore. The latest thinking is that OTEC
needs to be applied as a multipurpose technology: for
example, the nutrient-rich cold water drawn from the deep
ocean has been found to be valuable for fish farming. In
addition, the cold water can be used directly for cooling
applications in the tropics such as air conditioning. If OTEC
takes off, it is likely to be with energy as a by-product.
Back to top

European Ocean Energy Association

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