Brake System

8. Other system and brake theories

Objective
To understand the limiting valve, proportioning valve, load sensing proportioning valve and
brake theories, which were used immediately before the development of ABS system.

Main contents

1. Load sensing proportioning valve

2. Matters about the vehicle stopping process.
3. Fade
4. Vapor lock

8.1. Load Sensing Proportioning Valve

(1) Overall
In this system, starting point of hydraulic control is decided by rear wheel, namely by the weight.
It is installed between master cylinder and rear wheel cylinder. Brake hydraulic pressure of rear
wheel cylinder is controlled after sensing vehicle weight when brake is applied. Then, braking
force distribution between front and rear wheels can be obtained.

(2) Operation
Valve piston pushes up the piston with the
hydraulic pressure applied on master cylinder
A plus spring tension. Then, reaction force of
To wheel cylinder
hydraulic pressure generates on wheel
cylinder B. When the brake pedal is pressed,
spring tension lifts the ball to open the path so From master
that hydraulic pressure is transferred to wheel cylinder
cylinder. Then, hydraulic pressure of master
cylinder increases to a specified pressure and Spring
force on B exceeds the force on A. Now,
piston moves down and shut the path to
reduce the pressure.

If master cylinder pressure increases further

when the path is closed, increased hydraulic
Rod
pressure is applied on A. Then, piston moves
up and ball opens the path so that hydraulic
pressure moves to wheel cylinder.
[Figure 8-9. Brake operation]
Since master cylinder pressure applies on the wheel cylinder and B together when the path is
open, piston moves down and closes the path to repeat the pressure reduction.

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Brake System

To wheel cylinder

From
master cylinder

[Figure 8-10. Operation of load sensing proportioning valve]

8.2 Matters about vehicle stopping process

(1) Reaction time

It refers to the critical time for the driver to take in applying brake from sensing the dangerous
situation or signal from eye or ear until taking an action against the danger. In general, they say
reaction time is about 0.4~0.5 seconds.

(2) Foot changing time

It refers to the time for the driver to take in changing the foot from accel pedal to brake pedal. In
general, foot-changing time is about 0.2~0.3 seconds though it is subject to pedal position.

(3) Pedal pressing time

It refers the time for the driver to take until hydraulic pressure in the brake circuit start increasing
after foot moved to the brake pedal. In general, pedal-pressing time is about 0.1~0.2 seconds
though it is subject to pedal clearance and the gap between brake shoe and drum.

(4) Transitional brake and main brake

Once hydraulic pressure in the brake circuit increases and braking force generates,
deceleration is accompanied by. It takes a certain time for the hydraulic pressure reaches to
maximum value and this transitional time is called transitional brake. Main brake is the interval
from the maximum braking force until the complete vehicle stop. Refer to the following figure.

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Driving direction Danger

A1
A2
Start
A Placing B A
moving
Finding the the Braking Finding
the right right starts the
danger foot foot danger
(release on the
the brake
accel pedal
pedal)
t1 : Reaction time
Deceleration time t2 : Foot changing time
TIME t3 : Pedal pressing time
Actual Preparation
braking time time

Actual Preparation
braking distance distance
TIME
Stopping distance

Male
Female
Relative Foot
frequency Hand operation
operation

Reaction time

[Figure 8-11, 8-12. Driver’s operation, relationship between time and deceleration]

8.3 Fade
It refers to the phenomena of gradual disappearing of light, sound or power, which means the
same terminology used in cinema or TV to change the screen. If the brake has been applied
repeatedly on the long descending road, the temperature increases at the frictional plate of
brake shoe and braking force reduces due to the friction reduction.

8.4 Vapor lock

It refers to loss of function when some part of liquid related system is locked due to the
vaporization of liquid by the heat. In fuel system, fuel supply fails because of vapor
concentration in a fuel pipe and engine stops eventually. When the brake fluid evaporates in
wheel cylinder or brake pipe of hydraulic brake system, brake does not work and soft as if the
sponge is pressed when the brake pedal is pressed.

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Brake System

9. ABS system

Objective
To understand the advantages of ABS system and its construction and operation.

Main contents

9.1 Advantages of ABS

9.2 ABS type
9.3 Physical principles
9.4 ABS construction

9.1 Advantages of ABS

Anti-lock Brake Systems are designed to prevent wheel lockup under heavy braking conditions
on any type of road condition.
The result is that, during heavy braking, the driver :• retains directional stability(Vehicle Stability)
• stops faster (Shortened Stopping distance, except gravel, fresh snow..)
• retains maximum control of vehicle (Steerability)

If the front wheels lock

it is no longer possible to steer the car  If the rear wheels lock

the car can become unstable and can start to skid sidewaysIf a car on the different
conditions of surface brakes, the wheels on the slippery surface easily lock up and the vehicle
begins to spin. But ABS provides vehicle stability until it stops.

9.2 ABS type

1) 4-Sensor 4-Channel type ( Independent control type )

This type has four wheel sensors and 4 hydraulic control channels and controls each wheel
independently. Steering safety and stopping distance maintains optimum condition on the
homogeneous road surface.
However, on the split- road surface, uneven braking force between left wheels and right
wheels generates a Yawing Moment of the vehicle body resulting in vehicle instability.

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Brake System

Therefore, most of vehicles with a 4 channel ABS incorporates a select low logic on rear
wheels to maintain the vehicle stability at any road conditions.

<FF car, X-line brake system>

2) 4-Sensor 3-Channel type (Front wheels: independent control, Rear wheels: Select
low control )
In case of FF(Front engine Front driving) car, most vehicle weight concentrated on front
wheels and the center of the mass of vehicle also moves forward while braking allowing
almost 70% of braking force to be controlled by front wheels.
This means that most braking power is generated by front wheels and to get a maximum
braking efficiency while ABS operation, independent control of front wheels is necessarily
required.
However, rear wheels which performs relatively less braking force are very important to
guarantees vehicle safety while braking. That is, while ABS operation of rear wheels on the
split road surface, independent control of rear wheel generates uneven braking force resulting
in vehicle yawing moment.
To prevent this yawing and to maintain vehicle safety with ABS operation on any kinds of road
surface, rear wheel braking pressure is managed according to the wheel which shows more
lock-up tendency. This control concept is called ‘Select-low control’.
3) 4-Sensor 3-Channel type (Front wheels;indendent control,Rear wheels ; Select
contnrol )
Vehicle with H-bake line system has this ABS control system. 2 channels are for front wheels
and the other one is for rear wheel control. Rear wheels are controlled together by a select
low control logic.
In case of X-brake line system, 2 channels (2 brake ports in the ABS unit) are required to
control rear wheel pressure because each rear wheel belongs to different brake line.
4) 1-Sensor 1-Channel type ( Rear wheels: Select low control )
Vehicle with H-bake line system. Only controls rear wheel pressure.
One wheel speed sensor is installed on a rear differential detecting rear wheel speed. Front
wheels are locked up while heavy braking, vehicle loses its steering stability and stopping
distance on a low- road surface also increases. This system helps vehicle have a straight stop.

<FF car, H-line brake system> <FF car, H-line brake system>

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Brake System

<FR car, H-line brake system>

9.3 Physical principles
1) Tire force
Forces which act on a moving vehicle are gravity, air force(air resistance) and tire force
(rolling resistance).
A desired movement or change in movement can be achieved only via the tire force. The tire
force consists of the following components:
- driving force FD caused by the drive,
- lateral force FS caused by the steering, and
- normal force FN as a result of the vehicle weight.
The lateral force FS transfers the steering movement to the
road and makes the vehicle turn. The normal force FN is F
determined by the vehicle weight and its load, that is, it is the N
weight component acting perpendicularly on the road. The
degree to which the forces can actually come into effect FD
depends on the condition of the road and tires and on the
weather condition, that is, on the friction force between the
FS
tires and road surface.
2) Relationship among forces
The relationship between frictional force, side force, braking force and driving force can be
expressed using a “friction circle”. The friction circle assumes frictional force between the
tire and road surface to be identical in all directions. It can be used to visualize the
relationship between side forces, braking force, and driving force.
While cornering at a fixed speed, for example, all of the tire’s frictional force is the side
force that is turning the vehicle. When brake are applied during cornering, however, part of
the frictional force of the tire is used for braking force, which reduces the size of the side
force. Conversely, turning the steering wheel while applying the brakes reduces braking
force, because part of the tire frictional force normally used for braking becomes cornering
force.
Braking force
Portion of frictional force
Fractional force
acting as braking force
generated at tire patch

Side force Side force

56force
Driving
Brake System

<Friction circle>

3) Friction force
The friction FR is proportional to the normal force FN:
FR = B x FN
The factor B is the braking force coefficient (or Frictional coefficient). The factor can be
influenced by the characteristics of the different tire/road material pairings. The braking
force coefficient is thus a measure of the transferable braking force. For vehicle tires, the
braking force coefficient reaches its maximum values on a dry and clean road surface and
its lowest on ice.
<Example>
Road condition Braking force coefficient(B)
Dry concrete 0.8 ~ 1
Wet asphalt 0.2 ~ 0.65
Ice 0.05 ~ 0.1

The braking force coefficient depends greatly on the vehicle speed. When braking at high
speeds, and under certain road conditions, the wheels may lock if the braking force
coefficient is so low that the grip of the wheels to the road surface can no longer be
available
4) Slip
While vehicle driving or braking, complex physical forces occurs in the tire’s contact area
with the road. The tire’s rubber elements become distorted and are exposed to partial
sliding movements, even if the wheel has not yet locked. The measure of the sliding
components of the rolling movement is the slip :
 = (VV - VW )/ VV

Slip Ratio
Slip Ratio = (VV - VW )/ VV  100, VV : Vehicle Speed, VW : Wheel Speed

Maximum braking force  Approximately 10~30% Slip

This means that some tire rotation is necessary to achieve maximum braking. The optimum
slip value decreases as tire-road friction decreases.

Where Vv is the vehicle speed and VW is the circumferential speed of the wheel. The
formula shows that brake slip occurs as soon as the wheel starts to rotate more slowly than
the wheel speed which corresponds to the driving speed. Braking forces can be generated
only in this condition.

0%  When a tire is rolling freely

100%  When a tire locks up completely
5) Lateral force (side force)
In addition to the braking force and driving force acting on the contact area in the direction
that the tire is rotating, there is also a “Lateral force” that acts laterally on the tire. Side force

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is the basic force that occurs when the vehicle turns. The basic force during cornering by a
vehicle is the force of the part of the tire in contact with the road surface wanting to return its
normal shape from its currently deformed state. This force pushes the tire sideways against
the road surfaces, and is therefore called “Side force”. And the moment generated at the
deformed tire is called “ Over turning moment

Tire shape when vehicle Tire shape when

is traveling straight vehicle is cornering

Tire overturning moment

Side force

Normal force

6) Understeering and oversteering

Keeping the steering wheel turned at a fixed angle and traveling at a fixed speed causes the
vehicle to move in a circle with a fixed radius. Increasing the vehicle’s speed at this point
causes the vehicle to move either outside the original circle due to “Understeering”, or
inside the original circle due to “Oversteering”. The actual steering characteristic
(Understeering or Oversteering) produced by a particular vehicle depends on the
interrelationship between the weight distribution between its front and rear wheels, tire
specifications, suspension characteristics, and drive system

9.4 ABS construction

Proportioning valve
(Without EBD)
HCU

ABSCM

G-Sensor (with 4WD)

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Brake System

1) ABSCM
ABS consists of wheel speed sensors which detects a wheel lock-up tendency, on the basis
of wheel speed sensor signal an ABSCM(Control Module) which outputs control signal and
HCU(Hydraulic Control Unit) which supplies brake pressure to each wheel according to the
ABSCM output signals.WHEEL SPEED SENSOR

3I

1 Electronic Cable 5 Pole Pin

1 Electronic Cable 4 Winding
2 Permanent Magnet 6 Winding
2 Permanent Magnet 5 Pole Pin
3 Housing 7 Air gap
3 Housing 6 Tone Wheel
4 Housing Block 8 Tone wheel
[Sectio1] [Section2]

1 Magnet
2 Winding
3 Tone Wheel
4 Rotates
5 High Speed
6 Low Speed
7 Air Gap

When the Tone Wheel rotates, the magnetic field changes and induces a voltage in the winding.
- Permanent magnetic
produce a voltage
- Higher speeds
produce a higher frequency
- Lower speeds
produce a lower frequency

3) G-sensor
ABS control for 4WD uses the signal of G-sensor to solve the problems that is early all

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Brake System

wheel-lock on Lm and that late response in case of m change of road surface. G-sensor
signal is got every 7ms, and filtered. ABSCM sets m-flags (High, Medium, Low) to calculate
detailed gradient of reference velocity and control threshold compared with 2WD.When
driving in 4WD, all four wheels are mechanically locked, so all wheel speed decrease with
almost same rate in many case. This phenomenon is more notable when driving on low

(friction) road, so ABS control become unstable. To prevent this happening, G sensor is
installed. With this signal, ABSCM recognize that the vehicle is now stopping on a low

road or high
road, thereby modifying the ABS operating cycle(algorism).
That is, Small(or Great) G braking  G value Low (or High)  Low (or High)
road
detected  ABSCM advances(or delays) to decrease hydraulic pressure  Wheel lock is
delayed(or advanced)  Stopping distance increases(or Decreases).

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