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3 Thermal Effects
3.1 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
3.2 Thermal Effect in cylindrical Pressure Vessels
3.3 Two-Material Structures
4 Torsion.
4.1 Shear Stresses in Shafts - τ/r = T/J = Gθ/L
4.2 Thin Walled Shafts
4.3 Thin Walled Pressure Vessel subject to Torque
Two good textbooks for further explanation, worked examples and exercises are
Mechanics of Materials (1997) Gere & Timoshenko, publ. ITP [ISBN 0-534-93429-3]
Mechanics of Solids (1989) Fenner, publ. Blackwell [ISBN 0-632-02018-0]
This material was taught in the CET I (Old Regulations) Structures lecture unit and was examined
in CET I (OR) Paper IV Section 1. There are consequently a large number of old Tripos questions
in existence, which are of the appropriate standard. From 1999 onwards the course was taught in
CET1, paper 5. Chapters 7 and 8 in Gere and Timoshenko contain a large number of example
problems and questions.
Nomenclature
The following symbols will be used as consistently as possible in the lectures.
E Young’s modulus
G Shear modulus
I second moment of area
J polar moment of area
R radius
t thickness
T τορθυε
α thermal expansivity
ε linear strain
γ shear strain
η angle
ν Poisson’s ratio
σ Normal stress
τ Shear stress
A pressure vessel near you!
Ongoing Example
Distillation column
2m P = 7 bara
carbon steel
t = 5 mm
18 m
1. Introduction to Pressure Vessels and Failure Modes
Pressure vessels are very often
• spherical (e.g. LPG storage tanks)
Such vessels fail when the stress state somewhere in the wall material ex-
ceeds some failure criterion. It is thus important to be able to be able to un-
derstand and quantify (resolve) stresses in solids. This unit will con-
centrate on the application of stress analysis to bulk failure in thin walled
vessels only, where (i) the vessel self weight can be neglected and (ii) the
thickness of the material is much smaller than the dimensions of the vessel
(D » t).
wall thickness, t
P
σ
L
Force equilibrium
π D2
P = π D t σL
4
if P > 0, then σ L is tensile
PD
σL =
4t
σ
h
σ
P h
Force balance, D L P = 2 σ h L t
PD
σh =
SAPV LT 2005 2 2t
CFK, MRM
c, Radial stress
σr ≈ o ( P )
D
σh , σL ≈ P ( ).
2t
thin walled, so D >> t
so σ h , σ L >> σ r
so neglect σ r
Compare terms
P
σ
h
P π D2
P = σh π D t
4
PD
σh =
4t
SAPV LT 2005 3
CFK, MRM
1.2. Compressive Failure: – Bulk Yielding & Buckling
– Vacuum Vessels
Consider an unpressurised cylindrical column subjected to a single load W.
Bulk failure will occur when the normal compressive stress exceeds a yield
criterion, e.g.
W
W
σ bulk = = σY
πDt
The critical load for the onset of buckling is given by Euler's analysis. A full
explanation is given in the texts, and the basic results are summarised in the
Structures Tables. A column or strut of length L supported at one end will
buckle if
π 2 EI
W= 2
L
W π 2 EπD3t 1 π 2 ED 2
σ buckle = = 2 ⋅ =
πDt 8L πDt 8L2
or
π2 E
σ buckle =
8( L D)
2
SAPV LT 2005 4
CFK, MRM
where L/D is a slenderness ratio. The mode of failure thus depends on the
geometry:
σ
stress
σ
y
Bulk yield
Short Long
L /D ratio
SAPV LT 2005 5
CFK, MRM
Vacuum vessels.
Cylindrical pressure vessels subject to external pressure are subject to com-
pressive hoop stresses
∆PD
σh =
2t
Consider a length L of vessel , the compressive hoop force is given by,
∆P D L
σh L t =
2
If this force is large enough it will cause buckling.
length
SAPV LT 2005 6
CFK, MRM
Buckling occurs when Force W given by.
4π 2 EI ∆P D L 4π 2 EI
W= =
(π D) 2 2 (π D )2
b t3 L t3 2E ⎛ t ⎞
3
I= = ∆p buckle = ⎜ ⎟
12 12 3 ⎝D⎠
SAPV LT 2005 7
CFK, MRM
1.3. Tensile Failure: Stress Concentration & Cracking
Consider the rod in the Figure below subject to a tensile load. The stress dis-
tribution across the rod a long distance away from the change in cross sec-
tion (XX) will be uniform, but near XX the stress distribution is complex.
X X
There is a concentration of stress at the rod surface below XX and this value
should thus be considered when we consider failure mechanisms.
The ratio of the maximum local stress to the mean (or apparent) stress is de-
scribed by a stress concentration factor K
σ max
K=
σ mean
The values of K for many geometries are available in the literature, including
that of cracks. The mechanism of fast fracture involves the concentration of
tensile stresses at a crack root, and gives the failure criterion for a crack of
length a
σ πa = Kc
SAPV LT 2005 8
CFK, MRM
Kc 1
σ crack = ⋅
√ π √a
stress
failure locus
length of crack. a
SAPV LT 2005 9
CFK, MRM
2. 3-D stress and strain
Yield
Stress
ε
Elastic
Limit
up to a limit, known as the yield stress (stress axis) or the elastic limit (strain
axis). Below these limits, deformation is reversible and the material eventually
returns to its original shape. Above these limits, the material behaviour depends
on its nature.
F F
1
σ2
σ1
σ3
Giving
σ1 νσ 2 νσ 3
ε1 = − −
E E E
νσ1 σ2 νσ 3
ε2 = − + −
E E E
νσ1 νσ 2 σ3
ε3 = − − +
E E E
Values of the material constants in the Data Book give orders of magnitudes of
these parameters for different materials;
Material E ν
(x109 N/m2)
Steel 210 0.30
Aluminum alloy 70 0.33
Brass 105 0.35
11
2.2 Bulk and Shear Moduli
i.e. the volumetric strain resulting from the application of a uniform pressure. In
the case of a pressure causing expansion
σ1 = σ 2 = σ 3 = −P
so
1 −P
ε1 = ε 2 = ε 3 =
E
[σ1 − νσ 2 − νσ 3 ] =
E
(1 − 2 ν )
−3P
ε v = ε1 + ε 2 + ε 3 = (1− 2 ν )
E
E
K=
3(1 − 2 ν )
12
2.3. Hoop, longitudinal and volumetric strains
(micro or millistrain)
Longitudinal strain
σL υσ h υσ r PD δL
εL = - - = (1 - 2υ ) =
E E E 4tE L
Hoop strain:
σn υσ L PD δD δR
εh = - = (2 - υ ) = =
E E 4tE D R
radial strain
1 3PDυ δt
εr =
E
[σ r - υσ h - υσ L ] = -
4ET
=
t
13
[ONGOING EXAMPLE]:
1
εL = (σ L - υσ n )
E
=
1
210 x 10 9
[
60 x 10 6 - (0.3)120 x 10 6 ]
= 1.14 x 10-4 -≡ 0.114 millistrain
ε h = 0.486 millistrain
ε r = -0.257 millistrain
Thus: pressurise the vessel to 6 bar: L and D increase: t decreases
Volume expansion
⎛ πD 2 ⎞
Cylindrical volume: Vo = ⎜ o ⎟ Lo (original)
⎝ 4 ⎠
π 2
New volume V =
4
(Do + δD) (Lo + δL)
2
L π Do 2
= o
4
[1 + ε h ] [1 + ε L ]
δV
Define volumetric strain ε v =
V
V - Vo 2
∴ εv = = (1 + ε h ) (1 + ε L ) - 1
Vo
( )
= 1 + 2ε h + ε h2 (1 + ε L ) - 1
ε v = 2 ε h + ε L + ε h2 + 2ε h ε L + ε L ε n2
Magnitude inspection:
14
σy 6
190 x 10 −3
ε max (steel) = = 9 = 0.905 x 10 ∴ small
E 210 x 10
Ignoring second order terms,
εv = 2ε h + ε L
(b) Spherical volume:
εh =
1
[σ h - υσ L - υσ r ] = PD (1 - υ )
E 4Et
so εv =
{
π (Do + δD )3 - Do3 }
6 πD 3o 6
= (1 + εh)3 – 1 ≈ 3εh + 0(ε2)
(c) General result
εv = ε1 + ε2 + ε3
εii are the strains in any three mutually perpendicular directions.
{Continued example} – cylinder εL = 0.114 mstrain
εn = 0.486 mstrain
εrr = -0.257 mstrain
εv = 2εn + ε L
∴ new volume = Vo (1 + εv)
π D2 L
Increase in volume = ε v = 56.55 x 1.086 x 10-3
4
= 61 Litres
Volume of steelo = πDLt = 0.377 m3
εv for steel = εL + εh + εrr = 0.343 mstrains
increase in volume of steel = 0.129 L
Strain energy – measure of work done
15
Work done in expanding δx
dW = Fδx
A=area
work done
L0
x
2
x1 x1 kx1 1
Work done in extending to x1 w = ∫o Fdx = ∫o k x dx = = Fx
2 2 1 1
Sample subject to stress σ increased from 0 to σ1:
x1 = Lo ε1 ⎫ AL oε 1σ1
Extension Force: ⎬ W = (no direction here)
F1 = Aσ 1 ⎭ 2
ALo ε1σ 1
Strain energy, U = work done per unit volume of material, U =
2(ALo )
Al o ⎛ 1 ⎞ ε1σ 1 σ 12
⇒ U = ⎜ ⎟ ε σ U = =
2 ⎝ Al o ⎠ 1 1 2 2E
1
In a 3-D system, U = [ε1σ1 + ε2σ2 + ε3σ3]
2
σ υσ 2 υσ 3
Now ε1 = 1 - - etc
E E E
So U =
1
2E
[
σ 12 + σ 2 2 + σ 32 - 2ν (σ 1σ 2 + σ 2σ 3 + σ 3σ 1) ]
Consider a uniform pressure applied: σ1 = σ2 = σ3 = P
2 2
3P P
∴U = (1 - 2 υ) = energy stored in system (per unit vol.
2E 2K
16
For a given P, U stored is proportional to 1/K → so pressure test using liquids
rather than gases.
.
{Ongoing Example} P – 6 barg δV = 61 x 10-3 m3
increase in volume of pressure vessel
Increasing the pressure compresses the contents – normally test with water.
5
∆P 6 x 10
∆V water? ε v (water ) = − = − = - 0.273 mstrains
K 2.2 x 109
∴ decrease in volume of water = -Vo (0.273) = -15.4 x 10 –3 m3
Thus we can add more water:
Extra space = 61 + 15.4 (L)
= 76.4 L water
extra space
p=6
p=0
17
3. Thermal Effects
Consider a steel bar mounted between rigid supports which exert stress σ
Heat
σ σ
σ
ε = α∆T -
E
If rigid: ε = 0 ⇒ so σ = Eα∆T
(i.e., non buckling)
steel: σ = 210 x 109 x 11 x 10-6 ∆T = 2.3 x 106 ∆T
σy = 190 MPa: failure if ∆T > 82.6 K
18
{Example}: steam main, installed at 10oC, to contain 6 bar steam (140oC)
if ends are rigid, σ = 300 MPa→ failure.
∴ must install expansion bends.
.
D=1m steel construction L = 3 m . full of water t = 3 mm
Initially un pressurised – full of water: increase temp. by ∆T: pressure rises
to Vessel P.
PD
The Vessel Wall stresses (tensile) σL = = 83.3 P
4t
σn = 2σL = 166.7 P
19
Strain (volume)
σ L νσ h
εL = - + α l ∆T
E E
υ = 0.3 ⎫
9⎪
E = 210 x 10 ⎬ εL = 1.585 x 10-10 P + 11 x 10-6 ∆ T
α = 11 x 10 −6 ⎪⎭
Similarly
→ εh = 6.75 x 10-10 P + 11 10 –6 ∆T
εv = εL + 2εn = 15.08 x 10-10 P + 33 x 10-6 ∆T = vessel vol. Strain
vessel expands due to temp and pressure change.
20
∴ Failure does not need a large temperature increase.
Very large stress changes due to temperature fluctuations.
21
3.3. Two material structures
Beware, different materials with different thermal expansivities
can cause difficulties.
d
Cu
Fe
L = 100mm b
Heat by ∆T: Cu expands more than Fe so the strip will bend: it will
bend in an arc as all sections are identical.
22
Cu
Fe
F
Cu
Fe F
can then calculate the shearing forces [and hence the BM].
F F
Equating strains: α cu ∆T - = α Fe ∆T +
bdE cu bdE Fe
F ⎧ 1 1 ⎫
So ⎨ + ⎬ = (α cu - α Fe ) ∆T
bd ⎩ E cu E Fe ⎭
23
bd = 2 x 10-5 m2
Ecu = 109 GPa αcu 17 x 10-6 k-1 ∆T = 30°C F = 387 N
EFe = 210 GPa αFe = 11 x 10-6 K-1 (significant force)
24
Consider a steel rod mounted in a upper tube – spacer
Analysis – relevant to Heat Exchangers
Cu
Fe
= αFe∆T + F/EFeAFe
25
Strains EQUAL:
⎡ 1
⇒ F⎢ +
1 ⎤
Acu Ecu ⎥⎦
= (α cu - α Fe ) ∆T
⎣1A4
Fe E Fe
442444 3 ∆d
sum of strengths
26
4. Torsion – Twisting – Shear stresses
A
γ1 A
B γ
B C 2 C
E
Hooke’s Law τ=Gγ G – shear modulus =
2(1 + υ)
27
Now consider a rod subject to an applied torque, T.
2r
B
B
θ γ
B B
28
Torque required to cause twisting:
τ τ
r dr
.δT = τ 2Π r.δr r
⎧ Grθ ⎫
T = ∫ τ 2Π r 2 dr or ∫ τ r.dA ⎨τ = ⎬
A A
⎩ L ⎭
Gθ
T = ∫r
2
dA
L
Gθ T Gθ τ
= {J} so = =
L J L r
M E σ
cf = =
I R y
29
Consider a rod of circular section:
R π
J = ∫ 2π .r r 2 dr = R4
o 2
y
r
x
πD 4
J=
32
Now
r2 = x2 + y2
It can be shown that J = Ixx + Iyy [perpendicular axis than]→ see Fenner
this gives an easy way to evaluate Ixx or Iyy in symmetrical geometrics:
30
Rectangular rod:
bd 3 ⎫
I xx = ⎪
[ ]
12 ⎪ bd 2
⎬ J= b +d2
3⎪ 12
db
I yy = ⎪
12 ⎭
31
Example: steel rod as a drive shaft
D = 25 mm
L = 1.5 m
Failure when τ = τy = 95 MPa
G = 81 GPa
τ max T 95 x 10 6 ⎫
= = ⎪
rmax J 0.0125 ⎪
⎪
Now ⎬ so T = 291 Nm
πD 4
J= = 383 x 10 −8 m 4 ⎪
32 ⎪
⎪⎭
From
Gθ T
= ⇒ 7.6 x 10 =
9 (
81 x 109 θ
⇒
) θ = 0.141 rad = 8.1°
L J 1.5
32
4.2. Thin walled shafts
D
min 0.025m
rmax = D/2
J = (π/32){D4 – 0.0254}
τy ⎛ T ⎞ 95 x 10 x 2 291
6
32
=⎜ ⎟⇒
rmax ⎝J⎠ D
= 4
(
π D - 0.0254 )
33
4.3. Thin walled pressure vessel subject to torque
τ T
=
r J
now cylinder J=
π
32
[(D + 2t ) 4
- D4 ]
=
π
32
[8D t + 24 D t
3 2 2
]
+ ...
π
≈ D 3t
4
τ2 4T
so =
D πD 3 t
2T
τ=
πD 2 t
34
CET 1, SAPV
Vectors
tensors of rank 1
r r
F = ma
hence :
F1 = ma1
F2 = ma2
F3 = ma3
or :
Fi = mai
Tensors of rank 2
3
pi = ∑ Tij q j i, j = 1,2,3
j =1
or :
p1 = T11q1 + T12 q2 + T13 q3
p2 = T21q1 + T22 q2 + T23 q3
p3 = T31q1 + T32 q2 + T33 q3
Axis transformations
The choice of axes in the description of an engineering problem is
arbitrary (as long as you choose orthogonal sets of axes!). Obviously the
physics of the problem must not depend on the choice of axis. For
example, whether a pressure vessel will explode can not depend on how
we set up our co-ordinate axes to describe the stresses acting on the
34
CET 1, SAPV
vessel. However it is clear that the components of the stress tensor will
be different going from one set of coordinates xi to another xi’.
How do we transform one set of co-ordinate axes onto another, keeping
the same origin?
x1 x2 x3
x1 ' a11 a12 a13
x2 ' a21 a22 a23
x3 ' a31 a32 a33
Forward transformation:
3
xi ' = ∑ aij x j “New in terms of Old”
j =1
Reverse transformation:
3
xi = ∑ a ji x j “Old in terms of New”
j =1
xi ' = aij x j
xi = a ji x j
35
CET 1, SAPV
Tensor transformation
How will the components of a tensor change when we go from one co-
ordinate system to another? I.e. if we have a situation where
where Tij is the tensor in the old co-ordinate frame xi, how do we find the
corresponding tensor Tij’ in the new co-ordinate frame xi’, such that:
pi ' = ∑ Tij ' q j ' = Tij ' q j ' (in short form)
j
p' ← p ← q ← q'
Hence:
pi ' = aik pk
pk = Tkl ql
ql = a jl q j '
Thus we have:
36
CET 1, SAPV
For example:
+ ai 2 a jl T2l
+ ai 3 a jl T3l
Symmetrical Tensors:
Tij=Tji
37
CET 1, SAPV
38
CET 1, SAPV
such that :
⎡T1 0 0⎤
Tij ' = ⎢ 0 T2 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 T3 ⎥⎦
Consequence? Consider:
pi = Tij q j
then
p1 = T1 q1 , p2 = T2 q2 , p3 = T3 q3
If T1, T2, T3 are stresses, then these are called PRINCIPAL STRESSES.
39
CET 1, SAPV
Mohr’s circle
y
Fxy
y face
Fx
x
Fxx
z face Fxz
z
x face
The faces on this cuboid are named according to the directions of their
normals.
There are thus two x-faces, one facing greater values of x, as shown in
Figure 1 and one facing lesser values of x (not shown in the Figure).
On the x-face there will be some force Fx. Since the cuboid is of
infinitesimal size, the force on the opposite side will not differ
significantly.
The force Fx can be divided into its components parallel to the coordinate
directions, Fxx, Fxy, Fxz. Dividing by the area of the x-face gives the
stresses on the x-plane:
σ xx
τ xy
τ xz
40
CET 1, SAPV
⎡σ xx τ xy τ xz ⎤
⎢ ⎥
σ ij = ⎢τ yx σ yy τ yz ⎥
⎢ τ zx τ zy σ zz ⎥⎦
⎣
Note that the first subscript refers to the face on which the stress acts and
the second subscript refers to the direction in which the associated force
acts.
σ yy τyx
y
τ xy
σ xx σ xx
x
τ xy
τ yx
σ yy
and therefore:
⎡σ xx τ xy τ xz ⎤ ⎡σ xx τ xy τ xz ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
σ ij = ⎢τ yx σ yy τ yz ⎥ = ⎢τ xy σ yy τ yz ⎥
⎢ τ zx τ zy σ zz ⎥ ⎢ τ xz τ yz σ zz ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
41
CET 1, SAPV
This means that there must be some magic co-ordinate frame in which all
the stresses are normal stresses (principal stresses) and in which the off
diagonal stresses (=shear stresses) are 0. So if, in a given situation we
find this frame we can apply all our stress strain relations that we have set
up in the previous lectures (which assumed there were only normal
stresses acting).
Consider a cylindrical vessel subject to shear, and normal stresses (σh, σl,
σr). We are usually interested in shears and stresses which lie in the
plane defined by the vessel walls.
σ ij → σ ij '
So stress tensor is symmetric 2nd rank tensor. Imagine we are in the co-
ordinate frame xi where we only have principal stresses:
⎡σ 1 0 0⎤
σ ij = ⎢⎢ 0 σ 2 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 σ 3 ⎥⎦
42
CET 1, SAPV
Then:
σ ij ' = aik a jl σ kl
43
CET 1, SAPV
Hence:
44
Yield conditions. Tresca and Von Mises
z
x
Shear stresses τ
y,z plane
x, y plane
normal
stresses
σ
x,z plane
1
We can draw Mohrs circles for each principal plane.
Materials fail when the largest stress exceeds a critical value. Normally we
test a material in simple tension:
P P
Pyield
σy =
A
σ
σ = σ
σ=σ
σ1
σ1
-σ
3
M.C: mc passes through (σ1,0), (σ1,0) , ( 0,0)
σ1
τ max σ1
τmax = σ1/2
occurs along plane at 45° to σ1
Similarly for tensile test.
-σ
σ
σ2 σ
1
σ1 - σ2
= τ max
M.C. Fails when 2
σy
= τy =
2
i.e., when σ1 - σ2 = σy
material will not fail.
4
Lets do an easy example.
5
6.2 Von Mises’ Failure Criterion; The stress ellipse
(ductile materials)
Tresca’s criterion does not work well for ductile materials. Early hypothesis
– material fails when its strain energy exceeds a critical value (can’t be true
as no failure occurs under uniform compression).
Von Mises’: failure when strain energy due to distortion, UD, exceeds a
critical value.
UD = difference in strain energy (U) due of a compressive stress C equal to
the mean of the principal stresses.
1
C = [σ + σ2 + σ 3 ]
3 1
UD =
1 ⎧ 2
⎨σ +
2E ⎩ 1
σ 22 + σ 32 + 2υ (σ1σ 2 + σ 2 σ 3 + σ 3σ 1 ) -
1
2E [ ]⎫
3C 2 + 6υC 2 ⎬
⎭
=
1
12G {
(σ1 2 2
- σ 2 ) + (σ 2 - σ 3 ) + (σ 3 - σ1 )
2
}
M.C.
σ
σ
σ3 2 σ
1
6
Tresca → failure when max (τI) ≥ τy)
Von Mises → failure when root mean
square of {τa, τb, τc} ≥ critical value
σ
σ
y
1
12G
{ } {
(σ1 - σ2 )2 + (σ2 + σ3 )2 + (σ3 - σ1 )2 > 1 σ2y + 02 + σ2y
12G
}
{(σ - σ )
1 2
2 2 2
}
+ (σ 2 + σ3 ) + (σ3 - σ1 ) > 2σ 2y
7
8
Lets do a simple example.
9
Example Tresca's Failure Criterion
The same pipe as in the first example (D = 0.2 m, t' = 0.005 m) is subject to
an internal pressure of 50 barg. What torque can it support?
PD
σL = = 50 N / mm 2
4t'
Calculate stresses and σ3 = σr ≈0
PD
σh = = 100 N / mm 2
2t'
Mohr's Circle
τ (100,τ)
50 100 σ
s
(50,−τ)
10
Case A
τ (100,τ)
σ3 σ2 50 100 σ1
s
(50,−τ)
Case B τ (100,τ)
2β
σ2 σ3 50 100 σ1 σ
s
(50,−τ)
We do not know whether the Mohr's circle for this case follows Case A or
B; determine which case applies by trial and error.
11
For Case A;
τ max =
σ1
2
= 1
2 [75 + (252 + τ 2 )]
⇒ τ 2 = 135 − 252
⇒ τ = 132.7N / mm 2
Giving σ1 = 210 N / mm2 ; σ 2 = −60 N / mm2
Case B;
We now have τmax as the radius of the original Mohr's circle linking our
stress data.
Thus
τ max = 252 + τ 2 = 105 ⇒ τ = 101.98N / mm2
Principal stresses
Thus Case B applies and the yield stress is 101.98 N/mm2. The torque
required to cause failure is
102
tan(2 λ ) = ⇒ 2 λ = 76.23° ;
75
2β = 90 - 2λ ⇒ β = 6.9°
12
Example More of Von Mises Failure Criterion
σ h = 100N / mm 2
σ L = 50 N / mm 2
σ r ≈ 0 N / mm2
What torque will cause failure if the yield stress for steel is 210 N/mm2?
Mohr's Circle
τ (100,τ)
50 100 σ
s
(50,−τ)
Giving
σ1 = s + t = 75 + 252 + τ 2
σ 2 = s − t = 75 − 252 + τ 2
σ3 = 0
At failure
1
UD =
12G
{(σ 1 − σ 2 ) 2 + ( σ 2 − σ 3 ) 2 + ( σ 3 − σ 1 ) 2 }
13
Or
(σ1 − σ 2 ) 2 + ( σ 2 − σ 3 ) 2 + ( σ 3 − σ1 ) 2 = ( σ y )2 + (0)2 + (0 − σ y ) 2
4t 2 + (s − t)2 + (s + t) 2 = 2σ 2y
2s2 + 6t 2 = 2 σ y2
s 2 + 3t 2 = σ 2y
⇒ 752 + 3(252 + τ 2 ) = 210 2 τ = 110 N / mm 2
πD2 t' τ
T= = 35kNm
2
which is larger than the value of 32 kNm given by Tresca's criterion - in this
case, Tresca is more conservative.
14
7. Strains
γ1 δx δxy
lx δxx Figure 1
δ xx δ xy
ε xx = ; ε xy =
lx lx
εxx is the direct strain, i.e. the fractional increase in length in the direction
of the original vector. εxy represents rotation of the vector through the
small angle γ1 where,
δ xy δ xy
γ1 ≅ tan γ1 = ≅ = ε xy
l x + δ xx lx
δ yy δ yx
ε yy = ; ε yx =
ly ly
1
δ yx
Figure 2
δ
yy
δy
ly
γ
2
γ1 lx
as in Figure 2.
δ ij
ε ij = ; where i, j = 1,2,3
li
γ xy = ( γ 1 + γ 2 ) = ε xy + ε yx or γ xy = −(γ 1 + γ 2 )
τ yx
A A'
τ
xy
C'
B C B'
Figure 3a Figure 3b
Positive values of the shear stresses τxy and τyx act on an element as
shown in Figure 3a and these cause distortion as in Figure 3b. Thus it is
sensible to take γxy as +ve when the angle ABC decreases. Thus
2
γ xy = +( γ 1 + γ 2 )
γ ij = (ε ij + ε ji )
and since
τij = τji,
we have
γij = γji.
Note that the TENSOR SHEAR STRAINS are given by the averaged
sum of shear strains:
1 1 1 1
γ ij = (ε ij + ε ji ) = (γ 1 + γ 2 ) = γ ji
2 2 2 2
⎡ 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
⎢ ε 11 2
y12 y13
2 ⎥ ⎢
ε 11
2
y12
2 ⎥
y13
⎢1 1 ⎥ ⎢1 1 ⎥
ε ij = ⎢ y 21 ε 22 y 23 ⎥ = ⎢ y12 ε 22 y 23 ⎥
⎢2 2 ⎥ ⎢2 2 ⎥
⎢1 y 1
y32 ε 33 ⎥ ⎢ y13
1 1
y 23 ε 33 ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 31 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ 2 2 ⎥⎦
where the diagonal elements are the stretches or tensile strains and the
off diagonal elements are the tensor shear strains.
3
ε ij = ε ji
ε ij ' → ε ij
such that :
⎡ε 1 0 0⎤
ε ij = ⎢⎢ 0 ε 2 0⎥
⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 ε 3 ⎥⎦
ε ij ' = aik a jl ε kl
And hence:
4
ε11 ' = ε1 cos 2 θ + ε 2 sin 2 θ
1 1
= (ε1 + ε1 ) − (ε 2 − ε1 ) cos 2θ
2 2
1 1
= (ε1 + ε1 ) + (ε 2 − ε1 ) cos 2θ
2 2
1
ε12 ' = γ 12 ' = −ε1 cos θ sin θ + ε 2 cos θ sin θ
2
1
= (ε 2 − ε1 ) sin 2θ
2
5
Note, however, that on this occasion we plot half the shear strain against
the direct strain. This stems from the fact that the engineering shear
strains differs from the tensorial shear strains by a factor of 2 as as
discussed.
strain gauge
120°
_
_
_ 45°
ε
C
εB
εA
θ
ε1 principal strain
6
A
γ/2
B
ε
2θ
εB εC εA
C circle, centre s,
radius t
so we can write
ε A = s + t cos(2θ )
ε B = s + t cos(2θ + 90) = s − t sin( 2θ )
ε C = s − t cos(2θ )
3 equations in 3 unknowns
Using strain gauges we can find the directions of Principal strains
γ/2
7
7.4 Hooke’s Law for Shear Stresses
St. Venant’s Principle states that the principal axes of stress and strain are
co-incident. Consider a 2-D element subject to pure shear (τxy = τyx =
τo).
γ/2
8
So pure shear causes the shear strain γ
τo
τo
γ/2
γ/2
and
2τ o
γ= (1+ ν )
E
τo E
But by definition τo = Gγ
G= =
so γ 2(1+ ν )
σ1 νσ 2 νσ 3
ε1 = − −
E E E
νσ1 σ2 νσ 3
ε2 = − + −
E E E
νσ1 νσ 2 σ3
ε3 = − − +
E E E
9
So using strain gauges you can work out magnitudes of principal strains.
You can then work out magnitudes of principal stresses.
Using Tresca or Von Mises you can then work out whether your
vessel is safe to operate. ie below the yield criteria
10