You are on page 1of 74

CET 1:

Stress Analysis &


Pressure Vessels

Lent Term 2005

Dr. Clemens Kaminski


Telephone: +44 1223 763135
E-mail: clemens_kaminski@cheng.cam.ac.uk
URL: http://www.cheng.cam.ac.uk/research/groups/laser/
Synopsis
1 Introduction to Pressure Vessels and Failure Modes
1.1 Stresses in Cylinders and Spheres
1.2 Compressive failure. Euler buckling. Vacuum vessels
1.3 Tensile failure. Stress Stress Concentration & Cracking

2 3-D stress and strain


2.1 Elasticity and Strains-Young's Modulus and Poisson's Ratio
2.2 Bulk and Shear Moduli
2.3 Hoop, Longitudinal and Volumetric Strains
2.4 Strain Energy. Overfilling of Pressure Vessels

3 Thermal Effects
3.1 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
3.2 Thermal Effect in cylindrical Pressure Vessels
3.3 Two-Material Structures

4 Torsion.
4.1 Shear Stresses in Shafts - τ/r = T/J = Gθ/L
4.2 Thin Walled Shafts
4.3 Thin Walled Pressure Vessel subject to Torque

5 Two Dimensional Stress Analysis


5.1 Nomenclature and Sign Convention for Stresses
5.2 Mohr's Circle for Stresses
5.3 Worked Examples
5.4 Application of Mohr's Circle to Three Dimensional Systems

6 Bulk Failure Criteria


6.1 Tresca's Criterion. The Stress Hexagon
6.2 Von Mises' Failure Criterion. The Stress Ellipse

7 Two Dimensional Strain Analysis


7.1 Direct and Shear Strains
7.2 Mohr's Circle for Strains
7.3 Measurement of Strain - Strain Gauges
7.4 Hooke’s Law for Shear Stresses
Supporting Materials

There is one Examples paper supporting these lectures.

Two good textbooks for further explanation, worked examples and exercises are
Mechanics of Materials (1997) Gere & Timoshenko, publ. ITP [ISBN 0-534-93429-3]
Mechanics of Solids (1989) Fenner, publ. Blackwell [ISBN 0-632-02018-0]

This material was taught in the CET I (Old Regulations) Structures lecture unit and was examined
in CET I (OR) Paper IV Section 1. There are consequently a large number of old Tripos questions
in existence, which are of the appropriate standard. From 1999 onwards the course was taught in
CET1, paper 5. Chapters 7 and 8 in Gere and Timoshenko contain a large number of example
problems and questions.

Nomenclature
The following symbols will be used as consistently as possible in the lectures.

E Young’s modulus
G Shear modulus
I second moment of area
J polar moment of area
R radius
t thickness
T τορθυε

α thermal expansivity
ε linear strain
γ shear strain
η angle
ν Poisson’s ratio
σ Normal stress
τ Shear stress
A pressure vessel near you!
Ongoing Example

We shall refer back to this example of a typical pressure vessel on several


occasions.

Distillation column

2m P = 7 bara

carbon steel
t = 5 mm

18 m
1. Introduction to Pressure Vessels and Failure Modes
Pressure vessels are very often
• spherical (e.g. LPG storage tanks)

• cylindrical (e.g. liquid storage tanks)

• cylindrical shells with hemispherical ends (e.g. distillation col-


umns)

Such vessels fail when the stress state somewhere in the wall material ex-
ceeds some failure criterion. It is thus important to be able to be able to un-
derstand and quantify (resolve) stresses in solids. This unit will con-
centrate on the application of stress analysis to bulk failure in thin walled
vessels only, where (i) the vessel self weight can be neglected and (ii) the
thickness of the material is much smaller than the dimensions of the vessel
(D » t).

1.1. Stresses in Cylinders and Spheres


Consider a cylindrical pressure vessel

internal gauge pressure P r


External diameter
D L

wall thickness, t

The hydrostatic pressure causes stresses in three dimensions.


1. Longitudinal stress (axial) σL
2. Radial stress σr
3. Hoop stress σh
all are normal stresses.
SAPV LT 2005 1
CFK, MRM
σ
r
r
σ L
L
h
σ
h

a, The longitudinal stress σL

P
σ
L

Force equilibrium
π D2
P = π D t σL
4
if P > 0, then σ L is tensile
PD
σL =
4t

b, The hoop stress σh

σ
h

σ
P h

Force balance, D L P = 2 σ h L t
PD
σh =
SAPV LT 2005 2 2t
CFK, MRM
c, Radial stress

σ varies from P on inner surface to 0 on the


r
outer face
σ
r

σr ≈ o ( P )
D
σh , σL ≈ P ( ).
2t
thin walled, so D >> t
so σ h , σ L >> σ r
so neglect σ r

Compare terms

d, The spherical pressure vessel

P
σ
h
P π D2
P = σh π D t
4
PD
σh =
4t

SAPV LT 2005 3
CFK, MRM
1.2. Compressive Failure: – Bulk Yielding & Buckling
– Vacuum Vessels
Consider an unpressurised cylindrical column subjected to a single load W.
Bulk failure will occur when the normal compressive stress exceeds a yield
criterion, e.g.

W
W
σ bulk = = σY
πDt

Compressive stresses can cause failure due to buckling (bending instability).

The critical load for the onset of buckling is given by Euler's analysis. A full
explanation is given in the texts, and the basic results are summarised in the
Structures Tables. A column or strut of length L supported at one end will
buckle if

π 2 EI
W= 2
L

Consider a cylindrical column. I = πR3t so the compressive stress required


to cause buckling is

W π 2 EπD3t 1 π 2 ED 2
σ buckle = = 2 ⋅ =
πDt 8L πDt 8L2
or

π2 E
σ buckle =
8( L D)
2

SAPV LT 2005 4
CFK, MRM
where L/D is a slenderness ratio. The mode of failure thus depends on the
geometry:

σ
stress

Euler buckling locus

σ
y
Bulk yield

Short Long
L /D ratio

SAPV LT 2005 5
CFK, MRM
Vacuum vessels.
Cylindrical pressure vessels subject to external pressure are subject to com-
pressive hoop stresses

∆PD
σh =
2t
Consider a length L of vessel , the compressive hoop force is given by,

∆P D L
σh L t =
2
If this force is large enough it will cause buckling.

length

Treat the vessel as an encastered beam of length πD and breadth L

SAPV LT 2005 6
CFK, MRM
Buckling occurs when Force W given by.

4π 2 EI ∆P D L 4π 2 EI
W= =
(π D) 2 2 (π D )2

b t3 L t3 2E ⎛ t ⎞
3
I= = ∆p buckle = ⎜ ⎟
12 12 3 ⎝D⎠

SAPV LT 2005 7
CFK, MRM
1.3. Tensile Failure: Stress Concentration & Cracking

Consider the rod in the Figure below subject to a tensile load. The stress dis-
tribution across the rod a long distance away from the change in cross sec-
tion (XX) will be uniform, but near XX the stress distribution is complex.

X X

There is a concentration of stress at the rod surface below XX and this value
should thus be considered when we consider failure mechanisms.

The ratio of the maximum local stress to the mean (or apparent) stress is de-
scribed by a stress concentration factor K

σ max
K=
σ mean
The values of K for many geometries are available in the literature, including
that of cracks. The mechanism of fast fracture involves the concentration of
tensile stresses at a crack root, and gives the failure criterion for a crack of
length a

σ πa = Kc

where Kc is the material fracture toughness. Tensile


stresses can thus cause failure due to bulk yielding or due
to cracking.

SAPV LT 2005 8
CFK, MRM
Kc 1
σ crack = ⋅
√ π √a

stress

failure locus

length of crack. a

SAPV LT 2005 9
CFK, MRM
2. 3-D stress and strain

2.1. Elasticity and Yield

Many materials obey Hooke's law

σ = Eε σ applied stress (Pa)


E Young's modulus (Pa)
ε strain (-)
σ
failure

Yield
Stress

ε
Elastic
Limit

up to a limit, known as the yield stress (stress axis) or the elastic limit (strain
axis). Below these limits, deformation is reversible and the material eventually
returns to its original shape. Above these limits, the material behaviour depends
on its nature.

Consider a sample of material subjected to a tensile force F.

F F
1

An increase in length (axis 1) will be accompanied by a decrease in dimensions


2 and 3.
Hooke's Law ε1 = (σ1 ≡ F / A ) / E
10
The strain in the perpendicular directions 2,3 are given by
σ1 σ1
ε2 = −ν ;ε3 = − ν
E E
where ν is the Poisson ratio for that material. These effects are additive, so for
three mutually perpendicular stresses σ1, σ2, σ3;

σ2

σ1

σ3

Giving
σ1 νσ 2 νσ 3
ε1 = − −
E E E
νσ1 σ2 νσ 3
ε2 = − + −
E E E
νσ1 νσ 2 σ3
ε3 = − − +
E E E

Values of the material constants in the Data Book give orders of magnitudes of
these parameters for different materials;

Material E ν
(x109 N/m2)
Steel 210 0.30
Aluminum alloy 70 0.33
Brass 105 0.35

11
2.2 Bulk and Shear Moduli

These material properties describe how a material responds to an applied stress


(bulk modulus, K) or shear (shear modulus, G).

The bulk modulus is defined as Puniform = − Kε v

i.e. the volumetric strain resulting from the application of a uniform pressure. In
the case of a pressure causing expansion

σ1 = σ 2 = σ 3 = −P
so
1 −P
ε1 = ε 2 = ε 3 =
E
[σ1 − νσ 2 − νσ 3 ] =
E
(1 − 2 ν )
−3P
ε v = ε1 + ε 2 + ε 3 = (1− 2 ν )
E
E
K=
3(1 − 2 ν )

For steel, E = 210 kN/mm2, ν = 0.3, giving K = 175 kN/mm2


For water, K = 2.2 kN/mm2
For a perfect gas, K = P (1 bara, 10-4 kN/mm2)

Shear Modulus definition τ = Gγ γ - shear strain

12
2.3. Hoop, longitudinal and volumetric strains
(micro or millistrain)

Fractional increase in dimension:


ε L – length
ε h – circumference
ε rr – wall thickness
(a) Cylindrical vessel:

Longitudinal strain
σL υσ h υσ r PD δL
εL = - - = (1 - 2υ ) =
E E E 4tE L
Hoop strain:
σn υσ L PD δD δR
εh = - = (2 - υ ) = =
E E 4tE D R
radial strain
1 3PDυ δt
εr =
E
[σ r - υσ h - υσ L ] = -
4ET
=
t

[fractional increase in wall thickness is negative!]

13
[ONGOING EXAMPLE]:
1
εL = (σ L - υσ n )
E

=
1
210 x 10 9
[
60 x 10 6 - (0.3)120 x 10 6 ]
= 1.14 x 10-4 -≡ 0.114 millistrain
ε h = 0.486 millistrain
ε r = -0.257 millistrain
Thus: pressurise the vessel to 6 bar: L and D increase: t decreases

Volume expansion

⎛ πD 2 ⎞
Cylindrical volume: Vo = ⎜ o ⎟ Lo (original)
⎝ 4 ⎠
π 2
New volume V =
4
(Do + δD) (Lo + δL)

2
L π Do 2
= o
4
[1 + ε h ] [1 + ε L ]

δV
Define volumetric strain ε v =
V
V - Vo 2
∴ εv = = (1 + ε h ) (1 + ε L ) - 1
Vo

( )
= 1 + 2ε h + ε h2 (1 + ε L ) - 1

ε v = 2 ε h + ε L + ε h2 + 2ε h ε L + ε L ε n2
Magnitude inspection:
14
σy 6
190 x 10 −3
ε max (steel) = = 9 = 0.905 x 10 ∴ small
E 210 x 10
Ignoring second order terms,
εv = 2ε h + ε L
(b) Spherical volume:

εh =
1
[σ h - υσ L - υσ r ] = PD (1 - υ )
E 4Et

so εv =
{
π (Do + δD )3 - Do3 }
6 πD 3o 6
= (1 + εh)3 – 1 ≈ 3εh + 0(ε2)
(c) General result
εv = ε1 + ε2 + ε3
εii are the strains in any three mutually perpendicular directions.
{Continued example} – cylinder εL = 0.114 mstrain
εn = 0.486 mstrain
εrr = -0.257 mstrain
εv = 2εn + ε L
∴ new volume = Vo (1 + εv)
π D2 L
Increase in volume = ε v = 56.55 x 1.086 x 10-3
4
= 61 Litres
Volume of steelo = πDLt = 0.377 m3
εv for steel = εL + εh + εrr = 0.343 mstrains
increase in volume of steel = 0.129 L
Strain energy – measure of work done

Consider an elastic material for which F = k x

15
Work done in expanding δx
dW = Fδx

A=area
work done

L0

x
2
x1 x1 kx1 1
Work done in extending to x1 w = ∫o Fdx = ∫o k x dx = = Fx
2 2 1 1
Sample subject to stress σ increased from 0 to σ1:
x1 = Lo ε1 ⎫ AL oε 1σ1
Extension Force: ⎬ W = (no direction here)
F1 = Aσ 1 ⎭ 2
ALo ε1σ 1
Strain energy, U = work done per unit volume of material, U =
2(ALo )

Al o ⎛ 1 ⎞ ε1σ 1 σ 12
⇒ U = ⎜ ⎟ ε σ U = =
2 ⎝ Al o ⎠ 1 1 2 2E
1
In a 3-D system, U = [ε1σ1 + ε2σ2 + ε3σ3]
2
σ υσ 2 υσ 3
Now ε1 = 1 - - etc
E E E

So U =
1
2E
[
σ 12 + σ 2 2 + σ 32 - 2ν (σ 1σ 2 + σ 2σ 3 + σ 3σ 1) ]
Consider a uniform pressure applied: σ1 = σ2 = σ3 = P
2 2
3P P
∴U = (1 - 2 υ) = energy stored in system (per unit vol.
2E 2K

16
For a given P, U stored is proportional to 1/K → so pressure test using liquids
rather than gases.
.
{Ongoing Example} P – 6 barg δV = 61 x 10-3 m3
increase in volume of pressure vessel
Increasing the pressure compresses the contents – normally test with water.
5
∆P 6 x 10
∆V water? ε v (water ) = − = − = - 0.273 mstrains
K 2.2 x 109
∴ decrease in volume of water = -Vo (0.273) = -15.4 x 10 –3 m3
Thus we can add more water:
Extra space = 61 + 15.4 (L)
= 76.4 L water

extra space

p=6
p=0

17
3. Thermal Effects

3.1. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Definition: coefficient of thermal expansion ε = αL∆T Linear


Coefficient of thermal volume expansion εv = αT Volume

Steel: αL = 11 x 10-6 K-1 ∆T = 10oC ∴ εL = 11 10-5


reactor ∆T = 500oC εL = 5.5 millistrains (!)

Consider a steel bar mounted between rigid supports which exert stress σ

Heat
σ σ

σ
ε = α∆T -
E
If rigid: ε = 0 ⇒ so σ = Eα∆T
(i.e., non buckling)
steel: σ = 210 x 109 x 11 x 10-6 ∆T = 2.3 x 106 ∆T
σy = 190 MPa: failure if ∆T > 82.6 K

18
{Example}: steam main, installed at 10oC, to contain 6 bar steam (140oC)
if ends are rigid, σ = 300 MPa→ failure.
∴ must install expansion bends.

3.2. Temperature effects in cylindrical pressure vessels

.
D=1m steel construction L = 3 m . full of water t = 3 mm
Initially un pressurised – full of water: increase temp. by ∆T: pressure rises
to Vessel P.

PD
The Vessel Wall stresses (tensile) σL = = 83.3 P
4t
σn = 2σL = 166.7 P
19
Strain (volume)
σ L νσ h
εL = - + α l ∆T
E E

υ = 0.3 ⎫
9⎪
E = 210 x 10 ⎬ εL = 1.585 x 10-10 P + 11 x 10-6 ∆ T
α = 11 x 10 −6 ⎪⎭
Similarly
→ εh = 6.75 x 10-10 P + 11 10 –6 ∆T
εv = εL + 2εn = 15.08 x 10-10 P + 33 x 10-6 ∆T = vessel vol. Strain
vessel expands due to temp and pressure change.

The Contents, (water) Expands due to T increase


Contracts due to P increase:

εv, H2O = αv∆T – P/K H2O = αv = 60 x 10-6 K-1


∴ εv = 60 x 10-6 ∆T – 4.55 x 10-10 P

Since vessel remains full on increasing ∆T:


εv (H20) = εv (vessel)
Equating → P = 13750 ∆T
pressure, rise of 1.37 bar per 10°C increase in temp.
Now σn = 166.7 P = 2.29 x 106 ∆T
∆σn = 22.9 Mpa per 10°C rise in Temperature

20
∴ Failure does not need a large temperature increase.
Very large stress changes due to temperature fluctuations.

MORAL: Always leave a space in a liquid vessel.


(εv, gas = αv∆T – P/K)

21
3.3. Two material structures
Beware, different materials with different thermal expansivities
can cause difficulties.

{Example} Where there is benefit. The Bimetallic strip - temperature


controllers
a= 4 mm (2 + 2 mm) b= 10 mm

d
Cu
Fe

L = 100mm b

Heat by ∆T: Cu expands more than Fe so the strip will bend: it will
bend in an arc as all sections are identical.

22
Cu
Fe

The different thermal expansions, set up shearing forces


in the strip, which create a bending moment. If we apply a sagging bending
moment of equal [: opposite] magnitude, we will obtain a straight beam and

F
Cu
Fe F

can then calculate the shearing forces [and hence the BM].

Shearing force F compressive in Cu


Tensile in Fe

F F
Equating strains: α cu ∆T - = α Fe ∆T +
bdE cu bdE Fe

F ⎧ 1 1 ⎫
So ⎨ + ⎬ = (α cu - α Fe ) ∆T
bd ⎩ E cu E Fe ⎭

23
bd = 2 x 10-5 m2
Ecu = 109 GPa αcu 17 x 10-6 k-1 ∆T = 30°C F = 387 N
EFe = 210 GPa αFe = 11 x 10-6 K-1 (significant force)

F acts through the centroid of each section so BM = F./(d/2) = 0.774 Nm

Use data book to work out deflection.


ML2
δ=
2 EI
This is the principle of the bimetallic strip.

24
Consider a steel rod mounted in a upper tube – spacer
Analysis – relevant to Heat Exchangers

Cu

Fe

assembled at room temperature


.
increase ∆T
Data: αcu > αFe : copper expands more than steel, so will generate
a TENSILE stress in the steel and a compressive
stress in the copper.
Balance forces:
Tensile force in steel |FFe| = |Fcu| = F
Stress in steel = F/AFe = σFe

“ “ copper = F/Acu = σcu

Steel strain: εFE = αFe ∆T + σFe/EFe (no transvere forces)

= αFe∆T + F/EFeAFe

copper strain εcu = αcu∆T – F/EcuAcu

25
Strains EQUAL:
⎡ 1
⇒ F⎢ +
1 ⎤
Acu Ecu ⎥⎦
= (α cu - α Fe ) ∆T
⎣1A4
Fe E Fe
442444 3 ∆d
sum of strengths

So you can work out stresses and strains in a system.

26
4. Torsion – Twisting – Shear stresses

4.1. Shear stresses in shafts –τ/r = T/J = G θ/L

Consider a rod subject to twisting:

Definition : shear strain γ ≡ change in angle that was originally Π/2


Consider three points that define a right angle and more then:
Shear strain γ = γ1 + γ2 [RADIANS]

A
γ1 A

B γ
B C 2 C

E
Hooke’s Law τ=Gγ G – shear modulus =
2(1 + υ)

27
Now consider a rod subject to an applied torque, T.

2r

Hold one end and rotate other by angle θ


.

B
B
θ γ
B B

Plane ABO was originally to the X-X axis



Plane ABO is now inclined at angle γ to the axis: tan γ ≈ γ =
L
Grθ
Shear stress involved τ = Gγ =
L

28
Torque required to cause twisting:

τ τ

r dr

.δT = τ 2Π r.δr r
⎧ Grθ ⎫
T = ∫ τ 2Π r 2 dr or ∫ τ r.dA ⎨τ = ⎬
A A
⎩ L ⎭


T = ∫r
2
dA
L
Gθ T Gθ τ
= {J} so = =
L J L r
M E σ
cf = =
I R y

DEFN: J ≡ polar second moment of area

29
Consider a rod of circular section:
R π
J = ∫ 2π .r r 2 dr = R4
o 2

y
r
x

πD 4
J=
32
Now
r2 = x2 + y2
It can be shown that J = Ixx + Iyy [perpendicular axis than]→ see Fenner
this gives an easy way to evaluate Ixx or Iyy in symmetrical geometrics:

Ixx = Iyy = πD4/64 (rod)

30
Rectangular rod:

bd 3 ⎫
I xx = ⎪
[ ]
12 ⎪ bd 2
⎬ J= b +d2
3⎪ 12
db
I yy = ⎪
12 ⎭

31
Example: steel rod as a drive shaft

D = 25 mm
L = 1.5 m
Failure when τ = τy = 95 MPa
G = 81 GPa

τ max T 95 x 10 6 ⎫
= = ⎪
rmax J 0.0125 ⎪

Now ⎬ so T = 291 Nm
πD 4
J= = 383 x 10 −8 m 4 ⎪
32 ⎪
⎪⎭

From
Gθ T
= ⇒ 7.6 x 10 =
9 (
81 x 109 θ

) θ = 0.141 rad = 8.1°
L J 1.5

Say shaft rotates at 1450 rpm: power = Tω



= 291 x x 1450
60
= 45 kW

32
4.2. Thin walled shafts

(same Eqns apply)


Consider a bracket joining two Ex. Shafts:
T = 291
Nm

D
min 0.025m

What is the minimum value of D for connector?

rmax = D/2
J = (π/32){D4 – 0.0254}

τy ⎛ T ⎞ 95 x 10 x 2 291
6
32
=⎜ ⎟⇒
rmax ⎝J⎠ D
= 4
(
π D - 0.0254 )

D4 – 0.0254 = 6.24 x 10-5 D D ≥ 4.15 cm

33
4.3. Thin walled pressure vessel subject to torque

τ T
=
r J
now cylinder J=
π
32
[(D + 2t ) 4
- D4 ]

=
π
32
[8D t + 24 D t
3 2 2
]
+ ...

π
≈ D 3t
4

τ2 4T
so =
D πD 3 t

2T
τ=
πD 2 t

34
CET 1, SAPV

5. Components of Stress/ Mohr’s Circle


5.1 Definitions
Scalars
tensor of rank 0

Vectors
tensors of rank 1
r r
F = ma
hence :
F1 = ma1
F2 = ma2
F3 = ma3
or :
Fi = mai

Tensors of rank 2
3
pi = ∑ Tij q j i, j = 1,2,3
j =1

or :
p1 = T11q1 + T12 q2 + T13 q3
p2 = T21q1 + T22 q2 + T23 q3
p3 = T31q1 + T32 q2 + T33 q3

Axis transformations
The choice of axes in the description of an engineering problem is
arbitrary (as long as you choose orthogonal sets of axes!). Obviously the
physics of the problem must not depend on the choice of axis. For
example, whether a pressure vessel will explode can not depend on how
we set up our co-ordinate axes to describe the stresses acting on the

34
CET 1, SAPV

vessel. However it is clear that the components of the stress tensor will
be different going from one set of coordinates xi to another xi’.
How do we transform one set of co-ordinate axes onto another, keeping
the same origin?

x1 x2 x3
x1 ' a11 a12 a13
x2 ' a21 a22 a23
x3 ' a31 a32 a33

... where aij are the direction cosines

Forward transformation:
3
xi ' = ∑ aij x j “New in terms of Old”
j =1

Reverse transformation:
3
xi = ∑ a ji x j “Old in terms of New”
j =1

We always have to do summations in co-ordinate transformation and it is


conventional to drop the summation signs and therefore these equations
are simply written as:

xi ' = aij x j

xi = a ji x j

35
CET 1, SAPV

Tensor transformation
How will the components of a tensor change when we go from one co-
ordinate system to another? I.e. if we have a situation where

pi = ∑ Tij q j = Tij q j (in short form)


j

where Tij is the tensor in the old co-ordinate frame xi, how do we find the
corresponding tensor Tij’ in the new co-ordinate frame xi’, such that:

pi ' = ∑ Tij ' q j ' = Tij ' q j ' (in short form)
j

We can find this from a series of sequential co-ordinate transformations:

p' ← p ← q ← q'

Hence:
pi ' = aik pk

pk = Tkl ql

ql = a jl q j '

Thus we have:

36
CET 1, SAPV

pi ' = aik Tkl a jl q j '

= aik a jl Tkl q j '

= Tij ' q j '

For example:

Tij ' = ai1 a jl T1l

+ ai 2 a jl T2l

+ ai 3 a jl T3l

= ai1 a j1 T11 + ai1 a j 2 T12 + ai1 a j 3 T13

+ ai 2 a j1 T21 + ai 2 a j 2 T22 + ai 2 a j 3 T23

+ ai 3 a j1 T31 + ai 3 a j 2 T32 + ai 3 a j 3 T33

Note that there is a difference between a transformation matrix and a 2nd


rank tensor: They are both matrices containing 9 elements (constants)
but:

Symmetrical Tensors:
Tij=Tji

37
CET 1, SAPV

38
CET 1, SAPV

We can always transform a second rank tensor which is symmetrical:

Tij → Tij '

such that :

⎡T1 0 0⎤
Tij ' = ⎢ 0 T2 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 T3 ⎥⎦

Consequence? Consider:

pi = Tij q j

then

p1 = T1 q1 , p2 = T2 q2 , p3 = T3 q3

The diagonal T1, T2, T3 is called the PRINCIPAL AXIS.

If T1, T2, T3 are stresses, then these are called PRINCIPAL STRESSES.

39
CET 1, SAPV

Mohr’s circle

Consider an elementary cuboid with edges parallel to the coordinate


directions x,y,z.

y
Fxy

y face
Fx
x
Fxx
z face Fxz

z
x face

The faces on this cuboid are named according to the directions of their
normals.

There are thus two x-faces, one facing greater values of x, as shown in
Figure 1 and one facing lesser values of x (not shown in the Figure).
On the x-face there will be some force Fx. Since the cuboid is of
infinitesimal size, the force on the opposite side will not differ
significantly.
The force Fx can be divided into its components parallel to the coordinate
directions, Fxx, Fxy, Fxz. Dividing by the area of the x-face gives the
stresses on the x-plane:

σ xx
τ xy
τ xz

It is traditional to write normal stresses as σ and shear stresses as τ.

Similarly, on the y-face: τ yx , σ yy , τ yz

40
CET 1, SAPV

and on the z-face we have: τ zx , τ zy , σ zz

There are therefore 9 components of stress;

⎡σ xx τ xy τ xz ⎤
⎢ ⎥
σ ij = ⎢τ yx σ yy τ yz ⎥
⎢ τ zx τ zy σ zz ⎥⎦

Note that the first subscript refers to the face on which the stress acts and
the second subscript refers to the direction in which the associated force
acts.

σ yy τyx
y
τ xy
σ xx σ xx
x

τ xy

τ yx
σ yy

But for non accelerating bodies (or infinitesimally small cuboids):

and therefore:

⎡σ xx τ xy τ xz ⎤ ⎡σ xx τ xy τ xz ⎤
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
σ ij = ⎢τ yx σ yy τ yz ⎥ = ⎢τ xy σ yy τ yz ⎥
⎢ τ zx τ zy σ zz ⎥ ⎢ τ xz τ yz σ zz ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦

Hence σij is symmetric!

41
CET 1, SAPV

This means that there must be some magic co-ordinate frame in which all
the stresses are normal stresses (principal stresses) and in which the off
diagonal stresses (=shear stresses) are 0. So if, in a given situation we
find this frame we can apply all our stress strain relations that we have set
up in the previous lectures (which assumed there were only normal
stresses acting).

Consider a cylindrical vessel subject to shear, and normal stresses (σh, σl,
σr). We are usually interested in shears and stresses which lie in the
plane defined by the vessel walls.

Is there a transformation about zz which will result in a shear


Would really like to transform into a co-ordinate frame such that all
components in the xi’ :

σ ij → σ ij '

So stress tensor is symmetric 2nd rank tensor. Imagine we are in the co-
ordinate frame xi where we only have principal stresses:

⎡σ 1 0 0⎤
σ ij = ⎢⎢ 0 σ 2 0 ⎥⎥
⎢⎣ 0 0 σ 3 ⎥⎦

Transform to a new co-ordinate frame xi’ by rotatoin about the x3 axis in


the original co-ordinate frame (this would be, in our example, z-axis)

42
CET 1, SAPV

The transformation matrix is then:

⎛ a11 a12 a13 ⎞ ⎛ cos θ sin θ 0⎞


⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
aij = ⎜ a21 a22 a23 ⎟ = ⎜ − sin θ cosθ 0⎟
⎜a a32 a33 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ 0 1 ⎟⎠
⎝ 31 0

Then:

σ ij ' = aik a jl σ kl

⎛ cos θ sin θ 0 ⎞⎛ cos θ − sin θ 0 ⎞ ⎡σ 1 0 0⎤


⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎢
= ⎜ − sin θ cosθ 0 ⎟⎜ sin θ cosθ 0⎟ 0 σ 2 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎜ 0 1 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ 0 ⎟
1 ⎠ ⎢⎣ 0 0 σ 3 ⎥⎦
⎝ 0 0

⎡ σ 1 cos 2 θ + σ 2 sin 2 θ σ 1 cosθ sin θ + σ 2 cosθ sin θ 0⎤


⎢ ⎥
= ⎢− σ 1 cosθ sin θ + σ 2 cosθ sin θ σ 1 cos 2 θ + σ 2 sin 2 θ 0⎥
⎢ 0 0 σ 3 ⎥⎦

43
CET 1, SAPV

Hence:

σ 11 ' = σ 1 cos 2 θ + σ 2 sin 2 θ


1 1
= (σ 1 + σ 1 ) − (σ 2 − σ 1 ) cos 2θ
2 2

σ 22 ' = σ 1 sin 2 θ + σ 2 cos 2 θ


1 1
= (σ 1 + σ 1 ) + (σ 2 − σ 1 ) cos 2θ
2 2

σ 12 ' = −σ 1 cosθ sin θ + σ 2 cosθ sin θ


1
= (σ 2 − σ 1 ) sin 2θ
2

44
Yield conditions. Tresca and Von Mises

Mohrs circle in three dimensions.

z
x

Shear stresses τ

y,z plane

x, y plane
normal
stresses
σ
x,z plane

1
We can draw Mohrs circles for each principal plane.

6. BULK FAILURE CRITERIA

Materials fail when the largest stress exceeds a critical value. Normally we
test a material in simple tension:

P P

Pyield
σy =
A

σ
σ = σ
σ=σ

This material fails under the stress combination (σy, 0, 0)


τmax = 0.5 σ y = 95 Mpa for steel
We wish to establish if a material will fail if it is subject to a stress
combination (σ1, σ2, σ3) or (σn, σL, τ)
2
Failure depends on the nature of the material:
Two important criteria

(i) Tresca’s failure criterion: brittle materials


Cast iron: concrete: ceramics
(ii) Von Mises’ criterion: ductile materials
Mild steel + copper

6.1. Tresca’s Failure Criterion; The Stress Hexagon (Brittle)


A material fails when the largest shear stress reaches a critical value, the
yield shear stress τy.
Case (i) Material subject to simple compression:

σ1
σ1

Principal stresses (-σ1, 0, 0)


τ

3
M.C: mc passes through (σ1,0), (σ1,0) , ( 0,0)

σ1
τ max σ1

τmax = σ1/2
occurs along plane at 45° to σ1
Similarly for tensile test.

Case (ii) σ2 < 0 < σ1


σ
σ2 σ
1

σ1 - σ2
= τ max
M.C. Fails when 2
σy
= τy =
2
i.e., when σ1 - σ2 = σy
material will not fail.

4
Lets do an easy example.

5
6.2 Von Mises’ Failure Criterion; The stress ellipse
(ductile materials)
Tresca’s criterion does not work well for ductile materials. Early hypothesis
– material fails when its strain energy exceeds a critical value (can’t be true
as no failure occurs under uniform compression).
Von Mises’: failure when strain energy due to distortion, UD, exceeds a
critical value.
UD = difference in strain energy (U) due of a compressive stress C equal to
the mean of the principal stresses.
1
C = [σ + σ2 + σ 3 ]
3 1

UD =
1 ⎧ 2
⎨σ +
2E ⎩ 1
σ 22 + σ 32 + 2υ (σ1σ 2 + σ 2 σ 3 + σ 3σ 1 ) -
1
2E [ ]⎫
3C 2 + 6υC 2 ⎬

=
1
12G {
(σ1 2 2
- σ 2 ) + (σ 2 - σ 3 ) + (σ 3 - σ1 )
2
}
M.C.

σ
σ
σ3 2 σ
1

6
Tresca → failure when max (τI) ≥ τy)
Von Mises → failure when root mean
square of {τa, τb, τc} ≥ critical value

σ
σ
y

Compare with (σy, σ, σ) . simple tensile test – failure


Failure if

1
12G
{ } {
(σ1 - σ2 )2 + (σ2 + σ3 )2 + (σ3 - σ1 )2 > 1 σ2y + 02 + σ2y
12G
}

{(σ - σ )
1 2
2 2 2
}
+ (σ 2 + σ3 ) + (σ3 - σ1 ) > 2σ 2y

7
8
Lets do a simple example.

9
Example Tresca's Failure Criterion

The same pipe as in the first example (D = 0.2 m, t' = 0.005 m) is subject to
an internal pressure of 50 barg. What torque can it support?

PD
σL = = 50 N / mm 2
4t'
Calculate stresses and σ3 = σr ≈0
PD
σh = = 100 N / mm 2
2t'
Mohr's Circle

τ (100,τ)

50 100 σ
s

(50,−τ)

Circle construction s = 75 N/mm2


t = √(252+τ2)

The principal stresses σ1,2 = s ± t

Thus σ2 may be positive (case A) or negative (case B). Case A occurs if τ is


small.

10
Case A

τ (100,τ)

σ3 σ2 50 100 σ1
s

(50,−τ)

Case B τ (100,τ)

σ2 σ3 50 100 σ1 σ
s

(50,−τ)

We do not know whether the Mohr's circle for this case follows Case A or
B; determine which case applies by trial and error.

Case A; 'minor' principal stress is positive (σ2 > 0)

Thus failure when τ max = 12 σ y = 105N / mm 2

11
For Case A;
τ max =
σ1
2
= 1
2 [75 + (252 + τ 2 )]
⇒ τ 2 = 135 − 252
⇒ τ = 132.7N / mm 2
Giving σ1 = 210 N / mm2 ; σ 2 = −60 N / mm2

Case B;
We now have τmax as the radius of the original Mohr's circle linking our
stress data.

Thus
τ max = 252 + τ 2 = 105 ⇒ τ = 101.98N / mm2
Principal stresses

σ1,2 = 75 ± 105 ⇒ σ 1 = 180N / mm2 ; σ 2 = −30N / mm 2

Thus Case B applies and the yield stress is 101.98 N/mm2. The torque
required to cause failure is

T = πD2 t' τ / 2 = 32kNm


Failure will occur along a plane at angle β anticlockwise from the y (hoop)
direction;

102
tan(2 λ ) = ⇒ 2 λ = 76.23° ;
75
2β = 90 - 2λ ⇒ β = 6.9°

12
Example More of Von Mises Failure Criterion

From our second Tresca Example

σ h = 100N / mm 2
σ L = 50 N / mm 2
σ r ≈ 0 N / mm2

What torque will cause failure if the yield stress for steel is 210 N/mm2?

Mohr's Circle

τ (100,τ)

50 100 σ
s

(50,−τ)

Giving
σ1 = s + t = 75 + 252 + τ 2
σ 2 = s − t = 75 − 252 + τ 2
σ3 = 0
At failure
1
UD =
12G
{(σ 1 − σ 2 ) 2 + ( σ 2 − σ 3 ) 2 + ( σ 3 − σ 1 ) 2 }

13
Or

(σ1 − σ 2 ) 2 + ( σ 2 − σ 3 ) 2 + ( σ 3 − σ1 ) 2 = ( σ y )2 + (0)2 + (0 − σ y ) 2
4t 2 + (s − t)2 + (s + t) 2 = 2σ 2y
2s2 + 6t 2 = 2 σ y2
s 2 + 3t 2 = σ 2y
⇒ 752 + 3(252 + τ 2 ) = 210 2 τ = 110 N / mm 2

The tube can thus support a torque of

πD2 t' τ
T= = 35kNm
2
which is larger than the value of 32 kNm given by Tresca's criterion - in this
case, Tresca is more conservative.

14
7. Strains

7.1. Direct and Shear Strains


Consider a vector of length lx lying along the x-axis as shown in Figure
1. Let it be subjected to a small strain, so that, if the left hand end is fixed
the right hand end will undergo a small displacement δx. This need not be
in the x-direction and so will have components δxx in the x-direction and
δxy in the y-direction.

γ1 δx δxy

lx δxx Figure 1

We can define strains εxx and εxy by,

δ xx δ xy
ε xx = ; ε xy =
lx lx

εxx is the direct strain, i.e. the fractional increase in length in the direction
of the original vector. εxy represents rotation of the vector through the
small angle γ1 where,

δ xy δ xy
γ1 ≅ tan γ1 = ≅ = ε xy
l x + δ xx lx

Thus in the limit as δx→ 0, γ1 → εxy.


Similarly we can define strains εyy and εyx = γ2 by,

δ yy δ yx
ε yy = ; ε yx =
ly ly

1
δ yx
Figure 2
δ
yy
δy

ly

γ
2

γ1 lx
as in Figure 2.

Or, in general terms:

δ ij
ε ij = ; where i, j = 1,2,3
li

The ENGINEERING SHEAR STRAIN is defined as the change in an


angle relative to a set of axes originally at 90°. In particular γxy is the
change in the angle between lines which were originally in the x- and y-
directions. Thus, in our example (Figure 2 above):

γ xy = ( γ 1 + γ 2 ) = ε xy + ε yx or γ xy = −(γ 1 + γ 2 )

depending on sign convention.

τ yx

A A'
τ
xy

C'
B C B'
Figure 3a Figure 3b

Positive values of the shear stresses τxy and τyx act on an element as
shown in Figure 3a and these cause distortion as in Figure 3b. Thus it is
sensible to take γxy as +ve when the angle ABC decreases. Thus
2
γ xy = +( γ 1 + γ 2 )

Or, in general terms:

γ ij = (ε ij + ε ji )

and since

τij = τji,

we have

γij = γji.

Note that the TENSOR SHEAR STRAINS are given by the averaged
sum of shear strains:

1 1 1 1
γ ij = (ε ij + ε ji ) = (γ 1 + γ 2 ) = γ ji
2 2 2 2

7.2 Mohr’s Circle for Strains

The strain tensor can now be written as:

⎡ 1 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
⎢ ε 11 2
y12 y13
2 ⎥ ⎢
ε 11
2
y12
2 ⎥
y13
⎢1 1 ⎥ ⎢1 1 ⎥
ε ij = ⎢ y 21 ε 22 y 23 ⎥ = ⎢ y12 ε 22 y 23 ⎥
⎢2 2 ⎥ ⎢2 2 ⎥
⎢1 y 1
y32 ε 33 ⎥ ⎢ y13
1 1
y 23 ε 33 ⎥
⎢⎣ 2 31 2 ⎥⎦ ⎣⎢ 2 2 ⎥⎦

where the diagonal elements are the stretches or tensile strains and the
off diagonal elements are the tensor shear strains.

Thus our strain tensor is symmetrical, and:

3
ε ij = ε ji

This means there must be a co-ordinate transformation, such that:

ε ij ' → ε ij

such that :

⎡ε 1 0 0⎤
ε ij = ⎢⎢ 0 ε 2 0⎥

⎢⎣ 0 0 ε 3 ⎥⎦

we only have principal (=longitudinal) strains!


Exactly analogous to our discussion for the transformation of the stress
tensor we find this from:

ε ij ' = aik a jl ε kl

⎛ cos θ sin θ 0 ⎞⎛ cos θ − sin θ 0 ⎞ ⎡ε1 0 0⎤


⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
= ⎜ − sin θ cosθ 0 ⎟⎜ sin θ cosθ 0 ⎟⎢ 0 ε 2 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎜ 0 1 ⎟⎠⎜⎝ 0 1 ⎟⎠ ⎢⎣ 0 0 ε 3 ⎥⎦
⎝ 0 0

⎡ ε 1 cos 2 θ + ε 2 sin 2 θ ε 1 cosθ sin θ + ε 2 cosθ sin θ 0⎤


⎢ ⎥
= ⎢− ε 1 cosθ sin θ + ε 2 cosθ sin θ ε 1 cos 2 θ + ε 2 sin 2 θ 0⎥
⎢ 0 0 ε 3 ⎥⎦

And hence:

4
ε11 ' = ε1 cos 2 θ + ε 2 sin 2 θ

1 1
= (ε1 + ε1 ) − (ε 2 − ε1 ) cos 2θ
2 2

ε 22 ' = ε1 sin 2 θ + ε 2 cos 2 θ

1 1
= (ε1 + ε1 ) + (ε 2 − ε1 ) cos 2θ
2 2

1
ε12 ' = γ 12 ' = −ε1 cos θ sin θ + ε 2 cos θ sin θ
2

1
= (ε 2 − ε1 ) sin 2θ
2

For which we can draw a Mohr’s circle in the usual manner:

5
Note, however, that on this occasion we plot half the shear strain against
the direct strain. This stems from the fact that the engineering shear
strains differs from the tensorial shear strains by a factor of 2 as as
discussed.

7.3 Measurement of Stress and Strain - Strain Gauges


It is difficult to measure internal stresses. Strains, at least those on a
surface, are easy to measure.

• Glue a piece of wire on to a surface


• Strain in wire = strain in material
• As the length of the wire increases, its radius decreases so its
electrical resistance increases and can be readily measured.

In practice, multiple wire assemblies are used in strain gauges, to


measure direct strains.

strain gauge
120°
_
_
_ 45°

Strain rosettes are employed to obtain three measurements:

7.3.1 45° Strain Rosette

Three direct strains are measured

ε
C
εB

εA
θ
ε1 principal strain

Mohr’s circle for strains gives

6
A
γ/2
B

ε

εB εC εA

C circle, centre s,
radius t
so we can write
ε A = s + t cos(2θ )
ε B = s + t cos(2θ + 90) = s − t sin( 2θ )
ε C = s − t cos(2θ )
3 equations in 3 unknowns
Using strain gauges we can find the directions of Principal strains

γ/2

7
7.4 Hooke’s Law for Shear Stresses
St. Venant’s Principle states that the principal axes of stress and strain are
co-incident. Consider a 2-D element subject to pure shear (τxy = τyx =
τo).

y τo The Mohr’s circle for stresses is Y


τo τo
Q P
τo
X
x

where P and Q are principal stress axes and


σ pp = σ1 = τ o
σ qq = σ 2 = − τ o
τ pq = τ qp = 0

Since the principal stress and strain axes are coincident,


σ1 νσ 2
ε pp = ε1 = −
E E
τo
= (1+ ν )
E
σ2 νσ1 −τ o
ε qq = ε 2 = − = (1+ ν )
E E E

and the Mohr’s circle for strain is thus

γ/2

Y the Mohr’s circle shows that


Q P ε ε xx = 0
εqq εpp − γ xy τo
=− (1 + ν )
2 E
X (0,−γ )
xy

8
So pure shear causes the shear strain γ
τo
τo
γ/2
γ/2
and
2τ o
γ= (1+ ν )
E
τo E
But by definition τo = Gγ
G= =
so γ 2(1+ ν )

Use St Venants principal to work out principal stress values from a


knowledge of principal strains.

Two Mohrs circles, strain and stress.

σ1 νσ 2 νσ 3
ε1 = − −
E E E
νσ1 σ2 νσ 3
ε2 = − + −
E E E
νσ1 νσ 2 σ3
ε3 = − − +
E E E

9
So using strain gauges you can work out magnitudes of principal strains.
You can then work out magnitudes of principal stresses.
Using Tresca or Von Mises you can then work out whether your
vessel is safe to operate. ie below the yield criteria

10

You might also like