Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1.1 INTRODUCTION:
A battery charger is a device used to put energy into a secondary cell or
(rechargeable) battery by forcing an electric current through it. The charge current depends
upon the technology and capacity of the battery being charged.
The battery charger consists of separate boost charger and Separate float charger.
The boost charger is of silicon diode type and float is of tyristor type. The booster charger is
meant for boost the battery .When it is first commissioned, when the battery is discharged
completely. Float Charger is meant for feeding regulated 220v DC supply to DC loads like
breakers, coils, memory circuits, emergency lights, pump sets Etc. Operating on DC voltage
and also to trickle charge the 220v battery both boost and Float charger work on 3-phase,
415v, 50 Hz, 4-wire AC input supply.
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CHAPTER-II
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2.2 FLOAT CUM BOOST CHARGER (FCBC):
FCBC as the name indicates is a two-in-one functional combination of a float charger
and a boost charger, under normal conditions, FCBC works as a float charger. When the
mains fail, battery takes over supply to the load. On resumption of power, FCBC switches to
the “Boost mode”, boost charges the discharged battery and return to the “Float mode”, after
the battery is restored to full charge. All along, it supplies uninterrupted DC Power to the
load.
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2.3 LOAD VOLTAGE LIMITERS (VR):
In order to protect the load against the voltage variation during the “Boost Mode”
Operation, a load voltage limiter in the form of Diode Voltage Regulator (DVR) or Chopper
Regulator (CR) is used. End cell switching which uses a divided battery, tap cell diode and
change over contactor is yet another method of protecting the load from high boost voltage.
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2.4 BATTERY DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION:
Battery manufacturing is an intensive, heavy industrial process involving the use of
hazardous and toxic materials. Batteries are generally mass produced, combining several
Sequential and parallel processes to construct a complete battery unit. After production, initial
charge and discharge cycles are conducted on batteries before they are shipped to distributors
and consumers. Manufactures have variations in the details of their battery construction
features can be described for most all batteries. Some important components of battery
construction are described below.
2.4.1 CELL:
The cell is the basic electrochemical unit in a battery, consisting of a set of Positive
and negative plates divided by separators, immersed in an electrolytic solution and enclosed
in a case. In a typical lead-acid battery, each cell has a nominal voltage of about 2.1v, so there
are 6 series cells in a nominal 12v battery. Fig 1 shows a diagram of a basic lead-acid battery
cell.
2.4.3 ELECTRODE:
There are generally a number of positive and negative plates in each battery cell,
typically connected in parallel at a bus bar or inter-cell connector at the top of the plates. A
pasted plate is manufactured by applying a mixture of lead oxide, sulphuric acid, fibres and
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water on to the grid. The thickness of the grid and plate affect the grid and plate affect the
deep cycle performance of a battery. In automotive starting or SLI type batteries, many thin
plates are used per cell. This results in maximum surface area for delivering high currents, but
not much thickness and mechanical durability for deep and prolonged discharges. Thick
plates are used for deep cycling applications such as for forklifts, golf carts and other electric
vehicles. The thick plates permits deep discharge over long period, while maintaining good
adhesion of the active material to the grid, resulting in longer life.
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LEAD-ACID batteries used in automobiles and PV systems are secondary batteries. Table 1
lists common secondary battery types and characteristics which are of importance to PV
system designers. A detailed discussion of each battery type follows.
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2.6.3 STATIONARY BATTERIES:
Stationary batteries are commonly used in uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) to
Provide backup power to computers, telephone equipment and other critical loads or devices.
Stationary batteries may have characteristics similar to both SLI and motive power batteries,
but are generally designed for occasional deep discharge, limited cycle service. Low water
loss lead-calcium battery designs are used for most stationary battery applications, as they are
commonly float charged continuously.
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2.8.1 BULK or NORMAL CHARGE:
Bulk or normal charging is the initial portion of a charging cycle, performed at any
charge rate which does not cause the cell voltage to exceed the gassing voltage. Bulk charging
generally occurs up to between 80 and 90% state of charge.
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2.9.2 ALLOWABLE DOD:
The maximum percentage of full-rated capacity that can be withdrawn from a battery is
known as its allowable depth of discharge. The allowable DOD is the maximum discharge
limit for a battery, generally dictated by the cutoff voltage and discharge rate. In stand alone
PV systems, the low voltage load disconnect (LVD) set point of the battery charge controller
dictates the allowable DOD limit at a given discharge rate. Furthermore, the allowable DOD
is generally a seasonal defect, resulting from low isolation, low temperatures and/or excessive
load usage. Depending on the type of battery used in a PV system, the design allowable depth
of discharge may be as high as 80% for deep cycle, motive power batteries, to as low as 15-
25% if SLI batteries are used. The allowable DOD is related to the autonomy, in terms of the
capacity required to operate the system loads for a given number of days without energy from
the PV array. A system design with a lower allowable DOD will result in a shorter autonomy
period. As discussed earlier, if the internal temperature of a battery reaches the freezing point
of the electrolyte, the electrolyte can freeze and expand, causing irreversible damage to the
battery. In a fully charged lead-acid battery, the electrolyte is approximately 35% by weight
and the freezing point is quite low (approximately -60c). As a lead-acid battery is discharged,
then becomes diluted, so the concentration of acid decreases and the concentration of water
increases as the freezing point.
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autonomy; meaning that systems designed for longer autonomy periods (more capacity) have
a lower average daily DOD.
BATTERY TROUBLES SUMMARIZED
A. Lack of Gassing:
Lack of gassing while on charge may indicate an internal short between plates, i.e.,
the cell discharges internally as fast as it is being charged.
C. Color:
D. Plate Problems:
If any checks below are excessive, capacity tests must be run to determine if
individual cells or the entire battery should be replaced.
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1. Cracks on the edges of the positive plate grids.
2. Light-colored sulfating spots on edges of plates below cracks mentioned
in check No. 1 above.
3. Excessive sediment in the bottom of the case.
4. “Mossing” or “treeing” on the tops of negative plates.
E. Water
1. Cell uses excessive water (check fig. 1 for typical water consumption):
caused by excess charging rates, high operating temperatures, or leaking
cell.
2. Cell requires very little water: caused by insufficient charging.
F. Buckling of Plates
When a battery has been on float charge for a long time and is put under
load with the chargers off, the voltage will drop rapidly. This drop is caused
by plugging of some of the pores on the surface of the plates, which partially
blocks the transfer of ions. The voltage may drop below the low-voltage
alarm and trip settings. After this initial drop, the voltage will usually
increase to a level above the low-voltage alarm and trip settings. The battery
will then operate normally until its capacity is exhausted.
If the battery is exercised (partially discharged) on a routine basis, the
voltage dip can be reduced or eliminated. Turning off both chargers and
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allowing the battery to take the load for at least 15 minutes exercises the
battery. The first few times this procedure is performed, disconnect the low
voltage trip relay to prevent an inadvertent trip. The first time the battery is
exercised, the procedure should be performed several times in succession
until the voltage drop stays above the alarm setting. Always give the
chargers time to reduce charging current to float value before turning off the
chargers again for the next cycle.
Each battery has its own characteristics, and the frequency of exercising
should be adjusted so that the voltage drop does not cause the low voltage
alarm. Start at a monthly cycle and experiment with increasing the time
between exercises. The proper time between exercises exists when the
voltage drop is just above the alarm relay setting.
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density to the density of water. While the specific gravity of the electrolyte can be estimated
from open circuit voltage readings, a hydrometer provides a much more accurate measure. As
discussed previously, the specific gravity of the electrolyte is related to the battery state of
charge I Lead-acid batteries. Hydrometers may be constructed with a float ball using
Archimedes principle, or with a prism measuring the refractive index of the solution to
determine specific gravity. In an
Archimedes hydrometer, a bulb-type syringe extracts electrolyte, a precision glass float
in the bulb is subjected to a buoyant force equivalent to the weight of the electrolyte
displaced. Graduations are marked on the sides of the glass float, calibrated to read specific
gravity directly. Hydrometer floats are only calibrated to give true readings at a specific
temperature, typically 26.7c (80F). When measurements are taken from electrolyte at other
temperature, a correction factor must be applied. Regardless of the reference temperature of
the hydrometer, a standard correction factor 0.04 specific gravity units, often referred to as
“points”, must be applied for every 5.5c (10F) change from the reference temperature. Four
“points” of specific gravity (0.004) are added to the hydrometer reading for every 5.5c (10F)
increment above the reference temperature and four points are subtracted for every 5.5c (10F)
increment below the reference temperature, when taking specific gravity measurements of
batteries.
1. MAINTAINANCE:
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• Keep the battery room well ventilated.
• Cell connections shall be kept clean and applied with Vaseline or petroleum jelly.
• Wearing of apron and rubber gloves should be taken when handling electrolyte.
● Care must be taken when doing maintenance on connectors to avoid short circuits.
● Naked lights, cigarette smoking any thing create spark should be avoided in battery
room.
2. TEMPERATURE CORRECTION:
● If the temperature is different from 27degree centigrade correction to specific gravity to
be applied is +/- 0.0007 per each degree of variation above or below 27 degree c respectively.
3. TOPPING UP:
● Top up as often as necessary with distilled water (as per IS:1069) or demineralised water
to avoid the necessary of adding a large quantity of water at a time which would caused
renounce ropin he specific gravity.
● Top up the black mark of the float is just visible above the top surface of the float guide
and level should never be allower to go slow that the red mark on the float steer comes in line
with the top surface of the plug.
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● It is advisable, if necessary to top up cells during early part of charging
4. WEAK CELLS:
● Cells which do not pick up specific gravity in spite of repeated charging are
called weak cells. The weak cells must be removed from battery and charged separately at
normal charging rate until gassing point is reached and then reduced to half the normal rate
● When the cells appear to be in fully charged condition i.e.., specific gravity of the acid
seems to be stationary, the charging should be stopped for an hour and then be resumed as
half the normal rate until free gassings again takes place. Again after another one hour stop,
charging should be resumed at half the normal rate. These stops of one hour duration
alternated by charging should be repeated until gassing starts instantaneously with switching
on the charging current.
5. RECOMMENDED ACTIONS
6. CAUTION:
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● While preparing the acid solution, it is very much important to note that always acid is
added to the water and never add water to the acid.
CHAPTER-3
The system can be operated to supply load at float voltage and simultaneously to
charge the batteries in charge mode. Naturally float charger is made on, supplying both load
and battery trickle charging current. Naturally float charger is made on, supplying both load
and battery trickle charging current. Whenever battery requires boost charging, the same can
be achieved manually by throwing FLOAT/BOOST selector switch (SW 502) cin to boost
position. During this operation, the interlocking contactor is opened separating load path and
battery charging path. The boost charger is provided with charge and extended charge modes
to charge the battery. The charge and ext charge modes can be selected using the charge/ext
charge selector switch (SW 501).
The battery charger works on 415v AC, 3 phase, 50hz supply. The chargers are capable
of supplying the full rated current at the specified voltage at its output terminals. This voltage
is maintained for AC input variation of +/- 10% and load current variation from 10-100% full
load.The float charger and booster charger are housed in a single cabinet and the DC
distribution is provided in another cabinet of steel construction. All the meters and meter
selector switches are provided on the top meter panel. All the incoming and outgoing breakers
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are provided on the breaker panels which are provided on the middle of the cabinet. By
opening the middle panel door one can reach the breakers easily. All the indications are
provided on the top panel of the cabinet. By opening the middle panel door can reach the
breakers easily. All the indications are provided on the top panel of the cabinet. The input,
output and batter input terminals are provided at the front bottom of the cubicle. The outgoing
feeder switches are provided on the DCDB panel and all the output. Output feeders
terminations are provided on the DCDB side panel of the cabinet.
1. AC INPUT:
2. DC OUTPUT:
a. Float charger:
1. Voltage : 237V DC
3. ripple : 2% rms
4. Current : 45A
b. Boost charger:
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1.Voltage:
4. Current : 50A
1. In both FC&BC
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d. AC over load trip/phase fail
e. Charger fail
f. AC contact ON
g. Filter cap fuse f
2.Common:
a. AC mains
b. DC over voltage
c .DC under voltage
d. DC earth fault
e. DC contractor ON
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4. Float voltage variable potentiometer for FC
5. Charge & extend charge voltage variable Potentiometers
6. Lamp test push button
7. Alarm silence push button
8. Heater power supply switch
9. Door lamp power supply switch
10. AC output power supply switch
11. Battery input MCCB
12. charger/EX. Charger mode selector switch
8. DC DISTRIBUTION BOARD:
Incoming: 200A, 2pole ON/OFF switch-1 No.
200A, fuse with fuse base -2 No.s
Indication: All the incoming outgoing feeders are provided With ON indication
9. GENERAL:
1. Cabinet: 2 No’s individual cabinets for charger and DCCB
Free standing cabinet, floor mounting type, and
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sheet Steel construction, easy access for
installation And maintenance
3. Dimensions ( in mm ) :
a) Charger : 1800(H) X 1225 (W) X 850 (D)
d) DCCB : 1800 (H) X 875 (W) X 880 (D)
4. Protection : IP-42
5. Ambient temperature :0-50c
Range of operation.
6. Relative humidity : 0-95% non condensing
Both the chargers are connected to the common AC input through AC input contactor,
Thermal overload relay and input MCBs CB401/501. The input transformer T 401/501 is
having two secondaries namely power secondary and control secondary. The transformer
Steps down the incoming AC into required level and feeds it the rectifier bridge through
power secondary. The control secondary which feeds power supply to the charger control
Board PC 401/501, which provides regulation and current limit to the charger. In addition it
supplies gate pulses to the power SCRs SCR 401-403/501-503. The filter circuit boards PC
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402,502 are capacitive filter boards which protects the system from surges and Transients at
AC input.
The output voltage feed back is given to the charger control board PC 401/501, which
Changes the firing angles to the SCRs in such a way that the output DC voltage should be
maintained at set value. This regulated DC output DC voltage can be set by using the
Float/Boost voltage adjustment potentiometers R 401/501/502.
The shun SH401/501 provides the current feed back to the charger control board PC
401/501 which causes the unit to go into current limit beyond the set value. This
characteristics causes the unit to go into current limit beyond the set value. This
characteristics causes the output to the reduced when the battery is run down, so as to
maintain a constant level of charging current.
The meters M401/501 monitors the DC output current through DC shunts SH401/501.
The center zero ammeter M 2 monitors the battery charging discharging currents respectively.
The voltmeter M 1 with selector switch SW1 measures the FC,BC, load and Battery voltages
respectively. The battery earth leakage Ammeter M 1 monitors the battery +ve Earth leakage
milliamps respectively. The AC input voltmeter M402 measures AC input line to line and line
to neutral voltage based on switch position.
The 408/508 is an alarm indication board, this circuit consists trigger pulse is also
generated and this actuates the alarm. The fault is reset using the front panel alarm reset push
button. The 12v DC is generated within the board.
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The battery bank is connected to the DC bus through battery input circuit breaker and
contactor CON1. Also 105 cells are connected to positive DC bus through diodes D-1.
When the Battery needs charge/ex. Charge charging the same can be achieved by
throwing the Float/Boost selector switch to boost position. When the Battery is fully charged
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and the charging current comes down in meter M1 the Boost charger should be switched OFF
by switching back the float/boost selector switch to float position.
3.6 PROTECTIONS:
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3.6.4 AC OVER LOAD PROTECTION:
The system is provided with Thermal over Load relay at its AC input which is interfaced
with the AC input contactor. Normally the over Load Relay is in OFF condition. Whenever
the system AC input is over loaded this AC input over Load Relay operates which in turn
deenergises the AC input contactor and thus no AC input is available to system input. Thus
the system is protected from AC input over load.
3.8 MAINTAINENCE:
Battery charger units ordinarily require very little routine maintenance occasionally
the customer may give the unit a visual inspection every six months or so to locate
components which may be over heating.
Components located for use in charges are of very high quantity and are
conservatively applied so they should last a very long time is no needs for periodic
replacement of any component since the problem associated with infant mortality failures are
likely to be greater than the failures of components due to again.
The system operating conditions are brought out on the front panel for continuous
monitoring whenever fault conditions occur the corrective steps should be followed
immediately to bring the system back to normal operation.
However, the following general checks may be carried out once in three months for
smooth running of the system.
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Measuring the charge level
A hydrometer can be used to test the specific gravity of each cell as a measure
of its state of charge.
Because the electrolyte takes part in the charge-discharge reaction, this battery
has one major advantage over other chemistries. It is relatively simple to determine the state
of charge by merely measuring the specific gravity (S.G.) of the electrolyte, the S.G. falling as
the battery discharges. Some battery designs include a simple hydrometer using colored
floating balls of differing density. When used in diesel-electric submarines, the S.G. was
regularly measured and written on a blackboard in the control room to indicate how much
longer the boat could remain submerged.
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BATTERY SAFETY
EXPLOSIVE HAZARD
All storage batteries give off a highly explosive mixture of hydrogen and
Oxygen when gassing. Therefore, never permit sparks, open flame, or lighted
cigarettes near a storage battery. Post "No Smoking" signs where they are clearly
visible to anyone entering the battery room area. A nonmetallic flashlight is
desirable for battery inspection. Use only alcohol thermometers when
taking electrolyte temperatures. Keep all battery connections tight to avoid
sparking. Never lay any metallic object on top of a battery.
A class C 10pound fire extinguisher should be mounted just inside the battery room
door. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is not recommended because of the potential
for thermal shock to the batteries.
ELECTROLYTE HAZARD
When handling electrolyte, wear face shields (face shields should not have
metal reinforcing rims, which could cause a battery short if dropped), rubber
aprons, and rubber gloves; avoid splashes. The electrolyte is injurious to
skin and clothing and must therefore always be handled carefully. The eyes
in particular should be guarded. If acid is splashed into the eyes or
anywhere on the skin, flood with water for at least 15 minutes and get
medical attention. Do not use bicarbonate of soda on the skin, which may
aggravate the burn. For neutralization of acid electrolyte spilled on the floor
or rack, a bicarbonate of soda solution—1 pound per gallon of water—is
recommended.
For neutralization of ni-cad battery electrolyte (potassium hydroxide), keep
a concentrated solution of 20 ounces of boric acid powder per gallon of
water available for neutralizing spills on skin or clothing. Use plain water to
wash up spills of potassium hydroxide on the cells or racks. Care must be
taken to prevent the solution from getting into the cells.
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A combination eye-wash, face, and body spray unit must be located within
25 feet of each battery room or battery system. These units can be
permanently mounted and connected to the facility's potable water system
or can be of a portable pressurized type.
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VENTILATION
A determination must be made for each battery area as to whether sufficient
ventilation is being provided to ensure adequate diffusion of hydrogen gas
during maximum gas generating conditions. Such determination can be
made from the following data:
1) When the battery is fully charged, each charging ampere supplied to the
cell produces about 0.016 cubic feet of hydrogen per hour from each cell.
2) This rate of production applies at sea level, when the ambient
temperature is about 77 EF, and when the electrolyte is "gassing or
bubbling."
3) Number of battery cells and maximum charging rate (not float rate) can
be obtained from specifications or field inspection.
4) Hydrogen gas lower explosive limit is 4 percent by volume. Good practice
dictates a safety factor of 5, which reduces the critical concentration to
0.8 percent by volume. This large safety factor is to allow for hydrogen
production variations with changes in temperature, battery room
elevation, and barometric pressure and also allows for deterioration in
ventilation systems.
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If the above capacity is not obtained, possible over sulfation should be
treated as follows:
In cases where one or more individual cells have become "over sulfated"
and the rest of the battery is in good condition, these cells should be
treated separately after removing them from the circuit.
Recharge the removed cells at half the 8-hour discharge rate. Record
Hydrometer readings and temperature at regular intervals (3 to 5 hours)
during the charge to determine if rising specific gravity has peaked.
Maintain constant electrolyte level by adding water after each reading.
Do not add water before taking readings.
Continue the charge, recording the readings until no further specific
gravity rise has occurred in any cell for 10 hours. If the temperature
reaches 100 °F, reduce the current or temporarily interrupt the charge so
as not to exceed this temperature. When the specific gravity has reached
maximum, terminate the charge and record the hydrometer reading of
each cell.
The cells must be replaced if they again fail the capacity
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CHAPTER-IV
During charging of the cell, when current is passed through it, certain chemical
changes take place in the active materials of the cell. Such chemical changes absorb energy
during their formation. When these chemical reactions are completed and the electric current
produces no further chemical changes, the cell is said to be fully charged.
When the cell is next connected to an external circuit, the active materials of the cell
revert to their original condition, thereby reversing the changes which occurred during
charging. In this process of undoing the chemical changes, absorbed energy is released in the
form of electric current, the process being known as discharging.
It should be noted that the cell does not ‘store’ electricity as such but absorbs electric
energy in the form of chemical energy, the whole process being reversible.
We will discuss two types of storage cells or accumulators or secondary cells i.e.
Lead-acid cell and Edison alkali cell.
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At anode (PbO2), H2 combines with the oxygen of PbO2 and H2SO4 attacks lead to
form PbSO4
Pb+SO4 PbSO4
1. Both anode and cathode become PbSO4 which is somewhat whitish in colour
2. Due to formation of water, specific gravity of the acid decreases.
3. Voltage of the cell decreases.
4. The cell gives out energy.
The Ah efficiency does not take into account the varying voltages of charge and
discharge. The Wh efficiency does so and is always less Ah efficiency because
average p.d.during discharging is less than that during charging. Usually, during
discharge, the e.m.f.falls from about 2.1V to 1.8V whereas during charges, it rises
from 1.8 volts to about 2.6V.
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The Ah efficiency of a lead-acid cell is normally between 90 to 95% meaning
that about 100 Ah must be put back into the cell for every 90 – 95 taken out of it.
From the above, it is clear that anything that increases the charge volts or reduces the
discharge volts will decrease Wh efficiency. Because high charge and discharge rates will do
this, it is advisable to avoid these.
4.4.1 Voltage.
The open-circuit voltage of a fully-charged cell is approximately 2.1 volts. This value
is not fixed but depends on (a) length of time since it was last charged (b) specific
gravity-voltage increasing with increase in specific gravity and vice-versa. If specific
gravity comes near to density of water i.e. 1.00, then voltage of the cell will disappear
altogether (c) temperature-voltage increases (through not much) with increase in
temperature.
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CHARGE AND DISCHARGE VOLTAGE CURVES:
The variation in the terminal p.d. of a cell on charge and discharge are shown in
Fig. The voltage fall depends on the rate of discharge. Rates of discharge are
generally specified by the number of hours during which the cell will sustain the rate
in question before falling to 1.8V. The voltage falls rapidly in the beginning (rate of
fall in the beginning on the rate of discharge), then very slowly up to 1.85 V and
again suddenly to 1.8 V. The voltage should not be allowed to fall to lower than 1.8 V,
other wise hard insoluble lead sulphate is formed on the plates which increases the
internal resistance of the cell.
The general form of the voltage-time curves corresponding to 1-,3-,5- and 10-
hour rates of discharge, are shown in Fig. corresponding to the steady currents which
would discharge the cell in the above mentioned times (in hours). It will be seen that
both the terminal voltage and the rate at which the voltage falls depends on the rate of
discharge. The more rapid fall in voltage at higher rates of discharge is due to rapid
increase in the internal resistance of the cell.
During charging, the p.d. increases (Fig. ). The curve is similar to the discharge
curve reversed but is every where higher due to the increased density of H2SO4 in the
pores of the positive plates.
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4.4.2 Capacity :
It is measured in ampere-hours (Ah). One ampere-hour (Ah) is the amount of
electricity conveyed by one ampere in one hour.
The capacity is always given at a specified rate of discharge (10-hour
discharge in U.K., 8-hour discharge in U.S.A.). The capacity of a cell depends on the
amount of the active material on its plates. In other words, it depends on the size and
thickness of the plates However, for a given battery , the capacity is affected by the
following factors:
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(2) TEMPERATURE:
Capacity increases with increase in temperature, the increase in capacity being more
marked at higher rates of discharge. This is due to the fact that at higher temperatures
Chemical action is more vigorous, (b) the résistance of the acid decrease and (c) there is better
diffusion of the electrolyte.
With decrease in temperature, available voltage and capacity decrease until at
freezing point, the capacity is zero even when the cell is fully charged.
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3. Specific gravity
4. color of plates.
4.5.1 Gassing
When the cell is fully charged, it freely gives off hydrogen at cathode and oxygen
at the anode, the process being known as ‘gassing’. Gassing at both plates indicates
that the current is no longer doing any useful work and hence should be stopped.
4.5.2 Voltage
The voltage ceases to rise when the cell becomes fully charged. The value of
the voltage of a fully-charged cell is a variable quantity being affected by the rate of
charging, the temperature and specific gravity of the electrolyte etc. The approximate
value of the e.m.f. is 2.1 V or so.
4.5.4 Color
The color of plates, on full charge, is deep chocolate brown for positive plates
and slate grey for negative plates and the cell looks quite brisk and alive.
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4.6 APPLICATIONS OF LEAD-ACID BATTERIES:
Storage batteries are, these days, used for a great variety and range of purposes, some
of which are summarized below:
1. In central stations for supplying the whole load during light load periods, also to
assist the generating plant during peak load periods for providing reserve
emergency supply during periods of plant breakdown and finally, to store energy
at times when load is light for use at times when load is at its peak value.
2. In private generating plants both for industrial and domestic use, for much the
same purpose as in Central Stations.
3. In sub-stations, they assist in maintaining the declared voltage by meeting a part
of the demand and so reducing the load on and the voltage drop in the feeder
during peak-load periods.
4. As a power source for industrial and mining battery locomotives and for road
vehicles like cars and trucks.
5. As a power source for submarines when submerged.
6. For petrol motor-car starting and ignition etc.
7. As a low-voltage supply for operating purpose in many different ways such as
high-tension switchgear, automatic telephone exchange and repeater stations,
broadcasting stations and for wireless receiving sets.
8. Semi-sealed portable lead-acid batteries find many applications such as in
electronic cash registers, alarm systems, cordless TV sets, mini-computers and
terminals, electronically-controlled petrol pumps, portable instruments and tools
etc.
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4.7 COMMON BATTERY TERMS:
4.7.1 Cell:
A cell is a device that transforms chemical energy into electrical energy. The simplest
cell is a voltaic cell shown in Fig. 3.5. It consists of a carbon strip and a zinc strip suspended
in a jar containing a solution of water (H2 O) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4).
A cell is fundamental unit of a battery. The cell shown in fig consists of two strips or
electrodes placed in the jar which also contains the electrolyte. The electrolyte in a battery can
be in the form of either a liquid or a paste.
4.7.2 ELECTRODES:
Electrodes are conductors through which current leaves or returns to the electrolyte.
In a simple cell they are copper and zinc strips that are immersed in the electrolyte, where as
in a dry cell they are a carbon strip in the centre and a zinc container in which the cell is
assembled.
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4.7.3 ELECTROLYTE:
The electrolyte is the solution in which the chemical action called electrolysis
occurs. The electrolyte be a salt (example: sodium chloride), an acid (example: Sulphuric acid
or an alkaline solution. In the simple voltaic cell and in the battery, the electrolyte is in liquid
form, whereas in dry cell, the electrolyte is a paste.
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if higher current is desired. To supply both higher voltage and current, they are connected in
combinations of series – parallel networks.
Fig (a)
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Fig (a) pictorial view of series connected cells
(b) Schematic diagram of the series connection
Then,
the total emf of the battery of n cells = nE volts
The total internal resistance of n cells = nr ohms
Therefore ,
total resistance of the circuit = R + nr ohms
Hence,
the current in the circuit I = nE / (R + nr) amperes
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In this type of a circuit, the maximum current flow depends on the internal resistance
of the battery.
When the internal resistance is minimum, the current will be maximum.
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Figure (a) pictorial view of parallel connected cells.
(b) Schematic diagram of the parallel connection
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SERIES-PARALLE CONNECTION OF CELLS fig (a)
If n cells are connected in a series circuit, and if m such series circuits are connected in
parallel, then
Therefore
The total resistance of the circuit = (R + nr/ m) ohms
the emf across the circuit = mf of the series circuit
= nE volts
Therefore the current in the circuit = I = nE/(R + nr/m) amperes
i.e. I = mnE/(mR+nr) amperes
from this equation it can be seen that the numerator is a constant . therefore, the
current in the circuit will be maxim only if the denominator is minimum . The denominator
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will have a minimum value if mR=nr or R=nr/m, i.e., when the load resistance is equal to the
internal resistance of the battery
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CONCLUSION
The battery system is heart of system any electrical control system because the
supply is fed from batteries for protection purpose for emergency ledio pumps etc, during
critical condition i.e., total grid failure.
If the battery system is failed, then the damage in the electrical system will be very
very high so there are to be maintains very carefully. It is also learnt various maintenance free
type battery system available however in power plant only lead-acid maintenance type is
preferred because its reliability, short term rating and rugged construction.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Baldsing, et.al.”Lead-Acid Batteries for Remote Area Energy Storage”, CSIRO
Australia, January 1991.
2. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, ”IEEE Recommended practice for
installation and operation of Lead-Acid Batteries for photovoltaic(pv) systems” ,
ANSI/IEEE Std. 937-1987, New York, NY, 1987.
3. Linden, “Handbook of Batteries and Fuel cells”,Mc Graw Hill, Inc., 1984
4. Vinal,”storage Batteries”, John Wiley & sons, inc., Fourth Edition, 1954.
5. IEEE 485-1983—Recommended Practice for Sizing Large Lead Storage Batteries for
Generating Stations and Substations
6. *IEEE 450-1995—Recommended Practice for Maintenance,Testing,and
Vented Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary Applications
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