Rune Magic?

Some scholars believe that the primary purpose of the runestaves was magical. These same scholars
often see in most inscriptions some magical significance. Yet other scholars have argued that the
runestaves were primarily a script and their use in magic was the exception, not the rule. In
inscriptions where some scholars see magic, they merely see some mysterious message or even
doodling left behind by some ancient Germanic tribesman. The truth perhaps lies somewhere in
between.

There can be little doubt that the runestaves were used for magic. We know this from the Old
Icelandic sources alone, which often make reference to runic spells and runic talismans. At the same
time, however, we cannot say that the runestaves were only used for magic nor can we even say the
majority of inscriptions were magical in nature. The rune row was not simply a series of magical
symbols, but a script useful for communicating even the most mundane messages. The runestaves
could then be used to curse a king so that he is deposed or to simply tell one's husband to come
home from a long night of drinking.

It is difficult to say how often rune magic or, for that matter, even "casting the runes" or runic
divination actually occurred among the Germanic peoples. Several runic artefacts appear in fact to
be talismans created for one purpose or another. Similarly, as stated earlier, the Old Icelandic
sources (the Poetic Edda and the sagas) often make reference to runic spells. We also know from
Tacitus' Germania that the ancient Germanic peoples cast lots with symbols written upon them,
although whether these symbols were runes at this point in history we cannot say. Divination using
the runes ("casting the runes," so to speak) is mentioned in later Icelandic sources. On the other
hand, however, among the surviving Old English charms (or, as they were called in the native
tongue, galdors) there is not a one which involves the runes. Similarly, tales of rune spells are
difficult to find beyond Scandinavia and Iceland. It is then impossible to say whether the runes
were frequently used for magic or whether it was a rare occurrence indeed.

Regardless, it seems clear that the runes were used for both magic and divination. To learn how
magic involving the runes was performed it would be wise to examine the ancient sources for
evidence of such. Only after doing so can we adequately reconstruct what a magic ritual involving
the runes might have involved.

Rune Magic in the Hávamál

It is in the Hávamál that it is told how Óðinn (OE Wóden) won the runes. For anyone wishing to
learn of rune magic, then, the Hávamál would perhaps be the best place to look first. In verse 144
Óðinn addresses those things which a person should know if he is to use the runes:
Veiztv hve rista scal?
veiztv hve raþa scal?
veiztv hve fá scal?
veiztv hve freista scal?
veiztv hve bidia scal?
veiztv hve blóta scal?
veiztv hve senda scal?
veiztv hve soa scal?

1
 Know you how to write?
Know you how to read?
Know you how to dye?
Know you how to put through trial?
Know you how to pray?
Know you how to blót?
Know you how to send?
Know you how to sacrifice?

The first two questions Óðinn asks of the aspiring runeman are simple to explain. "Know you how
to write" is a reference to the writing or carving of the runestaves. In order to properly use the runes,
one would have to know how to properly carve their shapes. "Know you how to read" refers to the
interpretation of the runes. Obviously, if each rune has its own particular meaning, then to
efficiently use the runes one would have to know those meanings.

The question "Know you how to dye?" is a bit harder to explain. It appears that for a rune spell to
work, not only would one have to carve the runes, but they would have to colour them as well.
Often this was done with one's own blood. In Egils Saga, when Egil carves runes into a cup to
avoid poisoning, he cuts himself and then colours the runestaves with his own blood. Blood was
not the only substance used to colour the runestaves, however, as other substances appear to have
been used as well. Evidence of this can be seen in the Old Icelandic word taufR "sorcery, charms,
talismans" and the German word Zauber "sorcery, magic." Both of these words are cognates to Old
English téafor, which meant "red, vermilion, red ochre," ochre often being used to dye various
materials. From all appearances both taufR and Zauber originally possessed similar meanings, but
because of the practice of dyeing the runes with ochre and other red substances, the words came to
denote "magic, sorcery." In addition to blood and ochre, the runestaves also appear to have been
coloured by applying fire to them, effectively burning their shapes into the material. It is difficult to
say why dyeing the runestaves was important, though it must be kept in mind that most ancient
peoples believed that blood possessed metaphysical power. Colouring the runes with blood would
then be a means of empowering them, of granting them "magic power." Since the colour of ochre
resembles blood to some degree, it was probably assumed that it would similarly empower the
runes. Finally, fire was believed to possess metaphysical power (it was often used to drive away evil
spirits), so that burning the runes into an object would automatically empower those runes.

The question "Know you how to put through trial" would appear to be a reference to the questions
one asks when divining with the runes. First, we know from Tacitus that casting lots among the
Germanic peoples followed a specific ritual--indeed, if one asked a question and received a negative
answer, he had to end his divination right then and there. To properly cast the runes, then, one
would have to know the proper ritual. Second, to learn that which one wishes to learn from the
runes, one must first know the proper questions to ask. Obviously if one is wanting to find out about
his health, he is not going to ask the runes questions about the weather.

The question "Know you how to pray?" seems fairly obvious. It seems quite likely that runemen
when casting the runes or casting a rune spell may have called upon the gods for help. It would then
be important for him to know how to properly pray to the gods. From Tacitus' Germania we know
that the ancient Germanic peoples offered prayers to the gods when casting lots. This was also done
sometimes when casting runic spells. In Egils Saga, when Egil erects a níðstöng against King
EirikR and Queen Gunnhild, he called upon FreyR and NjörðR.

2
The question "Know you how to blót?" is related to the question before it. Blót is the native term in
nearly all of the Germanic languages for "sacrifice." It would seem then that if one wished for one's
casting of the runes or casting of a runic spell to be efficient, then it would be wise to blót to the
gods. Of course, this would necessitate knowing how to properly perform a blót. It could well be
that the blood shed to dye the runes could have been considered a blót, as the Icelandic sources
rarely, if ever, mention the blót of an animal or other foodstuffs performed in conjunction with
casting a rune spell.

"Know you how to send?" could refer to casting the runes. Old Icelandic senda not only meant "to
send," but could also mean "to throw." We know from Tacitus that in casting lots the Germanic
peoples would toss the lots upon a white cloth and then select three lots from among all of them.
The question could then refer to the "tossing" or "throwing" of the lots during divination. Of course,
it is also possible that it is a reference to casting a rune spell. That is, one must know how to send a
spell towards its target (in the example of Egil from above, he had to know how to send his curse
against EirikR and Gunnhild).

"Know you how to sacrifice?" is essentially the same question as "Know you how to blót?"

From the Hávamál verse 144 it would then seem that for a man to be proficient in the runes he
must know how to write them, know how to read them, know how to dye them, know how to
conduct an enquiry of them, know how to pray to the gods, know how to cast the lots or cast runic
spells, and know how to sacrifice to the gods. Not surprisingly, most of these things play an
important role when rune spells are cast in the elder sources.

Rune Magic in the Poetic Edda

Rune magic can be found in much of Old Icelandic literature. Quite naturally, then, it appears in
some of the poems of the Poetic Edda. In the last part of the Hávamál Óðinn boasts of several
galdors which he knows. For the most part no mention is made of the runes and nor should there be
any reason they should. From the surviving Old English galdors, as well as the Merseburg Charms,
it would seem that carving runes were unnecessary to the performance of a galdor, although singing
a galdor was almost always a part of carving the runes. Of the galdors which Óðinn lists, only one
mentions the runes--the one described in Hávamál verse 157:
That twelfth I know if I see on a tree
a corpse swinging to and fro;
so I write and runes dye,
so that the man walks and talks with me.
From Hávamál verse 157 it would seem that the Old Norse speakers thought it possible to use the
runes to revive a dead man, although it must be pointed that as Óðinn is a god the spell may have
only worked for him!

While Óðinn boasts of various galdors which he knows in the Hávamál, many of which might not
involve the runes, in Sigrdrífumál, Sigrdrífa teaches SigurðR various wisdom involving the runes.
Among these bits of wisdom (each of which is a description of a runic spell) are one of which
could possibly refer to a specific runestave and the other which most definitely does. The first
appears in verse 6:

Sigrvnar scaltv kvnna,

ef þv vilt sigr hafa,

3
 oc rista a hialti hiors,
svmar a véttrinum,
svmar a valböstum,
oc nefna tysvar Ty.
Victory runes you should know if you wish to have victory,
and write them on your sword's hilt, some on the ridge of the sword blade,
some on the sword, and call twice upon TyR.
Naturally, as the god of war, TyR (OE Tíw) would the one to call upon for victory. It seems likely,
however, that the rune which one would engrave upon one's sword would also be the rune of TyR--
*Tiwaz in the Common Germanic Futhark, tír in the Anglo-Frisian Futhorc, and TyR in the
Younger Futhark. It must also be pointed out that calling twice upon TyR is an example of a prayer
incorporated into a runic spell.

Verse 7 actually mentions a specific rune:

Ølrvnar scaltv kvnna,

ef þv vill annars qven
velit þic i trygd, ef þv trvir;
a horni scal þer rista
oc a handar baki
oc merkia a nagli Na/þ.

Ale runes you should know, if another's wife

betrays your faith, whom you had trusted,
on a drinking horn write it and on the back of your hand,
and mark on your nails the rune nauðR.

We cannot know for certain which runes Sigrdrífa instructed SigurðR to place upon his horn and
upon the back of his hand, but she specifically states that he is to mark his nails with the rune
nauðR, which was called *nauþiz in the Common Germanic Futhark and nied in the Anglo-Frisian
Futhorc, all of which simply mean "need." Interestingly, the use of the rune nauðR in this instance
reflects its verses in the rune poems.

By far the most elaborate and poetic rune spell appearing in the Poetic Edda is the one in
Skírnismál. In the poem FreyR fell in love with the ettinwife GerðR and sent his man Skírnir to woo
her. GerðR persistently rejects Skírnir's offers of marriage to his liege until at last he resorts to rune
magic. Wielding a magic wand Skírnir recites a galdor which will make GerðR undesirable to men,
diseased and lame, and yet filled with lust, among other things. The curse climaxes in verse 36 with
Skírnir carving runes, apparently upon the wand:

Þurs ríst eg þér

og þrjá stafi,
ergi og æði
og óþola;
svo eg það af ríst
sem eg það á reist,
ef gerast þarfar þess.

A þurs rune I write for thee

and three more staves,
4
 lust and rage
and loathing;
I shall carve them off
just as I wrote them on,
if I find a need thereof.

We know that at least one of the staves Skírnir carves is þurs (in the Anglo-Frisian Futhorc, þorn),
though it seems likely that the other three staves were also þurs. On various runic artefacts there
sometimes appears a bind rune combining three þurs staves. The purpose of this would appear to be
to triple the rune's power. Indeed, it must be pointed out that in verse 31 Skírnir tells GerðR that she
shall be marriageless unless she lives with a three headed thurse. Perhaps instead of an actual giant
Skírnir was referring to the runestaves he was about to carve.

Regardless, the spell in Skírnismál gives us an idea of a rune spell in progress. Skírnir sings a galdor
outlining his curse, then carves runes upon a wand. It also tells us that runic spells can be undone.
Skírnir states that he can carve away the staves that he has written if he needs to. We then know that
both galdor and the actual writing of the runes may have been central to use of the runes in magic.

Considering the intricacy of Skírnir's curse, it should come as no surprise that GerðR accepted
FreyR's proposal.

Rune Magic in the Icelandic Sagas

Rune magic does not appear frequently in the Icelandic sagas, but it is by no means rare.
Unfortunately, many of the later, romantic sagas are woefully unreliable when it comes to learning
anything about rune magic. Often galdor and the runes are confused with other metaphysical arts,
such as seiðR and shape shifting. We are on much firmer ground with the earlier sagas, where there
is little to no confusion between metaphysical arts and the portrayal of Icelandic society is much
more accurate.

Perhaps the most important saga for any student of the runes to read is Egils Saga. Egils Saga
details the life of Egil Skalla-Grímsson, a skald, warrior, and runeman living in Iceland in the 10th
century. It also details a few of the rune spells which Egil cast in his long career as a warrior and
runester. Egil could also be irascible and this sometimes made enemies for him.

Among those enemies were King EirikR Bloodaxe and Queen Gunnhild of Norway. Egil first met
them when he was travelling abroad and stopped at their home to rest. Unfortunately, EirikR's
hospitality was somewhat lacking, giving Egil and his party but little food and nothing to drink (the
king's thegn, a man named Bard, claimed they had no ale). The truth was revealed later that
evening when EirikR and Gunnhild held a feast and the Dísablót (a sacrifice to the Dísir or tutelary
goddesses), to which they invited Egil and his fellow travellers. Angry that they had been denied
food and drink earlier, Egil became very drunk and composed a scathing poem against the king's
thegn, Bard, and his lack of hospitality. Insulted, Bard forced more drink upon Egil and then
complained about him to Queen Gunnhild. The two poisoned a horn of ale and took it to Egil with
the goal of silencing the skald forever. Fortunately, Egil was not so drunk that he did not realise his
life was in eminent danger. He cut his palm with a knife from his belt, then carved runestaves
around the top of the horn. These staves he dyed with his blood before singing a galdor. The horn
shattered so that the drink splattered harmlessly upon the floor. Egil then slew Bard and fled into
the night. Thereafter Egil and EirikR were more or less at odds.

5
EirikR's father, Harald Finehair, had made it a standing practice to confiscate the hereditary lands of
families. This EirikR continued, so it should come as no surprise that eventually he confiscated land
that rightfully belonged to Egil. When Egil opposed this, EirikR rather unfairly outlawed the skald.
This was perhaps EirikR's mistake. Egil performed what is probably the most powerful curse in
rune magic, that of the níðstöng or the "pole of scorn." Egil fixed a horse's head upon a pole of
hazel wood and then recited a galdor in which he called upon NjörðR, FreyR, and the landvættir
(the spirits of the land) to drive King EirikR and Queen Gunnhild form Norway. He then inscribed
his curse upon the pole. If one believes in the power of curses, then he could possibly conclude that
it was Egil's curse which eventually resulted in EirikR and Gunnhild being driven from Norway.

The final spell related in Egils Saga took place many years later. Egil was travelling in Sweden and
stopped to rest at a farmhouse. The farmer fed Egil and his party breakfast and, as they were eating,
the skald noticed an ill girl lying in the hall. The farmer told Egil that the girl was his daughter and
that she had fallen ill--she could not sleep and was often in a delirium. His neighbour's son had
written runes to try to cure her, but it only seemed to have worsened the condition. Egil decided he
would try to cure her. He told the others to move her, to change her bedclothes, and to put her old
ones out to air. While looking through the mattress of her bed Egil found a piece of bone with runes
written upon it. Egil read the runes, then carved them off into a fire and burned the bone. He then
sang a galdor, part of which was to undo rune writing done by someone who did not know the runes
well, and carved new runes which he placed under the girl's pillow. Shortly thereafter the girl
revived. She expressed the thought that it was as if she was awaking from a long sleep and that she
felt well again.

The spells detailed in Egils Saga can tell us something about rune magic. From Egil's spell to avoid
being poisoned, we know that the recitation of a galdor, the carving of the runes, and the dyeing of
the runes all played a part in the casting of a rune spell. While dyeing the runes is not mentioned in
the other two spells, it seems likely that it took place given the importance placed upon it in other
sources. From the final spell we know that it takes a prerequisite amount of knowledge to cast rune
spells and that mistakes can be dangerous. This is perhaps important to know. It does not appear
that runecraft was a folk magic known to most everyone. Instead, it appears to have been a
speciality requiring quite a bit of knowledge before one could practise it adequately. Only educated
men such as Egil, trained in their use, would ever be masters of the runes.

Egils Saga is not the only saga with a detailed portrayal of rune spells. Grettirs Saga portrays a
curse directed at the hero of the saga, Grettir himself. Among Grettir's enemies numbered Þorbjorn
Angle. Þorbjorn's foster mother was an old woman named Þurid, who was very skilled in the use of
spells. As Þorbjorn was unable to destroy Grettir, he turned to Þurid for help. Þurid decided they
should confront Grettir once more, this time with her in their company. When they did Grettir not
only refused Þorbjorn's demands, but insulted Þurid and threw a rock that broke her thigh. Þurid
then decided that she must have her revenge.

Months later Þurid asked to be taken to the shore. There she found a large tree stump. She bade
Þorbjorn and his fellows to turn it over for her. Once the stump had been turned over, Þurid carved
runes upon the stump's base, then cut herself and dyed the staves with her own blood. She then
walked backwards around the stump and sang a galdor. Finally, Þurid had Þorbjorn and his men
push the stump out to sea. Þurid said that the stump would go to Drangey where Grettir would
receive harm from it. The stump drifted against the wind and much more swiftly than one would
think it would.

6
Eventually the stump washed upon the shore of Drangey. One of Grettir's men found it and
decided it would make good fuel for the fire. Grettir disagreed, however, saying that it was "An ill
tree and ill sent." He had it pushed back out to sea. The stump washed upon the shore the next day
and once again it was pushed out to sea. Finally, it washed upon the shore again. Grettir's thrall
found it and took it to the house to be split for firewood. The thrall was having a poor time of
splitting it, so Grettir took the axe himself, not recognising the stump this time. He swung the axe at
the stump, only to have it bounce off the stump and sink into his right leg through to the bone. The
leg swelled and Grettir grew ill. Eventually it started to rot. At any rate, Grettir was left at the mercy
of his enemies.

The spell which Þurid cast is similar in most respects to those cast by Egil. She carves runes into the
stump, then dyes the runes with her own blood, and then recites a galdor. It cannot be said for
certain why she walks backwards around the stump while singing her galdor. It is perhaps a
symbolic act--since walking backwards is difficult, perhaps it is meant to symbolise the difficulty
Grettir will have getting around when he is injured in the leg. Regardless, it is unusual and no other
rune spells portrayed in the old sources involve walking backwards.

Reconstructing a Rune Magic Ritual

Using the above sources we can reconstruct what an ancient ritual may have involved. First and
foremost would appear to be the writing of the runes themselves, the carving of the runes on an
object. By necessity this took place before the runes were dyed and in most cases it appears to have
taken place before the galdor was sung. When Egil casts his spell to defend against poison, he first
cuts his palm, then carves the runes upon his horn. Similarly, when he cured the farmer's daughter
of her illness, he first carved the runes, then sang a galdor. In Grettirs Saga when Þurid performs
her curse, she carves the runes before all else. Of course, this may not have been a hard and fast
rule. In Skírnismál it would appear that Skírnir began by singing his galdor and carved the
runestaves as he was finishing it. In Egils Saga when Egil erects the níðstöng against EirikR and
Gunnhild, he first recites his galdor and then carves the curse upon the pole.

Second would appear to be dyeing the runestaves. In most sources this appears to be with one's own
blood. In Egil's spell to defend himself from poisoning, he cuts his palm and then dyes the
runestaves with his blood. When Þurid cursed Grettir she also cut herself and used her blood to dye
the runestaves. Of course, we know from other sources that blood was not the only thing used to
dye the runes. Red ochre was also used and fire was used as well. Similarly, it must be pointed out
that the act of dyeing the runestaves is not always mentioned when a runic spell is performed. In
Skírnismál we are never told that Skírnir dyes the runestaves he has carved (although as he may
have been bluffing GerðR, he may have had no intention of doing so). Similarly, neither when Egil
erected his níðstöng nor when he cured the farmer's daughter are we told he dyed the runes. It could
well be that the author failed to mention it or it is not absolutely necessary to dye the runestaves
every time that one carves them. At any rate, the reference to dyeing the runes in the Hávamál and
the instances in which it is mentioned would appear to make it an important procedure performed in
most rune spells.

Finally, the runeman performing the spell would sing a galdor. Galdors were always composed in
poetic metre; this we know from the surviving Old English charms and the Merseburg charms.
Despite this they were more or less simple expressions of the desired effects of the spell. When
Skírnir composes his galdor against GerðR in Skírnismál, he details the various foul things which
will befall her if she does not marry FreyR, although in very eloquent Old Norse. Galdors could
7
also incorporate prayers to or requests to the gods and even spirits. When Egil set his níðstöng
against EirikR and Gunnhild, he called upon FreyR and NjörðR as well as the landvættir. There
appears to have been no set length for galdors. The one in Skírnismál is rather long, though most of
Egil's galdors tend to only be a few lines.

The basic ritual to cast a runic spell in ancient times may have then looked something like this:
1. The runes are carved upon an object.
2. The runes are dyed.
3. A galdor stating the purpose of casting the rune spell is sung.
It must be kept in mind that this order is not a hard and fast rule. As pointed out above, there are
exceptions. In some instances the galdor is sung before or during the carving of the runes. In other
cases dyeing the runes is not mentioned, although we cannot say with any certainty that it did not
take place. Finally, it appears that sometimes symbolic acts may have accompanied the singing of
the galdor, as in Grettirs Saga. This was perhaps the exception to the rule, appearing as it does only
in one source, though it cannot be discounted.

Runic Divination
Today the best known and most popular use for the runes is divination, also called "casting the
runes." Casting the runes apparently occurred among most, if not all, of the Germanic peoples. In
Old English there are the word hléotan "to cast lots" and the phrase hlot sendan or hlot weorpan,
"to cast lots, to divine by lots." Old Norse had the word hlautviðR "lot twigs" or "sacrificial blood
twigs." In Old Danish there was the phrase kaste runer, literally "to cast runes."

Perhaps the earliest description of a ritual involving divination by lot among the Germanic peoples
occurs in Tacitus' Germania. Tacitus explains how the ancient Germans would cut off a branch
from a nut bearing tree and cut it into strips. They would then mark these strips with different signs
and throw them onto a white cloth. The high priest, if it was a public divination, or the father of the
family, if it was a private one, would then offer prayers to the gods. Looking up at the sky, he
would then pick up three strips, each one at a time, and interpret their meaning from the signs
written upon them. If the answer was negative regarding the matter at hand, no further enquiry was
made of that matter for that day. If it was positive, further divination would take place.

It is impossible to know for certain if at the time that Tacitus wrote that the signs which were scored
on these strips of wood were indeed runestaves. Given the fact that we do not know the precise date
that the runestaves were invented, however, it is quite possible. Even if they were not, they were
most likely the pre-runic symbols found in rock carvings, some of which may have lent their shapes
to runestaves.

Later Icelandic sources confirm that the ritual described in Tacitus could have survived, performed
with lots with the runestaves inscribed upon them. The Fornmanna Sögur make reference to lots
being cut and borne on a sheet. From various sources we also know that sacrificial blood was
sometimes used to dye the runestaves on lots used in casting the runes. In the Poetic Edda,
Hymisviða verse 1 could refer to this:

veiðar námu,
ok sumblsamir
áðr saðir yrði,
hristu teina

8
 ok á hlaut sáu,
fundu þeir at Ægis
örkost hvera.

In days of yore the gods of the slain

had game aplenty
and symbeling,
ere they were sated they spoke,
they wrote on twigs
and sacrificial blood sacrificed,
they found at Ægir's hall,
abundance.

From this verse it would appear that the gods scored runes and dyed them with sacrificial blood to
find out where they should hold symbel (an ancient, Germanic drinking rite). This practice is
confirmed by the words hlautviðR, literally "sacrificial blood twigs," referring to rune lots.

From all appearances casting the runes were used to answer a variety of questions. The Icelandic
Landnámabók or the "Book of Settlements" refers to two instances of the runes being cast. In the
first Onund cast the runes to discover when his rival EirikR would try to take possession of a
contested valley. His divination was apparently successful, as he was able to get to the valley first
and claim it. Landnámabók mentions that the Swedes cast lots to figure out how to end a famine. In
these cases the runes were used to discover when a rival might try to lay claim and to find out how
to end a famine. And from the Hymisviða it would appear the gods used them to decide where to
hold symbel.

Using the rite from Tacitus' Germania and what we know from later sources, we can perhaps
reconstruct the ancient Germanic rite of casting the runes. First, strips of wood would be cut from a
nut bearing tree. Second, these strips of wood would be marked with the runestaves, which would
perhaps be dyed with blood from a sacrificed animal. Third, the rune lots would be cast upon a
white sheet. Fourth, the high priest or head of the family would then look to the sky and offer a
prayer to the gods. It is quite possible that this prayer would include the question which casting the
runes was expected to answer. Fifth, the high priest or head of the family would choose three lots,
one at a time. Sixth, based on the runestaves inscribed upon them, he would then interpret their
meaning.

The one thing we cannot say is the significance of the three runes chosen. Various theories have
been advanced, some better than others, but ultimately we do not know. It does seem unlikely that
they symbolised the "past, present, and future," as the Germanic peoples viewed time as binary in
nature--they had a past and a present, but no future (read Paul Bauschtatz's The Well and the Tree).
We are then left to wonder why three runes were chosen. As the ancient Germanic peoples left
behind no handbooks on runic divination, we will probably never know.