The Central Islamic Lands

2 marks
Briefly discuss Shahnama?
Shahnama is an epic of 50,000 couplets. It was written by Firdausi. He took 30 years
to complete this work. It is a collection of traditions and legends, which poetically
depicts Iran from creation up until the Arab conquest. It has become a masterpiece of
Islamic literature.

From where was the knowledge derived by the religious scholars?

The religious scholars also called Ulama, derived knowledge from the holy 'Quran'
and model behaviour of the Prophet. They devoted themselves to
writing tafsir and documenting Muhammad’s authentic hadith.

Under what circumstances did Islam permit people from making money?
Islam did not stop people from making money provided certain prohibitions were
imposed. They were
• Interest bearing transactions were unlawful.
• Money obtained by illegal means should not be kept; it is haram for a Muslim.

What led to the increase in the importance of money in Central Islamic lands?
The fiscal system and market exchange increased the importance of money in the
central Islamic lands. Coins of gold, silver and copper were minted and circulated to
pay for the goods and services.

What was the importance of Samarkand along the Silk route?

Samarkand was an important link in the trade, which extended north to Russia and
Scandinavia, for exchange of European goods, mainly fur and Slavic captives.
Samarkand developed as an important intermediate trade centre for Euro-Arab trade
and also for Indo-Arab trade.

How was the trade conducted at the eastern end of the Islamic lands?
In the eastern end the Iranian merchants set out from Baghdad along the silk route to
China via Bukhara and Samarkand to bring Central Asian and Chinese goods which
included paper from China. Islamic coins were used in this trade. Male and female
slaves were also purchased here for the courts of caliphs and sultans.

How did the geography favour Muslim empire in trade?

The Muslim world was spread between the trading zones of Indian Oceans and the
Mediterranean. The Arabs and Iranians monopolized the maritime trade between
China, India and Europe for five centuries.

How were taxes collected in the caliph ruled areas and what were its
consequences?
• In the lands conquered by the Arabs that remained in the hands of the owners
were subjected to tax (kharaj) which varied from half to fifth of produce.
• The Muslims paid one tenth (ushr) of produce as tax.
• Since the Muslims had to pay less tax, the non-Muslims started converting to
Islam, which resulted in shortfall.
• To overcome this problem a uniform policy of taxation was adopted.

What were the consequences of the Crusades?

• The crusades left Muslims bitter and this in turn made the Muslim state hostile
towards its Christian subjects especially where there were mixed populations.
• Increased influence of Italian mercantile communities in the trade between the
East and the West even after the restoration of Muslim power.

Who were Fatimids?

Fatimids were of Shiite origin and had ambitions to rule the Islamic world. They
claimed to be the descendants of Fatima the daughter of Prophet Muhammad and
hence the rightful rulers of Islam. They had their base in North Africa and conquered
Egypt and established new capital at Qahira (Cairo).

Who displaced Umayyads?

The Umayyads were displaced by a movement known as dawa, led by Abbasids,
another family of Meccan origin, in 750. The Umayyad regime was portrayed as evil
by the Abbasid. They promised to restore the original Islam of Prophet.

What was the difference between the Islamic and other coins that were in
circulation during the time of Abd-al-Malik?
Before the introduction of Islamic coins the gold Dinar and silver Dirham were in
circulation in the caliphate which were the copies of Byzantine and Iranian coins
(denarius and drachm). They had symbols of crosses and fire altars and Greek and
Pahlavi (the language of Iran) inscriptions on them. Abd-al Malik and his successors
removed these symbols and introduced coins with Arabic inscriptions.

What was the contribution of Abd-al-Malik?

• It was in his time that Arab and Islamic identity was emphasized.
• Arabic was adopted as language of administration and Islamic coinage was
introduced.
• He also built the Dome of the Rock at Jerusalem which is still an important Arab-
Islamic identity.

Who was the first Umayyad caliph?

Muawiya was the first Umayyad caliph. He had made himself the Caliph after the
death of Ali, in 661 CE. Umayyads were a prosperous clan of Qurayshi tribe.

Name the first four caliphs and state the role they played in the Islamic state?
• The first caliph was Abu Bakar. He suppressed revolts by a series of campaigns.
• The second caliph was Umar. He shaped the Umma’s policy of expansion.
• The third caliph was Uthman. He packed his administration with men from his
own clan and this led to opposition in Iraq and Egypt.
• The fourth caliph was Ali. It was in his time that Muslims broke into Shias and
Sunnis.

What was the importance of Mecca?

It was in this city that Muhammad lived and controlled the main shrine, a cube like
structure, known as Kaba in which idols were placed. Tribes outside Mecca also
considered the Kaba holy, and placed their idols in it and made annual pilgrimage
there. Mecca was located on the crossroad of a trade route between Yemen and Syria
which added to the importance of the city.

5 marks
Describe the design of a Mosque?
In the first Islamic century the mosques acquired a distinctive architecture from roof
supported by pillars which transcended regional variations. The mosque had an open
courtyard with a fountain or pond. The courtyard led to a vaulted hall which could
accommodate long lines or worshippers and Imam, the prayer leader.
Two special features were to be found inside the hall – a ‘mihrab’ in the wall which
indicated the direction of Mecca and a pulpit from where sermons were delivered
during noon prayers on Friday. A minaret was attached to the building, it was a tower
used to call to the faithful to prayer at the appointed time and to symbolize the
presences of the new faith. The time was marked in the cities and villages by the five
daily calls for prayers and weakly sermons.

What is Al-Qanun fil Tibb (Canon of Medicine)?

The book Al-Qanun fil Tibb is written by Ibn Sina (980-1037). He was a philosopher
and a doctor by profession. It is a million word manuscripts which include a list of
760 drugs sold by the pharmacists of his times and note of his own experiments which
were conducted in the hospitals. This book points to the importance of healing
through dietary regulation and influence of climate and environment on health and the
contagious nature of some disease. This book was used as textbook in Europe where
the author was known as Avicenna. It is believed that Umar Khayyam, a well known
poet and scientist, had read this book just before his death.

What was the contribution of Greek philosophy and science in the field of
education on the Islamic world?
• In the schools of Alexandria, Syria and Mesopotamia Greek philosophy,
mathematics and medicine were taught along with other subjects.
• Translation of Greek and Syriac books into Arabic by Christian scholars began
under the Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs. Translation became a well organised
activity.
• A huge Library cum Institute of Science was setup in Baghdad where the scholars
worked.
• The works of Aristotle, the Elements of Euclid and Ptolemy’s Almagest were
brought to the attention of the Arabic reading scholars.
• During the same period the Indian works on the medicine, astronomy and
mathematics were also translated. When these works reached Europe they aroused the
interests in philosophy and science.

Who were Sufis?

Sufis were a group of religious minded people in medieval Islam. They sought a
deeper and more personal knowledge of God through asceticism and mysticism. They
strive to emulate the words and deeds of Muhammad, and traditionally adopt a life of
poverty and abstinence. The more society gave itself up to material pursuits and
pleasures, the more the Sufis sought to renounce the world and rely on God alone
(tawakkul).
They used musical concerts (Sama) to induce ecstasy and stimulate emotions of love
and passion. Bayazid Bistami an Iranian Sufi was the first to teach the importance
of fana, whereby the Mystic becomes fully absorbed in God to the point of becoming
unaware of himself or the objects around him.

What is Sharia?
Sharia is a law which governs the relationship of Muslims with God through rituals
and with rest of the humanity through social affairs. It is derived from the sacred text
of Islam and traditions gathered from the life of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. It
provides guidance on all possible legal issues within Sunni society, though it was
more precise on questions of personal status like marriage, divorce and inheritance
than on commercial matters or penal and constitutional issues. Before it took final
forms, the Sharia was adjusted to take into account the customary laws of various
regions as well as the laws of the state on political and social order.

What was the contribution of Muslim world to the methods of payment and
business organization?
Muslims developed a sophisticated way of payment and business organisation by
introducing Letter of credit and bills of exchange (like today's cheque or draft). It is
considered as one of the greatest contribution of the Muslim world to the methods of
payment and business organisation. The traders and bankers used these modes of
payment to transfer money from one place to another or from one individual to
another. The widespread use of commercial paper freed the merchants from the need
to carry cash everywhere and made their journey safer. Even the Caliph used these
letters of credit to pay the salaries or to reward poets and musicians.

What were the two major trading routes of the Islamic lands and what was
traded here? How did these goods reach Europe?
The two major trading routes were the Red sea and the Persian Gulf. High value
goods suitable for long distance trade like spices, textile, porcelain and gunpowder
were supplied to the port of Aden and Aydhab in Red sea and Siraf and Basra in the
Persian Gulf. From here the goods were taken by land routes for local consumption
and to the Mediterranean end of these trade routes for onwards export to Europe. The
export to Europe was handled by Jewish merchants some of whom were in direct
touch with their Indian counterparts. With the rise of Cairo as a centre of power and
commerce in the tenth century, Red Sea route became more important.

What support was given by the state to increase agriculture production? What
crops were grown?
The principal occupation of the settled population in the newly acquired territories
was agriculture. The state had complete control of agricultural land. Land revenue
was its main source of income. The state had introduced various measures so as to
increase the agricultural production. It favoured the irrigation systems such as
building of dams, wells and canals. Islamic law gave tax concessions to people who
brought land under cultivation. Even in the absence of major technological changes,
the cultivable land expanded and productivity rose because of peasant initiative and
state support. Crops like cotton, oranges, bananas, spinach and brinjals were grown
and exported to Europe.

What were the crusades and why were they fought?

Crusades were the wars fought by Christians against Muslims to free the Holy land,
Palestine. Upon the death of Saljuq, the Sultan of Baghdad his empire started
disintegrating, this gave a chance to Byzantium Emperor Alexius I to regain Asia
Minor and Northern Syria. It offered an opportunity for Pope Urban II to revive
Christianity. So The Pope Urban II joined hands with the Byzantine emperor for a
war, in the name of God to liberate the Holy land. Several wars were fought between
western Christians and Muslims cities between 1095 and 1291, on costal plains of the
eastern Mediterranean. These wars are known as the Crusades.

How did the Abbasid state decline?

A series of factors were responsible for the decline of the Abbasid state.
• First of all the Abbasid state became weaker because the control from Baghdad to
the distant places of the empire declined.
• Moreover, a conflict between pro Arab and pro Iranian factions of the army and
bureaucracy also led to the decline of the Abbasid state.
• In 1810, a civil war broke out between the supporters of Amin and Mamun, the
sons of the Caliph Harun-al-Rashid which lead to the creation of a new power block
of Turkish slave officers.
• All this led to creation of number of dynasties and plot the downfall of Abbasids.

Briefly describe the Abbasid rule.

Under the Abbasid’s rule the influence of Arabs declined and the importance of
Iranian culture increased. They established their capital at Baghdad. The army and
bureaucracy were reorganized on a non-tribal basis to ensure greater participation by
Iraq and Khurasan. The religious status and the functions of the Caliphate were
strengthened under the Abbasids rule. They patronized Islamic institutions and
scholars. They retained the centralized nature of rule and were forced by circumstance
to continue with the elaborate ceremonies of court though they were against it. They
maintained the splendid imperial architecture and elaborate court ceremonials of the
Umayyads.

What were the innovative measures adopted by the Umayyads to consolidate

their hold on Empire?
• The Umayyads implemented a series of political measures which first
consolidated their leadership within umma.
• Muawiya, the first Umayyad caliph moved his capital to Damascus and adopted
the court ceremonies and administrative institutions of Byzantine Empire.
• He also introduced hereditary succession and persuaded the leading Muslims to
accept his son as his heir.
• Although there were Christian adviser in administration and Zoroastrian
bureaucrats and scribes, yet it was Islam that provided legitimacy to their rule.
• In the Umayyad state the imperial power was not based directly on Islam but on
statecraft. They appealed for unity and suppressed rebellions in the name of Islam.

Describe the administrative structure set up by the Caliphs in the conquered

lands?
The administration of the conquered lands was headed by governors (amirs) and tribal
chieftains (ashraf). The central treasury (bait al-mal) obtained its revenue from taxes
paid by Muslims as well as its share of booty from raids. The caliph's soldiers, mostly
Bedouins, settled in camp cities at the edge of the desert, such as Kufa and Basara so
that they remained within their natural habitat and at Caliph’s command. The ruling
class and soldiers received shares from booty and monthly payment (ata). The non-
Muslim population retained their rights on property and religious practices on
payment of taxes such as kharaj and jazia. Jews and Christians were declared as
protected subjects of the state (dhimmis) and were given a measure of autonomy in
conduct of their communal affairs.

What was Caliphate and what were its objectives?

After the death of Muhammad in 632 AD and no one remained thereto succeed him as
Prophet, so his authority transferred to Umma with no established rule of succession.
Then started the process of innovations which led to the formation of the institution of
Caliphate in which the leader of the community (Amir-al-Muminin) became the
deputy (Khalifa) of the Prophet. There were two main objectives of caliphates. First
was to retain the control over the tribes constituting Umma and secondly to raise
resources for the state.
What did Muhammad mainly preach and what were his followers known as?
Muhammad was an Arab by language and culture and a merchant by profession. He
did not believe in idol worship. He preached the membership of a single community
of believers (umma). He declared himself to be the messenger of God and
commanded to preach that Allah alone should be worshiped. He preached that
worship should involve simple rituals such as daily prayers. His followers should
follow moral principles i.e. abstain from theft, distribute alms, and be bound together
through common religious beliefs. His followers were known as Mohammedan or
Muslims. They were promised salvation on the Day of Judgement (qiyama) and a
share of the resources of the community while on earth.

8 marks
Describe the layouts of the city during in the Islamic world?
• Islamic civilisation flourished with the increase in the number of cities. Many new
cities were found to settle the Arab soldiers. Some of these garrison cities were Kufa
and Basra in Iraq and Fustat and Cairo in Egypt.
• At the heart of the city were two building: the congregational mosque which could
be seen from a distance and the central market place with shops in a row, merchants
lodging and office of the money changers. These two buildings exhibited cultural and
economic power of the Muslim empire.
• The central presence of mosque, a religious building testifies to the primary role
religion held within the medieval Islamic city, particularly in public life.
• The administrators, scholars and merchants lived close to the centre.
• Ordinary citizens and soldiers lived in the outer circle each with its own mosque,
church or a synagogue, subsidiary market and public bath.
• At the outskirts were houses for urban poor, a market for vegetables and fruits,
caravan stations and unclean shops that is those dealing with tanning and butchering.
• Houses, according to location and inhabitants, were huts, apartments or large
buildings of stone or brick, lining alleys.
• Beyond the city wall were inns for people to wait when the till the doors opened
for the city and cemeteries.
• The layout of cities varied depending on the nature of the landscape, political
traditions and historical events.

How many Crusades were fought? Briefly discuss each.

Three crusade wars were fought between Christians and Muslims.
• The First Crusade: The first crusade was fought in 1089-99 with soldiers from
France and Italy. They were victorious, captured Antioch of Syria and claimed
Jerusalem. Muslim writers referred to the arrival of the Christians (called ifrinji or
firangi) as a Frankish invasion. The Franks quickly established four crusader states in
the region of Syria-Palestine. Collectively, these territories were known as Outremer
(the land overseas) and later crusades were directed at its defence and expansion.
• The Second Crusade: The Outremer survived well for some time, but when
Edessa was captured by the Turks in 1144, an appeal was made by the Pope fora
second crusade which was fought from 1145-49. A combined army of German and
French soldiers made an attempt to capture Damascus but were defeated and returned
home. Salah al-Din (Saladin) called for jihad against Christians and defeated them in
1187 and regained Jerusalem and it again became a Muslim city.
• The Third Crusade: The loss of Jerusalem prompted a third crusade which was
fought in 1189, but they could not succeed beyond the costal towns in Palestine and
gained free access to Jerusalem only for Christian pilgrims. The Mamluks, the rulers
of Egypt, finally drove the crusading Christians from whole of Palestine in 1291.
Europe gradually moved towards internal politics and development, and lost interest
in Islam.

Describe the development of Architecture in the Islamic World?

In the cultural sense, the term ‘Islamic World’ refers to the worldwide community of
the Muslims. Islamic architecture finds its highest expression in the mosque and
related religious buildings. Through the religious buildings, the effect of varying
cultures within Islamic world can be illustrated. These edifices were the greatest
external symbols of this world. Mosques, shrines and tombs from Spain to Central
Asia showed the same basic design – arches, domes, minarets but also included large
courtyards for congregational prayer. These buildings expressed the spiritual and
practical needs of Muslims. In the first Islamic century, the mosque acquired a distinct
architectural form which transcended regional variations.
The caravanserais, hospitals and palaces followed the same pattern of construction,
which appeared in mosques and mausoleums. The ‘desert palaces’ in oases, such
as Khirbat al-Mafjar in Palestine and Qusayr Amra in Jordan, built
by Umayyads, revealed a wealth of carved and moulded stucco decoration, sculptured
stone reliefs and figural fresco paintings. They served as luxurious residences and
retreats for hunting and pleasure. Sassanid influence was strong in many Umayyad
dynasty residential palaces, built mostly in Syria. The Abbasids built a new imperial
city in Samarra amidst gardens and running waters, which is mentioned in the stories
and legends revolving round Harun al-Rashid.
The role of domes in Islamic architecture has been considerable. Domes have been
used in Islamic architecture for centuries. Certain other unique and outstanding
features in Islamic art and architecture, like calligraphy and abstract decoration, were
born and evolved while Islam reached different regions of the world. Such features
are as varied as the regions themselves and exist till now.