Computer and Operating Systems

Computer operating systems
and harware
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Contents
Articles
User:Rajah2770 1
Computer 6
Linux 25
Microsoft Windows 39
Novell 49
Macintosh 60
MS-DOS 78
ATI Technologies 87
Nvidia 94
Intel Corporation 106
Advanced Micro Devices 125
Sony Computer Entertainment 137
IBM 145
Samsung Electronics 160
HCL Enterprise 175
Wipro Technologies 177
Infosys 181
Zenith Computers 187
Micro-Star International 189
MSI protocol 190
University of Minnesota Supercomputing Institute 192
Centre for Development of Advanced Computing 194
References
Article Sources and Contributors 198
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 207
Article Licenses
License 211
User:Rajah2770 1
User:Rajah2770
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika
[[File:File:Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika & his two kids.jpg||alt=]]
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika with Laquit(son) and Danisha(daughter)
Born Azad Bin Rajib HazarikaJuly 2, 1970Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India
Residence Nagaon, Assam, India
Nationality Indian
Ethnicity AssameseMuslim
Citizenship India
Education PhD, PDF, FRAS
Alma mater University of Jodhpur

Jai Narayan Vyas University
[1]
Institute of Advanced Study in Science & Technology
[2]
Kendriya Vidyalaya
[3]
Poona College of Arts, Science &Commerce
Occupation Assistant Professor(Lecturer), Diphu Govt. College , Diphu,Assam,India
Years active 2004- onwards
Employer Diphu Government College

Government of Assam,Assam Education Service
Known for Lecturer ,Assistant Professor,Mathematician,Academician,Fusion,Astronomy
Home town Nagaon, Assam, India
Salary Rs 40000 per month
Height 6 feet and 2 inches
Weight 100 kg
Title Doctorate, Dr., FRAS (London), Assam Education Service, AES
Board Member of Scientific and Technical committee & Editorial review board of Natuaral and Applied sciences World Academy of
member of [4]
Science ,Engineering & Technology
Religion Sunni Islam,
Spouse Helmin Begum Hazarika
Children Laquit Ali Hazarika(son), Danisha Begum Hazarika(daughter)
Parents Rosmat Ali Hazarika@Rostam Ali Hazarika@Roufat Ali Hazarika and Anjena Begum Hazarika
Call-sign Drabrh or Raja
Website
[5]
[6] [7] [8] [9]
User:Rajah2770 2
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika with Laquit (son) and Danisha(daughter)
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika (born July 02, 1970, in Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, India) is Assistant
Professor(Lecturer) Diphu Government College ,Diphu in Karbi Anglong district , Government of Assam [10] , [11] ,
Karbi Anglong,Assam's largest conglomerate by Government of Assam . He is also the Fellow of Royal
Astronomical Society[12] ,London ,Member of International Association of Mathematical Physics, World Academy
of Science ,Engineering & Technology, Focus Fusion Society, Dense Plasma Focus, Plasma Science Society of
India, Assam Science Society, Assam academy of mathematics,International Atomic Energy Agency,Nuclear and
Plasma Sciences Society,Society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics,German Academy of Mathematics and
Mechanics,Fusion Science & Technology Society,Indian National Science Academy,Indian Science Congress
Association,Advisory Committee of Mathematical Education,Royal Society,International Biographical Centre.
Early life
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika was born into the famous Hazarika family, a prominent family belonging to Dhing's wealthy
Muslim Assamese community of Nagaon district. He was born to Anjena Begum Hazarika and Rusmat Ali
Hazarika. He is eldest of two childrens of his parents younger one is a Shamim Ara Rahman(nee Hazarika)daughter .
Early career
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika completed his PhD degree in Mathematics from J N Vyas University of Jodhpur in 1995 with
specialization in Plasma instability, the thesis was awarded “best thesis” by Association of Indian Universities in
1998 and the Post-Doctoral Fellow Program from Institute of Advanced Study in Science & Technology [13] in
Guwahati Assam in 1998 as Research Associate in Plasma Physics Division in theory group studying the Sheath
phenomenon. As a Part-time Lecturer in Nowgong college, Assam before joining the present position in Diphu
Government College ,Diphu in Karbi Anglong district[14] ,[15] He is a member of the wikipedia[16] , [17] . He is
Fellow of Royal Astronomical Society[18] ,member of International Association Mathematical Physics[19] , member
of World Academy of Science,Engineering & Technology [20] ,[21] , member of Plasma science Society of India [22] ,
[23]
,member of Focus Fusion Society forum [24] ,member of Dense Plasma Focus [25] , Member of Assam Science
Society [26] , Member of Assam Academy of Mathematics [27]
User:Rajah2770 3
He joined the Diphu Government College in July2004 as Lecturer in Mathematics (Gazetted officer), through Assam
Public Service commission [28] in Assam Education Service [29] , AES-I. [30] now redesignated as Assistant
Professor.
Career
In May 1993, Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika was awarded Junior Research Fellowship,University Grants Commission,
National Eligibility Test and eligibility for Lecturership ,Govt. of India and worked as JRF(UGC,NET) in
Department of Mathematics and Statistics of J N Vyas University in Jodhpur. Later on in May 1995 got Senior
Research Fellowship(UGC,NET) and continued research for completion of PhD on 27th Dec 1995 .From 1993
onwards taught in Kamala Nehru College for women, Jodhpur and in Faculty of Science in J N Vyas University in
Jodhpur up to the completion of PhD .In 1998 May joined Plasma Physics Division of Institute of Advanced Study
in Science & Technology in Guwahati as Research Associate for PDF in theory group to study the sheath
phenomena of National Fusion Programme [31] of Govt. of India . Then joined Nowgong College as a part-time
Lecturer after which in 2004, July joined the present position of Lecturer in Diphu Government College which is
redesignated as Assistant Professor.
Research
During PhD [32] [33] [34] [35] [36]
The research was based on Astronomy,Astrophysics, Geophysics , for plasma instability with the title of thesis as
“Some Problems of instabilities in partially ionized and fully ionized plasmas” which later on in 1998 was assessed
as best thesis of the year by Association of Indian Universities in New Delhi. He is known for Bhatia-Hazarika
limitResearch at Diphu Govt. College [37] , [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] Applied for patent in US patent and
trademarks office [45] [46]
Research guidance is given to students in Mathematics for MPhil. He has written six books entitled Inventions of
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika on future devices and Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's Pattern recognition on fusion
,Application of Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's conceptual devices , Green tecnology for next genration , Invention of
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's devices ,VASIMR DANISHA:A Hall Thruster Space Odyssey ,[47] , [48] , [49]
He has derived a formula Hazarika's constant for VASIMR DANISHA as Hazarika constant Ch=1+4sin3φ sin θ-2sin
φ-2sin θ the value is 2.646
Personal life
Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika has a metallic Scarlet red Tata Indigo CS of Tata motors make and loves to drive himself.He
is married to Helmin Begum Hazarika and have two chidrens Laquit(son) and Danisha(daughter).
Quotes
• "Fakir(saint) and lakir(line) stops at nothing but at destination"
• "Expert criticizes the wrong but demonstrates the right thing"
• “Intellectuals are measured by their brain not by their age and experience”
• “Two type of persons are happy in life one who knows everything another who doesn’t know anything”
• “Implosion in device to prove every notion wrong for fusion”
• “Meditation gives fakir(saint) long life and fusion devices the long lasting confinement”
User:Rajah2770 4
Awards and recognition

Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika got Junior Research Fellowship,Government of India
Senior Research Fellowship,Government of India
Research AssociateshipDSTGovernment of India
Fellowof Royal Astronomical Society [50]
Member of Advisory committee of Mathematical Education Royal Society London
Member of Scientific and Technical committee & editorial review board on Natural and applied sciences of World
Academy of Science ,Engineering &Technology [51]
Leading professional of the world-2010 as noted and eminent professional from International Biographical Centre
Cambridge
References
[1] http:/ / www. iasst. in
[2] http:/ / www. kvafsdigaru. org
[3] http:/ / www. akipoonacollege. com
[4] http:/ / www. waset. org/ NaturalandAppliedSciences. php?page=45
[5] http:/ / www. facebook. com/ Drabrajib
[6] http:/ / in. linkedin. com/ pub/ dr-a-b-rajib-hazarika/ 25/ 506/ 549
[7] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special:Contributions/ Drabrh
[8] http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org
[9] http:/ / www. karbianglong. nic. in/ diphugovtcollege. org/ teaching. html
[10] http:/ / www. karbianglong. nic. in/ diphugovtcollege/ teaching. html
[11] http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org/ DGC%20prospectus%2008-09. pdf
[12] http:/ / www. ras. org. uk/ member?recid==5531
[13] http:/ / www. iasst. in
[14] {{cite web|url=http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org/ DGC%20prospectus%2008-09. pdf
[15] http:/ / karbianglong. nic. in/ diphugovtcollege/ teaching. html
[16] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ User:Drabrh
[17] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special:Contributions/ Drabrh
[18] http:/ / www. ras. org. uk/ member?recid=5531,
[19] http:/ / www. iamp. org/ bulletins/ old-bulletins/ 201001. pdf
[21] http:/ / www. waset. org/ Search. php?page=68& search=
[22] http:/ / www. plasma. ernet. in/ ~pssi/ member/ pssi_new04. doc
[23] http:/ / www. ipr. res. in/ ~pssi/ member/ pssidir_new-04. doc
[24] http:/ / www. focusfusion. org/ index. php/ forums/ member/ 4165
[25] http:/ / www. denseplasmafocus. org/ index. php/ forum/ member/ 4165
[26] http:/ / www. assamsciencesociety. org/ member
[27] http:/ / www. aam. org. in/ member/ 982004
[28] http:/ / apsc. nic. in
[29] http:/ / aasc. nic. in/ . . . / Education%20Department/ The%20Assam%20Education%20Service%20Rules%201982. pdf
[30] (http:/ / www. diphugovtcollege. org/ DGC prospests 08-09. pdf)
[31] http:/ / nfp. pssi. in
[32] http:/ / www. iopscience. iop. org/ 1402-4896/ 51/ 6/ 012/ pdf/ physcr_51_6_012. pdf
[33] http:/ / www. iopsciences. iop. org/ 1402-4896/ 53/ 1/ 011/ pdf/ 1402-4896_53_1_011. pdf,
[34] http:/ / www. niscair. res. in/ sciencecommunication/ abstractingjournals/ isa_1jul08. asp
[35] http:/ / en. wiktionary. org/ wiki/ Wikitionary%3ASandbox
[36] http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1996PhyS. . 53. . . 578
[37] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Special:Contributions/ Drabrh/ File:Drabrhdouble_trios_saiph_star01. pdf
[38] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_bayer_rti. pdf
[39] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Columb_drabrh. pdf
[40] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_double_trios. pdf
[41] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrhiterparabolic2007. pdf
[42] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_mctc_feedbackloop. pdf
[43] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Drabrh_tasso_07. pdf
User:Rajah2770 5
[44] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Abstracts. pdf?page=2

[45] http:/ / upload. wikimedia. org/ wikipedia/ en/ 5/ 50/ EfilingAck5530228. pdf
[46] http:/ / upload. wikimedia. org/ wikipedia/ en/ c/ c4/ EfilingAck3442787. pdf
[47] http:/ / www. pothi. com
[48] http:/ / i-proclaimbookstore. com
[49] http:/ / ipppserver. homelinux. org:8080/ view/ creators/ Hazarika=3ADr=2EA=2EB=2ERajib=3A=3A. html
[50] http:/ / www. ras. org. uk/ members?recid=5531
External links
• (http://www.diphugovtcollege.org/)
• Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika's profile on the Linkedin Website (http://in.linkedin.com/pub/dr-a-b-rajib-hazarika/25/
506/549=)
• (http://www.facebook.com/Drabrajib)
Rajah2770 (talk) 18:12, 7 February 2011 (UTC)
Computer 6
Computer
Computer
A computer is a programmable machine designed to sequentially and automatically carry out a sequence of
arithmetic or logical operations. The particular sequence of operations can be changed readily, allowing the
computer to solve more than one kind of problem.
Conventionally a computer consists of some form of memory for data storage, at least one element that carries out
arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control element that can change the order of operations based
on the information that is stored. Peripheral devices allow information to be entered from external source, and allow
the results of operations to be sent out.
A computer's processing unit executes series of instructions that make it read, manipulate and then store data.
Conditional instructions change the sequence of instructions as a function of the current state of the machine or its
environment.
The first electronic computers were developed in the mid-20th century (1940–1945). Originally, they were the size
of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs).[1]
Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early
machines, and occupy a fraction of the space.[2] Simple computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices, and
can be powered by a small battery. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and
are what most people think of as "computers". However, the embedded computers found in many devices from MP3
players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.
Computer 7
History of computing
The first use of the word "computer" was recorded in 1613, referring to a person who carried out calculations, or
computations, and the word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. From the end of
the 19th century onwards, the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, describing a machine that carries out
computations.[3]
Limited-function early computers

The history of the modern computer begins with two separate
technologies—automated calculation and programmability—but no
single device can be identified as the earliest computer, partly because
of the inconsistent application of that term. Examples of early
mechanical calculating devices include the abacus, the slide rule and
arguably the astrolabe and the Antikythera mechanism, an ancient
astronomical computer built by the Greeks around 80 BC.[4] The Greek
mathematician Hero of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD) built a mechanical
theater which performed a play lasting 10 minutes and was operated by
a complex system of ropes and drums that might be considered to be a
means of deciding which parts of the mechanism performed which
actions and when.[5] This is the essence of programmability.
The "castle clock", an astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari in

1206, is considered to be the earliest programmable analog
computer.[6] It displayed the zodiac, the solar and lunar orbits, a
The Jacquard loom, on display at the Museum of
crescent moon-shaped pointer travelling across a gateway causing Science and Industry in Manchester, England,
automatic doors to open every hour,[7] [8] and five robotic musicians was one of the first programmable devices.
who played music when struck by levers operated by a camshaft
attached to a water wheel. The length of day and night could be re-programmed to compensate for the changing
lengths of day and night throughout the year.[6]
The Renaissance saw the invention of the mechanical calculator, a device that could perform all four arithmetic
operations without relying on human intelligence, in 1642. The mechanical calculator was at the root of the
development of computers in two separate ways ; initially, it is in trying to develop more powerful and more flexible
calculators that the computer was first theorized (Charles Babbage, Alan Turing) and then developed (ABC, Z3,
ENIAC...) leading to the development of mainframe computers, but also the microprocessor, which started the
personal computer revolution, and which is now at the heart of all computers regardless of size or purpose, was
invented serendipitously by Intel during the development of an electronic calculator, a direct descendant to the
mechanical calculator.
Computer 8
First general-purpose computers

In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard made an improvement to the textile loom by introducing a series of punched paper
cards as a template which allowed his loom to weave intricate patterns automatically. The resulting Jacquard loom
was an important step in the development of computers because the use of punched cards to define woven patterns
can be viewed as an early, albeit limited, form of programmability.
It was the fusion of automatic calculation with programmability that
produced the first recognizable computers. In 1837, Charles Babbage
was the first to conceptualize and design a fully programmable
mechanical computer, his analytical engine.[11] Limited finances and
Babbage's inability to resist tinkering with the design meant that the
device was never completed ; nevertheless his son, Henry Babbage,
completed a simplified version of the analytical engine's computing
unit (the mill) in 1888. He gave a successful demonstration of its use in
computing tables in 1906. This machine was given to the Science
museum in South Kensington in 1910.
In the late 1880s, Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a

machine readable medium. Prior uses of machine readable media,
above, had been for control, not data. "After some initial trials with
paper tape, he settled on punched cards ..."[12] To process these
punched cards he invented the tabulator, and the keypunch machines.
These three inventions were the foundation of the modern information
The Most Famous Image in the Early History of
processing industry. Large-scale automated data processing of punched
Computing From cave paintings to the internet cards was performed for the 1890 United States Census by Hollerith's
HistoryofScience.comThis portrait of Jacquard company, which later became the core of IBM. By the end of the 19th
was woven in silk on a Jacquard loom and
century a number of technologies that would later prove useful in the
required 24,000 punched cards to create (1839). It
was only produced to order. Charles Babbage
realization of practical computers had begun to appear: the punched
owned one of these portraits ; it inspired him in card, Boolean algebra, the vacuum tube (thermionic valve) and the
using perforated cards in his analytical teleprinter.
engineSee: Anthony Hyman, ed., Science and
Reform: Selected Works of Charles Babbage During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing
(Cambridge, England: Cambridge University needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which
Press, 1989), page 298. It is in the collection of
used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis
the Science Museum in London, England. (Delve
(2007), page 99.) for computation. However, these were not programmable and generally
lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers.
Alan Turing is widely regarded to be the father of modern computer science. In 1936 Turing provided an influential
formalisation of the concept of the algorithm and computation with the Turing machine, providing a blueprint for the
electronic digital computer.[13] Of his role in the creation of the modern computer, Time magazine in naming Turing
one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century, states: "The fact remains that everyone who taps at a
keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is working on an incarnation of a Turing
machine".[13]
Computer 9
The Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC) was among the first electronic

digital binary computing devices. Conceived in 1937 by Iowa State
College physics professor John Atanasoff, and built with the assistance
of graduate student Clifford Berry,[14] the machine was not
programmable, being designed only to solve systems of linear
equations. The computer did employ parallel computation. A 1973
court ruling in a patent dispute found that the patent for the 1946
ENIAC computer derived from the Atanasoff–Berry Computer.
The inventor of the program-controlled computer was Konrad Zuse, The Zuse Z3, 1941, considered the world's first
who built the first working computer in 1941 and later in 1955 the first working programmable, fully automatic
computer based on magnetic storage.[15] computing machine.
George Stibitz is internationally recognized as a father of the modern

digital computer. While working at Bell Labs in November 1937,
Stibitz invented and built a relay-based calculator he dubbed the
"Model K" (for "kitchen table", on which he had assembled it), which
was the first to use binary circuits to perform an arithmetic operation.
Later models added greater sophistication including complex
arithmetic and programmability.[16]
A succession of steadily more powerful and flexible computing devices

were constructed in the 1930s and 1940s, gradually adding the key
features that are seen in modern computers. The use of digital
The ENIAC, which became operational in 1946,
electronics (largely invented by Claude Shannon in 1937) and more
is considered to be the first general-purpose
flexible programmability were vitally important steps, but defining one electronic computer.
point along this road as "the first digital electronic computer" is
difficult.Shannon 1940 Notable achievements include.
• Konrad Zuse's electromechanical "Z machines". The Z3 (1941) was

the first working machine featuring binary arithmetic, including
floating point arithmetic and a measure of programmability. In 1998
the Z3 was proved to be Turing complete, therefore being the
world's first operational computer.[17]
• The non-programmable Atanasoff–Berry Computer (commenced in
1937, completed in 1941) which used vacuum tube based
computation, binary numbers, and regenerative capacitor memory.
The use of regenerative memory allowed it to be much more
compact than its peers (being approximately the size of a large desk
or workbench), since intermediate results could be stored and then
fed back into the same set of computation elements.
• The secret British Colossus computers (1943),[18] which had limited
EDSAC was one of the first computers to
programmability but demonstrated that a device using thousands of
implement the stored program (von Neumann)
tubes could be reasonably reliable and electronically architecture.
reprogrammable. It was used for breaking German wartime codes.
• The Harvard Mark I (1944), a large-scale electromechanical computer with limited programmability.[19]
Computer 10
• The U.S. Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory ENIAC (1946),

which used decimal arithmetic and is sometimes called the first
general purpose electronic computer (since Konrad Zuse's Z3 of
1941 used electromagnets instead of electronics). Initially, however,
ENIAC had an inflexible architecture which essentially required
rewiring to change its programming.
Stored-program architecture
Several developers of ENIAC, recognizing its flaws, came up with a Die of an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor (actual
far more flexible and elegant design, which came to be known as the size: 12×6.75 mm) in its packaging.
"stored program architecture" or von Neumann architecture. This

design was first formally described by John von Neumann in the paper First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC,
distributed in 1945. A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored-program architecture
commenced around this time, the first of these being completed in Great Britain. The first working prototype to be
demonstrated was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM or "Baby") in 1948. The Electronic
Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC), completed a year after the SSEM at Cambridge University, was the
first practical, non-experimental implementation of the stored program design and was put to use immediately for
research work at the university. Shortly thereafter, the machine originally described by von Neumann's
paper—EDVAC—was completed but did not see full-time use for an additional two years.
Nearly all modern computers implement some form of the stored-program architecture, making it the single trait by
which the word "computer" is now defined. While the technologies used in computers have changed dramatically
since the first electronic, general-purpose computers of the 1940s, most still use the von Neumann architecture.
Beginning in the 1950s, Soviet scientists Sergei Sobolev and Nikolay Brusentsov conducted research on ternary
computers, devices that operated on a base three numbering system of −1, 0, and 1 rather than the conventional
binary numbering system upon which most computers are based. They designed the Setun, a functional ternary
computer, at Moscow State University. The device was put into limited production in the Soviet Union, but
supplanted by the more common binary architecture.
Semiconductors and microprocessors

Computers using vacuum tubes as their electronic elements were in use throughout the 1950s, but by the 1960s had
been largely replaced by transistor-based machines, which were smaller, faster, cheaper to produce, required less
power, and were more reliable. The first transistorised computer was demonstrated at the University of Manchester
in 1953.[20] In the 1970s, integrated circuit technology and the subsequent creation of microprocessors, such as the
Intel 4004, further decreased size and cost and further increased speed and reliability of computers. By the late
1970s, many products such as video recorders contained dedicated computers called microcontrollers, and they
started to appear as a replacement to mechanical controls in domestic appliances such as washing machines. The
1980s witnessed home computers and the now ubiquitous personal computer. With the evolution of the Internet,
personal computers are becoming as common as the television and the telephone in the household.
Modern smartphones are fully programmable computers in their own right, and as of 2009 may well be the most
common form of such computers in existence.
Computer 11
Programs
The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be
programmed. That is to say that some type of instructions (the program) can be given to the computer, and it will
carry process them. While some computers may have strange concepts "instructions" and "output" (see quantum
computing), modern computers based on the von Neumann architecture are often have machine code in the form of
an imperative programming language.
In practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions, as
do the programs for word processors and web browsers for example. A typical modern computer can execute billions
of instructions per second (gigaflops) and rarely makes a mistake over many years of operation. Large computer
programs consisting of several million instructions may take teams of programmers years to write, and due to the
complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors.
Stored program architecture

This section applies to most common RAM
machine-based computers.
In most cases, computer instructions are
simple: add one number to another, move
some data from one location to another,
send a message to some external device, etc.
These instructions are read from the
computer's memory and are generally
carried out (executed) in the order they were
given. However, there are usually A 1970s punched card containing one line from a FORTRAN program. The card
reads: "Z(1) = Y + W(1)" and is labelled "PROJ039" for identification purposes.
specialized instructions to tell the computer
to jump ahead or backwards to some other
place in the program and to carry on executing from there. These are called "jump" instructions (or branches).
Furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so that different sequences of instructions may
be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event. Many computers directly
support subroutines by providing a type of jump that "remembers" the location it jumped from and another
instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction.
Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read each word and line in
sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest.
Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and
over again until some internal condition is met. This is called the flow of control within the program and it is what
allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention.
Comparatively, a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two
numbers with just a few button presses. But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1,000 would take thousands
of button presses and a lot of time—with a near certainty of making a mistake. On the other hand, a computer may
be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions. For example:
mov #0, sum ; set sum to 0

mov #1, num ; set num to 1
loop: add num, sum ; add num to sum
add #1, num ; add 1 to num
cmp num, #1000 ; compare num to 1000
ble loop ; if num <= 1000, go back to 'loop'
Computer 12
halt ; end of program. stop running
Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human
intervention. It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in about a millionth of a
second.[21]
Bugs
Errors in computer programs are called "bugs". Bugs may be benign
and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle
effects. But in some cases they may cause the program to
"hang"—become unresponsive to input such as mouse clicks or
keystrokes, or to completely fail or "crash". Otherwise benign bugs
may sometimes be harnessed for malicious intent by an unscrupulous
user writing an "exploit"—code designed to take advantage of a bug
and disrupt a computer's proper execution. Bugs are usually not the
fault of the computer. Since computers merely execute the instructions
they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error The actual first computer bug, a moth found
or an oversight made in the program's design.[22] trapped on a relay of the Harvard Mark II
computer
Rear Admiral Grace Hopper is credited for having first used the term
'bugs' in computing after a dead moth was found shorting a relay of the Harvard Mark II computer in September
1947.[23]
Machine code
In most computers, individual instructions are stored as machine code with each instruction being given a unique
number (its operation code or opcode for short). The command to add two numbers together would have one opcode,
the command to multiply them would have a different opcode and so on. The simplest computers are able to perform
any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from—each
with a unique numerical code. Since the computer's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction
codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs (which are just lists of these instructions) can be
represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric
data. The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer's memory alongside the data they operate on is
the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program, architecture. In some cases, a computer might store some or all of
its program in memory that is kept separate from the data it operates on. This is called the Harvard architecture after
the Harvard Mark I computer. Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in
their designs, such as in CPU caches.
While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers (machine language) and while this
technique was used with many early computers,[24] it is extremely tedious and potentially error-prone to do so in
practice, especially for complicated programs. Instead, each basic instruction can be given a short name that is
indicative of its function and easy to remember—a mnemonic such as ADD, SUB, MULT or JUMP. These
mnemonics are collectively known as a computer's assembly language. Converting programs written in assembly
language into something the computer can actually understand (machine language) is usually done by a computer
program called an assembler. Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them (collectively
termed low-level programming languages) tend to be unique to a particular type of computer. For instance, an ARM
architecture computer (such as may be found in a PDA or a hand-held videogame) cannot understand the machine
language of an Intel Pentium or the AMD Athlon 64 computer that might be in a PC.[25]
Computer 13
Higher-level languages and program design

Though considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult
and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract high-level programming
languages that are able to express the needs of the programmer more conveniently (and thereby help reduce
programmer error). High level languages are usually "compiled" into machine language (or sometimes into assembly
language and then into machine language) using another computer program called a compiler.[26] High level
languages are less related to the workings of the target computer than assembly language, and more related to the
language and structure of the problem(s) to be solved by the final program. It is therefore often possible to use
different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different
types of computer. This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different
computer architectures such as personal computers and various video game consoles.
The task of developing large software systems presents a significant intellectual challenge. Producing software with
an acceptably high reliability within a predictable schedule and budget has historically been difficult; the academic
and professional discipline of software engineering concentrates specifically on this challenge.
Function
A general purpose computer has four main components: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the control unit, the
memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O). These parts are interconnected by busses, often
made of groups of wires.
Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned off or on by means
of an electronic switch. Each circuit represents a bit (binary digit) of information so that when the circuit is on it
represents a "1", and when off it represents a "0" (in positive logic representation). The circuits are arranged in logic
gates so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.
The control unit, ALU, registers, and basic I/O (and often other hardware closely linked with these) are collectively
known as a central processing unit (CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many separate components but since the
mid-1970s CPUs have typically been constructed on a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor.
Control unit
The control unit (often called a control system or
central controller) manages the computer's various
components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the
program instructions, transforming them into a series
of control signals which activate other parts of the
computer.[27] Control systems in advanced
computers may change the order of some instructions Diagram showing how a particular MIPS architecture instruction would
so as to improve performance. be decoded by the control system.
A key component common to all CPUs is the

program counter, a special memory cell (a register) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction
is to be read from.[28]
The control system's function is as follows—note that this is a simplified description, and some of these steps may be
performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:
1. Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.
2. Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the other systems.
3. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
Computer 14
4. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input device). The location
of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code.
5. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
6. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware to perform the
requested operation.
7. Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output device.
8. Jump back to step (1).
Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done
in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100
locations further down the program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as "jumps" and
allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction execution (both
examples of control flow).
It is noticeable that the sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself
like a short computer program—and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller
computer called a microsequencer that runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.
Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)

The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic.[29]
The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to adding and subtracting or might
include multiplying or dividing, trigonometry functions (sine, cosine, etc.) and square roots. Some can only operate
on whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating point to represent real numbers—albeit with limited
precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to
break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be
programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not
directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return boolean truth values (true or false)
depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is 64 greater than 65?").
Logic operations involve Boolean logic: AND, OR, XOR and NOT. These can be useful both for creating
complicated conditional statements and processing boolean logic.
Superscalar computers may contain multiple ALUs so that they can process several instructions at the same time.[30]
Graphics processors and computers with SIMD and MIMD features often provide ALUs that can perform arithmetic
on vectors and matrices.
Memory
A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which
numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered "address"
and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to "put
the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the number
that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer
into cell 1595". The information stored in memory may represent
practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can
be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not
differentiate between different types of information, it is the software's
Magnetic core memory was the computer
responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing
memory of choice throughout the 1960s, until it
but a series of numbers. was replaced by semiconductor memory.
Computer 15
In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits (called a
byte). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers (2^8 = 256); either from 0 to 255 or −128 to +127. To
store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight). When negative numbers
are required, they are usually stored in two's complement notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are usually
not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in
memory if it can be represented numerically. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.
The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more rapidly
than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of
CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every
time data is needed. As data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is
often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer's speed.
Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties: random-access memory or RAM and read-only memory or
ROM. RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is pre-loaded with data and
software that never changes, so the CPU can only read from it. ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial
start-up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but
ROM retains its data indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the BIOS that orchestrates
loading the computer's operating system from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or
reset. In embedded computers, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored
in ROM. Software stored in ROM is often called firmware, because it is notionally more like hardware than
software. Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is
also rewritable. It is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to
applications where high speed is unnecessary.[31]
In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories which are slower than registers
but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed
data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer's part.
Input/output (I/O)
I/O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the
outside world.[32] Devices that provide input or output to the computer
are called peripherals.[33] On a typical personal computer, peripherals
include input devices like the keyboard and mouse, and output devices
such as the display and printer. Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives
and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices.
Computer networking is another form of I/O.
Often, I/O devices are complex computers in their own right with their
Hard disk drives are common storage devices
own CPU and memory. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty used with computers.
or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to
display 3D graphics. Modern desktop computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in
performing I/O.
Computer 16
Multitasking
While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is
necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously. This is achieved by multitasking i.e.
having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn.[34]
One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an interrupt which can periodically cause the
computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead. By remembering where it was
executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running "at the
same time", then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program
switch each time. Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than
human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever
executing in any given instant. This method of multitasking is sometimes termed "time-sharing" since each program
is allocated a "slice" of time in turn.[35]
Before the era of cheap computers, the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same
computer.
Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly —
in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running. However, most programs spend much of their time
waiting for slow input/output devices to complete their tasks. If a program is waiting for the user to click on the
mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice" until the event it is waiting for has occurred.
This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run at the same time without
unacceptable speed loss.
Multiprocessing
Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several
CPUs in a multiprocessing configuration, a technique once employed
only in large and powerful machines such as supercomputers,
mainframe computers and servers. Multiprocessor and multi-core
(multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop
computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in
lower-end markets as a result.
Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures

that differ significantly from the basic stored-program architecture and Cray designed many supercomputers that used
from general purpose computers.[36] They often feature thousands of multiprocessing heavily.
CPUs, customized high-speed interconnects, and specialized
computing hardware. Such designs tend to be useful only for specialized tasks due to the large scale of program
organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once. Supercomputers usually see
usage in large-scale simulation, graphics rendering, and cryptography applications, as well as with other so-called
"embarrassingly parallel" tasks.
Computer 17
Networking and the Internet

Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple
locations since the 1950s. The U.S. military's SAGE system was the
first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of
special-purpose commercial systems like Sabre.[37]
In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout
the United States began to link their computers together using
telecommunications technology. This effort was funded by ARPA
(now DARPA), and the computer network that it produced was called
the ARPANET.[38] The technologies that made the Arpanet possible
spread and evolved.
In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions

Visualization of a portion of the routes on the
and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking
Internet.
involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer.
Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include
the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored
information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were
available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like
e-mail and the World Wide Web, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like
Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are
networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet
to communicate and receive information. "Wireless" networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant
networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments.
Misconceptions
A computer does not need to be electric, nor even have a processor, nor RAM, nor even hard disk. The minimal
definition of a computer is anything that transforms information in a purposeful way. However the traditional
definition of a computer is a device having memory, mass storage, processor (CPU), and Input & Output devices. [39]
Anything less would be a simple processor.
Required technology
Computational systems as flexible as a personal computer can be built out of almost anything. For example, a
computer can be made out of billiard balls (billiard ball computer); this is an unintuitive and pedagogical example
that a computer can be made out of almost anything. More realistically, modern computers are made out of
transistors made of photolithographed semiconductors.
Historically, computers evolved from mechanical computers and eventually from vacuum tubes to transistors.
There is active research to make computers out of many promising new types of technology, such as optical
computing, DNA computers, neural computers, and quantum computers. Some of these can easily tackle problems
that modern computers cannot (such as how quantum computers can break some modern encryption algorithms by
quantum factoring).
Computer 18
Computer architecture paradigms

Some different paradigms of how to build a computer from the ground-up:
RAM machines
These are the types of computers with a CPU, computer memory, etc., which understand basic instructions in a
machine language. The concept evolved from the Turing machine.
Brains
Brains are massively parallel processors made of neurons, wired in intricate patterns, that communicate via
electricity and neurotransmitter chemicals.
Programming languages
Such as the lambda calculus, or modern programming languages, are virtual computers built on top of other
computers.
Cellular automata
For example, the game of Life can create "gliders" and "loops" and other constructs that transmit information;
this paradigm can be applied to DNA computing, chemical computing, etc.
Groups and committees
The linking of multiple computers (brains) is itself a computer
Logic gates are a common abstraction which can apply to most of the above digital or analog paradigms.
The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile,
distinguishing them from calculators. The Church–Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any
computer with a minimum capability (being Turing-complete) is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks
that any other computer can perform. Therefore any type of computer (netbook, supercomputer, cellular automaton,
etc.) is able to perform the same computational tasks, given enough time and storage capacity.
Limited-function computers
Conversely, a computer which is limited in function (one that is not "Turing-complete") cannot simulate arbitrary
things. For example, simple four-function calculators cannot simulate a real computer without human intervention.
As a more complicated example, without the ability to program a gaming console, it can never accomplish what a
programmable calculator from the 1990s could (given enough time); the system as a whole is not Turing-complete,
even though it contains a Turing-complete component (the microprocessor). Living organisms (the body, not the
brain) are also limited-function computers designed to make copies of themselves; they cannot be reprogrammed
without genetic engineering.
Virtual computers
A "computer" is commonly considered to be a physical device. However, one can create a computer program which
describes how to run a different computer, i.e. "simulating a computer in a computer". Not only is this a constructive
proof of the Church-Turing thesis, but is also extremely common in all modern computers. For example, some
programming languages use something called an interpreter, which is a simulated computer built on top of the basic
computer; this allows programmers to write code (computer input) in a different language than the one understood
by the base computer (the alternative is to use a compiler). Additionally, virtual machines are simulated computers
which virtually replicate a physical computer in software, and are very commonly used by IT. Virtual machines are
also a common technique used to create emulators, such game console emulators.
Computer 19
Further topics
• Glossary of computers
Artificial intelligence
A computer will solve problems in exactly the way they are programmed to, without regard to efficiency nor
alternative solutions nor possible shortcuts nor possible errors in the code. Computer programs which learn and adapt
are part of the emerging field of artificial intelligence and machine learning.
Hardware
The term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible objects. Circuits, displays, power
supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and mice are all hardware.
History of computing hardware

First Generation Calculators Antikythera mechanism, Difference engine, Norden
(Mechanical/Electromechanical) bombsight
Programmable Devices Jacquard loom, Analytical engine, Harvard Mark I, Z3
Second Generation (Vacuum Tubes) Calculators Atanasoff–Berry Computer, IBM 604, UNIVAC 60,
UNIVAC 120
Programmable Devices Colossus, ENIAC, Manchester Small-Scale Experimental

Machine, EDSAC, Manchester Mark 1, Ferranti Pegasus,
Ferranti Mercury, CSIRAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC I, IBM 701,
IBM 702, IBM 650, Z22
Third Generation (Discrete transistors and Mainframes IBM 7090, IBM 7080, IBM System/360, BUNCH
SSI, MSI, LSI Integrated circuits)
Minicomputer PDP-8, PDP-11, IBM System/32, IBM System/36
Fourth Generation (VLSI integrated Minicomputer VAX, IBM System i

circuits)
4-bit microcomputer Intel 4004, Intel 4040
8-bit microcomputer Intel 8008, Intel 8080, Motorola 6800, Motorola 6809, MOS
Technology 6502, Zilog Z80
16-bit microcomputer Intel 8088, Zilog Z8000, WDC 65816/65802
32-bit microcomputer Intel 80386, Pentium, Motorola 68000, ARM architecture
[40] Alpha, MIPS, PA-RISC, PowerPC, SPARC, x86-64

64-bit microcomputer
Embedded computer Intel 8048, Intel 8051
Personal computer Desktop computer, Home computer, Laptop computer,

Personal digital assistant (PDA), Portable computer, Tablet
PC, Wearable computer
Theoretical/experimental Quantum computer, Chemical

computer, DNA computing, Optical
computer, Spintronics based computer
Computer 20
Other Hardware Topics

Peripheral device Input Mouse, Keyboard, Joystick, Image scanner, Webcam, Graphics tablet,
(Input/output) Microphone
Output Monitor, Printer, Loudspeaker
Both Floppy disk drive, Hard disk drive, Optical disc drive, Teleprinter
Computer busses Short range RS-232, SCSI, PCI, USB
Long range (Computer Ethernet, ATM, FDDI

networking)
Software
Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc.
When software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified (such as BIOS ROM in an IBM PC compatible),
it is sometimes called "firmware" to indicate that it falls into an uncertain area somewhere between hardware and
software.
Computer software
Operating Unix and BSD UNIX System V, IBM AIX, HP-UX, Solaris (SunOS), IRIX, List of BSD operating systems
system
GNU/Linux List of Linux distributions, Comparison of Linux distributions
Microsoft Windows Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows NT, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7
DOS 86-DOS (QDOS), PC-DOS, MS-DOS, DR-DOS, FreeDOS
Mac OS Mac OS classic, Mac OS X
Embedded and List of embedded operating systems

real-time
Experimental Amoeba, Oberon/Bluebottle, Plan 9 from Bell Labs
Library Multimedia DirectX, OpenGL, OpenAL
Programming library C standard library, Standard Template Library
Data Protocol TCP/IP, Kermit, FTP, HTTP, SMTP
File format HTML, XML, JPEG, MPEG, PNG
User interface Graphical user interface Microsoft Windows, GNOME, KDE, QNX Photon, CDE, GEM, Aqua
(WIMP)
Text-based user Command-line interface, Text user interface

interface
Computer 21
Application Office suite Word processing, Desktop publishing, Presentation program, Database management system, Scheduling
& Time management, Spreadsheet, Accounting software
Internet Access Browser, E-mail client, Web server, Mail transfer agent, Instant messaging
Design and Computer-aided design, Computer-aided manufacturing, Plant management, Robotic manufacturing,
manufacturing Supply chain management
Graphics Raster graphics editor, Vector graphics editor, 3D modeler, Animation editor, 3D computer graphics,
Video editing, Image processing
Audio Digital audio editor, Audio playback, Mixing, Audio synthesis, Computer music
Software engineering Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter, Debugger, Text editor, Integrated development environment, Software
performance analysis, Revision control, Software configuration management
Educational Edutainment, Educational game, Serious game, Flight simulator
Games Strategy, Arcade, Puzzle, Simulation, First-person shooter, Platform, Massively multiplayer, Interactive
fiction
Misc Artificial intelligence, Antivirus software, Malware scanner, Installer/Package management systems, File
manager
Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike natural
languages, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written
languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler
or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter. Sometimes programs are
executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques. There are thousands of different programming languages—some
intended to be general purpose, others useful only for highly specialized applications.
Lists of programming languages Timeline of programming languages, List of programming languages by category, Generational list of
programming languages, List of programming languages, Non-English-based programming languages
Commonly used Assembly ARM, MIPS, x86

languages
Commonly used high-level Ada, BASIC, C, C++, C#, COBOL, Fortran, Java, Lisp, Pascal, Object Pascal
programming languages
Commonly used Scripting Bourne script, JavaScript, Python, Ruby, PHP, Perl
languages
Professions and organizations

As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving
computers.
Computer 22
Computer-related professions
Hardware-related Electrical engineering, Electronic engineering, Computer engineering, Telecommunications engineering, Optical engineering,
Nanoengineering
Software-related Computer science, Desktop publishing, Human–computer interaction, Information technology, Information systems,
Computational science, Software engineering, Video game industry, Web design
The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for
many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.
Organizations
Standards groups ANSI, IEC, IEEE, IETF, ISO, W3C
Professional Societies ACM, AIS, IET, IFIP, BCS
Free/Open source software groups Free Software Foundation, Mozilla Foundation, Apache Software Foundation
Notes
[1] In 1946, ENIAC required an estimated 174 kW. By comparison, a modern laptop computer may use around 30 W; nearly six thousand times
less. "Approximate Desktop & Notebook Power Usage" (http:/ / www. upenn. edu/ computing/ provider/ docs/ hardware/ powerusage. html).
University of Pennsylvania. . Retrieved 2009-06-20.
[2] Early computers such as Colossus and ENIAC were able to process between 5 and 100 operations per second. A modern "commodity"
microprocessor (as of 2007) can process billions of operations per second, and many of these operations are more complicated and useful than
early computer operations. "Intel Core2 Duo Mobile Processor: Features" (http:/ / www. intel. com/ cd/ channel/ reseller/ asmo-na/ eng/
products/ mobile/ processors/ core2duo_m/ feature/ index. htm). Intel Corporation. . Retrieved 2009-06-20.
[3] computer, n. (http:/ / dictionary. oed. com/ ). Oxford English Dictionary (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. 1989. . Retrieved 2009-04-10
[4] "Discovering How Greeks Computed in 100 B.C." (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 07/ 31/ science/ 31computer. html?hp). The New York
Times. 31 July 2008. . Retrieved 27 March 2010.
[5] "Heron of Alexandria" (http:/ / www. mlahanas. de/ Greeks/ HeronAlexandria2. htm). . Retrieved 2008-01-15.
[6] [[Ancient Discoveries (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=rxjbaQl0ad8)], Episode 11: Ancient Robots]. History Channel. . Retrieved
2008-09-06
[7] Howard R. Turner (1997), Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction, p. 184, University of Texas Press, ISBN 0-292-78149-0
[8] Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East", Scientific American, May 1991, pp. 64–9 (cf. Donald
Routledge Hill, Mechanical Engineering (http:/ / home. swipnet. se/ islam/ articles/ HistoryofSciences. htm))
[9] From cave paintings to the internet (http:/ / www. historyofscience. com/ G2I/ timeline/ index. php?category=Computers+ & + the+ Human+
Brain) HistoryofScience.com
[10] See: Anthony Hyman, ed., Science and Reform: Selected Works of Charles Babbage (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press,
1989), page 298. It is in the collection of the Science Museum in London, England. (Delve (2007), page 99.)
[11] The analytical engine should not be confused with Babbage's difference engine which was a non-programmable mechanical calculator.
[12] "Columbia University Computing History: Herman Hollerith" (http:/ / www. columbia. edu/ acis/ history/ hollerith. html). Columbia.edu. .
Retrieved 2010-12-11.
[13] "Alan Turing – Time 100 People of the Century" (http:/ / 205. 188. 238. 181/ time/ time100/ scientist/ profile/ turing. html). Time Magazine.
. Retrieved 2009-06-13. "The fact remains that everyone who taps at a keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is
working on an incarnation of a Turing machine"
[14] "Atanasoff-Berry Computer" (http:/ / energysciencenews. com/ phpBB3/ viewtopic. php?f=1& t=98& p=264#p264). . Retrieved
2010-11-20.
[15] "Spiegel: The inventor of the computer's biography was published" (http:/ / www. spiegel. de/ netzwelt/ gadgets/ 0,1518,651776,00. html).
Spiegel.de. 2009-09-28. . Retrieved 2010-12-11.
[16] "Inventor Profile: George R. Stibitz" (http:/ / www. invent. org/ hall_of_fame/ 140. html). National Inventors Hall of Fame Foundation, Inc..
.
[17] Rojas, R. (1998). "How to make Zuse's Z3 a universal computer". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 20 (3): 51–54.
doi:10.1109/85.707574.
[18] B. Jack Copeland, ed., Colossus: The Secrets of Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers, Oxford University Press, 2006
[19] ""Robot Mathematician Knows All The Answers", October 1944, Popular Science" (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=PyEDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA86& dq=motor+ gun+ boat& hl=en& ei=LxTqTMfGI4-bnwfEyNiWDQ& sa=X& oi=book_result&
ct=result& resnum=6& ved=0CEIQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage& q=motor gun boat& f=true). Books.google.com. . Retrieved 2010-12-11.
Computer 23
[20] Lavington 1998, p. 37

[21] This program was written similarly to those for the PDP-11 minicomputer and shows some typical things a computer can do. All the text
after the semicolons are comments for the benefit of human readers. These have no significance to the computer and are ignored. (Digital
Equipment Corporation 1972)
[22] It is not universally true that bugs are solely due to programmer oversight. Computer hardware may fail or may itself have a fundamental
problem that produces unexpected results in certain situations. For instance, the Pentium FDIV bug caused some Intel microprocessors in the
early 1990s to produce inaccurate results for certain floating point division operations. This was caused by a flaw in the microprocessor design
and resulted in a partial recall of the affected devices.
[23] Taylor, Alexander L., III (1984-04-16). "The Wizard Inside the Machine" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ printout/ 0,8816,954266,00. html).
TIME. . Retrieved 2007-02-17.
[24] Even some later computers were commonly programmed directly in machine code. Some minicomputers like the DEC PDP-8 could be
programmed directly from a panel of switches. However, this method was usually used only as part of the booting process. Most modern
computers boot entirely automatically by reading a boot program from some non-volatile memory.
[25] However, there is sometimes some form of machine language compatibility between different computers. An x86-64 compatible
microprocessor like the AMD Athlon 64 is able to run most of the same programs that an Intel Core 2 microprocessor can, as well as programs
designed for earlier microprocessors like the Intel Pentiums and Intel 80486. This contrasts with very early commercial computers, which
were often one-of-a-kind and totally incompatible with other computers.
[26] High level languages are also often interpreted rather than compiled. Interpreted languages are translated into machine code on the fly, while
running, by another program called an interpreter.
[27] The control unit's role in interpreting instructions has varied somewhat in the past. Although the control unit is solely responsible for
instruction interpretation in most modern computers, this is not always the case. Many computers include some instructions that may only be
partially interpreted by the control system and partially interpreted by another device. This is especially the case with specialized computing
hardware that may be partially self-contained. For example, EDVAC, one of the earliest stored-program computers, used a central control unit
that only interpreted four instructions. All of the arithmetic-related instructions were passed on to its arithmetic unit and further decoded there.
[28] Instructions often occupy more than one memory address, so the program counters usually increases by the number of memory locations
required to store one instruction.
[29] David J. Eck (2000). The Most Complex Machine: A Survey of Computers and Computing. A K Peters, Ltd.. p. 54. ISBN 9781568811284.
[30] Erricos John Kontoghiorghes (2006). Handbook of Parallel Computing and Statistics. CRC Press. p. 45. ISBN 9780824740672.
[31] Flash memory also may only be rewritten a limited number of times before wearing out, making it less useful for heavy random access
usage. (Verma & Mielke 1988)
[32] Donald Eadie (1968). Introduction to the Basic Computer. Prentice-Hall. p. 12.
[33] Arpad Barna; Dan I. Porat (1976). Introduction to Microcomputers and the Microprocessors. Wiley. p. 85. ISBN 9780471050513.
[34] Jerry Peek; Grace Todino, John Strang (2002). Learning the UNIX Operating System: A Concise Guide for the New User. O'Reilly. p. 130.
ISBN 9780596002619.
[35] Gillian M. Davis (2002). Noise Reduction in Speech Applications. CRC Press. p. 111. ISBN 9780849309496.
[36] However, it is also very common to construct supercomputers out of many pieces of cheap commodity hardware; usually individual
computers connected by networks. These so-called computer clusters can often provide supercomputer performance at a much lower cost than
customized designs. While custom architectures are still used for most of the most powerful supercomputers, there has been a proliferation of
cluster computers in recent years. (TOP500 2006)
[37] Agatha C. Hughes (2000). Systems, Experts, and Computers. MIT Press. p. 161. ISBN 9780262082853. "The experience of SAGE helped
make possible the first truly large-scale commercial real-time network: the SABRE computerized airline reservations system..."
[38] "A Brief History of the Internet" (http:/ / www. isoc. org/ internet/ history/ brief. shtml). Internet Society. . Retrieved 2008-09-20.
[39] "What is a computer?" (http:/ / www. webopedia. com/ TERM/ C/ computer. html). Webopedia. . Retrieved 25 February 2011.
[40] Most major 64-bit instruction set architectures are extensions of earlier designs. All of the architectures listed in this table, except for Alpha,
existed in 32-bit forms before their 64-bit incarnations were introduced.
References
a
• Kempf, Karl (1961). Historical Monograph: Electronic Computers Within the Ordnance Corps (http://
ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/U-S-Ord-61.html). Aberdeen Proving Ground (United States Army).
• a Phillips, Tony (2000). "The Antikythera Mechanism I" (http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsnew/
column/antikytheraI-0400/kyth1.html). American Mathematical Society. Retrieved 2006-04-05.
• a Shannon, Claude Elwood (1940). A symbolic analysis of relay and switching circuits (http://hdl.handle.net/
1721.1/11173). Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
• Digital Equipment Corporation (1972) (PDF). PDP-11/40 Processor Handbook (http://bitsavers.vt100.net/dec/
www.computer.museum.uq.edu.au_mirror/D-09-30_PDP11-40_Processor_Handbook.pdf). Maynard, MA:
Digital Equipment Corporation.
Computer 24
• Verma, G.; Mielke, N. (1988). Reliability performance of ETOX based flash memories. IEEE International
Reliability Physics Symposium.
• Meuer, Hans; Strohmaier, Erich; Simon, Horst; Dongarra, Jack (2006-11-13). "Architectures Share Over Time"
(http://www.top500.org/lists/2006/11/overtime/Architectures). TOP500. Retrieved 2006-11-27.
• Lavington, Simon (1998). A History of Manchester Computers (2 ed.). Swindon: The British Computer Society.
ISBN 0902505018
• Stokes, Jon (2007). Inside the Machine: An Illustrated Introduction to Microprocessors and Computer
Architecture. San Francisco: No Starch Press. ISBN 978-1-59327-104-6.
External links
• A Brief History of Computing (http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/48681/
click-a-brief-history-of-computing#index/0) - slideshow by Life magazine
Linux 25
Linux
Linux
[1]
Tux the penguin, mascot of Linux
Company / developer GNU Project, Linus Torvalds and many others
Programmed in Assembly language, C
OS family Unix-like
Working state Current
Source model Free and open source software
Latest stable release [2] [3]

(March 7, 2011) [ +/− ]
Latest unstable release [4] [5]

(March 8, 2011) [ +/− ]
Marketing target Desktops, servers, embedded devices
Available language(s) Multi-lingual
Available programming Many

languages(s)
Supported platforms DEC Alpha, ARM, AVR32, Blackfin, ETRAX CRIS, FR-V, H8/300, Itanium, M32R, m68k, Microblaze, MIPS,
MN103, PA-RISC, PowerPC, s390, S+core, SuperH, SPARC, TILE64, x86, Xtensa
Kernel type Monolithic
Userland GNU and others
Default user interface Graphical (X Window System) and command-line interface
License [6]
Various including GNU General Public License, BSD License, Apache License, MIT License, and others
Official website [7]

kernel.org
Linux (commonly pronounced /ˈlɪnəks/ LIN-əks in English,[8] [9] also pronounced /ˈlɪnʊks/ LIN-ooks[10] in Europe)
refers to the family of Unix-like computer operating systems using the Linux kernel. Linux can be installed on a
wide variety of computer hardware, ranging from mobile phones, tablet computers and video game consoles, to
mainframes and supercomputers.[11] [12] [13] [14] Linux is a leading server operating system, and runs the 10 fastest
supercomputers in the world.[15]
The development of Linux is one of the most prominent examples of free and open source software collaboration;
typically all the underlying source code can be used, freely modified, and redistributed, both commercially and
non-commercially, by anyone under licenses such as the GNU General Public License. Typically Linux is packaged
in a format known as a Linux distribution for desktop and server use. Some popular mainstream Linux distributions
include Debian (and its derivatives such as Ubuntu), Fedora and openSUSE. Linux distributions include the Linux
Linux 26
kernel and supporting utilities and libraries to fulfill the distribution's intended use.
A distribution oriented toward desktop use may include the X Window System, the GNOME and KDE Plasma
desktop environments. Other distributions may include a less resource intensive desktop such as LXDE or Xfce for
use on older or less-powerful computers. A distribution intended to run as a server may omit any graphical
environment from the standard install and instead include other software such as the Apache HTTP Server and a
SSH server like OpenSSH. Because Linux is freely redistributable, it is possible for anyone to create a distribution
for any intended use. Commonly used applications with desktop Linux systems include the Mozilla Firefox
web-browser, the OpenOffice.org office application suite and the GIMP image editor.
The name "Linux" comes from the Linux kernel, originally written in 1991 by Linus Torvalds. The main supporting
user space system tools and libraries from the GNU Project (announced in 1983 by Richard Stallman) are the basis
for the Free Software Foundation's preferred name GNU/Linux.[16] [17]
History
Unix
The Unix operating system was conceived and implemented in 1969 at AT&T's Bell Laboratories in the United
States by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Douglas McIlroy, and Joe Ossanna. It was first released in 1971 and was
initially entirely written in assembly language, a common practice at the time. Later, in a key pioneering approach in
1973, Unix was re-written in the programming language C by Dennis Ritchie (with exceptions to the kernel and I/O).
The availability of an operating system written in a high-level language allowed easier portability to different
computer platforms. With a legal glitch forcing AT&T to license the operating system's source code, Unix quickly
grew and became widely adopted by academic institutions and businesses.
GNU
The GNU Project, started in 1983 by Richard Stallman, had the goal of creating a
"complete Unix-compatible software system" composed entirely of free software.
Work began in 1984.[18] Later, in 1985, Stallman started the Free Software
Foundation and wrote the GNU General Public License (GNU GPL) in 1989. By
the early 1990s, many of the programs required in an operating system (such as
libraries, compilers, text editors, a Unix shell, and a windowing system) were
completed, although low-level elements such as device drivers, daemons, and the
kernel were stalled and incomplete.[19] Linus Torvalds has said that if the GNU
kernel had been available at the time (1991), he would not have decided to write
Richard Stallman, founder of the
his own.[20]
GNU project
BSD
Although not released until 1992 due to legal complications, development of 386BSD, from which NetBSD and
FreeBSD descended, predated that of Linux. Linus Torvalds has said that if 386BSD had been available at the time,
he probably would not have created Linux.[21]
Linux 27
MINIX
Andrew S. Tanenbaum (left), author of the MINIX operating system and Linus Torvalds (right), principal author of the Linux kernel
MINIX is an inexpensive minimal Unix-like operating system, designed for education in computer science, written
by Andrew S. Tanenbaum. Starting with version 3, MINIX was free and redesigned for “serious” use.
In 1991 while attending the University of Helsinki, Torvalds, curious about the operating systems [22] and frustrated
by the licensing of MINIX limiting it to educational use only (which prevented any commercial use), began to work
on his own operating system which eventually became the Linux kernel.
Torvalds began the development of the Linux kernel on MINIX, and applications written for MINIX were also used
on Linux. Later Linux matured and it became possible for Linux to be developed under itself.[23] Also GNU
applications replaced all MINIX ones, because with code from the GNU system freely available, it was
advantageous if this could be used with the fledgling operating system. Code licensed under the GNU GPL can be
used in other projects, so long as they also are released under the same or a compatible license. In order to make the
Linux available for commercial use, Torvalds initiated a switch from his original license (which prohibited
commercial redistribution) to the GNU GPL.[24] Developers worked to integrate GNU components with Linux to
make a fully functional and free operating system.[19]
Commercial and popular uptake

Today, Linux distributions are used in every domain, from embedded systems to supercomputers,[25] [26] and have
secured a place in server installations often using the popular LAMP application stack.[27] Use of Linux distributions
in home and enterprise desktops has been growing.[28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] They have also gained popularity with
various local and national governments. The federal government of Brazil is well known for its support for Linux.[35]
[36]
News of the Russian military creating their own Linux distribution has also surfaced, and has come to fruition as
the G.H.ost Project.[37] The Indian state of Kerala has gone to the extent of mandating that all state high schools run
Linux on their computers.[38] [39] China uses Linux exclusively as the operating system for its Loongson processor
family to achieve technology independence.[40] In Spain some regions have developed their own Linux distributions,
which are widely used in education and official institutions, like gnuLinEx in Extremadura and Guadalinex in
Andalusia. Portugal is also using its own Linux distribution Caixa Mágica, used in the Magalhães netbook[41] and the
e-escola government program.[42] France and Germany have also taken steps towards the adoption of Linux.[43]
Linux distributions have also become popular in the netbook market, with many devices such as the ASUS Eee PC
and Acer Aspire One shipping with customized Linux distributions installed.[44]
Linux 28
Current development
Torvalds continues to direct the development of the kernel. Stallman heads the Free Software Foundation, which in
turn supports the GNU components. Finally, individuals and corporations develop third-party non-GNU components.
These third-party components comprise a vast body of work and may include both kernel modules and user
applications and libraries. Linux vendors and communities combine and distribute the kernel, GNU components, and
non-GNU components, with additional package management software in the form of Linux distributions.
Design
A Linux-based system is a modular Unix-like operating system. It derives much of its basic design from principles
established in Unix during the 1970s and 1980s. Such a system uses a monolithic kernel, the Linux kernel, which
handles process control, networking, and peripheral and file system access. Device drivers are either integrated
directly with the kernel or added as modules loaded while the system is running.
Separate projects that interface with the kernel provide much of the system's higher-level functionality. The GNU
userland is an important part of most Linux-based systems, providing the most common implementation of the C
library, a popular shell, and many of the common Unix tools which carry out many basic operating system tasks. The
graphical user interface (or GUI) used by most Linux systems is built on top of an implementation of the X Window
System.
User interface
Users operate a Linux-based system through a command line interface (CLI), a graphical user interface (GUI), or
through controls attached to the associated hardware, which is common for embedded systems. For desktop systems,
the default mode is usually a graphical user interface, by which the CLI is available through terminal emulator
windows or on a separate virtual console. Most low-level Linux components, including the GNU userland, use the
CLI exclusively. The CLI is particularly suited for automation of repetitive or delayed tasks, and provides very
simple inter-process communication. A graphical terminal emulator program is often used to access the CLI from a
Linux desktop. A Linux system typically implements a CLI by a shell, which is also the traditional way of
interacting with a Unix system. A Linux distribution specialized for servers may use the CLI as its only interface.
On desktop systems, the most popular user interfaces are the extensive desktop environments KDE Plasma Desktop,
GNOME, and Xfce,[45] though a variety of additional user interfaces exist. Most popular user interfaces are based on
the X Window System, often simply called "X". It provides network transparency and permits a graphical
application running on one system to be displayed on another where a user may interact with the application.[46]
Other GUIs may be classified as simple X window managers, such as FVWM, Enlightenment, and Window Maker,
which provide a minimalist functionality with respect to the desktop environments. A window manager provides a
means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interacts with the X Window
System. The desktop environments include window managers as part of their standard installations (Metacity for
GNOME, Kwin for KDE, Xfwm for Xfce as of 2010) although users may choose to use a different window manager
if preferred.
Linux 29
Development
The primary difference between Linux and many other popular
contemporary operating systems is that the Linux kernel and other
components are free and open source software. Linux is not the only
such operating system, although it is by far the most widely used.[47]
Some free and open source software licenses are based on the principle
of copyleft, a kind of reciprocity: any work derived from a copyleft
piece of software must also be copyleft itself. The most common free
software license, the GNU GPL, is a form of copyleft, and is used for
the Linux kernel and many of the components from the GNU project.
A summarized history of Unix-like operating
Linux based distributions are intended by developers for
systems showing Linux's origins. Of note, Linux
interoperability with other operating systems and established shares similar architectural designs and concepts
computing standards. Linux systems adhere to POSIX,[48] SUS,[49] (as part of the POSIX standard) but does not
ISO, and ANSI standards where possible, although to date only one share non-free source code with the original Unix
or MINIX.
Linux distribution has been POSIX.1 certified, Linux-FT.[50]
Free software projects, although developed in a collaborative fashion,
are often produced independently of each other. The fact that the software licenses explicitly permit redistribution,
however, provides a basis for larger scale projects that collect the software produced by stand-alone projects and
make it available all at once in the form of a Linux distribution.
A Linux distribution, commonly called a "distro", is a project that manages a remote collection of system software
and application software packages available for download and installation through a network connection. This allows
the user to adapt the operating system to his/her specific needs. Distributions are maintained by individuals,
loose-knit teams, volunteer organizations, and commercial entities. A distribution is responsible for the default
configuration of the installed Linux kernel, general system security, and more generally integration of the different
software packages into a coherent whole. Distributions typically use a package manager such as dpkg, Synaptic,
YAST, or Portage to install, remove and update all of a system's software from one central location.
Community
A distribution is largely driven by its developer and user communities. Some vendors develop and fund their
distributions on a volunteer basis, Debian being a well-known example. Others maintain a community version of
their commercial distributions, as Red Hat does with Fedora.
In many cities and regions, local associations known as Linux User Groups (LUGs) seek to promote their preferred
distribution and by extension free software. They hold meetings and provide free demonstrations, training, technical
support, and operating system installation to new users. Many Internet communities also provide support to Linux
users and developers. Most distributions and free software / open source projects have IRC chatrooms or
newsgroups. Online forums are another means for support, with notable examples being LinuxQuestions.org and the
Gentoo forums. Linux distributions host mailing lists; commonly there will be a specific topic such as usage or
development for a given list.
There are several technology websites with a Linux focus. Print magazines on Linux often include cover disks
including software or even complete Linux distributions.[51] [52]
Although Linux distributions are generally available without charge, several large corporations sell, support, and
contribute to the development of the components of the system and of free software. An analysis of the Linux kernel
showed 75 percent of the code from December 2008 to January 2010 was developed by programmers working for
corporations, leaving about 18 percent to the traditional, open source community.[53] Some of the major corporations
that contribute include Dell, IBM, HP, Oracle, Sun Microsystems (now part of Oracle), Novell, and Nokia. A
Linux 30
number of corporations, notably Red Hat, have built their entire business around Linux distributions.
The free software licenses, on which the various software packages of a distribution built on the Linux kernel are
based, explicitly accommodate and encourage commercialization; the relationship between a Linux distribution as a
whole and individual vendors may be seen as symbiotic. One common business model of commercial suppliers is
charging for support, especially for business users. A number of companies also offer a specialized business version
of their distribution, which adds proprietary support packages and tools to administer higher numbers of installations
or to simplify administrative tasks.
Another business model is to give away the software in order to sell hardware. This used to be the norm in the
computer industry, with operating systems such as CP/M, Apple DOS and versions of Mac OS prior to 7.5 freely
copyable (but not modifiable). As computer hardware standardized throughout the 1980s, it became more difficult
for hardware manufacturers to employ this tactic, as their OS would run on any computer that shared the same
architecture.
Programming on Linux
Linux distributions support dozens of programming languages. The most common collection of utilities for building
both Linux applications and operating system programs is found within the GNU toolchain, which includes the GNU
Compiler Collection (GCC) and the GNU build system. Amongst others, GCC provides compilers for Ada, C, C++,
Java, and Fortran. Proprietary compilers for Linux include the Intel C++ Compiler, Sun Studio, and IBM XL C/C++
Compiler. BASIC is supported in such forms as Gambas, FreeBASIC, and XBasic.
Most distributions also include support for PHP, Perl, Ruby, Python and other dynamic languages. While not as
common, Linux also supports C# (via Mono), Vala, and Scheme. A number of Java Virtual Machines and
development kits run on Linux, including the original Sun Microsystems JVM (HotSpot), and IBM's J2SE RE, as
well as many open-source projects like Kaffe.
The two main frameworks for developing graphical applications are those of GNOME and KDE. These projects are
based on the GTK+ and Qt widget toolkits, respectively, which can also be used independently of the larger
framework. Both support a wide variety of languages. There are a number of Integrated development environments
available including Anjuta, Code::Blocks, Eclipse, Geany, ActiveState Komodo, KDevelop, Lazarus, MonoDevelop,
NetBeans, Qt Creator and Omnis Studio, while the long-established editors Vim and Emacs remain popular.[54]
Uses
As well as those designed for general purpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for
different purposes including: computer architecture support, embedded systems, stability, security, localization to a
specific region or language, targeting of specific user groups, support for real-time applications, or commitment to a
given desktop environment. Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only free software. Currently, over
three hundred distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for
general-purpose use.[55]
Linux is a widely ported operating system kernel. The Linux kernel runs on a highly diverse range of computer
architectures: in the hand-held ARM-based iPAQ and the mainframe IBM System z9, System z10; in devices
ranging from mobile phones to supercomputers.[56] Specialized distributions exist for less mainstream architectures.
The ELKS kernel fork can run on Intel 8086 or Intel 80286 16-bit microprocessors, while the µClinux kernel fork
may run on systems without a memory management unit. The kernel also runs on architectures that were only ever
intended to use a manufacturer-created operating system, such as Macintosh computers (with both PowerPC and
Intel processors), PDAs, video game consoles, portable music players, and mobile phones.
There are several industry associations and hardware conferences devoted to maintaining and improving support for
diverse hardware under Linux, such as FreedomHEC.
Linux 31
Desktop
The popularity of Linux on standard desktop computers (and laptops) has been increasing over the years.[57]
Currently most distributions include a graphical user environment. The two most popular such environments are
GNOME and KDE Plasma Desktop, both of which are mature and support a wide variety of languages.
The performance of Linux on the desktop has been a controversial topic; for example in 2007 Con Kolivas accused
the Linux community of favoring performance on servers. He quit Linux kernel development because he was
frustrated with this lack of focus on the desktop, and then gave a "tell all" interview on the topic.[58] Since then a
significant amount of development has been undertaken in an effort to improve the desktop experience. Projects such
as upstart aim for a faster boot time.[59] There are several companies that have ported their own or other companies'
games to Linux.
Many types of applications available for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X are also available for Linux.
Commonly, either a free software application will exist which does the functions of an application found on another
operating system, or that application will have a version that works on Linux (such as Skype). Furthermore, the Wine
project provides a Windows compatibility layer to run unmodified Windows applications on Linux. CrossOver is a
proprietary solution based on the open source Wine project that supports running Windows versions of Microsoft
Office, Intuit applications such as Quicken and QuickBooks, Adobe Photoshop versions through CS2, and many
popular games such as World of Warcraft and Team Fortress 2. In other cases, where there is no Linux port of some
software in areas such as desktop publishing[60] and professional audio,[61] [62] [63] there is equivalent software
available on Linux.
Many popular applications are available for a wide variety of operating systems. For example Mozilla Firefox, and
OpenOffice.org have downloadable versions for all major operating systems. Furthermore, some applications were
initially developed for Linux (such as Pidgin, and GIMP) and, due to their popularity, were ported to other operating
systems (including Windows and Mac OS X).
A growing number of proprietary desktop applications are also supported on Linux;[64] see List of proprietary
software for Linux. In the field of animation and visual effects, most high end software, such as AutoDesk Maya,
Softimage XSI and Apple Shake, is available for Linux, Windows and/or Mac OS X.
The collaborative nature of free software development allows distributed teams to perform language localization of
some Linux distributions for use in locales where localizing proprietary systems would not be cost-effective. For
example the Sinhalese language version of the Knoppix distribution was available significantly before Microsoft
Windows XP was translated to Sinhalese. In this case the Lanka Linux User Group played a major part in developing
the localized system by combining the knowledge of university professors, linguists, and local developers.
Installing, updating and removing software in Linux is typically done through the use of package managers such as
Synaptic Package Manager, PackageKit, and Yum Extender. While major Linux distributions have extensive
repositories (tens of thousands of packages), not all the software that can run on Linux is available from the official
repositories. Alternatively, users can install packages from unofficial repositories, download pre-compiled packages
directly from websites, or compile the source code by themselves. All these methods come with different degrees of
difficulty, compiling the source code is in general considered a challenging process for new Linux users, but it's
hardly needed in modern distributions.
GNOME KDE Plasma Desktop Xfce LXDE

Linux 32
Servers, mainframes and supercomputers
The Oak Ridge National Laboratory's Jaguar supercomputer, until recently the world's fastest supercomputer. It uses the Cray Linux Environment
[65] [66]
as its operating system.
Servers designed for Linux
Linux distributions have long been used as server operating systems, and have risen to prominence in that area;
Netcraft reported in September 2006 that eight of the ten most reliable internet hosting companies ran Linux
distributions on their web servers.[67] (since June 2008, Linux distributions represented five of the top ten, FreeBSD
three of ten, and Microsoft two of ten;[68] since February 2010, Linux distributions represented six of the top ten,
FreeBSD two of ten, and Microsoft one of ten.[69] )
Linux distributions are the cornerstone of the LAMP server-software combination (Linux, Apache, MySQL,
Perl/PHP/Python) which has achieved popularity among developers, and which is one of the more common
platforms for website hosting.[70]
Linux distributions have become increasingly popular on mainframes in the last decade due to pricing, compared to
other mainframe operating systems. In December 2009, computer giant IBM reported that it would predominantly
market and sell mainframe-based Enterprise Linux Server.[71]
Linux distributions are also commonly used as operating systems for supercomputers: since November 2010, out of
the top 500 systems, 459 (91.8%) run a Linux distribution.[72] Linux was also selected as the operating system for
the world's most powerful supercomputer, IBM's Sequoia which will become operational in 2011.[73]
Embedded devices
Due to its low cost and ease of modification, an embedded Linux is
often used in embedded systems. Android, which is based on a
modified version of the Linux kernel, has become a major competitor
of Symbian OS which is used in the majority of smartphones — 25.5%
of smartphones sold worldwide during Q3 2010 were using Android
(Linux variations accounted for 27.6% in total)[74] Cell phones or
PDAs running on Linux and built on open source platform became a
trend from 2007, like Nokia N810, Openmoko's Neo1973, Motorola
RAZR2 v8, Motorola ROKR E8, Motorola MING series, Motorola
A Samsung Galaxy S running Android
Linux 33
ZINE and Google Android with a modified Linux Kernel. Adding to the trend, Palm, (Later acquired by HP),
produced its revamped new Operating System, called webOS, and introduced the Palm Pre, Palm Pre Plus, Palm
Pixi, Palm Pixi Plus, all using a modified Linux Kernel. The popular TiVo digital video recorder uses a customized
version of Linux.[75] Several network firewall and router standalone products, including several from Cisco/Linksys,
use Linux internally, using its advanced firewall and routing capabilities. The Korg OASYS and the Yamaha Motif
XS music workstations,[76] Yamaha S90XS/S70XS synthesizers, Yamaha Motif-Rack XS tone generator module,
and Roland RD-700GX digital piano also run Linux. Furthermore, Linux is used in the leading stage lighting control
system, FlyingPig/HighEnd WholeHogIII Console.[77]
Market share and uptake

Many quantitative studies of free / open source software focus on
topics including market share and reliability, with numerous studies
specifically examining Linux.[78] The Linux market is growing rapidly,
and the revenue of servers, desktops, and packaged software running
Linux was expected to exceed $35.7 billion by 2008.[79]
IDC's Q1 2007 report indicated that Linux held 12.7% of the overall
server market at that time.[80] This estimate was based on the number
of Linux servers sold by various companies, and did not include server
hardware purchased separately which had Linux installed on it later. In
September 2008 Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer admitted that 60% of
web-servers run Linux versus 40% that run Windows Server.[81]
Usage share of web client operating systems.
Primarily based on web server statistics, various companies estimated
(Source: Median values from Usage share of
that the desktop market share of Linux range from less than 1% to operating systems for February 2011.) Windows
4.8%.[82] In comparison, Microsoft operating systems hold more than XP (41.15%) Windows 7 (26.35%) Windows
85%.[28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [83] [84] Vista (14.57%) Mac OS X (7.07%) iOS
(Apple)iOS (iPhone) (2.20%) Linux (1.65%)
Analysts and proponents attribute the relative success of Linux to its
security, reliability, low cost, and freedom from vendor lock-in.[85] [86]
The Wine compatibility layer allow users to run many programs designed for Windows under Linux.[87] About half
of Wine's code has been contributed by volunteers and half sponsored by commercial interests including
CodeWeavers, which produces a commercial version of the software. Since 2009, Google has also provided funding
to the Wine project.[88] [89]
The XO laptop project of One Laptop Per Child is creating a new and potentially much larger Linux community
which is planned to reach millions of schoolchildren and their families in the developing world.[90] Major supporters
of the project include Google, Red Hat, and eBay.[91] Although the XO will have a Windows option, it will be
primarily deployed with Fedora Linux while using Sugar as the desktop environment.
For years Linux has been the platform of choice in the film industry. The first major film produced on Linux servers
was 1997's Titanic. Since then major studios including Dreamworks Animation, Pixar, Weta Digital, and Industrial
Light & Magic have migrated to Linux.[92] [93] [94] According to the Linux Movies Group, more than 95% of the
servers and desktops at large animation and visual effects companies use Linux.[95]
Linux 34
Copyright and naming

Linux and most GNU software are licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL). The GPL requires that
anyone who distributes Linux must make the source code (and any modifications) available to the recipient under the
same terms. Other key components of a software system may use other licenses; many libraries use the GNU Lesser
General Public License (LGPL), a more permissive variant of the GPL, and the X.org implementation of the X
Window System uses the MIT License.
Torvalds states that the Linux kernel will not move from version 2 of the GPL to version 3. He specifically dislikes
some provisions in the new license which prohibit the use of the software in digital rights management,[96] [97] and it
would also be impractical to obtain permission from all the copyright holders, who number in the thousands.[98]
A 2001 study of Red Hat Linux 7.1 found that this distribution contained 30 million source lines of code.[99] Using
the Constructive Cost Model, the study estimated that this distribution required about eight thousand man-years of
development time. According to the study, if all this software had been developed by conventional proprietary
means, it would have cost about $1.38 billion (2011 US dollars) to develop in the United States.[99]
Most of the code (71%) was written in the C programming language, but many other languages were used, including
C++, assembly language, Perl, Python, Fortran, and various shell scripting languages. Slightly over half of all lines
of code were licensed under the GPL. The Linux kernel itself was 2.4 million lines of code, or 8% of the total.[99]
In a later study, the same analysis was performed for Debian GNU/Linux version 4.0 (etch, which was released in
2007).[100] This distribution contained close to 283 million source lines of code, and the study estimated that it
would have cost US$7.6 billion (in 2011 dollars) to develop by conventional means.
In the United States, the name Linux is a trademark registered to Linus Torvalds.[101] Initially, nobody registered it,
but on 15 August 1994, William R. Della Croce, Jr. filed for the trademark Linux, and then demanded royalties from
Linux distributors. In 1996, Torvalds and some affected organizations sued him to have the trademark assigned to
Torvalds, and in 1997 the case was settled.[102] The licensing of the trademark has since been handled by the Linux
Mark Institute. Torvalds has stated that he trademarked the name only to prevent someone else from using it. LMI
originally charged a nominal sublicensing fee for use of the Linux name as part of trademarks,[103] but later changed
this in favor of offering a free, perpetual worldwide sublicense.[104]
GNU/Linux
The Free Software Foundation views Linux distributions that use GNU software as GNU variants and they ask that
such operating systems be referred to as GNU/Linux or a Linux-based GNU system.[105] The media and common
usage, however, refers to this family of operating systems simply as Linux, as do many large Linux distributions (e.g.
SuSE Linux or Mandriva Linux). Some distributions, notably those based on Debian, use GNU/Linux. The naming
issue remains controversial.
References
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Linux 35
[10] Torvalds used /ˈlɪnʊks/ in English.

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Linux 36
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Linux 37
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Linux 38
External links
• Linux (http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Software/Operating_Systems/Linux/) at the Open Directory
Project
• Graphical map of GNU/Linux OS Internals (http://www.makelinux.net/system/new)
• Linux kernel website and archives (http://www.kernel.org/)
• Linux.org (http://www.linux.org/)
Microsoft Windows
Microsoft Windows
The latest Windows release, Windows 7, showing the desktop and Start menu
Company / developer Microsoft
Programmed in [1]
C, C++ and Assembly language
OS family Windows 9x, Windows CE and Windows NT
Working state Publicly released
Source model Closed source / Shared source
Initial release November 20, 1985 (as Windows 1.0)
Latest stable release ], Windows Server 2008 R2

[2]
NT 6.1 Build 7601 (6.1.7601.17514.101119-1850)] (February 22, 2011) [ +/− ]
Latest unstable release None [3]

[ +/− ]
Marketing target Personal computing
Available language(s) [4]

Multilingual (listing of available Windows 7 language packs )
Update method Windows Update
Supported platforms IA-32, x86-64 and Itanium
Kernel type Hybrid
Default user interface Graphical (Windows Explorer)
License Proprietary commercial software
Official website [5]

/windows/default.aspx
Microsoft Windows is a series of software operating systems and graphical user interfaces produced by Microsoft.
Microsoft first introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20, 1985 as an add-on to
MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUIs).[6] Microsoft Windows came to
dominate the world's personal computer market, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. As of
October 2009, Windows had approximately 91% of the market share of the client operating systems for usage on the
Internet.[7] [8] [9] The most recent client version of Windows is Windows 7; the most recent server version is
Windows Server 2008 R2; the most recent mobile OS version is Windows Phone 7.
Versions
The term Windows collectively describes any or all of several generations of Microsoft operating system products.
These products are generally categorized as follows:
Early versions
The history of Windows dates back to September 1981, when Chase
Bishop, a computer scientist, designed the first model of an electronic
device and project "Interface Manager" was started. It was announced
in November 1983 (after the Apple Lisa, but before the Macintosh)
under the name "Windows", but Windows 1.0 was not released until
November 1985.[10] The shell of Windows 1.0 was a program known
as the MS-DOS Executive. Other supplied programs were Calculator,
Windows 1.0, the first version, released in 1985
Calendar, Cardfile, Clipboard viewer, Clock, Control Panel, Notepad,
Paint, Reversi, Terminal, and Write. Windows 1.0 did not allow
overlapping windows. Instead all windows were tiled. Only dialog boxes could appear over other windows.
Windows 2.0 was released in October 1987 and featured several improvements to the user interface and memory
management.[10] Windows 2.0 allowed application windows to overlap each other and also introduced more
sophisticated keyboard-shortcuts. It could also make use of expanded memory.
Windows 2.1 was released in two different versions: Windows/386 employed the 386 virtual 8086 mode to multitask
several DOS programs, and the paged memory model to emulate expanded memory using available extended
memory. Windows/286 (which, despite its name, would run on the 8086) still ran in real mode, but could make use
of the high memory area.
The early versions of Windows were often thought of as simply graphical user interfaces, mostly because they ran on
top of MS-DOS and used it for file system services.[11] However, even the earliest 16-bit Windows versions already
assumed many typical operating system functions; notably, having their own executable file format and providing
their own device drivers (timer, graphics, printer, mouse, keyboard and sound) for applications. Unlike MS-DOS,
Windows allowed users to execute multiple graphical applications at the same time, through cooperative
multitasking. Windows implemented an elaborate, segment-based, software virtual memory scheme, which allowed
it to run applications larger than available memory: code segments and resources were swapped in and thrown away
when memory became scarce, and data segments moved in memory when a given application had relinquished
processor control.
Windows 3.0 and 3.1

Windows 3.0 (1990) and Windows 3.1 (1992) improved the design,
mostly because of virtual memory and loadable virtual device drivers
(VxDs) that allowed them to share arbitrary devices between
multitasked DOS windows. Also, Windows applications could now run
in protected mode (when Windows was running in Standard or 386
Enhanced Mode), which gave them access to several megabytes of
memory and removed the obligation to participate in the software
virtual memory scheme. They still ran inside the same address space,
where the segmented memory provided a degree of protection, and
Windows 3.0, released in 1990
multi-tasked cooperatively. For Windows 3.0, Microsoft also rewrote
critical operations from C into assembly.
Windows 95, 98, and Me

Windows 95 was released in August 1995, featuring a new user
interface, support for long file names of up to 255 characters, and the
ability to automatically detect and configure installed hardware (plug
and play). It could natively run 32-bit applications, and featured
several technological improvements that increased its stability over
Windows 3.1. There were several OEM Service Releases (OSR) of
Windows 95, each of which was roughly equivalent to a service pack.
Microsoft's next release was Windows 98 in June 1998. Microsoft

released a second version of Windows 98 in May 1999, named Windows 95, released in 1995
Windows 98 Second Edition (often shortened to Windows 98 SE).
In February 2000, Windows 2000 was released, followed by Windows Me in September 2000 (Me standing for
Millennium Edition). Windows Me updated the core from Windows 98, but adopted some aspects of Windows 2000
and removed the "boot in DOS mode" option. It also added a new feature called System Restore, allowing the user to
set the computer's settings back to an earlier date.
Windows NT family
The NT family of Windows systems was fashioned and marketed for higher reliability business use. The first release
was NT 3.1 (1993), numbered "3.1" to match the consumer Windows version, which was followed by NT 3.5
(1994), NT 3.51 (1995), NT 4.0 (1996), and Windows 2000, which is the last NT-based Windows release that does
not include Microsoft Product Activation. Windows NT 4.0 was the first in this line to implement the "Windows 95"
user interface (and the first to include Windows 95’s built-in 32-bit runtimes).
Microsoft then moved to combine their consumer and business operating systems with Windows XP that was
released in August 2001. It came both in home and professional versions (and later niche market versions for tablet
PCs and media centers); they also diverged release schedules for server operating systems. Windows Server 2003,
released a year and a half after Windows XP, brought Windows Server up to date with Windows XP. After a lengthy
development process, Windows Vista was released toward the end of 2006, and its server counterpart, Windows
Server 2008 was released in early 2008. On July 22, 2009, Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 were released
as RTM (release to manufacturing). Windows 7 was released on October 22, 2009.
64-bit operating systems

Windows NT included support for several different platforms before the x86-based personal computer became
dominant in the professional world. Versions of NT from 3.1 to 4.0 variously supported PowerPC, DEC Alpha and
MIPS R4000, some of which were 64-bit processors, although the operating system treated them as 32-bit
processors.
With the introduction of the Intel Itanium architecture (also known as IA-64), Microsoft released new versions of
Windows to support it. Itanium versions of Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 were released at the same time
as their mainstream x86 (32-bit) counterparts. On April 25, 2005, Microsoft released Windows XP Professional x64
Edition and Windows Server 2003 x64 Editions to support the x86-64 (or x64 in Microsoft terminology)
architecture. Microsoft dropped support for the Itanium version of Windows XP in 2005. Windows Vista is the first
end-user version of Windows that Microsoft has released simultaneously in x86 and x64 editions. Windows Vista
does not support the Itanium architecture. The modern 64-bit Windows family comprises AMD64/Intel64 versions
of Windows 7, and Windows Server 2008, in both Itanium and x64 editions. Windows Server 2008 R2 drops the
32-bit version, although Windows 7 does not.
Windows CE
Windows CE (officially known as Windows Embedded Compact), is an
edition of Windows that runs on minimalistic computers, like satellite
navigation systems and some mobile phones. Windows Embedded
Compact is based on its own dedicated kernel, dubbed Windows CE
kernel. Microsoft licenses Windows CE to OEMs and device makers.
The OEMs and device makers can modify and create their own user
interfaces and experiences, while Windows CE provides the technical
foundation to do so.
The latest upcoming version of Windows CE,
Windows CE was used in the Dreamcast along with Sega's own Windows Embedded Compact 7, displaying a
proprietary OS for the console. Windows CE is the core from which possible UI for what the media player can look
Windows Mobile is derived. Microsoft's latest mobile OS, Windows like.
Phone 7, is based on components from both Windows CE 6.0 R3 and

the upcoming Windows CE 7.0.
Windows Embedded Compact is not to be confused with Windows XP
Embedded or Windows NT 4.0 Embedded, modular editions of
Windows based on Windows NT kernel.
Future of Windows
Windows 8, the successor to Windows 7, is currently in development.
Microsoft Windows CE 5.0
Microsoft has posted a blog entry in Dutch on October 22, 2010
hinting that Windows 8 will be released after 2 years.[12] Also, during
the pre-Consumer Electronics Show keynote, Microsoft's CEO announced that Windows 8 will also run on ARM
CPUs. Since ARM CPUs are usually in the form of SOCs found in mobile devices, this new announcement implies
that Windows 8 will be more compatible with mobile devices such as netbooks, tablet personal computers, and
smartphones.[13]
History
Microsoft has taken two parallel routes in its
operating systems. One route has been for
the home user and the other has been for the
professional IT user. The dual routes have
generally led to home versions having
greater multimedia support and less
functionality in networking and security,
and professional versions having inferior
multimedia support and better networking
and security.
The Windows family tree. The first version of Microsoft Windows,

version 1.0, released in November 1985,
lacked a degree of functionality and achieved little popularity, and was to compete with Apple’s own operating
system. Windows 1.0 is not a complete operating system; rather, it extends MS-DOS. Microsoft Windows version
2.0 was released in November 1987 and was slightly more popular than its predecessor. Windows 2.03 (release date
January 1988) had changed the OS from tiled windows to overlapping windows. The result of this change led to
Apple Computer filing a suit against Microsoft alleging infringement on Apple's copyrights.[14] [15]
Microsoft Windows version 3.0, released in 1990, was the first Microsoft Windows version to achieve broad
commercial success, selling 2 million copies in the first six months.[16] [17] It featured improvements to the user
interface and to multitasking capabilities. It received a facelift in Windows 3.1, made generally available on March
1, 1992. Windows 3.1 support ended on December 31, 2001.[18]
In July 1993, Microsoft released Windows NT based on a new kernel. Windows NT 3.1 was the first release of
Windows NT. NT was considered to be the professional OS and was the first Windows version to utilize preemptive
multitasking. Windows NT would later be retooled to also function as a home operating system, with Windows XP.
On August 24, 1995, Microsoft released Windows 95, a new, and major, consumer version that made further
changes to the user interface, and also used preemptive multitasking. Windows 95 was designed to replace not only
Windows 3.1, but also Windows for Workgroups, and MS-DOS. It was also the first Windows operating system to
use Plug and Play capabilities. The changes Windows 95 brought to the desktop were revolutionary, as opposed to
evolutionary, such as those in Windows 98 and Windows Me. Mainstream support for Windows 95 ended on
December 31, 2000 and extended support for Windows 95 ended on December 31, 2001.[19]
The next in the consumer line was Microsoft Windows 98 released on June 25, 1998. It was followed with the
release of Windows 98 Second Edition (Windows 98 SE) in 1999. Mainstream support for Windows 98 ended on
June 30, 2002 and extended support for Windows 98 ended on July 11, 2006.[20]
As part of its "professional" line, Microsoft released Windows 2000 in February 2000. During 2004 part of the
Source Code for Windows 2000 was leaked onto the Internet. This was bad for Microsoft as the same kernel used in
Windows 2000 was used in Windows XP. The consumer version following Windows 98 was Windows Me
(Windows Millennium Edition). Released in September 2000, Windows Me implemented a number of new
technologies for Microsoft: most notably publicized was "Universal Plug and Play". Windows Me was heavily
criticized due to slowness, freezes and hardware problems.
In October 2001, Microsoft released Windows XP, a version built on the Windows NT kernel that also retained the
consumer-oriented usability of Windows 95 and its successors. This new version was widely praised in computer
magazines.[21] It shipped in two distinct editions, "Home" and "Professional", the former lacking many of the
superior security and networking features of the Professional edition. Additionally, the first "Media Center" edition
was released in 2002,[22] with an emphasis on support for DVD and TV functionality including program recording
and a remote control. Mainstream support for Windows XP ended on April 14, 2009. Extended support will continue
until April 8, 2014.[23]
In April 2003, Windows Server 2003 was introduced, replacing the Windows 2000 line of server products with a
number of new features and a strong focus on security; this was followed in December 2005 by Windows Server
2003 R2.
On January 30, 2007, Microsoft released Windows Vista. It contains a number of new features, from a redesigned
shell and user interface to significant technical changes, with a particular focus on security features. It is available in
a number of different editions, and has been subject to some criticism.
On October 22, 2009, Microsoft released Windows 7. Unlike its predecessor, Windows Vista, which introduced a
large number of new features, Windows 7 was intended to be a more focused, incremental upgrade to the Windows
line, with the goal of being compatible with applications and hardware which Windows Vista was not at the time.[24]
Windows 7 has multi-touch support, a redesigned Windows shell with a new taskbar, referred to as the Superbar, a
home networking system called HomeGroup,[25] and performance improvements.
Timeline of releases
Usage share
Source [27] [28] [29] [30] [31]
Net Market Share W3Counter Global Stats StatOwl W3Schools
Date January 2011 February 2011 February 2011 February 2011 January 2011
All versions 89.53% 83.63% 91.53% 86.93% 86.2%
Windows XP 55.26% 41.47% 48% 40.89% 45.3%
Windows 7 22.31% 28.27% 29.12% 26.73% 31.1%
Windows Vista 11.66% 13.52% 14.41% 17.91% 8.6%
Windows Server 2003 — 0.19% — 1.17% 1%
Windows 2000 0.27% 0.18% — 0.23% 0.2%
Windows 98 0.03% — — — —
Security
Consumer versions of Windows were originally designed for ease-of-use on a single-user PC without a network
connection, and did not have security features built in from the outset.[32] However, Windows NT and its successors
are designed for security (including on a network) and multi-user PCs, but were not initially designed with Internet
security in mind as much, since, when it was first developed in the early 1990s, Internet use was less prevalent.[33]
These design issues combined with programming errors (e.g. buffer overflows) and the popularity of Windows
means that it is a frequent target of computer worm and virus writers. In June 2005, Bruce Schneier’s Counterpane
Internet Security reported that it had seen over 1,000 new viruses and worms in the previous six months.[34] In 2005,
Kaspersky Lab found around 11,000 malicious programs—viruses, Trojans, back-doors, and exploits written for
Windows.[35]
Microsoft releases security patches through its Windows Update service approximately once a month (usually the
second Tuesday of the month), although critical updates are made available at shorter intervals when necessary.[36]
In versions of Windows after and including Windows 2000 SP3 and Windows XP, updates can be automatically
downloaded and installed if the user selects to do so. As a result, Service Pack 2 for Windows XP, as well as Service
Pack 1 for Windows Server 2003, were installed by users more quickly than it otherwise might have been.[37]
While the Windows 9x series offered the option of having profiles for multiple users, they had no concept of access
privileges, and did not allow concurrent access; and so were not true multi-user operating systems. In addition, they
implemented only partial memory protection. They were accordingly widely criticised for lack of security.
The Windows NT series of operating systems, by contrast, are true multi-user, and implement absolute memory
protection. However, a lot of the advantages of being a true multi-user operating system were nullified by the fact
that, prior to Windows Vista, the first user account created during the setup process was an administrator account,
which was also the default for new accounts. Though Windows XP did have limited accounts, the majority of home
users did not change to an account type with fewer rights – partially due to the number of programs which
unnecessarily required administrator rights – and so most home users ran as administrator all the time.
Windows Vista changes this[38] by introducing a privilege elevation system called User Account Control. When
logging in as a standard user, a logon session is created and a token containing only the most basic privileges is
assigned. In this way, the new logon session is incapable of making changes that would affect the entire system.
When logging in as a user in the Administrators group, two separate tokens are assigned. The first token contains all
privileges typically awarded to an administrator, and the second is a restricted token similar to what a standard user
would receive. User applications, including the Windows Shell, are then started with the restricted token, resulting in
a reduced privilege environment even under an Administrator account. When an application requests higher
privileges or "Run as administrator" is clicked, UAC will prompt for confirmation and, if consent is given (including
administrator credentials if the account requesting the elevation is not a member of the administrators group), start
the process using the unrestricted token.[39]
File permissions
All Windows versions from Windows NT 3 have been based on a file system permission system referred to as AGLP
(Accounts, Global, Local, Permissions) AGDLP which in essence where file permissions are applied to the
file/folder in the form of a 'local group' which then has other 'global groups' as members. These global groups then
hold other groups or users depending on different Windows versions used. This system varies from other vendor
products such as Linux and NetWare due to the 'static' allocation of permission being applied directory to the file or
folder. However using this process of AGLP/AGDLP/AGUDLP allows a small number of static permissions to be
applied and allows for easy changes to the account groups without reapplying the file permissions on the files and
folders.
Windows Defender
On January 6, 2005, Microsoft released a Beta version of Microsoft AntiSpyware, based upon the previously
released Giant AntiSpyware. On February 14, 2006, Microsoft AntiSpyware became Windows Defender with the
release of Beta 2. Windows Defender is a freeware program designed to protect against spyware and other unwanted
software. Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 users who have genuine copies of Microsoft Windows can freely
download the program from Microsoft's web site, and Windows Defender ships as part of Windows Vista and 7.[40]
Third-party analysis
In an article based on a report by Symantec,[41] internetnews.com has described Microsoft Windows as having the
"fewest number of patches and the shortest average patch development time of the five operating systems it
monitored in the last six months of 2006."[42]
A study conducted by Kevin Mitnick and marketing communications firm Avantgarde in 2004 found that an
unprotected and unpatched Windows XP system with Service Pack 1 lasted only 4 minutes on the Internet before it
was compromised, and an unprotected and also unpatched Windows Server 2003 system was compromised after
being connected to the internet for 8 hours.[43] However, it is important to note that this study does not apply to
Windows XP systems running the Service Pack 2 update (released in late 2004), which vastly improved the security
of Windows XP. The computer that was running Windows XP Service Pack 2 was not compromised. The AOL
National Cyber Security Alliance Online Safety Study of October 2004 determined that 80% of Windows users were
infected by at least one spyware/adware product. Much documentation is available describing how to increase the
security of Microsoft Windows products. Typical suggestions include deploying Microsoft Windows behind a
hardware or software firewall, running anti-virus and anti-spyware software, and installing patches as they become
available through Windows Update.[44]
Emulation software
Emulation allows the use of some Windows applications without using Microsoft Windows. These include:
• Wine — a free and open source software implementation of the Windows API, allowing one to run many
Windows applications on x86-based platforms, including Linux and Mac OS X. Wine developers refer to it as a
"compatibility layer";[45] and make use of Windows-style APIs to emulate the Windows environment.
• CrossOver — A Wine package with licensed fonts. Its developers are regular contributors to Wine, and focus
on Wine running officially supported applications.
• Cedega — TransGaming Technologies' proprietary fork of Wine, designed specifically for running games
written for Microsoft Windows under Linux. A version of Cedega known as Cider is used by some video game
publishers to allow Windows games to run on Mac OS X. Since wine was licensed under the LGPL Cedega
has been unable to port the improvements made to wine to their proprietary codebase.
• Darwine — A bundling of Wine to the PowerPC Macs running OS X by running wine on top of QEMU. Intel
Macs use the same Wine as other *NIX x86 systems.
• ReactOS — An open-source OS that is intended to run the same software as Windows, originally designed to
simulate Windows NT 4.0, now aiming at Windows XP and Vista/7 compatibility. It has been in the development
stage since 1996.
References
[1] "NT Server Training: Architectural Overview. Lesson 2 - Windows NT System Overview." (http:/ / www. microsoft. com/ technet/ archive/
winntas/ training/ ntarchitectoview/ ntarc_2. mspx). Microsoft TechNet. Microsoft. . Retrieved December 9, 2010.
[2] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template%3Alatest_stable_software_release%2Fmicrosoft_windows?action=edit& preload=Template:LSR/
syntax
[3] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template%3Alatest_preview_software_release%2Fmicrosoft_windows?action=edit&
preload=Template:LSR/ syntax
[4] http:/ / msdn. microsoft. com/ goglobal/ ee461121#AvailableLanguagePacks
[5] http:/ / www. microsoft. com/ windows/ default. aspx
[6] "The Unusual History of Microsoft Windows" (http:/ / inventors. about. com/ od/ mstartinventions/ a/ Windows. htm?rd=1). . Retrieved April
22, 2007.
[7] "Global Web Stats" (http:/ / www. w3counter. com/ globalstats. php). W3Counter, Awio Web Services. September 2009. . Retrieved October
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[8] "Operating System Market Share" (http:/ / marketshare. hitslink. com/ operating-system-market-share. aspx?qprid=8). Net Applications.
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[9] "Top 5 Operating Systems on Oct 09" (http:/ / gs. statcounter. com/ #os-ww-monthly-200910-200910-bar). StatCounter. October 2009. .
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[10] Petzold
[11] "Windows Evolution" (http:/ / news. soft32. com/ windows-evolution_1629. html). Soft32.com News. .
[12] "Microsoft says Windows 8 roughly two years away" (http:/ / news. cnet. com/ 8301-13860_3-20020544-56. html?tag=mncol;title). CNET
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[13] MaximumPC (Future US, Inc.). January 6, 2011. http:/ / www. maximumpc. com/ article/ home/ next_windows_run_arm_too. Retrieved
February 5, 2011.
[14] "The Apple vs. Microsoft GUI Lawsuit" (http:/ / lowendmac. com/ orchard/ 06/ apple-vs-microsoft. html). 2006. . Retrieved March 12,
2008.
[15] "Apple Computer, Inc. v. MicroSoft Corp., 35 F.3d 1435 (9th Cir. 1994)" (http:/ / home. earthlink. net/ ~mjohnsen/ Technology/ Lawsuits/
appvsms. html). . Retrieved March 12, 2008.
[16] "Chronology of Personal Computer Software" (http:/ / www. islandnet. com/ ~kpolsson/ compsoft/ soft1991. htm). .
[17] "Microsoft Company" (http:/ / www. thocp. net/ companies/ microsoft/ microsoft_company. htm). .
[18] "Windows 3.1 Standard Edition Support Lifecycle" (http:/ / support. microsoft. com/ lifecycle/ ?LN=en-us& p1=3078& x=10& y=11). .
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[19] "Windows 95 Support Lifecycle" (http:/ / support. microsoft. com/ lifecycle/ ?p1=7864). Microsoft. . Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[20] "Windows 98 Standard Edition Support Lifecycle" (http:/ / support. microsoft. com/ lifecycle/ ?p1=6513). Microsoft. . Retrieved January 3,
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[21] David Coursey (August 31, 2001). "Your top Windows XP questions answered! (Part One)" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/
20071219121319/ http:/ / review. zdnet. com/ 4520-6033_16-4206367. html). ZDNet. CNET. Archived from the original (http:/ / review.
zdnet. com/ 4520-6033_16-4206367. html) on December 19, 2007. . Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[22] "A Look at Freestyle and Mira" (http:/ / www. winsupersite. com/ article/ showcase/ a-look-at-freestyle-and-mira. aspx). Paul Thurrott's
SuperSite for Windows. Penton. September 3, 2002. . Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[23] "Windows XP Professional Lifecycle Support" (http:/ / support. microsoft. com/ lifecycle/ ?p1=3223). . Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[24] Mike Nash (October 28, 2008). "Windows 7 Unveiled Today at PDC 2008" (http:/ / windowsteamblog. com/ blogs/ windows7/ archive/
2008/ 10/ 28/ windows-7-unveiled-today-at-pdc-2008. aspx). Windows Team Blog. Microsoft. . Retrieved November 11, 2008.
[25] Brandon LeBlanc (October 28, 2008). "How Libraries & HomeGroup Work Together in Windows 7" (http:/ / windowsteamblog. com/
blogs/ windowsexperience/ archive/ 2008/ 10/ 28/ how-libraries-amp-homegroup-work-together-in-windows-7. aspx). Windows Team Blog.
Microsoft. . Retrieved November 11, 2008.
[26] "Windows 98 Second Edition Support Lifecycle" (http:/ / support. microsoft. com/ lifecycle/ ?p1=6898). Microsoft. . Retrieved January 3,
2011.
[27] "Operating System Market Share" (http:/ / marketshare. hitslink. com/ operating-system-market-share. aspx?qprid=10& qpcal=1&
qpcal=1& qptimeframe=M& qpsp=144). Net Market Share. Net Applications. January 2011. . Retrieved February 5, 2011.
[28] "Global Web Stats" (http:/ / www. w3counter. com/ globalstats. php?year=2011& month=2). W3Counter. Awio Web Services. February
2011. . Retrieved March 13, 2011.
[29] "StatCounter Global Stats" (http:/ / gs. statcounter. com/ #os-ww-monthly-201102-201102-bar). Global Stats. StatCounter. February 2011. .
Retrieved March 13, 2011.
[30] "Operating System Version Usage" (http:/ / statowl. com/ operating_system_market_share_by_os_version. php?1=1& timeframe=last_6&
interval=month& chart_id=4& fltr_br=& fltr_os=& fltr_se=& fltr_cn=& limit[]=windows& limit[]=mac& limit[]=linux&
timeframe=last_month). StatOwl. StatOwl.com. February 2011. . Retrieved March 13, 2011.
[31] "OS Platform Statistics" (http:/ / www. w3schools. com/ browsers/ browsers_os. asp). W3Schools. Refsnes Data. January 2011. . Retrieved
February 5, 2011.
[32] Multi-user memory protection was not introduced until Windows NT and XP, and a computer's default user was an administrator until
Windows Vista. Source: UACBlog (http:/ / blogs. msdn. com/ uac/ ).
[33] "Telephones and Internet Users by Country, 1990 and 2005" (http:/ / www. infoplease. com/ ipa/ A0883396. html). Information Please
Database. . Retrieved June 9, 2009.
[34] Bruce Schneier (June 15, 2005). "Crypto-Gram Newsletter" (http:/ / www. schneier. com/ crypto-gram-0506. html). Counterpane Internet
Security, Inc.. . Retrieved April 22, 2007.
[35] Andy Patrizio (April 27, 2006). "Linux Malware On The Rise" (http:/ / www. internetnews. com/ dev-news/ article. php/ 3601946).
InternetNews. QuinStreet. . Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[36] Ryan Naraine (June 8, 2005). "Microsoft's Security Response Center: How Little Patches Are Made" (http:/ / www. eweek. com/ c/ a/
Windows/ Microsofts-Security-Response-Center-How-Little-Patches-Are-Made/ ). eWeek. Ziff Davis Enterprise. . Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[37] John Foley (October 20, 2004). "Windows XP SP2 Distribution Surpasses 100 Million" (http:/ / www. informationweek. com/ news/
security/ vulnerabilities/ showArticle. jhtml?articleID=50900297). InformationWeek. UBM TechWeb. . Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[38] Microsoft describes in detail the steps taken to combat this in a TechNet bulletin. Source: Windows Vista Security and Data Protection
Improvements (http:/ / technet. microsoft. com/ en-us/ windowsvista/ aa905073. aspx).
[39] Kenny Kerr (September 29, 2006). "Windows Vista for Developers – Part 4 – User Account Control" (http:/ / weblogs. asp. net/ kennykerr/
archive/ 2006/ 09/ 29/ Windows-Vista-for-Developers-_1320_-Part-4-_1320_-User-Account-Control. aspx). . Retrieved March 15, 2007.
[40] "Windows Vista: Features" (http:/ / www. Microsoft. com/ Windowsvista/ features/ foreveryone/ security. mspx). Microsoft. . Retrieved
July 20, 2006.
[41] "Symantec Internet Security Threat Report Trends for July – December 2006" (http:/ / eval. symantec. com/ mktginfo/ enterprise/
white_papers/ ent-whitepaper_internet_security_threat_report_xi_03_2007. en-us. pdf) (PDF). Internet Security Threat Report Volume XI.
Symantec. March 2007. . Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[42] Andy Patrizio (March 21, 2007). "Report Says Windows Gets The Fastest Repairs" (http:/ / www. internetnews. com/ security/ article. php/
3667201). InternetNews. QuinStreet. . Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[43] "Automated "Bots" Overtake PCs Without Firewalls Within 4 Minutes" (http:/ / www. avantgarde. com/ ttln113004. html). Avantgarde.
Avantgarde. November 30, 2004. . Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[44] Richard Rogers (September 21, 2009). "5 Steps To Securing Your Windows XP Home Computer" (http:/ / www. computer-security-news.
com/ 0969/ 5-steps-to-securing-your-windows-xp-home-computer). Computer Security News. Computer Security News. . Retrieved January 3,
2011.
[45] Wine (http:/ / www. winehq. org/ )
External links
• Official website (http://http://www.microsoft.com/windows/default.aspx)
• Microsoft Developer Network (http://www.msdn.com/)
• Windows Client Developer Resources (http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-au/windows/default.aspx?WT.
mc_id=soc-c-au-loc--2010oct)
• Microsoft Windows History Timeline (http://www.microsoft.com/Windows/WinHistoryIntro.mspx)
• Pearson Education, InformIT (http://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=1358665&rll=1) – History of
Microsoft Windows
• Microsoft Windows 7 for Government (http://www.microsoft.com/industry/government/products/windows7/
default.aspx)
Novell 49
Novell
Novell, Inc.
Type [1]
Public (NASDAQ: NOVL )
Industry Computer software
Founded 1979
Headquarters Waltham, Massachusetts
Key people Ron Hovsepian,

chief executive officer
Products SUSE Linux Enterprise Server

SUSE Linux Enterprise
Desktop
Novell eDirectory
Novell Open Enterprise Server
Novell NetWare
Novell GroupWise
Novell ZENworks
Novell Identity Manager
Novell Access Manager
PlateSpin
Revenue $862.18 million (2009)
Operating income $211.96 million (2009)
Net income $212.74 million (2009)
Total assets $1.902 billion (2009)
Total equity $0.934 billion (2009)
Employees 3,600 (December 2009)
Website [2]
novell.com
Novell, Inc. (pronounced /noʊˈvɛl/; NASDAQ: NOVL

[1]
) is a multinational software and services corporation
headquartered in Waltham, Massachusetts. The
company specializes in enterprise operating systems,
such as SUSE Linux Enterprise and Novell NetWare;
identity, security, and systems management solutions;
and collaboration solutions, such as Novell Groupwise
and Novell Pulse.
Novell was instrumental in making the Utah Valley a

focus for technology and software development. Novell
technology contributed to the emergence of local area Novell's current headquarters in Waltham
networks, which displaced the dominant mainframe
Novell 50
computing model and changed computing worldwide.

Today, a primary focus of the company is on
developing open source software for enterprise clients.
History
Novell owes its beginnings to the Eyring Research
Institute (ERI) in Provo, Utah. Dennis Fairclough,
Drew Major, Dale Neibaur and Kyle Powell left ERI
and took with them the experience and technology to
found Novell. Fairclough was the member of the
original team that started Novell Data Systems. Major,
Neibaur and Powell went on to form SuperSet
Novell's former headquarters in Provo
Software. Fairclough was the original founder of
Novell, when Ray Noorda came to Novell, who was
dismissed in a route to build upon a new future for Novell. Major, Neibaur and Powell continued to support Novell
through their SuperSet Software Group.
At ERI, Fairclough, Major, Neibaur and Powell worked on government contracts for the Intelligent Systems
Technology Project, and gained an important insight into the ARPANET and related technologies, ideas which
would become crucial to the foundation of Novell.
ERI spawned many high-tech spin-offs, including WordPerfect, Novell, and Dynix in computers and
some in the military and communication areas that have all benefited the world. The Life of Frank
Carlyle Harmon, written by Cleo Harmon, wife of the Founder and the Secretary of the President at
Eyring Research Institute, published 1999.
The company began in 1979 in Provo, Utah as Novell Data Systems Inc., a hardware manufacturer producing
CP/M-based systems. It was co-founded by George Canova, Darin Field, and Jack Davis. Victor V. Vurpillat
brought the deal to Pete Musser, chairman of the board of Safeguard Scientifics, Inc., who provided the seed
funding. The company initially did not do well, and both Davis and Canova left the firm. The Safeguard board then
ordered Musser to shut Novell down. Musser contacted two Safeguard investors and investment bankers, Barry
Rubenstein and Fred Dolin, who guaranteed to raise the necessary funds to continue the business as a software
company. They, along with Jack Messman, interviewed and hired Raymond Noorda. The required funding was
obtained through a rights offering to Safeguard shareholders, managed by the Cleveland brokerage house, Prescott,
Ball and Turben, and guaranteed by Rubenstein and Dolin.
In January 1983, the company’s name was shortened to Novell Inc., and Raymond Noorda became the head of the
firm. Later that same year, the company introduced its most significant product, the multi-platform network
operating system (NOS), Novell NetWare.
NetWare
The first Novell product was a proprietary hardware server based on Motorola 6800 CPU supporting 6 MUX ports
per board for a maximum of 4 boards per server using a star topology with twisted pair cabling. A network interface
card (NIC) was developed for the IBM PC industry standard architecture (ISA) bus. The server was using the first
network operating system (NOS) called ShareNet. Later, ShareNet was ported to run on the Intel platform and
renamed NetWare. The first commercial release of NetWare was version 1.5.
Novell based its network protocol on Xerox Network Systems (XNS), and created its own standards from IDP and
SPP, which it named internetwork packet exchange (IPX) and sequenced packet exchange (SPX). File and print
services ran on the NetWare core protocol (NCP) over IPX, as did routing information protocol (RIP) and service
Novell 51
advertising protocol (SAP).

NetWare uses Novell DOS (formerly DR-DOS) as a boot loader. Novell DOS is similar to MS-DOS and IBM
PC-DOS, but no extra license for DOS is required; this came from the acquisition of Digital Research in 1991.
Novell had already acquired Kanwal Rekhi’s company Excelan, which manufactured smart ethernet cards and
commercialized the internet protocol TCP/IP, solidifying Novell’s presence in these niche areas.
It was around this time also that Ed Tittel of HTML For Dummies notoriety became involved with Novell. Tittel
took up various positions within the newly acquired Excelan, becoming national marketing manager for Novell,
before being named as Novell’s director of technical marketing.
Novell did extremely well throughout the 1980s. It aggressively expanded its market share by selling the expensive
ethernet cards at cost. By 1990, Novell had an almost monopolistic position in NOS for any business requiring a
network.
With this market leadership, Novell began to acquire and build services on top of its NetWare operating platform.
These services extended NetWare’s capabilities with such products as NetWare for SAA, Novell multi-protocol
router, GroupWise and BorderManager.
Beyond NetWare
However, Novell was also diversifying, moving away from its smaller users to target large corporations, although the
company later attempted to refocus with NetWare for Small Business. It reduced investment in research and was
slow to improve the product administration tools, although it was helped by the fact its products typically needed
little “tweaking” – they just ran.
In June 1993, the company bought Unix System Laboratories from AT&T,[3] acquiring rights to the Unix operating
system, apparently in an attempt to challenge Microsoft. In 1994, Novell bought WordPerfect, as well as the Quattro
Pro from Borland. These acquisitions did not last. Novell in 1995 assigned portions of its Unix business to the Santa
Cruz Operation. WordPerfect and Quattro Pro were sold to Corel in 1996. DR-DOS was also sold to Caldera
Systems in 1996.
As Novell faced new competition, Noorda was replaced by Robert Frankenberg in 1994,[4] and was followed by
several CEOs who served short terms. One of Novell’s major innovations at the time was Novell Directory Services
(NDS), now known as eDirectory. Introduced with NetWare v4.0. eDirectory replaced the old Bindery server and
user management technology employed by NetWare 3.x and earlier.
In 1996, the company began a move into internet-enabled products, replacing reliance on the proprietary IPX
protocol in favor of a native TCP/IP stack. The move was accelerated when Eric Schmidt became CEO in 1997 and
then Christopher Stone was brought in. The result was NetWare v5.0, released in October 1998, which leveraged and
built upon eDirectory and introduced new functions, such as Novell Cluster Services (NCS, a replacement for
SFT-III) and Novell Storage Services (NSS), a replacement for the Traditional/FAT filesystem used by earlier
versions of NetWare. While NetWare v5.0 introduced native TCP/IP support into the NOS, IPX was still supported,
allowing for smooth transitions between environments and avoiding the “forklift upgrades” frequently required by
competing environments. Similarly, the Traditional/FAT file system remained a supported option.
However, by 1999, Novell had lost its dominant market position, and was continually being out-marketed by
Microsoft, which gained access to corporate data centers by bypassing technical staff and selling directly to
corporate executives. Microsoft worked to make NetWare look second place with Windows 2000 features such as
Group Policy. Microsoft’s GUI was also more popular and looked more modern than the character-based Novell
interfaces. With falling revenue, the company focused on net services and platform interoperability. Products such as
eDirectory and GroupWise were made multi-platform.
In October 2000, Novell released a new product, dubbed DirXML, which was designed to synchronize data, often
user information, between disparate directory and database systems. This product leveraged the speed and
Novell 52
functionality of eDirectory to store information, and would later become the Novell Identity Manager and form the
foundation of a core product set within Novell.
In July 2001, Novell acquired the consulting company, Cambridge Technology Partners, founded in Cambridge, MA
by John J. Donovan, to expand offerings into services. Novell felt that the ability to offer solutions (a combination of
software and services) was key to satisfying customer demand. The merger was apparently against the firm’s
software development culture, and the finance personnel at the firm also recommended against it. The CEO of CTP,
Jack Messman, engineered the merger using his position as a board member of Novell since its inception and soon
became CEO of Novell as well. He then hired back Chris Stone as vice chairman and CEO to set the course for
Novell's strategy into open source and enterprise Linux. With the acquisition of CTP, Novell moved its headquarters
to Massachusetts.[5]
In July 2002, Novell acquired SilverStream Software, a leader in web services-oriented application, but a laggard in
the marketplace. The business area called Novell exteNd contains XML and Web Service tools based on Java EE.
Linux for Business

In August 2003, Novell acquired Ximian, a developer of open source Linux applications (Evolution, Red Carpet and
Mono). This acquisition signaled Novell’s plans to move its collective product set onto a Linux kernel.
In November 2003, Novell acquired SuSE, a developer of a leading Linux distribution, which led to a major shift of
power in Linux distributions. IBM also invested $50 million to show support of the SuSE acquisition. Within the
openSUSE project, Novell continues to contribute to SUSE Linux. openSUSE can be downloaded freely and
available as boxed retail product [6] with formal support [7].
In the summer of 2003, Novell released “Novell eNterprise Linux Services” (NNLS), which ported some of the
services traditionally associated with NetWare to SUSE LINUX Enterprise Server (SLES) version 8.
In November 2004, Novell released the Linux-based enterprise desktop Novell Linux Desktop v9. This product was
based on Ximian Desktop and SUSE Linux Professional 9.1. This was Novell’s first attempt to get into the enterprise
desktop market.
The successor product to NetWare, Open Enterprise Server, was released in March 2005. OES offers all the services
previously hosted by NetWare v6.5, and added the choice of delivering those services using either a NetWare v6.5 or
SUSE Linux Enterprise Server v9 kernel. The release was aimed to persuade NetWare customers to move to Linux.
Stagnancy
From 2003 through 2005 Novell released many products across its portfolio, with the intention of arresting falling
market share and to move away from dependencies on other Novell products, but the launches were not as successful
as Novell had hoped. In late 2004, Chris Stone left the company after an apparent control issue with then Chairman
Jack Messman.[8] In an effort to cut costs, Novell announced a round of layoffs in late 2005. While revenue from its
Linux business continued to grow, the growth was not fast enough to stop the decrease in revenue of NetWare.
While the company’s revenue was not falling as rapidly, it wasn't growing, either. Lack of clear direction or effective
management meant that Novell took longer than expected to complete its restructuring.
In June 2006, chief executive Jack Messman and chief finance officer Joseph Tibbetts were fired, with Ronald
Hovsepian, Novell’s president and chief operating officer, appointed chief executive, and Dana Russell,
vice-president of finance and corporate controller, appointed interim CFO.
Novell 53
'Your Linux is Ready'

In August 2006, Novell released the SUSE Linux Enterprise 10 (SLE 10) series. SUSE Linux Enterprise Server was
the first enterprise class Linux server to offer virtualization based on the Xen hypervisor. SUSE Linux Enterprise
Desktop (popularly known as SLED) featured a new user-friendly GUI and XGL-based 3D display capabilities. The
release of SLE 10 was marketed with the phrase 'Your Linux is Ready', meant to convey that Novell’s Linux
offerings were ready for the enterprise. In late September 2006 Novell announced a real time version of SLES called
SUSE Linux Enterprise Real Time (SLERT) based on technology from Concurrent Computer Corporation.
Agreement with Microsoft

On November 2, 2006, Novell and Microsoft announced a joint patent agreement to cover their respective
products.[9] [10] They also promised to work more closely, to improve compatibility of software, setting up a joint
research facility. Executives of both companies hope such cooperation will lead to better compatibility between
Microsoft Office and OpenOffice.org and better virtualization techniques.
Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer said of the deal, “This set of agreements will really help bridge the divide between
open-source and proprietary source software.”[11]
The deal involves upfront payment of $348 million from Microsoft to Novell for patent cooperation and SLES
subscription. Additionally, Microsoft will spend around $46 million yearly, over the next 5 years, for marketing and
selling a combined SLES/Windows Server offering and related virtualization solutions, while Novell will pay at least
$40 million yearly to Microsoft, in the same period.[12]
[13]
One of the first results of this partnership was that Novell adapted the OpenXML/ODF Translator for use in
OpenOffice.org.[14]
Reaction of FOSS community

Initial reaction from members of the FOSS community over the patent protection was mostly critical, with
expressions of concern that Novell had “sold out” and of doubt that the GPL would allow distribution of code,
including the Linux kernel, under this exclusive agreement.[15] [16] [17]
In a letter to the FOSS development community on November 9, Bradley M. Kuhn, CTO of the Software Freedom
Law Center described the agreement as “worse than useless.”[18] In a separate development the chairman of the
SFLC, Eben Moglen, reported that Novell had offered cooperation with the SFLC to permit a confidential audit to
determine the compliance of the agreement with the GPL (version 2).[19] Richard Stallman, founder of the Free
Software Foundation, said in November that changes coming with the version 3 of the GPL will preclude such
deals.[20] When the final revision of the third version of the GPL license was decided, the deal between Microsoft
and Novell was grandfathered in. A new clause will let companies like Novell distribute GPLv3 software even if
they have made such patent partnerships in the past, as long as the partnership deal was made before March 28, 2007
(GPLv3 Section 11 paragraph 7 [21] ).
On November 12, the Samba team expressed strong disapproval of Novell’s announcement on November 2 and
asked Novell to reconsider.[22] The Samba team includes an employee of Novell, Jeremy Allison, who confirmed in
a comment on Slashdot that the statement was agreed on by all members of the team,[23] and later quit his job at
Novell in protest.[24]
In early February 2007, Reuters reported that the Free Software Foundation had announced that it was reviewing
Novell’s right to sell Linux versions, and may even ban Novell from selling Linux, because of an agreement.[25]
However Eben Moglen later said that he was quoted out of context.[26] He was explaining that GPL version 3 will be
designed to block similar deals in the future. Currently, Novell is not violating the GPL version 2[27] but the GPLv3
prevents such deals being made in the future.[28] Microsoft has released two public covenants not to sue for the
infringement of its patents when using Moonlight. The two covenants require the implementation to not to be
Novell 54
released in GPLv3 .[29] [30]
Intelligent Workload Management

In December 2009, Novell announced its intention to lead the market it identified as intelligent workload
management (IWM).[31] The company's products will enable customers to manage diverse workloads in a
heterogeneous data center.
Acquisition by Attachmate
Novell had long been rumored to be a target for acquisition by a variety of other companies. On March 2, 2010,
Elliott Associates, L.P., an institutional investor with approximately 8.5% stock ownership of Novell, offered to
acquire the company for $5.75 per share in cash, or $1 billion.[32] On March 20, 2010, The company declined the
offer and stated that the proposal was inadequate and that it undervalued the Company's franchise and growth
prospects.[33]
Novell announced in November 2010 that it had agreed to be acquired by Attachmate for $2.2 billion. Attachmate
plans to operate Novell as two units, one being SUSE. As part of the deal, 882 patents owned by Novell are planned
to be sold to CPTN Holdings LLC, a consortium of companies led by Microsoft[34] [35] and including Apple, EMC,
and Oracle.[36] According to Novell's SEC filing,[37] the patents "relate primarily to enterprise-level computer
systems management software, enterprise-level file management and collaboration software in addition to patents
relevant to our identity and security management business, although it is possible that certain of such issued patents
and patent applications read on a range of different software products".[38] Additionally, the future owner anticipates
no change to the relationship between the SUSE business and the openSUSE project as a result of this transaction.[39]
Organization
Novell is organized into product development, sales, and services divisions.
In December 2009, Novell reorganized its product development business units into two Business Units: Security,
Management, and Operating Platforms; and Collaboration Solutions.[40]
The Collaboration Solutions Business Unit is based around providing applications for office productivity products:
• GroupWise
• Novell Conferencing
• Novell Data Synchronizer
• Novell File Management Suite
• Novell File Reporter
• Novell Storage Manager
• Novell Vibe Cloud
• Novell Vibe OnPrem
• Open Enterprise Server
The Security, Management, and Operating Platforms Business Unit is based around the remainder of Novell's
products (formerly separated into Systems and Resource Management, Identity and Security Management, and Open
Platform Solutions business units):
• Novell eDirectory
• Novell Identity Manager (IDM) - manage access across a heterogeneous group of networks, systems, and
information.
• Novell Access Manager – successor of Border Manager and iChain. Provides identity-based access to internal
resources from inside or outside a given network, including web applications, SSLVPN applications, and so forth.
Also includes federation based on Liberty and SAML.
Novell 55
• Novell BorderManager – Manages access to external websites from inside the corporate network based on
identities and policies.
• Novell Sentinel – A Security Event Manager that provides event collection, automated correlation, analysis, and
reporting and is now fully integrated with Identity Manager and other IDM solutions to provide visibility into user
activities.
• Novell Secure Login – A Single Sign-On product. It is listed in the leader's quadrant in Gartner Magic Quadrant
2009 & 2010.
• Novell Service Desk - An ITIL Certified Service Management Product OEM'd from LiveTime Software, Inc.
• ZENworks toolset, which provides application and patch management for servers, desktops, and handheld devices
and asset management for Windows and Linux.
• The PlateSpin portfolio, which provides virtualization and workload management tools, allowing data center
operators to plan and implement virtualization projects, and provide ongoing workload protection using both
software and the Forge disaster recovery appliance
• Novell Operations Center - Business Service Management solution to communicate service performance in
alignment with business objectives while controlling the infrastructure in the data center across physical, virtual
and cloud environments.
• SUSE Linux Enterprise
• SUSE Studio
• OpenOffice
• Mono
Novell are founding members of the Open Invention Network, a group of companies that acquires patents, with the
aim to protect free and open source software against the threat of patent infringement cases.
Support Ecosystem
Novell has a wide array of web-based and phone-based support options for its customers. The Novell support
website[41] was named one of the “Ten Best Web Support Sites” in [2003] by the Association of Support
Professionals (ASP). In [2003], Novell received an Outstanding Website Award in the WebAward Competition for
their Cool Solutions [42] website with a searchable database of advice, tools and problem fixes submitted by users
from all over the world.[43]
Novell also hosts support forums[44] covering all of their products including SUSE Linux Enterprise, GroupWise,
ZENworks and NetWare. Novell offers users both HTTP and NNTP access to the support forums and a search
option.[45] Whilst Novell encourages the use of these forums, it does not officially monitor these forums. The forums
are maintained by SysOps[46] that have a demonstrated competency with the various products and volunteer their
time to try and help the wider community.
Novell maintains a number of wikis[47] with up-to-date information on a number of its products. For instance, as new
NetWare service packs are released the NetWare wiki[48] is updated with tips and known issues with the service
packs. In some cases, the service packs themselves will have their own wiki with information added from feedback
provided in the support forums.
Novell 56
Acquisitions
• Santa Clara Systems, Inc. - 1986
• Cache Data Products - 1986
• Softcraft - 1987
• CXI - 1988
• Excelan - 1989
• Digital Research – 1991
• International Business Software Ltd. - 1992
• Serius - 1993
• Unix System Laboratories – 1993
• WordPerfect & Quattro Pro (Borland) – 1994
• Netoria - 1999
• Novetrix - 1999
• JustOn – 1999
• PGSoft - 2000
• Novetrix - 2001
• Cambridge Technology Partners – 2001
• Callisto Software, Inc. - 2001
• SilverStream Software – 2002
• Ximian – 2003
• SuSE – 2003
• Salmon – 2004
• Tally Systems – 2005
• Immunix – 2005
• e-Security, Inc – 2006
• RedMojo – 2007
• Senforce [49] – 2007
• Platespin - 2008
• SiteScape - 2008
• Command Control and Compliance Auditor, (Fortefi) - 2008
• Managed Objects, Inc. - 2008
Certification
Novell is one of the first computer companies to provide certification to its products. They include:
• Certified Novell Administrator (CNA)
• Certified Novell Engineer (CNE)
• Certified Linux Professional 10 (CLP 10)
• Certified Linux Engineer 10 (CLE 10)
Novell 57
Products
• Novell iFolder
• Mono
• Novell Access Manager (formerly iChain)
• Novell Client
• Novell Cloud Manager
• Novell Cloud Security Service
• Novell Conferencing
• Novell Data Synchronizer
• Novell eDirectory
• Novell Evolution
• Novell File Management Suite
• Novell File Reporter
• Novell GroupWise
• Novell Identity Manager
• Novell NetWare
• Novell Open Enterprise Server
• Novell Open Workgroup Suite
• Novell Open Workgroup Suite Small Business Edition
• Novell Operations Center
• Novell Secure Login
• Novell Sentinel
• Novell Sentinel Log Manager
• Novell Service Desk
• Novell Storage Manager
• Novell Teaming + Conferencing
• Novell Vibe Cloud (formerly Novell Pulse)
• Novell Vibe OnPrem (formerly Novell Teaming)
• PlateSpin Forge
• PlateSpin Migrate
• PlateSpin Orchestrate
• PlateSpin Protect
• PlateSpin Recon
• Subscription Management Tool
• SUSE Linux Enterprise Server
• SUSE Linux Enterprise Desktop
• SUSE Linux Enterprise Real Time
• SUSE Linux Enterprise Thin Client
• SUSE Linux Retail Solution
• SUSE Studio
• ZENworks Application Virtualization
• ZENworks Asset Management
• ZENworks Configuration Management
• ZENworks Endpoint Security Management
• ZENworks Handheld Management
• ZENworks Linux Management
• ZENworks Network Access Control
Novell 58
• ZENworks Patch Management

• ZENworks Server Management
References
[1] http:/ / quotes. nasdaq. com/ asp/ SummaryQuote. asp?symbol=NOVL& selected=NOVL
[2] http:/ / www. novell. com/
[3] "Grokline Project:Novell" (http:/ / www. grokline. net/ detail_vendor. php?id=20). Grokline. . Retrieved 2008-06-19.
[4] Fisher, Lawrence M. (April 6, 1994). Longtime Hewlett Executive Named Novell Chief. New York Times
[5] Sweeney, Phil (2002-04-29). "Cambridge-bound Novell pins recovery on CTP buy - Boston Business Journal:" (http:/ / www. bizjournals.
com/ boston/ stories/ 2002/ 04/ 29/ story5. html). Bizjournals.com. . Retrieved 2008-11-04.
[6] http:/ / www. open-slx. com/ doku. php
[7] http:/ / www. open-slx. com/ doku. php?id=support
[8] "Cold Realities For Novell" (http:/ / www. businessweek. com/ magazine/ content/ 05_44/ b3957125. htm). Businessweek.com. . Retrieved
2008-11-04.
[9] "Microsoft and Novell Announce Broad Collaboration on Windows and Linux Interoperability and Support" (http:/ / www. microsoft. com/
presspass/ press/ 2006/ nov06/ 11-02MSNovellPR. mspx). Microsoft.com. . Retrieved 2008-11-04.
[10] "Steve Ballmer: Microsoft and Novell Collaboration Announcement" (http:/ / www. microsoft. com/ presspass/ exec/ steve/ 2006/
11-02NovellInterop. mspx). Microsoft.com. . Retrieved 2008-11-04.
[11] "Microsoft makes Linux pact with Novell - CNET News.com" (http:/ / news. com. com/ Microsoft+ makes+ Linux+ pact+ with+ Novell/
2100-1016_3-6132119. html?tag=nefd. lede). News.com.com. . Retrieved 2008-11-04.
[12] "Novell gets $348 million from Microsoft" (http:/ / www. linux-watch. com/ news/ NS7235986827. html). Linux-watch.com. . Retrieved
2008-11-04.
[13] http:/ / sourceforge. net/ projects/ odf-converter
[14] http:/ / download. novell. com/ SummaryFree. jsp?buildid=ESrjfdE4U58%7E
[15] "Groklaw - Novell Sells Out" (http:/ / www. groklaw. net/ article. php?story=20061102175508403). Groklaw.net. . Retrieved 2008-11-04.
[16] "Groklaw - The Morning After - Reactions to Novell-MS - Updated 2xs" (http:/ / www. groklaw. net/ article.
php?story=20061103073628401). Groklaw.net. . Retrieved 2008-11-04.
[17] corbet (November 3, 2006). "Various responses to Microsoft/Novell [LWN.net]" (http:/ / lwn. net/ Articles/ 207559/ ). Lwn.net. . Retrieved
2008-11-04.
[18] "Bradley M. Kuhn's Letter to the FOSS Development Community Regarding Microsoft's Patent Promise - Software Freedom Law Center"
(http:/ / www. softwarefreedom. org/ news/ 20061109a. html). Softwarefreedom.org. November 9, 2006. . Retrieved 2008-11-04.
[19] Written by Tom Sanders in California. "Novell opens legal books to GPL pundits - vnunet.com" (http:/ / www. vnunet. com/ vnunet/ news/
2168151/ novells-opens-microsoft). Vnunet.com. . Retrieved 2008-11-04.
[20] "GPLv3 - Transcript of Richard Stallman from the fifth international GPLv3 conference, Tokyo, Japan; 2006-11-21" (http:/ / www.
fsfeurope. org/ projects/ gplv3/ tokyo-rms-transcript. en. html#novell-ms). Fsfeurope.org. . Retrieved 2008-11-04.
[21] "GNU GENERAL PUBLIC LICENSE Version 3" (http:/ / www. gnu. org/ licenses/ gpl-3. 0-standalone. html). fsf.org. . Retrieved
2009-06-03.
[22] "Samba Team Asks Novell to Reconsider" (http:/ / news. samba. org/ announcements/ team_to_novell/ ). News.samba.org. . Retrieved
2008-11-04.
[23] "Samba Team Urges Novell To Reconsider" (http:/ / slashdot. org/ comments. pl?sid=206202& cid=16817478). Slashdot.org. . Retrieved
2008-11-04.
[24] "Groklaw - Jeremy Allison Has Resigned from Novell to Protest MS Patent Deal" (http:/ / www. groklaw. net/ article.
php?story=20061221081000710). Groklaw.net. 2007-06-29. . Retrieved 2008-11-04.
[25] (http:/ / today. reuters. com/ misc/ PrinterFriendlyPopup. aspx?type=technologyNews&
storyID=2007-02-02T230933Z_01_N02280856_RTRUKOC_0_US-NOVELL-LINUX. xml) see quote from Eben Moglen, the Foundation’s
general counsel : “The community of people wants to do anything they can to interfere with this deal and all deals like it. They have every
reason to be deeply concerned that this is the beginning of a significant patent aggression by Microsoft”.
[26] Linux-Watch (http:/ / www. linux-watch. com/ news/ NS6837365670. html)
[27] "Is Novell losing Linux? No, it's just bad reporting" (http:/ / www. linux. com/ feature/ 60030). Linux.com. . Retrieved 2008-11-04.
[28] http:/ / gplv3. fsf. org/ dd3-faq
[29] http:/ / www. microsoft. com/ interop/ msnovellcollab/ newmoonlight. mspx
[30] http:/ / www. microsoft. com/ interop/ msnovellcollab/ moonlight. mspx
[31] "Novell Delivers Workload Automation Strategy, Tools" (http:/ / itmanagement. earthweb. com/ features/ article. php/ 3851851/
Novell-Delivers-Workload-Automation-Strategy-Tools). Datamation. 2009-12-08. . Retrieved 2010-01-12.
[32] "Elliott Offers to Acquire Novell" (http:/ / www. prnewswire. com/ news-releases/ elliott-offers-to-acquire-novell-86009382. html). PR
Newswire. 2010-03-02. .
[33] "Novell rejects "inadequate" $2B takeover bid" (http:/ / www. networkworld. com/ news/ 2010/ 032010-novell-rejects-takeover. html).
Networkworld. 2010-03-20. .
Novell 59
[34] "FORM 8-K - Novell Inc." (http:/ / www. sec. gov/ Archives/ edgar/ data/ 758004/ 000119312510265964/ d8k. htm). U.S. Securities and
Exchange Commission. 2010-11-21. . Retrieved 2010-11-27. "Also on November 21, 2010, Novell entered into a Patent Purchase Agreement
(the “Patent Purchase Agreement”) with CPTN Holdings LLC, a Delaware limited liability company and consortium of technology companies
organized by Microsoft Corporation (“CPTN”). The Patent Purchase Agreement provides that, upon the terms and subject to the conditions set
forth in the Patent Purchase Agreement, Novell will sell to CPTN all of Novell’s right, title and interest in 882 patents (the “Assigned Patents”)
for $450 million in cash (the “Patent Sale”). "
[35] Novell Agrees to be Acquired by Attachmate Corporation (http:/ / www. novell. com/ news/ press/
novell-agrees-to-be-acquired-by-attachmate-corporation/ ). Novell. 2010-11-22. . Retrieved 2010-11-22
[36] "CPTN Holdings LLC (acquirer of 882 Novell patents): Microsoft, Apple, EMC and Oracle are the partners according to German antitrust
notification" (http:/ / fosspatents. blogspot. com/ 2010/ 12/ cptn-holdings-llc-acquirer-of-882. html). 2010-12-16. . Retrieved 2011-01-03.
[37] "SCHEDULE 14-A - Novell Inc." (http:/ / www. sec. gov/ Archives/ edgar/ data/ 758004/ 000119312511008402/ ddefm14a. htm). U.S.
Securities and Exchange Commission. 2011-01-14. . Retrieved 2011-01-18.
[38] Details Emerge of Patents Novell Is Selling to Microsoft (http:/ / www. pcworld. com/ article/ 216931/
details_emerge_of_patents_novell_is_selling_to_microsoft. html). PCWorld. 2011-01-18. . Retrieved 2011-01-18
[39] Attachmate Corporation Statement on openSUSE project (http:/ / www. attachmate. com/ Press/ PressReleases/ nov-22-2010-SUSE. htm).
Attachmate Corporation. November 22, 2010. . Retrieved 2010-11-23
[40] "Novell Aligns Organization and Executive Team to Focus on Growing Market for Intelligent Workload Management Solutions" (http:/ /
www. novell. com/ news/ press/
novell-aligns-organization-and-executive-team-to-focus-on-growing-market-for-intelligent-workload-management-solutions). novell.com.
2009-12-14. .
[41] "NOVELL: Support" (http:/ / support. novell. com). Support.novell.com. . Retrieved 2008-11-04.
[42] http:/ / www. novell. com/ coolsolutions
[43] "Awards" (http:/ / www. novell. com/ company/ awards/ ). Novell.com. . Retrieved 2008-11-04.
[44] http:/ / support. novell. com/ forums/ index. html
[45] (http:/ / forums. novell. com/ category/ support. tpt)
[46] "NOVELL: Support Forums Volunteers" (http:/ / support. novell. com/ community/ knowledge_partners. html). Support.novell.com. .
[47] "Cool Solutions Wiki Main Page - CoolSolutionsWiki" (http:/ / wiki. novell. com/ index. php/ Cool_Solutions_Wiki_Main_Page).
Wiki.novell.com. . Retrieved 2008-11-04.
[48] "NetWare - CoolSolutionsWiki" (http:/ / wiki. novell. com/ index. php/ NetWare). Wiki.novell.com. . Retrieved 2008-11-04.
[49] http:/ / www. senforce. com/
External links
• Novell (http://www.novell.com/)
• Novell Blogs (http://www.novell.com/coolblogs/)
• Open Horizons - A co-operative EMEA body of international Novell User Groups (http://www.open-horizons.
net/)
• Open Horizons UK - An active Novell User Group for UK customers (http://www.open-horizons.co.uk/)
Macintosh 60
Macintosh
The Macintosh (pronounced /ˈmækɨntɒʃ/ MAK-in-tosh),[1] or Mac, is a
series of several lines of personal computers designed, developed, and
marketed by Apple Inc. The first Macintosh was introduced on January
24, 1984; it was the first commercially successful personal computer to
feature a mouse and a graphical user interface rather than a
command-line interface.[2] The company continued to have success
through the second half of the 1980s, only to see it dissipate in the
1990s as the personal computer market shifted toward the "Wintel"
platform: IBM PC compatible machines running MS-DOS and
Microsoft Windows.[3]
Years later, Apple consolidated its multiple consumer-level desktop

models into the 1998 iMac all-in-one. This proved to be a sales success
and saw the Macintosh brand revitalized, albeit not to the market share
The original Macintosh, the first commercially
level it once had. Current Mac systems are mainly targeted at the
successful personal computer to use a graphical
home, education, and creative professional markets. They are: the user interface, rather than a command line.
descendants of the original iMac and the entry-level Mac mini desktop
models, the Mac Pro tower graphics workstation, the MacBook,
MacBook Air and MacBook Pro laptops. The Xserve server was
discontinued January 31, 2011.[4]
Production of the Mac is based on a vertical integration model in that

Apple facilitates all aspects of its hardware and creates its own
operating system that is pre-installed on all Mac computers. This is in
contrast to most IBM PC compatibles, where multiple sellers create
and integrate hardware intended to run another company's operating
software. Apple exclusively produces Mac hardware, choosing internal
systems, designs, and prices. Apple does use third party components, An iMac computer from August 2009, a modern
however, such as graphics subsystems from nVidia and ATi. Current all-in-one Macintosh.
Mac CPUs use Intel's x86 architecture; the earliest models
(1984–1994) used Motorola's 68k and models from 1994–2006 used the AIM alliance's PowerPC. Apple also
develops the operating system for the Mac, currently Mac OS X version 10.6 "Snow Leopard". The modern Mac,
like other personal computers, is capable of running alternative operating systems such as Linux, FreeBSD, and, in
the case of Intel-based Macs, Microsoft Windows. However, Apple does not license Mac OS X for use on non-Apple
computers.
Macintosh 61
History
1979 to 1984: Development

The Macintosh project started in the late 1970s with Jef
Raskin, an Apple employee, who envisioned an
easy-to-use, low-cost computer for the average
consumer. He wanted to name the computer after his
favorite type of apple, the McIntosh,[5] but the name
had to be changed for legal reasons as it was too close,
phonetically, to that of the McIntosh audio equipment
manufacturer. Steve Jobs requested a release of the
name so that Apple could use it, but was denied,
forcing Apple to eventually buy the rights to use the
name.[6] Raskin was authorized to start hiring for the
project in September 1979,[7] and he began to look for Part of the original Macintosh design team, as seen on the cover of
an engineer who could put together a prototype. Bill Revolution in the Valley.
Left to right: George Crow, Joanna Hoffman, Burrell Smith, Andy
Atkinson, a member of Apple's Lisa team (which was
Hertzfeld, a Macintosh, Bill Atkinson, Jerry Manock.
developing a similar but higher-end computer),
introduced him to Burrell Smith, a service technician
who had been hired earlier that year. Over the years, Raskin assembled a large development team that designed and
built the original Macintosh hardware and software; besides Raskin, Atkinson and Smith, the team included George
Crow,[8] Chris Espinosa, Joanna Hoffman, Bruce Horn, Susan Kare, Andy Hertzfeld, Guy Kawasaki, Daniel
Kottke,[9] and Jerry Manock.[10] [11]
Smith's first Macintosh board was built to Raskin's design specifications: it had 64 kilobytes (KB) of RAM, used the
Motorola 6809E microprocessor, and was capable of supporting a 256×256 pixel black-and-white bitmap display.
Bud Tribble, a Macintosh programmer, was interested in running the Lisa's graphical programs on the Macintosh,
and asked Smith whether he could incorporate the Lisa's Motorola 68000 microprocessor into the Mac while still
keeping the production cost down. By December 1980, Smith had succeeded in designing a board that not only used
the 68000, but increased its speed from 5 MHz to 8 MHz; this board also had the capacity to support a 384×256 pixel
display. Smith's design used fewer RAM chips than the Lisa, which made production of the board significantly more
cost-efficient. The final Mac design was self-contained and had the complete QuickDraw picture language and
interpreter in 64 KB of ROM – far more than most other computers; it had 128 KB of RAM, in the form of sixteen
64 kilobit (Kb) RAM chips soldered to the logicboard. Though there were no memory slots, its RAM was
expandable to 512 KB by means of soldering sixteen IC sockets to accept 256 Kb RAM chips in place of the
factory-installed chips. The final product's screen was a 9-inch, 512x342 pixel monochrome display, exceeding the
prototypes.[12]
Macintosh 62
The design caught the attention of Steve Jobs, co-founder of Apple.

Realizing that the Macintosh was more marketable than the Lisa, he
began to focus his attention on the project. Raskin finally left the
Macintosh project in 1981 over a personality conflict with Jobs, and
team member Andy Hertzfeld said that the final Macintosh design is
closer to Jobs' ideas than Raskin's.[7] After hearing of the pioneering
GUI technology being developed at Xerox PARC, Jobs had negotiated
a visit to see the Xerox Alto computer and Smalltalk development tools
The original 1984 Mac OS desktop featured a in exchange for Apple stock options. The Lisa and Macintosh user
radically new graphical user interface. Users
interfaces were partially influenced by technology seen at Xerox
communicated with the computer not through
abstract textual commands but rather using a PARC and were combined with the Macintosh group's own ideas.[13]
metaphorical desktop that included icons of real Jobs also commissioned industrial designer Hartmut Esslinger to work
life items with which the user was already on the Macintosh line, resulting in the "Snow White" design language;
familiar.
although it came too late for the earliest Macs, it was implemented in
most other mid- to late-1980s Apple computers.[14] However, Jobs'
leadership at the Macintosh project did not last; after an internal power struggle with new CEO John Sculley, Jobs
resigned from Apple in 1985,[15] went on to found NeXT, another computer company,[16] and did not return until
1997 when Apple acquired NeXT.[17]
1984: Introduction
The Macintosh 128K was announced to the press in October 1983,
followed by an 18-page brochure included with various magazines in
December.[18] The Macintosh was introduced by the now famous
US$1.5 million Ridley Scott television commercial, "1984".[19] The
commercial most notably aired during the third quarter of Super Bowl
XVIII on 22 January 1984 and is now considered a "watershed
event"[20] and a "masterpiece."[21] "1984" used an unnamed heroine to
represent the coming of the Macintosh (indicated by a Picasso-style
picture of Apple's Macintosh computer on her white tank top) as a
This television commercial, first aired during
means of saving humanity from the "conformity" of IBM's attempts to
Super Bowl XVIII, launched the original
dominate the computer industry. The ad alludes to George Orwell's Macintosh.
novel, Nineteen Eighty-Four, which described a dystopian future ruled
by a televised "Big Brother."[22] [23]
Two days after the 1984 ad aired, the Macintosh went on sale. It came bundled with two applications designed to
show off its interface: MacWrite and MacPaint. It was first demonstrated by Steve Jobs in the first of his famous
Mac Keynote speeches, and though the Mac garnered an immediate, enthusiastic following, some labeled it a mere
"toy."[24] Because the operating system was designed largely around the GUI, existing text-mode and
command-driven applications had to be redesigned and the programming code rewritten. This was a time-consuming
task that many software developers chose not to undertake, and could be regarded as a reason for an initial lack of
software for the new system. In April 1984 Microsoft's MultiPlan migrated over from MS-DOS, with Microsoft
Word following in January 1985.[25] In 1985, Lotus Software introduced Lotus Jazz for the Macintosh platform after
the success of Lotus 1-2-3 for the IBM PC, although it was largely a flop.[26] Apple introduced Macintosh Office the
same year with the lemmings ad. Infamous for insulting its own potential customers, the ad was not successful.[27]
Macintosh 63
For a special post-election edition of Newsweek in November 1984,

Apple spent more than US$2.5 million to buy all 39 of the advertising
pages in the issue.[28] Apple also ran a "Test Drive a Macintosh"
promotion, in which potential buyers with a credit card could take
home a Macintosh for 24 hours and return it to a dealer afterwards.
While 200,000 people participated, dealers disliked the promotion, the
supply of computers was insufficient for demand, and many were
returned in such a bad shape that they could no longer be sold. This
marketing campaign caused CEO John Sculley to raise the price from
US$1,995 to US$2,495 (adjusting for inflation, about $5,200 in
2010).[27] [29]
1985 to 1989: Desktop publishing era

In 1985, the combination of the Mac, Apple's LaserWriter printer, and The Apple Macintosh Plus at the Design Museum
Mac-specific software like Boston Software's MacPublisher and Aldus in Gothenburg, Sweden.
PageMaker enabled users to design, preview, and print page layouts
complete with text and graphics—an activity to become known as desktop publishing. Initially, desktop publishing
was unique to the Macintosh, but eventually became available for other platforms as well.[30] Later, applications
such as Macromedia FreeHand, QuarkXPress, Adobe Photoshop, and Adobe Illustrator strengthened the Mac's
position as a graphics computer and helped to expand the emerging desktop publishing market.
The limitations of the first Mac soon became clear: it had very little memory, even compared with other personal
computers in 1984, and could not be expanded easily; and it lacked a hard disk drive or the means to attach one
easily. Many small companies sprang up to address the memory issue, by upgrading the 128K Mac to 512 KB, by
removing the computer's 16 memory chips and replacing them with larger-capacity chips, a tedious operation that
was not always successful. In October 1985, Apple increased the Mac's memory to 512 KB,[31] and offered an
upgrade for 128K Macs that involved replacing the logic board. In an attempt to improve connectivity, Apple
released the Macintosh Plus on January 10, 1986 for US$2,600. It offered one megabyte of RAM, easily expandable
to four by the use of socketed RAM boards, and a SCSI parallel interface, allowing up to seven peripherals—such as
hard drives and scanners—to be attached to the machine. Its floppy drive was increased to an 800 KB capacity. The
Mac Plus was an immediate success and remained in production, unchanged, until October 15, 1990; on sale for just
over four years and ten months, it was the longest-lived Macintosh in Apple's history.[32]
Updated Motorola CPUs made a faster machine possible, and in 1987
Apple took advantage of the new Motorola technology and introduced
the Macintosh II, which used a 16 MHz Motorola 68020 processor.[33]
The primary improvement in the Macintosh II was Color QuickDraw
in ROM, a color version of the graphics language which was the heart
of the machine. Among the many innovations in Color QuickDraw
were an ability to handle any display size, any color depth, and
multiple monitors.
The Macintosh II marked the start of a new direction for the

Macintosh, as now for the first time it had an open architecture with The Macintosh II, one of the first expandable
Macintosh models.
several NuBus expansion slots, support for color graphics and external
monitors, and a modular design similar to that of the IBM PC. It had an
internal hard drive and a power supply with a fan, which was initially fairly loud.[34] One third-party developer sold
a device to regulate fan speed based on a heat sensor, but it voided the warranty.[35] Later Macintosh computers had
Macintosh 64
quieter power supplies and hard drives.

In September 1986, Apple introduced the Macintosh Programmer's Workshop, or MPW that allowed software
developers to create software for Macintosh on Macintosh, rather than cross compiling from a Lisa. In August 1987,
Apple unveiled HyperCard, and introduced MultiFinder, which added cooperative multitasking to the Macintosh.
Apple began bundling both with every Macintosh.
The Macintosh SE was released at the same time as the Macintosh II, as the first compact Mac with a 20 MB internal
hard drive and one expansion slot.[36] The SE's expansion slot was located inside the case along with the CRT,
potentially exposing an upgrader to high voltage. For this reason Apple recommended users bring their SE to an
authorized Apple dealer to have upgrades performed.[37] The SE also updated Jerry Manock and Terry Oyama's
original design and shared the Macintosh II's Snow White design language, as well as the new Apple Desktop Bus
(ADB) mouse and keyboard that had first appeared on the Apple IIGS some months earlier.
In 1987, Apple spun off its software business as Claris. It was given the code and rights to several applications that
had been written within Apple, notably MacWrite, MacPaint, and MacProject. In the late 1980s, Claris released a
number of revamped software titles; the result was the "Pro" series, including MacPaint Pro, MacDraw Pro,
MacWrite Pro, and FileMaker Pro. To provide a complete office suite, Claris purchased the rights to the Informix
Wingz spreadsheet on the Mac, renaming it Claris Resolve, and added the new presentation software Claris Impact.
By the early 1990s, Claris applications were shipping with the majority of consumer-level Macintoshes and were
extremely popular. In 1991, Claris released ClarisWorks, which soon became their second best-selling application.
When Claris was reincorporated back into Apple in 1998, ClarisWorks was renamed AppleWorks beginning with
version 5.0.[38]
In 1988, Apple sued Microsoft and Hewlett-Packard on the grounds
that they infringed Apple's copyrighted GUI, citing (among other
things) the use of rectangular, overlapping, and resizable windows.
After four years, the case was decided against Apple, as were later
appeals. Apple's actions were criticized by some in the software
community, including the Free Software Foundation (FSF), who felt
Apple was trying to monopolize on GUIs in general, and boycotted
GNU software for the Macintosh platform for seven years.[39] [40]
With the new Motorola 68030 processor came the Macintosh IIx in
1988, which had benefited from internal improvements, including an The Macintosh Portable was Apple's first
on-board MMU.[41] It was followed in 1989 by a more compact battery-powered Macintosh. It was available from
version with fewer slots (the Macintosh IIcx)[42] and a version of the 1989 to 1991 and could run System 6 and System
[43] 7.
Mac SE powered by the 16 MHz 68030, the Macintosh SE/30.
Later that year, the Macintosh IIci, running at 25 MHz, was the first
Mac to be "32-bit clean," allowing it to natively support more than 8 MB of RAM,[44] unlike its predecessors, which
had "32-bit dirty" ROMs (8 of the 32 bits available for addressing were used for OS-level flags). System 7 was the
first Macintosh operating system to support 32-bit addressing.[45] Apple also introduced the Macintosh Portable, a
16 MHz 68000 machine with an active matrix flat panel display that was backlit on some models.[46] The following
year the Macintosh IIfx, starting at US$9,900, was unveiled. Apart from its fast 40 MHz 68030 processor, it had
significant internal architectural improvements, including faster memory and two Apple II CPUs dedicated to I/O
processing.[47]
Macintosh 65
1990 to 1998: Growth and decline

Microsoft Windows 3.0, which began to approach the Macintosh
operating system in both performance and feature set, was released in
May 1990 and was a less expensive alternative to the Macintosh
platform. Apple's response was to introduce a range of relatively
inexpensive Macs in October 1990. The Macintosh Classic, essentially
a less expensive version of the Macintosh Plus, was the least expensive
Mac until early 2001.[48] The 68020-powered Macintosh LC, in its
distinctive "pizza box" case, offered color graphics and was
accompanied by a new, low-cost 512 × 384 pixel monitor.[49] The
Macintosh IIsi was essentially a 20 MHz IIci with only one expansion
slot.[50] All three machines sold well,[51] although Apple's profit The Macintosh Classic, Apple's early 1990s
budget model.
margin was considerably lower than on earlier machines.[48]
The PowerBook 100 (shown here), 140 and 170

introduced a line of professional laptop Macs.
They pioneered notebook ergonomics by placing
the keyboard behind a palm rest.
Apple improved Macintosh computers by introducing models equipped

with newly available processors from the 68k lineup. The Macintosh
Classic II[52] and Macintosh LC II, which used a 16 MHz 68030
CPU,[53] were joined in 1991 by the Macintosh Quadra 700[54] and
900,[55] the first Macs to employ the faster Motorola 68040 processor.
In 1994, Apple abandoned Motorola CPUs for the RISC PowerPC
architecture developed by the AIM alliance of Apple Computer, IBM,
and Motorola.[56] The Power Macintosh line, the first to use the new
chips, proved to be highly successful, with over a million PowerPC
System 7 was the first major upgrade of the
units sold in nine months.[57]
Macintosh operating system.
Apple replaced the Macintosh Portable in 1991 with the first of the
PowerBook line: the PowerBook 100, a miniaturized Portable; the 16 MHz 68030 PowerBook 140; and the 25 MHz
68030 PowerBook 170.[58] They were the first portable computers with the keyboard behind a palm rest, and with a
built-in pointing device (a trackball) in
Macintosh 66
front of the keyboard.[59] The 1993 PowerBook 165c was Apple's first
portable computer to feature a color screen, displaying 256 colors with
640 x 400 pixel resolution.[60] The second-generation of PowerBooks,
the 68040-equipped 500 series, introduced the trackpad, integrated
stereo speakers and built-in Ethernet to the laptop form factor in
1994.[61]
As for Mac OS, System 7 was a 32-bit rewrite from Pascal to C++ that
introduced virtual memory, and improved the handling of color
OS 8 was the second major upgrade of the Mac
graphics, memory addressing, networking, and co-operative
OS. OS 8.6 shown. multitasking. Also during this time, the Macintosh began to shed the
"Snow White" design language, along with the expensive consulting
fees they were paying to Frogdesign, in favor of bringing the work in-house by establishing the Apple Industrial
Design Group. They became responsible for to crafting a new look to go with the new operating system and all other
Apple products.[62]
Despite these technical and commercial successes, Microsoft and Intel began to rapidly lower Apple's market share
with the Windows 95 operating system and Pentium processors respectively. These significantly enhanced the
multimedia capability and performance of IBM PC compatible computers, and brought Windows still closer to the
Mac GUI. Furthermore, Apple had created too many similar models that confused potential buyers. At one point
Apple's product lineup was subdivided into Classic, LC, II, Quadra, Performa, and Centris models, with essentially
the same computer being sold under a number of different names.[63] These models competed against the Macintosh
clones, hardware manufactured by third-parties that ran Apple's System 7. This succeeded in increasing the
Macintosh's market share somewhat and provided cheaper hardware for consumers, but hurt Apple financially as
existing Apple customers began to buy cheaper clones.
When Steve Jobs returned to Apple in 1997, he ordered that the OS that had been previewed as version 7.7 be
branded Mac OS 8 (in place of the never-to-appear Copland OS). Since Apple had licensed only System 7 to
third-parties, this move effectively ended the clone line. The decision caused significant financial losses for
companies like Motorola, who produced the StarMax, Umax, who produced the SuperMac,[64] and Power
Computing Corporation, who offered several lines Mac clones, including PowerWave, PowerTower, and
PowerTower Pro.[65] These companies had invested substantial resources in creating their own Mac-compatible
hardware.[66] Apple bought out Power Computing's license, but allowed Umax to continue selling Mac clones until
their license expired, as they had a sizeable presence in the lower-end segment that Apple did not.
Macintosh 67
1998 to 2005: New beginnings

In 1998, a year after Steve Jobs had returned to the company, Apple
introduced an all-in-one Macintosh called the iMac. Its translucent
plastic case, originally Bondi blue and later many other colors, is
considered an industrial design landmark of the late 1990s. The iMac
did away with most of Apple's standard (and usually proprietary)
connections, such as SCSI and ADB, in favor of two USB ports. It also
had no internal floppy disk drive and instead included a CD-ROM
drive for installing software,[3] [68] but was incapable of writing to CDs
or other media without external third-party hardware. The iMac proved
to be phenomenally successful, with 800,000 units sold in 139 days,[69]
making the company an annual profit of US$309 million—Apple's first
profitable year since Michael Spindler took over as CEO in 1995.[70]
The iMacs's "blue and white" aesthetic was applied to the Power
The original "Bondi Blue" iMac G3. Introduced
Macintosh, and then to a new product, the iBook. Introduced in July in 1998, it led Apple's return to profitability.
1999, the iBook was Apple's first consumer-level laptop computer, However, the associated mouse proved to be one
[67]
filling in the "missing square" of Apple's four-tiered of consumers' least favorite Apple products.
consumer/professional laptop/desktop product strategy previously

announced by Jobs.[71] More than 140,000 pre-orders were placed before it started shipping in September,[72] and by
October it was as much a sales hit as the iMac.[73]
In early 2001, Apple began shipping computers with CDRW drives for the first time.[74] Apple had been
emphasizing the Mac's ability to play DVDs by including DVD-ROM and DVD-RAM drives as standard. Steve Jobs
admitted that Apple had been "late to the party" on writable CD technology but felt that Macs could become a
"digital hub" that linked and enabled an "emerging digital lifestyle".[75] Apple would later introduce an update to its
iTunes music player software that could burn CDs, along with a controversial "Rip, Mix, Burn" advertising
campaign that some felt encouraged media piracy.[76] This accompanied the release of the iPod, Apple's first
successful handheld device.
Apple continued to add new products to their lineup, such as the Power Mac G4 Cube,[77] the eMac for the education
market and PowerBook G4 laptop for professionals. The original iMac used a G3 processor, but the G4 and then G5
chips were accompanied by successive new designs, dropping the array of colors in favor of white plastic. Current
iMacs use aluminum enclosures. On January 11, 2005, Apple announced the release of the Mac Mini priced at
US$499,[78] the least expensive Mac to date.[79]
Mac OS continued to evolve up to version 9.2.2, including retrofits such as the addition of a nanokernel and support
for Multiprocessing Services 2.0 in Mac OS 8.6.[80] Ultimately its dated architecture made replacement necessary.
Initially developed in the Pascal programming language, it was substantially rewritten in C++ for System 7. From its
beginnings on a 128k 8 MHz machine, it had grown to support Apple's latest 1 GHz G4-equipped Macs. But since its
architecture was laid down, OS features like preemptive multitasking and protected memory had become feasible on
the kind of hardware Apple manufactured - features that were already common on Apple's competition. As such,
Apple introduced Mac OS X, a fully overhauled Unix-based successor to Mac OS 9, using Darwin, XNU, and Mach
as foundations, and based on NEXTSTEP. Mac OS X was not released to the public until September 2000, as the
Mac OS X Public Beta, with a revamped user interface Apple called "Aqua". At US$29.99, it allowed adventurous
Mac users to sample Apple's new operating system and provide feedback for the actual release.[81] The initial release
of Mac OS X, 10.0 (nicknamed Cheetah), was released on March 24, 2001. Older Mac OS applications could still
run under early Mac OS X versions, using an environment called Classic. Subsequent releases of Mac OS X were
10.1 "Puma" (September 25, 2001), 10.2 "Jaguar" (August 24, 2002), 10.3 "Panther" (October 24, 2003), 10.4
Macintosh 68
"Tiger" (April 29, 2005), 10.5 "Leopard" (October 26, 2007), 10.6 "Snow Leopard" (August 28, 2009), and 10.7
"Lion" scheduled for 2011.[82] Leopard and Snow Leopard each received certification as a Unix implementation by
The Open Group.[83] [84]
2006 onward: Intel era

Apple discontinued the use of PowerPC microprocessors in 2006. At
WWDC 2005, Steve Jobs revealed this transition and also noted that
Mac OS X was in development to run both on Intel and PowerPC
architecture from the very beginning.[86] All new Macs now use x86
processors made by Intel, and some Macs were given new names to
signify the switch.[87] Intel-based Macs can run pre-existing software
developed for PowerPC using an emulator called Rosetta,[88] although
at noticeably slower speeds than native programs, and the Classic
environment is unavailable. Intel chips introduced the potential to run
the Microsoft Windows operating system natively on Apple hardware,
without emulation software such as Virtual PC. In March 2006, a The MacBook Pro is the first Mac notebook to
group of hackers announced that they were able to run Windows XP on use an Intel processor. It was released at
[85]
Macworld 2006.
an Intel-based Mac. The group released their software as open source
and has posted it for download on their website.[89] On April 5, 2006,
Apple announced the public beta availability of their own Boot Camp software that allows owners of Intel-based
Macs to install Windows XP on their machines; later versions added support for Windows Vista. Boot Camp became
a standard feature in Mac OS X 10.5, while support for Classic was dropped from PowerPC Macs.[90] [91]
Apple's recent industrial design has shifted to favor aluminum and glass that is billed as environmentally friendly.[92]
The iMac, MacBook Pro and MacBook Air lines use aluminum enclosures, and are now made of a single
unibody.[93] [94] Chief designer Jonathan Ive continues to guide products towards a minimalist and simple feel,[95]
[96]
including the elimination of replaceable batteries in notebooks.[97] Multi-touch gestures from the iPhone's
interface have been applied to the Mac line in the form of touch pads on notebooks and the Magic Mouse and Magic
Trackpad for desktops.
In recent years, Apple has seen a significant boost in sales of Macs. Many claim that this is due, in part, to the
success of the iPod and the iPhone, a halo effect whereby satisfied iPod or iPhone owners purchase more Apple
equipment. The inclusion of the Intel chips is also a factor. From 2001 to 2008, Mac sales increased continuously on
an annual basis. Apple reported sales of 3.36 million Macs during the 2009 holiday season.[98]
On February 24, 2011, Apple was the first company to bring to market a computer that utilized Intel's new
Thunderbolt (codename Light Peak) I/O interface. Using the same physical interface as a minidisplay port, and
backwards compatible with that standard, Thunderbolt boasts two-way transfer speeds of 10 Gbps.[99]
Product line
Macintosh 69
Compact Consumer Professional
Desktop Mac mini iMac Mac Pro
Entry-level; ships
without keyboard, mouse, or monitor; uses
Intel Core 2 Duo processors
All-in-one;
available in 21.5" and 27" screen sizes;
Workstation desktop;
uses Intel Core 2 Duo, Intel Core i5, or
highly customizable; uses up to two Intel
Intel Core i7 processors
Xeon 5500 "Gainestown" or Xeon 3500
"Bloomfield" quad-core processors
Portable MacBook Air MacBook MacBook Pro

(MacBook)
13.3",
15.4" or 17" models with aluminum
11.6" or 13.3" casing; uses Intel Core 2 Duo, Intel Core
ultraportable with aluminum casing; uses Intel 13.3" laptop i5, or Intel Core i7 processors
Core 2 Duo processors with white polycarbonate casing; uses
Intel Core 2 Duo processors
Server Mac mini Server Mac Pro Server Xserve (discontinued January 2011)
An additional Mac
mini configuration without an internal optical
drive. Ships with Mac OS X Server installed An additional Mac Pro
and two internal 500 GB hard drives for a total server configuration. Ships with Mac OS
of 1 TB of capacity. X Server installed. 4×2=8 GiB memory,
and 2×1=2 TB hard-disk drive space.
Hardware and software
Hardware
Apple directly sub-contracts hardware production to Asian original
equipment manufacturers such as Asus, maintaining a high degree of
control over the end product. By contrast, most other companies
(including Microsoft) create software that can be run on hardware
produced by a variety of third-parties, like Dell, HP/Compaq, and
Lenovo. Consequently, the Macintosh buyer has comparably fewer
options.
The current Mac product family uses Intel x86-64 processors. Apple
introduced an emulator during the transition from PowerPC chips
The internals of the original 20-inch iMac G5.
(called Rosetta), much as it did during the transition from Motorola
68000 architecture a decade earlier. The Macintosh is the only
mainstream computer platform to have successfully transitioned to a new CPU architecture,[100] and has done so
twice. All current Mac models ship with at least 2 GB RAM as standard. Current Mac computers use ATI Radeon or
Macintosh 70
nVidia GeForce graphics cards. All current Macs (except for the MacBook Air) ship with an optical media drive that
includes a dual-function DVD/CD burner, called the SuperDrive. Macs include two standard data transfer ports:
USB and FireWire (except for the MacBook Air and MacBook that do not include FireWire). MacBook Pro
computers now also feature the "Thunderbolt" port, which Apple claims can transfer data at speeds up to 10
gigabytes per second. USB was introduced in the 1998 iMac G3 and is ubiquitous today,[3] while FireWire is mainly
reserved for high-performance devices such as hard drives or video cameras. Starting with a new iMac G5 released
in October 2005, Apple started to include built-in iSight cameras to appropriate models, and a media center interface
called Front Row that can be operated by an Apple Remote or keyboard for accessing media stored on the
computer.[101]
Apple's Disk Operating System allows for more storage over competing products through the use of 16-sector
technology. This allows for nearly 20% more storage over the 13-sector technology used in PCs.
Apple was initially reluctant to embrace mice with multiple buttons and scroll wheels. Macs did not natively support
multiple buttons, even from third parties, until Mac OS X arrived in 2001.[102] Apple continued to offer only single
button mice, with wired and Bluetooth wireless versions, until August 2005, when it introduced the Mighty Mouse.
While it looked like a traditional one-button mouse, it actually had four buttons and a scroll ball, capable of
independent x- and y-axis movement.[103] A Bluetooth version followed in July 2006.[104] In October 2009, Apple
introduced the Magic Mouse which uses multi-touch gesture recognition similar to the iPhone instead of a physical
scroll wheel or ball.[105] It is available only in Bluetooth, and the Mighty Mouse (re-branded as "Apple Mouse") is
available with a cord. Apple also features the "Magic Trackpad" as a means to control Macintosh desktop computers
such as the iMac or Mac Pro. This was introduced in 2010.
Software
The original Macintosh was the first successful personal computer to use a graphical user interface devoid of a
command line. It used a desktop metaphor, depicting real-world objects like documents and a trashcan as icons
onscreen. The System software introduced in 1984 with the first Macintosh and renamed Mac OS in 1997, continued
to evolve until version 9.2.2. In 2001, Apple introduced Mac OS X, based on Darwin and NEXTSTEP; its new
features included the Dock and the Aqua user interface. During the transition, Apple included an emulator known as
Classic allowing users to run Mac OS 9 applications under Mac OS X, version 10.4 and earlier on PowerPC
machines. The most recent version is Mac OS X v10.6 "Snow Leopard." In addition to Snow Leopard, all new Macs
are bundled with assorted Apple-produced applications, including iLife, the Safari web browser and the iTunes
media player. Apple released Mac OSX 10.7 in 2010, which will be available in the summer of 2011. This operating
system features many new features such as: Mission Control, the Mac App Store (available now by software update),
and launchpad which is an iPad like way of viewing apps currently installed on Mac. Apple is also releasing a
feature known as "resume" which is similar to the hibernate function, found on Microsoft Windows.
Mac OS X enjoys a near-absence of the types of malware and spyware that affect Microsoft Windows users.[106]
[107] [108]
Mac OS X has a smaller usage share compared to Microsoft Windows (roughly 5% and 92%,
respectively),[109] but it also has secure UNIX roots. Worms as well as potential vulnerabilities were noted in
February 2006, that led some industry analysts and anti-virus companies to issue warnings that Apple's Mac OS X is
not immune to malware.[110] Apple routinely issues security updates for its software.[111]
Originally, the hardware architecture was so closely tied to the Mac OS operating system that it was impossible to
boot an alternative operating system. The most common workaround, used even by Apple for A/UX, was to boot
into Mac OS and then to hand over control to a program that took over the system and acted as a boot loader. This
technique was no longer necessary with the introduction of Open Firmware-based PCI Macs, though it was formerly
used for convenience on many Old World ROM systems due to bugs in the firmware implementation. Now, Mac
hardware boots directly from Open Firmware (most PowerPC-based Macs) or EFI (all Intel-based Macs), and Macs
are no longer limited to running just Mac OS X.
Macintosh 71
Following the release of the Intel-based Mac, third-party platform virtualization software such as Parallels Desktop,
VMware Fusion, and VirtualBox began to emerge. These programs allow users to run Microsoft Windows or
previously Windows-only software on Macs at near native speed. Apple also released Boot Camp and Mac-specific
Windows drivers that help users to install Windows XP or Vista and natively dual boot between Mac OS X and
Windows. Though not condoned by Apple, it is possible to run the Linux operating system using Boot camp or other
virtualization workarounds.[112] [113]
Because Mac OS X is a UNIX system, borrowing heavily from FreeBSD, many applications written for Linux or
BSD run on Mac OS X, often using X11. Apple's smaller market share than Microsoft's means that a smaller range
of shareware is available, but many popular commercial software applications from large developers such as
Microsoft Office and Adobe Photoshop are ported to both Mac OS and Windows. And much of open source
software like the Firefox web browser and the OpenOffice.org office suite are cross-platform and run natively.
Advertising
Macintosh advertisements have usually attacked the established market leader, directly or indirectly. They tend to
portray the Mac as an alternative to overly complex or unreliable PCs. Apple hyped the introduction of the original
Mac with their 1984 commercial that aired during the Super Bowl.[114] It was supplemented by a number of printed
pamphlets and other TV ads demonstrating the new interface and emphasizing the mouse. Many more brochures for
new models like the Macintosh Plus and the Performa followed. In the 1990s, Apple started the "What's on your
PowerBook?" campaign, with print ads and television commercials featuring celebrities describing how the
PowerBook helps them in their businesses and everyday lives. In 1995, Apple responded to the introduction of
Windows 95 with several print ads and a television commercial demonstrating its disadvantages and lack of
innovation. In 1997 the Think Different campaign introduced Apple's new slogan, and in 2002 the Switch campaign
followed. The most recent advertising strategy by Apple is the Get a Mac campaign, with North American, UK and
Japanese variants.[115] [116]
Today, Apple introduces new products at "special events" at the Apple Town Hall auditorium, and keynotes at the
Apple Worldwide Developers Conference, and (formerly) trade shows like the Apple Expo and the MacWorld Expo.
The events typically draw a large gathering of media representatives and spectators, and are preceded by speculation
about possible new products. In the past, special events have been used to unveil its desktop and notebook computers
such as the iMac and MacBook, and other consumer electronic devices like the iPod, Apple TV, and iPhone, as well
as provide updates on sales and market share statistics. Apple has begun to focus its advertising on its retail stores
instead of these trade shows; the last MacWorld keynote was in 2009.[117]
Market share and user demographics

Since the introduction of the Macintosh, Apple has struggled to gain a significant share of the personal computer
market. At first, the Macintosh 128K suffered from a dearth of available software compared to IBM's PC, resulting
in disappointing sales in 1984 and 1985. It took 74 days for 50,000 units to sell.[118] Market share is measured by
browser hits, sales and installed base. If using the browser metric, Mac market share has increased substantially in
2007.[119] If measuring market share by installed base, there were more than 20 million Mac users by 1997,
compared to an installed base of around 340 million Windows PCs.[120] [121] Statistics from late 2003 indicate that
Apple had 2.06 percent of the desktop share in the United States that had increased to 2.88 percent by Q4 2004.[122]
As of October 2006, research firms IDC and Gartner reported that Apple's market share in the U.S. had increased to
about 6 percent.[123] Figures from December 2006, showing a market share around 6 percent (IDC) and 6.1 percent
(Gartner) are based on a more than 30 percent increase in unit sale from 2005 to 2006. The installed base of Mac
computers is hard to determine, with numbers ranging from 5% (estimated in 2009)[124] to 16% (estimated in
2005).[125] Mac OS X's share of the OS market increased from 7.31% in December 2007 to 9.63% in December
2008, which is a 32% increase in market share during 2008, compared with a 22% increase during 2007.
Macintosh 72
As of March 2010, OS X share has increased to 10.9%.[126] Whether the size of the Mac's market share and installed
base is relevant, and to whom, is a hotly debated issue. Industry pundits have often called attention to the Mac's
relatively small market share to predict Apple's impending doom, particularly in the early and mid 1990s when the
company's future seemed bleakest. Others argue that market share is the wrong way to judge the Mac's success.
Apple has positioned the Mac as a higher-end personal computer, and so it may be misleading to compare it to a
budget PC.[127] Because the overall market for personal computers has grown rapidly, the Mac's increasing sales
numbers are effectively swamped by the industry's expanding sales volume as a whole. Apple's small market share,
then, gives the impression that fewer people are using Macs than did ten years ago, when exactly the opposite is
true.[128] Soaring sales of the iPhone and iPad mean that the portion of Apple's profits represented by the Macintosh
has declined in 2010, dropping to 24% from 46% two years earlier.[129] Others try to de-emphasize market share,
citing that it is rarely brought up in other industries.[130] Regardless of the Mac's market share, Apple has remained
profitable since Steve Jobs' return and the company's subsequent reorganization.[131] Notably, a report published in
the first quarter of 2008 found that Apple had a 14% market share in the personal computer market in the US,
including 66% of all computers over $1,000.[132] Market research indicates that Apple draws its customer base from
a higher-income demographic than the mainstream personal computer market.[133]
Notes
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References
• Apple & Raskin, Jef (1992). Macintosh Human Interface Guidelines. Addison-Wesley Professional.
ISBN 0-201-62216-5.
• Apple. "Press release Library" (http://www.apple.com/pr/library/). Retrieved 2007-11-18.
• Deutschman, Alan (2001). The Second Coming of Steve Jobs. Broadway. ISBN 0-7679-0433-8.
• Hertzfeld, Andy. "folklore.org: Macintosh stories" (http://folklore.org/index.py). Retrieved 2006-04-24.
• Hertzfeld, Andy (2004). Revolution in the Valley. O'Reilly Books. ISBN 0-596-00719-1.
• Kahney, Leander (2004). The Cult of Mac. No Starch Press. ISBN 1-886411-83-2.
• Kawasaki, Guy (1989). The Macintosh Way. Scott Foresman Trade. ISBN 0-673-46175-0.
• Kelby, Scott (2002). Macintosh... The Naked Truth. New Riders Press. ISBN 0-7357-1284-0.
Macintosh 77
• Knight, Dan (2005). "Macintosh History: 1984" (http://lowendmac.com/history/1984dk.shtml). Retrieved

2006-04-24.
• Levy, Steven (2000). Insanely Great: The Life and Times of Macintosh, the Computer That Changed Everything.
Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-029177-6.
• Linzmayer, Owen (2004). Apple Confidential 2.0. No Starch Press. ISBN 1-59327-010-0.
• Page, Ian (2007). "MacTracker Macintosh model database 4.3.1" (http://www.mactracker.ca/). Retrieved
2007-11-31.
• Sanford, Glen (2006). "Apple History" (http://www.apple-history.com/). Retrieved 2006-04-24.
• Singh, Amit (2005). "A History of Apple's Operating Systems" (http://www.kernelthread.com/mac/oshistory/
). Retrieved 2006-04-24.
External links
• Official website (http://http://www.apple.com/mac/)
• Making the Macintosh: Technology and Culture in Silicon Valley (http://library.stanford.edu/mac/index.
html)
• Welcome to MacIntosh (Full Film) (http://www.snagfilms.com/films/title/Welcome_to_Macintosh)
• MacHEADs (Full Film) (http://www.snagfilms.com/films/title/MacHEADS)
MS-DOS 78
MS-DOS
MS-DOS
An example of MS-DOS's command-line interface, this one showing that the current directory is the root of drive C.
Company / developer Microsoft Corporation
OS family DOS
Working state Discontinued/Historic
Source model Closed source
Initial release 1981
Latest stable release 8.0 / September 14, 2000
Available language(s) Multilanguage
Available programming languages(s) C, Pascal, QBasic, Batch, etc.
Supported platforms x86
Kernel type Monolithic kernel
Default user interface Command-line interface, Text user interface
License Proprietary
MS-DOS (pronounced /ˌɛmɛsˈdɒs/, em-es-dos; short for Micro Soft Disk Operating System) is an operating system
for x86-based personal computers. It was the most commonly used member of the DOS family of operating systems,
and was the main operating system for IBM PC compatible personal computers during the 1980s to the mid 1990s,
until it was gradually superseded by operating systems offering a graphical user interface (GUI), in particular by
various generations of the Microsoft Windows operating system.
MS-DOS grew from a 1981 request by IBM for an operating system for its IBM PC range of personal computers.
Microsoft quickly bought the rights to QDOS (Quick and Dirty Operating System), also known as 86-DOS,[1] from
Seattle Computer Products, and began work on modifying it to meet IBM's specification. The first edition, MS-DOS
1.0, was launched in 1982.[2] The version shipped with IBM's PCs was called PC DOS. Although MS-DOS and
PC-DOS were initially developed in parallel by Microsoft and IBM, the two products eventually went their separate
ways.
During its life, several competing products were released for the x86 platform,[3] and MS-DOS itself would go
through eight versions, until development ceased in 2000. Ultimately it was the key product in Microsoft's growth
from a programming languages company to a diverse software development firm, providing the company with
essential revenue and marketing resources. It was also the underlying basic operating system on which early versions
MS-DOS 79
of Windows ran as a GUI.
History
MS-DOS was a renamed form of 86-DOS — informally known as the Quick-and-Dirty Operating System or Q-DOS
[2]
— owned by Seattle Computer Products, written by Tim Paterson[2] . Microsoft needed an operating system for
the then-new Intel 8086 but it had none available, so it licensed 86-DOS and released a version of it as MS-DOS
1.0[2] . Development started in 1981, and MS-DOS 1.0 was released with the IBM PC in 1982[2] . (86-DOS, in turn,
was written as an interim replacement for the delayed CP/M-86, when Seattle Computer Products' needed an
operating system to sell with their 8086 processor card for the S-100 bus.) Tim Paterson is considered the original
author of DOS and he is called "The Father of DOS"[2] [4]
Originally MS-DOS was designed to be an operating system that could run on any 8086-family computer. Each
computer would have its own distinct hardware and its own version of MS-DOS, similar to the situation that existed
for CP/M, and with MS-DOS emulating the same solution as CP/M to adapt for different hardware platforms. To this
end, MS-DOS was designed with a modular structure with internal device drivers, minimally for primary disk drives
and the console, integrated with the kernel and loaded by the boot loader, and installable device drivers for other
devices loaded and integrated at boot time. The OEM would use a development kit provided by Microsoft to build a
version of MS-DOS with their basic I/O drivers and a standard Microsoft kernel, which they would typically supply
on disk to end users along with the hardware. Thus, there were many different versions of "MS-DOS" for different
hardware, and there is a major distinction between an IBM-compatible (or ISA) machine and an MS-DOS
[compatible] machine. Some machines, like the Tandy 2000, were MS-DOS compatible but not IBM-compatible, so
they could only run software written exclusively for MS-DOS without dependence on the peripheral hardware of the
IBM PC architecture.
This design would have worked well for compatibility, if application programs had only used MS-DOS services to
perform device I/O, and indeed the same design philosophy is embodied in Windows NT (see Hardware Abstraction
Layer). However, in MS-DOS's early days, the greater speed attainable by programs through direct control of
hardware was of particular importance, especially for games, which often pushed the limits of their contemporary
hardware. Very soon an IBM-compatible architecture became the goal, and before long all 8086-family computers
closely emulated IBM's hardware, and only a single version of MS-DOS for a fixed hardware platform was needed
for the market. This version is the version of MS-DOS that is discussed here, as the dozens of other OEM versions of
"MS-DOS" were only relevant to the systems they were designed for, and in any case were very similar in function
and capability to the same-numbered standard version for the IBM PC, with a few notable exceptions.
While MS-DOS appeared on PC clones, true IBM computers used PC DOS, a rebranded form of MS-DOS.
Ironically, the dependence on IBM-compatible hardware caused major problems for the computer industry when the
original design had to be changed. For example, the original design could support no more than 640 kilobytes of
memory (the 640 kB barrier), because IBM's hardware design reserved the address space above this limit for
peripheral devices and ROM. Manufacturers had to develop complicated schemes (EMS and XMS, and other minor
proprietary ones) to access additional memory. This limitation would not have been a problem if the original idea of
interfacing with hardware through MS-DOS had endured. (However, MS-DOS was also a real-mode operating
system, and the Intel x86 architecture only supports up to 1 MB of memory address space in Real Mode, even on
Pentium 4 and later x86 CPUs, so for simple access to megabytes of memory, MS-DOS would have had to be
rewritten to run in 80286 or 80386 Protected Mode.) Also, Microsoft originally described MS-DOS as "an operating
system for Intel 8086-based microcomputers", and the 8086 CPU (and its cousin the 8088) itself has only 1 MiB of
total memory address space.
MS-DOS 80
Versions
Microsoft licensed or released versions of MS-DOS under different names like SB-DOS or Z-DOS[3] . Competitors
released DOS systems such as DR-DOS and PTS-DOS that could also run DOS applications. The following versions
of MS-DOS were released to the public:[5] [6]
• MS-DOS 1.x
• Version 1.12 (OEM) - Compaq release of PC-DOS 1.10
• Version 1.25 (OEM) - Microsoft repackaging of PC-DOS 1.10
• MS-DOS 2.x - Support for 10 MB Hard Disk Drives and tree-structure filing system
• Version 2.0 (OEM)
• MS-DOS 3.x
• Version 3.0 (OEM) - Support for larger Hard Disk Drives
• Version 3.1 (OEM) - Support for Microsoft Networks
• Version 3.3a (OEM)
• Version 3.3r (OEM)
• Version 3.31 (OEM) - Compaq 3.31 supports FAT16 and larger drives.
• MS-DOS 4.x - includes a graphical/mouse interface.
• Version 4.01 (OEM) - IBM patched Version 4.00 before Microsoft released it.
• MS-DOS 5.x
• Version 5.0 (Retail) - includes a full-screen editor. A number of bugs required reissue.
• Version 5.0a (Retail) - With this release, IBM and Microsoft versions diverge.
• Version 5.0.500 (WinNT) - All Windows NT 32-bit versions ship with files from DOS 5.0
• MS-DOS 6.x
• Version 6.0 (Retail) - Online help through QBASIC. Disk compression and antivirus included.
• Version 6.2 (Retail) - Microsoft and IBM alternate versions, IBM has 6.1, 6.3
• Version 6.21 (Retail) - Stacker-infringing DBLSPACE removed.
• Version 6.22 (Retail) - New DRVSPACE compression.
• MS-DOS 7.x
• Version 7.0 (Win95,95A) - Support for long file names. New editor.
• Version 7.1 (Win95B-Win98SE) - Support for FAT32 file system
• MS-DOS 8.0
• Version 8.0 (WinME) - Integrated drivers for faster Windows loading.
• Version 8.0 (WinXP) - DOS boot disks created by XP and later contain files from WinME. The internal DOS
is still 5.0
Microsoft DOS was released through the OEM channel, until DRI released DR-DOS 5.0 as a retail upgrade. With
PC-DOS 5.00.1, the IBM-Microsoft agreement started to end, and IBM entered the retail DOS market with
IBMDOS 5.00.1, 5.02, 6.00 and PC-DOS 6.10, 6.30, 7.00 and 2000.
MS-DOS 81
A number of beta versions have surfaced on the Internet, such as 5.0 (a ten-diskette version in the same vein as 4.0),
7.00 beta 1 (based on 6.00), 7.00 beta 2 (based on 6.22). An OEM source package for 6.00, and a late release of
6.2(b) have also been seen. These are not retail versions.
Competition
On microcomputers based on the Intel 8086 and 8088
processors, including the IBM PC and clones, the initial
competition to the PC DOS/MS-DOS line came from
Digital Research, whose CP/M operating system had
inspired MS-DOS. In fact, there remains controversy as to
whether Q-DOS was more or less plagiarised from early
versions of CP/M code. Digital Research released
CP/M-86 a few months after MS-DOS, and it was offered
as an alternative to MS-DOS and Microsoft's licensing
requirements, but at a higher price. Executable programs
for CP/M-86 and MS-DOS were not interchangeable with
each other; much applications software was sold in both
MS-DOS and CP/M-86 versions until MS-DOS became
preponderant (later Digital Research operating systems
could run both MS-DOS and CP/M-86 software).
MS-DOS supported the simple .COM and the more
advanced relocatable .EXE executable file formats;
CP/M-86 a relocatable format using the file extension
.CMD.
The original MS-DOS advertisement in 1981. Most of the machines in the early days of MS-DOS had
differing system architectures and there was a certain
degree of incompatibility, and subsequently vendor lock-in. Users who began using MS-DOS with their machines
were compelled to continue using the version customized for their hardware, or face trying to get all of their
proprietary hardware and software to work with the new system.
In the business world the 808x-based machines that MS-DOS was tied to faced competition from the Unix operating
system which ran on many different hardware architectures. Microsoft itself sold a version of Unix for the PC called
Xenix.
In the emerging world of home users, a variety of other computers based on various other processors were in serious
competition with the IBM PC: the Apple II, early Apple Macintosh, the Commodore 64 and others did not use the
808x processor; many 808x machines of different architectures used custom versions of MS-DOS. At first all these
machines were in competition. In time the IBM PC hardware configuration became dominant in the 808x market as
software written to communicate directly with the PC hardware without using standard operating system calls ran
much faster, but on true PC-compatibles only. Non-PC-compatible 808x machines were too small a market to have
fast software written for them alone, and the market remained open only for IBM PCs and machines that closely
imitated their architecture, all running either a single version of MS-DOS compatible only with PCs, or the
equivalent IBM PC DOS. Most clones cost much less than IBM-branded machines of similar performance, and
became widely used by home users, while IBM PCs had a large share of the business computer market.
Microsoft and IBM together began what was intended as the follow-on to MS/PC DOS, called OS/2. When OS/2
was released in 1987, Microsoft began an advertising campaign announcing that "DOS is Dead" and stating that
version 4 was the last full release. OS/2 was designed for efficient multi-tasking — an IBM speciality derived from
MS-DOS 82
deep experience with mainframe operating systems — and offered a number of advanced features that had been
designed together with similar look and feel; it was seen as the legitimate heir to the "kludgy" DOS platform.
MS-DOS had grown in spurts, with many significant features being taken or duplicated from Microsoft's other
products and operating systems. MS-DOS also grew by incorporating, by direct licensing or feature duplicating, the
functionality of tools and utilities developed by independent companies, such as Norton Utilities, PC Tools
(Microsoft Anti-Virus), QEMM expanded memory manager, Stacker disk compression, and others.
During the period when Digital Research was competing in the operating system market some computers, like
Amstrad PC-1512, were sold with floppy disks for two operating systems (only one of which could be used at a
time), MS-DOS and CP/M-86 or a derivative of it. Digital Research produced DOS Plus, which was compatible with
MS-DOS 2.11, supported CP/M-86 programs, had additional features including multi-tasking, and could read and
write disks in CP/M and MS-DOS format.
While OS/2 was under protracted development, Digital Research released the MS-DOS compatible DR-DOS 5,
which included features only available as third-party add-ons for MS-DOS (and still maintained considerable
internal CP/M-86 compatibility). Unwilling to lose any portion of the market, Microsoft responded by announcing
the "pending" release of MS-DOS 5.0 in May 1990. This effectively killed most DR-DOS sales until the actual
release of MS-DOS 5.0 in June 1991. Digital Research brought out DR-DOS 6, which sold well until the
"pre-announcement" of MS-DOS 6.0 again stifled the sales of DR-DOS.
Microsoft had been accused of carefully orchestrating leaks about future versions of MS-DOS in an attempt to create
what in the industry is called FUD (fear, uncertainty, and doubt) regarding DR-DOS. For example, in October 1990,
shortly after the release of DR-DOS 5.0, and long before the eventual June 1991 release of MS-DOS 5.0, stories on
feature enhancements in MS-DOS started to appear in InfoWorld and PC Week. Brad Silverberg, Vice President of
Systems Software at Microsoft and General Manager of its Windows and MS-DOS Business Unit, wrote a forceful
letter to PC Week (November 5, 1990), denying that Microsoft was engaged in FUD tactics ("to serve our customers
better, we decided to be more forthcoming about version 5.0") and denying that Microsoft copied features from
DR-DOS:
"The feature enhancements of MS-DOS version 5.0 were decided and development was begun long
before we heard about DR-DOS 5.0. There will be some similar features. With 50 million MS-DOS
users, it shouldn't be surprising that DRI has heard some of the same requests from customers that we
have." – (Schulman et al. 1994). [7]
The pact between Microsoft and IBM to promote OS/2 began to fall apart in 1990 when Windows 3.0 became a
marketplace success. Much of Microsoft's further contributions to OS/2 also went in to creating a third GUI
replacement for DOS, Windows NT.
IBM, which had already been developing the next version of OS/2, carried on development of the platform without
Microsoft and sold it as the alternative to DOS and Windows.
Legal issues
As a response to Digital Research's DR-DOS 6.0, which bundled SuperStor disk compression, Microsoft opened
negotiations with Stac Electronics, vendor of the most popular DOS disk compression tool, Stacker. In the due
diligence process, Stac engineers had shown Microsoft part of the Stacker source code. Stac was unwilling to meet
Microsoft's terms for licensing Stacker and withdrew from the negotiations. Microsoft chose to license Vertisoft's
DoubleDisk, using it as the core for its DoubleSpace disk compression[8] .
MS-DOS 6.0 and 6.20 were released in 1993, both including the Microsoft DoubleSpace disk compression utility
program. Stac successfully sued Microsoft for patent infringement regarding the compression algorithm used in
DoubleSpace. This resulted in the 1994 release of MS-DOS 6.21, which had disk-compression removed. Shortly
afterwards came version 6.22, with a new version of the disk compression system, DriveSpace, which had a different
MS-DOS 83
compression algorithm to avoid the infringing code.

Prior to 1995, Microsoft licensed MS-DOS (and Windows) to computer manufacturers under three types of
agreement: per-processor (a fee for each system the company sold), per-system (a fee for each system of a particular
model), or per-copy (a fee for each copy of MS-DOS installed). The largest manufacturers used the per-processor
arrangement, which had the lowest fee. This arrangement made it expensive for the large manufacturers to migrate to
any other operating system, such as DR-DOS. In 1991, the U.S. government Federal Trade Commission began
investigating Microsoft's licensing procedures, resulting in a 1994 settlement agreement limiting Microsoft to
per-copy licensing. Digital Research did not gain by this settlement, and years later its successor in interest, Caldera,
sued Microsoft for damages. It was believed that the settlement ran in the order of $150m, but was revealed in
November 2009 with the release of the Settlement Agreement to be $280m.
Use of undocumented APIs

Microsoft also used a variety of tactics in MS-DOS and several of their applications and development tools that,
while operating perfectly when running on genuine MS-DOS (and PC DOS), would break when run on another
vendor's implementation of DOS. Notable examples of this practice included:
• Microsoft's QuickPascal released in early 1989 was the first MS product that checked for MS-DOS by modifying
the program's Program Segment Prefix using undocumented DOS functions, and then checked whether or not the
associated value changed in a fixed position within the DOS data segment (also undocumented). This check also
made it into later MS products, including Microsoft QuickC v2.5, Programmer's Workbench and Microsoft C
v6.0[7] .
• The (once infamous) AARD code, a block of code in the Windows 3.1 beta installer. It was XOR encrypted,
self-modifying, and deliberately obfuscated, using various undocumented DOS structures and functions to
determine whether or not Windows really was running on MS-DOS[7] .
• Note that the Windows 3.0 beta code only gave a warning that Windows would not operate properly on a
"foreign" OS. It did in fact run just fine on DR-DOS 6.0.
• Interrupt routines called by Windows to inform MS-DOS that Windows is starting/exiting, information that
MS-DOS retained in an IN_WINDOWS flag, in spite of the fact that MS-DOS and Windows were supposed to be
two separate products[7] .
End of MS-DOS
Today, MS-DOS is rarely used for desktop computing. Since the
release of Windows 95, it was integrated as a full product used for
bootstrapping and troubleshooting, and no longer released as a
standalone product.
Windows XP contains a copy of the Windows Me boot disk, stripped
down to bootstrap only. This is accessible only by formatting a floppy
as an "MS-DOS startup disk". Files like the driver for the CD-ROM
support were deleted from the Windows ME bootdisk and the startup
files (AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS) no longer had a content. In 2011, MS-DOS is still used in some
enterprises to run legacy applications, such as this
This modified disk was the base for creating the MS-DOS image for
US Navy food service management system.
Windows XP. Some of the deleted files can be recovered with an
undelete tool[9] . With Windows Vista the files on the startup disk are
dated 18 April 2005 but are otherwise unchanged, including the string "MS-DOS Version 8 © Copyright 1981-1999
Microsoft Corp" inside COMMAND.COM.
MS-DOS 84
However the only versions of DOS currently recognized as stand-alone OSs, and supported as such by the Microsoft
Corporation are DOS 6.0 and 6.22, both of which remain available for download via their MSDN, volume license,
and OEM license partner websites, for customers with valid login credentials.
MS-DOS is still used in embedded x86 systems due to its simple architecture, and minimal memory and processor
requirements. The command line interpreter of NT-based versions of Windows, cmd.exe, maintains most of the same
commands and some compatibility with DOS batch files.
The Windows command-line interface

All versions of Microsoft Windows have had an MS-DOS like command-line interface (CLI). This could run many
DOS and variously Win32, OS/2 1.x and Posix command line utilities in the same command-line session, allowing
piping between commands. The user interface, and the icon up to Windows 2000, followed the native MS-DOS
interface.
Consumer Windows (up to 3.11, Win9x, WinME) ran as a Graphical User Interface (GUI) running on top of
MS-DOS. With Windows 95, 98, and ME the MS-DOS part was integrated to give the illusion of a new operating
system. The command line accessed the DOS command line (usually command.com), through a Windows module
(winoldap.mod).
A new line of Windows, (Windows NT), boot through a kernel whose sole purpose is to load Windows: there is no
character-mode boot similar to Consumer Windows, OS/2 or UNIX). The console runs as a Win32 session, with the
default processor cmd.exe being a feature-reduced version of OS/2's version. The command session permits running
of various supported command line utilities from Win32, MS-DOS, OS/2 1.x and POSIX.
The 32-bit Windows can run MS-DOS programs through the use of the NTVDM (NT Virtual DOS Machine). This
launches a hacked version of MS-DOS 5.0. Launching the DOS command processor command.com creates a DOS
environment that allows DOS programs to communicate with each other. It is not usually run by Windows, and the
internal commands of command.com are processed by the underlying Win32 processor (usually cmd.exe, but could
be 4nt).
The 32-bit CLI is usually referred to as the MS-DOS prompt. Although the binary interface is no longer that found in
PC-DOS etc., it is an 'interface', and not an API. The commands typed here, the batches etc., all resemble those of
MS/PC-DOS in much the same way that the Linux/UNIX commands resemble each other without underlying binary
compatibility.
All versions of Windows for x86-64 and Itanium architectures no longer include the NTVDM and can therefore no
longer natively run MS-DOS or 16-bit Windows applications. There are alternatives in the form of Virtual machine
emulators such as Microsoft's own Virtual PC, as well as VMware, DOSBox, and others.
MS-DOS 85
Legacy compatibility
From 1983 onwards, various companies worked on graphical user
interfaces (GUIs) capable of running on PC hardware. With DOS
being the dominant operating system several companies released
alternate shells, e.g. Microsoft Word for DOS, XTree, and the
Norton Shell. However, this required duplication of effort and did
not provide much consistency in interface design (even between
products from the same company).
Later, in 1985, Microsoft Windows was released as Microsoft's

first attempt at providing a consistent user interface (for
applications). The early versions of Windows ran on top of
MS-DOS and its clones. At first Windows met with little success,
but this was also true for most other companies' efforts as well, for
example GEM. After version 3.0 (1990), Windows gained market
acceptance.
Later versions (Windows 95, Windows 98 and Windows Me) used

the DOS boot process to launch itself into protected mode. Basic
features related to the file system, such as long file names, were
only available to DOS when running as a subsystem of Windows.
Windows NT ran independently of DOS but included a DOS
subsystem so applications could run in a virtual machine under the
The option to create a MS-DOS boot disk is still
new OS. With the latest Windows releases, even dual-booting
present in Windows 7.
MS-DOS is problematic as DOS may not be able to read the basic
file system.
Related systems
Single-user
Several similar products were produced by other companies. In the case of PC DOS and DR-DOS, it is common but
incorrect to call these "clones". Given that Microsoft manufactured PC DOS for IBM, PC DOS and MS-DOS were
(to continue the genetic analogy) "identical twins" that diverged only in adulthood and eventually became quite
different products. Although DR-DOS is regarded as a clone of MS-DOS, the DR-DOS versions appeared months
and years before Microsoft's products. (For example, MS-DOS 4, released in July 1988, was followed by DR-DOS 5
in May 1990. MS-DOS 5 came in April 1991, with DR-DOS 6 being released the following June. MS-DOS 6 did not
arrive until April 1993, with Novell DOS 7, DR-DOS' successor, following the next month.[10] ) What made the
difference in the end was Microsoft's control of the Windows platform and their programming practices which
intentionally made Windows appear as if it ran poorly on competing versions of DOS[7] . Both IBM (DOS 5.02) and
DRI (DOS 6 update) had to release interim releases to circumvent Windows limitations inserted artificially[7] ,
designed specifically to provide Microsoft with an unfair competitive advantage[7] .
• PC DOS,
• DR-DOS / Novell DOS / OpenDOS,
• GNU/DOS / FreeDOS / FreeDOS 32,
• PTS-DOS, and
• PowerShell.
MS-DOS 86
These products are collectively referred to as DOS. However, MS-DOS can be a generic reference to DOS on
IBM-PC compatible computers.
Quotations
"IBM wanted CP/M prompts. It made me throw up." -- Tim Paterson [11]
Remarks
[1] "A Short History of MS-DOS" (http:/ / www. patersontech. com/ Dos/ Byte/ History. html). . Retrieved December 5, 2009.
[2] Conner, Doug. "Father of DOS Still Having Fun at Microsoft" (http:/ / www. patersontech. com/ Dos/ Micronews/ paterson04_10_98. htm).
Micronews. . Retrieved December 5, 2009.
[3] Allan, Roy A. (2001). "Microsoft in the 1980's, part III 1980's — The IBM/Macintosh era" (http:/ / www. retrocomputing. net/ info/ allan/ ).
A history of the personal computer: the people and the technology. London, Ontario: Allan Pub.. p. 14 (http:/ / www. retrocomputing. net/
info/ allan/ eBook12. pdf). ISBN 0-9689108-0-7. . Retrieved December 5, 2009.
[4] Notice that he is called the author of Dos and not the author of MS-DOS
[5] http:/ / www. emsps. com/ oldtools/ msdosv. htm
[6] http:/ / pcmuseum. tripod. com/ dos. htm
[7] Schulman, Andrew (1994). Undocumented DOS: A Programmer's Guide to Reserved MS-DOS Functions and Data Structures (2nd ed.).
Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-63287-X.
[8] BYTE Magazine, How Safe is Disk Compression? (http:/ / www. byte. com/ art/ 9402/ sec6/ art1. htm), February, 1994.
[9] http:/ / mirror. href. com/ thestarman/ winxp/ winxpsd. htm
[10] Timeline 1980-1993 (http:/ / www. oldfiles. org. uk/ powerload/ timeline. htm)
[11] Hunter, David (1983). "The Roots of DOS" (http:/ / www. patersontech. com/ Dos/ Softalk/ Softalk. html). Softalk for the IBM Personal
Computer. . Retrieved 2007-06-14.
Notes
References
Microsoft. MS-DOS 6 Technical Reference (http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc743186.aspx)
External links
• MS-DOS Resources (http://www.josephn.net/ms-dos) - Information on various aspects of MS-DOS including
downloads
• Current License Agreement Policies for MS-DOS and Windows (http://support.microsoft.com/kb/79747)
• Tim Paterson on DOS (http://www.patersontech.com/Dos/Articles.aspx) - Paterson wrote the QDOS OS
• MS-DOS: A Brief Introduction (http://www.linfo.org/ms-dos.html)
• Richard Bonner's DOS website (http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/~ak621/DOS/DOS-Head.html)
• Batfiles (http://purl.oclc.org/net/Batfiles/) - the DOS batch file programming handbook and tutorial
• Arachne graphical browser for DOS (http://browser.arachne.cz/)
• MS-DOS Reference (http://www.nukesoft.co.uk/msdos/)
• DOS version timeline (http://members.fortunecity.com/pcmuseum/dos.htm#)
• Linux/dosemu (http://www.dosemu.org/)
• Ralf Brown's Interrupt List (http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/user/ralf/pub/WWW/files.html)
• DOS command overview (http://www.computerhope.com/msdos.htm)
• DOSBox, a multiplatform DOS emulator (http://dosbox.sourceforge.net/news.php?show_news=1)
• Garbo - An MS-DOS program distribution library (http://garbo.uwasa.fi/) at the University of Vaasa, Finland
• MS-DOS 6 Technical Reference at Microsoft TechNet (http://www.microsoft.com/technet/archive/msdos/
01_intro.mspx?mfr=true)
• Promotional video for MS-DOS 5 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dmEvPZUdAVI)
MS-DOS 87
• List of all released Microsoft Operating Systems and betas (http://69.117.216.225:81/OSArchive/microsoft.

htm)
ATI Technologies
ATI Technologies
Type Subsidiary of AMD
Industry Semiconductors
Founded 1985 (as Array Technologies Incorporated)

2006 (renamed to AMD Graphics Product Group)
Headquarters Markham, Ontario, Canada
Key people Adrian Hartog

(President)
Rick Bergman
(Vice President) (General Manager)
Products Graphics processing units

Chipsets
Video capture cards
Parent AMD
Website [1]
ati.amd.com
ATI Technologies Inc, is a major designer and supplier of graphics processing units and motherboard chipsets based
in Canada. In 2006, the company was acquired by Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) and was renamed to the AMD
Graphics Products group. Despite the acquisition, the ATI brand was retained for graphics cards until August 30,
2010. AMD have announced that it will retire the "ATI" name and instead brand its graphics chipsets as "AMD"
beginning in late 2010.[2]
ATi Technologies is a fabless semiconductor company conducting in-house research and development and
outsourcing the manufacturing and assembly of its products. Its main competitor is NVIDIA in the graphics and
handheld market. The flagship product, the Radeon series of graphics cards, directly competes with NVIDIA's
GeForce. These two companies' dominance of the market forced other manufacturers into niche roles.
History
Lee Ka Lau[3] , Benny Lau and Kwok Yuen Ho[4] founded ATI in 1985 as "Array Technologies Incorporated".
Working primarily in the OEM field, ATI produced integrated graphics cards for PC manufacturers such as IBM and
Commodore. By 1987, ATI had grown into an independent graphics-card retailer, introducing EGA Wonder and
VGA Wonder graphics card product lines under its brand that year[5] . In May 1991, the company released the
Mach8, ATI's first product able to process graphics without the CPU. Debuting in 1992, the Mach32 offered
improved memory bandwidth and GUI acceleration performance. ATI Technologies Inc. went public in 1993 with
stock listed at NASDAQ and Toronto Stock Exchange.
ATI Technologies 88
In 1994, the Mach64 accelerator debuted, powering the

Graphics Xpression and Graphics Pro Turbo, offering
hardware support for YUV-to-RGB color space
conversion in addition to hardware zoom; early
techniques of hardware-based video acceleration.
ATI introduced its first combination of 2D and 3D
accelerator under the name 3D Rage. This chip was
based on the Mach 64, but it featured elemental 3D
acceleration. The ATI Rage line powered almost the
entire range of ATI graphics products. In particular, the
Rage Pro was one of the first viable 2D-plus-3D
alternatives to 3Dfx's 3D-only Voodoo chipset. 3D
AMD Markham at the former ATI headquarters.
acceleration in the Rage line advanced from the basic
functionality within the initial 3D Rage to a more
advanced DirectX 6.0 accelerator in the 1999 Rage
128.
The All-in-Wonder product line introduced in 1996

was the first combination of integrated graphics chip
with TV tuner card and the first chip that enabled to
display computer graphics on a TV set[6] . The cards
featured 3D acceleration powered by ATI's second
generation 3D Rage II, 64-bit 2D performance,
TV-quality video acceleration, analog video capture,
TV tuner functionality, flicker-free TV-out and stereo
TV audio reception.
ATI's former Silicon Valley office.
ATI made an entrance into the mobile computing sector
by introducing 3D-graphics acceleration to laptops in
1996. The Mobility product line had to meet
requirements different from desktop PC, such as
minimized power usage, reduced heat output, TMDS
output capabilities for laptop screens, and maximized
integration. In 1997, ATI acquired Tseng Labs's
graphics assets, which included 40 engineers.
The Radeon line of graphics products was unveiled in

2000. The initial Radeon graphics processing unit was
ATI VGA Wonder with 256 kB RAM.
an all-new design with DirectX 7.0 3D acceleration,
video acceleration, and 2D acceleration. Technology
developed for a specific Radeon generation could be built in varying levels of features and performance in order to
provide products suited for the entire market range, from high-end to budget to mobile versions.
In 2000, ATI acquired ArtX, which engineered the Flipper graphics chip used in the Nintendo GameCube game
console. They have also created a modified version of the chip (codenamed Hollywood) for the successor of the
GameCube, the Wii. ATI was contracted by Microsoft to create the graphics core (codenamed Xenos) for the Xbox
360. Later in 2005, ATI acquired Terayon's cable modem silicon intellectual property strengthening their lead in the
consumer digital television market[7] . K. Y. Ho remained as Chairman of the Board until he retired in November
2005. Dave Orton replaced him as the President and CEO of the organization.
ATI Technologies 89
On July 24, 2006, Advanced Micro Devices and ATI announced a plan to merge together in a deal valued at $5.4
billion. The merger closed on October 25, 2006[8] . The acquisition consideration included over $2 billion financed
from a loan and 56 million shares of AMD stock[9] . ATI retained its name, logos and trademarks. ATI's then CEO
Dave Orton was made the Executive Vice President of Visual and Media Businesses[10] .
It was reported that in December 2006 AMD/ATI, along with its main rival NVIDIA, received subpoenas from the
United States Department of Justice regarding possible antitrust violations in the graphics card industry[11] .
In July 2007, AMD announced the resignation of Dave Orton. ATI, a subsidiary of AMD, is called the Graphics
Product Group (GPG) inside the company[12] . The top-level management of the Graphics Product Group consists of
Rick Bergman, Senior Vice President and General Manager and Adrian Hartog, Senior Vice President and General
Manager of Consumer Electronics Group. Both report to Dirk Meyer, CEO of AMD[13] .
On 30 August 2010, John Trikola announced that AMD will retire the "ATI" brand for its graphics chipsets, and will
brand future products as "AMD".[14]
Products
In addition to developing high-end GPUs
(originally called a VPU, visual processing
unit, by ATI) for PCs And Apple Macs, ATI
also designs embedded versions for laptops
(Mobility Radeon), PDAs and mobile
phones (Imageon), integrated motherboards
(Radeon IGP), and others.
ATI promotes some of its products with the

fictional "Ruby" female character, described
as a "mercenary for hire."[15]
Computer-animated videos produced by
RhinoFX about Ruby on a mission (being a
sniper, saboteur, hacker and so on) are
displayed at large technology shows such as
ATI's Ruby fictional female character.
CeBIT and CES.
Computer graphics chipsets

This list is incomplete.
• Graphics Solution / "Small Wonder" - Series of 8-bit ISA cards with MDA, Hercules, CGA and Plantronics
Color+ compatibility. Later versions added EGA support.
• EGA / VGA Wonder - IBM "EGA/VGA-compatible" display adapters (1987)
• Mach Series - Introduced ATI's first 2D GUI "Windows Accelerator". As the series evolved, GUI acceleration
improved dramatically and early video acceleration appeared.
• Rage Series - ATI's first 2D and 3D accelerator chips. The series evolved from rudimentary 3D with 2D GUI
acceleration and MPEG-1 capability, to a highly competitive Direct3D 6 accelerator with then "best-in-class"
DVD (MPEG2) acceleration. The various chips were very popular with OEMs of the time. The Rage II was used
in the first ATI All-In-Wonder multi-function video card, and more advanced All-In-Wonders based on Rage
series GPUs followed. (1995–2004)
• Rage Mobility - Designed for use in low-power environments, such as notebooks. These chips were
functionally similar to their desktop counterparts, but had additions such as advanced power management,
ATI Technologies 90
LCD interfaces, and dual monitor functionality.

• Radeon Series - Launched in 2000, the Radeon line is ATI's brand for their consumer 3D accelerator add-in
cards. The original Radeon DDR was ATI's first DirectX 7 3D accelerator, introducing their first hardware T&L
engine. ATI often produced 'Pro' versions with higher clock speeds, and sometimes an extreme 'XT' version, and
even more recently 'XT Platinum Edition (PE)' and 'XTX' versions. The Radeon series was the basis for many
ATI All-In-Wonder boards.
• Mobility Radeon - A series of power-optimized versions of Radeon graphics chips for use in laptops. They
introduced innovations such as modularized RAM chips, DVD (MPEG2) acceleration, notebook GPU card
sockets, and "PowerPlay" power management technology. AMD recently announced DirectX 11-compatible
versions of its mobile processors[16] .
• ATI CrossFire - This technology was ATI's response to NVIDIA's SLI platform. It allowed, by using a
secondary video card and a dual PCI-E motherboard based on an ATI Crossfire-compatible chipset, the ability
to combine the power of the two, three or four video cards to increase performance through a variety of
different rendering options. There is an option for additional PCI-E video card plugging into the third PCI-E
slot for gaming physics, or another option to do physics on the second video card[17] .
• FireGL - Launched in 2001, following ATI's acquisition of FireGL Graphics from Diamond Multimedia.
Workstation CAD/CAM video card, based on the Radeon series.
• FireMV - For workstations, featuring multi-view, a technology for the need of multiple displays for workstations
with 2D acceleration only, usually based on the low-end products of the Radeon series.
• FirePro - The follow-on to the FireGL cards, for workstations.
• EyeFinity - Allows up to 6 monitors to be connected to one card to allow surround-screen panoramic view.
• EyeSpeed - Allows you to experience games with true-to-life actions-and reactions. Things like physics effects,
Artificial Intelligence (AI), and more.
Personal computer platforms and chipsets

• IGP 3x0, Mobility Radeon 7000 IGP - ATI's first chipsets. Included a DirectX 7-level 3D graphics processor.
• 9100 IGP - 2nd generation system chipset. IXP250 southbridge. It was notable for being ATI's first complete
motherboard chipset, including an ATI-built southbridge. It included an updated DirectX 8.1 class graphics
processor[18] .
• Xpress 200/200P - PCI Express-based Athlon 64 and Pentium 4 chipset. Supports SATA as well as integrated
graphics with DirectX 9.0 support, the first integrated graphics chipset to do so[19] .
• Xpress 3200 - similar to Xpress 200, but designed for optimal CrossFire performance.
• AMD 580X CrossFire chipset - AMD edition of Xpress 3200 renamed, due to AMD acquisition of ATI.
• 690G, Xpress 1250 - for AMD and Intel platforms. Includes DirectX 9 graphics processor improved over Xpress
200.[20] and industry first native HDMI implementation on motherboards.
• AMD 700 chipset series - exclusively for AMD processors, this is a chipset family supporting Phenom
processors and Quad FX enthusiast platform (790FX), enthusiast chipset (790X), IGP (790GX, 785G, 780G,
740G) and single graphics card variants (770, 740) aimed at mainstream and value computing systems available.
• AMD 800 chipset series - exclusively for AMD processors, It includes support for up to six SATA 6.0 Gbit/s
ports, the C6 power state, which is featured in Fusion processors and AHCI 1.2 with SATA FIS–based switching
support. This is a chipset family supporting Phenom processors and Quad FX enthusiast platform (890FX),
IGP(890GX).
In addition to the above chipset ATI has announced that a deal has been struck with CPU and Motherboard
manufacturers as of 2005, particularly Asus and Intel, to create onboard 3D Graphics solutions for Intel's new range
of motherboards that will be released with their range of Intel Pentium M-based desktop processors, the Intel Core
and Intel Core 2 processors, the D101GGC and D101GGC2 chipset (codenamed "Grand County"[21] ) based on the
ATI Technologies 91
Radeon Xpress 200 chipset. However, high-end boards with integrated graphics processor (IGP) will still use Intel
GMA integrated graphics processors. The deal with Intel was deemed to be officially ended with the purchase of
ATI Technologies from AMD in July 2006, with Intel announcing SiS IGP chipset (D201GLY chipset, codenamed
"Little Valley") for entry-level desktop platform, replacing the "Grand County" series chipsets.
Multimedia and Digital TV products

• All-In-Wonder series - A series of multimedia graphics cards which incorporating TV tuner and Radeon family
graphics cards onto one add-in card, which, after being seemingly discontinued was relaunched as All-In-Wonder
HD on June 26, 2008.
• TV tuners
• TV Wonder and HDTV Wonder - a chipset family providing TV reception of various analog TV and digital
TV signals (PAL, NTSC, ATSC, DVB-T and so on) with first generation AVIVO technology, also supporting
CableCARD, and Clear QAM technologies.
• Theater - a family of QAM and VSB demodulators for the Digital Cable ready and ATSC environments.
• Remote Wonder, wireless remote control series for ATI multimedia products. Operates using radio frequency,
away from mainstream implementations using infrared.
Console graphics products

• Flipper - The Nintendo GameCube (codenamed "dolphin" during production) contains a 3D accelerator
developed by ArtX, Inc, a company acquired by ATI during the development of the GPU. Flipper is similar in
capability to a Direct3D 7 accelerator chip. It consists of four rendering pipelines, with hardware T&L, and some
limited pixel shader support. Innovatively the chip has 3 MiB of embedded 1T-SRAM for use as ultra-fast
low-latency (6.2 ns) texture and framebuffer/Z-buffer storage allowing 10.4 GB/second bandwidth (extremely fast
for the time). Flipper was designed by members of the Nintendo 64 Reality Coprocessor team who moved from
SGI. The Flipper team went on to have a major hand in the development of the Radeon 9700.
• Xenos - Microsoft's Xbox 360 video game console contains a custom graphics chip produced by ATI, known as
"R500", "C1", or more often as Xenos. Some of these features include the embedded DRAM (eDRAM). The
Xenos also features the “True Unified Shader Architecture” which dynamically loads and balances pixel and
vertex processing amongst a bank of identically capable processing units. This differs greatly from
past-generations PC graphics chips that have separate banks of processors designed for their individual task
(vertex/fragment). Another feature presented in Xenos is the hardware surface tessellation to divide a surface into
smaller triangles, similar to TruForm in terms of functionality, which is an advanced feature as it is not presented
even in the most up-to-date DirectX 10 specification. The recent generation Radeon R600 GPU core inherited
most of the features presented in Xenos, except eDRAM.
• Hollywood - Successor to Flipper. Part of Nintendo's latest gaming console, Wii.
Handheld chipsets
• Imageon - System-on-a-chip (SoC) design introduced in 2002 to bring integrated 2D and 3D graphics to
handhelds devices, cellphones and Tablet PCs. Current top-of-line product is the Imageon 2298 which includes
DVD quality recording and playback, TV output, and supports up to a 12-megapixel camera, with another line of
Imageon products, the 2300 series supporting OpenGL ES 1.1+ extensions. The Imageon line was rebranded
under AMD, after AMD acquired ATI in Q3 2006, as AMD Imageon.
• Imageon TV - Announced in February 2006, allowing handhelds devices to receive digital broadcast TV
(DVB-H) signals and enables watching TV programs on these devices, the chipset includes tuner, demodulator,
decoder, and a full software stack, operates alongside the Imageon chip.
ATI Technologies 92
Besides full products, ATI has also supplied 3D and 2D graphics components to other vendors, specifically the
Qualcomm[22] MSM7000 series SoC chips of handheld and upcoming Freescale i. MX processors[23] . ATI claimed
in May 2006, that it had sold over 100 million[24] 'cell phone media co-processors', significantly more than ATI's
rival NVIDIA, and announced in February 2007 that the firm had shipped a total of 200 million of Imageon products
since 2003[25] .
In late 2008, the entire handheld division was sold off to Qualcomm, so there will be no new Imageon products.
High Performance Computing

• AMD FireStream, originally ATI Firestream, and previously rebranded as AMD Stream Processor for a short
period of time, utilizing the stream processing concept, together with Close to Metal (CTM) hardware interface.
ATI graphics drivers
Proprietary
ATI currently provides proprietary graphics drivers, and also assists development of open source drivers. The
proprietary drivers are called ATI Catalyst, and are available for most platforms: Windows XP, Windows Vista,
Microsoft Windows 7, Mac OS X, and Linux. Linux users can also opt to use open source drivers.
Open source
Hardware component companies which only provide proprietary drivers have always been urged by the Linux
community to open source their drivers, or at least provide the necessary documentation for the community to write
their own drivers. In a 2002 interview with AMD official Hal Speed, it was suggested that AMD were strongly
considering making the functional part of the ATI drivers open source[26] . However, until the merger with AMD,
ATI had no plans to release their graphics drivers as open source code:
Proprietary, patented optimizations are part of the value we provide to our customers and we have no plans to
release these drivers to open source. In addition, multimedia elements such as content protection must not, by
their very nature, be allowed to go open source.
—ATI statement, August 2006 [27]
Since 2007 ATI has cooperated with the development of open source graphics drivers. Although ATI has not made
their Catalyst drivers open source, the programming specifications for a number of chipsets and features were
published in several rounds. This greatly changed their support of the development of open source graphics drivers,
as until that moment only unsupported open source drivers existed. Besides releasing the specifications, ATI also
funded the development of new open source drivers, by Novell, for the newest generation of video cards.
References
[1] http:/ / ati. amd. com/
[2] "ATI to be re-branded as AMD - branding, ATI Radeon, ati, amd - ARN" (http:/ / www. arnnet. com. au/ article/ 358774/
ati_re-branded_amd/ ). Arnnet.com.au. 2010-08-30. . Retrieved 2011-02-19.
[3] University of Toronto Division of University Advancement page (http:/ / www. giving. utoronto. ca/ chairs/ showchairs. asp?ID=19).
Retrieved February 28, 2008.
[4] "K.Y. Ho biography on ATI website" (http:/ / www. ati. com/ designpartners/ media/ bios/ kyho. html). Ati.com. 2011-02-07. . Retrieved
2011-02-19.
[5] History of AMD at AMD.com (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ Weblets/ 0,,7832_10554,00. html?redir=AAMD04#1980)
[6] History of AMD - 1996 at AMD.com (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ Weblets/ 0,,7832_10554,00. html?redir=AAMD04#1990)
[7] press release (http:/ / apps. ati. com/ ir/ PressReleaseText. asp?compid=105421& releaseID=671557)
[8] "Press Release" (http:/ / ir. ati. com/ phoenix. zhtml?c=105421& p=irol-newsArticle& ID=921365& highlight=). Ir.ati.com. . Retrieved
2011-02-19.
ATI Technologies 93
[9] "AMD page" (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ Corporate/ VirtualPressRoom/ 0,,51_104_543~113656,00. html). Amd.com. 2011-02-10. .
[10] "AMD 2006 December Analyst Day page" (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ Corporate/ InvestorRelations/ 0,,51_306_14668,00. html).
Amd.com. . Retrieved 2011-02-19.
[11] "Justice Dept. subpoenas AMD, NVIDIA" (http:/ / news. zdnet. com/ 2100-9584_22-6140041. html). New York Times. 1 December 2006. .
[12] "AMD 2007 Analyst Day page" (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ Corporate/ InvestorRelations/ 0,,51_306_15086,00. html). Amd.com. .
[13] "Corporate Information - Executive Biographies at" (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ Corporate/ AboutAMD/ 0,,51_52_570,00. html).
Amd.com. 2011-02-14. . Retrieved 2011-02-19.
[14] "AMD Decides to Drop the ATI Brand - Softpedia" (http:/ / news. softpedia. com/ news/ AMD-Really-Dropping-the-ATI-Brand-154168.
shtml). News.softpedia.com. . Retrieved 2011-02-19.
[15] "Ruby's Headquarters at" (http:/ / ati. de/ ruby/ index. html). Ati.de. 2011-01-15. . Retrieved 2011-02-19.
[16] "AMD launches DirectX 11 graphics chips for laptops" (http:/ / news. techworld. com/ mobile-wireless/ 3209713/
amd-launches-directx-11-graphics-chips-for-laptops/ ). techworld.com. 2010-01-08. . Retrieved 2010-01-08.
[17] "DailyTech report" (http:/ / dailytech. com/ article. aspx?newsid=5634). Dailytech.com. . Retrieved 2011-02-19.
[18] Gavrichenkov, Ilya. ATI RADEON 9100 IGP Integrated Chipset Review (http:/ / www. xbitlabs. com/ articles/ chipsets/ display/
ati-igp9100. html), X-bit Labs, December 1, 2003.
[19] Wasson, Scott. ATI's Radeon Xpress 200 chipset (http:/ / techreport. com/ reviews/ 2004q4/ radeon-xpress200/ index. x?pg=1), Tech
Report, November 8, 2004.
[20] "ATI product page of Xpress 1250" (http:/ / ati. amd. com/ products/ radeonxpress1250dsk/ index. html). Ati.amd.com. 2011-02-15. .
[21] Intel Boxed Desktop Board Quick Guide (December 2006) (http:/ / cache-www. intel. com/ cd/ 00/ 00/ 32/ 94/ 329441_329441. pdf)
[22] page 10 and 15 (http:/ / brew. qualcomm. com/ bnry_brew/ pdf/ brew_2007/ Tech-303_Ligon. pdf)
[23] DailyTech report (http:/ / www. dailytech. com/ Freescale+ Licenses+ AMD+ Technologies/ article8909. htm). Retrieved September 17,
2007.
[24] "The Inquirer report" (http:/ / www. theinquirer. net/ ?article=31938). Theinquirer.net. . Retrieved 2011-02-19.
[25] AMD press release (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ Corporate/ VirtualPressRoom/ 0,,51_104_543~115795,00. html). Retrieved July 27,
2007.
[26] Yager, Tom (2006-08-02). "'AMD talks about ATI' at" (http:/ / www. infoworld. com/ article/ 06/ 08/ 02/ 32OPcurve_1. html).
Infoworld.com. . Retrieved 2011-02-19.
[27] http:/ / news. com. com/ 2061-10791_3-6104655. html
External links
• AMD's Graphics Division (http://ati.amd.com/products/)
• AMD GAME! - AMD's gaming website (http://game.amd.com/)
• ATI Corporate Milestones document (http://www.ati.com/companyinfo/milestones/CorporateMilestones.
pdf)
• FiringSquad's History of ATI (http://firingsquad.com/features/atihistory/)
• Official AMD ATI Merger Site on AMD Website (http://www.amd.com/us-en/0,,3715_14197_14198,00.
html?redir=goBG01)
Nvidia 94
Nvidia
Nvidia Corporation
Type [1]
Public (NASDAQ: NVDA )
Industry Semiconductors — Specialized
Founded 1993
Founder(s) Jen-Hsun Huang

Chris Malachowsky
Curtis Priem
Headquarters Santa Clara, California, U.S.
Area served Worldwide
Key people Jen-Hsun Huang (President & CEO)

Chris Malachowsky (Nvidia Fellow; Senior Vice President, Engineering &
Operations)
Jonah M. Alben (VP, GPU Engineering)
Debora Shoquist (SVP, Operations)
Dr. Ranga Jayaraman (CIO)
Products Graphics processing units

Chipsets
Revenue $3.326 billion (2010)
Operating income $98.945 million (2010)
Net income $67.987 million (2010)
Total assets $3.586 billion (2010)
Total equity $2.665 billion (2010)
Employees 6000
Website http:/ / www. nvidia. com
Nvidia (NASDAQ: NVDA [1] pronounced /ɪnˈvɪdi.ə/[2] in-VID-ee-ə) is a multinational corporation which specializes
in the development of graphics processing units and chipset technologies for workstations, personal computers, and
mobile devices. Based in Santa Clara, California, the company has become a major supplier of integrated circuits
(ICs), designing graphics processing units (GPUs) and chipsets used in graphics cards, in personal-computer
motherboards, and in video game consoles.
Notable Nvidia product lines include:
• the GeForce series for gaming
• the Tesla series for supercomputing
• the Quadro series for computer-aided design and for digital content creation (DCC) on workstations
• the nForce series of integrated motherboard chipsets
Nvidia 95
• the Tegra for mobile devices
Company history
Three people co-founded Nvidia in 1993:[3]
• Jen-Hsun Huang (As of 2008 CEO), previously Director of CoreWare at LSI Logic and a microprocessor
designer at Advanced Micro Devices (AMD)
• Chris Malachowsky, an electrical engineer who worked at Sun Microsystems
• Curtis Priem, previously a senior staff engineer and graphics chip designer at Sun Microsystems
The founders gained venture capital funding from Sequoia Capital.[4]
In 2000, Nvidia acquired the intellectual assets of its one-time rival 3dfx, one of the biggest graphics companies of
the mid- to late-1990s.[5]
In July 2002, Nvidia acquired Exluna for an undisclosed sum. Exluna made software rendering tools and the
personnel were merged into the Cg project. [6]
In August 2003, Nvidia acquired MediaQ for aprox 70 Million.[7]
On April 22, 2004, Nvidia acquired iReady, a provider of high performance TCP/IP and iSCSI offload solutions.[8]
On December 14, 2005, Nvidia acquired ULI Electronics, which at the time supplied third-party southbridge parts
for chipsets to ATI, Nvidia's competitor.[9]
In March 2006, Nvidia acquired Hybrid Graphics[10]
In December 2006, Nvidia, along with its main rival in the graphics industry AMD (which had acquired ATI),
received subpoenas from the U.S. Department of Justice regarding possible antitrust violations in the graphics card
industry.[11]
Forbes magazine named Nvidia its Company of the Year for 2007, citing the accomplishments it made during the
said period as well as during the previous 5 years.[12]
On January 5, 2007, Nvidia announced that it had completed the acquisition of PortalPlayer, Inc.[13]
In February 2008, Nvidia acquired Ageia Technologies for an undisclosed sum. "The purchase reflects both
companies' shared goal of creating the most amazing and captivating game experiences," said Jen-Hsun Huang,
president and CEO of Nvidia. "By combining the teams that created the world's most pervasive GPU and physics
engine brands, we can now bring GeForce-accelerated PhysX to twelve million gamers around the world."[14] (The
press-release made no mention of the acquisition-cost nor of future plans for specific products.)
On January 10, 2011, NVIDIA signed a six-year cross-licensing agreement with Intel which marks the end of all
outstanding legal disputes between these two companies. According to the agreement Intel will pay NVIDIA $1.5
billion in licensing fees payable in five annual installments.[15]
Branding
The company's name combines an initial n (a letter usable as a pronumeral in mathematical statements) and the root
of video (from Latin videre, "to see"), thus implying "the best visual experience" or perhaps "immeasurable display."
The sound of the name Nvidia suggests "envy" (Spanish: eNVIDIA; Latin, Italian, or Romanian: iNVIDIA); and
NVIDIA's GeForce 8 series product (manufactured 2006-2008) used the slogan "Green with envy."
The company name is officially entirely in upper-case ("NVIDIA"), and appears as such in the company's technical
documentation, website and press releases.[16] The mixed-case form ("nVIDIA," with a full-height, lower-case "n")
appears only in the corporate logo; though this form is apparent in other NVIDIA trademarks ("nDemand", "nView",
"nZone").
Nvidia 96
Products
Nvidia's product portfolio includes graphics processors, wireless
communications processors, PC platform (motherboard core logic)
chipsets, and digital media player software. The community of
computer users arguably has come to know Nvidia best for its
"GeForce" product line, which consists of both a complete line of
discrete graphics chips found in AIB (add-in board) video cards and
core graphics technology used in nForce motherboards, the Microsoft
Xbox game console, and Sony's PlayStation 3 game console.
In many respects Nvidia resembles its competitor ATI. Both Nvidia headquarters in Santa Clara
companies began with a focus on the PC market and later expanded
their activities into chips for non-PC applications. As part of their
operations, both ATI and Nvidia create reference designs (circuit board
schematics) and provide manufacturing samples to their board partners.
However, unlike ATI, Nvidia does not sell graphics boards into the
retail market, instead focusing on the development of GPU chips. As a
fabless semiconductor company, Nvidia contracts out the manufacture
of their chips to Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company, Ltd.
(TSMC). Manufacturers of Nvidia video cards include EVGA,
Foxconn, and PNY. The manufacturers ASUS, ECS, Gigabyte
Technology, MSI, Palit, and XFX produce both ATI and NVIDIA
cards.
December 2004 saw the announcement that Nvidia would assist Sony
with the design of the graphics processor (RSX) in the PlayStation 3 Xbox's GPU
game console. In March 2006 it emerged that Nvidia would deliver
RSX to Sony as an IP core, and that Sony alone would organize the manufacture of the RSX. Under the agreement,
Nvidia will provide ongoing support to port the RSX to Sony's fabs of choice (Sony and Toshiba), as well as die
shrinks to 65 nm. This practice contrasts with Nvidia's business arrangement with Microsoft, in which Nvidia
managed production and delivery of the Xbox GPU through NVIDIA's usual third-party foundry contracts.
Meanwhile, Microsoft chose to license a design by ATI and to make its own manufacturing arrangements for the
Xbox 360 graphics hardware, as has Nintendo for the Wii console (which succeeds the ATI-based Nintendo
GameCube).
On February 4, 2008, Nvidia announced plans to acquire physics-software producer Ageia, whose PhysX physics
engine program formed part of hundreds of games shipping or in development for PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, Wii, and
gaming PCs.[17] This transaction completed on February 13, 2008[18] and efforts to integrate PhysX into the GeForce
8800's CUDA system began.[19] [20]
On June 2, 2008 NVIDIA officially announced its new Tegra product line.[21] The Tegra, a system-on-a-chip (SoC),
integrates an ARM CPU, GPU, northbridge and southbridge onto a single chip. Commentators opine that NVIDIA
will target this product at the smartphone and mobile Internet device markets.
On January 5, 2011 NVIDIA announced at CES 2011 a "full custom processor" ARM core called Project Denver
Which is targeted at the high performance computing market.[22]
On February 15, 2011, Nvidia announced and demonstrated the first quad-core processor for mobile devices at the at
the Mobile World Congress in Barcelona. This chip is expected to ship with many tablets to be released in the
second half of 2011. [23]
Nvidia 97
Graphics chipsets
• NV1: Nvidia's first product, based on quadratic surfaces
• RIVA 128 and RIVA 128ZX: DirectX 5 support, OpenGL 1 support, NVIDIA's first DirectX-compliant hardware
• RIVA TNT, RIVA TNT2: DirectX 6 support, OpenGL 1 support, Nvidia's first market-leading product
• NVIDIA GeForce: graphics processors for personal computers
• NVIDIA Quadro: graphics processors for professional workstations
• NVIDIA Tesla: dedicated GPGPU processors for high-performance computing systems
• NVIDIA GoForce: media processors featuring nPower technology for PDAs and mobile phones
• NVIDIA Tegra: system-on-a-chip with an ARM processor for mobile devices such as smartphones, PDAS, and
MIDs
• GPUs for game consoles:
• Xbox: GeForce3-class GPU (on an Intel Pentium III/Celeron platform)
• PlayStation 3: RSX 'Reality Synthesizer'
Desktop motherboard chipsets

• nForce series
• nForce: AMD Athlon/Athlon XP/Duron K7 CPUs (System Platform Processor (SPP) and Media and
Communications Processor (MCP) or GeForce2 MX-class Integrated Graphics Processor (IGP) and MCP,
SoundStorm available)[24]
• nForce2: AMD Athlon/Athlon XP/Duron/Sempron K7 CPUs (SPP + MCP or GeForce4 MX-class IGP +
MCP, SoundStorm available)
• nForce3: AMD Athlon 64/Athlon 64 X2/Athlon 64 FX/Opteron/Sempron K8 CPUs (unified MCP only)
• nForce4
• AMD: Athlon 64/Athlon 64 X2/Athlon 64 FX/Opteron/Sempron K8 CPUs (unified MCP, SPP + MCP, or
MCP paired with GeForce 6100 series/Quadro NVS 210S IGP)
• Intel: Pentium 4/Pentium 4 Extreme Edition/Pentium D/Pentium Extreme Edition/Celeron/Celeron D
NetBurst CPUs (SPP + MCP only)
• nForce 500
• AMD: Athlon 64/Athlon 64 X2/Athlon 64 FX/Opteron/Sempron K8 CPUs (unified MCP or SPP + MCP)
• Intel Pentium 4/Pentium 4 Extreme Edition/Pentium D/Pentium Extreme Edition/Pentium Dual-Core/Core
2 Duo/Core 2 Extreme/Celeron/Celeron D NetBurst and Core 2 CPUs (SPP + MCP only)
• nForce 600
• AMD: Athlon 64/Athlon 64 X2/Athlon 64 FX/Opteron/Sempron K8 CPUs, Quad FX-capable (unified MCP
or MCP paired with GeForce 7000 series/GeForce 7100 series IGP)
• Intel: Pentium 4/Pentium 4 Extreme Edition/Pentium D/Pentium Extreme Edition/Pentium Dual-Core/Core
2 Duo/Core 2 Extreme/Core 2 Quad/Celeron/Celeron D NetBurst and Core 2 CPUs (SPP + MCP or MCP
paired with GeForce 7000 series/GeForce 7100 series IGP)
• nForce 700
• AMD: Athlon 64/Athlon 64 X2/Athlon 64 FX/Athlon X2/Opteron/Phenom X3/Phenom X4/Sempron K8
and K10 CPUs
• Intel: Pentium 4/Pentium 4 Extreme Edition/Pentium D/Pentium Extreme Edition/Pentium Dual-Core/Core
2 Duo/Core 2 Extreme/Core 2 Quad/Celeron/Celeron D NetBurst and Core 2 CPUs
• nForce 900: AMD Athlon 64/Athlon 64 X2/Athlon 64 FX/Athlon X2/Athlon II X2/Athlon II X3/Athlon II
X4/Opteron/Phenom X3/Phenom X4/Phenom II X2/Phenom II X3/Phenom II X4/Sempron K8 and K10
CPUs[25]
Nvidia 98
Documentation and drivers

Nvidia does not publish the documentation for its hardware, meaning that programmers cannot write appropriate and
effective open-source drivers for Nvidia's products (compare Graphics hardware and FOSS). Instead, Nvidia
provides its own binary GeForce graphics drivers for X.Org and a thin open-source library that interfaces with the
Linux, FreeBSD or Solaris kernels and the proprietary graphics software. Nvidia also supports an obfuscated
open-source driver that only supports two-dimensional hardware acceleration and ships with the X.Org distribution.
NVIDIA's Linux support has promoted mutual adoption in the entertainment, scientific visualization, defense and
simulation/training industries, traditionally dominated by SGI, Evans & Sutherland, and other relatively costly
vendors.
The proprietary nature of Nvidia's drivers has generated dissatisfaction within free-software communities. Some
Linux and BSD users insist on using only open-source drivers, and regard Nvidia's insistence on providing nothing
more than a binary-only driver as wholly inadequate, given that competing manufacturers (like Intel) offer support
and documentation for open-source developers, and that others (like ATI) release partial documentation.[26] Because
of the closed nature of the drivers, Nvidia video cards do not deliver adequate features on some platforms and
architectures (However this is credited to be due to lack of the proper kernel API needed for implementation).
Support for three-dimensional graphics acceleration in Linux on the PowerPC does not exist; nor does support for
Linux on the hypervisor-restricted PlayStation 3 console. While some users accept the NVIDIA-supported drivers,
many users of open-source software would prefer better out-of-the-box performance if given the choice.[27]
However, the performance and functionality of the binary Nvidia video card drivers surpass those of open-source
alternatives following VESA standards.
X.Org Foundation and Freedesktop.org have started the Nouveau project, which aims to develop free-software
drivers for NVIDIA graphics cards by reverse engineering Nvidia's current proprietary drivers for Linux.
Market share
According to a survey conducted by market watch firm Jon Peddie Research,[28] Nvidia shipped an estimated 33.00
million graphics chips in the first quarter of 2010, for a market share of 31.5%. ATI and Intel shipped an estimated
25.15 million units (24.0% market share) and an estimated 45.49 million units (43.5% market share) respectively.
NVIDIA's year-to-year growth was 41.9%.
According to the monthly Steam hardware survey conducted by the game developer Valve,[29] NVIDIA had 59.11%
of the PC video-card gaming market share as of January 2011, and ATI had 32.98% of the PC video-card gaming
market share.
Market history
Before DirectX
Nvidia released its first graphics card, the NV1, in 1995. Its design
used quadratic surfaces, with an integrated playback-only sound card
and ports for Sega Saturn gamepads. Because the Saturn also used
forward-rendered quadratics, programmers ported several Saturn
games to play on a PC with NV1, such as Panzer Dragoon and Virtua
Fighter Remix. However, the NV1 struggled in a marketplace full of
several competing proprietary standards.
NVIDIA NV1
Nvidia 99
Market interest in the product ended when Microsoft announced the DirectX specifications, based on polygons.
Subsequently NV1 development continued internally as the NV2 project, funded by several millions of dollars of
investment from Sega. Sega hoped that an integrated chip with both graphics and sound capabilities would cut the
manufacturing cost of the next Sega console. However, Sega eventually realized the flaws in implementing quadratic
surfaces, and the NV2 project never resulted in a finished product.
Transition to DirectX
Nvidia's CEO Jen-Hsun Huang realized at this point that after two failed products, something had to change for the
company to survive. He hired David Kirk as Chief Scientist from software developer Crystal Dynamics. Kirk would
combine NVIDIA's experience in 3D hardware with an intimate understanding of practical implementations of
rendering.
As part of the corporate transformation, Nvidia sought to provide full support for DirectX, and dropped multimedia
functionality in order to reduce manufacturing costs. Nvidia also adopted the goal of an internal six-month product
cycle, based on the expectation that it could mitigate a failure of any one product by having a replacement moving
through the development pipeline.
However, since the Sega NV2 contract remained secret, and since Nvidia had recently laid off employees, it
appeared to many industry observers that Nvidia had ceased active research and development. So when Nvidia first
announced the RIVA 128 in 1997, the market found the specifications hard to believe: performance superior to
market-leader 3dfx Voodoo Graphics, and a fully hardware-based triangle setup engine. The RIVA 128 shipped in
volume, and the combination of its low cost and high performance made it a popular choice for OEMs.
Ascendancy: RIVA TNT

Having finally developed and shipped in volume a market-leading integrated graphics chipset, Nvidia set itself the
goal of doubling the number of pixel pipelines in its chip, in order to realize a substantial performance gain. The
TwiN Texel (RIVA TNT) engine which Nvidia subsequently developed could either apply two textures to a single
pixel, or process two pixels per clock cycle. The former case allowed for improved visual quality, the latter for
doubling the maximum fillrate.
New features included a 24-bit Z-buffer with 8-bit stencil support, anisotropic filtering, and per-pixel MIP mapping.
In certain respects (such as transistor count) the TNT had begun to rival Intel's Pentium processors for complexity.
However, while the TNT offered an astonishing range of quality-integrated features, it failed to displace the market
leader, 3dfx's Voodoo2, because the actual clock rate ended up at only 90 MHz, about 35% lower than expected.
Nvidia followed with a refresh part: a die shrink for the TNT architecture from 350 nm to 250 nm. A stock TNT2
now ran at 125 MHz, a TNT2 Ultra at 150 MHz. Though the Voodoo3 beat Nvidia to the market, 3dfx's offering
proved disappointing; it did not run 1.7% faster and lacked features that were becoming standard, such as 32-bit
color and textures of resolution greater than 256 x 256 pixels.
The RIVA TNT2 marked a major turning point for Nvidia. They had finally delivered a product competitive with the
fastest on the market, with a superior feature set, strong 2D functionality, all integrated onto a single die with strong
yields, and that ramped to impressive clock rates. Nvidia's six-month cycle refresh took the competition by surprise,
giving it the initiative in rolling out new products.
Nvidia 100
Market leadership: GeForce

The autumn of 1999 saw the release of the GeForce 256 (NV10), most
notably introducing on-board transformation and lighting (T&L) to
consumer-level 3D hardware. Running at 120 MHz and featuring four
pixel pipelines, it implemented advanced video acceleration, motion
compensation, and hardware sub-picture alpha blending. The GeForce
outperformed existing products - including the ATI Rage 128, 3dfx
Voodoo3, Matrox G400 MAX, and RIVA TNT2 - by a wide margin.
Due to the success of its products, Nvidia won the contract to develop
the graphics hardware for Microsoft's Xbox game console, which
earned Nvidia a $200 million advance. However, the project drew the
time of many of Nvidia's best engineers away from other projects. In
the short term this did not matter, and the GeForce2 GTS shipped in GPU NV10 (GeForce 256)
the summer of 2000.
The GTS benefited from the fact that Nvidia had by this time acquired extensive manufacturing experience with its
highly integrated cores, and as a result it succeeded in optimizing the core for higher clock-rates. The volume of
chips produced by Nvidia also allowed the segregation of parts: Nvidia could pick out the highest-quality cores from
the same batch as regular parts for its premium range. As a result, the GTS shipped at 200 MHz. The pixel fillrate of
the GeForce256 nearly doubled, and texel fillrate nearly quadrupled because multi-texturing was added to each pixel
pipeline. New features included S3TC compression, FSAA, and improved MPEG-2 motion compensation.
In 2000 Nvidia shipped the GeForce2 MX, intended for the budget and OEM market. It had two fewer pixel
pipelines and ran at 165 MHz (later at 250 MHz). Offering strong performance at a mid-range price, the GeForce2
MX became one of the most successful graphics chipsets. NVIDIA also shipped a mobile derivative called the
GeForce2 Go at the end of 2000.
Nvidia's success proved too much for 3dfx to recover its past market share. The long-delayed Voodoo 5, the
successor to the Voodoo3, did not compare favorably with the GeForce2 in either price or performance, and failed to
generate the sales needed to keep the company afloat. With 3dfx on the verge of bankruptcy near the end of 2000,
Nvidia purchased most of 3dfx's intellectual property (in dispute at the time). NVIDIA acquired anti-aliasing
expertise and about 100 engineers, but not the company itself, which filed for bankruptcy in 2002.
Nvidia developed the GeForce3, which pioneered DirectX 8 vertex and pixel shaders, and eventually refined it with
the GeForce4 Ti line. Nvidia announced the GeForce4 Ti, MX, and Go in January 2002, one of the largest releases in
Nvidia's history. The chips in the Ti and Go series differed only in chip and memory clock rates. The MX series
lacked the pixel and vertex shader functionalities; it derived from GeForce2 level hardware and assumed the
GeForce2 MX's position in the value segment.
Stumbles with the FX series

At this point Nvidia dominated the GPU market. However, ATI Technologies remained competitive due to its new
Radeon product, which had performance comparable to the GeForce2 GTS. Though ATI's answer to the GeForce3,
the Radeon 8500, came later to market and initially suffered from issues with drivers, the 8500 proved a superior
competitor due to its lower price. NVIDIA countered ATI's offering with the GeForce4 Ti line. ATI concentrated
efforts on its next-generation Radeon 9700 rather than on directly challenging the GeForce4 Ti.
During the development of the next-generation GeForce FX chips, many Nvidia engineers focused on the Xbox
contract. Nvidia also had a contractual obligation to develop newer and more hack-resistant NV2A chips, and this
requirement left even fewer engineers to work on the FX project. Since the Xbox contract did not anticipate or
encompass falling manufacturing costs, Microsoft sought to re-negotiate the terms of the contract, and relations
Nvidia 101
between NVIDIA and Microsoft deteriorated as a result. The two companies later settled the dispute through
arbitration without releasing the terms of the settlement to the public.
Following their dispute, Microsoft did not consult Nvidia during the development of the DirectX 9 specification,
allowing ATI to establish much of the specification themselves. During this time, ATI limited rendering color
support to 24-bit floating point, and emphasized shader performance. Microsoft also built the shader compiler using
the Radeon 9700 as the base card. In contrast, Nvidia's cards offered 16- and 32-bit floating-point modes, offering
either lower visual quality (as compared to the competition), or slower performance. The 32-bit support made them
much more expensive to manufacture, requiring a higher transistor count. Shader performance often remained at half
or less of the speed provided by ATI's competing products. Having made its reputation by designing
easy-to-manufacture DirectX-compatible parts, Nvidia had misjudged Microsoft's next standard and paid a heavy
price: as more and more games started to rely on DirectX 9 features, the poor shader-performance of the GeForce FX
series became more obvious. With the exception of the FX 5700 series (a late revision), the FX series did not
compete well against ATI cards.
Nvidia released an "FX only" demo called "Dawn", but a hacked wrapper enabled it to run on a Radeon 9700, where
it ran faster despite translation overhead. Nvidia began to use application detection to optimize its drivers. Hardware
review sites published articles showing that Nvidia's driver auto-detected benchmarks and that it produced artificially
inflated scores that did not relate to real-world performance. Often tips from ATI's driver development team lay
behind these articles. While NVIDIA did partially close the performance gap with new instruction-reordering
capabilities introduced in later drivers, shader performance remained weak and over-sensitive to hardware-specific
code compilation. Nvidia worked with Microsoft to release an updated DirectX compiler that generated code
optimized for the GeForce FX.
Furthermore, GeForce FX devices also ran hot, because they drew as much as double the amount of power as
equivalent parts from ATI. The GeForce FX 5800 Ultra became notorious for its fan noise, and acquired the
nicknames "dustbuster" and "leafblower." Nvidia jokingly acknowledged these accusations with a video in which the
marketing team compares the cards to a Harley-Davidson motorcycle.[30] Although the quieter 5900 replaced the
5800 without fanfare, the FX chips still needed large and expensive fans, placing Nvidia's partners at a
manufacturing cost disadvantage compared to ATI.
Seemingly as a culmination of these events at the corporate level and the subsequent weaknesses of the FX series,
Nvidia ceded its market leadership position to ATI.
GeForce 6 series
With the GeForce 6 series Nvidia moved beyond the DX9 performance
problems that had plagued the previous generation. The GeForce 6
series not only performed competitively against other Direct 3D
shaders, but also supported DirectX Shader Model 3.0, while ATI's
competing X800 series chips only supported the previous 2.0
specification. This proved an insignificant advantage, mainly because
games of that period did not employ extensions for Shader Model 3.0.
However, it demonstrated Nvidia's desire and ability to design and
follow through with the newest features and deliver them in a specific A former Nvidia logo, in use until 2006
timeframe. What became more apparent during this time was that the
products of the two firms, ATI and Nvidia, offered equivalent performance. The two firms traded the performance
lead in specific titles and specific criteria (resolution, image quality, anisotropic filtering/anti-aliasing), but the
differences were becoming more abstract. As a result, price/performance ratio became the reigning concern in
Nvidia 102
comparisons of the two. The mid-range offerings of the two firms demonstrated consumer appetite for affordable,
high-performance graphics cards. This price segment came to determine much of each firm's profitability. The
GeForce 6 series emerged at a very interesting period: The game Doom 3 had just been released, and ATI's Radeon
9700 was found to struggle with OpenGL performance in the game. In 2004, the GeForce 6800 performed
excellently, while the GeForce 6600GT remained as important to Nvidia as the GeForce2 MX a few years
previously. The GeForce 6600GT enabled users of the card to play Doom 3 at very high resolutions and graphical
settings, which had been thought to be highly unlikely considering its selling price. The GeForce 6 series also
introduced SLI, which resembles technology that 3dfx had employed with the Voodoo2. A combination of SLI and
other hardware performance gains returned Nvidia to market leadership. The GeForce 6 series represents the first
generation of Nvidia PCI-E cards.
The GeForce 7 series represented a heavily beefed-up extension of the
reliable 6 series. The introduction of the PCI Express bus standard
allowed NVIDIA to release SLI (Scalable Link Interface), a solution
that employs two similar cards to share the workload in rendering.
While these solutions do not equate to double the performance, and
require more electricity (two cards vis-à-vis one), they can make a huge
difference as higher resolutions and settings are enabled and, more
importantly, offer more upgrade flexibility. ATI responded with the
X1000 series, and with a dual-rendering solution called "ATI
NVIDIA GeForce 6800 Ultra & GeForce 7950
CrossFire". Sony selected Nvidia to develop the "RSX" chip (a
GX2
modified version of the 7800 GPU) used in the PlayStation 3.
Unified Architecture with the 8-series and later

Nvidia released a GeForce 8 series chip towards the end of 2006, making the 8 series the first to support Microsoft's
next-generation DirectX 10 specification. The 8 series GPUs also featured the revolutionary Unified Shader
Architecture, and Nvidia leveraged this to provide better support for General Purpose Computing on GPU (GPGPU).
A new product line of "compute only" devices called Nvidia Tesla emerged from the G80 architecture, and
subsequently Nvidia also became the market leader of this new field by introducing the world's first C programming
language API for GPGPU, CUDA.
In June 2008, Nvidia released its new flagship GPUs: the GTX 280 and GTX 260. The cards used the same basic
Unified Architecture deployed in the previous 8 and 9 series cards, but with an upgrade in power. Both of the cards
use the GT200 GPU as a basis for their design. This GPU contains 1.4 billion transistors on a 65 nm fabrication
process. The GTX 280 has 240 shaders (stream processors) and the GTX 260 has 192 shaders (stream processors).
The GTX 280 has 1 GB of GDDR3 VRAM and uses a 512-bit memory bus. The GTX 260 has 896 MB of GDDR3
VRAM on a 448-bit memory bus (revised in September 2008 to include 216 shaders). The GTX 280 allegedly
provides approximately 933 GFLOPS of floating point power.
Nvidia launched the Geforce 400 series on March 26, 2010, presenting the GTX 470 and GTX 480 to the public at
PAX East 2010.[31] These flagship products were power hungry and ran hot. They provided comparable performance
to price ratio to competing ATI products, but the overall efficiency was poor. Since then, Nvidia has released the
GTX 465, the GTX 460, and the GTS 450. The GTX 465 contained the GF100, the same GPU as in the flagship
models, with some functional units disabled. This allowed the card to be priced slightly lower. The first real
improvements came with the GTX 460 and GTS 450. They contained a GF104 chip, the more efficient and
cost-effective derivative of the GF100. Presently, Nvidia has saturated all market price-points with current hardware.
On November 9, 2010 Nvidia launched the GeForce 500 Series with a new flagship, the GTX 580. This card not
only runs cooler than GTX 480, it consumes less power and delivers a performance improvement of approximately
Nvidia 103
20% . This new card has largely replaced the GTX 480, it runs on a GF110 chip, which is also used in the GTX 570 -
released on December 7, 2010. This card removes the gap between the GTX 580 and GTX 470. It has a lower power
consumption than the GTX 480 and runs just as well or slightly better. It uses the same GF110 core with one SM
disabled. On January 25, 2010 the GTX 560Ti based on a GF114 chip was released, this card replaces the GTX 470
in Nvidia's lineup.
GPU controversies for Laptops/Notebooks

In July 2008, Nvidia noted increased rates of failure in certain mobile video adapters.[32] In response to this issue,
Dell and HP released BIOS updates for all affected notebook computers which turn on the cooling fan at lower
temperatures than previously configured in an effort to keep the defective video adapter from reaching higher
temperatures. Leigh Stark of APC Magazine has suggested that this may lead to the premature failure of the cooling
fan.[33] This resolution/workaround generally only delays component failure past warranty expiration.
But at the end of August 2008, Nvidia reportedly issued a product change notification announcing plans to update
the bump material of GeForce 8 and 9 series chips "to increase supply and enhance package robustness."[34] In
response to the possibility of defects in some mobile video adapters from NVIDIA, some manufacturers of
notebooks have allegedly turned to ATI to provide graphics options on their new Montevina notebook computers.[35]
On August 18, 2008, according to the direct2dell.com blog, Dell began to offer a 12-month limited warranty
"enhancement" specific to this issue on affected notebook computers worldwide.[36]
On September 8, 2008, Nvidia made a deal with large OEMs, including Dell and HP, that Nvidia would pay $200
per affected notebook to manufacturers as compensation for the defects.[37]
On October 9, 2008, Apple Inc. announced on a support page that some MacBook Pro notebook computers had
exhibited faulty Nvidia GeForce 8600M GT graphics adapters.[38] The manufacture of affected computers took place
between approximately May 2007 and September 2008. Apple also stated that it would repair affected MacBook
Pros within three years of the original purchase date free of charge and also offered refunds to customers who had
paid for repairs related to this issue.
Performance and reliability issues with certain GPU lines incorporated into laptops sold by a large number of
different manufacturers[39] eventually produced multiple instances of legal action against both nVidia and some
manufacturers. Although the true cause of these problems was never fully explained or revealed by Nvidia, it was
reported by others that the "failures are caused by a solder bump that connects the I/O termination of the silicon chip
to the pad on the substrate" (which in affected GPU chips "is created using high-lead" solder), and the potential
number of affected laptop models was potentially far greater than acknowledged.[40] The principal insurer for
nVidia's operations was even reported to have filed litigation against nVidia for withholding information from them
regarding the nature and extent of the manufacturing problem.[41] Most user-initiated actions were filed in the U.S.
District Court, Northern California where the corporate headquarters is located, and were eventually consolidated
into a single class-action lawsuit with one lead counsel (Milberg LLP).[42] A proposed settlement was announced in
September 2010 that represented a significant number of laptop models produced by three manufacturers (Apple,
HP, and Dell),[43] but excluded other manufacturers whose laptops also incorporated the same 8400M and 8600M
components from the suspect GPU lines. This settlement provides some degree of relief and/or compensation for
specific laptop models with the affected GPUs, and a final hearing was held by the court on December 20, 2010
during which the proposed settlement was approved.[44] Owners of the affected models covered by the settlement
will be able to file a claim for relief according to the terms of the settlement in January 2011.
Nvidia 104
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[1] http:/ / quotes. nasdaq. com/ asp/ SummaryQuote. asp?symbol=NVDA& selected=NVDA
[2] (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=J-6EFBlybD8)
[3] "Company Info" (http:/ / www. NVIDIA. com/ page/ companyinfo. html). Nvidia.com. . Retrieved 2010-11-09.
[4] Williams, Elisa (2002-04-15). "Crying wolf" (http:/ / www. forbes. com/ global/ 2002/ 0415/ 032_print. html). Forbes.com. Forbes. .
Retrieved 2009-08-10. "Huang, a chip designer at AMD and lsi Logic, cofounded the company in 1993 with $20 million from Sequoia Capital
and others."
[5] Kanellos, Michael. "Nvidia buys out 3DFX" (http:/ / news. cnet. com/ Nvidia-buys-out-3dfx-graphics-chip-business/ 2100-1040_3-249993.
html). News.cnet.com. . Retrieved 2010-11-09.
[6] Becker, David. "Nvidia buys out Exluna" (http:/ / news. cnet. com/ Nvidia-buys-software-company/ 2100-1040_3-945553. html).
News.cnet.com. . Retrieved 2010-11-09.
[7] "Nvidia acquired MediaQ" (http:/ / www. mediaq. com/ page/ home. html). Mediaq.com. . Retrieved 2010-11-09.
[8] "Press Release" (http:/ / www. nvidia. com/ object/ IO_12881. html). Nvidia.com. 2004-04-22. . Retrieved 2010-11-09.
[9] "Nvidia acquires ULI Electronics" (http:/ / www. nvidia. com/ object/ IO_28250. html). Nvidia.com. . Retrieved 2010-11-09.
[10] The Register Hardware news: Nvidia acquires Hybrid Graphics (http:/ / www. reghardware. com/ 2006/ 03/ 22/ nvidia_buys_hybrid/ )
[11] "Justice Dept. subpoenas AMD, Nvidia" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061208175421/ http:/ / news. zdnet. com/
2100-9584_22-6140041. html). New York Times. 2006-12-01. Archived from the original (http:/ / news. zdnet. com/ 2100-9584_22-6140041.
html) on 2006-12-08. .
[12] Brian Caulfield (2008-01-07). "Shoot to Kill" (http:/ / www. forbes. com/ forbes/ 2008/ 0107/ 092. html). Forbes.com. . Retrieved
2007-12-26.
[13] Press Release: Nvidia acquires PortalPlayer (http:/ / www. NVIDIA. com/ object/ portalplayer_acquisition. html), dated January 5, 2007.
[14] "NVIDIA to Acquire AGEIA Technologies" (http:/ / www. NVIDIA. com/ object/ io_1202161567170. html). Nvidia.com. . Retrieved
2010-11-09.
[15] "Intel to Pay NVIDIA Technology Licensing Fees of $1.5 Billion" (http:/ / pressroom. nvidia. com/ easyir/ customrel.
do?easyirid=A0D622CE9F579F09& version=live& releasejsp=release_157& xhtml=true& prid=706607). . Retrieved 2011-01-10.
[16] "Press Release" (http:/ / www. NVIDIA. com/ object/ IO_30696. html). Nvidia.com. . Retrieved 2010-11-09.
[17] "NVIDIA to Acquire AGEIA" (http:/ / www. dailytech. com/ Update+ NVIDIA+ to+ Acquire+ AGEIA/ article10573. htm). DailyTech.com.
2008-02-04. .
[18] "NVIDIA Completes Acquisition of AGEIA Technologies: Financial News - Yahoo! Finance" (http:/ / www. nvidia. com/ object/
io_1202895129984. html). Nvidia.com. . Retrieved 2010-11-09.
[19] "[Phoronix] PhysX For CUDA, Linux Support A Given?" (http:/ / www. phoronix. com/ scan. php?page=news_item& px=NjMzNA).
Phoronix.com. 2008-02-14. . Retrieved 2010-11-09.
[20] "GeForce 8 graphics processors to gain PhysX support" (http:/ / techreport. com/ discussions. x/ 14147). The Tech Report. 2008-02-14. .
[21] "Nvidia Rolls out "Tegra" Processors" (http:/ / www. techtree. com/ India/ News/ NVIDIA_Rolls_out_Tegra_Processors/ 551-89833-581.
html). Techtree.com. . Retrieved 2010-11-09.
[22] http:/ / www. engadget. com/ 2011/ 01/ 05/ nvidia-announces-project-denver-arm-cpu-for-the-desktop/ NVIDIA announces Project Denver
ARM CPU for the desktop
[23] "Nvidia Quad Core Mobile Processors Coming in August" (http:/ / www. pcworld. com/ article/ 219768/
nvidia_quad_core_mobile_processors_coming_in_august. html). PCWorld. . Retrieved 2011-02-15.
[24] "NVIDIA nForce Platform Processors" (http:/ / www. NVIDIA. com/ object/ nppa. html). Nvidia.com. . Retrieved 2010-11-09.
[25] "NVIDIA nForce 980a SLI" (http:/ / www. NVIDIA. com/ object/ product_nforce_980a_sli_us. html). Nvidia.com. . Retrieved 2010-11-09.
[26] "X.org, distributors, and proprietary modules" (http:/ / lwn. net/ Articles/ 195351/ ). Linux Weekly News. Eklektix. 2006-08-14. . Retrieved
2008-11-03.
[27] "''LinuxQuestions.org'' 20 September 2007" (http:/ / www. linuxquestions. org/ questions/ linux-software-2/
poll-do-you-install-foss-over-proprietary-585895/ ). Linuxquestions.org. . Retrieved 2010-11-09.
[28] "Jon Peddie Research Announces First Quarter Shipments of PC Graphics" (http:/ / www. businesswire. com/ portal/ site/ google/
permalink/ ?ndmViewId=news_view& newsId=20100426006529& newsLang=en). Business Wire. 2010-04-26. . Retrieved 2010-04-28.
[29] "Valve - Survey Summary Data" (http:/ / store. steampowered. com/ hwsurvey/ ). Store.steampowered.com. . Retrieved 2010-11-09.
[30] “” (2006-11-05). "YouTube — NVIDIA Hair Dryer" (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=PFZ39nQ_k90). Youtube.com. . Retrieved
2010-11-09.
[31] Aharon Etengoff (2010-03-26). "NVIDIA's GTX 480 takes center stage at Pax East 2010" (http:/ / www. tgdaily. com/
games-and-entertainment-features/ 49112-nvidias-gtx-480-takes-center-stage-at-pax-east-2010). TG Daily. . Retrieved 2010-04-28.
[32] NVIDIA Corporation (2008-07-02). "Nvidia Provides Second Quarter Fiscal 2009 Business Update" (http:/ / www. NVIDIA. com/ object/
io_1215037160521. html). . Retrieved 2008-10-05. "Certain notebook configurations with GPUs and MCPs manufactured with a certain
die/packaging material set are failing in the field at higher than normal rates. To date, abnormal failure rates with systems other than certain
notebook systems have not been seen."
Nvidia 105
[33] Stark, Leigh (2008-08-18). "NVIDIA DISASTER: thousands of GPUs faulty" (http:/ / apcmag. com/ Content. aspx?id=2750). APC.
ninemsn Pty Ltd. . Retrieved 2008-08-18. "... updates that force your computer to cool itself down not only kill your battery life further but
also leave you running the risk that now with the extra needed fan cycles, that cooling system built into your laptop might die sooner than
expected."
[34] Shilov, Anton (2008-08-29). "NVIDIA Updates Bump Material of GeForce 8800, 9800 Chips." (http:/ / xbitlabs. com/ news/ video/ display/
20080829133428_NVIDIA_Updates_Bump_Material_of_GeForce_8800_9800_Chips. html). X-Bit Labs. . Retrieved 2008-09-29. "Nvidia
Corp. has reportedly issued yet another product change notification (PCN) document, informing its customers that it plans to change bump
material on its code-named G92 chips, which power a great amount of GeForce graphics cards. Potentially, this may mean that those graphics
processing units are also subject to failures similar to [sic] already confirmed by Nvidia."
[35] O'Brien, Kevin (2008-08-12). "More Defective Nvidia Graphics Chipsets" (http:/ / www. notebookreview. com/ default. asp?newsID=4554).
NotebookReview.com. TechTarget. . Retrieved 2008-08-18. "Expect to see more BIOS updates released to increase cooling fan cycles, and
more ATI graphics options from notebook manufacturers.
We are already seeing a spike in high-end ATI options on almost all new Montevina notebooks, with fewer Nvidia
options day by day."
[36] Menchaca, Lionel (2008-08-18). "Nvidia GPU Update: Dell to Offer Limited Warranty Enhancement to All Affected Customers
Worldwide" (http:/ / direct2dell. com/ one2one/ archive/ 2008/ 08/ 18/
NVIDIA-gpu-update-dell-to-offer-warranty-enhancement-to-all-affected-customers-worldwide. aspx). Direct2Dell Blog. . Retrieved
2008-08-18. "..."
[37] Abazovic, Fuad (2008-09-08). "NVIDIA gives OEMs $200 per bad mobile GPU" (http:/ / fudzilla. com/ graphics/ item/
10143-nvidia-gives-oems-$200-per-bad-mobile-gpu). Fudzilla. Fudzilla. . Retrieved 2008-11-03. "Nvidia made a deal with big OEMs, such as
Dell and HP, that they will get $200 per affected notebook and we are hearing that OEMs are quite happy about it. It turns out that this is more
than generous and that this covers the cost of a new chip, the repair cost and all the other cost related to this issue."
[38] "MacBook Pro: Distorted video or no video issues" (http:/ / support. apple. com/ kb/ TS2377). Apple Inc. 2008-10-10. . Retrieved
2008-11-03. "Apple has determined that some MacBook Pro computers with the NVIDIA GeForce 8600M GT graphics processor may be
affected."
[39] http:/ / apcmag. com/ nvidia_disaster_thousands_of_gpus_faulty. htm
[40] http:/ / www. tgdaily. com/ hardware-features/ 39045-nvidia-gpu-failures-caused-by-material-problem-sources-claim.
[41] http:/ / www. tgdaily. com/ business-and-law-features/ 42472-nvidias-insurance-company-falls-out-over-faulty-chips-payments
[42] http:/ / cases. milberg. com/ nvidia-gpu-defects/
[43] http:/ / news. cnet. com/ 8301-13924_3-20018186-64. html
[44] http:/ / www. nvidiasettlement. com/
External links
• Official website (http://http://www.nvidia.com)
• Nvidia.com drivers download page (http://www.nvidia.com/Download/Find.aspx?lang=en-us)
• nTersect, official corporate blog (http://blogs.nvidia.com/ntersect/)
• GeForce.com, official gaming community site (http://www.geforce.com)
Intel Corporation
Intel Corporation
Type Public
[1]
NASDAQ: INTC
[2]
SEHK: 4335
[3]
Euronext: INCO
Dow Jones Industrial Average Component
Founded [4]
1968
Founder(s) Gordon E. Moore

Robert Noyce
Headquarters [5]
Santa Clara, California, United States
Key people Jane E. Shaw

(Chairman)
Paul S. Otellini
(President and CEO)
Products Microprocessors
Flash memory
Motherboard Chipsets
Network Interface Card
Bluetooth Chipsets
Revenue [6]
US$43.623 billion (2010)
Operating income [6]

US$16.045 billion (2010)
Net income [6]

US$11.464 billion (2010)
Total assets [6]

US$ 63.186 billion (2010)
Total equity [6]

US$ 49.430 billion (2010)
Employees [6]
82,500 (2010)
Website [7]
Intel.com
Intel Corporation (NASDAQ: INTC [1]; SEHK: 4335 [2]; Euronext: INCO [3]) is an American global technology
company and the world's largest semiconductor chip maker, based on revenue.[8] It is the inventor of the x86 series
of microprocessors, the processors found in most personal computers. Intel was founded on July 18, 1968, as
Integrated Electronics Corporation (though a common misconception is that "Intel" is from the word intelligence)
and is based in Santa Clara, California, USA. Intel also makes motherboard chipsets, network interface controllers
and integrated circuits, flash memory, graphic chips, embedded processors and other devices related to
communications and computing. Founded by semiconductor pioneers Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore and widely
associated with the executive leadership and vision of Andrew Grove, Intel combines advanced chip design
capability with a leading-edge manufacturing capability. Originally known primarily to engineers and technologists,
Intel's "Intel Inside" advertising campaign of the 1990s made it and its Pentium processor household names.
Intel was an early developer of SRAM and DRAM memory chips, and this represented the majority of its business
until 1981. While Intel created the first commercial microprocessor chip in 1971, it was not until the success of the
personal computer (PC) that this became their primary business. During the 1990s, Intel invested heavily in new
microprocessor designs fostering the rapid growth of the computer industry. During this period Intel became the
dominant supplier of microprocessors for PCs, and was known for aggressive and sometimes controversial tactics in
defense of its market position, particularly against AMD, as well as a struggle with Microsoft for control over the
direction of the PC industry.[9] [10] The 2010 rankings of the world's 100 most powerful brands published by
Millward Brown Optimor showed the company's brand value at number 48.[11]
Intel has also begun research in electrical transmission and generation.[12] [13]
Corporate history
Origins
Intel was founded in 1968 by Gordon E. Moore (of "Moore's Law"
fame, a chemist and physicist) and Robert Noyce (a physicist and
co-inventor of the integrated circuit) when they left Fairchild
Semiconductor. A number of other Fairchild employees also went
on to participate in other Silicon Valley companies. Intel's third
employee was Andy Grove,[14] a chemical engineer, who ran the
company through much of the 1980s and the high-growth 1990s.
Moore and Noyce initially wanted to name the company "Moore

Noyce".[15] The name, however, was a homophone for "more
Intel headquarters in Santa Clara, CA, USA
noise" — an ill-suited name for an electronics company, since
noise in electronics is usually very undesirable and typically
associated with bad interference. They used the name NM Electronics for almost a year, before deciding to call their
company Integrated Electronics or "Intel" for short.[16] Since "Intel" was already trademarked by a hotel chain, they
had to buy the rights for the name.[17]
Early history
At its founding, Intel was distinguished by its ability to make semiconductors, and its primary products were static
random access memory (SRAM) chips. Intel's business grew during the 1970s as it expanded and improved its
manufacturing processes and produced a wider range of products, still dominated by various memory devices.
While Intel created the first commercially available microprocessor (Intel 4004) in 1971 and one of the first
microcomputers in 1972,[18] [19] by the early 1980s its business was dominated by dynamic random access memory
chips. However, increased competition from Japanese semiconductor manufacturers had, by 1983, dramatically
reduced the profitability of this market, and the sudden success of the IBM personal computer convinced then-CEO
Grove to shift the company's focus to microprocessors, and to change fundamental aspects of that business model.
By the end of the 1980s this decision had proven successful. Buoyed by its fortuitous position as microprocessor
supplier to IBM and its competitors within the rapidly growing personal computer market, Intel embarked on a
10-year period of unprecedented growth as the primary (and most profitable) hardware supplier to the PC industry.
By the end of the 1990s, its line of Pentium processors had become a household name.
Slowing demand and challenges to dominance

After 2000, growth in demand for high-end microprocessors slowed. Competitors, notably AMD (Intel's largest
competitor in its primary x86 architecture market), garnered significant market share, initially in low-end and
mid-range processors but ultimately across the product range, and Intel's dominant position in its core market was
greatly reduced.[20] In the early 2000s then-CEO Craig Barrett attempted to diversify the company's business beyond
semiconductors, but few of these activities were ultimately successful.
Intel had also for a number of years been embroiled in litigation. US law did not initially recognize intellectual
property rights related to microprocessor topology (circuit layouts), until the Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of
1984, a law sought by Intel and the Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA).[21] During the late 1980s and 1990s
(after this law was passed) Intel also sued companies that tried to develop competitor chips to the 80386 CPU.[22]
The lawsuits were noted to significantly burden the competition with legal bills, even if Intel lost the suits.[22]
Antitrust allegations that had been simmering since the early 1990s and already been the cause of one lawsuit against
Intel in 1991, broke out again as AMD brought further claims against Intel related to unfair competition in 2004, and
again in 2005.
In 2005, CEO Paul Otellini reorganized the company to refocus its core processor and chipset business on platforms
(enterprise, digital home, digital health, and mobility) which led to the hiring of over 20,000 new employees. In
September 2006 due to falling profits, the company announced a restructuring that resulted in layoffs of 10,500
employees or about 10 percent of its workforce by July 2006.
Regaining of momentum
Faced with the need to regain lost marketplace momentum,[20] [23] Intel unveiled its new product development model
to regain its prior technological lead. Known as its "tick-tock model", the program was based upon annual alternation
of microarchitecture innovation and process innovation.
In 2006, Intel produced P6 and NetBurst products with reduced die size (65 nm). A year later it unveiled its Core
microarchitecture to widespread critical acclaim;[24] the product range was perceived as an exceptional leap in
processor performance that at a stroke regained much of its leadership of the field.[25] [26] In 2008, we saw another
"tick", Intel introduced the Penryn microarchitecture, undergoing a shrink from 65 nm to 45 nm, and the year after
saw the release of its positively reviewed successor processor, Nehalem, followed by another silicon shrink to the
32nm process.
Intel was not the first microprocessor corporation to do this. For example, around 1996 graphics chip designers
nVidia had addressed its own business and marketplace difficulties by adopting a demanding 6-month internal
product cycle whose products repeatedly outperformed market expectation.
Sale of XScale processor business

On June 27, 2006, the sale of Intel's XScale assets was announced. Intel agreed to sell the XScale processor business
to Marvell Technology Group for an estimated $600 million (They bought them for $1.6billion) in cash and the
assumption of unspecified liabilities. The move was intended to permit Intel to focus its resources on its core x86
and server businesses, and the acquisition completed on November 9, 2006.[27]
2010 acquisitions
In August 2010, Intel announced two major acquisitions. On 19 August, Intel announced that it planned to purchase
McAfee, a manufacturer of computer security technology. The purchase price was $7.68 billion, and the companies
said that if the deal were approved, new products would be released early in 2011.[28]
Less than two weeks later, the company announced the acquisition of Infineon Technologies’ Wireless Solutions
business.[29] With the Infineon transaction, Intel plans to use the company’s technology in laptops, smart phones,
netbooks, tablets and embedded computers in consumer products, eventually integrating its wireless modem into
Intel’s silicon chips.[30] Intel won the European Union regulatory approval for its acquisition of McAfee on 26
January 2011. Intel agreed to ensure that rival security firms have access to all necessary information that would
allow their products to use Intel's chips and personal computers.[31]
Following the closure of the McAfee deal, Intel's workforce totals approximately 90,000, including (roughly) 12,000
software engineers.[32]
Expansions
February 2011: The company will build a new microprocessor factory at Chandler, Arizona with is expected to be
completed in 2013 at a cost of $5 billion. It will accommodate 4,000 employees. The company produces three
quarters of their products in the United States, although three quarters of the revenue come from overseas.[33] [34]
Product and market history
SRAMS and the microprocessor

The company's first products were shift register memory and random-access memory integrated circuits, and Intel
grew to be a leader in the fiercely competitive DRAM, SRAM, and ROM markets throughout the 1970s.
Concurrently, Intel engineers Marcian Hoff, Federico Faggin, Stanley Mazor and Masatoshi Shima invented Intel's
first microprocessor. Originally developed for the Japanese company Busicom to replace a number of ASICs in a
calculator already produced by Busicom, the Intel 4004 was introduced to the mass market on November 15, 1971,
though the microprocessor did not become the core of Intel's business until the mid-1980s. (Note: Intel is usually
given credit with Texas Instruments for the almost-simultaneous invention of the microprocessor.)
From DRAM to microprocessors

In 1983, at the dawn of the personal computer era, Intel's profits came under increased pressure from Japanese
memory-chip manufacturers, and then-President Andy Grove drove the company into a focus on microprocessors.
Grove described this transition in the book Only the Paranoid Survive. A key element of his plan was the notion,
then considered radical, of becoming the single source for successors to the popular 8086 microprocessor.
Until then, manufacture of complex integrated circuits was not reliable enough for customers to depend on a single
supplier, but Grove began producing processors in three geographically distinct factories, and ceased licensing the
chip designs to competitors such as Zilog and AMD. When the PC industry boomed in the late 1980s and 1990s,
Intel was one of the primary beneficiaries.
Intel, x86 processors, and the IBM PC

Despite the ultimate importance of the microprocessor, the
4004 and its successors the 8008 and the 8080 were never
major revenue contributors at Intel. As the next processor,
the 8086 (and its variant the 8088) was completed in 1978,
Intel embarked on a major marketing and sales campaign
for that chip nicknamed "Operation Crush", and intended to
win as many customers for the processor as possible. One
design win was the newly created IBM PC division, though
the importance of this was not fully realized at the time.
IBM introduced its personal computer in 1981, and it was

rapidly successful. In 1982, Intel created the 80286
microprocessor, which, two years later, was used in the The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that
includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048
IBM PC/AT. Compaq, the first IBM PC "clone"
bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip.
manufacturer, produced a desktop system based on the
faster 80286 processor in 1985 and in 1986 quickly
followed with the first 80386-based system, beating IBM and establishing a competitive market for PC-compatible
systems and setting up Intel as a key component supplier.
In 1975 the company had started a project to develop a highly advanced 32-bit microprocessor, finally released in
1981 as the Intel iAPX 432. The project was too ambitious and the processor was never able to meet its performance
objectives, and it failed in the marketplace. Intel extended the x86 architecture to 32 bits instead.[35] [36]
386 microprocessor
During this period Andrew Grove dramatically redirected the company, closing much of its DRAM business and
directing resources to the microprocessor business. Of perhaps greater importance was his decision to
"single-source" the 386 microprocessor. Prior to this, microprocessor manufacturing was in its infancy, and
manufacturing problems frequently reduced or stopped production, interrupting supplies to customers. To mitigate
this risk, these customers typically insisted that multiple manufacturers produce chips they could use to ensure a
consistent supply. The 8080 and 8086-series microprocessors were produced by several companies, notably AMD.
Grove made the decision not to license the 386 design to other manufacturers, instead producing it in three
geographically distinct factories in Santa Clara, California; Hillsboro, Oregon; and the Phoenix, Arizona suburb of
Chandler; and convincing customers that this would ensure consistent delivery. As the success of Compaq's Deskpro
386 established the 386 as the dominant CPU choice, Intel achieved a position of near-exclusive dominance as its
supplier. Profits from this funded rapid development of both higher-performance chip designs and
higher-performance manufacturing capabilities, propelling Intel to a position of unquestioned leadership by the early
1990s.
486, Pentium, and Itanium

Intel introduced the 486 microprocessor in 1989, and in 1990 formally established a second design team, designing
the processors code-named "P5" and "P6" in parallel and committing to a major new processor every two years,
versus the four or more years such designs had previously taken. The P5 was earlier known as "Operation Bicycle"
referring to the cycles of the processor. The P5 was introduced in 1993 as the Intel Pentium, substituting a registered
trademark name for the former part number (numbers, such as 486, are hard to register as a trademark). The P6
followed in 1995 as the Pentium Pro and improved into the Pentium II in 1997. New architectures were developed
alternately in Santa Clara, California and Hillsboro, Oregon.
The Santa Clara design team embarked in 1993 on a successor to the x86 architecture, codenamed "P7". The first
attempt was dropped a year later, but quickly revived in a cooperative program with Hewlett-Packard engineers,
though Intel soon took over primary design responsibility. The resulting implementation of the IA-64 64-bit
architecture was the Itanium, finally introduced in June 2001. The Itanium's performance running legacy x86 code
did not achieve expectations, and it failed to compete effectively with 64-bit extensions to the original x86
architecture, introduced by AMD, named x86-64 (although Intel uses the name Intel 64, previously EM64T). As of
2009, Intel continues to develop and deploy the Itanium.
The Hillsboro team designed the Willamette processors (code-named P67 and P68) which were marketed as the
Pentium 4.
Pentium flaw
In June 1994, Intel engineers discovered a flaw in the floating-point math subsection of the P5 Pentium
microprocessor. Under certain data dependent conditions, low order bits of the result of floating-point division
operations would be incorrect, an error that can quickly compound in floating-point operations to much larger errors
in subsequent calculations. Intel corrected the error in a future chip revision, but nonetheless declined to disclose it.
In October 1994, Dr. Thomas Nicely, Professor of Mathematics at Lynchburg College independently discovered the
bug, and upon receiving no response from his inquiry to Intel, on October 30 posted a message on the Internet.[37]
Word of the bug spread quickly on the Internet and then to the industry press. Because the bug was easy to replicate
by an average user (there was a sequence of numbers one could enter into the OS calculator to show the error), Intel's
statements that it was minor and "not even an erratum" were not accepted by many computer users. During
Thanksgiving 1994, The New York Times ran a piece by journalist John Markoff spotlighting the error. Intel
changed its position and offered to replace every chip, quickly putting in place a large end-user support organization.
This resulted in a $500 million charge against Intel's 1994 revenue.
Ironically, the "Pentium flaw" incident, Intel's response to it, and the surrounding media coverage propelled Intel
from being a technology supplier generally unknown to most computer users to a household name. Dovetailing with
an uptick in the "Intel Inside" campaign, the episode is considered to have been a positive event for Intel, changing
some of its business practices to be more end-user focused and generating substantial public awareness, while
avoiding a lasting negative impression.[38]
"Intel Inside" and other 1990s programs

During this period, Intel undertook two major supporting programs. The first is widely known: the 1991 "Intel
Inside" marketing and branding campaign. The idea of ingredient branding was new at the time with only
Nutrasweet and a few others making attempts at that.[39] This campaign established Intel, which had been a
component supplier little-known outside the PC industry, as a household name.
The second program is little-known: Intel's Systems Group began, in the early 1990s, manufacturing PC
"motherboards", the main board component of a personal computer, and the one into which the processor (CPU) and
memory (RAM) chips are plugged.[40] Shortly after, Intel began manufacturing fully configured "white box" systems
for the dozens of PC clone companies that rapidly sprang up. At its peak in the mid-1990s, Intel manufactured over
15% of all PCs, making it the third-largest supplier at the time.
During the 1990s, Intel's Architecture Lab (IAL) was responsible for many of the hardware innovations of the
personal computer, including the PCI Bus, the PCI Express (PCIe) bus, the Universal Serial Bus (USB), Bluetooth
wireless interconnect, and the now-dominant architecture for multiprocessor servers. IAL's software efforts met with
a more mixed fate; its video and graphics software was important in the development of software digital video, but
later its efforts were largely overshadowed by competition from Microsoft. The competition between Intel and
Microsoft was revealed in testimony by IAL Vice-President Steven McGeady at the Microsoft antitrust trial.
Solid State Drive (SSD)

In March 2011, Intel has announced new SSD 510 120GB and 250GB which read speeds more than 500MBps. At
the moment it is the fastest SSD right now. One obstacle is the SSD 510 requires a SATA 6 GBps port in
conjunction with the second generation of Intel Core Series processor. Furthermore it still sells in packs of 1000s
which are difficult to acquire for the average consumer.[41]
Supercomputers
The Intel Scientific Computers division was founded in 1984 by Justin Rattner, in order to design and produce
parallel computers based on Intel microprocessors connected in hypercube topologies.[42] In 1992 the name was
changed to the Intel Supercomputing Systems Division, and development of the iWarp architecture was also
subsumed.[43] The division designed several supercomputer systems, including the Intel iPSC/1, iPSC/2, iPSC/860,
Paragon and ASCI Red.
Competition, antitrust and espionage

Two factors combined to end this dominance: the slowing of PC demand growth beginning in 2000 and the rise of
the low cost PC. By the end of the 1990s, microprocessor performance had outstripped software demand for that
CPU power. Aside from high-end server systems and software, demand for which dropped with the end of the
"dot-com bubble", consumer systems ran effectively on increasingly low-cost systems after 2000. Intel's strategy of
producing ever-more-powerful processors and obsoleting their predecessors stumbled, leaving an opportunity for
rapid gains by competitors, notably AMD. This in turn lowered the profitability of the processor line and ended an
era of unprecedented dominance of the PC hardware by Intel.
Intel's dominance in the x86 microprocessor market led to numerous charges of antitrust violations over the years,
including FTC investigations in both the late 1980s and in 1999, and civil actions such as the 1997 suit by Digital
Equipment Corporation (DEC) and a patent suit by Intergraph. Intel's market dominance (at one time it controlled
over 85% of the market for 32-bit x86 microprocessors) combined with Intel's own hardball legal tactics (such as its
infamous 338 patent suit versus PC manufacturers)[44] made it an attractive target for litigation, but few of the
lawsuits ever amounted to anything.
A case of industrial espionage arose in 1995 that involved both Intel and AMD. Bill Gaede, an Argentine formerly
employed both at AMD and at Intel's Arizona plant, was arrested for attempting in 1993 to sell the i486 and P5
Pentium designs to AMD and to certain foreign powers.[45] Gaede videotaped data from his computer screen at Intel
and mailed it to AMD, which immediately alerted Intel and authorities, resulting in Gaede's arrest. Gaede was
convicted and sentenced to 33 months in prison in June 1996.[46] [47]
Partnership with Apple

On June 6, 2005, Apple CEO Steve Jobs announced that Apple would be transitioning from its long favored
PowerPC architecture to the Intel x86 architecture, because the future PowerPC road map was unable to satisfy
Apple's needs. The first Macintosh computers containing Intel CPUs were announced on January 10, 2006, and
Apple had its entire line of consumer Macs running on Intel processors by early August 2006. The Apple Xserve
server was updated to Intel Xeon processors from November 2006, and was offered in a configuration similar to
Apple's Mac Pro.[48]
Core 2 Duo advertisement controversy

In 2007, the company released a print advertisement for its Core 2 Duo processor featuring six African American
runners appearing to bow down to a Caucasian male inside of an office setting (due to the posture taken by runners
on starting blocks). According to Nancy Bhagat, Vice President of Intel Corporate Marketing, the general public
found the ad to be "insensitive and insulting."[49] The campaign was quickly pulled and several Intel executives
made public apologies on the corporate website.[50]
Classmate PC
Intel's Classmate PC is the company's first low-cost netbook computer.
Corporate affairs
In September 2006, Intel had nearly 100,000 employees and 200 facilities world wide. Its 2005 revenues were $38.8
billion and its Fortune 500 ranking was 49th. Its stock symbol is INTC, listed on the NASDAQ. As of February 2009
the biggest customers of Intel are Hewlett-Packard and Dell.[51]
Leadership and corporate structure

Robert Noyce was Intel's CEO at its founding in 1968, followed by co-founder Gordon Moore in 1975. Andy Grove
became the company's President in 1979 and added the CEO title in 1987 when Moore became Chairman. In 1998
Grove succeeded Moore as Chairman, and Craig Barrett, already company president, took over. On May 18, 2005,
Barrett handed the reins of the company over to Paul Otellini, who previously was the company president and was
responsible for Intel's design win in the original IBM PC. The board of directors elected Otellini CEO, and Barrett
replaced Grove as Chairman of the Board. Grove stepped down as Chairman, but is retained as a special adviser. In
May 2009, Barrett stepped down as chairman and Jane Shaw was elected as the new Chairman of the Board.
Current members of the board of directors of Intel are Craig Barrett, Charlene Barshefsky, Susan Decker, James
Guzy, Reed Hundt, Paul Otellini, James Plummer, David Pottruck, Jane Shaw, John Thornton, and David Yoffie.[52]
Employment
The firm promotes very heavily from within, most notably in its
executive suite. The company has resisted the trend toward outsider
CEOs. Paul Otellini was a 30-year veteran of the company when he
assumed the role of CEO. All of his top lieutenants have risen through
the ranks after many years with the firm. In many cases, Intel's top
executives have spent their entire working careers with Intel, a very
rare occurrence in volatile Silicon Valley.
Intel has a mandatory retirement policy for its CEOs when they reach
Intel microprocessor facility in Costa Rica was
age 65, Andy Grove retired at 62, while both Robert Noyce and responsible in 2006 for 20% of Costa Rican
[53]
Gordon Moore retired at 58. Grove retired as Chairman and as a exports and 4.9% of the country's GDP.
member of the board of directors in 2005 at age 68.
No one has an office; everyone, even Otellini, sits in a cubicle. This is designed to promote egalitarianism among
employees, but some new hires have difficulty adjusting to this change. Intel is not alone in this policy. Dell
Computers, Hewlett-Packard and NVIDIA have similar no-office policy.
The company is headquartered in California's Silicon Valley and has operations around the world. Outside of
California, the company has facilities in China, Costa Rica, Malaysia, Israel, Ireland, India, Russia and Vietnam, 63
countries and regions internationally. In the U.S. Intel employs significant numbers of people in California,
Colorado, Massachusetts, Arizona, New Mexico, Oregon, Texas, Washington, and Utah. In Oregon, Intel is the
state's largest private employer with over 15,000 employees, primarily in Hillsboro.[54] The company is the largest
industrial employer in New Mexico while in Arizona the company has over 10,000 employees.
Diversity
Intel has a Diversity Initiative, including employee diversity groups as well as supplier diversity programs.[55] Like
many companies with employee diversity groups, they include groups based on race and nationality as well as sexual
identity and religion. In 1994, Intel sanctioned one of the earliest corporate Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender
employee groups,[56] and supports a Muslim employees group,[57] a Jewish employees group,[58] and a Bible-based
Christian group.[59] [60]
Intel received a 100% rating on the first Corporate Equality Index released by the Human Rights Campaign in 2002.
It has maintained this rating in 2003 and 2004. In addition, the company was named one of the 100 Best Companies
for Working Mothers in 2005 by Working Mother magazine.
Funding of a school
In Rio Rancho, New Mexico, Intel is the leading employer.[61] In 1997, a community partnership between Sandoval
County and Intel Corporation funded and built Rio Rancho High School.[62] [63]
Finances
Intel's market capitalization is $122.41
billion (Feb. 22, 2011). It publicly trades on
NASDAQ with the symbol INTC. A widely
held stock, the following indices include
Intel shares: Dow Jones Industrial Average,
S&P 500, NASDAQ-100, Russell 1000
Index, Russell 1000 Growth Index, SOX
(PHLX Semiconductor Sector), and GSTI
Intel stock price, Nov 1986 – Nov 2006
Software Index.
On July 15, 2008, Intel announced that it

had achieved the highest earnings in the history of the company during Q2 2008.[64]
Advertising and brand management

Intel has become one of the world's most recognizable computer brands following its long-running Intel Inside
campaign. The campaign, which started in 1991,[65] was created by Intel marketing manager Dennis Carter.[66] The
five-note jingle was introduced the following year and by its tenth anniversary was being heard in 130 countries
around the world. The initial branding agency for the 'Intel Inside' campaign was DahlinSmithWhite Advertising of
Salt Lake City. The Intel swirl logo was the work of DahlinSmithWhite art director Steve Grigg under the direction
of Intel president and CEO Andy Grove.
The Intel Inside advertising campaign sought public brand loyalty and awareness of Intel processors in consumer
computers.[67] Intel paid some of the advertiser's costs for an ad that used the Intel Inside logo and jingle.[68]
Logos
Intel brand logo

Main Logo Date Subset logo Date Remarks
1968–2005 1991–2003 The original "Intel Inside" logo.
2003–2005 Still as Intel Inside logo, but changed to resemble the original Intel logo
with lowering of the Intel "e" and changing the typeface.
2005–present 2006–2009
Intel phased out the intel inside logo in favor of a new logo intel and the
slogan, Leap ahead. The new logo is clearly inspired by the Intel Inside
logo by splitting out the inside. The typeface Neo Sans Intel is used.
2009–present The current intel logo with inside trademark. i3, i5, i7, Atom, and Xeon use
this logo
In 2006, Intel expanded its promotion of open specification platforms beyond Centrino, to include the Viiv media
centre PC and the business desktop Intel vPro.
In mid January 2006, Intel announced that they were dropping the long running Pentium name from their processors.
The Pentium name was first used to refer to the P5 core Intel processors (Pent refers to the 5 in P5,) and was done to
circumvent court rulings that prevent the trademarking of a string of numbers, so competitors could not just call their
processor the same name, as had been done with the prior 386 and 486 processors. (Both of which had copies
manufactured by both IBM and AMD). They phased out the Pentium names from mobile processors first, when the
new Yonah chips, branded Core Solo and Core Duo, were released. The desktop processors changed when the Core
2 line of processors were released.
According to an Intel spokesman as of 2009 one may think in terms of good-better-best with Celeron being good,
Pentium better, and the Intel Core family representing the best the company has to offer.[69]
In 2008, Intel planned to shift the emphasis of its Intel Inside campaign from traditional media such as television and
print to newer media such as the Internet.[70] Intel required that a minimum of 35% of the money it provided to the
companies in its co-op program be used for online marketing.[70]
Some artists have incorporated Intel brand culture into their works. For example, evil inside stickers,[71] Intel inside,
idiot outside [72] and a tombstone with R.I.P Intel Inside.[73] The sticker on the supercomputer Hex of Terry
Pratchett's Discworld books reads "Anthill inside".
Sonic logo
The famous D♭ D♭ G♭ D♭ A♭ jingle, sonic logo, tag, audio mnemonic ( MP3 file of sonic logo [74]) was produced
by Musikvergnuegen and written by Walter Werzowa from the Austrian 1980s sampling band Edelweiss.[75] The
Sonic logo has undergone heavy changes in tone since the introduction of the Pentium III, Pentium 4, and Core
processors, yet keeps the same jingle.
Naming strategy
According to spokesman Bill Calder since 2009 Intel has maintained only the Celeron brand, the Atom brand for
netbooks and the vPro lineup for businesses.[76] Upcoming processors will carry the Intel Core brand, but will be
known as the Intel Core i7, or Core i3 depending on their segment of the market.[76] vPro products will carry the
Intel Core i7 vPro processor or the Intel Core i5 vPro processor name.[76]
Beginning in 2010 "Centrino" will only be applied to Intel's WiMAX and Wi-Fi technologies; it won't be a PC brand
anymore.[76] This will be an evolutionary process taking place over time, Intel acknowledges that multiple brands
will be in the market including older ones throughout the transition.[76]
IT Manager 3: Unseen Forces

IT Manager III: Unseen Forces is a web-based IT simulation game from Intel. In it you manage a company's IT
department. The goal is to apply technology and skill to enable the company to grow from a small business into a
global enterprise.
Open source support

Intel has a significant participation in the open source communities. For example, in 2006 Intel released
MIT-licensed X.org drivers for their integrated graphic cards of the i965 family of chipsets. Intel released FreeBSD
drivers for some networking cards,[77] available under a BSD-compatible license, which were also ported to
OpenBSD. Intel ran the Moblin project until April 23, 2009, when they handed the project over to the Linux
Foundation. Intel also runs the LessWatts.org campaigns.[78]
However, after the release of the wireless products called Intel Pro/Wireless 2100, 2200BG/2225BG/2915ABG and
3945ABG in 2005, Intel was criticized for not granting free redistribution rights for the firmware that must be
included in the operating system for the wireless devices to operate.[79] As a result of this, Intel became a target of
campaigns to allow free operating systems to include binary firmware on terms acceptable to the open source
community. Linspire-Linux creator Michael Robertson outlined the difficult position that Intel was in releasing to
open source, as Intel did not want to upset their large customer Microsoft.[80] Theo de Raadt of OpenBSD also
claimed that Intel is being "an Open Source fraud" after an Intel employee presented a distorted view of the situation
on an open-source conference.[81] In spite of the significant negative attention Intel received as a result of the
wireless dealings, the binary firmware still has not gained a license compatible with free software principles.
Environmental record
In 2003, there were 1.4 tons of carbon tetrachloride measured from one of Intel's many acid scrubbers. However,
Intel reported no release of carbon tetrachloride for all of 2003.[82] Intel's facility in Rio Rancho, New Mexico
overlooks a nearby village, and the hilly contours of its location create a setting for chemical gases heavier than air to
move along arroyos and irrigation ditches in that village. Release of chemicals in such an environment reportedly
caused adverse effects in both animals and humans. Deceased dogs in the area were found to have high levels of
toluene, hexane, ethylbenzene, and xylene isomers in lungs.[83] More than 1580 pounds of VOC were released in
June and July 2006, the company stated.[84] Intel’s environmental performance is published annually in their
corporate responsibility report.[85]
Religious controversy
Orthodox Jews have protested Intel operating in Israel on Saturday, Shabbat. Intel ringed its office with barbed wire
before the protest, but there was no violence.[86] As of December 2009, the situation has been stable for Intel Israel
while some employees reported working overtime on Shabbat.
Age discrimination
Intel has faced complaints of age discrimination in firing and layoffs. Intel was sued by nine former employees, over
allegations that they were laid off because they were over the age of 40.[87]
A group called FACE Intel (Former and Current Employees of Intel) claims that Intel weeds out older employees.
FACE Intel claims that more than 90 percent of people who have been terminated by Intel are over the age of 40.
Upside magazine requested data from Intel breaking out its hiring and terminations by age, but the company declined
to provide any.[88] Intel has denied that age plays any role in Intel's employment practices.[89] FACE Intel was
founded by Ken Hamidi, who was terminated by Intel in 1995 at the age of 47.[88] Hamidi was blocked in a 1999
court decision from using Intel's email system to distribute criticism of the company to employees.[90]
Competition
In the 1980s, Intel was among the top ten sellers of semiconductors (10th in 1987) in the world. In 1991, Intel
became the biggest chip maker by revenue and has held the position ever since. Other top semiconductor companies
include AMD, Samsung, Texas Instruments, Toshiba and STMicroelectronics.
Competitors in PC chip sets include AMD, VIA Technologies, SiS, and Nvidia. Intel's competitors in networking
include Freescale, Infineon, Broadcom, Marvell Technology Group and AMCC, and competitors in flash memory
include Spansion, Samsung, Qimonda, Toshiba, STMicroelectronics, and Hynix.
The only major competitor in the x86 processor market is Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), with which Intel has
had full cross-licensing agreements since 1976: each partner can use the other's patented technological innovations
without charge after a certain time.[91] However, the cross-licensing agreement is canceled in the event of an AMD
bankruptcy or takeover.[92] Some smaller competitors such as VIA and Transmeta produce low-power x86
processors for small factor computers and portable equipment.
Lawsuits
Intel has often been accused by competitors of using legal claims to thwart competition. Intel claims that it is
defending its intellectual property. Intel has been plaintiff and defendant in numerous legal actions.
In September 2005, Intel filed a response to an AMD lawsuit,[93] disputing AMD's claims, and claiming that Intel's
business practices are fair and lawful. In a rebuttal, Intel deconstructed AMD's offensive strategy and argued that
AMD struggled largely as a result of its own bad business decisions, including underinvestment in essential
manufacturing capacity and excessive reliance on contracting out chip foundries.[94] Legal analysts predicted the
lawsuit would drag on for a number of years, since Intel's initial response indicated its unwillingness to settle with
AMD.[95] [96] In 2008 a court date was finally set,[97] but in 2009 Intel settled with a $1.25 billion payout to AMD
(see below).[98]
In October 2006, a Transmeta lawsuit was filed against Intel for patent infringement on computer architecture and
power efficiency technologies.[99] The lawsuit was settled in October 2007, with Intel agreeing to pay US$150
million initially and US$20 million per year for the next five years. Both companies agreed to drop lawsuits against
each other, while Intel was granted a perpetual non-exclusive license to use current and future patented Transmeta
technologies in its chips for 10 years.[100]
On November 4, 2009, New York's attorney general filed an antitrust lawsuit against Intel Corp, claiming the
company used "illegal threats and collusion" to dominate the market for computer microprocessors.
On November 12, 2009, AMD agreed to drop the antitrust lawsuit against Intel in exchange for $1.25 billion.[98] A
joint press release published by the two chip makers stated "While the relationship between the two companies has
been difficult in the past, this agreement ends the legal disputes and enables the companies to focus all of our efforts
on product innovation and development." [101] [102]
Anti-competitive allegations
Japan
In 2005, the local Fair Trade Commission found that Intel violated the Japanese Antimonopoly Act. The commission
ordered Intel to eliminate discounts that had discriminated against AMD. To avoid a trial, Intel agreed to comply
with the order.[103] [104] [105] [106]
European Union
In July 2007, the European Commission accused Intel of anti-competitive practices, mostly against AMD.[107] The
allegations, going back to 2003, include giving preferential prices to computer makers buying most or all of their
chips from Intel, paying computer makers to delay or cancel the launch of products using AMD chips, and providing
chips at below standard cost to governments and educational institutions.[108] Intel responded that the allegations
were unfounded and instead qualified its market behavior as consumer-friendly.[109] General counsel Bruce Sewell
responded that the Commission had misunderstood some factual assumptions as to pricing and manufacturing
costs.[110]
In February 2008, Intel stated that its office in Munich had been raided by European Union regulators. Intel reported
that it was cooperating with investigators.[111] Intel faced a fine of up to 10% of its annual revenue, if found guilty of
stifling competition.[109] AMD subsequently launched a website promoting these allegations.[112] [113] In June 2008,
the EU filed new charges against Intel.[114] In May 2009, the EU found that Intel had engaged in anti-competitive
practices and subsequently fined Intel €1.06 billion ($1.44 billion), a record amount. Intel was found to have paid
companies, including Acer, Dell, HP, Lenovo and NEC,[115] to exclusively use Intel chips in their products, and
therefore harmed other companies including AMD.[115] [116] [117] The European Commission said that Intel had
deliberately acted to keep competitors out of the computer chip market and in doing so had made a "serious and
sustained violation of the EU's antitrust rules".[115] In addition to the fine, Intel was ordered by the Commission to
immediately cease all illegal practices.[115] Intel has stated that they will appeal against the Commission's
verdict.[115]
South Korea
In September 2007, South Korean regulators accused Intel of breaking antitrust law. The investigation began in
February 2006, when officials raided Intel's South Korean offices. The company risked a penalty of up to 3% of its
annual sales, if found guilty.[118] In June 2008, the Fair Trade Commission ordered Intel to pay a fine of $25.5
million for taking advantage of its dominant position to offer incentives to major Korean PC manufacturers on the
condition of not buying products from AMD.[119]
United States
New York started an investigation of Intel in January 2008 on whether the company violated antitrust laws in pricing
and sales of its microprocessors.[120] In June 2008, the Federal Trade Commission also began an antitrust
investigation of the case.[121] In December 2009 the FTC announced it would initiate an administrative proceeding
against Intel in September 2010.[122] [123] [124] [125]
In November 2009, following a two year investigation, New York Attorney General Andrew Cuomo sued Intel,
accusing them of bribery and coercion, claiming that Intel bribed computer makers to buy more of their chips than
those of their rivals, and threatened to withdraw these payments if the computer makers were perceived as working
too closely with its competitors. Intel has denied these claims.[126]
On July 22, 2010, Dell agreed to a settlement with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to pay
$100M in penalties resulting from charges that Dell did not accurately disclose accounting information to investors.
In particular, the SEC charged that from 2002 to 2006, Dell had an agreement with Intel to receive rebates in
exchange for not using chips manufactured by Advanced Micro Devices. These substantial rebates were not
disclosed to investors, but were used to help meet investor expectations regarding the company's financial
performance; the SEC said that in the first quarter of 2007 they amounted to 70% of Dell's operating income. Dell
eventually did adopt AMD as a secondary supplier in 2006, and Intel subsequently stopped their rebates, causing
Dell's financial performance to fall.[127] [128] [129]
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External links
• Intel official website (http://www.intel.com/)
• Intel Corporation (http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Companies/Product_Support/Intel/) at the Open
Directory Project
• Intel Software Network (http://software.intel.com/en-us/)
Video clips
• channelintel (http://www.youtube.com/user/channelintel) channel on YouTube
Business data
• INTEL CORP. (http://finance.google.com/finance?q=INTC) at Google Finance
• INTEL CORP. (http://finance.yahoo.com/q?s=INTC) at Yahoo! Finance
• INTEL CORP. (http://www.hoovers.com//--ID__13787--/free-co-factsheet.xhtml) at Hoover's
• INTEL CORP. (http://www.reuters.com/finance/stocks/overview?symbol=INTC) at Reuters
• INTEL CORP. (http://google.brand.edgar-online.com/?sym=INTC) SEC filings at EDGAR Online
• INTEL CORP. (http://www.sec.gov/cgi-bin/browse-edgar?action=getcompany&CIK=50863) SEC filings at
the Securities and Exchange Commission
Advanced Micro Devices

Advanced Micro Devices, Inc.
Type [1]
Public (NYSE: AMD )
S&P 500 Component
Founded 1969
Founder(s) W. Jerry Sanders III

Edwin J. Turney
Additional co-founders
Headquarters [2]
One AMD Place, Sunnyvale, California, U.S.
Key people Bruce Claflin

(Executive Chairman)
Thomas Seifert
interim (CEO)
Products Microprocessors
Motherboard chipsets
Graphics processors
DTV decoder chips
Handheld media chipsets
Revenue US$5.4 billion (FY 2009)
Operating income US$664 million (FY 2009)
Net income US$293 million (FY 2009)
Total assets US$9.08 billion (FY 2009)
Total equity US$648 million (FY 2009)
Employees [3]
10,400 – Jan 2010
Website [4]
AMD.com
Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. (AMD; NYSE: AMD [1]) is an American multinational semiconductor company
based in Sunnyvale, California, that develops computer processors and related technologies for commercial and
consumer markets. Its main products include microprocessors, motherboard chipsets, embedded processors and
graphics processors for servers, workstations and personal computers, and processor technologies for handheld
devices, digital television, automobiles, game consoles, and other embedded systems applications.
AMD is the second-largest global supplier of microprocessors based on the x86 architecture and also one of the
largest supplier of graphics processing units. It also owns 8.6% of Spansion, a supplier of non-volatile flash
memory.[3] In 2009, AMD ranked eighth among semiconductor manufacturers in terms of revenue.[5]
Corporate history
Advanced Micro Devices was founded on May 1, 1969,
by a group of former executives from Fairchild
Semiconductor, including Jerry Sanders III, Ed Turney,
John Carey, Sven Simonsen, Jack Gifford and three
members from Gifford's team, Frank Botte, Jim Giles,
and Larry Stenger. The company began as a producer
of logic chips, then entered the RAM chip business in
1975. That same year, it introduced a
reverse-engineered clone of the Intel 8080
microprocessor. During this period, AMD also AMD headquarters in Sunnyvale, California
designed and produced a series of bit-slice processor
elements (Am2900, Am29116, Am293xx) which were
used in various minicomputer designs.
During this time, AMD attempted to embrace the

perceived shift towards RISC with their own AMD
29K processor, and they attempted to diversify into
graphics and audio devices as well as EPROM
memory. It had some success in the mid-1980s with the
AMD7910 and AMD7911 "World Chip" FSK modem,
one of the first multistandard devices that covered both
Bell and CCITT tones at up to 1200 baud half duplex
or 300/300 full duplex. The AMD 29K survived as an
embedded processor and AMD spinoff Spansion
continues to make industry leading flash memory. AMD Markham in Canada, formerly ATI headquarters
AMD decided to switch gears and concentrate solely on

Intel-compatible microprocessors and flash memory,
placing them in direct competition with Intel for x86
compatible processors and their flash memory
secondary markets.
AMD announced a merger with ATI Technologies on

July 24, 2006. AMD paid $4.3 billion in cash and
58 million shares of its stock for a total of
US$5.4 billion. The merger completed on October 25,
2006[6] and ATI is now part of AMD.
It was reported in December 2006 that AMD, along
with its main rival in the graphics industry Nvidia,
received subpoenas from the Justice Department AMD's LEED-certified Lone Star campus in Austin, Texas
regarding possible antitrust violations in the graphics
card industry, including the act of fixing prices.[7]
In October 2008, AMD announced plans to spin off manufacturing operations in the form of a multibillion-dollar
joint venture with Advanced Technology Investment Co., an investment company formed by the government of Abu
Dhabi. The new venture is called GlobalFoundries Inc.. This will allow AMD to focus solely on chip design.[8]
Processor market history
IBM PC and the x86 architecture

In February 1982, AMD signed a contract with Intel, becoming a
licensed second-source manufacturer of 8086 and 8088 processors.
IBM wanted to use the Intel 8088 in its IBM PC, but IBM's policy at
the time was to require at least two sources for its chips. AMD later
produced the Am286 under the same arrangement, but Intel canceled
Early AMD 8080 Processor (AMD AM9080ADC
the agreement in 1986 and refused to convey technical details of the / C8080A), 1977
i386 part. AMD challenged Intel's decision to cancel the agreement and
won in arbitration, but Intel disputed this decision. A long legal dispute
followed, ending in 1994 when the Supreme Court of California sided
with AMD. Subsequent legal disputes centered on whether AMD had
legal rights to use derivatives of Intel's microcode. In the face of
uncertainty, AMD was forced to develop clean room designed versions
of Intel code.
In 1991, AMD released the Am386, its clone of the Intel 386
AMD D8086.
processor. It took less than a year for the company to sell a million
units. Later, the Am486 was used by a number of large original
equipment manufacturers, including Compaq, and proved popular. Another Am486-based product, the Am5x86,
continued AMD's success as a low-price alternative. However, as product cycles shortened in the PC industry, the
process of reverse engineering Intel's products became an ever less viable strategy for AMD.
K5, K6, Athlon, Duron, and Sempron

AMD's first in-house x86 processor was the K5 which was launched in 1996.[9] The "K" was a reference to
Kryptonite, which from comic book lore, was the only substance (radioactive pieces of his home planet) which could
harm Superman, a clear reference to Intel, which dominated in the market at the time, as "Superman".[10] The
numeral "5" refers to the fifth processor generation, which Intel introduced as Pentium because the US Trademark
and Patent Office ruled that mere numbers could not be trademarked.
In 1996, AMD purchased NexGen specifically for the rights to their Nx series of x86-compatible processors. AMD
gave the NexGen design team their own building, left them alone, and gave them time and money to rework the
Nx686. The result was the K6 processor, introduced in 1997. Although the K6 was based on Socket 7, variants such
as K6-2/450 were faster than Intel's Pentium II (sixth generation processor).
The K7 was AMD's seventh generation x86 processor, making its debut on June 23, 1999, under the brand name
Athlon. Unlike previous AMD processors, it could not be used on the same motherboards as Intels' due to licensing
issues surrounding Intel's Slot 1 connector, and instead used a Slot A connector, referenced to the Alpha processor
bus. The Duron was a lower cost and limited version of the Athlon (64KB instead of 256KB L2 cache) in a 462-pin
socketed PGA(socket A) or soldered directly on to the motherboard. Sempron was released as a lower cost Athlon
XP replacing Duron in the socket A PGA era and since migrated upward to all new sockets up to AM3.
On October 9, 2001 the Athlon XP was released, followed by the Athlon XP with 512KB L2 Cache on February 10,
2003.[11]
Athlon 64, Opteron and Phenom

The K8 was a major revision of the K7 architecture, with the most notable features being the addition of a 64-bit
extension to the x86 instruction set (officially called AMD64), the incorporation of an on-chip memory controller,
and the implementation of an extremely high performance point-to-point interconnect called HyperTransport, as part
of the Direct Connect Architecture. The technology was initially launched as the Opteron server-oriented
processor.[12] Shortly thereafter it was incorporated into a product for desktop PCs, branded Athlon 64.[13]
AMD released the first dual core Opteron, an x86-based server CPU, on April 21, 2005.[14] The first desktop-based
dual core processor family—the Athlon 64 X2—came a month later.[15] In early May 2007, AMD had abandoned
the string "64" in its dual-core desktop product branding, becoming Athlon X2, downplaying the significance of
64-bit computing in its processors while upcoming updates involved some of the improvements to the
microarchitecture, and a shift of target market from mainstream desktop systems to value dual-core desktop systems.
AMD has also started to release dual-core Sempron processors in early 2008 exclusively in China, branded as
Sempron 2000 series, with lower HyperTransport speed and smaller L2 cache, thus the firm completes its dual-core
product portfolio for each market segment.
The latest AMD microprocessor architecture, known as K10, became the successor to the K8 microarchitecture. The
first processors released on this architecture were introduced on September 10, 2007 consisting of nine quad-core
Third Generation Opteron processors. This was followed by the Phenom processor for desktop. K10 processors came
in dual-core, triple-core,[16] and quad-core versions with all cores on a single die. A new platform codename
"Spider" was released utilising the new Phenom processor as well as an R770 GPU and a 790 GX/FX chipset from
the AMD 700 chipset series. This was built at 65nm, and hence uncompetitive with Intel who already progressed to
the smaller and more power efficient 45nm node.
In January 2009 AMD released a new processor line dubbed Phenom II, a refresh of the original Phenom built using
the 45 nm process. Along with this came a new platform codename "Dragon" which utilised a new Phenom II
processor, an ATI R770 GPU from the R700 GPU family, as well as a 790 GX/FX chipset from the AMD 700
chipset series. This came in a dual-core, triple-core and quad-core variants, all using the same die with cores disabled
for the triple-core and dual-core versions. This resolved issues that the original Phenom had including low clock
speed, a small L3 cache and a Cool'n'Quiet bug that decreased performance. This was price and performance
competitive with Intel's mid to high range Core 2 Quads. The processor also enhanced the Phenom's memory
controller, allowing it to use DDR3 in a new native socket AM3, while maintaining backwards compatibility with
AM2+, the socket used for the Phenom, and allowing the use of the DDR2 memory that was used with the platform.
In 2010 a new Phenom II hexa-core processor codenamed "Thuban" was released. This is a totally new die based on
the hexa-core "Istanbul" Opteron processor. This will be part of AMD's new Enthusiast platform codenamed ”Leo"
utilising a new Phenom II processor, a new chipset from the AMD 800 chipset series and an ATI "Cypress" GPU
from the Evergreen (GPU family) GPU series.
The Magny Cours and Lisbon server parts will be released in 2010. The Magny Cours part will come in 8 to 12 cores
and the Lisbon part will come in 4 and 6 core parts. Magny Cours is focused on performance while the Lisbon part is
focused on high performance per watt. Magny Cours is an MCM (Multi-Chip Module) with two hexa-core
"Istanbul" Opteron parts. This will use a new G34 socket for dual and quad socket processors and thus will be
marketed as Opteron 61xx series processors. Lisbon uses C32 socket certified for dual socket use or single socket
use only and thus will be marketed as Opteron 41xx processors. Both will be built on a 45 nm SOI process.
Fusion
After the merger between AMD and ATI, an initiative codenamed Fusion was announced that will merge a CPU and
GPU on some of their entry level chips, including a minimum 16 lane PCI Express link to accommodate external
PCI Express peripherals, thereby eliminating the requirement of a northbridge chip completely from the
motherboard. The initiative will see some of the processing originally done on the CPU (e.g. Floating Point Unit
operations) moved to the GPU, which is better optimized for calculations such as Floating Point Unit calculations.
This is referred to by AMD as an Accelerated Processing Unit (APU).[17] AMD will move to a modular design
methodology named "M-SPACE", where two new processor cores, codenamed "Bulldozer" and "Bobcat" will be
released; Bulldozer is slated for the 2011 timeframe, whereas Bobcat is expected in Q4 2010.[18]
While very little preliminary information exists even in AMD's Technology Analyst Day 2007, both cores are to be
built from the ground up. The Bulldozer core focused on 10 watt to 100 watt products, with optimizations for
performance-per-watt ratios and HPC applications and includes newly announced XOP, FMA4 and CVT16
instructions,[19] while the Bobcat core will focus on 1 watt to 10 watt products, given that the core is a simplified x86
core to reduce power draw. Both of the cores will be able to incorporate full DirectX compatible GPU core(s) under
the Fusion label, or as standalone products as a general purpose CPU.
Llano is to be the second APU released,[18] targeted at the mainstream market.[17] This will incorporate a CPU and
GPU on the same die, as well as the Northbridge functions, and labeled on AMD's new timeline as using socket
"AM3r2" with DDR3 memory. This will, however, not be based on the new bulldozer core and will in fact be similar
to the current Phenom II "Deneb" processor serving as AMD's high-end processor until the release of the new 32 nm
parts.
Bulldozer is revealed to be two integer cores capable of processing integers and one floating point unit (FPU). This
will be seen by the OS as two cores and all of AMD's new 2011, 32 nm high-end desktop and server parts will be
built on it, including Zambezi and Orochi for the desktop and Interlagos and Valencia for the server market.
Other platforms and technologies
AMD chipsets
Before the launch of Athlon 64 processors in 2003, AMD designed chipsets for their processors spanning the K6 and
K7 processor generations. The chipsets include the AMD-640, AMD-751 and the AMD-761 chipsets. The situation
changed in 2003 with the release of Athlon 64 processors, and AMD chose not to further design its own chipsets for
its desktop processors while opening the desktop platform to allow other firms to design chipsets. This is the "Open
Platform ATI, VIA and SiS developing their own chipset for Athlon 64 processors and later Athlon 64 X2 and
Athlon 64 FX processors, including the Quad FX platform chipset from Nvidia.
The initiative went further with the release of Opteron server processors as AMD stopped the design of server
chipsets in 2004 after releasing the AMD-8111 chipset, and again opened the server platform for firms to develop
chipsets for Opteron processors. As of today, Nvidia and Broadcom are the sole designing firms of server chipsets
for Opteron processors.
As the company completed the acquisition of ATI Technologies in 2006, the firm gained the ATI design team for
chipsets which previously designed the Radeon Xpress 200 and the Radeon Xpress 3200 chipsets. AMD then
renamed the chipsets for AMD processors under AMD branding (for instance, the CrossFire Xpress 3200 chipset
was renamed as AMD 580X CrossFire chipset). In February 2007, AMD announced the first AMD-branded chipset
since 2004 with the release of the AMD 690G chipset (previously under the development codename RS690), targeted
at mainstream IGP computing. It was the industry's first to implement a HDMI 1.2 port on motherboards, shipping
for more than a million units. While ATI had aimed at releasing an Intel IGP chipset, the plan was scrapped and the
inventories of Radeon Xpress 1250 (codenamed RS600, sold under ATI brand) was sold to two OEMs, Abit and
ASRock. Although AMD states the firm will still produce Intel chipsets, Intel had not granted the license of 1333
MHz FSB to ATI.

On November 15, 2007, AMD announced a new chipset series portfolio, the AMD 7-Series chipsets, covering from
enthusiast multi-graphics segment to value IGP segment, to replace the AMD 480/570/580 chipsets and AMD 690
series chipsets, marking AMD's first enthusiast multi-graphics chipset. Discrete graphics chipsets were launched on
November 15, 2007 as part of the codenamed Spider desktop platform, and IGP chipsets were launched at a later
time in Spring 2008 as part of the codenamed Cartwheel platform.
AMD will also return to the server chipsets market with the next-generation AMD 800S series server chipsets,
scheduled to be released in 2009 timeframe.
AMD Live!
AMD LIVE! is a platform marketing initiative focusing the consumer electronics segment, with a recently
announced Active TV initiative for streaming Internet videos from web video services such as YouTube, into AMD
Live! PC as well as connected digital TVs, together with a scheme for an ecosystem of certified peripherals for the
ease of customers to identify peripherals for AMD Live! systems for digital home experience, called "AMD Live!
Ready".[20]
AMD Quad FX platform

The AMD Quad FX platform, being an extreme enthusiast platform, allows two processors to connect through
HyperTransport, which is a similar setup to dual-processor (2P) servers, excluding the use of buffered
memory/registered memory DIMM modules, and a server motherboard, the current setup includes two Athlon 64
FX-70 series processors and a special motherboard. AMD pushed the platform for the surging demands for what
AMD calls "megatasking" for true enthusiasts,[21] the ability to do more tasks on a single system. The platform
refreshes with the introduction of Phenom FX processors and the next-generation RD790 chipset, codenamed
"FASN8".
Commercial platform
The first AMD server/workstation platform after ATI acquisition is scheduled to be released on 2009 timeframe.
Codenamed Fiorano, AMD's first multi-processor server platform after ATI acquisition consists of AMD SR5690 +
SP5100 server chipsets, supporting 45 nm, codenamed Shanghai Socket F+ processors and registered DDR2
memory. Future update include the Maranello platform supporting 45 nm, codenamed Istanbul, Socket G34
processors with DDR3 memory. On single-processor platform, the codenamed Catalunya platform consists of
codenamed Suzuka 45 nm quad-core processor with AMD SR5580 + SP5100 chipset and DDR3 support.[22]
AMD's x86 virtualization extension to the 64-bit x86 architecture is named AMD Virtualization, also known by the
abbreviation AMD-V, and is sometimes referred to by the code name "Pacifica". AMD processors using Socket
AM2, Socket S1, and Socket F include AMD Virtualization support. AMD Virtualization is also supported by
release two (8200, 2200 and 1200 series) of the Opteron processors. The third generation (8300 and 2300 series) of
Opteron processors will see an update in virtualization technology, specifically the Rapid Virtualization Indexing
(also known by the development name Nested Page Tables), alongside the Tagged TLB and Device Exclusion
Vector (DEV).
AMD also promotes the "AMD I/O Virtualization Technology" (also known as IOMMU) for I/O virtualization.[23]
The AMD IOMMU specification has been updated to version 1.2.[24] The specification describes the use of a
HyperTransport architecture.
AMD's commercial initiatives include the following:
• AMD Trinity, provides support for virtualization, security and management. Key features include AMD-V
technology, codenamed Presidio trusted computing platform technology, I/O Virtualization and Open
Management Partition.[25]
• AMD Raiden, future clients similar to the Jack PC[26] to be connected through network to a blade server for
central management, to reduce client form factor sizes with AMD Trinity features.
• Torrenza, coprocessors support through interconnects such as HyperTransport, and PCI Express (though more
focus was at HyperTransport enabled coprocessors), also opening processor socket architecture to other
manufacturers, Sun and IBM are among the supporting consortium, with rumoured POWER7 processors would
be socket-compatible to future Opteron processors. The move made rival Intel responded with the open of Front
Side Bus (FSB) architecture as well as Geneseo,[27] a collaboration project with IBM for coprocessors connected
through PCI Express.
• Various certified systems programs and platforms: AMD Commercial Stable Image Platform (CSIP), together
with AMD Validated Server program, AMD True Server Solutions, AMD Thermally Tested Barebones Platforms
and AMD Validated Server Program, providing certified systems for business from AMD.
Desktop platforms
Starting in 2007, AMD, following Intel, began using codenames for its desktop platforms such as Spider or Dragon.
The platforms, unlike Intel's approach, will refresh every year, putting focus on platform specialization. The platform
includes components as AMD processors, chipsets, ATI graphics and other features, but continued to the open
platform approach, and welcome components from other vendors such as VIA, SiS, and Nvidia, as well as wireless
product vendors.
Updates to the platform includes the implementation of IOMMU I/O Virtualization with 45 nm generation of
processors, and the AMD 800 chipset series in 2009.[28]
Embedded systems
In February 2002, AMD acquired Alchemy Semiconductor for its Alchemy line of MIPS processors for the
hand-held and portable media player markets. On June 13, 2006, AMD officially announced that the line was to be
transferred to Raza Microelectronics, Inc., a designer of MIPS processors for embedded applications.[29]
In August 2003, AMD also purchased the Geode business which was originally the Cyrix MediaGX from National
Semiconductor to augment its existing line of embedded x86 processor products. During the second quarter of 2004,
it launched new low-power Geode NX processors based on the K7 Thoroughbred architecture with speeds of fanless
processors 667 MHz and 1 GHz, and 1.4 GHz processor with fan, of TDP 25 W. This technology is used in a variety
of embedded systems (Casino slot machines and customer kiosks for instance), several UMPC designs in Asia
markets, as well as the OLPC XO-1 computer, an inexpensive laptop computer intended to be distributed to children
in developing countries around the world.
For the past couple of years AMD has been introducing 64-bit processors into its embedded product line starting
with the AMD Opteron processor. Leveraging the high throughput enabled through HyperTransport and the Direct
Connect Architecture these server class processors have been targeted at high end telecom and storage applications.
In 2006 AMD added the AMD Athlon, AMD Turion and Mobile AMD Sempron processors to its embedded product
line. Leveraging the same 64-bit instruction set and Direct Connect Architecture as the AMD Opteron but at lower
power levels, these processors were well suited to a variety of traditional embedded applications. Throughout 2007
and into 2008 AMD has continued to add both single-core Mobile AMD Sempron and AMD Athlon processors and
dual-core AMD Athlon X2 and AMD Turion processors to its embedded product line and now offers embedded
64-bit solutions starting with 8W TDP Mobile AMD Sempron and AMD Athlon processors for fan-less designs up
to multi-processor systems leveraging multi-core AMD Opteron processors all supporting longer than standard
availability.[30]
In April 2007, AMD announced the release of the M690T integrated graphics chipset for embedded designs. This
enabled AMD to offer complete processor and chipset solutions targeted at embedded applications requiring high
performance 3D and video such as emerging digital signage, kiosk and Point of Sale applications. The M690T was
followed by the M690E specifically for embedded applications which removed the TV output, which required
Macrovision licensing for OEMs, and enabled native support for dual TMDS outputs, enabling dual independent
DVI interfaces.
Flash technology
While less visible to the general public than its CPU business, AMD is also a global leader in flash memory. In 1993,
AMD established a 50-50 partnership with Fujitsu called FASL, and merged into a new company called FASL LLC
in 2003. The joint venture firm went public under ticker symbol SPSN in December 2005, with AMD shares drop to
37%.
AMD no longer directly participates in the Flash memory devices market now as AMD entered into a
non-competition agreement, as of December 21, 2005, with Fujitsu and Spansion, pursuant to which it agreed not to
directly or indirectly engage in a business that manufactures or supplies standalone semiconductor devices (including
single chip, multiple chip or system devices) containing only Flash memory.[31]
Mobile platforms
AMD started a platform in 2003 aimed at mobile computing, but, with fewer advertisements
and promotional schemes, very little was known about the platform. The platform used mobile
Athlon 64 or mobile Sempron processors.
As part of the "Better by design" initiative, the open mobile platform, announced February
2007 with announcement of general availability in May 2007, comes together with 65 nm
fabrication process Turion 64 X2, and consists of three major components: an AMD processor,
graphics from either Nvidia or ATI Technologies which also includes integrated graphics
(IGP), and wireless connectivity solutions from Atheros, Broadcom, Marvell, Qualcomm or
Realtek.
The Puma platform and Turion Ultra processor was released on June 4, 2008. In the future,
AMD plans quad-core processors with 3D graphics capabilities (Fusion) to be launched in
2011 as the Sabine/Fusion platform.
Other initiatives
• 50x15, digital inclusion, with targeted 50% of world population to be connected through Internet via affordable
computers by the year of 2015.
• The Green Grid,[32] founded by AMD together with other founders, such as IBM, Sun and Microsoft, to seek
lower power consumption for grids. Intel was notably absent from the consortium when it was founded, and
finally joined in early 2007.[33]
• Codenamed SIMFIRE interoperability testing tool for the Desktop and mobile Architecture for System Hardware
(DASH) open architecture.
Software
• Extensions for software parallelism (xSP), aimed at speeding up programs to enable multi-threaded and
multi-core processing, announced in Technology Analyst Day 2007. One of the initiatives being discussed since
August 2007 is the Light Weight Profiling (LWP), providing internal hardware monitor with runtimes, to observe
information about executing process and help the re-design of software to be optimized with multi-core and even
multi-threaded programs. Another one is the extension of Streaming SIMD Extension (SSE) instruction set, the
SSE5.
• AMD contributes to open source projects, including working with Sun Microsystems to enhance OpenSolaris and
Sun xVM on the AMD platform.[34] AMD also maintains its own Open64 compiler distribution and contributes
its changes back to the community.[35]
• In 2008, AMD released the low-level programming specifications for its GPUs, and works with the X.Org
Foundation to develop drivers for AMD graphics cards.[36] [37]
• AMD has also taken an active part in developing coreboot, and open source projects aimed at replacing the
proprietary BIOS firmware.
• Other AMD open source projects include the AMD Performance Library and the AMD Core Math Library.
Technologies from ATI

After the takeover of ATI, AMD restructured some of the product lineups from both companies. Some products were
being rebranded under the AMD brand, including the Imageon for mobile phones and handheld devices, the Xilleon
for consumer electronics (digital TV sets), ATI Xpress chipsets (to AMD chipsets) for AMD processors platform and
GPGPU computing line-up FireStream, previously known as AMD Stream Processor. Some others retained the use
of ATI branding, including the Radeon line of graphics, and chipsets for Intel processors.
Production and fabrication

Ever since the spinoff of AMD's fabrication plants in early 2009, GlobalFoundries has been responsible for
producing AMD's processors.
GlobalFoundries' main microprocessor manufacturing facilities are located in Dresden, Germany. Additionally,
highly integrated microprocessors are manufactured in Taiwan made by third-party manufacturers under strict
license from AMD. Between 2003 and 2005, they constructed a second manufacturing plant (300 mm 90 nm process
SOI) in the same complex in order to increase the number of chips they can produce, thus becoming more
competitive with Intel. The new plant has been named "Fab 36", in recognition of AMD's 36 years of operation, and
reached full production in mid-2007. Fab 36 has been renamed to Fab 1 during the spinoff of AMD's manufacturing
business during the creation of GlobalFoundries. In July 2007, AMD announced that they completed the conversion
of Fab 1 Module 1 from 90 nm to 65 nm. They then shifted their focus to the 45 nm conversion.[38]
Corporate affairs
Partnerships
AMD utilizes strategic industry partnerships to further its business interests as well as to tackle Intel's dominance and
resources.
A partnership between AMD and Alpha Processor Inc. developed HyperTransport, a point-to-point interconnect
standard which was turned over to an industry standards body for finalization. It is now used in modern AMD
processor compatible motherboards.
AMD also formed a strategic partnership with IBM, under which AMD gained silicon on insulator (SOI)
manufacturing technology, and detailed advice on 90 nm implementation, the partnership was announced by AMD
to be extended to 2011 for 32 nm and 22 nm fabrication related technologies.[39] Further, AMD is loosely partnered
with end-user companies such as HP, Compaq, ASUS, Alienware, Acer, Evesham Technology, Dell and several
others to facilitate processor distribution and sales.
On May 18, 2006, Dell announced that it would roll out new servers based on AMD's Opteron chips by years end,
thus ending an exclusive relationship with Intel. Dell also began offering AMD Athlon X2 chips in their desktop
line-up in September 2006.
AMD is also a sponsor of the Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro F1 Team since 2002 and the Discovery Channel Pro
Cycling Team since 2004, in 2009 AMD also became the jersey sponsor of the USL expansion team Austin Aztex
FC.
Litigation with Intel

AMD has a long history of litigation with former partner and x86 creator Intel.[40] [41] [42]
• In 1986 Intel broke an agreement it had with AMD to allow them to produce Intel's micro-chips for IBM; AMD
filed for arbitration in 1987 and the arbitrator decided in AMD's favor in 1992. Intel disputed this, and the case
ended up in the Supreme Court of California. In 1994, that court upheld the arbitrator's decision and awarded
damages for breach of contract.
• In 1990, Intel brought a copyright infringement action alleging illegal use of its 287 microcode. The case ended in
1994 with a jury finding for AMD and its right to use Intel's microcode in its microprocessors through the 486
generation.
• In 1997, Intel filed suit against AMD and Cyrix Corp. for misuse of the term MMX. AMD and Intel settled, with
AMD acknowledging MMX as a trademark owned by Intel, and with Intel granting AMD rights to market the
AMD K6 MMX processor.
• In 2005, following an investigation, the Japan Federal Trade Commission found Intel guilty on a number of
violations. On June 27, 2005, AMD won an antitrust suit against Intel in Japan, and on the same day, AMD filed a
broad antitrust complaint against Intel in the U.S. Federal District Court in Delaware. The complaint alleges
systematic use of secret rebates, special discounts, threats, and other means used by Intel to lock AMD processors
out of the global market. Since the start of this action, The Court has issued subpoenas to major computer
manufacturers including Acer, Dell, Lenovo, HP and Toshiba.
• In November 2009, Intel agreed to pay AMD $1.25bn and renew a five-year patent cross-licensing agreement as
part of a deal to settle all outstanding legal disputes between them.[43]
Events and publications

Although AMD frequently refuses to provide information about upcoming products and plans, it does hold annual
Analyst Days to reveal and explain key future technologies, and to present official technology roadmaps. The event
held in mid-year is referred to as "Technology Analyst Day", with its main focus on upcoming technologies and
trends. The end-of-year event is referred to as "Financial Analyst Day" and focuses on the financial performance of
the company through the previous year.[44]
In addition to these events, AMD also publishes printed media. Publications include the AMD Accelerate and the
discontinued AMDEdge. The AMD Accelerate magazine, originally published through Ziff Davis Media, focuses on
SME and business applications, while AMD Edge focused on overall technologies from AMD. Since Ziff Davis
Media filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, the AMD Accelerate magazine has been published through IDG.
AMD also has electronic newsletters to promote its server-oriented Opteron processors and related business
solutions.
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[3] "AMD 10k sec filing" (http:/ / www. faqs. org/ sec-filings/ 100219/ ADVANCED-MICRO-DEVICES-INC_10-K/ ). AMD. February 19,
2010. .
[4] http:/ / www. amd. com/
[5] "Semiconductor market declines less than expected" (http:/ / www. isuppli. com/ News/ Pages/
Semiconductor-Market-Declines-Less-Than-Expected-Samsung-Shines-in-2009. aspx). iSuppli. November 23, 2009. .
[6] "AMD Completes ATI Acquisition and Creates Processing Powerhouse" (http:/ / www. newswire. ca/ en/ releases/ archive/ October2006/ 25/
c4187. html). NewsWire. October 25, 2006. .
[7] "Justice Dept. subpoenas AMD, NVIDIA" (http:/ / news. zdnet. com/ 2100-9584_22-6140041. html). New York Times. December 1, 2006. .
[8] Vance, Ashlee (October 7, 2008). "A.M.D. to Split Into Two Operations" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 10/ 07/ technology/ 07chip.
html?bl& ex=1223611200& en=6c2c0d7539595be6& ei=5087 ). The New York Times. . Retrieved March 26, 2010.
[9] "AMD K5" (http:/ / www. cpu-info. com/ index2. php?mainid=html/ cpu/ amdk5. php). CPU-INFO.COM. . Retrieved July 11, 2007.
[10] Hesseldahl, Arik (July 6, 2000). "Why Cool Chip Code Names Die" (http:/ / www. forbes. com/ 2000/ 07/ 06/ mu2. html). Forbes Inc. .
Retrieved July 14, 2007.
[11] Huynh, Jack (February 10, 2003). "The AMD Athlon XP Processor with 512KB L2 Cache" (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ assets/
content_type/ white_papers_and_tech_docs/ 26485A_AthlXPwp_2-20. pdf) (PDF). amd.com (AMD). . Retrieved October 2, 2007.
[12] Scott Wasson. " Workstation platforms compared (http:/ / www. techreport. com/ reviews/ 2003q3/ workstation/ index. x?pg=1)",
techreport.com, The Tech Report, LLC., 2003-09-15, Retrieved on July 29, 2007.
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[14] Scott Wasson. " AMD's dual-core Opteron processors (http:/ / www. techreport. com/ reviews/ 2005q2/ opteron-x75/ index. x?pg=1)",
techreport.com, The Tech Report, LLC., April 21, 2005. Retrieved on July 29, 2007.
[15] Scott Wasson. " AMD's Athlon 64 X2 processors (http:/ / www. techreport. com/ reviews/ 2005q2/ athlon64-x2/ index. x?pg=1)",
techreport.com, The Tech Report, LLC., May 9, 2005. Retrieved on July 29, 2007.
[16] AMD announcement (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ Corporate/ VirtualPressRoom/ 0,,51_104_543~120741,00. html). Retrieved
September 17, 2007.
[17] Stokes, Jon (February 8, 2010). "AMD reveals Fusion CPU+GPU, to challege Intel in laptops" (http:/ / arstechnica. com/ business/ news/
2010/ 02/ amd-reveals-fusion-cpugpu-to-challege-intel-in-laptops. ars). Ars Technica. . Retrieved February 9, 2010.
[18] Hruska, Joel (July 16, 2010). "AMD Flip-Flops: Llano Later, Bobcat Bounding Forward" (http:/ / hothardware. com/ News/
AMD-FlipFlops-Llano-Later-Bobcat-Bounding-Forward/ ). HotHardware. .
[19] "AMD64 Architecture Programmer’s Manual Volume 6: 128-Bit and 256-Bit XOP, FMA4 and CVT16 Instructions" (http:/ / support. amd.
com/ us/ Processor_TechDocs/ 43479. pdf). AMD. May 1, 2009. .
[20] Official Press Release (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ Corporate/ VirtualPressRoom/ 0,,51_104_543~116469,00. html) (AMD Live! Ready
and Active TV initiative)
[21] Official Press Release (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ Corporate/ VirtualPressRoom/ 0,,51_104_543~114483,00. html?redir=dtfx04) (AMD
Quad FX Platform with Dual Socket Direct Connect Architecture Redefines High-End Computing for Megatasking Enthusiasts)
[22] AMD Server/Workstation platform roadmap (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ assets/ content_type/ DownloadableAssets/
Platform_RM_Fusion. pdf), retrieved October 4, 2008
[23] "AMD press release" (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ Corporate/ VirtualPressRoom/ 0,,51_104_543~117440,00. html). .
[24] "AMD IOMMU specification 1.2" (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ assets/ content_type/ white_papers_and_tech_docs/ 34434. pdf) (PDF). .
[25] AMD Analyst Day presentation (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ assets/ content_type/ DownloadableAssets/
MartySeyerAMDAnalystWebv3. pdf), page 24. Retrieved July 14, 2007.
[26] "Jack PC page" (http:/ / www. chippc. com/ thin-clients/ jack-pc/ ). .
[27] "Intel Geneseo press release" (http:/ / www. intel. com/ pressroom/ archive/ releases/ 20060927comp_a. htm). .
[28] AMD Financial Analyst Day 2007 presentation (http:/ / download. amd. com/ Corporate/ MarioRivasDec2007AMDAnalystDay. pdf),
presented by Mario Rivas, page 24 of 28. Retrieved December 14, 2007.
[29] "AMD Alchemy processor product line acquired by Raza Microelectronics" (http:/ / www. technologynewsdaily. com/ node/ 3336).
TechNews (technologynewsdaily.com). June 14, 2006. . Retrieved July 11, 2007.
[30] AMD Embedded Solutions that are scalable, x86- based, low-power and feature-rich products (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us/ products/
embedded/ Pages/ embedded. aspx). Amd.com (2010-11-05). Retrieved on 2010-11-09.
[31] "Press release" (http:/ / apps. shareholder. com/ s/ viewerContent. aspx?companyid=SPSN& docid=4095716). .
[32] "The Green Grid website" (http:/ / www. thegreengrid. org/ ). .
[33] "Intel set to join AMD-backed Green Grid" (http:/ / www. theregister. co. uk/ 2006/ 12/ 07/ intel_green_grid/ ). .
[34] AMD (May 5, 2008). "AMD Expands Charter for the OpenSolaris OS and Sun xVM at the AMD Operating System Research Center" (http:/
/ www. amd. com/ gb-uk/ Corporate/ VirtualPressRoom/ 0,,51_104_543~125446,00. html). Press release. .
[35] "x86 Open64 Compiler Suite" (http:/ / developer. amd. com/ cpu/ open64). AMD. April 20, 2009. .
[36] AMD (September 7, 2007). "AMD Details Strategic Open Source Graphics Driver Development Initiative" (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/
Corporate/ VirtualPressRoom/ 0,,51_104_543~119372,00. html). Press release. .
[37] "Index of /docs/AMD" (http:/ / www. x. org/ docs/ AMD/ ). x.org. .
[38] Rick C. Hodgin. While AMD was in the progression to 45 nm, its rival Intel Corp was one year ahead in manufacturing technology and
releasing its 32 nm technology (Intel "tick-tock" advancement roadmap)" Wrap-up: AMD outlines a bright future at Technology Analyst Day
(http:/ / www. tgdaily. com/ content/ view/ 33105/ 135/ 1/ 3/ )", tgdaily.com, Tigervision Media, 2007-07-26, pp.4. Retrieved on July 29,
2007.
[39] AMD Analyst Day June 2006 Presentation (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ assets/ content_type/ DownloadableAssets/
DarylOstranderAMDAnalystDay. pdf), slide 10
[40] "AMD-INTEL LITIGATION HISTORY" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070108093846/ http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ assets/
content_type/ DownloadableAssets/ AMD_-_Intel_Litigation_History. pdf) (PDF). AMD. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. amd.
com/ us-en/ assets/ content_type/ DownloadableAssets/ AMD_-_Intel_Litigation_History. pdf) on January 8, 2007. . Retrieved January 12,
2007.
[41] "Summary U.S. antitrust complaint against Intel" (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ assets/ content_type/ DownloadableAssets/
Complaint_summary. pdf) (PDF). .
[42] "Full text of U.S. antitrust complaint against Intel" (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ assets/ content_type/ DownloadableAssets/
AMD-Intel_Full_Complaint. pdf) (PDF). .
[43] Intel, AMD Settle Legal Disputes. " (http:/ / www. foxbusiness. com/ story/ markets/ industries/ technology/ amd-intel-settle-legal-disputes/
)"
[44] AMD Financial Analyst Day 2007 page (http:/ / www. amd. com/ us-en/ Corporate/ InvestorRelations/ 0,,51_306_15401,00.
html?redir=IRAD01). Retrieved December 14, 2007.
• AMD ShangHai Processor (http://amdopteron2007.blogspot.com/2008/11/

amd-shanghai-processors-are-in-full.html)
• AMD: 30 Years of Pursuing the Leader (http://www.digital-daily.com/editorial/amd-history/index.htm)
• Cpu-collection.de AMD processor images and descriptions (http://www.cpu-collection.de/?l0=co&l1=AMD)
• AMD goes dual-core (http://www.dvhardware.net/article4650.html)
• Why AMD-MHz don't equal Intel-MHz (http://www.geek.com/why-amd-mhz-dont-equal-intel-mhz/)
• AMD's most recent conference call transcripts (http://seekingalpha.com/transcripts/for/amd)
• A look at AMD's manufacturing process technologies (http://www.theinquirer.net/default.aspx?article=34781)
• AMD/Intel Settlement (http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/13/opinion/13fri1.html/)
External links
• AMD Corporate Website (http://www.amd.com/)
• AMD Live! (http://www.amdlive.com/)
• AMD Developer Central (http://developer.amd.com/)
• How AMD Processors Work (http://www.howstuffworks.com/1133-how-amd-processors-work-video.htm) at
HowStuffWorks
Sony Computer Entertainment

Sony Computer Entertainment
Logo design since 1994

Type Subsidiary of Sony
Industry Interactive entertainment

Computer and video games
Founded November 16, 1993
Headquarters Kōnan, Minato, Tokyo, Japan

Foster City, California, USA
Toronto, Canada
London, United Kingdom
Melbourne, Australia
Seocho-gu, Seoul, South Korea
Key people Kazuo Hirai: President & Group CEO, SCEI

Jack Tretton: President & CEO, SCEA
Andrew House: President & CEO, SCEE
Shuhei Yoshida: President, SCE Worldwide
Studios
Ken Kutaragi: Honorary Chairman, SCEI
Products PlayStation 3
PlayStation Portable
PlayStation 2
PSX
PlayStation
PocketStation
Parent Sony Corporation
Website [1]
Sony Computer Entertainment Inc.
Sony Computer Entertainment, Inc. (株式会社ソニー・コンピュータエンタテインメント Kabushikigaisha

sonīkonpyūtaentateinmento) (SCEI) is a video game company specializing in a variety of areas in the video game
industry, and is a wholly-owned subsidiary and part of the Networked Products & Services segment of Sony. The
company was established on November 16, 1993, in Tokyo, prior to the launch of the original PlayStation video
game system. The logo has been used since 1994.
SCE handles the research & development, production, and sales of both hardware and software for the PlayStation
line of handheld and home console video game systems. SCE is also a developer and publisher of video game titles
and is composed of several subsidiaries covering the company's biggest markets: North America, Europe, Brazil,
Oceania and Asia.
History
Origins
Sony Computer Entertainment Inc. was established on November 16, 1993 as a joint venture company of Sony
Corporation and Sony Music Entertainment.[2] This was after Ken Kutaragi's PlayStation project - although
supported by Sony Corp. president Norio Ohga - met opposition from within Sony where upper management
considered "toys" beneath them and feared damage to the Sony brand.[3] [4] Ken Kutaragi worked closely with Sony
Music CEO Shigeo Maruyama and Akira Sato in the formation of SCEI.
After its formation Sony Computer Entertainment maintained close ties with Sony Music which helped it attract
creative talent and imparted its knowledge with regards to the use of CD-ROMs. The company was originally
formed with Terry Tokunaka the President of SCEI from Sony's headquarters as President though, Ken Kutaragi was
the original head of the PlayStation project. Ken Kutaragi would later go on to become President of Sony Computer
Entertainment as well as being known as the "Father of PlayStation".[4]
The North American operations, Sony Computer Entertainment of America, were established in May 1994 as a
division of Sony Electronic Publishing.[5] They were located in Foster City and headed by Steve Race. In the months
prior to the release of PlayStation in Western markets, the operations were restructured: All videogame marketing
from Sony Imagesoft was folded into SCEA in July 1995, with most affected employees transferred from Santa
Monica to Foster City.[6] On August 7, 1995, Steve Race unexpectedly resigned and was named CEO of Spectrum
HoloByte three days later.[6] He was replaced by Sony Electronics veteran Martin Homlish.[6]
As part of a worldwide restructuring at the beginning of 1997, Sony Computer Entertainment America Inc.
(currently Sony Computer Entertainment America LLC), headquartered in Foster City was reestablished as a wholly
owned subsidiary of SCEI.[7]
Recent (2000-2009)
On July 1, 2002 Chairman of SCE, Shigeo Maruyama, was replaced by Tamotsu Iba as Chairman. Jack Tretton and
Phil Harrison were also promoted to Senior Vice President of SCE.[8]
On September 14, 2005, SCE formed Sony Computer Entertainment Worldwide Studios (SCE WWS)[9] , a single
internal entity overseeing all wholly owned development studios within SCE. It is responsible for the creative and
strategic direction of development and production of all computer entertainment software by all SCE-owned studios,
all of which is produced exclusively for the PlayStation family of consoles. Shuhei Yoshida was named as President
of SCE WWS on May 16, 2008[10] , replacing Kazuo Hirai, who was serving interim after inaugural SCE WWS
President Phil Harrison left the company in early 2008.[11]
On November 30, 2006 President of SCE Ken Kutaragi was appointed as Chairman of SCE while Kazuo Hirai,
President of SCEA was promoted to President of SCE.[12] On April 26, 2007 Ken Kutaragi resigned from his
position as Chairman of SCE and Group CEO passing on his duties to President of SCE, Kazuo Hirai.[13]
On April 15, 2009 David Reeves President and CEO of SCE Europe announced that he would be resigning from his
post. He had joined the company in 1995 and was appointed as Chairman of SCEE in 2003 and President in 2005.[14]
His role of President and CEO of SCEE would be taken over by Andrew House who joined Sony Corporation in
1990.[15]
On December 8, 2005, video game developer Guerrilla Games, developers of the Killzone series, was acquired by
Sony Computer Entertainment as part of its SCE WWS.[16] On January 24, 2006 video game developer Zipper
Interactive, developers of the SOCOM series, was acquired by Sony Computer Entertainment as part of its SCE
WWS.[17] On September 20, 2007 video game developers Evolution Studios and Bigbig Studios, developers of the
MotorStorm series, were acquired by Sony Computer Entertainment as part of its SCE WWS.[18]
Present (2010-2011)
On April 1, 2010 Sony Computer Entertainment was restructured to bring together Sony's mobile electronics and
personal computers divisions. The main Japanese division of SCE was temporarily renamed to "SNE Platform Inc."
(SNEP) on April 1, 2010 and split into two division focusing on different aspects namely "Sony Computer
Entertainment Inc." consisting of a 1,300 employees which focus on the console business, and the network service
business consisting of 60 to 70 employees. The network service business of SCE was absorbed into Sony Corp's
Network Products & Service Group (NPSG) which has already been headed by Kaz Hirai since April 2009. The
original Sony Computer Entertainment was then dissolved after the restructure.[19] [20] [21] The North American and
European branches of Sony Computer Entertainment was affected by the restructure and will remain as SCEA and
SCEE. Sony Computer Entertainment CEO and Sony Corporation EVP, Kaz Hirai, is leading both departments.[22]
On March 2, 2010 video game developer Media Molecule, developers of the PlayStation 3 game LittleBigPlanet,
was acquired by Sony Computer Entertainment as part of its SCE WWS.[23] As of August 23, 2010, the headquarters
of the company moved from Minami-Aoyama to the Sony City (Sony Corporation's headquarters) in Kōnan, Minato,
Tokyo.[24]
Hardware
Sony Computer Entertainment produces the PlayStation family of video game hardware
consisting of consoles and handhelds. Sony's first wide home console release, the
PlayStation (codenamed PSX during development, currently PSOne), was initially
designed to be a CD-ROM drive add-on for Nintendo's Super Nintendo Entertainment
System (a.k.a. Super Famicom in Japan) video game console, in response to Sega's Sega
CD. When the prospect of releasing the system as an add-on dissolved, Sony redesigned PlayStation brand logo
the machine into a stand alone unit. The PlayStation was released in Japan on December
3, 1994 and later in North America on September 9, 1995. Currently the highest selling home console of all time,
SCE's second home console, the PlayStation 2 (PS2 or PSX2) was released in Japan on March 4, 2000, and later in
North America and Europe in October and November 2000, respectively. The PS2 is powered by a proprietary
central processing unit, the Emotion Engine, and was the first video game console to have DVD playback
functionality included out of the box. Initially, the system was criticized for its complex development environment,
due mainly to the proprietary hardware included, however despite these complaints the PlayStation 2 received
widespread support from third party developers throughout its lifespan on the market. Today it has sold up to 150
million units world wide.
Current generation products

The newest home console in the PlayStation family, as well as Sony's entry in the seventh-generation of consoles,
the PlayStation 3 (PS3) was launched in November 2006. It utilizes a unique processing architecture, the Cell
microprocessor, a proprietary technology developed by Sony in conjunction with Toshiba and IBM. The graphics
processing unit, the RSX 'Reality Synthesizer', was co-developed by Nvidia and Sony. Several variations of the PS3
have been released, each with slight hardware and software differences, each denoted by the varying size of the
included hard disk drive. The PlayStation Portable (PSP) is SCE's first foray into the small handheld console
market, which was and to this date still is dominated by Nintendo. Its development was first announced during SCE's
E3 conference in 2003, and it was officially unveiled during their E3 conference on May 11, 2004. The system was
released in Japan on December 12, 2004, in North America on March 24, 2005 and in Europe and Australia on
September 1, 2005. The console has since seen two major redesigns, with new features including a smaller size,
more internal memory, a better quality LCD screen and a lighter weight. A new design, the PSP Go, was released on
October 1, 2009 for North America and Europe and on November 1, 2009 for Japan. It has a 3.8" LCD which slides
up to reveal the main controls. The PSP Go is 45% lighter and 56% smaller than the original PSP and does not
support UMD. The device does support Bluetooth and will be completely digital meaning all media must be
downloaded or transferred to the device which has 16 GB of internal flash memory.
Software development studios

Sony Computer Entertainment Worldwide Studios (SCE WWS) is a subsidiary of Sony Computer Entertainment, it
is a group of video game developers which are fully owned by Sony Computer Entertainment.
Sony Computer Entertainment Worldwide Studios (SCE WWS)

Internally Owned Studios
Japan
• SCE Japan Studio (Team Ico) – Ape Escape, Siren, LocoRoco, Patapon, Ico, Shadow of the Colossus, The Last Guardian
• Polyphony Digital – Gran Turismo series, Motor Toon Grand Prix 2, Tourist Trophy, Omega Boost
United States
• Naughty Dog – Crash Bandicoot series, Jak and Daxter series, Uncharted series
• SCE Santa Monica Studio – Kinetica, God of War series, Warhawk with Incognito Entertainment
• SCE San Diego Studio – NBA: The Inside, MLB: The Show, ModNation Racers
• SCE Bend Studio – Syphon Filter, Resistance: Retribution
• SCE Foster City Studio
• Zipper Interactive – SOCOM: U.S. Navy SEALs series, MAG
Europe
• SCE London Studio – SingStar, EyeToy, PlayStation Home with SCE Studio Cambridge
• SCE Cambridge Studio – MediEvil, PlayTV, PlayStation Home with SCE London Studio
• SCE Studio Liverpool – Wipeout, F1
• Evolution Studios – MotorStorm series, World Rally Championship
• Bigbig Studios – Pursuit Force, MotorStorm: Arctic Edge
• Guerrilla Games – Killzone series
• Media Molecule – LittleBigPlanet series
Defunct
• Incognito Entertainment – Warhawk with SCE Studios Santa Monica, Twisted Metal series, Downhill Domination, Calling All Cars!
Since its inception in 1993, SCE has also built up a large stable of third party developers that it often collaborates
with in a variety of manners, from publishing to funding to co-development. These companies are however not
owned or under contract by SCE, and some, unlike the studios within SCE WWS, also release and develop products
in cooperation with competing video game developers and publishers, and for competing handheld and/or home
consoles as well.
Sony Computer Entertainment Worldwide Studios (SCE WWS)

Second Party Studio Partners
Japan
• Level-5 – White Knight Chronicles, Dark Cloud
[25]
• Clap Hanz – Everybody's Golf, Everybody's Tennis
• Q-Games – PixelJunk series
• Media.Vision – Wild Arms
North America
• Insomniac Games – Spyro series, Resistance series (excluding Resistance: Retribution), Ratchet & Clank series
• Sucker Punch Productions – inFamous, inFamous 2, Sly Cooper series
• ThatGameCompany – Flow, Flower, Journey
• Ready at Dawn Studios – God of War: Chains of Olympus, Daxter
• High Impact Games – Ratchet & Clank: Size Matters, Secret Agent Clank, Jak and Daxter: The Lost Frontier
• Eat Sleep Play – Twisted Metal: Head-On, Twisted Metal PS3
• Slant Six Games – SOCOM: U.S. Navy SEALs Confrontation, SOCOM: U.S. Navy SEALs Fireteam Bravo 3
• LightBox Interactive
• Titan Studios – Fat Princess, Fat Princess: Fistful of Cake
• United Front Games – ModNation Racers
Europe
• Quantic Dream – Heavy Rain
• Relentless Software – Buzz!
• EPOS Game Studios – Crash Commando
• Novarama – Invizimals
• Tarsier Studios – Rag Doll Kung Fu: Fists of Plastic
Owned franchises and properties

• Agent • Ghosthunter • LocoRoco • Siren
• Afrika • God of War • MAG • Sly Cooper
• Alundra • Gran Turismo • Mark of Kri, The • Sports Champions
• Ape Escape • Hardware • MediEvil • SOCOM: U.S. Navy SEALs
• Arc the Lad • Heavenly Sword • ModNation Racers • Sorcery
• Buzz! • Heavy Rain • Motor Toon Grand Prix • Start the Party
• Colony Wars • Hot Shots Golf • MotorStorm • Syphon Filter
• Cool Boarders • Ico • Okage: Shadow King • The Fight: Lights Out
• Dark Cloud • inFamous • Omega Boost • The Shoot
• Demon's Souls • Intelligent Qube • PaRappa the Rapper • Tourist Trophy
• Destruction Derby • Invizimals • Patapon • TV Superstars
• Dog's Life • Jak and Daxter • PixelJunk • Twisted Metal
• Downhill Domination • Jeanne d'Arc • PlayStation Move Heroes • Uncharted
• Dropship: United Peace Force • Jet Moto • PoPoLoCrois • War of the Monsters
• Extermination • Jumping Flash! • Primal • Warhawk
• EyePet • Killzone • Pursuit Force • Wild Arms
• EyeToy • Kinetica • Rally Cross • Wipeout
• FantaVision • Lair • Ratchet & Clank • White Knight Chronicles
• Folklore • Last Guardian, The • Rise of the Kasai • 3D Dot Game Heroes
• Fat Princess • Legend of Dragoon, The • Resistance • Eight Days
• Gangs of London • Legend of Legaia • Rogue Galaxy • DC Universe Online
• Genji • Lemmings • Shadow of the Colossus • Kung Fu Rider
• Getaway, The • LittleBigPlanet • SingStar
Corporate affairs
The Chairman and Group CEO of SCE is currently Kazuo Hirai, who
on November 30, 2006 replaced longtime CEO Ken Kutaragi, also
known as "The Father of the PlayStation".[26] Kuturagi officially
retired from his executive position at SCE on June 19, 2007, and now
holds the title of Honorary Chairman at the company.[27] Jack Tretton
and Andrew House currently serve as President and CEO of Sony
Computer Entertainment America and Sony Computer Entertainment
Europe, respectively.
SCEA headquarters in Foster City, California.
Headquarters
SCE currently has three main headquarters around the world: Minami-Aoyama, Minato, Tokyo, Japan (Sony
Computer Entertainment Japan & Sony Computer Entertainment Asia) which control operations in Asia; Foster City,
California, USA (Sony Computer Entertainment America) which controls operations in North America; and London,
United Kingdom (Sony Computer Entertainment Europe) which controls operations in Europe and Oceania. SCE
also has smaller offices and distribution centres in Hollywood, Los Angeles, California, USA; Toronto, Ontario,
Canada; Melbourne, Australia; and Seocho-gu, Seoul, South Korea.
President
• 1994-2006 - Ken Kutaragi
• 2006-Present - Kaz Hirai
Chairman
• 1994-2002 - Shigeo Maruyama
• 2002-2006 - Tamotsu Iba
Vice-Chairman
• 2005-Present - Akira Sato
Group CEO
Group COO
Group CFO
• 2002-Present - Masaru Kato
Deputy President
• 2002-Present - Jack Tretton
• 1994-Present - Masaru Kato
• 1994-Present - Kazuo Hirai
• 2002-Present - Shigeru Nishimura
• 2002-Present - Jim Ryan
• 1994-2005 - Akira Sato
• 2002-2008 - Phil Harrison
• 2002-2008 - David Reeves
Honorary Chairman
• 2007-Present - Ken Kutaragi
Board of Directors
As of November 1, 2006:
• Ken Kutaragi
• Akira Sato
• Kazuo Hirai
• Masaru Kato
• David Reeves
• Howard Stringer
• Ryoji Chubachi
• Kenshi Manabe
• Shigeo Maruyama[26]
SCE Worldwide Studios President

• 2005-2008 - Phil Harrison
• 2008 - Kazuo Hirai
• 2008-Present - Shuhei Yoshida
Sony Computer Entertainment America

• Jack Tretton - President and CEO
• Kazuo Hirai - Chairman
• Jim Bass - Senior VP and CFO
• Timothy Bender - Senior VP of Sales
• Sally Buchanan - VP of Human resources
• Peter Dille - Senior VP of Marketing and PlayStation Network
• Robert Dyer - Senior VP of Publisher Relations
• Glenn Nash - VP of Operations
• Philip Rosenberg - Senior VP of Business Development
• Riley R. Russell - Chief Legal Officer and Senior VP of Corporate Development
• Shuhei Yoshida - Senior VP of Product Development[28]
Sony Computer Entertainment Europe

• Andrew House - President and CEO
• David Reeves - Former President/CEO replaced by House in 2009.
References
[1] http:/ / www. scei. co. jp/ index_e. html
[2] "Corporate History" (http:/ / scei. co. jp/ corporate/ history_e. html). Sony Computer Entertainment. . Retrieved 2010-11-12.
[3] "Kutaragi, Ken" (http:/ / www. ce. org/ Events/ Awards/ 5730. htm). Consumer Electronics Association. . Retrieved 2010-11-12.
[4] Staff (April 24, 2009). "The Making Of: PlayStation" (http:/ / www. edge-online. com/ magazine/ the-making-of-playstation). Edge. .
[5] "Sony latest to toss hat in vid game arena". The Hollywood Reporter (Hollywood Reporter Inc.). May 19, 1994.
[6] "Sony in Disarray on Eve of PlayStation Debut". Television Digest with Consumer Electronics: 9. August 14, 1995. ISSN 0497-1515.
[7] "Business Development/North America" (http:/ / www. scei. co. jp/ corporate/ data/ bizdatausa_e. html). Sony Computer Entertainment. .
[8] Sony Computer Entertainment (July 1, 2002). "Sony Computer Entertainment Announces Changes in Corporate Officers" (http:/ / www. scei.
co. jp/ corporate/ release/ pdf/ 020701be. pdf). Press release. . Retrieved 2010-03-23.
[9] Sony Computer Entertainment (September 14, 2005). "SCE Establishes SCE Worldwide Studios" (http:/ / www. scei. co. jp/ corporate/
release/ pdf/ 050914ae. pdf) (PDF). Press release. . Retrieved 2005-09-14.
[10] Sony Computer Entertainment (May 16, 2008). "SCEI Announces New President of SCE Worldwide Studios" (http:/ / www. scei. co. jp/
corporate/ release/ 080516e. html). Press release. . Retrieved 2010-03-23.
[11] Sony Computer Entertainment (February 25, 2008). "SCE Worldwide Studios Phil Harrison Resigns" (http:/ / www. scei. co. jp/ corporate/
release/ 080225e. html). Press release. . Retrieved 2010-03-23.
[12] Sony Computer Entertainment (November 30, 2006). "SCE Announces New Management Team" (http:/ / www. scei. co. jp/ corporate/
release/ pdf/ 061130e. pdf). Press release. . Retrieved 2010-03-23.
[13] Sony Computer Entertainment (April 26, 2007). "SCEI and Sony announce Executive Management Transition at Sony Computer
Entertainment Inc." (http:/ / www. scei. co. jp/ corporate/ release/ 070426e. html). Press release. . Retrieved 2010-03-23.
[14] Sony Computer Entertainment (April 15, 2009). "David Reeves to Retire From Sony Computer Entertainment Europe" (http:/ / www. scei.
co. jp/ corporate/ release/ 090415ae. html). Press release. . Retrieved 2010-03-23.
[15] Sony Computer Entertainment (April 15, 2009). "Andrew House named as President and CEO of Sony Computer Entertainment Europe"
(http:/ / www. scei. co. jp/ corporate/ release/ 090415be. html). Press release. . Retrieved 2010-03-23.
[16] Sony Computer Entertainment (December 8, 2005). "Sony Computer Entertainment Acquires Guerrilla Games" (http:/ / www. scei. co. jp/
corporate/ release/ pdf/ 051208e. pdf). Press release. . Retrieved 2010-03-23.
[17] Sony Computer Entertainment (January 24, 2006). "Sony Computer Entertainment Acquires Zipper Interactive" (http:/ / www. scei. co. jp/
corporate/ release/ pdf/ 060125be. pdf). Press release. . Retrieved 2010-03-23.
[18] Sony Computer Entertainment (September 20, 2007). "Sony Computer Entertainment Acquires Evolution Studios and Bigbig Studios"
(http:/ / www. scei. co. jp/ corporate/ release/ 070920de. html). Press release. . Retrieved 2010-03-23.
[19] "ソニー、ネットワーク強化に向けSCEのネット部門を吸収" (http:/ / av. watch. impress. co. jp/ docs/ news/ 20100224_351014. html)
(in Japanese). Impress Watch Corporation. 2010-02-24. . Retrieved 2010-05-15.
[20] Ivan, Tom (February 24, 2010). "Sony To Restructure Networked Services Business" (http:/ / www. edge-online. com/ news/
sony-to-restructure-networked-services-business). Edge. . Retrieved 2010-05-15.
[21] "Sony Computer Entertainment to focus on games, temporarily renamed ‘SNEP’" (http:/ / www. el33tonline. com/ past/ 2010/ 2/ 25/
sony_computer_entertainment_to_focus/ ). El33t Media. February 25, 2010. . Retrieved 2010-05-15.
[22] Ashcroft, Brian (February 24, 2010). "Sony Computer Entertainment To Become SNEP (Temporarily)" (http:/ / kotaku. com/ 5478924/
sony-computer-entertainment-to-become-snep-temporarily). Kotaku. . Retrieved 2010-05-15.
[23] Sony Computer Entertainment (March 2, 2010). "Sony Computer Entertainment Acquires Media Molecule" (http:/ / www. scei. co. jp/
corporate/ release/ 100303e. html). Press release. . Retrieved 2010-03-23.
[24] Sony Computer Entertainment (August 9, 2010). "Notification of Office Relocation" (http:/ / www. scei. co. jp/ corporate/ info/ 100809e.
html). Press release. . Retrieved 2010-09-05.
[25] "SCE Worldwide Studios - External Development" (http:/ / www. worldwidestudios. net/ jpndev). Sony Computer Entertainment. .
[26] Sony Computer Entertainment (November 30, 2006). "SCE Announces New Management Team" (http:/ / www. scei. co. jp/ corporate/
release/ pdf/ 061130e. pdf) (PDF). Press release. . Retrieved 2006-11-30.
[27] Sony Corporation (April 26, 2007). "SCEI and Sony announce Executive Management Transition at Sony Computer Entertainment Inc"
(http:/ / www. sony. net/ SonyInfo/ News/ Press/ 200704/ 07-0426E/ index. html). Press release. . Retrieved 2007-04-27.
[28] "Sony Computer Entertainment America Management" (http:/ / us. playstation. com/ corporate/ about/ management/ index. htm). Sony
Computer Entertainment America. . Retrieved 2010-05-10.
External links
• Sony Computer Entertainment (http://www.scei.co.jp/)
• Sony Computer Entertainment Inc. (http://www.scei.co.jp/index_e.html)
• Sony Computer Entertainment Europe (http://www.scee.net/)
• SCE Worldwide Studios (http://www.worldwidestudios.net/)
• PlayStation Global (http://www.playstation.com/country-selector/)
• Japan (http://www.jp.playstation.com/)
• North America (http://www.us.playstation.com/)
• Europe (http://eu.playstation.com/)
• Asia (http://asia.playstation.com/)
• Korea (http://www.playstation.co.kr/)
• Canada (http://www.playstation.ca/)
• Sony Computer Entertainment America (http://www.linkedin.com/in/sony-computer-entertainment-america)
at LinkedIn
IBM
International Business Machines Corporation
Type [1]
• Public (NYSE: IBM )
• Dow Jones Industrial Average Component
Industry Computer systems

Computer hardware
and software
Information technology consulting
IT service management
Founded Endicott, New York

June 16, 1911
Headquarters Armonk, New York, United States
Key people Samuel J. Palmisano

(Chairman, President and CEO)
Products See products listing
Revenue [2]
US$99.870 billion (2010)

US$19.273 billion (2010)
Net income [2]

US$14.833 billion (2010)
Total assets [2]

US$113.452 billion (2010)
Total equity [2]

US$23.172 billion (2010)
IBM 146
Employees [2]
426,751 (2010)
Subsidiaries ADSTAR
FileNet
ILOG
Informix
Iris Associates
Lotus
Rational
Sequent Computer Systems
Telelogic
Tivoli Software
Website [3]
IBM.com
International Business Machines (IBM) (NYSE: IBM [1]) is an American multinational technology and consulting
firm headquartered in Armonk, New York. IBM manufactures and sells computer hardware and software, and it
offers infrastructure, hosting and consulting services in areas ranging from mainframe computers to
nanotechnology.[4]
The company was founded in 1911 as the Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation, following a merger of the
Computer Scale Company of America and the International Time Recording Company with the Tabulating Machine
Company. CTR adopted the name International Business Machines in 1924, using a name previously designated to
CTR's subsidiary in Canada and later South America. Its distinctive culture and product branding has given it the
nickname Big Blue.
In 2010, IBM was ranked the 20th largest firm in the U.S. by Fortune and the 33rd largest globally by Forbes.[5] [6]
Other rankings that year include #1 company for leaders (Fortune), #2 best global brand (Interbrand), #3 green
company (Newsweek), #15 most admired company (Fortune), and #18 most innovative company (Fast Company).[7]
IBM employs almost 400,000 employees (sometimes referred to as "IBMers") in over 200 countries, with
occupations including scientists, engineers, consultants, and sales professionals.[8]
IBM holds more patents than any other U.S.-based technology company and has nine research laboratories
worldwide.[9] Its employees have garnered five Nobel Prizes, four Turing Awards, nine National Medals of
Technology, and five National Medals of Science.[10] The company has undergone several organizational changes
since its inception, acquiring companies like SPSS (2009) and PwC consulting (2002) and spinning off companies
like Lexmark (1991).
History
1880-1929
IBM 147
Starting in the 1880s, various technologies came into existence that would form
part of IBM's predecessor company. Julius E. Pitrap patented the computing
scale in 1885,[11] Alexander Dey invented the dial recorder in 1888,[12] and a
year later Herman Hollerith patented the Electric Tabulating Machine,[13] and
Willard Bundy invented a time clock to record a worker's arrival and departure
time on a paper tape.[14] On June 16, 1911, these technologies and their
respective companies were merged by Charles Ranlett Flint to form the
Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (C-T-R).[15] The New York
City-based company had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and
Thomas J. Watson led IBM from
Binghamton, New York; Dayton, Ohio; Detroit, Michigan; Washington, D.C.; 1914-1956.
and Toronto, Ontario. It manufactured and sold machinery ranging from
commercial scales and industrial time recorders to meat and cheese slicers, along with tabulators and punched cards.
Flint recruited Thomas J. Watson, Sr., from the National Cash Register Company to help lead the company in
1914.[15] Watson implemented "generous sales incentives, a focus on customer service, an insistence on
well-groomed, dark-suited salesmen and an evangelical fervor for instilling company pride and loyalty in every
worker".[16] His favorite slogan, "THINK," became a mantra for C-T-R's employees, and within 11 months of
joining C-T-R, Watson became its president.[16] The company focused on providing large-scale, custom-built
tabulating solutions for businesses, leaving the market for small office products to others. During Watson's first four
years, revenues more than doubled to $9 million and the company's operations expanded to Europe, South America,
Asia, and Australia.[16] On February 14, 1924, C-T-R was renamed the International Business Machines
Corporation (IBM),[7] citing the need to align its name with the "growth and extension of [its] activities".[17]
1930-1979
In 1937, the U.S. Government deployed IBM tabulating
equipment to maintain the employment records for 26
million people pursuant to the Social Security Act.[18]
In 1938, the IBM World Headquarters Building,
located at 590 Madison Avenue in New York, New
York, was dedicated.
In 1952, Thomas J. Watson, Jr., became president of

the company, ending almost 40 years of leadership by
his father. In 1956, Arthur L. Samuel of IBM's
Poughkeepsie, New York, laboratory programs an IBM
704 to play checkers using a method in which the
machine can "learn" from its own experience. It is
NACA researchers using a IBM type 704 electronic data processing believed to be the first "self-learning" program, a
machine in 1957 demonstration of the concept of artificial intelligence.
In 1957, IBM developed the FORTRAN (FORmula
TRANslation) scientific programming language. In 1961, Thomas J. Watson, Jr., was elected chairman of the board
and Albert L. Williams became president of the company. IBM develops the SABRE (Semi-Automatic
Business-Related Environment) reservation system for American Airlines.
In 1963, IBM employees and computers helped NASA track the orbital flight of the Mercury astronauts, and a year
later, the company moved its corporate headquarters from New York City to Armonk, New York. The later half of
that decade saw IBM continue its support of space exploration, with IBM participating in the 1965 Gemini flights,
the 1966 Saturn flights, and the 1969 mission to land a man on the moon.
IBM 148
1980-present
IBM has engaged in several M&A activities as well as
several divestitures in the past few decades. In 1991,
IBM sold Lexmark, and in 2002, it acquired PwC
consulting. In 2003, IBM initiated a project to rewrite
its company values. Using its Jam technology, the
company hosted Internet-based online discussions on
key business issues with 50,000 employees over 3 days.
The discussions were analyzed by sophisticated text
analysis software (eClassifier) to mine online
comments for themes. As a result of the 2003 Jam, the One of IBM's Blue Gene supercomputers, which were awarded the
National Medal of Technology and Innovation by U.S. President
company values were updated to reflect three modern
Barack Obama on September 18, 2009
business, marketplace and employee views:
"Dedication to every client's success", "Innovation that
matters - for our company and for the world", "Trust and personal responsibility in all relationships".[19] In 2004,
another Jam was conducted during which 52,000 employees exchanged best practices for 72 hours. They focused on
finding actionable ideas to support implementation of the values previously identified.[20]
In 2005 the company sold its personal computer business to Lenovo, and in 2009, it acquired SPSS. Later in 2009,
IBM's Blue Gene supercomputing program was awarded the National Medal of Technology and Innovation by U.S.
President Barack Obama.
In 2011, IBM gained worldwide attention for its artificial intelligence program Watson, which was exhibitioned on
Jeopardy! against game show champions Ken Jennings and Brad Rutter.
Corporate affairs
IBM's headquarter complex is located in Armonk, Town of North Castle, New York, United States.[21] [22] [23] The
283,000 square foot IBM building has three levels of custom curtainwall. The building is located on a 25 acre
site.[24] IBM has been headquartered in Armonk since 1964.
The company has nine research labs worldwide—Almaden, Austin, Brazil, China, Haifa, India , Tokyo, Watson
(New York), and Zurich—with Watson (dedicated in 1961) serving as headquarters for the research division and the
site of its annual meeting. Other campus installations include towers in Montreal, Paris, and Atlanta; software labs in
Raleigh-Durham, Rome and Toronto; buildings in Chicago, Johannesburg, and Seattle; and facilities in Hakozaki
and Yamato. The company also operates the IBM Scientific Center, the Hursley House, the Canada Head Office
Building, IBM Rochester, and the Somers Office Complex
IBM's Board of Directors, with 14 members, is responsible for the overall management of the company. With Cathie
Black's resignation from the board in November 2010, the remaining 13 members (along with their affiliation and
year of joining the board) are as follows: Alain J. P. Belda '08 (Alcoa), William R. Brody '07 (Salk Institute / Johns
Hopkins University), Kenneth Chenault '98 (American Express), Michael L. Eskew '05 (UPS), Shirley Ann Jackson
'05 (Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute), Andrew N. Liveris '10 (Dow Chemical), W. James McNerney, Jr. '09
(Boeing), James W. Owens '06 (Caterpillar), Samuel J. Palmisano '00 (IBM), Joan Spero '04 (Doris Duke Charitable
Foundation), Sidney Taurel '01 (Eli Lilly), and Lorenzo Zambrano '03 (Cemex).[25]
IBM 149
style="background:none; width:180px; text-align:center;"
IBM Rochester (Minnesota), nicknamed the "Big Blue Zoo"
IBM Avenida de América Building in Madrid, Spain
Somers (New York) Office Complex, designed by I.M. Pei

IBM 150
|- ! | {|style="background:none; width:180px; text-align:center;" |- |
|- |IBM Japan Makuhari Technical Center, designed by Yoshio Taniguchi |- |
|- |IBM
Haifa Research Lab, Haifa, Israel |- |
IBM 151
|- |IBM Kolkata
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|- |} |-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
|-
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|-
|}
IBM 152
Corporate recognition and brand

In 2010, IBM was ranked the 20th largest firm in the U.S. by Fortune and the 33rd largest globally by Forbes.[5] [6]
Other rankings for 2010 include the following:[7]
• #1 company for leaders (Fortune)
• #2 best global brand (Interbrand)
• #3 green company (Newsweek)[26]
• #15 most admired company (Fortune)
• #18 most innovative company (Fast Company)
For 2010, IBM's brand was valued at $64.7 billion.[27]
Working at IBM
In 2010, IBM employed 105,000 workers in the U.S., a drop of 30,000 since 2003, and 75,000 people in India, up
from 9,000 seven years previous.[28]
IBM's employee management practices can be traced back to its roots. In 1914, CEO Thomas J. Watson boosted
company spirit by created employee sports teams, hosting family outings, and furnishing a company band. In 1924,
the Quarter Century Club, which recognizes employees with 25 years of service, was organized and the first issue of
Business Machines, IBM's internal publication, was published. In 1925, the first meeting of the Hundred Percent
Club, composed of IBM salesmen who meet their quotas, convened in Atlantic City, New Jersey.
IBM was among the first corporations to provide group life insurance (1934), survivor benefits (1935) and paid
vacations (1937). In 1932 IBM created an Education Department to oversee training for employees, which oversaw
the completion of the IBM Schoolhouse at Endicott in 1933. In 1935, the employee magazine Think was created.
Also that year, IBM held its first training class for women systems service professionals. In 1942, IBM launched a
program to train and employ disabled people in Topeka, Kansas. The next year classes begin in New York City, and
soon the company is asked to join the President's Committee for Employment of the Handicapped. In 1946, the
company hired its first black salesman, 18 years before the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In 1947, IBM announces a
Total and Permanent Disability Income Plan for employees. A vested rights pension is added to the IBM retirement
plan.
In 1952, Thomas J. Watson, Jr., published the company's first written equal opportunity policy letter, one year before
the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Brown vs. Board of Education and 11 years before the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
In 1961, IBM's nondiscrimination policy is expanded to include sex, national origin, and age. The following year,
IBM hosted its first Invention Award Dinner honoring 34 outstanding IBM inventors; and in 1963, the company
named the first eight IBM Fellows in a new Fellowship Program that recognizes senior IBM scientists, engineers and
other professionals for outstanding technical achievements.
On September 21, 1953, Thomas Watson, Jr., the company's president at the time, sent out a controversial letter to all
IBM employees stating that IBM needed to hire the best people, regardless of their race, ethnic origin, or gender. He
also publicized the policy so that in his negotiations to build new manufacturing plants with the governors of two
states in the U.S. South, he could be clear that IBM would not build "separate-but-equal" workplaces.[29] In 1984,
IBM added sexual orientation to its nondiscrimination policy. The company stated that this would give IBM a
competitive advantage because IBM would then be able to hire talented people its competitors would turn down.[30]
IBM was the only technology company ranked in Working Mother magazine's Top 10 for 2004, and one of two
technology companies in 2005.[31] [32] On October 10, 2005, IBM became the first major company in the world to
commit formally to not using genetic information in employment decisions. The announcement was made shortly
after IBM began working with the National Geographic Society on its Genographic Project.
IBM provides same-sex partners of its employees with health benefits and provides an anti-discrimination clause.
The Human Rights Campaign has consistently rated IBM 100% on its index of gay-friendliness since 2003 (in 2002,
IBM 153
the year it began compiling its report on major companies, IBM scored 86%).[33] In 2007 and again in 2010, IBM
UK was ranked first in Stonewall's annual Workplace Equality Index for UK employers.[34]
The company has traditionally resisted labor union organizing,[35] although unions represent some IBM workers
outside the United States. In 2009, the Unite union stated that several hundred employees joined following the
announcement in the UK of pension cuts that left many employees facing a shortfall in projected pensions.[36]
A dark (or gray) suit, white shirt, and a "sincere" tie[37] was the public uniform for IBM employees for most of the
20th century. During IBM's management transformation in the 1990s, CEO Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. relaxed these
codes, normalizing the dress and behavior of IBM employees to resemble their counterparts in other large
technology companies. Since then IBM's dress code is business casual although employees often wear formal clothes
during client meetings.
Research
In 1945, The Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory was founded at
Columbia University in New York, New York. The renovated
fraternity house on Manhattan's West Side was used as IBM's first
laboratory devoted to pure science. The lab was the forerunner of
IBM's Research Division, which today operates research facilities
around the world.
In 1966, IBM researcher Robert H. Dennard invented Dynamic

Random Access Memory (DRAM) cells, one-transistor memory cells
that store each single bit of information as an electrical charge in an An anechoic chamber inside IBM's Yamato
electronic circuit. The technology permits major increases in memory research facility
density, and is widely adopted throughout the industry where it
remains in widespread use today.
IBM has been a leading proponent of the Open Source Initiative, and began supporting Linux in 1998.[38] The
company invests billions of dollars in services and software based on Linux through the IBM Linux Technology
Center, which includes over 300 Linux kernel developers.[39] IBM has also released code under different open
source licenses, such as the platform-independent software framework Eclipse (worth approximately US$40 million
at the time of the donation),[40] the three-sentence International Components for Unicode [41] (ICU) license, and the
Java-based relational database management system (RDBMS) Apache Derby. IBM's open source involvement has
not been trouble-free, however (see SCO v. IBM).
Selected current projects

developerWorks is a website run by IBM for software developers and IT professionals. It contains how-to articles
and tutorials, as well as software downloads and code samples, discussion forums, podcasts, blogs, wikis, and other
resources for developers and technical professionals. Subjects range from open, industry-standard technologies like
Java, Linux, SOA and web services, web development, Ajax, PHP, and XML to IBM's products (WebSphere,
Rational, Lotus, Tivoli and Information Management). In 2007, developerWorks was inducted into the Jolt Hall of
Fame.[42]
alphaWorks is IBM's source for emerging software technologies. These technologies include:
• Flexible Internet Evaluation Report Architecture – A highly flexible architecture for the design, display, and
reporting of Internet surveys.
• IBM History Flow Visualization Application – A tool for visualizing dynamic, evolving documents and the
interactions of multiple collaborating authors.
IBM 154
• IBM Linux on POWER Performance Simulator – A tool that provides users of Linux on Power a set of
performance models for IBM's POWER processors.
• Database File Archive And Restoration Management – An application for archiving and restoring hard disk drive
files using file references stored in a database.
• Policy Management for Autonomic Computing – A policy-based autonomic management infrastructure that
simplifies the automation of IT and business processes.
• FairUCE – A spam filter that verifies sender identity instead of filtering content.
• Unstructured Information Management Architecture (UIMA) SDK – A Java SDK that supports the
implementation, composition, and deployment of applications working with unstructured data.
• Accessibility Browser – A web-browser specifically designed to assist people with visual impairments, to be
released as open source software. Also known as the "A-Browser," the technology will aim to eliminate the need
for a mouse, relying instead completely on voice-controls, buttons and predefined shortcut keys.
Virtually all console gaming systems of the latest generation use microprocessors developed by IBM. The Xbox 360
contains a PowerPC tri-core processor, which was designed and produced by IBM in less than 24 months.[43] Sony's
PlayStation 3 features the Cell BE microprocessor designed jointly by IBM, Toshiba, and Sony. Nintendo's
seventh-generation console, Wii, features an IBM chip codenamed Broadway. The older Nintendo GameCube
utilizes the Gekko processor, also designed by IBM.
In May 2002, IBM and Butterfly.net, Inc. announced the Butterfly Grid, a commercial grid for the online video
gaming market.[44] In March 2006, IBM announced separate agreements with Hoplon Infotainment, Online Game
Services Incorporated (OGSI), and RenderRocket to provide on-demand content management and blade server
computing resources.[45]
IBM announced it will launch its new software, called "Open Client Offering" which is to run on Linux, Microsoft
Windows and Apple's Mac OS X. The company states that its new product allows businesses to offer employees a
choice of using the same software on Windows and its alternatives. This means that "Open Client Offering" is to cut
costs of managing whether to use Linux or Apple relative to Windows. There will be no necessity for companies to
pay Microsoft for its licenses for operating systems since the operating systems will no longer rely on software
which is Windows-based. One alternative to Microsoft's office document formats is the Open Document Format
software, whose development IBM supports. It is going to be used for several tasks like: word processing,
presentations, along with collaboration with Lotus Notes, instant messaging and blog tools as well as an Internet
Explorer competitor – the Mozilla Firefox web browser. IBM plans to install Open Client on 5% of its desktop PCs.
The Linux offering has been made available as the IBM Client for Smart Work product on the Ubuntu and Red Hat
Enterprise Linux platforms.[46]
UC2 (Unified Communications and Collaboration) is an IBM and Cisco Systems joint project based on Eclipse and
OSGi. It will offer the numerous Eclipse application developers a unified platform for an easier work environment.
The software based on UC2 platform will provide major enterprises with easy-to-use communication solutions, such
as the Lotus based Sametime. In the future the Sametime users will benefit from such additional functions as
click-to-call and voice mailing.[47]
Redbooks [48] are publicly available online books about best practices with IBM products. They describe the
products features, field experience and dos and don'ts, while leaving aside marketing buzz. Available formats are
Redbooks, Redpapers and Redpieces.
IBM 155
Internal programs
Extreme Blue is a company initiative that uses experienced IBM engineers, talented interns, and business managers
to develop high-value technology. The project is designed to analyze emerging business needs and the technologies
that can solve them. These projects mostly involve rapid-prototyping of high-profile software and hardware
projects.[49]
[50]
In May 2007, IBM unveiled Project Big Green , a re-direction of $1 billion per year across its businesses to
increase energy efficiency.
On November 2008, IBM’s CEO, Sam Palmisano, during a speech at the Council on Foreign Relations, outlined a
new agenda for building a Smarter Planet.[51] In addition, an official company blog [52] exists. Smarter Planet @
IBM [53]
IBM has a long history in dealing with environmental problems. It established a corporate policy on environmental
protection in 1971, with the support of a comprehensive global environmental management system. According to
IBM, its total hazardous waste decreased by 44% over the past five years, and has decreased by 94.6% since 1987.
IBM's total hazardous waste calculation consists of waste from both non-manufacturing and manufacturing
operations. Waste from manufacturing operations includes waste recycled in closed-loop systems where process
chemicals are recovered for subsequent reuse, rather than just disposing of them and using new chemical materials.
Over the years, IBM has redesigned processes to eliminate almost all closed loop recycling and now uses more
environmental-friendly materials in their place. IBM has also now built a modelling solution to help protect the
environment and reduce its own Carbon Footprint using Lean and Six Sigma principles Green Sigma.[54]
IBM was recognized as one of the "Top 20 Best Workplaces for Commuters" by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) in 2005. The award was to recognize Fortune 500 companies which provided employees
with excellent commuter benefits to help reduce traffic and air pollution.[55]
The birthplace of IBM, Endicott, suffered pollution for decades, however. IBM used liquid cleaning agents in circuit
board assembly operation for more than two decades, and six spills and leaks were recorded, including one leak in
1979 of 4,100 gallons from an underground tank. These left behind volatile organic compounds in the town's soil and
aquifer. Trace elements of volatile organic compounds have been identified in Endicott’s drinking water, but the
levels are within regulatory limits. Also, from 1980, IBM has pumped out 78,000 gallons of chemicals, including
trichloroethane, freon, benzene and perchloroethene to the air and allegedly caused several cancer cases among the
townspeople. IBM Endicott has been identified by the Department of Environmental Conservation as the major
source of pollution, though traces of contaminants from a local dry cleaner and other polluters were also found.
Despite the amount of pollutant, state health officials could not verify whether air or water pollution in Endicott has
actually caused any health problems. According to city officials, tests show that the water is safe to drink.[56]
Solar power
Tokyo Ohka Kogyo Co., Ltd. (TOK) and IBM are collaborating to establish new, low-cost methods for bringing the
next generation of solar energy products, called CIGS (Copper-Indium-Gallium-Selenide) solar cell modules, to
market. Use of thin film technology, such as CIGS, has great promise in reducing the overall cost of solar cells and
further enabling their widespread adoption.[57] [58]
IBM is exploring four main areas of photovoltaic research: using current technologies to develop cheaper and more
efficient silicon solar cells, developing new solution processed thin film photovoltaic devices, concentrator
photovoltaics, and future generation photovoltaic architectures based upon nanostructures such as semiconductor
quantum dots and nanowires.[59]
IBM 156
Green Sigma
Green Sigma is an Active Management Six Sigma system which is currently being developed and enhanced through
the Innovation Centre in Dublin. Its goal is to manage and reduce IBM's carbon footprint and achieve associated
economic and environmental benefits. The system focuses on carbon, water, atmospheric emissions, liquid waste,
solid waste, ground emissions, and the reporting on these elements. IBM Green SigmaTM consultants continually
work with the client team to establish optimization of core processes and KPMGs.
• Phase I: Define Key Performance Indicators (KPIs)
• Phase II: Establish Metering
• Phase III: Deploy Carbon Console
• Phase IV: Optimise Processes
• Phase V: Control Performance
IBM’s goal with the Green Sigma offering is to business partner with clients, both for economic benefits for the
business and a reduction of the company's impact on the environment.[60]
Company logo and nickname
IBM logo history
Logo Years
1924–1946
1947–1956
1956–1972
1972–present
IBM's current "8-bar" logo was designed in 1972 by graphic designer Paul Rand.[61] Logos designed in the 1970s
tended to be sensitive to the technical limitations of photocopiers, which were then being widely deployed. A logo
with large solid areas tended to be poorly copied by copiers in the 1970s, so companies preferred logos that avoided
large solid areas. The 1972 IBM logos are an example of this tendency. With the advent of digital copiers in the
mid-1980s this technical restriction had largely disappeared; at roughly the same time, the 13-bar logo was
abandoned for almost the opposite reason – it was difficult to render accurately on the low-resolution digital printers
(240 dots per inch) of the time.
Big Blue is a nickname for IBM. There are several theories explaining the origin of the name. One theory,
substantiated by people who worked for IBM at the time, is that IBM field representatives coined the term in the
1960s, referring to the color of the mainframes IBM installed in the 1960s and early 1970s. "True Blue" was a term
used to describe a loyal IBM customer, and business writers later picked up the term.[62] [63] Another theory suggests
that Big Blue simply refers to the Company's logo. A third theory suggests that Big Blue refers to a former company
dress code that required many IBM employees to wear only white shirts and many wore blue suits.[62] [64] In any
event, IBM keyboards, typewriters, and some other manufactured devices have played on the "Big Blue" concept,
using the color for enter keys and carriage returns. IBM has also used blue logos since 1947, making blue the
defining color of the company's corporate design, which might be another, more plausible reason for the term.
IBM 157
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IBM 159
Further reading
Edwin Black 2008 IBM and the Holocaust: The Strategic Alliance Between Nazi Germany and America's Most ISBN
Powerful Corporation 0-914153-10-2
Ulrich Steinhilper 2006 Don't Talk – Do It! From Flying To Word Processing ISBN
1-872386-75-5
Samme Chittum 2004 In an I.B.M. Village, Pollution Fears Taint Relations With Neighbors (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ New York Times
gst/ fullpage. html?res=9C00E4DF1631F936A25750C0A9629C8B63& fta=y)
Louis V. 2002 Who Says Elephants can't Dance? HarperCollins. ISBN

Gerstner, Jr. 0-00-715448-8
Doug Garr 1999 "IBM Redux: Lou Gerstner & The Business Turnaround of the Decade" Harper Business
Robert Slater 1999 Saving Big Blue: IBM's Lou Gerstner McGraw Hill
Emerson W. 1996 Building IBM: Shaping an Industry MIT Press

Pugh
Robert Heller 1994 The Fate of IBM Little Brown
Paul Carroll 1993 Big Blues: The Unmaking of IBM Crown Publishers
Roy A Bauer et 1992 The Silverlake Project: Transformation at IBM (AS/400) Oxford
al. University Press
Thomas Watson, 1990 Father, Son & Co: My Life at IBM and Beyond ISBN
Jr. 0-553-29023-1
David Mercer 1987 "IBM: How the World's Most Successful Corporation is Managed" (http:/ / futureobservatory. Kogan Page
dyndns. org/ 2013. htm). Futureobservatory.dyndns.org.
Richard Thomas 1986 Big Blue: IBM's Use and Abuse of Power ISBN
DeLamarter 0-396-08515-6
Buck Rodgers 1986 The IBM Way Harper & Row
Robert Sobel 1986 IBM vs. Japan: The Struggle for the Future ISBN
0-812-83071-7
Robert Sobel 1981 IBM: Colossus in Transition ISBN

0-8129-1000-1
Robert Sobel 1981 Thomas Watson, Sr.: IBM and the Computer Revolution (biography of Thomas J. Watson) ISBN
1-893122-82-4
William Rodgers 1969 Think: A Biography of the Watsons and IBM ISBN
0812812263
External links
• IBM official website (http://www.ibm.com/)
• IBM official mobile website (http://m.ibm.com)
• IBM Archives Site (http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/)
Business data
• IBM Corp. (http://finance.google.com/finance?q=IBM) at Google Finance
• IBM Corp. (http://finance.yahoo.com/q?s=IBM) at Yahoo! Finance
• IBM Corp. (http://www.hoovers.com//--ID__10796--/free-co-factsheet.xhtml) at Hoover's
• IBM Corp. (http://www.reuters.com/finance/stocks/overview?symbol=IBM) at Reuters
• IBM Corp. (http://google.brand.edgar-online.com/?sym=IBM) SEC filings at EDGAR Online
IBM 160
• IBM Corp. (http://www.sec.gov/cgi-bin/browse-edgar?action=getcompany&CIK=51143) SEC filings at the

Securities and Exchange Commission
Samsung Electronics
Samsung Electronics
삼성전자
Type Public
Korean: 삼성전자
[1]
KRX: 005930
[2]
KRX: 005935
[3]
LSE: SMSN
[4]
LSE: SMSD
Industry Consumer electronics

Telecommunication
Semiconductor
Founded 1969
Headquarters [5] [6]

Samsung Town, Seoul, South Korea
Key people CEO: Choi Gee-Sung

Chairman: Lee Kun-hee
Revenue [7]
US$ 117.4 billion (2009)
Net income [8]

US$ 8.33 billion (2009)
Owner(s) Lee Kun-hee & Affiliates 17.57%, Treasury Stocks of Samsung Electronics 13.07%, National Pension Service 5.90% (as of
[9]
September 31, 2009)
Employees Over 157,700 (2009)
Parent Samsung Group
Website [www.samsung.com www.samsung.com]
Samsung Electronics (SEC, Korean: 삼성전자, KRX: 005930 [1], KRX: 005935 [2], LSE: SMSN [3], LSE: SMSD
[4]
) is the world's largest electronics company with a 2009 revenue of $117.4 billion,[7] [10] [11] [12] [13] headquartered
in Samsung Town, Seoul, South Korea.[5] [6] It is the flagship subsidiary of the Samsung Group. With assembly
plants and sales networks in 65 countries across the world, Samsung has as many as 157,000 employees. [14]
In 2009, the company took the position of the world’s biggest IT maker by surpassing the erstwhile leader
Hewlett-Packard.[15] Its sales revenue in the areas of LCD and LED displays and computer chips is the world’s No.
1.[16]
Some of the most popular items produced by Samsung include LED-backlit LCD TVs and Galaxy S mobile phones.
Even though consumers may not realize, many non-Samsung-brand devices such as TVs and phones have
Samsung-manufactured memory components inside.
In the TV segment, Samsung’s market position is dominant. For the four years since 2006, the company has been in
the top spot in terms of the number of TVs sold, which is expected to continue in 2010 and beyond. In the global
LCD panel market, the company has kept the leading position for eight years in a row.[17]
With the Galaxy S model, Samsung’s smartphone lineup has retained the second-best slot in the world market for
some time.[18] In competition to Apple's iPad tablet, Samsung released the Android powered Samsung Galaxy
Tablet.[19]
History
Samsung Electronics was founded in 1969 in Daegu, South Korea as
Samsung Electric Industries, originally manufacturing electronic
appliances such as TVs, calculators, refrigerators, air conditioners and
washers. By 1981, the company had manufactured over 10 million
black and white TVs. In 1988, it merged with Samsung Semiconductor
& Communications.
It is noteworthy that Samsung Electronics has grown in leaps and

bounds in a business notorious for cyclical fluctuations. Founded in
Samsung Group headquarters at Samsung Town,
Seoul. 1938 as a food processing and textile purveyor, the parent group
entered the electronic business as late as in 1969 when it created under
its wings an electronic component subsidiary. It was a decision made after considering the fast-growing domestic
demand for electronic goods.
Just one year after its founding, the Samsung Group established in 1970 another subsidiary Samsung-NEC jointly
with Japan’s NEC Corp. to manufacture electric home appliances and audio-visual devices. In 1974, it expanded into
the semiconductor business by acquiring Korea Semiconductor, one of the first chip-making facilities in the country
at the time. It was soon followed by the 1980 acquisition of Korea Telecommunications, an electronic switching
system producer.
In February 1983, Samsung’s founder Lee Byung-chull made an epoch-making announcement, dubbed the “Tokyo
declaration,” that his company would enter the DRAM (dynamic random access memory) business. And only one
year after the declaration did Samsung became the third company in the world that developed the 64k DRAM after
the United States and Japanese predecessors. The march from then onward as the pioneer in the memory
chip-making industry has continued to this day for almost three decades.
Although Samsung Electronics was already one of the biggest companies in Korea as early as the 1990s, it now is by
far the most important company with unrivaled influence on the economy through a large network of supplier and
partner companies as well as through its own revenue-generating power. Since the onset of the 1997 Asian financial
crisis, the company has become more powerful: While most other high-tech companies were hit by cash-flow
problems after the crisis, Samsung could avoid financial difficulties by broad-based structural reforms.
After the crisis subsided, Samsung emerged as a global corporation. For four consecutive years from 2000 to 2003, it
posted more than 5-percent net earnings when 16 large conglomerates out of 30 top companies of the nation went out
of business in the wake of the unprecedented crisis.[20] [21]
On 2009 and 2010, the US and EU fined Samsung Electronics with 8 other memory chip makers for its part in a
price fixing scheme From 1999 to 2002. Other companies fined included Infineon Technologies, Elpida Memory
(Hitachi and NEC) and Micron Technology.[22] [23] [24] [25] [26] In December 2010, The EU granted immunity to
Samsung Electronics for its part in informing on other members of a price fixing scheme.[27]
Growth
Only ten years ago, Samsung’s only goal was to catch up with Japanese rivals. But now it is outperforming major
Japanese electronics makers in many categories: in terms of global market share, Samsung is No. 1 in flat-panel TVs
and memory chips; it is No. 2 in mobile handsets; it is one of the top suppliers in other home appliances.[28]
In 2005, Samsung surpassed Japanese rival Sony for the first time to become the world's largest and most popular
consumer electronics brand as measured by Interbrand.[29] In 2006, Business Week rated Samsung as 20th on its list
of global brands, 2nd in the electronics industry.[30] Business Week also ranked Samsung as 20th in innovation.[31]
In January 2007, BrandFinance ranked the company as the number 1 global brand in electronics.[32]
In 2007, Samsung Electronics' handset division overtook American
rival Motorola, making it the world's second-largest mobile phone
maker.[33] In 2009, Samsung overtook Siemens of Germany and
Hewlett-Packard of the USA with a revenue of $117.4 billion to take
the No.1 spot as the world's largest technology company.[7]
The semiconductor division of Samsung Electronics is the world's
largest memory chip and second largest semiconductor manufacturer
worldwide.[34] This has been the case for DRAM and SRAM for over a
Advertisement in HongKong
decade.
To become the top brand in the electronics business, Samsung has
spent enormous sums on marketing and branding. As part of fulfilling
this strategy, the company devised in 1996 a plan to sponsor major
sporting events. It succeeded in becoming an official sponsor for the
1998 Nagano Winter Olympics. Samsung today is the name that almost
always appears in many big games.[35]
Despite being a giant in the global technology business with enviable

growth, Samsung—and its chairman Lee Kun-hee—is famous for
fretting over its future and coming crisis. Since returning from a mini
Samsung CES 2009 retirement in March 2010, Mr. Lee said, “Samsung Electronics’ future
is not guaranteed because most of our flagship products will be
obsolete in 10 years from now.” [36]
Global consumers’ brand recognition of Samsung Electronics has increased steadily: According to the top-100 brand
list compiled by Millward Brown, the British brand consultancy, Samsung, ranked at 68th on its list, was one of the
world’s most valuable brands whose growth has been most pronounced during the 2009-2010 period. Its brand value,
estimated at as much as US$1.1 billion, grew by 80 percent. (For more on this, refer to the April 28, 2010 FT news
article “Big names prove worth in crisis”) [37]
In the “World’s Most Reputable Companies 2010” ranking published by Reputation Institute of the United States,
Samsung was placed at 22nd, a large advancement from the previous year’s 74th. This ranking, compiled by the U.S.
consulting company since 2006, reflects survey results collected from consumers in 24 different countries for global
600 large corporations in terms of annual revenue and its GDP share in respective countries. The respondents answer
questions in seven categories including products and services, innovativeness, work conditions, corporate
governance, social responsibility, leadership, and financial performance. (For details, read “World’s Most Reputable
Companies,” Forbes, May 24, 2010) [38]
Samsung was also ranked 11th in the “50 Most Innovative Companies 2010” list put out by Business Week, a
five-notch increase from the previous year’s 16th. The ranking, collated jointly by the U.S. weekly magazine and
Boston Consulting Group since 2005, is based on answers to innovation-related survey questions asked to executives
of global corporations. While survey answers take an 80-percent weight to the compilation of the ranking, the
remaining 20 percent is accounted for by annual share appreciation (10%) and three-year average sales revenue and
profit margin (5% each), respectively.
Samsung had emphasized innovation in its management strategy since the early 2000s and it again highlighted
innovation as part of core strategies when it announced the Vision 2020 in which the company set an ambitious goal
of reaching the $400-billion sales revenue within 10 years. In order to cement its leadership in the areas of memory
chip and TV production, Samsung has invested aggressively in research and development. The company currently
has 24 R&D centers around the world. In the 2010 Business Week innovation ranking, Apple Computer and Google
retained the leading positions as in the 2009 list, followed by Microsoft, which gained one notch from 2009’s fourth
place. (Read “The 50 Most Innovative Companies 2010” Business Week, April 15, 2010) [39] Table [40]
Meanwhile, Samsung took the 33rd place in the “World’s Most Valuable Brands 2010” list made public by the
Forbes magazine. Forbes said that Samsung’s brand value was as much as $12.8 billion with an average sale revenue
growth rate of 17 percent for the past three years. (“The World's Most Valuable Brands 2010,” Forbes, July 28, 2010)
[41]
Table [42]
Business areas
Samsung Electronics focuses on four areas: Digital Media, Semiconductor, Telecommunication Network, and LCD
Digital Appliance.[43]
The Digital Media business area covers computer devices such as laptop computers and laser printers; digital
displays such as televisions and computer monitors; and consumer entertainment devices such as DVD players, MP3
players and digital camcorders; and home appliances as refrigerators, air conditioners, air purifiers, washers,
microwave ovens, and vacuum cleaners.
The Semiconductor business area includes semiconductor chips such as SDRAM, SRAM, NAND flash memory;
smart cards; Mobile Application Processors; Mobile TV receivers; RF transceivers; CMOS Image sensors, Smart
Card IC, MP3 IC, DVD/BD/HD-DVD Player SOC and multi-chip package (MCP); and storage devices such as
optical disc drives and hard disk drives.
The Telecommunication Network business area includes multi-service DSLAMs and fax machines; cellular devices
such as mobile phones, PDA phones, and hybrid devices called Mobile Intelligent Terminals (MITs); and satellite
receivers.
The LCD business area focuses on producing TFT-LCD and organic light-emitting diode (OLED)panels for laptops,
desktop monitors, and televisions.
Samsung Print was established in 2009 as a separate entity to focus on B2B sales and has released a broad range of
multifunctional devices and printers.
Products
Samsung Electronics manufactures products in a number of categories:
• Semiconductor: DRAM, SDRAM, flash memory
Semiconductors
For more than 20 years since 1993, Samsung has kept the title of the world’s largest memory chip maker. In 2009, it
began a strategy of “Green Memory” by which it increased the global DRAM market share to 33 percent. It also
started mass-producing 30 nm-class NAND flash memories in the same year whose world share rose as high as 42
percent.[44] It succeeded in 2010 in mass-producing 30 nm-class DRAMs and 20 nm-class NAND flashes, both of
which were the first time in the world.[45] According to market research firm Gartner, during the second quarter of
2010 Samsung Electronics took the top position in the DRAM segment due to brisk sales of the item on the world
market. Gartner analysts said in their report, “Samsung cemented its leading position by taking a 35-percent market
share. All the other suppliers had minimal change in their shares.” Samsung took the top slot in the ranking, followed
by Hynix, Elpida, and Micron, said Gartner.[46] Another market researcher IC Insights predicted that Samsung would
become the world’s biggest semiconductor chip supplier by 2014 when it surpasses Intel. For the ten-year period
from 1999 to 2009, Samsung’s compound annual growth rate (or CAGR) has been 13.5 percent, compared with that
for Intel paltry 3.4 percent. Extrapolating this trend to the future, Samsung will be able to catch up with Intel by the
year 2014, estimated IC Insights.[47] IC Insights also said that Intel’s 2009 sales revenue had been 52 percent higher
than that for Samsung, but that differential narrowed to only 21 percent during the second quarter of 2010 [48]
Another hitherto not-well-publicized area where Samsung had significant business in for years is the foundry
segment. Samsung had begun investment in the foundry business since 2006 and now positioned it as one of the
strategic pillars for semiconductor growth.[49]
• Hard drives
• Digital display: LCD displays, LED displays, plasma displays, OLED displays
Slimmer panels
Samsung Electronics’ TVs and display products have undergone a race toward
ever-slimmer panels. In 2009, the company succeeded in developing the super-slim
panel for 40-inch LED TVs, with the thickness of 3.9 millimeters (0.15 inch).
Dubbed the “Needle Slim,” the panel is as thick (or thin) as two coins put together.
This is about a twelfth of the conventional LCD panel whose thickness is
approximately 50 millimeters (1.97 inches).
While reducing the thickness substantially, Samsung could maintain the

performance as before, including full HD resolution, 120 Hz refresh rate, and 5000:1
contrast ratio.[50] In October 2007, Samsung broke the 10-millimeter barrier by
introducing the 10-mm thick 40-inch LCD TV panel, followed in October 2008 by
Galaxy Tab
the world’s first 7.9-mm panel.[51] Samsung is leading the industry by developing
panels for 24-inch LCD monitors (3.5 mm) and 12.1-inch laptops (1.64 mm).[52]
According to Samsung officials, the biggest factor in reducing the panel thickness was the LED backlight. They are
optimistic that their company could cut TV width by 40 percent within two years from now.[53]
• Home electronics: TVs, DVD players, Blu-ray players, home cinema systems, set-top boxes, projectors
Televisions
For years in a row, Samsung has taken the top spot in the world TV market, with the launch of best-selling items. In
2009, it sold as many as 31 million flat-panel TVs, maintaining the top position for four consecutive years in terms
of world market share.[54] In early 2010, the company had set the year’s sales goal at 39 million units (including
10-million LED TVs).[55]
According to DisplaySearch, the U.S. market research and consulting firm, Samsung is forecast to take a 27-percent
share for the global TV market in the second quarter of 2010 while LG Electronics accounts for 26.2 percent of the
market. The market researcher predicted that Samsung’s leadership would continue in 2011 [56]
Samsung Electronics is creating a new market by introducing the “Finger-Slim” LED TV. Launched in March 2009,
the super-slim LED TV has thus far been sold as many as 2.6 million units. In 2009 alone, it was sold more than 2
million units, which brightens the future prospect.[57]
Samsung has led the flat-panel TV market for the past five years with the 2006 introduction of its “Bordeaux” line,
followed by the 2007 Bordeaux model, the 2008 “Crystal Rose” line, and the “Finger-Slim” in 2009.[58] The company
retained the leading position by successfully selling more than 1 million 3D TVs as of August 2010.[59]
As rivals are jumping on the bandwagon, Samsung outstrips them by consistently introducing new, better models.
Today the company offers the full line of TVs, at many price point.
This company is developing new LED TV models too. After expanding its TV lineups, Samsung became the
industry-first 10-million-seller challenge. One of the new products to watch is the full HD 3D LED TV that was
launched the first time in March 2010.[60] Combining LED features with 3D functionality, the new 3D TV is
expected to lead the market for years to come. Samsung showcased the new TV in the International Consumer
Electronics Show (CES 2010) held in Las Vegas early this year.[61]
In 2009, Samsung TVs were selected in major U.K. publications and retailers as the best TV of the year. For
example, Samsung’s LED TV 7000 series was the winner of the “Gadget Awards 2009” by T3, U.K.’s most
prestigious electronics magazine.[62]
The T3 magazine in its news article on “ten reasons why you should buy Samsung LED TV” listed as the reasons
superior picture quality, slim design, energy efficiency and connectivity.[63]
3D experience
Samsung sold more than 1 million 3D TVs within six months of its launch. This is the figure close to what many
market researchers forecast for the year’s worldwide 3D TV sales (1.23 million units).[64] It also debuted the 3D
Home Theater (HT-C6950W) that allows the user to enjoy 3D image and surround sound at the same time. With the
launch of 3D Home Theater, Samsung became the first company in the industry to have the full line of 3D offerings,
including 3D TV, 3D Blu-ray play, 3D content, and 3D goggles.[65]
The company is trying offer the 3D content streaming service on its 3D TVs. Just like iTunes store, the Samsung 3D
TV aims to allow the user to connect to its own online store, Samsung Apps, and download applications on the user’s
hard disk drive.
Smart TVs and apps

Samsung has introduced the Internet TV in 2007 that enabled the audience to receive information from the Internet
while at the same time watching conventional TV programming. Samsung is also developing a new “Smart LED TV”
from which consumers can download applications as well as view Internet content. In 2008, the company launched
the Power Infolink service, followed in 2009 by a whole new Internet@TV. In 2010, Samsung started marketing the
3D TV while unveiling the upgraded Internet@TV 2010, which offers free (or for-fee) download of applications
from its Samsung Apps store, in addition to existing services such as news, weather, stock market, YouTube videos,
and movies.[66]
Samsung Apps will provide for-fee premium services starting the latter half of 2010, beginning in Korea and the
United States, followed early next year by the same services in Europe. The services will be custom-tailored for each
region’s culture. Samsung plans to offer family-oriented applications such as health care programs and digital picture
frames as well as games.
SamyGO community created at 2009 for hacking Samsung B series TV firmwares, and later supported A and C
series TV's also, under GPLv2 license and deployed new applications like a tool increasing subtitle size and
changing its color, enabling PVR functionality of TV, enabling internal video player on low end models, supporting
DTS codec on B Series TVs, work around for DLNA problems by playing movies from SAMBA and NFS shares
support etc. Also placed web browser right into TV with mouse and keyboard support and many more
applications... Samsung started to release restricted firmware updates starting from Feb 2010 for fixing security
issues those used by SamyGO community and disabled firmware downgrade option from TV menus, which believed
to disable the SamyGO project. But hackers find workarounds for those new restricted firmwares.[67] [68]
Samsung expects that Samsung Apps would ultimately become a multi-device application store attracting users of all
kinds of electronic device such as mobile phones, computers, and cameras. The company also reckons that its Smart
TV will be the future home entertainment hub.[69]

• Mobile devices: mobile phones, MP3 players, digital cameras, camcorders
Mobile phones
Samsung Electronics has sold 235 million mobile handsets in the year
2009.[70] At the end of Q3 2010 Samsung had surpassed the 70 million
unit mark in shipped phones, giving it a global marketshare of 22%
trailing Nokia by just just 12%.[71] Overall, Samsung sold 280 million
mobile phones in 2010, corresponding to a market share of 20.2%.[72]
Following the success of its “Anycall” brand mobile phones in Korea,
the company has introduced numerous mobile handset models
including premium phones, full-touch screen phones, and
environmentally friendly phones. Samsung’s flagship mobile handset Galaxy S
line is the Galaxy S, which many consider a direct competitor of
Apple's popular iPhone.[73] It was initially launched in Singapore, Malaysia and South Korea in June 2010 [74] [75]
[76]
followed by US variants called Vibrant and Captivate in July and Epic and Fascinate in August and September.
It sold more than 1 million units within the first 45 days of in the US alone [77]
Samsung’s I9000 Galaxy S and S8500 Wave smartphones were the winners of the 2010 European EISA Awards in
the smartphone and social media phone categories. The I9000 Galaxy S was recognized for its superior-quality
screen and excellent connectivity while the S8500 Wave for its Bada operating system with unparalleled social
networking and location-based services.[78]
Samsung’s 2010 smartphone shares worldwide are rising rapidly. The share in the United States has doubled in the
second quarter of the year from the previous quarter. In the second quarter the company shipped as many as 3
million smartphones, a 173-percent increase from the same period last year.[79]
In order to stay at the top of the business, Samsung employs quite a unique strategy: while many other handset
makers tend to focus on supporting one (or at most two) operating system, Samsung has kept supporting a wide
range of operating systems in the market. Although the Galaxy S adopts Google Android as the primary operating
system, it also works on other competing operating systems such as Symbian, Microsoft Windows Phone,
Linux-based LiMo, and Samsung’s proprietary Bada.[80]
Samsung’s mobile handsets have received rave reviews that they are superior to Apple handset lines while winning
prestigious design awards in Europe and the United States. Amidst all these, the company set the sales goal of the
2010 yearend at 20 million units.[81]
But the company is not resting on its laurels: in fact, it is faced with challenges on all fronts. An alliance of Chinese
low wage and Taiwanese technology is catching up closely. Smartphone makers such as Apple, RIM, and HTC are
busy coming up with new models, all of which makes Samsung hard at work maintaining its top position.
• Computing products: monitors, laptops, UMPCs, CD and DVD Drives, laser printers, fax machines
• Home appliances: refrigerators, washing machines, microwaves, ovens, vacuum cleaners, air conditioners
Home appliances
In 2009, the year of worldwide recession due to the 2008 global credit crisis, Samsung’s sales revenue rose 27
percent from the previous year, the biggest increase in the industry. In the home market, Samsung held the leading
position thanks to strong sales of its flagship items, Zipel-brand side-by-side and kimchi refrigerators. In the North
American, European, and Russian markets, it solidified its image as a premier home appliance maker by selling so
many refrigerators, washing machines, air-conditioners, as well as new steam microwave ovens and “robot” vacuum
cleaners.
In a market clearly split into two extremes of upmarket and budget categories, Samsung employs a two-pronged
strategy to emphasize its premium image for affluent consumers while marketing lower-end items with fewer bells
and whistles for emerging economies consumers.
In 2009, Samsung introduced a host of new products including a premium mini-laptop computer N310 and
slim-sized laptop X420. The N310 and the X420 are the third-generation laptops with all the advanced features as
well as portability and connectivity. Thanks to these new market entrants, Samsung could sell as many as 6 million
laptops for the year.
In the printer business division, one of the next-generation strategic areas, Samsung launched mono-laser printer,
multifunction printer, and enterprise-use high-speed digital multifunction printer models. Samsung was ranked
second in the world in the area of letter-size (A4) laser printers. In other segments such as mono-laser printers,
multifunction printers, and color laser printers, Samsung was first or second place in the world. In the laser
multifunction printer segment, it became No. 1 the first time in its history, all of which indicates that Samsung is
growing fast in the printer business despite under the condition of severe economic recession.
In 2010, Samsung introduced many new products boasting energy efficiency and eco-friendliness, including the
premium laptop R580, netbook N210, the world’s smallest mono-laser printer ML-1660, and color laser
multifunction printer CLX-3185.
In the area of wireless networking, the mobile telecom protocols such as Mobile WiMax and WiBro, the protocols
developed by Samsung and adopted in 2007 as international standards, are in wide commercial use in many overseas
markets. Since mobile telecom service providers in the United States, Japan, and Russia began deploying the
standards, more and more providers (as many as 139 providers in 75 countries) are readying to take it up.
Digital cameras and camcorders are the areas Samsung cannot overlook. The company has introduced several
models in these areas such as the WB550 (the premium camera), the ST550 (the dual-LCD-mounted camera), and
the HMX-H106 (64GB SSD-mounted full HD camcorder). Samsung in 2009 took the third place in the compact
camera segment. Since then, the company has focused more on high-priced items. In 2010, the company launched
the NX10, the next-generation interchangeable lens camera, thereby commencing the race toward the new category
of camera market.
In the area of storage media, Samsung in 2009 succeeded in grabbing more than 10 percent of the world market
share by introducing a new hard disk drive capable of storing 250Gb per 2.5-inch disk.[82] In 2010, the company
started marketing the 320Gb-per-disk HDD, the largest in the industry. In addition, it is focusing more on selling
external hard disk drives.
In the MP3 player segment, Samsung is doing quite well. It is launching a host of new products including the M1,
the premium MP3 player model, and the world’s smallest DivX MP3 player R1.[83]
Market share
Product Samsung's Competitors M/S Year Source

global M/S
DRAM 40.4% Hynix 19.8% Q3 2010 [84]
NAND Flash 40.4% Toshiba 33.1% Q2 2010 [85]
Large-size LCD Panel 26.0% LG Display 25.9% Q3 2010 [86]

(revenue)
Active-Matrix OLED 97% LG Display, AUO 1~3% 2010 [87]
Lithium-ion battery 18.7% Sanyo 19.4% Q1 2010 [88]
LCD Monitor 18.0% Dell 12.8% 2009 [89]
Hard disk drive 9% Seagate 31% Q4 2009 [90]

Technology
Television sets 17.2% LG Electronics 14.8% Q3 2009 [91]

(LDC, PDP, CRT, LED)
Mobile phone 21.0% Nokia 32.4% Q3 2010 [92]
Digital camera 11.8% Sony 17.4% 2010 [93]
Design
Behind Samsung’s rapid rise there lies design power. In the early 1990s, the firm began emphasizing the importance
of design in its products. In its high-rise headquarters in Kangnam, south of Seoul, it locates the corporate design
center in which more than 900 full-time designers are housed. In the beginning, there were only two designers in the
whole company, whose number rose to 510 in 2005.
Samsung overhauls its design in every two years. For the first year, it scrutinizes all the design trends of the world,
followed by product strategies. It then maps out new design plans during the second year.
Samsung’s effort to improve design paid off: since 2006, it has won as many as 210 awards from internationally
prestigious design institutions. For example, it received the iF (International Forum) and IDEA design awards.
Samsung was the winner in eight categories in the 2009 IDEA awards, the company that received the most awards.
There is compelling reason for Samsung’s rise as a design powerhouse. Korea had for so long been considered a
backwater for design excellence, especially compared to the Japanese counterparts famous for churning out
eye-catching gadgets. Samsung established as many as seven design centers in the world’s major cities including
Milan and London, as well as in Seoul. The professional designers working in these centers constantly monitor latest
design trends in their cities while scanning cultural and lifestyle changes.
In the 2010 iF Material Awards, Samsung won the Gold Award for five of its products including the external hard
disk drive. The iF Material Awards are given by the International Forum Design GmbH of Hannover, one of the
world’s most prestigious design awards for design materials and process technologies. In 2010, the German company
selected a total of 42 products in the areas of home appliance, furniture, and industrial design. Samsung won the
awards in five categories including external hard disk, full-touch screen phone, “side-by-side” refrigerator, compact
digital camera, and laser printer toner.[94]
All Samsung mobile phones and MP3 players introduced on the market after April 2010 are free from polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) and brominated flame retardants (BFRs).[95] The company is listed in Greenpeace's Guide to Greener
Electronics, where in October 2010 it was ranked 5th out of 18 leading electronics makers.[96] Compared to the
previous ranking Samsung improved its position (it skipped from the 13th place, which it occupied in May 2010)
mainly as a result of one of the penalty points being lifted and thanks to the improvements in its score on
chemicals.[96]
In June 2004, Samsung was the first major electronics company to publicly commit to eliminate PVC and BFRs
from new models of all its products. The company however failed to meet its deadlines to be PVC- and BFRs-free,
and has published new phase out dates.[97] Greenpeace activists protested at the company's Benelux headquarters in
March 2010 for what Greenpeace calls Samsung's broken promises.[98]
Samsung Electronics has been taking the lead in industry efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the company
has been awarded as one of global top 10 companies in the Carbon Disclosure Leadership Index (CDLI). Samsung
Electronics was the only Asian company among top 10 companies. As well, Samsung is listed in Dow Jones
Sustainability Index (DJSI). [99]
Samsung’s achievement ratio of products approaching the Global Ecolabel level (“Good Eco-Products” within the
company) is 11 percentage points above the 2010 goal (80%). As of the first half of 2010, Samsung earned the
Global Ecolabel for its 2,134 models, thereby becoming the world’s No. 1 company in terms of the number of
products meeting Global Ecolabel standards.[99]
The company is also accelerating its effort to recover and recycle electronic wastes. The amount of wastes salvaged
throughout 60 countries during 2009 was as much as 240,000 tons. The “Samsung Recycling Direct” program, the
company’s voluntary recycling program under way in the United States, was expanded to Canada. [100]
For its recycling effort, Samsung was in 2008 praised by the U.S. advocacy group Electronics Take Back Coalition
as the “best eco-friendly recycling program.” [101]
Corporate name and logo

Samsung Electronics’ corporate name “Samsung” comes from the word “three stars” that shine brightly. The Chinese
character “Sam” has the double meaning of three and strong while “Sung” connotes “star” and “bright” (or “shining”).
The corporate name has auspicious meaning in it, meaning that it foretells success.
Samsung’s logo design emphasizes flexibility and simplicity while conveying a dynamic and innovative image
through the ellipse, the symbol of the universe and the world stage. The openings on both ends of the ellipse where
the letters “S” and “G” are located are intended to illustrate the company’s open-mindedness and the desire to
communicate with the world. The English rendering is a visual expression of its core corporate vision, excellence in
customer service through technology.
The basic color in the logo is blue, the color that Samsung has had used in its logos for years. The blue color
symbolizes stability and reliability, which are precisely what the company wishes to accomplish with its customers.
It also stands for social responsibility as a corporate citizen, a company official explained.[102]
Management and board of directors

In December 2010, Samsung switched its management system from the single CEO system of last year under Choi
Gee-Sung, to a two person management team with Choi Gee-Sung, CEO and Vice President, and Lee Jae-Yong,
Chief Operating Operator and President. The team was credited as being younger both in age and in outlook, and in
keeping with the new focus on youthfulness in spirit, some executives have even dyed their hair black.[103] Samsung
also reorganized its overseas marketing bases in line with changes in the market, including a combined
Britain/Continental Europe regional subsidiary, and a combined China/Taiwan regional subsidiary.

Samsung added a new digital imaging business division in 2010, and now consists of eight divisions, including the
existing display, IT solutions, consumer electronics, wireless, networking, semiconductor, and LCD divisions.
Samsung also reorganized its business organization to strengthen business synergies, by merging its Digital Air
Solutions Team and Samsung Electronics Gwangju (consumer electronics and air conditioners, merged in 2010)
under the consumer electronics business division. The Set Top Boxes business was merged with the Visual Display
Business Division. Samsung's December 2010 reorganization was as follows: Among the eight divisions, the
network division and the digital imaging division experienced new appointments, while the remaining divisions were
maintained in accordance with their strong results.
• Chief Executive Officer, Vice Chairman: Choi Gee-Sung
• Chief Financial Officer: President Yoon Ju-hwa
• Chief Operating Officer, President: Lee Jae-Yong
Division heads
• Semiconductor Division: President Kwon Oh-hyun
• LCD Division: President Jang Won-ki
• Visual Display Division: President Yoon Boo-keun
• Mobile Communications Business: President Shin Jong-kyun
• Telecommunication System Business: Executive vice President Kim Young-ki(newly appointed)
• IT Solutions Business: Executive vice President Nam Seong-woo
• Digital Appliances Business: Executive vice president Hong Chang-wan
• Digital Imaging Business: Executive vice President Chung Hyun-ho(newly appointed)
Regional directors
• North America: Executive vice President Kim Yang-Gyu (appointed)
• Central and South America: Executive vice President Yoo Doo-yeong
• Europe: Executive Director Kim Seok (newly appointed) (former Middle East supervisor, Director Kim Jin-an)
• CIS: Executive Director Seo Chi-won
• Middle East: Executive Director Bae Gyeong-Tae
• Africa: Executive Director Park Gwang-gi
• Southeast Asia: Executive vice President Lee Jong-Seok
• Southwest Asia: Executive Director Shin Jeong-soo
• China: Executive Director Kim Yeong-Ha (newly appointed)
• Korea: Executive Director Park Jae-Soon
The following are the names of board of directors members:[104]
Gee-Sung Choi Vice Chairman, President & CEO
Ju-Hwa Yoon Chief Financial Officer
Dong-Min Yoon Independent Director (Attorney at Law, Kim & Chang)
Chae-Woong Lee Independent Director (Professor of Economics, Sungkyunkwan Univ.)
In-Ho Lee Independent Director (Advisor, Shinhan Bank)
Oh-Soo Park Independent Director (Professor of Business Administration, Seoul National Univ.)
Sports Clubs
• Suwon Samsung Bluewings (Football)
• Seoul Samsung Thunders (Basketball)
• Samsung Lions (Baseball)
• Samsung KHAN (E-Sports)
• Samsung Electronics Athletic Club
• Samsung Electronics Equestrian Club
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External links
• Official website (http://www.samsung.com)
• Samsung Electronics Company Homepage(Korean) (http://www.sec.co.kr)
• Samsung History Timeline on the corporate webpage of references (http://www.samsung.com/us/
aboutsamsung/corporateprofile/history.html)
HCL Enterprise 175
HCL Enterprise
HCL Enterprise
Type Public
[1]
BSE: 500179
[2]
BSE: 532281
Founded August 11, 1976
Headquarters Delhi metropolitan city

Noida, India
Key people Shiv Nadar, Founder-Chairman and Chief Strategy Officer, HCL Technologies
[3]
Roshni Nadar, CEO HCL Corp.
Ajai Chowdhry - Founder-Chairman , HCL Infosystems ,Harsh Chitale-CEO, HCL Infosystems Vineet Nayar - CEO, HCL
Technologies industry = IT Services
Revenue US$5.7 billion (2009)
Employees 77,000+ (December 28, 2010)
Website [4]
HCL.in
Hindustan Computers Ltd. (HCL) is an Electronics, Computing and IT company based in Noida, India. The
company comprises two publicly listed companies, HCL Technologies and HCL Infosystems.
HCL was focused on addressing the IT hardware market in India for the first two decades of its existence with some
sporadic activity in the global market.
On termination of the joint venture with HP in 1996, HCL became an enterprise which comprises HCL Technologies
(to address the global IT services market) and HCL Infosystems (to address the Indian and APAC IT hardware
market). HCL has since then operated as a holding company.
History Of HCL
In 1976, Shiv Nadar, Arjun Malhotra, Subhash Arora, Badam Kishore Kumar, T.V Bharadwaj,& Arun Kumar H
started Microcomp Limited. The focus of the company was design and manufacturing of scientific calculators. The
venture provided its founders money to start a company that focused on manufacturing computers. The company
name "HCL" used to stand for "Hindustan Computers Limited" but now HCL is the only one name that the company
goes by. HCL received support from the Uttar Pradesh government to setup manufacturing in Noida.
In 1981, NIIT was started to cater to the increasing demand in computer education. By early 2000s, Nadar divested
his stake in this venture.[5] [6]
HCL Enterprise 176
HCL Technologies
Focuses on the global market. Services provided- Product Engineering & R&D, Enterprise & Custom
Applications,Enterprise Transformation Services Infrastructure Management, and BPO Services. It has operations
spanning 31 countries with delivery facilities in USA, UK, Finland, Poland, Puerto Rico,Brazil, China, Malaysia,
Singapore, Australia, Czech Republic, and India.
HCL Infosystems Ltd

HCL Infosystems Ltd.,[7] a listed subsidiary of HCL, is an India-based hardware and systems integrator. It has a
presence in 170 locations and 300 service centres throughout India. Its manufacturing facilities are based in Chennai,
Pondicherry and Uttarakhand. It is headquartered at Noida.
HCL Peripherals (a unit of HCL Infosystems Ltd.), founded in the year 1983, is a manufacturer of computer
peripherals in India of Display Products, Thin Client solutions, Information and Interactive Kiosks and a range of
Networking products & Solutions. HCL Peripherals has two Manufacturing facilities, one in Pondicherry
(Electronics) and the other in Chennai (Mechanical). The company has been given ISO:27001 certifications.
HCL ERC [8](Enterprise Response Center) was started to give outstanding support to its customers, at Puducherry, in
2007, . It has grown and team of domain experts working in it.
According to environmental organisation Greenpeace 29% of HCL products are currently free of toxic vinyl plastic
(PVC) and brominated flame retardants (BFRs). In March 2010, HCL launched its first notebook entirely free of
PVC and BFRs. [9]
References
[1] http:/ / www. bseindia. com/ bseplus/ StockReach/ AdvanceStockReach. aspx?scripcode=500179
[3] Shiv Nadar's daughter takes charge at HCL Corp (http:/ / economictimes. indiatimes. com/ articleshow/ 4726703. cms)
[4] http:/ / www. hcl. in/
[5] "Shiv Nadar completes 25 years of success" (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ money/ 2001/ aug/ 09nadar. htm). Rediff. 2001=08=09. . Retrieved
2007-07-22.
[6] "The amazing story of the birth of HCL" (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ money/ 2007/ jun/ 09bspec1. htm). Rediff. 2001=06=09. . Retrieved
2007-07-22.
[7] www.hclinfosystems.in
[8] http:/ / ftp. hclinsys. com
[9] "Which companies are phasing out PVC and BFRs" (http:/ / www. greenpeace. org/ international/ en/ campaigns/ toxics/ electronics/
Guide-to-Greener-Electronics/ which-companies-really-sell-gr/ ). Greenpeace International. . Retrieved 2010-08-17.
External links
• HCL Enterprise (http://www.hcl.in/)
• HCL Technologies (http://www.hcltech.com/)
• HCL Infosystems (http://www.hclinfosystems.in/)
• HCL BPO (http://www.hclbpo.com/)
• HCL Peripherals (http://www.hclperipherals.in/)
• HCL Infinet (http://www.hclinfinet.com/)
• HCL Axon (http://www.hcl-axon.com/)
• HCL Security (http://www.hclsecurity.in/)
• HCL ISD (http://www.hclisd.com/) - Infrastructure Service Division
• Enterprise Response Center (http://ftp.hclinsys.com)
Wipro Technologies
Wipro Limited
Type Public
[1] [2]
(BSE: 507685 , NYSE: WIT )
Industry IT services
IT consulting
Founded 1945
Founder(s) M. H. Premji
Headquarters Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Key people Azim Premji (Chairman)

T K Kurien (CEO)
Services Application Development and

Maintenance
BPO
Product Engineering Solutions
Technology Infrastructure Services
Consulting
Revenue [3]
$6.03 billion (2010)

$1.144 billion (2010)
Profit [3]
$1.02 billion (2010)
Total assets [3]

$7.498 billion (2010)
Total equity [3]

$4.373 billion (2010)
Employees [4]
119,491 (December 2010)
Website [5]
Wipro.com
Wipro Ltd (BSE: 507685 [1], NYSE: WIT [2]) is a giant information technology services corporation headquartered
in Bangalore, India. According to the 2008–09 revenue, Wipro is one of the largest IT services company in India and
employs more than 119,491 people worldwide as of September 2010.[6] It has interests varying from information
technology, consumer care, lighting, engineering and healthcare businesses. It is 9th most valuable brand in India
according to an annual survey conducted by Brand Finance and The Economic Times in 2010. [7] Azim Premji is the
Chairman of the board.
Major Divisions
• IT Services: Wipro provides complete range of IT Services to the
organization. The range of services extends from Enterprise
Application Services (CRM, ERP, e-Procurement and SCM) to
e-Business solutions. Wipro's enterprise solutions serve a host of
industries such as Energy and Utilities, Finance, Telecom, and
Media and Entertainment.
• Product Engineering Solutions: Wipro is the largest independent
provider of R&D services in the world. Using "Extended
Engineering" model for leveraging R&D investment and accessing
Cyber Towers the software landmark of
new knowledge and experience across the globe, people and
Hyderabad. Located at Madhapur surrounded by
technical infrastructure, Wipro enables firms to introduce new many software majors like Wipro, IBM and
products rapidly.. Accenture.
• Technology Infrastructure called as TIS provides remote

infrastructure management solutions and services. Wipro Technologies achieves this through a Global Command
Centre (GCC) which consolidates services and resources in one place and centrally manage them. It is a true
enabler for the company for providing services in infrastructure management.
Wipro BPO
Wipro BPO employs over 22,000, of whom 3,150 are at its Hyderabad campus. The planned new recruitments will
be from among science and commerce graduates and under-graduates.
The majority of Wipro BPO’s business comes from the US, followed by Europe. The rest of the world contributes
only marginally to its top line. The company posted a turnover of $290 million in FY08.
Founded in 2002, Wipro BPO has operations in Delhi, Pune, Kolkata, Chennai, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Navi-Mumbai
(Belapur) Greater Noida and Kochi in India. It also has offices in Shanghai and Cebu in Asia and Curittiba in Brazil
and Wroclaw in Poland. It has 44 clients in segments such as banking & capital markets, insurance, travel &
hospitality, hi-tech manufacturing, telecom and healthcare.
Offices and Development Centers

(This list is incomplete and is still being updated)
• India
• Bengaluru (Headquartered)
• Chennai
• Kolkata
• Pune(Hinjawadi)
• Hyderabad
• Okhla
• Jasolla New Delhi Wipro Floating learning Centre, Electronic City,
Bangalore, India.
• Greater Noida (Wipro Technology Services Ltd has started operating at GNDC from late 2010)
• Mumbai (Wipro Technology Services Ltd. Erstwhile Citigroup Information Technology and Operation
Services)
• Gurgaon
• Kochi
• Bhubaneswar
• Coimbatore (Partially in operation)
• United States
• Mountain View, CA
• Washington, DC
• Atlanta, GA
• Oakbrook Terrace, IL
• Boston, MA
• Okemos, MI
• Troy, MI
• Bloomington, MN
• East Brunswick, NJ
• New York, NY
• Columbus, OH
• Addison, TX
• Houston, TX
• Bellevue, WA
• Kings Mountain, North Carolina, Data Center[8]
• Canada
• Mississauga, ON
• Mexico
• Monterrey
Pathankot Wap technologies
• Portugal
• Oporto
• Braga
• Latin America
• Buenos Aires
• Curitiba
• São Paulo
• China (P.R.C.)
• Shanghai
• Chengdu
References
• "Wipro Applying Thought in Schools" [9].
[2] http:/ / www. nyse. com/ about/ listed/ quickquote. html?ticker=wit
[3] "Wipro" (http:/ / www. wipro. com/ corporate/ investors/ pdf-files/ ifrs_pressrelease-Q4-FY09-10. pdf). Wipro.com. . Retrieved 2010-09-07.
[4] Qrtr_Results, Dec2010. "WIPRO_Qtr_result_dec_2010" (http:/ / www. wipro. com/ corporate/ investors/ q3_1011_pdf/
IFRS_GAAP_press_release_q3_FY10-11. pdf). www.wipro.com. . Retrieved 21 January 2011.
[5] http:/ / www. wipro. com/ index. htm
[6] "WIPRO quarter results-Sep 2009" (http:/ / www. wipro. com/ corporate/ investors/ pdf-files/ ifrs_pressrelease-Q2-FY09_10. pdf). .
[7] "India's top 10 brands" (http:/ / business. rediff. com/ slide-show/ 2010/ oct/ 26/ slide-show-1-tata-motors-is-indias-top-brand. htm).
business.rediff.com. . Retrieved 26 Oct 2010.
[8] County welcomes Wipro (http:/ / www. shelbystar. com/ news/ sent-51486-governor-town. html), The Star, retrieved 16 Nov 2010.
[9] http:/ / www. wipro. org
Information provided by Hakim Mouazam Ali
External links
• Official website (http://http://www.wipro.com/index.htm)
• Wipro at Wikinvest
Infosys 181
Infosys
Infosys Technologies Limited
Industry IT services
IT consulting
Founded 2 July 1981
Founder(s) N R Narayana Murthy

Nandan Nilekani
N. S. Raghavan
Kris Gopalakrishnan
S. D. Shibulal
K Dinesh
Ashok Arora
Headquarters Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Key people N R Narayana Murthy

(Chairman)
Kris Gopalakrishnan
(CEO & MD)
S. D. Shibulal
(COO & Director)
Products Finacle
Services Information technology consulting services, solutions and outsourcing.
Revenue [1]
21140 crore (US$4.69 billion) (31st March, 2010)

7472 crore (US$1.66 billion) (2010)
Profit [1]
5803 crore (US$1.29 billion) (2010)
Total assets [2]

$6.150 billion (2010)
Total equity [2]

$5.361 billion (2010)
Employees [3] [4]

122,468 (2010)
Divisions Infosys BPO

Infosys Consulting
Infosys Public Services
Infosys Australia
Infosys Brazil
Infosys China
Infosys Mexico
Infosys Sweden
Website [5]
Infosys.com
[6] [7]
Infosys (BSE: 500209 , NASDAQ: INFY Kannada: ಇನ್ಫೊಸಿಸ್) is an information technology services
company headquartered in Bengaluru, India. Infosys is one of the largest IT companies in India with 122,468
employees (including subsidiaries) as of 2010.[4] It has offices in 33 countries and development centres in India,
Infosys 182
China, Australia, UK, Canada and Japan.[8]
History
Infosys was founded on 2 July 1981 by seven entrepreneurs, Nagavara Ramarao Narayana Murthy, Nandan Nilekani,
Kris Gopalakrishnan, S. D. Shibulal, K Dinesh and with N. S. Raghavan officially being the first employee of the
company. The founders started the company with an initial investment of INR 10,000.[9] The company was
incorporated as "Infosys Consultants Pvt Ltd." in Model Colony, Pune as the registered office.[10]
Infosys went public in 1993. Interestingly, Infosys IPO was under
subscribed but it was bailed out by US investment banker Morgan
Stanley which picked up 13% of equity at the offer price of Rs. 95 per
share.[11] The share price surged to Rs. 8,100 by 1999. By the year
2000 Infosys's shares touched Rs. 310 before the catastrophic incident
of September 11th, changed all that.[12]
According to Forbes magazine, since listing on the Bombay Stock

Exchange till the year 2000, Infosys' sales and earnings compounded at
Infosys headquarters in Bengaluru, India
more than 70% a year.[13] In the year 2000, President of the United
States Bill Clinton complimented India on its achievements in high
technology areas citing the example of Infosys.[14] Infosys will invest $100 million (Rs 440 crore) on establishing a
20,000-seater campus in Shanghai.[15]
In 2001, it was rated Best Employer in India by Business Today.[16] Infosys was rated best employer to work for in
2000, 2001, and 2002 by Hewitt Associates. In 2007, Infosys received over 1.3 million applications and hired fewer
than 3% of applicants.[17]
Infosys was the only Indian company to win the Global MAKE (Most Admired Knowledge Enterprises) award for
the years 2003, 2004 and 2005, and is inducted into the Global Hall of Fame for the same.[18] [19]
Current share holding

Promoters and their families hold 16%.Govt. of India enterprise with 3.84% can be termed as the single largest share
holder. Govt. of UAE and Govt. of. Singapore also holds significant shares.Rest of the shares are owned by Financial
institutions,Individual investors.[20]
Initiatives
Infosys 183
In 1996, Infosys created the Infosys Foundation in the

state of Karnataka, operating in the areas of health care,
social rehabilitation and rural uplift, education, arts and
culture. Since then, this foundation has spread to the
Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Kerala, Orissa and Punjab. The Infosys
Foundation is headed by Mrs. Sudha Murthy, wife of
Founder Cum Chief Mentor Narayan Murthy
Since 2004, Infosys has embarked on a series of

initiatives to consolidate and formalize its academic
relationships worldwide under the umbrella of a
program called AcE - Academic Entente.[22] Infosys'
Infosys has the largest corporate university in the world, located on
Global Internship Program, known as InStep, is one of [21]
its Mysore campus.
the key components of the Academic Entente initiative.
It offers live projects to interns from the universities around the world. InStep recruits undergraduate, graduate and
PhD students from business, technology, and liberal arts universities to take part in an 8 to 24 week internship at one
of Infosys' global offices. InStep interns are also provided career opportunities with Infosys.
In 1997, Infosys started the "Catch them Young Program", to expose the urban youth to the world of Information
Technology by conducting a summer vacation program. The program is aimed at developing an interest and
understanding of computer science and information technology. This program is targeted at students in Grade IX
level.[23]
In 2002, the Wharton Business School of the University of Pennsylvania
and Infosys started the Wharton Infosys Business Transformation Award.
This technology award recognizes enterprises and individuals who have
transformed their businesses and the society leveraging information
technology. Past winners include Samsung, Amazon.com, Capital One,
RBS and ING Direct.
Infosys has the largest corporate education center in the world in Mysore.
It can accommodate 14000 candidates at one time.[24]
In 2009, Infosys created Infosys Prize for excellence in Physical Sciences, Mathematical Sciences, Engineering and
Computer Science, Life Sciences and Social Sciences.[25]
Research
Infosys developed a corporate R&D wing called Software Engineering and Technology Labs (SETLabs). SETLabs
was founded in 2000 to carry out applied research for the development of processes, frameworks and methodologies
to effectively capture customer requirements and to iron out common critical issues during a project life cycle.[26]
Various broad groups are Software Engg Lab, Convergence Lab, Innovation Lab, Center for KDIS, Security and
Privacy Lab and Distributed Computing Lab.
Infosys 184
Charity
In 2005, Infosys donated 10m rupees (about $226,000) to help with the effects of the 2005 Kashmir earthquake in
Pakistan.[27] Infosys does not currently have an office in Pakistan.
Global offices
Asia Pacific
India - Bengaluru, Bhubaneswar, Chandigarh, Chennai , Coimbatore , Hyderabad, Jaipur, Mangalore, Mysore, Pune,
Thiruvananthapuram Kolkata(2012),[28] Australia - Melbourne, Sydney and China - Beijing, Shanghai Hong Kong
- Hong Kong, Japan - Tokyo, Mauritius - Mauritius, New Zealand - Wellington, UAE - Sharjah, Philippines -
Taguig City, Fiji Island - Suva and Thailand - Bangkok
North America
Canada - Toronto, USA - Atlanta (GA), Bellevue (WA), Bridgewater (NJ), Charlotte (NC), Southfield (MI),
Fremont (CA), Houston (TX), Glastonbury (CT), Lake Forest (CA), Lisle (IL), New York, Phoenix (AZ), Plano
(TX), Quincy (MA), Reston (VA) and Mexico - Monterrey
Europe
Czech Republic - Brno, Belgium - Brussels, Denmark - Copenhagen, Finland - Helsinki, France - Paris,
Germany - Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Italy - Milano, Norway - Oslo, Poland - Łódź, The Netherlands - Amsterdam,
Spain - Madrid, Burgos, Sweden - Stockholm, Switzerland - Zürich, Geneva and UK - Canary Wharf, London
South America
Brazil - Belo Horizonte
Infosys, Pune campus Movie Theatre, Mysore Swimming pool & spa, Mangalore campus
campus Bangalore campus
A building in Bangalore campus Infosys Mysore campus Dancing fountains, Bangalore

Thiruvananthapuram campus campus
Infosys 185
Pune campus Swimming pool, Mysore Infosys Chennai main block at The intergerated Eco-Friendly
campus Mahindra World City, New Block at Chennai,one of the
Chennai biggest in the world
The largest TV screen in BPO Building, Bangalore Canteen, Bangalore

Asia, Bangalore campus campus campus
Notes
[1] "BSE 2010 Data" (http:/ / www. bseindia. com/ qresann/ detailedresult. asp?scrip_cd=500209& compname=INFOSYS TECHNOLOGIES
LTD. & qtr=65. 50). http:/ / www. bseindia. com. . Retrieved 2010-09-07.
[2] Rakesh R.S. Garia (2010-04-13). "Results for the Fourth Quarter and Year ended 31 March 2010" (http:/ / www. infosys. com/ investors/
reports-filings/ quarterly-results/ 2009-2010/ Q4/ Documents/ fact-sheet. pdf). infosys.com. Infosys. . Retrieved 2010-04-13.
[3] "Top 20 IT-BPO employers in India : Rediff.com Business" (http:/ / business. rediff. com/ slide-show/ 2010/ jul/ 29/
slide-show-1-tech-top-20-it-bpo-employers-in-india. htm#contentTop). Business.rediff.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-29.
[4] Infosys Technologies Limited (2010-06-30). "What We Do | About Us" (http:/ / www. infosys. com/ about/ what-we-do/ Pages/ index. aspx).
Infosys. . Retrieved 2010-07-27.
[5] http:/ / www. infosys. com/
[7] http:/ / quotes. nasdaq. com/ asp/ SummaryQuote. asp?symbol=INFY& selected=INFY
[8] Infosys Technologies Limited. "Fact File | Who We Are | About Us" (http:/ / www. infosys. com/ about/ who-we-are/ Pages/ fact-file. aspx).
Infosys. . Retrieved 2010-07-27.
[9] Narayana Murthy. "Learn entrepreneurship the Infosys way! - CNBC-TV18/TiE-Leaders and Learners" (http:/ / www. moneycontrol. com/
news/ management/ learn-entrepreneurshipinfosys-way_341544. html). Moneycontrol.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-27.
[10] "Rediff On The Net, Infotech: Infosys begins work on Rs 1.35-billion Pune centre" (http:/ / www. rediff. com/ computer/ 1999/ jan/
11infosy. htm). Rediff.com. 1999-01-11. . Retrieved 2010-07-27.
[11] "Business: Infosys: Money Machine" (http:/ / www. india-today. com/ itoday/ 19991108/ business. html). India-today.com. 1999-11-08. .
[12] "Money Machine" (http:/ / www. india-today. com/ itoday/ 19991108/ business. html). India Today. 8 November 1999. . Retrieved
209-04-12.
[13] "Passage to India" (http:/ / www. forbes. com/ forbes/ 2000/ 1030/ 6612080a. html). Forbes. 30 October 2000. . Retrieved 2009-04-12.
[14] "Clinton calls for closer ties to boost IT business" (http:/ / www. expressindia. com/ news/ fe/ daily/ 20000325/ fco25053. html). Indian
Express. 25 March 2000. . Retrieved 2009-04-12.
[15] "Infy plans Rs 440-cr China campus" (http:/ / business. rediff. com/ report/ 2010/ oct/ 22/ tech-infy-plans-rs-440-cr-china-campus. htm).
business.rediff.com. . Retrieved 25 Oct 2010.
[16] R. Sukumar. "India's Best Employers: The Top 5" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060701051112/ http:/ / www. india-today. com/
btoday/ 20010121/ cover2. html). A BT-Hewitt study. Business Today. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. india-today. com/ btoday/
20010121/ cover2. html) on 2006-07-01. . Retrieved 2006-10-10.
[17] "INFY 2007 20-F, Item 6" (http:/ / www. sec. gov/ Archives/ edgar/ data/ 1067491/ 000106749107000015/ form20f. htm#item6). Sec.gov. .
[18] "Infosys recognized as a Globally Most Admired Knowledge Enterprise for 2004" (http:/ / www. infosys. com/ newsroom/ press-releases/
Documents/ 2004/ MAKEGLOBAL-PressRelease-25Nov04. pdf) (PDF). A Teleos study. Infosys Media. . Retrieved 2004-12-01.
[19] "Infosys in the Global Hall of Fame" (http:/ / www. infosys. com/ media/ press_releases/ global-make-award-hall-of-fame. asp). .
[20] http:/ / www. infosys. com/ investors/ reports-filings/ quarterly-results/ Documents/ Share-Holding/ clause35-june30-2010. pdf
Infosys 186
[21] Infosys Technologies Limited. "Sustainability" (http:/ / www. infosys. com/ beyond-business/ pages/ index. aspx). Infosys. . Retrieved
2010-07-27.
[22] Infosys Technologies Limited. "InStep | About Internship | Global Academic Program" (http:/ / www. infosys. com/ InStepWeb/
about-internship/ global-academic-program. asp). Infosys. . Retrieved 2010-07-27.
[23] "Summer fun" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ yw/ 2004/ 08/ 14/ stories/ 2004081400640200. htm). The Hindu. 2004-06-14. . Retrieved
2006-10-12.
[24] Infosys Technologies Limited. "Sonia Gandhi Inaugurates Global Education Center in Mysore | Press Releases | Newsroom" (http:/ / www.
infosys. com/ newsroom/ press-releases/ Pages/ global-education-center-II. aspx). Infosys. . Retrieved 2010-07-27.
[25] "Infosys Prize – About" (http:/ / www. infosys-science-foundation. com/ about_prize. html). Infosys-science-foundation.com. . Retrieved
2010-07-27.
[26] "Tracking a Shopper's Habits" (http:/ / www. technologyreview. com/ Infotech/ 21161/ ?a=f). Technology Review. . Retrieved 2010-07-27.
[27] "South Asia | Indian quake aid reaches Pakistan" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ world/ south_asia/ 4334530. stm). BBC News.
2005-10-12. . Retrieved 2010-07-27.
[28] Infosys Technologies Limited. "Contact | APAC" (http:/ / www. infosys. com/ contact/ pages/ index. aspx). Infosys. . Retrieved 2010-09-07.
References
• "Infosys Overview" (http://www.infosys.com/about/what-we-do/pages/index.aspx). Retrieved 2006-08-23.
• Infosys Technologies Australia Pty Ltd. (2003-12-18). "Infosys releases agreement to acquire Expert Information
Services Pty Limited, Australia (PDF)" (http://www.infosys.com/australia/news/Documents/
infosys-acquires-expert.pdf). Press release. Retrieved 2006-10-11.
• Bharat kumar (2002-08-07). "A twist to the tale" (http://www.blonnet.com/ew/2002/08/07/stories/
2002080700070200.htm). Business Line.
• Infosys News (2007-12-12). "Latest Happenings at Infosys" (http://www.topnews.in/business-news/infosys).
Top News.
• M.Bala Murugan (2010-04-16). "Latest News" (http://www.topnews.in/business-news/infosys). Daily
Dhanthi.
External links
• Official website (http://http://www.infosys.com/)
• Infosys Consulting Division (http://www.infosysconsulting.com/)
• Infosys Blogs Website (http://www.infosysblogs.com/)
• Infosys Foundation website (http://www.infosys.com/infosys_foundation/index.htm)
• Infosys Science Foundation website (http://www.infosys-science-foundation.com/)
• Infosys Campus Connect Program website (https://campusconnect.infosys.com/login.aspx)
Zenith Computers
Zenith Computers Limited
Type [1]
Public BSE: 517164
Industry Computer
Founded 1980
Founder(s) Mr.Raj Saraf
Headquarters Mumbai, India
Key people Mr.Raj Saraf
Products Computer
Revenue [2]
310.998 crore (US$69.04 million) (2009)
Net income INR Rs. 15.324 Crores (2009)
Website [3]
zenithpc.com
Zenith Computers Limited [4] BSE: 517164 [1] is the second largest Personal Computer manufacturer in India.
Zenith produces desktop and laptop computers. Its head office is located in Mumbai, with 15 branches all across
India. All the fabrication happens in Zenith's ISO 14001 certified - 60000-square-foot (5600 m2) factory in Goa.
Currently, Zenith has 500 Zenith PC World stores and 1000 dealers nationwide. On the worldwide front, Zenith PCs
and Laptops are now available in South America, Europe, Middle East and Africa, SAARC and Asia.
Products
Currently Zenith sells its products all across India. These include:
Zenith Corporate PC H55G - Model 2 *[5]
Zenith Corporate PC 740A*[6]
Zenith Corporate PC 785*[7]
Zenith Corporate PC G41A*[8]
Smart Style Performance PC 785 *[9]
Zenith PC Atom *[10]
Zenith Smart Style Performance PC G31 *[11]
Zenith Smart Style GREEN PC *[12]
Zenith Smart Style THIN PC *[13]
Zenith Corporate PC G31A *[14]
Zenith Corporate PC H55G *[15]
Zenith Admirale *[16]
Zenith Director Plus Ultra *[17]
Zenith ZBOOK Dock *[18]

Zenith Smart Style Thin Client - Diskless PC *[19]
Zenith Thin Client - Diskless PC *[20]
• Desktops [21] powered by Intel Processors and AMD Processors
History
Established in 1980 by Mr. Raj Saraf; Zenith has strived to bring the latest technology products to the Indian market.
Thereby, creating a market in India for computing in offices, banks, households, education and every sector that has
benefited from technological advancement. Yet, refusing to take much credit for the fact that Zenith launched
laptops in India for the first time, and introduced networking in India for the first time, and many others such as
Unix, CPM, touch screens and other innovations.
When Zenith began, it was ranked the 59th PC Company, with many major business houses having entered this new
and exciting space, and has become the 2nd largest PC Company in India.
Innovation
Innovation as Legacy - Zenith constantly focuses on releasing the latest technology, creating products specific to the
Indian Market by keeping its products affordable and accessible.
Innovation in Research & Development - using the concept Management by TechnologyTM Zenith is able to improve
business efficiencies and integrate technology in areas that are currently offline.
The Zenith NPD (New Product Development) Centre in Mumbai researches, ideates, develops and manufactures
PCs and Laptops for Computing, Communication and Entertainment.
Innovation in Reach - The first Indian PC company to reach the Indian hinterland with its retail expansion plan in
2001.
Reference
[2] http:/ / www. bseindia. com/ qresann/ results. asp?scripcd=517164& scripname=ZENITH%20COMPUTERS%20LTD. & type=61. 5&
quarter=MC2008-2009& ResType=& checkcons=
[3] http:/ / www. zenithpc. com/
[4] http:/ / www. zenithpc. com
[5] http:/ / www. zenith-india. com/ zenithcorporate-pch55g-model2. aspx
[6] http:/ / www. zenith-india. com/ zenithcorporate-pc740a. aspx
[7] http:/ / www. zenith-india. com/ zenithcorporate-pc785. aspx
[8] http:/ / www. zenith-india. com/ zenithcorporate-pcg41a. aspx
[9] http:/ / www. zenith-india. com/ smartstyleperformance-pc785. aspx
[10] http:/ / www. zenith-india. com/ zenithpc-atom. aspx
[11] http:/ / www. zenith-india. com/ zenithsmartstyleperformance-pcg31. aspx
[12] http:/ / www. zenith-india. com/ zenithsmartstyle-greenpc. aspx
[13] http:/ / www. zenith-india. com/ zenithsmartstyle-thinpc. aspx
[14] http:/ / www. zenith-india. com/ zenithcorporate-pcg31a. aspx
[15] http:/ / www. zenith-india. com/ zenithcorporate-pch55g. aspx
[16] http:/ / www. zenith-india. com/ zenith-admirale. aspx
[17] http:/ / www. zenith-india. com/ zenith-directorplusultra. aspx
[18] http:/ / www. zenith-india. com/ zenith-zbookdock. aspx
[19] http:/ / www. zenith-india. com/ zenithsmartstylethinclient--disklesspc. aspx
[20] http:/ / www. zenith-india. com/ zeniththinclient--disklesspc. aspx
[21] http:/ / www. zenith-india. com/ home-desktops. aspx
Micro-Star International
MSI
Micro-Star International Co., Ltd
Type [1]
Public TWSE: 2377
Industry Computer hardware

Electronics
Founded 1986
Headquarters Zhonghe District, New Taipei City, Taiwan[2]
Products Notebooks, Motherboards, Video Cards, Barebone, Consumer Electronics, Servers, Industrial Computing, All-in-One PC, Medical
[3]
Devices
Revenue [4]
TW$74.24 billion (2005)
Employees [5]
18,000
Website http:/ / www. msi. com
Micro-Star International Co., Ltd (MSI) (Chinese: 微星科技; pinyin: Weixīng Keji) is a Taiwan-based electronics
company and one of the world's largest motherboard and video card manufacturers.
Overview
MSI is one of the top three motherboard and video card manufacturers worldwide.[4] [5] [6] In addition, MSI also
manufactures a wide range of products including expansion cards, servers, barebone computers, notebooks, car
infotainment products, and All-in-One PCs.[7]
History
MSI was established in August 1986 in Jhonghe, Taipei by 5 founders – Joseph Hsu, Jeans Huang, Frank Lin,
Kenny Yu, and Henry Lu.[2] [5] [7] MSI concentrated on developing and manufacturing computer mainboards and
graphics cards in the beginning. In 1987, the company produced the world's first overclocking motherboard.[5]
MSI has also expanded into mainland China, opening its Baoan Plant in Shenzhen in 2000 and establishing research
and development facilities Kunshan in 2001.[7] Its annual motherboard and video card production reached 20.8
million units and 11.8 million units, respectively.[7] In 2005, it has worldwide sales of US$2.4 billion.[4]
Business Operations
In 1995, MSI kicked off its diversified business operation strategy, starting from the motherboard and video card
industries and extending into consumer electronics. Currently its portfolio includes notebooks, communication
devices, barebone systems, servers/workstations, multimedia, industrial computing, and others.
References
[1] http:/ / finance. yahoo. com/ q?m=TW& s=2377. TW
[2] "MSI Company Background" (http:/ / wimaxtaipei. tw/ suppliers_profile. php?id=182). WiMAX Taipei. . Retrieved 2010-07-18.
[3] "About MSI: Product Lines" (http:/ / us. msi. com/ index. php?func=html& name=about_product). MSI. . Retrieved 2010-07-18.
[4] "An Overview of MSI" (http:/ / www. msimobile. com/ aboutmsi. aspx). MSI Mobile. . Retrieved 2010-07-18.
[5] "MSI Company Profile" (http:/ / tw. msi. com/ index. php?func=html& name=about_intro). MSI. . Retrieved 2010-07-18.
[6] "A List of the Top Computer Motherboard Brands" (http:/ / www. brighthub. com/ computing/ hardware/ articles/ 66374. aspx). Bright Hub.
2010-03-15. . Retrieved 2010-07-18.
[7] "Company Profile" (http:/ / us. msi. com/ index. php?func=html& name=about_intro). MSI. . Retrieved 2010-07-18.
External links
• Official website (http://www.msi.com)
• MSI-Corporate Social Responsibility (http://www.msi.com/html/popup/csr/)
• List of MSI Radeon based graphics cards (http://radeonspecs.com/msi.php)
• Digitimes article about Dual Core-cell technology (http://www.digitimes.com/news/a20061107A7039.html)
MSI protocol
The MSI protocol is a basic cache coherence protocol that is used in multiprocessor systems. As with other cache
coherency protocols, the letters of the protocol name identify the possible states in which a cache line can be. So, for
MSI, each block contained inside a cache can have one of three possible states:
• Modified: The block has been modified in the cache. The data in the cache is then inconsistent with the backing
store (e.g. memory). A cache with a block in the "M" state has the responsibility to write the block to the backing
store when it is evicted.
• Shared: This block is unmodified and exists in at least one cache. The cache can evict the data without writing it
to the backing store.
• Invalid: This block is invalid, and must be fetched from memory or another cache if the block is to be stored in
this cache.
These coherency states are maintained through communication between the caches and the backing store. The caches
have different responsibilities when blocks are read or written, or when they learn of other caches issuing reads or
writes for a block.
When a read request arrives at a cache for a block in the "M" or "S" states, the cache supplies the data. If the block is
not in the cache (in the "I" state), it must verify that the line is not in the "M" state in any other cache. Different
caching architectures handle this differently. For example, bus architectures often perform snooping, where the read
request is broadcast to all of the caches. Other architectures include cache directories which have agents (directories)
that know which caches last had copies of a particular cache block. If another cache has the block in the "M" state, it
must write back the data to the backing store and go to the "S" or "I" states. Once any "M" line is written back, the
cache obtains the block from either the backing store, or another cache with the data in the "S" state. The cache can
then supply the data to the requestor. After supplying the data, the cache block is in the "S" state.
MSI protocol 191
When a write request arrives at a cache for a block in the "M" state, the cache modifies the data locally. If the block
is in the "S" state, the cache must notify any other caches that might contain the block in the "S" state that they must
evict the block. This notification may be via bus snooping or a directory, as described above. Then the data may be
locally modified. If the block is in the "I" state, the cache must notify any other caches that might contain the block
in the "S" or "M" states that they must evict the block. If the block is in another cache in the "M" state, that cache
must either write the data to the backing store or supply it to the requesting cache. If at this point the cache does not
yet have the block locally, the block is read from the backing store before being modified in the cache. After the data
is modified, the cache block is in the "M" state.
For any given pair of caches, the permitted states of a given cache line are as follows:
M S I
M
S
I
Usages
This protocol was used in the SGI 4D machine.
Variants
Most modern systems use variants of the MSI protocol to reduce the amount of traffic in the coherency interconnect.
The MESI protocol adds an "Exclusive" state to reduce the traffic caused by writes of blocks that only exist in one
cache. The MOSI protocol adds an "Owned" state to reduce the traffic caused by write-backs of blocks that are read
by other caches. The MOESI protocol does both of these things.
University of Minnesota Supercomputing

Institute
The University of Minnesota Supercomputing Institute (MSI) in Minneapolis, Minnesota is an interdisciplinary
research program providing supercomputing resources and user support to faculty and researchers. MSI is located on
the University of Minnesota’s Twin Cities campus in Walter Library. MSI provides hardware, software, and
technical support resources to researchers at the University of Minnesota and other higher educational institutions in
Minnesota.
History
In 1981, the University of Minnesota was the first U.S. University to acquire a supercomputer (a Cray-1). The
Supercomputing Institute was created in 1984 to provide high-performance computing resources to the University of
Minnesota's research community.
In August 2010, Jorge Viñals, former director of CLUMEQ, a Canadian Supercomputing Center led by McGill
University in Montreal and Quebec City, became the new director of MSI. He is also a professor of physics at the
University of Minnesota.
Mission
The mission of the institute is supercomputing research , broadly defined as involving the use of high-performance
computing environments to address problems in the physical, biological, medical, mathematical, and computing
sciences and engineering and other fields. The goal is to promote solutions to problems that could not otherwise be
resolved.
Supercomputing capabilities
Core resources
• Itasca: HP Linux cluster with 1,091 HP ProLiant BL280c G6 blade servers, each with two-socket, quad-core 2.8
GHz Intel Xeon X5560 "Nehalem EP" processors sharing 24 GB of system memory, with a 40-gigabit QDR
InfiniBand (IB) interconnect.
• Calhoun: SGI Altix Altix XE 1300 cluster
• Elmo: Sun Fire X4600 Linux cluster
• Koronis: SGI UV 1000 cluster with associated workstations and storage
Laboratories
• Basic Sciences Computing (BSCL)
• Computational Genetics (CGL)
• Biomedical Modeling, Simulation, and Design (BMSDL)
• LCSE-MSI Visualization Laboratory (LMVL)
• Scientific Data Management (SDML)
• Scientific Development and Visualization (SDVL)
• MSI-UMR BICB Computational Laboratory (UMBCL)
Undergraduate internship program

MSI offers a summer internship program for undergraduates. Interns work with faculty members and their research
groups on projects addressing problems in science and engineering. This includes high-performance computing and
scientific modeling and simulation, graphics, visualization, informatics, and high-performance network
communications.
References
• Moore, Rick. "Blade Runner : UMNews." University of Minnesota. Web. 29 July 2010.
<http://www1.umn.edu/news/features/2009/UR_CONTENT_148391.html>.
• Vance, Ashlee. "Minnesota’s Enormous Apples Computer - Bits Blog - NYTimes.com." Technology - Bits Blog -
NYTimes.com. Web. 29 July 2010.
<http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/12/10/minnesotas-enormous-apples-computer/?scp=2&sq=university of
Minnesota supercomputing&st=cse>
External links
• Minnesota Supercomputing Institute [1]
• University of Minnesota [2]
References
[1] https:/ / www. msi. umn. edu
[2] http:/ / www. umn. edu
Centre for Development of Advanced Computing

Centre For Development of
Advanced Computing
Motto The Supercomputing People
Established 1984
Type Research and Development
Location Pune, India
Campus Urban
Website [1]
www.cdac.in
Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) is the premier R&D organization of the Department
of Information Technology (DIT), Ministry of Communications & Information Technology (MCIT) for carrying out
R&D in IT, Electronics and associated areas.Â Different areas of C-DAC, had originated at different times, many of
which came out as a result of identification of opportunities.
The setting up of C-DAC in 1988 itself was to built Supercomputers in context of denial of import of
Supercomputers by USA. Since then C-DAC has been undertaking building of multiple generations of
Supercomputer starting from PARAM with 1 GF in 1988. Almost at the same time, C-DAC started building Indian
Language Computing Solutions with setting up of GIST group (Graphics and Intelligence based Script Technology);
National Centre for Software Technology (NCST) set up in 1985 had also initiated work in Indian Language
Computing around the same period. Electronic Research and Development Centre of India (ER&DCI) with various
constituents starting as adjunct entities of various State Electronic Corporations, had been brought under the hold of
Department of Electronics and Telecommunications (now DIT) in around 1988. They were focusing on various
aspects of applied electronics, technology and applications. With the passage of time as a result of creative echo
system that got set up in C-DAC, more areas such as Health Informatics, etc., got created; while right from the
beginning the focus of NCST was on Software Technologies; similarly C-DAC started its education & training
activities in 1994 as a spin-off with the passage of time, it grew to a large efforts to meet the growing needs of Indian
Industry for finishing schools. C-DAC has today emerged as a premier third party R&D organization in IT&E
(Information Technologies and Electronics) in the country working on strengthening national technological
capabilities in the context of global developments in the field and responding to change in the market need in
selected foundation areas.Â In that process, C-DAC represents a unique facet working in close junction with DIT to
realize nation's policy and pragmatic interventions and initiatives in Information Technology. As an institution for
high-end Research and Development (R&D), C-DAC has been at the forefront of the Information Technology (IT)
revolution, constantly building capacities in emerging/enabling technologies and innovating and leveraging its
expertise, caliber, skill sets to develop and deploy IT products and solutions for different sectors of the economy, as
per the mandate of its parent, the Department of Information Technology, Ministry of Communications and
Information Technology, Government of India and other stakeholders including funding agencies, collaborators,
users and the market-place.
Starting from its initial mission on building indigenous supercomputers, Centre For Development of Advanced
Computing (C-DAC) has progressively grown to build an eco-system and institutional framework for innovation,
technology development, skills, delivery plans, collaboration, partnership and market orientation in a number of
niche areas of national importance and market relevance in ICT and Electronics.
Through in-house research, technology and product development efforts and in collaboration with Academia,
Research Labs and Industry in India or abroad, it endeavours to identity promising ideas nurtured building of ideas
and competencies convert many of them into practical tools, technologies, products and services to meet the needs of
: SMEs and other industrial players in the country; intermediate players; and end-users in Science and Engineering,
manufacturing & service sectors, government, health, development and strategic sectors.
Of special relevance to C-DAC are innovation and development of solutions impacting large public, in Indian
context or those where technology and innovative approaches can make a big difference in cost or performance, offer
new functionalities or contribute to better quality of life.
C-DAC’s focus has been on emerging as a leader in chosen enabling technology areas and work towards integration
of these in end-to-end solutions in various verticals/domains including infrastructure. The latter is undertaken
oftentimes by C-DAC itself but equally or more often in conjunction/collaboration with other public and private
agencies through a consortium and partnership mode. Institutional innovation to support scaling up process of such
efforts is also one of the priority objectives.
The focal areas in terms of enabling technologies as outlined above would be:
§ High Performance Computing & Grid Computing § Language Computing § Software Technologies with special
reference to Free/Open Source Software § Professional Electronics including VLSI and Embedded Systems § Cyber
Security § Health Informatics § Education & Training with special reference to Finishing School and areas of
specialized skills
C-DAC has its head office in Pune & other offices at Mumbai (Juhu, Nariman Point), Navi Mumbai (Kharghar),
Mohali (Punjab), Bangalore (Electronics City and Visvesvaraya Centre), Noida, Hyderabad (JNTU Campus,
Ameerpet), Chennai, Kolkata, Delhi and Trivandrum.
Research
The technologies dealt with within the house of C-DAC are Natural language processing (NLP), Artificial
Intelligence (AI), e-Learning, Multilingual computing, Multimedia computing, Geomatics, Cyber Security, Real
Time Systems, Software & Industrial automation, High Performance Computing, Data Warehousing/Data Mining,
Digital/Broadband Wireless networks, Modeling and Visualization etc. The sectors addressed are Finance,
Healthcare, Power, Steel, Defence, Telecom, Agriculture, Industrial Control, Broadcasting, Education and
e-Governance.
Some of the major research areas are:
• Graphics and Intelligence based scripting Technology: GIST is one of the Dynamic Groups working in
Multilingual Technologies.
• System Area Network: HTDG is currently working on products based on the VI Architecture specification. These
include high-performance SAN interface cards and high-speed, scalable switches for these SANs.
• Reconfigurable Computing System: Reconfigurable Computing System Cards [2] at C-DAC
• Parallel Programming Environments
• High Performance Communication Subsystems
• High Performance Storage Systems
• Computational Atmospheric Sciences
• Computational Structural Mechanics
• Computational Fluid Dynamics
• Seismic Data Processing

• Bioinformatics
• TETRA
• Basic Sciences
• Evolutionary Computing
Achievements
• Established the first international Internet gateway into India
• Vartalaap, a Unicode IRC Server
• enabled rendering of Devanagari and other Indian scripts at the OS level in Microsoft Windows 2000/XP.
• N@G : Network at guard, An intrusion detection system
• Awards [3]
Indic computing related products

• InScript - The standard keyboard for Indian languages.
• GIST
• Shrutlekhan-Rajbhasha - Hindi speech to text software.
• MANTRA-Rajbhasha - A machine assisted translation system which translates from English to Hindi.
• Vachantar-Rajbhasha - A speech to text software that takes English sound as input and translates it to Hindi text.
Notable ex-CDACians
• Dr. Vijay P. Bhatkar , Founding Executive Director,
• Dr. Srinivasan Ramani, founder NCST; Director, HP Labs India; Advisor to UN on Information and
Communication Technologies
• Prof. Sudhir P. Mudur, co-founder NCST; Professor, Computer Science Dept., Concordia University
• P. Sadanandan, co-founder NCST
• Vijayraman, director Persistent Systems
• KSR Anjenayulu
External links
• C-DAC Pune (Headquarters) [1]
• C-DAC Mumbai [4]
• C-DAC Noida [5]
• C-DAC Chennai [6]
• C-DAC Perambalur [7]
• C-DAC Hyderabad [8]
• CDAC-Bengaluru [9]
• C-DAC Kolkata [10]
References
[1] http:/ / www. cdac. in/
[2] http:/ / www. cdac. in/ html/ htdg/ products/ recocard. asp
[3] http:/ / www. cdac. in/ html/ about/ awards. asp
[4] http:/ / www. cdacmumbai. in/
[5] http:/ / www. cdacnoida. in/
[6] http:/ / www. cdacchennai. in
[7] http:/ / www. cdacpblr. in
[8] http:/ / www. cdachyd. in/
[9] http:/ / www. cdacbangalore. in/
[10] http:/ / www. kolkatacdac. in/
Article Sources and Contributors

User:Rajah2770 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=416910398 Contributors: ArcAngel, JohnCD, MatthewVanitas, Rajah2770
Computer Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=418412877 Contributors: 1297, 144.92.164.xxx, 193.203.83.xxx, 24fan24, 7265, 876wer, A D Monroe III, A Softer Answer, A
d777, A2raya07, ABShipper, AThing, Aaron Schulz, AaronTownsend, Abc753159, Abelson, Abiyoyo, Abner Doon, Academic Challenger, Acasson, Accurizer, Aceofskies05, Acroterion,
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Andrew73, Andrewbadr, Andrewpmk, Android79, Andy Janata, Andy24, Andycjp, AngelOfSadness, Angela, Anger22, Angus Lepper, Anmol9999, Anonymous editor, Anshuman.jrt, Antandrus,
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Caknuck, Cal T, Camarcus, Cameron168, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canderson7, Cangate, CanisRufus, CapitalR, CaptainVindaloo, Casper2k3, Catdude, CatherineMunro, Causa sui, Cause
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HCL Enterprise Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=416504754 Contributors: 12fighter, AK Auto, Abhishek b4u, Allstarecho, Arpit1992, BD2412, Belkin.belkin, Bellenion,
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Centre for Development of Advanced Computing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=418312422 Contributors: 7, Amitauti, Anandcv, Ashupa, BD2412, Belasd, Byomkesh
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Computer and Operating Systems

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Computer and Operating Systems

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Computer operating systems

Residence Nagaon, Assam, India

Education PhD, PDF, FRAS

Alma mater University of Jodhpur

Occupation Assistant Professor(Lecturer), Diphu Govt. College , Diphu,Assam,India

Years active 2004- onwards

Employer Diphu Government College

Known for Lecturer ,Assistant Professor,Mathematician,Academician,Fusion,Astronomy

Home town Nagaon, Assam, India

Salary Rs 40000 per month

Height 6 feet and 2 inches

Title Doctorate, Dr., FRAS (London), Assam Education Service, AES

Religion Sunni Islam,

Spouse Helmin Begum Hazarika

Children Laquit Ali Hazarika(son), Danisha Begum Hazarika(daughter)

Call-sign Drabrh or Raja

Dr.A.B.Rajib Hazarika with Laquit (son) and Danisha(daughter)

Awards and recognition

[44] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ File:Abstracts. pdf?page=2

Limited-function early computers

The "castle clock", an astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari in

First general-purpose computers

In the late 1880s, Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a

The Atanasoff–Berry Computer (ABC) was among the first electronic

George Stibitz is internationally recognized as a father of the modern

A succession of steadily more powerful and flexible computing devices

• Konrad Zuse's electromechanical "Z machines". The Z3 (1941) was

• The U.S. Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory ENIAC (1946),

"stored program architecture" or von Neumann architecture. This

Semiconductors and microprocessors

Stored program architecture

mov #0, sum ; set sum to 0

halt ; end of program. stop running

Higher-level languages and program design

A key component common to all CPUs is the

Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)

Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures

Networking and the Internet

In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions

Computer architecture paradigms

History of computing hardware

Programmable Devices Jacquard loom, Analytical engine, Harvard Mark I, Z3

Programmable Devices Colossus, ENIAC, Manchester Small-Scale Experimental

Fourth Generation (VLSI integrated Minicomputer VAX, IBM System i

16-bit microcomputer Intel 8088, Zilog Z8000, WDC 65816/65802

32-bit microcomputer Intel 80386, Pentium, Motorola 68000, ARM architecture

[40] Alpha, MIPS, PA-RISC, PowerPC, SPARC, x86-64

Embedded computer Intel 8048, Intel 8051

Personal computer Desktop computer, Home computer, Laptop computer,

Theoretical/experimental Quantum computer, Chemical

Other Hardware Topics

Output Monitor, Printer, Loudspeaker

Computer busses Short range RS-232, SCSI, PCI, USB

Long range (Computer Ethernet, ATM, FDDI

DOS 86-DOS (QDOS), PC-DOS, MS-DOS, DR-DOS, FreeDOS

Mac OS Mac OS classic, Mac OS X

Embedded and List of embedded operating systems

Experimental Amoeba, Oberon/Bluebottle, Plan 9 from Bell Labs

Library Multimedia DirectX, OpenGL, OpenAL

Programming library C standard library, Standard Template Library

Data Protocol TCP/IP, Kermit, FTP, HTTP, SMTP

File format HTML, XML, JPEG, MPEG, PNG

Text-based user Command-line interface, Text user interface