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Aristotle is generally credited with developing the basics of the system of rhetoric which has
been the influencing and motivating factor for the the development of rhetorical theory from
ancient through modern times.

The Rhetoric is commonly regarded by most writers as the most important single work on
persuasion ever written.

Like the other works of his that have fortunately survived, the Rhetoric seems not to have been
intended for publication, being instead a collection of his students' notes in response to his
lectures.

The Rhetoric was developed by Aristotle during a course of two periods when he was in Athens,
the first between 367 to 347 BC when he was seconded to Plato in the Academy and the second
from 335 to 322 BC when he was running his own school, the Lyceum.

One of the most important contributions of Aristotle's approach was that he found rhetoric as
one of the three key elements of philosophy, along with logic and dialectic. Rhetoric consists of
three books.

A.? Book 1 offers a general overview, presenting the purposes of rhetoric and a working
definition; it also offers a detailed discussion of the major contexts and types of rhetoric.
B.? Book 2 discusses in detail the three means of persuasion that an orator must rely on:
those grounded in credibility (ethos), in the emotions and psychology of the audience
(pathos), and in patterns of reasoning (logos).
C.? Book3 introduces the elements of style which is word choice, metaphor, and sentence
structure and arrangement. Some attention is paid to delivery, but generally the reader is
referred to the Poetics for more information in that area.
In his first book he defines rhetoric as counterpart of dialectic and he explains the similarities
between the two. He talks about instances provided by speech and introduces the paradigms and
syllogisms as means of persuasion.

He also talks and explains about the judicial rhetoric hence discussing people¶s dispositions of
mind and whom people wrong from the pleasure.

Aristotle¶s classification of justness is explained in judicial rhetoric.

In his second book he generally concentrates on ethos and pathos both affect judgment. He refers
to the effect of ethos and pathos on an audience since a writer needs to exhibit these modes of
persuasion before that audience. In this book he discusses the different types of emotions and
how to arouse these emotions in an audience so that a speaker might be able to produce the
desired action successfully. Then he talks about the Adapting the Character of the Speech to the
Character of the Audience and adjust the ethos according to different audience to address them
successfully. He discuss the dialectical Features of Rhetoric Common to All Three Genres
Although Book II primarily focuses on ethos and pathos, Aristotle
discusses paradigm and enthymeme as 2 common modes of persuasion. There are basically two
types of paradigm:

1.? comparisons and referencing that which has happened before

2.? fables inventing illustration.

In all of these techniques, Aristotle explains popular wisdom & audiences as a central guide.
Thus, the speaker¶s effect on the audience serves as a key theme of Book2.

In the end of the Book2 Aristotle talks about the transition to Book3. The transition concludes
the discussion of pathos, ethos, paradigms, enthymemes, and maxims so that Book III may focus
on delivery, style, and arrangement. Book III is also considered a connection of Greek stylistic
devices on rhetoric. However, Book III contains informative information on style which refers to
the ³way of saying´ and taxis, which is also known as the technique of the arrangement of
word.
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Aristotle gave the evidence of the rhetorical triangle in many of his writings. The three elements
of this triangle is the speaker, the audience and the subject. But before we explain what these
elements mean, we should understand the meaning of rhetoric first:-

Rhetoric basically means the ability of observing the element of persuasion in any given case. In
his language the speaker is known as the rhetor.

Aristotle firmly believed that from the world around them, speakers could observe how
communication can happen and hence were able to use that understanding to develop logical
and convincing arguments.

In order to do that, speakers needed to look at three elements, graphically

represented by what we now call the rhetorical triangle:
åhen a spekarer/ rhetor begins to conceive any form of writing he starts the process of invention
hence at this stage the speaker must take into account
three elements: the subject, the audience, and the speaker.

The three elements are interconnected and interdependent on each other; hence, the triangle
signifies that.

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the subject means that the writer/speaker evaluates what he or she knows
already and needs to know. He then investigates perspectives, and determines the various forms
evidence or proofs that seem most useful.

Students are often taught how to conduct a thorogh research into a particular subject they are
supposed to write on and how to support his/ her claims with appropriate evidence, and it is the
subject point of the triangle that students are most aware of and feel most confident about.
But, as Aristotle demonstrates, knowing a subject is only one dimension of composing.
Considering the audience means speculating about the reader¶s expectations, knowledge, and
disposition with regard to the subject writers explore.
åhen students respond to an assignment given by a teacher, they have the advantage of knowing
a bit of what their audience that is his/ her teacher expects from them.

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The utilisation of experience and observation brings about Aristotle to the Ê

point of the
triangle.
åriters utilize
1.? who they are
2.? what they know and feel
3.? what they¶ve seen and done to
form a particular attitude toward a subject and their understanding of a reader. Decisions about
formal and informal language, the use of narrative or quotations, the tone of familiarity or
objectivity, come as a result of writers considering their speaking voices on the page.
The creation of that voice Aristotle called the
Ê, the character the
speaker creates as he or she writes.

Many teachers often use the triangle to help students envision the rhetorical situation to write an
effective essay.
Aristotle saw these rhetorical elements coming from lived experience.

 
Audience comprises of the receivers of the essay. The person who actually receives, reads and
hence builds the apt perception.
The main aim with any audience is to be able to convey the main jist of thoughts, the logic and
the correct argument in a clear and apt manner. Just the way the author wants to convey his idea.
Audience is the main and most important part. It is here where all the thinking and the subject
understand percolates. It is here where the success of the author is determined. Hence a
successful essay is that in which the speaker successfully makes his point clear to the audience in
an apt and correct manner.
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Argumentative writing is one of the basic forms of Student Academic åriting. The main aim of
such writing is to persuade your audience that your ideas are relevant or more relevant than
someone else¶s

The great Greek philosopher, Aristotle divided the persuasive techniques into three main
categories:-

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In the following section we describe these three forms in detail

Ethos ± the source¶s credibility/author¶s authority

Ethos or also known as ethical appeal simply implies convincing the audience through the main
character. To be able to establish oneself as a person/author worth listening to is the main area of
problem in any form of argumentation. It is an established fact that we tend to believe those
whom we respect. Hence the author should make himself to be a person who is likeable and
worthy of respect.

åriters utilize Ethos when they through their writing demonstrate their credibility, good-
willness, and knowledge. It is also when the author connects their thinking to that of the reader¶s
morals and beliefs.

The focus on a good character means that the audience and speakers are able to assume the best
intentions and truth about an issue.

The use of research and quotations demonstrates to a teacher the student¶s meticulous and
hardworking nature.

Application of Ethos/Ethical appeal in writing:-

In order to achieve the ethical appeal of writing, we can convey it in the following manner:-

1.? Tone and style of the message

2.? Referring to different views by the author
 3.? Since this is also known as appeal from credibility, it can also be affected by witer¶s
reputation, past record, form of writing, expertise in the field

Relevance of Ethos in today¶s writing

In a culture where monitory appleals have surpassed appeals from one¶s character, ethics and
morals, the importance of ETHOS becomes both important and relevant.

Our culture has adequate amounts of privileges and freedom / rights for free speech and personal
equality. These rights and freedoms help us to make ways to attain credibility easier and
smoother.

Aristotle advised to inspire confidence into the author¶s own character in the three following
avenues

1.? Good sense

2.? Good moral character
3.? Goodwill

PATHOS simply means the persuasion by appealing to the reader¶s emotions. Emotional appeals
are often used by authors in various forms of classic essays to contemporary advertisements .

Emotional appeal is a tool which can be often used to enhance an argument.

Also known as appeal to audience sympathies and imagination, pathos is an effective tool of any
written essay. it is always not about only the emotion, often it involves understanding writer¶s
point of view.

Values, beliefs and understandings of the writer are often included in a story and conveyed
imaginatively to the reader. Pathos thus refers to the emotional and imaginative impact of the
message on an audience i.e. the power with which the writer is able to move the audience with
the emotional impact.

Aristotle advised to inspire emotional appeal into in the following manner:-

1.? Emotional/motivational appeal

2.? Vivid language
 3.? Emotional language
4.? Numerous sensory details

Since a long time, many authors have considered pathos as the strongest of all appeals.. it
involves audience¶s sense of identity, self interest and their emotions.

Relevance of Pathos in today¶s writing

An appeal to one¶s self-interest/identity often attracts common biases. In today¶s world, one
naturally bends towards the direction which is advantageous to us. åriters who belong to groups
that one can identify, often sounds and seems more compelling.

Emotions often strongly assist and also determine persuasion. For eg, for anger, authors often
add negative evaluation.

Though direct appeals to specific emotions are rarely effective, persuasive techniques that instill
/ inculcate a specific emotion are easier and more effective.

To establish pathos , author should establish a state of reception for their ideas. Knowledge about
psychology helps in this avenue .

Students often utilize this type of appeal when they use their own personal stories or
observations, sometimes even within a piece of analytical writing, where it can work
dramatically well to provoke readers¶ emotional reaction. Figurative language is often
Also used by writers for the same purpose.

LOGOS

Also known as Logical Appeal, Logos means persuading the reader¶s emotions by logic. This
technique is the most important and was Aristotle¶s favorite.

There are two main types of reasoning i.e. Deductive and inductive. Giving reason for any
argumentative essay is extremely important and this element deals with the same.

Often referring to the internal consistency of the message, it includes the clarity of the claim, the
logic of it¶s reasons, and the effectiveness of the supporting evidence so given and the facts and
statistics to help support the argument.
The argument¶s Logical appeal is the basis of LOGOS

Application in today¶s writing:-

Logos defines the reason for any argument/ content of an essay. There are many ways to describe
the argument. These can be scattered throughout the argument directly or indirectly.

The objects of this dimension are either facts or values but Some but basicallyevery argument
has got to come down to certain areas of agreement as shared between author and the audience.

The following can be kept in mind

1. Are the arguments based on definition?

2. Does the author makes comparisons and cite parallel cases?

3. Are there appeals to consequences?

4. Does the author rely on testimony or authority by citing the received opinions of experts? Or is
there some kind of authoritative reference group created?

Inductive appeal:- this type of logic is simple and direct

Deductive appeal :- here the logic is dedusive where he/she is given some general propositions
and then drawing from them a specific truth.

For any student the practice of logical thinking which informs speakers¶ decisions and readers¶
responses is extremely important and necessary.

Hence by looking into all these three elements, a student can learn how to use and be able to
rightfully and logically apply different important persuasive techniques in order to write effective
essays in his/ her student academic course.
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After a thorough analysis of what the three elements were, two more elements namely
CONTEXT AND PURPOSE were added.

As we have already studied the triangle compromising of the speaker, subject and the audience ,
context and purpose were added to it

The p
here means the area in which writing or speaking occurs and the emerging aim or

 Ê
is the one that underlies many of the writer¶s decisions.
Aristotle and other classical rhetoricians were able to assume context and aim partially which is
evident but these two considerations affect every element of the rhetorical triangle.

SUMMARY

åhen we study rhetorics we understand what do students need to know about rhetoric. They
need toknow basically how to identify them in texts and hence they read they can in turn practice
them in their own writing, often to great effect.
it¶s more important for any student to be able to recognize how figures of speech affect readers
and eventually be able to use them effectively to persuade and communicate

åhat basically the students need to know about rhetoric is in many ways what they know
already about the way they interact with others and with the world.

Teaching the interconnection that are present between the words they work with in the classroom
and the world outside, this practice can effectively challenge and engage students in powerful
ways as they find out how much they can use of rhetoric¶s and what they know of the available
means of persuasion to learn more.
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Adler, Mortimer (1983), mÊ
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Bywater, New York, Random House.

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translated by Lane Cooper (New York, 1960), pp. 8-9 (13,56a), 91 -92
(1.378a).

Edward L. Pross, "pp   pÊ m
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New York (1997)

Aristotle m
p (2004) translated by å. Ryhs Roberts, Dover Thrift Edition Dover
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Longman, England
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