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Institutional Discrimination:

Gender Stratification

August 18, 2008


by Russ Long

Economic independence is a primary goal for many of the oppressed in the United States. In American society work is the preferred avenue people
follow in pursuit of economic independence. Often, however, those most in need in society have the greatest difficulty finding work (or at least work
that offers adequate compensation). The material presented in this article specifically targets women. Much of it, however, applies to economically
disadvantaged minorities overall.

An overarching theme in this article calls attention to a concept of institutional discrimination. Legal discrimination is, after all, illegal. Presumably,
if one can document legal discrimination, one can remove such discrimination through the courts or legislatures. Institutional discrimination, on the
other hand, is much more insidious and, therefore, more difficult to rectify. Institutional discrimination resides within the fabric of society.
Harrington (1984) poetically called institutional discrimination "structures of misery." Eitzen and Baca-Zinn (1994:174) describe institutional
discrimination as "the customary ways of doing things, prevailing attitudes and expectations, and accepted structural arrangements [that] works to the
disadvantage [of the poor]." Institutional discrimination explains much inequality in gender (and race and ethnicity) found in the workplace.

The specifics of this article explore earnings discrimination, occupational distribution, the organization of work, and the character of relationships
within the family where, according to many, the essence of gender inequality resides.

II.     Earning Discrimination

A.     Equal Pay for Equal Work?

In 1980 women earned approximately 59 percent of every dollar earned by men (Eitzen and Baca-Zinn, 1994:253). This ratio improves slightly
during economic growth periods in the national economy. In 1990 the figure was 71 percent of every dollar earned by men (Eitzen and Baca-Zinn,
1994:253). Recessionary periods, on the other hand, are characterized by growing disparity in wages earned by men and women.

Many, like Esping-Andersen (1990), argue that as the economy becomes more internationalized, the gender bias in earnings begins to disappear. The
logic here is that advanced capitalism requires the best person for the job despite gender (or race and ethnicity). There is some evidence to support
Esping-Andersen's claim. Women who work in internationally competitive industrial sectors do appear to earn salaries that are closer to those earned
by men (see Long, 1993).

Long (1995), however, disputes the claim that all women are experiencing greater parity with their male counterparts. Huge salaries earned by
women who have skills demanded by corporations that produce in the international arena mask continued (and perhaps growing) inequality
experienced between men and women in the United States in the lower social strata.

B.     Differential Access

Differential access means that men have greater access to the labor market than do women. Differential access does not explain the entire problem,
however. Women earn less than men even on jobs where all other qualifications are held constant.

1.     Women Enter the Labor Market with Lower Paying Jobs

Three issues are dealt with regarding institutional discrimination. The first item notes that women enter the labor market at different and lower paying
levels than do men. Historically, men were doctors while women were nurses; men taught in college while women taught in primary schools; men
worked construction while women were secretaries; men worked in the automobile and steel industries while women worked in apparels and textiles.
In each of the above comparisons men are employed in sectors that pay higher wages and than women in the respective sectors.

2.     Women Enter the Labor Market Later than Men and Periodically Have to Leave.

A second observation notes that women enter the labor market later than men and periodically have to leave. The explanation is obvious. Women
enter the labor market later than men and periodically leave to have children. Childbearing is obviously a necessary social endeavor. The labor
market and society overall would cease to function if women did not leave the labor market to have children. Unfortunately society does not
compensate women for this activity (and other domestic concerns) and it penalizes them in the labor market.

One has difficulty arguing that an employee who has longevity on a job deserves raises while one who has a "spotty" work record does not. On the
other hand, it is not especially difficult to see the inherent inequity in a system that penalizes women for essentially doing a good job (domestically)
in an activity that is absolutely indispensable socially.
3.     Women Earn Less Overtime Than Men

A final observation revolves around the fact that women earn less overtime than do men. Overtime pay represents the difference between having a
good life and a marginal life for skilled and semiskilled workers. Industry and manufacturing provide overtime pay. These sectors hire primarily
males. Service sector work, such as clerical work, does not pay overtime nearly as much as manufacturing. These sectors rely heavily on a female
workforce.

Differential access highlights the institution character of gender inequality. One can easily see the dynamics that generate inequality. Solutions are
difficult to pinpoint within the institution of work. One might argue that Americans place too much emphasis on WORK as an avenue to prosperity.
An analysis of Scandinavian social arrangements might be in order.

III. Occupational Distribution

The kind of work an individual does often determines whether that individual (and his or her family) is wealthy or poor. The previous section, in part,
explored inequities in wage-compensation associated with various kinds of work. Wages, of course, are only one benefit gained from
employment. Other benefits include time-off (Gorz, 1984 argues that leisure is a fundamental issue regarding work), health and retirement benefits,
and longevity (to mention a few).

At this point exploring the general structure of work is beneficial. Often minorities are tracked into jobs that do not provide compensation at a level
that allows economic independence. An observation that one might draw is that there are entire categories of jobs that have similar characteristics.

A.     The Split-labor market

Worker's finds themselves employed in one of two great segments in the capitalist economy. These segments have different characteristics, fulfill
different roles in the economy, and provide different rewards for the laborer (Eitzen and Baca-Zinn, 1994:441-443).

1.     The Primary Sector

The primary sector is composed of large, bureaucratic organizations with relatively stable production and sales. Jobs within this sector require
advanced skills, provide relatively high levels of wage compensation, include good working conditions, and are characterized by stable employment.

a.     Upper Tier

Women are moving into professional areas, but their proportion in professional areas is still quite low. There has also developed a split in the
professional circles that see some professional jobs becoming routinized. Much of the employee's autonomy is taken out of these "professional" jobs.
Structural change occurs within the world system also which has impact on women.

Within the primary sector are two sub tiers. Characteristics of the jobs in the upper-tier are highly educated employees who work at jobs that require
creativity and initiative. Upward mobility is likely.

b.     Lower Tier

In the lower-tier one finds white-collar clerical or blue-collar skilled and semiskilled people. Limited mobility characterizes employment in the
lower-tier, but jobs are relatively secure and have union advocacy.

2.     The Secondary Sector

The secondary market is composed of marginal firms where product demand is unstable. Poor working conditions characterize the work place.
Secondary sector employment provides low wages, few opportunities for advancement, and little job security. Secondary sector employment requires
little education or skills. People get locked into these positions because they do not have skills. Many account for the low levels of benefits and
security found in the secondary market by blaming the person occupying such positions. Many accuse secondary sector workers of having poor work
histories. Often, however, the poor work history is a result of unemployment related to the production of marginal products. Workers in the
secondary market are subject to harsh working conditions and oppressive discipline from management. Both conditions are related to the fact that
there are no unions.

Minorities (ethnic, racial, and gender) tend to work in the secondary sector.   This, in part, explains wage and salary inequities.

B.     Structural Change in the Job Market: Pink Collar Wor

Eitzen and Baca-Zinn (1994:252) note that in 1940 only 20% of women of working age were in the job market. By 1991 this figure had risen to 57
percent. Greater participation in the labor force does not, however, translate into empowerment (Staudt, 1987) because often they are forced into what
Eitzen and Baca-Zinn (1994:252) call "pink-collar" professions. As the capitalist economy is transformed from a manufacturing economy into an
advanced service economy, there is greater need for clerical and service sector jobs and women generally fill these jobs.

Pink-collar refers to jobs generated in the clerical and service sector.  They generally employ women, but many men do this kind of work as well.  
"Pink-collar" positions generally offer low wages compared with employment in manufacturing.

IV.     The Organization of Work and Inequality

Economic independence is ultimately enhanced for some because their job allows them to experience a great deal of upward mobility. Some
individuals do not experience UPWARD mobility. Their jobs are dead-end jobs. On the other hand, some jobs have slots that allow some people to
experience upward mobility, but the manner in which promotions are granted is biased. This section addresses blocked opportunities and "old boy"
networks.

A.     The Power of Organizational Position: Blocked Opportunities

Majority groups always develop justifications to explain the inequalities they impose on minority groups. Often religious or biological explanations
are involved. Biology might be used to explain stereotypical perceptions that "men are more ambitious, task-oriented, and work involved." Perhaps
god my even be invoked to explain why women are "seen as less motivated, less committed, and more oriented toward work based social
relationships than to work itself."

Obviously we live in the 1990s and educated people recognize such clichés' as trash. There is, however, the possibility that the expected behavior
exists at a sufficient level to perpetuate the stereotype -- a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy. In the work force, male bosses in secretarial pools might
see enough "socializing" to fulfill their expectations that women socialize too much. While that boss might conjure up religion or biology, the
behavior he is seeing might be related to "pressures" which emanate from the organizational position his secretaries occupy.

Blocked opportunities refer to structural barriers that minorities encounter that prevent their advancement in an organization.  People who have their
opportunities blocked(despite their demographic characteristics) limit their aspirations. Instead of defining themselves through the work they
perform, they seek satisfaction in activities outside work, dream of escape, and create sociable peer groups in which inter personal relationships
become more important than the specific job they are hired to perform. The key point is that the characteristics of work (that block opportunity)
determine the characteristics of the employee.

B.     Old Boy Networks

Old-boy networks refer to the informal social relationships that occur within any large organization. They may not have discriminatory intentions, but
their actions amount to discrimination in that minorities are ultimately excluded from participation in the organization.  While the term "old-boy"
implies a male dominated organization, the gender reference might be misplaced. Old-boy simply refers to those individuals who have a historic
relationship with an organization who occupies positions of power within the organization. Women can occupy these positions, but often men are the
controlling force in many firms.

Demographic characteristics of informal associations within corporations may inadvertently (or overtly) limit minority access to higher positions
within the organization. Many decisions concerning company policy (in terms of hiring and firing) occur in these "old-boy" networks. Imagine, for
example, the informal gathering at the health spa at 6:30 in the morning before work. Obviously women would not "fit in" here. Or suppose the old-
boys gather at the local bar Friday evenings to discuss business or to tell gender specific jokes.

Again, it would not be too far-fetched to think of a scenario where the "old-boys" would argue that women might be uncomfortable in the barroom
setting. They might even convince themselves that they would do a potential female employee a favor by not subjecting her to that environment.
Despite the patronizing position, one might hypothesize that many a minority has been excluded from companies as the organization hierarchy
engages in precisely these kinds of arguments and justifications for not hiring minorities.

V.     Inequality within the Family

The status of women within the family parallels the position that they hold in the job markets.  Women, however, earn no money for the jobs that
they perform in terms of housework and child rearing, although these jobs are necessary for the survival of the family. Despite the importance of such
work, it is not viewed as prestigious in terms of wage compensation.

The status of men, as wage earners outside the home, helps establish his highly valued position within the family because women do not have access
to resources outside the home.   The position of women in the labor market adds to their dependence experienced within the family.

Gender inequality is historically related to the subordinate position of women within the family in terms of rule making and control of resources (e.g.,
money). This relationship is continued within the labor market where historically men have secured vested positions by making the rules (controlling
management and labor) and by receiving unequal (greater) rewards. (Eitzen and Baca-Zinn, 1994:443)
The reader should be aware that the kinds of relationships discussed above characterize most majority/minority relationships. The dominant partner
in any social relationship can maintain power via a combination of control over decision making processes, control of wealth, and one might add
control over ideology that superimposes a justification on top of unequal relationships.

Special Education Needs: Top Nine Assistive Technology Products for Special Needs Kids

by Debbie Marsh, Disaboom

Special education needs can be hard to fill when you have special needs kids. So many other tasks fill your day that finding the right educational

technology can go to the bottom of your list. 

We’ve gathered together some products that will assist special needs kids in learning a variety of skills that will transfer to the classroom. Several of

these are equally beneficial for normal-ability kids, so siblings can benefit as well. A variety of subjects are covered, including social skills. 

1.    ATKidSystems recently introduced Learning for Children software designed for the preschool set. In addition to the 18 educational activities,

this software gathers data while the child is playing the games so that performance can be evaluated. Auditory, hand-to-eye coordination, and verbal

comprehension skills are among those targeted for children three to five years old.

In addition, the same company’s flagship product, Cosmo’s Learning Systems, compatible with MAC and Windows, is suitable for all children ages

two to eight, whether they are special needs kids or not. Parents will find the software benefits physical, occupational and speech/language

development.

2.    Special education keyboarding programs for physically disabled, learning disabled, dyslexic and visually impaired students at every grade level

are the specialty at the Teacher’s Institute for Special Education. Their typing programs are designed to increase speed and skill at keyboard typing,

with the added benefit of better spelling and reading skills. 

They will make a custom-designed keyboard for specific needs, such as a one-handed user who is also blind or dyslexic. A daily lesson plan is

available which addresses special-needs kids.

3.    Math proficiency and music team up at Rock N Go. Their award-winning software for special education needs combines fun, hip music with

mathematics in a program that is especially useful for special needs kids with attention deficit disorder (ADD), attention-deficit hyperactivity

disorder (ADHD), autism, dyslexia and dyscalculia.

The products are designed to be stimulating and fun, while enhancing audio, visual, small motor and tactile learning domains. Ten music genres are
covered with a CD an workbook. Check out the audio sample on their site.

4.    A seven-step gradual discrete method for teaching reading is offered by Compu Thera. It’s especially useful for special needs kids with autism,

Down syndrome, ADHD and those who are visual learners who have trouble learning just by observation. 

The program is based on methods recently pioneered at Johns Hopkins and other learning institutions. A combination of images, symbols, words,

phrases and music teach reading in a way that complements traditional learning. Visual and audio cues support new language and communication

skills that lead to reading in special needs kids.

5.    Text and graphics publishing hits a new high with the latest tool from Canvastic. The latest 3.5 version is powerful yet user-friendly for children

in kindergarten through eighth grade.  Not just another toy graphic, Canvastic adjusts to the user automatically, and includes a spell checker,

transparent colors and much more. Photos automatically scale themselves, and users can download and insert ITunes. Canvastic works on Windows

and MAC, and is now available as an online application with nothing to install.

6.    Originally designed as a school experiment, Challenging Our Minds (COM)  is now a permanent cognitive skills enhancement program that has

spawned three research projects. Studies show that the program actually increases intelligence quotient (IQ) scores and state test scores. 

Brain skills such as those needed for attention, collecting and processing information, memory, visual and auditory processing, problem solving and

communications are increased with COM, which can benefit children through adults with and without special education needs. The program runs in

your browser, and you pay on a monthly basis with no contract, so you can stop any time.

7.    Language, reading and cognition software for special needs kids or adults is the focus of Laureate Learning. Founded more than 20 years ago, the

company offers talking programs that will teach cause and effect, basic vocabulary, grammatical forms and language concepts. 

All of their software is designed for people with autism, language-learning disabilities, developmental disabilities, physical impairments, traumatic

head injury and aphasia. Special-needs kids can choose from a touch-screen, single switch or mouse for accessibility. Animation makes these

programs fun and encourages independence, while a data-collection system evaluates performance.

8.    How do you teach social skills on the computer and get your child to pay attention? Try Model Me Kids, which offers an array of engaging

videos for school (with topics such as Share, Say Sorry, and Show Interest in Others) and play (Stay with Friend, Losing is OK, Eye Contact). 
Children with autism, Asperger syndrome, PDD-NOS, nonverbal learning disorders and other special education needs make perfect candidates for

the videos, although all children can benefit from social skills reinforcement.

9.    Reading and math software for children with Asperger syndrome, high-functioning autism and ADD/ADHD is the specialty at Mangoon. The

company starts with an individual assessment so reading and writing levels are targeted to your child’s specific needs.

Students go at their own pace, building confidence with fun and motivating games that use high-end graphics with engaging themes. The award-

winning program is aligned to state and national standards and works great for special needs kids.

Why do people think that economic development depends on raising the social standing of women?
Because every society has a limited amount of resources available to it. And this includes human resources. 

Women can either raise a lot of children. Or they can go to work and produce a lot of goods and services instead. But they can't do both at the same
time.

A big part of the reason why the standard of living has increased a lot in western countries is the fact that their birth rates have plummeted, while the
number of women who joined the workforce has increased a lot. Women are producing goods and services instead of babies and caring for them until
adulthood. 

But creating things instead of creating people is good only when there are too many people. And that apparently is not the case in many European
countries and Japan whose populations are shrinking now.
Source: http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20090314204848AAa4DwP

Education Outside the Classroom (EOTC)

Education Outside the Classroom (EOTC) is curriculum-based learning and teaching that extends out of the four walls of the classroom. Geraldine
High School offers students a wide range of EOTC experiences that integrate with the requirements of the New Zealand Curriculum and enable them
to link classroom and real-world experiences. 

Geraldine High School has a commitment to environmental education and the use of EOTC as a learning vehicle. Enabling students to appreciate and
understand the processes and aesthetic qualities of the environment is an important part of the school’s vision.

Our school and community are blessed not only with abundant ecosystems of rivers, streams, native bush and mountains, but also with a thriving
agricultural and outdoor education and tourism community. We are also fortunate in having major cultural centres within reasonable driving distance
and the school takes full advantage of the opportunities available.

Wide Range of Activities

Our EOTC activities range from those held within the school grounds to residential camps, curriculum-based field trips, Outdoor Education activities
and even overseas trips. While most academic areas have some “outside of school activities”, Agriculture, Sports, Biology and Outdoor Education
have regular EOTC events throughout the year, and the school uses available local resources whenever possible.

Year 7 students start their year with a day of adventure and bonding on the Challenge Ropes Course, and in 2010 spent a day rafting the quiet upper
waters of the Rangitata. This experience, in some of the most spectacular scenery in New Zealand, helps students reinforce their new friendships and
relationship with their homeroom teacher. In October they go to camp at Wainui on Banks Peninsula, and students take part in many adventure based
learning and experiential programmes.

The Year 9 tenting camp at Peel Forest is based around the Peel Forest Outdoor Pursuits Centre’s EcoLodge. Learning opportunities abound: there’s
personal development, team work, studying and using sustainable practices in 30 acres of regenerating bush. Students also spend a day on GHS’s
Challenge Ropes Course, and participate in orienteering, firearm safety and a day rafting on the spectacular Rangitata River.
Agriculture and Gateway students spend many hours outside of the classroom learning within the working environment. Sports exchanges offer many
challenges, not least in making contact with the students and cultures of other schools. Spelling bees, speech contests, theatre, choral (Colla Voce),
art trips and maths competitions are only a small example of trips undertaken that offer a wealth of experience. Major overseas trips such as the
Languages Department trip to New Caledonia (2008), the 1 st XV Rugby trip to Australia (2010) and student exchanges around the world enhance the
school’s reputation for imaginatively enhancing experiential learning.

A Focus on Safety

As in all things, safety of our students is a major focus of our planning and management of events. The school has a well developed EOTC Safety
Management System that requires a structured process of safety planning, hazard identification, risk management, briefing and reviews. The school
was successfully audited by Outdoors New Zealand in 2008 and was awarded the Outdoors Mark as a result.

EOTC has become part of Geraldine High School’s academic and social identity. Experiential education beyond the walls of the classroom is valued
and encouraged at this school, and its development as a vital and relevant academic process has been recognised by our community.

Source: http://geraldinehs.school.nz/activities/education-outside-the-classroom

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