Professional Documents
Culture Documents
HANDBOOK
Prepared by
DOL Maintenance Division
Technical Services Branch
Fort Drum, NY
Author:
Charles F Ruggiero Jr.
Ordnance Equipment Specialist
Course Instructor
About the Author
Chuck serves as the course manager and primary instructor for the 10th
Mountain Division Unit Armorer Course. The UAC is an 80 hour formal course
that encompasses all of the material presented in this publication, and which
goes into much greater depth than this single reference volume can provide.
In addition to his instructional duties at the UAC, Chuck also provides training
at the unit level. Among the subjects he teaches are machinegun operating
theory, small arms maintenance, MOS 45B upgrade training, and pre-
marksmanship instruction. A qualified range instructor, he is a Distinguished
Honor Graduate of the USAF Combat Arms Instructor Academy.
His military experience includes active duty service with the US Army. A
graduate of the US Army Infantry School, he served as an infantry soldier in
Vietnam during the period July 1968 to July 1969. His US Army service includes
duty with the Army National Guard in MOS 45B (Small Arms Repair), and with
the US Army Reserve in MOS 12B3H (Combat Engineer Instructor).
1
Foreword
Throughout history, man has engaged in armed conflict. Over recent centuries,
the advancement of technology has resulted in more lethal and sophisticated
arms and ammunition. Today, these weapons are used by America’s military and
law enforcement personnel to deter aggression and defend the public.
The requirement for trained and highly skilled armorers is as critical now, even
with today’s modern weapons systems, as it ever was. The assumption that
modern metallurgy and design technologies have lessened the need for small
arms maintenance specialists is false. In fact, the opposite is true.
Military personnel and law enforcement officers have a tough, dangerous job.
They need reliable weapons to protect lives, safeguard property, achieve the
objectives of tactical operations, and defend themselves. The reliability of their
weapons is the direct responsibility of the armorer.
No single publication could ever provide all the useful information relating to
the maintenance of firearms. The subject-matter area is so expansive, that I
could go into endless detail. Instead, I will attempt to present general principles
and their application to a broad range of common military and law enforcement
weapons.
2
In my many years of military and civil service, I often wondered why there was
not a handbook like this one in circulation. Hopefully this publication will fill the
need for a single-volume reference, providing answers to the most common
questions encountered in the weapons maintenance field.
It is only logical that armorers should be well versed in all aspects of firearms
theory and practice. Just as surely as no one would want to be operated on by a
poorly trained doctor, no person who carries a duty firearm should ever have to
rely on a weapon maintained by an armorer with inadequate training.
This book includes review exercises and a “final examination," much like any
correspondence course. This process provides immediate feedback to the
reader, validating the study process. I must caution the reader, however, that
this handbook should not be used as a substitute for formal training! No
one ever qualified for any career by reading a book or two. Formal, hands-on on
study is essential to success.
This book will not re-invent the wheel. Much needed data can be found in
technical manuals and other publications. I will simply provide a reference listing
to achieve that study. This is only proper, since data in manuals changes
frequently. If I were to reprint technical manual data here, this book would soon
become obsolete.
No document like this could ever have been created without reference
materials or the input from other knowledgeable persons. At the end of this book
you will find a comprehensive listing of relevant publications, reference materials
and recommended reading on the subject of firearms and armorers.
3
This is the third revision of this publication. The format is different from the two
preceding volumes, which were basically “read-along” handbooks. Undoubtedly,
this will be revised again. If you find a problem with this document or wish to
make a change or inclusion, please contact me. Here are my address and phone
numbers:
4
Table of Contents:
5
Chapter 1, Introduction to Arms Room Duty
An arms room, or vault, is a fixed facility used primarily for the purpose of
storing weapons and associated equipment. Arms rooms should meet certain
general standards for physical security, storage capacity, operating ease and
accessibility. Although the general specifications for military arms rooms are
defined in manuals printed by the Department of Defense, those standards
primarily address security, fire protection and construction techniques.
There are other considerations not addressed in those documents, the most
important of which is ergonomics, the interface between man and technology.
As an arms room inspector, I have been in hundreds of arms rooms on military
bases and in police agencies throughout the country. I have seen well-designed
rooms, and some which were totally impractical. However, all of them met the
standards for security, fire protection and construction techniques.
6
The previous listing is not a “wish list”. It is what should be designed into each
arms storage and issue facility nationwide. In addition to the stated
requirements, the arms room should also have a lobby or waiting area. This
should accommodate the number of personnel expected to stand at the door
during issue or turn-in of weapons. If your soldiers or officers are standing in the
rain, so are their weapons!
Some arms rooms also double as evidence rooms. This is not the best policy,
since the evidence technician or evidence officer usually needs total control over
the evidence area to protect the “chain of custody” for legal purposes. Limiting
the number of persons with access to the evidence storage area is always the
best policy. Keeping evidence in the arms room increases the number of
persons in the evidence area, and should be avoided.
However, not every agency has the luxury of owning two secure, alarmed areas
for separation of arms and evidence. If the co-location of both is necessary,
make sure you have key and lock control programs that prevent the possibility of
unauthorized persons gaining access to evidence. Likewise, found property and
civilian privately owned weapons (POW’s) should be maintained separately from
organizational weapons and property, for accountability purposes.
In addition to the standard alarm requirements for weapons storage areas, the
interior entrances to arms rooms should be well illuminated and clearly visible.
An entrance in a secluded, poorly lit part of the building is an invitation to a
strong-arm theft. If possible or affordable, video surveillance should be provided,
with a direct video feed to the agency’s alarm monitoring station or desk
sergeant. If a direct video feed is impractical, a still-frame video recording
system is strongly recommended. Video equipment should be positioned and
installed so as to not be easily detected, accessed and disabled by potential
thieves.
I have seen arms rooms with entrances that were located on the outside of
buildings. This is never wise, but if you are stuck with such a facility, measures
should be taken to protect your operation from public view. Hedges, bushes,
fences or shrubbery should be placed to block direct viewing by the public in an
unsecured area. Traffic control aids such as speed bumps should be placed to
prevent rapid escape by vehicle.
Also, a critical failing of most arms room design is found in the day door or
issue door. This typically is a half-door or “Dutch door” with a counter-top
surface. It allows the arms room to be open for issue and turn-in, while keeping
people outside. However, the typical lock inside the door is easily reached, and
is a simple dead-bolt that turns without a key in the lock. Replace the lock with a
double-keyed dead-bolt to maximize security. This can prevent intrusion while
your back is turned, which it will be as you are getting weapons out of the racks.
7
8
Armorer Duties: The duties of a typical military armorer fall into two major areas
of activity: garrison duty and field duty. Although there are functions common to
both types of duty, there are many differences. Take note that many of the
concepts and operating principles apply to military and civilian agencies.
Garrison duty describes those activities of the armorer when the unit is not
engaged in field or tactical operations. It is composed of the activities the
armorer performs routinely. It also implies that the operation is conducted from
an arms room. The arms room may or may not be equipped with an intrusion
detection system. Some arms rooms require 24-hour surveillance by military or
law enforcement personnel.
1. Files Management
2. Publications Management
3. Supply Management
4. Maintenance Management
5. Physical Security
The lack of a dedicated full-time position for the armorer means that the quality
of the work the armorer can perform is compromised to some degree. Consider
the following factors:
- during a 5 day workweek, the armorer is really only present in the arms
room 32.5 hours, but only if he or she is there on a full-time basis
9
With an understanding of how few hours are actually spent in the performance
of mission-specific tasks, now consider these factors:
- in a 13 week period, there are 422.5 work hours using the above
stated method of determining available hours.
- each quarterly PMCS takes approximately one hour per weapon, if the
armorer is to complete the tasks according to the technical manual.
- just the inspection process (not including any repairs) will take over
200 work hours per calendar quarter.
- the 200 hours needed to conduct PMCS also does not include any of
the time needed for supply management, files management, general
housekeeping, publications management, issue and turn-in of weapons,
or any other arms rooms duties.
Compounding the problem is the fact that there is no training standard for unit
armorers. Even worse, where there are at least armorer courses offered, there
are no training or qualification standards for the instructors! I should know, as I
perform this duty on nearly a full-time basis. The only attempt to provide training
for armorers on an Army-wide basis is at the 92Y Supply Specialist course. This
would be acceptable if every unit had a 92Y Supply Specialist, but that’s not the
case, and 92Y training only teaches minimal skills.
Also, the commander has the latitude to appoint whomever he or she considers
fit for the position. A unit armorer can be any soldier from any occupational
specialty; i.e., infantry, signal, artillery, maintenance or food service.
10
Garrison Commanders, Division Commanders and MACOM Commanders may
appoint an individual to teach an armorer’s course, and fund that effort locally.
There is, however, no qualification standard for such a position. An armorer
instructor must be well versed in all areas concerning weapons maintenance and
training. Among the subjects that this person must master, are the following:
This list is far from inclusive. The armorer instructor must not only be familiar
with the subjects presented, but experienced as well. He or she should have
served in a combat arms MOS as an actual user of the equipment, to understand
the use of the equipment. A background in maintenance and inspection at the
direct support or higher level of maintenance should be mandatory. Formal
training in the presentation of instructional materials should likewise be
mandatory.
The search for a good candidate to teach armorer’s courses can be exhaustive
and fruitless. Again, this is because like the armorer position, the job does not
actually exist, so there are no job standards. When a suitable candidate is
found, there is no school that prepares the candidate to teach armorers.
11
I am presenting this information for the purpose of enlightenment, not criticism.
I prefer, since you ostensibly are about to enter the world of armorer duty, that
you be given the facts. The fact is, in the Army there is no such position as Unit
Armorer. It is an additional assigned duty. There is no such position as Armorer
Instructor. It also is an additional assigned duty.
What this means in reality is that you, the armorer, will be evaluated on the
basis of your performance within your MOS. You must perform all the duties
previously mentioned and still perform your MOS duties. The sad news is, you
will inherit two full-time jobs, because one is not properly recognized for the full-
time work it requires.
I also urge you to understand that I am not being critical of armorer instructors
at other installations. If these people were not good at what they do, their
respective commanders or supervisors would fire them. I am sure they are the
best persons locally available for the job. What I am openly critical of, is the fact
that I have no knowledge of who these people are and what qualifications they
have, even though I’m one of them.....and neither does the Army!
The bottom line is: there is no support structure for this duty like there is for
any MOS. There is no standardized training, no advanced training, no central
system for the identification of school-trained armorers, no special skills
identifier, no kind of recognition system, no patch, no badge, no
medal......nothing except hard work, above and beyond that expected of your
peers.
If you can feel comfortable with all that, then let me personally welcome you to
the greatest challenge in the US Army, the unit arms room.
The armorer’s job is dynamic, difficult, and one of the most important areas of
responsibility in the military. The use of military force to settle international
disputes is always filled with danger. The nature of battle is such that if one side
wins, the other must surely lose.
Any soldier who faces an enemy on a battlefield must have reliable equipment
and good training. If we do everything else correctly; if we train, feed, house,
care for and support the soldier in everything he or she does, but we fail to
maintain that soldier’s weapon to the highest standard, we have compromised
the military mission.
When the soldier meets that enemy, the cost of failure can be death.
Preventing the failure of weapons on the battlefield is the direct responsibility of
the armorer. Since the essence of battle melds into that one moment in time,
when foe meets foe, there is no greater responsibility.
12
Welcome to your new job.
13
Okay, now that we understand how tough the armorer’s job can be, let’s
discuss what you need to know to succeed. We’ll begin by examining those five
areas of responsibility previously mentioned in the definition of garrison duty.
Files Management
The need for a standardized filing system should be readily apparent. Such a
system would enable a soldier working in one office to move to a new office and
find all needed documentation in the same familiar folders. This not just a matter
of convenience, but of military necessity.
No one likes to think of himself or herself as being expendable. The Army does
not like to think of you that way, either. But let’s be honest, we have to expect
casualties. That’s the nature of battle. If a soldier is lost as a result of an enemy
action, that soldier must be replaced. The new soldier needs to become familiar
with the work in progress as soon as possible. A standardized file system makes
the transition quick and efficient.
Even if we are not contending with a combat environment, we still always lose
soldiers due to permanent change of station (PCS), end term of service (ETS),
promotional reassignment, etc. A good file system allows us to deal with the
change while keeping disruption to a minimum.
In the arms room, the filing system is a vital part of the management process.
The armorer has to handle a large volume of documentation. This material not
only provides an historic reference of what you have accomplished, but also
provides information to others on current operations and planned maintenance
actions.
There is a large quantity of technical data associated with weapons. This data
can be found in technical manuals, maintenance advisory letters, lubrication
orders, safety of use messages, modification work orders, maintenance
directives, technical bulletins, and general correspondence.
How these documents are maintained is important. They define the essence of
the arms room operation. They include policy directives, regulations, and other
sources of critical information. These documents have an impact on all levels of
activity within an arms room. This is true whether you are a military armorer or a
member of a civilian law enforcement agency. The same principles apply,
because proper administrative management of the arms room is essential to
success.
14
The method of using and maintaining files is found in Army Regulation 25-400-
2, the Modern Army Recordkeeping System, or MARKS. This program is easy to
understand and use, applies to all files of every type at any location, and is
based upon the numbering system used for Army Regulations and other
publications.
- Ensures the Army has the information needed to complete the mission.
- Provides for the removal of less active records from office space to
low-cost storage areas.
15
Publications Management
However, merely having the publications on hand, and in the correct binders, is
only part of your responsibility. Publications have to be inventoried periodically,
and the content changes must be posted as needed, to ensure your publications
are current and complete.
The levels of maintenance are also known as echelons. A number and code
letter identifies each echelon as follows:
The code letters are used in technical manuals to identify specific maintenance
procedures, and parts to be replaced, at each individual level or echelon. The
echelon numbers, 1 through 5, are used to identify series of publications. The
publications address policies and procedures for the particular level of
maintenance identified by the series number of the document. The following
explanation of the publication numbering system will help you understand the
relevance of this information
16
Let’s take technical manuals as an example, because all weapons have
technical manuals, and you will deal with them on a daily basis. We’ll use as an
example, the technical manuals for the Browning .50 caliber M2 machinegun:
TM9-1005-213-10
TM9-1005-213-23
TM9-1005-213-23P
Are the numbers confusing? They are for most people, because almost no one
is trained to understand the TM numbering system. Here’s what the above
numbers mean:
TM Technical Manual
TB Technical Bulletin
LO Lubrication Order
SC Supply Catalog
AR Army Regulation
DA PAM Department of the Army Pamphlet
GTA Graphic Training Aid
CTA Common Table of Allowances
TDA Tables of Distribution and Allowances
TOE Table of Organization and Equipment
MTOE Modification Table of Organization and Equipment
So, since our reference publication is a technical manual, it begins with the
designator TM. The number 9 refers to the proponent agency, the organization
responsible for the development of the included policies or doctrine. In the case
of the .50 caliber machinegun, the designator TM9 means that the proponent
agency for this machinegun is:
You can see it is much easier to use TM9 as the designator, rather than having
to print the full name of that agency every time a reference to it is made. There
are different designators for different proponent agencies, such as “1” for
Aviation, “3” for Chemical, “5” for Engineer, “7” for Infantry, “9” for Ordnance, and
so on.
17
Okay, so far...so good. We understand TM9. The next item in our example of
the .50 caliber machinegun is the number 1005. This second element is known
as the Federal Supply Class. Every item of type-classified and standardized
materiel in the US Federal Supply System falls into an FSC category. Some
examples would be:
The next element is the item identifier, which allows us to single out an
individual piece of equipment within the same FSC as another item. For
instance, FSC 1005 includes all rifles, machineguns, shotguns, pistols,
revolvers; in fact, any firearm less than 30mm in terms of bore diameter.
The item identifier is usually a 3-digit number, and in the case of the .50 caliber
machinegun, the number is 213. This identifies it among other .50 caliber
machineguns as the Browning .50 caliber M2 machinegun. This number is
sequential in nature. It means that of all the items in this FSC, the Browning M2
is the 213th item in the FSC requiring a technical manual.
If we were to have 500 items in an FSC that required a TM, the last TM would
be number 500. If we added another, and it required a TM, it would be number
501, etc. Not every item in an FSC requires a TM. For instance, there is a stock
number for a paper clip, but no technical manual for it. So the item identifier is
merely an indicator of what items in an FSC require a TM, and what particular
item it happens to be. Our example so far tells us:
18
Next we come to the maintenance level indicator, which tells us several things.
First, it describes which level(s) of maintenance the manual is written for. Do you
recall the levels of maintenance described earlier? Ignoring the codes for a
moment, let’s identify each level of maintenance by its respective number, 1
through 5:
1- Operator/Crew Maintenance
2- Organizational Maintenance
3- Direct Support Maintenance
4- General Support Maintenance
5- Depot Maintenance
19
Now there are several items left to discuss. The first one is whether or not the
letter “P”, for “parts” is included. If, at the end of the maintenance level indicator,
we see the letter “P”, this indicates that parts diagrams and listings are included.
If the letter “P” immediately follows the second digit, as in “23P”, it indicates that
the manual contains only parts diagrams and listings.
Manuals that contain both maintenance instructions and parts data are
indicated by the placement of an ampersand (&) between the second digit and
the letter “P”, as in “23&P”. Examples would be:
Remember that if the letter “P” is absent, there is no parts listing. Just the letter
“P” means that there is only a parts listing, and no maintenance instructions.
Also, the inclusion of the ampersand (&) and the letter “P” means both
maintenance instructions and parts listings are included.
There are some pieces of equipment so complex that multiple TM’s are
needed. This should be obvious from observing that some weapons have a TM
dedicated to maintenance instructions and another to parts listings. However,
there are TM’s with such large amounts of maintenance instructions that they
need to be broken down into different volumes.
When this is necessary, the volume numbers are shown at the end of the
designator, separated by a virgule. What’s a virgule? You probably know it by
the common slang term: slash. It looks like this - “/”. So a TM broken into three
volumes would have the symbols /1, /2, and /3 at the end of the TM designator.
You will become more familiar with the numbering system as you work with it.
After a while, the numbers will seem less important. What is important is making
sure you have the current technical data on hand.
20
At the time of this writing, the DOD is making the transition to Electronic
Manuals. It’s about time! Private industry made the change many years ago, and
the savings this system affords should be obvious. On the surface, it appears as
though they save a lot of printing and distribution costs.
My experience with the current EM’s is that they are not efficient enough in
terms of printing out the documentation when it’s needed in the hands of a
soldier. For instance, they print out blank pages, wasting paper. Operator
manuals, which are usually small enough to fit in a shirt pocket, are now 8.5 by
11 inches in size. Also, the programs that manage the EM’s only permit printing
on one side of the page, since computer printers don’t print to both sides of a
page.
The end result is that an operator manual, any operator manual, uses 8 times
as much paper, since each page is four times the normal size, and only prints to
one side. Is that efficient? Not by my estimation, but who am I to judge? After all,
the distribution costs alone probably justify the use of the electronic medium. If
you are on-line, you can even download the TM’s. This eliminates the need for a
distribution system totally.
The big benefit to electronic manuals is that the need for conducting traditional,
time-consuming inventories will be reduced. Each CD-ROM will have the most
current data. All you need to do is make sure you have the most current disc.
In addition to the current publications and all applicable changes, you must
also subscribe to the TB43-0001-62-series, the TACOM Equipment Improvement
Report Digest. This publication includes late-breaking technical information and
changes resulting from product improvements.
Now that you know how to decode TM designators, the question arises; “What
must I have on hand in my arms room library?”
The following four pages will sum up all of the preceding information on the
publications needed in the arms room.
21
Earlier in this section I stated that AR 750-1 required the use of technical
manuals by unit personnel. In my classes, and in the course of my routine
duties, Persons who want to know why they need so many TM’s on hand
frequently challenge me. Let’s discuss this in detail.
(Author’s note: for reference and clarity, the first two sentences of para-
graph 3-1a state: “The Army has one maintenance standard. The main-
tenance standard is based on TM 10 and 20-series, PMCS”. PMCS, of
course, refers to Preventive Maintenance Checks and Services, which
are conducted by unit-level personnel.)
o. Ensure that all unit level PMCS as required by the -20 level TM’s to
include all DS level services are scheduled and performed.
AR 750-1 makes it clear that all unit level PMCS will be conducted to one
standard: the one found in the equipment TM. This includes operator and
organizational level maintenance tasks.
Literal requirements for the use of the TM by the armorer are found in
paragraph 3-9c, which states:
c. Unit mechanics will use the TM 10- and 20- series to identify and repair
faults. The TM 20-series PMCS tables are used to perform scheduled
PMCS services that sustain and extend the combat capable time of the
equipment.
Where does one find the requirement for a TM for each operator or item of
equipment?
22
The need for operators using the TM 10-series is also found in AR 750-1,
paragraphs 3-9a and 3-9b as shown here:
a. Unit maintenance is the first and most critical level of the Army
maintenance system. It is the foundation of the maintenance system and
requires continuous emphasis by all commanders. Commanders must
establish a command climate that ensures that assigned equipment is
maintained to the maintenance standard defined in paragraph 3-1a
above. Commanders are responsible for providing resources, assigning
responsibility, and training their soldiers to achieve this standard.
So, a literal reading of these paragraphs tells us that the commander must
create a climate in which maintenance is performed to the PMCS standard. The
operator must perform maintenance checks according to the TM 10-series
PMCS tables. And, the checks are a continual process. The operator must
continue to make checks before, during and after the use of the equipment, and
using the operator level TM. In order to meet this requirement, the operator must
have the TM is his or her possession, because it must be used to conduct PMCS
while the equipment is being operated!
Translation: you need one operator TM for each operator, because in the field
environment (where the weapon is actually used), the operator needs to perform
the during operation checks. So, if your arms room has 160 M16A2 rifles, you
need 160 M16A2 operator manuals, one per operator/rifle combination.
As for the TM 20-series manuals, you should only keep one on hand. The
manual is to be used only by the armorer, and should never be given to the
operators. Organizational maintenance can only be performed at the 2nd
echelon level by trained, qualified and appointed personnel. This excludes the
operators from performing organizational PMCS. As a result, only one
organizational manual is really needed.
23
The exception to this would be in a unit where there is an assistant armorer
who desires his or her own copies of the TM’s, or in a consolidated arms room
where each armorer from each unit must have his or her own publications. This
is because the units sharing an arms room in garrison will probably deploy to
different locations, and each unit will need its own manuals.
There are two primary means of making changes to publications; they are
called pen-and-ink changes, and page changes. Pen-and-ink changes involve
the looking up of the old information, crossing it out, and then writing in the new
information. Obviously this is useful only where there are minor changes to be
made. Otherwise, the pages would be cluttered with scribble and become
illegible after a while.
Page changes usually arrive in the form of a small booklet made of individual
pages stapled together. The first pages will be instruction pages that tell you
how to post the changed information. They will typically tell you to remove page
X and replace it with page Z, and so on. All you need do is remove the staples
from the manual, remove the old pages, and put in the new ones.
24
Also, you must use the manual when performing PMCS. Why? Just because
the technical data may have changed since you last read the book. The armorer
who attempts to memorize the PMCS tables will be doomed, because the data in
the tables is subject to change so often.
In addition to the equipment TM, and all the changes thereto, and the EIR
Digest, there is another significant source of relevant maintenance information.
This is the PS Magazine, which is actually a Technical Bulletin, in the TB 43-PS
series.
I am frequently challenged by persons who state, rightly so, that the use of the
information appearing in this technical bulletin is optional. This results in my
having to go to reference publications to find the actual source of authority for a
maintenance procedure. Since I have had to do this “reverse referencing” many
dozens of times, I can state with certainty that anything appearing in PS
Magazine is definitely printed in the appropriate source documents.
Therefore, read the PS Magazine and apply the information it contains. Also be
aware that each year they print a summary of all the articles appearing in that
year’s issues. Make sure you keep copies of the annual article summary. It can
make finding information a lot easier when you need to research a particular
piece of information.
25
Supply Management
I have to admit that some armorers constantly amaze me when it comes to the
area of supply management. I do not know how someone can take something so
simple, and make it so complicated! Usually, I find many arms rooms lacking in
the basic supplies they need to sustain training and contingency operations. I
hear these excuses all the time:
All of the foregoing excuses are without merit. Monetary appropriations are
based on unit size, mission, mobilization requirements, type of equipment used,
number of vehicles operated, and other common factors. If you find that there is
never enough money to support the arms room operation, something else is
wrong.
It is probable that not enough emphasis is being placed on arms room needs
when the unit budget is looked at. You can help to cure that problem by being a
vocal advocate, using the wisdom of the old adage, “the squeaky wheel gets the
grease.”
26
The meaning of this is simple; you will not get something unless someone
knows you need it. Most times, I find the armorer has taken no steps to inform
management of his or her needs. The end result is the excuse that the unit can
not afford it.
I honestly believe that you will not find a single Unit Commander, First
Sergeant or Supply Sergeant who thinks the arms room is unimportant. These
personnel hold their positions because of their training, experience, proven
abilities and personal commitment to excellence. None of them considers the
weapons in your arms room unimportant. Each one of them knows that those
weapons are the reason we have an Army in the first place.
If you find you are usually waiting at the end of the line for supplies or
equipment, you need to communicate your problem up through your chain of
command. Often I see unit armorers complain about the lack of funds, when
every other aspect of the unit supply operation seems to be well organized,
efficient, and well funded. This tells me that the problem is not the supply system
or financial resources. More than likely, it’s the armorer’s fault.
There is always time to procure what you need, if you anticipate your
operational requirements. Prior planning is essential to all successful military
operations, and that includes supply management as well. You should always
maintain on hand the amount of supplies and equipment needed to sustain 30
days’ operation under field conditions. Therefore, there should never be an
excuse for running out of something, as long as you anticipate your needs.
And, what about the excuse that you are not authorized to have something on
hand? Well, this is an easy one to answer. The back of each technical manual
has a listing of materials and supplies authorized for the maintenance of the
equipment covered by the TM. It is usually found in Appendix D, depending on
the format of the manual. If it appears in the manual, and is indicated for your
level of maintenance, you are authorized to have it on hand in the arms room.
With the current downsizing (at the time of this writing) taking place within the
Department of Defense, things are changing. How the supply system will evolve
is not presently known.
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Downsizing is a reality. The re-defining of global threats in the post-Soviet era
is driving it. Changes will take place and the system as we know it now might be
radically different in a few years. Currently, supply operations information is
codified within the 710-series of Army publications. The entire system is being
evaluated for change, so keep abreast of things, and always refer to the current
doctrine to make sure you follow proper acquisition procedures.
Here at Fort Drum, we went through a re-organization of our local SSSC, and
they eventually re-established the system similar to the way it was set up
originally. The “re-engineering” seemed to not be as effective as the proponents
of change stated it would be. Change for the sake of change is not always
beneficial.
All of this will have an impact on you, the military armorer. By necessity, the
DOD needs to become more efficient, since the cost of military operations
continues to climb. However this efficiency is attained, the system will have to
change to accommodate it.
The end result, which will be noticed at the user level (that’s you!), will probably
be in the support structures involved in the general logistics field. Logistics
deals with three specific areas of activity; supply, transportation and
maintenance. You might obtain everything you need from a local contract
vendor, such as Sears or J.C. Penney. The move to the use of the IMPAC credit
card for unit local purchases is an example of this trend.
It is also possible that contractors will establish their own warehousing and
supply operations right on military installations. If the operations are kept in-
house, meaning DOD civilian employees will continue in their present status,
you should expect more streamlined business methods to be employed. DOD
agencies will have to cut back the number of employees, and may employ only
temporary, seasonal, on-call, or contingency-justified personnel. Hours of
operation may be fewer, and support services may be less than what you are
used to.
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I wish I could provide more guidance than this, but I have no extra-sensory
powers, and have no more ability to read the future than you do. Keep up with
the changes in policies and implementing regulations. One thing is certain: the
changes will alter the way you handle supply issues right now
As far as current Unit Supply Procedures are concerned, there exists excellent
guidance on the subject. It appears in DA Pamphlet 710-2-1, the title of which is
“Using Unit Supply System Manual Procedures.” This publication covers how to
request and receive supplies, how to account for items, repair parts procedures,
inspection and inventory procedures, and much more.
For a greater understanding of the logic behind this publication, check AR 710-
2. Both of these publications appear in the most recent SUPPLY UPDATE, and
at this time the most recent issue is Supply Update 14.
DA Pam 710-1-1 explains the term PLL. This is an acronym that means
Prescribed Load List. The PLL is the quantity of repair parts kept on hand to
support a unit’s daily organizational maintenance requirements. This is normally
for a pre-determined number of days of supply. Every unit that is authorized
personnel, tools and equipment to perform maintenance, will usually keep a PLL.
Normally, you will never maintain your own PLL items in your arms room, for
different reasons. The physical security of gun parts, which are easily pilfered
and sold at gun shows, is one such reason. For non-Army personnel, your
agency policies will determine the availability and access of small arms parts.
What you must understand about a PLL is that it is demand supported. An item
will be stocked and maintained in your PLL, only if there have been a sufficient
number of historical demands for the item. The item must also be appropriate to
your level of maintenance, with an essentiality code of “C”.
Active duty Army units must submit three demands for an item within a 180-day
control period, in order to qualify for PLL stockage. Army Reserve and Army
National Guard units have a 360-day control period in which to submit the
necessary demands. This is, of course, based on policy at the time of this
writing, which is subject to change in the future. Again, make sure you refer to
the current doctrine.
Regardless of the number of items you might require in a PLL, the unit can not
have a total of more than 300 items in its’ entire PLL. There are exceptions as
explained in DA Pam 710-2-1, Chapter 8, Section 1, but don’t count on being
given any policy waivers. There must be a demonstrated need for an item before
it can be added to your PLL.
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This is why it is so important to use the supply system properly. When you
hoard parts or swap them with a buddy, you subvert the system. Demands will
not be shown in the system according to your actual usage. Then when you
really need a part, it won’t be there, because you have not shown a consistent
demand over time for that particular item.
Using the maintenance level codes discussed earlier (page 15), you may keep
on hand any items with a maintenance level code of “C” or “O”. These are items
used by the operator and armorer. Find the codes in column two of the table in
Appendix D, commonly titled “Expendable/Durable supplies and Materials List.”
In addition to the items found in this listing, you must also maintain the required
Basic Issue Items (BII) or Additional Authorization List (AAL) items as found in
the back of the operator TM. These items include cleaning rods, magazines,
slings, patches, tool cases, barrel bags and so on. Do not assume the operator
has what he or she needs, even if you have issued it to that person. Things get
lost, misplaced, stolen, broken or worn out. Make sure you have everything you
will need to sustain operations in the field.
Lastly, you must be mindful of the fact that there are items prohibited in the
arms room. These items include homemade tools, unauthorized cleaning agents
(brake cleaner, carburetor cleaner, 409, etc.), unauthorized cleaning materials
(wire brushes, green pads, etc.), and commercial cleaning items not approved by
the Department of the Army.
Don’t buy any, don’t store any, and don’t use any!
You are only authorized to use those items appearing in the technical
manual or otherwise approved by the Army.
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The reasons are many and varied. First, if you use an unauthorized material or
cleaning agent, you can do physical damage to the weapon. Many of today’s
weapons have hi-tech finishes which do not tolerate chemicals like brake
cleaner being repeatedly used on their surfaces. Regardless of what someone
tells you, the use of these items is strictly forbidden.
Also, the fact that people have been doing it for years does not justify anything,
either. The fact is, they’ve been violating Army policy for years! If you use one of
the unauthorized cleaning agents or materials, and damage your weapon, the
Army might expect the unit to pay for the damage out of unit funds. This is
especially true if the use of unauthorized procedures is encouraged within the
unit.
Second, these items are not authorized because they can have deadly,
injurious, or carcinogenic (cancer causing) effects. Many of these chemicals are
toxic (read the label), flammable (read the label), explosive in confined spaces if
ignited (read the label), carcinogenic (read the label), or classified as hazardous
materials (read the label).
Are you getting the point about reading the label? I made some subtle hints
about it in the preceding paragraph, for very good reasons. One of them is called
the DOD Hazard Communication Program.
This policy, applying to all branches of the DOD, states that a Material Safety
Data Sheet (MSDS) will be maintained in each work area where hazardous
chemicals or materials are used. Has your squad leader provided you with the
MSDS for that can of brake cleaner? Probably not, since the use of that item is
prohibited in the arms room. Do you know the hazards associated with this
chemical compound? Have you read the label warnings?
How about the fact that any flammable, toxic, dangerous or explosive material
must be stored and handled in accordance with Army fire prevention
regulations? The items must be maintained in certain types of facilities or
specially designed cabinets, and the areas in which they are stored must be
placarded and identified to firefighters and emergency personnel. The
installation’s Fire Inspectors must approve the storage.
What about the fact that there is no ventilation in any arms room, and all of
these products require “adequate ventilation”? When is the last time you visited
an arms room with windows or an air purification system? When you spray that
stuff in your arms room, you re-cycle it through your lungs. You don’t need a
chemistry or biology degree to know that breathing cancer-causing solvents is
not a wise thing to do.
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Also, when you use these chemicals, residue is left on the surface of your
weapon. When you fire your weapon at the range and it heats up, the chemical
cooks off. Your nose is right over the weapon, and you inhale the vapor created.
Do you recall, from your chemical warfare classes, the methods by which
chemicals attack your body?
Of the three methods, inhalation is most dangerous, since with the other two we
need to actually touch the material or swallow it. With inhalation, all we need to
do is breathe and it invades our body. Think about it; it’s sort of necessary to
breathe, so the likelihood of your inhaling a chemical in a contaminated area is
very high, especially if you are ignorant of the danger. Some compounds take
years to do their damage, but the end results can be deadly.
A final point or two about supply: when broken down to its essential elements,
the supply cycle is extremely simple to understand. Here is a simple explanation
of the supply system at the user level:
That’s all there is to it. But can you see where most people fail? Step 5 is
usually ignored until the entire on-hand stock is exhausted. By simply
anticipating demands, you can prevent depletion of the items on hand.
Conducting routine inventories can prevent shortfalls. The end result of such a
policy is the availability of needed items at all times.
Regardless of how simple this seems, many armorers fall short in this single
aspect of supply management: the ability to properly forecast requirements and
maintain adequate stockage of needed items.
In your arms room, you generally will work without direct supervision. This does
not mean that you will not have a supervisor. But it does imply that the boss is
not always there, managing your daily activities. As such, it is important that you
set up a management program that prevents you from overlooking an important
task.
32
One method the Army is using to deal with this problem is ULLS. The acronym
stands for “Unit Level Logistics System”, and is a computer system using special
software that tracks maintenance and supply actions. ULLS is the Army’s means
of moving into an information-based electronic data tracking system at the unit
level.
ULLS is effective and efficient, but has limitations. For instance, an ULLS
Specialist enters data into the system. This person can only input the data that
you provide. Therefore, if your data is incorrect, incomplete or inadequate, the
system will not reflect the true scope of your operation.
Also, the ULLS system is not located in the arms room. This means you have to
collect all the data needed for the ULLS clerk, and submit that data for input into
the system. So, you still need to use paper-based forms anyway, to collect the
data. And, when the unit goes to the field, there may be times when the ULLS
system is not available.
But for the present, the system used by the armorer is manual in nature. It
involves the filling out of forms, the filing of documents in folders, and the
submission of maintenance requisitions.
When all else fails, ask your Supply Sergeant. I really sympathize with supply
NCO’s. They have a tough, demanding job that goes unappreciated by most
people. As an armorer, you need to have a strong working relationship with your
Unit Supply Sergeant. Often, he or she will be your first-line supervisor. In this
case, a good rapport obviously benefits both parties.
Your Supply Sergeant earned that position by being proficient, and should be
able to answer almost any supply question. Remember that the responsibility for
keeping the arms room properly supplied and functioning in the correct manner
is yours, and yours alone. You can expect help from your superiors, but don’t
expect that anyone else will do your job for you.
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Maintenance Management
The use of the DD 314 is required for any item that has periodic maintenance
requirements, established by its respective organizational maintenance manual.
A separate DD 314 may be used for each item in your arms room, or you may
combine up to 20 identical items on one form.
However, the maintenance for all the items appearing on the DD 314 must be
done at the same time. Therefore you may find that scheduling the disassembly
and inspection of 20 machineguns on the same day is a bit challenging. The
intelligent armorer divides and balances the workload to prevent stress that can
contribute to errors.
Concerning inspections, let’s get specific about what they are and how they
should occur. There are many different types of inspections, each with a specific
purpose.
34
Command Inspections are conducted to provide unit commanders with an
assessment of the capabilities of the units or personnel under their command. A
command inspection will often look at the entire operation of a military
organization. This includes OPSEC, training, morale and welfare, social actions,
maintenance, supply, and other major organizational functions.
The armorer is the individual responsible for scheduling this annual inspection.
The units providing your Direct Support or General Support maintenance
functions do not normally maintain a schedule of units to inspect. It will have to
be your personal initiative that gets this critical inspection accomplished.
35
Surveillance Inspections are normally conducted by QASAS personnel. The
acronym stands for Quality Assurance Specialist for Ammunition Surveillance.
QASAS inspectors work at ammunition supply points, depots and ammunition
plants, to guarantee that the munitions issued to soldiers are safe and combat
ready. Their function is highly technical and can be dangerous, and their training
is extensive and challenging. If a QASAS inspector tells you to do
something...do it!
36
Final inspections are conducted on an item when it has been through the
maintenance process. This ensures the quality of the work meets established
Army criteria. The final inspection process usually includes a full function check
of the item, and re-checking with all appropriate gages and test fixtures.
Sometimes a weapon must also be test-fired during final inspection, to determine
accuracy and proper function.
As a unit armorer you must be familiar with the nature and intent of inspections.
In fact, you serve as your unit’s quality assurance inspector. As the armorer, you
have special responsibilities and training that make you best qualified to perform
this function.
This means the armorer must perform PMCS for every weapon and item of
equipment in the arms room, including unassigned equipment. First line leaders
and supervisors such as squad leaders, section leaders and platoon sergeants
have the authority and responsibility to supervise the work of their subordinates,
and to inspect that work. That should not be confused with the organizational
maintenance inspection responsibilities of the armorer. They are separate and
distinct functions.
37
The armorer represents the interests of the commander in the arms room. This
is because the assets in that arms room are the ultimate responsibility of the unit
commander. As an appointee designated by the unit commander, the armorer is
directly representing the commander. His or her conduct must be exemplary and
professional in all aspects. The armorer must display tact in dealing with first line
leaders and supervisors whenever necessary.
It is not uncommon for a troop leader to feel that the armorer is challenging his
or her authority by re-inspecting a weapon before accepting it into the arms
room.
If you fail to inspect a weapon and accept it with faults, and are then inspected
by a higher echelon, the problem is now your problem, not the operator’s. The
operator can always claim ignorance of the problem and state that it happened
while the weapon was in your possession. As a result, an operator can
intentionally turn in a weapon he knows to be defective, and deny the
responsibility for it...because it was in your possession. All because you failed to
inspect it on acceptance.
It should be easy to understand then, why the armorer has inspection authority
and responsibility. It is a function of the proper stewardship I mentioned earlier.
It should not be difficult to explain this to an individual who feels you are directly
challenging his or her authority when you re-inspect a weapon at the arms room
door.
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So, I hope this clarifies the subject of inspections; what they are, when they are
conducted, and by whom. Let’s move on to a related topic, the use of the DA
Form 2404, the “Equipment Inspection and Maintenance Worksheet."
The specific instructions on the use of the DA 2404 are found within DA Pam
738-750, Chapter 3, paragraph 3-4. Again, there will be no re-invention here, but
a caution to refer to the guidance in the governing directive.
I will, instead, provide certain highlights for your use of the form. To begin with,
always use the DA 2404 whenever conducting any inspection, no matter how
simple or trivial it might seem. Remember that the written word lasts longer than
the best memory. Very often you will be interrupted while working on a weapon.
Writing down your findings will make sure they are not overlooked. This will
permit others, like the assistant armorer, to continue or add to your efforts.
Always use the carbon paper and make a second copy. This way, if you turn in
a DA 2404 with a maintenance request, you will be protected against the loss of
the original by having a record of all your findings.
Always leave a blank line between entries, so that maintenance personnel will
have the space they need to make their entries on the form when your weapons
are repaired. Also, the blank line might be needed if a status symbol change is
made.
You must always keep the most recent DA 2404 used during PMCS on hand for
inspection or quality control purposes. When a DA 2404 is returned with your
copy of a maintenance request after repairs are completed, maintain that form in
the files with your copy of the maintenance request. This copy should be
retained for 180 days according to DA Pam 738-750. Copies of paperwork
related to annual inspections are retained until the next inspection.
Now that we have come to the subject of PMCS, let’s look at how it should be
conducted. PMCS is always performed in accordance with the schedule required
by the equipment TM. Most TM’s have a PMCS checklist that will tell you the
interval at which a certain PMCS function is to be performed at the
organizational or higher level of maintenance.
When performing a maintenance function or during PMCS, you must have the
equipment TM opened to the page that provides the guidance for that function or
check. This is a valid requirement, because technical data in manuals frequently
changes.
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Memorizing the steps in a PMCS procedure is a fatal mistake, because if the
procedure changes, you will not be performing it to the specifications resulting
from the change. Always use the current TM while working on any equipment in
your arms room.
With the TM in front of you, it is a simple matter to follow the checklist and do
as it instructs. Note any deficiencies or shortcomings you find, on the DA 2404.
Use the item number that appears in the first column on the PMCS checklist, as
the item number entry in the first column of the DA 2404. This tells the repairer
where you found the problem on the PMCS checklist.
If you encounter a problem that meets the requirements listed in the column
titled “Not Fully Mission Capable If:," then that item is deadlined. This means
that the item cannot be used until the deficiency is corrected.
If you do encounter such a problem, then circle the item number in the first
column of the DA 2404, to let the repairer know that the TM mandates the
deadline.
Continue going down the PMCS checklist until you have inspected every listed
component, and annotate your findings on the DA 2404. You must repeat this
same PMCS procedure for each item in your arms that has a PMCS
requirement, using the schedule you established on your DD 314’s.
Yourself, or the assistant armorer must repair any maintenance faults found
which are correctable at your level. By the way, it is highly recommended that
there be a trained assistant armorer in each arms room, to ensure operational
continuity. Order the parts needed from your PLL clerk, and make the repairs
according to the organizational maintenance procedures listed in the equipment
TM. Make sure you follow the instructions exactly. You will get no extra points for
creativity!
40
The servicing DS maintenance unit may have to defer, or delay the repairs,
based upon their operational workload, parts availability, or other factors. If so,
there are steps they will take to schedule your repairs when they are able to do
so. You will be notified when to return with the items needing repair.
Let’s examine how you determine what is and is not repairable at your level of
maintenance:
In each technical manual for the organizational level and above, is a chart
called the Maintenance Allocation Chart. This chart authorizes and assigns to
each level of maintenance the responsibility to perform certain functions. These
functions may be inspecting, testing, servicing, installing, removing, replacing or
overhauling an item or component.
The MAC assigns responsibility to each level of maintenance using the five
maintenance level codes given earlier: C, O, F, H and D. It also allocates the
tools and test equipment required, the amount of time the procedure should
take, and provides special remarks concerning individual procedures.
Earlier in this text I made reference to the term ECOD, an acronym for
Estimated Cost of Damage. The unit armorer, as the best trained individual
where small arms are concerned, needs to know about the ECOD process.
41
This is because the unit armorer, as the official custodian of the weapons for
maintenance and physical security purposes, is most likely to detect damage to
the weapons and related equipment.
If damage to a piece of equipment results from one of the first three reasons
stated above, we hold the soldier harmless. This is because that damage is
usually due to factors beyond the control of that soldier. If the damage is due to
the negligent or criminal behavior of that soldier, that’s an entirely different
matter.
In cases such as these, it may be possible to recover the cost of the damage
from the soldier involved, and a Survey Officer may be appointed. The decision
rests with the unit commander, who “owns” the assets in the arms room, and who
is ultimately responsible for them. The Survey Officer will conduct an
investigation to determine the circumstances of the loss or damage, and will
probably request an Estimated Cost of Damage inspection.
In the event that a determination is made that criminal intent was involved,
there are some basic rules you should know about the investigation that will
result. First, you will be a principal in the investigation, since you discovered
the crime. You will be questioned as a matter of procedure. This is nothing to be
concerned about. Simply be honest and accurate in your statements, even if you
fear that something you say might make you look bad in terms of how you
perform your duties.
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Second, do not interrogate the soldier(s) involved. This does not mean that
when you first discover the damage that you should not ask what happened.
When it becomes apparent to you that something criminal might have occurred,
discontinue your questions and report your knowledge of the incident to your
commander.
Lastly, keep all copies of your inspection findings and associated ECOD
papers until your chain of command or the investigator has informed you that
they may be discarded. It may be helpful for you to keep notes concerning your
statements or facts revealed to you, but these should be considered confidential
and properly disposed of when no longer needed.
Remember that your role in this entire process is limited, and you have no
authority over the decisions or findings. By reporting your initial discovery and
making your statement to the commander or case investigator, you have fulfilled
your official responsibility.
Physical Security
The regulation that deals with this subject is AR 190-11, Physical Security of
Arms, Ammunition and Explosives. It is typically found in a copy of the Physical
Security UPDATE. You should maintain a copy of this publication in your arms
room, since it mandates the practices you must observe on a daily basis.
The physical security of unit weapons is one of the most important aspects of
your job as an armorer. You must maintain full accountability for the
whereabouts of your unit’s weapons, 24 hours per day. I strongly urge you to get
AR 190-11, read it, learn it, and know it inside and out. Failing to maintain
adequate physical security of your weapons can have severe legal
consequences.
43
There are resources you can rely upon for information on physical security.
One is the publications dealing with such matters, and the other is the Physical
Security Branch of your local Provost Marshal Office. If you have any questions
concerning physical security matters, you should contact one of the physical
security specialists working in that office. Do not rely upon what your “buddy”
knows. He may know less than you, and you can wind up in legal jeopardy.
I do not need to go into great detail to make you understand the importance of
the security of your weapons. They are portable, easily concealed in some
cases, and the tools of the trade for terrorists and violent criminals. As such,
they must be controlled in a manner that prevents even the slightest chance of
them falling into the wrong hands.
There are many elements to a good physical security program. One is the type
of facility in which the weapons are stored, and whether or not it has an alarm
system. One is the controls placed on personnel issuing or receiving the
weapons, and how they handle the weapons when they are in possession of
them. Still another is the careful selection of the personnel who will have
unrestricted access to firearms and ammunition.
For this last reason, all personnel appointed to positions as unit armorers or
assistant armorers must have a background check to determine suitability for the
duty appointment. Your medical records will be checked to see if you have any
history that would indicate mental instability or substance abuse problems, to
include excessive alcohol consumption.
Local law enforcement agencies will be asked to provide information about any
arrests or legal problems in your past. Negative domestic or financial information
may be disqualifying. Other factors concerning you will be evaluated to
determine if you are eligible to serve in this position.
Your personal integrity, trustworthiness and judgment are critical. In your arms
room may be as much as a million dollars in equipment, or even more. All those
machineguns, mortars, grenade launchers, pistols, rifles, NVG’s, and other high
dollar items are in your personal care.
Once appointed, you become the person in the “hot seat” as far as physical
security goes. This is because you have unrestricted unaccompanied access to
the arms room. You have the combination to the main door and the safe, access
to the rack and locker keys, and the ability to turn off the entry alarm system. In
such an important position, you will be required to explain any discrepancies in
the methods of weapons issue and inventory.
44
You will have to make frequent checks on the security of the assets stored in
the arms room. You will conduct serial number inventories and sign documents
attesting to the accountability of unit weapons. You will be responsible for
transporting the firearms to and from maintenance facilities. In short, you are the
functional security manager for the arms room, even though an officer or NCO
may actually hold that title.
The security of the arms room not only deals with the assets stored therein, but
also applies to the information concerning your unit’s weapons. Operations
Security, or OPSEC, is also your responsibility. AR 530-1 provides the
regulatory guidance for this program. You should become familiar with its
requirements. Particularly important is the information in Appendix B of this
regulation, which describes OPSEC indicators. Learn them, and know them.
They are extremely important, more than you might think.
Information about your unit’s weapons, such as quantity and type, maintenance
status, and availability should not be discussed with anyone outside the Army
who does not have a specific need to know. The status of weapons training,
qualifications, availability of ammunition, and other similar information should
likewise be restricted.
Why is this essential? Regardless of what you believe about the Cold War
being over, the threat posed in the past still exists. There are those in the
international community who will always be envious of the United States, and we
will always have enemies. Enemies do not have to be foreign. We live in a time
where the threat of domestic terrorism has become reality.
The domestic terrorist may come from any segment of society. Some have
been religious extremists, anti-government, anti-technology, or environmental-
activist extremists. These people can live in any community and range from high-
school dropouts to college post-graduate students. Aside from domestic
terrorists, there is the ever-present threat created by criminals. These persons
range from local drug users desperate for cash, to sophisticated crime
organizations with international contacts and millions of dollars in assets.
The best way to deal with the problem of not knowing who might have a hidden
agenda is to keep the information to yourself. This solves the problem of data
falling into the hands of the wrong people. In the Second World War, the
concept was summed up in the slogan “Loose lips sink ships.” The logic still
applies. If you allow the wrong persons to gain information about a planned
movement of your unit’s weapons, the results could be disastrous. Good OPSEC
means protecting sensitive information from prying eyes and ears.
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Sensitive information may appear in places that seem unlikely. The front cover
of some of the TM’s used in your arms room bear the following cautions:
These warnings are clear and unambiguous. The government means business
when they print statements like this. You can be criminally prosecuted for
allowing the contents of such documents to fall into the hands of unauthorized
persons. Where do these warnings appear. Well, the TM’s for the M203
Grenade Launcher and the Mk19 Machinegun are two examples.
Yes, it may be true that you can go to a gun show, swap meet, thrift store or
similar establishment, and purchase a copy of one of these books. It would be
stupid to assume that persons outside the Army do not know the knowledge
contained in these books. But the fact that someone else committed a crime and
got away with it is not a valid defense if you are charged with an offense under
the law. You must protect the information in these manuals as indicated,
including burning or shredding out-of-date or unwanted copies. Do not throw
them in the trash!
Also note that the destruction notice refers to unclassified material! Did you
know that there was a requirement to destroy some unclassified documents?
You know it now!
To sum it all up, Physical Security deals with the lock-and-key issues, and
OPSEC deals with the information aspects of your arms room security program.
Both are important, and each requires the other to succeed. Never make the
false assumption that you can trust someone because you know them. There are
countless crimes committed by friends and acquaintances every day.
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Until now we have covered the duties typically performed in a garrison setting.
Although this is where the majority of time will be spent, the real mission begins
when we go to the field. After all, this is the very essence of the military force...to
wage war.
Although there are many things unique to field duty, many of the requirements
and practices we covered in the garrison duty section will apply. For instance,
just because you are in the field does not mean that the PMCS schedule is
abandoned. All the elements; files management, publications management,
supply management, maintenance management and physical security, still must
be performed in the field environment.
The field offers new challenges and difficulties. You do not have the physical
facilities that make your tasks easier. You will now be exposed to the external
environment. Rain, wind, snow, ice, mud, sand, and extremely high or low
temperatures will tend to lessen your abilities and induce physical and mental
stress.
Apart from the lack of comfortable support facilities and the effects of the
environment, there is something else waiting to ruin your day...the enemy.
Here the challenge takes on a new dimension. Your job is no longer a matter of
performing the routine tasks to a technical standard. You must now do
everything under the most adverse conditions imaginable. Picture yourself doing
your work to the same standards of excellence if subjected to the following:
Any (or many) of these conditions may exist on your battlefield. If you want a
real perspective on this, ask any soldier or veteran with an appreciable degree
of combat experience the following question: how bad can it get? You might be
shocked by the answer. Remember, anything that can go wrong, probably will go
wrong.
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Field duty describes those activities when the unit is in the field or engaged in
tactical operations, including active combat with an armed enemy. If no one has
ever explained the combat nature of the armorer’s job, remember that the job
has everything to do with combat support. After all, that’s why we have the
weapons in the first place.
The majority of soldiers are not infantry troops. It takes a lot of support
personnel to make the Army work effectively against an enemy. To understand
the role you might be called upon to play, we must understand some facts about
force structure. This will be in very general terms and not very detailed, but it is
important for you to understand.
The soldiers who support the combat arms troops (infantry, artillery, engineers
and others), typically are assigned to units that may be medical units, finance
units, maintenance units or any other type of organization required by the
mission. The mission defines the force structure.
Normally, we want to keep strategic assets and key support organizations out
of the direct path of the enemy. The result is usually to define a “rear area”
where non-tactical troops and organizations can function normally. This rear
area may be a mile or dozens of miles away. Sometimes, however, it is
necessary to deploy support elements to forward positions. For example, if the
enemy is being routed and our troops advance, support elements may roll
forward to provide adequate levels of assistance.
So, although the idea may be to keep strategic support elements out of harm’s
way, the events will dictate the tactics employed by field commanders. The result
is that not all support troops can expect to sit comfortably in a rear area, waiting
for the maintenance work to come to their door (or more appropriately, their tent
flap!)
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The enemy has some options in battle. He has to maximize his potential by
making the most efficient use of manpower, ammunition and supplies. In looking
at the means the enemy may employ to defeat you, we’ll examine a hypothetical
situation:
As an option, the enemy may elect instead to go for the softer target:
...our support systems. If the enemy can disrupt our communications,
logistics and intelligence capabilities, this increases the odds of a
favorable outcome for him. Without food, water, ammunition, fuel,
commo and intel, the effectiveness of our operations may degrade with
the passage of time.
The enemy knows how hard the combat troops train, and just how
suicidal it might be to take them on directly. There is less risk in
seeking out you, the support troop, and eliminating your contribution
to the battlefield effort. Most support troops only qualify with a weapon
once a year, and don’t spend as much time in the field as combat arms
soldiers. The enemy believes the support force to be an easy target,
and given the option, may bring the battle to you while avoiding our
infantry and other “hard” targets.
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So, the bottom line of the preceding statements should be apparent to you. It is
not necessary for you to be in a front-line infantry unit to meet the enemy in a
combat area. He may well come looking for you, especially if you are perceived
as a “soft” target.
There is a distinct reason for going through all this. The reason is: many
soldiers believe that it will “happen to the other guy.”
History illustrates how likely it is that a soldier can complete an entire 20-year
tour without facing an enemy. In fact, that is the average experience. Look at the
members of your own force structure. Whether you are a member of a Division,
an enhanced Brigade, or training cadre organization, look at the shoulders of the
members of your unit. How many wear combat patches? How many actually
faced an enemy, gun barrel to gun barrel?
You will quickly realize that the percentage of soldiers with actual “trigger time”
against an enemy is relatively small. This fact is responsible for the mindset that
says “that stuff happens to other guys, I’m a supply specialist in a support unit,
and I’ll never see the enemy face to face.”
It’s sort of like auto insurance. As long as you pay your premiums and never
have an accident, it seems like a waste of money. But what happens if you have
a wreck and have no coverage? Now let me ask you a harder question: if you
are a military professional (which you are), why gamble on being prepared to
deal effectively with the enemy? After all, if you do meet the enemy, and have no
skills, you increase the odds of the enemy prevailing over you. End result? Your
defeat.
Where do you gain that confidence? Through training that develops the skills
needed to perform those tasks required in combat. Who provides that
training?.....
YOU do!
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Wait a minute! What did you just read? How can you provide the training you
need? Well, you have to do it, out of necessity, because no training plan
currently exists to prepare you for what you may experience in combat.
So, from where does the concept for self-training spring? Well, it really comes
from the collective experience of those who have performed the duty in the past.
But that experience is not documented or annotated anywhere that I know of,
and I have looked for such information for a long time.
Most of your effort will therefore have to rely upon two factors:
I truly hope that you take this issue seriously. If for some reason you deploy to
a combat area, these skills are essential. You do not want to develop them by
trial and error on the battlefield!
Your training begins right now with the development of the proper attitude. If
you honestly don’t think this is important, and if you honestly believe “it will never
happen to me”, then I have two questions I’d like to ask:
Now, right now, is where you begin to adopt the winning attitude needed to
prevail in battle. Machismo, cadence counting and bonding are not enough to
defeat the enemy. You must want to win! You must possess the needed skills!
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Field duty encompasses three principle areas of responsibility:
My primary point is this section is simple: the armorer should always go to the
range whenever personnel assigned to the same unit conduct live-fire training.
Whenever a weapon fails on the firing line, it interferes with the training mission.
If there is no armorer present to repair the weapon, a soldier loses a valuable
training opportunity because of equipment failure.
GTA (Graphic Training Aid) 7-1-30 should be completed by the Range OIC or
other responsible officer or NCO, whenever the unit will occupy a range facility.
This document is a checklist of all the equipment and personnel needed to
conduct range training.
GTA 7-1-30 requires “checking the block” for the armorer, tools, spare weapons
and maintenance area at the range. If you are not going to the range whenever
the unit conducts live-fire operations, something is seriously wrong. Your chain
of command needs to know the importance of your presence at the range.
It is important that you develop skill in dealing with many different types of
malfunctions. You must know their causes, and the remedies for them. It is true
that the equipment TM will contain troubleshooting procedures, but let’s do a
reality check on this subject. Can you see yourself digging around for a TM when
the enemy is firing on you, as you attempt to repair a machinegun that has failed
during an enemy assault on your unit?
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When someone clears the weapon and brings it back to the arms room, you
can’t examine the unique circumstances that caused the failure. The ammunition
has been turned in, the gun may have been disassembled and reassembled,
and even just clearing the gun can eliminate important indicators of the failure.
Your lack of visual indicators of the failure may lead to a wrong diagnosis of the
failure. End product?......a weapon in the rack that may still not work properly.
Why? .....you didn’t properly assess the situation, and you’re not at the range
now, so you can’t test-fire the weapon in the arms room. A function check may
not reveal the problem, and so the defective weapon goes back in the rack.
All of this is easily avoided if you are at the range! You will be exposed to a
greater variety of problems, develop better diagnostic skills, improve your ability
to work with the tools needed, and add to your experience level.
Why else do you need to be at the range? Equally important is the fact that you
need to actually fire each of the types of weapons in your arms room. You need
to qualify with each one and become proficient as an operator. Sorry, but I have
looked for any kind of mandate for this in Army doctrine, and have found nothing.
You will have to convince your command element of the necessity for this
concept.
If you own a car, you know how important the braking system is. If the
brakes fail, you literally can be killed. Would you ever consider taking
your car to a mechanic who has no driver’s license, has never driven
a car, and does not know how the brakes work?
You are an infantry soldier. If you go to combat and your weapon does
not work, you literally can be killed. Would you ever consider taking
your weapon to an armorer who has no training, has never operated
a weapon like yours, and does not know how it works?
Oops!! We have discovered a problem here! The sad, but brutally honest truth
is: this describes the present reality in too many cases.
53
In combat, the soldier is dependent upon his or her assigned weapon for two
reasons: mission completion and survival. It is not exaggeration to state that the
mechanical and functional status of a weapon can mean the difference between
life and death in combat.
It is only logical that if you are to be the maintenance specialist for the weapons
at the organizational level, your skills should at least be equal to those of the
operator. How can you possibly attain that skill if you do not train with the
weapons? You need to discuss this with your chain of command, so time and
ammunition can be allotted for your training.
By the way, let me re-iterate a statement made in the foreword to this book: do
not use this book as a substitute for formal training! Doing so is foolish and
dangerous. Get formal training! If you don’t have a resource, call me at one of
the numbers listed in the foreword. I will travel worldwide in TDY status to any
location that wants to host the training, including hostile areas. I frequently take
my training on the road to distant locations, and would be glad to help you and
your fellow soldiers. Of course, this only applies if I can survive the downsizing
of DOD!
Once you have received proper instruction and gained experience, your skills
will improve! From that point on you have a responsibility to share certain
elements of your knowledge with others, using the train-the-trainer approach.
Many soldiers have developed no skill at clearing obstructions or applying
immediate action in the event of a malfunction.
When you are at the range, and a malfunction occurs, use the event to conduct
on-the-spot training for the operator. Explain what went wrong, what you are
doing to solve the situation, and how the operator can take positive steps to do
the same thing in case your service is not available in an emergency. Maximize
your opportunity to learn from experience every time your unit goes to the range!
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Before leaving this subject, let’s also discuss what should happen when a
serious failure of a weapon takes place: with or without injury to the soldiers
involved.
I would like to first make the point that I am not talking about your “run of the
mill” malfunction. We are not going to interrupt training and shut down the range
because someone’s rifle is not properly feeding ammunition. The following types
of situations would warrant immediate action as a serious event:
The injury or death that happens from heat stroke or falling into a foxhole is
likewise different in nature and scope than that which occurs as a result of a
weapon failing on the firing line. Certainly, each is a serious event and training
immediately should cease, but we are dealing with the weapon-related problem
here.
Events that indicate ammunition failure are important because a bad lot of
ammunition can affect many other units and their personnel training at different
locations. The ammo lot will be suspended pending inspection, to prevent others
from experiencing the same problem. If two or more weapons are experiencing
the same serious problems, suspect the ammunition.
You must know, understand and obey all applicable safety regulations while
conducting training at the range. Your range operations party personnel will
attend a range safety briefing, and be issued a copy of the regulation. I will not
go into the content and scope of the regulations, but will instead describe the
proper way to react to a serious event.
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Next, simultaneously treat the injured persons while your RTO contacts Range
Control. Advise Range Control of the need for medical assistance or MEDEVAC.
The information required and the format for the transmission of information can
be found in the range safety regulation.
Move all non-essential personnel away from the firing line to a safe distance.
For instance, if dealing with a catastrophic ammunition problem with the Mk19
HE ammunition, make sure all non-essential personnel are moved a minimum of
75 meters to the rear, and even further if possible.
Secure the area. The area and all equipment present have now become an
accident investigation site. DO NOT remove the affected weapon from the firing
line. Leave it exactly where it is, in exactly the same condition it was in when the
mishap occurred. The exception would be only if failing to clear and relocate the
weapon would cause further injury or damage.
Protect the scene. Do not allow others to walk about the accident site prior to
the arrival of military police, range control personnel or other officials
investigating the event. For instance, the ejection pattern of the weapon tells a
lot about the placement of the gun and aiming point of the muzzle. Walking
about the site, kicking and scattering shell casings and links with the toes of your
boots may alter critical evidence unintentionally.
The weapon should be inspected by someone from the direct support shop,
your TACOM-ACALA Logistics Assistance Representative, or a weapons or
ordnance specialist from your local Directorate of Logistics. This inspection
should be conducted at the accident site. Range Control has a list of persons to
contact, so let them notify everyone possible who might be able to come out to
the range to inspect the weapon. If they are unsuccessful in making contact, and
they clear you to remove the weapon from the range, take it back to your arms
room. Do not clean the weapon, but turn it in for evaluation concerning the
cause of the accident in “as is” condition.
Remember, the presence of dirt in the receiver, or the lack of lubrication, can
be a contributing factor. Cleaning the weapon eliminates critical evidence of the
failure. If you go to turn that weapon in to your small arms support shop, and
someone insists the weapon be cleaned first, ask to see that person’s supervisor
and explain the nature of the request for the inspection. Again, DO NOT clean
the weapon!
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Tactical Training Operations Support
Working out in the wilderness provides many benefits. You will get the
opportunity to train in all kinds of weather extremes. You might not be very
comfortable disassembling a machinegun in frigid temperatures, but it is a real-
world task you might have to perform in stressful circumstances. You will not be
capable of performing a task like this with much ease and fluidity unless you
have practiced it. Remember, you can’t replicate the field conditions in your arms
room, so train in the field whenever possible.
Night training also imposes the difficulties of dealing with noise and light
discipline. At times it will be absolutely necessary to turn on a flashlight with a
red lens, but you should learn how to do so with a minimum of risk and
exposure. Even with your flashlight, it can be difficult to see worn or cracked
areas on a part, so training to improve skills is necessary.
Here’s how it works. Take several different weapons apart, i.e., one shotgun,
one rifle, one pistol, etc. Do not take two of the same type of weapon apart, such
as two M16A2’s. Put all the parts in a laundry bag and gently shake it up. When
you can reach into the bag and blindly identify the part in your hand, and the
position of that part in your hand, you are on your way.
Graduate from that to the “blackout drill.” In this case, take a weapon apart
completely, scatter the parts on a table, and then reassemble them in a totally
dark room. Your arms room has no windows and is virtually seamless in
construction, so close the door, turn out the lights and go to work. You can do
this any day of the week in your arms room.
Now, once you develop the tactile perception needed to accomplish this, do it
under the worst conditions you can encounter in the field: cold, snow, rain, wind
and high heat. Oh, let’s not forget to try it in MOPP level 4 as well! If you do not
develop these skills, no one will do it for you.
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In the tactical training environment you can expect to see many more problems
with your unit weapons. This is due to the fact that unlike the range exercise,
soldiers will be running and hitting the ground with their weapons. They may also
fire more blank rounds at the cyclic rate of fire during simulated attack and
defense scenarios.
Blank rounds will leave your weapons dirtier, and stoppages may be more
frequent. The usual cause of the increased failure rate is due to improper
attachment of the blank firing adapter (BFA), or use of the wrong BFA. There are
different styles of BFA’s for the M16/AR15 family of rifles. Make sure you check
the type required against the description and stock number in the operator TM.
Blanks must be handled with respect. At close ranges they can cause serious
injury or death if mishandled. Do not allow soldiers to tamper with blank rounds.
Changing the amount of powder in a blank round by opening the crimp and
adding or removing powder can have very negative consequences. We’re
talking about safety, as well as the proper operation on the weapon. Do not
tamper with blanks.
In addition to blank rounds used for training, there are also SRTA (short-range
training ammunition) rounds, and the transition to plastic ammunition for training
in limited range areas is becoming very popular. Plastic rounds can be lethal!
The .50 caliber rounds are lethal out to 700 meters! Many “simunitions” use
frangible rounds, which are designed to disintegrate on contact. Don’t make the
mistake of thinking that these rounds are harmless!
Use your time in the tactical training environment to learn an overview of your
unit’s operating policies in the field. You should have an intricate knowledge of
how fighting positions are built to accommodate certain weapons. You should
know how to maneuver through the area with relative ease.
Spend some time becoming familiar with physical security of arms, ammunition
and explosives in the field. Study the methods of chemical decontamination of
the weapons and auxiliary equipment. Take apart some weapons in MOPP Level
four, with gloves and mask properly worn.
Get used to the work/rest cycle. Understand that if contact with an enemy is
made, you may have to work under extremely difficult circumstances. Prepare for
that by pushing your personal limits beyond the comfort zone. Stay properly fed,
rested and hydrated. Attend properly to personal hygiene. You never know when
the enemy will ring your doorbell!
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All this will happen only if you are self-motivated and truly care about the
quality of your work, and the survival of your fellow soldiers. Remember always
that in unity there is strength. Become a part of the team, and do your job. That
is the key to survival on the battlefield.
Here’s where all your training and experience pay dividends. You, the unit
armorer, can contribute directly to the success or failure of your unit to close with
and defeat enemy troops. Only a complete fool would deny the importance of
properly functioning armament in a firefight.
Each individual soldier will rely upon his or her weapon to provide the firepower
needed to defeat the enemy and stay alive. The consequences of failure are
unacceptable to even consider. Our forces fight to win by achieving specific
objectives. If the weapons fail to operate, missions can fail, and soldiers will die.
The responsibility for the proper care and maintenance of these essential tools
of battle is a serious one. As I often say in my classes,
“This is not the Olympics. There is no medal for second place. You win,
or you lose. When death is the cost of failure, no budget is big enough
to cover the price.”
The armorer is a resource in combat. Like all resources, the armorer is only
useful if he or she is equal to the task at hand. Your training, experience,
courage and dedication can make all the difference in the world when needed. If
no one has ever told you this before, let me explain it now:
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I have trained hundreds of personnel for arms room duty a various military
installations. Most of the soldiers I have trained, including those who graduated
from the 92Y school, have told me that no one ever explained the nature of their
combat duties to them.
Keep in mind, these are not hunting weapons, not sporting weapons or
competitive weapons. They are combat weapons, and like all combat gear must
be maintained to the highest standards attainable. Yes, we use these weapons
for training, but their purpose is combat. To keep these weapons operating at
the highest possible state of efficiency requires a team effort. This team includes
the trainer, the soldier, and the armorer.
In combat, there are no “time outs”. The enemy will not wait until you fill out a
form and evacuate a broken weapon to a repair facility. His mission is simple. He
intends to kill you. If your unit’s weapons fail because of poor maintenance, and
you cannot repair them, he may succeed!
In tactical environments, you will still have a forward support unit providing
most of the technical assistance and maintenance support you require. The
problems arise when you are actually engaged in offensive or defensive
operations, or when your forward support unit is engaged with the enemy. At
such times, the concept of how you will perform critical maintenance tasks needs
to be flexible enough to adapt to the situation
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Obviously, the best kind of maintenance is preventive maintenance. Most
maintenance problems are identifiable right at the unit level. You can eliminate
the need for emergency repairs to some extent, just by conducting more frequent
and more intense inspections.
Your PLL will probably be increased if you go to combat. The most frequently
used parts will be available to you. Make sure they are also accessible. If they
are buried under a ton of canvas and wood in the back of a truck, you won’t have
them when you need them should the enemy attack your unit.
Become familiar with those parts most likely to fail and have them immediately
accessible. Having them in a toolbox or parts container may seem okay when
nothing is happening. During a firefight, however, that’s exactly the wrong place
for them to be. Can you see yourself lugging a big, bright red toolbox across the
battlefield?
The common tools to carry are side-cutting parallel jaw pliers, wire twisting
pliers, a spool of wire, a set of straight punches, a rubber mallet, ball peen
hammer and several screwdrivers. A multi-tool also is very useful. Make sure
you have a red-lens flashlight also.
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You can also pre-position critical PLL items. If you have only one M2 .50
Caliber machinegun, why not keep the parts with the weapon if at a defensive
position? Any weapon in a fixed position like a DFP, bunker or tower is an
excellent candidate for PLL parts pre-placement.
If several weapons fail and you have no more parts to repair them with,
consider cannibalization as a source of parts. Make a working weapon from the
working parts available. Be aware of the dangers of swapping bolt assemblies
between weapons without being able to check the headspace. But it may be
preferable to take that risk rather than be overrun by the enemy because you
have no crew-served weapons operable on the battlefield.
To make the greatest contribution to your unit and fellow soldiers during
combat operations, you need to have a response plan. What does this mean?
Very simply, you must analyze your situation and draft a mental course of action
to follow in case of emergencies.
- Know the paths to the defensive fighting positions. Make sure that
you walk the paths to the positions in daylight, so you can find your
way without error in the dark. This will cut response time to the DFP
in need, and prevent a broken ankle or a poked eyeball in the dark.
- Know the personnel in the positions, and make sure they know you
by sight and voice. Remember, personnel turnover will occur on the
battlefield due to PCS, ETS, MIA, KIA, injury, emergency leave and
so on. Make sure every new soldier knows your approach to his or
her position, and that they can identify you. Don’t rely only on the
challenge and password. Fratricide happens. Try to prevent it.
- Share your knowledge of the weapon with the operator. Train the
operators to perform immediate actions using the PLL parts that
may have been placed at the DFP. This may prevent the need for
you to expose yourself to enemy fire (a good thing!), and allow the
crew-served weapon to get back in action faster (also good!).
- Anticipate failure, prepare for failure, and deal with failure. Get to
know the weapons and anticipate what might go wrong.
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Finally, we must look to TM 750-244-7 for the instruction on how to perform the
final, unthinkable duty of the armorer. This manual details the methods by which
you will destroy your unit’s weapons to prevent them from falling into the hands
of the enemy.
- Scattering and burial of parts. Make sure you remove critical parts so
the weapon will not function. DO NOT bury all the parts in one hole. If
the enemy finds the hole, he’ll put the weapons together and use them.
Try to dump the parts in a deep body of running water if possible. If you
dump them in a swamp, remember that standing water will show mud
disturbances for a long time. Prevent discovery by stomping through
the swamp water and muddying all of it up to conceal where the parts
have been thrown. Burying parts in a cat-hole or field latrine is a good
idea. Would you put your hand down there? Neither will the enemy.
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Remember that only the Commander or competent command authority can
make this decision. Acting on your own may have serious legal consequences!
Before we leave this chapter, I want to touch again on the subject of inspection
of small arms. In recent years, the DOD has moved away from the “zero defect”
concept. This concept stated that anything less than perfection was
unacceptable as an output.
When it comes to military equipment, there are some basic items that must
work reliably, the first time and every time they are needed. Examples are the
soldier’s chemical defense ensemble, a parachute and of course, the individual
weapon. Think about it, if these items fail, the soldier will possibly not survive.
How do you maintain weapons to that maintenance level? Where does the
motivation and drive to achieve perfection in firearms maintenance come from?
Well, it largely comes from the attitude of the maintenance soldier. How can you
develop such a high performance capability? By adopting a standard which only
permits total success.
I urge you to use my standard, aptly titled “Chuck Ruggiero’s 200% Rule”, as
the benchmark for quality assurance in your arms room. The 200% Rule is
simple:
You must be nearly fanatical in your devotion to quality. Remember that no one
is going to stand over your shoulder to see if you are doing your best in the arms
room. No one, that is, except your own conscience. The lives of your fellow
soldiers may depend on the quality of your work. Never forget that, and you will
succeed.
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Chapter 1 Examination
a. _____________________
b. _____________________
c. _____________________
d. _____________________
e. _____________________
Answer: _____________________
Answer: _____________________
a. _____________________
b. _____________________
c. _____________________
d. _____________________
e. _____________________
a. _____________________
b. _____________________
c. _____________________
d. _____________________
Answer: ________________
Answer: ________________
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8. What publication details the physical security of arms, ammunition and
explosives?
Answer: ________________
a. _____________________
b. _____________________
c. _____________________
d. _____________________
e. _____________________
10. Each parts listing includes a five-place alphabet code which tells you how to
procure an item, who can replace the item, whether it is to be repaired, and how
to dispose of it. What is the correct name of this code?
ANSWER: ______________
Answers to this and all examinations can be found at the back of this book.
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Chapter 2: Firearms Operating Characteristics
This chapter will examine firearms and how they work. I will cover topics of
importance, which will help you understand common terms, theories and
systems. This chapter will include information on operating systems, cooling,
propellants and primers, ammunition and ballistics.
I will preface this chapter with a few words of caution. The subject of firearms is
expansive and could go into endless detail. There are virtually thousands of
different types of firearms in use all over the world today. These weapons are
made by hundreds of manufacturing companies, and thousands of individual
gunsmiths and pistolsmiths.
Anyone who ever tries to tell you that they know all there is to know about
firearms is a dangerous lunatic. These people should immediately be subjected
to drug testing. In addition to the hard sciences referenced in the second
paragraph on this page, there are many other areas of art and expertise involved
in gunmaking, firearms training and the use of firearms in hostile situations.
These other areas of expertise include drafting, tool and die making, pattern
cutting, metalworking, non-destructive testing (magnetic particle inspection, dye
penetrant testing, radiology and fluoroscopy), engraving, applying chemical
finishes, stock bedding, instructional principles and techniques, street survival
training, forensics (ballistic forensics, microscopy), advanced marksmanship
theory, sniping, etc. Wow, the list could go on endlessly!
If you ever meet anyone who has a detailed understanding of all these
sciences, arts and other areas of expertise, please give that person my name
and address. I could always use a good mentor (they’re hard to find!).
I will describe the most useful information in general terms. This is a primer that
is designed to introduce you to concepts. Some of it may go beyond your duties
as an armorer. But ask yourself a question: “How can I repair anything I do not
truly understand”? Many soldiers and police officers know very little about their
weapons, so let’s solve that problem here and now.
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The entire purpose of a firearm is to launch a projectile, with the specific
objective of hitting a target. The nature of this act may vary. A firearm may be
used for competitive shooting, target practice, hunting, self defense, military
purposes or criminal purposes. Regardless of the intended use, the product will
always be the same: the propelling of a projectile toward a specific target.
Firearms may vary in the means of accomplishing this objective. There are
different types of operating systems, using different technologies. There are
handguns, rifles, shotguns, revolvers, machineguns, derringers and other types
of projectile launching systems. Each of these has characteristics which are
unique, although many of them share common features. Most, but not all, of the
principles apply to different types of weapons. What features are common
depends on the type of operating system employed.
Cycle of Functions
All weapons have a cycle of functions. This cycle is the sequence of events
that takes place in a logical order, which supports the end objective of launching
a projectile from the muzzle of the weapon. Most firearms use the following
eight-step cycle:
1. Feeding
2. Chambering
3. Locking
4. Firing
5. Unlocking
6. Extracting
7. Ejecting
8. Cocking
The action assembly area is that area of the receiver or frame of the firearm
which contains and uses moving parts to sustain the cycle of functions, causing
the weapon to load and discharge a round of ammunition. It may include a bolt,
slide or similar component that aids in the feeding or ammunition.
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Ammunition may also be fed by means of a belt of ammunition. A belt is usually
held together by metallic links which disassemble from the rounds during
feeding.
Chambering is that action which takes the round from the feeding position, and
seats it within the chamber, or aligns the cartridge cylinder of the weapon.
Chambering may be in-line or offset. In-line chambering is most common in
revolvers, where the cylinder rotates to place the round of ammunition in a
straight line with the bore of the barrel. The rotation of the cylinder accomplishes
chambering, feeding is accomplished manually when the operator places the
rounds into the cylinder.
Most slide operated semi-automatic pistols will have a chambering ramp (called
a feeding ramp by some manufacturers, although that term is imprecise). The
ramp sits at the top of the magazine well, directly below the chamber and
aligned with the tip of the upmost round in the magazine. As the round is
stripped from the magazine by the forward motion of the slide, it is deflected
upwards into the chamber area.
Chambering is completed when the shoulder of the cartridge (where the case
tapers in a bottleneck cartridge, or the case mouth in a straight-walled cartridge)
makes contact with the corresponding shoulder of the chamber. At this point the
round can no longer travel forward, and chambering has occurred.
Locking takes place when an assembly such as a bolt or slide closes and
locks into position in preparation for firing. Not all operating systems utilize a
locking chamber. Locking is usually required to protect the operator from the
force of discharge in high-powered systems, and to prevent problems such as
case deformations that would occur if the round were not forced to remain in the
chamber during firing.
Locking may involve the rotation of a bolt assembly with attached locking lugs
that fit into corresponding recesses. It may also involve the use of a rolling or
dropping “locking block”, a device which fits into a locking recess in a similar
fashion.
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In all cases, locking protects the operator and weapon from damage, and keeps
the proper headspace relationship between the bolt and chamber, or slide and
barrel. I will get into the headspace issue later in this chapter.
Firing is initiated when a firing pin, striker, or similar part engages the primer or
other ignition source, causing a spark or flame that will ignite the main propelling
charge. It is completed when the propellant has been expended. Some systems
may use electrical ignition systems, but these are not common on small arms,
and are usually found in systems such as rocket launchers.
Firing may result from the release of energy stored in a compressed spring, or
may be the direct result of manual force applied to a moving part. At this point it
becomes necessary to explain the terms single action and double action,
since they describe handgun-firing methods.
Single action refers to the fact that in a revolver or semi-automatic of that type,
the act of pulling the trigger performs a single function: releasing the hammer or
firing pin. This implies therefore, that the shooter must first cock the firing
mechanism to put the hammer or firing pin in the proper position for release. In
other words, the shooter performs two acts, cocking the weapon and pulling the
trigger. The weapon provides only a single action, releasing that cocked part.
Double action weapons provide both the cocking and release from a single pull
of the trigger. As the trigger is pulled to the rear, the hammer or firing pin is
forced back into the cocked position. When the trigger gets far enough to the
rear, that device is then released, allowing the weapon to fire. So the shooter
performs a single act, pulling the trigger, and the weapon performs a double
action, cocking and firing.
Single and double action firing are more easily explained if you consider the
weapons that use these systems. For example, in the M1911 Colt semi-
automatic pistol, the first shot must be fired in single action. The shooter must
manually cock the hammer to the rear to prepare the weapon for firing. If the
shooter pulls the trigger back on the first round, the hammer does not move to
the rear, and the weapon will not fire.
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In the case of the M9 9mm Beretta semi-automatic pistol, pulling the trigger to
the rear does cause the hammer to move backwards, allowing firing with a single
pull of the trigger. Both weapons, however, will fire all subsequent rounds with a
single trigger pull, as the slide cocks the hammer to the rear after each shot.
Unlocking is the opposite of the locking action, or the opening of the breech,
chamber or cylinder to permit the removal of the spent cartridge case.
Extracting is the removal of the expended cartridge case from the chamber,
usually by means of a device called an extractor. The extractor usually has a
claw device that fits into the groove at the bottom of the case, or in a rimmed
cartridge, just above the rim of the case.
As the bolt or slide moves to the rear, the extractor pulls the case from the
chamber. The extractor is therefore usually attached to the bolt or slide. Most
extractors are spring loaded so the extractor can snap into the groove or over
the rim during chambering. Some are themselves made out of metal with spring-
like properties, and flex slightly as they snap into position during chambering.
Ejecting is the removal of the spent cartridge case from the weapon itself,
either by forcefully expelling the case, or allowing it to fall due to the effect of
gravity. In the case of most bolt operated rifles, a spring-loaded device called the
ejector is built into the bolt. This is essentially a round pin that presses against
the left side of the cartridge base. As the mouth of the expended case clears the
ejection port of the weapon, the spring expands under the pin, kicking the round
out to the right (in a right-handed rifle).
With most slide operated semi-automatic pistols, the ejector is a fixed metal
part attached to the top of the frame at the rear of the gun. It usually is fit into an
ejector rail cut into the slide. As the slide moves to the rear, extracting the shell
casing from the chamber, the base of the case contacts the stationary ejector.
This contact causes the shell casing to kick out of the slide in the opposing
direction. Most commonly, the ejector is on the left side, and the case kicks out
to the right.
Gravity ejection occurs in weapons such as the M203 grenade launcher and
the M2 .50 caliber machinegun. Gravity ejection usually is assisted, meaning
that some part, or the next shell, causes the expended case to be forced
downward. In the M203, the ejector is a spring-loaded pin that contacts the top
of the cartridge at the base. It pushes the top of the case forward as the barrel is
slid forward, opening the chamber. This causes the case to kick forward at the
top, causing the expended cartridge to tumble downwards to the ground.
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In the M2 machinegun, the next round feeding into the T-slot on the face of the
bolt assembly displaces the recently fired case. This downward feeding of the
new round forces the expended casing down, accomplishing ejection.
Remember that ejection has not taken place until the case is removed
completely from the firearm.
In addition to ejection of the cartridge case, we also have the matter of link
ejection to contend with in a machinegun. Most link ejection is passive, meaning
that the link is incidentally expelled from the feed tray as ammunition is fed into
the weapon.
The feed tray assembly will usually have a link ejection port or chute, or just an
opening where the links fall out of the weapon onto the ground. In aircraft
applications, it is essential to recover the spent links and brass by means of a
catch bag or ejection chute assembly. This prevents brass and links from falling
from the aircraft and entering engine intakes or damaging the tail rotor assembly
of a helicopter
Cocking prepares the weapon for firing by compressing a firing pin spring,
resetting a hammer, or storing energy in a compressed spring and moving part
that is usually held in place by a device called a sear.
The second element is that the weapon automatically reloads and re-cocks
itself. Therefore it must be magazine or belt fed in order to sustain automatic
reloading (reloading includes both feeding and chambering). A fully automatic
machinegun does not meet the requirements of the definition either, because it
fires more than one round with a single trigger pull.
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Although the preceding steps in the cycle of functions are common to most
firearms, not all systems employ all eight steps. Some weapons do not employ a
locking system, so those steps are omitted from the cycle.
However, most weapons use all eight steps. Weapons that do not are the
exception, not the norm. It is essential that gunsmiths and repair persons fully
understand the nature of each step in a weapon, if they intend to repair that
firearm.
Before I leave the subject of functioning characteristics, there is one more thing
I would like to address. This deals with the positioning of the bolt during the
firing process.
Weapons that fire from the open bolt position have distinct advantages. Most of
them have to do with cooling of the system. Here are some of the advantages:
2. The barrel is open at both ends when the bolt remains locked to the
rear, allowing for faster cooling of the barrel due to air circulation.
3. The system does not place a round into the hot chamber except when
actually firing. This reduces the potential for a cookoff. A cookoff is a
round that spontaneously ignites due to residual heat in the chamber.
Most weapons fire from the closed bolt position. In these systems, the round
is already in the chamber and the system is locked and cocked when the trigger
is pulled. The advantage of the closed bolt system is speed. Since the round is
already positioned and the system cocked, pulling the trigger immediately fires
the round.
This is unlike the open bolt system, where the bolt has to travel forward after
the trigger is pulled. The net result is a slight decrease in the time required from
the moment of trigger pull, until discharge.
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In a gunfight, speed is of the essence, since bullets travel at hundreds or even
thousands of miles per hour on the way to the target. The closed bolt system
fires as soon as the sear releases the hammer or firing pin. Even a fraction of a
second can be critical in a gunfight. Of course, if the hammer is already cocked
in a handgun, the weapon will react faster. This is because the trigger does not
have to first bring the hammer back and then release it. The time value may be
very small, but that does take twice as long to accomplish if the hammer needs
to go rearward first.
Unfortunately, in a really hot weapon, the closed bolt method places a round in
that hot chamber automatically (in a semi-automatic or automatic weapon). This
does increase the potential for a cookoff round. Cookoffs are unintended events,
and can take you by surprise, causing injury or even death if the muzzle is not
pointed in a safe direction at the moment of discharge.
Cooling
The act of firing a round generates heat and pressure. The temperature
generated by the burning of propellant powders is in the magnitude of thousands
of degrees Fahrenheit. The reaction is only momentary because the powder
increments are small, and is therefore not sustained over time. Still, if we fire the
weapon rapidly, heat will build up due to the thermodynamic nature of the
chemical reaction that takes place within the cartridge case.
One design element might be the total surface area available for cooling effect.
Similar to a heat sink, the surface can be designed to efficiently displace heat.
A heat sink absorbs heat away from a component and then radiates it into the
air. Heat sinks commonly have many fins, maximizing contact with the cooler air
and the hot surface. This increases cooling potential. On a firearm, what
appears to be an unusually shaped surface with many levels or recesses might
actually be a heat sink by design.
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Let’s look at the three basic types of cooling features commonly found on
firearms:
1. Radiational cooling
2. Conduction cooling
3. Convection cooling
Radiational cooling simply allows for the dissipation of heat into the
surrounding cooler air. This is the least efficient means of cooling, but in some
cases the only one available due to design limitations.
Simply put, the gun heats up and gradually cools, as the surrounding air heats
up due to radiant energy. Think of the radiator in your home that carries a warm
fluid from your heating system. The radiator heats up, and as it heats up the air
surrounding it, the radiator actually loses thermal energy and cools down.
If we don’t sustain the reaction by continually pumping hot fluid into the
radiator, the room will get cold as we lose the ability to generate radiant heat
energy. This cooling of the radiator due to the loss of a heat source is what
happens in a firearm as well. The chamber heats up as ammunition is fired. The
heat radiates into the surrounding air, cooling the gun. When we cease firing,
there is no more heat source, and the gun eventually returns to normal (non-
operating) temperature.
How the weapon is designed, and what metals are used, determines the
cooling rate. Some weapons may cool down in a matter of minutes, others (like
some machineguns) may take more than an hour to cool.
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You might be asking yourself how convection cooling works on a firearm, since
there are no fans to generate air currents. Actually, the handguards of many
weapons are designed to accomplish this. Many handguards have an inner heat
shield, which reflects heat energy away from the handguard and back towards
the barrel. The net effect is the super-heating of the air between the heat shield
and barrel.
The tops and bottoms of most handguard assemblies have cooling holes in
them, and the heated air rises from the top holes. This creates an updraft that
brings the cooler air in from the bottom. This process establishes a convection
cycle as heated air is continually replaced by cooler air. You can see this occur
if you have oil on the barrel of an M16 series rifle. As the barrel heats up and the
cycle is established, smoke will jet up from the cooling holes as the oil cooks off
on the surface of the barrel.
First of all, you increase the potential for a cookoff. As previously explained, a
cookoff is usually an unintended firing of the weapon. This can result in damage
to the weapon or injury to the operator if the breech is being opened at the
moment of discharge. It can even result in an accidental shooting of another
person (or you!).
Third, heating metallic parts above critical operating temperatures can anneal,
or soften, them. The temper, or hardness of the metal, can be lost. All gun parts
are made of metals with specific properties such as malleability, ductility, tensile
strength and relative hardness. Overheating changes the characteristics of some
metals and can seriously affect the way your weapon performs.
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Gun barrels in particular are designed to operate within a specific range of
temperatures. Additionally, each rifle barrel has a harmonic oscillating
frequency, referred to by most gunsmiths as “barrel whip”. As the weapon fires,
the metal vibrates, just like a tuning fork. If we change the properties of a tuning
fork, we change the pitch it produces. The same thing happens with a gun
barrel. Change the characteristics of the barrel, and the barrel whip can change.
One way to do this is by seriously overheating the barrel.
Gun barrels are supposed to get warm. They are not supposed to glow a bright
red! Any sniper will tell you that they record both cold bore and warm barrel data
in their logbooks. Understanding operating temperatures is essential in critical
shooting applications. Temperatures in excess of those normally tolerated by the
metal results in damaged barrels and poor accuracy. Inaccuracy defeats the
entire usefulness of the weapon.
Most heat damage can be avoided. Lightweight firearms should not be fired at
the full cyclic rate for a prolonged period of time. Even single shot bolt rifles can
sustain some damage if the operator does not immediately extract and eject the
spent shell casing. As long as that casing sits in the chamber, it’s transferring
heat to the chamber walls. Cool weapons, like cool heads, prevail in combat.
There are other, more exotic cooling systems used on some weapons. The
Browning .30 caliber machinegun series featured some weapons that used a
water jacket, surrounding the barrel. The water was brought to a boil, and steam
exited through a vent tube. The tube led into a condenser bucket, where the
cooled steam turned back into water. The assistant gunner simply kept refilling
the water jacket with the reclaimed water.
Sunlight also affects your ammunition. Rounds should never be left in sunlight,
as this causes problems with over-pressure when firing the round. Ammunition
should always be kept in the shade until immediately before firing. On the firing
line, cover your ammo with a towel, you hat, or keep it in the box until used.
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Operating system design
1. Manual operation
2. Gas operation
3. Recoil operation
4. Blowback operation
Be certain, there are many variations and nuances of these systems, and there
are some unusual operating systems I will not cover here. As I have already
stated, there are thousands of firearms, all of them different to some degree. As
a practical matter, they mostly conform to the basic operating principles of the
systems indicated above.
Manual operation is achieved using the muscle power of the operator. All of
the steps in the cycle of functions are performed manually by the operator. This
includes opening the breech or cylinder and inserting a round, thereby
accomplishing feeding and chambering. Closing the breech or chamber will
usually lock the system. On some weapons a separate lock-piece is employed,
but on many systems locking happens as the action is closed.
Firing may require the manual setting of a cocking handle, hammer or similar
device. In this case, energy is first stored in a compressed spring, and then
released. This causes primer impact and detonation. Some systems release the
hammer or firing pin immediately, as the trigger is drawn rearward.
In firearms using a hammer, there will often be a half stop notch. The weapon
can remain in the half-cocked position, or the fully-cocked position. This
depends on how far back the hammer is pulled. The half-cocked position is an
intermediate safety, used to make sure an accidentally snagged hammer does
not discharge the weapon. Examples of manually operated weapons are:
- Revolvers
- Bolt action rifles
- Shotguns
Another point about manually operated weapons should be made. The shooter
determines the cyclic rate of fire. How quickly and efficiently the weapon
operates is the direct result of operator ability, since all steps are performed
manually. The operator should therefore be trained to increase manual
proficiency and speed.
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Gas operation uses the gas pressure created by the burning propellant to
provide the power for operating the system. There are two basic types of gas
operation, direct and indirect.
In direct gas operation, the gas created by the burning propellant will
physically interact with the components of the action assembly within the
receiver. Using the AR15 or M16 series of rifles as an example will explain this
method. In this system, a quantity of pressurized gas escapes from behind the
bullet as it travels past the front sight frame. Within the front sight frame is a gas
port that connects a vent hole in the barrel with the gas tube. When the bullet
passes the vent hole, and before it leaves the muzzle, gas pressure is vented
into the gas tube.
The gas travels rearward through the gas tube, and into the upper receiver.
The carrier key mounted on top of the bolt ports the gas downward into the bolt
carrier body, into an expansion chamber. The bolt sits inside this chamber, fully
seated inside the bolt carrier when the bolt is locked into the chamber. The bolt
is in reality a piston, and the bolt carrier’s expansion chamber is actually a
cylinder. The relationship is the same as any piston operating within a cylinder.
As gas enters that chamber, the seal created by the piston rings on the base of
bolt causes a separation of the bolt and carrier.
However, since the bolt is already locked fully forward, the result is the
rearward movement of the carrier. In this case, the gas actually travels into the
upper receiver, through to the carrier key, to physically move the action
assembly parts. The rearward movement of the carrier causes unlocking and
subsequent steps in the cycle of functions to take place.
In the indirect system the gas does enter the action assembly area. The energy
is transmitted rearward by the operating rod. As a result, fewer contaminants will
enter the receiver, because the gas is ported out of the cylinder and does not go
all the way back to the receiver.
Gas systems, which rely upon the burning propellant, create significant fouling
deposits. These are normally referred to as “carbon” (incorrect, as carbon is an
element, not a collection of combustion byproducts). More intensive cleaning is
therefore required. The proper cleaning is critical for reliable performance.
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Recoil operation is based on the law of physics that states that every action
has an equal, but opposite, reaction. Recoil operated systems rely upon the
generation of a force sufficient to unlock and move the action assembly
components to the rear. This force must also be powerful enough to extract the
shell from the chamber, and fully compress the recoil spring. This force is called
the recoil impulse.
The answer is simple. The bullet weighs only a fraction of an ounce, and is
more easily influenced by the pressure of discharge. The weapon, with the body
of the shooter behind it, may outweigh the bullet by a factor of several thousand
times the bullet mass.
We must consider the inversely proportional relationship of the mass, force and
velocity produced. The greater the mass, the less effect the force will have upon
it. The bullet moves downrange, and the shooter remains in position. The net
effect upon the shooter is perceived as a slight impact, or recoil force, which is
felt at the shoulder.
Recoil systems require high chamber pressures. This is because the round
must generate sufficient force to create the recoil impulse needed, and that
translates into higher chamber pressures. Because the operation requires high
pressure, it must also have a locking system. These are common characteristics
of recoil systems: high pressures and locking systems.
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Blowback operation is similar to recoil operation in some ways. The action
assembly components are moved to the rear by the force caused as the
propellant gases expand. As the propellant burns, pressure is created in the
chamber. This pressure causes the bullet to dislodge from the case mouth and
to then proceed downrange.
An equal but opposite reaction is created as the gas pushes in both directions:
front and rear. In the recoil system, the recoil impulse moves the bolt and barrel
to the rear. In the blowback system, it is the direct pressure against the face of
the bolt caused by the expanding gas.
This should not be confused with gas operation, which traps and uses some of
the escaping gases. In blowback operation, the gas simply pushes the base of
the cartridge against the face of the bolt. The resulting action is the rearward
movement of the bolt assembly.
Since blowback systems rely on this direct pressure against the face of the
bolt, a locking system would be counter-productive. Much of the force would be
lost during unlocking. Consequently, blowback systems typically do not lock.
Since they have no locking system, we have to operate in the range of lower
chamber pressures, to prevent damage to the weapon and operator.
This weapon uses the delayed blowback system. In this system, the bolt is
still actually moving forward at the time of firing. The blowback force has to
overcome the forward momentum of the bolt, and then move it rearward. This
type of system is useful in dealing with slightly higher chamber pressures than
found in most blowback weapons, and allows firing the heavy 40mm projectile.
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Ammunition and Ballistics
Let’s begin with the acceptance of a basic premise: the entire purpose in firing
a weapon is to cause the projectile to impact on a target. All that happens in a
firearm does so to support this one requirement.
Ballistics is a very complex subject that many find confusing and difficult to
understand. For the purposes of military small arms, it is not critical for the
average marksman to have any knowledge of ballistic theory, except as pertains
to bullet drop and the effects of wind. However, for those who hand-load
ammunition, complete knowledge is essential. The typical military armorer will
never perform this task; as mentioned earlier, it is prohibited. However, we
cannot fully understand the weapon if we do not understand what it is designed
to do, and how it does it.
With respect to the science of ballistics and its reference to firearms, we are
concerned with three principle phases of activity. These are interior, exterior and
terminal ballistics.
Interior ballistics deals with the behavior of the cartridge from the moment it
ignites until the time the projectile exits the muzzle on the way downrange.
Interior ballistics is a static science, since all of the parameters are already
known, and the outcomes are easily predictable. Interior ballistics considers
such factors as bullet weight, seating depth, rifling form, propellant type and
quantity, bore diameter, barrel metallurgy, and other factors.
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Exterior ballistics deals with the flight of the projectile, on its way to the target.
It commences at the moment the projectile leaves the muzzle, and deals with its
flight until impact with the target or the earth. Exterior ballistics is a dynamic
science, because the conditions affecting the flight are infinitely variable.
If you fire a weapon on a rainy day, will the bullet hit a raindrop? If it does,
which raindrop will it hit? And how will hitting that raindrop affect the flight
path of the projectile from that point? What if it hits another raindrop?
While this argument may seem silly, it is factual in its basis. It illustrates that
there is an infinite capacity for the round to be affected on the way to the target.
Exterior ballistics looks at the motion of the bullet in flight, the effects of wind,
drag, gravity, temperature, humidity, altitude, angle of elevation, barometric
pressure, and many other factors.
Terminal ballistics examines the impact of the bullet with the target or the
earth. Terminal ballistics is also a dynamic science, because there are also
many variables that are unpredictable. These include target material,
composition, fluid content, penetration depth, angle of entry, interior deflection,
projectile design, projectile material, relative movement of the target, bone
density, fat mass, target weight, etc. Again, infinitely variable.
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Propellants and Projectiles
Since the function of the firearm is to fire the projectile, we will begin our
analysis by discussing how this takes place. We will take a short historical
overview, and then talk about current technologies.
Early firearms used black powder, a mixture of charcoal, sulfur, and potassium
nitrate (commonly referred to as saltpeter). There is great controversy about the
origins of black powder. You will undoubtedly read conflicting claims, and time
has shrouded the facts.
When firearms were first invented, it was rapidly discovered that round lead
balls were the most preferable projectiles. Lead was readily available, being an
element. Lead also has a low melting point, meaning it could easily be melted
over a hot fire. Lead also has sufficient weight to inflict serious damage on a
target.
Black powder causes significant fouling, and so most leaden balls were cast a
good deal smaller than the bore diameter of the weapon they were to be fired
from. The melting of lead and casting of ball shot was the function of the
armorer.
The undersized dimensions of the lead ball shot made the weapons inaccurate
at any range, and so the need for improvement drove technology ahead. The
rifled barrel appeared, which improved the accuracy of lead shot. Initially, the
same lead shot was wrapped in a cloth patch and the combination of the rifling
and patch caused the bullet to spin, improving accuracy.
However, the weapons of the day were difficult to load, since they were loaded
at the muzzle. An improvement was the Minie’ (pronounced Min-yay) system,
commonly called the Minie’ ball (erroneously pronounced mini-ball). This system
used a hollow conical bullet that would expand inside the barrel, causing the
round to spin, and was more accurate.
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The NC is made into a gelatin by dissolving it in alcohol or ether. The paste
formed is then passed through dies and extruded into shape. Finally it is
chopped to the appropriate length. Ball powder was made by taking the mixture
and spraying it into cold water, forming spheres. Modern processes have since
replaced those manufacturing techniques.
Nitrocellulose 90.30%
Dinitrotoluene 8.0% (coating added)
Diphenylamine 0.7% (coating added)
Potassium Sulfate 1.0% (coating added)
Stabilizers are also added to the chemical compound during processing. The
result is a gelatin-like substance that can then be easily formed into shape.
Cordite was an early double based powder, which got its name from the fact that
it was cut into long cords and trimmed for use in the cartridge.
Diglycol-dinitrate,
Triglycol-dinitrate or
Methyl trimethylol-methane trinitrate
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Triple-based powders are basically double based powders, but nitro-
guanidine is added to lower combustion temperatures. Using a lower percentage
of nitroglycerine, they have high power output and fewer unwanted temperature
effects. However, smoke output is increased, and the addition of the nitro-
guanidine requires the use of solvents, adding to drying time, and thus cost.
Triple based powders are used in artillery rounds and tank rounds.
Triglycol powders are triple based powders, but the nitroglycerine is replaced
with an ester of glycol. They are really excellent powders, but expensive. They
are not popular with small arms manufacturers or users, possibly due to cost.
The size and shape of grains of powder are critical, since they define the burn
rate and hence the power generated. Powder grains are further defined by type
as degressive, neutral or progressive.
Degressive powder is usually formed into balls, sheets or strips. As they burn,
the total burning surface area of the grains decreases.
All smokeless powders fit into the category of colloidal cellulose nitrates. A
colloid is a substance in which fine particles are suspended in a continuous
medium. Gunpowders, as propellants, are considered to be low explosives.
They produce large volumes of high temperature gases and do not rely on
atmospheric oxygen to sustain the reaction. They typically involve molecular
decomposition.
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In a low explosive, the burn rate is usually less than 400 meters per second, or
1300 feet per second. Keep in mind that the burning propellant creates
expanding gases. These gases expand because their density is less than that of
the atmosphere, due to rapid temperature rise.
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Having a jacket also prevents the lead from making contact with the bore,
lessening the amount of lead fouling in the barrel. Early weapons that used the
lead bullet exclusively, in combination with black powder, caused fouling which
could actually prevent the weapon from being loaded and fired.
Projectiles must have proper balance in order to spin reliably and maintain their
stability during flight. Early projectiles suffered from a lack of concentricity due to
the limits of the machinery of the day. Correspondingly, many projectiles during
the civil war era were highly erratic in terms of their flight characteristics. Today,
the sophistication of the computer-assisted design and manufacturing process
makes sure that even inexpensive ammunition is reliable and accurate.
However, you should be aware that not all military forces in the world observe
the requirements of these conventions. The forces you might encounter may
belong to rogue nations that have no regard for international laws. Remember
that insurgents or guerrilla fighters will use whatever means they have to defeat
you.
(The medulla oblongata is the nerve tissue at the base of the brain that controls
respiration, circulation, and other vital body functions. Hit it, and the subject is
instantly incapacitated).
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The following are some of the more common types of projectiles currently being
manufactured and used:
Fully jacketed. This projectile is entirely encased in a metal jacket for the
reasons previously described; flight stability, uniform penetration, lower friction
loss, and conformance to the laws of war. The jacket provides a tough outer
shell to prevent lead atomization due to heat and high pressure during launch.
The core may be a simple lead core, or a compound core made of an inner
core of lead to provide sufficient mass, with a steel inner nose to increase
penetration.
Semi jacketed. This round has a jacket that covers the base and sidewalls of
the projectile. The jacket proceeds forward to the beginning of the ogive, or the
point at which the taper of the nose begins. The jacket ends at this point, leaving
the softer lead core exposed at the tip. The lead easily flattens inside the body,
increasing cross-sectional area and enlarging the permanent wound channel.
Hollow point. A jacketed round with a recess in the nose. This recess results
in greater injury through more controlled expansion than that found in the semi-
jacketed round. Due to the nose design, it will displace more fluid, creating a
larger temporary cavity in the target. This can result in more capillary bleeding, a
higher chance of inducing shock trauma, and an increased probability of tissue
necrosis.
The expansion of the projectile also results in less penetration depth, which is
highly desirable in a law enforcement or personal defense weapon. The typical
human body only averages between 8 and 9.5 inches total depth from the
sternum to the posterior aspect of the spinal column. Projectiles that over-
penetrate simply waste energy, do not transfer enough lethal force in some
cases, and present danger to others in the backstop area behind the intended
target.
There are variations of the hollow point that feature serrations or notches on
the mouth of the projectile. These cartridges may expand like the petals of a
flower for even greater cross-sectional area, or segment into individual
secondary projectiles within the body.
Since I am dealing with the subject, I will take the opportunity to discuss the
mechanisms of injury involved in gunshot wounds. The human body is mostly
fluid. All structures of the body contain fluid, including bone structures. Different
organs and structures will vary in their reaction to a bullet, due to the density of
the tissue and engorgement of blood. Soft tissues will react differently than
muscles, cartilage or bone.
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When a bullet enters a human body at high velocity, the damage done depends
to a great extent on the location of the entry point, and the tissue or organs that
are struck by the bullet. For this reason alone, marksmanship is important. It
should be obvious that shooting someone in the toe will have a different effect
than shooting that person in the eye. The bullet can only be most efficient when
it strikes something vital.
As the bullet enters, it attempts to compress the fluid contained within the
tissue. This is because the bullet desires to occupy the same area as the tissue,
at the same time, and the tissue contains fluid. Fluids, however, can not be
compressed; they can only be displaced. This is the principle upon which the
science of hydraulics is based.
The bullet, moving at incredibly high speed, displaces fluid as it enters the
body. This fluid is not so easily driven from the tissue that holds it, so the tissue
is compressed and displaced, creating a cavity. This cavity has several
elements.
One is the permanent wound channel. This is simply the tissue through which
the bullet passes, which is destroyed by the bullet. The result is tissue necrosis,
or tissue death. If this permanent wound channel involves a vital organ, the
organ can be destroyed or cease to function. The result will usually be death.
The temporary cavity caused by the entry and passage of the bullet is created
by the displacement of blood or other fluids. The temporary cavity in and of itself
can sometimes have little or no consequences. When a surgeon operates on a
patient, he creates a temporary cavity by retracting tissue, yet this in itself may
have no lasting effect.
As a bullet enters the body, the shape and weight of the projectile will greatly
influence its’ path and internal trajectory. A lighter, high-velocity bullet will more
easily deflect from bone or dense tissue, possibly changing course inside the
body.
Many bullets are heavier at the tail than at the nose. This increases
aerodynamic performance, but also results in the bullet turning within the body.
This is because the bullet does not react within the body as it does in the air.
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The reasons for this are the initial shock caused by impact with the body, and
the fact that the bullet is now traveling within a fluid medium. It no longer has the
same velocity, its spin characteristics are changing, and it has been subjected to
the forces of impact with the body, which cause deviation to the flight path.
The heavier base of the bullet will cause the bullet to turn 180 degrees forward,
presenting the heavier base end first as it travels through tissue. This has the
effect of “cleaving," or increasing the size of the permanent wound channel as
the longitudinal aspect of the bullet, from base to tip, is presented to the tissue
through which it passes.
Once the base is leading the bullet through the body (again, depending on the
type of projectile being used), the base may expand, increasing cross-sectional
area. This again has the effect of widening the wound channel and displacing a
greater fluid volume.
Most bullets will have this tendency to tumble within the body. This should not
be confused with tumbling through the air, which I will cover later. Again, this
type of tumbling within the body is caused by the heavier mass of the projectile
base overtaking the light nose. The end result is a 180-degree turn, unless
striking bone or hard tissue causes a compound deflection.
Also, if bone is struck, the bone fragments themselves may become secondary
projectiles as they are driven through surrounding tissue by the force of impact.
It is also common for clothing articles, buttons, or other gear to be driven into the
body by an external impact just immediately prior to the bullet entering the body.
These items may simply present themselves as debris that must be debrided
from the wound channel, or may become secondary projectiles.
Predicting how an individual human body will react to the impact of a bullet is
virtually impossible. Shooting two different people with bullets from the same
weapon, in the same manner, will yield different results (in medical terms). The
individuals may react differently, but the trauma inflicted is still significant.
All this is well and good, as projectiles, especially hollow-points, are designed
to do exactly what I have just described. There are other projectiles for special
uses that I will now describe:
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Wadcutters are projectiles having either a flat nose or a nose with a slight rise
in the center, above a flat plane. Wadcutters are used primarily for target
shooting and competition. They create a hole in a paper target with a perfectly
smooth, circular edge, making scoring disputes very rare. They also make an
excellent personal defense round, as they are very deadly and have fewer
tendencies to ricochet around your bedroom.
Tracers produce a trail of flame and/or smoke to mark the path of the bullet
through the air. The flame is produced by barium nitrate and magnesium mixed
with chemicals to produce specific colors. Tracers are available in different
degrees of brightness for special purposes. They can be used for signaling,
ground illumination, distress markers, and observation of bullet impact or for
incendiary effect.
As the Pomeroy bullet proceeded towards the target, the rotation caused by the
rifling in the barrel would extract the nitroglycerine by centrifugal action. The
liquid would pool on the inside of the bullet, and on impact would explode like a
mini-grenade. Extremely effective, easy to manufacture, but unfortunately you
will not find any of them in current use.
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The part of the projectile that penetrates the armor needs to be a different
shape, to maximize the penetrating abilities of the inner core. The projectile
shape overall has to be aerodynamically efficient. If we used the shape of the
inner core, the bullet would not fly to the target as well as it could, so we wrap it
in the outer lead casing for that purpose.
Armor piercing ammunition is restricted in some areas by local and state laws.
As much as I support the right of the individual citizen to keep and bear arms, I
can think of no legitimate reason for any private citizen to own or possess AP
type ammunition at any time, for any reason, period!
There are bullets available that will defeat and penetrate personal body armor.
Some will even penetrate armor rated for threat level IIIA. These bullets are not
armor piercing rounds. Armor piercing ammunition defeats plate armor, not
synthetic-fiber body armor.
As you can see, there are different rounds for different purposes. There are
other types of ammunition not listed here. I have only provided basic information
on the more common types. Sometimes the choice of the right ammunition can
make the job a lot easier and safer.
A few more facts about projectile and cartridge combinations should be made
at this point. It is difficult to make general recommendations about which bullet
should be used for which purpose. But one suggestion seems to be offered by
nearly all knowledgeable persons. If you are going to carry a handgun for self-
defense, you should probably carry hollow point rounds. The expansion and
lessened ricochet potential make them excellent candidates for close-quarter
combat, as happens in a home defense situation. They also feed more reliably
than some wadcutters.
Handguns can be divided into classifications based on how reliably they feed a
range of ammunition types. First class pistols can handle any ammunition,
including high-powered +P ammunition reliably. Second class pistols may not
feed all hollow point ammunition with the reliability needed for combat. Third
class pistols should only be loaded with ball rounds to prevent feeding jams.
How do you know what classification a pistol falls into? Basically, you get what
you pay for. If a handgun is cheap, there usually is a good reason.
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Cartridge cases
Early cartridge cases were nothing more than a paper sack or capsule, filled
with a lead ball and black powder. It was not a cartridge in the sense that we
know one today, but merely a means of keeping all the ingredients for shooting
handy.
Cartridge cases evolved slowly, at the rate that the technology of the period
permitted. Most cartridge cases of the Civil War era were crude and non-
uniform.
Their improvement was limited by the abilities of the machine-tool industry.
Compounding the problems in development was the fact that many calibers had
not been standardized. There were dozens of new weapons developed during
this period in history, each with its own design characteristics.
It was not until the development of a good brass cartridge case, that the benefits
of smokeless powders could be fully realized. Cartridge cases changed greatly
after the civil war, resulting ultimately in the extruded brass cases we are familiar
with in the present time.
The cartridge case provides three main functions, all equally important:
1. A cartridge case holds all the components of the round together. These
include the primer, propellant and projectile.
3. The cartridge case acts as a heat sink, absorbing most of the heat from
the burning of the propellant. When extracted and ejected from the gun
quickly, most of the heat source is removed.
There are many types of cartridge cases, some for general use and some for
special purposes. Some of the more common ones are the rimmed straightwall,
rimless straightwall, rimless bottleneck, rimmed bottleneck, rebated, and belted.
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The above diagram shows a typical centerfire, bottleneck cartridge case. This
is the type of case most commonly used in military firearms. Using this example I
will explain another commonly heard firearms term:
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Headspace is a measurement of length. Specifically, it refers to the distance
from the base of the cartridge, in contact with the face of the locked bolt, to the
commencement of the shoulder angle of the chamber. Looking at the illustration,
headspace would be the distance from the very bottom of the cartridge, to the
point where the sidewalls end and the shoulder begins to taper.
There is great controversy among some of the nation’s best known and well-
respected gunsmiths, as to exactly the point where shoulder contact becomes a
critical element. However, the above definition is generally accepted by those in
the firearms field.
Keep in mind that the chamber of the weapon has a corresponding shoulder, in
which the chamber also narrows. The shoulder of the case seats against the
shoulder of the chamber, defining the total area or length required. Headspace
is important for several reasons. If headspace is inadequate, that means there is
not enough room for the round to seat fully, and the bolt will not lock into
position. This can happen if the case length is oversized. It can happen with
reloaded ammunition that has not been properly sized or trimmed.
If the headspace is excessive, the opposite is true. The case is not long
enough to occupy the total chamber length. This creates problems because the
cartridge now has room to over-expand during firing, possibly causing a rupture
of the case. In some cases, the firing pin might not protrude far enough to strike
the primer, as the case may now be too far forward.
When the term timing is used, most soldiers think of the M2 Browning .50
caliber machinegun. This is because that weapon features adjustable timing. All
weapons, however, require timing. As the definition implies, the timing of a
weapon provides for the steps in the cycle of functions to occur in proper order.
When a step does not occur as expected, a stoppage takes place, and the
weapon ceases to function. Timing is usually a product of design, which causes
the parts to move in a sequence that permits the cycle to perpetuate itself. This
requires no control or input from the operator of the weapon, it happens
automatically.
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Priming
Most cartridge cases use one of two types of ignition sources, either center fire
or rim fire priming.
Center fire priming technology is based upon two different primer designs, the
Boxer and Berdan primers.
A British Colonel, Edward M. Boxer, designed the Boxer primer. His primer
features an anvil set inside the primer shell, against which the priming
compound is crushed when the firing pin strikes the base of the primer. Inside
the base of the cartridge is a vent hole or flash hole through which the ignition
flame passes to ignite the main charge of powder. Each time a piece of Boxer-
style brass is reloaded, the new primer containing a new anvil and priming
charge, is placed in the primer pocket above the hole. This is an easy style of
cartridge to reload, because to dislodge the primer you need only push a rod or
wire through the vent hole from inside the case.
The Berdan primer, invented by US Army Colonel Hiram Berdan in the 1860’s,
does not contain an anvil like the Boxer style does. Instead it is simply a soft
brass alloy cup containing the priming chemicals. The case of the cartridge has
a raised metallic “pip” in the center, upon which the priming compound is
crushed. It features several flash holes around the periphery of the primer
pocket, leading into the main charge area. The Berdan primer is easier to
manufacture since it has no internal anvil like the Boxer does. It is more difficult
to remove, and if the pip in the center of the pocket wears down, which it
eventually can, the brass cannot be reloaded.
The compounds used in primers are usually not disclosed by the manufacturers
to the public, and are considered to be trade secrets. Older primers used
corrosive salts and chemicals that could rust or otherwise damage a weapon’s
finish, but most current primers are non-corrosive.
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How long it will take for this technology to be adopted is unknown. It not only
involves the development of the science involved, but will also require the
complete replacement of the entire current technology. Considering that this
would require the replacement of many millions of weapons in the United States
alone, it will be some time before this technology is practical to use.
SRTA rounds can impact with soft tissue and cause serious trauma or even
death. They should be used with ballistic face shields and body armor to protect
the “target”, usually a person playing the role of aggressor. Without protection
from the projectile, a hit in the eye, ear, throat, in the mouth or groin area can
have extremely serious medical consequences, possibly death.
The basic rule of thumb is; firearms are not toys. Anything fired in a weapon,
even the so-called “safe” ammunition is not really safe. In order for it to work, it
still needs to generate enough temperature and pressure to cause the weapon
to cycle properly.
And, when using blank ammunition, make sure you use the correct blank firing
device. There are different blank firing adapters for the various configurations of
the M-16 series of rifles. They are not interchangeable amongst themselves, or
with the BFA for the M-249 machinegun. Failing to use the right equipment could
cause your weapon to fire as a single shot firearm, or to launch the BFA off the
end of the barrel. Either situation is unacceptable. Refer to the equipment
information in the back of the operator’s manual (-10 TM) for the right gear.
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Ballistic Terminology
To understand what happens to a bullet during launch all the way through to
the time it comes to rest on the ground or in the target, we need to examine
some ballistic concepts and terms.
Grain is a term frequently heard when describing bullets or powder. The term
grain refers to a unit of measure, specifically a unit of weight. The grain is based
on an old system of measurement in which the heart kernel of a single grain of
wheat was used as the standard.
Using this standard, there are 7000 grains in one avoirdupois pound. What
exactly is an avoirdupois pound? It is a system of measure based on sixteen
ounces, 7000 grains or 453.59 grams per pound.
Further examples:
Rifling refers to the spiral grooves engraved along the inner length of the bore
of a firearm. These grooves force the bullet to spin as it travels down the barrel,
because the fit is so tight between the bore surface and the sides of the
projectile. A reverse image is engraved upon the surface of the bullet. These
marks, called striations, are unique from weapon to weapon, and indeed are
used during forensic examinations to determine whether a particular gun fired a
certain bullet.
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Inside the barrel, the higher areas between the engraved grooves are called
lands. The lands dig into the side of the bullet as it passes down the barrel,
clutching the bullet and causing bullet rotation or spin. This spin is needed to
give the bullet aerodynamic and gyrostatic stability as it flies through the air,
which makes for a predictable trajectory to the target.
There are different ways of calculating ballistic coefficiency. One method states
that if a bullet has half the ability of the “standard” bullet, it will have a coefficient
of .500, or one half the value of the number “one."
Most manufacturers will publish the ballistic coefficiency for their projectiles in
the literature accompanying a box of ammunition. Other sources are commonly
found in firearms trade publications and gun magazines sold to the public. The
ballistic coefficiency of a projectile must be known if you wish to calculate the
drift of a projectile subject to a crosswind. Use it also to predict the reduction in
velocity on the way to the target caused by air resistance.
Precession is a natural phenomenon that affects all bullets as they leave the
muzzle crown of a firearm. The air has a moisture content and density, and in
attempting to punch through this resistance, a shock wave travels through a
bullet as it exits the muzzle.
This shock wave causes the bullet to wobble slightly, as a spinning top does
when it hits the ground. In a few milliseconds, the spin of the projectile takes
over and it finds its rotational balance point. From that point on, it flies smoothly,
until the spin begins to decay, at which time the bullet will tumble wildly.
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Sectional density is an expression regarding the relationship of the weight of
the bullet to its diameter. It is given as a decimal fractional value, and represents
the ability of the bullet to sustain momentum during flight. The higher the
sectional density, the greater distance the bullet will travel while overcoming the
effects of aerodynamic drag.
However, a bullet with higher sectional density might possibly not achieve the
same muzzle velocity as a lighter bullet. The heavier the bullet is, the more
power is required to get it to the same velocity as the lighter bullet. This requires
higher chamber pressure, and might exceed the rated pressure for the weapon.
This has the effect of limiting the maximum velocity possible when reloading.
To calculate the needed MOA scope adjustment to compensate for bullet drop
with any rifle, simply determine the number of inches below the point of aim,
where the bullet impacts the target. Then divide this number of inches, by the
hundreds of yards to the target.
For example, if the bullet strikes the target 12 inches below the point of aim,
and the distance to the target is 200 yards, simply divide 12 by 2.00. Remember,
divide by the hundreds of yards! Since the distance is 200 yards, we simply
move the decimal point two places to the left. If the distance were 228 yards, we
would divide by 2.28.
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Muzzle energy is a value that explains the amount of physical work force that
can be expended by the movement of the projectile, at the muzzle. It is a product
of a calculation that multiplies the weight of the bullet in grains, by the square of
the projectile’s velocity. This product is then divided by a constant that allows for
corrections in the speed to weight relationship, and the effects of gravity.
Muzzle energy is only of value when factored into other calculations that
determine the true potential of the bullet to affect the target. It is also used to
make relative comparisons of the efficiency of one bullet versus another. An
example would be the M193 ball round fired from the M16A1 rifle, versus the
M23 incendiary round fired by the M2 .50 caliber machinegun.
In this example, the M16A1 bullet delivers 1290 foot pounds of energy at the
muzzle, while the M2 incendiary round provides a whopping 21588 foot pounds.
The difference in purely analytical terms expresses the ability of the amount of
force exerted to move an object. The M16A1 bullet has the potential to lift a
1290-pound object one foot, while the M2 bullet can do the same for an object
weighing 21588 pounds. This is a considerable difference in power performance.
This is, of course, theoretical. It disallows for factors resulting from the impact,
but is nonetheless valid from a mathematical point of view. How this translates
into comparative efficiency of the two rounds is easier to understand. At 1900
yards downrange, the M2 bullet has more impact energy remaining than the
M16A1 bullet can deliver at the muzzle. At 1900 yards downrange, the M16A1
bullet, with its poorer ballistic coefficiency, would have barely any terminal effect
upon the target.
RSP=E x A x K
In this formula, RSP equals relative stopping power. E equals the bullet energy,
A equals the diameter of the bullet, and K equals the shape factor. The shape
factor can be eliminated from the equation for any two bullets having identical
shapes, thereby simplifying the mathematics.
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The shape factors are assigned as given here:
The end product is a number, usually containing a residual decimal value, such
as 43.22 or 55.14. By itself, this number is meaningless. When compared to the
end value for another bullet, the higher number value equals higher relative
stopping power. Therefore, a bullet with a value of 40.00 has 20% less power
than a bullet with a value of 50.00.
Samuel Colt earned a place in history for his contribution to the science, as did
Garand, Smith & Wesson, Gatling, Rubin, Ruger, Boxer, Berdan, Chinn and
many others. The development of the theories that led to the discoveries go
back much farther than most people realize.
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The work of Benjamin Robins expanded upon developments in mathematics
and the physical sciences made by discoverers such as Galileo, Isaac Newton
and others. These developments, while important in understanding the nature of
the physical relationships between motion, mass, resistance and velocity, were
still relatively useless. There was still no practical way to measure the velocity of
a projectile in flight.
Robins invented a device called the ballistic pendulum in the year 1740. Just
like an ordinary pendulum, it swung in an arc below a pivot point. When struck
with a bullet, the pendulum would react by moving in the direction of travel,
being deflected by that bullet. The size of the arc would be measured. Using the
other known data, such as bullet mass, the velocity could be calculated. With the
speed of the bullet known, other calculations could now be made that were not
previously possible.
Remember that this is happening in 1740, 100 years before practical rifled
barrels began to appear. He advised eliminating round shot and replacing it with
an elongated projectile fired from a barrel with spiral grooves cut into it to give
spin. This is the rifling we are familiar with today.
The work of Robins appears in his writing titled New Principles of Gunnery.
Robins was definitely ahead of his time. Some of his concepts would not be
employed until some 100 years after his death.
At the beginning of this chapter I cautioned you that ballistics is a complex and
difficult subject. While it is easy to achieve a working knowledge, in-depth
understanding can only come from many years of careful research and study. In
my years of association with firearms I have always attempted to improve my
knowledge, even though it sometimes appeared to not relate directly to my
employment. However, my self-improvement has led to career advancement,
and I strongly recommend that you study and learn.
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Chapter 2 Examination
a. __________________
b. __________________
c. __________________
d. __________________
e. __________________
f. __________________
g. __________________
h. __________________
2. What are the three basic types of cooling methods employed by firearms?
a. __________________
b. __________________
c. __________________
a. __________________
b. __________________
c. __________________
d. __________________
a. __________________
b. __________________
c. __________________
ANSWER: _______________________________
a. __________________
b. __________________
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7. How many grains are there in an ounce?
ANSWER: _______________________________
ANSWER: _______________________________
ANSWER: _______________________________
ANSWER: _______________________________
Answers to this and all examinations can be found at the back of this book.
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Chapter 3. Firearms Safety and Marksmanship
The reasons for this are easy to understand. There is always the issue of public
liability, because personnel armed in the performance of their duty are
responsible for their actions with their assigned firearm. As employers, law
enforcement agencies do not want their personnel injured in the line of duty, as
this causes the temporary (or permanent) loss of a highly trained individual. And,
as compassionate human beings, we do not want to see our fellow professionals
and their families affected by an avoidable tragedy.
In the military, however, standards are not so rigidly enforced. Some branches
of the armed forces, such as the United States Air Force, have trained and
qualified personnel serving as full time instructors. The dedicated position allows
them to concentrate on their duties, develop professionally, and provide
competent instruction in the use of weapons and deadly force.
The United States Army has no such equivalent position. The closest would be
the Drill Instructor serving at a TRADOC installation, teaching basic military
marksmanship courses. However, once the soldier graduates from basic training
and the MOS producing school, there usually are no personnel dedicated solely
to the task of live fire training at the unit level.
The problem presents itself after a soldier has completed training upon initial
entry to active duty, and is then subsequently assigned to a troop unit or other
organization. At this point the soldier usually only qualifies annually with the
assigned weapon.
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Each army division has a G3 Training section that is responsible for oversight
of military training. These personnel schedule trainees, coordinate the use of
resources, approve the contents of Program of Instruction materials, and provide
other critical functions such as planning the master training calendar.
The G3 personnel are not present to supervise the training of soldiers on the
firing line. There is very little present in the way of a quality control mechanism
to ensure that unit NCO’s are teaching properly. Very few NCO’s who are tasked
with teaching pre-marksmanship courses have actually attended a formal course
that would qualify them for teaching these subjects. Very often the NCO is
tasked to provide training by the “hip pocket” method, whereby someone hands
him a manual just before the class takes place, and tells him to “teach” the
subject.
In my classes I usually find many students who are or have been assigned to
crew served weapons by the “hey you” method. These soldiers sometimes
received NO crew-served weapon instruction during BMT or AIT. Therefore, the
quality of the PMI at the unit determines the safety margin during the training
exercise.
During PMI, it is not adequate to merely recite the range safety rules and tell
the soldier to put his hearing protection in place. The soldier may be totally
unfamiliar with the operating system of the weapon due to the lack of prior
training.
By presenting this issue, I hope to impress upon you why accidents take place,
and why they can be avoided. If the training with instruments of lethal force is
not conducted to the highest standard attainable, the consequences can be
totally intolerable.
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I will not bore you with a litany of tragedy that details the unfortunate outcomes
of individual events. I will state with certainty, however, that when you become
complacent about safety, you become a target for disaster.
The concept behind safety awareness is simple: almost all accidents are
avoidable. Even in cases where some condition may be unseen by the operator
of a piece of equipment, it could have been foreseen by the manufacturer,
designer, shipper, sales person, trainer or supervisor.
The safety awareness concept requires that you be pro-active in nature. You
can not simply respond to an accident and then say, “Well, we should have done
this...”. You must actively look for indicators of pending problems, and solve
those problems before they result in injury or death.
Not all tragedy associated with firearms results from poor operator training. It
can be a consequence of many other factors. Sometimes a weapon is simply not
well made, as in the case of the typical “Saturday Night Special." This term
refers to a firearm so cheaply made that a criminal can afford to use it and throw
it away. Throwing it away is probably in his best interest, because these
weapons frequently fail disastrously.
There are more firearms on the market like this than you might think. Most of
the makers of rifles, shotguns and pistols are reputable manufacturers with years
of experience, good reputation, and technologically advanced production
facilities. However, many are made cheaply overseas, and imported under
popular brand names. These weapons can range from just being unreliable, to
being potentially fatal to operate.
In your arms room you may encounter a variety of personally owned weapons,
or POW’s. Possibly you may receive offers, as armorers usually do, to either buy
one of these weapons, or repair and maintain it as a “side project." You should
be aware that federal and local laws regulate who may repair, service or modify
a firearm.
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In your duty position as the armorer, you are specifically exempted from the
laws that regulate these activities, as long as they pertain to the performance of
your official duties. Being the armorer does not entitle you to violate the law by
setting up an unlicensed gunsmith shop in your arms room. Doing so is a
misappropriation of government funds and a UCMJ violation.
Anyway, you should never attempt to repair, service or modify a firearm with
which you are unfamiliar. This brings me to another reason why “accidents” take
place: poor or improper maintenance. Some states like New York only require an
individual to obtain a permit to operate as a gunsmith. There are no professional
credential requirements, no formal training, and no supervision by the state
agencies that issue the permit.
The rule of thumb is expressed in the Latin term Caveat Emptor or “Let the
Buyer Beware." As a result, it is sometimes impossible to determine the actual
competency of a gunsmith until he has done his worst to your weapon. Assuming
that you were confident in his work, and the weapon fails with tragic results, who
is really to blame?
Is it you, the unwary customer? Maybe you could have taken it to someone else
for servicing and repair. Possibly you should have inquired further before making
your final decision. How could you be expected to know it would fail, since the
gunsmith has a license issued by the state?
Or it is the state, which failed to oversee the industry adequately? Should they
not only have a licensing procedure, but an inspection process as well? Why not
establish professional credentials and curriculum standards for the persons they
license to do business within the state?
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This is the essence of the safety awareness concept; accidents are
preventable, everyone owns responsibility for the incident, and only a pro-active
approach can minimize the potential for disaster.
Therefore, the issue of the quality of training is important. Quality training that
meets the defined standards of the equipment technical manual and field manual
can mitigate or minimize the potential to a very large degree. Using the converse
argument easily proves this: if we fail to train people properly with lethal
instruments, accidents will occur, even though they are largely preventable.
In all my classes I stress two things over and over: safety and combat
readiness. Anyone who has attended one of my classes will tell you that I am
nearly fanatical on the subject of safety. The reason is simple. I have been
involved in several accidents, and learned from them. Fortunately, those
accidents caused no injury, just property damage. My experiences have made
me a believer in the value of safety and safety training.
The reason for this standard is obvious. Fire is dangerous, and the fire-ground
is a deadly environment in which we operate. The same degree of danger is
always present when we train with firearms. Safety training can mitigate the
possibility of danger to the trainees, but the weapons themselves are never any
less dangerous to work with. Therefore, safety training is imperative.
Safety is more than a concept or training standard. It is also an attitude that will
affect the way in which you perform your daily work. If you are not mindful of the
safety requirements of your job, things will go wrong. As an armorer, you are the
person most directly responsible for the condition of the weapons in your arms
room.
Usually the repair is beyond the capability of the operator, and is performed by
the armorer. Even if it is above the level of the armorer’s capability, the armorer
is still the individual responsible for ensuring that the weapon is repaired at the
higher level shop. When an accident occurs, the armorer’s ownership of the
problem is immediately recognized. A pro-active attitude in your approach to
your duties will minimize your exposure
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Safety Rules
Even when you know a weapon is clear and safe, you should still treat it with
the same respect you would accord a loaded firearm. This contributes to good
safety habits, which may actually save a life by preventing accidental discharge
of a weapon.
In treating a weapon as if loaded, you must always control the direction of the
muzzle. When handling a firearm, be mindful of the surrounding area. If inside a
building, which direction is the safest one in which to point the muzzle?
The finger should never be on the trigger of a firearm except when it is loaded
and being fired, period! Poor trigger control contributes to many of the accidental
shootings that take place in this country every year.
If you use dummy ammunition to test the functioning of a firearm, respect it and
treat the weapon as if loaded with the real thing. Never mix dummy rounds and
live ammunition in the same area. About ten years ago I had an accidental firing
of a weapon in my work area, because I was testing the weapon and actually
had a live round in a chamber. That was a stupid, preventable error!
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Armorers are required to have dummy rounds to function test the weapons in
the arms vault in accordance with technical manual requirements. In all cases,
dummy ammunition should be clearly distinguishable from live ammunition. The
cases should be crimped, painted black, or have holes drilled through the
sidewalls. They should also have no primer and no flash hole. Use only the
dummy rounds that are authorized by the weapon manual. Your local
Ammunition Supply Point should supply dummy ammunition. Check with your
unit S4.
All too often, soldiers fall on the battlefield as a result of fratricide. Police
officers train using firearms simulators to teach judgment shooting. As a firearms
instructor, I often use a simulator to train engagement techniques. Training with
a simulator is only one method of ensuring that you only engage the proper
target at the proper time.
There are many things to consider when engaged in actual combat situations.
On the range the option is simple. All you have to do is engage the silhouette
target. This is great for teaching basic marksmanship, or when fighting a paper
army, but ineffective in teaching real engagement techniques.
In combat, you need two things to make you effective in engaging targets while
avoiding friendly elements. The first of these is situational awareness. You
must be fully conscious of the position of all personnel in your immediate area,
both friend and enemy. You must not only be aware of their presence, but of
their movement and intended course of action.
The steps are a logic path. At each step along the path you apply a conscious
decision concerning engagement before proceeding to the next step.
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The other element is positional awareness. Are you properly in position to
engage the target effectively while minimizing collateral damage? Are there
friendly or non-combatant personnel in the field of fire? When it is imperative to
engage, can you avoid friendly casualties?
Positional awareness also defines your ability to react to events, your ability to
move, to take cover and concealment. Especially in urban tactical environments,
positional and situational awareness largely define the logic behind the shoot-
don’t shoot decision.
The same dedication to shooting logic should be made when hunting game,
while at the range, while defending your home, or while plinking at cans in the
yard. A firearm should never be discharged unless and until the logic can be
determined. Shots in the dark are responsible for killing family members as well
as intruders. Always be sure of your target!
This seems like a simple enough concept. If there is a foreign object in the
bore, it can cause catastrophic failure of the barrel. I think we can all agree on
that one. Do you realize, however, how little it takes to occlude the bore of a
weapon?
What did it take to do this damage and endanger the life of the operator? A few
grains of sand, shown graphically in cross-section, lodged in front of the
projectile. With a high-powered rifle or handgun, it is essential that you take the
time to inspect the bore prior to firing. Do this every time.
Remember always that there are two separate steps involved: making the
weapon clear and safe. “Clear” means there is no ammunition in the chamber or
feedway. The term “safe” not only means that the safety is engaged and the
weapon is ready for transport or holstering, it also means that the weapon is safe
to fire. If you did not check the bore, the weapon is not truly safe to fire.
How can a bore become occluded? Simply put: inattention to detail. The M16
series of rifles does not tolerate having water in the bore during firing. Yet if you
carry the weapon with the muzzle elevated or at sling arms in a driving
rainstorm, you almost guarantee that the situation exists. Putting a muzzle cap
over the opening solves that problem nicely.
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It is extremely easy when maneuvering to allow a muzzle to make contact with
the ground. It is almost impossible to avoid in some low crawl situations, as
when crossing swamp or desert. If you do not have a muzzle cap on the end of
the barrel, you must be eternally mindful of the position of the muzzle.
After crossing this type of terrain, it is smart to examine the bore. If practical, do
so prior to firing the weapon. Make sure the chamber is empty first!
Now let’s discuss the unthinkable! Never chamber and fire a live round in a
weapon with a blank firing adapter mounted to the muzzle! It’s hard to
acknowledge that some people can actually do this, but anyone can make a
mistake, and it does happen.
Finally, we must never ignore problems associated with bad ammunition. It will
sometimes happen that a projectile will lodge in the bore due to failure of the
propellant or other factors. This is called a “squib round.” If your weapon recoils
noticeably lighter and has a muffled report, cease-fire! Your bore might be
obstructed by a projectile. This usually happens only with reloaded ammunition.
This one should be considered a “no brainer.” I am sorry to say this, but this is
the one rule most commonly broken. It seems to make such perfect sense, that I
fail to see why so many people violate it.
Always remember that your weapon has no mind, and therefore no concept of
loyalty or guilt. It will kill you, your child, or your friend as easily as an enemy.
Each day in the United States, people tragically are killed unintentionally by the
negligent use of firearms. To a great extent, most of those tragedies are
avoidable.
Always remember that stupidly is lethal when dealing with lethal power.
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I am not going to engage in a political argument for or against firearms. I will
pass on to you the comments of a good friend and fellow firearms instructor, Jeff
Hunt of Hancock, New York (a member of the 174th Security Police Squadron,
New York Air National Guard, and a New York State Corrections Officer). In his
firearms classes, he frequently makes the following statement:
“I can take this firearm, load it, and place it on this table. If it were
possible, I could come back a year later and this weapon would still be sitting
here loaded. This weapon will never fire until a human being picks it up and pulls
the trigger. It’s not the weapon that’s unsafe. It’s the person behind the gun”
Your attitude around your company area or in your arms room should be
exactly the same. There is no room for negligent behavior with a firearm, even
when you are absolutely certain that the weapon is clear and safe. Remember
that if you develop poor safety habits with a firearm, the end result can be
devastating. The only time an unloaded weapon should be pointed at another
person is during tactical training in personal defensive maneuvers. It should only
be done when all parties involved have personally determined the weapons to
be clear and safe.
You should also be aware that the target of your “horseplay” might not
appreciate your actions. You may find yourself being the target of that person’s
anger. Also, the shock of unexpectedly facing the bore of a firearm can have
profound medical consequences for some people. I have often said that you
should not do anything unless you can withstand the consequences of your
actions. I would not want to live with the knowledge that I killed someone by
accident.
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This does not happen so much in a military environment, because the training
is geared to prevent this from occurring. Where it happens frequently is in the
home. Unfortunately the persons who find loaded firearms are usually children.
When there are children in your home, you really need to examine the logic for
having a firearm loaded. If the loaded firearm is usually kept on hand for self
defense, I would like to pass some sobering facts on to you:
2. The use of a firearm in self defense is often precluded by the fact that if
an intruder is armed, he usually already has his weapon deployed, and there is
no way you can “out draw” him.
3. Many persons who keep firearms in the home are not trained in their
proper use, and a shooting situation is the wrong event to learn from.
Of course, loaded firearms should never be found in an arms room. Take a wild
guess about that one. In my years of experience, do you think I have ever found
loaded firearms in an arms room? The answer, sadly, is yes.
Following proper clearing procedures when departing the range or training area
should prevent that from happening. Again, proper procedures are not always
followed. Keep eternally in mind the fact that you are dealing with lethal force
whenever you are handling a firearm. Store them clear and safe at all times.
I know you will find this hard to believe, I certainly did, but in my office at Fort
Drum I have a document advertising a shooting match where alcohol was
served. What makes this all the more impossible to believe is that this event took
place at a US Military Reservation!
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I can think of NO valid reason why alcohol would be anywhere near a shooting
event. I happened to be at this military installation the day after the event, and
was so astounded by the posters and flyers for it, that I took one. Could you
imagine what would have happened if one of the contestants or spectators had
been shot, and alcohol was a factor?
What makes this so incredulous is the fact that military discipline is usually so
rigid that such events are almost impossible. You might attempt to rationalize by
figuring that at least the contestants probably did not consume alcohol. Sorry, it
still fails the “smell” test. Alcohol and firearms are non-compatible.
In the civilian community, alcohol use is not uncommon during shooting events.
Plenty of “good ol’ boys” plink at backyard targets while enjoying a six-pack. Ask
any doctor who has worked a residency in an emergency room, if he or she has
ever seen an alcohol related shooting. You would be surprised how common it
is.
You should also consider the effects of a hangover, or sleep deprivation that
may result from binge drinking. The physical effects of an earlier state of
intoxication can affect reaction times and judgment ability. If you know an
individual to be in such a state, do not allow that person to be armed, no matter
how unpleasant the consequences. Keep in mind what could happen!
There are also drugs that can complicate injury in the event of accidental injury
at the range. Among these are aspirin or prescription anti-coagulants that can
contribute to uncontrollable bleeding.
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7. Never climb a tree or cross a fence with a loaded firearm
It should be remembered that you can carry a magazine in a rifle, with the bolt
forward on an empty chamber, and the weapon can be truly safe to handle while
climbing. This should only be done in a military environment. It should never be
done while hunting or stalking game.
There are techniques for moving weapons partially loaded to increase the
margin of safety while maneuvering. Read and understand the field manuals for
the various weapons in your arms room.
Depending on the angle of incidence, a bullet may not fragment, and may
retain much of its velocity and force even though the direction may change. It is
possible to have a compound ricochet deflect more than 90 degrees and still
have sufficient lethal force to wound or kill.
When in the woods, be mindful of the ricochet potential of trees. Some tree
bark can absorb great amounts of water, which can change the way a bullet will
react when it strikes the tree.
Heavier projectiles such as shotgun slugs tend to retain much of their mass
while ricocheting off wet trees. The deadly potential of these rounds should
never be overlooked.
When firing any firearm, be aware of the area behind your target. You must
know the maximum range of the weapon and projectile combination you are
using. Some types of projectiles tend to over-penetrate the target. High-powered
rifle bullets usually perform in this manner.
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Generally speaking, an 80 degree fan of fire should be considered. This means
that an area 40 degrees to the left and right of your point of aim must be clear of
downrange hazards; like people! In addition to human targets, be aware of
certain dangerous targets, like fuel cells, aircraft or ammunition points behind
your target.
This is the reason why we always perform a function check of our firearm after
reassembling it, or before using it. You should develop the good habit of
checking your safety each time you draw your weapon from the arms room, and
every time you issue one to a soldier.
You would be astounded to know how many people claim the firearm that
accidentally discharged was unloaded. Ladies and gentlemen, that is simply not
possible given our understanding of the laws of physics. Bullet wounds only
come from bullets. An empty chamber equals no bullet wounds. Let common
sense prevail!
Just check your local newspaper for time to time and you will see what I mean.
Accidental shootings are common during hunting forays and while carrying
weapons to and from civilian shooting ranges. It shouldn’t happen, but it does.
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10. Store guns and ammo separately, and beyond the reach of children
Please remember, and apply, all the safety rules presented here. Doing so may
literally save your life or the life of a friend or loved one. Do not forget that your
own personal negligence may result in criminal prosecution as well.
I am pleased to see that in New York State, where I reside, a more prudent
attitude towards gun safety is being adopted. In the past, there was never a
requirement for a handgun safety course prior to licensing a person to carry a
concealed firearm. The licensing officers of the various counties, usually a
County Court Judge, are imposing the requirement as a local option as of the
date of this manual.
Many handgun enthusiasts I know balked at the idea of imposing another so-
called “restriction” on getting a firearms permit in New York State. Personally, I
see that it benefits them rather than hinders them. In the past, the anti-gun
crowd could always point to the lack of safety training. Their claim was that
unqualified persons would carry guns in public.
Since the course is now becoming mandatory, they can no longer make that
claim. Persons applying for the license demonstrate their knowledge of weapons
safety and their ability to handle the weapon even before the license is issued.
The end result is the disarming of another argument by the anti-handgun forces.
The issue of handgun control is a political powder keg. I certainly favor any
approach that increases public safety while not infringing upon Constitutionally
guaranteed rights.
I urge you, if you are a gun owner, to join a local shooting club where good
safety habits are taught and weapons are respected for what they are. If you
have children, make sure they are taught as well.
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Marksmanship
There are many things the armorer can do to improve the accuracy of a
weapon. I am not talking about anything exotic such as free-floating a barrel or
bedding a receiver. I am referring to common everyday maladies that can be
cured with a screwdriver or other simple tools.
However, before we can talk about improving accuracy, we must make sure the
concepts of marksmanship are fully understood. You might be asking yourself
the eternal question “Why”?
The answer is again simple. One of your tasks in making a firearm repair is to
properly isolate and diagnose the fault. Without an understanding of proper form
and technique, you may overlook the fact that the shooter just does not know
what he is doing. There is no value in perpetually adjusting sights for someone
who does not know what a good sight picture is.
You may also have to test fire a weapon on the range to determine its accuracy
for training and qualification. I have had to do this many times. It usually takes
place when a shooter can not hit the zero target. At this time you test fire the
weapon to determine if the weapon, and not the shooter, is causing the problem.
If your marksmanship skills are not what they should be, you may not hit the
target either!
This is the reason why armorers must fire and be familiar with all the weapons
in their respective arms rooms. How are you going to make that diagnosis if you
do not know how the weapon normally reacts and performs? Failure of the
armorer to understand how the weapon functions, results in weapons often being
sent to direct support units for no valid reason. Very often, a weapon is sent in
for repair, while it is the shooter who is the problem. A well trained, competent
armorer on the range can eliminate that mistake, saving money and resources.
A well-trained and seasoned armorer can spot trouble and prevent failures. He
or she can contribute to the training effort, and conserve resources by
eliminating unnecessary maintenance actions. Understanding marksmanship
principles is critical to the armorer’s overall understanding of the weapon as a
system.
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Human Physiology and Anatomy
Most of the physical processes are influenced by the state of mind of the
person firing a weapon. There are many factors that influence the stress level of
a shooter at a firing range. We are not psychologists, and our aim is not to
resolve issues dealing with internal conflict. However, it is important that the
shooter be put at ease about the firing mission. This is true regardless of
whether we are dealing with a trainee at the firing range, or a sniper engaging
an enemy target.
Trainees at the range are frequently emotionally “on edge.” Many are
concerned about qualifying with their service firearm. For some, it is required
that they maintain qualification because of their duty position. Others are just
concerned about having to come out to the range to re-qualify.
For some persons, firearms training is not a pleasant experience. They do not
like lying in the mud, or freezing in cold weather. Some people are upset by the
noise, and pressure exerted by their superiors. For many, it serves as a
reminder of basic training.
What the shooters need to understand is that they must be aware of their own
psychological state. They must not “compete” with themselves. The range firing
experience should be handled like any other learning experience: calmly.
External stress factors can contribute to poor performance at the range. Among
these are excessive alcohol consumption, workplace stress, lack of sleep, anger,
resentment and drug use. Have you ever considered that the so-called “benefit”
of a hot cup of coffee at the range may actually harm performance? It is well
accepted that caffeine is a powerful stimulant. It is probably the last thing we
should be giving to some soldiers prior to firing a weapon. There are many
physiological effects related to caffeine. None of them contribute to proper use of
a firearm.
Some persons will claim that they perform better after their morning cup of
coffee. This implies a psychological state of being; the physical effects of
caffeine consumption are well known and accepted. It is possible that the calm
one finds in their morning dose of caffeine can offset the negative aspects of the
physical reaction to the stimulant. If that works for them, that’s fine.
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Stress and attitude are directly related. A proper attitude about the purpose of
the training can reduce the stress associated with it. You should emphasize the
need to relax when coaching a shooter with erratic performance. Very often this
single step resolves many performance problems.
Autonomic nervous functions are those tasks performed by the body, that
require no application of conscious thought. Among these are pulse and pulse
rate, breathing, and stimulus response.
While we do not have to think about these functions for them to take place,
what we think can severely affect them. For instance, a person with a pessimistic
attitude about cardiac health and a fear of death, can experience accelerated
pulse and other symptoms associated with cardiac ailments.
As the body inhales air, the chest expands. As a result, the body in the prone
position moves as the shoulders are raised to accommodate the increased
volume of the lungs. This directly affects the point of aim of the weapon, as the
rifle is in balance on a fulcrum, the hand. As the shoulder rises, so does the
buttstock. In a corresponding fashion, the muzzle goes down.
As the heart beats, blood is pumped through the arterial and venal network to
and from organs and tissue. Each beat of the heart causes a slight movement of
the body, and hence the weapon. Good marksmen observe this through their
rifle scope when concentrating on a target. The reticle will move slightly with
each pulse. Many refer to this as “scope jump."
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During qualification firing, the shooter must be well rested. This means
adequate sleep and a proper psychological state. It is nearly impossible to
obtain proper rest if one consumes massive amounts of alcohol the night before
firing. If the performance of a shooter at the range is sporadic and below
standards, ask about how well rested he or she might be. Doing so may tell you
not to waste your time looking for mechanical factors associated with the firearm.
Proper conditioning can reduce fatigue. When in good physical condition, the
effects of sleep deprivation will be mitigated to a certain degree. Always
remember that marksmanship is a combination of mental and physical effort.
Therefore the physical conditioning of the shooter will always affect the ability to
deal with fatigue as an element in marksmanship training.
Breath control is one factor that can greatly improve shooting performance. If
you think about it as you read this handbook, you are breathing. Be conscious of
your breathing pattern. You breathe in, there is a slight pause, and then you
exhale. Again, there is a slight pause before you inhale. At rest, the healthy
person may breathe anywhere from 12 to 18 times per minute. As an
experienced range instructor, I can immediately tell a lot about the shooter’s
health and psychological state by watching the rise and fall of the rib cage.
Being aware of the respiration cycle while in a firing position is a simple thing to
do. All the shooter needs to do is think about it. Applying a conscious effort to
relax and breathe normally can greatly contribute to proper performance. In
order to achieve maximum results, control of your actions in firing the weapon
must be timed to the respiratory cycle. The best method is to time the shot so
that the hammer falls in one of the lulls between exhalation and inhalation. At
this point the rib cage is not expanded.
The idea is to be uniform from shot to shot. This is what accuracy is all about. If
we shoot with the rib cage expanded to different degrees of inflation, the height
of the shoulder will be different. So will our sight picture. Correspondingly, the
position of the barrel and muzzle in relation to the body changes. This does not
contribute to good shooting.
Some people prefer to take a breath and cut it off at some point, and then
shoot. This is fine as long as you are relaxed and can always have the shoulder
height at exactly the same point. Using the fully expanded or deflated lungs
allows you to immediately achieve the same shoulder height with each shot. It is
one of the simplest ways to improve your score.
If you are on the firing line trying to determine why the trainee is missing the
target or doing poorly, watch the expansion and fall of the rib cage.
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Visual control technique is often an overlooked factor. There are six elements
to proper visual control we must consider. They are: the eyes, rear sight, front
sight, line of sight, target, and eye relief. Eye relief is the distance from the lens
of the eye to the rear sight.
Many people will be fearful of placing their nose against the rifle, assuming
they can be injured. In that case, a finger or two can be placed against the
charging handle and used to gauge the eye relief. Place the nose against the
closest finger. Remove the fingers and the eye is in exactly the same place
every time.
Very often a problem with obtaining a good sight picture will be related to eye
relief distance, but the soldier does not know that. You can solve that problem
also, while observing the trainee in action.
Many shooters, myself included, can achieve deadly accuracy with a rifle out to
800 meters using nothing more than open, iron sights. While a rifle telescope
does extend the range of accuracy, there is no reason why the average
marksman can not qualify if the proper sight picture is achieved and maintained.
In a proper sight picture, the front sight is placed squarely on the desired point
of impact, and centered in the rear sight. Some weapons, by design, require a
center hold, meaning we aim for the center of mass of the target. Others require
a six o’clock hold, in which the point of the front sight is placed at the lowest
point in the center of the target.
It is important to know the design characteristics of the weapon, since using the
wrong hold position can cause you to expend many useless hours wondering
why you cannot hit the target! Some handguns employ a six o’clock hold. This is
because handgun firefights take place at very short distances. Many people
have a tendency to shoot high on the target, and a subsequent shot will often go
high as well. A lower point of aim will increase the chances of a hit in a vital
area.
To obtain a good sight picture, we must not only line up the various elements,
but properly concentrate on them. The human eye will normally tend to center
the rear sight, especially if it is a peep-type sight (a circular element). The
important thing it to put the front sight squarely in the center of the circle or notch
of the rear sight.
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In a proper sight picture, the rear sight and the target should appear fuzzy. The
front sight should be in perfect focus. Doing so, emphasizing the front sight,
enables better control of the sight picture. Do not attempt to fight the wandering
of the muzzle. This happens normally and can not be controlled to a great
extent. Concentrating on the front sight will keep the image centered as much as
possible and result in better performance.
Beware of holding the visual sight picture for too long. This results what is
commonly called retinal burn-in, causing a distorted image. If you stare at a light
bulb and then close your eyes, you can experience the effect.
Persons who wear bifocal glasses often have trouble at the range. This is
because the bifocal lens provides the shooter with two images, near and far. It is
almost impossible for the shooter wearing bifocals to see the target while looking
through the near vision part of the lens. For this reason, it may be necessary for
the shooter to go without glasses, or to obtain prescription glasses specifically
for shooting. If investing in prescription shooting glasses, one should make sure
they are impact resistant, and affix to the head with a headband. This will
prevent problems assuming positions, as regular glass frames tend to move
while shooting or assuming a new position.
The sighting length, the distance from rear sight to front sight, varies from
weapon to weapon. An M24 (or Remington 700 PSS) sniper rifle has a different
sighting length than an M16A2. Therefore, the net effect is different for the same
shooter who fires both weapons.
The sighting length determines the accuracy of the weapon to a great degree.
This is because the further apart the two sight elements are, the more precisely
they define the sighting line to the target. A pistol, obviously, has a very short
sighting length. This is the reason why their accuracy is usually 50 to 75 yards.
This has nothing to do with the performance of the bullet or barrel. It results from
the shorter sighting length causing a corresponding lessening of visual
accuracy.
Also consider the benefit of firing from a shaded position. If you have the
option, fire from a position that keeps you out of direct sunlight. This will reduce
sweating and squinting, the two enemies of good visual technique. A good pair
of sunglasses also can be beneficial on bright days.
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Physical strength should be considered as a factor in determining shooting
ability. Often, the shooting positions are uncomfortable and must be held for a
long time. This is an important factor to consider in training. In a combat
situation, the soldier may have no option but to remain in position, possibly for
hours.
On the range, holding a position while the rest of the line is placed in a check
fire status can be very tiring. The shooter should be instructed to modify his or
her position while standing by for orders, still keeping the weapon pointed at the
target and remaining prepared to fire.
The large muscles of the body require oxygen to perform work. This demand
for oxygen creates an increased demand for arterial blood flow. The net result is
an increase in pulse and respiration rates. As previously stated, this is not
conducive to good shooting results.
The shooter should therefore be instructed that the skeletal structure must be
used to support the weight of the weapon and holding of the shooting position. It
should be noted that bone on bone contact, such as between the kneecap and
elbow in the low kneeling position, should be avoided. This contact promotes too
much pivoting effect and creates instability in the position.
Whenever possible, the shooter should assume the most comfortable position
the circumstances will allow. This aids in proper circulation, reduces skeletal and
muscular stress, and delays the onset of positional fatigue. Even the strongest
person tires eventually. A position should take advantage of soft ground, thick
vegetation, or other materials that will cushion the physical contact.
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The noise radiates outward from the muzzle of a weapon as a standing wave.
Rapid movement of air molecules causes the noise. The greater the pressure of
discharge, the louder the noise level. When the wave reaches the components
of the ear, tremendous damage can take place.
Noise levels above 120 decibels can have long term or permanent effects on
human hearing. Tinnitus, or a ringing in the ears, may result from unprotected
exposure to high noise levels. A single exposure to high decibel noise such as
from a .357 magnum revolver or a .50 caliber machinegun can do permanent
damage resulting in hearing loss, threshold shift, or tinnitus.
Besides the physical effects of high noise, there are also the psychological
effects to consider. The noise can hurt us, and your subconscious mind knows
this. This is why so many people react to gunfire by flinching.
The problem is that people who flinch usually also anticipate the discharge of
the weapon. This disturbs the lay of the weapon and ruins the placement of the
shot on the target. The reaction to the noise is normal, but the anticipation and
fear can be eliminated with proper instruction and good, double layered hearing
protection. To achieve this, wear hearing inserts inside shooting headphones.
If you can help the shooter overcome the fear and anticipation of the noise, you
can help in achieving a more relaxed state. Observe the people on the firing line.
You might see them move in a slightly exaggerated manner as they fire the
weapon.
To check for this, instructors use the ball and dummy training method. In this
method, live and dummy rounds are placed in a weapon’s magazine. When the
firing pin falls on a dummy round, the instructor watches to see if the shooter will
flinch. If the shooter flinches, the fall of the hammer is being anticipated, and the
lay of the weapon is being disturbed prior to discharge.
Anticipation of recoil, and the attendant noise, is probably the most common
element contributing to poor shooting. Again, if you look for these factors on the
range, you can save hours trying to find a mythical problem with the weapon.
The annual gaging process, PMCS, and recurring inspections make it unlikely
that an inaccurate weapon will ever be on a firing line. Before you go looking for
phantom problems, look at the weakest element. In all but a few cases, the
problem will be the performance of the shooter, and not the weapon. Civilian
firearms may not be cared for as well, so the weapon may be at fault more often.
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Trigger control is another essential element of proper marksmanship. Without
proper manipulation and control of the trigger, all of the other efforts may be
wasted. This is because the trigger finger is the one part of the human body that
moves during the firing process. If accomplished improperly, it can disturb the
position of the weapon and cause the shot to miss the target.
The trigger finger should be firmly placed on the center of the tang of the
trigger. The trigger should be in the center of the pad between the tip of the
finger and the first joint. The trigger should not be centered in the crease of the
joint, as closing the finger will pull the trigger, and hence the weapon, towards
the shooter’s hand.
Upon settling on the trigger, the shooter needs to remove the slack in the
trigger. This is often referred to as trigger creep. The trigger should be pulled
back slightly until a greater degree of resistance is felt. At this time the trigger is
set for firing. Some weapons employ what is known as a set trigger. On these
weapons, the trigger is staged first, sometimes with a second trigger. Staging the
trigger puts it in proper position for firing. This usually reduces the amount of pull
needed to discharge the weapon.
To guarantee proper trigger control, a proper grip is essential. Once the grip is
established, it should not be broken or changed. A proper grip is one that
adequately controls the firearm and allows for movement of the trigger finger
without using other parts of the hand or wrist. It should be comfortable and feel
natural. It must not be a “power” grip, as the hand and fingers will get numb as
the circulation is impaired.
A good rule of thumb is to check your palm after you relax your grip. If you can
see the imprint of the stock checkering embedded on your skin, your grip is
probably too tight. As expressed in the chapter on safety, the finger should never
be on the trigger except when actually discharging the weapon.
Natural point of aim describes the position of the body relative to the target
and weapon. If the body is not properly positioned, it can have negative effects
on the shot group.
In the prone position, the shooter should take position and aim at the target.
The shooter should then close his or her eyes and relax for a moment. When the
eyes are reopened, the weapon should still be on target. If not, the body, and not
the weapon, should move until the position is corrected. This process should be
repeated until the image remains the same when opening the eyes. Also, when
the position is proper, the shooter should “settle in” by slightly wiggling. Care
should be taken to not realign the skeleton.
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If this procedure is not followed, then the recoil force will move the skeleton and
cause the point of aim to change slightly. This results in the second and other
subsequent shots to not be exactly on target with relation to the natural point of
aim of the body. This requires more effort then to hold the sight picture, creating
a demand for more oxygen, raising the pulse, causing fatigue, etc.
In addition to all the human anatomical and psychological factors, we must also
consider the ballistic performance of the weapon. In other words, the accuracy of
the firearm and ammunition must be analyzed.
Such thinking would be lunacy, especially when we’re talking about grandpa’s
old Damascus-twist shotgun. Personally owned weapons are most likely to have
mechanical and accuracy problems. This is particularly true if they have been
owned by more than one person, as you can never be sure how many rounds
have been fired or how well it was maintained.
After making your best determination that the poor performance on the range is
not the fault of the trainee, we must evaluate other factors to find the cause. I am
continually amazed at the number of leaders who can not understand why their
soldiers do poorly at the range. The answers are usually simple ones.
The first external factor to consider is environmental. Did that light bulb over
your head just go on? I hope so. A windy day can defeat even the greatest group
of marksmen at the range. One thing to remember about wind is that it is not
constant.
When we compensate, or dope, for wind, we often forget that fact. It is not
trivial, either. On the way to the target the wind might change course several
times by five degrees or more. The bullet will hit areas of passive, or calm air,
and then enter a wind on a different azimuth.
The longer the shot, the greater the effects of wind on any given bullet. For
general military marksmanship, there is little or no instruction for wind calculation
and offset. This is a mistake, because the soldier in battle does not have an
unlimited ammunition supply.
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Another factor to consider is the slope of the terrain. On most ranges the
ground is level, but when firing up or downhill, the weapon will tend to shoot high
and the shooter should hold lower on the target. This will offset the difference.
Information on this phenomenon can be found in any good shooting textbook or
magazine.
The rate of bullet drop also is not constant. It changes over time as the forward
speed of the bullet diminishes. At about 2/3 of the bullet’s maximum range, the
effect of gravity becomes more powerful than the effect of drag in changing the
course of the bullet. In most military training, we never fire out to those
distances.
Keep in mind, the maximum range of the M855 ball round fired from the M16A2
rifle is 3600 meters. You will never fire an M16A2 at a target 2400 meters away.
It just is not possible to do so. Within the practical limits of military
marksmanship, bullet drop does not have that drastic an effect. It should
however, be a consideration. Bullet drop at 600 meters is significant.
Zero describes the proper placement of the sights, so that the line of sight
intersects the line of flight for a given distance. All weapon barrels point upwards
in relation to the line of sight. The projectile begins flight below the line of sight,
crosses over it, and falls down below it at a certain distance downrange.
Weapons are manufactured this way to compensate for the effects of gravity at
shorter ranges. Pitching the barrel upwards provides a greater working distance
without having to adjust the sights. But this can only be realized when the sights
have been properly adjusted, or zeroed.
Battlesight zero distance is that distance at which the enemy can be reliably hit
between throat and belt buckle, with no range estimation, or sight adjustment. If
we aim to the center of mass, the heart, we will always hit a vital area within
battlesight zero distance. This is because the maximum ordinate, the highest
point of the trajectory over the line of sight, is usually between only 3 and 8
inches. At 8 inches over the line of sight, if we aim for the heart, we will hit the
trachea at short range.
This is still a fatal wound, and accomplishes the task of killing the enemy. At
distances slightly beyond 250 meters, we will hit the abdomen, probably
severing an artery or the spinal column, producing the same effect. At any
distance within battlesight zero range, fatal wounds are easily inflicted.
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Adjust sight range is that range at which the enemy can be hit between throat
and belt buckle, given no more than a 50 yard error in range estimation, or sight
adjustment. When we adjust sights, we are raising the trajectory of the bullet,
and thereby extending the range of accuracy of the firearm beyond the zero
distance.
Heed my admonition to become personally proficient with the weapons you are
going to inspect and repair. Make arrangements to forecast additional
ammunition and get on the firing line. No one but you can make this happen!
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Chapter 3 Examination
a. __________________
b. __________________
c. __________________
a. __________________
b. __________________
c. __________________
d. __________________
e. __________________
a. __________________
b. __________________
a. __________________
b. __________________
ANSWER: ___________________
ANSWER: ________________________________________________
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8. What are the six elements of proper visual control?
a. __________________
b. __________________
c. __________________
d. __________________
e. __________________
f. __________________
ANSWER: __________________________________________
ANSWER: __________________________________________
Answers to this and all examinations can be found at the back of this book.
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Chapter 4. Armorer Tools and Maintenance Tips
This chapter deals with the tools used, and the care and maintenance of
firearms. For Army personnel, tool information can be found in detail within TM9-
243. I will cover general concepts and points of reference. Readers are urged to
obtain a copy of the technical manual for detailed study.
I am hesitant to make this statement, but feel compelled to: some armorers ruin
parts by using poor maintenance techniques, usually resulting from improper
tools or the wrong use of those tools.
The following are the safety rules for tools found in the front of TM9-243:
1. Support your local safety program and take an active part in safety
meetings.
2. Inspect tools and equipment for safe conditions before starting work.
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These are all commonsense rules we can live with. If followed properly, they
can save grief and pain. Tool habits are also important. A clean work area with
all tools properly organized contributes to increased productivity, safety, and
supply discipline. The following tool habits are listed in the TM:
4. Use each tool only on the job for which it was designed.
5. Keep your tools within easy reach and where they can’t fall on the floor
or on machinery.
Safety equipment should always be worn when using tools. These include:
4. Gloves. Use to protect hands from cold, heat, chemicals, sharp edges.
Not mentioned in the TM is the clothing worn. Military armorers have no choice,
the duty uniform is what it is. When working with power tools, make sure the
sleeves and trouser legs will not become entangled. Civilian clothing should be
fire resistant. Polyester or synthetic fabrics should be avoided because of flame
hazards. When they burn, they also melt into the skin, worsening the injury.
Special clothing, like shop aprons or face shields should always be worn when
working with welding processes or acidic chemicals. Personnel removing
misfired HE rounds from the Mk19 machinegun (the armorer’s job), should wear
protective ballistic body armor.
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Calipers
Calipers are used for taking precise measurements of distance, thickness and
length. There are many types for specific purposes as illustrated in TM9-243.
Calipers should always be stored in the special case in which they are shipped.
They are usually TMDE items (Test, Measurement and Diagnostic Equipment),
and require periodic calibration.
1. Simple calipers. They are hinged and use a scissor action. They have
no scale and are used for simple measurements of distance. They have
no locking mechanism.
3. Hermaphrodite calipers. One straight leg and one curved leg. The
straight leg terminates in a sharp point. The sharp point may be easily
removed on some models and types.
By the way, I am often challenged on the use of the terms gage and gauge.
The dictionary says that the term gage is a variation of the term gauge, of
unknown origin. As used, the term gage is usually understood to be a special
tool for measuring the gauge or dimension of an item. This is true even though
one of the definitions of the term gauge means the same thing, a special tool.
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There are three basic types of micrometers; inside, outside and depth. All
three types are capable of measurements to the nearest 1/1000th of an inch.
Most micrometers measure distances up to one inch. Some are available with
the ability to measure up to 24 inches.
Other types of measuring tools are rules, tapes, levels, bobs, adjustable
parallels, v-blocks, angle plates, magnetic base indicator holders, registering
speed indicators, surface plates and dial calipers.
Hammers
Probably the most dangerous thing in the arms room is the hammer in the
armorer’s tool kit. Improperly used, in the hands of the wrong individual, it can do
thousands of dollars in damage in a very short time. The judicious use of a
hammer requires no tremendous skill or training. It is a matter of common sense.
One rule to remember is:
There are several different hammers in the armorer’s tool kit. They are the
machinist’s peen hammer, soft-faced hammer, and dead blow hammer.
The machinist’s peen hammer has a flat head on one side used for striking
punches and chisels. The other end of the head is called the peen and is used
for forming soft metals, peening rivet heads and striking metal in tight
workspaces.
Soft-faced hammers can deliver heavy blows. They are used on highly
polished or soft surfaces to prevent damage caused by a hard hammer face.
There is a type of soft-faced hammer that uses removable inserts. These inserts
are available in different degrees of hardness. This makes the hammer more
useful as it can perform more tasks. Two inserts are mounted, one on each side
of the head. Inserts are made in diameters between one inch and three inches.
Dead blow hammers are filled with shot, encased in rubber and molded as a
single piece. They have a wrap around grip featuring a knurled surface to
prevent slippage. They also have a flared base on the handle to prevent the
hammer from leaving the hand accidentally.
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They are available in four types: standard, slimline, sledge and ball peen. They
have great striking power and protect the finish of surfaces due to their rubber
coating. The one-piece construction eliminates broken faces and handles.
Before using any hammer, always check the condition of the head to make sure
it is securely mounted to the handle. Some hammers feature a wedge that is
inserted into the wood of the handle. This wedge can loosen and fall off the
hammer, making serious injury possible.
Check the striking surface to make sure it is not chipped or damaged in any
way. A damaged surface can cause the hammer to deflect unexpectedly causing
injury or damage to the work.
Pliers
When used on nuts and bolts, pliers tend to round off the corners after a period
of time. This will result in a wrench being unable to properly fit, making the
wrench and the nut or bolt useless. Pliers also compress surfaces as they grip. If
you are working with a soft material, you can permanently damage the material.
Pliers, since they are gripping devices, have serrated or knurled surfaces on
the inside of their jaws. These surfaces can easily cause damage to components
and material surfaces, so they should be avoided in many cases. However,
when brute locking or gripping force is required, they are the tools of choice.
Pliers are available in different types as follows:
1. Slip joint pliers. Have serrated jaws with a gripping section, a cutting
edge and a pivot. The pivot allows the pliers to open for larger objects.
2. Diagonal cutting pliers. Commonly called “dikes," they pivot and are
used to cut light materials like wire. They should never be used to grip.
4. Parallel jaw pliers. Usually included in the armorer’s tool kit, these
may feature a pair of side cutting jaws. The movement of the jaws is
parallel at all times. They are used for gripping flat surfaces.
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5. Flat-nose pliers. Also sometimes called “duckbill” pliers, they have
flat serrated jaws, a fixed pivot and curved handles. They are used for
gripping and bending flat materials like sheet metals.
6. Round-nose pliers are used to make bends in soft wire. They have
smooth round jaws, a fixed pivot and curved handles.
8. End cutting pliers are sometimes called nippers. They are used to
cut wire or nails flush with the working surface.
10. Wire twisting pliers are indispensable parts of the armorer tool kit.
They feature locking handles for permanently gripping wire between
the
the jaws. An inner arm, featuring spiral grooves, twists the wire when
pulled to the rear. The jaws feature cutting edges for terminating the
wire.
Wrenches
Available in many styles, wrenches are used to loosen or tighten nuts, bolts,
studs and pipes. The correct wrench must be selected for the type of work to be
done. Most wrenches are made of forged alloys for strength. Quality wrenches
should outlive the mechanic if used and cared for properly.
1. Open end wrenches, featuring open jaws, usually offset from the
shank by 15 degrees. The wrench length is determined by the jaw
opening.
2. Box end wrenches surround the nut, bolt head or stud on all sides.
Therefore, they cannot be used on shafts if the ends of the shafts are
not accessible. They are available with 6 point and 12 point openings.
Box wrenches are available as offset, half moon, split-box, ratchet,
and structural tapered handle.
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3. Combination wrenches are composed of box ends and open ends.
They are used for convenience, or when a job requires both types of
wrench.
5. Hex key wrenches also called Allen wrenches, have hexagonal sides
at the handle and head. They typically can be used from either end to
fit the work performed.
10. Vise grips are actually a type of pliers, but are considered wrenches
because they lock onto an item and function as an adjustable wrench.
The mainstay of an armorer’s or gunsmith’s craft, files and stones can also do
great damage if used improperly. In my classes I teach a truism I learned many
years ago:
“When working with a file, you can take metal away, but you can’t put
it back.”
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I prefer that my students use a file sparingly. My preference when working with
a file is to make only several passes, and then check the work. Repeat this, and
you’ll never remove too much metal. Care must be taken when working with a
file on a weapon. All surfaces of weapons are precisely the way they should be.
Many surfaces are camming surfaces, and any change in dimension can cause
misalignment and faulty operation.
It is important to remember that you should never change the radius of a curve
with a file. The file should be used to smooth down or remove excess metal
caused by damage to the original surface. The file should not lower or alter the
dimensions of the surface in any way.
There are two basic types of files, American pattern and Swiss pattern.
American pattern files are usually used for fast removal of material where
precision is not important. Swiss files are made to more exact tolerances. They
are finishing tools used on delicate work and usually feature finished handles
with rounded ends and knurled surfaces. Files are formed in the shape of the
surface upon which they are to be used. The different styles are:
1. Mill files, tapered to the end-point in width and thickness. They are
used to sharpen mill or circular saws, or in draw-filing or finishing
metals.
2. Pillar face files are similar to hand files, but much narrower. They are
double-cut with one uncut face. They are used in slots and keyways.
3. Round files taper slightly towards the point. They are used for filing
circular openings and concave surfaces.
4. Square files taper slightly towards the point on all four sides and are
double cut. They are used for filing rectangular slots and keyways.
5. Taper files, or triangular files, are tapered towards the point on all
three sides. They are used for filing saws having 60-degree teeth.
6. Three-square files are tapered towards the point. They are used for
filing internal angles, and for cleaning out square corners.
7. Warding files are tapered to a narrow point for narrow space filing.
They are used for lock repair and filing ward notches in keys.
8. Curved tooth files, also known as mill tooth files, are used in soft
metals such as aluminum.
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Swiss pattern files are usually purchased in sets of twelve. The types included
are marking (half round), square, slitting, knife, joint (round edge), crossing
(oval), barrette, flat, equaling, half-round, three-square, and round.
All files must be cared for. The filing surfaces must be protected from damage.
They should be stored in boxes or pouches to prevent banging into other tools in
the tool box. The teeth of files will clog up with material. When this happens, the
file can scratch or damage the surface of the work.
To clean a file, you use a file scorer and a file brush. The files must be cleaned
often or they will not perform properly. Many people mistakenly discard a file
thinking it is worn out, when it is really just clogged with metal.
One way to prevent damaging the surface of a piece of material with a file, is to
fill the teeth of the file with chalk before use. Always be conscious of what you
are doing with a file. A wandering file can do a lot of damage.
Stones are used to polish metal once it has been filed. Doing so smoothes out
the metal and prevents a foothold for oxidation to form. A recently filed surface
that has not been stoned will increase friction and promote damage.
Stones are available in different shapes and grit sizes. The finer grits are used
for fine polishing or buffing. After stoning it is usually necessary to polish a
surface further with garnet paper or jeweler’s rouge and a buffing wheel.
Stones and files should not be oiled as it impairs their effectiveness. The
exception to this is oilstone, usually only used for sharpening metals such as
knife and razor edges.
All tools should be inventoried and inspected monthly to make sure the
required work can be done properly when needed. It is the responsibility of the
armorer to conduct this inventory. Although better tools may be highly preferred,
taking care of the ones you have is critical. If you do not, they will not give the
performance you expect of them.
There are many special tools, gages, test fixtures, jigs and devices used in the
inspection, testing and maintenance of firearms. Many people, military included,
give no thought to the consequences of repeatedly firing a weapon. Shooters
just assume that the weapon is made of durable metals and will last a lifetime.
This is a mistake in judgment.
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The fact is that as mechanical devices, failure is inevitable. Maybe not in your
lifetime, but that weapon you leave to your son or granddaughter will not last
forever. A weapon will have its service life shortened if not properly cared for, if
used to extreme excess, or if fired with the wrong ammunition loads. One of the
worst offenders in reducing the service life of a weapon is dirt.
The so-called “carbon” left as a dirt residue in some guns does not present the
big problem you would assume it should. It is a normal byproduct of the
combustion process, and always present to some degree. As a dry powder-like
substance, as long as it is not mixed with lubricants or other fluids, or not
trapped between working surfaces, it will just wipe off or blow away.
Once cleaned for inspection, the gages and special tools will reveal the status
of the weapon. They will detect if the bore is straight, how much trigger pull is
required, and whether the headspace is correct. Every firearm, military or
civilian, should have a thorough annual checkout by a trained, competent
professional.
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Even if you do not fire the weapon all year, damage may still be present. Metal
will degrade due to oxidizing processes, and captive springs held under tension
in the weapon all year would go soft and become unsuitable for firing. An annual
inspection prevents pending problems from becoming serious. Small arms
repairers and civilian gunsmiths who determine the serviceability of a firearm
commonly use the following special tools and gages:
Borescope gages are optical devices that are placed down the bore of a
weapon. They feature the ability to illuminate the interior of the bore, and can
magnify the image of the inner surface. They are available from small, fiber-optic
devices that fit down the barrel of a rifle, to monstrous setups that require
several people to operate. The larger devices are used in howitzers, cannons,
and inside jet aircraft engines. Some borescopes have a flexible head assembly,
and some have telescoping sections featuring numerous lenses.
Headspace gages are available in two basic types, adjustable and standard
length. The adjustable headspace gage features a small inset screw assembly
with a numerical index. The screw is turned in or out to determine the actual or
working headspace. The standard length gage is a “no go” gage. Slightly larger
than the maximum allowable headspace, the bolt should not lock up with the
gage inserted. If it does, it indicates that the gage is too far forward. This means
the shoulder is worn and the headspace is excessive.
Timing gages are typically used only for automatic weapons that feature
adjustable timing. The gage determines whether or not the firing pin will release
with the bolt a certain distance from the locked position. If the firing pin releases
with the bolt too far to the rear, the timing is early, and the weapon could fire out
of battery, or unlocked. If the pin does not release with the bolt fully forward, the
timing is late, and the weapon will not fire.
Muzzle erosion gages measure the degree of wear at the muzzle of a firearm.
Sometimes the muzzle will wear for different reasons, and will result in a clearly
defined loss of accuracy. The gage is typically a “no go” gage. If it does not fit,
the muzzle is not worn.
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Radius gages measure the degree of radius of a curved surface. They are
extremely useful in finding problems related to the timing of the steps in the
cycle of functions.
Barrel straightness gages are designed for a particular caliber. The tolerance
for a straightness gage is extremely important. Some can read warpage in the
bore to less than .0015 inches. The bore must be extremely clean, as the
slightest dirt or residue can prevent the gage from passing through.
Firing pin protrusion gages determine the minimum and maximum amount of
the striking point of the firing pin, which protrudes from the firing pin hole in the
bolt or slide.
Firing pin hole gages are used to determine if the hole through which the
firing pin protrudes meets a defined standard. If the firing pin hole is too large, or
eccentric, the firing pin might not strike the primer properly.
Hole diameter gages measure the openings for pins, plungers and detents
when the diameter of these openings is critical. They are usually of the “no go”
type. If the gage fits the hole, the hole is enlarged or non-standard.
Chamber reflection tools are used to illuminate the inner surfaces of the
chamber for inspection. The usually feature a highly polished reflective surface,
and seat with the mirror portion in the smaller area of the shoulder.
Air gages precisely measure the diameter of the lands and grooves within the
bore. The air gage is a mechanical device operated by air pressure. It can
measure distance to the nearest 1/10,000th of an inch (.0001 inches).
Trigger weights are used to determine the minimum and maximum weight
values required for trigger release. They are hung from the trigger on a rod, and
usually are in weight values of ounces and pounds.
Pull scales are devices that measure resistance to pull. They can also be used
to determine trigger pull, or to determine deflection when pulled against an
object such as a machinegun receiver. In this case, the amount of pull required
translates directly into a measurement of the tensile strength of the metal frame.
Special tools and gages require constant care. They should never be kept in a
toolbox. They should be stored in the protective cases in which they are issued.
Most of them will require periodic calibration, which will guarantee that they are
within required specifications for wear or other factors.
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In addition to the tools previously listed, there are special tools that are
manufactured locally for certain weapons. Check Appendix E in the back of your
small arms TM’s for specifics. Some of these tools make the job easier, and
some are required for PMCS.
Of course, if the tools are required, and you don’t have them, you have one of
two problems. Either you can’t perform the maintenance procedure for which the
special tool is needed, or you are doing it with more difficulty than needed.
When I inspect arms rooms, I also look for the special tools, to see if they are on
hand and being used. That tells me a lot about the knowledge of the armorer
and the attention to detail during the maintenance process.
You should inventory and inspect your tools frequently. A monthly inventory will
turn up any tools that are missing, broken, damaged or that need replacement. If
you purchase your own tools, remember to buy quality hardware! You only get
what you pay for! The investment in quality will last a long time, and the cost of a
single gun damaged by a bad tool will make the price differential worthwhile.
Never lend a tool out without getting a hand receipt for it. Even your closest
friends may simply forget to return a tool to you, and that tool may be an
accountable item. Why pay for another person’s foolish mistake?
Even if you do not use your tools, you should still inventory them. It is possible
something could have been stolen, and you need to be on the lookout for the
eternal enemy of metal: rust! If your arms room or work area is not climate-
controlled, your tools could be deteriorating without your knowledge or
awareness.
Army and other DOD personnel can inventory their toolbox using a document
numbered “SC 5180-95-CL-A07-HR”. This is the hand receipt form from the
Supply Catalog for the toolbox, which in military jargon is known as “Tool Kit,
Small Arms Repairman”. Keep blank copies of this inventory document on hand,
and keeping up with your toolbox will be much easier.
In addition to the tools in your toolbox, consider the items you will use in your
arms room which are perishable. Batteries for flashlights, some cleaning
materials, adhesives, paint, and solid film lubricant have a lifespan. Check the
expiration date or shelf life dates of these products to make sure the required
items are not only on hand, but also in usable condition.
The simplest way to accomplish this is to roll the inspection of those items into
your monthly inspection of your tools and other equipment items. A proper
itemized inventory of your work-related equipment is essential to good arms
room management.
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Maintenance tips
You might assume that this section would be extremely detailed and full of juicy
information on all those weapons in your arms room. Sorry to say, that’s not true.
I stated in the foreword to this document that the particulars on the individual
weapons would be found in the related technical manuals, and I meant it.
Do not ever assume that you know all there is to know about a firearm. In my
many years of experience I have seen so many changes and revisions to
technical manuals, I could never remember them all. In every case, when
working with a firearm, have the manual opened to the appropriate page for the
procedure. And, make sure you inventory your publications so you know the
manual is current and complete.
You have already learned how to obtain and inventory your manuals. You know
how to post changes and revisions to the contents of those publications. I
explained the importance of a good filing system and how to plan and schedule
your workload. Previous chapters have also covered the essentials of firearms
operation, ammunition and ballistics, safety, marksmanship, and other subjects.
Here, in the last section of this chapter, I will sum up everything by leaving you
with a few pieces of valuable information and insight.
To begin with, this handbook does not end here. Following this chapter is the
Armorer’s Glossary, painstakingly compiled and typed by myself. The sources
are many, including USAF lesson material, myriad firearms textbooks and years
of experience. Use it, and benefit from the knowledge it contains.
I also want to pass a warning on to you. Even as of the date of this handbook’s
first publication, the Army is considering drastic changes to the status of Unit-
level PLL and other maintenance policies. Do not use this document as a static,
stand-alone source of information. Use it only as a resource to point you in the
right direction, and then check the real source document, the technical manual
I will pass some wisdom on to you. The United States Army has some of the
finest combat weapons in the world. Each weapon has undergone years of
development, acceptance testing, and is subject to continual revision and re-
engineering as a result of the EIR and suggestion programs.
Many soldiers and other professionals who attend my classes come to school
with opinions of certain weapons. That’s fine, we all have our own opinions. You
have read several of mine in this document. But many times those opinions are
founded on half-truths and hearsay. I would like to set the record straight on
certain weapons right now.
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The M16 rifle has undergone remarkable transformations in its history. If you
have heard stories about how some of them failed to perform in VietNam, those
stories are true. I should know, I was there as a rifleman. You should also know
that the mistakes of the past belong in the past.
The current M16A2 and M4 carbines are second to none in quality and
capability. I am still a holder of a military identification card, and just as much
subject to mobilization as any other military member. I have an M16A2 assigned
to me, and I take care of it. It will be reliable enough to save my life if the need
ever arises, and I have total faith in it.
I continually hear comparative judgments made by soldiers who say the .308
round outclasses the .223 on the battlefield. This is an absolutely false claim. A
comparative judgment is just what it sounds like: apples and oranges. If you want
the facts, attend one of my courses.
Every weapon and projectile combination, every one, has a purpose and
design to achieve that purpose. This includes everything down to a .177 caliber
BB pistol. Never assume that bigger is better. If you are ever shot with a “little”
bullet in the wrong place, you’ll find out what I mean.
What can you as the armorer to improve accuracy with the M16A2 rifle? For
starters, do not allow personnel in your unit to loosen the buttstock. The face of
the shooter rests on the buttstock. The sights are mounted on the upper
receiver.
If the buttstock moves in relation to the lower receiver, it will be too loose to
maintain a proper sight picture. Each recoil of the weapon will cause the sight
picture to change slightly. That’s all it takes to keep some soldiers from
qualifying with their rifle. If the buttstock screw becomes loose, it must be
replaced. It is a one-time use item, and cannot be tightened once the initial
torque has been broken. It may seem tight, but as soon as the weapon fires, the
recoil loosens the screw again. The operator is not authorized to remove the
screw. You can stop this practice at the unit level, today.
Very often a front sight post will be bent on an M16 series rifle. If the post is
bent, then every time the post is turned while adjusting sights, the point of impact
changes. A soldier could spend days at the range and never zero and qualify
with a badly bent front sight. The sight posts bend because soldiers use nails or
other items to adjust the front sight. And the sights are hardly ever lubricated.
Make sure the operator lubricates the front sight when doing his PMCS. You
can also make the adjustment of the front sight easier by using the front sight
removal tool found in Appendix E of the M16 series rifle TM.
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These tools are easy to obtain. Simply fill out a work order request and submit
it to your servicing Direct Support organization. Provide a photocopy of the shop
drawing for the item. When you go to the range, take the tool with you. It will
make dealing with a troublesome sight post much easier, while preventing more
damage to the sight elements.
Make sure the buffer in the weapon is serviceable. It contains several small
steel cylindrical weights. They must move freely and independently of each other
in order to function properly. If you shake the buffer and feel a single solid mass
of weight moving inside, they are probably rusted together and the buffer should
be replaced. An ineffective buffer will not dampen the effects of the recoil of the
weapon as much as it is designed to. The net effect is a greater recoil force
perceived at the shoulder of the shooter. This can cause the soldier to disturb
his or her position, and lessen accuracy.
Be careful about overheating M16 barrels. This is true of any rifle barrel. High
heat can cause the barrel to warp, causing a loss of muzzle velocity and long
range accuracy.
Make sure the soldiers properly zero their weapons at the range. I have seen
many soldiers cheat by adjusting the rear sight for elevation on the zero target.
This is probably because you failed to check their front sight, and it’s bent or
frozen in place.
The only one being cheated here is the shooter. At longer ranges the zero
setting will not be valid, and the targets will be missed. You can improve
accuracy and effectiveness by making sure they comply with the FM standards
for field zero of their weapons.
Many people believe that the M193 (55-grain) projectile and the M855 (62-
grain) projectile are the same. This is terribly wrong. To begin with, I just gave
you the comparative weights of the two projectiles. In addition to the differences
in weight, there are other differences that make these rounds incompatible for
the wrong weapon.
The M193 ball round was designed to fit the M16A1 rifle. The rifling in that
barrel is a right hand twist, with six lands and grooves, with one complete turn
every 12 inches.
The M855 ball round was designed for the M16A2 rifle. The rifling in that barrel
is also right hand twist, 6 lands and grooves. The pitch, however, is one turn in 7
inches.
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The velocity of the two rounds is different, the weight is different, and the
rotational speed is different. Check the TM, and you will see that the
performance in terms of relative distances is different.
Beware of the bolt cam pin. If you fail to reinstall it, the consequences will be
very unpleasant. The bolt is designed to allow the cam pin to install from one
direction only. This prevents the bolt from being improperly installed.
If the bolt could be installed improperly, the ejector and extractor would be out
of alignment by 180 degrees. This would mean that the ejection pattern would
put the expended cartridge case inside the weapon instead of ejecting it out to
the right side. The result would be that the second round could not chamber, and
the weapon would cease to function. In combat, this could prove deadly.
Remember always that any two metallic components in direct contact, that are
subject to heat, stress or friction, will wear. After a period of time, the diameter of
the bolt cam pin will wear down. The inner surface of the cam pin recess in the
bolt can also wear.
If the wear becomes excessive, the bolt cam pin can actually be put in the bolt
from the wrong direction. I have seen this happen to several rifles during my
career. When conducting PMCS inspections, always attempt to put the pin in the
wrong way. This will verify the diameter of the pin is still within standards.
The M16A2 rifle and M4 carbine are feared by our enemies, with good reason. I
have seen first hand the awesome trauma inflicted by this class of weapon. Trust
in your weapon is a force multiplier. Use the force.
Unfortunately, it is slowly being done away with. As with any weapon, the care
of the M60 determines how well it will perform. I am absolutely positive about
this statement: If an M60 fails, it’s probably the fault of the operator or armorer.
Remember that you, the armorer, are supposed to be looking for those worn
parts! Don’t ever blame the failure of an M60 on worn parts. Blame the failure on
yourself, because that is exactly where the blame lies. Read the section on
Combat Operations Support in Chapter One for clarification.
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The M60 should never go anywhere without both barrels, period. If the soldier
is going to clean it, he needs to clean both barrels. If he is going to the range, he
needs both barrels. If the weapon is being turned in for maintenance, both
barrels go with the gun. Always, without fail! When you do your unit level
PMCS, make sure you inspect both barrels.
Anyone who attends my classes will tell you that I do not permit the use of the
term “spare barrel” in my classroom. It is not a spare. A spare is something
extra, like a spare fuse or spare tire. These barrels must be changed on a
regular basis as explained in the operator TM, or damage will result.
Have you inspected the range scale on the rear sight of the M60 lately? If the
numerals and range lines are worn off, how can anyone use it to properly sight
the weapon? Check to make sure the top is not broken under the rivet.
Check those traversing and elevating mechanisms! They are the most
neglected items in the arms room. They must work when needed, and that will
only happen if they are maintained properly. Make sure they zero correctly.
Also remember that the operator manual prohibits taking the gas system apart
for cleaning unless it fails to move freely. Do not allow soldiers to take them
apart just to shine the piston. Make sure you show the first line leaders in your
unit the page in the TM that states this. There is a lot of negative maintenance
being done on M60’s, and that contributes to problems as well.
There is also the common mistake operators make of reinstalling the piston
backwards. Doing so will cause the weapon to probably fire a single shot and
then quit firing. At 23 pounds it is a highly uncomfortable and impractical sniper
rifle!
Another error is the improper installation of the cover hinge pin and latch. The
hinge pin always goes in from the right side, and the latch from the left. Doing it
the wrong way can damage parts on the weapon. More importantly, it can make
the thing nearly impossible to remove in a hurry. This is important in combat, and
is made worse by fear, sweaty palms, and oily fingers.
In all, I have identified about two dozen parts that can be installed backwards,
upside down, or improperly on the M60. There are six in the trigger housing
alone. Keep an eye on those “60 gunners” in your unit. They can be dangerous
to themselves.
The M240B is replacing the M60 in many units. Unfortunately, the M60 was a
victim of poor unit maintenance, and I dread the same fate for the M240B.
153
The M9 9mm pistol is not a bad weapon. I have one assigned to me also, and
fire it regularly. Is it the same quality of weapon as the SIG P229 or the Glock
19? No, but neither is it in that price range. Those comparisons are not valid.
Keep in mind that this weapon is classified as a personal defense weapon and
is issued to officers, pilots and certain other personnel. It’s only function is to fire
when pulled from the holster. This weapon plays a limited role and will seldom
see use in real combat. The Army is not in the habit of sending companies of
officers to assault an objective with 9mm pistols in their hands. It is needed as a
last-ditch means of getting the enemy before he gets you.
For those of you who serve as armorers in a law enforcement unit; be vigilant!
The inspection standards for the M9 during annual safety & serviceability checks
are, in my educated opinion, pretty ineffective. The standard seems to be,
“When it breaks, turn it in for repair.”
Hopefully this will change. Any person who carries a pistol to protect life,
property or resources, myself included, will tell you that a reactionary
maintenance policy like that can get people killed.
Just because there are no gages or special means of inspecting the M9, that
does not mean you cannot inspect it. You can do better than that. You must
carefully look for indicators of wear on mating and camming surfaces.
Use the material you have learned in training. If you have taken an armorer
course (hopefully mine!), you know how to conduct a proper inspection of a
firearm. Now that you know the annual inspection is not very effective, it
becomes imperative that you conduct more aggressive inspections quarterly.
Make sure your M9 pistols have had the slide modifications applied to them.
For specifics, check the technical manual.
154
Be mindful of the “LA grab," a technique whereby an assailant can dismantle
your pistol as you aim it at him, while it is still in your hand. A weak point of the
design, but easy to compensate for in a tactical sense.
In an emergency, if you lose the trigger bar spring for an M9, you can turn the
weapon upside down and it will fire after you shake it. No, this has nothing to do
with the “Gangstas” of Hollywood rap-video fame.
The M249 machinegun is adequate for the task it performs. It was designed to
provide automatic firepower to the fire team and infantry squad, resulting from
the change to the three round burst employed on the M16A2 rifle.
The M249 is generally a reliable weapon, but like any weapon, has limitations. I
hope you do not misunderstand my intention here. I do not want you to aim an
M249 at me and fire. I will certainly be killed. The point I would like to make is
that it is a different weapon than the M60, and should not be compared to it.
Several things should be understood about the M249. First, the cocking handle
should always be drawn to the rear with the palm facing upwards. This not only
prevents the soldier from receiving a hand injury on the ejection port cover, it
also ensures that the cocking handle will not override the bolt.
Second, I have not yet had a single student who was aware of the requirement
to check the top of the bolt slide for bulges. This is accomplished with a
straightedge, and the procedure is defined in the PMCS table of the
organizational maintenance manual. This tells me many armorers do not follow
the PMCS table.
Also, the pivot pin and trigger mechanism flanges on the underside of the
receiver must be checked for parallelism. The standard is also found in the
organizational maintenance section of the -20 series TM.
Check the yoke and pivot of the bipod assembly, as well as the locking
recesses in the tops of the legs. Wear is very common in these areas. If the legs
frequently fall out of the underside of the handguard assembly, then the spring
below the pivot is probably worn, and should be checked.
The Mk19 40mm machinegun. I can not sing the praise of this weapon any
louder, or my voice will leave me forever. Simply put, when this weapon shows
up on the battlefield, the fight is over in a matter of minutes, if not seconds.
155
There is no place you can hide from this weapon, nothing you can hide behind,
and you cannot outrun it. At 325 to 375 grenades per minute, the toughest
enemy will cry “uncle.”
You should be aware that this weapon and CLP are not compatible. Make sure
you have plenty of LSAT on hand to lubricate it. Never put your hand inside a
Mk19 with the bolt to the rear, unless you want to be nicknamed “Lefty." It will
easily crush your entire hand if the bolt goes forward.
Oh, I almost forgot...never twist the belt on a runaway gun with a Mk19. There’s
just something funny about those high-explosive grenade rounds; they don’t like
going through the feed throat mechanism sideways!
Make sure that you read and understand the Mk19 operator and unit
maintenance technical manuals. All training should conform to the standards as
given in the Mk19 field manual. The –23 TM lists three entire pages of safety
warnings. If you do not understand this weapon, you have no business firing it,
period!
The newer barrels seem to be made of a thicker material. The old ones would
dent if the rifle fell over while propped against a tree. Make sure you remount the
sling onto the correct swivel! Having the rifle sling hanging in front of the barrel
during firing is very unpleasant. (Make sure your Last Will and Testament is
completed if you want to overlook the sling mount!)
Check the TM and make sure you have no old-style firing pins in your M203’s.
Also check the operating depth of the breech insert, which provides the pathway
for the firing pin. It must be flush with the surface of the recoil plate, or to a
maximum depth of .007 inches below flush.
There is a modified version of the M203 currently being fielded for mounting on
the M4 carbines. This weapon is designated as the M203A1, and is functionally
identical to the M203. The only real difference is in the mounting hardware.
156
The M2 Browning .50 caliber machinegun. This weapon has the distinction
of being in continuous service longer than any other weapon in the current US
Army inventory of fielded small arms. Invented by John Moses Browning, it took
over 20 years to perfect. It was offered to the War Department in 1920, but only
adopted in 1934. Millions of them have been produced.
Many of the M2’s currently in use date back to World War Two, but are in as
good condition as the day they were purchased. This is a low maintenance
weapon made of quality materials. They are built to withstand the test of time by
Saco Defense, Saco, Maine.
This weapon fires from the closed bolt position and immediately places
a round in the hot chamber when the trigger lever is released. Since the
weapon generates significant heat, a cookoff is always likely. Read and
understand the safety warnings in the technical manual and field manual.
In the event that your assistant gunner is killed while emplacing the weapon, it
is possible for an individual soldier to install the barrel alone. To install the
barrel, one soldier normally pulls the cocking handle to the rear until the barrel
lock mechanism is visible in the clearance hole beneath the trunnion area on the
right side of the weapon.
It usually requires two persons because the barrel weighs 26 pounds and is
very long. One person can not hold back the charging handle and manipulate
the barrel to install it. However, you can take the medium sized coil of a .50
caliber link, and place it between the barrel extension and trunnion after pulling
back the handle. This will hold the barrel extension to the rear, allowing the
soldier to move forward to install the barrel.
Knowledgeable M2 gunners always carry a spare used link, for this purpose, on
their ID tag chain. If needed, they can place that link in position immediately.
157
Chapter 4 Examination
1. Which Army publication provides guidance on the use and care of hand tools?
ANSWER: _________________________
a. __________________
b. __________________
c. __________________
d. __________________
e. __________________
f. __________________
a. __________________
b. __________________
c. __________________
4. What are the three types of hammers that may be found in the armorer’s tool
kit?
a. __________________
b. __________________
c. __________________
ANSWER: __________________________________________
ANSWER: __________________________________________
a. __________________
b. __________________
c. __________________
d. __________________
e. __________________
158
8. What should you never change when working with a file?
ANSWER: __________________________________________
a. __________________
b. __________________
ANSWER: __________________________________________
Answers to this and all examinations can be found at the back of this book.
159
Well, that’s it. I hope this handbook is useful, and I again ask you to advise me
of any inclusions or changes required. My address and information appear in the
front of the book.
Use this checklist to self inspect your arms room operations. It will cover
specific maintenance items for the following weapons:
M60 Machinegun
M16 Series Rifles/M4 Carbines
M249 Machinegun
Mk19 Machinegun
M2 Machinegun
M9 Pistol
M203 Grenade Launcher
M224 & M252 Mortars
M24 Sniper Weapon System
There are additional sections to check your administrative functions and the
small arms toolkit. Finally, there is a publications checklist.
I will leave you with a warning I gave in the front of this handbook:
If you think you can get by cheaply by not investing the time in training an
armorer, the consequences may be more than you are prepared to deal with. For
those commanders and leaders who may read this, I hope you have a greater
appreciation of the importance of this duty position.
160
Armorer’s Glossary
Aggregate The sum total of the scores from two or more matches.
This may be an aggregate of match stages, team
matches, individual matches or both, provided the
tournament program clearly states the matches which
will compromise the aggregate.
161
Air Gun A weapon which uses air to propel the projectile.
162
Armor-Piercing A projectile designed for use against armored aircraft
and vehicles. Normally has a hardened steel alloy core.
Assembly Line The area to the rear of the firing line where competitors
assemble prior to their relay being called to the ready
line and the firing line.
163
Aperture A front or rear sight, using a hole for viewing to obtain
sight picture and alignment. Also the adjustable or
changeable disks that are components of the front
or rear sight to obtain different diameter holes for
viewing.
Backing Targets A blank target placed to the rear of the scoring targets,
to assist in identifying the number of rounds fired, and
crossfires, in precision shooting.
164
Ball Powder A propellant composed of small dense spheres of
nitrocellulose coated with a layer of nitro-glycerine and
a detergent.
Band, Barrel A ring, usually of metal, encircling the barrel, used for
attaching forearms or other parts or accessories.
Barrel Blank A steel rod or tube that has been bored and rifled for a
given caliber, but unchambered and unthreaded.
165
Bench Rest A rigid bench for rest shooting of firearms.
Bench Rest Shooting (a) Shooting from a bench rest. (b) A type of sport or
competition shooting, where an attempt is made to fire
a number of shots into the smallest possible group; the
ultimate aim being to have all shots of one group in one
bullet hole. There are practically no restrictions as to
weapon size, caliber, design, shape or weight. The
goals of organized bench rest shooters are development
and encouragement of extreme accuracy in rifles,
ammunition, equipment and shooting methods.
Bend The drop below the line of sight at the comb and heel of
a buttstock.
Berdan Primer A center fire primer, popular in Europe and Asia, whose
anvil is constructed out of part of the cartridge case. Not
interchangeable with the Boxer Primer.
Big Bore A slang term used to define the weapons used in NRA
or National High Power Rifle Matches.
Blade Sight A metal blade, attached to the upper side of the barrel
near the muzzle.
166
Blown Primer A primer that has ruptured or unseated itself in the base
of the cartridge. May be due to excessive pressure,
defective primer, improper firing pin length, or the brass
case being improperly annealed (soft brass).
Bolt Face That portion of the bolt that engages and supports the
head (or base) of the cartridge.
Bolt Handle That portion of the bolt grasped for manual operation.
Bolt Sleeve The steel machining at the rear of the bolt that serves
to unite all the components of the bolt assembly.
Bone Support The position the firer assumes that allows him to use
his bones to support the weight of the weapon and use
his muscles principally to hold bones in their support-
ing position. This means that he can keep his muscles
relaxed and avoid the tremors that develop from strain
and tension.
Bore (a) The interior of the barrel through which the charge or
bullet passes. (b) The diameter measured from land to
land.
167
Boresight An instrument inserted in the bore of a weapon to
determine the bore axis and its alignment with the
sights of the weapon.
Breech The rear end of the barrel into which the cartridge is
inserted.
Breech Block Any steel device used to seal the breech of a rifle
at the instant of firing.
Bullet Pull The energy required to pull a bullet from its case.
(The bullet pull is used as a measure of the uniformity
and efficiency of the crimp holding the bullet in its case)
168
Bullet Puller Device used to remove a bullet from the cartridge case.
Bullet Trace The visible path of a bullet passing through the atmo-
sphere which can best be seen through properly
adjusted optical aids.
Bullseye (a) The center of a target; also a shot which hits it;
hence any successful hit. (b) The blackened area of a
target. (c) A trade name for a commercially produced
pistol powder.
169
Carbide Lamp A miner's-type lamp whose flame is used to put carbon
deposits on sighting equipment to reduce glare.
Carrier Block That part of a weapon which lifts a round from the
magazine and lines it up with the chamber. Usually
found in pump and automatic shotguns and some
types of rifles.
Cast Bullet A bullet formed by pouring molten alloy into a die and
letting it harden.
Center Fire The form of cartridge case in which the primer is placed
directly in the center of the base.
170
Chamber (a) The compartment at the rear of a gun barrel that
holds a charge or cartridge; one of the compartments
in the cylinder of a revolver. (b) To insert a round of
ammunition in the chamber of a firearm or gun.
Chief Range Officer Will have full charge of the range and pits and will
conduct matches on the schedule approved by the
executive officer of the range or club. He is responsible
for range safety and enforcing all rules.
Clean Target When all shots have gone into the highest numerical
scoring ring or rings.
171
Clear (a) Term used to express the fact that the range is
clear for firing or proceeding downrange. (b) Term used
to describe the act of removing all ammunition sources
from the weapon to make it safe. (c) Act of checking the
weapon ensure all ammunition has been removed.
Clip Shot A pair of guide grooves milled into the forward end of
a rifle receiver bridge so as to hold a clip in position for
loading.
Clover Leaf Group A group of three or more bullet holes that touch each
other. Term used in scoring targets on which five or
more shots are fired so closely as to make it impossible
to distinguish the individual bullet holes.
Cocking Piece The projecting end of the striker, extending back and
free of the bolt in a bolt-action weapon.
Cook-Off The accidental and spontaneous discharge of, or
explosion in, a gun or firearm, caused by an overheated
chamber or barrel igniting a fuse, primer, propellant, or
bursting.
Cooked Round A round left in a hot chamber, but which has not
reached a temperature to initiate firing. Ballistics of
this round are not usually the same as a normally fired
round.
172
Component A constituent part of the whole, especially one having
no function apart from the whole, such as cartridge
components (primer, powder, projectile).
Cone The angle cut in the breech end of a barrel to allow the
bolt to be breeched tighter and therefore, keep as much
of the brass case in the chamber as possible.
173
Dead Rod A malfunctioning operating rod on an M1 rifle.
174
Drop (a) The vertical drop of a projectile. (b) Distance
measured from the line of sight to the top of the heel
and comb of a gun stock.
Ear Plug A device used to protect the ears from the sound of
weapons firing.
Effective Range (a) The range up to which a weapon operates with the
desired effect. Limitations placed on this range are the
terminal effect of a projectile, and the limits of human
vision. (b) The distance at which the average man can
place hits on a target within the kill zone.
Elbow Pad A cushion for the elbow usually attached to the sleeve
of a shooting jacket or coat.
Elevated Rib The raised sighting plane placed on top of the barrels
of a shotgun or rifle.
Elevation (a) Height or altitude. (b) The angle of elevation. (c) The
setting on the vertical adjustment of a rear sight to allow
sufficient trajectory to strike a selected target.
175
Erosion Wearing away of a weapon bore due to combined
effects of gas washing, scoring and mechanical
abrasion. Due to the high temperatures, velocity and
chemical action, the bore diameter becomes enlarged.
Extended Front Sight A bar of steel or extension of the front sight to increase
the sight radius.
Eye Relief Distance from the aiming eye to the rear sight.
176
Firing line A line at which marksmen are stationed for firing.
Follow through When all the elements of firing a shot are maintained
until the shot strikes the target, such as position,
sighting, breathing, squeezing, etc.
Fouling shots Shots fired for the purpose of warming the bore so
that following rounds will be better stabilized.
Free bore A type of barrel rifling where lands have either been
completely eliminated, or reduced in front of the
chamber. The purpose is to reduce chamber pressure.
177
Foot pound A measurement of the expenditure of energy. A foot
pound is that unit of effort which will lift a one pound
object one foot. Two foot pounds will either lift a two
pound object one foot, or a one pound object two
feet, and so on. Usually used to express the energy
of a bullet exiting a muzzle.
Gain twist A system of rifling in which the pitch of the lands and
grooves increases from breech to muzzle in order to
gradually accelerate a bullet to maximum rotational
velocity as it leaves the muzzle.
Gas check bullet A device (usually shaped like a cup) fitted over the base
of a bullet designed to prevent the hot gases from fusing
or melting the base of the bullet and to act as a gas
seal.
Gilding metal Soft metal used to jacket a small arms bullet. This
metal can be readily engraved by the lands as the
bullet moves down the bore. Typically 85% copper
and 15% zinc.
178
Glass bedding An epoxy resin (glass) used to ensure better fit between
the rifle barrel and action to the wood of the stock. Also
used to strengthen the recoil mortise in the stock.
Groove The spiral grooves cut into the bore of certain types of
firearms, to impart spin to the projectile for the purpose
of aerodynamic stabilization.
Hammer gun A gun whose hammers are on the outside of the action.
Hand (pistol) The operating lever which turns the cylinder when the
hammer is pulled back on the receiver.
179
Hand loading Manufacture of ammunition by an individual using hand
tools. Also used to describe the act of re-loading a
previously fired cartridge case.
Hollow point A projectile with a cavity within its point. May or may
not have controlled expansion features.
180
Housing A covering or frame used to protect integral parts of
a firearm, i.e., mainspring housing, trigger housing, etc.
181
Kneeling position A position that is assumed by the shooter where the
weight of the body is supported on one knee and the
opposite foot. No other part of the body touches the
ground.
Known distance firing Purpose of this type of firing is to give the shooter
the opportunity to apply all the principles of marksman-
ship. He learns to zero his weapon for all usable ranges
and to make practical application of sight adjustments.
Laminated stock The gluing of thin strips of wood together into order to
produce a stock that will resist warpage and give added
strength, usually used on target and bench rest stocks.
Leaded edge The marks left on the target by the bullet as it passes
through the target.
Leaf sight Rear sight for small arms, hinged so it can be raised
for aiming or lowered to keep from being broken when
not in use.
Length of pull The distance from the center of the trigger to the center
of the butt. Standard length of pull for rifles is usually
13.5 inches.
Line of sight The straight line between an observer's eye and a target
along which sight is taken.
182
Loading block Device designed to limit a specified number of rounds,
i.e., the plug in a shotgun is a loading block.
Loading gate The swing away portion of a revolver which permits the
loading and unloading of the cylinder. Normally found
on a single action revolver.
Maximum effective range The greatest distance the average shooter may inflict
casualties or damage.
183
Metallic sights Any sight not containing optical lenses.
Micro sights A rear sight adjustable for windage and elevation, used
on handguns.
Micrometer sights Normally refers to a rear sight which has 1/4 or less
minute of angle graduations.
Mid-range The point halfway between the firing line and target.
Monte Carlo A form of butt stock in which the comb is carried back
horizontally almost to the butt, when it descends to the
heel portion.
Mouth (a) The opening at the end of a muzzle. (b) The opening
at the end of a cartridge case.
Muzzle The end of the barrel of a gun from which the bullet
emerges.
184
Muzzle flash That portion of visible light emitted by the combustion
of the propellant, and which emerges from the muzzle
with the projectile.
Natural point of aim The correct position of the body in relationship to the
target.
Objective lens The lens at the front of the telescope which forms the
"primary image" of the object viewed.
185
Ordnance Military weapons, ammunition, explosives, combat
vehicles, and battle material collectively, together
with the needed maintenance tools and equipment.
Over and Under A gun or rifle in which the barrels are placed on top
of one another.
Peep sight A rear gunsight having a small hole in which the front
sight is centered in aiming.
186
Pistol (a) Any firearm, usually short barreled, designed to be
held and fired in one hand. (b) A firearm in which the
chamber is an integral part of the barrel, especially a
self loading pistol, as distinguished from a revolver.
(c) A machine-pistol. Usually a short barreled weapon
firing pistol ammunition, and which fires automatically.
Pressure peak The greatest amount of pounds per square inch (PSI)
of pressure created within the chamber.
187
Primer A sensitive explosive device that responds to friction,
percussion, electric impulse or some other disturbance
to set off a propellant or an explosive; an initiator.
Primer vent Normally called the flash hole. Located in the head of
the cartridge case between the primer seat and the
propellant in the case, to allow the primer flame to
ignite the powder.
188
Qualification In the military, the minimum marksmanship score
needed to attain a certain classification of shooting
skill, for training or identification purposes.
Ready line The area just to the rear of the firing line, where
shooters may wait their turn to fire.
189
Recoil lug A metal surface, normally located in the forward part
of the action which transmits the recoil of the barrel
and receiver group to the stock.
190
Rimfire A cartridge in which the priming mixture is placed in
the fold of the head of the shell. The rim is crushed by
the firing pin or striker to initiate the charge.
Safety fan The 35 degree area to the left and right of the line of
fire (totaling 70 degrees), within that area considered
the danger zone.
Sear nose A portion of the sear that engages the notch of the
of the hammer or striker, holding it to the rear.
Season cracking (a) A small split in the cartridge brass case which
occurs when the brass is old and the grain relaxed.
(b) Small cracks that appear in gunstocks due to
moisture content changes and/or age.
191
Sectional density The weight of a bullet in grains, divided by its diameter.
Set trigger A device for lightening the trigger pull at will in order
to remove the disturbing effect of a heavy pull during
target shooting. Usually two triggers are used; the
front trigger sets the sear, while a light touch on the
rear trigger will discharge the round.
Shell holder A tool used in rifle cartridge reloading for the purpose
of facilitating ease of maintaining the cartridge case
within the loading press.
Side by side A weapon with two barrels placed next to each other.
192
Side mount A metal fixture with rings used to secure a telescope
sight to the side of a receiver.
Sight alignment When the front and rear sights are brought into proper
alignment with the line of sight to the target.
Sight picture The target as viewed by the shooter, with the sights
superimposed over the point of intended impact.
Sitting position Sitting with the weight of the body supported by the
buttocks and feet or ankles, with no other portion of
the body touching the ground.
Slow fire A type of known distance firing in which one shot per
minute is authorized.
Small of stock A name usually applied to the "hand" of the butt stock.
Commonly called the pistol grip.
193
Smooth bore A firearm with no rifling.
Soft point bullets A type of bullet with a non-fouling jacket, filled with a
lead or lead alloy core, closed at the base and with the
lead exposed at the nose.
Speed lock A trigger and hammer designed for extra fast hammer
fall.
Stock weld The act of fitting the cheeks or face to the side of the
stock so that during recoil, the face will remain in
place, retaining a proper sight picture to follow through.
194
Sustained fire A rate of fire in which fire is sustained over a specific
period of time. Usually the sustained rate of a military
firearm is the number of times per minute that the
average marksman can successfully engage a man-
sized target at battlesight distance.
Terminal velocity The constant velocity of a falling body attained when the
resistance of air or other ambient fluid has become
equal to the force of gravity acting on the body.
195
Trigger control The ability to pull the trigger without movement
of the
weapon.
Wad cutter A bullet that cuts cleanly through a target upon impact,
usually having a reduced propellant load.
196
Wet fire Slang term used to describe firing live ammunition.
Wind flag A range flag used to show wind direction and velocity.
Wind gauge (a) A device used to calculate and record the force of
wind data. (b) A graduated scale on a rear sight used
to correct deviation of a bullet due to wind effects.
197
Unit Arms Room Operations Checklist
a. Are required -10 and -20 series technical manuals for each
type of weapon on hand? (DA Pam 25-30, MTOE/TOE/TDA) ____ ____ ____
198
GO NO GO N/A
t. Are all entries on DA Form 2408-4 correct and legible? Are all
cumulative totals correct? (DA Pam 738-750, paragraph 5-3 j) ____ ____ ____
u. Are the first and last entries of the DA Form 2408-4 signed
only by the unit commander? (DA Pam 738-750, paragraphs
5-3 m(1) & 5-3 m(2)) ____ ____ ____
w. Does the arms room filing system comply with the MARKS
requirements of DA Pam 25-400-2? ____ ____ ____
199
GO NO GO N/A
2. M60 Machineguns
a. Are all M60 machineguns clean and free of rust? ____ ____ ____
b. Are both barrels for each weapon properly tagged (ID Tag,
laced at both ends, painted flat black, with stamped numbers)? ____ ____ ____
e. Are gas cylinders and vent plugs safety wired? ____ ____ ____
f. Are bipod legs in good condition and functioning properly? ____ ____ ____
g. Does the T&E mechanism zero and operate properly? ____ ____ ____
k. Are rear sights unbroken and completely readable? ____ ____ ____
o. Are bolt camming surfaces chipped or worn excessively? ____ ____ ____
q. Is the hydraulic buffer assembly leaking or completely dry? ____ ____ ____
r. Are the handguard baffles or latch assembly broken? ____ ____ ____
200
GO NO GO N/A
3. M16 Series Rifles/M4 Carbines
a. Are all rifles clean and free of rust? ____ ____ ____
h. Are pistol grips and buttstocks tightly mounted? ____ ____ ____
k. Is the forward assist feed pawl present and functioning? ____ ____ ____
n. Are bolt rings in good condition and properly installed? ____ ____ ____
o. Are bolt locking lugs free of chips or excessive wear? ____ ____ ____
q. Are sling swivels of the proper type and correctly mounted? ____ ____ ____
4. M249 Machineguns
a. Are all M249 machineguns clean and free of rust? ____ ____ ____
c. Are the weapons of current configuration (all MWOs applied)? ____ ____ ____
d. Are all components present and properly functioning? ____ ____ ____
201
GO NO GO N/A
e. Are bipod legs in good condition and functioning properly? ____ ____ ____
g. Are the cocking handle stop pins secure? ____ ____ ____
h. Are cocking handle front tabs excessively worn? ____ ____ ____
k. Are all receiver welds free of cracks or pits? ____ ____ ____
n. Does the T&E mechanism zero and operate properly if used? ____ ____ ____
a. Are all Mk19 machineguns clean and free of rust? ____ ____ ____
c. Is required safety wiring present and properly installed? ____ ____ ____
e. Is the vertical cam assembly free of pits, nicks and burrs? ____ ____ ____
a. Are all M2 machineguns clean and free of rust? ____ ____ ____
d. Are cotter pins and safety wire present where needed? ____ ____ ____
202
GO NO GO N/A
g. Are the feeding system components properly configured? ____ ____ ____
h. Is the backplate lock latch of the proper type? ____ ____ ____
j. Does the T&E mechanism zero and operate properly? ____ ____ ____
k. Are the tripod leg extension lock assemblies operational? ____ ____ ____
l. Are all receiver rivets tight and secure? ____ ____ ____
n. Is the flat spring for the trigger lever adjustment stop nut
present and in good condition? ____ ____ ____
7. Pistol, M9
a. Are the pistols clean and free of rust? ____ ____ ____
d. Are lock washers present beneath handgrip screws? ____ ____ ____
a. Are the grenade launchers clean and free of rust? ____ ____ ____
e. Are M203 barrel grips secure and unbroken? ____ ____ ____
203
GO NO GO N/A
a. Are all mortars clean and free of rust? ____ ____ ____
b. Is all auxiliary equipment present and in good condition? ____ ____ ____
c. Have tubes been borescoped and inspected IAW with TM? ____ ____ ____
e. Are bipod assemblies functional and in good condition? ____ ____ ____
f. Are all radioactive items and cases properly labeled? ____ ____ ____
g. Are baseplate assemblies functional and in good condition? ____ ____ ____
h. Does the M224 mortar function properly in each mode? ____ ____ ____
d. Is the weapon visually clean and free of rust? (Only the sniper
may disassemble the weapon) ____ ____ ____
f. Are optics free of scratches, distortion and inner moisture? ____ ____ ____
204
GO NO GO N/A
c. Is the toolbox in good repair and have a functioning lock? ____ ____ ____
e. Is the file cleaning brush used to keep files in working order? ____ ____ ____
205
Arms Room Publications Reference
The following listing provides the designations for the manuals and publications most commonly
used in the unit arms room by unit maintenance personnel. Operator manuals and DS/GS
manuals are not included in this listing. Field manuals are listed to provide the armorer with an
operational overview of the equipment. The user is cautioned that some of the publications
referenced may have been superseded, revoked or rescinded since the date this manual was
printed. The user must verify that the following publications are current.
EQUIPMENT PUBLICATIONS
206
Machinegun, .50 Caliber, M2 TM9-1005-213-23
207
Sniper Training FM 23-10
208
Recommended Reading List
The following publications are recommended for both the casual and serious
student of firearms technology. Many of these publications are still in print and
can be purchased at local gun shows or ordered through bookstores. (You will
find that most national chain bookstores are politically oriented towards the
liberal “arts” crowd, and will have few, if any, serious books on guns).
Your local public library can always obtain books, even rare ones, through a
process called inter-library loan. If your local library does not have one of these
books on the shelf, pester the librarian to order it for you through I-LL.
Archer, Denis, H. R., ed. “Jane’s Infantry Weapons”, Jane’s Publishers, 1976
Hatcher, Julian S, “The Book of The Garand”, Infantry Journal Press, 1948
Greener, W. W., “The Gun and Its Development”, Bonanza Books, 1910
209
End of Course Examination
ANSWER: ________________________
ANSWER: ________________________
ANSWER: ________________________
ANSWER: ________________________
ANSWER: ________________________
ANSWER: ________________________
7. What is an SSSC?
ANSWER: ________________________
ANSWER: ________________________
9. Which items in your arms room require the use of a DD Form 314?
ANSWER: ________________________
ANSWER: ________________________
210
11. What are the principal means of destroying weapons per TM 750-244-7?
a. __________________
b. __________________
c. __________________
d. __________________
ANSWER: ________________________
ANSWER: ________________________
ANSWER: ________________________
ANSWER: ________________________
16. What is the shape factor value for a hollow point round?
ANSWER: ________________________
17. What two things do you need to make you effective in engaging targets while
avoiding friendly casualties?
a. ____________________
b. ____________________
18. Are the ballistics for the M193 and M855 (5.56mm) rounds identical?
ANSWER: ________________________
19. What occurs if the gas piston is installed backwards in an M60 machinegun?
ANSWER: ________________________
ANSWER: ________________________
211
Examination Answer Keys
1. files management
publications management
supply management
maintenance management
physical security
6. C, O, F, H, and D
7. AR 25-400-2
8. AR 190-11
212
Chapter 2 Examination Answer Key:
1. feeding
chambering
locking
firing
unlocking
extracting
ejecting
cocking
2. radiational
conduction
convection
3. manual
gas
recoil
blowback
4. charcoal
sulfur
potassium nitrate (saltpeter)
6. Boxer
Berdan
7. 437.5
8. 1.0472 inches
9. In foot-pounds of energy
213
Chapter 3 Examination Answer Key:
2. target detection
target identification
target assessment
target acquisition
target destruction
3. safe to carry
safe to fire
4. judgment
reaction time
5. no
8. the eyes
rear sight
front sight
line of sight
target
eye relief
9. The point of the front sight is placed at the lowest point in the center of the
target
10. The highest point of the trajectory over the line of sight
214
Chapter 4 Examination Answer Key:
1. TM 9-243
2. simple
spring joint
hermaphrodite
slide
vernier
trammels
3. inside
outside
depth
7. adjustable hook
fixed hook
hose coupling pin
adjustable pin face
fixed pin face
9. american pattern
swiss pattern
215
End of Course Examination Answer Key:
1. yes
2. DA Pamphlet 310-13
3. direct support
4. 1370
11. burning
mechanical means
explosives or gunfire
scattering and burial of parts
12. a round that spontaneously ignites due to residual heat in the chamber
13. a metal used in bullet jackets, composed of 85% copper and 15% zinc
16. 1.25
18. no
216
19. The weapon may fire only a single shot
20. 1934
217