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INTRODUCTION
Maintenance is the upkeep of facilities and equipment. Upkeep means the restoration to,
or keeping in, a specified operating condition. There are many reasons why facilities and
equipment must be maintained. The major objectives of maintenance include the
following:
(i) To extend the useful life of the system. This is particularly important in
developing countries where there is a scarcity of capital funds for replacement.
(ii) To assure the optimum availability of the system for service or production and
obtain maximum possible return on investment.
(iii) To ensure the safety of personnel using the facility or equipment.
Consumables: Materials used up during an equipment’s operation, as are fuel and engine
oil in a car.
Failure: Inability to perform the basic function, or to perform it within specified limits;
malfunction.
Installation: (1) A fixed or relatively fixed facility location together with its real estate,
buildings, structures, utilities, and equipment. (2) That period of initial setup,
adjustment and checkout of a product in the customer’s environment.
For other terms and their definitions, please see the Appendix.
Types of Maintenance
Maintenance can be divided into three major types: improvement maintenance, corrective
maintenance and preventive maintenance (See Figure 1).
Improvement Maintenance
These are modifications, retrofits or redesigns for (or in order to achieve) better
maintenance. The objective is the same as that of reliability, that is, to reduce, or even
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eliminate the need for maintenance. For example, air flow can be diverted so that
components are more adequately cooled and (therefore) subjected to less environmental
contamination or overheating. Either of these results in less frequent maintenance.
Corrective Maintenance
These are operations carried out to restore a machine to operative condition after a
breakdown, accident, wear, etc. Since these activities are generally not known in
advance, and therefore cannot be scheduled, they are often referred to as unscheduled,
emergency or repair maintenance.
Preventive Maintenance
These are actions performed in an attempt to keep a machine in a specified operating
condition, by means of systematic inspection, detection and prevention of incipient
failures.
Maintenance
Periodic Predictive
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Periodic Preventive Maintenance
There are advantages in scheduling a fixed time for preventive maintenance. All the
necessary personnel, parts, tools, and information may be scheduled and made available
so that there are no delays. Coordination with production and other organizations may be
accomplished. A typical scheduled maintenance is turnaround maintenance of refineries.
Levels of Maintenance
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(sheds, workshops, buildings, etc), nature of work done (service, repair) and the extent of
work done (man-hours, number of parts replaced, etc).
There are several approaches to the delivery of maintenance. One approach simplifies the
tasks through initial investment in design for maintainability so that operators or
relatively low-skilled service technicians can easily troubleshoot the failures and make
quick repairs to restore full performance. Another approach holds that the technician of
the future should all be people with high level of intelligence, and diagnostic and repair
ability.
The major levels of maintenance in common use are user/operator, intermediate,
organizational, depot and factory.
This means that maintenance engineers/technicians do not need to spend their time
travelling to the customer and can do repairs where spare parts and test equipment are
available under good working conditions. Special diagnostic equipment that is too
expensive to provide to each individual technician can be used at such a repair centre.
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Implications of Poor or No Maintenance
Poor maintenance or non-maintenance could lead to minor to serious injuries to the
operator or user of equipment. It could also lead to expensive repairs. As shown in Table
1 below, preventive maintenance is definitely better than corrective maintenance.
The resources needed for equipment maintenance are human, financial, material and
time. For effective plant maintenance the resources have to be provided in the right mix.
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HOW TO DETERMINE THE TYPE OF MAINTENANCE
Introduction
The maintenance plan (or programme) of a company is a corporate plan devised to meet
the objectives of maintenance as desired by the company. It is part of the overall strategy
of the company in order to achieve its business goals.
The development of a maintenance plan for a plant starts with the determination of the
type of maintenance for each equipment that makes up the plant. By definition, a plant
could be defined as any of the following:
i. The equipment and often including the grounds and buildings, necessary to carry on
any industrial business e.g. manufacturing plant.
ii. The complete equipment or apparatus for a particular mechanical process or operation
e.g. the heating plant for a home.
iii. The buildings, equipment, etc of an institution e.g. the sprawling plant of a University.
The determination of the type of maintenance involves the following steps: inventory or
census of the plant, ranking of equipment and facilities, and selection of the type of
maintenance.
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Critical/Essential Equipment
These are machines that are vital to the plant or process and without which the plant or
process cannot function. Machines in this category include the steam or gas turbines in a
power plant, crude oil export pumps on an oil rig or the cracker in an oil refinery. With
critical machinery being at the heart of the process it is seen to require high-frequency
routine maintenance(e.g. hourly) or full on-line condition monitoring to continually
record as much data from the machine as possible regardless of cost and is often specified
by the plant insurance.
Important Equipment
This is equipment whose breakdown results in either disruption in production (reduction
in quality and/or quantity) without stoppage in the short run, and/or insecurity in the
operations. The machines that mainly fall under this category are machines which
provide redundancy i.e. a process may need three pumps to operate but there may be four
pumps so if one pump fails the spare (redundant or standby) pump can be utilized. These
types of machine are normally boiler feed pumps in a power plant, air compressors and
export pumps on an oil refinery. Such equipment needs to be maintained regularly.
Supportive Equipment
This is equipment whose breakdown does not disrupt production, no matter how long the
breakdown lasts. Such a equipment may be operated to failure.
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SPARE PARTS MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL OF MAINTENANCE COSTS
Spare parts are components and assemblies that are completely interchangeable with like
items and can be used to replace items removed during maintenance. Spare part
management play a major role in the interval between the time a repairable item is
removed from use and the time it is again available in full serviceable condition. A good
spare parts management must balance, for optimum cost, the expense caused by plant or
equipment downtime, and the cost of procuring, storing, and issuing the spare parts.
Because time is money in business, a business organisation cannot afford that its
production line becomes idle because of non-availability of spare parts to revive a broken
down equipment. If this line of thought is towed to the extreme, then the varieties and
quantities of spare parts on hand may be so extensive that it is virtually impossible to run
out of any spare parts. This will minimize downtime, but will be achieved at a prohibitive
price since a huge capital may have to be tied down. Therefore, a balance must be struck
such that a sufficient stock of materials and parts should be on hand to minimize
downtime.
Holding stock, in whatever form, costs money. The capital tied up by the stock itself has
to be served by the payment of interest, and the land or warehouse needed for the stock,
and any quality deterioration that occurs, also costs money. Planning the correct amount
of spare part stock needed for maintenance purposes is therefore a very important
activity.
To find the optimum stock level (the level which results in minimum overall costs) for
consumables and fast-moving spare parts, mathematical expressions are required for the
two types of costs: carrying and re-ordering.
Carrying Cost
The average stock level is one-half the amount received in a shipment. Thus if the
quantity delivered to the store is D units per shipment and demand is evenly spread over
time, the average stock level will be D/2. Let K be the variable cost of stocking one items
for a year calculated as the interest on capital tied up plus other carrying cost involved in
holding one item of stock for a year. Then the total carrying cost per annum will be ½
DK.
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Re-order cost
Generally, if Q items are to be consumed per annum and there are D items in each
delivery made on re-ordering, the number of deliveries required per annum is Q/D.
Suppose the cost per delivery is represented by
Cr = r + sD ……………………………………………………………………... (1)
where r and s are some numbers. The number s may be interpreted as the variable cost
per item; whist r re-represents the fixed costs per order. The re-ordering cost is associated
with book-keeping, telephoning, checking, etc.
∴ Total annual re-reordering cost will be given by (cost per delivery) x (number of
deliveries).
Q rQ
Cr = (r + sD) = + sQ …………………………………………………… (2)
D D
The total cost that the company incurs on its stock is the sum of the two costs (1) and (2)
giving
1 rQ
C = Cc + Cr = DK + + sQ ………………………………………………. (3)
2 D
dC K rQ
= − …………………………………………………………………. (4)
dD 2 D 2
K rQ
= ……………………………………………………………………….. (6)
2 D2
rQ
∴ D = 2 …………………………………………………………….…. (7)
K
Re-order Levels
Re-order level is the level to which the stock is allowed to all before a fresh order is
placed. In the preceding section it was tacitly assumed that the end of each period the
stock could be allowed to run out, be replenished instantaneously, and then allowed to
run again, and so on. In practice, sales vary, replenishments are delayed, stock
deteriorate, perish, etc.
The re-order level caters for both a variable demand and a variable lead-time and will
equal the average demand in the average lead-time plus some buffer stock to allow for
the variations in demand and lead-time.
Mathematically:
R = QL + B …………………………………………………………………….. (8)
where,
R = re-order level
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Q = average demand per unit time
L = average lead-time, and
B = buffer stock
The buffer stock is the amount of extra stock that is kept in the system over and above
what would otherwise be required to cater for the variations in demand and lead-time. the
lead-time is the time taken for replenishment to arrive once they have been ordered.
The larger B is made, the smaller will be the chance of running out of stock but the larger
will be the capital tied up. Hence the problem is reduced to one of minimizing the
combined cost of holding the buffer stock B, together with the run out cost.
From experience, the buffer stock is usually a value between 20% and 25% of the
optimum shipment size or order size D.
Mathematically,
0.2D ≤ B ≤ 0.25D ……………………………………………………………… (9)
Therefore, the lowest possible overall costs is then obtained by re-ordering to D items
every time the stock falls to R items.
Inventory Card
For proper inventory control, every spare part must have an Inventory Card. This card
can be physical, in which case it is posted by hand or it may be electronic in which case it
is computerized.
Two types of records are frequently employed to limit the cost of stock control record
keeping:
Ø A detailed record for items involving high unit costs and long lead times, and
Ø A simplified system for low unit cost and/or short lead times.
Table 4 shows a simplified Inventory Card. Information on the card include part, name,
part number, classification specification, quantity received, quantity issued, balance, date,
etc.
Order Form
Another form that is used to monitor spare parts movement is the Order Form. An order
form is a form for requesting for spare parts from the spare parts store. Information on the
Order Form includes the following: equipment name, make, model, location,
maintenance card number, quantity and description of spare part needed, part number and
quantity issued. Other information include the name/signature of the requisitioning
officer, the collecting officer, and the issuing officer. Table 5 shows a typical Order
Form.
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Table 4: Spare Parts Inventory Card
Spare Parts Inventory Card
Part Name: Bearing Part No: 6206 2RS1
Classification: B
Specifications: 30 mm bore, sealed
Date Form* No Qty. Qty. Balance Receiving Issuing
Received Issued Officer Officer
1/2/96 3473 8 8 LOA RBC
3/3/97 444 2 6 KYO LOA
6/6/97 041 2 4 SOA LOA
ORDER FORM
Equipment Name: Pump
Make: Grundfos Model: SKT
Location: Chemical House
Maintenance Job Card No. 2424
Introduction
In industry, maintenance has always been thought of as a necessary evil. In the past,
every effort was made to keep expenditure on maintenance to a minimum rather than an
optimum. Since the entire cost of a maintenance activity was considered an overhead
expense, there was great reluctance to add overhead to overhead. Fortunately, the
accelerated trend towards mechanization and automation has forced management to look
more objectively at the role of the maintenance department. Automation has tended to
reduce direct-labour costs and to increase the importance of maintenance activities. The
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emphasis now is towards optimizing maintenance costs rather than holding them to a
minimum. The interplay of the following factors control maintenance costs.
Diagnostic Analysis
This is the process of locating and explaining detectable problems in an equipment from
its signs and symptoms. For a correct diagnosis to take place, 7 basic steps have to be
followed.
• Know the system
• Interrogate the operator
• Inspect the equipment
• Operate the equipment (if possible)
• List the possible causes
• Reach a conclusion
• Test your conclusion
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Diagnostic Charts
These are charts of problems and their possible causes.
Trouble-shooting
Trouble-shooting is the finding and correcting of faults in equipment. Same steps as in
diagnostic analysis are followed plus the following. Faults are corrected by repairing
(removing/replacement, removing/repairing, re-installing) adjusting/aligning, calibrating
and testing.
REFERENCES
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APPENDIX
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
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Failure Analysis: The logical, systematic examination of an item or its design, to identify
and analyze the probability, causes, and consequences of real or potential
malfunction, or failure.
Failure Rate: The number of failures per unit measure of life (cycles, time, kilometres,
events, and the like) as applicable for the item.
Function: A separate and distinct action required to achieve a given objective, to be
accomplished by the use of hardware, computer programs, personnel,
facilities, procedural data, or a combination thereof; or an operation a
system must perform to fulfil its mission or reach its objective.
Functional Levels: Rankings of the physical hierarchy of a product. Typical levels of
significance from the smallest to the largest are part, sub-assembly,
assembly, subsystem, and system.
General and Administrative (G&A): A category of expense, usually added as a
percentage of direct labour and materials costs, to cover support and
management costs.
General Support Equipment (GSE): Equipment that has maintenance application to
more than a single model or type of equipment. See also Support
Equipment.
Hardware: A physical object or physical objects, as distinguished from capability or
function. A generic term dealing with physical items of equipment – tools,
instruments, components, part – as opposed to funds, personnel, services,
programs, and plans, which are termed – “software”.
Human Engineering: The application of knowledge about human capabilities and
limitations to the planning, design, development, and testing of systems,
equipment, and facilities to obtain the best mix of safety, comfort, and
effectiveness compatible with established requirement.
Identification: Means by which items are named or numbered to indicate that they have a
given set of characteristics. Identification may be in terms of name, part
number, type, model, specification number, drawing number, code, stock
number, or catalogue number, Items may also be identified as part of an
assembly, a piece of equipment, or a system.
Installation: A fixed or relatively fixed facility location together with its real estate,
buildings, structures, utilities, and equipment. Also, that period of initial
setup, adjustment, and checkout of a product in the customer’s
environment.
Integrated Logistics Support (ILS): A composite of the elements necessary to assure the
effective and economical sustaining of a system or equipment at all levels
of maintenance, throughout its programmed life cycle. It is characterized
by the harmony and coherence obtained among each of its elements and
level of maintenance.
Interface: A common boundary between two or more items, characteristics, systems,
functions, activities, departments, or objectives. That portion of anything
that impinges upon or directly affects something else.
Inventory: All items on hand by physical count, weight, volume, monetary value, or
other measurement.
Item: A generic term used to identify a specific entity under consideration. Items
may be parts, components, assemblies, subassemblies, accessories, groups,
equipments, or attachments.
Lead Time: The allowance made for that amount of time required to accomplish a
specific objective.
Life Cycle: The series of phases or events that constitute the total existence of
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anything. The entire “womb to tomb” scenario of a product from the time
concept planning is smarted until the product is finally discarded.
Life-Cycle Cost: All costs associated with the system life cycle including research
and development, production, operation, support, and termination.
Logistics: The art and science of the management, engineering, and technical
activities concerned with requirements, design, and planning and
maintaining resources to support objectives, plans, and operations.
Long-Range Planning: The process of making decision expected to affect an
organization, usually beyond one year. The period of long-range plans is
often set at three, five, or ten years. Contrasted with short-range planning,
which normally includes from the present to one year in the future?
Maintainability (M): The inherent characteristic of a design or installation that determines
the ease, economy, safety and accuracy with which maintenance actions
can be performed. Also, the ability to restore a product to service or to
perform preventive maintenance within required limits.
Maintainability Engineering: The application of applied scientific knowledge,
methods and management skills to the development of equipment,
systems, projects, or operations that have the inherent ability of being
effectively and efficiently maintained.
Maintenance: The function of keeping items or equipment in, or restoring them to,
serviceable condition. It includes servicing, test, inspection,
adjustment/alignment, removal, replacement, reinstallation,
troubleshooting, calibration, condition determination, repair, modification,
overhaul, rebuilding, and reclamation. Maintenance includes both
corrective and preventive activities.
Maintenance Engineering: Developing concepts, criteria, and technical
requirements for maintenance during the conceptual and acquisition
phases of a project. Providing policy guidance for maintenance activities,
and exercising technical and management direction and review of
maintenance programme.
Management: The effective, efficient, economical leadership of people and use of
money, materials, time, and space to achieve predetermined objectives. It
is a process of establishing and attaining objectives and carrying out
responsibilities that include planning, organizing, directing, staffing,
controlling, and evaluating.
Material: All items used or needed in any business, industry, or operation as
distinguished from personnel.
Mean Downtime (MDT): Average time a system cannot perform its mission;
including response time, active maintenance, supply time, and
administrative time.
Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF): The average time/distance/events a product
delivers between breakdowns.
Mean Time Between Maintenance (MTBM): The average time between both corrective
and preventive actions.
Mean Time Between Replacements (MTBR): Average use of an item between
replacements due to maintenance or any other reason.
Mean Time To Repair (MTTR): The average time it takes to fix a failed item.
Mode: The most frequently occurring data value. Also type of failure.
Modification: Change in configuration.
Modularization: Separation of components of a product or equipment into physically
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and functionally distinct entities to facilitate identification, removal and
replacement unitization.
On-Condition Maintenance: Inspection of characteristics which will warn of pending
failure and performance of preventive maintenance after the warning
threshold but before total failure.
Operating Time: Time during which equipment is performing in a manner acceptable
to the operator.
Overhaul: A maintenance procedure for machinery involving disassembly,
inspecting, refinishing, adjusting, and replacement of parts, and
reassembly and testing. The procedure renews the efficiency of the
equipment and maintains its usefulness.
Overhead: Costs which are not directly traceable to products, operations, or services;
indirect.
Personnel Employees: Also, the name of the organization concerned with people.
Pipeline: Channel of support by means of which material or personnel flow from
sources of procurement to their point of use.
Preventive Maintenance (PM): Actions performed in an attempt to keep an item in a
specified operating condition by means of systematic inspection,
detection, and prevention of incipient failure. See also Scheduled
Maintenance.
Production: A term used to designate manufacturing or fabrication in an organized
enterprise.
Provisioning: The process of determining and selecting the varieties and quantities of
repair parts, spares, special tools, and test and support equipment that
should be procured and stocked to sustain equipment and systems for
specified periods of time.
Reaction Time/Response Time: The time required between the receipt of an order or
impulse triggering some action and the initiation of the action.
Rebuild/Recondition: Total teardown and reassembly of a product, usually to the latest
configuration.
Redundancy/ Redundancy: Two or more parts, components, or systems joined
functionally so that if one fails, some or all of the remaining components
are capable of continuing with function accomplishment; fail-safe;
backup.
Refurbish: Clean and replace worn parts on a selective basis to make the product
usable to a customer. Less involved than rebuild.
Reliability (R): The probability that an item will perform its intended function without
failure for a specified time period under specified conditions.
Repair: The restoration or replacement of component of facilities or equipment as
necessitated by wear, tear, damage, or failure in order to return the facility
or equipment to efficient operating condition.
Repair Parts: Individual parts or assemblies required for the maintenance or repair of
equipment, systems, or spares. Such repair parts may be repairable or non-
repairable assemblies or one-piece items. Consumable supplies used in
maintenance, such as wiping rags, solvent, and lubricants, are not
considered repair parts.
Repairable Item: Durable item determined by application of engineering, economic, and
other factors to be restorable to serviceable condition through regular
repair procedures.
Replaceable Item: Hardware that is functionally interchangeable with another item but
differs physically from the original part to the extent that installation of
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the replacement requires such operations as drilling, reaming, cutting,
filing, or shimming in addition to normal attachment or installation
operations.
Resources: Manpower, funds, materials, equipment, tools, space, and time available
for a required to accomplish specific objectives.
Retrofits: Modifications to a machine to correct a deficiency, to modernize it, or to
improve performance.
Safety: Elimination of hazardous conditions that could cause injury. Protection
against failure, breakage, and accident.
Salvage: The saving or reuse of condemned, discarded, or abandoned property, and
of materials contained therein for re-use or scraping. As a noun, it refers to
property that has some value in excess of its basic material content, but is
in such condition that it has no reasonable prospect of original use, and its
repair or rehabilitation is clearly not practical.
Scheduled Maintenance (SM): Pre-planned actions performed to keep an item in
specified operating condition by means of systematic inspection,
detection, and prevention of incipient failure. Sometimes called preventive
maintenance, but actually a subset of PM.
Scrap: Property or items, discarded as far as original use is concerned, that have
no reasonable prospect of value except for the recovery value of basic
material content.
Serviceability: Characteristics of an item, equipment, or system that make it easy to
maintain after it is put into operation. Similar to Maintainability.
Service Technician: The person who installs and maintains equipment. Also called
Customer Engineer, Technical Representative, Service Engineer or
Mechanic.
Shelf life: The period of time during which an item can remain unused in proper
storage without significant determination.
Spares: Components, assemblies, and equipment that are completely inter-
changeable with like items and can be used to replace items removed
during maintenance.
Specification: Documents that clearly and accurately describe the essential technical
requirements for materials, items, equipment, systems, or services;
including the procedures by which it will be determined that the
requirements have been met, such documents may include performance,
support, preservation, packaging, and marking requirements.
Support: Action to sustain or complement anything to keep it effective by
furnishing it with whatever it needs.
Support Equipment: Items required to maintain systems in effective operating condition
under various environments. Support equipment includes general and
special-purpose vehicles, power units, stands, test equipment, tools, or test
benches needed to facilitate or sustain maintenance action, to detect or
diagnose malfunctions, or to monitor the operational status of equipment
and systems.
System: Assemblage of correlated hardware, software; methods, procedures, and
people, or any combination of these, all arranged or ordered toward a
common objective.
System Effectiveness: The probability that a system can successfully meet an overall
operational demand within a given time, when operated under specific
conditions; the ability of a system to do the job for which it was intended;
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a measure of the degree to which a system can be expected to achieve its
objectives or purpose.
Systems Engineering: The application of scientific and engineering methods to the study,
planning, design, construction, direction, and evaluation of man-machines
systems and system components.
Technical Data and Information: Includes, but is not limited to, production and
engineering data, prints and drawings, documents such as standards,
specifications, technical manuals changes in modifications, inspection and
testing procedures, and performance and failure data.
Test and Support Equipment: All special tools and checkout equipment, metrology and
calibrations equipment, maintenance stands, and handling equipment
required for maintenance. Includes external and built-in test equipment
(BITE) considered part of the supported system or equipment.
Trade off: Action or decision generally concerned with the evaluation of alternatives
and with compromises to obtain the best mix of support characteristics,
system performance, and real cost.
Training: The pragmatic approach to supplementing education with particular
knowledge and assistance in developing special skills. Helping people to
learn to practice an art, science, trade, profession, or related activity.
Basically more specialized than education and involves learning what to
do rather than why it is done.
Troubleshooting: Locating or isolating and identifying discrepancies or malfunctions of
equipment and determining the corrective action required.
Turnaround Time: Interval between the time a repairable item is removed from use and
the time it is again available in full serviceable condition.
Unscheduled Maintenance (UM): Emergency maintenance (EM) or corrective
maintenance (CM) to restore a failed item to usable condition.
Value Engineering: An organized, applied scientific effort directed at analyzing the
design, construction, procurement, inspection, installation, operation, and
maintenance of an item to achieve the necessary performance, reliability,
and maintainability at the lowest overall cost.
Vendor Items: Items or parts acquired by the equipment manufacturer or prime contractor
without the acquisition of the design rights; where the source has and
retains proprietary rights with respect to design and processes.
Warranty: Guarantee that an item will perform as specified for at least a specified
time.
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