JOINT AVIATION AUTHORITIES ~ AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT’S LICENCE Theoretical Knowledge Manual 050 METEOROLOGY First Edition, Second Impression. APPROVEDL@ This learning material has ol poproved JAA compliant by the United Kingd Civil ‘Aviation ‘Authority. (CRF ORD —:—- 3S jJEPPESEN. WIATION TRAININGChapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 ‘Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 1 ‘Chapter 12 ‘Chapter 13 Chapter 14 ‘Chapter 15 ‘Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18, Chapter 19 ‘Chapter 20 ‘Chapter 21 Chapter 22 ‘Chapter 23 Chapter 24 ‘Chapter 25 Chapter 26 ‘Chapter 27 METEOROLOGY ‘TABLE OF CONTENTS. The Atmosphere Pressure Density Synoptic Charts Pressure Systems Altimetry Temperature Humidity Adiabatics & Stability Turbulence Winds Upper Winds Clouds Cloud Formation and Precipitation Thunderstorms Visibility Icing Documentation Weather Charts ‘Air Masses Ocelusions Other Depressions Global Climatology Local Winds and Weather Area Climatology Route Climatology Satellite ObservationsAMENDMENT SERVICE, ‘An amendment service to this series is provided free of charge on the Oxford Aviation Training website at hitpi/www.oxfordaviation net/products/studyaids/amend,htm First Edition : May 2001 Second Impression : October 2001 - incorporating Amendment List 1 to Edition 112 13 14 1s 16 7 18 19 1.10 hal 112 CHAPTER ONE - THE ATMOSPHERE. Contents A DEFINITION OF METEOROLOGY. 0.0.0. 000000ssepe00e REASONS FOR STUDYING METEOROLOGY. .. A DEFINITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE. . ‘THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE (BY VOLUME). PROPERTIES OF THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE. . ‘THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE. ...... ‘THE SIGNIFICANCE OF TROPOPAUSE HEIGHT. . TEMPERATURES. . ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS. THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA). ISA DEVIATION. ... ‘THE ICAO INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE. ATMOSPHERE QUESTIONS .. wld 21-8METEOROLOGY THE ATMOSPHERE 1 42 A DEFINITION OF METEOROLOGY “The branch of science dealing with the earth's atmosphere and the physical processes ‘occurring in it.” REASONS FOR STUDYING METEOROLOGY a » ° d 9 To gain a better understanding of meteorologists’ deductions, To gain a better understanding of meteorologists’ documentation, To gain a better understanding of in-flight hazards. To gain a bettor understanding of data and its collection. To gain a better understanding of self-forecasting, ‘Weather is the one factor in modem aviation over which man has no control, a knowledge of meteorology will at least enable the aviator to anticipate some of the difficulties which weather may cause. ‘Weather - influenced accidents to UK transport aircraft ‘Talet Tasers aesiet 1975-94 (tacit Romwat Aaah Wl Paws Tos! MI Preat nome 6 4 4H 4 on we RB MF sas ais Bons 6 me iwrsse 49019572 > Tex ipa he oa ENT, So POTS TT (etd ncn ester and ther ocaroser Aecenes Roan aiareah Yeu Tual Wi Percent Ta) WL vcenh Tol WI Percat vse wae was wast 6? 08S 7s wis 8 Das west tol 252478 maak Fee eC ae “Tble2 Weather -inuence accidents to anspor accra by clement of weather, 1978-94 4-4 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY 13 14 15 Sema Yaseay login ‘Wind wince aioe acnny ahing atlese ‘Alasoowe Re Feceangeaton! nom moo sag so» 106100 Table 1.2, ‘THE ATMOSPHERE Feats Ne Peerage ft) 665 3 200 oa eos For this course a knowledge of advanced physics is not required, but a knowledge of the elementary laws of motion, cating, cooling, condensation and evaporation will be useful A DEFINITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE "The spheroidal gaseous envelope surrounding a heavenly body." ‘THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE (BY VOLUME) Nitrogen ‘Oxygen Plus traces of Neon Keypton Hydrogen 78.09% 20.95% Nitrous Oxide Argon Carbon Dioxide Carbon Monoxide Ammonia Plus water vapour and solid particles. “The proportions ofthe constituents remain constant up to a height of at least 60 kms (except for Helium Xenon Methane 0.93% 0.03% Nitrogen Dioxide ‘Sulphur Dioxide Iodine and Ozone Ozone), but by 70 kms the force of gravity, being less, causes the proportions to change. ‘Although the trace of ozone in the atmosphere is important as a shield against ultra violet radiation, if the whole of the layer of ozone were brought down to sea level it would only be 3 mm thick. PROPERTIES OF THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE ‘The earth's atmosphere varies vertically and horizontally in: a b) Pressure. Temperature, 1-2 @ Oxford Aviation Services LinedMETEOROLOGY ‘THE ATMOSPHERE 16 ©) Density 4) Humidity ‘The earth's atmosphere is a poor conductor. ‘The earth’s atmosphere is fluid ‘The earth's atmosphere supports life only at lower levels. THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE a) The Troposphere;- i) that layer of the earth's atmosphere where temperature decreases with an inerease in height. ii) consists of % of the total atmosphere in weight. iii) contains almost all the weather. b) ‘The Stratosphere may be defined as that layer above the troposphere where the temperature remains constant with an increase in height. (In fact temperature shows a gradual increase with height, especially atthe top, where the temperature is zero at $0 kms. Thisis due to the absorption of the sun’s ultra violet radiation by the concentration of ozone at higher levels) ©) The Tropopause:~ i) marks the boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere and is where temperature ceases to fall with an increase in height. (Practically taken asthe height where the temperature fall is less than 2°C per 1,000 fi.) ii) isnota continuous line -there is usually a gap at 40 degrees offlatitude between the so-called polar and tropical tropopauses. iii) is not uniform in height -it varies with;- Latitude 2) Season of the year 3) Temperature prevailing on the day’ 4) Time of day. ‘© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY THE ATMOSPHERE, wr Figure 1.2, The Mean Height of the Tropopause at the Greenwich Meridian, ‘THE SIGNIFICANCE OF TROPOPAUSE HEIGHT, ‘The significance of the tropopause height is that it usually marks:- a) the maximum height of the cloud, b) the presence of Jetstreams. ©) the presence of Clear Air Turbulence (CAT). d) the maximum wind speed. ‘TEMPERATURES ‘Temperature in the troposphere increases from the poles to the equator. ‘Temperature in the lower stratosphere increases from the equator to the poles in summer but reaches max temperature in mid latitudes in winter. ‘The lapse rate (the rate of change of temperature with height) in the troposphere is produced by rising air, whilst that in the stratosphere is produced by solar radiation, and is in fact reversed. 1-4 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimiteMETEOROLOGY ‘THE ATMOSPHERE 19 1.10 ATMOSPHERIC HAZARDS As aircraft operating altitudes increase, so concentrations of OZONE and COSMIC RADIATION become of greater importance to the aviator, Above 50,000ft, normal concentrations of ozone exceed tolerable limits and air needs to be filtered before entering the cabin. The heat of the compressor system will assist in the breaking down of the ozone to an acceptable level Cosmic radiation is not normally hazardous, but at times of solar flare activity a lower flight level may be necessary. Advances in meteorological forecasting and communications should result in pilots receiving prompt and accurate information regarding high altitude hazards, but it is important that they should be aware of these hazards and prepared to take the necessary re-planning action, ‘THE INTERNATIONAL, NDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA) For a variety of reasons it is necessary to establish a standard average atmosphere, describing variations in temperature, pressure and density throughout altitude. There have been several different Standard Atmospheres, but the one in general use now is the ICAO ISA’, dated 1964 which covers an atmosphere from -16,400f(-Skm) to 262.4641. The ISA is needed for:- a) the calibration of aircraft instruments b) the design and testing of aireraft The ICAO ISA is defined as follows; a) a MSL temperature of +15° Celsius, b) a MSL pressure of 1013.25 millibars, ©) aMSL density of 1225 grammes / cubie metre, 4) from-Skm, a lapse rate of 1.98° Celsius /1000 ft (6.5 degskm) up to 36,090 ft (1 kms), ©) constant temperature of -56.5° Celsius up to 65,617 ft (20 kms), 1) anincrease of temperature of 0.3° Celsius /1000 ft(1 deg/km),up to 104,987 ft 32 kms), 1-5 {© Otord Avation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘THE ATMOSPHERE 1 ope Lim of gn Ae Development - ro] | P*EeatrAmorghere 40,0008 ‘ 120 | \ 2 110 | | : Bde: bonih Stratopausp 104,987 ft : sof 3 Fe|sgt | Sure 32\km oo_} i ieee eee | fool aL AMR EH [et * fs] ti maa 2 \ \ D VL Woper tim of10A0 | 65617 2 E oo t t $ 2 babes Toad od lag 3 2 fil eta pe & = sbonfed plantas ai 3 PN ee a £ 24d labo) hedcrhes ks {Tropopause 36,090 ft | i 1 i | ' 5 ! 3 ' g f 2s ' ie i 1 t ee Deny Figure 1.2. The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) ISA DEVIATION Although meteorological observations are made in absolute figures, itis usual, when making calculations involving aircraft performance or corrections to instruments, to consider them relative to the ISA. ‘These are known as "ISA deviations". If for instance, the observed temperature were 5°C warmer than that expected in the ISA, then the deviation would be+5°C. FFor the temperatures below, calculate the ISA deviations;- 1-6 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘THE ATMOSPHERE If the limiting deviation for your aircraft at an airfield 5,000 8 AMSL i the maximum temp at which you can operate? If the deviation at 3,500 ft is +12, what is the ambient temperature? 1-7 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitsMETEOROLOGY THE ATMOSPHERE . ‘THE ICAO INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE per mb) 42 1013.25 Note: ‘The above height change figures show how the pressure against height change equation is ‘modified as altitude changes but the figures offered only relate to ISA conditions of Temperature and Pressure, We can assess changes outside these conditions by using the following formula: 96T where H=height change per Mb / Hpa in feet A - ‘T= Actual Absolute Temperature at that level = Actual Pressure in Mb / Hpa K =96 (the equation constant) The 4% Rule: The 4% rule is an extension of the above which states that when the ELR temp’ is 10°C away from ISA a 4% height change error is generated at or through any given altitude change. eg at FI 360 (H) = 96 x 226.5 divided by 228.2 ~ 95ft per Mb hight change at ‘that level which equates to 4% difference from the ISA change of 91ft. 1-8 © Oxtord Aviation Services LrritedMETEOROLOGY ‘THE ATMOSPHERE: Atmosphere Questions 1, The international standard atmosphere assumes a lapse rate of: a) by °) od 2°C/1000 f 1,5°C/1000 3°C/1000 1.98°C/1000 & 2. The tropopause is: Jay ») ° 4 ‘The line where the temperature no longer decreases with increase of height. ‘The layer between the tropopause and the stratosphere, ‘The layer beyond which only CI cloud occurs. ‘The line indicating clear air turbulence, 3. One of the most important characteristics of the atmosphere is: a) Density is constant above 10 000 ft Yd) Theairis a poor conductor of heat. ©) Temperature lapse rate is very frequently above 3°C pet 1000 4) Theairis a good conductor of heat. 4. Most of the vapour in the atmosphere is contained in the: a) tropopause b) stratosphere 0) troposphere 4) stratopause 5, ‘The captain of an aircraft needs to know the height of the Tropopause because: ay ») ° a) it normally represents the limit of weather density starts to inerease ‘there are no longer jet streams and CAT it indicates the height of the thermal wind 1-9 © Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘THE ATMOSPHERE 6 The main Ozone layer is to be found in the: 8) thermosphere b) troposphere ©) mesophere 4) stratosphere Seas ‘The level in the atmosphere witere the air temperature ceases to fall with increase in height is known as: 8) The troposphere. b) The Stratopause. ©) The Stratosphere. ‘d) The tropopause. 8. Which statement is correct when considering the lower layers of the atmosphere: ) the majority of the weather is contained in the stratosphere and its upper boundary isthe ‘tropopause “p) the majority of the weather is contained in the troposphere and its upper boundary is the tropopause ©) the majority of the weather is contained in the tropopause and its upper boundary is the ‘troposphere 4) the majority of the weather is contained in the troposphere and its upper boundary is the stratosphere 9, The atmosphere is a mixture of gasses of the following proportions: \ a) oxygen 21% nitrogen 78% other gasses 1% b) oxygen 21% hydrogen 78% other gasses 1% ©) nitrogen 78% argon 21% oxygen 1% nitrogen 78% oxygen 21% hydrogen 1% 10, Inthe ISA the temperature is isotherma!: a) Upto 36 090 FY11 kms “b) From 36 090 fi/11 kms to 65 617 £020 kms, €) From 36 090 fY11 kms to 104 987 F732 kms. @) From 36 090 fY/L1 kms to 45 090 £413.75 kms. 1-10 (© Oxford Aviation Services Liritad osMETEOROLOGY ‘THE ATMOSPHERE 12, 13 15, ‘The International (ICAO) Standard Atmosphere assumes that the sea level atmospheric pressure is: Vay b) © 4) 1013.25 mbs and decreases with an increase in height 1013.25 mbs and increases with an increase in height 1013.25 mbs and falls to about half this value at 30000 1013.25 mbs and decreases with an inerease in height up to the tropopause. Above the tropopause it remains constant ‘At sea level the ISA density is stated to be: va) » ° d 1225 grammes per cubic metre 1252 grammes per cubic metre 1013.2 mb (hpA) 29.6 inches of mereury ‘Which of the following statements is most correct when describing ISA: a) b) ° ra the MSL pressure is 1013.25 mbs and the temperature is + 15°C the MSL pressure is 1013.25 mbs and the temperature is +15 C with a lapse rate of 1,98°C/1000 RL the MSL pressure is 1013.25 mbs and the temperature is +15 C with a lapse rate of 1,98°C/10008 up to 36090 ft above which there is frequently an ‘inversion the MSL pressure is 1013.25 mbs and the temperature is +15 C with a lapse rate of 1,98°C/1000 ft up to 36090 A ‘The following is true for the International Standard Atmosphere: 4) almean sea level the following conditions prevail: temperature +15 C, pressure 1013.25 Ips, density 1125 grvm 4b) within the troposphere the temperature decreases by 6.5 C per km ©) the tropopause is at a height of 36090 AGL 4) the temperature atthe tropopause is 226.5°K Pressure will *¢e.co~<_ with increase of height and in the ISA pressure will be '°° 10.000 ft and 22 at 30-000 ft 8) Inerease 800 mb 400 mab | then it can be seen from the SECTION |<— ATMOSPHERE. TOTAL WEIGHT OF ABOVE TOTAL WEIGHT OF | diagram that the pressure (weight of the column above) at the upper surface will be less than that at the lower surface, ATMOSPHERE ABOVE Figure 2.1. The Weight of the Atmosphere on the Thus atmospheric pressure will Surface of the Earth. decrease with an increase in height. a) Units of Measurement. The standard unit of force is the NEWTON (N) and an average for atmospheric pressure at sea level is 100,000 Newtons per square metre. (Pascals) This pressure is sometimes known as a BAR. To measure small. variations in pressure, its convenient to divide the bar into 1000 parts and so the standard ‘meteorological unit of pressure is the MILLIBAR (Mb). In. some countries this is known as the hectopascal. Other units which are still in use are related to the height of a column of mercury in a barometer (see below) and. thus: 1000 mb = 750.1 mm = 29.53 in = 100,000 NIM? x x x: and, 101325" 29.92 Note: It is possible to convert Mbs to Inches by using the formula therefore if we are given (for example) 1000Mbs we may insert this into the formula and 1000 x which gives us an answer of 29.53Ins of mercury. 101325 29.92 ‘© Oxford Aviation Seres LimitedMETEOROLOGY b) PRESSURE Mercury Barometer. The basic instrument used for the measurement of atmospheric pressure is the mercury barometer. The atmospheric pressure is measured by the height of a column of mercury and this height can be read in terms of any of the units shown above. The USA still uses inches of mercury as their measurement of atmospheric pressure, ATMOSPHERI PRESSURE [ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE + levers, Figure 2.4. An Aneroid Barometer. 23 ‘THE BAROGRAPH To enable a continuous record of pressure changes to be made, a paper covered rotating drum is substituted for the scale and the instrument then becomes a barograph. This instrument is used by the meteorologist to measure what is known, as pressure tendeney, the rise and fall of pressure ‘over a period of time. Pressure tendency is an important forecasting tool. Figure 2.2. A Mercury Barometer ©) Aneroid Barometer. A more compact means of measuring atmospheric pressure is the Ancroid Barometer, capsule which responds to changes in pressure by expanding and contracting, and by a system of It consists of a partially evacuated these changes of pressure being dicated by a pointer moving over a scale. Figure 2.5. Met Office Aneroid Barometer {© Oxford Aviation Services Limites 4 (METEOROLOGY PRESSURE 24 sae ot Figure 2.6. A Barograph ISALLOBAR An isallobar is a line joining places of the same pressure tendency. Full and dashed lines represent isobars and isallobars respectively. oo \ Unit of isallobars:millibats perhour./ = \ ! 7 Isallobaric low . vl SN 7 2 ia ~~9 Isallobaric Me se Figure 2.7. An Isallobar Chart 2-3 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE 25 TYPES OF PRESSURE a) b) ° QFE. The atmospheric pressure read froma barometer on an airfield will give the aerodrome pressure, otherwise known as QFE. QFE 980 mb Figure 2.8. QFE. QFF. This is the barometric pressure at the surface (QFE) reduced to MSL using the observed temperature at the surface (this therefore assumes an isothermal layer from MSL to the surface). QFF accounts for the effect that temperature has on a pressure reading. From Figure 2.8 it can be seen that although the pressure atthe airfield was ‘980 mb/hPa, ifthe airfield was taken to Mean Sea Level, the pressure would be greater, but an account must also be made of the effect that temperature has had on the pressure, This allows us to accurately draw surface pressure charts. The correction to be made to the surface pressure will depend on the height of the surface (orairfield) AMSL and the temperature prevailing at the time. ‘The range of QFF so far recorded, low pressure to high pressure, is from 856 to 1083 mb, but meteorologically the range is taken from 950 to 1050 mb. QNH. This is the barometric pressure at the airfield (QFE), reduced to MSL using the ISA temperature at the airfield, ‘This will provide a pressure which docs not account for any temperature deviation away from ISA. ‘The correction to be made to the surface pressure will depend solely upon the height of the airfield AMSL In order to get QNH and QFF from a barometric reading at a surface we must use a formulae which will be shown on the next page. It is not necessary to know the formulae as such, but itis vital to know the difference that the temperature deviation will have when being asked to analyse QNH and QF. 2-4 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE ‘The correction M (in hPa‘mb), to be added or subtracted to the barometric pressure agiven by: M=p(0"-1) Where" = 18429.1 + 67.531 + 0.003h. and barometer level pressure in hPa/mb he observed temperature at station level in °C (for QFF correction use observed temperature, for QNH correction use ISA temperature) the height of the station, in metres, above the level at which the corrected pressure is required i.e. above or below mean sea level for QFF and QNH, official aerodrome elevation for QFE and touchdown zone elevation for runway QFE, Note that h will be negative if betow sea level. Example t: 1) What is the difference between QFF and QNH given: Station pressure = 1020 hPa Station height = 50m BELOW msl ‘Tenaperature = 30° C Station BELOW sea level, temperature WARMER than ISA a) Calculate QFF using the formulae on the previous page M=-5.6 hPa ‘The correction to be applied is: Station pressure 1020 - 5.6= QRF 1014.4 hPa b) Calculate QNH using the formulae on the previous page M hPa ‘The correction to be applied is Station pressure 1020 - 5.9 = QNH 1014.1 hPa. 2-5 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY Example 2: PRESSURE 1) What is the difference between QFF and QNH given: Station pressure = 920 hPa Station height = 300m ABOVE mst ‘Temperature =-20°C Station ABOVE sea level, temperature COLDER than ISA. a) Calculate QFF using the formulae on the previous page M 1.2 hPa ‘The correction to be applied is: Station pressure 920 + 41.2 = QRF 961.2 hPa b) Calculate QNH using the formulae on the previous page M=369hPa ‘The correction to be applied is: Station pressure 920 + 36.9 = QNH 956.9 hPa SUMMARY Stations ABOVE MSL a) HOTTER than ISA b) COLDER than ISA Stations BELOW MSL a) HOTTER than ISA. b) COLDER than ISA QFF < QNH QFF > QNH QFF > QNH QPF < QNH © Onfoxd Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE 2.6 VARIATIONS OF PRESSURE a) b) Height, Although pressure will decrease with an increase in height, density will also dectease and therefore the reduction in weight of air above a surface will not vary linearly. In the ISA, reduction in pressure of I mb would give a height difference of; 27 fect at MSL } 36 feet ar 10,000% | See Figure 1.3. 73 feet at 30,000 ft Diurnal Variation, There isa change in pressure during the day which although small (about 1 mb) in temperate latitudes, can be as much as 3 mb in the tropics and would need to be taken into account when considering pressure tendency as an indication of changing weather. The variation is shown in Figure 2.10. THE DIURNAL THE DIURNAL VARIATION IN VARIATION IN THE TEMPERATE TROPICS IS AS LATITUDES IS MUCH AS LESS THAN C4 ‘0400 MEAN PRESSURE RECORDED PRESSURE Figure 2.10. Diurnal Variation. ‘The variation is difficult to explain, but is probably due to a natural oscillation of the atmosphere having a period of about 12 hours, this oscillation being maintained by the 24 hour variation of temperature. 2-7 (© OMfrd Aviation Servions LimitecMETEOROLOGY 27 28 PRESSURE DEF TI QFE QFF QNH FORECAST QNH (RPS) QNE ISOBAR ISALLOBAR SYNOPTIC CHARTS Isobars on normal synoptic charts are Mean Sea Level Isobars (QFF) and are normally drawn for every even whole millibar, (ic. 1000, 1002, etc.). Figure 2.11, illustrates the isobars on a synoptic chart On larger area-maps the spacing may be expanded to 4 or more rilibars but this will be stated on the chart. PRESSURE IONS ‘The value of pressure, for a particular aerodrome and time, corrected to the official elevation, ‘The value of pressure reduced to MSL in accordance with isothermal conditions. ‘The value of pressure, for a particular aerodrome and time, corrected to the MSL in accordance with the ICAO standard A forecast, valid for one hour, of the lowest QNH expected in any part of the Altimeter Setting Region (ASR), ‘The height indicated on landing at an airfield when the altimeter sub- scale is set to 1013 mb or 29.92 ins. A line joining places of the same atmospheric pressure (usually MSL. pressure QFF). A line joining places of the same pressure tendency. = \ \ Galt +1008, 008 “+ 4002 on ‘rN + 008 + 004 : + goag = Figure 2.11. Isobars on a Synoptic Chart. 2-8 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE Pressure Questions ‘The barometric Pressure at the airfield datum point is known as: a) QNE b) NH QFE d) Standard Pressure ‘The instrument that gives a continuous printed reading and record of the atmospheric pressure is: a) barometer b)—_hygrometer ©) anemograph 4) barograph ‘The pressure of the atmosphere: ) decreases at an increasing rate as height increases, b) decreases at a constant rate as height increases < ©) decreases at a decreasing rate as height increases d) decreases at a constant rate up to the tropopause and then remains constant When considering the actual tropopause which statement is correct a) itis low over the poles and high over the equator b) itis high over the potes and low over the equator ©) itis the same height of 36090 ft all over the world 4) Ibis ata constant altitude of 26000" Atmospheric pressure may be defined as: a) the weight of the atmosphere exerted on any surface with which it is in contact b) the weight of the atmosphere at standard sea level ©) the force per unit atea exerted by the atmosphere on any surface with which it is in contact d) —_apressure exerted by the atmosphere of 1013.2 mbs 2-9 (© Oxford Aviation Servicos LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE 6 10. ‘The QPF is the atmospheric pressure: a) at the place where the reading is taken b) corrected for temperature difference from standard and adjusted to MSL assuming standard atmospheric conditions exist ©) ataplace where the reading is taken corrected to MSL taking into account the prevailing ‘temperature condi @) as measured by a barometer at the aerodrome reference point, With 1013.25 mb set on the altimeter sub scale with an airctaft stationary on the airfield the altimeter will read: a) QNE by) QNH ©) QFE OFF ‘The aircraft altimeter will read zero at aerodrome level with which pressure setting set on the altimeter sub scale: a) QFF by) QNH ©) QNE QFE ‘You are passed an altimeter setting of $29.53. You would then set your altimeter subscale to a) QFF by 1013 ©) 1900 a) QFE ‘The aerodrome QFE is: 1) the reading on the altimeter on an aerodrome when the aerodrome barometric pressure is set on the sub scale b) the reading on the altimeter on touchdown at an aerodrome when 1013.2 is set on the sub scale ©) the reading on the altimeter on an aerodrome when the sea level barometric pressure is, set on the sub scale ) the aerodrome barometric pressure.METEOROLOGY PRESSURE 12. 16. When an altimeter sub scale is set to the aerodrome QFE, the altimeter reads: a) the elevation of the aerodrome at the aerodrome reference point b) zero at the aerodrome reference point ©) the pressure altitude at the aerodrome reference point 4) the appropriate altitude of the aircraft ‘The aerodrome QNH is the aerodrome barometric pressure: a) corrected to mean sea level assuming standard atmospheric conditions exist b) corrected to mean sea level, assuming isothermal conditions exist ©) corrected for temperature and adjusted to MSL assuming standard atmosphere conditions exist @) corrected to MSL using ambient temperature, ‘A line drawn on a chart joining places having the same barometric pressure atthe same level and at the same time is a) an isotherm b)—anisallobar ©) acontour STATION NO (LHR) ym, cloud cover % WIND VELOCITY (290/15) %, vise ey PRESENT WEATHER ‘o PAST WEATHER 2 MSL PRESSURE 7, ORY BULB PRESSURE AMOUNT TYPE & LOW CLOUD TYPE OF MEDIUM CLOUD _“%, DEW POINT TEMP & PRESSURE TENDENCY RAINFALL % MAX OR MIN TEMP 3 AMOUNT TYPE & HEIGHT py, OFLOWEST CLOUD & AMOUNT TYPE & HEIGHT & OF SECOND CLOUD LAYER Figure 4.1. Heathrow Weather 4-4 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS 4.3 44 TIMING “Main’ observations are made at 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800 UTC: ‘intermediate’ at 0300, 0900, 1500 and 2100 UTC. PLOTTING ‘The information for each observing station is plotted in a standard format of numbers and symbols around the station on a geographical chart, Examples of a blank synoptic chart (Figure 4.2) and a station plot (Figure 4.3) are shown: Figure 4.2. Synoptic Chart. 4-2 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS 45 DECODE A full decode of the numbers and symbols follow: ]wono SPEED (sky FORMOF HIGH CLOUD (ense trom Gu Ar) FORM OF MEDIUM CLOUD (formed rom spreasig ) “Joi AND AMOUNT OF MEDIUM CLOUD s (ereat'2800") \ PRESSURE or24 men) ese od one CHANGE MILAST HRS. ‘win oIRECTION a0) (mba) ofp cunnacrenienc CHANGE ismbel KPAST WEATHER: (Thunderstorms) VIsiILITY (10 km) —> 60 Vv SSA ES on s Dew Pow eo) (ZA, YOTALAWOUNTOF CLOUD c=) Za Ne (Large Cu) AMOUNT OF LOWEST CLOUD (58) HEIGHT OF Lowest cLoUD ‘00 Figure 4.4. Station Circle Decode. 4-3 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedTilee meena ap ama GONERE Bette FcR Seen | SP re | OSE Benes Bore “sen ue 04 ay mae sot Geen on vwwn sscos SERN gyi ane one teen Dow ne we oe [Amnne bec pp we wont “Pee on a Figure 4.5 The Station Circle Decode wR 22 ‘ietisn ss l2METEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS 2 4.6 Ifthere are no symbols in the past weather position then it means that observed weather was not significant Past weather can have double symbol (W, W;) eg = . Rain showers in the past 6 hours OR a double precipitation symbol as istinct from a single symbol: Rain showers throughout the past 6 hours. . Rain in the past 6 hours, oo Rain throughout the past 6 hours (NOTE: not slight continuous rain). Ifpast weather has a double character but using different symbols e.g, . ’ or * © then the first symbol is the dominant characteristic. Hence the decode for the two examples above would be respectively: Rain during the past 6 hours with some drizzle: Snow during the past 6 hours with some rain. ast weather is in the past 6 hours for synoptic times: 0000, 0600, 1200, 1800 z, Past weather is in the past 3 hours for synoptic times: 0300, 0900, 1500, 2100 z. ast weather reports for any other times refer to weather in the past hour. ANALYSIS, a) _Isobars, Once the data has been plotted on the chart, the meteorologist will draw in the isobars, using the plotted values of QFP, usually for even whole numbers on a chart of this size, Charts covering a greaterarea, like the North Atlantic, may space the isobars every four or even eight millibars. b) Fronts. The positioning of fronts on the chart will require a little more skill and a knowledge of the weather changes to be expected at frontal passage, It is common nowadays for this plotting procedure to be completely computerised and the resulting charts to be despatched by Fax. Figure 4.6. is an example of a completed (analysed) surface chart, 4-5 {© Oxford Aviation Servicos LimitedMETEOROLOGY I [I How toe Ree oe : fang, | SYNOPTIC CHARTS. ye ask ii es (g Se \ “ afer : off es “i { 7 co > | rae, a Soa i: e608 oy en 2 ep 4 on bore. MARCH _ _ tune — 1200 6MT_ 3 (Strano = a Figure 4.6. Analysed Chart. © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedFigure 4.7 N. Atlantic ASXX Analysis for 0000UTC 22 Nov 4-78-P "UMoyS aue SUEpy HON out294 Seu ansououd pur possjeu.s soy Garexy“ueyo apsoutoad so sse9070 ty da Soy sojosooroue ay ey Sup Nous 994 Ue SLUVHDOUSONDOUd LFMETEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS 4.8 EXERCISES ‘We use a number of these synoptic charts in practical exercises in this course and you will need to be able to deduce the observed weather from the plotted station circles. ‘A simple exercise using such a chart is appended to this chapter (Chart 85.3). It covers MSL. pressure, pressure tendency and isobar values. More detailed exercises will follow later. STATION CIRCLE DECODE EXERCISE (CHART 85/3) What is the pressure and pressure tendency at the stations listed below and what is the value of the isobar to the south of each station? lL 48N osw 2. SON ow 3. SON o4yew 4 ATAN aw 5. 534N 134W 6 SIN 1sw 7. S6%4N o7W 8 SEN low 9 SSN oTw 4-9 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS = Tew ee © Crown copyright . Chart 85/3 4-10 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY SYNOPTIC CHARTS: ANSWERS PRESSURE, PRESSURE TENDENCY 1004 | 1.4 Fall/Slight rise 0.2 Slight fall/rise 0.1 Slight rise/fall 1.2 FallSlight rise 0.0 Slight rise/fall 0.8 Fall/Slight rise 0.4 Fallslight rise 0.8 Fall 0.4 Fall/steady 4-11 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedSl 52 53 34 55 56 ST 58 59 5.10 Sal S12 5.13 51s 516 CHAPTER FIVE - PRESSURE SYSTEMS. Contents INTRODUCTION ©0000 0000000000020 ceceeeeeeeeeeeeeee Se DEPRESSIONS |... DEPRESSION WEATHER ANTICYCLONES ... coe AANTICYCLONIC WEATHER... s-4 TROUGHS cee ceeeeee TROUGH WEATHER 0.0.00... RIDGES .. cee . RIDGE WEATHER .. . seve S28 A RIDGE BETWEEN TWO LOWS «202-22 ee eee 5-8 COLS 2.02.0. wo S28 COL WEATHER ..... coe ce S28 PRESSURE SYSTEMS MOVEMENT... 2. wo S10 TERMINOLOGY 0.0.0.0... rrr Sell BUYS BALLOTS LAW, . er esl | PRESSURE GRADIENT. ...... -12 PRESSURE SYSTEMS QUESTIONS .....-.-......5 {© Oxford Aviation Serdoes LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS 5.1 INTRODUCTION Isobats can form patterns, which when they are recognized, can help us forecast the weather. ‘These patterns are called pressure distribution systems, They include: a) Depressions, or lows. b) —_Amticyclones, or highs. ©) Troughs. y 4) Ridges 2) Cols 1) Secondary depressions {See Chapter 22) Figure 5.1. A Depression in the Northern 5.2 DEPRESSIONS Hemisphere. A depression is a region of comparatively low pressure shown by more or less circular and concentric isobars surrounding the centre, where pressure is lowest. A depression is sometimes called a low or a cyclone, There are two types of depression, frontal and non-frontal. A. depression is a region of converging and rising air as shown in Figure 5.2, Surface winds blow anticlockwise around a low (in the northern LOW PRESSURE hemisphere) and across the = CONVERGENCE isobars towards the centre. Fig 5.2. Vertical Cross Section. 5-1 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS 53 34 DEPRESSION WEATHER Cloud 8/8 extending to tropopause and with a low base. Precipitation Can be continuous light to moderate and also heavy showers and ‘thunderstorms. Visibility Poor in precipitation, otherwise good due to ascending air, Temperature Mild ‘Winds Winds are usually strong- the deeper the depression and the closer the isobars, the stronger the wind, ANTICYCLONES, An anticyclone or high is a region of relatively high pressure shown by more or less circular isobars similar to a depression but with higher pressure at the centre. Isobars are more widely spaced than with depressions. There are three types of anticyclone, ‘warm, cold and temporary cold, They are regions of diverging and descending air. Surface ‘winds blow clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and across the isobars away from the centre Figure 5.3 An Anticycione in the Northern Hemisphere. 5-2 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘Warm Anticyclones ‘Warm anticyclones are caused by an excess ofairat high level. The descending air will be heated by compression and surface temperatures will rise as a result Warm anticyclones normally coceur in lower latitudes, Cold Anticyctones ‘These are caused by high density and low surface temperatures. AS a result, cold anticyclones occur in Polar and high latitudes and are more seasonal (Winter) than warm anticyclones. ‘Temporary Cold Anticyclones ‘A temporary cold anticyclone is produced in the cold air between depressions on the polar front. When eventually the cold air terminates the scries of lows, the cold anticyclone may be of some size though not of great depth. Over the sea, and over the land in Summer, such an anticyelone will last only a few days to be teplaced by the subsequent polar frontal depression, PRESSURE SYSTEMS HIGH PRESSURE DIVERGENCE (Teuporany Colbie Figure 5.5 A Temporary Cold Anticycione. 5-3 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS 55 Blocking Anticyclones ‘Warm anticyclones, which are often an extension of high pressure areas developed in the sub- tropical regions, may hold up or divert the normal west-cast passage of polar front depressions and persist for several days. The diagram shows how the usual west-east flow becomes more north-south, or meridional as the effect of the extension of the Azores High affects the air flow. ‘There isa decided tendency for blocking highs to persist in certain geographic areas such as 10 to 20W over the North Atlantic, The air within the systems is subsiding down from high levels and this means that extensive sheets of Stratus or Strato cumulus may develop but there will be little vertical extent, It is worth noting that a warm anticyclone, in the South, may join up with cold anticyclone from the North to cteate this meridional flow. Figure 5.3a, High from Azores to Scandinavia. ANTICYCLONIC WEATHER Cloud None except on the edge of the antieyclone. Precipitation None. Visibility Generally poorer than with a depression. Autumn/Winter - fog early morning, and night, Summer - haze is possible, otherwise good ‘Temperature Dependent on type, Winds Light. 5-4 © Orford Aviation Services Limited© Oxford Aviation Services LiniledMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS: 5.7 TROUGH WEATHER Cloud Non-frontal: Great vertical development of cloud - CU and CB. Frontal: The cloud will depend on whether cold air is overtaking warm, when the cloud tends to be as above, or if warm iris overtaking cold, in which case the cloud is likely to have much less vertical development Precipitation Showers, thunderstorms, hail, withnon frontal orcold from; continuous drizzle, light or moderate rain with warm frontal trough. Visibility Fair except in showers, though at a warm frontal trough visibility will be poor in continuous rain. Winds Moderate with gusts and squalls. \Dale FEBRUARY “rime 0000 GMT _ sooncarer Figure 5.7. A Frontal Trough Extending from the North ¥ ios 5-6 (© Onord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS 58 RIDGES Ridges of high pressure are indicated by isobars extending outwards from an anticyelone and always rounded, never V-shaped as seen in a trough, ‘They are also sometimes referred to as ‘wedges’. Figure 5.8. A Ridge of High Pressure. 5-7 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS 59 5.10 5.2 RIDGE WEATHER Ridge weather is si ilar to anticyclonic weather. A RIDGE BETWEEN TWO LOWS, |A ridge often brings a period of good weather between two depressions cOLs Cols are regions of almost level pressure between two highs and two lows. It is an area of stagnation, This is illustrated in Figure 5.9. COL WEATHER Col weather is normally settled, but is dependent on changing pressure, In autumn and winter cols produce poor visibility and fog, whilst in summer thunderstorms are common. Figure 5.10 is an example of a weather forecast for a day when a col influenced the weather over the U.K. Pie tee 0300. GMT - Figure 5.9 A Col 5-8 (© Ovfore Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘GENERAL SITUATION: East counties of England and Scotian ‘illoe cloudy and mist at fest wih ome showers Away ort ‘cast shoud brgtten up arough tris ils chance ofa “The ret ofthe UK wi become very fem wt spole of wurst hough a. seating of are expected Pom ate marning anwds ‘CHAN ISLES, LONDON, SE ENGLAND, CENTS ENGLAND, SW ENGLAND: Met eave somo hot uch. “A ema hance ol (hs alernoen. A igh end vane ‘we: Max 73-7 (2-260, MIDLANDS, CENT N ENGLAND, NW ENGLAND, WALES, LAKE DIST. 10M, NaREVAND: Warm anchumwieuniy seats, 40% cancel Tigitandvarablewines. Max 7373 e536. EE ANGLIA, € ENGLAND: Patchy fog anions unui ear to Teave god spls of warm sunaine. bul res Tato A hg no-cactory wd. Max O6-721 (18220). NE ENGLAND, SE SCOTLAND. EDINBURGH, OUNDEE, CENTRAL HIGHLANDS, ABERDEEN, MORAY FIRTH,” NE SCOTLAND: Showoreat rst. Surry spot ae rayon the coat ater on” Ah, voile win, Max 84-70 (23-280) ‘SW SCOTLAND, KW SCOTLAND, GLASGOW, ARGYLL: Warm sunshine and a growing rik of HSAMIBHOHER. A Yt south 10 Schacter ihe Max TO-75(21-240), ORKNEY, SHETLAND: BEI snc ow Cows. A ight south. feastry wind, Max te (16) S.NORTH SEAL A lgntcortecctory wind, SSNS ‘moder orpoorwah oa each 2 = DOVER STRAIT, ENGLISH CHANNEL, ST GEORGE'S CHAN, IRISH SEA: A uh.nrh or Porth western wind. Soe breezes near shoe "Veil mavorte wth mst patos, ‘Sight seas. ‘OUTLOOK: Unset in tne norh-west 8 good dea! of fe, warn ‘woater inte sow est POLLEN: A moderate countin the south, bt gh in the rath ane ‘west away tom coasts {Pose recast from the Natonal Atha Campaign) PRESSURE SYSTEMS ‘Black eis: temps in “CF in brackets), Arrows. wind ‘speed in mph. Pressure i milibars (inches x brackets) High W will dif cart but Highs Kand O are slow moving Law ¥ & almort sovonary bet Low Xwil develop as ‘runs quickly cortwards, Love BY is hardly ving IN BRITAIN YESTERDAY “ "Pele ~—mneEatboutne (East Sues) 149 bt Figure 5.10. Col Weather. (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS 5.13 PRESSURE SYSTEMS MOVEMENT Weather pattems (pressure systems) vary across the globe, ‘They are mobile in high latitudes while slow moving in equatorial latitudes. Patterns of isobars which indicate weather will retain their general shape while moving, but change their mumerical valve. Movement of the systems is the key to accurate forecasting, The following figures show the movement of weather over a period of four successive days, Figure 5.11. Maintenance of Shape. 5-10 © Onlord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS Sid SS TERMINOLOGY Depressions will fill up or decay as pressure rises. Depressions will deepen as pressure falls. Depressions move rapidly, their average lifetime is 14 days. Anticyctones will build up as pressure rises. Anticyetones will weaken or collapse as pressure falls. Anticyclones are very slow moving, they can last for a lengthy period, up to 6 months, Cols last a few days only and are then absorbed into other systems. ‘Changes of shape and intensity are slight in tropical regions where pressure is generally low, but in temperate and polar Latitudes changes are much more varied and rapid. BUYS BALLOT'S LAW. Inthe 19* century the Dutch meteorologist Buys Ballot produced a law based on the observation of wind direction and pressure systems. Buys Ballot's Law states that;- _—______., LOW PRESSURE a 4 If an observer stands with his back to the 2 wind, the lower pressure is on his left in the northem hemisphere, and on his right in the southern hemisphere. A corollary of this law is that if you are experiencing starboard drift in the northem hemisphere you are heading towards low pressure. This is illustrated in Pigure 5.12. _— HIGH PRESSURE Figure 5.12. A Corollary of Buys Ballot's Law 5-11 © Oord Aviston Services LimitesMETEOROLOGY 5.16 PRESSURE GRADIENT ‘The pressure gradient is the difference in pressure between consecutive isobars divided by the distance between them, this, is illustrated in Figure 5.13, Note. The greater the pressure change for a given distance the faster the wind velocity Air tries to move from high to low pressure and this will generate a pressure gradient force which develops into the wind velocity that we feel. This will be discussed in full in chapter 11. PRESSURE SYSTEMS Figure 5.13. Pressure Gradient Figure 5.14. Why Speed Depends on Gradient. (© Oxford Aviation Serviens LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS Pressure Systems Questions ‘A trough of low pressure is generally associated with a) convergence causing increased cloud and precipitation b) divergence causing increased cloud and precipitation ©) subsidence causing increased cloud and preci d) subsidence causing decreased cloud and precipitation ‘A ridge of high pressure is generally associated with: a) convergence causing increased cloud and precipitation b) divergence causing increased cloud and precipitation ©) divergence causing cloud to break up and more precipitation 4) divergence and subsidence causing clear skies and good weather A small low established within the circulation of another low is called a) atrough bd) acol ©) ananticyclone d) —_asecondary depression An area of indeterminate pressure between two lows and two highs is called: a) atrough b) — aridge 2 acol d)— asaddle A trough of low pressure is a) small Jow established within the citculation of another low b) _anextension or elongation of a low pressure system along an axis on each side of which pressure increases ©) acentre of pressure surrounded on all sides by higher pressure 4) anarea where the pressure is lower than anywhere else in the area 5-13 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS 6 10. If in the southern hemisphere an aircraft in flight at 2000 ft is experiencing starboard drift, the aircraft is flying towards: a) an area of high pressure b) an area of low pressure ©) awarm front d) —adepression In the Souther Hemisphere, the surface winds at B1; and C2 would be respectively: a) clockwise across the isobars away from the centre: and anti-clockwise across the isobars, towards the centre. b) _Anti-clockwise across the isobars towards the centre: and clockwise across the isobars away from the centre. ©) Anticclockwise across the isobars away from the centre: and clockwise across the isobars towards the centre, 4) Clockwise across the isobars towards the centre: and Anti-clockwise across the isobars awway from the centre, Subsidence in an anticyelone produces: 8) saturated air and an inversion b)—dryairandan inversion ©) isothermal dry and stable air 4) increased pressure atthe surfuce With an anticyclone over the UK the expected weather is: a) Thunderstorms in summer, fog in winter. b) Stratus in summer with drizzle, CU and snow in winter. ©) Clear skies ot fair weather CU in summer, fog in winter d) Clear skies in summer with haze, cold frontal weather in winter. Refer to appendix A and answer questions 10 to 14 ‘The pressure systems at A2; Bl; B2; B3; and C2 are respectively: a) Depression; Anticyclone; Col; Ridge: and Trough. b) Ridge: Antieyelone: Col; Trough; and Depression. <) Trough; Depression; Col; Ridge; and Anticyclone. @) Ridge: Depression; Col; Trough; and Anticyclone. 5-14 1 Onfors Aviation Services LimteeMETEOROLOGY PRESSURE SYSTEMS IL, Two important weather factors at B2 will be: a) Frontal weather in winter, fog in summer. b) Clear conditions in summer, thunderstorms in winter. ©) Thunderstorms in summer, fog in winter, é) Fog in summer, thunderstorms in winter. 12. Haze in summer and radiation fog in winter can be expected at: a b) BS BI 4 Bz 13, In the non-frontal pressure system at B3, the expected weather a) ST SC with drizzle or light precipitation. >) Clear skies with moderate winds, ©) CUCB with showers, 4) Light winds and haze with an inversion. 5-15 © Oxford Aviation Servis LimitedMETEOROLOGY ANSWERS: Ques | Answer | Ques | Answer 1 A 8 D 2 D 9 ce 3 D 10 D 4 © ul © 5 B 12 6 A 1B c 1 D 5-16 PRESSURE SYSTEMS (© Oxford Aviation Services Limited61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 CHAPTER SIX - ALTIMETRY Contents Page THE ALTIMETER 0.00.00. 000 0e cece coe 6el ALTIMETER SETTINGS . : we 63 TERMINOLOGY . : foe 65 ALTIMETER ERRORS 6-5 ALTIMETRY QUESTIONS «2.2.02... TERRAIN CLEARANCE «0.2... : 16-8 MINIMUM PLIGHT LEVEL ....... . ‘TRANSITION ALTITUDE ree wo 609 TRANSITION LEVEL ......... ceceeee 2 69 TRANSITION LAYER «00606060060 000 00s cece 629 ALTIMETRY QUESTIONS ........... es 6-11 © Onford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY 61 THE ALTIMETER Analtimeter is an instrument which measures pressure and causes a needle to move across a dial, The dial is calibrated in feet rather than pressure as we know that pressure decreases as altitude increases. The instrument is calibrated in accordance with the ICAO International Standard Atmosphere so that all altimeters will read the same altitude for the same pressure. (See previous notes on the need for the TSA). Inaddition,altimeters have a means of adjusting the needle setting (0 take changes in the surface atmospheric pressure into t ‘PARTIALLY EVA‘ (CUATED itecount, STATIC PRESSURE PARTIAL Figure 6.1. shows how the Figure 6.1. A Simple Altimeter. altimeter reading will change with a change in pressure. In Figure 6.2. section A, the pressure at the airfield, which is at sea level, is 1010 mb. The altimeter reads zero feet. In section B, the pressure at the airfield has fallen to 1000 mb and the altimeter, rather than showing a decrease in pressure, shows an increase in height. Figure 6.2. The Altimeter Responding to Changes in Pressure. 6-1 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY Dy ») ° When flying at a constant indicated altitude, outside air pressure must remain the same. To achieve this we must fly along @ pressure level. However, when we fly to an area of lower pressure, these pressure lines will dip, consequently our true altitude will decrease. Conversely when flying into a region of higher pressure, the pressure lines will rise and our true altitude will increase. Figure 6.3 HIGHER PRESSURE; TRUE ALTITUDE > INDICATED ALTITUDE, LOWER PRESSURE; TRUE ALTITUDE < INDICATED ALTITUDE, ‘Varying temperatures within the atmosphere have significant effects on the pressure and the shape of the pressure lines. Cold air will tend to compact and lower pressure lines whilst warm air will expend and raise pressure lines. Using Figure 64 you can see that when flying to a colder area at a constant indicated altitude your true altitude decreases. Conversely, when flying into warmer region your true altitude will increase, Figure 6.4 COLDER THAN ISA; TRUE ALTITUDE < INDICATED ALTITUDE, WARMER THAN ISA; TRUE ALTITUDE > INDICATED ALTITUDE, There is a need to be able to reset the altimeter to take account of the fall in pressure. Consequently, if the altimeter is reset when the pressure changes, the altimeter will read correctly. We may, by altering the altimeter subscale setting, set QFE, QNH or SPS for use ‘when we fly to ensure more accurate readings. 6-2 © Oxord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY 62 ALTIMETER SETTINGS QFE Airfield pressure. With this pressure set on the altimeter, the instrument will read zero on the ground , or the height of the aireraft above the airfield LLL Figure 6.5. Airfield Pressure - QFE. QNH This is the airfield pressure converted to MSL in accordance with the ICAO ISA. The altimeter will then read the height of the airfield above MSL, or the aircraft's height AMSL, Figure 6.6, Mean Sea Level Pressure - QNH. Forecast QNH ‘The lowest forecast QNH within an area, forecast for one hour ahead. The altimeter will be in error, but as the setting is the lowest forecast, the actual pressure will always be higher, orat least equal to the forecast QNH, and the altimeter will read low (or safe) or the correct altitude. 6-3 © Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY FOUK 70 FOQNH VALIDITY PERIOD 00708 owt 13020 19998 2s0l4 1992 oso 14015 11 006.00 2995 09011 13017 21981 03003 ool 22987 Altimeter Setting Regions. 04007 no 17998 23001 001 Lao19 Ls9s9) 24011 ALTIMETRY REGION NUMBER. RPS Note: The Cotswold area where Kidlington is situated is No.15 on the above decode table © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY SPS (Standard Pressure Setting) Ifthe standard pressure of 1013 mb is set on the altimeter, the instrument will read what is known as pressure altitude height in the Standard Atmosphere. This is the altimeter setting used when flying above the transition altitude, 6.3 TERMINOLOGY Altitude ‘Vertical distance above mean sea level. Height Vertical distance of a level or point measured from a specific datum, e.g height above a surface. Elevation Height when the datum is MSL. Flight Level Surface of constant atmospheric pressure measured from the 1013.25 datum used for vertical separation by specified pressure intervals (usually 500 oF 1,000 ft), Flight Level is measured in hundreds of feet. e.g. FL 350 = 35,000 FT. Cee ay Figure 6.9 Altimetry Terminology. 6.4 ALTIMETER ERRORS Apart from instrument errors, there are two errors of interest meteorologically. They are: a) Barometric Error - Errors caused by setting a pressure on the subscale other than the correct one. 6-5 © Oxtors Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY INDICATED HEIGHT 4.000 FT —— TRUE HEIGHT 3,850 FT SUBSCALE ‘SETTING 1010 TRUE MSL PRESSURE 1005 mb Figure 6.10, Barometric Error. b) Temperature error - The altimeter is calibrated in accordance with the ICAO ISA. If the temperature is other than that in the ISA, the altimeter will be in error. Corrected altitude is calculated by using a navigational computer, or a correction table. HI-LO-H will still apply. An example of a temperature error correction is shown: ALTIMETER TEMPERATURE ERROR CORRECTION a) Pressure altimeters are calibrated to indicate true altitude under ISA conditions. Any deviation from ISA will result in etroncous readings. b) When temperatures are less than ISA an aircraft will be lower than the altimeter reading. ©} The error is proportional to the difference between actual and ISA temperature, and the vertical distance of the aircraft above the altimeter setting datum, i.e. height above touchdown. The error is approximately 4f1/1000ft for each °C of difference 6) To ensure adequate obstacle clearance on approach add figure in body of table to caleulated DH/MDH, 6-6 {© Oxford Aviation Services LinitedMETEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY ISA TEMP | HEIGHT ABOVE TOUCHDOWN OR HEIGHT ABOVE AERODROME DEVIATION | FEET °C 200 300400500600 7008009001000 QUESTIONS ON ALTIMETRY. For all of the following questions assume that Imb=27ft 1, Anaireraft is at an airfield with an elevation of 350 ft. The altimeter setting is 1002, but the actual QNH is 993. What is the altimeter reading? Assume that | mb = 278. 2. Anaireraft is on an airfield, elevation 190 ft and has an altimeter reading of 70 ft with a setting of 1003, What is the actual QNH?. 3. What is the altimeter reading if the setting is 978, the QNH 993 and the airfield elevation T7OR? 4, The regional pressure setting is 1012, the altimeter setting is 1022 and the indicated altitude is 4100 A. Ahead is some high ground shown on the map as being at 3700 ft, Will the aircraft clear the high ground, and if'so, by how much? 6-7 © Odlrd Aviation Services LimiteMETEOROLOGY 65 66 TERRAIN CLEARANCE The question above leads to another aspect of Altimetry - Terrain Clearanee. Figure 6.12. explains what we need to know to determine this. MINIMUM FLIGHT LEVEL To determine the minimum safe flight level that we can fly along a particular route, we should need to know the elevation of the highest ground/obstacle along our track, the minimum terrain clearance (varies with ‘company regulations) and the QNH. Figure 6.13. shows how we should caleulate MSFL. ALTIMETRY ALT SETTING Figure 6.12 Terrain Clearance. 019 Figure 6.13. Minimum Flight Level Calculation ONH [ALTIMETER | TRUE [ALTINETER] SETTING J ALTITUDE J_ READING 1012 | 1010 4,060 1015 | 1010 5,000 Fill in the blank spaces in the] 1010 50 360 following examples. <020 1 018 7000 Assume 1 mb = 27ft 899 | _ 1013 _| 8.500 1015 36 125 i017 | 1027 3,300 1012 330 0 0 993 a5 [oi 1025 [1015 4760 6-8 © Oxfre Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY Altimetry Questions 1. Anaircraft is flying at 3000 fect indicated with the altimeter sub scale set to 1020 mb towards a mountain range with an elevation of 1600 feet. If during the flight the QNH in the area falls to 989 mb and the altimeter sub scale is not reset, the expected clearance over the ‘mountain range will be: (assume 27 feet = 1 mb) a) 1400 b)— aTon 9308 S63 ft ‘When flying towards a depression at a constant indicated altitude, the true altitude wil be a) Lower than indicated. b) Higher than indicated. ©) The same as indicated. 4) Lower than indicated at first then the same as indicated later. 3. The name given to the lowest forecast mean sea level pressure in an atea is: a) QFE b) Regional QNH ©) QFF 4) QNE 4, The Altimeter will always read a) With 1013 set the altitude above MSL b) With airfield QNH set the height above the airfield datum ©) The vertical distance above the pressure level set 4) the correct flight level with regional QFE set 5. Anaircrafl at airfield P elevation 270 ft has the airfield QNH 1012 mbs correctly set. The altimeter setting is not changed. Later on landing at airfield Q elevation 450 ft the aircraft altimeter reads $31 ft. What is the correct QNH at airfield Q? ( Assume 27 ft = | mb) a) 1014.7 mbs b) 1009.3 mbs ©) 1015 mbs 4) 1009 mbs. 6-11 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY 6. The altimeter subscale is set to 1030 mbs and the altimeter reads 4500’. QNH is 996 mbs. ‘What is the altitude of the aircraft ? (Assume 1 mb = 27") a) 3480" by) 3990" ©) S48" od) 3582" 7. Anaircraft flies over high ground 4730 metres above msl. The track is 140°M and the QNH_ 995 mbs. The required clearance is a minimum of 1500’, What is the minimum flight level in cloud? (Assume 1 mb=27") a) 178 b) 19S ©) 190 a 21S 8. Anairerafi, flying at FL100 at a constant RAS, flies from an area of warm air into an area of cold air, The QNH is unchanged. How has the aircraft altitude and TAS changed? Altitude TAS a) decreased increased b) Increased increased ©) decreased decreased 4) Increased decreased. 9 Anaireraft flies on a track of 356°M over high ground which rises to 4693 metres above msl. Drift is 10° Port and the regional QNH 993 mbs, The aircraft is required to clear this high ground by 1500', What is the minimum quadrantal rules flight level? (Assume ! mb=27') a) FL 210 by) FL 205 FL 190 & PLISS 10, QNH at Johannesburg is 1025 hPa, elevation is 1600m amsl. What is the QFE, (Assume 1 mb = &m) a) 1000.8 hPa by) 830.6 hPa ©) 1002 hPa 4) 825 hPa 6-12 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ALTIMETRY i. 12, When flying from Paris (QNH 1012) to London (QNH 1015) at FL 100, You neglect to reset your altimeter but why does your true altitude remain the same throughout the flight. a) b) e) 4 Paris has a higher pressure than London ‘The air at London is warmer than Paris, London is at @ lower altitude than Paris ‘The air at Paris is warmer than London An airfield in Holland is 20m below sea level, QFF is 1020 hPa, temperature at the surface is 430°C, What is the value of QNH. a) b) °) oO} Impossible to determine Less than 1020 hPa Same as QFF More than 1020 hPa. 6-13 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ANSWERS Ques | Answers 1 D 2 A 3 B 4 Cc D 6 D 7 B 8 c 9 D 10 D ul D 2 B 6-14 ALTIMETRY (© Oxford Aviation Servicws Limited7 13 74 78 76 aT 78 CHAPTER SEVEN - TEMPERATURE Contents INTRODUCTION MEASUREMENT .. INSTRUMENTS, ATING OF THE ATMOSPHERE ............ ‘TEMPERATURE VARIATION WITH HEIGHT LAPSE RATE INVERSIONS 00.0.0... SURFACE TEMPERATURE. ... ‘TEMPERATURE QUESTIONS .......... |@ Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE. WA 72 INTRODUCTION One of the important variables in the atmosphere is temperature. The study of temperature variation, both horizontally and vertically has considerable significance in the study of meteorology. MEASUREME! ‘There are three seales which may be used to measure temperature though only Celsius and Kelvin are used in meteorology. The figures show the melting point of ice and the boiling point of water (at STP) in each scale. a) The FAHRENHEIT seale: +32 to +212 degrees. b) The CELSIUS (or Centigrade) scale: 0 to +100 degrees, ©) The KELVIN (or Absolute) scale: +273 to +373 degrees . Conversion factors: 5 pop. C2 CF 32) (56) 9 = °C 32 (1.8) 5 (1.8) K~ °C | 273 7-4 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE 7.3 INSTRUMENTS The standard means of measurement on the ground is a mercury thermometer placed in a Stevenson Sereen. Electrical resistence thermometers may be used ‘where the Screen is not readily accessible to the observer. Figure 7.1. The Stevenson Screen. A Thermograph (similar in its output to a Barograph) will also be found inside the screen. The Stevenson Sereen is a louvred box 4 fect (1.22m) above the ground. This sereen, shown in Figure 7.1, is used worldwide. Figure 7.2. Thermograph 7-2 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE Upper air temperatures are taken using a Radiosonde, shown in Figure 7.5, - a device transmitting continuous readings of temperature, pressure and humidity whilst being carried aloft beneath a balloon, Rate of climb is 1200 fpm and maximum ceiling between 65,000 and. 115,000 fi BALLOON REFLECTOR GROUND RADAR Figure 7.3. A Radiosonde. Aircraftreadings, though often the only way in which atmospheric temperature may be measured over the oceans and other areas faraway from meteorological stations, are not asaccurate as they are affected by compressibility and lag. The electrical thermometer will give a digital readout of temperature and this can be automatically calibrated and transmitted on some modem aircraft. Figure 7.4, Electrical Thermometer 7-3 (© Ovlrd Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE 7.4 HEATING OF THE ATMOSPHERE, ‘The atmosphere is heated by 5 different processes: a) ») Solar Radiation, Radiation from the sun is of Short wave-length (3) and passes ‘through the atmosphere almost without heating it at all A= 0.18:6 4 microns (micron 10° m) Some solar radiation is reflected back to the upper air from cloud tops and from water surfaces on the earth ‘The rest of this radiation heats the earths surface The process whereby the surface is heated by solar radiation is called insolation Figure 7.5. Solar Radiation. ‘Terrestrial Radiation, ‘The earth radiates heat at all times. It is relatively long wave radiation % = 4 to 80 microns, peaking at 10 It is absorbed and then retransmitted as heat by the water vapour and co2 in the atmosphere. This retransmission ofheat to the surrounding air is the main method by which the atmosphere is heated and explains why the atmosphere reduces in temperature with an inerease in height. Itis heated from below hence there is @ lapse rate, Figure 7.6. Terrestrial Radiation. 7-4 (© Orlorc Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘TEMPERATURE ©) Conduction, Air lying in contact with the earths surface by day will be heated by conduction, At night air in contact with the earths surface will be cooled by conduction, Because of the air’s poor conductivity, the air at a higher level will remain at the same temperature as during the day and an inversion will result Figure 7.7. Conduction. Convection, Air heated by conduction will be less dense and will therefore rise, This will produce up currents called thermals or convection currents. ‘These will take the warm airto the upper levels, thus helping to heat the upper atmosphere Figure 7.8. Convection Currents. 7-5 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘TEMPERATURE ©) Condensation. As the air is lifted it will cool by adiabatic process and the water vapour in the air will condense out as visible droplets forming cloud. As this occurs Tatent heat will be released by the water vapour and this will heat the atmosphere. HEAT Joao VAPOUR RISES SURFACE WATER EVAPORATED. ee ee aeareor ad Figure 7.9. Latent Heat being released through Condensation, Figure 7.10. Heat Processes in the Atmosphere. 7-6 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘TEMPERATURE 1S 71.6 7 7.8 TEMPERATURE VARIATION WITH HEIGHT. We have seen that although our source of heat is the sun, because of the atmosphere’s virtual transparency to insolation, it is in fact heated (by long effects to diminish. PN ‘wave TR) from the surface upwards, ‘Thus as we move further and further from TEMPERATURE HEIGHT the surface we would expect the heating Figure 7.11. Temperature Variation with Height LAPSE RATE ‘The rate at which temperature falls with an increase in height is called the Lapse Rate. An ideal uniform atmosphere would show a constant lapse rate rather like the ISA, which is 1.98°C (2°) per LO00R. ISOTHERM Iftemperature remains constant with height it is called an isothermal layer. INVERSIONS Where the temperature increases with an increase in height, then we have what is called an inversion. We have already seen that at night we can expect an inversion above the surface, but this can oceur in many different ways. Radiation, on anightof clear skies, will also result ina temperature inversion above the surface. ‘This is called a Radiation Inversion, When we look at cloud formation, we shall see that because of turbulence in the layer closest to the surface we can have an inversion at a height of 2 or 3 thousand feet. Quite often, at the tropopause instead of the temp. remaining constant, it may show a slightrise for a few thousand feet. At the higher levels of the stratosphere, temp. will show an increase with height (in ISA from 165,61 7f temperature inereases at a rate of 0.3°/1000f). 7-7 (© Orford Aviation Servioes LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘TEMPERATURE Ima high pressure system, air descends at the centre. As the air descends it will be heated adiabatically (more of this later) and will be warmer than the air ata lower level, This is called «a Subsidence Inversion. _INVERSION. ISOTHERMAL] LAYER "ATYPICAL EARLY | ‘MORNING HEIGHT. TEMPERATURE, Figure 7.12. Inversions, 7.9 SURFACE TEMPERATURE ‘The surface air temperature measured in a Stevenson Screen is subject to considerable variations: Latitude Effect, Seasonal Effect, Diurnal Variation and multiple effects due to cloud and wind, a) ‘The angular elevation of the sun. i) Latitude Effeet. At the equator ae only a small area is affected by [ERR the suns rays and therefore will be subject to the greatest heatlunit area, At the poles the suins rays will cover a larger area and there will be the least heatunit area, The actual distance of polar regions from the “ot sun is only fractionally more than that from the equator, and the effect may be ignored. Figure 7.13. The Effect of Latitude. 7-8 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ii) b) ii) iii) Seasonal Effect. On the.21 March * and 23 September (the Vernal and ‘Autumnal Equinoxes) the sun is directly overhead the equator and maximum heating occurs. On 21 June, the sun is overhead the ‘Tropic of Cancer and maximum heating will occur there. In the hemisphere the temperature will increase as the sun moves north and decrease as it moves South, reaching minimum about 23 December Northern ‘TEMPERATURE Figure 7.14. The Seasonal Effect. ‘Time of Day (Diurnal Variation). The sun is at its highest elevation at noon, but fortwo to three hours after this time, the earth is receiving more solar radiation than it is giving up as terres ial radiation (Thermal Inertia). AS a result temperature is highest at about 15:00 (Tmax), From 15:00 onwards, the temperature falls continuously until a litle after sunrise. The lowest temperature occurs at about 0500 (T min) C. Diurnal Variation is greatest with clear skies and little wind, DV varies with a number of factors, but in temperate latitudes is about + 6 degrees about the mean. ‘0000 LmRcabamvEmd y JUST AFTER ‘TEMPERATURE (0600 1200 1800 72400 MAXIMUM, TEMPERATURE ~ DIURNAL VARIATION [OVER THE SEA. DIURNAL VARIATION IN ‘SUNRISE 20077 elaReaLltconomions MINIMUM DIURNAL VARIATION Wit, +" GLOUD COVER OR STON san Figure 7.1. Diurnal Variation. 7-9 © Ovlord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE 1. Cloud cover by day. By day some of the solar radiation is reflected back by the cloud tops and T Max is reduced. Figure 7.16. Cloud Cover by Day. Figure 7.17. Cloud Cover by Night. 2. Cloud cover by night, By night terrestrial radiation is absorbed and radiated back 10 the earth's surface from the clouds, T min is inereased. Note. ‘The so called greenhouse effect has a similar affect upon temperature as that of cloud cover by night but is generated differently in that long wave radiation from the Barth heats up the large quantities of carbon dioxide trapped in the lower levels of the atmosphere. This process continues day oF night and is said to be leading to an overall increase in atmospheric temperature. 7-10 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE 3, Effect of wind by day. By day wind will cause turbulent mixing of the warm air atthe surface with cold air above, reducing T max. Wind will also reduce the time the aie is in contact with the warm ground. DIRECTION. Figure 7.18. The Effect of Wind by Day. 4, Effect of wind by night, By night there will normally be an inversion above the surface and wind will cause cold air to be turbulently mixed with warm air above thus increasing T min, MVCN GS Figure 7.19. The Effect of Wind by Night. 7-11 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE In summary, wind on cloud cover will cause T max to be reduced and T min to be increased. ‘Therefore DV will be reduced. 3) DY over sea. As the Specific Heat (SH) of water is unity, compared to other substances whose SH is much less, and as the temperature rise is inversely proportional to the Specific Heat , the temperature rise and fall over the sea is small, generally less than 1°C. Nature of the Surface. i) Sea, The sea takes a long time to heat (and coo!) and as we have seen has @ very small DV. ‘The difference in DV values between land and sca is the cause of sea breezes, ‘The minimal DV of sea temperature is the reason why the most common form, of fog, radiation fog, never forms over the sea When the angular elevation of the sun is low, much solar radiation is reflected back to the atmosphere. Figure 7.20. Diurnal Variation Over the Sea. 7-12 © Oxlerd Aviation Services Limitedebos ‘imjesedure | Jo oBuer Ayep ueay 12°z @inb4METEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE ii) Land. Bare rock, sand, dry soil, tarred roads and concrete runways attain a higher temperature by insolation than woods, lakes, grasslands and wet soil ‘The temperature difference between air above concrete runways and adjacent grass can be as much as 4 degrees. Higher temperature surfaces provide strong ‘up currents called thermals or convection currents, Figure 7.22. July Average Temperatures. In fig 7.28 we may note that the sea temperature remains “coo!” in July in the Northern Hemisphere but the desert land areas of Africa and neighbouring Asia get very warm, ‘Air over snow covered surfaces is very cold. Some 80% of solar radiation is reflected from snow surfaces. Snow does not prevent the earth from radiating its heat. Henee surface ait temperatures over snow will become colder day by day. ‘Temperatures in Siberia can reach -72°C after a long cold winter. This very cold air results in high density and the development of anticyciones, 7-14 (© Oxford Aviation Services LitesMETEOROLOGY ‘TEMPERATURE d) Location. i) Over Land. Air ina valley will tend to be more static than air in an exposed position. Therefore by night the air is in contact with the ground for a longer time and the air temperature is lower than on a hill. Additionally, in a valley, cold air tends to sink from the hills above at night, again causing lower temperatures. It is for these reasons that mist and fog tend to form firstly in valleys. Figure 7.23. Location Effect Over Oceans. The fact that seas tend to have a very small DV of temperature hhas been stated above, On a wide scale this means that in winter the sea is ‘warmer than the land and thus there is a widespread movement of air from land to sea (monsoon effect). There is an opposite tendency in summer, Figure 7.24 Monsoon Effect in Winter 7-15 © Orford Aviation Senvices LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE ©) Origin of air supply. Air tends to retain its temperature and humidity for a considerable time, therefore air from high latitudes will bring lower temperatures to UK for example. A southerly wind, however, will normally provide an increase in temperature, Figure 7.25 Origin of Air Supply 7-16 (© Orord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE ‘Temperature Questions ‘The measurement of surface temperature is made: a) at ground level b) at approximately 10 metres from ground level ©) at approximately 4 feet above ground level, 4) atapproximately 4 metres above ground level ‘The purpose of a "Stevenson Screen’ is to: a) maintain a moist atmosphere so that the wet bulb thermometer can function correctly b) to prevent the mercury freezing in the low winter temperatures ©) protect the thermometer from wind, weather and from direct sunshine ) keep the wet and dry bulb thermometers away from surface extremes of temperature Iftemperature remains constant with an increase in altitude there is: a) an inversion b) —aminversion aloft ©) uniform lapse rate 4) anisothermal layer ‘The surface of the earth is heated by: a) conveetion ) conduction ©) long wave solar radiation d) short wave solar radiation Cloud cover will reduce diurnal variation of temperature because: a) incoming solar radiati reflected back to earth b) incoming solar radiation is re-radiated back to space and atmospheric heating by convection will stop at the level of the cloud layer ©) the cloud stops the suns rays getting through to the earth and also reduces outgoing conduction incoming solar radiation is reflected back to space and outgoing terrestrial radiation is re-tadiated from the cloud layer back to the surface is reflected back to space and outgoing terrestrial radiation is 7-17 18 Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY TEMPERATURE 6 i Diurnal variation of the surface temperature will: a) be unaffected by a change of wind speed b) decrease as wind speed increases ©} increase as wind speed increases «be ata minimum in calm conditions Which of the following surfaces is likely to produce a higher than average diurnal variation of temperature: a) rock or conerete b) water ©) snow 3) vegetation Most accurate temperatures above ground level ate obtained by: a) b) ° ad) tephigram aircraft reports temperature probe radio sonde ‘The method by which energy is transferred from one body to another by contact is called: a) ») ° a radiation convection conduction latent heat ‘The diurnal variation of temperature is: a) db) °) d greater over the sea than overland less over desert areas then over temperate grassland reduced anywhere by the presence of cloud increased anywhere as wind speed increases ‘The troposphere is heated largely by’ a) b) °) a absorption of the sun's short wave radiation radiation of heat from cloud tops and the earth's surface absorption by ozone of the sun's short wave radiation conduction from the surface, convection and the release of latent heat 7-18 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘TEMPERATURE 12, ‘An inversion is one in which: a) there is no horizontal gradient of temperature b) there is no change of temperature with height c) there is an increase of temperature as height increases 4) there isa decrease of temperature as height increases The sun gives out amount of energy with, wavelengths. The earth gives out relatively amounts of energy with relatively ‘wavelengths’ a) Large, large, small, small, b) Small, small, large, large. ©) Large, large, small, large. 4d) Large, small, small, large. With a clear night sky, the temperature change with height by early moming is most likely to show: 4) A steady lapse rate averaging 2 C per 1000 ft b)—Asstable lapse rate of | C per 1000 ft ©) Aminversion above the surface with an isothermal layer above. a) An inversion from near the surface and a 2.C per 1000 ft lapse rate above, Over continents and oceans, the relative temperature conditions are: a) Warmer in winter over land, colder in summer over sea. by Colder in winter over land, warmer in winter over sea. ©) Cold in winter over land and sea, d) Warmer in summer over land and sea. 7-19 (© Ovlord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ANSWERS TEMPERATURE Ques | Answer | Ques | Answer 1 c [ofc 2 c 10 c 3 D u D 4 bd | 2 c 5 D 1B D 6 B 4 D 1 A 15 B 8 D 7-20 (© Oxfors Aviation Services LimitedBL 82 83 8.4 86 87 8.8 8.9 8.10 gl 812 HUMIDITY QUESTIONS .. CHAPTER EIGHT - HUMIDITY Contents DEFINITION OF LATENT HEAT ....... EVAPORATION SATURATION CONDENSATION FREEZING MELTING SUBLIMATION HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT 00.0... .00000000e0ceeeeeeeeeeeeeee WET BULB TEMPERATURE .. . DRY-BULB AND WET-BULB HYGROMETER OR PSYCHROMETER .... DEWPOINT TEMPERATURE .....-...--+ fees DIURNAL VARIATION OF HUMIDITY (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY HUMIDITY at 82 84 a5 DEFINITION OF LATENT HEAT The latent heat ofa substance is the heat absorbed or released without change of temperature when the substance changes state. Latent heat differs according to the state of the substance, When ice changes to water, or water changes to water vapour, latent heat is absorbed. cr, or water changes to ice, latent heat is released, When water vapour changes to wa EVAPORATION Evaporation is the change fof state from liquid to vapour. Latent heat is absorbed. Evaporation can occur at mny temperature, even from ice, For a particular temperature there is a particular amount of water per unit volume that the ait can hold. When this, maximum is reached, evaporation will cease, Figure 8.1. The Change of State from Solid to Liquid to Gas and Back Again ATURATION Air becomes saturated by adding more water vapour to it. Altematively, as warm air can hold ‘more water vapour than cold, saturation can be achieved by cooling th Air is saturated if it contains the maximum amount of water vapour that it can hold at that temperature, If saturated air is cooled, condensation will occur CONDENSATION Condensation is the change of state from vapour to liquid, Latent heat is released Condensation causes cloud and fog to form. Condensation will require minute impuriti particles called condensation nucleit: without these nuclei, the vapour would become super- saturated which is 100% Humidity but still in gas form, FREEZING If the water droplet is cooled below zero, then it may change state again to iee, The process is, called freezing (the droplet may cool to considerably below zero - called supercooling) Freezing may also require the existence of freezing mucteii, 8-1 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY HUMIDITY 86 a7 88 MELTING ‘The opposite change of state, from solid to liquid, is called melting. (There is no superfrozen state). SUBLIMATION Sublimation is the change of state directly from water vapour to ice without water droplets being formed. Latent heat is released. This process is also known as deposition ‘The change of state from iee directly to water vapour is also called sublimation. HUMIDITY MEASUREMENT a) Absolute Humidity is the weight of water vapour in unit volume of air, Absolute Humidity is usually expressed in gms/m’, b) Humidity Mixing Ratio (HMR) is the weight of water vapour contained in unit mass, of dry air. The Humidity Mixing Ratio is usually expressed in gms/ke, HMR in temperate latitudes usually between § & 50 gmsikg. In unsaturated air, HMR remains constant during ascent while temperature and pressure decreases. ©) Saturation Mixing Ratio is the HMR when the parcel of air is saturated, d) Relative Humidity. HMR The ratio ——_HMR ___ Saturation mixing ratio x 100%, or more simply, the amount of water vapour present in a volume of air divided by the maximum, amount of water vapour which that volume could hold at that temperature expressed as a percentage, RH 100% = SATURATION 8-2 ‘© Orford Aviation Services LimiteMETEOROLOGY HUMIDITY 30 28 (RAMMES OF WATER CUBIC METRE| SATURATION 20 15, 10 30, +20 10 0 TEMPERATURE IN °C Figure 8.2. The Amount of Water Vapour the Air can Hold when Saturated at Different Temperatures. 8.9 WET BULB TEMPERATURE. ‘The lowest temperature to which air may be cooled by the evaporation of water is known as the ‘wet bulb temperature. In conjunction with the dry bulb temperature, this forms the standard method of measuring humidity atthe earth's surface 8-3 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY HUMIDITY 8.10 DRY-BULB AND WET-BULB HYGROMETER OR PSYCHROMETER 2) Tair is dry, water will evaporate from the muslin covering the wet bully and latent heat will lower the temperature, b) If air is saturated, no evaporation will occur and thermometers will read the same. ©) Dewpoint, relative humidity and HMR are read from tables or slide rule by entering with the «wo temperatures obtained. @) The dewpoint’ may be | DISTILLED approximated from the humidity | — WATER ——>| using the formula CONTAINER Figure 8.3. Dry-Bulb and Wet-Bulb Hygrometer or Psychrometer. Difference between Temp and DP. = (100 = Hum| Humidity = 100 - (Diff x 5) Note that the Dewpoint temperature is not the same as the Wet bulb temperature (except at saturation), DEWPOINT TEMPERATURE Dewpoint is the temperature to which air must be cooled at constant pressure for saturation to occur, NOTE: 1. The Dewpoint will only change if the amount of water vapour in the air changes. 2. When Dry Bulb Temperature = Dewpoint then Relative Humidity = 100% and a little further cooling and some air movement will produce cloud or fox. 3. Do not confuse the Dewpoint with Wet Bulb Temperature 4, ‘The Dewpoint has a small lapse rate of about 14° per 1000 ff 8-4 © Odford Aviation Servis LimitesMETEOROLOGY HUMIDITY 8.12 DIURNAL VARIATION OF HUMIDITY By day, as the temperature increases, RH will decrease Teena because the maximum amount of water vapour air can hold increases as the temperature rises. After 1500 hs, the temperature vill start to fall and the maximum amount of water vapour the air ccan hold will fall and thus the RH will inerease. ‘The higher RH at night is the reason for the formation of mist and fog after dark in autumn and winter. Figure 8.4. Diurnal Variation of Humidity. RH is maximum at dawn when the temperature is minimum. Figure 8.5. showsa graph of relative humidity at RAP Waddington overa number of years. The maximum and minimum times and the sinusoidal curve confirm Figure 8.4. + suly-20 osu. 9t a uy-92 + suy.93 + say-o4 = Juy-95 Relative Humidity (%) BSRSRSISRSR 0 2 4 6 8B 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 2 Hour UTC. Figure 8.5. NOTE: Ifthe RH is less than 100% then the air is considered to be dry. eg RH=99.9%, the air is dry, RH = 20%, the air is dry. 8-5 Onford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY HUMIDITY Humidity Questions 1. Throughout the 24 hrs of a day the Relative Humidity can be expected to: a) Increase during the day and decrease at night. b) Stay reasonably constant throughout the 24 hours, ©) Reduce during the day and increase at night. 4) Only change with a change of airmass. 2. During a night with a clear sky, surface temperature will RH will and Dewpoint will a) Fall, Rise, Rise b) Rise, Rise, Fall. ©) Fall, Rise, Remain the same, d) Fall, Fall, Remain the same 3. Achange of state directly from a solid to a vapour or vice versa is: 4) insolation b) condensation ©) evaporation d) sublimation 4. ‘The instrument used for measuring the humidity of aie is a: a) ——-hydrometer by) hygrometer €) wet bulb thermometer 4) hygroscope 5. ‘The process of change of state from a gas to a liquid a) evaporation in which latent heat is absorbed b) evaporation in which latent heat is released ©) condensation in which latent heat is absorbed 4) condensation in which latent heat is released 8-7 © Oxford Aviation Servioes LimitedMETEOROLOGY HUMIDITY 6 The process of change of state from a liquid to a gas is: a) condensation in which latent heat is released b) evaporation in which latent heat is released ©) condensation in which latent heat is absorbed 4) evaporation in which latent heat is absorbed Air is classified as dry or saturated according to its relative humidity. If the relative humidity were 95% the air would be classified as: a) b) ° d) conditionally saturated partially saturated saturated dry On a wet bulb thermometer in an unsaturated atmosphere there will be a reduction of temperature below that of the dry bulb thermometer because: a) ») °) ’ heat is absorbed during the process of condensation, heat is released during the process of condensation heat is absorbed by the thermometer during the process of evaporation heat is released from the thermometer during the process of evaporation Relative humidity is: a) b) ° a air temperature over wet bulb temperature x 100 air temperature over dew point temperature x 100. the actual amount of water vapourin a sample of sit over the maximum amount of water ‘vapour that the sample can contain x 100 the maximum amount of water vapour that a sample of air ean contain over the actual amount of water vapour the sample does contain x 100 Absolute humidity is a) b) ° d) the number of water droplets in a given quantity of air the amount of water vapour that a given quantity of air holds the maximum amount of water vapour that a given quantity of air ean hold the maximum number of water droplets that a given quantity of air can hold 8-8 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY HUMIDITY IL 14. 15, Wet bulb temperature would normally be lower than the dry bully temperature because: 4) condensation causes a release of latent heat b) evaporation causes cooling ©) Tatent heat is absorbed by the bulb thermometer dof condensation on the muslin wick ofthe bulb ‘The wet bulb temperature: a) ismeasured using a hydrometer b) is the minimum temperature to which a thermometer bulb can be cooled by the evaporation of water ©) measures the dew point of the air d) is the minimum temperature reached by the surface of the earth ax measured by a thermometer placed 1.2 metres above the ground Which one of the following statements relating to atmospheric humidity is correct: a) Ifthe air temperature falls then the absolute humidity must increase b) The absolute humidity is the mass of water vapour contained in unit volume of air. ©) The diumal variation of dewpoint temperature is greatest when skies are clear at night. The dewpoint temperature is the temperature indicated by the wet bulb thermometer. ‘When condensation takes place, the higher the temperature, the the amount of latent heat a) lesser; released, by) greater: absorbed. © greater; released. d) lesser; absorbed. ‘When water vapour changes to ice: a) Latent heat is absorbed. b) Specific heat is released. ©) Latent heat is released. d) Specific heat is absorbed. 8-9 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ANSWERS Ques | Answer | Ques | Answer I c 9 c 2 c 10 B 3 D ul B 4 B 2 B 5 D 13 B 6 D \4 c 7 D 15 c 8 D , 8-10 HUMIDITY (© Oord Aviation Services LimitedCHAPTER NINE - ADIABATICS AND STABILITY Contents Page 9.1 ADIABATIC TEMPERATURE CHANGES ..... ce 9-1 9.2 THE DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE - DALR .. 29-1 9.3. THE SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE (SALR) ce Od 9.4 THE REASON FOR THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DALR AND SALR .... 9-2 9.5 THE REASON FOR THE SALR VARIATION WITH TEMPERATURE 9.2 9.6 ‘THE ENVIRONMENTAL LAPSE RATE 29-2 9.7 STABILITY cee wee 93 98 INSTABILITY ...00000e0ccceeeee 9-4 9.9 — CONDITIONAL INSTABILITY ....... 90-5 9.10 NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM . 29-6 9.11 STABILITY SUMMARY .. 9-6 9.12 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELR/DALR/DP/SALR’ CLOUD BASE AND TOP ........ 9-8 9.13 EXAMPLES ..... 9-9 ADIABATICS AND STABILITY QUESTIONS «20.00.0002... OT ‘© Oxford Aviation Services Limited4 METEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY 9.1 ADIABATIC TEMPERATURE CHANGES, An adiabatic temperature change ‘occurs when air is compressed or expanded and there is no external PISTON PISTON GOING GOING 92 93 transfer of heat, If air is lifted it expands and will ‘cool adiabatically, whilst if it is brought down it compresses and will warm adiabatically. Any heat transfer by conduction, turbulent mixing or radiation will be very small and too slow to be effective. UP "AIR COOLED BY. ‘EXPANSION An example of adiabatic heating is in an anticyclone, where descending air warms, ‘THE DRY ADIABATICLAPSE RATE-DALR ‘The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) isthe lapse rate for rising dry (ie not saturated) air. It has a constant value of about 3°C/1000 ft (1°C/100m) as illustrated in Figure 9.2. THE SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE (SALR) ‘The Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR) is the lapse rate for rising air which is saturated (RH 100%). It has an average value in temperate latitudes near the ground of 1.8°C/1000 ft or 0.6°C/100m. SALR is not constant, varying with temperature and approaching the DALR as temperature decreases and/or altitude increases. Figure 9.1. ORY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE (DALR) ‘311000 FEET TEMPERATURE HEIGHT. TEMPERATURE Figure 9.2. re 9.3 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY 94 95 96 THE REASON FOR THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DALR AND SALR As saturated air cools, water vapour will condense out as water droplets forming cloud. Latent heat will be released and thus the rate of cooling of the rising air will be reduced. THE REASON FOR THE SALR VARIATION WITH TEMPERATURE, The amount of latent heat released by a volume of saturated air depends upon its temperature. At low temperatures the amount of water vapour required to saturate the air is small and. therefore the amount of latent heat released will also be small At high altitudes (and latitudes) temperatures are low, little latent heat is released and thus DALR end SALR are nearly the same. Conversely, at low latitudes and altitudes temperature is high, consequently SALR is shallow. The difference between DALR and SALR is shown in Figure 9.3.. A comparison between SALR’s at different latitudes is shown at Figure 8.3.a, POLAR LOW LEVEL; HI-ALT ALL 3 cotp |>15 LATITUDES MID LATITUDES LOW LEVEL 3 MED Ls [equaToRIAL LATITUDES LOW LEVEL 3 warM_[<1s Figure 9.4 SALR Differences ‘THE ENVIRONMENTAL LAPSE RATE ‘The ELR is the lapse rate of the air surrounding the rising air considered in the previous two cases. It is important because this variable lapse rate controls the stability of the air Figure 9.5 Variable ELR 9-2 @ Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY 9.7 STABILITY Ifthe prevailing wind causes air to be forced up the side of a mountain then, i this lifting force is removed, the air returns to its original position. The atmosphere is stable, as illustrated in Figure 9.6. At every level that the air is forced to rise to, it will always be colder than the surrounding air and therefore more dense. ‘The air is stable when the ELR is less than the SALR. STABLE AIR WHEN ELR < SALR e.g. ELR 1°C/1000 Ft LIFTED DRY AIR Figure 9.6 TEMPERATURE ————> Figure 9.7. - ABSOLUTE ELRC SALR= STABILITY 9-3 © Oxord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY 98 INSTABILITY IF the prevailing wind causes air to be forced up the side of a mountain then, if this lifting force is removed, the air will continue to rise. The atmosphere is unstable, as illustrated in Figure 9.8, Atevery level that the air is forced to rise to, it will always be warmer than the surrounding air and therefore less dense. ‘The air is unstable when the ELR is greater than the DALR. UNSTABLE AIR: WHEN ELR > DALR: e.g. ELR 4°C/1000 Ft A ; LIFTED DRY AIR LIFTED SATURATED AIR. Figure 9.8. % Xn ‘TEMPERATURE Figure 9.9, ELR = ABSOLUTE. RDOALR- INSTABILITY 9-4 (© Oxford Aviation Servicas LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY CONDITIONAL Y “ABI Ifthe prevailing wind causes air to be forced up the side of a mountain then, if this lifting force is removed, the air will either continue to rise if saturated (RH 100%) or return to its original position if unsaturated ( ELR > SALR: e.g. ELR 2°C/1000 Ft LIFTED IF ITIS DRY IT IS STABLE IF IT IS SATURATED IT IS UNSTABLE Figure 9.10. The air is conditionally unstable when BLR is between the SALR, and the DALR as illustrated in Figure 9.11. % Ke HEIGHT. TEMPERATURE Figure 9.11 9-5 {© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY 9.10 NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM If the lifted air’s lapse rate is the same as the environmental lapse rate then we have neutral stability. At every level the air is forced to rise it will have the same temperature ss the surrounding air and therefore the same density. NEUTRAL STABILITY WHEN ELR = DALR OR SALR LIFTED DRY AIR ELR = DALR ELR = SALR Figure 9.12. 9.11 STABILITY SUMMARY a) THE ELR CONTROLS STABILITY. b) Ifthe ELR is less than 1,8°C / 1000ft, the air is stable - absolute stability. Stable weather Bad visibility Light turbulence Stratiform cloud Intermittent to continuous precipitation e) Ifthe ELR is greater than 3°C/1000 ft, the air is unstable - absolute instability Unstable weather Good visibility Moderate turbulence Cumuliform cloud Showery precipitation 9-6 © Oxore Awation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY 0 ©) If the ELR is between 1,8°C and 3°C/1000 ft, the air is stable if dry and unstable if saturated - conditional instability. ‘The clouds which form in. stable air tend to be stmall in vertical extent and large in horizontal extent - layer clouds, Layer clouds may include stratocumulus as shown in Figure 9.13, which is identified by its well defined shape, whereas stratus is. il defined in shape but can cover equally large areas. Figure 9.13, Stratocumulus ‘The clouds which form in unstable air tend to be large in vertical extent and small_ in horizontal extent - heap clouds. Figure 9.14. Cumulus of moderate or strong vertical development. 9-7 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY 942 ‘THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELR/DALR/DP/SALR/CLOUD BASE AND TOP Figure 9.15 is a temperature/hcight diagram which represents graphically the process of comparing the temperature of lifted air with that of its environment. In this example the temperature of the air atthe earth’s surface is 12°C and its dew point is 6°C. With these two facts and the knowledge that the DALR and the SALR are 3°C and 18°C respectively, the temperature of an ascending bubble may be calculated and plotted for each successive 1,000 feet level. By plotting the measured ELR on the same diagram the expected temperature of the bubble may readily be compared with that of its environment at any level The first part of the ascent may be called the ‘dry stage’, Here the air cools at the DALR until it reaches its dew point temperature (don’t forget that the dew point temperature is modified by halfa degree for every 10004 ascent as pressure drops) - about 2,400 feet and 5°C in this case. At this height the air becomes saturated and condensation starts - the air enters the *wet” or cloud” stage. From now on the ir cools at the SALR and water continues to condense out until the rising air arrives ata level where its temperature is the same as that of its environment. At this point (just below 4,000 feet) Further ascent is resisted and upward movement ceases quickly. From just below 4,000 ft upwards, no more condensation takes place and so this level will mark. the top of the cloud, Note that initially the adiabatically cooled bubble is warmer than its environment and the air therefore is unstable up to just below the 4,000 ft level. Above this level the temperature relationship is reversed and the air is stable. It may be seen from Figure 9.15. that given a ‘trigger’, clouds will develop with the base at 2,400 feet and the tops at just below 4,000 ft. We can approximate this cloud base using the following formula, Cloud Base = Surface Temperature - Surface Dewpoint x 400 Applying this formula to the example in figure 9.15 can quite accurately calculate the cloud base. To sum up, ifthe surface temperature and dew point of an air sample are known and ifthe ELR is accurately measured, then we can use the DALR and SALR graphs to produce a very good estimation of the heights of the base and top of clouds formed in freely eonveeting air. 9-8 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY Figure 9.15. ELR / DALR/ DEWPOINT / SALR / CLOUD BASE / CLOUDTOP. 9.13 EXAMPLES Assuming a constant lapse rate in the layer between 2000 fi and 5000 ft and ignoring the effects of pressure change, what is the state of stability when: TEMPAT | TEMP AT. RI STABILITY 2,000" 5,000" STATE? 1 +7 He 60% aes 2 415° +0) 100% 3 +12° 9° 100% [oc ees 4 +16° +22 75% poabe 5 +11e +5° 100% 6 +e 28° 100% [ae 7 0° 9 88% fnae g +e +42 50% | 9 +15 43° 98% 10 45° 0° 100% u +10° +10° 90% | 12 +10" +15° 100% What else is unusual about the environment with regard to questions 11 and 12? 9-9 © Orford Aviation Services LimitesMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY Adiabatics and Stability Questions 1, The actual change of temperature with height is known as: a the environmental Japse rate b) the adiabatic lapse rate ©) the temperature curve @) the tephigram 2, Amadiabatic process is defined as’ a) the cooling of the atmosphere at 3°C/1000 ft b) a change of temperature brought about by a change of pressure acting on an insulated parcel of air ) change of temperature brought about by air being forced to rise d) an increase of temperature in an insulated parcel of air in which the pressure has been decreased 3, Ima given atmosphere where the relative humidity is 60% and the ELR is less then the DALR. Ifair is forced to rise itis: a) unstable and will carry on rising. b) stable and will carry on rising ©) unstable and will tend to regain its former position d) stable and will tend to regain its former position 4, Ima saturated atmosphere air which is forced to rise will: a) tend to regain its former position if the ELR is less than the SALR b) tend to regain its former position if the ELR is greater than the SALR ©) carry on rising if the ELR is less than the SALR d) classified as stable air when the ELR is greater than the SALR 5. The DALR is greater than the SALR because: a) b) °) a saturated vapour pressure increases with increasing temperature convection is more active in dry air than in moist air the rate of cooling of saturated air is reduced by the release of latent heat of condensation because of the release of latent heat of evaporation 9-11 © Oxtore Avation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY 6. Study the information given in the table below. If the air is forced to rise, the conditions most likely to lead to instability are given in which line? ‘Temperature ‘Temperature Relative Humidity at 2000 fe at 5000 ft ayr15°C 9c 50% byrsec 10°C 100% ep 1S°C +UeC 100% 15°C 12°C 50% 7. Ifthe dry bulb temperature at the surface is +7.5°C and the observed temperature at 4000 ft is 15.5°C, the air could be best described as: a) Absolutely stable b) Conditionally unstable, ©) Unstable, dd) Absolutely unstable, 8 «instability exists when the... - than the DALR. ‘Complete the sentence above using the correct words from the 4 sets given: a) conditional SALR less b) conditional ELR greater ©) absolute SALR less absolute ELR ‘greater 9, A large cumulus cloud base 2000 ft is reported at an airfield, Ifthe surface temperature is 21 C the height of the freezing level in the cloud is likely to be: a) » ) dy 10330 ft 7000 f 10500 ft 18000 ft 9-12 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY 10, in Ifthe temperature near the surface in Hong Kong is +31 C then rising saturated air will cool at arate of: a) 3 ClO b) 25 Coo R <) LS C1000 1 C1000 ‘Neutral equilibrium in the atmosphere occurs when: 1) anyairwhichis displaced upwards remains in its new position, once the displacing force is removed. This displaced air having no tendency to rise further or to sink back down b) there isa thin stable layer at low levels but a much thicker unstable layer aloft ©) there isa state in which there is high relative humidity at low levels and a low relative humidity at high levels ) there isa state in which there humidity at high levels s low relative humidity at low levels and a high relative Which of the following statements is true? a) the tropopause is the dividing line between the stratosphere and the tropopause 'b) stability increases as the environmental lapse rate decreases ©) heat is added to the environment by the evaporation of raindrops ) high surface temperatures and a plentiful supply of moisture are the only conditions required for the development of thunderstorms, When condensation takes place, the higher the temperature the ‘the amount of latent heat. a) Lesser, released. b) Greater, absorbed. ©) Greater, released, d) Lesser, absorbed. The air is stable ift a) Itmoves very little b) There are few changes in pressure, ©) When lifting force is removed the air tries to return to its original position 4) When a lifting force is removed the air continues to rise, 9-13 © Ovlord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ADIABATICS AND STABILITY 15, Absolute instability occurs when: a) DALR>ELR by ELR >DALR ©) SALR>ELR d) SALR IRIS DEFLECTED TO ‘THE RIGHT. AE w. - INTHE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE MOVING £° Aiisvertecrepto | & ‘THE LEFT ‘AIR MOVING TOWARDS THE [AIR MOVING TOWARDS THE POLE OVERTAKES THE EQUATOR LAGS BEHIND THE. SLOWER MOVING EARTH'S FASTER MOVING EARTH'S. ‘SURFACE IN HIGHER ‘SURFACE IN LOWER LATITUDES, LATITUDES. Figure 11.6. An Illustration of Geostraphic Force. GF=2Qp Vsind where ©= angular rotation of the earth p ry 6 density ind speed = latitude 1-4 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS 11.9 11.10 GEOSTROPHIC WIND ‘The geostrophic wind is the wind which blows when the GF is balanced by the PGF. This balance can only occur when it is not affected by other forces and therefore the geostrophic wind can only blow above the Friction Layer at about 2- 3000 f(1 Km) and above. ‘The balance between the two forces is such that the wind to the — Isobars in accordance with Buys Ballots law, which states that if you stand with your back to the wind in the northern hemisphere, the Jow pressure is on your left, Increases with increasing wind speeds. Figure 11.7. The Geostrophic Wind. MEASURING GEOSTROPHIC WIND AS GF=2 Op V SiN 8 cen . 1 oP 2p sind if GF =PGF PGF then vy -—?or _ 2.0 p sind 3 ‘The Geostrophic wind speed is directly proportional to the PGF and where the density (i.e. hhcight) and latitude are more or less constant, a scale can be drawn to enable PGF (in the form of PG) to be converted to wind speed. Such a scale is called a Geostrophic Wind Scale and is printed on synoptic charts and may be shown as in Figure |1,8b. ifthe chart covers a wide Jatitude band. 1-5 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS Georroene vund Scale for 2 mi cobars m atte SSN “sho Ps ‘GEOSTROPHIC WIND SCALE IN RNOTS FOR 4 MB INTERVAS 79° “SCALE OF NAUTICAL MILES 100 200 300 400 500 400700 Figure 11.8b Geostrophic Wind Scale 1-6 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS Wat 112 11.13 ‘THE EFFECT OF LATITUDE ON GEOSTROPHIC WIND SPEED For a particular PG value, the Geostrophic Wind Speed will increase as latitude reduces, (see equation 3 above). v= — PGF _ 2.9 p sind Within 5 degrees of the equator the GF is zero. Within 15 degrees the GF is very small, so that the geostrophie formula no longer applies. CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR THE WIND TO BE GEOSTROPHIC For the wind to be geostrophic, it has to occur: a) Above the friction layer. b) —_ Atalatitude greater than 15 degrees. c) When the pressure situation is not changing rapidly. 4) With the isobars straight and parallel. ‘The geostrophic wind can apply at all heights above the friction layer. However, with an increase in height, the windspeed should increase due to the reduction in density. ‘THE GRADIENT WIND ‘The gradient wind occurs when the isobars are curved. This brings into play a force which makes the wind follow a curved path parallel to the isobars. ‘The gradient wind then is the wind which blows parallel to curved isobars due to a combination of 3 forces: a) PGF b) GE ©) Cyclostrophic Force 1-7 (© Onord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS 11.14 CYCLOSTROPHIC FORCE Cyclostrophic force is the force acting towards the centre of a pressure system when the isobars are curved. It is also called centripetal force. ROTATION CENTRIPETAL OR CYCLOSTROPHIC CENTRIFUGAL FORCE Figure 11.9 Cyclostrophic Force 11.15 GRADIENT WIND IN A DEPR! ON Ifair is moving steadily around a depression, then the eyclostrophic force is provided from the PGF. V gradient = V geostrophic - cyclostrophic effect iv LOW PRESSURE GRADIENJGEOSTROPHIC FORCE 8h gh cycLosfropny PRESSURE«: °°" GRADIENT = VGEOSTROPHIP~ CYCLOSTROPHIC EFFECT Figure 11.10. Gradient Wind Speed Around a Depression. 1-8 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS 11.16 a7 1118 The gradient wind speed around a depression is less than the geostrophic wind for the same isobar interval. Hence if the Geostrophic Wind Scale (GWS) is used, it will overread. GRADIENT WIND IN A HIGH Ifair is moving steadily around a high, then the cyclostrophie force is provided from the GF, V gradient = V geostrophic + cyclostrophic effect The gradient wind speed around an anticyclone is greater than the geostrophic wind for the same isobar interval, Hence if the Geostrophic Wind Scale (GWS) is used, it will underread. ‘THE CYCLOSTROPHIC WIND The wind which blows in low latitudes where the GF is very small is called the eyclostrophic wind, cis a combination of PGF and eyelostrophie force. This wind occurs in tropical revolving storms. NC + CYCLOSTROPHIC EFFECT Figure 11.11. Gradient Wind Speed Around a High. WINDS BELOW 2000 - 3000ft(1 Km). Friction between moving air and the land surface will reduce wind speed near the ground. This reduction also reduces the GF which can no longer balance the PGF. Asaresult the surface winds blow across the isobars at a small angle towards the lower pressure. 11-9 {© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS 11.19 ROUGH RULES a) The surface wind over land is backed by 30 degrees from the geostrophie wind and its speed is reduced by 50%. LOW ago 220° / 15 kt 250° / 30 kt 490 108 LE HIGH Sp — seosTRopae wiv SS — sunrace wv over LAND Figure 11.12. An Example of Rough Rules Over Land. 1 4906 b) —_Overthesea friction is very much less and the surface winds are closerto geostrophic values. Surface wind over the sea is backed by 10 degrees from the geostrophic wind and speed reduced to 70% (surface winds will veer in the southern hemisphere), 240° / 20 kt 250° / 30 kt HIGH S35 — seosraormc ww ant SS5— currace ww over seal Figure 11.13 An Example of Rough Rules Over Sea. 11-10 (© Oxford Aviation Serices LiedMETEOROLOGY WINDS SURFACE AND 2000 FT WINDS ON CHART CA 85/3 (page 11-11) ‘What is the 2000 ft wind and surface wind at the following positions ? POSITION. 2000 ft_W/V 1 S3°N 4.5°W 2 56°N_13°W 3 $2.5°N 6.5°W 4, $3.5°N 13.5°W 5. 49°N_02°W W114 © Ostord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS Po ase = iow. © Crown copyright Figure 85/3 11-12 © Onford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY SURFACE AND 2000 FT WINDS ON ANSWERS, ‘What is the 2000 ft wind at the following positions ? : WINDS CHART CA 85/3 (page 11-11) SURFACE W/V 1 ‘53°N 4.5°W 180°/27kt 150°/13kt 2. 56°N 13°W. 0859/1 7kt OTS Kt 3, §2.5°N 6.5°W (280°/37kt (250°/18kt 4. 53.5°N 13.5°W 301°/30kt 291°/20kt 5. 49°N 02°W 210°42kt 200°/28kt Note: The surface wind velocities have been obtained by using the approximate figures of 10%sea) and 30°(land) but these figures could be modified dramatically by local topography. 11-13, (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS 11.20 DIURNAL VARIATION OF THE SURFACE WIND ‘There can be a regular change in the surface wind in each 24 hr period. It veers and increases by day reaching maximum strength about 1500 hrs. It backs and decreases thereafter with minimum strength around dawn, This diurnal variation is due to thermal turbulence which mixes the air at the surface with air moving freely above. It is therefore most marked on clear sunny days, and particularly in polar maritime ait, with sunny days, clear nights and unstable air. Surface W/V increased by mixing & veered. FRICTION LAYER Emel y EVEN CPA eeenesen cae Surface W/V decreased (No mixing) & backed. Figure 11.14 Diumal variation of the surface wind 11-14 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS 1121 DIURNAL VARIATION OF 1500 FT AND SURFACE WIND VELOCITY a) Fig 11.15 shows the effect of diurnal temperature variation on both the 1500 ft W/V and ‘the surface W/V. 1500" wv decreased by mixing & backed. TOROT FICTION TAYE: eee ea 1500' WIV increased (No mixing) & veered. Figure 11.15 Diurnal variation of 1500’ wind velocity b) —_ ByDay. Thermal Currents are greater on sunny days and at 1500 hours, They will cause interaction between the surface and the top of the friction layer. The 2000 ft W/V’ will «with descent be increasingly affected by the surface friction and will therefore steadily reduce in speed and turn towards the low pressure. (Back in Northem Hemisphere or ‘eer in Souther Hemisphere). 11-15 {© Orford Aveton Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS ©) By Night, Thermal currents cease. The top of the friction layer effectively drops below 1500 ft where the W/V will assume 2000 ft direction and speed thus becoming faster and veering (NH). The surface W/V no longer has interaction with the stronger wind above and will therefore deerease and back (NH). Thusa marked wind shear can occur between 1500 fi and the surface, affecting handling for example on an approach. ‘pay NIGHT 20008 285145 Fy “let ton aye, 1500f 280/40 ‘SURFACE 255/20 2401 08 Friction Layer effectively lowers from 2000ft to below 1500ft as the Convection Currents Decrease. Figure 11.16. Diurnal Variation of 1500' And Surface Wind Velocities. 4) DVof surface wind aids the formation of radiation fog at night and early morning, and its dispersal by day. ©) Diumal effect over the sea is small because DV of sea temperature is small SUMMARY DAY NIGHT SURFACE INCREASES | DECREASES SURFACE: VEERS BACKS DECREASES INCREAS! 15008 BACKS, VEERS Figure 11.16a. Summary of Diurnal Variation and Surface Wind Velocities 11-16 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS 11.22, LAND AND SEA BREEZES Sea breezes. On a sunny day, particularly in an anticyclone with a light PG, the land will heat quickly. ‘The arin contact will be warmed and will rise and expand so that pressure at about 1000 ft will bbe higher than pressure at the same level over the sea, This will cause a drift of air from over the land to over the sea at about 1000 fi. The drift of air will cause the surface pressure over the land to fall, and the surface pressure over the sea to rise, ‘Asa result there will be a flow of air from sea to land - a sea breeze. On average, sea breezes extend 8 to 14 nm either side of the coast and the speed is about 10 kts, In the tropies speed is 15 kts or more and the inland extent is greater. The direction of the sea breeze is more or less at right angles to the coast, but after 40 KNOTS some time it will veer under os the influence of GF. It will back in the southern hemisphere. An illustration Figure 11.17. The Sea Breeze. of the formation of @ sea breeze is shown in Figure a7. Land breezes. After sunset the situation will reverse. The land will cool rapidly whilst the sea will retain its heat There will be an increase in pressure at the surface over ‘the land whilst the pressure over the sea will fall - there will be a land breeze. The speed will be about 5 kts and the breeze will extend about S nms out to sea. This effect is shown in Figure 11.18. Figure 11.18. The Influence of the Geostrophic Force on Sea Breezes over time. 1-47 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS fs «ee + tow? | "HIGH | Di. HIG reverb rey 5 KNOTS, Figure 11.19. The Land Breeze. 11.23 PRACTICAL COASTAL EFFECTS 2) The direction of take-off and s landing can be reversed with the ae pes change from sea to land breeze. RUMEN ‘This is shown in Figure 11.20, Figure 11.20. Reversal of Direction of Take off and Landing. b) —_ Fogat sea can be blown inland by day to affect coastal airfields. This is illustrated in Figure 11.21 Figure 11.21. Fog Being Blown inland by the Sea Breeze. 11-18 © Ontors Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS ©) The lifting of air over land with the sea breeze can cause small clouds to formas shown in Figure 11.22, These are a good navigational feature of coastline, SEA BREEZE Figure 11.22 Cloud Formation Over a Coastline. 11.24 VALLEY OR RAVINE WINDS A wind blowing against a mountain is impeded. the barvier is broken by a gap or valley, the ‘wind will blow along the valley at an increased speed due to the restriction. This is illustrated in Figure 11.23. With a valley wind, if there is a relatively small change in the ‘general direction, itis possible for the valley wind to reverse completely as shown in Figure 11.24, The combination of high wind speed and rough terrain is likely to give rise to considerable turbulence at low level, landing at airfields in such areas may be difficult, Figure 11.24. Wind Direction Reversal in A Valley or Ravine. 11-19 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS 11.25 Examples of valley winds are the Mistral (Rhone Valley), (see Chapter 24) Genovese (Po Valley), Kosava (Danube) and Vardarac (Thessalonika). Valley winds also occur in fjords. KATABATIC WINDS A Katabatie wind is caused by a flow of cold air down a hill or mountain side at night. Ifthe side of the mountain is cooled by radiation, the air in contact is also cooled, it will thus be denser and heavier than the surrounding air and it will therefore flow down the mountain side. The Katabatic effect is most marked if the mountain side is snow covered, ifthe sky is cl to assist radiation and if the PG is slack. Speeds average 10 kts and the flow of cold air into the valley helps frost and fog to form, Another effect is Fer eer that with the sinking of fers cold air down the slope, MAKING FROST the air at higher levels Golde h will be warmer and an inversion results. A Katabatie wind is shown Figure 11.25. Katabatic Wind Formation. in Figure 11.25 An example of a Katabatic wind is the Bora (see chapter 24). ANABATIC WINDS Ona warm sunny day, the slope of a hill will become heated by insolation, particularly if itis a south facing slope ‘The air in contact with the ground will be heated by conduction and will rise up the hill. Free cold air will replace the lifted air and soa light wind will blow up the hillside. An anabatic ‘wind is a light wind of around 5 kts which blows up a hill or mountain by day as illustrated in Figure 11.26, 11-20 (© Oxford Aviation Servicas LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS AIR WARMED BY CONDUCTION GROUND 2 Teak ‘COLD FREE INCroIW Nilo REPLAGES FTED AIR Figure 11.26. Anabatic Wind Formation. 11.27 FOHN WINDS ‘The Fohn Wind is a warm dry wind which blows on the downwind side of a mountain range. Itis a local wind in the Alps. A similar wind on the east of the Rocky Mountains in Canada is called the Chinook. (See Chapter 24) There is also the Santa Anna to the east of the Andes in South America, and to the east of the High Sierras in California. If moist air is forced to rise up a mountain side, it will quickly become saturated and will cool adiabatically as itrises. After reaching the condensation level, cloud will form and the air will cool at the SALR. Ifthe air is stable, it will follow the line of the mountain on the downwind side and descend, ‘Some moisture may be last at the top of the climb through precipitation (this is now thought to be a secondary effect) and air descending the lee slope will warm at the DALR. The result is a warm, dry wind blowing on the downwind side of the mountain. Temperature increases of 10 degrees can occur. Fohn winds can occur over the east coast of Scotland witha south west wind over the Highlands, 41-21 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS STABLE AIR 80K ae IPITATION—— PREC! oe Z. Figure 11.27. The Féhn Effect. 41-22 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY Low Level Wind Questions WINDS For a constant distance between the isobars the geostrophic wind will be greatest at a latitude of: a) b) 7) d) as° wo 35° 20° Accyclone and an anticyclone have the same pressure gradient and the same 2000 ft wind speed. This can only happen when They are in the same hemisphere but the cyclone is at a lower latitude. ‘They are in the same hemisphere but the anticyclone is at a lower latitude. due north of the anticyclone in the northem hemisphere. During the day the surface wind in western Australia is 270/30 kt. After dusk the wind is most a) They are at identical latitudes in opposite hemispheres. b) ° 4) The eyelon likely to be: a) 255/40 b) 260/20 ©) 290720 d) 29040 Ona day in summer with a slack pressure gradient, an airfield on the south coast of England has a surface W/V of 080/06 at dawn. The coastline is in an East/West direction. The most probable WIV at noon would be a) b) °) ad 360/12 080/18 180/18, 080/06 ‘A gust of wind often causes a veer in the surface wind (Northern Hemisphere) because: a) b) °) d I strengthens pressure gradient force. I increases geostrophie force. It increases eyclostrophic force. I lifts the air above the friction layer. 11-23 (© Ostord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS The surface wind direction in the Northern Hemisphere is backed from the 2000 ft wind by an average of 30° over land due to: a) Friction reducing the wind speed, thus reducing the geostrophic force, allowing the pressure gradient force to pull the wind across the isobars towards low pressure. b) The frictional effect at the surface, causing the surface isobars to curve more than those at 2000 ft. ©) The geostrophic wind only flowing between straight and parallel isobars with an unchanging pressure gradient with time, whereas the surface pressure gradient changes diumally with surface heating. d) _Theeffect of the cyclostrophic force, which is strongest atthe surface due to increased curvature. 7. When a Fohn wind oceurs: a) There are unstable conditions on the downwind side of the mountain, b) _ Airis cooled mainly at the DALR on the upwind side of the mountain and is heated at the SALR on the downwind side . ©) Windspeed must be at least 15 kt atthe surface increasing with height and maintaining direction d) Airis cooled mainly at the SALR on the upwind side of the mountain and is heated mainly at the DALR on the downwind side . 8. The geostrophic wind blows: a) Parallel to curved isobars. b) When pressure values are changing rapidly. ©) Ina tropical revolving storm. d) When geostrophic force and pressure gradient force are equal. 9, A Katabatic wind can result in a) An inerease in temperature. b) Fog in the valley at night, ©) Thunderstorms in summer. 4) Stratus cloud. 11-24 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WINDS 10. 4 Surface wind 1500 ft wind 250/16 275/25 ‘The table above shows the winds at the surface and at 1500 ft for mid-day at an airfield in central England. The 2000 ft wind was 290/30. “Assuming the 2000 ft wind remains the same, the most likely combination of the surface and. 1500 ft winds at midnight is: Surface wind 1500 ft wind a) 250/8 260/25 b) 2408 290/30 c) 250/10 290/30 a) 240/10 275/30 A strong wind that rises suddenly, last for some minutes and dies comparatively suddenly away is called: 2) agust b) — asquall ©) agale d) ablast ‘The force which causes the air to flow parallel to the curved isobars is called. a) centrifugal force b) _eyclostrophie force ©) geostrophie force d) gradient force ‘The deflection of the surface wind direction from the geostrophic is, on average: 8) over the land by night - 35° in cloudy conditions, b) over the land by day - 35° in cloudy conditions ©) overthe sea - 30” @)—_ overthe sea - 10°, veered in the southern hemisphere A ravine or valley wind: a) Isa wind blowing at increased speed along a valley. b) _Isawind blowing from a hill o a valley below. ©) _Isawind blowing up a hill froma valley, ) Is awind blowing at reduced speed along a valley, 11-25 © Oxfors Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY 15, WINDS In an amticyclone at 2000 f, in the northern hemisphere, the wind was 060/20 kt. The likely surface wiv over land is: “) ‘b) °) d) 070/15 kt 050/10 kt 030/10 kt 030/15 kt Ques | Answer | Ques | Answer 1 D 9 B 2 B 10 3 c ul B 4 c 12 B 3 B 13 D 6 A 4 A 7 D 15 c 8 D 11-26 {© Orford Aviation Services Limited121 122 123 124 125 126 12.7 128 129 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 12.14 124s CHAPTER TWELVE - UPPER WINDS Contents Page INTRODUCTION. ....2.00005 oe 212-1 CONTOUR CHARTS - CONSTANT PRESSURE CHARTS . coe Ded ISOTACHS wees . -12-3 THERMAL WIND ....... 12-3 THICKNESS CHARTS ....... foes ID THERMAL WIND LAWS. . feet eee teee cee eeeee 128 ADDITIONAL RULES... foe eee 12D JETSTREAMS 212-9 CAUSES ooo ceec eens ces fee LOCATIONS 12-10 DIRECTION AND SPEED. fetter DAB CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE (TURB) : 212-13 MOVEMENT .. 12-13 RECOGNITION ce coe 12-13 FORECASTING |... coe vee DATE UPPER WIND QUESTIONS 2.00.00... 000 00 ccc cee ceeeeeeceeeee I2-17 (© Oxford Aviation Servioes LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS, a 22 INTRODUCTION Upper winds are caused by Pressure Gradient Force (PGF), Geostrophic Force (GF) and Cyclostrophic Forces in the same way as the wind immediately above the friction layer. ‘The winds are stronger because the density is less - PGF 29 p sng At 20,000 f, for the same PGF, the wind speed is double the surface wind speed, since density is half that at the surface. Pressure charts for heights above mean sea level could be drawn to find the upper winds, but it ‘would be a labourious task and there are advantages in using a different system, CONTOUR CHARTS - CONSTANT PRESSURE CHARTS A. Constant Pressure or Contour Chart isachart where ‘the pressure is constant everywhere. For example, as shown in Figure 12.1 we can see that the 1000 mb pressure evel varies with height. These heights are plotted as contour lines with the reference being MSL. The heights give us an indication of the distance that a pressure level is from MSL. If the contours ate high values (in comparison to other values on the chart) then we can assume a high pressure exists Conversely if the contours are lower values then we can assume a low pressure, Figure 12.1. 12-4 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS ‘These charts provide valuable information to us about how the pressure is changing over a distance. If the contours are closely spaced we can assume a high pressure gradient exists. If ‘we can identify where the low pressure is we can then discover what the strength and direction of the resulting wind will be, Again we can use buys ballots law so that with our back to the wind in the Northem Hemisphere the lower value contour is on the left, which is effectively a lower pressure. The upper winds will blow paralle! to the contour lines (just like surface winds and isobars). This wind speed is proportional to the distance between the contour lines. The wind that we find from this are for the height of the constant pressure chart, eg 500 mbs chart is about 18,000 ft in ISA. Ieel8 on ot ie ag SERS Figure 12.2. Contour Chart. Figure 12.2 above shows contours of the 300mb pressure level as black lines. The contour lines are 400ft apart and we can see high value contours in the bottom of the diagram. The value of the highest contour is 308 which is 30,800f AMSL. Moving up the chart we see the values decrease to 276 (27,6008) which is in the top left hand side. We said that low values indicate Jower pressure and as such the area has been labelled with an L or MIN. We also said we can assume the direction of winds because they blow parallel to the contour lines with the low pressure to the left in the Norther Hemisphere. The blue lines represent strong winds and are found where the contour lines are closely spaced. ‘The dashed red lines are Isotachs which join places of equal wind speed. Again, these will be high values when the contours are close together. 12-2 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS ‘The heights shown on contour charts are heights AMSL, Charts are drawn for: 700 mbs - 10,000 fe 500 mbs - 18,000 ft 300 mbs - 30,000 ft 250 mbs - 34,000 ft 200 mbs - 39,000 ft 100 mbs - $3,000 ft 12.3 ISOTACHS Isotachs are lines joining places of equal windspeee. 124 THERMAL W D The pressure changes that exist in the upper atmosphere that control our upper winds are directly related to the temperature differences between air masses. Figure 12.3 shows that the temperature difference between two air masses dictates the pressure we find in the upper atmosphere. “Thickness between lsobere in tens of metres = deca Figure 12.3. Pressure Changes at Height in Airmasses of Different Temperature 12-3 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS. ‘The pressure difference created by different temperatures will cause winds. In the northern hemisphere with your back to the wind the cold air will be on the left, (because this cold gives us a low pressure in the upper atmosphere). ‘This wind is known as the thermal wind. ‘The thermal wind is the component which when added vectorially to the geostrophic wind near the surface will provide the upper wind. THERMAL WIV GENERATED BETWEEN TWO LEVELS LOWER LEVEL WIND vELociTY RESULTANT UPPER. WIND. VELOCITY Figure 12.4, The Thermal Wind Component. Isotherms ean help inform us where the cold and warm air is. Once this is identified we can presume the direction of the thermal wind. In the northern hemisphere it will blow parallel to the isotherms with the low temperatures to the left of the wind, The speed of the thermal wind is inversely proportional to the distance between the isotherms. ‘THICKNESS CHARTS. Rather than drawing isotherms of mean temperature, the meteorologist has traditionally drawn jsopleths/Isohypse that produce thickness charts, These show the difference in height between two pressure levels usually the 500mb and 1000mb levels. If you look at Figure 12.3 you can see that in cold air the thickness or distance between the isobars is much Jess than in warm air. If we plot these values on a chart we will be able to see different thickness values. Low thickness value or decameters show we have very cold ir, and large thickness values show warm air, These are respectively called eold pools and warm domes. Figure 12.5 shows a typical thickness charts by plotting isohypses/isopleths. 12-4 © Onford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS Looking at Figure 12.5 we can identify high value enclosed isopleths would therefore indicate ‘a warm dome (as shown in area B) or conversely, we can see low valued enclosed isopleths indicating a cold pool (as shown in area A), Isopleths that are very close together show very steep horizontal temperature gradients (as shown in areas E). This suggests that the temperature difference between the air masses is steep indicating the possibility of strong upper winds. Similarly with isobars and contours, the upper ‘wind will blow parallel to the isohypse/isopleths The most important feature about thickness charts is the shape of the isopleths. Like pressure charts with troughs and ridges, we can also find tongues of cold or warm air. If we have cold air advection (horizontal movement) undercutting the warmer air (as shown in Figure 12.5 between ‘Areas C and D), this would force the warmer air to rise and thus create the potential for significant cloud development if there is sufficient moisture. This is essential frontal weather where we have cold air undercutting warm, as seen on the cold front. Whenever the cold ait ‘moves and undercuts warm air the chart will show a front. In addition to the assessment of cloud and “weather” a rough estimate of the thermal wind speed, can be made by using the following: Thermal wind speed - temp gradient per 100 nm x atttude ot eg, ifthe temperature gradient through 40,000 ft is 3 degrees/100 nm, then the thermal W/S will be 120 kts. ‘This rough indication of the thermal wind speed which is usually assessed by the meteorologist in narrow height bands is valid for 50 degrees latitude only. However, itis quite possible by using the basic triangle of forces” principle to identify positions of isotherms and theoretically determine thermal wind velocity 12-5 © Oxlord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS. hr PROG VI SoD Figure 12.6 Thickness Chart 600-1000mb COLD POOL (QUASI-STATIONARY, LONG-LASTING TYPE) WARM DOME COLD POOL (TRANSITORY/MOBILE TYPE) COLD POOL (TRANSITORY/SLOW-MOVING TYPE) COLD POOL (LOW-LATITUDE TYPE) BAROCLINIC ZONES 12-6 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS Question 1. In the Northern Hemisphere the wind at 2,000 ft is 210° 60. The thermal wind is 20 knots, With the lowest mean temperature in the North West. The upper wind is; a) 210° 40 kts, ©} 300°/ 40 kts. by) .210°/ 80 kts, d) 030° / 80 kets, Question 2, In the Northem Hemisphere the wind at 2,000 ft is 270° /20. The wind at 8,000 ft is 325°/ 35 ‘ts. In these conditions the isotherms of mean temperature will increase from; 4) North to South ©) South to North, b) East to West. @ West to East Question 3. In the Northern Hemisphere, ifthe 2,000 ft wind velocity is 360° /30 kts, and the thermal wind speed is 30 kts. being generated by lower temperature in the North. What will be the resultant ‘upper wind; a) 135°/ 30 kts, ©) 3159/42 ts, by 045°/ 42 kts. ad) 225°/30 kts, Question 4. At SO°N the thermal component of the upper W/V produced by a 4° temperature difference between two columns of air 200 nm apart between the 700 mb level and the 300 mb level is likely to be: a) 80 knots ©) 0 knots bd) 48 knots: d) 28 knots 12-7 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS. 126 THERMAL WIND LAWS. ‘Temperature in the troposphere decreases from the equator to the poles so isotherms of mean temperature are roughly parallel to parallels of latitude. Hence the average thermal wind must be westerly outside the tropics. This leads to the following rough rules: WIND NEAR SURFACE UPPER WIND Northerly Will back towards westerly (See Figure 12.6.) Southerly Will veer towards westerly (See Figure 12.7) Westerly ‘Will increase in speed but maintain (See Figure 12.8) direction Easterly Will decrease in specd and then veer or back (See Figure 12.9) to become light westerly T u 8 s U T i Fi Figure 12.6 ‘gure 12.7 s T U Ss SS U T Figure 12.8 Figure 12.9 12-8 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS 12.7 128 In the tropics (0/to 20 degrees, but varying with season) the winds up to 40,000 fi are generally easterly. ADDITIONAL RULES. If low pressure is associated with low mean temperature in the air above, the upper wind direction will not change from the geostrophic near the surface, but windspeed will increase. IChigh pressure is associated with Low mean temperature in the air above, then the upper wind. will decrease in speed and may reverse in direction. If the Geostrophic Wind near the surface blows across the isotherms of mean temperature from ‘warm to cold, the wind will veer with increase in height backs in the southem hemisphere). If the Geostrophic Wind near the surface blows across the isotherms from eold to warm, the ‘wind backs with height (veers in the southern hemisphere). JETSTREAMS Jetstreams are strong narrow currents of air with speeds greater than 60 kts. They are concentrated along quasi-horizontal axes in the upper troposphere or stratosphere and are characterised by strong vertical and lateral wind shears, Jetstreams may have more than one velocity maximum, ‘They are usually about 1500 nm long, 200 nm wide 12,000 ft deep. Figure 16.5. Typical Dimensions of a Jet Stream. 12-9 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS, 12.9 12.10 CAUSES Jtstreams are caused by large mean temperature differences in the horizont components. i.e, large thermal LOCATIONS There are two main locations: a) Sub tropical jetsteams form in the area of the sub-tropical anti-cyclones, They are -asonally with the sub-tropical highs. Th more or less pet manent but movi occur in the latitude bands 25° to 40° in winter and 40° to 45° in summer. ‘The jet core is at the 200 mb level Mineo Sas Figure 12.12. Sub-Tropical Jetstreams. 12-10 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS. » ° 4 e) Polar front jetstreams form in the polar front region in both hemispheres 40° to 65° N and around 50° § and near any front which is separate from the polar front. The jetstreams in a polar front depression lie parallel to the fronts. They are located in the warm air. Polar Night Jets occur in higher middle latitudes in mid-winter near the top of the stratosphere (50 mb level). Direction is westerly and speeds average 150 kts. Speeds of 350 kts have been noted. ‘Tropical Kasterly Jet (Equatorial Easterly Jet). Strong easterlies that occur in the northern hemisphere’s summer between 10° and 20° north, where the contrast between intensely heated central Asian plateaux and upper air further south is greatest. It runs from South China Sea westwards across Southern India, Ethiopia and the sub Sahara, Typically heights circa 1S0hPa (13-14 km; 45,000 ft) Aretic Jet Stream found between the boundary of arctic air and polar air. Typically in ‘winter at around 60° north but in the USA around 45° to 50° north. ‘The core varies between 300 and 400hPa, It is a transient feature found over large continents during arctic air outbreaks. Figure 12.13. Polar Front Jetstreams. 12-11 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS, Figure 12.14. A Vertical Cross Section Through a Jetstream. Figure 12.15. Average Upper Winds - 300 mbs to 200 mbs Note: This general disposition of winds will move some 15° South in January and some 15° North in July. 4) Local Jets may arise due to local thermal or dynamic circumstances e.g, the Somali, or Findlater jet off East Africa, ©) Other Jets, ‘Jets’ as opposed to Jet Streams may exist as narrow, fast currents of air at Iw level. 12-12 (© Ofer Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS. wat 12.12 1213 12.14 DIRECTION AND SPEED The direction of jetstreams is generally westerly, maximum speeds occur neat the tropopause, 200 kis have been recorded in Europe/N Atlantic and 300 kts in Asia, In equatorial regions there are however some easterly jets. CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE (TURB) Clear air turbulence (TURB) occurs around the boundaries of jetstreams because of the large horizontal and vertical windshears. It is strongest near to, or just below, the jet axis on the cold air (low pressure) side with a secondary area above the axis. MOVEMENT As with most other weather phenomena, Jetstreams move with the sun. Sub-tropical jets, based on Hadley Cells, will move north in the northern summer as the heat equator moves north and then south in the northern winter. Polar Front Jets in the northern hemisphere will move north (and decrease in speed) as the Polar Front moves north in summer. During the winter the Polar Front moves south and because of the greater temperature difference, the speed will increase. RECOGNITION 8) From the ground, when the ‘cloud amounts allow, jets may be recognised by wind blown wisps of CIRRUS cloud blowing at right angles to the clouds at lower levels. Figure 12.16 Recognition by Clouds 12-13 {© Oxford Aviation Servicos LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS b) _ Inthe Air, the presence of a jet will be difficult to SEE, but temperature differences, increases in windspeed, drift and clear air turbulence are all evidence of jet streams. ©) On Charts, jets may be picked out quite easily by inspection of Upperwind Charts and ‘more graphically perhaps by looking at a Significant Weather Chart, aA tans JOR vTINS/TENeS PL 340 01/12002 | § # cen wan gh mon ware Sag: Figure 12.17 12.15 FORECASTING ‘The forecasting of jet streams is largely a matter of producing charts from upper air soundings bby Radio Sonde. Thickness charts were mentioned earlier as a means of establishing thermal ‘wind patterns, but for forecasting, meteorologists use contour charts, In-flight reports of temperature and wind velocities are a useful confirmation of upper air soundings and over oceans (and deserts) are vital supplements. 12-14 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS SUB TROPICAL JET © Crown copyright Figure 12.18. Jet Streams on Sig/Wx Chart 12-15 © Onford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS. UPPER WIND QUESTIONS ‘An Aircraft on a transatlantic flight from New York to London is forecast to cross the surface position of a cold front at 1000 UTC. The cold front jet is aligned SW-NE and is associated with the cold front, Using the above information answer the following three questions, 1. The direction of maximum drift and the time it is encountered a) Rightandafter 1000 UTC, b) —_Leftand before 1000 UTC. ©) Leftand after 1000 UTC. d) Right and before 1000 UTC. 2. Just after 1000 UTC the upper wind is most likely to be: a) Backing and increasing b) Backing and decreasing. ) —_ Veering and increasing. dd) Veering and decreasing, 3. Strong wind shear is likely to be found: a) Above the jet core and also on the warm air side of the jet core. b) Directly below the jet core and also on the cold air side of the jet core. c) Level with the axis on the cold air side and above the jet core. 4) After the jet core has been passed. 4, Flights eastbound over the North Atlantic in winter at the 200 mb level will on average experience a tailwind. a) 100kt by 80 kt ©) Skt d) T0kt 5. The 2000' wind is 040/20 kt in the southern hemisphere. The thermal wind component is 30 kt with the warm air to the north and cold to south, What is resulting wind aloft: a) 070/46 by 315/23 ©) 280/46 gd) 135/23 12-47 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS 10. From summer to winter the movement of the jet streams over the North Atlantic and the speed change will be: a) North with a speed increase. b) North with a speed reduction. ©) South with a speed increase. 4) South with a speed reduction. In the N, hemisphere if the geostrophic wind near the surface was 210/60 kt. The thermal wind was 20 kt with the lowest mean temperature in the northwest. ‘The upper wind was: a) 210/40 kt b) 210/80 ke cc) 300/40 kt 4) 030/80 kt In middle latitudes the westerly component of the upper wind normally increases with height because: a) The pressure gradient force increases. b) The geostrophie force increases. ©) The density increases. 4) The thermal wind component on average is westerly. In the Northern hemisphere the wind at 2000 ft is-270/20. The wind at 8000 conditions the isotherms of mean temperature will increase from: is 325/35. In these a) North to South, b) West to East. ©) South to North, @) Fast to West A contour chart eannot be used: a) To find upper winds. b) To find the thermal wind ©) To locate jet streams. 4) To locate upper ridges and troughs. 12-18 “© Onford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS. ul 12, 4, A line drawn on a chart joining places having the same temperature at the same level and at the same time is: 8) an isotherm b)—anisallobar ©) acontour dd) anisobar In the northern hemisphere the speed of the thermal wind component in the layer between 5000 fiand 14000 ft is given as 40 kts and low temperature lies to the north. The geostrophic wind at $000 ft is 235/35. Which of the following is the most likely wind at 14000 ft: a) b) ° ad 270/40 255/70 330/25 305/35 In the southern hemisphere the 2000 f W/V is 000/30, the wind at 8000 ft is 325/35. In these conditions the isotherms of mean temperature will increase from: a) b) ° d) North to south, South to north. East to west West 10 east. ‘Typically a jet stream is: a) b) °) d 1000 nm or more long, 200 nm wide and 5 nm deep 1000 nm or more long, 200 nm wide and 5000 ft to 10000 ft deep 1000 nm or more long, 000 ft to 10000 ft wide and 1000 ft deep 150 nm long, 500 nm wide and S000 ft deep When associated with a typical mid latitude frontal depression, a jet stream core would be loca a) b) ° a in the cold air, just above the polar tropopause in the warm air, just above the warm air tropopause in the warm air, just below the tropopause ‘on the frontal surface 12-19 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY UPPER WINDS. ANSWERS. Ques | Answer | Ques | Answer 1 B i4 B 2 D 1s c 3 c { 4 5 6 c 7 B 8 D 9 D 0 B iW A 12 B 13 B 12-20 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedCHAPTER THIRTEEN - CLOUDS Contents Page 1B. INTRODUCTION, 2.000000 ccc cette ttt TBI 13.2 CLOUD AMOUNT Lo 1B-1 133 CLOUD BASE... ws cee 18-1 134 CLOUD CEILING ce coe Bet 13.5 MEASUREMENT OF CLOUD BASE ... 13-1 13.6 THE CLOUD BASE RECORDER. ..0.000.0 60000 0ccccceeeeeeeeeee BOB 13.7 MEASUREMENT OF CLOUD TOPS ......0.06000000:ecceceeeresees Bd 13.8 CLOUD MOVEMENT ce 13-4 13.9 CLOUD CLASSIFICATION. .. 21-5 13.10 BASIC CLOUDS ce 13-6 13.11 OTHER CLOUDS . 13-9 13.12. HEIGHTS FOR TEMPERATE LATITUDES. foe B10 13.13 STATION CIRCLE CLOUD DECODE 1-10 CLOUD QUESTIONS .......+ : cee 3-11 (8 Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY cLoups Bd 1B2 B3 Ba INTRODUCTION Clouds are signposts in the sky which indicate to the pilot possible weather problems, such as:~ a) Turbulence. b) Poor Visibility. ©) Precipitation. «Icing CLOUD AMOUNT Cloud amounts are reported in OKTAS (1/8ths). It is assumed that the sky is divided into 8 ‘equal parts and the total cloud amount is reported by an assessment of the number of eighths of the sky covered by cloud, CLOUD BASE, “That lowest zone in which the type of obscuration perceptibly changes from that corresponding to clear air haze to that corresponding to water droplets or ive crystals.” The cloud base is the height of the base of the cloud above ground - above official aerodrome level. CLOUD CEILING “The height above aerodrome level of the lowest layer of cloud of more than 4 oktas’ MEASUREMENT OF CLOUD BASE a) By day: As illustrated in Figure 13.1. a balloon with a known rate of ascent is released and the time between release and the disappearance of the balloon into cloud is noted. From this cloud base can be calculated, Figure 13.1. Finding the Cloudbase by Releasing a Balloon with a Known Rate of Ascent. 13-4 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY cLoups 3y night: An Alidade, shown in Figure 13.2., is positioned a known distance from a searchlight and is used to measure the angle above the horizontal ofthe searchlight glow on the base of the cloud. ‘The height of the cloud base is then calculated by trigonometry. b) By Figure 13.2 An Alidade KNOWN DISTANCE Figure 13.3 Finding the Height of the Cloud Base. 13-2 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY cLoups 13.6 ‘THE CLOUD BASE RECORDER ‘The cloud base recorder, which s illustrated in Figure 13.4., gives a continuous readout of cloud base by day and night. It is used at major airports. The system has a transmitter with a narrow beam of light which swings from 8 degrees above the horizontal to the vertical and back again continuously. Receiver Figure 13.5 Using the Cloud Base Recorder 13-3 © Onord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY cLoups 18 The receiver isa shrouded photo-clectric cell which will only accept light from the vertical. For any cloud base there will be only one angle of the transmitter (TX) beam which will provide vertical light into the receiver (RX), The angle will be known because of the position of the beam at the time an electrical current is received at the RX. The information is sent by land line to a recorder display in ATC. MEASUREMENT OF CLOUD TOPS ‘The height of cloud tops is obviously not as easy to measure as that of the cloud base. Meteorologists may be able to make a visual assessment, if conditions permit, but more usually they will use RADAR or employ aircraft observation, CLOUD MOVEMENT ‘Meteorological stations measure the movement of clouds by means of a Nephoscope. This, measures the angular speed of movement of cloud and if the base height is known, the speed of movement may be calculated, A Besson Nephoscope is shown below. Tit. 73in, EYE LEVEL——— DIRECTION PLATE DIRECTION INDICATING STRIP Figure 13.6 Example of a Besson Nephoscope 13-4 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY cLoups Bo CLOUD CLASSIFICATION Clouds are classified in three basie forms: a) Stratiform A level sheet of horizontal development, layered and if of strato cumulus, with some discernable shape. b) — Cumutiform Vertical development cloud, rounded and heaped. c) —Cirriform —_ Fibrous, feathery cloud - high level. Figure 13.9 Cirriform Cloud 13-5 (© Oxford Aviation Services Limited9-eb ver agen (+suyfel - $) 2 44 000'Sr 29 qUOL4 WE M JO Peoyy (+snwoo0L) oO sminwno ‘wug0s 01 00€ ooo 3uIno | IN TIN siershig 29} 009'91 “ONNID (swe - s) so 44 000'Sh Wuos4 WHE) JO PeoUY (+sqwoo04) o SMLVYLS wugos 01 008 goo9 31nd | TIN aIN syjeishig 20} oos'gt “OuID (+Suyfe - S) 44 000'Sh quoi wie Jo pesyy (+8nwo00L) 3 9 wugog 01 oF 009 31IND | IN aN sieiskio 29} 00g‘ sna (aunuvazawai) | 10awWas SONVOIINOIS Aunigisia | oNiol | a30NzINgYNL | NoLISodWOo JONVY LHOISH ‘3 aWYN San0T) Isva_oreTWeb ages anoge sere] wnipey | sy ou) BuIBioyy “YOU ye sleistig 34.000°S1 01 000'01 SN quscelpe (-snwoz - oF) auanag e18n9g sol ing ‘sieidoig | eqkew-1400s'9 | SMLWYLS quory Wwe wOOd 0} aieupoW, 0} 1e10poW se1em Aturew | 0} 1907 puncip eseg | -ORWIN —_-- ‘mojoq pur pulyeq ‘snyeS-OQWIN, (sw - Z) jul sa6sow uayo 14 000'2 sy quosy ueme | (SsWOOOL - 02) steysAig 80) pue oO SMLWULS Jo peaye WUQOZ ul ‘sjesepoyy 0} YB] | syesepoyy oj YB] | syeidoug see 00s'9 “OL quo we (swz - 2) Oo 2 Jo yeoidde L4000'¢2 ov 8u) S@]BO1pUL (sawooot - 02) ‘sieysA19 80) pue a sminwno souinewog uivs eresepon 041467 | e1e1epOW o1 4B] | sie\dorg seIeEM 00s'9 “OL (Sqnuiw1 auniveadwal) Togwas AONVOIINOIS ALnigisin ‘ONIDI gonaTN@un. | NolLIsodWoo BONVY LHOISH 2 aWVN8-eb 4 eA YW (snwiol > Hy Buyer ‘290 sieishig eo | (+SWyeL - 0) qo ‘swuoysiepuny |, ‘smwoz >) arenes ssoneg 4,999 | puesisidoig | 14 000'sr snewin 004 or aresepoyy | e1oneg 01 e1e10p0"W J1em, 01194971 punog | OTNWND (sawoy > (+s - 0) og 9 oyu} dojanop Kew 290 sieyshig 20} 44000'S2 aauian ng @B1e7 “ju014 ‘snwoz >) | eueneg pue sjeidoua ° m9 pig “pnoig Aimgeisul | J00g or areiapow | eierag or areiepow | sie ere7 puneiy | sminwno uydg 6 “B04 (sawog ‘eye19pOW, (sus - 0) _ uesty “owes uueM | -01)400d | on 4B sjaidoig 4.4003'9 “pnoig esuainqin | oj ajexepoy | jeuoise209 IN Jem, 01 49x27 punsig | snivais (Saws _ pnoig no - oH) (swys - 0) um pareroossy uayo | 400g aresepoyy saidoig 44 008'9 smnwno ‘pno}g sousinginy | 0} eyerepoyy ony6r), ayesepoyy 03 14617 BIEN 0) }9497 pun | -C1WHIS (s3qn.itw7 aunveadWal) | TOaWAs FONVOIJINOIS ALTIBISIA ONIOI goNTIngun. | NOILISOdWoo | 3ONVYLHOISH | PaINWNze1 ogeL pnoj ereydsosew v “pnojg 19 SN JeUIEN $400] “voZUOY uy Mojag .O1 ® .9 UBEMIEq UNS @4) YIM SYIUOYY JoULUNS, syeistio (14 00'00z SA0gv) Buuinp epnyne7 .S9 8 .0S UeeMjaq peniesgo Aj'soyy 20) aqnuy AGeosd wyO6-SL GNO7D LNIOMNILOON yesuns punoxe seqUIAA UI SapMINET BIH Ul UEES jeucises9Q sng pue sjeisAig NOI HEBd JO JOYTOWW, Se UMOUY AsIMaUIO 29) Aigeqosed 44000'001 O1 00°02 anoro snoawown | souainginy aanag siesXso @0] (sud - Z) SIMVINOILNAT ajeolpur Key “sane/M (ueIUROW\) BulpuE;s Jo uoRed!pU|_ | pue sje|dod JeIEM 14 000'EZ OL 003'9 sminwnooLy soy ssewuly eUNUeW Je[0g BuLuMeY a9 Buidojenep SIeISAIQ 29 (swyz - 2) snNvTIaLsvo Aiqyssod *sjen27 8451H Hy Jy e1qe3sUN a]e01PU pue sjajdoug 48}8/\)\ 13 000'€Z 91 00S'9 smNWns0Lv BONVOIINOIS NOILISOdWOO ONVY LHOISH TOBWAS 8 AWN SG1019 XAHLO ETMETEOROLOGY cLoups 13.12 HEIGHTS FOR TEMPERATE LATITUDES, STABLE AIR UNSTABLE AIR LAYER CLOUDS HEAP CLOUDS See SSS LOW MED HIGH LOW MED I I I I I St Ac Ci Cu Acc J I Sc As ds dp I I Ns Cc 1 I 6,500 23,000 45,000 T.P. 25,00023,000 SURFACE 6,500 it 500 surface SURFACE 6,500 Figure 13.10 Cloud Heights for Temperate Latitudes. 13.13 STATION CIRCLE CLOUD DECODE, Over all cloud amount in oktas is shown in the centre of the station circle, Additionally nouns, bases and types are shown at the 6 o"clock and 12 o'clock positions. Detailed decode is at Figure 4,4 individual cloud 13-10 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘Cloud Questions 1. 6. The size of raindrops from a cloud is greater if. ) Airis stable and cloud is layer type. b) ir is unstable and cloud is heap type. ©) Cloud type is AC or NS. d) The relative humidity is high Which piece of equipment is used to measure cloud base: a) barograph b)—_hygrometer co alidade d) barometer In aerodrome reports and forecasts the height of the cloud base refers to: a) the height above mean sea level b) the height above aerodrome elevation ©) the pressure altitude of the cloud base 4) the height above the average ground level for the area Cloud types are classified under three basic family headings, these are: a) Cinviform, Stratiform, Cumuliform b) ——_Stratiform, Heap, Cirriform ©) Cimus, Cumulus and layer 4) Cumulus, Layer and Heap Low cloud in temperate climates, excluding heap are those existing from: a) the surface to 6500 ft b) 1000 A to 6500 c) the surface to 7500 ft d) the surface to 7500 metres Lumpy or heaped white cloud is: a) altocirrus b) cumulus ©) cumulonimbus d) —_nimbostratus 13-11 (© Ostord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY cLoups 7. In temperate latitudes which statement is correct: a) Ci only occurs above 15000 ft b) ——Cionly occurs above 16500 ft ©) Cionly occurs above 25000 ft 4) Cionly occurs above 30000 ft 8. Typical base heights in temperate latitudes, of altocumulus cloud are in the range of: a) 6500 ft to 23000 ft b) 5000 Ato 15000 ft ©) 8500 ft to 18000 FE d) 1000 # to 6500 fe Continuous type precipitation is expected from layer clouds because: a) The vertical extent of the cloud is small. 'b) The upcurrents are not very strong. ©) The air is stable. 4) The cloud is large in horizontal extent. 10. _Theexpected average height ranges for low, medium and high layer clouds in temperate latitudes are: a) Low: Surface - 10 000': Medium 10 000" - 20 000": High 20 000' - 45 000" b) Low: Surface - 6500' : Medium 6500' - 23 000" High 23 000' - 45 000° ce) Low: Surface - 8000' : Medium 6500' - 16 500" High 16 500’ - 45 000" d) Low: Surface - 6500' ; Medium 6500" - 23 000" High 16 500'- 45 000° 11, The turbulence associated with cumulus cloud is: a) Moderate. b) Slight to nit. Oo Nil d) Moderate possibly severe. 13-12 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY cLoups 12. When the met observer reports the amount of cloud present at a station, it will be given as: a) Clear, scattered, broken or overcast b) The amount of cloud, in tenths of the sky covered , using the term oktas ©) The amount of cloud, in quarters of the sky covered, using the term oktas 4) The amount of cloud, in eighths of the sky covered, using the term oktas. 13. On weather charts, the station circle shows the height of the cloud base: a) above ground level b) above mean sea level c) ata pressure altitude d) in metres above surface level 14, Which of the following clouds is never a hazard to aviation: 2) Nimbostratus b) —— Noctilucent cloud ©) Cumulonimbus cloud d) Stratus cloud 13-13 © Orford Aviation Services LimiteMETEOROLOGY cLouDSs ANSWERS Ques | Answer | Ques | Answer 1 B 8 2 c 9 3 B 10 D 4 A ul D 5 A 12 D 6 B 13 A 7 B 4 B 13-14 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedCHAPTER FOURTEEN - CLOUD FORMATION AND PRECIPITATION Contents Page 14,1 VERTICAL MOTION. (eee ceeeeeeeeee Me 14.2 CONDENSATION LEVEL. 2.2.2. .....000000 cece revere vteveeeceecee ed 143 TURBULENCE CLOUD. ......... feet eee ee cere Me 144 THE SITUATION AT THE START OF TURBULENCE. ccc 14-2 145 THE SITUATION AFTER FULL TURBULENCE. 146 OROGRAPHIC CLOUD. ........... . 14-3 147 CONVECTION CLOUD. coe 14-4 14.8 WIDESPREAD ASCENT (FRONTAL UPLIFT)... 14-6 14.9 CONVERGENCE CLOUD ..... cecceeeeeeeeeeeee cece 14-7 14.10 MOUNTAINOUS AREAS. ...2.0.00000000004 cee AB IIT INVERSIONS ©2020... . 0. coeeeeeeee 14-8 14.12, PRECIPITATION . . 14-9 14.13 BERGERON THEORY 6 ....620 22020000000 eeteeeete eee 14-9 14.14 COALESCENCE THEORY. .. 11-9 14,15 PRECIPITATION TYPES. .. 14-10 14.16 PRECIPITATION SUMMARY ......... . cece 4-1 14.17 RECORDING. ........0 cece voce eeeeeeeeeeees M12 14.18 CLOUD ON THE STATION MODEL (STATION CIRCLE) 14-12 CLOUD FORMATION QUESTIONS . . 14-13 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION 14.1 14.2 VERTICAL MOTION Cloud is formed by air being lifted and cooled adiabatically until the water vapour condenses out as water droplets. The height at which this occursis called the condensation level. [tis also the height of the cloud base, ‘The means whereby the initial lifting of the air occurs are as follows: a) Turbulence. b) — Orographie Uplift ©) Convection. «) Slow, widespread ascent (frontal uplift) ©) Convergence NOTE: The lifting processes above are strictly all ‘convection’; process ¢) is free convection, the rest are forced convection. CONDENSATION LEVEL Figure 14.1 shows a temperature/height diagram to illustrate the location of the condensation level. In the diagram rising air will cool at the DALR until it reaches the ELR. If at the same time it reaches the DP line the air will be saturated and cloud will form. This will be the condensation level, Figure 14.1 Condensation Level 14-4 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION 14.3 TURBULENCE CLOUD The conditions which are necessary for turbulence clouds to form are; a) Stable air, b) Sufficient turbulent mixing, to inerease the lapse rate. ©) Sufficient humility to place the condensation level within the turbulence layer, 144 THE SITUATION AT THE START OF TURBULENCE Airmixed within the turbulent layer forces the surface air to rise to the top of the turbulence, and the air at the top of the turbulence layer to be forced to the surface, This adiabatic cooling and heating 2000" respectively will be done at DALR. Anew environmental [& lapse rate will be formed 1000 +6 based upon the mean temperatures between the ait TOP OF TURBULENCE wre sec au +106 that is being forced to rise and oak the air that is being forced to sink. Figure 14.2. The Situation at the Start of Turbulence. 145 THE SITUATION AFTER FULL TURBULENCE 4000" [Fee ‘The cloud formed is St or Se, which will give drizzle ot light precipitation. The 000° | + 7-6 |p nv oe OF ae inversion above the top of the 2000 | sec] FOF Oe turbulence gives very smooth AND TOP OF CLOUD air and a flat top to the cloug, sooo | +9" ou [ere +isc OUD ELR, NeW ER Figure 14.3. The Situation After Full Turbulence. 14-2 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY 146 ee ee TEMPERATURE (*0) CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION Figure 14.4 Temperature/Height Diagram. OROGRAPHIC CLOUD Air meeting @ ridge of high ground will be forced to rise. If the air is sufficiently humid the condensation level will appear below the erest of the ridge & cloud will form. Ifthe airis stable and precipitation occurs, the air will descend on the LEE side and the cloud base will be higher than on the windward side and this will generate warmer surface temperature - the Foehn effect. If the air is dryer, then the cloud base will be above the ridge and lenticular cloud would result, 14-3 Figure14.5 Orographic Cloud - Stable Conditions Figure 14.6, Orographic Cloud - stable, but dryer © Oxford Aviation Sorvicas LimosMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION 147 Lifting in unstable conditions can produce Cu or Cb clouds and also thunderstorms if there is enough water vapour present, Strong winds with moist air ean cause convective instability and Cb and ‘thunderstorms. The Cb can be embedded in other cloud types, eg frontal or Turbulence cloud. Figure 14.7. Orographic Cloud Forming in Unstable Conditions. Temperature > Figure 14.8. Temperature/Height Diagram CONVECTION CLOUD Critical Temperature. Before dealing with the formation of convection cloud we must consider the critical, or convective temperature. Fig 14.9 shows air rising and cooling at the DALR at 0700,0800 & 0900 hrs. The first two ascents result in the ait falling back on reaching the ELR, but at 0900 the rising air reaches the Dew Point line, cloud forms and the air now cools at the SALR & continues rising. 14-4 (© Onford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION “10 o 2 6 78 0 Rang temp > Temperature Figure 14.9 Critical Temperature ‘There are two particular cases: a) fair weather Cu, which often forms early in the ‘moming, b) large Cw/Cb, which often occur later in the day. HEIGHT * 1000" Figure 14.10. The Formation of Convection Cloud 14-5 {© Oxford Aviation Services LiitodMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION 14.8 Convection cloud is heap type,Cu or Cb.. Its isolated, often forming over a place, then being, blown away by the wind and further clouds forming over the same place. ‘The surface air temperature required for the air to be lifted to the condensation level and for cloud (o form is called the critical temperature. ‘The cloud base will vary due to the varying temperatures on the ground surfaces. Cloud tops, however, are usually limited by mixing with and evaporating into a drier environment. The tops are then lower than the limit of uplift If there is turbulence with the convection, then Se can form, the Cu being spread out to form. the layer cloud. Pure convection cloud cannot form over the sea but where there is cold air moving over a warm surface the air will become unstable and convection type cloud can form. This movement is, called advection Convection cloud formed over land by surface heating soon dissipates at night because insolation stops and the cloud droplets evaporate. WIDESPREAD ASCENT (FRONTAL UPLIFT) Ata front there is widespread lifting of air as warm air comes into contact with colder air. Layer type clouds form in the stable air at a warm front and heap clouds in the unstable air at a cold front. Figure 14.11. The Formation of Frontal Cloud. 14-6 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY 14.9 CONVERGENCE CLOUD. When there is low pressure there is always convergence at the surface which leads to air being lifted. Thus in depressions and troughs, where there are no actual fronts, cloud formation oceurs. See Figure 14.12. With strong convergence at a trough, lifting can cause instability to develop so that the cloud type is Cu or Cb with possible thunderstorms. CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION CONVERGING AIR FALLING PRESSURE Figure 14.12 Convergence This is particularly the case when saturation occurs early, with an average or high ELR. NOTE: With circular isobars at a non-frontal low, normally only SUSc cloud will be formed by convergence, Figure 14,13. Cloud Formation through Convergence. 14-7 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION 14.10 MOUNTAINOUS AREAS We have seen how orographic lifting produces cloud; in mountainous areas this may be very active and produce Unstable Air- extensive cloud and Extensive Vertical vertical development dueto Convective Instability Development Additionally, this may increase the intensity of precipitation. Figure 14.14 Mountainous terrain 14.11 INVERSIONS An inversion in the atmosphere is where temperature rises with an increase in height. This producesextreme stability and must inhibit the formation of cloud. An inversion always exists above turbulence cloud and inversions have @ similar effect at ANY altitude. Height ——————> Temperature ——————> Figure 14.15 Effect of inversions 14-8 © Orford Aviation Servioes LimitesMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION 14.12 1413 14.14 PRECIPITATION ‘Clouds consist of water droplets averaging 0.02 mm in diameter and the rate of fall is negligible. By colliding with other droplets they may increase in size until they are too heavy to be supported by the upcurrents in the cloud and they drop out as precipitation. ‘There are currently two theories governing the formation of these precipitation drops. Figure 14.16 Precipitation BERGERON THEORY The Bergeron theory presumes that at high levels in the cloud, some of the water droplets will turn to ice and will grow in size by sublimation of water vapour and collision with supercooled ‘water droplets. The frozen droplets will be much heavier than the existing water droplets and drop out atthe bottom of the cloud, either as Snow or Raindrops, depending on the temperature. COALESCENCE THEORY It is difficult to see how the above can account for summer precipitation where the whole of the cloud is at a temperature above zero and the coalescence theory may provide a better auswer. ‘This assumes the presence of a range of droplet sizes, the larger falling faster and uniting with the smaller until eventually the overweight drop falls out as drizzle or rain, 14-9 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LiitedMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION 14.15 PRECIPITATION TYPES a) b) °) e) Drizzle. Snow. Soft Hail or Graupel: Ice Pellets Diameter: 0.2 t00.5mm Visibility 500 to 3,000m Imperceptible impact. Diameter: 0.5 to 5.5mm Visibility: 3,000 t0 5.5km (1,000m in heavy rain) Pereeptible impact. Grains/Needles: Diameter 4 >4 10-50 . * . * . * cLoup TYPE INTENSITY HEAP co Rai/Snow showers, Light to moderate instability) Cb Rain/Snow/Hail showers Moderate to heavy o + # vvy LAYER C: (stability) Ce N 1 L cs As, St, Ae, Se Rain/Snow Slight Ns. Rain/Snow Moderate to heavy 14-11 © Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION 14.17 RECORDING 14.18 Rainfall recorders are used at some Met. Offices. They will indicate rate of fall (intensity) of precipitation. SZ stro A Collecting chamber B Plastic float C Knife edges D Double siphon tubes E Trigger F Counterweight G Rain trap H Pendiifting rod Figure 14.17 Rainfall Recorder Rain GAUGES merely measure the amount of precipitation falling at the station, ‘The intensity would have to be estimated, and where visibility is measured a table may be used (Figure 14.18.) CLOUD ON THE STATION MODEL (STATION CIRCLE) Chapter 4 dealt with Synoptic Charts and how weather information is plotted on them. At this, stage we should be able to decode all the information (including cloud and precipitation) so depicted. An exercise in the complete decoding of information is included as an annex to this chapter. 14-12 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION Cloud Formation Questions Tropical Maritime Air over UK which originally had a surface temperature of 10°C and a lapse rate of 2°C per 1000 ft is subjected to frictional turbulence from the surface up to 3000 ft. Use this information to answer the next two questions. 1. After mixing and assuming the air remains dry, the surface temperature is likely to be: a) b) 3 ad 1s°C 16°C re 10°C 2. The temperature at 5000 fis likely to be: a) b) 2 d) orc 2C 42°C 33°C Ifyou observe drizzle falling, the cloud above you is most likely to be: a AS b) cu ost d) NS. 4, Turbulence cloud is usually a sheet of Stratus, Strato Cumulus some 2000 ft thick witha flat top because: a) The air is usually at low temperatures containing little water vapour. b) Turbulence steepens the lapse rate producing an inversion above the friction layer. ©) Airis not allowed to remain in contact with the surface due to the strong wind thus maintaining cool surface air with warm air above 4) The lapse rate becomes stable in the friction layer, due to turbulent mixing 5. Clouds formed by convection will always: a) Be layer clouds. b) Be CUCBor NS. ©) Have a rising cloud base and may develop into CB as the day progresses. —_ Formonly in Polar maritime air. 14-13 © Oord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION 6. 10. With reference to anticyclones affecting the UK, which of the following statements is correct: a) The pressure gradient is greatest towards the centre of the anticyclone. b) _Anticyclonesare more common in winterthan they are in summer. This is why radiation fog is much more frequent in the winter. ©) Apart from turbulence cloud, the formation of all other cloud types is unlikely in anticyclonic conditions. d) Warm anticyclones are those which are caused by the extreme air density associated ‘warmer weather. ‘The type of cloud from which continuous moderate or heavy rain is likely to fall is: a) large cumulus b)——_altostratus ©) nimbostratus 4) cumulonimbus The movement of cool moist air over a warmer surface is likely to cause: 4) cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud b) advection fog, ¢}—_nimbostratus cloud 4) alto cumulus lenticular cloud Over the British Isles, @ polar maritime returning airmass would have: a) stability b) instability ©) potential instability d) neutral stability Incensity of precipitation is described as either: 48) intermittent, continuous or showery b) drizzle, rain or snow ©) slight, moderate or heavy d) intermittent, moderate or heavy ‘The term "shower" implies that: a) precipitation is in the form of rain and is continuous b) precipitation is from cumulonimbus cloud and lasts for short periods ©) precipitation is intermittent and is from strato Form cloud d) precipitation is continuous for long periods from cumuloform cloud 14-14 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION 12, 15, Precipitation in the form of snow will not reach the surface unless the surface temperature is: a) less than +4°C b) fess than 0°C ©) less than 45°F d) less than 30°F ‘The type of precipitation in which visibil y is likely to be most reduced: a) drizzle b) snow ©) light rain d) sleet The type of precipitation usually associated with shallow stratocumulus is: a) Mainly water droplets which ean be supercooled if the temperature is low enough, b) Tee crystals. ©) Supercooled water droplets only. ) Large water droplets due to the strong up-currents associated with this type of cloud If'there are small cumulus in the morning in summer, itis reasonable to forecast later in the day: a) Clear skies. b) Stand drizzle. ©) CB Cloud. d) Haze, 14-15 (© Olord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION ANSWERS Ques | Answer | Ques | Answer 1 A 9 Cc 2 A 10, Dd 3 c n B 4 12 A 5 Cc 13 B 6 c 4 A 7 c 15 c 8 A 14-16 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION DECODE OF STATIONS ON CHART CA 85/3 STATION Son ooaw | SON 013W | 4730N 001W | 5330N01330W LoW CLOUD TYPE AMOUNT BASE MED CLOUD TYPE AMOUNT BASE HIGH CLOUD TYPE QFF ‘TENDENCY 4 PAST WX pe vis PRESENT WX TEMP. CLOUD COVER SURF W/V 2000 W, 14-47 (© Oxtora Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY CLOUD FORMATION & PRECIPITATION eo 7 ee i {eg ae Reg ee Sa, Ge Spee eA SMITTEN eg e ew _ ss - Chart 85/3 14-18 © Orford Aviation Services Limites:CHAPTER FIFTEEN - THUNDERSTORMS, Contents, 15.1 CONDITIONS. ...- 152 HEAT TYPE THUNDERSTORMS. .....6.066066065 ceceteeeeeeeee ee IS=1 15.3. FRONTAL TYPE THUNDERSTORMS. 15-2 154 THUNDERSTORM DEVELOPMENT. 15-2 15,8 MOVEMENT OF THUNDERSTORMS. coe co ASS 156 ALIGNMENT ........ a 15-5 15,7 FORECASTING cee IS-6 158 SUPERCELL THUNDERSTORMS (Severe local storms) 0.000.006.0000, 15+7 159 AVOIDANCE, 215-8 15,10. RECOMMENDED THUNDERSTORM AVOIDANCE RANGES USING AIRBORNE RADAR ISI] RADAR... 15-9 15,12. SUMMARY OF THUNDERSTORM HAZARDS «2.2.0... 2 15-10 THUNDERSTORM QUESTIONS 2200000006000 0 00ers IS=16 (2 Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY THUNDERSTORMS 18.1 152 CONDITIONS ‘Thunderstorms occur in well developed Cumulo Nimbus (Cb) loud, though not all Cb’s produce thunderstorms. They are most likely to occur when there is: 8) A lapse rate greater than the SALR through a layer at least 10,000" thick and extending above the freezing level b) Sufficient water vapour to form and maintain the cloud. ©) Trigger * action to produce early saturation, thus enhancing instability. * The so-called triggers or lifting forces are a) Convection b) —— Orographie uplift ©) Convergence @) Frontal uplift ‘Thunderstorms are classified as: a) Heat, or airmass type (more common in summer ti b) Frontal type (more common in winter time). HEAT TYPE THUNDERSTORMS Heat type thunderstorms are; a) Isolated - all triggers except frontal b) Most frequent over land in summer. ° Formed by day, clear by night. d) Formed in cols or weak lows. NOTE: Thunderstorms formed by advection can occur day or night, over land or sea or at any time of the year. 15-4 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY THUNDERSTORMS 15.3 FRONTAL TYPE THUNDERSTORMS Frontal thunderstorms are; a) most frequent in winter. b) formed over land or sea, day or night, ©) usually formed in a fine at a cold front or occlusion, 4) found in active depressions or troughs. ©) often accompanied by a line squall 154 THUNDERSTORM DEVELOPMENT (SINGLE CELL) a) Initial stage. Several small Cu combine to form a large Cu cell about 5 nm across. ‘There are strong upeurrents of 1000 to 2000 fpm (exceptionally 6,000 ft). Air from the sides and below is drawn in to replace the lifted air, thus causing turbulence, The initial stage lasts about 15 to 20 minutes. Figure 15.1, The Building Stage of a Thunderstorm. Rreedwayenc b) Mature stage. When precipitation occurs, the storm has reached the mature stage. The rain or hail will cause strong down currents of up to 2400 fpm and will also bring cold air to lower levels. These down drafts will warm initially at the SALR causing the air to warm very slowly, thereby staying colder than the surrounding air causing it to sink faster, Another factor aiding these down drafts is that some of the rain will evaporate which will absorb latent heat from the air making it even colder and more dense. The intensity of this can lead to the formation of the GUST FRONT. 18-2 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY THUNDERSTORMS: Up currents remain strong and can be up to 10,000 fpm. Tops may rise at 5,000 fpm or more, There can be extreme turbulence in, under and all around the cloud. ‘At the bottom leading edge of the storm there can be a roll of Se and a strong gust front can be experienced up to 13 tol7 nm (24 to 32km) ahead of the storm and be up to.6,000 {eet in depth, Below the cloud a squall and associated wind shear can be expected. Microbursts are possible where the down currents are very strong and are confined to ‘a region in the cloud no more than 3nm (5km) across. ‘Macrobursts are slightly larger in area than microbursts and are said to affect an area between 3 and Smiles across as the entire cold air outflow leaves the thunderstorm or group of thunderstorms(classification Dr. Ted Fujita) Rising and falling water droplets will produce a considerable build-up of static electricity, usually of positive charge at the top of the cloud and negative at the bottom, ‘The build-ups eventually lead to lightning discharge and thunder. ‘A characteristic of the mature stage is the GUST FRONT in advance of the storm produced by the force of the descending air. The gust front may extend 13 to 17 nm (24 to 32km) ahead of the storm centre, ‘The mature stage lasts for a further 15 to 20 mins. Figure 15.2 The Mature Stage of Thunderstorm Development. 15-3 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘THUNDERSTORMS ) Figure 15.4 Gust Front Dissipating stage. At this stage there is precipitation, which is heavy, and extreme ‘turbulence, Thunder and lightning may possibly occur at this stage. ‘The cloud extends to the tropopause, where it is spread out by the upper wind to form an anvil, At these levels the cloud thins to form Ci, Large variations in static charge in and around the cloud cause discharge in the form of | lightning which can appear in the cloud, from the cloud to the ground, or from the cloud ‘to the air alongside, ‘The dissipating stage lasts for a further 1 1/2.t0 2 1/2 hours. 15-4 (© Oxford Aviation Sorvicas LimitedMETEOROLOGY THUNDERSTORMS LDS. Figure 15.5. The Dissipating Stage of a Thunderstorm, 15.5 MOVEMENT OF THUNDERSTORMS ‘Thunderstorms usually move in the direction of the 10,000 fi (700 mb) wind, though large storms and newly developed ones may differ from this. 156 ALIGNMENT Frontal thunderstorms will often appear along a squall line, This is usually an indication of severe weather. The thunderstorm cells will be in varying stages of development. 18-5 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY THUNDERSTORMS 15.7 1.015 10 April 1947 18° 30 CST Figure 15.6 Squall Line FORECASTING Forecasting the occurrence of thunderstorms will be largely a matter of assembling the conditions necessary for the formation and the triggers. A combination of these two groups will indicate the probability of thunderstorms. Satellite photography and computer modelling are used to predict this occurrence. 15-6 © Oxford Aviation Services LitesMETEOROLOGY THUNDERSTORMS 158 SUPERCELL THUNDERSTORMS (Severe local storms) a) Initial Stage Conditions necessary 10 initiate these thunderstorms are: i) Great depth of instability ii) Strong vertical windsheat iii) Stable layer between warm (lower) and cool (upper) air which is eventually broken down by insolation. ») Figure 15.7 Conditions for Supercell Thunderstorm. Mature Stage Characteristics of the mature stage are: i) Very strong up and down draughts produced in the one large (super) cell give rise to violent weather and even tornadoes (an average of 33. tornadoes per year have occurred in Britain over recent years reminding us that they are not ‘a phenomena restricted to the USA). ii) The mature stage may last several hours 18-7 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY THUNDERSTORMS ©) Movement In the Northern hemisphere movement is usually about 20° to the right of the 18,000 ft (S00mb) WV. Location Supercell thunderstorms are more common over continental land masses than over maritime areas. Thunderstorms over the mid-west states of the USA producing tornadoes are good examples. AVOIDANCE, ‘The CAA has produced recommended avoidance distances when re nificance of a radar return of given intensity usually increases with altitude. The principle underlying use of airborne weather radar is that strong up currents (which will support strong turbulence) will support large water \; Figure 15.9 Radar Mosaic A Stormscope is a highly sophisticated system that detects, locates and maps areas of electrical discharge activity con hazards. ined within thunderstorms permitting avoidance of the associated 15-9 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY THUNDERSTORMS, 15,12, SUMMARY OF THUNDERSTORM HAZARDS, a) b) ‘Turbulence. Turbulence can be violent both within cloud and at their sides. Below the cloud, turbulence can be dangerous during take-off and landing and there ean be wind shear. It is possible for a pilot to overstress the airframe in these conditions. Loose articles being thrown about inside the aircraft cabin can injure passengers. Pressure instruments can be in error due to lag. Hail. Hail can be met at any height in the cloud, also below the cloud and below the anvil. Severe skin damage to the airframe can occur when the hail is large. Damaging hail can occur up to a height of 45,000 feet. Figure 15.11 Thunderstorm Hazards 15-10 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY THUNDERSTORMS, ©) Ieing. ‘This can occur at all heights in the cloud where the temperature is between 0°C and 45°C. Heavy concentrations of droplets and large droplet size result in severe clear icing, Carburetior icing can occur at temperatures between -10°C and 430°C and it can be particularly severe between -2°C and +15°C. Figure 15.12 Ice accretion on tailplane and underwing 15-11 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY THUNDERSTORMS, d ii) iii) Lightning. Lightning is most likely to occur within ‘Temperature between 20° and -10°. There 000 ft of the fi fe 3 effects which can be expected. It can cause a pilot to be temporarily blinded. Compasses can become totally Some airframe damage can be caused. Figure 15.13 Lightning 15-12 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY THUNDERSTORMS, ©) Static. This causes interference on radio equipment in the LF, MF, HF and VHF frequencies. St Elmo's fire can be caused by static and it results in purple rings of light around the nose, wing tips and propellers, This is not a hazard, but it indicates that the air is probable. cetrically charged and lightning is f) Pressure variations. Local pressure variations covering only a very small region, in or close to, a storm c occur causing QFE/QNH to be in error, so that altimeter readings can be inaccurate by as much as +1000’ at all heights, ‘These, together with ust effects, can cause height errors at low level which can be dangerous. Figure 15.14 Barogram during a Thunderstorm Pressure Variations VSI’s will also be subject to errors. The aircraft should be flown for ATTITUDE rather than altitude, though some attitude indicators may not be able to cope with the changes of altitude produced bu the severe turbulence likely to be encountered. 15-13 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘THUNDERSTORMS: 2 hy Figure 15.15. Microbursts. Microbursts. These are down currents in the cloud which also move outwards by reaction from the ground, having speeds considerably in excess of 1000 feet per minute downwards (up to 6000fpm) and 50 kts horizontally. The windshear (headwind to tailwind) may be between 50 & 90 kts. They are largely caused by descending raindrops which coo! the surrounding air by evaporation, the higher density accelerating the down draught still further. ‘They are concentrated in a burst which is up to 3nm (5km) in horizontal length and have a lifetime of about 5 minutes. (A Macroburst is a similar event but over a bigger area.) Microbursts are most likely to occur in summer airmass thunder-storms in low latitude regions where surface conditions are dry. They cause extreme turbulence and severe wind shear conditions. ‘A warning sign is virga, which is streaks of precipitation from below the cloud which do not reach the ground. Water ingestion, If-up draught speed approaches or exceeds the terminal velocity of the falling raindrops, the resulting high concentrations of water can exceed the design limits for water ingestion in some turbine engines. The result can be engine flame-out and/or engine structural failure. Water ingestion may also affect pitot heads, even ‘though heaters have been switched on, 15-14 (© Oxford Avation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘THUNDERSTORMS iy Tornados. These are usually associated with severe thunderstorms and Tropical Revolving Storms (TRS), particularly in the mid-west of the United States of America, ‘They take the form of a violent whirlwind extending up from the ground into the base of the Cumulo Nimbus cloud. ‘The speed of the air in the vortex has been known to execed 200 knots. ‘The width of the vortex is typically less than 300 metres horizontally, (average diameter 100m). Further discussion on tornadoes will be given in the syllabus topic of "OTHER DEPRESSIONS" later in the Meteorology Theory lectures. 15-15 |@ Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY THUNDERSTORMS ‘Thunderstorm Questions 1 ‘The conditions which must exist (0 allow thunderstorms to develop are: a) _atrigger action, a plentiful supply of moisture and a very stable atmosphere b) a steep lapse rate, a stable atmosphere through a latge vertical extent and a plentiful supply of moisture ©) plentiful supply of moisture and a steep lapse rate through a large vertical extent and a trigger action 6) steep lapse rate through a large vertical extent, a low relative humidity and a trigger setion When moist air moves across France in the inthe. ‘TS activity is common in southern UK Complete the above statement correctly using one of the following: a) winter/morning b)——summer/late afternoon or evening ©) winter/late afternoon or evening, 4) summerimorning Hazards of the mature stage of a TS cell include lightning, turbulence and: a) microburst, windshear and anvil b) icing, microburst and windshear ©) icing, drizzle and microburst, 4) windshear, hail and fog ‘On a significant weather chart the thunderstorm symbol signifies 4) moderate turbulence and moderate icing b) severe turbulence and severe icing. ©) moderate turbulence and severe icing )—_-moderate/severe turbulence and/or moderate/severe icing ‘Thunderstorms require a trigger action to release the conditional instability. Which of the following would be the Teast suitable as a trigger: a) convergence in temperate latitudes b) convergence in tropical latitudes ©) subsidence in tropical latitudes ) convection in polar latitudes 15-16 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY THUNDERSTORMS, 6 i During the. . . stage of a thunderstorm cell, the cloud contains Complete the above statement correctly using one of the following: a) building/up currents and down currents b) —_-mature/up currents and down currents ©) dissipating/up currents and down currents, 6) building/down currents only ‘The following is unlikely to be a hazard below a thunderstorm: a) Severe turbulence. b) Severe icing. ©) Windshear. ) Large variations in pressure setting values. ‘Thunderstorms are likely if: a) Airis unstable, there is sufficient water vapour and there is trigger action. b) Air is completely stable, there is sufficient water vapour and there is lifting orographically. ©) There is a warm front. 4d) There isa col in winter. Hail grows by: a) Freezing as it leaves the cloud. b) By up and down progress in CU cloud, ©) Bycollision with supercooled water drops. 4) Bycollision with ice erystals. How long approximately does a Cumulonimbus cell take to complete the full cycle from the ‘Cumulus (building) to dissipating stage’ a) 2-3 hours b) 2hours ©) 4Shours 4) About I hour When approaching at flight level 300 a cumulonimbus cloud with an anvil top, pilots should aim 10 avoid the cloud by ---- nms horizontally if avoiding visually, or by -~ nms horizontally if using cloud avoidance radar. Select the appropriate respective ranges from those given below: a) 1020 by) 1S 10 3 1 1S eC) 18-17 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY THUNDERSTORMS 12, 13. 14, 15. A microburst usually lasts for. and is about across, a) 20 minutes 20 nm by) S minutes Skm ©) 30 minutes 10m 4d) 45 minutes Sam ‘Thunderstorms caused by are most common in the summer and by in the. a) lapse rate air masses. late spring, b) —airmasses frontal activity winter ©) cold fronts air masses. autumn 4) airmasses frontal activity summer ‘When flying through an active CB cloud, lightning strikes are most likely: a) Above 5000" and underneath the anvil. b) Inthe clear air below the cloud in rain ©) Inthe temperature band between +10°C and -10°C. 4) Atorabout 10 000 ft AMSL. Regarding thunderstorms, the most accurate statement amongst the following is: a) There will always be windshear under the cloud. b) The average movement is in accord with the wind at 10 000 ff ©) If the cloud base has a temperature below 0°C then freezing rain will occur. 4) The number of lightning flashes is directly proportional to the degree of turbulence. 15-18 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ANSWERS ‘THUNDERSTORMS Ques | Answer | Ques | Answer 1 c 9 c 2 B 10 A 3 B i c 4 D 2 B 3 c B B 6 B 4 c 7 B 1s B 8 A 15-19 (© Orford Aviation Services Limited16.1 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 16.10 16.11 16.12 16.13 16.14 16.15 16.16 CHAPTER SIXTEEN - VISIBILITY Contents Page INTRODUCTION «2... ee RADIATION FOG, ...... 16-1 HILL FOG . re re -16-3 ADVECTION FOG. . SPECIAL AREAS... 16-4 STEAMING FOG (ARCTIC SMOKE). .....- co ceeeee reese WO=4 FRONTAL FOG. . coc cee 16-6 VISIBILITY REDUCERS |. VISIBILITY MEASUREMENT. ....000000000000creeeeee vo 16-9 RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (RVR) .. 16-10 ‘TRANSMISSOMETER. viens 16-10 INSTRUMENTED RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (IRVR), 216-11 VISIBILITY FROM THE AIR, OBLIQUE OR DOWNWARD VISIBILITY . 16-12 VISIBILITY FROM THE AIR, VISIBILITY WITHIN A DEEP HAZE LAYER. 16-13 VISUAL ILLUSIONS. .... . 16-14 SUMMARY OF VISIBILITY EFFECTS. ......20.200200000000000006, 16-18 VISIBILITY QUESTIONS 0... .0000000ccceceeeeeeeeeeeseecees LO=I7 (© Osford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY VISIBILITY 16.1 16.2 INTRODUCTION * Meteorological Optical Range (MOR), of more simply ‘met vis" is the greatest horizontal distance at which a dark object can be recognised by an observer with normal eyesight, or at which lights of specified candlepower can be seen by night, Ground visibility is the visibility of an aerodrome as reported by an accredited observer. In effect, visibility is a measure of atmospherie clarity, or obscurity. This can be caused by water droplets - cloud, fog, rain, or solid particles-sand, dust or smoke, or by a mixture of the two -smog (fog and smoke). Ice, in the form of crystals, hail or snow will also reduce visibility. Poor visibility is usually associated with stable conditions, an inversion and light winds. Visibility is generally better upwind of towns and industrial areas. ‘The various types of reduction in visibility are: a) Mist. There is mist ifthe visibility is 1000m or more and the relative humidity is greater than 95% with very small water droplets, (Effectively the upper limit is 5,000m, but this is dealt with under “Documentation’) b) Fog. There is fog if the visibility is less than 100m and the obscuring agent is water droplets. Relative Humidity (RH) will be near 100%. ©) Haze, There ishaze ifthe visibility is reduced by extremely small solid particles - sand, dust or smoke. If the visibility is reduced below 1000m, itis shown on synoptic charts, as 9°. Again, haze is not reported when the visibility is more than 5000m. RADIATION FOG Radiation fog is caused by radiation of the earth's heat at night, and the conductive cooling of the air in contact with the ground to below dew point. If there is a light wind, then fog will form, in calm conditions the result will be the formation of dew. Conditions necessa1 for radiation fog to form. a) Clear sky -to increase the rate of terrestrial radiation. b) High relative humidity - so that a little cooling will be enough to cause saturation and condensation. ©) Light wind - of 2-8 kts to mix the layers of air causing turbulence so that droplets will be kept in suspension and so that warmer air from above can be brought into contact, with the cold ground to thicken the fog. 16-4 (© Osford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY Figure 16.1. Radiation Fog. ‘A natural result of the radiative cooling at the surface will be an inversion above the fog layer (usually the friction layer). ‘Times of occurrence. a) Autumn and winter. >) Night and early morning. The lowest temperatures are early morning, Additionally, the first insolation provides thermal turbulence and light winds. Location. a) Over land - not over sea because there is little DV of temperature, b) Firstly in valleys because of the katabatic effect. ©) Imantieyelones, ridges and cols. Dispersal: a) Byinsolation causing convection which will lift the fog. It will also help to evaporate the lower layers. b) —_ Bya strong wind lifting the fog to form stratus cloud, NOTE: In the UK, radiation fog usually clears by 1000 - 1100 hours, 16-2 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY VISIBILITY 16.3 HILL/ OROGRAPHIC FOG Hill fog is cloud on the sides of or the top of a hill or mountain which has been generated by the movement of humid air up the hillside (orographic lifting). Visibility will be 200 metres or less. Figure 16.2. Hill Fog 16.4 ADVECTION FOG Adveetion fog is formed by the movement of warm, moist air over a cold surface. ‘The surface can be land or sea. Figure 16.3. The Conditions Necessary for Advection Fog to Form, 16-3 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY VISIBILITY 16.5 16.6 Conditions necessary for advection fog to form: a) Winds up to 15 kts to move the air, (May be stronger over sea areas) b) A high RH so that relatively little cooling is required to produce saturation and subsequent condensation. ©) Acold surface with a temperature lower than the Dew Point (DP) of the moving air to censure condensation. ‘Times of occurrence and location: a) Over land areas in winter and early spring. b) Oversea areas in late spring and early summer. ©) Occurs particularly when a SW wind brings tropical maritime air to the UK. Dispersal: a) Bya change of airmass. (Wind change). b) — Byawindspeed. greater than 15 kts which will lift the fog to form stratus cloud. SPECIAL AREAS Nearly all sea fogs are caused by advection. Good examples are the extensive and persistent sea fogs which occur in the region of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland and around the Kamehatka Peninsula in the North Pacific. In both cases warm air from the south moves over a cold sea current flowing down from the north, STEAMING FOG (ARCTIC SMOKE) Steaming fog, or as itis sometimes called, Arctic Smoke, occurs over sea in polar regions, eg. the fjords of Greenland, Iceland and the sea areas of high latitudes. It is caused by cold air from ‘a land mass moving over a warmer sea. The small amount of evaporation from the sea is ‘enough to cause saturation and condensation but the air itself must be very stabl ‘The fog can be persistent and up to 500 fect thick - may drift inland. Will be dispersed by an increase in windspeed or change of direction. Usually only significant in Arctic regions, but the “steam may be seen at any latitude when cold ait moves over a wet surface. ‘Steam’ rising from ‘a wet road after a very heavy summer shower is a good example. 16-4 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitesMETEOROLOGY VISIBILITY Figure 16.4. The Conditions Necessary for Steaming Fog (Arctic Smoke). 16-5 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY VISIBILITY Figure 16.6 Before Generation of Steaming Fog Figure 16.7 After Generation of Steaming Fog 16.7 FRONTAL FOG Frontal fog occurs at a warm front or occlusion. The main cause is precipitation lowering the cloud base to the ground. Subsidiary causes are: a) Evaporation of standing water on the ground, 16-6 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY VISIBILITY 16.8 b) Mixing of saturated air with non-saturated air below. ‘The fog can form along a belt up to 200 nm wide which then travels with the front, Can be increased by orographic lifting, Will be dispersed by the passing of the front. FOG BELT UP. — TO 200 nm el Figure 16.8 Frontal Fog. VISIBILITY REDUCERS Apart from very small water droplets, visi precipitation. lity may be reduced by solid particles or ‘Smoke: Smoke consists of solid particles produced by combustion. Conditions will be worse under STABLE (subsidingair) conditions. Smoke may cause widespread reductions, e.g. forest fires in Indonesia, ‘The reduction will depend upon: a) Rate of production b) Rate of dispersal by wind ©) Distance from the smoke source ‘The particles provide ample Hygrascopie Nuclei for vapour to condense on (0, thus increasing the severity of Radiation Fog, 16-7 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY VISIBILITY Dust: Dust is particle less than 0.08mm in diameter. Because of its lightness, it may be carried high into the atmosphere. The surface wind speed is likely to exceed 15 kts and as the speed 1ereases, so will the height to which the dust will rise. Figure 16.9 Dust Storm Rising to 11,000 ft (7Smiles SSE of Damascus) Dust storms mainly occur in daylight due to the DV of wind, but simple dust is very small, it ay stay in suspension and visibility not improve for a day or so. Examples are the Khamsin and Haboobs, which will be covered later. ‘Sand: Sand consists of particles between 0.08 and 0.3mm in diameter. Wind speed will be 20kts or more. The greater weight of sand particles means that they will only be carried a few feet above the surface. Again, more a daylight event, due to the DV of wind. ‘Visibility: Dust or sandstorms imply a visibility below 1000m, Precipitation: Reductions in visibility caused by precipitation have already been covered under Cloud Formation, but to recap, they are: Drizzle 500 to 3,000m Rain Moderate: 3,000m to 10km Heavy: < 1,000 m Snow Moderate 1,000m Heavy: 50 t0 200m Drifting: (2m above the surface) will reduce the above. Blowing: (2m above the surface) will GREATLY reduce the above 16-8 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY VISIBILITY BILITY MEAS 16.9 VIS SUREMENT a) By day. Measurements are made by reference to suitable objects at known distances from an observing position. ae, HILL A ; are ‘20K : <—10Km CHURCH ~ 4 @ FACTORY Figure 16,10 Visibility Measurement: Day b) —_Bynight. fa suitable arrangement of lights of known candlepower is not available the visibility value obtained has to be the daytime equivalent in terms of atmospheric ‘obscurity. This is achieved by viewing lights of known candlepower from a known distance through a variable filter inan instrument called a Gold's Meter. The filter is varied until the light is no longer visible and the reading will give an equivalent t visibility Figure 16.11 Gold's Visibility Meter 16-9 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY VISIBILITY 16.10 16.11 RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (RVR) RVR is the maximum distance that a pilot 15 ft above the runway in the touchdown area can see marker boards by day or runway lights by night when looking in the direction of take-off or landing, The RVR can be assessed by positioning an observer 76 metres from the centre line of the runway in the touchdown area to sight the number of marker board or lights in the appropriate direction, RVR is reported when normal visibility is 1500 m or less, or when shallow fog is reported or forecast. ‘The United Kingdom standard RVR reporting incremental seale is 25m between 0 and 200m, 50m between 200 and 800m, and 100m above 800m. If traffic is more or less continuous, readings are taken every 30 minutes, or when a significant change in the normal visibility occurs. If traffic is light, readings are taken 15 minutes before a take-off or landing, RVR is never forecast. There is no connection between RVR and Meteorological Observations and Reports (MOR), but there are factors which may be applied for regulatory purposes (see Air Law Notes). TRANSMISSOMETER This is an electronic device where the intensity of a light a distance from a photo Electric cell givesan indication of the equivalent daytime visibility. This has the advantage of a constant measurement of visibility, but the disadvantage, as with the Gold Meter, is that only a small portion of the atmosphere is being sampled. ‘CONPUTOR IN CONTROL TOWER << RVRIN FEET Figure 16.12 A Transmissometer 16-10 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY VISIBILITY 16.12 Figure 16.13 Runway Visual Range INSTRUMENTED RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (IRVR) ‘Three Transmissometers are positioned alongside the runway. A transmissometer comprises a light source transmitter and photo-eleetric cell receiver which are separated from each other. ‘The strength of current in the receiver is dependant on the clarity of the air between the ‘transmitter and the receiver. IRVR is reported when the normal visibility is 1500 metres or less, or when shallow fog is reported or forecast. Readings are sent to ATC. ‘Three readings can be given, ‘one each for touch-down zone, ‘mid-point and stop-end, e.g;- R28L / 600 400 550, Figure 16.14. Instrumented Runway Visual Range (IRVR). 16-14 © Ostord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY VISIBILITY 16.13, If only 2 readings are given, the first relates to touch down, and the second is prefixed as follows: a) 600 stop end 550, b) 600 mid point 400, Mid-point and/or stop-end values are suppressed when:- a) they have equal or higher values than T/D and a value above 400 metres, (300/450/600 would be reported R 300). b) if the values are 800 metres or greater, (1000/850/900 would be reported R 1000) NOTE: RVR values less than 50 metres are reported:~ RBLWS0 or M0050 RVR values greater than 1500 mettes are reported:- P1500 A trend over the preceding ten minutes may be added giving an indication of increasing ( U ) or decreasing ( D ) readings:- R28L /1100D Ifthere are extreme values during the period a “V" may be added VISIBILITY FROM THE AIR, OBLIQUE OR DOWNWARD VISIBILITY ‘Oblique visibility is the distance along the ground froma point ditectly beneath the aircraft and ‘the most distant object the pilot can see. Figure 16.15. Oblique or Downward Visibility. 16-12 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY VISIBILITY 16.14 VISIBILITY FROM THE AIR, VISIBILITY WITHIN A DEEP HAZE LAYER In.a deep haze layer visibility will change with a change of height as follows’ a) Change of height within the layer. An increase of height inside the layer will reduce oblique visibility Figure 16.16. Visibility Within a Deep Haze Layer. b) Change of height above the layer. An increase of height when the aircraft is already above the layer will inerease the visibility. Figure 16.17. An Increase of Oblique Visibility with an Increase of Height Above the Haze Layer. 16 - 13 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY VISIBILITY ° Visibility with a shallow fog layer. From directly above an airfield, the pilot is looking through the shallow depth of fog and the visibility may appear quite good, When. the pilot turns onto his final approach, he is looking through the length of the fog and the visibility may be quite poor. Figure 16.18 The Effect of a Shallow Fog Layer on Visibility 16.15 VISUAL ILLUSIONS a) b) ) 4d) Shallow fog. On descent into shallow fog after good visibility of lights on the approach, an illusion thatthe aircraft has pitched nose up can occur. The resulting corrective action ‘can be dangerous, Rain showers. A heavy rainstorm moving towards an aircraft can suggest that the horizon is moving lower. As a result, the pilot lowers the nose or reduces power. Layer cloud horizons. In the absence of a proper horizon, a pilot may use the level indicated by layer clouds. This can give an impression thatthe aircrafts flying one wing low. Rain effects. Rain on the windscreen can have the following effects: i) Distance perception can be affected by heavy rain diffusing the glow from the approach lights or runway lights. Asa result the runway appears further away. ii) Rainon the windscreen can make lights bloom, Asa result the runway appears closer. 16 - 14 © Oxtord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY VISIBILITY iii) Rain on the windscreen can cause the pilot to think that he is incorrect in height and azimuth with respect to the correct approach path, As a result, the aircraft could be misplaced by up to 200 ft at 1 nm from touchdown, 16.16 SUMMARY OF VISIBILITY EFFECTS a) by d By day visibility is generally poor looking up sun. By night visibility is usually better looking up moon, because of light reflections from, ‘water surfaces, railway lines ete. In precipitation visibility is usually worst in driving snow and very poor in drizzle (because of the large number of small droplets). [Night visibility is improved if the pilot does not look at bright cockpit lights. 16-15 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY VISIBILITY Visi ity Questions 1. Which of the conditions given below will lead to the formation of radi Wind speed Cloud Cover Temperature Dew Point a) Tkt 8/8 St pe ee b) Skt NIL 15°C 14°C okt vsci sc eC d) 2kt NIL -2°C eC When, moist air passes over a surface which is fog can form, This occurs over. than the dew point of the air, Examine the statement above; the line which contains the correct words in the correct order to ‘complete the statement is: 4) cool ‘warmer radiation the sea b) warm cooler radiation the land only ©) coo! warmer frontal land warm cooler advection land and sea 3. Radiation fog is most likely at an inland airfield in the UK with a relative humidity of 80% in the and a wind of. a) Autumn clear skies 2-8 knots b) Spring 6/8 ST& SC 2-10 knots ©) Winter clear skies 15/20 knots 4) Summer clear skies no wind Adveetion fog is formed when air moves over a. surface and is its dewpoint a) humid cold kept above by Warm moist cooler cooled below dry frozen well below 4) warm moist warmer kept above ‘Ona night when radiation fog is forming over most of southem England, the aerodromes likely to be first to experience the fog will be those situated: a) Near the coast with a light onshore wind and clear skies. b) At the bottom of the hill with a Jight katabatic wind blowing . ©) Near the coast with a land breeze and cloudy skies. 4) Atthe top of a hill with clear skies and no wind. 16-17 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY VISIBILITY 6. 10. Radiation fog is most likely: 8) With a wind speed up to 15 kt, a clear sky and a high relative humidity. b) With a wind of 2-8 kt, a high density and the summer season, ©) Ina anticyelone in winter. 4) Ona hill in autumn. Ifa station equipped with IRVR equipment reports RVR 1000, this means: a) RVRat touchdown is 1000 metres. b) RVR at touchdown is 1000 metres and at ‘mid point’ and ‘stop end! the RVR is 800 ‘metres or more, ©) RVR at touchdown is 1000 metres and ‘mid point’ and ‘stop end’ equipment is unserviceable, 4) RVRall along the runway is 1000 metres or more. ‘Changes of RVR are reported for increments of: a) 25mupto 250m b)— 25mupto 200m ©) S0:mbetween 300 m and 800m 6) 50:m between 500 m and $00.m Frontal fog is most likely to: a) form ahead of a vigorous fast moving cold front b) form ahead of a warm front ¢) _formona vigorous cold front and last for many hours 4) formto the rear of a warm front but only last for 1 to 2 hours Fog may be defined as: a) —_areduction of visibility o less than 1000 metres due to the presence of water vapour in the atmosphere b) —_areduction of visibility to less than 1000 metres due to the presence of water droplets in suspension in the atmosphere ©) a reduction of visibility to less than 1500 metres duc to the presence of water droplets in suspension in the atmosphere 4) a reduction of visibility to less than 1000 ft due to the presence of water vapour in suspension in the atmosphere 16-18 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY VISIBILITY u 12. 13, 15. Several types of pressure distribution may be associated with rac feature in common which is: jon fog but all have one a) closely spaced isobars b) a tight pressure gradient ©) asslack pressure gradient 6) arapidly falling pressure oe «forms when moist air..........overa surface which is .......... than the dew point of the air. Fill in the missing 3 words from the list given below: a) radiation fog, passes, warmer b) —_adveetion fog, settles, cooler ©) _adveetion fog, passes, cooler 4) radiation fog, settles, warmer Advection fog a) Only occurs at night and early moming. b) _Ismost likely with Polar Maritime air. ©) Will only clear by insolation. 4) Can sometimes last for 24 hours or more in winter. In citcumstances where there is a clear sky, calm wind and a high relative humidity in Autumn: a) Radiation fog is likely over night. b) —_Advection fog will form. ©) Radiation fog is likely at sunrise after previous mist 4d) Hill fog can be expected. ‘Aca station equipped with IRVR, reports are given: a) Every % hour. b) When the normal visibility is 1500 m of less. ©) When there is mist. 4) When there is haze. 16-19 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitesMETEOROLOGY ANSWERS, Ques | Answers | Ques | Answe ts i c 9 B 2 D w | B 3 A ui|ic 4 B pic 5 B 3 | oD 6 c 4 7 B is |B 8 16-20 VISIBILITY © Orford Aviation Services Limitec17 172 173 174 175 176 a7 78 179 17.10 ml iz 17.13 iad 17.15 CHAPTER SEVENTEEN - ICING Contents, Page AN INTRODUCTION TO ICING AND ITS BASIC CAUSES... 17-1 SUPERCOOLED WATER DROPLETS (SWD). . . re 17-1 ‘THE EFFECTS OF ICING. . ceceteeeeeeeeee ee ToT CLEAR (OR GLAZE) ICE 22 cece 17-2 RIMEICE, .. ce IT33 RAIN ICE. cece led PACK SNOW. . . 17-4 HOAR FROST. 0000006000 cceec teres ce 17-4 FACTORS AFFECTING THE SEVERITY OF ICING. ceceeeeeeee ITS ICING FORECASTS «0.0.0.5. 17-8 FREEZING LEVEL. . 17-9 REPORTING OF ICING, fences coves IT-9 PISTON ENGINE INDUCTION ICING, .... cecceeeeeee 17210 JET ENGINE ICING. se IT OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING JET ENGINE OPERATION IN ICING CONDITIONS. 6.2.02. 2 cece cece ee eee . 17-13 ICING QUESTIONS secre ITHIS © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY IcING 4 17.2 173 AN INTRODUCTION TO ICING AND ITS BASIC CAUSES Airframe icing can cause a serious loss of aircraft performance and this will frequently result in a large increase in fuel consumption and some difficulty with aircraft contol, Icing is difficult to forecast and therefore there is a need for a full understanding of the processes involved. Ice will form on an airftame if there is: a) Water ina liquid state. b) Ambient air temperature below 0°C (but see later). ©) Airframe temperature below 0°C. SUPERCOOLED WATER DROPLETS (SWD) ‘A supercooled water droplet is a droplet of water still in the liquid state although its temperature is below 0°C. Ifthe SWD contains a freezing nucleus then the droplet will start to freeze. Mention was made in Chapter 8 of condensation nuclei, but as the number of freezing nuclei in the atmosphere is, considerably less than these, the state of supercooling is a frequent occurrence. Supercooled water droplets can exist in clouds at temperatures as low as -40°C. However, when an aireraft strikes a supercooled water droplet, it will start to freeze. Supercooled water droplet size is dependant on the size of the basic cloud droplet, (controlled by cloud type) and the temperature. Sizes will be: a) 0°C to -20°C; both large and small supercooled water droplets can exist b) —_-20°C to-40°C; small supercooled water droplets can exist. At these temperatures large supercooled water droplets will have become ice. ©) Below-40°C; only very small supercooled water droplets can exist, All others will have become ice. Freezing will occur without the aid of nuclei ‘THE EFFECTS OF ICIN' a) AERODYNAMIC. Ice tends to form on leading edges, thereby spoiling the aerodynamic shape. The result is reduced lift, increased drag, increased weight, increased stalling speed and increased fuel consumption, 17-1 © Oxforé Aviation Servioes LimitedMETEOROLOGY IcING 4 Ice, frost or snow of a thickness and roughness similar to coarse sandpaper can reduce Tift by 30% and increase drag by 40%. Itis also possible for pieces of ice to break off other surfaces and to jam between the control surfaces and wings and tail b) Weight. In severe conditions, ice can form at a rate of 1" in 2 minutes. ‘There will be a loss of stability due to the weight of ice not being uniform across the airframe, This can lead to a displaced C of G. Similar uneven weight of ice on propeller blades ccan cause severe engine vibration Ice breaking off propellers can cause skin damage. c) Instrument effeets. Ice can block pressure heads and the readings of ASIs, VSI, altimeters and machmeters can be in error as a result d) General. Windscreens and canopies can be obscured. ‘A thin film of ice/frost can cause skin friction. Ice in landing gear wells can affect retraction. Ice on aerials can cause static interference. CLEAR (OR GLAZE) ICE, Ifa large supercooled water droplet strikes an aircraft, it will start to freeze and this will release latent heat , This will delay the freezing process whilst part of the supercooled water droplet will flow back over the impact surface forming elear ice. ‘The amount ofa supercooled water droplet that freezes on impact is 1/80" ofthe droplet for each dogree below freezing. Clear ot glaze ice isa transparent form of ice formed by large supercooled water droplets, it can be dangerous. There can be much flowback and the ice appears transparent because there is no air trapped under the flowback icing. ‘The ice will destroy aerofoil shapes and its weight can cause problems of control because the build-up ean be uneven, itis illustrated in Figure 17.1 17-2 (© Osfora Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY Propeller icing can cause severe vibrations and as the ice adheres strongly, when it breaks off, the pieces can be large and cause skin damage. Clear ice forms in Ns, Cu and Cb at temperatures from 0 to -20 °C. It should be noted that clear ice often forms with rime ice, the latter being formed from the smaller supercooled water droplets in the cloud. RIME ICE When the super cooled water droplets are small (at very low temperatures) or when cloud droplets are small, the whole droplet freezes on impact, each droplet sticking to the surface it strikes and becoming solid almost at once, Air becomes trapped between each frozen droplet, which makes the ice opaque. Rime ice, see Fig. 17.2. is a white opaque deposit with a light texture. It is caused by small, super cooled water droplets freezing quickly. ‘There is little or no flowback. The ice ‘grows out from the leading edges and is compacted by the airstream. ‘Some loss of aerofoil shape can occur and air intakes can be affected. Rime ice can occur in any cloud where there are small super cooled water droplets; Ns, As, Ac, SC, St and the pars of heap clouds where super cooled water droplets are small, Figure 17.1 The Formation of Clear (Glaze) lee Figure 17.2 The Formation of Rime Ice 17-3 (© Orford Aviation Services LinedMETEOROLOGY ICING 17.6 177 178 RAIN ICE Rain ice is the most dangerous form of icing and it occurs in rain which becomes supercooled by falling from an inversion into air below 0°C. The rain does not freeze immediately in the air, but can impact the aerofoil to form clear fee with much flowback. Rain ice builds up very quickly and a pilot's action should be to ‘turn onto a reciprocal heading immediately. Rain ice occurs in a narrow range of altitudes at low level, about 1000 fi, ahead of a warm front or occlusion and is associated particularly with the moderate continuous rain which often falls from Nimbo Stratus cloud, this is illustrated in Figure 17.3. Figure 17.3. Factors Affecting the Formation of Rain Ice. Rain ice is rare over the UK, but is common in winter over North America and Central Europe. PACK SNOW Pack snow is icing which is due to a mixture of super cooled water droplets and snow. Tran block air intakes and other aircraft openings. Nortnally the effects are slight. HOAR FROST Hoar frost is a white erystal deposit which appears similar to frost on the ground. It occurs in clear air. Hoar frost will form if the airframe temperature is below 0°C and the ambient ‘temperature is lowered to saturation level. Water vapour in contact with the airframe is converted to ive erystals without becoming liquid, ie sublimating, This process requires the presenice of another type of ice nucleus, the sublimation nucleus (see para 17.2). ‘Their composition is usually inorganic, eg volcanic dust, clay or soil particles, 17-4 © Oxford Aviation Services Limites:METEOROLOGY ICING ‘There are two situations where hoar frost can occur: a) » on the ground. This usually occurs at night and is similar to the frost whieh forms on ‘car. It must be cleared before take-off because: i) Skin friction will increase the take-off run, fi) Windsereens will be obscured, iii) Radio interference will be caused by ice on aerials in flight. Hoar frost can occur in flight in the following cases: i) Ifa rapid descent is made from a very cold region to a warm moist layer. ii) Ifa climb is made from a temperature below 0° through an inversion, The icing is not severe. The effects can be overcome by flying in a region where the temperature is above 0°C or by flying faster to increase the kinetic heating. 17.9 FACTORS AFFECTING THE SEVERITY OF ICING a) size of the super cooled water droplets. This is dependant on cloud type and temperature as follows: TYPE DETAILS. MODERATE/HEAVY super cooled water droplets can only be large in Cu, Cb, Ns and then CLEAR ICE only when temps are in the general range 0°C to -20°C. LIGHT/MODERATE For layer clouds small super cooled water droplets are present from RIME ICE 0°C to -10°C LIGHT RIME ICE For layer clouds super cooled water droplets are smaller below -10°C. RIME ICE Super cooled water droplets are also small in Cu, Cb and Ns from -20°C to -40°C. ‘At-40°C and below, super cooled water droplets are very small and icing is usually negligible. » Concentration of super cooled water droplets. The concentration of water droplets is higher in heap clouds because the up currents are stronger, Hence Cu and Cb clouds have a high concentration of super cooled water droplets and this causes the icing to be severe. 17-5 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ICING ‘There is always a greater concentration of droplets near the base of the cloud where it is ‘warmest. Icing severity (by cloud types) tends to be: °) i) Cu, Cb - Severe, ii) Ns» Moderate to severe. iii) Sc- Light to moderate. iv) Others - Light. (except Ci, Cs, Ce) Figure 17.4. The Concentration of Super Cooled Shape of the aircraft. Figure 17.5. illustrates the air flow around thin and thick wing shapes. ‘Thin shapes collect ice ‘more rapidly than high drag ones. Thin wings and pressure heads are therefore liable to rapid icing. High speeds also result in a greater ice hazard because the airframe strikes a greater number of super cooled water droplets in unit time, Kinetic heating may cancel this effect. Water Droplets. ae, Figure 17.5. Thin Wing Forms Collect Ice More Rapidly than High Drag Forms. 17-6 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY IcING ) Proximity of hills. The orographic effect of a range of hills is likely to increase uplift in cloud so that the concentration and size of super cooled water droplets will be increased especially at the base, as will icing severity. This is shown in Figure 17.6. Figure 17.6. The Orographic Effect on Clouds Close to Hills Figure 17.7. The Freezing Level in Cloud Close to Hills ‘The freezing level in cloud close to hills can be lower than the area freezing level, as shown in Figure 17.7, particularly when stable air is lifted. (See also, Chapter 14, Cloud Formation). 17-7 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY IcING 1710 ©) Cloud base temperature. The higher the temperature, the greater the water vapour content, Condensation first oceurs at the bs water to become ice on an airframe. The free water content at any level in the cloud increases with base temperature. and there is therefore a greater amount of fr Concentration of drops will increase and so will icing severity. An illustration of this is shown in Figure 17.8. Figure 17.8. The Different Water Vapour Content at Different Temperatures. 1) Kinetic heating. Although a rise of temperature due to kinetic heating to above 0 °C may prevent ice acretion, a rise to below 0 °C may increase the risk and the severity “2 Skin Temp = OAT+ (#8) ICING FORECASTS Forecasting airframe icing is a matter of forecasting clouds, both by type and ve ‘The degree of airframe icing is classed as light \) , moderate \\|’ , or severe ‘When rain ice is expected, it will be mentioned specifically in the forecast. Forecasts of engine icing are not normally provided. 17-8 © Ovlors Aviation Services LimtedMETEOROLOGY ICING ITZ -3°C -2°C ATC OPC +1°C 42°C 43°C Figure 17.9. FREEZING LEVEL ‘The height where ambient temperature is zero is called the freezing level. It is usually given in forecasts on an area basis by reference to the height of the Zero Degree Isotherm. With an inversion, two freezing levels are possible. Freezing levels in the south of the United Kingdom average 11,000 ft in August and 3,000 ft in February. REPORTING OF ICING ‘The following extract from the UK Air Pilot is a usefull description of the degree of icing ‘encountered in flight. Airframe Teing All pilots encountering unforecast icing are requested to report time, location, level, intensity, icing type- and aircraft type to the ATS unit with whom they are in radio contact, It should be noted that the following icing intensity criteria are reporting definitions; they are not necessarily the same as forecasting definitions because reporting definitions are related to aircraft type and to the ice protection equipment installed, and do not involve cloud characteristics. For similar reasons, aircraft icing certification criteria might differ from reporting and/or forecasting criteria, 17-9 (© Oxtord Aviation Servicas LimitedMETEOROLOGY IcInc 17.13 Intensity Tee Accumulation Trace Ice becomes perceptible. Rate of accumulation slightly greater ‘than rate of sublimation. It is not hazardous even though de-icing/anti-icing equipment is not utilised, unless encountered for more than one hour. Light ‘The rate of accumulation might create a problem if light in this environment exceeds one hour. Occasional use of de-icing/anti-icing equipment removes’prevents accumulation. It does not present a problem if de-icing/anti-icing equipment is used. (ICAO: Less than moderate icing) Moderate | The rate of accumulation is such that even short encounters become potentially hazardous and use of de-ieing/anti-ieing equipment, or diversion, is necessary. (ICAO: conditions in which change of heading and/or altitude may be considered desirable) Severe The rate of accumulation is such that de-icing/anti-icing equipment fails to reduce or control the hazard. Immediate diversion is necessary. (ICAO: conditions in which immediate change of heading, andior altitude is considered essential) *Rime Ice: Rough, milky, opaque ice formed by the instantaneous freezing of small supercooled water droplets. *Clear Ice: A glossy, clear, or translucent ice formed by the relatively slow freezing of large supercooled water PISTON ENGINE INDUCTION ICING a) b) Impact icing. Ice in intake areas caused by snow, snow and rain mixed or super cooled water droplets. For turbo-charged (fuel injection) engines, this is the only icing hazard. Fuel icing. This is caused by water in the fuel freezing in bends in the induction piping. Carburettor icing. This is caused by: i) The sudden temperature drop as latent heat is absorbed when fuel evaporates, ii) The temperature drop due to the adiabatic expansion of the air as it passes through the venturi. 17-10 (© Ord Aviation Services LimitecMETEOROLOGY ICING THROTTLE BUTTERFLY — TO ENGINE os FUEL ICING (LESS COMMON) FUEL- ICE IN CARBURETTOR VENTURI Fuel and carburettor icing are more common with MOGAS. Carburettor icing can be a greater problem with lower power settings - with a partially closed butterfly valve, there will be a larger temperature drop in the venturi. Carburettor icing can occur in elear air with RH down to 30% and ambient temperature up to +30°C using descent power; a RH of 60% and temperature of +20°C at cruise power, Carburettor icing is more of a hazard on warm, humid summer days because of the high water vapour content within the air flowing through the carburettor, High humidity should be assumed ift 2) the ground is wet or there is dew with light winds, b) surface visibility is poor early in the morning or in the evening or if you are close to water. ©) youare flying just below cloud or between layers. 4) youare in precipitation, cloud or fog. ©) you are in clear air when cloud or fog have just dispersed, 17-11 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ICING Carburettor most dangerous within a temperature range of -10 °C to +25°C, in loud, fog or precipitation at any power setting. MOOERATE 1OING CRUISE POWER ‘SemIoUs ice -DesceNT POWER ‘SERIOUS CING -DESCEKT POWER TEMPERATURE “© Figure 17.11. The Wide Range of Ambient Conditions Conducive to the Formation of Carburettor Icing. 17.14 JET ENGINE ICING ce may form on intake lips or inlet guide vanes, if this breaks away and enters the engine, blade damage may occur. Some icing may occurin the early inlet stages, particularly at high engine speeds and low aircraft forward speeds (eg during the approach), where much adiabatic cooling may occur and temperature reductions of 5°C and more can result. ‘This icing is particularly prevalent in freezing conditions which are associated with any form of precipitation; as a consequence of this, engine anti-icing must be selected “ON” when there is precipitation and the indicated outside air temperature is +10°C and below. 17-12 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY IcINc 17.18 OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING JET ENGINE OPERATION. a) b) ° 4 e) ICING CONDITIONS Engine power indications may be in error if there is ice on engine inlet (P!) pressure probes. Engine igniters should be used in potential icing conditions, otherwise engine failure is possible. Long flights at very low temperatures may cause fuel freezing and fuel freezing point specification for the aircraft type should be known Clear ice can occur at ambient temperatures above zero when water droplets come into contact with an aircraft whose upper surfaces are at or below zero. ‘This low skin temperature can be caused by a very low fuel temperature conducting, through the skin, ‘This icing can also occur on the ground in high humidity, rain, drizzle or fog. It could then be snow covered and difficult to detect. Break up of this ice on take-off can be particularly hazardous to rear engined aireraft Operation of anti-icing or deicing equipment usually implies a performance penalty. 17-13, © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ICING Icing Questions At temperatures of between 0°C and -10°C clouds will consist of: a) entirely water droplets b) entirely ice erystals ©) mostly water vapour 4) mostly supercooled water droplets and a few ice crystals ‘Turbulent clouds are most serious from the icing standpoint because’ 8) strong vertical currents mean that a predominance of large supercooled water droplets, will be present b) strong vertical currents mean that a predominance of small supercooled water droplets will be present ©) turbulent clouds produce hail which sticks to the aircraft @) turbulent clouds indicate a low freezing level Hoar frost forms on an aircraft when: a) the aircraft suddenly enters a cloud at below freezing temperature b) the aircraft in sub zero clear air suddenly enters a colder region ©) the aircraft in sub zero clear air suddenly enters a warmer moist region @) the aireraft suddenly enters a cloud which is at a higher temperature than the surrounding air, Most cases of serious piston engine icing occur in cloud, fog, or precipitation witha temperature range between: a) 10°C to -+28°C by 18°C w 45°C 10°C w Oe 20°C tw HSC Stratus cloud of limited depth at a temperature of -5 I most likely give: a) moderate to heavy rime ice b) moderate to heavy glaze ice ©) light to moderate rime ice @) light to moderate glaze ice 17-15 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ICING 6. Clear ice forms as a result of: a) large supercooled water droplets spreading as they freeze b) ice pellets splattering on the aircraft ©) smnall supercooled water droplets splashing over the aircraft 4) water vapour freezing to the aircraft Orographic uplift in stable conditions gives a strong vertical component to air movement thus supporting larger supercooled droplets in orographically formed cloud. Consideration should also be given to the fact that in this cloud: a) the 0°C isotherm will be higher b) the 0°C isotherm will be lower ©) the lapse rate will be isothermal 4) an inversion can be anti-cyclonic Which of the following conditions is most favourable for the formation of carburettor icing if the aircraft is descending with glide power set: Relative Humidity Ambient Temperature a) 25% 425°C b) 40% 20°C ° 50% -10°C 4 30% Sc Flying in large CU at a temperature of -20°C, the amount of each cloud droplet that will freeze on impact with the aircraft will be: a) All the droplet. b) of the droplet. ©) ofthe droplet 4) 20% of the droplet Carburettor icing is unlikely: 8) Incloud. b) At temperatures between -10°C and -30' ©) Inclear air. d) When the RH is 40%. 17-16 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ICING i 12, Flying 50 nm ahead of a warm front out of cloud at 1000 ft in winter, with an ambient temperature of 8°C, there is a strong risk of: a) Hoar frost b) Rime icing and carburettor icing, ©) Structure damage caused by hail. d) Clear ice in the form of rain ice. In AS cloud at FL 170 and a temperature of -20°C the airframe icing most likely to be experienced is: a) Moderate clear icing, b) Light rime icing. ©) Hoar frost 4) Severe clear icing, Mixed (rime and clear) icing is most likely to be encountered: a) innimbostratus at a temperature of -10°C b) in stratocumulus cloud at a temperature of -20°C ©) in fair weather cumulus at a temperature of -15°C 4) in towering cumulus at a temperature of- 10°C ‘When considering icing in cloud over high ground compared with icing in other clouds, the effect of orographie lifting is to a) Cause the height of the freezing level to fall and incteases the intensity of the icing. b) Cause the height of the freezing level to rise and increases the severity of the icing, ©) Cause the free water content of the cloud to inerease and the freezing level to rise so reducing the icing risk. 4) Increase the temperature inside the cloud due to the release of extra latent heat so reducing the icing risk. Kinetic heating will: a) Increase the risk of icing if it raises the airframe temperature to just below 0°C. b) Increase the risk of raises the airframe temperature to just above 0°C. ¢) Always inerease the risk of airframe icing, 4) Always decrease the risk of airframe icing. 17-17 (© Oxford Aviation Services LiitedMETEOROLOGY ANSWERS, Ques | Answers | Ques | Answers 1 D 9 c 2 A 10 B 3 c un D 4 A 12 B 5 c 13 A 6 A 14 A 7 15 A 8g B 17-18 ICING © Oxford Aviation Services Limited18.5 18.6 18.7 CHAPTER EIGHTEEN - DOCUMENTATION Contents INTRODUCTION INFORMATION AVAILABLE FROM METEOROLOGICAL OFFICES . SUPPLY OF INFORMATION .........-220200200220008005 COMPUTER FLIGHT PLANS «2.2.0... WEATHER REPORTS SNOWTAMS, ASHTAM TERMINAL WEATHER QUESTIONS . Page 18-1 < 18-1 18-3 18-5 18-5 218-9 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedJETEOROLOGY DOCUMENTATION 8.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter covers aspects of meteorology documentation and messages which you will use at the various stages of planning a flight and carrying it out. As most of the information is contained in the UK AIP, this chapter is more of an aide-memoire, highlighting important parts, of the meteorological section (GEN) of that publication, Relevant pages of this section are included in Book 1 INFORMATION AVAILABLE FROM METEOROLOGICAL OFFICES a) b) ° ad ii) iii) iv) Weather reports. ‘These are prepared at routine intervals and available for aviation purposes every hour or half hour, Selected or special reports are made when certain phenomena occur between the times of the routine reports. These reports are termed Actuals and examples of such are METARs and SPECI, The METAR is simply an aviation routine weather report whereas a SPECI is an av lected special weather report. To issue a SPECT there must be improvements or deteriorations through certain ‘weather criteria. These would then supplement the routine reports. TRENDS may also be issued for selected aerodromes if significant changes occur during the two hours after the observation time. Further details on GEN p3-5-26 to p3-5-30, Runway state codes are included into METARs when applicable. Further details on GEN p3-5-29. jon s ‘Charts, Analysed MSL synoptic charts shows the surface weather over a specified area, Prognostic MSL synoptic charts aim to show the expected synoptic situation some hours later, usually 12 or 24 hours ahead, Similarly, current and prognostic charts are available for various pressure levels. In the briefing room you should find charts, covering low and medium flight over the UK and NW Europe, medium and high level flights to Europe and the Mediterranean, high level flights to North America, high level flights to the Middle and Far East and high level flights to Afriea. Further details ‘on GEN p3-5-9, p3-5-10. Forecasts. ‘These are prepared for use by aircrew, air traflic services units, aircraft in flight as required for flying operations. The most widely used example is the TAF, Further details on GEN p3-5-30 to p3-5-32. Warnings. Waring information of any hazardous weather phenomena is prepared ‘when necessary and issued to listed recipients. An example is a SIGMETs. This refers to information regarding the occurrence or expected occurrence, in an area over which a meteorological watch is being maintained of a number of phenomena considered dangerous to aircraft within an FIR. Further details on GEN p3-5-19. Met. Offi also obliged to give the following warnings of adverse weather (p 3-5-3). Gales vy) Fog ‘Squalls, hail, thunderstorms vi) Dust/Sand Snow vii) Freezing precipitation Frost 18-1 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY DOCUMENTATION °) ‘Air-reports. Aircrew maybe required to make observations while an aireraftis in flight, Routine and special aircraft observations are recorded on the ATREP form as shown in Figure 18.2, 18.3 18.3 SUPPLY OF INFORMATION ») nayeepe The supply and exchange of operational meteorological information needed by met. offices, VOLMET broadcast stations, air traffic services units and operators is done through the MOTNE (Meteorological Operational Telecommunication Network)system, Meteorological briefing. This is a requirement by law to provide “an oral commentary ‘on existing and/or expected meteorological conditions”, This information must cover the departure, en-route diversion, alternate, and destination actodromes as indicated in the flight plan. The standard method is by self briefing using the material displayed in briefing rooms which includes reports and forecasts is message or chart format, Further details on GEN p3-5-8 and p3-5-15. AIRMET is another form of self briefing intended for use by pilots who do not have access to meteorological by fax or teleprinter. It is a general aviation weather briefing consisting of ten routine forecasts, in plain language, covering the UK and near Continent spoken at dictation speed over the public telephone network, or in text form via the APS, telex or facsimile, Further details on GEN p3-5-21 In flight. Information may be gained by the interception of radio broadcasts from acrodromes. i) VOLMETS. These are radio messages of weather reports and forecasts which are broadcast on HF and VHF at regular intervals. In the United Kingdom these are based upon the oral commentary ofa METAR or TAF, Further details on GEN p3-5-17 to p3-5-18. ii) ATIS. (Automatic Terminal Information Service). This is a short range broadcast of airfield information consisting of: Airfield name 8. Present weather Code letter 9% Cloud Time of origin 10, ‘Temperature & dew point Runway in use 11, Altimeter settings Surface W/V (degrees magnetic) 12, Essential airfield information Visibility 13, Significant weather information RVR 14, Trend forecast ili) ACARS (Aireraft Communications Addressing & Reporting System) This is a means of sending and receiving company messages between company operations offices and the aircraft, which ean be used to provide a printed copy of TAFS & METARS. 18-2 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY DOCUMENTATION Information can also be gained from relevant ATC centres, either by request or by an issue of ‘a warning to relevant aircraft. One such system is the Low level Wind Shear (LLWS). Low level wind shear has already been dealt with under Turbulence, but there are detection devices in use which enable a broadcast waming to be given, Much work has been done in the US to detect and war of the approach of wind shear using, Doppler Radar or patterns of wind vanes and anemometers linked to a central computer. ATC are thus able fo give warning of wind shear on the approach andor climb out paths, Further details on GEN p3-53. COMPUTER FLIGHT PLANS, ‘There are several different computer fight plans available, but the information below relates to the one used by British Airways using the acronym SWORD". Meteorological information is, ‘obtained from the World Area Forecast Centre (WAFC) at Bracknell. The centre provides global temperature and wind velocity forecasts ina grid binary (GRIB) format fed twice daily for eight altitude levels based on 6 hour blocks within a 30 hour forecast span. The forecasts are based on actual observations taken at 00002 & 12002. Each transmission contains four forecasts based on the observation time: T + 12, T+ 18, T+ 24and T + 30, For example the morning transmission received at about 0430z contains forecasts for 1200, 1800, 0000 & 0600 the next day. SWORD contains five rolling forecasts which are updated at 12 hourly intervals. Thus after a weather update SWORD will have available forecast weather data for the next 24 hours, but atthe time of the next update this is reduced to just over 12 hours. WEATHER REPORTS a) Regulations. At the early stages of this course it was mentioned that an important source of meteorological information was that derived from aircraft reports. Asa result ‘you will be required to transmit meteorological reports at designated positions and at any time when certain conditions prevail Regulations applicable to UK are found on GEN p 3+ b) Format. Routine reports may be sent using the internationally agreed AIREP form (fig 18.2). This is a combined position and weather report, ‘This form used for Special Reports ©) Chart Symbology. Meteorological reporting points will be shown on navigation charts using the symbology shown in figure 18.1 @) Turbulence and Teing. Criteria for degrees of turbulence and icing are to be found on GEN p 3-5-16 & p3 5-17 18-3 {© Oxford Aviation Sorvicas LimitedMETEOROLOGY DOCUMENTATION ° » Dy errs | enna {tries steed stereo) fii irtempertur, ind, i torte, close an arian ear, Re- @rrame) fen. estonia re tatoo wy revorina bot Figure 18.1. Met Reporting points ASDAR, Some aircraft are equipped to automatically transmit AIREP information by Aireraft to Satellite Data Relay. Data sensors within the aireraft will transmit this information via satellite to world centres at Bracknell & Washington for onward transmission through normal meteorological channels, Data Links. Synop observations and other reports are transmitted to the National Meteorological Centre (NMC) at Bracknell by Civil Rented Data Network (CRDN). ‘The data is collated by NMC and re-transmitted in bulletin form to Met, Offices and other NMCs, Bracknell is the Regional Communications Centre and passes data to the other Regional Commcen at Washington, MTI. Another indicator of LLWS is Marked Temperature Inversion (MTI), This is passed at certain aerodromes (GEN p 3-5-3) whenever a temperature difference of 10°C ‘or more exists between the surface and any point up to 1000 ft above the aerodrome, This is either broadcast as part of the ATIS message or passed direct to arriving or departing aireraft by ATC. 18-4 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY DOCUMENTATION 8.6 18.7 SNOWTAMS SNOWTAM warnings while not strictly Meteorology Warnings will often appear in briefing rooms associated with the Met’ of the day as prevailing conditions dictate. The full information regarding the system in place is covered more fully within the Air Law / Operational Procedures syllabus but an outline of what the warnings contain is indicated below: a) The nature of the contamination to be cleared and this subjectively assessed by ATC personnel: ice / dry snow / compacted snow / wet snow / slush / associated standing water b) Depth of snow ©) Snow banks 4) Runways affected by snow and ice ©) Assessment of braking action, ‘These are the last two digits in the SNOWTAM and cither relate to The Friction Coefficient, or, the Braking action, 1) Friction Coefficient. 28 = friction coefficient of 0.28 435 = friction coefficient of 0.35, ii) Braking Action (initial letter is 9 followed by a scale of | - 5). 95 = good 91 = poor ‘A full explanation of the content of a SNOWTAM is contained in UK AIP AD 1-2-2. ASHTAM The ASHTAM provides information on the status of activity ofa volcano when a change in its activity is, or is expected to be of operational significance. In the event ofa voleanic eruption providing ash cloud of operational significance, the ASHTAM also provides information on the location, extent and movement of the ash cloud and the air routes and flight levels affected. 18-5 © Oxiors Aviation Services LinedVETEOROLOGY DOCUMENTATION Pieto! 1 Cross Section of Weether Observed iW Ln aed © Crown copyright Figure 18.3 18-7 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY DOCUMENTATION Terminal Weather Using the attached sheet of terminal information, answer the following questions 1. rankfurl-Main_EDDE : The W/V at 211000 is expected to be: a) 060/18G30KT b) 040/1SKT ©) 060/18KT. dg) 040/10KT. 2. Zurich LSZH: The reduction in visibility at 210100 is likely to be caused by: a) lowstratus. b) fog. ©) mist. d) showers. 3. Rome/LIRA : On the 21st there could be CB cloud overhead: a) throughout the period. b) afer 1800. ©) gradually between 1200 and 1800. 4) between 1200 and 1800. /LIML : Minimum visibility forecast for 210500 is: a) $000m in mist b) Skin haze, ©) 900m in fog. 6) 900m in fog banks. 5. ZuticlLSZH : Visibility at 211600 is expected to be: a) 7 KM by 7000m ©) 500m 600m 6. Milan/LIML : The lowest cloud base expected at 201730 is: a) 5,000 feet b) unlimited (no cloud) ©) 2,500 feet d) 3,000 feet. 18-9 (© Ortord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY DOCUMENTATION Frankfurt Maine’ EDDE : The lowest cloud present at 201720 was: a) b) °) d) Milan/LIML, a) b) °) d) Geneva LSGG a) b) ©) 4) To 2 oktas at 4,500 feet 1 4 oktas at 450 feet. 5107 oktas at 2,500 feet 3104 oktas at 250 feet. The lowest visibility to be expected at 202100 is: more than 10 km. 3000 m, 5000 m, ‘900 m. The lowest visibility observed on the 20th is: 5000 metres to the north east 5000 metres to the north, 4000 metres to the north east, 7000 metres to the south, At which of these stations and at what time is the highest relative humidity to be found: a) b) °) d) Milan/LIML, a) b) ° 4d) EDDF at 1650. LIRA at 1720. LIML at 1720. LSGG at 1650, What is the visibility forecast to be at LIML at 201730: 3000m. 800m. 000m, 10km or more. 18-10 (© Ontore Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY DOCUMENTATION Frankfurt Main: EDDF SA201720 0301SKT S000NE FEWO4S SCT250 14/10 Q1016 NOSIG SA201650 03011KT 6000NE SCTO42 BKN250 15/10 Q101S NOSIG FC201500Z 201601 04010KT CAVOK FT201600Z 210018 0401SKT 3000HZ BKNO30 BECMG 0709 06018G30KT CAVOK Geneva : LSG SA201720 06004KT 4000NE -RA SCTOOY BKNO4O OVCOS0 13/11 Q1012 NOSIG $A201650 0S004KT SOOON -RA SCTO09 BKNO4O 14/12 Q1012 NOSIG FC201500Z, 201601 04008KT 7000 SCTO20 BKNO25 PT201600Z 210018 0300SKT 5000 OVC020 TEMPO 118 BKNO30 Zurich : LSZH SA201720 0400SKT 7000 SCTO16 OVCO22 12/08 Q1013 NOSIG SA201650 04008G19KT 7000 SCTO16 SCTO22 BKNO4O 12/08 Q1012 NOSIG FC201500Z 201601 0500SKT 6000 SCTO13 OVC028 BECMG 2124 2500BR OVCOI0 FT201600Z_ 210018 O500SKT 2500BR OVCO10 TEMPO 0008 1500 BR BECMG 0811 04010KT OVCO1S PROB30 TEMPO 1218 BKNO20 Milan : LIML ‘SA 201720 00000KT CAVOK 16/14 Q1007 NOSIG. ‘SA 201650 00000KT CAVOK 16/15 Q1007 NOSIG FC 2017002 201803 VRBOSKT 8000 SCT025 TEMPO 3000 -RA. FT 2016002 210018 VRBOSKT 5000 SCTO30 TEMPO 0206 0900 PREG BKNOO8, BECMG 1218 #RA BKNO20 Rome : LIRA SA 201720 00000KT 9999 FEWO1S SCTO17CB BKNO2S 16/16 QL006 SA 201650 00000KT 9999 FEWOIS SCTO17CB SCTO25 17/16 QuO0s FC 2017002 201803 VRBOSKT 9999 SCTO20 SCTO70 FT 201600Z 210018 VRBOSKT 9999 SCT025 SCTO70 TEMPO 1218 SCTOISCB 18-14 © Oxlord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY DOCUMENTATION Ques Answer Ques Answer 1 A 7 A 2 c 8 B 3 D 9 c 4 D 10 B 5 c ul D 6 A 18-12 {© Oxford Aviation Sonvices Limited(CHAPTER NINETEEN - WI Contents 19.1 INTRODUCTION . 192 LOW LEVEL CHARTS. 193 MEDIUM AND HIGH LEVELS... EXERCISE A. EXERCISE B EXERCISE C ER CHARTS © Ovlord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WEATHER CHARTS, 19.1 19.2 INTRODUCTION ‘The visual presentation of weather to be expected en route is an important part of this course. Significant weather and tropopause/maximum wind velocity charts are produced by the UK Met office/CAA to international standards laid down by ICAO and the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO). In addition to charts showing expected weather there are charts covering similar areas depicting expected upper winds and temperatures. Additionally, over the North Atlantic, charts are available showing pressure distribution & fronts both analysed and forecast (ASXX and PSXX). LOW LEVEL CHARTS, a) Significant Weather. Low level charts (F215/415) deal with flights at and below FL1S0. An example of F215 is at Figure 19.1; It covers the British Isles and the near continent and is produced every 6 hours. ‘The two charts atthe top of the form F215, on the following page are, on the left, a chart showing weather expected 3 hours either side of the validity time with a descriptive below. The chart on the right isan Outlook chart showing the expected weather 6 hours farther on, eg validity time 0900, chart covering the period 0600 to 1200, outlook at 1800. A detailed explanation is on p 3-5-II of the GEN section of the Air Pilot (Appendix A to the last chapter, on Documentation), F415 (fig 19.2) is similar but extends further into Europe, 19-4 (© Oford Aviation Services LimtesMETEOROLOGY WEATHER CHARTS 19-2 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WEATHER CHARTS: EUROPEAN LOW-LEVEL WEATHER (FORM 415) FORECAST FOR Foscouse—|Toanovaooo SecKwet ar Ds ossaure|[2mnova000 Oc4) fics Numbers in ciretes ar, weather See oe (oo “A062 e 16 SLO oss"s (eeslet* 7 oc4 cee LIC 4 sb woo/sey ico 15 WC S nd Aur 1b v C4 ; cs cs =z @ fice oes | : SO Oc 6 y oe Oc 7 Gc7 45, C7 / 7 SLOW Uc (ce eC) tof 2 Figure 19.2 European Low Level Weather 19-3 © Ovors Awation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY b) Winds. Corresponding to the charts F215 and F415 are charts (F214 & F414) gi WEATHER CHARTS. ne expected winds between 1,000 and 24,000 ft. Each box is placed over the intersection of a meridian and a parallel (shown at the top of the box), ISSUED BY METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE. BRACKNELL SUITABLE FOR FLIGHTS BE: FORM 238 FIXED TIME CHART VALID AT S UTC ON MONDAY 5/10/98 EEN 0000 AND O00 UTC Mis Geo 25 ~ie[a o70 Rett Sn 00 fe Seo io o70 a5 Seiba OSE Slav os-ao-w| [Fe ovo 70-5 fa feo #525) ts ong 20-221 88 G99 a8 aso 110 £910) los 018 20 202|) [os 10 13-01 182 980 13 705]] fae ag 13 +03), iator) [at oa t3 +8e) ae] fax-ose $0] BATA 13 FoR CATA RO PASTTTON] ‘suOHN AT'TOP OF eRCH BOX. | TRUTITUDES ARE ABOVE SL Unausanos oF FEET? PERATURE IN DEGREES CE © Crow copyright Figure 19.3 Low Level Winds F214 Son ose] | Questions on F214/215 are contained in exercise C at the end of this chapter. 19-4 (© Osore Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WEATHER CHARTS. 193 MEDIUM AND HIGH LEVELS a) Charts normally available in the UK are EUROPE covering FL100 to FLAS0, NORTH ATLANTIC covering FL250 to FL630. MIDDLE & FAR FAST covering FL250 to FL630, AFRICA covering FL250 and above CARIBBEAN/SOUTH AMERICA covering FL250 and above. An example of the BUR chart is at Figure 19.4 oA ass ee | ‘Area Chart | + |? 3 | 4 6 7 ‘Sig N53E085 [0315 and 4 carepe | N25 E034 200 and WiTropopause! FL 100 - 450 approx every (EUR) Max Wind N2s ote. |ehoure = every C hours Figure 19.4 EUR Significant Weather Chart 19-5 (© Oxo Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WEATHER CHARTS Meteorological Charts-Explanatory Notes 1 Symbols for a significant Weather, Tropopause and Freezing Level etc. T “Thunderstorm Rain “Tropical cyclone * ‘Snow ‘Severe squall ine + Widespread blowing snow: Hail Z ‘Shower ‘Moderate turbulence ‘Severe sand or dust haze ‘Severe turbulence ‘Widespread sandstorm or duststormh ‘Marked mountain waves ‘Widespread naze Light airera eng Widespread mist ‘Moderate aircraft icing ‘Widespread fog . ‘Severe aircraft icing : Freezing fog Freezing precipitation Widespread smoke a Dazzle = ‘Volcanic eruption Note: ‘Atudes between which henomens and associated cloud are protacte are incited by Tight loves top ov base atop folowea by base. XXX means the prenomanon is expecied ts eantnue above andr below te Yorteal coverage of he chart Phenomena o slatvely lesser signfcsrce, for example ight acta cng or ‘raz, are nol usualy enown on chars even when Tia phavenmenon is expected. The tundersiom sybo implies nat, moderate or savers andlor trounce | 400 Tropopause spot aittude (eg FL400) Boundary of area of significant weather a Boundary of area of clear ar turbulence. ‘The CAT area may be marked by a 440 | High point or maximum in tropopause The CAT area may bo marked topography (eg FL440) inside a square and legend Sesribing the numbered CAT area my 340 Low point or mimnimum in tropopause be entered in the margin L-topography (eg FL340) | w State of sea (wave height in metres). 0°:100| Freezing level és ‘Sea surface temperature (°C). 2 Fronts and convergence zones Ld [oo Font at he surace Jes atch ~aa_|Warm front at tho surace maoccs [Avis of ridge “akan |Oceluded front atthe sures == [Convergence Tne “AY [Quasi-stationary font atthe surtacs| | aT |intertropical convergence zone Note: Anarow win associate gues ndeates te dracon ans he speed of he movement of he fot (rot. Dots inceried at intervals along the ine of ont nda veloping eats [rontagenesis) while bars Indeate tis aweakening feature (rontyss). Figure 19.5. Significant Weather Symbology. hb) Symbology is shown in Figure 19.5, 19-6 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WEATHER CHARTS. ©) Winds. Corresponding to the charts listed above are charts of similar coverage, each chart showing wind and temperature for a particular flight level. The flight levels are listed in column 3 of page 3-5-10 of the GEN section of the Air Pilot (Appendix A to ‘Chapter 18). On these charts winds are given every 5° of latitude and longitude using the symbology shown in Figure 19.5 and an example of a wind chart is Figure 19.6. oA ARS: oR urns Tees FL 340 01/1202 " a» ss ogee OF - pee Figure 19.6 Wind Temperature Chart for FL340 19-7 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WEATHER CHARTS, ‘To find the wind and temperature at a position other than that at a lat/long intersection, some careful interpolation is required. To find an average wind fora whole route you must split the route into.a number of sections, say 10° of latitude or longitude (depending on the direction) find the wind & temperature for each section and find a mathematical average. If the winds found vary through 360°, you will have to take care eg. the average of the two winds 310/20 and 010/30 is 340/25 and mot 160/25! To find the wind component, the average W/V will have to be applied to the mean track for the route using a representative TAS and the navigation computer, (For normal transport aircraft flying between 30,000 and 40,000 ff, 480 kts is a reasonable figure) ibsonie jet Exercises A & B at the end of this chapter cover the use of both the signil temperature charts 5 Wind Symbols 5.4 Wind/Temperature Chart 1d 300°(T) 30 KT, temperature -36°C at arrow head 56 Wind 090°(T) 60 KT, temperature -56°C at arrow head PS2 Wind 240°(T) 15 KT, temperature +2°C at arrow head eeooerececescccodscoces Figure 19.7 19-8 © Oxtora Avation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WEATHER CHARTS EXERCISE A Significant Weather, and Tropopause/Maximum, Windspeed Chart, Upper Wind and Temperature Chart, and TAFS Using Figure I Exercise A, detail significant weather from Bode to Lisbon via Glasgow above FL240: specifying where changes occur by latitude, or longitude as appro} Using Figure 2 Exercise A, tabulate the mean W/V and temperature at FL. 300 at each 10° degree longitude line along the route (ic. at 10°W, 20°F, 30°F ete.) and calculate the mean W/V over the whole route. Caleulate the ISA temperature deviation at FL, 300 overhead: a) London b) Cairo Give forecast landing conditions from the list below: a) HECA for the period 1800 GMT to 0000 GMT. b) —_LICI for the period 1200 to 1800 GMT. TAFS Middle East PTEG 31 OLBA 281100 HECA HELX ICs PT 281812 VRBOSKT CAVOK TEMPO 0006 3000 Hz scTO17 BECHG 0506 04010KT CAVOK FT 281812 VRBO3KT CAVOK BECMG 0608 04010KT. PT 280606 1801SKT 2500 Hz SCTO30 BECMG 0910 13010G22KT BECHG 1416 DOOOKT TEMPO 0003 2000 BR BECHG 0304 18015KT, FT 280606 29008G19KT 6000 FEWO20 SCTO30 TEMPO 0906 32030KT 0800 +TSSA SCTO30CB BECMG 2302 VRBOSKT 2500 HZ BECMG 0305 30008G18kt 3000 HZ 19-9 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services Linited‘V 9Siouexg HEUD JeUIeeM IUEDYIUBIS - | aunB}5 SY SIWSTOA 405 SIBHES HO [Weenie BROT STII]‘y 981018x3 40} aunjeiediue |;puigy Jeddn - z oundMETEOROLOGY WEATHER CHARTS EXERCISE B Significant. Weather, and Tropopause/Maximum Windspeed Chart. Upper Wind/Temperature Chart, and TARS. 1 Using Figure 1 Exercise B, detail significant weather from Keflavie to Berlin via London giving cloud, icing, turbulence and CAT over the route above FL 250 specifying ongitude where changes occur, Using Figure 2 Exercise B, tabulate the mean W/V and temperature at FL. 340 at each 10%degree longitude line along the route (ic. at 10°W, 20°W, 30°W ete.) and calculate the mean W/V over the whole route. Ifthe flight is carried out at FL 340 between London and 30°W will this route portion be flown in the stratosphere? Give forecast landing conditions from the list of TAFS as follows: a) CYMX for the period 0600 GMT to 1000 GMT, b)— KORD for the period 1000 GMT to 1200 GMT. oct 7 21: 31: 56 1998 Airtransat FOMS STATION WEATHER INFORMATION cue mex TAF 0716202 71717 O8008KT PéSM OVCO30 TEMPO 1923 4SM -SH RA 0VC020 FM2300% 18015KT 6SM -RA SCTUO6 OVCO2Z0 TEMPO 2311 3SM -RA OVCO06 PROB3O 0205 2SM TSRA OVC006 FM1100Z 29008KT P6SM -SHRA 0VCO30 TEMPO 1117 4SM -SHRA BR OVCO20 RMK NXT FCST BY 23% TAF 071015Z 071111 VRBO3KT P6SM SCTO40 BKNOSO BECMG 1214 09012KT FM14002 09012KT P6SM SCTO30 OVCOSO TEMPO 2103 6SM -SHRA OVCO20 FMO200%2 15010KT 6SM -SHRA SCTO10 OVCO20 TEMPO 0311 3s% -SHRA OVCOL0 RMK NXT FCST BY 172 KORD ORD TAF 0716232 071717 O7OO8KT P6SM FEWO30 SCT120 BKN220 BECMG 1920 BKNO30 OVC100 FM2300Z O5008KT PSM BKNO30 OVC100 TEMPO 0002 P6SM -SHRA BKNO30 OVCO80 FMO2000Z OSO08KT 6SM -RA OVC025 TEMPO 0206 36M -RA BR OVCO15 FMO600Z OSQD6KT 5SM -RA BR SCTOU6 OVCU12 TEMPO 0613 28M -RA BR OVCO06 FM1400Z 28010KT PéSM OVCO25 RMK NXT FCST By 23g TAF 0710152 071111 06008KT P6SM SCT120 BKN230 TEMPO 1800 BKNO40 OVC100 FMO000Z OSO0O8KT P6SM BKNO40 OVC100 TEMPO 0104 PESK -SHRA BKNO30 OVCO80 FMO400Z 05008KT 6SM -RA OVCO25 TEMPO 0411 2SM -RA BR OVCO10 RMK NXT FCST BY 172 19-12 (2 Osford Aviation Services Limtec1g esjosaxg -z ounbi4 wBiskdoo unary @ 2001/80 obe 14 SOREL/SONTA IH ‘ gog @81010x3 10) UeYD seMIPaM TUEDYIUBIS | 2uNBL 4METEOROLOGY WEATHER CHARTS. EXERCISE C Using the attached significant weather chatt (Appendix A) answer question 1 to 4 on the route from ‘Madrid to Lamaca following the marked route. The highest tropopause height en-route would be at: a) ») c) 4) overhead 20E overhead Madrid Larnaca 10°E, ‘The CAT expected at 5°E en-route would be: a) b) 3 4 moderate between FL230 and FL460 moderate from below FL100 to FL160 moderate from FL260 to FL370 moderate between PL290 to FL440 IF this route was flown at FL290 moderate to severe turbulence and icing could be expeeted at: a) b) °) a SE 10°E overhead Larnaca 25°E, Using the attached upper wind and temperature chart (Appendix B) for flying the route from Madrid to Larnaca at FL 300 answer Questions 4 to 6. ‘The mean wind velocity and temperature between Madrid and 30°F would be a) b) °) o ‘The ISA deviation overhead Madrid a) ») °) 4) 295/70 - 40 290/80 - 45 27075 42 260/70 38 ISA 4 ISA+4 ISA+S ISA+3 19-15 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitodMETEOROLOGY WEATHER CHARTS. 6. 9, 10. The highest ground speed would be achieved at: a) b) ° 3) 25°E ISE 30°E 20°E Using the attached F 214 UK low level wind and temperature chart (Appendix C) answer Questions 7 10 9. The mean wind and temperature between Liverpool (EGGP) and Jersey (EGIJ) at 14000 ft would be: a) 250/50 BC b) 280/35 5° ©) 275/52 “IPC 255160 -23° At position 57° 30'N 05°00'W between 2000ft and SO00f the ELR in existence would lead to astate of a) neutral equilibrium by absohute stability ©) conditional instability 4) absolute instability ‘The ISA deviation at $5° N 00° E at 18000 ft would be: a) b) o 4) ISA-3°C ISA + 0°C, ISA + 12°C ISA 33°C Using the attached F215 UK low level forecast (Appendix D) answers 10 to 15. ‘The type of fog forecast in Zone 4 is most likely to be: a) b) ° a radiation fog. frontal fog. advection fo aretic smoke 19-16 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WEATHER CHARTS u 14, At 0900 Z the occlusion velocity is: a) -120°/20kt by 080°/35kt ©) Less than Skt d)— 090°/30kt In Zone 3 the reported cloud is: a) strato cumulus ) stratus and strato cumulus, ©) alto cumulus d) stratus, strato cumulus and alto cumulus By 1200 Z the lowest visibility will be found in: a) Zoned b) Zones 2 and 3 ©) Zone 5 @) Zones 2, 3 and 4 The highest cloud tops expected at Kidlington between 0600 Z and 1200 Z. are a FL2S0 b) 14000 ft AGL. ©) $000 AMSL. 25000 AMS. ‘The surface wind direction expected at London Heathrow at 1800 Z is: a) 060°T b) — 290°T ©) 180°T d) 240°T From the TAF’s for MKPP and KBOS given below answer 16 to 20. MKPP 270606 10017KT 3000 HZ SCTO24 PROB30 TEMPO 0812 2000 +SHRA BKNO10CB BECMG 1215 VRBOSKT CAVOK BECMG 0103 10010KT 5000 ScTO15 KBOS 271212 VRBOS CAVOK BECMG 1819 06012KT BHCMG 0204 05025G35KT 5000 OVCO30 PROB40 1012 2800 SN 19-17 (© Osford Aviation Services LimitesMETEOROLOGY WEATHER CHARTS 16. 18, 19. 20. ‘The visibility at MKPP at 1600 Z is expected to be: a) 2000:m b) 300m ©) $000m 4) 10 km or more The lowest cloud base forecast for MKPP at 1100 is: a) 2400 f AMSL. b) above 5000 ft AMSL. ©) 2400 AGL. 4) 1000 AGL. ‘The highest surface wind speed at MKPP is expected between: a) 0600 Zand 0600 Z. b) 0600 Z and 12002 ©) 1200-2 and 1500 Z d) 0800-2 and 1200 Z ALKBOS at 1100 Z which of the following weather conditions are expected: a) visibility of 28 km b) 8/8 cloud at 2800 ft ©) 40% chance or moderate snow d) surface wind of 05025KT, AtKBOS at 0600 Z the visibility is expected to be: a) 5000m b) more than 10k m ©) 2800m dQ 1012m 19-18 (© Oord Aviation Services LimitesExercise C - Appendix A@ xipuaddy - 9 esisi0x3 yyy 008 14 NOS MUD 4] awonmanae ons oxen xanMETEOROLOGY SUITABLE FOR FLIGHTS BETWEI WEATHER CHARTS. | FIXED TIME CHART VALID AT 9 UTC ON TUESORY 5/1/93" N_ 0600 AND 1200 UTC 97595 | shy |__§0N_0230K_| SON _O230E, l2e 230 70 G2 [24 210 65 = 39] Re 2-81 | apes Ro 220 Hae 10 220 65 -09) JOS 220 60 - 03} los 200 70 -o2| Ipy loz 220 $5 +03) 2 130 6s +051 st oe [ot 130 66 +03] ae ko ROE) sora 1 269 65-16) 26 26011 S750N_0230H 5730N_0230E 32 $83 S324 Ms ROU abe pena ee | [staan aasoe | bs $28 2a asr rig eo a5 —Halg ssorgs 2) Uae eargs — Be 365 g3 282) [io $82 aa aalig 2satag eel] Hts faa!99 —3 Be £98 So sass 48 18ST HB a BE 383 EB 82105 #69 22 8e]] [ee tee ge “oe or 250-S0 s05]}- (OF 288 $9 233 . sou | emai ona ~ i Tan oie fa 2ug119 - 25, 74 | S50 o2s0m | (Sey ope Tan tse jo 250 Se - ach VARS elds — | [2p ase somag) | 270 se=w lop 200 35-03) pig $4310 — 3 lig 240 go —ie] | jie 260 os 12S. 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ALTITUDES ARE ABOVE MSL go 2 Cut) ear a SON lage: THOUSANDS OF FET) TEnpeRnTuRE IN DEGREES CELSIUS {© Crown copyright Exercise C - Appendix C 19-21 © Oxford Aviation Senices LimitedMETEOROLOGY WEATHER CHARTS VALID BeTWeEh (os l0800 | ano slzo0 2] fos [i800 Z ‘OUTLOOK AT 288 3500000, 00 TURE ANCE, ‘20N. Mo TURB OVER LAND LW Bos. ‘e8sTSC eo0eate,6aAc Lm ower, ‘Lou COVERING HLS. MOD IGE AND TUR. (2c. MOO TURG OVER LAND LW 602. ‘288 znoneo, ac gona 4000, WITH MOD (68575 seaton, C1000 COVERNG HLS, "BAC 12007400, MOD ICE A TUR (© Crown copyright Exercise C - Appendix D 19-22 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY WEATHER CHARTS. Ques Answer Ques Answer I A i A 2 12 D 3 c B B 4 A 4 D 3 c 1s D 6 D 16 D 7 A 7 D 8 18 B 9 1 c 10 A 20 A 19-23 (© Orford Aviation Services Lim20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 205 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 20.10 20.11 20.12 20.13 20.14 20.15 20.16 20.17 20.18 CHAPTER TWENTY - AIR MASSES. Contents INTRODUCTION IDENTIFICATION, 6... 022022 20200200200e eee AIR MASSES AFFECTING THE BRITISH ISLES AND NW EUROPE. OTHER AREAS FRONTS, AN INTRODUCTION THE POLAR FRONT... ceceees ‘THE ARCTIC FRONT, ‘THE MEDITERRANEAN FRONT. ‘THE INTERTROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE (ITCZ) FRONTAL FACTORS, «0. .00+ cee eeeeeeeees ceceeee ‘THE POLAR FRONT AND POLAR FRONT DEPRESSIONS. WARM FRONTS COLD FRONTS ANA - AND KATAFRONTS QUASI STATIONARY FRONTS ..000006000000 00 ceceees THE WARM SECTOR WEATHER WITH THE PASSAGE OF A POLAR FRONT DEPRESSION. UPPER WINDS IN A POLAR FRONT DEPRESSION PRACTICAL QUESTIONS. AIR MASSES AND FRONTS QUESTIONS, cee APPENDIX A . cesses APPENDIX B Page 220-1 20-2 20-4 20-6 -20-6 220-7 20-7 20-9 20-10 20-11 20-12 20-13 20-13 20-14 20-15 20-17 20-19 20-21 20-24 20-28 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES. 20.1 INTRODUCTION An air mass is a large volume of air where the humidity and temperature in the horizontal are more or less constant, ‘The temperature and humidity properties are obtained by the air remaining roughly stationary over a surface where conditions are generally constant for some length of time -a high pressure area, Therefore at source, all air masses must be stable. Figure 20.1 General Source Regions ‘The basic properties of stability, temperature and humidity can change as.an air mass moves over surfaces with different properties. An air mass moving to a warmer area will become heated in the lower layers and should become: a) Unstable. b) Warmer, ©) Lower relative humidity. An air mass moving to a colder region should become: a) More stable, b) Colder in the lower layers. ©) Have an increased relative humidity 20-1 © Otord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY 20.2 IDENTIFICATION Air masses are identified by temperature‘latitude: a) Tropical. b) Polar, An and by humidity or sea/land source: a) Maritime. ) Continental, Hence the main air masses are named: a) Arctic (not usually sub-divided) b) Polar Maritime (PM). ©) Polar Continental (PC), d) Tropical Maritime (TM), ¢) Tropical Continental (TC). 20-2 AIR MASSES. © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES Figure 20.2. Air Mass Source Regions in January Figure 20.3. Air Mass Source Regions in July. 20-3 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY 203 AIR MASSES AFFECTING THE BRITISH ISLES AND NW EUROPE (Air masses affecting this area affect other parts of the world in a similar fashion.) 9 b) Polar Maritime Souree: North Atlantic: stable, cold, absolute humidity Iow, relative humidity high. Weather: Cold, moist, NW airflow. On approaching UK becomes unstable giving Cu, ‘Cb, heavy showers, sometimes hail and thunderstonms, Cu, Cb most likely over NW coasts. Visibility good except in showers. Bumpy flying. At night inland the cloud dissipates, the clearing skies causing low level inversion | with stable air below ~ ideal | conditions for radiation fog. Figure.20.4 Air Masses Affecting the British Isles. Polar Continental. Souree: Siberia (winter only). Stable, very cold and dry. ‘Weather: i) Ifthe airflow is mainly from the E via continental Europe, then very cold, very dry, no cloud, no precipitation. Remains stable - good visibility but smoke possible, ji) If the airflow is mainly from over the North Sea from the NE, the air will become unstable, with large Cu and heavy showers on the E coast of UK. Remains very cold. Visibility good except in showers. iii) In summer the air mass virtually disappears. However, with high pressure over Scandinavia in early to mid summer, there will be a NE flow over the North Sea toE UK. The air originates as dry, warm and stable. Over the North Sea it becomes moist and cool. This results in Haar conditions over E coast of N England and Scotland - very low St, drizzle, advection fog, poor visibility 20-4 ‘© Ovford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES °) d °) Tropical Continental Source: N Africa/SE Europe. Mainly summer, warm, dry, stable, Weather: A warm, dry S or SE flow. No cloud or precipitation, warm or very. warm. Visibility good except in dust haze which can occur. ‘Tropical Maritime. Source: The Azores. Warm, stable, absolute humidity high, RH moderate. Weather: A warm, moist SW air flow. As the air moves North, the temperature reduces, (but remains warm). Stability and RH increase. Low cloud, Stand Se. Drizzle or light precipitation, Visibility poor. Advection fog over sea area late spring, early summer, over land winter, early spring. In high summer insolation and convection break down the stability resulting in clear skies or possibly a few small Cu, Aretie: The source is the polar ice cap, where itis stable, very cold with low absolute humidity. The humidity increases as it approaches N Scotland and it becomes unstable from the warmer sea, It gives a cold N airflow with large Cu, heavy snow falls, blizzards and very low temperatures in the extreme N of Scotland. It occurs only infrequently in winter. Returning Polar Maritime. This is Polar Maritime air which has ‘moved to the S of the north Atlantic & approaches fom the W or SW. In its lowerlayers tropical maritime conditions are acquired and retained. It will still be unstable at higher levels. It can quickly become unstable giving Cu, Cb and Ts. Equatorial: This does not affect the UK ot Northern Europe. The weather patterns, associated with the equatorial sources include; Trade Winds, Monsoons, The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone and Tropical Revolving Storms. The main properties are high temperatures and high humidity (both absolute and relative) Figure 20.5 Returning Polar Maritime 20-5 (©Oxford Aviation Sorvicos LimitedMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES 05 Figure 20.6 Equatorial Air Masses OTHER AREAS Polar Maritime (PM) ait also has a source in the N Pacific. Tropical Maritime (TM) air has sources in the Pacific and the sub-tropics. Polat Continental (PC) air has a source in N America which considerably affects N Ametican weather, FRONTS, AN INTRODUCTION ‘A front is a zone or surface of interaction between two air masses of different temperature, When the two air masses meet, the warmer will rise over the top of the colder because of the difference in density. The frontal surface where they meet is frequently, but not always, active with much cloud and precipitation. The ground position of the frontal surface is shown on synoptic charts. TN PSAs) CCM SURFACE FRONT If the term ZONE is used, then the rogion of interaction is much wider (up to 300 nm). Figure 20.7 Front 20-6 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES 20.7 The main global fronts are: a) The Polar Front, b) The Arctic Front. ©) The Mediterranean Front. d) The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). THE POLAR FRONT ‘The Polar Front is the boundary between polar and wopical air masses. It extends across the Atlantic and Pacific from lat 35N to 65N and in the S hemisphere around lat 50S. ‘There are numerous waves on the front which cause depressions which contain their own portions of the polar front. THE ARCTIC FRONT. The Arctic Front is the boundary between the Aretic and the Polar air masses and may have an associated Jet Stream. It lies at higher latitudes than the Polar Front but sometimes moves into temperate latitudes (south Greenland to north of Norway) in winter and spring, (See Figure 20.8 and 20.9). Figure 20.8 Frontal Positions in January. 20-7 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES 20.8 209 Figure 20.9 Frontal Positions in July. ‘THE MEDITERRANEAN FRONT ‘The Mediterranean Front is the boundary between Polar Continental or Maritime air from Europe and Tropical Continental air from North Africa, Itextends west to east across the middle of the Mediterranean Sea as far as the Caspian. The front disappears in Summer. THE INTERTROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE (ITCZ) ‘The Intertropical Convergence Zone is the broad zone of separation between the ait masses either side of the heat equator. The air is conveyed by the Trade Winds north east and south east. Subject to large seasonal movement overland, but much less over the sea, Sometimes known as the Thermal Equator or Equatorial Trough. 20-8 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES 20.10 FRONTAL FACTORS Fronts ina locality are named warm or cold, dependant upon whether warm or cold air is replacing the other. All fronts have a slope with height so that in side view the front isa sloping surface Whilst fronts are normally associated with convergence and ascending air, giving ‘much cloud and bad weather, itis possible for air masses to flow side by side with litle interaction, Figure 20.10. Air Mass Juxtaposition. ‘The factors concerned are: a) Equilibrium. The Pressure Gradient Foree (PGF) is towards the front from both the cold and the warm side then under these conditions the wind would be Geostrophie, blowing parallel to the front. ‘The frontal surfaces would be in equilibrium with no tendency forthe cold airto undercut the warm, Itean be concluded that ifthe wind is Geostrophic, there is equilibrium and little weather. Db) Convergence, There is always convergence in any depression but this will normally be small and give light precipitation and thin cloud only. It follows therefore that there must be unbalancing of the equilibrium, causing lifting and undercutting of the warm ait, for extensive cloud to occur together with heavy precipitation, Figure 20.12. Convergence Unbalancing can be caused by the pressure falling in the depression. This will cause the winds to no longer be geostrophic and there will be a flow of air across the isobars towards the deepening centre. 20-9 © Ostord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES 20.11 ‘THE POLAR FRONT AND POLAR FRONT DEPRESSIONS Polar and tropical air masses meet at a boundary which is called the polar front, This front is intemperate latitudes in both hemispheres and its position changes, particularly with the seasons, ‘The portion of the polar front which particularly affects the British Isles is the Atlantic polar front ‘The average position of the front in winter is from Florida to South West UK and in the summer from Newfoundland to North Scotland, ‘The polar front is important because depressions form on the front and these contain modified portions of the front which provide much of the UK and European bad weather. Depressions which form on the polar front are called Polar Front Depressions. They form in families one behind the other. The formation most frequently occurs on the tail ofthe depression cold front. The portions of the front lying either side of the PF Depression are called either ‘warm or cold. Figure 20.13 The Development of Polar Front Depressions. 20-10 © Oxford Aviation Servicas LimitedMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES, 20.12. WARM FRONTS Low If warm air is replacing cold air, then the front is called warm. A warm front is shown at | 1000 Figure 20.14. 1004 1008 soz A warm front has an approximate slope of | 1018 1:150 and a side view is as shown in Figure 20.15 Nich Figure 20.14 A Warm Front TROPICAL AIR TROPOPAUSE JETCORE TROMCAL MARITIME AR "WAR SECTOR) ‘The front moves at right angles to itself at a speed equal to 2/3 of the Geostrophic interval measured along the front. See Figure 20.16, |—-CHART TIME |_ 09002 Figure 20.16 Warm Front - Speed At Movement 20-11 © Oord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY 20.13 FREEZNGLEVEL go aor fir COLD FRONTS, If cold air is replacing warm air, then the front iscalledacold front. A cold front ona synoptic chart is as shown in Figure 20.17 sgt cone = | TROPICAL, Figure 20.18 Cold Front - Side Elevation The front moves at right angles to itself at a speed equal to the geostrophic interval (full) measured along the front. See Figure 20.19. AIR MASSES Low 1000 008 1012 ic ARM Aik Figure 20.17 A Cold Front The slope of a cold front is approximately 1:50 and a side view is shown in Figure 20.18. A Winter cold front in Europe will usually produce more intense weather and precipitation. CHART TIME 12002 AIRFIELD DISTANCE= 80nm. Figure 20,19 Cold Front - Speed of Movement 20-12 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES. 20.14 20.15 ANA- AND KATAFRONTS ‘A sub-classifieation of fronts depends upon the vertical motion of air at the front. If the ar in the warm sector (between the two fronts) is rising relative to the front itis called an ANA front, ‘The front will be active with heavy precipitation and a deep layer of cloud, especially near the surface position of the front. With the KATA front however, where the warm sector air is descending, the weather is less intense, with @ much shallower cloud belt. ‘This usually occurs when the depression is fil QUASI STATIONARY FRONTS ‘When the front has little or no movement it is known as a quasi stationary front, Figure 20.21 shows such a front on a synoptic chart. Since there is little frontal movement, weather conditions are likely to be comparatively quiet, though longer lasting. Figure 20.21 A Quasi-Stationary Front 20-13 (© Oxford Aviation Services LinedMETEOROLOGY 20.16 THE WARM SECTOR ‘The area lying between the two fronts is known, since it is covered by tropical air, as the warm sector, AIR MASSES TROPICAL MARITIME AIR. (WARM SECTOR) ISOTHERM The warm sector will move as. the ‘warm frontand cold fronts moye and will in fact hattow, as the cold front ‘moves faster than the warm, The depression at the tip of the warm sector will move parallel to the isobars in the warm sector at a speed given by the distance between the first and second isobars. Figure 20.24 Movement of a Depression 20-14 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES 20.17. WEATHER WITH THE PASSAGE OF A POLAR FRONT DEPRESSION a) b) Ahead of a warm front (Figure 20.25). Surface W/V Temperature Dew Point Pressure Cloud Precipitation Visibility Speed increasing, slight backing, usually southerly, Steady low. Steady low. Steady fall, Increasing to 8/8, base lowering, Ci,Cs, As, Ns. Light continuous from As becoming moderate continuous from Ns Reducing to poor. Figure 20.25 Ahead of a Figure 20.26 At the Warm Warm Front Front At the warm front. (Figure 20.26) Surface W/V ‘Temperature Dew Point Pressure Cloud Precipitation Visibility Sharp veer. Sun ie. ‘Sudden rise, Stops falling 8/8, base very low, NsSt. Moderate or heavy continuous. Very poor, fog can occur. 20-15 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitsMETEOROLOGY °) ad AIR MASSES In the warm sector. (Figure 20.27) Surface W/V- Steady, usually from the SW. Temperature - Dew Point Pressure - Cloud 5 Precipitation Visibility Steady. Steady. Steady. 6/8 to 8/8, some large breaks may occur, base low, St, Se. Light rain, drizzle Poor. ss yo Figure 20.27 In the Warm Sector Figure 20.28 At the Cold Front At the cold front. (Figure 20.28) Surface W/V - Temperature - Dew Point . Pressure - Cloud - Precipitation - Visibility - Sharp veer, gusts and squalls likely. ‘Sudden fall, ‘Sudden fall Starts to rise, 6/8 to 8/8, base low but rising, Cu, CB, sometimes Ns. Heavy rain or snow showers, thunder and hail possible, Good, except in precipitation. 20-16 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES. ©) Behind the cold front (Figure 20.29) Surface WV - Steady o slight veer to NW. Temperature - Steady low. Dew Point - Steady low. Pressure = Rises slowly. Cloud - Precipitation - Showers, heavy at times, hail and Ts possible. Visibility Very good, except in showers. Figure 20.29 Behind the Cold Front 20.18 UPPER WINDS IN A POLAR FRONT DEPRESSION Whilst the upper wind equals the thermal wind plus the geostrophic wind near the surface, when the thermal effects are very pronounced, strong upper winds follow the isotherm directions. These often blow parallel to the surface fronts so that winds are: Figure 20.30 The Upper Winds in a Polar Front Depression. 20-17 ‘© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES. a) Ahead of a warm front, NW (rapid movement of Ci from the NW isa good indication of a jet stream above) The jet stream will be aear the tropopause, parallel to and about, 400nm ahead of the surface position of the front in the warm air. b) Above the warm sector. There willbe litle change from the geostrophic wind near the surface as regards direction, but the speed will be greater. ©) Behind the cold front, SW. The jetstream will be near the tropopause, parallel to and about 20am behind the surface position of the cold front in the warm air. 20-18 (© Onford Aviation Services LiedMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES. PRACTICAL QUESTIONS For Questions 1-5 on this page, please refer to Figure 20.31 on the following page. ‘What will be the position of the depression centered at 5830N 0200E by 1400Z? a) 5430N 0600E, b) —_6000N 0330 ©) 5930N 0630E d) —5920N 0400E, At what time will the Warm Front reach Station 275 (S200N 0600E)? a) 0545z b) —1580z ©) 1830Z a 1745z At what time will the Warm Front reach Station 027 (4910N 0030W)? a) 06072 b) 16047, 17352 a) 1818Z ‘At what time will the Cold Front reach Station 414 (5300N 0300W)? a) 14262. by 16162 ) 1355Z ad 1708Z At what time will the Warm Front reach Station 020 (5500N 0830)? a) 1414z, b) 15562 ) —1528Z ) 1429% 20-19 © Oord Aviation Services LimitecMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES. Figure 20.31 20 - 20 (© Orford Aviation Services LinitodMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES AIR MASSES AND FRONTS QUESTIONS L An air mass that has travelled over an ocean is known as: a) continental air and has a high humidity }) continental air and has a low humidity ©) maritime air and has a high humidity 4) maritime air and has a low humidity ‘Characteristic weather associated with a Pm airmass transitting the British Isles in Summer would include: a) widespread Cu and Cb activity overland during the day b) clear quiet settled weather overland by day with good visibility ©) warm moist conditions with some Se or Cu and moderate to poor visibility d) extensive low stratus cloud giving drizzle to light rain overland by day If air in transit is heated from below it tends to become more: a) stable b) ——neutrally stable ©) unstable none of these ‘The weather associated with polar maritime air a) overcast, moderate drizzle b) overcast moderate intermittent rain ©) broken cloud, light, moderate or heavy rain d) broken cloud, moderate continuous rain Polar maritime air is...,....,.,and.can bring........... inthe UK in winter but . seein summer, ‘Complete the above sentence correctly using one of the following: a) very unstable/heavy snow showers/does not arrive b) cold and stable/advection fog/rain showers ©) _unstable/intermittent or continuous snow/cool dry weather 4) unstable/heavy showers/light rain showers 20-21 (© Oxfors Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES 6 10. Tropical continental air normally brings to the UK: a) hot dry cloudless weather with a thiok haze b) warm weather with broken Cu and showers on coasts, visibility very good except in showers ©) warm dry cloudless weather with very good visibility 4) hotdry cloudless weather on coasts but Cu building up inland with rain showers, visibility good except in showers ‘Referring to the area of the North Atlantic, the mean position of the polar front in January is: a) from Florida to south west England b) from Newfoundland to the north of Scotland ©) ftom Florida to the north of Scotland 4) from Newfoundland to south west England When air from an air mass moves to a lower latitude, it ean be expected that: a) Surface layer air will become warmer, the RH will rise and the air will become unstable, b) Surface layer air will become colder, the RH will rise and the air will become more stable. ©) Surface layer air will become warmer, the RH will fall and the air will become unstable, 4) Surface layer air will become warmer, the RH will fall and the air will become more stable, In the N. hemisphere when flying in the troposphere above the surface friction layer in the polar maritime airmass behind the cold front of a fully developed frontal depression: a) The wind will tend to veer in direction and increase in speed with progressive increase of altitude. b) The wind will tend to veer in direction with increase of altitude but the speed may remain constant in the lower layers of the atmosphere. ©) The windspeed will reduce progressively with inerease of altitude until at about 10 000 feet above mean sea level where it will then tend to increase in speed from another direction. The wind will tend to back in direction and increase in speed with progressive increase of altitude. ‘The average surface level winds at A3, B3 and C3 in Appendix ‘A’ are respectively: a) Easterly, westerly, southwesterly. b) Westerly, westerly, southwesterly. ©) Southwesterly, westerly, northwesterly. d) — Southwesterly, westerly, northerly. 20-22 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES. Ww 12, 1B. 14, 15, ‘The average upper winds at Al, Bl and C1 in Appendix ‘A’ are respectively: a) easterly, westerly, northwesterly b) northwesterly, westerly, southwesterly ©) southwesterly, westerly, northwesterly @) southwesterly, westerly, northerly Itcan be expected that the depth of the Friction Layer over the UK will be: a) Greater in Polar Maritime air due to the instability and moderate wind. b) Greater in Tropical Maritime air due to the warm temperature, ©) Greater in Polar Continental air due to the very low temperatures. @) Greater in Tropical Continental air due to the relatively high temperatures in winter. ‘The airmasses involved in the development of a Polar Front Depression are: 8) Polar Maritime and Polar Continental. b) Tropical Maritime and Polar Continental. ©) Tropical Continental and Polar Maritime, 4) Polar Maritime and Tropical Maritime, ‘When a cold front passes a Station in the British Isles: a) The wind veers and the dewpoint falls. b) The wind backs and the dewpoint fails. ©) The wind veers and the dewpoint rises. @) The wind backs and the dewpoint rises. Refer to Appendix B ‘The airmasses indicated in the diagrams by the hand are respectively a) Arctic, Tropical Continental, Polar Maritime, Arctic Maritime b) Polar Continental, Tropical Maritime, Tropical Continental, Arctic ©) Polar Maritime, Tropical Maritime, Polar Continental, Arctic 4) Polar Continental, Polar Maritime, Tropical Maritime, Arctic 20-23 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitesMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES APPENDIX A. Cross Section Through a Polar Front Depression 20-24 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY AIR MASSES. APPENDIX B July November 20-25 © Olord Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ANSWERS Ques | Answers 1 c 2 A 3 c 4 c 5 D 6 A 1 A 8 c 9 D 10 c uw B 2 A 13 D 4 A L 15 B 20-26 AIR MASSES. © Oxford Aviation Services Limitedant 212 23 214 2s 21.6 CHAPTER TWENTY ONE - OCCLUSIONS Contents INTRODUCTION, Pee WARM TYPE OCCLUSION. . COLD TYPE OCCLUSION. . . OCCLUSION WEATHER, ..........-5 BACK BENT OCCLUSIONS. ...... GROWTH AND DECAY, CONCLUSION .... OCCLUDED FRONT QUESTIONS . . APPENDIX A... APPENDIX B ..... 22-222. coe APPENDIX C .. APPENDIX D .......25205+ Page e211 vee21-1 221-5 ---21-6 2221-6 -21-7 21-9 -- 21-12 21-13 2-13 Sez) (© Oxfore Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY 2d 22 OCCLUSIONS INTRODUCTION ‘An occlusion occurs when the cold front in a depression catches up with or over takes the warm front. An ocelusion forms because the cold front normally moves faster than the warm front. It usually forms when the pressure in the depression stops falling INT OF OCCLUSION (frontolysis). WARM TYPE OCCLUSION Figure 21.4, An Occlusion. Ifthe air ahead of the warm front is colder than the air behind the cold front, then a warm type occlusion will be formed. ‘The warm sector will be lifted above the surface and only a warm front will be apparent on the ‘ground. There will be a wide rain belt, with mainly stability type precipitation, POINT OF OCCLUSION PM COLD AIR soonsconaallppe LTTTTITTTD, Figure 21.2. A Warm Occlusion. 21-1 © Oxford Aviation Servicas LinitodMETEOROLOGY OCCLUSIONS. © Grown copyright Figure 21.3 A Warm Occlusion. 21-2 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY OCCLUSIONS 213 COLD TYPE OCCLUSION Ifthe air behind the cold front is colder than the air ahead of the warm front, then a cold type occlusion will be formed. ‘The warm sector will be lifted above the surface and only a cold front will be apparent on the ground. ‘There will bea narrow rain belt, with Cb and Ns the most likely cloud. PM COLD AIR PM . COLDER AIR —=— POINT OF OCCLUSION WARM Figure 21.4. A Gold Occlusion. 21-3 © Onford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY OcCLUSIONS Figure 21.5 A Cold Occlusion. 21-4 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY OCCLUSIONS 24 us OCCLUSION WEATHER ‘Weather is usually bad because the normal frontal depression weather is concentrated into @ smaller horizontal band and therefore a mixture of clouds can occur, eg Cb embedded in Ns. Furthermore, an occlusion forms towards the end of the life cycle of a depression, when it is slow moving and hence the weather can last for a lengthy period of time, ‘The above situation applies more particularly to the warm type occlusion because of the wider precipitation belt and the fact that this type of occlusion is more frequent in European winters because of the effect of Polar Continental air from the east (rain ice is a particular hazard. ‘Ocelusions can become non-active and then produce a little cloud and nothing more as the depression dies. Occlusions usually move at about the same speed as cold fronts. BACK BENT OCCLUSIONS ‘As the occlusion forms, the first point of occlusion is at the depression centre, It gradually ‘moves S and W forming a back bent occlusion rather like a loop through the depression centre, ‘This back bent portion is usually some 100 - 200 nis long and gives @ belt of rain in the cold air behind the cold front, often of a thundery nature. Figure 21.6 A Back Bent Occlusion 21-5 (© Odlor Aviation Serdces LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘OccLUSIONS 216 27 MOVEMENT ‘The precise forecasting of weather and movement of the occlusion is difficult, The point of ‘occlusion may be plotted for some time ahead by moving the warm front and cold front of a warm sector depression as described in the last chapter. Where the fronts meet will be the new point of occlusion. Figure 21.7 shows how this may be done. Figure 21.7 Movement of the Point of Occlusion Movement of the depression itself is much more difficult to predict, but it will curve in an anticlockwise direetion (Northem Hemisphere) at a speed dependent upon isobar spacing. GROWTH AND DECAY Growth ofa depression to the time of producing the lowest pressure at the centre is about 4 days. ‘The dying away as the depression fills can take 10 days or more and eventually the depression is absorbed by some other pressure feature, For the British Isles, the time sequence typically involves: a) Formation and growth near the Eastern seaboard of USA or mid-Atlantic. b) —_Lowest pressure over the UK and occlusion of front. 21-6 © Ovfore Aviation Serves LimitedMETEOROLOGY OCCLUSIONS ©) Depression filling over N Sea/Norway/Europe/Russia- frontolysis. Families of depressions form along the Polar Front and most frequently the new members form as secondary depressions at an occlusion point ot at the end of a trailing cold front, This latter position particularly applies later in the life of a depression as the cold front crosses a coastline (eg the coast of Brittany) of a range of mountains. Figure 21.8 A North Atlantic Polar Front. 218 CONCLUSION ‘The Handbook of Aviation Meteorology sums up the matter of occlusions thus: “The characteristics of the occlusion are variable. They may be similar to those of either the ‘warm or cold front (according to type) but are often ill defined” 21-7 2 Osford Aviation Services LimitesMETEOROLOGY ‘OCCLUSIONS Occluded Front Questions Refer to Appendix A for Questions 1-3: 1 The cloud in grid square MII is most likely to be: a) Cirrus. b) —_Nimbostratus. ©) Altocumulus. @) Stratus fractus, Precipitation will reach the ground mainly in the area: a) LI4-RI4 b) QI4-si4 ©) 014-TI4 4 14014 In grid square M6 The worst cloud conditions for flying could be: a) Altrocumulus b) —- Cumulo nimbus embedded in nimbostratus ©) Cumulonimbus. d) —_Nimbostratus Which of the conditions below would lead to the worst icing condition?: Size of Drop Ambient Temp. a) 2mm 30°C b) Lim Ve ©) Sm 4c a 3mm -12°¢ Refer to Appendix ‘B’. In a warm occhusion flying at 20000" where will the most turbulence bbe found? Qo OB 9 ¢ ad) Aandc 21-9 (© Oxford Aviation Services LinitedMETEOROLOGY OCCLUSIONS. 6. Referto Appendix °C, Which area will get the most rain at the surface? a) A » B 9) ¢ d) D Refer to Appendix ‘D’, What type of cloud will be found at X? a CS. b) NS 2) sc a CB 8 Refer to Appendix ‘D', What type of cloud is most likely at Z? a) CU bd) CB As a NS 9, After passage of an occluded front in the Northern Hemisphere: Wind ‘Temperature Precipitation a) backs stops falling continues b) veers drops rapidly stops abruptly ©) veers drops or rises begins to dry up a) backs rises quickly increases in strength 10. With 2 eold occlusion: a) ‘The air ahead of the warm front is colder than the air behind the cold front. b) The warm sector remains on the surface. c) The cloud type is predominately layer with a wide precipitation band. @) There isa risk of CB embedded in NS. Refer to Appendix ‘A’ for question L1 21-10 © Oxiore Awation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY OccLUSIONS u. The front at P14 is: a) Cold >) Warm c) Warm at an occlusion. d) Cold at an occlusion Refer to Appendix ‘B" for questions 12 -14 12 1B. 16. ‘The relative temperatures at A, B, and C could be respectively: a 46 BHO b) 6 HO 48 3) 8 +0 48 ) 0 46 48 Precipitation at the surface underneath B is likely to be: a) Light drizzle. b) Continuous moderate. ©) Showers, heavy with the possibility of hail Nil Flight conditions at B are likely to be: a) Smooth and elear, b) Layer clouds with only light turbulence. ©) Some turbulence in NS with the possibility of embedded CB giving moderate/severe turbulence. 4) Blight in CU, CB with some turbulence. When flying from west to east through a cold occlusion (below the warm air) over the north, Ailantic you would expect the wind to....... - and the temperature to... a) —_veer/decrease by back/inerease ©) back/deerease 4d) veerfincrease A warm occlusion occurs when: a) warm air is forcing cool air over cold air b) cold airs forcing cool air over warm air ©) cool air is forcing warm air over eold air 4) cool airis forcing cold air aloft 21-14 © Osfoud Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY OccLUSIONS APPENDIX A ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWX 1 { pf ol | 30,000" 3 - , 4 — 25,000" 5 | il |_| oe A ® | | 20,000" 7 I " 8 +H | 15,000" 9 | | | " 10 | a 10,000" al | ” — —| 5,000" 13 | " 14 - | | “MSL 21-12 | Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY OCCLUSIONS WARM OCCLUSION MOVEMENT A SURFACE APPENDIX B WARM OCCLUSION MOVEMENT—> A BC SURFACE Di APPENDIX GC WARM OCCLUSION MOVEMENT SURFACE APPENDIX D 21-13 Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ANSWERS Ques Answers alelo alelofalelolylale|>fale= 21-14 OCCLUSIONS © Orford Aviation Services Limited(CHAPTER TWENTY TWO - OTHER DEPRESSIONS Contents Page 221 INTRODUCTION, «...-220eeeeeeeeees see2del 222 OROGRAPHIC (LEF) DEPRESSIONS. ...... ceceeeeeeeeQDel 22.3. THERMAL DEPRESSIONS. .... ce 2-4 22.4 THEMONSOON LOW. «20000-2000 cccceeeee cecceeeeee DDS 22.5 THE EQUATORIAL LOW PRESSURE BELT. -22-6 22.6 POLAR AIR DEPRESSIONS. .......6600c000scceeceeceesseeesseese2BoT 22.7 INLAND WATERS, 22-8 228 THERMAL LOWS OVER LAND (SUMMER). wee 228 22.9 TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS (TRS). . fo eeeeeee DDD 22.10 SECONDARY DEPRESSIONS .. 22-14 22.11 COLD AIR POOLS uEEEEEELINEIDEIEEETEIERIREONEOTEE E81 22,12 TORNADOES «2.0.0.2. 205 fe 2-17 OTHER (NON-FRONTAL) DEPRESSIONS QUESTIONS coven 22-21 ‘© Ovford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS 22 22.2 INTRODUCTION Polar Front depressions predomainate in temperate latitudes but other types of depression also exist, in temperate and other regions. These include: a) Orographit depressions. b) Thermal depressions. ©) Secondary depressions. OROGRAPHIC (LEE) DEPRESSIONS ‘Whena flow of air meets a mountain range ata large angle, there is a marked tendency for much. of the air to flow around the end of the range instead of flowing over the top. This can cause a comparative lack of air on the downwind (lee) side of the mountains so that low pressure occurs, Figure 22.1. Orographic Depressions. 22-1 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS ‘There are three weather situations: a) Te the air is dry and stable, then any uplift caused by the depression will have little effect and the weather will be warm, clear and dry. This is the FS Figure 22.2 Féhn effect b) Ifthe air is moist, then the uplift causcd as it passes over the depression can ensure that Cu and Cb with showers and possibly thunderstorms and hail may develop. Figure 22.3 Moist, Unstable 22-2 \© Overs Aviation Serves LimitedMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS ° Sometimes a cold front will approach the mountain range and then much of the cold air will initially be held back by the range. When this unstable air finally breaks over the mountains, lifting will occur with additional lifting from the orographic low. ‘The result can be heavy banks of Cb, with line squalls, very heavy showers, thunderstorms, hail and poor visibility A good example of this occurs over the Alps in Northern Italy in winter, the cold front being part of a polar front depression Figure 22. 4 The Result of a Cold Front Approaching a Mountain Range. 22-3 ‘© Oxford Aviation Sarvices LimitedMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS 22.3 THERMAL DEPRESSIONS Basie Theory As the airat the surface is heated, it will expand, causing the pressure surface to be lifted. This higher pressure at height will result in an outflow of air. In tur this will cause @ fall in surface pressure and the ait will move cyclonically. DIVERGENCE CONVERGENCE Figure 22.5. Thermal Depression Theory ‘The thermal depression often weakens with height because pressure tends to be higher. This can. cause upper winds to reverse, but development of a thermal depression in unstable air can be active up to tropopause heights. Weather. a) Cu, Cb (perhaps hail and thunderstorms). b) Heavy showers. ©) Good visibility except in showers. d) Moderate or severe turbulence. 22-4 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS 22.4 THE MONSOON LOW Over large continents in summer a large thermal low develops which controls the circulation of air. The weather pattern is variable, being affected by topography, eg the Himalayas, and by the air masses drawn into the circulation. Figure 22.6 Monsoon Low 22-5 © Oxford Aviation Services Limitedcropenbg woe (AL) wog [wardonsarny (saumewios) 10 (75,1) eU0Z soUdaAU0; [wade] —(q omy SP UNOMT OST ‘SHIT YINOS PUe YON aewKoiddy /'Zz e:nBLy “amyoqd yp uy uaoys se are yng ‘opmyre Jo soqtened 2qp| MoULO} YOU Op 3194 SINE _Jo soLmepunog yINOg piwe TON, dIp SeOsR S1URDNO Pure S>SSEUE PUET MDAAITP amp Jo astwesag “A poompord faq ainssaid mol wwaueunied e pue sea4 aip jo asmoo aqy Sup ($2.7) wootsde,) | uy YoU (pI zaxpasO} ‘SyTNSAs SuNeay SUMS om AQ, i. Zo€Z) 190ue) Jo soidon ay) waas}aq SAAOW UNS a, L1G PANSSAAd MOT IVIMOLVAOT AHL STZMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS 22.6 POLAR AIR DEPRESSIONS ‘These thermal lows form when Polar Maritime air is subject to lifting on a large scale. ‘This usually occurs due to the PM air moving south over a warmer sea in winter, It gives Cu, Cb, heavy showers and sometimes secondary cold fronts develop, Do not confuse with Polar Front Depressions which are at the joining point of the Tropical Maritime and Polar Air Masses. Figure 22.8, The Formation of a Polar Air Depression. Figure 22.9. A Polar Air Depression off the Norwegian Coast in November 22-7 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY 22.7 28 INLAND WATERS In winter, thermal lows develop over the Caspian, Black and Mediterranean Seas. A cold outflow of PC air from the Siberian high flows over the warmer seas. Convection and the development of depressions result, Similar lows develop over the Great Lakes of North America. ‘THERMAL LOWS OVER LAND (SUMMER) During SUMMER, shallow lows will appear over land due to surface heating, Ifthe airis already UNSTABLE or there are OLD FRONTAL ZONES jin the area, thunderstorms, ‘widespread rain or squalls may result. Fig 22.10 shows such OTHER DEPRESSIONS Jows over central France producing thunderstorms, They also Figure 22.10 Inland Waters cour regularly in Summer over the American mid-west, giving heavy thunderstorms, Wwe GENERAL SITUATION: Easter. couttioe of Srgard anc Gest ol be S040) Ss iy, fret wan sre showers Aun tom te coat shoul ah heats aia enance ote “he rest ofthe UX oi rine: Nae ENGLAND, SW ENGLAND: Mist clearingolzave [7 Sirahno. A small nance of ns atersnoon. Aight and varabie wd Max 78791 (23-260) MIDLANDS, CENT N ENGLAND, NW ENGLAND, WALES, LAKE DS. (OM NIRELANO: Warm ad ray pels. A aD%s chatee i ococn SI (Black Sea) iter verebe wes: Mor aces ee Cc beg) rena Renae aa is Ba Peron (ate) “orca Pe EANGUA, EENGLAND: Potty fogondiow loud oul gor tui oa ihe oe ey ev ou A sentneoeery nee, No SOT, ERE). NE ENGLAND, SE SCOTLAND, sen DUNDEE, CENTRAL HIGHLANDS, aes 7 BUNCE CTIA, GAAS, ABERDEEN 0 7 kK tf ‘Sunny spas end ay frm tre coset A a UTE unde Se ea a ‘SW SCOTLAND, NW SCOTLAND, GLASGOW, page asters ul cme in Piers Panty Figure 22.11. Thermal Low Effect. 22-8 {© Orford Aviation Servions LinitodMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS 22.9 TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS (TRS) Description: ‘These are cyclones that develop over the warm tropical oceans and have sustained wind speeds, in excess of 64 knots. They are the most destructive and extensive weather phenomenon which affects our planet. Winds in a tornado may momentarily exceed those of a TRS, but the life cycle of a tornado is primarily measured in minutes. The life cycle of a TRS, however, is measured in weeks and it’s extraordinary size exceeds any other meteorological phenomenon. Figure 22.12. The Segment of Worst Weather in @ Tropical Revolving Storm. Formation: Hurricanes are formed from complexes of thunderstorms, (usually the eastern side of the oceans). However, these thunderstorms can only grow to husricane strength with the right conditions of the ocean and the atmosphere, These thunderstorms are most commonly formed in one of two ways, The main way being from the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (I.T.C,Z) where the casterly trade winds converge at the equator creating a band of storms circumnavigating the globe. The second way is from the equatorial easterly atmospheric waves, otherwise known as easterly waves The storms generate their power and energy from the release of large amounts of latent heat from the moisture they have gained over the warm seas. This release of heat causes the air to expand, further reducing the surface pressure, This creates even stronger convergence, which in tum causes more moist air to rise and cool to condensation, aiding the release of greater amounts of latent heat, 22-9 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS Requirements: a) Must be within 5° and 25° latitude, Below 5° coriolis force is too small, above 25° latitude the sea is usually too cold, b) Ocean femperatures must be greater than 26°C. The higher the ocean temperature the greater the pressure drop within the core. This is the reason why we have no TRS forming in the southern Atlantic because the sea surface temperatures are too low. ©) There must be a sufficient depth of warm water (200-300f) in the ocean to provide a continual energy source. If the depth of warm water is too shallow the storm would quickly drain the energy from the ocean and cease to develop. d) Very little shear must exist within the atmosphere, otherwise the storm would topple. This also has the effect of increasing the area over which the latent heat is released, thereby reducing the effect it will have on intensifying the storm, Movement: ‘The path of a TRS greatly depends upon the wind belt in which it is located, Since most originate from the tropics, it follows then that the TRS will initially be driven westwards by the casterly trade wind belt at around 10-20 knots. Eventually the storms will move away from the equator and increase in strength as a result of increasing Coriolis Force. The subtropical highs and prevailing westerlies at these latitudes drive the TRS eastwards, At this stage the TRS have moved to higher latitudes where the seas are now too cold to feed energy into the storm and they will eventually dic, [fat any time the storm goes over land, the influx of moisture is ceased and again, the storm will die, Figure 22, 12, shows the general movement of TRS around the world. Stages of Development: TRS evolve through a life eycle, from birth to death much like that of a thunderstorm. The stages are based upon the organisation of the storm and the sustained wind speeds which they create, Not all of the stages will eventually evolve in to a TRS, Stage I ‘Tropical Depression ‘This is designated when the first appearance of lowered pressure and organized circulation in the centre of the thunderstorm complex occurs. ‘A surface pressure chart will reveal at least one closed isobar. Winds constantly between 20 - 34 knots, Stage 2 Tropical Storm This is when the storm becomes more organized, taking on a circular rotating appearance, with sustained wind speeds between 35 -64 knots. It is at this stage when it is assigned a name. 22-10 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS Stage 3 Tropical Cyclone Surface pressure continues to drop and itis designated this stage when sustained wind speeds are greater than 64 knots. There isa pronounced rotation around a central core which will eventually form the “eye”. The eye: ‘The of the most recognizable features found within a TRS is the eye, They are found within the centre having @ typical diameter of 20 - SOkm. ‘The tightening of the eye is @ useful guide that the storm is increasing in strength. Ttis within the eye that we find the lowest surface pressures, and the calmest conditions, As air is forced up and outward from the storm some of it returns down the centre causing adiabatic heating which evaporates clouds creating the familiar clear column of ait which distinguishes the eye itself. “The eye wall: This is the vertical wall of cloud enclosing the eye and is the region of the most devastating segion with intense winds and rainfall. From the wall itself large bands of cloud and precipitation spiral out from the storm and are called “spiral rain bands”. Minima preseare fand winds in (winds can be calm) Pressure Figure 22.13 Cross Section of a TRS 22-11 © Oxford Aviation Services Limited“suUo}g Buinjonoy feoidouy py Zz eunbi4 Re aise ANOTSAD 4 iMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS Names and Nicknames’ TRS are given different names in different parts of the world, Fig 22.14 shows the names and movements of these storms. Within each region, and for each storm season, a series of nicknames in alphabetical order is devised, alternating male and female names, ¢.g. the first storm in this year’s season in the Carribean might be called ‘Arthur’, the next one ‘Betty’ and the third one ‘Charlie’. Next year the series would start with ‘Annie’ followed by ‘Brian’ and so on. Action to avoid a revolving storm: i) Inthe Northern hemisphere, if very high values of starboard drift occur, tum port or starboard until port drift occurs. The aircraft is then heading away from the storm. i In the Southern hemisphere, drifts are reversed. Figure 22.15 Action to Avoid a T.R.S. 22-13 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS 22.10, SECONDARY DEPRESSIONS: When a small depression is enclosed within the circulation of a larger depression itis called a secondary. The isobars need not show a closed centre. Secondaries ate particularly associated with frontal depressions and form: 2) Ona trailing front from an occluded primary. This secondary may deepen and form the next depression along the PF and equal the size of the primary. At this stage, the depressions tend to rotate around each other, until eventually the primary and the secondary bas become the new primary. Figure 22.16 A Secondary Depression on the End of a Cold Front b) On a trailing cold front well within the primary circulation, In this case, it appears only asa disturbance on the front, it moves along, itwithoutmich development until it eventually becomes absorbed, Although producing little weather of its own, it may delay the movement of the CF and make forecasting of frontal passage difficult, Figure 22.17 A Secondary Depression Within the Primary Circulation 22-14 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS 22.41 ©) Tip of warm sector of partly occluded depression. Formed at the Point of Origin. or Triple Point, while the primary fills up. Often formed when primary and ‘occluded fronts ate held up by @ mountain barrier as in Southern Greenland or Norway. Figure 22.18 A Secondary Front Formed at the Tip of a Warm Sector Where Fronts Have Occluded COLD AIR POOLS ‘Thickness charts were mentioned in the chapter on Upper Winds. Low thickness indicates low ‘mean temperature of the column of air and thus figure 22.18 shows that in the centre of a low value enclosed isopleth we find the lowest temperature. At height this indicates a Pool of Cold Air. It will occur over an old occluded depression away from the warm sector, ie. surrounded by Polar air. Because the air is very cold and therefore very dense, if any of this air advects it will displace warmer air and force it to rise. ‘This may ereate an area of vigorous instability (possibly frontal) which, if sufficient humidity is present, will result in extensive heap type cloud development i. Cu, Cb / Thunderstorms and showers, 22-15 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS hr PROG VIO) A: COLD POOL (QUASI-STATIONARY, LONG-LASTING TYPE). B: WARM DOME. C: COLD POOL (TRANSITORYMOBILE TYPE). C: COLD POOL (TRANSITORY/SLOW-MOVING T¥PE). D: COLD POOL (LOW-LATITUDE TYPE). : BAROCLINIC ZONES. 22-16 © Oxford Aviation Servioes LimitedMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS 22.12, TORNADOES “A violent whirl, generally cyclonic in sense, averaging about 100m in diameter and with an intense vertical current at the centre, capable of lifting heavy objects into the air.” (Meteorological Glossary). North American Tornado. The synoptic situations giving rise to tornadoes in the USA are as shown in Figure 22,19. Figure 22.19 Synoptic Situation Favouring Tomadoes The tornadoes will occur when Cold Dry Air from the North West meets warm moist air from ‘the Gulf of Mexico over the prairies of central USA in Spring and early Summer. 80% of ‘tomadoes occur between 1400 and 2200 with peak incidence at 1700. The precise means of formation of the “Twister” is open to considerable conjecture, but computer modelling and the use of Doppler Radars is making prediction more certain, Figures 22.20 to 22.23 show how a ‘Tomado may form. 22-17 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS RAFT LIFTING 7 ROTATING AIR'TO THE VERTICAL Figure 22.20 Possible Causes of Tomado Formation (a) Figure 22.21 Possible Causes of Tomado Formation (b). STRONG CONVERGENCE CAUSING UPORAFT Figure 22.22 Possible Cause of Tornado Figure 22.23 Possible Cause of Tomado Formation (c) Formation (d) Tornadoes are invariably associated with thunderstormsand, in some cases the rotation extends to the top of the storm, Figure 22.24 A Tornado 22-18 ‘© Orford Aviation Series LimitedMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS Destructive power of tomadoes lies in the localised reduction in pressure (20 to 200 mbs) leading to structures exploding and the very high (up to. 300 kts) wind speeds in the vortex. Tomadoes usually last a matter of minutes, some occasionally last a few hours and move at speeds up to 40 kts. Fig 22.24 shows the appearance and results of tornadoes. Increasing use of Doppler Radars which will also measure particle speeds within the vortex is ‘making local tornado warnings more reliable, but still not more than 30 mins ahead. Tomadoes develop a typical “hook” pattern on the radar screen, Fig, 22.25 shows this radar ‘signature’ Figure 22.25 Radar Scope Picture 22-19 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS ‘West African Tornado. West African Tomadoes are associated with the passage of the ITCZ. ‘through countries bordering the Gulf of Guinea. They are thundersqualls which form in a line ‘North-South and move from East to West in March to May and October to November, Figure 22.26 West African Tornadoes Whilst the two above are the main tomadoes, lesser tornadoes occur in the UK and Europe and in the USA weak tomadoes called ‘gustadoes’ occur in association with Gust Fronts and “landspouts’ are waterspouts which have come ashore. An example of this occurs in the film. ‘Hurricane? shown as part of the course, 22-20 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS Other (non-frontal) Depressions Questions 1 A thermal depression is likely to form: a) over the Iberian peninsular during the summer b) inthe lee of the Alps over Northern Italy in winter ) in association with a marked trough of low pressure over the USA 4) onthe trailing edge of a warm sector mid latitude depression Tropical revolving storms usually: a) form close to one side of the equator and while moving slowly in a westerly direction, ‘ross over to the other hemisphere b) move ina westerly direction before recurving towards the equator ©) move in an easterly direction before recurving towards the nearest pole @) donot form within 5° of the equator ‘With reference to tropical revolving storms, which of the following statements is correct: 8) typhoons ate found in the South China sea in January b) cyclones, occur in the Bay of Bengal in winter ©) hurricanes, in the South Atlantic sometimes affect the east coast of Brazil @) hurricanes affeet the south east of the USA in late summer ‘Which of the following statements accurately describes the "West African Tomado": a) the West African Tomado is similar to the North American and European tomadoes b) it isa line of thunderstorms producing a line squall aligned roughly north/south Q is another name for the cyclones that affect the West African coast in summer @) itis the name given to a Tine of thunderstorms that lic along the ITCZ but some 200 miles to the south Extensive cloud and precipitation is often associated with a non-frontal thermal depression because of: a) Surface divergence and upper level convergence causing widespread descent of ait in the depression. b) Surface convergence and upper level divergence causing widespread descent of air in the depression. ©) Surface convergence and upper level divergence causing widespread ascent of air in the depression @) Surface divergence and upper level convergence causing widespread ascent of air in the depression 22-21 © Onford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS 6 10. In comparison with a primary depression a secondary depression is: a) Always more active. b) Sometimes more active, ©) Never more active, d) Unlikely to produce gale force winds. A Secondary Depression would form in association with: a) A Polar Depression, b) ACol ©) A Summer Thermal Depression over the Mediterranean ot Caspian Sea. d) A Polar Front Low. ‘Tropical Revolving Storms a) Are always given a male first name beginning with “A” for the first of the season and. thereafter named in alphabetical order of occurrence, b) Have internal wind speeds of 10-20 knots rotating cyclonically round a subsiding clear air core known as the eye. ) Usually have the most severe weather in the quadrant to the right of the track in a Hurricane. d) Regenerate after crossing the coast from sea to land Which of the following are Thermal Depressions: 8) Tropical revolving storms, polar air depressions, tornadoes, b) The equatorial trough, monsoon lows, some depressions over the central and eastern Mediterranean sea in summer. ©) The equatorial trough, polar air depressions, monsoon lows, orographic lows. 4) The lows forming over flat land in summer, polar air depressions, tropical revolving storms, some of the lows which form over inland seas in winter A Secondary low pressure system rotates around a Primary low: a) Cyclonically. b) —_Anticyclonically, ©) Into the primary. 4) Ata constant distance. 22-22 2 Oxford Aviation Services LimitesMETEOROLOGY OTHER DEPRESSIONS te Flying conditions in a Secondary low pressure system are: a) ») ° d) Always more severe than in a Primary low. Sometimes more severe than in a Primary low. Less severe than in a Primary low. Relatively calm, ‘Tropical Revolving Stonms: a b) °) a Do not occur in the South Atlantic. Generally move from east to west before turning towards the equator. Intensify after crossing coasts, Occur principally in spring and early summer. 22-23 ‘© Oxtore Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ANSWERS Ques | Answers wfafels we fafala plof>lololulwlolwloles 2 OTHER DEPRESSIONS (© Orford Aviation Services LimitesCHAPTER TWENTY THREE - GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY Contents Page 23.1 INTRODUCTION. ...... ae foe Del 23.2 IDEALIZED AIR CIRCULATION. «4.24... veer Bel 23.3 IDEALIZED CIRCULATION WEATHER. 2Bel 23.4 BASIC CLIMATIC ZONES. cove BBB 233 CLIMATIC ZONES (BY LATITUDE). 0... -200.6000c0os 13-4 23.6 SUMMARY. 2.20 .ecceeee feet etter 2894 23.7 SEASONAL EFFECT. ae 28-5 23.8 TEMPERATURE AND TOPOGRAPHICAL EFFECTS. . <1 B-6 239 PRESSURE ee cee DBe MA 23.10 SURFACE WINDS, cecere se 23-16 23.11 WEATHER. . voce eeeseeeseeeseeeeessererses23 221 23.12 MONSOONS «2... .00.260scseeeeeses ceiseeeee BABB 23.13 UPPER WINDS. pee cones 23-25 23.14 WAVES ...... fo 123-30 GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY QUESTIONS voces te teeter eese ree BB=33 APPENDIX ‘A’... coer APPENDIX “B* ...- (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY 2.4 23.2 23 INTRODUCTION We have studied how the individual elements of weather occur, how winds occur, the precipitation that falls from the clouds and so on, We now need to look at how all these elements come together to form weather and how this weather varies ftom place to place. The weather at a place makes its climates the study of this climate is called climatology. ‘The elements of climatology ate precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine and wind velocity. ‘These elements will be affected differently across the globe by; latitude, location (maritime or continental), the circulation of pressure systems, altitude and geography. Over the years climatological data has been accumulated to such a degree that weather forecasting on an area basis has become quite accurate and communications have improved to such a degree that weather expected on arrival at a destination (and the weather en-route) may easily be obtained. This chapter will deal with climatology ona global basis and its regional and seasonal variations. IDEALIZED AIR CIRCULATION ‘The general air circulation isa very complicated system of air movements. These movements, while based on the passage of air from high pressure to low and the effect of the rotation of the earth, are complicated by: a) The unequal heating of land and sea together with land and sea disposition, b) Variation in land heating caused by different surfaces. ©) The 2314? inelination of the earth’s axis which causes movement of the thermal equator. It is therefore useful to consider an air circulation which ignores these main complications and to use this asa basis for understanding the conditions which actually prevail. The idealized circulation assumes that the earth’s surface is covered with sea and that the geographic and ‘thermal equators are coincident. In fact, since the surface of the southern hemisphere is largely covered by sea, climatology in that hemisphere very closely follows the idealized case. IDEALIZED CIRCULATION WEATHER With a uniform spherical earth, the temperature would only vary with latitude. Pressure at any given height over the equator would then be greater than that at any height over the poles. Thus air would drift at height from the equator to the poles, helping to produce high latitude anticyclones and causing a movement on the surface of air from poles to equator. 23-1 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY However, this cyclic movement of air would be affected by the rotation of the earth, and the circulation would be modified to that shown in Figure 23.1. Anticyclones, formed by Hadley Cells around 30° N and S, and known as sub-tropical antieyelones, would provide a surface outflow of warm ait, some of which would move towards the newrer pole, This ait would meet the cold anticyclonic flow from the polar regions, thus providing areas of frontal activity, GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY POLAR TROPOPAUSE, TROPOSPHERE POLAR HIGH. VARIABLE EASTERLIES “TRAVELLING Lows FRONTALACTIEY VARIABLE WESTERLIES 1 susTROPICAL HiaH NE. TRADE WINS. EQUATORIAL TROUGH ‘THeRWAL EGUATOR TTcz SE, TRADE WINDS SUBTROPICAL HIGH VARIABLE WESTERLIES “TRAVELLING LOWS? FRONTAL ACTIVITY g_VARIARLE EASTERLIES POLAR HIGH ‘TROPOSPHERE POLAR TROPOPAUSE Figure 23.1. Idealised Distribution of Surface Pressure over the Earth. ARGTIC POLAR FRONT redSGbSne | “SY ESY reuntcar Za sustRoncn “IET STREAM Figure 23.2. Hadley Cell, Polar Front and Associated Wind-Flows. ‘The Hadley Cell and Polar Front, with the vertical airflows that cause them, are shown at Figure 23.2. From the sub tropical anticyclones in each hemisphere, surface outflow also occurs towards the equator. This convergence causes rising air and much instability in the Equatorial Zone, and is. known as the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITC7Z). 23-2 © Ostford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY 2.4 ‘The Barth’s climatic engine, the airflow pathways of the world, clearly demonstrate how the climatic zones of earth are interrelated, Moisture laden air rises along the ITCZ causing masses of cumulonimbus thunderclouds to develop giving rise to the heavy rains in the tropical regions. Upper air from the Hadley and Ferrel cells, indicated in Figure 23.2., meet and are cooled and ‘undergo radiative sinking to produce the Sub Tropical High Pressure zones at the Earth’s surface giving settled weather. ‘The air streams separate here in the northern hemisphere , one flows South as the NE Trade Winds whilst the other flows North to become temperate latitude Westerlies. The flow is mirrored in the southern hemisphere, ‘The Polar Front is caused by cold air of the Polar Cell forming a wedge beneath the warmer Ferrel Cell. Complex airflow pattems associated with the Polar Front are responsible for the vagarics in the weather of mid latitudes, BASIC CLIMATIC ZONES Adiabatic cooling of the air by ascent, producing cloud and much precipitation, will occur in the ‘equatorial region and in the temperate frontal zones. Conversely, mainly arid conditions will apply in the anticyclonic polar and sub-tropical regions because of subsidence. The Globe therefore may be conveniently divided into a number of climatic zones as shown in Figure 23.3. Figure 23.3 World Climatic Zones 23-3 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY 235 26 CLIMATIC ZONES (BY LATITUDE) Equatorial 0 - 10 degrees. Two main wet seasons - at the Equinoxes. Never dry. Much convection cloud and heavy rain showers and thunderstorms, Temperature and humidity high, Light surface winds (the Doldrums). Savannabitropical transitional 10 - 20 degrees. Dry Trade Wind conditions in winter. Equatorial rains in summer. Duration of wet period decreases as latitude increases towards 20° ‘Arid sub-tropical/steppe 20 - 35 degrees. Typical sub-tropical anticyclonic weather. Descending air- warm & dry. Produces typical desert climate with short wet season atthe desert edge -at the low latitude edge in summer from the ITCZ, and at the high latitude edge in winter from temperate zone activity. Deserts include Sahara, Kalahari, Gibson, Arabian, Arizona & South America. The zone includes the Trade Wind belt. The semi-arid Steppe type climate borders the desert regions and has a short rainfall season, Weather gives grassy, treeless plains. Examples are the Russian Steppes and the South ‘American Pampas. Warm temperate 35 - 40 degrees. Mediterranean type climate, Disturbed temperate conditions in winter with frontal and thermal depressions. In surnmer, warm and dry as thermal equator moves towards the pole. Cool temperate 40 - 65 degrees, Weather is controlled mainly by travelling polar front depressions. Winds are westerly; gales are frequent in winter. There is no dry season. Boreal zone 40-60N. Between the Cool Temperate and Polar zones in the Northern Hemisphere lies the Boreal Zone, Occurs over the land masses of northern North America, Scandinavia and north Russia, Characterised by warm, moist summers and very cold winters, Polar 65 - 90 degrees. For much of the time, anticyclonic weather - very cold and dry, but ‘modified by depressions penetrating the peripheral region in summer to bring unsettled weather and precipitation, In some areas, temperatures can rise above zero for a month or so, giving a Tundra Climate of sparse vegetation, eg Lichen and Moss. Subsoil remains permanently frozen - Permafiost. SUMMARY ‘The idealized weather described above will be modified by local topography and by the proximity of sea areas. The effect of these on temperature, density and pressure can have a marked effect on local climatology. 23-4 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY 23.7 SEASONAL EFFECT Figure 23.1. assumes, apart from an all-sea world, that the sun's sub point encircles the globe along the equator in all seasons. In practice, the earth’s polar axis is inclined at an angle of 2314° to the plane of the path that the carth travels through space during the year. This path is shown in Figure23.4. and it may be seen that, while the sun’s sub pointis on the equator at the Equinoxes on 21 March and 21 September, it is on the Tropic of Cancer (23/4°N) at the Solstice of 21 June and on the Tropic of Capricom (23188) at the Solstice of 21 December. Figure 23.4. The Orbital Motion of the Earth around the Sun, Hence when viewed from the earth the sun’s sub latitude appears to move southwards from the ‘Tropic of Cancer on 21 June to the Tropic of Capricorn on 21 December then northwards again returning to 2314°N the next June, It may be noted that above 6614° N (the Arctic Circle) the sun is above the horizon 24 hours a day on 21 June and below the horizon 24 hours a day on 21 December. The reverse is true in the Antarctic, In the actual world the seasonal movement of the thermal equator can produce tropical rains ‘moving into the summer hemisphere; that is, North in July or South in January, We thus have transitional region in each hemisphere between the sub-tropical highs and the equatorial low. Each will be subject to tropical rain in summer and to dry trade wind weather in winter. Near the equator there will be rain nearly all the time, with maximum rainfall about the time of the equinoxes and minimum at the solstices 23-5 ‘© Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY 23.8 The hottest band around the equator or “Heat Equator”, will move North and South some 10° of latitude in sympathy with the sun’s movement, albeit about a month later and indeed all climatic zones will so move. This gives rise to the Northem and Southern climatic extremes in the all-sea world as shown in Figure 23.5. [saNvaRy =. WINTER, Dro Figure 23.5. Seasonal Movement of the World Climatic Zones. ‘Similarly, the disturbances of the temperate zone extend towards the equator in winter and away again in summer so that areas on the polar side of the sub-tropical highs have winter cyclonic rains and dry summers. TEMPERATURE AND TOPOGRAPHICAL EFFECTS, ‘The surface temperature of an idealized all sea world would cool evenly with latitude increase because the sun's elevation would reduce. In practice this even cooling will be much modified by the presence of land masses, especially in the Northern Hemisphere where the continents of Asia and North America are vast ‘One effect is that the sub tropical anticyclones do sometimes break down due to summertime Jand heating which lowers pressure. Conversely, continents outside the sub-tropical high belt ‘can experience wintertime land cooling which taises pressure. In January the temperature in Asia is exceptionally cold as shown in Figure 23.6, The winter cold air over central Asia is due to its distance from the sea, long nights and winter long terrestrial radiation. It willbe held back from India and Pakistan to the south by the Himalayas. In North America the cold is further enhanced by the Rocky Mountains which block warm Pacific air while the absence of a barrier to the North allows Arctic air to move south. North Atlantic temperatures will remain comparatively high due to the warm water sea current from the Gulf of Mexico. Hence prevailing westerly winds from the Atlantic will warm the adjacent land masses of UK and Western France. Southern Hemisphere isotherms will be near the ideal due to the greater sea areas. 23-6 (© Oxford Aviation Services LitesPHERE - E\ HEMIs! Figure 23.6 Average Mean Sea Level Temperatures in Degrees Celsius in January. 23-7Figure 23,7. Average Mean Sea Level Temperatures in Degrees Celsius in July. 23-8METEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY In July, Central North America is warmed by air free to move north from the Gulf of Mexico: the vast area of Asia is warmed by the sun. These continents are now warmer than the Gulf’ stream-warmed-Atlantic so that isotherms are reversed as shown in igure 23.7., although contrasts are less than in January. In the Southern Hemisphere the July winter reflects some seasonal ocean cooling but isotherms still equate approximately with latitude. It will be realized from Figure 23.7. that in high latitudes, annual surface continental land temperatures will have wide extremes, whereas sea temperatures will vary much less during the year. This has implication for instance on the location of polar fronts and the strength of jetstreams. At the Equator temperatures vary little. Typical Winter and Summer differences are shown at Figure 23.8, Figure 23.8. Annual Range of Temperature in Degrees Celsius. As distinct from seasonal variation, temperatures will also change daily, but diurnal change will bbe most in areas over land masses since itis in this circumstance that the sun's heating effect is, greatest. Figure 23.9. charts the diurnal differences, 23-9 © Onford Aviation Serviogs LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY Figure 23,9. Mean Daily Range of Temperatures in Degrees Celsius. Just as surface temperatures change more with departure from the equator, so will temperatures aloft. Atthe geographical equator the freezing level is 16000’, although locally as high as 18000" in July when the heat equator lies overland in SE Asia; because of this hail in thunderstorms ‘would melt before reaching Mean Sea Level. Elsewhere in both hemispheres the freezing level change will be seasonally wider but especially so over land areas, Figures 23.10. and 23.11 refer. Summary. Topographical temperature variations will affect surface pressure and distort the idealized distribution shown in Figure 23. 1., so that whereas the climatic pressure zones will be ‘maintained over the oceans, the pressure pattems overland, and hence the winds and weather, will be governed much more by surface temperature changes. This will apply especially to the Northern Hemisphere, where two-thirds of the world’s land masses lic, 23-10 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY Relative Humidity. Figure .10 shows how relative humidity varies with latitude and season. Relative humid oo 30706050 40 «30 =] DB 607090 North South Latitude, degrees: Figure 23.10 Zonal distribution of the relative humidity Figure 23.11. Height in Feet of Freezing Level in January. 23-411 (© Orford Aviation Services LinedZL - ee Figure 23.12 Height in Feet of Freezing Level in Julyyl GNVTH3A0 SuNSSaad HOIH =o L a Figure 23.13. Average Mean Sea Level Pressures in Millibars in January.METEOROLOGY 23.9 PRESSURE a JANUARY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY i) __ In the southem hemisphere the pattem is close to the idealized circulation, ii) The Equatorial Low Pressure zone lies to the south of the equator. iii) Sub-tropical highs are established over oceanic areas, iv) Cold weather highs are established over Norther hemisphere land masses. ¥) There are significant pressure areas in the region of: Iceland (Low) 1000 mbs (statistical low) Aleutians (Low) 1000 mbs (statistical low) N. Australia (Low) 1005 mbs Siberia (High) 1035 mbs N. America (High) 1020 mbs Azores (High) 1020 mbs Pacific (High) 1020 mbs 23-14 {© Oxford Aviation Sorices LimitedGL -€% Figure 23.14 Average Meen Sea Level Pressures in Millibars in July.METEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY b) JULY i) In the southem hemisphere the pattern remains close to the ideal. Overland temperatures are colder thus the subtropical high is generally unbroken, ii) ‘The Equatorial low pressure zone lies to the north of the equator. iii) Where sub-tropical highs would be expected in the Northern Hemisphere, low pressure areas now form over land masses due to solar heating, Thus the Siberian High of January is replaced by the Baluchistan Low, centred over Pakistan but affecting all of Asia, N America also has low pressure. iv) The Aleutian and N Australia lows disappear. v) Icelandic statistical low pressure is less deep and is now dispersed into three small areas: Off Greenland, the Baltic and Iceland - 1010 mbs vi) ‘The Azores & Pacific Highs are dominant at 1025 mbs 23.10 SURFACE WINDS. ‘The westerlies of temperate latitudes. Westerly winds exist in the region between sub-tropical highs and temperate lows. (40 - 60 degrees latitude). These are caused by the turning effect of Geostrophic Force (Coriolis) on the Poleward outflow from those sub-tropical highs. In the northem hemisphere the westerlies apply mainly over the oceans, with frequent winter gales. During the summer months these wwesterlies are less constant and less strong, In the southem hemisphere these winds are largely Uninterrupted by land masses and are consequently strong, They are called The Roaring Forties ~ 80 called because they blow principally between latitudes Forty and Fifty South. Weather in this belt comes from rapidly moving depressions; wild weather, strong westerly winds and gales, ‘overcast skies and heavy rain. ‘Undemeath the sub-tropicalhigh pressure zones the wind speed is relatively slow and sometimes ‘nonexistent. The areas (between 30 -40N) have become known as the “Horse Latitudes” from the time when sailors en-route to the Americas disposed of their horses off the ships rather than have to feed them when the sailing ships were becalmed. ‘Trade winds. (Tropical Easterlies) ‘Trade winds are consistent winds converging to the equatorial trough from the sub-tropical high bolt on each side of it. The tuming effect of Geostrophic Force (Coriolis) causes north east ‘trades in the northern hemisphere and south east trades in the southern, The trade winds blow towards the thermal equator and will therefore change direction when crossing the ‘geographic equator. NE trades will back; SE trades will veer. January flow is shown at Figure 23.15 and July flow at Figure 23.16. Fine weather prevails in the poleward and eastern parts of the tropical oceans while towards the west and the equator unstable conditions will dominate, with cloudy, showery weather. 23-16 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedLb €&@ ZOLIJ0 uoHIsod ue —— Figure 23.15 Prevailing Surface Winds in January.BL - ez sauLuos DNBIVOR sninuatoa sgonuuy) ‘BSNOH ZOLI JO uoRIsod ueEy —— Figure 23.16 Prevailing Surface Wings in JulyMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY ‘Monsoons. These are seasonal winds due to the winter high pressure, or summer low pressure, which develops over large continents. They are particularly marked in South and South East Asia and also occur in West Africa. They blow in concert with the trade winds, ‘Weather will depend very much on the track followed. NE monsoons over central India will be dry with little cloud, whilst the SW monsoon will be warm and moist with much convective cloud and heavy rain, NE monsoon over the Far East will be relatively dry whilst the SW ‘monsoon, with its long sea track over the tropical oceans will produce very wet conditions. JANUARY JULY Figure 23.17 Monsoons Other winds. Outside the main cusrents there are: 8) Winds applicable to the local pressure system prevailing atthe time. Example variations are shown at Figure 23.18, Figure 23.18 Cool Temperate (Winter) b) Strong Easterlies near the South Pole, (Outflow from $ Polar high turns left). 23-19 © Osford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY ©) Generally strong easterlies near the North Pole but in Summer westerlies over N Atlantic & N Pacific seas, Figure 23.19 Polar Easterlies d) Sea breezes, which can be dominant in lower latitudes. Figure 23.20 Sea Breeze at Darwin in the Winter (Against the flow) 23-20 (© Ontra Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY 23.11 WEATHER ‘Temperate latitude depressions. Frontal depressions will breed along the polar front where this lies over wide ocean areas. In the Northern Hemisphere this will occur between 35°N and (65°N across the Atlantic between N America and Europe, and a similar pattern will exist across the North Pacific to affect the West Coast of N America, In the Southern Hemisphere Polar front depressions will centre around S0°S in all seasons with fronts affecting the west coast of South America also New Zealand and the South Coast of Australia, Polar Air Outbreaks. Found generally in wintertime, these are depressions affecting Central and North China as well as Central and Southern United States, Behind the cold front fresh outbreaks of very cold continental polar air greatly reduce mean temperatures, These winter ‘mean temperatures are considerably below those of equivalent latitudes. Figure 23.21 Alignment of Polar Front - Winter and Summer ‘The equatorial trough / ITCZ. a) The rough is centred on the thermal equator. High temperatures cause low pressure, particularly over land, with widespread lifting of air from the Trade Winds which converge below at the surface, This area is known as the ITCZ. Figure 23,22 The Approximate Position of the Equatorial Trough 23-21 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY b) The main feature of the ITCZ is extensive Cu, Cb & thunderstorms. When stable air exists, there will be extensive sheets of As & Ns cloud and more continuous type rain, ©) The ITCZ can vary from 25 nms to 300 nms in width and there is no well defined frontal surface. Cloud is not caused by air mass temperature differences as at the polar front, but by convergence of the NE and SE trade winds which are normally the same temperature, The cloud tops are sometimes as low as 20,000 ft but more frequently 50,000 ft or more, d) Turbulence is usually severe, as is icing, which can be from 16,000 ft upwards. 2) Vigorous and quiet ITCZ cross sections are shown at Figures 23,23, & 23.24. ° ‘00mm “weak Front ome Figure 23.24 Cross-section of a quiet ITCZ 23-22 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY 23.12 MONSOONS a) by °) When trade winds blow to continental low pressure or from continental high pressure the associated weather is known as a monsoon, There are three monsoon flows; the NE, NW & SW. ‘The NE MONSOON of Asia blows from the winter siberian high and is consequently cool & comparatively dry giving clear weather over Bangladesh, Burma and Thailand. SE India, Sri Lanka & East Coast of ‘West Malaysia are also affected by this monsoon, but here the over-sea track picks up moisture and produces heap type clouds and thunderstorms and heavy precipitation when ‘crossing coastal mountain ranges. GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY Figure 23.26 North East Monsoon and North West Monsoon ‘The NW MONSOON is really an extension of the NE Monsoon which backs on crossing the equator southbound and brings Cu, Cb and thunderstorms to North Australia & New Guinea. See fig. 23.26. 23-23 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY 4) TheSWMONSOON is produced by the B SE Trade Wind crossing the equator and veering to SW and thence to the summer Baluchistan Low. Having a long sea track, this monsoon is very moist and produces much heavy Cu & Ch with large seale thunderstorms. It affects, all of India, Sri Lanka, Burma and exposed coasts of West Malaysia It has a more serious effect on flying than the NE Monsoon, with heavy thunderstorms, low cloud base & severe turbulenee. The SW Monsoon also affects the West African coast, Figure 23.27 South West Monsoon notably Guinea, Ghana & North Nigeria €)__Insummary, The worlds rainfall is produced principally by the weather from the ITCZ and associated monsoons, also from the two Cool Temperate zones, The two subtropical high belts and two polar highs will usually be dry. Nevertheless these patterns may be altered significantly by local topographical features, The extremes of rainfall are indicated on the chart at Figure 23.28. LESS THAN 10 INCHES MORE THAN 80 INCHES Figure 23.28. Mean Annual Precipitation Showing Extreme Wet and Dry Areas. 23-24 © Oxford Avistion Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY 23.13 UPPER WINDS: a) ») ) a Sub Tropical Jets. These jets blow at the 200 mb level in each hemisphere between 25° and 40° latitude in winter and 40° and 45° in summer. ‘The cause is the upper pressure gradient between the descending warm and cold air an either side of the sub tropical high pressure belt. See Figure 23.29 and 23.25. Speeds can be in excess of 100 ts. (Up to 300 kts near Japan). Polar Front Jets. The Polar Front jets in the northern hemisphere are of a transient nature and move with the Polar Front as it moves south in winter and north in summer, Polar Front Jets are caused by the upper pressure gradient between the Tm warm and Pm. cold air masses on either side of the polar front In the southern hemisphere they are more constant and blow around the S0th parallel. ‘They are less strong than those in the northern hemisphere ‘Tropical Easterly Jet (Equatorial Easterly Jet). Strong easterlies that occur in the northem hemisphere’s summer between 10° and 20° north, where the contrast between intenscly heated central Asian plateaux and upper air further south is greatest. It runs from South China Sea westwards across Southern India, Ethiopia and the sub Sahara, Typically heights citca 150hPa (13-14 ktm; 45,000 f), These easterlies can give way to westerlies especially in January as the ITCZ moves south, Arctic Jet Stream found between the boundary of arctic air and polarair. Typically in winter at around 60° north but in the USA around 45° to 50° north, The core varies between 300 and 400hPa. It is a transient feature found over large continents during artic air outbreaks, 23-25 (© Oxford Aviation Sorvices Limited9 - ez ‘sannwvaais~—-<-— ‘SHOVLOS!— oo — oe January Figure 23.29 Sub-Tropical Jetstreams -Leet Figure 23.30Sub-Tropical Jetstreams - July82 - €% sann wes — —<-— ‘SHOVLOS! — @ — Figure 23.31 Equatorial Upper Winds - January62 - €% Figure 23.32 Equatorial Upper Winds - JulyMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY @) High Level Winds Over India. With the onset of the SW Monsoon (May to June), large changes occur over India at the 200 mb level. The axis of the westerly sub-tropical Jetmoves north of the Himalayas and the high level winds across India become easterly. e) Eastern Mediterranean. Inthe eastern Mediterranean in winter, sub-tropical et stream ‘winds occur particularly at the 200 mb level. They are normally in the Cyprus/Egyptian Coast area with westerlies in excess of 100 kts, 225 kts has been recorded. (See Figures 23.31 & 23.32) f) Polar Winds. Near the poles there are strong westerlies in winter because the polar tropopause. temperature is lower than that at temperate latitude. Remember - back to the wind - Nerther ‘Hemisphere -low temperature on the left) Figure 23.33 Polar Upper Winds - Winter In Summer, as the polar tropopause temperature rises and exceeds that at Temperate Latitudes, the ‘Westerlies reduce and become Basterlies Figure 23.34 Polar Upper Winds - Summer 23.14. WAVES 8) Easterly Waves, Ancasterly wave isa wave or trough of low pressure, originating over West Altica between latitude 5° North and 20° North and moving towards the Caribbean. Some of the waves proceed beyond the Caribbean and into the Pacific, ‘They occur during the summer and autumn, usually numbering about 50 each year. Weather produced will be like that associated with tropical revolving storms, though to a much lesser extent in severity. They may develop into tropical revolving storms themselves. 23-30 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY Figure 23.35 An Easterly Wave. b) Westerly Waves. These are very similar to easterly waves but are simply interconnecting warm front and cold front bands of weather (associated with a polar frontal depression) that move from the west to the east creating a pattem that is very similar to that of a wave, Figure 23.36 shows a typical westerly wave, Figure 23.36. A Westerly Wave 23-31 © Ovford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY Figure 23.38. A Simplified Upper Wind Diagram for July. 23 - 32 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY Global Climatology Questions 1 ‘The Savannah climatie zone is’ a) » °) 4 approximately 20° - 30° of latitude and provides very dry desert conditions throughout the year. approximately 10°-20° of latitude and provides dry trade wind conditions in winter and a wet summer season, approximately 10° - 20° of latitude and provides a wet winter season and a dry hot summer. approximately 10° - 30° of latitude and has a period of long rains in spring and autumn, ‘but is never dry. ‘The warm temperature climatic zone is a) » ©) 8 approximately 20° - 35° of latitude and covers the high pressure desert regions of the world. approximately 35° -40° of latitude and is under the influence of polar front depressions throughout the year. approximately 35° - 40° of Jatitude and provides a warm dry summer with a cool wet winter. approximately 35° - 40° of latitude and provides a wet summer season and a dry cold winter. ‘Northern hemisphere summers tend to be: a) b) ©) a ‘warmer than the southern hemisphere and winters are warmer too. colder than the southem hemisphere due to the smaller amount of solar radiation. colder than the southern hemisphere because of the large land masses. ‘warmer than the southern hemisphere and the winters are colder. ‘The effect of mountain barriers on temperature is exemplified by the following’ a) b) 3) d European temperatures are low in winter because there is no barrier to prevent cold Atlantic air crossing the area. the Rocky mountains of North America prevent cold Pacific air reaching inland, so summer temperatures to the east of the mountains are high, the Himalayas prevent watm dry air from Russia reaching India and Pakistan, the Ural mountains of West Russia prevent most of the cold Siberian air reaching Europe in summer. 23-33 © Oxford Aviation Services LieitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY 5 10. ‘The Tropopause is: a) more of less constant for any latitude, b) isa boundary layer between the troposphere and the stratosphere. ©) normally the upper limit of weather, d) the upper limit for jet streams and mountain waves. Statistical pressure values tend to be: a) on average parallel to the lines of latitude, }) —_onaverage parallel to the lines of latitude in the southern hemisphere and much more variable in the northem hemisphere. ©) much Jower in winter in the northern hemisphere than in the southern hemisphere, d) higher over the oceans in winter. ‘The heat equator is: a) _ another name for the geographic equator. b> coincident with the equatorial trough and ITCZ. ©) line over the land joining places where the summer temperatures are highest d) a line over the land joining places where the winter temperatures are highest. ‘The average temperature around the equatorial regions: a) is always above +40°C. b) _ is higher over the sea areas, ©) varies on average from winter to summer by only some 5° C. 4) hasa very high range of temperatures throughout the year. ‘Trade winds: a) blow towards the sub tropical anticyclones. b) are caused by lifting over the heat equator and the subsequent air movements from the sub tropical anticyclones. ©) only blow in the winter months 4d) blow from the equatorial low pressure systems throughout the year. ‘Trade winds in the southern hemisphere are: a) southeasterly. b) southeast at first becoming southwest. ©) in opposition to the monsoons. 4) usually from the northeast. 23-34 @ Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY i. 12, 1B. 14, 15. ‘The Hadley cell is the name given to: a b) ) d the CU cells which continue to forma CB. an initial bubble of air which is lifted by convection. the centre portion of a jet stream. a cell formed by lifted air over the heat equator descending to the sub tropical highs, ‘The large change in the direction of trade winds is caused by: a) b) ° 4d) local pressure differences. ‘an excess of air at height in association with the Hadley cells, the change in geostrophic force when crossing the geographic equator. the cyclostrophic force in the equatorial regions. ‘Monsoons are seasonal winds which: a) b) °°) d develop due to the high pressure over continents in winter and the subsequent low pressure which develops over the same areas in summer. are never in combination with trade winds, blow only in the southeast Asia region. are from the southeasterly direction over the Indian sub continent in sumamer. ‘The outflow from the Siberian High: a) >) ° d is northwesterly over Japan, northerly and northeasterly over China and northerly over the whole of India, is the source of Polar Maritime air. isnorthwesterly over Japan, northeasterly over southeast Asia and easterly over Europe. is evident throughout the year. ‘The upper winds tend to be westerly outside the tropics because: a b) °° 4 the rotation of the earth is west to east. the thermal winds are westerly on average. surface winds are nearly always westerly. jot streams are usually westerly. 23-35 © Orord Aviation Serices LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY 16. 18. 19. 20. Jet stream main locations are: a) in the warm air some 400 nm ahead of a warm ot cold front and near the subtropical highs. b) inthe warm air some 400 nm head of a warm front and some 200-nm behind a cold front and near the sub tropical highs. ©) only in association with the polar front. ) _ imassociation with the polar front and with mountain waves. Jet streams a) only occut in the troposphere. b) have aspeed in excess of 80 kt ©) are located above the tropopause. d) are caused by a large difference in mean temperature in the horizontal, ‘Near the equator upper winds tend to be: a) ») °) ad easterly, westerly. at speeds greater than 60 kt. calm, ‘The Polar Front is a) the boundary surface between polar continental and tropical continental ar. b) near the poles. ©) only apparent over the Atlantic ocean. 4) the region where warm sector depressions develop. The ITCZ a) the region between the two trade wind systems centred on the heat equator, b) the boundary region between the two monsoons, ©) the boundary between polar air and equatorial air. @) region of calm winds and layer type clouds with much haze. Tropical Revolving Storms are a) b) 9) d) a summer weather feature, easily predictable, ‘can be very active well inland, can travel at speeds of 100 ket. 23 - 36 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY 22, 23. 24, 25. 26. 27. ‘The areas of greatest rainfall are: a) those where there is much polar front depression activity. b) in the equatorial regions. ©) in the polar regions. ) in central North America in summer due to the large convective cloud formations. ‘Thunderstorms most frequently occur: a) in association with the ITCZ. over central Africa b) over the east Indies area (Java) due to the intense surface heating, ©) in regions affected by cold fronts. 4) inassociation with tropical revolving storms, Dust storms and haze are most common: a) in association with the sub tropical anticyclones over land, b} with the Haboobs in winter. ©) im unstable air with low pressure, d) in temperate latitudes. The most notorious advection fogs oecur: a) over southwest UK. b) over the sea in the region of Newfoundland and the Kamchatka peninsula, ©) over Europe with high pressure to the north. 4) over central North America in auturmn and winter, ‘The cloud to be expected along the front at A3 in Appendix A is: a) CUCB b) src ©) STNS 4) ASNS The cloud to be expected at B2 between the fronts in Appendix A is: a) AS ’) STSC 2) NS a) NIL 23-37 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY 28. 29. 30, 3L 32, 33. ‘The cloud to be expected at C2 along the front in Appendix A is: a) CUCB b) SNS. © sTSC aac ‘The cloud to be expected along the front at A2 in Appendix A is: a a b) ASNS. ST dc The average surface level winds at A3, B3 and C3 in Appendix A are respectively: 2) easterly, westerly, southwesterly. b) westerly, westerly, southwesterly. ©) southwesterly, westerly, northwesterly, 4) southwesterly, westerly, northerly. ‘The average upper winds at Al, B1 and Cl in Appendix A are respectively: a) easterly, westerly, northwesterly. b) northwesterly, westerly, southwesterly. ©) southwesterly, westerly, northwesterly. d) southwesterly, westerly, northerly. The names of the air masses indicated A, B, C and D at Appendix B are respectively: a) Polar Maritime, Polar Continental, Tropical Maritime, Tropical Continental. b) —_Retuming Polar Maritime, Arctic, Tropical Continental, Tropical Maritime. ©) Polar Maritime, Aretic, Tropical Continental, Tropical Maritime. 4) Polar Maritime, Aretic, Polar Continental, Tropical Maritime. ‘The names of the air masses indicated E, F, G and H at Appendix B are respectively: a) Tropical Maritime, Polar Continental, Tropical Continental, Arctic. b) Polar Continental, Tropical Maritime, Tropical Continental, Arctic, ©) Polar Continental, Tropical Continental, Tropical Maritime, Arctic. d) Tropical Maritime, Polar Maritime, Tropical Continental, Polar Maritime. 23-38 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY 34. 35. 36, 37. NORTH POLE L EQUATOR Figure 1 REFER TO THE ABOVE DIAGRAM FOR QUESTIONS 34 - 39, In area L the main wet seasons will be: a) at the equinoxes. b) in Janvary/Februaty. ©) in July/August. 4) in November/December. Inarea M in winter there will be: a) equatorial rains. b) extensive low cloud ©) the Doldrums, 4) dry trade wind conditions In area N there will be: a) extensive winter rains. b) anticyclonic desert areas. ©) dry summers and wet winters. 4) polar front weather. In area O the climate will include: a) the trade winds b) dry warm surnmers and a wet winter season. ©) steppe type with grassy plains, ) a wet summer and dry cold winters 23-39 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY 38 39, Inarea P the main weather factor will be: 8) polar front depressions. b) depressions in winter, antioyclones in summer. ©) _ extensive low cloud throughout the year. d) monsoon weather, In area Q the climate will include: a) polar front depressions. b) cold anticyclonic weather. ©) temperatures above zero for 3 months of the year. 4) good visibility throughout the year. 23-40 {© Orford Aviation Servioes Liitedbp - €% -uorsseideq yuou4 Jel0g @ YBNo1Y) UoHoag $6019 za | | een ~ 43 000'sz, «Vs XIQNAddVENDIX BMETEOROLOGY GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY APPENDIX BMETEOROLOGY ANSWERS GLOBAL CLIMATOLOGY Ques Answers Ques Answers 21 22 24 wlafelr 25 26 27 28 we lalala 29 30 31 el>lololol>lwlolelals|>lololal>lo|a D B c B B c B A D c A c B B D A D A 23-44 © Orord Aviation Serves LimitedCHAPTER TWENTY FOUR - LOCAL WINDS AND WEATHER Contents Page 24.1 INTRODUCTION ... 5 wee 24-1 242 FOHN WINDS... 5 feiteeceeeeeee Del 24,3 VALLEY WINDS «0.0.0 00000.0000000eeeceeeeeeee 24.4 MEDITERRANEAN WINDS ......00000000000000eveeveeees 24-2 24S SQUALLS.. 0.000 ccceeceeeeeeeeeeeee coceeeseeeeee 24-8 246 THEHARMATTAN ..02..2 02222222. 2c cece -24-6 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY LOCAL WINDS & WEATHER 244 24.2 INTRODUCTION The last chapter dealt with the general theory of climatology: this chapter seals with a number of winds around the world and the weather pattems associated with them. The winds are in five sections, Féhn type, Valley, some Mediterranean, Storm squalls and a West African wind. FOHN WINDS, Fohn Winds were dealt with in Chapter 11 and the diagram explaining the resultant increase in temperature on the lee side of the mountain range is shown below. © STABLE AIR Figure 24.1. The Féhn Effect. Although Fébn winds blow in the Alps, the name is used generically to deseribe winds which blow with similar effect in other parts of the world One such wind is the Chinook which blows on the Eastem side of the Rocky mountains of North America, Figure 24.2 below shows the location of the Chinook. The Chinook usually blows during the winter months and produces a rapid and considerable rise in temperature. A rise of 20° in 15 minutes is not ‘unusval, The wind may blow for several days and snow on the eastem side of the Rockies may clear completely, The area covered runs from Southern Colorado up to the Mackenzie Basin. Figure 24.2 Chinook Wind 24-1 © Orord Aviation Serces LimitedMETEOROLOGY LOCAL WINDS & WEATHER 243 24.4 VALLEY WINDS Mistral, Valley winds are caused by air funnelling through a mountain gap or down a valley. The Mistral, which is a good example of such a wind, blows down the Rhéne Valley between the Massif Central and the Alps to the French Mediterranean coast and beyond, It is usually a winter wind with high pressure over Central France and low pressure over the Gulf of Genoa. Temperatures are low with winter Mistral temperatures well below zero, flying conditions are turbulent and the winds are strong, 40 to 75 kts ‘The Bora. This wind is part valley and partkatabatic. As Figure 24.5 shows, it blows down the north Adriatic with high pressure over Central Europe and the Balkans and a low over the Adriatic, The wind speed is around 70 kts with great gusts exceeding 100 kts in places. The Bora is strongest and most frequent in winter. MEDITERRANEAN WINDS ‘The Sirocco. All three of the major Mediterranean winds we are dealing with are similarin that they blow ahead of frontal depressions tracking along the North African coastline. The Sirocco, which blows over Algeria is a hot and dusty southerly wind blowing out of the desert. This ‘wind is usually a springtime wind and may last a day or so. Visibility may be reduced to below fog limits (100m). The Sirocco may travel as far as the French coast and in the process it may pick up moisture and produce low stratus, drizzle and fog. ‘The Ghibli, This is a similar wind which blows over Libya. ‘The Khamsin, Blows ahead of depressions tracking along the Mediterranean coast of Egypt. Conditions are similar to the Sirocco and the Ghibli. The name is also given to south or south ‘west gales blowing in the Red Sea, 24-2 (© Oxford Aviation Services Linton&- + (uinog) spul eoeLing pue swalshg eunsseig JeIUIM\ “¢°yZ BuNBL4*(qUON) spulM BIepNg pue sWE}sKg einssaig JAIUIM “eg PZ auNBI4METEOROLOGY 245 SQUALLS ‘The Pampero. This is a severe windstorm blowing around the estuary of the River Plate (Uruguay and Argentina). It is a cold dusty south to south west wind blowing behind a cold frontal depression. Stormy, gusty conditions prevail, with a considerable temperature fall after the storm passes. The squall is short lived, but the strong, steady wind may last for some hours, Pampetos, ‘usually blow in spring and summer LOCAL WINDS & WEATHER Figure 24.4 The Pampero ‘Sumatras, These occur in the Straits of Malacea (see Figure 24.5) blowing between south west and north west, most frequently between April and November during the time of the south west monsoon. During the day thunderstorms build up over the high ground of Sumatra, assisted by the sea breeze, but at night the subsiding cumulo nimbus clouds drift eastward under the influence of the land breeze and the Katabatic effect, The storms are rejuvenated over the ‘warm sea and violent storms result late at night and in the early morning. ‘There is a sudden ‘temperature drop as the squall passes through. Sumatras take on a pronounced arched shape as the Cb anvils spread out at the tops of the clouds. 24-5 (© Oxford Aviation Services LinitodMETEOROLOGY LOCAL WINDS & WEATHER Figure 24.5. Sumatras. 24.6 THE HARMATTAN ‘The last of the major local winds is the Harmattan. This blows mostly during the winter from the high pressure desert areas of North Africa as a North Easterly wind towards the ITCZ. (North east trade winds). The Harmattan is a cool dusty wind that may reduce visibility to below 100m, especially in areas bordering desert regions, such as Kano, Nigeria. The dust layer may extend to 7,000 or 10,000 ft or more, visibility improves towards the coast, The Harmattan blows from November through to April, though by this time the winds will be light, especially in the south. 24-6 2 Oxford Aviation Services Limited25.1 25.2 25.3 25.7 25.8 25.9 25.10 25.11 25.12 25.13, 25.14 25.15 CHAPTER TWENTY FIVE - AREA CLIMATOLOGY Contents Page NORTH WEST AFRICA INTRODUCTION .... wee D5 el GEOGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS . 25-1 PRESSURE SYSTEMS . WEATHER AND SURFACE WINDS ... ceceeee UPPER WINDS |... coe ceceeeeee 25-4 NORTH ATLANTIC REGION GEOGRAPHICAL AREA ..... CONTINENTAL NORTH WEST EUROPE GEOGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ......... 25-13 WINTER . 2625-13 SUMMER .... 2125-15 ‘THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA AND ADJACENT LANDS GEOGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS . 2-25-17 WINTER 22.2. 000022 ee 25-17 SUMMER 2.22.2. a cee 25*20 ARABIA, THE GULF AREA, ARABIAN SEA AND BORDERS ENCLOSED. WITHIN 15°N-35°N AND 35°R-75°E GEOGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS .. ‘WINTER . SUMMER 2.2.0.0. 05 veceeceeeteteceeteeeeeeeeeeesee:25=2d (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedAREA CLIMATOLOGY NORTH WEST AFRICA 25.1 28.2 25.3 23.4 INTRODUCTION, ‘The region includes the area between the Mediterranean in the North, and the Nigeria - Ghana - ‘Senegal coast in the South, that is between 35°N and 5°N and west of 10°B. It also includes parts of Ivory Coast, Guinea, Liberia, Mauritania, Morocco, Mali and Algeria. GEOGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ‘The area is bounded to the east by the Sahara desert, centred near 23°N, which is a source of Tropical Continental air and brings much dust to the region. ‘The cold Canaries sea current running south close to the Atlantic Coast helps advection fog to form. PRESSURE SYSTEMS The ITCZ, (Equatorial Trough) traverses the southern half of the region bringing rain and a change of surface W/V as it passes. It is south of the coastal regions of Ghana and Nigeria in January, then pushes north to 18° - 20°N in July, thereafter moving south again, to clear the south coast by the next January. North of the ITCZ, lies the Sub Tropical High. In Winter it extends from the West actoss the Sahara desert and the surface outflow brings dry dusty conditions to all parts especially the South and West. Towards Summer, the sub tropical high and associated dry dusty conditions will be increasingly restricted northwards as the ITCZ advances from the South, WEATHER AND SURFACE WINDS. It is convenient to divide the region into two areas split at the mid latitude of 20°N. The southem region includes Dakar on the West Coast at 15°N. South of 20°N - Winter Season The ITCZ is south of the area, High pressure is dominant over the Sahara and there is no clond or precipitation. The NE tradewind outflow from the Sahara to the ITCZ is extremely dusty and is known as the Harmattan. The duration of the Harmattan period decreases southwards because the ITCZ recedes southwards in Autuma then advances north in the Spring. ‘Visibility in the dusts frequently down to 4000 metres and occasionally down tothe fog limits. Outflow over the cold canaries sea current favours advection sea fog, which can then drift inland when there is a sea breeze. 25-4 (© Onford Aviation Services LinvtedAREA CLIMATOLOGY NORTH WEST AFRICA North of 20°N - Winter Season High pressure over the Sahara and to the West can be modified by encroaching polar front Lows and their associated cold fronts, which in tum bring onshore Westetlies or North Westetlies to the coasts of Mauritania and Morocco, Passing over the cold canaries current this wind can bring cold fronts with low cloud and precipitation - the wet season. Cold fronts from the Mediterranean can also affect Northern Algeria butare prevented from moving further south by the Atlas mountains, Elsewhere Figure 25.1, North West Africa in January, Weather the prevailing NE Deiails at the Surface. Harmattan wind will traverse the area bringing Ary dusty conditions. Attimes outflow to the North will produce the dusty but dry Seiroeeo wind to the Mediterranean South of 20°N - Summer Season ‘The ITCZ will advance northwards across the region during the Spring and with its passage the NE Harmattan will veer through East to become the SW Monsoon wind, The SW direction results from the SE trades which have crossed the equator and have therefore veered. The SW Monsoon brings the wet season with much CU, CB, heavy rain showers and Thunderstorms. In the Autumn the ITCZ will recede southwards and with its passage the SW monsoon will back through East to become the dry dusty NE Harmattan once more. Note the SW/V is easterly at each ITCZ passage 25-2 (© Oxford Aviation Services LiritedAREA CLIMATOLOGY NORTH WEST AFRICA North of 20°N - Summer Season ‘The winter Sahara High has moved north to the Mediterranean, The outflow gives NE dusty winds flowing to the ITCZ to the south, and to beyond the West Coast where advection sea fog can form over the cold canaries current, This fog can then be drawn inland by sea breezes. Figure 25.2. North West Africa in July, Weather Details at the Surface. West African Tornadoes Tornadoes occur in the SE of the area over the Southern Nigerian Valleys, where the air is moist and the surface heating strong They are thunderstorms which formina North/South line above the valleys as the ITCZ, passes Northbound in March/April, and Southbound in September/October. The wind is temporarily from the East at these times and the storms are therefore carried westwards to affect other coastal countries before passing out to the Adlantic. Figure 25.3. North West Africa, in Spring and Autumn. ‘The Formation and Movement of West African Tornadoes. 25-3 © Oxford Aviation Services LiniledAREA CLIMATOLOGY NORTH WEST AFRICA 28.5 UPPER WINDS Winter The ITCZ. with light Easterlies aloft lies ‘well south. Overland light westerlies will occur in the south increasing to the westerly sub tropical jet of 100 knots or eRe more over Morocco. cm Figure 25.4. North West Africa, Upper Winds in January. Summer ‘The ITCZ. with light easterlies aloft affects the south of the region. In the north the wind will become light westerly only. Note that the sub tropical jet has moved out of the area to Bordeaux. st, P| Figure 25.5, North West Africa, Upper ‘Tropopause and Freezing Level Winds in July. ‘The tropopause averages $4000” and the Freezing level 15000" throughout the year. 25-4 ‘© Onford Aviation Serices LimitedAREA CLIMATOLOGY NORTH ATLANTIC REGION 25.6 GEOGRAPHICAL AREA. ‘The area considcred reaches from 10°N to 70°N latitude and from the Caribbean and New York in the West to London and the Norwegian Sea in the North-East, The area lies across the Disturbed Temperate and Sub-tropical High climatic belts. Figures 25.6 and 25.7 refer. WINTER Pressure Systems ‘North American High 1020 mbs Icelandic “Statistical” Low 1000 mbs ‘Azores High 30°N 1020 mbs Polar Air Depressions 65°N - 55°N Polat Front Activity is dominant across the disturbed temperate region. In the West, diverging air from the North American High moves SE over the sea to meet warm Tm air overlying the ‘warm gulfstream waters flowing northbound off the N. American Fast Coast. This convergence causes much instability and the formation of depressions where the two air masses meet. This well-defined but erratic frontal line forms the Western end of the polar front which in Winter lies near SW Florida and stretches across the Atlantic. These depressions will be driven ceast/north-eastwards by the thermal mid latitude winds and will track along the polar front towards the UK and Norwegian Sea, Some of the Lows will become slow moving and/or occluded between S Greenland and Norway, giving rise to the “Statistical” Low neat Ieeland as the depressions pass by. In the Eastern Atlantic the north-eastward outflow from the sub-tropical Azores High will censure that the travelling frontal depressions track to the North-Bast, a typical Winter landfall being SW England. See Figure 25.6, Over the Atlantic, the polar front will remain the boundary between Pm air to the north and ‘Tm air to the south. As the travelling depressions develop, a portion of the Tm air will be increasingly trapped between areas of Pm air either side, forming warm and cold fronts. See also Figure 25.8 North of the Polar Front, Polar Air depressions are formed by arctic air moving south 65°N - '55°N over relatively warmer seas causing instability weather. 25-5 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedAREA CLIMATOLOGY NORTH ATLANTIC REGION Figure 25.6. North Atlantic Weather details in January. WEATHER ‘The contrast between London and New York. Although New York is 40°N and London 52°N the winter weather is worse in New York. Why? Cold continental outflow from the North American High becomes unstable over the adjacent but warmer sca forming low pressure. The resultant instability can then swing inland bringing snow to the New York area. London in Winter can also be affected by cold continental outflow - from the Siberian High. ‘The difference is that such air will have a long land track and therefore will remain dry, Secondly, if the wind in London is from the prevailing west, it will be flowing off the Atlantic and therefore will be relatively warm, possibly giving rain but not snow. 25-6 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedAREA CLIMATOLOGY NORTH ATLANTIC REGION Cloud. In the North of the region, cloud averages 6 Oktas, mostly associated with travelling depressions and a ross section is shown at Figure 25.7. Cirrus and Stratoform cloud below the ‘tropopause will thicken down to near the surface preceding a warm front, Extensive ‘Steatus/Strato cumulus will occur as Tm air moves north over colder seas to the polar front and especially while trapped in the warm sector of polar front depressions. Cumulus and Cumulo- [Nimbus will occur on cold fronts with cumulus forming in the following unstable northwesterly air. In the Caribbean the moist NE trade winds will produce orographic cloud and rainfall on windward slopes Figure 25.7, The Cross Section of a North Atlantic Polar Front Depression - Flying west through a polar front depression, as shown at figure 25.7, the pilot should find: cr 400 - 600 nm ahead of the warm front surface position cs 300-500 nm ahead of the warm front surface position AS 200-400 nm ahead of the warm front surface position STINS 200 - 300 nm ahead of the warm front surface position. ST/SC Above Warm Sector at Low Level cuicB At Cold Front surface position and 100 - 200 nm beyond, Behind Cold Front region, the same but smaller amounts. cing occurs widely and through great depth in Convective and Frontal Cloud and is frequently moderate to severe. Rain Ice/Freezing rain, in cold air below ‘warm frontal air, an cause severe clear ice affecting airfields near Washington and New York, Visibility. Radiation Fog can occur inland especially in Autumn and Winter when pressure is high. Advection Fog can occur when moist Tm air overruns previously cold-soaked inland areas especially in late Winter/early Spring. 25-7 ‘© Oxford Aviation Sersicas LinedAREA CLIMATOLOGY NORTH ATLANTIC REGION ‘Surface Winds. North of the subtropical Bermuda-Azores High, winds are generally westerly but locally easterly on the north side of depressions. There are frequent gales. In the South, NE trade winds prevail all year. Upper Winds. These are generally westerly because their direction is governed by the thermal ‘wind which blows with Low Temperature on the left. The average winter wind component from London to New York is minus 50 knots - locally winds can be stronger and if greater than 60 knots are known as jetstreams. Over the Atlantic there are two distinet jetstream pattems ~ the Polar front Jet and the Subtropical Jet. Fach may reach 204 knots. Polar Front Jet. This will normally blow from between NW and SW and occasionally outside this range, depending on the surface orientation of the polar front. With low temperature on the lef, the Warm Front Jet will normally be from the NW and ahead of a warm front and. due to the slope of the front, some 400 nm ahead of its surface position. Similarly the Cold Front jet will normally blow from the South-West and some 200 nm behind the surface position of the front. Figs 25.7 and 25.8 refer. The level is around 300 mbs (30000") and its average location is SW Florida to SW England is shown at Figure 25.6, Figure 25.8. The Upper Winds over a North Atlantic Polar Front Depression. A pilot flying at high level from East fo West across a polar frontal depression would experience wind and drift as follows and as shown in Figure 25.9. a. Initially winds will be North Westerly giving strong port drift . b. Some 500 nm ahead of the warm front, jet axis speeds of 100-200 knots give increased port drift. This will last for 200 nm. 25-8 © Onford Avaton Sorvicas LimitedAREA CLIMATOLOGY NORTH ATLANTIC REGION Winds remain strong NW until erossing the surface position of warm front ‘when winds wit! back sharply to West or South-West giving near-zero drift. d. Above surface position of cold front winds will back again sharply to South West giving starboard drift. ec. After 100 nm enter the jet axis, speeds 100-200 knots, giving inereased starboard drift. This will last for 200 nm, f. Passing out of the Jet stream SW winds, starboard drift decreases, Figure 25.9. Upper Wind Changes Crossing Polar Front Depression East To West. Sub Tropical Jet. This will be located close to the surface position of the Subtropical High (in the North Atlantic, the Azores High) and is caused by the temperature difference between the adjacent columns of descending air from the warmer Hadley cell to the South and the cooler Ferrel cell to the North. The wind will be westerly, blow at 200 mbs (39000') and in Winter be located between 25°N-40°N. Over the N.Atlantic in Winter it blows from New York to Morocco as shown at Figure 25.6. SUMMER Pressure Systems. North American Low replaces Winter High, Icelandic “Statistical” Low 1010 mbs. Less deep and split. Azores High 1025 mbs intensified. Further North at 35°N. Hurricanes in Caribbean and Florida area, 28-9 © Oford Avition Servioes LimtesAREA CLIMATOLOGY NORTH ATLANTIC REGION ‘The polar front is still present but less active. The North American Winter High has disappeared and with it the east coast temperature contrast between land and sea, This part of the polar front therefore disappears in Summer and the westem end starts at Labrador, Newfoundland, E, Canada where the advanced warm Gulf Stream sea current now meets the receded cold Labrador Sea current. In the East, the Azores High is intensified and further North, thus pushing the Polar Front northwards to Scotland. In Summer the Polar Frontaverage position thus lies from Labrador/Newfoundland to North, of Scotland to Norway. See Figure 25.94, Temperature differences across the front are less, so frontal activity is less intense and less frequent. The weakened Icelandic “statistical” low is now split with average 1010 mbs centred West of Greenland, over Iceland and in the Baltic Figure 25.9a. North Atlantic Weather details in July. 25-10 {© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedAREA CLIMATOLOGY NORTH ATLANTIC REGION Weather and Cloud ‘The New York Winter snows are gone, London temperatures remain moderated by air flow from the Atlantic. Polar airs less cold and the reduced temperature contrasts mean less convection. cloud over the sea. From the Azores High warm moist Tm outflow northwards over cooler seas causes advection fog/stratus/stratocumulus and this can widely affect SW English coasts in late Spring/early Summer, In the Caribbean the NE trade winds will continue to cause orographie cloud and rain on ‘windward slopes. Additionally in Summer, rainfall will be increased by convection. Visibility. Inland radiation fog is less likely in Spring and Summer and if formed, early ‘morning insolation will cause quick clearance. Advection Fog can form over the eaoler seas and near SW facing coasts of UK and France in late Spring/early Summer by Tm air from the Azores moving northeast, Near Newfoundland widespread advection fog.can form over the Grand Banks (approx 45°N S0°W) in May/June by advancing warm moist air from the Mexican Gulf overrunning the very cold Labrador sea current, ‘Winds. In mid latitude, surface winds are still generally westerly but less strong than in Winter, as are upper winds because the temperature differences are less. In the Caribbean, NE trade ‘winds prevail atthe surface. Jetstreams. The Polar Front jet streams will still be around the 300 mbs level and be positioned in relation to the Polar warm and cold fronts as in Winter but will be less frequent, Jess strong, and displaced further north with the Summer alignment of the Polar Front. The Sub- ‘Tropical Jet at 200 mbs will also be further north and in the latitude band 40°N-45°N. Specifically across the Atlantic in Summer, it will blow from Montreal to Bordeaux, as shown at Figure 25.5. Easterly Waves. Easterly waves are similar to shallow troughs extending North from the Equatorial Low Pressure belt, They move slowly East to West under the influence of the anticyclonic wind around the subtropical High pressure. In the North Atlantic autumn, West African Tornadoes, which form over Nigeria, drift westwards with these waves and can become seedlings of Caribbean Hurricanes. Hurricanes. Hurricane is the name given to Tropical Revolving Storms in the Caribbean/Gulf of Mexico Area. Frequency of developed Hurricanes is average 3 pet year. They occur from August to October, tracking westwards actoss the Atlantic near 10°N-15°N latitude and at 10-15 knots. Internal windspeeds can exceed 100 knots, They then cross the Bay of Mexico orfurn right around the sub tropical high to track NW, N, NE up the USA East Coast, They are energised by the latent heat of condensation and are therefore more active over the sea. Each season they are named alphabetically in order of occurrence using alternate male/female first names. 25-11 {© Oxford Aviation Services LitesAREA CLIMATOLOGY “Tropopause Heights Freezing Level Height 70°N 20°N 70°N 20°N 4PN- NORTH ATLANTIC REGION 30000" 50000" January July Surface 5000" 12000 16000" 65°N and 4°W - 20°E 25-12 (© Oxford Aviation Series LimitedAREA CLIMATOLOGY CONTINENTAL NORTH WEST EUROPE 25.7 25.8 GEOGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ‘The mountains of Norway lic to the North while to the South there are many mountain ranges dominated by the Alps. Between the two regions lies the North European Plain with no ‘mountain barrier against the Atlantic winds from the West nor to the cold winter winds from the East. WINTER Polar Front Depressions. ‘These move from the Atlantic towards Russia and principally between the mountain barriers to North and South although tracks are variable. Areas to the South of each Low will experience frontal weather. ‘The Alps often block and delay cold fronts, causing frontal and orographical cloud to persist on the northern side. An active secondary depression may develop on such a front, tending to run east-north-east along the front until the cyclonic cireulation around iteventually drives the front into the Mediterranean. ‘Thermal Depressions. Thermal lows can form in Winter to the East of the Alps over the low lying Danube area which is moist and comparatively warm. Associated cyclonic citeulation on the eastside will bring warm air North from the Mediterranean forming active warm fronts. These can bring extensive low stratus to Germany and snowfall as far north as SE England. Polar Air Depressions. These can sometimes affect the extreme NW sea areas of the region in ‘Winter. (PL in Figure 25.10) Siberian High Extension. Pc air gives cold dry weather. Steaming fog or Low Stratus may be produced locally over water near German and Dutch coastsas the cold air reacts with the warmer water. ‘Temporary Highs. Ridges or transient anticyclones may exist in the N/NW in between ‘travelling polar front lows. 25-13 © Oxford Avaton Services LimitedAREA CLIMATOLOGY CONTINENTAL NORTH WEST EUROPE ‘Cloud and Precipitation. Cloud amount exceeds six octas on average. Cloud is frontal from the many polar front depressions also from warm fronts moving North from the Mediterranean although cloud amounts decrease from West to East. ‘There is much precipitation, in the Fast mainly of snow. Visibility. Radiation Fog can form inland with a slack pressure gradient, principally in Autumn and Winter. With a SW warm moist wind from the Atlantic, adveetion fog an form over previously cold soaked inland areas. Smoke haze may reduce visibility to the lee of industrial areas. Frontal fog can occur on the warm fronts of deep active Polar Front depressions. Winds. Surface Winds are generally westerly although easterly on the north side of depressions. E or NE. winds can occur as an outflow from the Siberian High. ‘Upper Winds become increasingly westerly with ascent, due to the increasing westerly thermal ‘component, Polar Front Jets, located in relation to the moving warm and cold front surface positions, and centred around 300 mbs / 30000" are common and often exceed 100 knots. The Subtropical Jet is to the South near Morocco end therefore does not affect the region. Figure 25.10. January Weather. 25-14 9 Oxford Aviation Services LimitecAREA CLIMATOLOGY CONTINENTAL NORTH WEST EUROPE 25.9 Icing. As over the North Atlantic, ieing occurs widely and through great depth in Frontal Cloud and is frequently moderate to severe. Freezing Rain (Rain Tee) can cause severe clear ice in cold air under a warm front or warm occlusion, A rare occurrence in UK, it is more common over Central Europe where the ground is generally much colder, indeed the freezing level may frequently be on the surface especially in the Bast, SUMMER Pressure Systems Polar Front Depressions. These will tack eastwards as in Winter but further North (seasonal ‘movement is with the Sun). They will also be less intense because of the smaller Polar/Tropical ‘temperature difference that forms them. ‘Thermal Depressions. Strong insolation can cause active thermal depressions over France and Southem Germany. ‘Thunderstorms are common when moist unstable conditions exist. Azores High. This is well established west of Africa at 35°N. An associated ridge across Europe often gives a limited period of fine dry weather. ‘Temporary Highs, Temporary ridges or transient anticyclones to the NW are more dominant in Summer, in between weaker Polar Front Lows. Scandinavian Highs. These can persist for a few days drawing aic across the North Sea from ‘western Russia, Cloud and Precipitation Frontal cloud amounts and rain will be much less than in Winter because the associated polar front depressions are fewer, less intense, and further north, and by Summer the Mediterranean warm fronts are gone. Cloud is mainly conveetive in thunderstorms produced by thermal Jows. Rainfall is therefore mainly in the form of heavy showers but the effect may be increased by orographie lifting in the southern mountains, Visibility Radiation Fog is much less likely. It can occur in early Spring but moming insolation will normally ensure quick clearance. In Late Spring/Early Summer an easterly wind round a Scandinavian High blowing over the North Sea can often result in extensive adveetion sea fog along the UK East Coast, In Scotland this is known as haar. It can travel inland some distance, 25-15 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedAREA CLIMATOLOGY CONTINENTAL NORTH WEST EUROPE Figure 25.11. July Weather. Winds Surface winds are generally westerly but lighter than in Winter. Winds may be modified by sea breezes along coasts Upper Winds become increasingly westerly with ascent but the thermal wind component is less ‘than in Winter and upper winds will therefore be less strong, Reduced Speed Polar Front Jets will occur but further North with the Summer movement of the polar fronts. The Atlantic sub- tropical jet will reach the coast neat Bordeaux but due to mountain interference will not extend overland at Jet Speeds. It therefore does not affect the region, Teing. The freezing level will be higher in Summer and frontal activity is less, but icing in thunderstorms and orographical cloud may still be severe, Average Tropopause and Freezing Level Heights over Central France January July Tropopause 35000" 39000" Freezing Level 4000" 12000" 25-16 © Onlerd Aviation Sericas LimitedAREA CLIMATOLOGY ‘THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA AND ADJACENT LANDS 25.10 25.1 GEOGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ‘The Mediterranean sea is almost entirely surrounded by land. Compared with the land, the sea will be relatively warmer in winter (giving unstable conditions above) and relatively cooler in summer (giving stable conditions above). Therefore during the winter surface air will tend to flow in ftom surrounding land areas and during summer it will tend to flow out. ‘There are significant mountain areas to the North and to the West. In winter, the mountains to the North will hold back much of the eold air from Europe/Asia, ‘The high ground to the West will resist the advance of Polar Front Depressions except via the mountain gaps in SW France and at the Straits of Gibraltar between Spain and Morocco. To the South there is no mountain barrier to prevent dry dusty air from the Sahara desert spreading north, except the Atlas mountains in the extreme SW. WINTER Pressure Systems, Mediterranean Front Depressions. The Mediterranean front lies east/west along the centre ofthe Mediterranean, andis formed by inflowing cold Pe air from the North and inflowing less cold Te air from the South, Air will be forced to rise along the convergence line forming frontal depressions in the West which move eastwards along the frontal divide driven by the westerly upper airflow, Because of the dryness ofthe desert Tc air, warm front and warm sector ‘cloud does not form, thus there is eold front weather only. Orographic or Lee Depressions. These can form south of the Alps over the Northern Adriatic and over the Gulf of Genoa. The Genoa Low can move south along the Italian coast ‘giving unstable weather. Lee Lows can form South of the Atlas mountains in Morocco with acold W/NW airstream and then move NE to enter the Mediterranean east of Tunisia. They can also form South of the Turkish Taurus mountains to form the Cyprus Low between Cyprus and Turkey, The Cyprus Low givesnot only instability but is accompanied by NE gales. Weak depressions moving into the area can become deepened and reactivated. ‘These lows can then move eastwards into Lebanon and Arabia. Siberian High. The Siberian High is well north of the region but its eold outflow can reach ‘the warm Mediterranean and cause instability. ‘Thermal Depressions. When cold air from the Siberian High flows over a relatively warm landlocked sea area such as the Mediterranean, instability or Thermal Lows are created. Over the Mediterranean, these form particularly in Central and Eastem ateas and move eastwards to Arabia, the Arabian Gulf, Iran and Afghanistan, 25-17 (© Oxford Aviation Services LitoAREA CLIMATOLOGY ‘THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA AND ADJACENT LANDS: Polar Front Depressions. Polar Front Lows and sometimes secondary Lows can enter the region via SW France or Gibraltar, after which they tend to become absorbed by other Depressions. Cloud and Preeipitation Cold fronts associated with Mediterranean front Depressions, also otographiic and thermal depressions, produce CU and CB with attendant heavy rain or hail showers and thunderstorms . There is some layer type cloud and more continuous rain in association with the few Polar Front depressions in the West, Visibility Radiation Fog is less common than in NW Europe but can be persistent in the Po Valley in North Italy, Otherwise visibility is excellent between showers except when ait blows from the south bringing dust laden air from the Sahara desert. These southerly winds, called the Siroceo in Algeria, the Chili in Tunisia, the Ghibli in Libya and the Khamsin in Egypt blow ahead of depressions travelling cast over the sea. Surface Winds ‘Surface winds will blow in accord with the location of depressions but there are some named ‘winds blowing into the Mediterranean from surrounding land areas that should be noted: Mistral, This is a strong northerly wind up to 70 kts blowing down the Rhéne valley in SE France, especially when High pressure is to the North. It is a valley/katabatic wind, normally stronger at night and in Winter, which brings eold air from the North. It helps form the Genoa orographic Low. Bora. This isa stronger dry gusty NE wind up to 100 kts which is part valley/part katabatic. ‘The wind blows through the mountain passes into the Northern Adriatie and can be reinforced by High Pressure to the NE. It can bring snow and is strongest at night. It can set in suddenly and is therefore dangerous, It can help form the Adriatic orographic Low. Gregale. This is similar to the Bora but less strong, further south and more moist. It blows from the NE neat Souther Italy and Malta and is due to continental relatively high pressure to the North, and low pressure over the Mediterranean Sea. It occurs in 1-2 day spells in association ‘with Mediterranean depressions to the South which are moving eastwards. Siroceo (or Seiroceo). Blows out of Algeria and the Sahara Desert into the western Mediterranean ahead of travelling Mediterranean lows, and can carry dust up to 10000’. The Sirocco can sometimes continue northwards to France; while in transit it will be cooled and humidified by the sea and can thus cause advection fog and/or low stratus along the South French Coast. 25-18 (© Orlerd Aviation Servions LimitedAREA CLIMATOLOGY ‘THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA AND ADJACENT LANDS Khamsin, Similar tothe sirocco, but further east, the Khamsin originates in Northern Sudan, blows from the South through Egypt and can affect Jordan, Syria and Cyprus. Dust can be cattied 10 10000", Figure 25.12. Winter Pressure Systems and Surface Winds. Vandevale. Strong SW to W wind in the Straits of Gibraltar. Blows ahead of a polar front cold front approaching from the Atlantic. It is very squally with much low cloud, ‘Upper Winds In the extreme west a few Polar Front Jet Streams occur in association with PF Lows. The Sub Tropical Jet over Morocco does not affect the West of the sea area but can affect the Eastern Mediterranean in the Cyprus and Egypt region, It is centred at the 200 mb level with ‘maximum westerly winds at over 100kts. 25-19 © Onford Aviation Services LimitedAREA CLIMATOLOGY ‘THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA AND ADJACENT LANDS 25.12 Figure 25.13. Winter Upper Winds. Ieing Clear ice can occurin convective cloud and thunderstorms. Freezing rain/rainice can occur over N Italy where the freezing level may occasionally be on the surface, SUMMER Pressure Systems Azores High. The Azores sub tropical high at 35°N extends eastwards across the Mediterranean, ‘Thermal Lows. Pressure over Egypt, Lebanon, and lands to the East is relatively low due to intense insolation. Cloud and Precipitation ‘There is little cloud aside from fair weather CU. Local CU/CB can occur over the high ground of Greece, Italy and Turkey due to convective and orographic uplift, possibly resulting in local ‘thunderstorms. 25 - 20 ‘© Onord Avieton Services LivtedAREA CLIMATOLOGY ‘THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA AND ADJACENT LANDS ‘Visibility Trapped near the surface by generally descending air, dust can reduce visibility across the region. In the straits of Gibraltar, warm moist air flowing out over the cooler Atlantic can produce adveetion fog or low ST/SC. Surface Winds Levanter. Summer outflow from the Mediterranean occurs at Gibraltar and is called the Levanter. It blows from the East (the Levant) during July-October and March and can reach gale force. The axis of the Rock of Gibraltar is North/South and orographic uplift on the east side through some 1100’ can produce a banner of ST/SC which then streams westward from the top of the Rock. In stable air standing waves can occur over the rock Considerable turbulence up to 5000’ can exist above the adjacent airfield. Etesian, This moderate persistent wind blows from the North across the Greek Islands of the “Aegean sea towards the island of Rhodes then southwards. Itis caused by the pressure gradient between the Azores ridge, extending across the Western and Central Mediterranean, and heat induced low pressure overland to the East. The wind is dry and brings clear skies and good visibility, Strong Etesians can bring gales and affect the area from W Greece to W Turkey and as far south as the N African coast when CU may develop after the long sea track. Sen Breezes. These can be strong at this time of the year and will locally modify surface wind direction, Upper Winds Light westerly in the West. Westerly average 40-50 knots in the East. Both Jetstreams are ‘out of the region to the North. Teing ‘The freezing level is high and icing is not normally a problem in summer. Average Tropopause South Region $3000 North Region 40000" Average Freezing Levels Winter 6000" Summer 14000" 25-21 {© Oxfors Aviation Services LimitedAREA CLIMATOLOGY ‘THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA AND ADJACENT LANDS: Figure 25.15. Summer Upper Wit 25-22 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedAREA CLIMATOLOGY ARABIA, THE GULF AREA, ARABIAN SEA AND BORDERS 25.13 28.14 ENCLOSED WITHIN 15°N-35°N AND 35° 75°E GEOGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS, Inland areas of Irag, Saudi Arabia and Oman are largely desert. The Tropic of Cancer at 234° N almost bisects the region so that in summer the noon sun is virtually overhead, The daytime interioris extremely dry and hot, ‘The warm Gulf waters cause oppressive humidity along coasts, Surface wind direction is generally governed in the West by the NW/SE axis of the Zagros ‘mountains in W. Iran and in the East by the Himalayas. Figure 25.16. Arabian Weather - Winter WINTER: Pressure Systems ‘The Siberian High is established over Asia to the NE but its surface outflow affects the region, ‘Thermal Lows, often withassociated cold fronts, travel eastward from the Mediterranean across Arabia into Iran and Afghanistan. Siberian dry cold frontal air passing over the relatively warm Caspian Sea to the North can initiate considerable thermal instability 25-23 © Oxford Aviation Servioes LimitedAREA CLIMATOLOGY ARABIA, THE GULF AREA, ARABIAN SEA AND BORDERS 25.15 ENCLOSED WITHIN 15°N-35°N AND 35°E-75°E Cloud and Preeipitation is restricted to the North and West only, Travelling Lows from the Mediterranean will produce CU/CB, heavy showers and thunderstorms, and their associated cold fronts may bring some weather and duststorms to the more southern interior of Arabia, ‘Thermal instability over the Caspian Sea can bring thunderstorms, hail and possibly snow to high ground to the north. Surface Winds. In the west the Zagros mountain range and parallel ridges are oriented NWSE. These block and deflect the cold Siberian outflow so that the surface winds become North or Northwesterly. In the East, the Siberian outflow escaping round the western end of the Himalayan air block will again be northerly. ‘The exception is the temporary southerly ‘wind which occurs ahead of the travelling depressions from the Mediterranean, Visibility. Winter visibility is generally much better than in the summer convection currents, but in the NW of the region rising dust can occur with any wind direction and especially in the southerly winds ahead of the travelling ex Mediterranean Lows. Violent but short lived duststorms may accompany the passage of associated cold fronts. Overland near coasts where humidity is high, radiation fog may form, but dispersal is quick after sunrise. ‘Upper Winds are westerly. The 200 mb Subtropical Jet covers the west of the region and may extend as low as 300 mbs (30000'). Cote speeds frequently exceed 100 knots, Teing is not a problem except when climbing or descending through large CU/CB. SUMMER Pressure Systems. ‘The Baluchistan Low is the lowest pressure point of general warm weather low pressure over the Asian continent, It centres on the area of Baluchistan, lying actoss the IranvPakistan border, ‘due to the mainly south-facing rocky nature of the surface, and intense solar heating from the high noonday sun. ‘The ITCZ just reaches Oman in the west, Inthe east it traverses the N. Arabian Sea northwards in June/July and southwards during September. ‘Thermal Low Pressure. Over Eastern Pakistan and NW India, March to June is dry. With advancing Spring, the land mass begins to warm, thus pressure begins to fall, drawing in warm. moist air from the Arabian Sea in response to the pressure gradient; first at lower latitudes then progressively further north. The ITCZ follows. ‘Cyclones occur over the Arabian Sea during the advance and retreat of the ITCZ between June and September. 25-24 (© Oxford Aviation Services LinitesAREA CLIMATOLOGY ARABIA, THE GULF AREA, ARABIAN SEA AND BORDERS ENCLOSED WITHIN 15°N-35°N AND 35°E-75°E. Surface Winds, In the West, anticlockwise rotation around the Baluchistan Low, as modified by the Zagros mountain NW/SE orientation, gives Northerly or Northwesterly winds. In particular, the Shamal wind originates as dry dusty convection currents over Iraq. Itis Northwesterly and blows the length of the Gulf picking up much moisture and delivering dusty humid air to NW facing coasts typically between Bahrain and Dubai. It decreases at night. (Jingle: Shamal oceurs in Summer). Figure 25.17 Arabian Weather - Summer. 25-25 (© Overs Aviation Services LinedAREA CLIMATOLOGY ARABIA, THE GULF AREA, ARABIAN SEA AND BORDERS ENCLOSED WITHIN 15°N-35°N AND 35°E-75°E. Cloud and Precipitation. Most of the region is almost rainless and temperatures can exceed 50°C. Inland areas are very dry but Gulf coastal regions facing the N/NW onshore winds can be oppressively humid, An exception is the SE of Oman. The ITCZ reaches the coast where the desert te temporarily “bursts into bloom”. Further East towards the Indian coast, the ITCZ northward movernent is followed by the onset of the SW monsoon, ‘The monsoon is very moist and convectively unstable. Orographic and convection cloud and heavy rain are widespread, Visil ty. ‘The north/northwesterly winds can cause much dust in the desert regions. The shamal will bring dusty moist air to coastal areas... Visibility will also be reduced in regions affected by the rez. Upper Winds. Above 20000' winds are light Easterly. Teing. Icing should not be a problem in Summez. Average Tropopause and Freezing Level Heights ‘Tropopause Freezing Level North South January 38000" 11000" > 56000" July 45000" 16000" 25-26 {© Oxfos Aviation Services Limited26.1 26.2 263 264 26.5 26.6 26.7 26.8 26.9 CHAPTER TWENTY SIX - ROUTE CLIMATOLOGY Contents Page CALCUTTA TO SINGAPORE, GEOGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ....... Eeeeeeee eee eee WINTER (JANUARY)... coe SUMMER (JULY) eee) SINGAPORE TO TOKYO VIA HONG KONG GEOGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ....2.2222-. cee eeeenee ees 26-6 WINER Enero ey weet 26-6 SUMMER .... Pee SINGAPORE TO AUCKLAND VIA DARWIN AND SYDNEY O1°N - 37°S, 105° - 175° GEOGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 622.026 06666 60660600 e cece 26-13 WINTER (JULY) ....0..-.---- cece =26-13 SUMMER (JANUARY) «---2222 2222220200000 b bette 26-16 CAIRO TO JOHANNESBURG VIA NAIROBI 30°N - 27°S. 28°E - 37°E GEOGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ©... . 50.22.0000 000 26-19 JANUARY (NORTHERN WINTER/SOUTHERN SUMMER) co 26-19) JULY (NORTHERN SUMMER/SOUTHERN WINTER) -..0.200000000000005 26-21 NAIROBIREGION . ceteeseee 26-23 (© Oxford Aviation Services LitesROUTE CLIMATOLOGY CALCUTTA TO SINGAPORE 26.1 GEOGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ‘The route is located between Latitudes 23°N and O1°N. It overflies the eastern Bay of Bengal and is just off the west coast of Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand and W. Malaysia. The Himalayas lie to the north of low lying Bangladesh, The Cameron Highlands form a spine the length of West Malaysia, and Sumatra Island to the SW also has a mountain backbone. 26.2 WINTER JANUARY) Figure 26.1. Weather and Winds in January. 26-1 © Onford Aviation Services LimitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY CALCUTTA TO SINGAPORE Pressure Systems. ‘Continental outflow from the Siberian High establishes the NE Monsoon over the whole route as shown in Figure 26.1. The ITCZ.is south of the route Weather. In Winter the route weather is generally very good. Calcutta and Bangladesh are protected from the North by the Himalayas. Abeam Burma, the NE monsoon will have had a long land track and, although isolated convective cumulus are possible, the dry cold air will in general ensure clear skies. Further south te monsoon will cross the Gulf of Thailand picking up warmth and moisture cneouraging some CU and CB to form over the isthmus of Southern Thailand, On the last section of the route the NE Monsoon arrives warm and moist from the expanse of the South China Sea giving large scale orographic cumulus and thunderstorms over the Bast Coasts and Central highlands of West Malaysia and Sumatra, ‘The West Coasts are more sheltered and generally less wet although all equatorial land areas including Singapore have considerable convective heating resulting in almost daily thunderstorms, Visibility. Early morning mist can occur in the moist river delta regions of Bangladesh and Burma, Othenwise visibility is very good outside showers and thunderstorms. ‘Winds. Low level winds are north-casterly over the whole route under the influence of the NE monsoon. Above 20000’ upper winds overrun the monsoon. The 200 mb subtropical jet lies just south of the Himalayas and is therefore north of the route; decreasing westerlies of around 40 knots over Calcutta reduce to zero near L0°N thereafter becoming the normal light equatorial easterlies. Icing. Icing can occur above 16000 but is a lesser problem in January than July as skies are generally clear on the route. 26-2 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY CALCUTTA TO SINGAPORE 26.3 SUMMER (JULY) Figure 26.2. Weather and Winds in July. Pressure Systems. The Siberian High of Winter has been replaced by the Asian Low centred over Baluchistan, The ITCZ rapidly traverses the route northbound in Spring to be by Singapore in March and Caleutta in May, then again southbound in the Autumn to be by Caleutta in October and ‘Singapore again in November/December. In July itis therefore located well to the North. The inflow to the ITCZ eyclonically round the Asian Low establishes the SW Monsoon as shown at Figure 26.2. The monsoon is supplied from the Southern Hemisphere SE trade winds which veer to SW on crossing the equator. 26-3 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY CALCUTTA TO SINGAPORE ‘The lengthy equatorial sea track of these winds ensures high temperatures and high humidity so that wherever they landfall, the orographic uplift will trigger intense instability with thunderstorms and severe weather. ‘Weather. In Summer, flying conditions are poor. The whole route lies on the windward side of the Bangladeshi, Burmese, Thai and West Malaysian coasts. Thunderstorms and severe weather ‘will occur throughout except over the extreme south of the route, where in the Straits of Malacca there will be some protection by the mountains of Sumatra from the SW Monsoon ‘Nevertheless the high mountains on either side of the straits can cause a new hazard. At Night, the katabatie winds from each side, aided by the land breeze effect, will meet in the middle of the straits causing a convergence line with consequent uplift. Along the straits this double sided uplift can cause a line of night time thunderstorms arehed in the middle, known as Sumatras, (Jingle: Sumatras occur in Summer) Cyclones. ‘Tropical revolving storms are known as cyclones in the Bay of Bengal. To form they need ‘summer warm sea (evidence suggests in excess of + 27°C) and the close instability of the ITCZ. In July the ITCZ is north, over the land, so that in this area they form only in eatly and Jate summer when the ITCZ is over the sea, that is in June or October. Tropical revolving storms also occur in the Gulf of Thailand and occasionally move west to affect the route. Visibility. ‘Visibility is generally impaired by much cloud and frequent rainfall. Reduction in tropical rainstorms can be considerable. Winds. Surface winds are SW over the whole route, Aloft, the 200 mb subtropical jet is now located North of the Himalayas thus above 20000’ the equatorial mostly light upper easterlies apply over the whole route. Also in this region, summer high temperatures in the land mass of Asia cause a reversal of the South-North temperature gradient, Aloft, with warm air to the north, the "upper pressure gradient movement is southward, which Coriolis/GF will turn to the right, giving a pronounced Easterly Jet over Rangoon of 70 knots centred near the 150 mb level (45000%) 26-4 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY CALCUTTA TO SINGAPORE Ieing, Icing can be a problem on this route during the Summer, when descending through cumulo-form clouds ‘Tropopause Heights average 56000’ all year. Freezing Level Heights average 16000" all year. 26-5 © Ostord Aviation Services LimitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY SINGAPORE TO TOKYO VIA HONG KONG. 26.4 GEOGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ‘The route traverses the “Western Pacific Rim” from Latitude 01°N to 35°N. It passes close to the east coasts of W. Malaysia, Vietnam and China. The en route weather is dominated by the ‘changing seasonal pressure over Asia and the temperature differences between continent and ‘ocean and between sea currents. East of Japan, the cold Oyasiwo sea current sweeps down from the Russian Kamchatka peninsula, and is countered by the warm Kurosiwo sea current flowing northeastward from the Northen Philippines. Much of the area, including Japan, has a mountainous interior, 26.5 WINTER Figure 26.3. Surface Conditions in January. 26-6 ‘© Onford Aviation Services LimitedtROUTE CLIMATOLOGY SINGAPORE TO TOKYO VIA HONG KONG Pressure Systems ‘The ITCZ lies well south of the route, ‘The Siberian High is well established to the west over Asia, ‘Some Polar Front Lows traverse the extreme north of the region. Surface Winds. Clockwise outflow from the Siberian High establishes the wind flow over the route as shown. in Fig. 26.3. From Singapore to Vietnam the NE monsoon blows. From Vietnam to China the wind remains north or north east, Near Japan the wind is north or north west. Weather. In the south of the route, the NE monsoon sweeps down from the warm expanse of the South China Sea producing intense convective instability. This will produce CU, CB, heavy showers and thunderstorms along any windward coast in its path, for example the EasvNE coasts of W. Malaysia and Vietnam. Inland areas, sheltered by mountains, will remain drier aside from convective weather. ‘Towards Hong Kong, after the ITCZ has passed southbound in September,some shelter will be afforded from north/NE winds by the Chinese mountainous landmass; fom October to ‘December the weather in Hong Kong is fine and dry. A change occurs in January as the wind veers and the source area is over the warm Kurosiwo sea cutrent. These new warm moist winds form, over seasonally cooled coastal Hong Kong waters, adveetion fog, low stratus drizzle and gloomy conditions. This coastal condition is known as the Crachin and lasts in Hong Kong from January to April after which the northward movement of the ITCZ. will dispel it. In the north of the route very cold dry SE ward outflow ftom Siberia crosses the comparatively warm Sea of Japan, Moderate instability generated is orographically enhanced over the Japanese NW coast and eentral mountains causing CU and heavy snow showers. Eastern lee areas, such as Tokyo, will be drier and less cold due to the Féhn effect and warming from the Kurosiwo sea current, Visibility. In the south of the route, visibility is good between showers. At Hong Kong visibility is excellent October-December, but abysmal from January-April in the Crachin conditions discussed above. Near Tokyo and other big Japanese cities visibility can be reduced to near fog limits by industrial smoke. 26-7 |B Oxford Aviation Services LimitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY ‘SINGAPORE TO TOKYO VIA HONG KONG Upper Winds. Equatorial 10 -30 kt Easterlies blow from Singapore to 10°N. Further north, winds become westerly increasing in speed towards 25°N-40°N where the 200 mb subtropical jet blows, frequently up to 150 knots, and occasionally to 300 knots near Japan. This exceptional speed is due to a combination of the strong low level geostrophic South Eastward Siberian outflow and the extreme thermal wind component generated by the marked Siberia/Pacific temperature difference, Furthernorth, there are some occasional westerly jets in association with polar front lows. Figure 26.4. Upper winds in January. 26-8 © Orord Aviation Services LimitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY SINGAPORE TO TOKYO VIA HONG KONG 26.6 SUMMER TYPHOONS 9 MAIN SEASON JUL - SEP Figure 26.5. Surface Conditions in July. 26-9 (© Oxfor Aviation Services LinitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY ‘SINGAPORE TO TOKYO VIA HONG KONG: Pressure Systems, Baluchistan Low. The Winter Siberian High is replaced by the Summer Asian Low centred over Baluchistan. Its anticlockwise inflow produces the SW monsoon over the route as far north as Central Japan - the Northern limit of the ITCZ, ITCZ/Equatorial Trough. The SW monsoon will follow northwards the ITCZ which will be over Singapore in March, China in May and Japan in July. The northern extent of the SW ‘monsoon will then recede southwards again driven before the ITCZ, which passes Hong Kong in September and Singapore again in November/December. ‘Typhoons. In the North Pacific, tropical revolving storms are known as typhoons. Evidence suggests that to form, requirements include a sea temperature greater than +27°C, a proximity to ITCZ instability, plus a displacement away from the equator where coriolis is zero, and location south of the Jetstream belts which would destroy their vertical continuity. ‘They form in the Central pacific, at around 10°-15°N then drift westward at 10-15 knots with the clockwise wind direction around the N. Pacific sub tropical High. Nearing the Philippines they will generally track near the seasonal ITCZ but can cut] northwards extending the season in some locations. Up to 12 per year can effect Southern Japan, principally in July - September and in ‘Hong Kong occurrence is commonly in September. The overall season may extend from May to November depending on Latitude, The southern limit is the Gulf of Thailand. Surface Winds, In July the south west monsoon extends over the whole route as far North as Central Japan ‘where the ITCZ then lies. By late Summer, the cold Northwesterlies will re-establish behind the retreating ITCZ. as the Siberian High begins to rebuild. Where Typhoons occur, winds of varying direction may exceed 100 knots. Sea breezes will effect coastal wind direction in sunny conditions especially in the South. Weather. ‘To the west of Singapore in the Malacca Straits, the Katabatic thunderstorm Sumatras will form overnight. The SW monsoon will bring Orographie CL CB to SW facing coasts, while east coasts will be more sheltered. Nevertheless in these equatorial regions including Singapore purely convective cloud will be heavy, often giving daily thunderstorms, Most route weather arises on the ITCZ as it travels from Singapore in March to Tokyo in July and back to Singapore in November/December, The northbound ITCZ, will pass China in “May where associated precipitation is known as the Plum Rains. 26-10 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY SINGAPORE TO TOKYO VIA HONG KONG High typhoon internal wind speeds, coupled with intense rain and thunderstorms, can locally bring much structural damage and flooding. Over Japan in Late Summer some frontal rain occurs as PC air spreading south from Siberia meets retreating tropical air. 26-14 © Orfrs Aviation Services LimitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY ‘SINGAPORE TO TOKYO VIA HONG KONG Visibility In carly summer, warm moist SW monsoon winds, advaneing north, can bring sea fog to cooler Chinese coastal waters and extensive blanket advection sea fog over the cold Oyasiwo sea current between eastern Japan and the mainland Kamchatka peninsula further to the northeast. ‘Some industrial smoke can occur near cities in Japan, Upper Winds Equatorial light easterlies of 10-30 knots extend to 25°N, beyond which winds become light westerly, Sub tropical and Polar Front Jets are little in evidence over the summer North Pacific. ‘Tropopause Heights Singapore Japan 56000" 38000" Freezing Levels Singapore Japan 16000" 3000'-15000" 26-12 © Onford Aviation Services LimitesROUTE CLIMATOLOGY SINGAPORE TO AUCKLAND via DARWIN AND SYDNEY 26.7 268 OWN-37°S 105° -175°E GEOGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ‘The route crosses the equator just south of Singapore then over overflies the Java sea and many ofthe Indonesian islands. Next is the Timor Sea followed by the Central North Australian coast at Darwin, at latitude 12°S. From Darwin the route crosses the dusty largely flat Australian interior to the mountainous SE coast at Sydney, latitude 34°S, The last leg then heads across the ‘Tasman sea to New Zealand’s low lying Auckland airport st 37°S. WINTER (JULY) lane wee | oe Figure 26.7. Surface pressure and weather - July (Winter) Pressure Systems ITCZ, The ITCZ.is in the northern hemisphere well clear of the route. ‘Thermal Lows. Convective thermal lows will occur over the Indonesian islands. ‘These are formed by # combination of island insolation and bigh humidity from the surrounding sea. Sub tropical High. The Australian interior in winter lies in the southem hemisphere Sub Tropical High belt. Relatively coo! seasonal temperature overland will reinforce high pressure within the continent 26-13 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY SINGAPORE TO AUCKLAND via DARWIN AND SYDNEY OWN-37°S 105° -175°E Polar Front Depressions. Travelling Polar Front Lows in the Southern Hemisphere’ disturbed temperate zone will themselves be located well south of the route; but associated troughs, and secondary lows, can bring frontal weather as far north as the Australian South Coast and to New Zealand. As in the northern hemisphere, these eastward-travelling fronts will alternate ‘with temporary ridges and anticyclones. Cold frontal activity can be quite severe from Sydney to Auckland. ‘Surface Winds. ‘The SW Monsoon Wind at Singapore will soon back to SE (Coriolis change), as the route crosses the equator. These SE “trade” winds will remain as far as Darwin and beyond although at Darwin itself strong local sea breezes may blow from the North, On the Darwin to Sydney sector the SE trade winds gradually veer to Southwesterly to conform with the anticlockwise rotation round the Centeal Australian winter high. Towards Sydney, and beyond to Auckland, the wind direction will locally be governed by the location of the travelling polar front depressions to the South but be generally westerly. South of the Australian land mass, these westerlies will encircle the globe largely unimpeded by land and will therefore strengthen, Here they are known as the ‘Roaring Forties? from the principal latitude band in which they blow. Sea breezes can affect Sydney even in winter. Visibility. Between frequent equatorial showers over Singapore and the Indonesian islands, visibility will ‘be good until near 05°S beyond which there will be haze caused by the dry dust laden SE trade wind blowing from Australia. Beyond Darwin, the dusty outflow from the interior will maintain haze, Near large cities visibility may be reduced to 1-2 Km by industrial smoke haze Over the two islands of New Zealand, the clear air gives good visibility in between cold frontal precipitation. Radiation fog can occur inland, especially over the colder South Island Advection/sea fog can occur off the South Island east coast over the cold Antarctic Drift sea current. 26-14 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY SINGAPORE TO AUCKLAND via DARWIN AND SYDNEY OWN-37°S 105°- 175°E Cloud and Precipitation. Daily conveetive CU with showers over Singapore and the Indonesian Islands will give way to quieter weather towards Darwin, ‘The anticyclonic Australian interior will be dry but, rising ‘over the mountainous east coast, the onshore SE trade winds can give orographic cloud and rain, ‘The Sydney area and Tasman Sea route are affected by the disturbed temperate region Lows to the South, They are thus crossed by fronts, which bring moderate to heavy precipitation interspersed with Highs giving several days of cool fine weather. a BE z Figure 26.8. Upper Winds - July (Winter) Upper Winds. Above Singapore the upper equatorial easterlies will blow until 10°S after which the winds will increase from the west. In the southern winter, tropical North Australia, remains hot wherea intervening sub tropical and continental high will produce the westerly sub-tropical jetstream at the 200 mbs level across the centre of the continent around 25°S. Speeds may reach 100 knots. From Sydney to Auckland, the westerly wind will moderate to 60-70 knots Icing, Icing is not a special problem on this route the South is comparatively cool. The temperature difference over the 26-15 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY SINGAPORE TO AUCKLAND via DARWIN AND SYDNEY OUN-37°S 105° = 175°E 26.9 SUMMER (JANUARY) Figure 26.9. Surface pressure and weather - January (Summer) Pressure Systems. ITCZ. Over Singapore the ITCZ. is southbound in Novemnber/December and northbound in March. Its southerly extreme is just south of Darwin at the end of January. Thus itaffects the Singapore - Darwin section of the route from November to March. Continental Low. The Australian sub tropical high belt of Winter has moved south with the sun, Over Australia itself intense insolation brings low pressure to the interior, Cyclones, Tropical cyclones and associated weather form adjacent to the ITCZ over the Coral and Timor Seas. They move at 10-15 knots in one of two general directions: a) Westwards, close to the North Australian Coast, ot 1b) Curveto the left from the Coral Sea around the South Pacific High to affect the Australian East coast at Brisbane. Occasionally they travel further southeastwards degrading to a deep depression as they cross the ‘Tasman Sea to New Zealand’s North Island, 26-16 @ Oxford Aviation Servis LimitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY SINGAPORE TO AUCKLAND via DARWIN AND SYDNEY O1N-37°S 105°- 175°E Surface Winds. ‘The Northeast monsoon wind blowing from the South China Sea to Singapore will continue ‘cross the equator to become now the Northwest monsoon (Coriolis change)as faras the ITCZ; ‘which in late January is just south of Darwin, Beyond the ITCZ there will be Southeast trade winds although overland they will be modified around thermal low pressure centres. ‘At Sydney the SE trades can give way to a strong E/NE sea breeze, or southerly winds after the passage of a polar front cold front. The latter are known locally as Southerly Busters (see ‘cloud and precipitation’ below). Cyclones from the Coral Sea via Brisbane occasionally continue South eastwards over the Tasman Sea to produce very deep lows with strong variable winds but otherwise winds between Sydney and Auckland are generally westerly. Visibility. Visibility over Darwin and to the North is good except in precipitation from CB/TS. Between Darwin and Sydney, clockwise rotation around continental low pressure carries dust tothe centre and south of the route and occasional dust storms will occur sometimes known in the NW as “Willy-Willies”. Industrial haze near cities may reduce visibility to 1-2 Kms, Visibility over the Tasman sea is good except in precipitation Cloud and Precipitation, The Singapore and Indonesia region is one of the most aetive daily thunderstorm areas in the world. This is due to high ambient temperature, strong overland insolation coupled possibly \with orographic uplift, and and high humidity from the abundant supply of sea water. Atnotime of the year is this region free from daily convective cloud, but the presence of the ITCZ enhances instability even further. Therefore in the southern summer, thunderstorms may be present all the way from Singapore to Darwin, and are reinforced by the ITCZ. near Singapore in November/December and March, and near Darwin in January/February. South of the ITCZ., the Australian interior is mainly arid, Towards Sydney, the weather is mainly subtropical excepting cyclones, but occasional cold troughs or fronts give squally wet weather. ‘The passage of these fronts causes a marked drop in temperature, CU CB, and squalls and a sharp back in the wind to South known in Sydney as “Southerly Busters”. Indeed the Sydney ‘weather can be worst in Summer. From Sydney to Auckland, Eastward travelling High cells, in the subtropical High belt, are interspersed with troughs and associated cold fronts. 26-17 © Orford Aviation Services LimitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY SINGAPORE TO AUCKLAND via DARWIN AND SYDNEY O1°N-37°S 105° 175°E | [Westen sid tore Figure 26.10 Upper Winds - January (Summer) Upper Winds. Light upper equatorial easterlies blow from Singapore to approximately 20°S, aftet which winds will inccease from the West. In summer the whole continent of Australia is hot with cooler sea to the south, Thus the 200 mb sub-tropical westerly jet is now along the south coast at around 70 knots reducing to 40 knots towards Auckland. Icing. Icing can be severe above 16000" in CB's, ‘Tropopause and Freezing Levels North South Tropopause 56000" 51000’ (tropical air) - 36000 (polar air) Freezing Level 16000" 10000" (surumer) - 5000" (winter) 26-18 (© Oxford Aviation Services LinitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY CAIRO TO JOHANNESBURG VIA NAIROBI 30°N- 27°S 28°E - 37°E 26.10 GEOGRAPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS. ‘The route over Egypt and Sudan is almost all over low lying Sahara desert, Atthe Kenya border latitude 06°N, the land rises, at the beginning of the equatorial vegetation belt, to over 5000’ by 02°S at Nairobi. The route then traverses the eastern edge of the Kalahari plateau tothe high veld of Johannesburg, 26.11 JANUARY (Northern Winter/Southern Summer) Figure 26.11. January Surface Weather and Wind Velocity, upper wind velocity in yellow. 26-19 © Osford Aviation Serves LimitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY CAIRO TO JOHANNESBURG VIA NAIROBI 30°N -27°S 28°F -37°E Pressure Systems In the northern winter, pressure will be high over the comparatively cool Sahara desert. ‘The ITCZ will be at its southern extreme over Zimbabwe. This will lead to overland low pressure extending south from Nairobi to Johannesburg. ‘Weather. ‘The northern section from Cairo to 06°N will be dry and dusty. ‘Convective CU/CB and some NS will form near Nairobi, and further south instability will be further enhanced by the ITCZ. At Johannesburg, orographic low cloud and fog can occur early momning, but this clears quickly to give way to conveetive CU and showers in the aftemoon. It is the wet season. ‘Cyclones originating in the Mozambique Channel can sometimes move west to affect Zimbabwe and Northern South Africa, Surface Winds. ‘The southerly Khamsin wind to the Mediterranean blows from Egypt between December and April. Further south over Sudan and Kenya, clockwise outflow from the Sahara High will become first northerly then north easterly to become the trade winds blowing from dry Saudi Arabia. South of the Equator they will back again northerly (coriolis change) to blow elockwise around southern Africa's summer low pressure of some 1005 mbs; and for this reason, become easterly again near Johannesburg. Visibility. Visibility is poor over the dusty Sahara but good towards Nairobi except in showery precipitation, At Johannesburg early moming fog can be caused by the easterly surface winds from the Indian Ocean orographically rising to the Kalahari plateau. cing. Icing can be severe above 16000 in CB near the ITCZ. 26-20 © Oxford Aviation Services LimitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY CAIRO TO JOHANNESBURG VIA NAIROBI 30°N- 27°S 28°E - 37°E 26.12 JULY (Northern Summer/Southern Winter) EQUATOR ATLANTIC y OCEAN 23 LIGHT WESTERLY *STJ- 100 KT 20 40S 40° Figure 26.12. July Surface weather and Wind Velocity, upper wind velocities in yellow. 26-21 |@ Oxford Aviation Sorvicas LnitodROUTE CLIMATOLOGY CAIRO TO JOHANNESBURG VIA NAIROBI 30°N = 27°S 28°E - 37° ‘The ITCZ equatorial trough has moved north with the sun to approximately 18°N, thus pushing the winter Sahara anticyelone northwards to the Mediterranean, Behind and south of the ITCZ, cooler winter temperatures over the Southern African landmass will build pressure. Weather ‘The ITCZ northern extreme is just north of Khartourn in July. This is therefore normally that city’s only wet month of the year. The ITCZ brings a tropical rain belt, line squalls and dust storms known as Haboobs which often appear as walls of dust lifted to 10000’, Haboobs can appear in Northern Sudan from May to September as the ITCZ sweeps north then south. They form during the day when convection is strong. Itis winter in Johannesburg. Continental high pressure prevails anditis the dry season although ST and SC turbulence cloud may form in air rising orographically from the Indian Ocean to the Johannesburg high veld, Surface Winds High pressure over the Mediterranean, and low pressure over Arabia will give northerly surface winds (an extension of the Mediterranean Etesian) over the route from Cairo to the ITCZ which in July is near 18°N. South of the ITCZ and north of the Equator, winds will be from the SW (Coriolis effect), reverting to the SE trade winds south of the Equator. Over southeastern Africa these SE trades are known as the Guti, The southeasterly Guti blows anti-clockwise around the overland winter high, often being in place for five days or so ata time. It can bring the orographically formed ST & SC to Johannesburg. Visibility ‘Visibility over the Sahara wil be appalling in Haboobs, and poor elsewhere in Sahara dust. Near ‘Nairobi it will be good except in showers. At Johannesburg visibility may be reduced below low ST/SC formed by the Guti SE wind. Icing. As in winter, icing can be severe above 16000! in CB. 26 - 22 ‘© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY CAIRO TO JOHANNESBURG VIA NAIROBI 30°N-27°S 28°E - 37° 26.13 NAIROBI REGION This region is of special interest because the two ITCZ transits in the year each give their own instability rainfall pattern EQUATOR: e 40" | Figure 26.13. Nairobi Weather March - May. 26 - 23 (@ Oxfocd Aviation Servioes LimitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY CAIRO TO JOHANNESBURG VIA NAIROBI 30°N - 27°S 28°E - 37°E Northern hemisphere Spring, ITCZ passage will be northbound (March/May) and will be followed by the moist SE trade winds from the Indian Ocean, Rainfall will be extensive and is known as the Long Rains, EQUATOR _ Figure 26.14. Nairobi Weather November - December, 26-24 (© Orford Aviation Services LimitedROUTE CLIMATOLOGY CAIRO TO JOHANNESBURG VIA NAIROBI 30°N-27°S 28°E - 37°E ‘Northern hemisphere Autumn, ITCZ passage will be southbound (November/December) and will be followed by the dry NE trade winds from Saudi Arabia. Rainfall will still occur but will be less and is known as the Short Rains. Orographie Uplift. At each ITCZ passage the surface w/v will be alternating between NE and SE. Nairobi has an elevation of over 5000’ and is only 200 nm from the east coast, Especially during the long and short rains at [TCZ passage, and between 0200 and 0800 local time, orographic uplift in the generally easterly winds can frequently produce Low Stratus, often lowering to the undulating surface as fog. ‘Thunderstorms. Convective thunderstorms can occur at any time but are very infrequent from Tune to September when the ITCZ is well north, ‘Tropopause and Freezing Levels. Tropopause heights average 56000! all year. Freezing level heights are 16000" in equatorial regions and average 14000" in the higher latitudes in Winter, 26-25 ‘© Oxford Aviation Seres Limited2m 272 273 274 275 276 m7 (CHAPTER TWENTY SEVEN - SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS Contents Page INTRODUCTION «4.4 are peeeeere2 all POLAR ORBITING SATELLITES .......0000+5 27 GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITES ......00000.005 cece DTA VISUAL IMAGES... 2205 Beene 27-2 INFRA RED (IR) ce ceceeee es QTD FALSE COLOUR PICTURES ...... 227-3 LOCATION OF THE IMAGE ...... eee 273) © Oxford Avatlon Serices LintedMETEOROLOGY SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS: 2A 22 27.3 INTRODUCTION Meteorology has benefited considerably by the use of satellites in recent years. Apact from the obvious advantages of satellite communications over the old land-based systems, providing prompt and trouble free communication of meteorological data, satellite photography has provided weather images that were impossible to produce in the past and were often merely ‘artist’s impressions’ of the weather. ‘There are two types of satellite; the polar orbiting and the geostationary and two methods of producing the weather picture; visual photography and infra ted. POLAR ORBITING SATELLITES ‘The so-called polar orbiting satellites have been put up principally by Russia (Meteor) and USA (NOAA). The NOAA orbit is inclined at an angle of 99° to the equator, takes 1 hr 42 min to orbit the earth, is between 820 and 870 km above the surface and covers a band 1500 nm wide. Each successive orbit isa little further west and there will be an overlap, greatest at the poles and small near the equator. Any spot on the globe will experience a southbound pass ofthe satellite in the morning and a northbound pass in the afternoon or evening, Although picture definition is good, polar orbiting satellites do not give a continuous view of the weather. Figure 27.1 Successive Tracks of A Polar Orbiting Satellite GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITES Geostationary satellites are put into orbit over the equator and since they take 24 hours to complete the orbit, they will appear to be stationary over a selected longitude, In 1987 there were 5 geostationary satellites in orbit; meteosat 2 over the Greenwich meridian, GOES E over longitude 75W, GOES W over longitude 135W, GMS 2 over longitude 140E and INSAT over longitude TOE. 27-1 (© Oford Aviston Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS 24 These satellites are considerably higher than the polar orbiting satellites (36 000 km) and picture definition may not be as good, but the advantage of a continuous picture outweighs this disadvantage. Because of the equatorial orbit the picture become somewhat distorted towards the poles, but this may be corrected by computer processing. Meteosat covers about 1/3 of the arth’s surface from 70° west to 70° east. The satellite transmits a picture every 4 minutes and useful feature is the time lapse sequence showing movement of weather over a period of time. VISUAL IMAGES ‘Although visual photography may be easy to interpret, it suffers the disadvantage of not being available continuously, due to lack of sunlight at night. Clouds will appear white, the land grey and the sea black. INFRA RED (IR) Infra red images have the advantage of being available for 24 hours a day and the shading of the picture will be more or less the same by day and by night. Cold (high) cloud will give a white image, lower cloud a somewhat darker one, whilst warm land will give a dark image. There are 9 IR temperature bands, black normally denoting cloud free areas. IR may not be able to distinguish between a sea surface and fog, which may have a similar temperature, In this case, a visual picture would be able to show the position of fog more precisely. (See Figure 27.2 & 273) Figure 27.2 Visual Picture of North Figure 27.3 Infra-red Picture of Sea Fog North Sea Fog 27-2 (© Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY ‘SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS: 27.6 277 FALSE COLOUR PICTURES To help differentiate between the various shades of grey produced by both visual and IR photography, the shades may be converted by computer into various colours. This is used particularly with IR systems, LOCATION OF THE IMAGE Itis often difficult to pick out geographical features, especially when there is thick cloud and of course, areas of oceans are completely featureless. Satellite images are therefore presented with a computer produced graticule of numbered parallels and meridians superimposed. Coastlines ‘may be enhanced as well. Figure 27.4 Satellite Visible Image, Figure 27.5 Surface Weather Map for 0908 GMT the same time Interpretation of Satellite Photography Whilst violent weather such as tropical revolving storms may produce an easily identifiable picture, normal weather pictures are best used in conjunction with synoptic charts. ‘The time- lapse sequences can be used to confirm existing and forecast weather before setting off on a flight, Figures 27.4 & 27.5 show a surface analysis and a satellite picture for the same times. 27-3 @ Oxford Aviation Services LimitedMETEOROLOGY SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS Fig 27.6 shows the visual image with the surface analysis superimposed. ‘naa Figure 27.6 Weather map and visual image 27-4 © Oxford Aviation Serces Limited