EEA Europe Environment 4th Assessment 2007

Europe's environment
Europe's
The fourth assessment

TH-78-07-127-EN-C
environment
European Environment Agency

Kongens Nytorv 6
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Denmark
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Europe's
environment
Design: DOBEL | RZESZOT
Layout: EEA
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ISBN 978-92-9167-932-4
© EEA, Copenhagen, 2007
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Contents
Abbreviations and acronyms....................................................................................... 5
Acknowledgements................................................................................................... 11
Contributors by chapter/section.................................................................................12
Foreword................................................................................................................... 16
1 Europe's environment in an age of transition....................................................... 19
1.1 Is the pan-European region meeting its environmental challenges?.........................20

1.2 Key socio-economic developments across the pan-European region ��23
1.3 Towards pan-European sustainable development .................................................36
1.4 Assessing the pan-European state of the environment..........................................46
2 Environment and health and the quality of life..................................................... 53
2.0 Introduction....................................................................................................54
2.1 Environment and health perspective...................................................................56
2.2 Air quality.......................................................................................................72
2.3 Inland waters..................................................................................................90
2.4 Soil..............................................................................................................114
2.5 Hazardous chemicals......................................................................................126
3 Climate change................................................................................................... 145
3.1 The challenge: tackling climate change.............................................................147

3.2 Climate change and its impact ........................................................................149
3.3 Interaction between climate change and ozone-layer depletion.............................159
3.4 Greenhouse gas emissions.................................................................................. 161
3.5 Mitigation......................................................................................................168
3.6 Adaptation to climate change...........................................................................172
4 Biodiversity........................................................................................................ 175
4.1 The commitment: halting biodiversity loss by 2010.............................................177

4.2 The case: Europe's threatened biodiversity........................................................177
4.3 Providing a backbone: ecological networks........................................................186
4.4 Achieving sustainable use: forestry and agriculture.............................................192
4.5 Controlling invasive alien species.....................................................................199
4.6 Getting the message across: monitoring and public awareness.............................202
EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT

5 Marine and coastal environment......................................................................... 207
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................210

5.2 Policies to protect pan‑European seas ..............................................................212
5.3 Main issues on the state of the marine and coastal environment in the
pan‑European region..................................................................................... 215
6 Sustainable consumption and production........................................................... 251
6.1 Introduction..................................................................................................254
6.2 Production and resource use............................................................................255
6.3 Consumption.................................................................................................266
6.4 Waste...........................................................................................................277
7 Sectors that drive environmental change........................................................... 291
7.0 Introduction..................................................................................................292
7.1 Agriculture....................................................................................................294
7.2 Transport......................................................................................................306
7.3 Energy.........................................................................................................322
7.4 Tourism........................................................................................................340
Annexes.................................................................................................................. 357
Annex 1 Legal instruments......................................................................................358

Annex 2 Country statistics......................................................................................375
Annex 3 International comparisons..........................................................................384
References.............................................................................................................. 411

Abbreviations and acronyms
AAUs assigned amount units CCS carbon capture and storage
ACAP Arctic Council Action Plan Cd cadmium
ACEA European Automobile Manufacturers' CDDA Common Database on Designated Areas

Association CDM Clean Development Mechanism
ACIA Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Cefic European Chemical Industry Council
ACS automatic control stations CEHAPE Children's Environment and Health
ADB Asian Development Bank Action Plan for Europe
AMAP Arctic Monitoring and Assessment CEMR Council of European Municipalities and
Programme Regions
AMD Armenian dram CENEf Center for Energy Efficiency
APHEIS Air Pollution and Health: A European CEP Caspian Environment Programme
Information System CEPA Communication, Education and Public
API air pollution index Awareness
ASCIs Areas of Special Conservation Interest CEPF Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund
ASCOBANS Agreement on the Conservation of Small CEPI Confederation of European Paper

Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Seas Industries
ASEF Asia-Europe Foundation CERA Cambridge Energy Research Associates
AWI The Alfred Wegener Institute CERs certified emission reductions
BaP benzo(a)pyrene CFCs chlorofluorocarbons
BauA Federal Institute for Occupational Safety CFP Common Fisheries Policy
and Health, Germany C6H6 benzene
BDE bromo diphenyl ether CH4 methane
BFRs brominated flame retardants CI confidence interval
BMB NEMO Baltic Marine Biologists database on CIFAS Cross-compliance Indicators in the
Non-indigenous Estuarine and Marine context of the Farm Advisory System
Organisms
CIS Commonwealth of Independent States
bn billion
CISSTAT Interstate Statistical Committee of the
BOD biochemical oxygen demand Commonwealth of Independent States
BREF Best Available Technology Reference CITES Convention on International Trade in
Documents Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
BSC Black Sea Commission Flora
BTC Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (oil pipeline) CLE current legislation
°C degree Celsius CLRTAP Convention on Long-range

Transboundary Air Pollution
CAFE Clean Air for Europe
CMP Conference of the Parties serving as
CALM Coordination of European Research for the Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto
Advanced Transport Noise Mitigation Protocol
CAP Common Agricultural Policy CMR carcinogenic, mutagenic and repro-toxic
chemicals
CAPACT Capacity Building for Air Quality
Management and the Application of CMS Convention on Migratory Species
Clean Coal Combustion Technologies in
Central Asia CO carbon monoxide
CARDS Community Assistance for CO2 carbon dioxide

Reconstruction, Development and COAST Conservation and Sustainable use of
Stabilisation Biodiversity in the Dalmatian Coast
CAREAP Regional Environmental Action through Greening Coastal Development
Programme for Central Asia COD chemical oxygen demand
CAREC Regional Environmental Centre for COMEXT Eurostat database on trade data
Central Asia
COP Conference of the Parties
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
COR Committee of the Regions
CCI RF Chamber of Commerce and Industry of
the Russian Federation CORINE Coordination of Information on the
Environment
CCMS Committee on the Challenges of Modern
Society CPR continuous plankton recorder

CROSTAT Central Bureau of Statistics of the EEA European Environment Agency

Republic of Croatia
EEB European Environmental Bureau
CRF Common Reporting Format
EEC European Economic Community
CRU Climatic Research Unit
EECCA Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central
CSD Commission on Sustainable Asia
Development
EEHC European Environment and Health
CSI Core Set of Indicators Committee
DALYs disability-adjusted life years EEK Estonian kroon
dB decibel EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone
DDE dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethylene EfE Environment for Europe
DDT dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane EFNCP European Forum on Nature Conservation
and Pastoralism
DEFRA Department for Environment Food and
Rural Affairs, United Kingdom EFTA European Free Trade Association
DEPA Danish Environmental Protection Agency EHPR Environment and Health Performance
Review
DESD Decade of Education for Sustainable
Development EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
DEU Domestic Extraction Used EICTA European Information &
Communications Technology Industry
DFT Department for Transport, United Association
Kingdom
Eionet European Environment Information and
DG Directorate General Observation Network
DG SANCO Directorate General for Health and EIPRO Environmental Impact of Products
Consumer Protection
ELOISE European Land-Ocean Interaction
DKK Danish krone Studies
dl decilitre EMAS Eco-Management and Audit Scheme
DMC Domestic Material Consumption EM-DAT Emergency Disasters Data Base
DMI Direct Material Input EMEP European Monitoring and Evaluation
DMI Danish Meteorological Institute Programme
DOE designated operational entity EMS European Marine Strategy
DPSIR driving forces — pressures — state — ENEA European Network of Environmental

impact — response Authorities
DTI Department of Trade and Industry, ENHIS Environment and Health Information
United Kingdom System
EAP Environment Action Programme ENP European Neighbourhood Policy
EBCC European Bird Census Council ENTEC Environmental and Engineering

Consultancy
EBD Environmental Burden of Disease
ENVSEC Environment and Security Initiative
EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and
Development EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EC European Commission EPER European Pollutant Emission Register
ECB European Chemicals Bureau EPR Environmental Performance Review
ECCP European Climate Change Programme EPRTR European Pollutants Release and
Transfer Register
ECDC European Centre for Disease Prevention
and Control eq equivalent
ECHO European Commission Humanitarian Aid ERUs emission reduction units

Office ESD Education for Sustainable Development
ECMT European Conference of Ministers of ESL European Statistical Laboratory
Transport
ESPON European Spatial Planning Observation
ECNC European Centre for Nature Network
Conservation
ETC/ACC European Topic Centre on Air and
ECOEHIS Development of environmental health Climate Change
indicators for European Union countries
ETC/BD European Topic Centre on Biological
ECP Ecoregional Conservation Plan Diversity
EE Eastern Europe

ETC/RWM European Topic Centre on Resource and GFCM General Fisheries Commission for the
Waste Management Mediterranean
ETC/WTR European Topic Centre on Water GFN Global Footprint Network
ETR Environmental Tax Reform GHG greenhouse gas
ETS Emissions Trading Scheme GHS Globally Harmonized System
EU European Union GIS Green Investment Schemes
EU-10 Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, GISS Goddard Institute for Space Studies
Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta,
Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. Joined GIWA Global International Waters Assessments
the European Union on 1 May 2004 GMAPS Global Model of Ambient Particulates
EU-15 Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, GM crops genetically modified crops
France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy,
Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, GMES Global Monitoring for Environment and
Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom Security
EU-25 EU-15 + EU-10 GMOs genetically modified organisms
EUCC European Union Coastal Conservation GMP global monitoring plan
EUNIS European Nature Information System GOST State standard of the Russian Federation
(Russian:государственный стандарт)
EUR euro
GPA Global Programme of Action
EUR-A EU-15, EFTA and other western
European countries, Croatia, the Czech GPP green public procurement
Republic, Cyprus and Malta
GRID Global Resources Information Database
EUR-B most of the Caucasus, Central Asia
and south-eastern Europe, Poland and GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Slovakia Zusammenarbeit GmbH
EUR-C Eastern Europe, Estonia, Latvia, ha hectare

Lithuania, Hungary and Kazakhstan HadSST2 Hadley Centre SST data set
Eurocontrol European Organisation for the Safety of HBM Human Biomonitoring
Air Navigation
HC hydrocarbon
EUROPARC Federation of Nature and National Parks
of Europe HCB hexachlorobenzene
Eurostat Statistical Office of the European HCFCs hydrochlorofluorocarbons
Communities
HCH hexachlorocyclohexane
EUWI MED EU Water Initiative — Mediterranean
component HCMR Hellenic Centre for Marine Research
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation HELCOM Helsinki Commission — Baltic Marine
Environment Protection Commission
FAOSTAT Food and Agriculture Organisation's
Statistical Database HFCs hydrofluorocarbons
FEC Final Energy Consumption Hg mercury
F-gases fluorinated gases HNV high nature value
FISHSTAT software for fishery statistics HP hydroxypyrene
FP Framework Programme HPVC High Production Volume Chemical
FSA Food Standards Agency IA Impact Assessment
FWD Framework Directive IACMST Inter-Agency Committee on Marine

Science and Technology
g gram
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
GAINS Greenhouse Gas and Air Pollution
Interactions and Synergies ICARDA International Centre for Agricultural
Research in the Dry Areas
GBP Great Britain pound
ICBL International Campaign to Ban
GDP gross domestic product Landmines
GEF Global Environment Facility ICCA International Council of Chemical
Associations
GEMS Global Environment Monitoring System
ICCAT International Commission for the
GEO Global Environment Outlook Conservation of Atlantic Tunas
GEOSS Global Earth Observation System of ICCM International Conference on Chemicals
Systems Management
GerES German Environmental Survey

ICES International Council for the Exploration k kilo

of the Sea
KAMA Korea Automobile Manufacturers
ICLEI International Council for Local Association
Environmental Initiatives
KCBTA Kyrgyz Community Based Tourism
ICM integrated crop management Organisation
ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management KEO Carpathians Environment Outlook
IDPs Internally Displaced Persons km kilometre
IEA International Energy Agency l/L litre
IEEP Institute for European Environmental LBS land-based sources
Policy
LIFE EU Financial Instrument for the
IES Institute for Environment and Environment
Sustainability
LMEs Large Marine Ecosystems
IFCS Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical
Safety LTAA long-term annual average
IFOAM International Federation of Organic LULUCF Land use, land-use change and forestry
Agriculture Movements M million
IHPA International HCH and Pesticides m metre
Association
MA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
IIASA International Institute for Applied
Systems Analysis MAB Man and the Biosphere Reserves
Programme
ILO International Labour Organisation
MAC maximum allowable concentrations
IMO International Maritime Organisation
MAP Mediterranean Action Plan
IMR Institute of Marine Research, Norway
MARPOL International Convention for the
INSPIRE Infrastructure for Spatial Information in Prevention of Marine Pollution from
Europe Ships
IOMC Inter-Organization Programme for the MCPFE Ministerial Conference on the Protection
Sound Management of Chemicals of Forests in Europe
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate MDGs Millennium Development Goals
Change
MEdIES Mediterranean Education Initiative for
IPCS International Programme on Chemical Environment & Sustainability
Safety
MED POL Pollution Monitoring and Assessment
IPIECA International Petroleum Industry Programme — Mediterranean Region
Environmental Conservation Association
MEFT Ministry of Environment and Forestry of
IPPC Integrated Pollution Prevention Control Turkey
IPSC Institute for the Protection and Security MFA material flow accounting
of the Citizen
mg milligram
IRIN Integrated Regional Information
Networks MIMAM Ministry of Environment of Spain
ISO International Organisation for MIO-ECSDE Mediterranean Information Office for
Standardization Environment, Culture and Sustainable
Development
ISS Central Public Health Institute, Italy
mm millimetre
ISSCAAP International Standard Statistical
Classification of Aquatic Animals and MNP The Netherlands Environmental
Plants Assessment Agency
ITOPF International Tanker Owners Pollution MODIS Moderate Resolution Imaging
Federation Spectroradiometer
IUCN International Union for Nature MOP Meeting of the Parties
Conservation
MOSUS Modelling opportunities and limits
IWMI International Water Management for restructuring Europe towards
Institute sustainability
JAMA Japan Automobile Manufacturers MS Member State
Association
MSC-East Meteorological Synthesizing Centre-East
JI Joint Implementation
MSD Marine Strategy Directive
JRC Joint Research Centre (European
Commission) MTFR maximum feasible technical reduction
N2O nitrous oxide

NAI net annual increment pH hydrogen ion concentration

NAO North Atlantic Oscillation PHARE EU Pre-accession assistance programme
NASA National Aeronautics and Space PM particulate matter
Administration
POPs persistent organic pollutants
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
ppm parts per million
NC National Communication
PPP purchasing power parity
NEAP National Environmental Action Plan
PRTR Pollutant Release and Transfer Register
NEC National Emission Ceilings
psu practical salinity units
NEHAP National Environment and Health Action
Plan PVC polyvinyl chloride
NERI National Environmental Research R&D Research and Development

Institute, Denmark RAC Regional Activity Centre
ng nanogram RAINS Regional Air Pollution Information and
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation Simulation model
NH3 ammonia RAPEX Rapid Alert System for non-food

consumer products
NH4 ammonium
RASFF Rapid Alert Systems for Food and Feed
NMVOC non-methane volatile organic compound
RCEP Royal Commission on Environmental
NO2 nitrogen dioxide Pollution
NOX nitrogen oxides REACH Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation
and Restriction of Chemicals
NOAA National Oceanic & Atmospheric
Administration REC Regional Environmental Centre
NOBANIS North European and Baltic Network on REReP Regional Environmental Reconstruction
Invasive Alien Species Programme
NRC National Reference Centre RIVM National Institute for Public Health and
the Environment, the Netherlands
NSIDC National Snow and Ice Data Centre
RLNP Research Laboratory of Nature
NSR Northern Sea Route Protection
NUTS Nomenclature of territorial units in the RMP refrigeration management plan
EU
RPG regional priority goals
O2 oxygen
SACs Special Areas of Conservation
O3 ozone
SAHFOS Sir Alister Hardy Foundation for Ocean
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation Sciences
and Development
SAICM Strategic Approach to International
OSCE Organisation for Security and Chemicals Management
Co‑operation in Europe
SASI Social and Spatial Inequalities Research
OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the
Marine Environment of the North-East SAUP Sea Around Us Project
Atlantic
SCALE Science, Children, Awareness, EU
P phosphorus Legislation and Continuous Evaluation
PAH polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon SCIs Sites of Community Interest
Pb lead SCP sustainable consumption and production
PCA Priority Conservation Area SD sustainable development
PCB polychlorinated biphenyl SDSs safety data sheets
PEBLDS Pan-European Biological and Landscape SDT Sustainable Development of Tourism
Diversity Strategy
SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment
PEEN Pan-European Ecological Network
SeaWiFS Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor
PEEREA Protocol on Energy Efficiency and
Related Environmental Aspects SEBI Streamlining European Biodiversity
Indicators
PFCs perfluorocarbons
SEE South-eastern Europe
PFOA perfluorooctanoic acid
SEEA Serbian Energy Efficiency Agency
PFOS perfluorooctane sulfonic acid
SEIS Shared Environmental Information
PGM platinum group metals System for Europe

SF6 sulphur hexafluoride UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law

of the Sea
SI sufficiency index
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
SIAM SIDS Initial Assessment Meeting
UNECE United Nations Economic Commission
SIDS screening information data set for Europe
SMMR Nimbus-7 Scanning Multichannel UNEP United Nations Environment Programme
Microwave Radiometer
UNESCAP United Nations Economic and Social
SO2 sulphur dioxide Commission for Asia and the Pacific
SOX sulphur oxides UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific
SOE State of Environment and Cultural Organisation
SOER The European environment — State and UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention
outlook on Climate Change
SOER-RF State of the Environment Report — UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for
Russian Federation Refugees
SOVEUR Mapping of Soil and Terrain Vulnerability UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund
in Central and Eastern Europe UNSD United Nations Statistics Division
SPAs Special Protection Areas UNWTO United Nations World Tourism
SPECA Special Programme for the Economies of Organisation
Central Asia USA United States of America
SSM/I Special Sensor Microwave/Imager USD United States dollar
SST sea surface temperature USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
ST-EP Sustainable Tourism — Eliminating UV ultraviolet radiation
Poverty
UWWT Urban Waste Water Treatment
SUTOUR Supporting tourism enterprises for
eco-labelling and environmental VAT value added tax
management
VOC volatile organic compound
SUV sport utility vehicle
WAIS West Antarctic Ice Sheet
t tonne
WB World Bank
T&T Travel & Tourism
WBCSD World Business Council for Sustainable
TAC total allowable catch Development
TACIS EU assistance programme Technical WCE Western and Central Europe
Assistance to the Commonwealth of
Independent States WCI World Coal Institute
TBT tributyltin WCMC World Conservation Monitoring Centre
TEAP Technology and Economic Assessment WEEE waste electric and electronic equipment
Panel WEI water exploitation index
TEC total energy consumption WFD Water Framework Directive
THE PEP Transport, Health and Environment WG working group
Pan‑European Programme
WGMS World Glacier Monitoring Service
TMR total material requirement
Wh watt hour
toe tonnes of oil equivalent
WHO World Health Organization
TOFP tropospheric ozone forming potentials
WMO World Meteorological Organization
TPES total primary energy supply
WSSD World Summit on Sustainable
TREMOVE Policy assessment model to study Development
the effects of different transport and
environment policies on the emissions of WTO World Trade Organization
the transport sector
WTTC World Travel and Tourism Council
TSA Tourism Satellite Accounts
WWF World Wildlife Fund for Nature
TSP total suspended particles
y/yr year
UBA Federal Environment Agency (Austria
and Germany) μg microgram
UN United Nations
UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification
10 EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT

Acknowledgements
Acknowledgements
National contact points (NCPs) and other national contributors
Albania Auron Meneri, Diana Xnyheri, Narin Panariti

Armenia Gennadi Kojoyan
Austria Johannes Mayer, Bettina Schwarzl, Daniela Wappel
Azerbaijan Rasim Sattar-Zada, Lahuti Aliyev
Belarus Svetlana Utochkina, Saveli Kuzmin
Belgium Jan Voet, Marleen van Steertegen
Bosnia-Herzegovina Mehmed Cero
Bulgaria Ioana Hristova, Krassimira Avramova
Croatia Jasna Butuči, Monica Šućur
Cyprus Christina Pantazi
Czech Republic Jirí Hradec, Jana Tesařová
Denmark Michael Stjernholm
Estonia Leo Saare
Finland Tapani Säynätkari, Ari Makela, Pertti Heinonen
France Jacques Thorette
Georgia Nino Sharashidze, Nino Tkhilava
Germany Christina Pykonen, Christoph Schlueter
Greece Mata Aravantinou
Hungary Pál Bozo, Elemér Szabó
Iceland Gunnar Jónsson
Ireland Gerard O'Leary
Italy Claudio Maricchiolo, Rita Calicchia
Kazakhstan Mykhtar Thumanovich Tultabaev, Olga Suvorova, Sanjar Aitmatov, Zulfira Zikrina
Kyrgyzstan Baglan Salikmambetova, Omor Rustembekov
Latvia Ilze Kirstuka
Liechtenstein Hermann Schmuck
Lithuania Liutauras Stoškus
Luxembourg Eric De Brabanter
Former Yugoslav Republic of Svetlana Gjorgjeva, Katerina Nikolovska
Macedonia
Malta Antoine Zahra
Republic of Moldova Violeta Ivanov, Gavril Gîlcă
Monaco Wilfrid Deri, Carole Lanteri
Netherlands Roel Thomas
Norway Johnny Auestad
Poland Lucyna Dygas Ciołkowska, Andrzej Jagusiewicz
Portugal Maria da Graça Espada
Romania Dorina Mocanu
Russian Federation Valery Chelukanov, Yuri Tsaturov, Serguei Chicherin, Vladimir Bogachev
Serbia and Montenegro Natasa Veljković, Branko Karadžic
Slovak Republic Vladimír Benko, Tatiana Plesníková
Slovenia Irena Rejec Brancelj, Urška Kušar
Spain Jose Ignacio Elorrieta Pérez de Diego
Sweden Bernt Röndell
Switzerland Jean-Michel Gardaz, Nicolas Perritaz, Charles Ashley
Tajikistan Tajiniso Nosirova
Turkey A. Çagatay Dikmen, Cengiz Yilmaz
Turkmenistan Irina Atamuradova, Timur Berkeliev
Ukraine Stanislav Kolotusha, Valentyna Vasylenko, Natalia Zakorchevna, Alexei Iarochevitch
United Kingdom David Lee, Ian Whitwell
Uzbekistan Irina Bekmirzayeva, Nariman Umarov
EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT 11

Acknowledgements
European Commission contacts Contributors by chapter/section

Paul C. Smits, Pamela Kennedy (Joint Research Centre,
Institute for Environment and Sustainability (JRC/IES));
Peter Wicks, Annika Ageblad, Tania Márquez Uriarte
Chapter 1 Europe's environment in an
(Directorate-General (DG) Environment); Christian age of transition
Heidorn (European Statistics (Eurostat)).
Author(s) Adriana Gheorghe (European
Environment Agency (EEA))
Partnership with international organisations and Thomas Henrichs (National
Environmental Research Institute,
Roberto Martin-Hurtado, Carla Betuzzi, Aziza Nasirova, University of Aarhus (NERI)),
Eija Kiiskinen (OECD Environment Directorate); Ronald Denmark).
G. Witt (UNEP/DEWA/GRID-Europe); Otto Simonett, Contributors David Stanners, Peter Kristensen,
Nickolai Denisov (UNEP/GRID-Arendal); Garret Christiaan Steenmans, Anita
Tankosic‑Kelly, Biljana Vujošević (UNDP Podgorica); Pirc Velkavrh, Barbara Clark,
Mikhail G. Kokine (United Nations Economic Commission Ann Dom, Paweł Kaźmierczyk
for Europe/Working Group on Environmental Monitoring (EEA); Michael Scoullos, Vasiliki
and Assessment Secretariat (UNECE/WGEMA)); Marika Malotidi (Mediterranean NGO
Palosaari (UNEP/ENVSEC Regional Office for Europe); Federation (MIO-ECSDE)); Victoria
Suzette Pedroso-Galinato (Environmentally and Elias (Pan‑European Coalition of
Socially Sustainable Development (ECSSD-The World Environmental Citizens Organisations
Bank)); Jeremy W. Webb (United Nations Statistics (ECO‑Forum)); Ella Behlyarova
Division — Environment and Energy Branch (UNSD)); (UNECE Steering Committee on ESD);
Eszter Horváth (UNSD/Department of Economic and Otto Simonett, Nickolai Denisov
Social Affairs); Francesca Bernardini (UNECE/Secretariat (UNEP/GRID-Arendal); Marika
Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Palossari (Environment and Security
Watercourses and International Lakes); Michael Initiative (ENVSEC/UNEP)); Monika
Stanley‑Jones (UNECE/Aarhus Convention Secretariat). Zimmermann, Holger Robrecht (Local
Governments for Sustainability
Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and (ICLEI)); Malcolm Fergusson, Eleonor
Regional Environmental Centres (RECs) Mackay (Institute for European
Environmental Policy (IEEP)); Rossella
Soldi (Progress Consulting S.r.l.-
Armenia Gevorg Arakelyan (Association 'For subcontracted to TietoEnator).
Sustainable Human Development')
Azerbaijan Islam Mustafaev (Ecological Society
'Ruzgar')
Chapter 2 Environment and health and
Georgia Manana Juruli (Georgian Environmental and quality of life
Biological Monitoring Association), Rusudan
Simonidze (Organisation 'The Greens
Movement of Georgia')
Section 2.0 Introduction
Kazakhstan Kaisha Atakhanova (Karaganda Ecological
Center 'EcoCenter'), Vladislav Sadomsky, Author(s) Dorota Jarosinska (EEA).
(Regional Environmental Centre for Central
Asia (CAREC)) Environment and health
Section 2.1
Kyrgyzstan Ulan Naamatbekov (Naryn reserve and perspective
NGO 'Bugu-Maral')
Author(s) Dorota Jarosińska (EEA) and Peter Pärt
Republic of Andrei Isac (Regional Environmental (DG/JRC).
Moldova Centre-Moldova (REC Moldova)
Contributors Anna Bäckman, David Gee, Ingvar
Netherlands Sasha Gabizon (Women in Europe for a Andersson (EEA); Birgit Van Tongelen
Common Future) (DG Environment); Paulo Barbosa
Russian Victoria Elias (Eco-Forum), Michael (DG/JRC); Bettina Menne, Michał
Federation Kozeltsev (Russian Regional Environmental Krzyżanowski, Dafina Dalbokova,
Centre (REC Russia)) Nathalie Röbbel (WHO/Europe); Kerstin
Becker, Marike Kolossa‑Gehring,
Ukraine Olena Paschenko (All Ukrainian Children's
Wolfgang Babish (Federal Environment
Union 'Ecological Guard'), Anna
Agency (UBA), Germany);Růžena
Golubovska-Onisimova (MAMA-86 National
Kubínová, Vladimíra Puklová (National
Environmental), Gennady Marushevsky
Institute for Public Health (NIPH),
(National Ecological Centre of Ukraine)
Czech Republic); Greet Schoeters
Tajikistan Muazama Burkhanova, ('Foundation to (Flemish Institute for Technological
Support Civil Initiatives'), Timur Idrisov, Research (VITO));
(Environmental organization 'For the
Earth')

Acknowledgements
Jan Voet (National Focal Point Marco Falconi, Antonella Vecchio,

(NFP), Belgium); Oral Ataniayzova Francesca Quercia (Agency for the
(NGO Perzent, Uzbekistan); Sylvia Environmental Protection and Technical
Medina (French Institute for Public Services (APAT), Italy); Jaume Fons
Health Surveillance (InVS)); (ETC/LUSI); A. Çagatay Dikmen (NCP,
Elizabet Paunović (Secretariat for Turkey); Valentina Vasilenko (Ministry
Environmental Protection, Serbia); of Environmental Protection, Ukraine);
Miriana Domic, Goran Dosev (House Elysabeth David (UNCCD Secretariat);
of Health Obrenovac, Serbia); Brigit Jaap van Woerden, Ronald G. Witt
Staatsen (National Institute for Public (UNEP/DEWA/GRID-Europe); Arwyn
Health and the Environment (RIVM), Rhys Jones (JRC/ISPRA).
Netherlands); Janina Fudała (Institute
Section 2.5 Hazardous chemicals
for Ecology of Industrial Areas (IETU),
Poland); Fatima Espírito-Santo Author(s) Gabriele Schöning (EEA).
(Portuguese Meteorological Institute
Contributors Dorota Jarosińska, David Stanners,
(IM)); Hans Boegli (Federal Office for
David Gee, Gunnar Sander, Gordon
the Environment (BAFU), Switzerland).
McInnes, Peter Kristensen (EEA);
Trine Susanne Jensen (NERI); Jan
Section 2.2 Air quality Voet (NFP, Belgium); NRC chemicals,
Author(s) Jaroslav Fiala (EEA). in particular: Etleva Canaj (Albania),
Hugo van Hooste (Belgium), Nikolas
Contributors Dorota Jarosińska, Jeff Huntington, Kazantzis (Greece), Ingunn Skaufel
Peder Gabrielsen, Zuzana Elenicova, Simensen (Norway), Britta Hedlund
Anke Lükewille (EEA); Hans Eerens, (Sweden), Peter Müller (Switzerland);
Frank de Leeuw (ETC/ACC); Steinar Ivo Offenthaler, Peter Weiß (Federal
Larssen (Norwegian Institute for Air Environment Agency (UBA), Austria),
Research (NILU)); Vladislav Bízek Christoph Blum, Peter Lepom, Kerstin
(DHV CR, Czech Republic); Sylvia Becker, Marike Kolossa-Gehring,
Medina (InVS, France); Volodymyr Myriam Bossuyt ((UBA), Germany);
Demkine (UNEP). Christian Heidorn (Eurostat); John
Vijgen (International HCH and
Section 2.3 Inland waters Pesticides Association (IHPA); Timo
Seppälä (Finnish Environment Institute,
Author(s) Peter Kristensen and Niels Thyssen (SYKE)); Norbert Theobald (Federal
(EEA). Maritime and Hydrographic Agency
Contributors Steve Nixon (Water Research Centre (BSH), Germany); David Schweswig
(WRc), United Kingdom); Aliaksandr (Rheinisch-Westfälisches Institut für
Pakhomau (Central Research Institute Wasserforschung (IWW), Germany);
for Complex Use of Water Resources Greet Schoeters (VITO); Ilya Ilin
(CRICUWR), Belarus); Nicolai Dronin (Meteorological Synthesizing Centre —
(Moscow State University (MSU)); East (MSE‑East), Russian Federation);
Siegfried Demuth (United Nations Violeta Ivanov (Ministry of Environment
Educational, Scientific and Cultural and Natural Resources, Republic of
Organization (UNESCO)); Rainer Moldova); consultant: Elena Veligosh
Enderlein (UNECE); Attila Lázár (UNEP/GRID-Arendal).
(VITUKI Consult, Hungary);
Ali Gül, Asim Acikel (EEA); Sanjar
Aitmatov (CAREC); Arie de Roo (DG Chapter 3 Climate change
JRC/IPR); Carlo Lavalle (DG JRC/IES).
Author(s) Jan Karlsson and Ricardo Fernandez
Section 2.4 Soil (EEA) in cooperation with Jelle van
Minnen, Guus Velders, Thomas Voigt
Author(s) Anna Rita Gentile (EEA).
(European Topic Centre on Air and
Contributors Jock Martin, Franz Daffner, Andreas Climate Change (ETC/ACC)).
Barkman, Ali Gül, Dorota Jarosińska,
Contributors André Jol (EEA).
André Jol, Etem Karakaya, Gabriele
Schöning (EEA); Martin Schamann
(UBA, Austria); Maria Germenchuk
(Ministry of Natural Resources and
Environmental Protection, Belarus);
Victor Dries (Public Waste Agency of
Flanders (OVAM), Belgium); Andreas
Lehmann (Hohenheim University,
Germany); Erika Michéli (Szent István
University, Hungary);

Acknowledgements
Chapter 4 Biodiversity Chapter 7 Sectors that drive

environmental change
Author(s) Ybele Hoogeveen and Tor-Björn
Larsson (EEA).
Section 7.0 Introduction
Contributors Dominique Richard, Ben Delbaere,
Pamela Westerlund, Ágnes Bruszik, Ana Author(s) Jeff Huntington (EEA).
Nieto Seradilla, Jo van Brusselen, Katja
Troeltzsch (European Topic Centre on Section 7.1 Agriculture
Biological Diversity (ETC/BD)); Snorri
Baldursson, Ema Gojdičová, Melanie
Josefsson (SEBI 2010 Expert Group on Author(s) Jan-Erik Petersen (EEA).
invasive alien species); Frédéric Achard Contributors Nicolai Dronin (MSU); Rossella Soldi
(DG/JRC /IES); Svetlana Anachkova (Progress Consulting Srl).
(UBA, Austria — assistance project for
Georgia).
Section 7.2 Transport
Author(s) Peder Jensen (EEA).
Chapter 5 Marine and coastal Jan Karlsson, Jeff Huntington (EEA);
environment Eelco den Boer (CE Delft); Lauri Klein
(ETC/BD); Mirko Radovanac (COWI
A/S, Denmark).
Author(s) Eva Royo Gelabert (EEA).
Contributors Steve Nixon, Summer Warr (WRc);
Section 7.3 Energy
Nikos Streftaris, Argyro Zenetos
(Hellenic Centre for Marine Research,
Greece); Gunnar Sander, Jeff Author(s) François Dejean and Jan Karlsson (EEA)
Huntington, Andrus Meiner, Jacqueline in cooperation with Tobias Wiesenthal
McGlade, Trine Christiansen, Peter (DG JRC/IPTS), Matthew Savage (ETC/
Kristensen (EEA); Wolfram Schrimpf, ACC).
Dario Tarchi (DG/JRC); Gert Verreet
Contributors Judith Bates, Sarah Winne (AEA
(DG Environment); Norman Green,
Technology); André Jol (EEA).
Anders Ruus, Dominique Durand
(Norwegian Institute for Water
Research (NIVA), Norway); Françoise Section 7.4 Tourism
Breton (ETC/LUSI); Rossella Soldi
(Progress Consulting Srl). Author(s) Rossella Soldi (Progress Consulting Srl).
Contributors Adriana Gheorghe (EEA); Vedran
Jelavić, Željko Kurtela, Milos Brajović,
Chapter 6 Sustainable consumption and Monica Šućur (University of Dubrovnik
production and Croatian Environment Agency).
Author(s) Paweł Kaźmierczyk (EEA), Christian

Fischer, Stephan Moll, David Watson Annex 1 Legal instruments
(European Topic Centre on Resource
and Waste Management (ETC/RWM)) in
cooperation with Lars Fogh Mortensen Author(s) Rossella Soldi (Progress Consulting Srl)
and Bartosz Zambrzycki (EEA). and Adriana Gheorghe (EEA).
Contributors Stefan Bringezu, Helmut Schütz, József
Szlezák, Matti Viisimaa (ETC/RWM);
Aleh Cherp, Edina Vadovics, Ruben Annex 2 Country statistics
Mnatsakanian (Central European
University (CEU, Budapest); Thomas
Lindhqvist, Oksana Mont (International Author(s) Rossella Soldi (Progress Consulting
Institute for Industrial Environmental Srl).
Economics at Lund University (IIIEE), Contributors David Simoens (EEA); consultant: Jana
Sweden); Rie Tsutsumi (UNEP Regional Tafi.
Office for Europe); consultants:
Jasmina Bogdanovič, Elena Veligosh
(UNEP/GRID‑Arendal), Ljubov Gornaja
(Tallinn University).

Acknowledgements
Layout and production

Annex 3 International comparisons Pia Schmidt, Henriette Nilsson Pedersen,
Marilou Pehrson (EEA).
Author(s) Anita Pirc Velkavrh and Adriana
International data
Gheorghe (EEA); Rossella Soldi
(Progress Consulting Srl); consultants: Cefic, CISSTAT, EM-DAT, Eurostat, FAO, IEA, ITOPF,
Elena Veligosh (UNEP/GRID‑Arendal). JRC, MOSUS Project, OECD, UNECE, UNEP, UNICEF,
UNSD, UNWTO, WB, WCMC, WHO, WTO, WTTC.
Thematic Jan Karlsson (Climate change
contributors and energy), Ybele Hoogeveen, Editing and support assistance
Tor‑Björn Larsson (Biodiversity), Peter Saunders, Bart Ullstein (under contract to NERI);
Eva Royo Gelabert (Fisheries), Paweł Svetlana Payne, Suzannah Walmsley, Charlotte Howard,
Kaźmierczyk, Bartosz Zambrzycki Ian Payne (Marine Resources & Fisheries Consultants
(Waste and material flow), Jan-Erik (MRAG Ltd), United Kingdom) with support from: Helle
Petersen (Agriculture), Peder Jensen Møller, Ilona Schiøler, Helle Furbo, Dana Bjurner (EEA),
(Transport). Sofia Drengsted-Nielsen.
Data support and quality control Country data and information support
Rossella Soldi (Progress Consulting Srl); David Suzette Pedroso-Galinato (ECSSD-The World Bank);
Simoens (EEA); Ljubov Gornaja (Tallinn University); Jeremy W. Webb (UNSD); Asim Acikel (EEA);
Peter Kristensen, Carsten Iversen, Jan-Erik Petersen, consultants: Ljubov Gornaja (Tallinn University);
Jane Feehan, Ali Gül (EEA); Jelle van Minnen, Guus Jasmina Bogdanovič, Elena Veligosh (UNEP/GRID-
Velders, Thomas Voigt (ETC/ACC); Christian Fischer, Arendal); Svetla Anachkova (UBA, Austria — assistance
Henrik Jacobsen, Stephan Moll, Matti Viisima, David project for Georgia); Nicolai Dronin (MSU); Svetlana
Watson, Mads Werge (ETC/RWM); Grégoire Lois, Dolgikh (CAREC); Merab Sharabidze (UNEP); Jana Tafi,
Lauri Klein, Marie-Paule Vignault (ETC/BD); Nikolay Anna Paramonova.
Sobolev, Irina Onufrenya (Biodiversity Conservation
Centre (BCC), Russian Federation); Olga Pereladova Quality checking of Russian version
(World Wildlife Fund for Nature (WWF), Russian
Federation); Frank Mörschel (WWF, Germany); Consultants: Ljubov Gornaja, Nicolai Dronin, Jana Tafi,
Maria‑Luisa Paracchini (DG/JRC); Steve Nixon (WRc); Anna Paramonova, Tamara Malkova; Ilona Schiøler,
Stuart Butchart, Ian Burfield (Birdlife International); Galina Hristova, Andrus Meiner (EEA).
Jana Tafi.
Report coordination
Design and production of maps Adriana Gheorghe, David Stanners (EEA).
Mette Lund, Christiaan Steenmans (EEA); Andres Contributors Thomas Henrichs (NERI), Peter
Bastholm, Mona Maundrup Poulsen (Atkins, Denmark). Kristensen (EEA).

Foreword
Foreword
More than 16 years have passed since the first future generations. These issues require long-term,
meeting of Europe's environment ministers at integrated cross-sectoral measures to be taken that
Dobris Castle in June 1991. Since then Europe has need to be underpinned by strategic international
changed enormously, as has its environment. In agreements which encourage diverse, robust and
this, the fouth assessment report, we underline the innovative technologies and adaptive management
changes that have occurred in the environment and practices.
socio-economic context to help explain many of
the environmental trends that have been observed. Ministers have designated the Belgrade conference
We identify successes and improvements but also to be a 'conference of delivery'. So how can more
register old legacies that need further effort such progress be made to solve the 'simple' challenges
as, in particular, air pollution, water issues and or quicker and more effective action be taken to
contaminated sites. New threats, which challenge deal with the more complex issues of the second or
piecemeal solutions and call for integrated third types. And what is the place of pan-European
strategic measures at European and global levels, cooperation to deal with these issues?
are described such as persistent chemicals in
the environment, biodiversity loss, sustainable We need to strengthen the will to act. We need a
production and consumption and climate change. good understanding of the problems, of their nature
And a new overview is given of the state of and distribution across societies and generations,
European marine areas and inland seas. and of the costs and impacts of action and inaction.
This requires analysis, assessment, communication
The current assessment makes a number of things and explanation to help those who need to act. This
clear — first, the type of challenges that we face, and report is part of that process.
second, the barriers to progress.
We need to strengthen the capacity to act. On its
We can recognise three types of challenge own, understanding is not sufficient for action
distinguished by the manner and difficulty of their to be taken. We need to enable actions by public
control and management. First, there are those administrations, businesses and individual
issues such as air and water pollution where, by consumers and households. A diversity of actions
and large, we know how to solve them and what appropriate to local circumstances needs to be
implementation action is required. However, while encouraged. An enabling legal framework can help
progress has been made, problems of this type still unleash the necessary investment and innovation to
persist largely due to the difficulties with working do this, but greater attention also needs to be given
out in practice and at local level how to implement to implementation — that is, understanding better
the known solutions. Second, there are the more how to do things. To facilitate this and build up
complex challenges, such as biodiversity loss and the capacity to act, information is needed on good
river basin management. Here progress is also practice, ecoinnovation and new environmentally
being made, but because of the strong cross‑border, friendly technologies, as well as an overarching
inter‑regional and international cooperation commitment to capacity building, especially to
required to deal with them, and the need for a training and education.
diversity of inter-linked actions, the progress is often
not fast enough to keep pace with changes. Thirdly, Four pan-European environment assessments have
there are the issues such as climate change and been published since the Environment for Europe
current patterns of production and consumption process began. But we still need an information and
which are particularly complex to deal with, and knowledge system to support action to protect the
progress is slow, since they necessitate changes now environment across the region. The EECCA core
without immediate and obvious benefits. However, set of indicators is a good step, but a lot still needs
action is needed since these issues have the potential to be done. Future assessment activity needs to be
to seriously limit future options for meeting needs accompanied by a commitment to build a shared
sustainably thereby posing significant threats to our environmental information system for all the
health, environment and livelihoods and those of countries and regions of Europe.

Foreword
The 32 member countries of the EEA are already issues are likely to lead to asymmetric threats
starting to build such a system. Similar steps to security which cannot be resolved within the
are also being taken by the countries around traditional domains of security policy. Tackling
the Mediterranean. Across Europe there are these requires partnerships to deal explicitly with
also examples of cooperation around common the environmental concerns and the necessary
environmental and ecological areas, such as inland associated transformations. We need to focus on
seas, transboundary river basins or mountains. sustainability which promotes cooperation and
To complete the picture, and to make existing partnerships.
cooperative arrangements more effective, we need
to join up such activities so that knowledge can In the years since the start of the Environment for
be shared, learning increased and experiences Europe process we have learnt much about the
and good practice exchanged. This is not only a meaning, benefits and significance of pan-European
European challenge but a global one that requires and global cooperation on the environment, and
the involvement and participation of civil society. have begun to act accordingly. The evidence and
insights which this fourth assessment offers will, I
A number of other developments are currently hope, help to strengthen the resolve for continued
converging which help us to understand, with environmental cooperation and partnerships in the
new clarity, the meaning and benefits of the future.
'Environment for Europe' process: demographic
and economic transformations across Europe, the Finally, let me thank all the individuals,
enlargement of the EU, increased cooperation organisations and countries who have collaborated
between the EU and its neighbours and between with us on this project, sharing their data and
neighbours of neighbours, the rising challenge ideas, and providing their valuable expertise
of climate change, energy security, water and and insights. The fruit of this pan-European
the increased awareness of the importance of cooperation, is the Belgrade report, for which we
ecosystem services and sustainable consumption are very grateful.
and production patterns. If not tackled correctly
and in time, these environmental issues combined
will not only seriously damage our health, but
may also undermine the very security on which Jacqueline McGlade
our societies are built. Emerging economic and
social instabilities combined with environmental Executive Director

01
in an age of transition
Europe’s environment in an age of transition
1 Europe's environment in an age of

transition
Photo: Crossroad of two continents, Bosphorus, Turkey

© Chris Steenmans
1.1 Is the pan-European region The pan-European region harbours a rich cultural
meeting its environmental and environmental diversity. It is home to a
challenges? multitude of natural and semi-natural habitats and
ecosystems — ranging from wetlands to deserts, from
coastal lowlands to alpine mountains and from dense
The UNECE 'Environment for Europe' process forests to treeless steppes. With diversity comes both
today brings together 56 countries across three complexity and dynamics, therefore it is no surprise
continents (the UNECE region covers 53 countries that the pan-European region has had its share of
in the pan‑European region, see Table 1.1, plus changes and transitions. The region has developed
Canada, Israel and the United States of America) through centuries of history marked by evolution and
to address jointly environmental challenges. To revolution, with change and diversity seeming to be
support this process, environment ministers in their among the few constants the region may rely on.
Kiev Declaration of 2003 called on the European
Environment Agency to prepare a fourth assessment Over the last twenty years, the social, political
report (see Box 1.1). The report covers the entire and economic maps of the pan-European region
pan-European region, which stretches from the have been redrawn and a range of transition
Atlantic Ocean in the west to beyond the central processes have unfolded and are still unfolding. The
Asian plains in the east, from the Arctic Ocean in the socio‑economic climate today is significantly different
north to the Mediterranean Sea in the south. To meet from ten to twenty years ago. Again, security issues
the ministerial request, the report sets out to provide and concerns about food and health are high on
policy-relevant, up‑to-date and reliable information the agenda, and to this is added a popular disquiet
on the interactions between environment and about globalisation. At the same time, environmental
society for the pan-European region and to highlight concerns such as climate change, loss of biological
progress made towards meeting the region's diversity and global environmental degradation,
environmental challenges over the past four years. are regularly seen in news stories adding to people's
Box 1.1 Excerpt from the Declaration by the Environment Ministers of the region of the United
Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) at the Fifth Ministerial Conference
'Environment for Europe'
'We call on the EEA to prepare the fourth assessment report for the next EfE ministerial conference building
on new partnerships, especially with UNECE and UNEP. We encourage international collaboration to enhance
the international comparability of environmental information in priority areas such as air emissions, urban air
quality, transboundary inland and groundwater pollution, marine pollution, chemicals, hazardous waste, waste
management, human health and biodiversity […]'.

Table 1.1 The pan-European region, sub-regions and countries (1)
Region Sub-regions Countries

(group)
Western and EU-25 EU-15 Austria (AT), Belgium (BE), Denmark (DK), Finland (FI),
Central Europe (Western Europe) France (FR), Germany (DE), Greece (GR), Ireland (IE),
(WCE) Italy (IT), Luxembourg (LU), the Netherlands (NL),
Portugal (PT), Spain (ES), Sweden (SE), the United
Kingdom (UK)
EU-10 Cyprus (CY), Czech Republic (CZ), Estonia (EE),
(Central Europe) Hungary (HU), Latvia (LV), Lithuania (LT), Malta (MT),
Poland (PL), Slovakia (SK), Slovenia (SI)
European Free Trade Association Iceland (IS), Liechtenstein (LI), Norway (NO),
(EFTA) Switzerland (CH)
Other WCE countries Andorra (AD), Monaco (MC), San Marino (SM)
Eastern Eastern Europe Belarus (BY), Republic of Moldova (MD), Russian
Europe Federation (RU), Ukraine (UA)
Caucasus and
Caucasus Armenia (AM), Azerbaijan (AZ), Georgia (GE)
Central Asia
(EECCA) Central Asia Kazakhstan (KZ), Kyrgyzstan (KG), Tajikistan (TJ),
Turkmenistan (TM), Uzbekistan (UZ)
South-eastern Western Balkans Albania (AL), Bosnia and Herzegovina (BA), Croatia
Europe (SEE) (HR), Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (MK),
Serbia (RS)*, Montenegro (ME)*
Other SEE countries Bulgaria (BG)**, Romania (RO)**, Turkey (TR)
Note: * = In many instances throughout this report, information on 'Serbia' and/or 'Montenegro' is given jointly for 'Serbia and Montenegro'
* = (Montenegro and Serbia were proclaimed independent republics on 3 and 5 June 2006, respectively).
** = Bulgaria and Romania joined the European Union on 1 January 2007.
increasing sense of insecurity. Indeed, the resources and contaminate natural resources within
of both the pan-European region and the planet are and beyond Europe's borders. Since the
recognised as being under increasing stress due to Kiev conference, the issue of sustainable
human-induced pressures, including those brought consumption and production has become more
about by economic growth, industrial development prominent on the policy agenda although few
and modern consumption patterns. substantive results have emerged. Patterns
of consumption are changing rapidly across
Environmental concerns range from the pollution the region, with increases in the shares for
of air, soil and water (all of which have improved transport, communication, housing, recreation
significantly, but nevertheless remain of concern in and health. Total waste generation is increasing
parts of the pan-European region, see Chapter 2), to in the pan‑European region. At the same time,
Europe's significant contributions and vulnerability the legacy of old waste sites still presents
to the consequences of global problems. Current a major problem in some EECCA and SEE
challenges addressed in this report include: countries, although many have developed
waste strategies and legislation for specific
• Patterns of production and consumption, waste streams. However, waste management
driven by society's desire for ever higher plans and effective legislation have yet to
standards of human well-being together be implemented in some countries (see
with increasing resource needs, deplete Chapter 6).
(1) For practical reasons the groups used are based on established political groupings (as of 2005) rather than environmental
considerations only. Thus there are variations in environmental performance within the groups and substantial overlaps between
them; where possible, this has been highlighted in the report.

• Environment-related health concerns result forests and coastal zones) is occurring as a result
from continuing pollution of air, water and soil. of land use changes, urban sprawl, infrastructure
Despite considerable reductions in air pollutant development, acidification, eutrophication,
emissions in much of the pan-European region, desertification, resource overexploitation, both
atmospheric pollution (in particular current intensification and abandonment of agriculture,
levels of fine particles and ozone) still poses as well as climate change. The global target of
a significant threat to human health and the halting biodiversity loss by 2010 will not be
environment as a whole — in EECCA countries achieved without considerable additional efforts.
most air polluting emissions have increased More than 700 species are currently under threat
by more than 10 % since 2000 as a result of in the pan-European region, while the number
economic recovery, increase in transport, and of invasive alien species in the pan-European
the persisting poor effectiveness of air pollution region continues to increase. National forest plans
protection strategies. Similarly, although that link sustainable forest management with
water quality appears to have improved in an ecosystem approach are being implemented.
rivers across the region, some large rivers and Nevertheless, illegal logging and human-induced
many smaller watercourses remain severely forest fires are a growing problem, particularly in
polluted. More than 100 million people in the EECCA and SEE (see Chapter 4).
pan‑European region still do not have access
to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation; • Overuse of marine resources and pressure
and in EECCA and SEE the quality of water on coastal environments continue to be high.
supply and sanitation services has deteriorated Eutrophication remains a problem in all
continuously over the past 15 years. Soil enclosed seas and sheltered marine waters across
degradation, in particular contaminated sites, the pan‑European region. Over-fishing and
remains to be an issue of concern across the destructive fishing practices are still widespread
region. Yet, some progress has been made in in all pan‑European seas. Improved policies
terms of policy development and the availability and stricter enforcement are needed to stop
of information on soil issues (see Chapter 2). illegal fishing and enable fish stock recovery, but
also to reduce fisheries impacts on the whole
• Climate change, mainly driven by energy ecosystem. Major accidental oil spills have
consumption and the resulting emission of generally decreased in European seas, although
greenhouse gases (GHG), exacerbates extreme oil discharges from day to day activities, such
weather events (such as flooding or droughts) as maritime transport and refineries, are still
and has an impact on a range of socio-economic significant (see Chapter 5).
activities such as agriculture and tourism.
Impacts of climate change on society and natural In response to these and other environmental
resources are already occurring both across the challenges, the concept of sustainable development
pan-European region and worldwide, and are addresses the need for an increased understanding
projected to become even more pronounced. of the complexity and interconnectedness of the
A global emission reduction of up to 50 % by socio‑economic and environmental systems.
2050 is necessary to achieve the target proposed It calls for a fundamental change in the way
by the EU to limit temperature increase society approaches its own economic, social and
to a maximum of 2 degree Celsius above environmental future. Increasingly, Europe has been
pre‑industrial levels. However, even if global embracing the concept of sustainable development
emissions of greenhouse gases are drastically as more and more responses to environmental
reduced, some unavoidable climate change challenges make use of integrated approaches that
impacts make adaptation measures an urgent link environmental policies directly to transport,
need (see Chapter 3). energy and agricultural policies in particular.
• Biodiversity loss in the pan-European region In western Europe (EU-15), but also increasingly
(particularly in farmland, mountain regions, in many of the central European (EU-10) and

south‑eastern European countries as well as in these new challenges and while much knowledge
countries in eastern Europe, the Caucasus and is already available, it is often not in a form or
Central Asia, first steps have been taken towards place which is readily accessible or usable. Still
implementing more integrated approaches to greater access to, and appraisal of, existing relevant
environmental issues. Despite this, traditional information and research results is needed. This
regulatory instruments are still widely used to deal should include a better understanding of the
with environmental issues, and impacts caused by importance and significance of different types
general patterns of production and consumption of knowledge held for example by lay, local and
are rarely taken into account. In addition, policy indigenous people. Actions are being taken to
instruments that link market mechanisms and improve the access to and use of this knowledge, for
environmental protection, such as economic example by making use of the spread of information
market‑based instruments and voluntary agreements, technologies such as the internet in recent years.
are being developed but are not yet used to any large Politically, these developments are, amongst others,
degree across the pan-European region. supported by the implementation of the Aarhus
Convention (which calls for improved access to
In many cases, environmental progress and the use environmental information, public participation
of integrated policy approaches are hampered by an in decision‑making processes and access to justice)
'implementation gap'. While a range of multilateral and the furthering of the concept of education for
agreements and declarations on environmental sustainable development — thereby providing the
protection and sustainable development have been building blocks for a long-term transition towards
signed and adopted, a number of these do not sustainable development.
attain a subsequent full and swift implementation
(see Annex 1 for an overview of multilateral
environmental agreements, and their signature, 1.2 Key socio-economic
ratification and entry into force at national level). developments across the
Thus, continuing with the transition towards pan-European region
sustainable development, as emphasised in the
'Environment for Europe' process and reinforced
by the 2002 Johannesburg World Summit on Today's environmental challenges are ever more
Sustainable Development, will require more impetus closely linked to a variety of socio-economic
towards full implementation of agreed-upon developments. While each of the challenges we face
environmental policy measures (see also Section 1.3 has its own characteristic dynamics, many share
and Annex I). Indeed, the upcoming 'Environment common underlying driving forces which are often
for Europe' ministerial conference to be held in directly or indirectly linked. A full review of each
Belgrade in October 2007 has been designated as a of the many individual drivers of environmental
'conference of deliveries'. The main objective of the change is beyond the scope of this pan-European
meeting will be to assess the progress made in the assessment. Rather, this section focuses on a
implementation of the legal instruments adopted in limited number of socio-economic developments
the pan-European context. that underlie or may exacerbate many of the key
environmental changes outlined in this report.
Furthermore, a transition towards sustainable Key issues highlighted include the changing
development will require attention and action at demographic patterns, recent trends in migration,
all levels: local, regional, national, international as well as economic developments and poverty
and global, as well as involvement of all parties across the pan-European region. The relationship
from government, business and civil society, between political transitions, conflicts and
and by organisations and individuals. The environmental risks is also emphasised. Finally,
tools and capacity for this are still weak across this section illustrates that the demands of modern
the pan‑European region but progress is being consumption can in most cases no longer be met by
made. While scientific research and knowledge domestic resources alone. This has led to growing
development are increasingly needed to meet interdependence across the region and the globe.

This needs to be reflected in approaches aimed at population live in western and central Europe,
addressing shared environmental concerns and making this sub‑region one of the most densely
securing environmental resources more equitably populated regions of the world, with an average of
for current and future generations. nearly 110 persons per square kilometre. This is in
stark contrast to the relatively small populations
Demographic patterns and migration in eastern Europe and Central Asia, where the
Demographic patterns play a key role in how average density is well below 20 persons per square
environmental challenges unfold since they kilometre.
govern consumption and determine the demand
for resources, goods and environmental services. The diversity of demographic developments
Generally speaking, population size and in the pan-European region is also reflected in
density within a region give a first indication of the evolution of population trends over time.
pressures on environmental resources, such as Trends vary significantly and highlight the very
air pollution, freshwater use, land use and soil different dynamics across the region. Between
degradation, as well as biodiversity loss. The age 1960 and 2000, Central Asia (more than 120 %
structure of populations also inevitably shapes population increase), the Caucasus (60 % increase)
their consumption patterns and demands for and south‑eastern Europe (80 % increase) have
environmental services. The current trend across experienced considerably higher growth rates than
Europe towards an 'ageing society' may further those reported for countries in western and central
alter the susceptibility to adverse environmental Europe, and particularly, eastern Europe (World
changes and health risks, both positively and Bank, 2006b). Eastern Europe, and to a lesser
negatively. extent the Caucasus region and most of the central
European countries, witnessed a turning point in
Today, more than 870 million people live in the population growth in the early 1990s. Since then,
pan-European region although population size population growth has stagnated or even declined,
and distribution vary considerably across the and this trend has continued into the new century
region (Table 1.2). More than half of this total (Table 1.3).
Table 1.2 The pan-European region: key socio-economic indicators for 2005
Land area Population Density Income Total GDP

(1 000 km2) (million) (population per (GDP per capita (as percentage of
km2) in USD) regional total)
WCE
EU-15 3 243 385 119 22 337 83.4 %
EU-10 739 74 100 5 594 4.0 %
EFTA (IS, NO, CH) 468 12 26 36 550 4.4 %
EECCA
Eastern Europe 17 943 204 11 2 034 4.0 %
Caucasus 186 16 85 1 112 0.2 %
Central Asia 4 003 58 15 955 0.5 %
SEE
Western Balkans 264 22 82 2 236 0.5 %
Other SEE 1 132 102 90 3 052 3.0 %
Pan-European total 27 980 874 31 11 869 100.0 %
Note: See also Annex 2, Country statistics.
Sources: GDP and population data: World Bank, 2006b (World Development Indicators Database).
Land area data: FAOSTAT, 2007 (FAO Statistical database).

Table 1.3 Countries experiencing population declines of more than 200 000 persons in the period 2000 to 2005
Population (thousands) Change between 2000 and 2005

2000 2005 (thousands) (%)
Russian Federation 146 000 143 000 – 3 000 – 2.1
Ukraine 49 200 47 100 – 2 100 – 4.3
Romania 22 400 21 600 – 800 – 3.6
Poland 38 600 38 200 – 400 – 1.0
Bulgaria 8 060 7 741 – 319 – 4.0
Georgia 4 720 4 474 – 246 – 5.2
Belarus 10 000 9 776 – 224 – 2.2
Italy 57 700 57 500 – 200 – 0.3
Source: World Bank, 2006b (World Development Indicators Database).
For most countries of western and central Europe, Central Asia), which is insufficient to maintain
a trend towards stable or even declining population current populations without inward migration
totals is discernable — although Cyprus, Ireland (Figure 1.1).
and Spain are noteworthy exceptions and currently
show population growth of more than 1 % per year. Migration of people across the pan-European
Turkey and all Central Asian countries (with the region has been on the rise in the region since the
exception of Kazakhstan) are experiencing equally 1990s. The movement of people in an increasingly
growing populations. According to data provided interconnected world reflects not only changes
by the World Health Organization, life expectancy to countries' economies and distribution of
at birth has increased substantially across the industry, but also results in political, social and
region over the last four decades, although a even cultural transitions. Several characteristic
significant gap remains between EECCA countries trends in migration can be identified, including
(life expectancy ranging from 66 to 73 years) and
the other countries in the region (ranging from 69
to 81 years) — see Annex 2.
Figure 1.1 Net migration (millions) required to hold
working age population constant at 1995
World Bank data for 2005 (World Bank, 2006b) levels in 2050
highlights that the balance between young and
Net migration 2000–2050 (millions)
elderly people varies considerably across the
100
region. While in Central Asian countries those
90
under the age of 15 make up well above 20 % of 80
the total (the highest in Tajikistan with 39 %), they 70
account for less than 20 % in most other countries 60
(with exceptions in Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, 50
Ireland, Iceland and Turkey). Conversely, in many 40
western and central European countries, the 30

20
proportion of the population over the age of 60
10
has increased significantly, leading to an 'ageing
0
society' with a demographic pattern characterised EU-15 Russian Federation
by a relatively low proportion of children. At Additional required Projected
the same time, fertility rates are low in much of
Europe, and almost everywhere have fallen below Note: For the sake of comparison, there was a net migration of
about 8.8 million into the EU and about 3.3 million into the
two infants per woman (although exceptions Russian Federation during the 1990s.
include Albania, Iceland, Ireland and most of Source: Based on data from World Bank, 2006a — page 55.

migration across the region along gradients of speaking, urbanisation tends to alter the type
political stability or economic prospects, in-country of environmental pressures experienced. While
migration from rural into urban areas often driven population increases in urban areas lead to a
by employment opportunities, and also seasonal spatial concentration in material consumption and
migration of both workers and retirees. its associated pollution, environmental pressures
associated with urban sprawl include both local
The consequences of this increased migration effects (such as urban waste and water pollution
can be both positive and negative for the origin problems) as well as more widespread impacts
and receiver regions. As the migration is often (for example, the overall 'environmental footprint'
focused in specific areas, such as urban (in the case that an urban area imposes on the country). In
of economic migrants) or coastal (in the case of many cases, the likelihood that the environmental
retirees), this may have both environmental and impacts will be severe is greater the more rapid
social impacts. For those countries losing people and unplanned the transition from rural to urban
through migration, there are equally important living.
implications. Those emigrating tend to belong to
the younger, economically active age group, and On balance, the proportion of urban versus
often have a higher than average level of education rural population has remained relatively stable
or training. On the one hand, this often results in in western and central Europe since 1990.
significant transfers of money by foreign workers Notable exceptions are Portugal, Norway and
to their home countries (i.e. remittances). For the Netherlands, all of which saw increases in
some countries, such as the Republic of Moldova, urban population in excess of 6 %, and Latvia,
Tajikistan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Albania, which experienced a decrease of just over 4 %.
remittances constituted more than 15 % of national Countries in south-eastern Europe, however, have
GDP in 2004 (World Bank, 2006a). On the other experienced large increases in urban population.
hand, countries of origin may experience gaps The largest increases in this region have occurred
in their skilled workforce which can also reduce in Albania and Turkey, which have seen the
national or local capacity for environmental proportion of people living in urban areas increase
management and good governance in general. by around 8 % and 7 % respectively.
Patterns of migration across the pan-European Economic development and poverty

region are unique and significant. The region The pan-European region is a highly diverse region
(especially the EECCA countries) is both a with respect to both patterns of demography and
major recipient and source of migrants. Recent economic development. Some of its countries are
World Bank estimates show that that the region among the richest in the world, while others —
accounts for one-third of all global emigration and particularly those whose economies have been in
immigration. Migration to western and central transition during the 1990s — are still working
European countries remains high, including large hard to catch up with the global average. Per
numbers of migrants from the Russian Federation, capita levels of gross domestic product (GDP) vary
Ukraine and Kazakhstan (Map 1.1). At the same widely, from the highest average annual incomes of
time, the countries in Central Asia and the well over USD 20 000 reported in EU-15 and EFTA
Caucasus experienced particularly high emigration countries, to less than an eighth of this figure in the
between 2000 and 2005, often into the Russian Caucasus and Central Asia — see Annex 2.
Federation, (during this period, Tajikistan and
Georgia, for example, saw net outward migration In 2005, the GDP of the whole pan-European
of more than 10 %, according to United Nations region amounted to approximately 28 % of global
Statistics Division (UNSD, 2005)). GDP — more than a third of the total. However,
while Western Europe is amongst the wealthiest
In parallel to migration patterns across the regions in the world, the EECCA and SEE countries
region, recent urbanisation trends show a each account for only 1 % of the global GDP
varied picture over the last decade. Generally (Figure 1.2).

The patterns of economic growth also differ across lasted somewhat longer. Their national incomes are
the region. The EU-15 and EFTA countries have only now returning to pre-1990 levels due to recent
seen continuous increases since the 1990s. After an stronger economic growth, although even in 2005,
initial drop in economic growth in the very early real GDP for the Republic of Moldova and Georgia
1990s, the remaining countries of western and had not yet recovered to half that of 1989 (World
central Europe (i.e. the EU-10) and south-eastern Bank, 2006b).
Europe are now experiencing an increase. In the
countries of Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Nevertheless, it is encouraging that national
Asia, the economic downturn of the early 1990s incomes have been increasing in virtually all
Map 1.1 Largest migration streams
-30° -10° 10° 30° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°

Size of migration stream
involving an EECCA
country
> 150 000 persons

40° > 50 000 persons
60° RUSSIAN FEDERATION
KAZAKSTAN
KYRGYZSTAN
UZBEKISTAN
50°
BELARUS
GERMANY UKRAINE
30°
GEORGIA
ARMENIA
40°
0 500 1000 1500 Km

0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50°
-10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50°

Size of migration stream
involving an SEE or EU-10
country
50°
> 150 000 persons
> 50 000 persons
50°
POLAND
GERMANY HUNGARY
ROMANIA 40°
SERBIA
40°
ITALY MONTENEGRO
SPAIN TURKEY
ALBANIA
0 500 1000 1500 Km

0° 10° 20° 30° 40°
Source: World Bank, 2006a.

Figure 1.2 Top: GDP Map (the territory size shows the proportion of worldwide wealth measured as GDP, based on
exchange rates with the USD, that is found there)
Bottom: Total GDP in the pan-European region and the rest of the world in 2005 (based on constant
2000 USD)
Rest of the world

72 %
WCE
EECCA SEE 26 %
1% 1%
Sources: The map: www.worldmapper.org; copyright 2006 SASI Group (University of Sheffield) and Mark Newman (University of Michigan).
The pie chart: World Bank, 2006b (World Development Indicators Database).
countries in the pan-European region since estimated at 4.3 % and 3.0 %, respectively (2).
the turn of the century. This increase has been Current forecasts expect the rate of GDP increase
particularly pronounced in all EECCA and SEE to continue at this level for both 2007 and 2008
countries, where total economic growth between (World Bank, 2007).
2000 and 2005 ranged from 7 % in the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia to a staggering In moving away from dependency on primary
88 % in Azerbaijan (see Annex 2). The World production and heavy industry towards service
Bank's most recent estimates (Figure 1.3) show and knowledge-based economies, general
that annual economic growth has continued across economic development in western and central
the region during 2006 at rates of 6 % or more in Europe has brought some environmental
most EECCA countries. Exceptions are Kyrgyzstan benefits — largely related to reductions in
and the Republic of Moldova where rates are 'traditional' point-source pollution. However,
(2) Please note that no data for Turkmenistan was available for this assessment.

Figure 1.3 GDP per capita growth by region, While predominantly manufactured goods are
1990–2005 (see Annex 3 for international traded eastwards within the region, the main
comparison) commodities exported from EECCA countries to
USD per capita
western and central Europe are fuels and mining
40 000
products (see Chapter 6 for more details).
35 000
This marked difference in economic development
30 000 and trade flows across the pan-European region
25 000
can also be understood to be a de facto 'export' of
environmental burden to countries with higher
20 000
reliance on raw mineral extraction and processing
15 000 and other branches of industry commonly
associated with high environmental pressures
10 000
and emissions to air, soil and water (see example
5 000 in Box 6.5, Chapter 6, Sustainable consumption
0 and production). This can be seen as part of the
l
-1
5
-1
0 -3 us ra rn
SE
E
wider trend of globalisation that has unfolded over
EU EU F TA c as e nt a aste e
E a u C s E rop
i
C A
Eu recent decades.
1990 1995 2000 2005
Despite the more recent economic growth, the
Note: GDP at constant 2000 USD.
economic decline and restructuring of the 1990s
WCE: no data for LI, no data for CY in 2005; have taken a toll across the EECCA countries,
SEE: no data for BA from 1990 to 1993, no data for CS
from 1990 to 1992; in particular in terms of poverty and inequality.
EECCA: no data for TM from 2002 to 2005. Increasingly, poverty and human well-being are
Source: World Bank, 2006b (World Development Indicators being addressed in the context of environmental
Database).
assessments (for example in the Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment or Fourth Global
serious issues of cleaning up contaminated wastes Environment Outlook, see Box 1.2). Poverty,
and polluted industrial infrastructures remain and the resulting increase in environmental
(see Section 2.4, Soil). Eastern Europe, and to a vulnerability, has often been typified as one of the
lesser degree Central Asia and the Caucasus, are worst forms of pollution. Beyond the immediate
now showing marked post-industrial structural harm caused to individuals and society, poverty
change with a move away from economic can have direct implications for environmental
reliance on agricultural output towards service quality as well as indirect consequences through
industries. Nevertheless, in relative terms, a larger poor education, health care and other services.
dependency on mineral extraction and agriculture People with low incomes are more likely to
remains in the EECCA region, often resulting in use inefficient fuels that have a direct adverse
environmental pressures and high volumes of impact on air quality, and to live in substandard
wastes. housing with inadequate insulation and therefore
inefficient heating. Poverty can also directly drive
Alongside this economic development, trade unsustainable behaviour such as cutting down
flows between countries within the region, as trees for fuel-wood or grazing animals in protected
well as with the rest of the world, have increased areas.
significantly. Both imports and exports have
increased substantially across the region over According to World Bank estimates (see Table 1.4),
the last years. However, trade statistics highlight the number of people living in absolute poverty
a marked asymmetry of trade flows within the (i.e. those earning less than USD 2.15 per day)
pan-European region, especially between EECCA decreased from 102 million to less than 62 million
countries and the other European sub-regions. over the period 1999–2003 in the EECCA region,

Box 1.2 Poverty and human well-being in an environmental context
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment identified In the Fourth Global Environment Outlook (GEO-4),
security aspects, material needs, health, social well-being is broadly defined as human capabilities,
relations and freedom of choice as the main that is the extent to which individuals have the
components of the cross-cutting concept of human ability to live the kinds of lives they have reason to
well-being. It is a continuum from high attainment value. Equity is a key component and implies the
(experience of well-being) to extreme deprivation degree of distribution of human well-being among
(poverty). Human well-being is underpinned through people, groups, communities, countries, regions and
the supporting, provisioning, regulating and cultural generations. Poverty is defined as the deprivation
services that ecosystems provide. Well-being also of basic capabilities that give people the ability to
depends on technology, institutions and human achieve minimal adequate living conditions, such
services (MA, 2005). as avoiding serious malnourishment, premature
mortality and avoidable morbidity (UNEP, 2007a).
Table 1.4 Poverty in SEE and EECCA countries during

resulting in the percentage of the population
2000–2003 classified as poor or vulnerable falling from
55 % to 45 % over this short period. However,
Population notwithstanding the general recent economic
Below national < 2 USD* growth coupled with decreasing inequality, low
poverty line (%) per day income countries, such as Armenia, Georgia,
(%) Uzbekistan, Republic of Moldova, Kyrgyzstan and
Total Urban Rural Total Tajikistan, still experience high levels of poverty
SEE (OECD, 2007).
Albania (c) 25 20 30 12
Bosnia and 20 14 20 — Political transitions and security concerns
Herzegovina (c) For centuries, the pan-European region has
Bulgaria (d) — — — 6 been highly dynamic — a region in constant
Croatia (b) — — — 2 cultural, political, social and economic transition.
Romania (d) — — — 13 However, over the last 20 years, it has witnessed
Turkey (c) 27 22 35 19 a near‑unprecedented transitional process. The
EECCA region has faced formidable challenges, including
Armenia (b, d) 51 49 52 31 deep economic distortions, major trade disruptions
Azerbaijan (b) 49 55 42 33 and times of political upheaval. During the last
Belarus (a, c) 42 — — 2 two decades, the number of independent states
Georgia (c, d) 55 53 56 26 in the pan-European region has increased from
Kazakhstan (d) — 17 33 in 1990 to 53 in 2007, the most recent additions
Kyrgyzstan (b, d) 48 41 51 23 being the Republic of Serbia and the Republic of
Republic of 49 43 67 64 Montenegro.
Moldova (c)
Russian — — — 13
Federation (c) Not only have these changes influenced economic
Turkmenistan — — — — development, particularly in the countries of
Tajikistan (d) — — — 43 central Europe, eastern Europe, the Caucasus
Ukraine (d) 20 — 28 5 and Central Asia — they have also redrawn the
Uzbekistan (a) 28 23 30 72 political landscape across the region. In 2004, the
European Union welcomed 10 new Member States
Note: * = at PPP rate. (EU-10), leading to a new dimension of political
(a) data for 2000; (b) data for 2001; (c) data for 2002; integration across western and central Europe. As
(d) data for 2003.
recently as January 2007, Romania and Bulgaria
Source: World Bank, 2006b (World Development Indicator
Database). also joined the European Union, effectively

expanding the Union to the Black Sea, something Figure 1.4 Countries with the largest numbers of
that was unthinkable 20 years ago. In the EECCA refugees and internally displaced persons
region the aftermath of the political changes of the (IDPs) in 2004
1990s continue to impact the stability and security

situation in several countries even today — recent Azerbaijan
examples include the political changes in Georgia
Serbia and Montenegro
in 2003, in Ukraine in 2004 and in Kyrgyzstan in
Georgia
2005.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Yet even when transitions are relatively smooth Russian Federation

and devoid of major conflict, they entail Armenia
considerable political, societal and economic
United Kingdom
adjustments that shape the way environmental
Germany
challenges are addressed. Thus, those areas that
witnessed major changes or even armed conflicts Netherlands
over the past two decades have felt and are still France
feeling the impacts. Not only were lives lost,
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
but national assets and infrastructure were also
Thousand
destroyed, causing pollution from damage to Internally displaced persons (IDPs)
industrial as well as military installations. Large Refugees
numbers of refugees fleeing conflicts or natural
Source: UNHCR, 2006.
disasters have placed additional environmental
stress on receiving areas. In the pan‑European
region, large numbers of people remain displaced dependency, institutional, socio-economic and
within their own countries, or have become technological adaptive capacity, cultural and
refugees either due to natural disasters or political ethno-political factors, internal security structures,
developments (Figure 1.4). public participation, international interaction
and mechanisms of conflict resolution. The
Other key areas where security concerns are linked socio‑economic and political context can thus
to negative environmental impacts are in disputes have both facilitating and inhibiting effects on the
and tensions among states and communities over relationship between environmental stress and
access to shared natural resources. Countries conflict.
that experience an economic transition or
political stress are also particularly vulnerable to Efforts to address challenges resulting from the
environmental damage and resource competition. linkages between environment and security can
In the Russian Federation, for example, include using environmental policy as a bridge to
environmental monitoring suggests that in the building cooperation and peace amongst groups
Chechnya province oil spills and pollution from in conflict. Furthermore, addressing 'asymmetric
sewers are badly affecting the region's rivers (3). threats to security' that cannot be resolved by
military force or within traditional domains of
Whether and how environmental stress security policy such as defence, foreign relations
contributes in turn to the incidence and escalation and strategic planning, may benefit from seeking
of conflict depends on a number of socio- partnerships to deal with international and
economic, political and other contextual factors, transboundary environmental concerns (see Box 1.3
including economic vulnerability and resource and Map 1.2 for examples).
(3) BBC, 22 June 2006 — Chechnya habitat 'ravaged by war' — http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/5108416.stm.

Box 1.3 Environment and security: transforming risks into cooperation
The Environment and Security Initiative (ENVSEC) Asia. In the Balkans, ENVSEC has been looking
is a partnership between the United Nations for arrangements and locations for cross-border
environment and development programmes (UNEP 'peace parks', and in the 'greater Caucasus'
and UNDP), the Organization for Security and it has helped reopen a discussion towards a
Co‑operation in Europe (OSCE), the United Nations region-wide environmental convention.
Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) and
the Regional Environment Center for Central and
• In the areas of 'frozen conflicts' in the Caucasus
Eastern Europe (REC). The North Atlantic Treaty
and the Republic of Moldova, ENVSEC has
Organisation (NATO) has joined the initiative as
promoted broad environmental cooperation,
an associated partner. The initiative was launched
thus trying to add a 'softer' dimension to
at the Environment for Europe conference in
a difficult process of political settlement. A
Kiev and the OSCE Economic Forum in Prague in
mission to Nagorno Karabakh in 2006 helped
May 2003. ENVSEC works to assess and address
Azerbaijani and Armenian authorities not only to
environmental problems which threaten, or are
identify causes of powerful grass fires, but also
perceived to threaten, security, societal stability and
reflect upon various options of how a dialogue
peace, human health and/or sustainable livelihoods,
over environmental problems and emergencies
within and across national borders in conflict-prone
in the area could be strengthened. Bringing
regions. Over 50 projects have been launched
together local environmental authorities in the
and implemented with total funds amounting to
turbulent Ferghana valley and preparing local
USD 12.5 million, covering 19 countries from
communities to anticipate natural disasters
the Adriatic Sea to the Pamir Mountains. New
such as floods or landslides not only increases
geographical areas recently added to the ENVSEC
mutual understanding but also mitigates major
portfolio are the East Caspian region and the Amu
environmental risks to human security.
Darya river basin, where cooperation extends to
Afghanistan. Recent examples of ENVSEC activities
include: • Finally, ENVSEC has contributed to
strengthening environment and security
institutions and policies in vulnerable areas.
• Through assessments and in-depth research
For example, in the Ferghana valley it helped
of the transboundary impacts of industry
to establish 'Aarhus centres' and helped local
and hazardous waste, ENVSEC has provided
authorities to better inform the public about
practical and strategic recommendations on
the environmental situation. Elsewhere, it has
how to foresee and mitigate the impacts on
systematically mainstreamed reporting on
specific sites (such as the 'Mining for Closure'
environment and security in the mass media
process in south-eastern Europe). Eighteen
of the Caucasus and Central Asia, promoted
industrial (including uranium mining) and
public participation in decision-making on
hazardous waste sites have been investigated
related issues, and helped to implement existing
in the Balkans and in the Ferghana valley of
policies (such as regional environmental
Central Asia, and such work is to be expanded
conventions) or develop new ones (such as the
to the Caucasus and eastern Europe. By
new Environmental Security Strategy of the
drawing attention to concrete problems and
Republic of Moldova).
investigating solutions, ENVSEC is in many
cases becoming a bridge to ensure remediation
of 'hot spots'. For example, it is playing a role As a catalytic initiative, ENVSEC relies on
in the containment and destruction of left‑over follow‑up by, and alliances with, larger financial
rocket fuel in Armenia and Ukraine and and implementation mechanisms that are able to
obsolete pesticides in the Republic of Moldova, pursue major clean-up or remediation projects in a
in Belarus and in Tajikistan. systematic and comprehensive manner. Increasingly
the Initiative's work is continued or replicated by
others. Recent examples include the rehabilitation
• ENVSEC fosters information exchange,
of industrial hot spots in south-eastern Europe,
agreements and practical cooperation over
which was supported by the Dutch government
shared waters. In specific cases this has
outside ENVSEC but in line with its findings, and
helped to build understanding, cooperation
the destruction of rocket fuel in a number of EECCA
and long-term development. Examples include
countries where ENVSEC provided initial momentum
environmental-agricultural cooperation in
and support. This gives hope that the initiative's work
the Prespa Lake, a management agreement
will have a longer-term impact and has the potential
and improved information exchange for the
to inspire the continent not only towards 'greening
Dniester basin, and cooperative monitoring in
European security', but equally towards political
the Prut, Kura, Araks/Aras basins and Central
agendas and concrete action.
Source: Environment and Security Initiative, UNEP Regional Office for Europe, see also www.envsec.org.

Map 1.2 Environment and security priority areas in Eastern Europe
LATVIA ga
D au Areas under environmental stress1
ga North-Western Belarus
l
Baltic
Vo
Sea Moscow
va
Klaipeda Areas contaminated by the

Ignalina Chernobyl explosion2
LITHUANIA ina
r
. Dv
pe
Strongly polluted coastal areas
Zap
Dnie
Kaliningrad Important nature: near-border
Vitebsk Smolensk protected areas and
RUSSIA
Vilnius transboundary regions of high
Smolenskaya ecological importance3
Minsk RUSSIA
Grodno Mogilev Nuclear power plants
(operating/closed)
an
Nem Bryansk
BELARUS Polesie Past/current (frozen)
conflicts
Soligorsk Zhlobin
Warsaw Brest Land and territorial disputes
Pripyat Gomel
POLAND Kursk Voronezh Inter-state disputes in the
process of international
Rivnenska Chernihiv or bilateral resolution
na Kurskaya
Lublin Chernobyl Des Novovoronezhskaya Inter-ethnic disputes
Sumy
Do
West-Ukrainian Lutsk Environment and security
n
industrial areas and
Carpathian Mountains Rivne Zhytomyr priority areas
Khmelnitska Kyiv Kharkiv
Lviv
Ternopil Poltava Donbas and adjacent areas
UKRAINE
SLOVAK Cherkasy Notes:
Ivano- Khmelnitskyi Vinnitsya Siv
REP. Frankivsk Kremenchuk . Don
Dn ets 1: Medium to high stress according to
Uzhhorod Dniest e ie per Luhansk
r Pi Dnipropetrovsk 1: national indices of environmental
vd Kirovohrad
Chernivtsi . B Donetsk 1: conditions.
HUNGARY uh
MOLDOVA Zaporizhzhia 2: Caesium-137 activity above
Lower
Dniester and Pivdennoukrainska 1: 555 kBq/m2.
Debrecen Balti
T is
a Transnistria Rostov- 3: Shown only outside of areas under

z
Pr
Berdyansk on-Don 1: medium to strong environmental

ut
Zaporizka
Tiraspol Mykolaiv 1: stress.
Cluj-Napoca Chisinau
Odesa Kherson RUSSIA
Sir
Sea of
et
Gagauzia
ROMANIA Azov THE MAP DOES NOT IMPLY THE
EXPRESSION OF ANY OPINION ON THE
Brasov PART OF ENVSEC PARTNER
ORGANISATIONS CONCERNING THE
Tuzla Island Krasnodar LEGAL STATUS OF ANY COUNTRY,
Lower Danube Zmiinyi Island Simferopol
TERRITORY, CITY OR AREA OF ITS
Sevastopol AUTHORITY, OR DELINEATION OF
Bucharest Crimea
ITS FRONTIERS AND BOUNDARIES.
Constanta
Danu b Black Sea 0 100 200 km
Kozloduy e BULGARIA
Map by UNEP/GRID-Arendal, May 2007
Source: UNEP, UNDP, UNECE, OSCE, REC, NATO, page 34, 2007. Based on: Belarus State University. Atlas of Belarus geography. Minsk 2005;
State Committee for Land Resources, Geodesy and Cartography. National Atlas of Belarus. Minsk 2002; Botnaru V. and O. Kazantseva.
Republic of Moldova. Atlas. Chisinau 2005; State Committee for Natural Resources. Integrated Atlas of Ukraine. Kyiv 2005. Baloga
V.I. (ed.) 20 Years after Chernobyl Catastrophe. National Report of Ukraine. Kyiv 2006; Shevchuk V. E. and V. L. Gurashevsky (eds.)
20 Years after the Chernobyl Catastrophe. National Report. Minsk 2006; Ministry of Environment Protection of Ukraine. On-line
environmental maps (www.menr.gov.ua); ENVSEC consultations 2006–2007.
Growing interdependence This economic interdependence is well illustrated in

Meanwhile, the world economy is characterised by the context of on-going discussions on energy supply
growing globalisation and interdependence, within and demand across the region. Today, nearly a third
which the countries of the entire pan-European of all fuel imports into the western and central Europe
region have become increasingly connected with region come from EECCA countries, mostly from the
each other and with the rest of the world. As Russian Federation — making the Russian Federation
highlighted above, the mobility of people and trade the single most important external supplier of natural
is substantial across the pan-European region. In gas and oil to the European Union (Table 1.5).
parallel, the flow of resources, services, capital,
technology and information between countries Western and central Europe is the main trading
within the region has grown, resulting in a web of partner of the EECCA region. In 2005, more than
interdependence across the region (see Chapter 6). two‑thirds of all merchandise trade of EECCA

Table 1.5 Exports of fuels to the European Union from selected economies by region and supplier
Supplier Value (USD million) Share (%) 2005 Annual change (%)
2005 2000 to 2005
WCE, SEE 211 099 43.2 + 17
European Union (internal trade) (156 717) (32.1)
Norway (49 972) (10.2)
EECCA 107 873 22.1 + 24
Russian Federation (90 433) (18.5)
Kazakhstan (9 806) (2.0)
Africa 65 435 13.4 + 14
Middle East 52 390 10.5 + 10
North America 7 957 1.6 + 15
Asia 7 762 1.6 + 31
South and central America 6 778 1.4 + 18
World 488 434 100.0 + 18
Source: WTO, 2006.
countries was with countries in the pan-European national or regional basis only. Instead, broad
region, whilst the total export volume accounted approaches and international partnerships are
for more than USD 175 billion. Conversely, exports needed to complement domestic efforts. Due
to EECCA countries make up less than 10 % of the to the interdependence and interconnectedness
total exports from the European Union (just below between societies and ecosystems, failures in
USD 100 billion). However, with an annual growth of any part, whether they are economic downturns,
36 % in 2004 and 23 % in 2005, the EECCA region has political conflict, or environmental disasters, have
recently been the fastest growing export market of the implications across the region. Thus, linkages
EU (WTO, 2006). between environmental degradation and poverty
as well as those between political insecurity and
Alongside the economic dimension, globalisation in environmental stress noted above — even when
the social, political, technological and cultural realms distant at first glimpse — are easily brought closer
has also become a defining trend of our time — with to home via the developments and processes that
significant consequences for the environment. Many govern globalisation.
of the current environmental challenges have become
shared concerns, most prominently land-use changes, Another important environmental dimension
climate change and global warming, reduced water of growing international interdependence is the
availability and quality, biodiversity loss and sea level increased geographical decoupling of consumption
rise, all of which have impacts across the region. In from the availability of natural resources. As noted
addition to these global environmental changes, a above, growing energy demands have created a high
number of local-scale environmental concerns have degree of interdependence between western and
also become so widespread that they can be regarded central European countries and the rest of the world
as pan-European and even global phenomena, for in general and the major energy exporters in the
example soil degradation and water scarcity. This EECCA region in particular. This development can
report addresses many of these transboundary and be seen as part of a more general trend of increasing
global environmental challenges in more detail. consumption which, in many parts of Europe,
causes resource needs to extend well beyond the
An overarching consequence of the increasingly available resource-base of the region. In other words,
global nature of environmental concerns is current consumption patterns can no longer be
that it is no longer possible to tackle these on a supported locally in most of the region (see Box 1.4).

Box 1.4 Comparing ecological footprint and biocapacity in the pan-European region
In 2005, the 'global ecological footprint' was The discrepancy between footprint and biocapacity
2.2 global hectares per person (a global hectare (see Map 1.3) gives an indication of a widening
is a hectare with world-average ability to produce sustainability gap from an environmental
resources and absorb wastes). This is believed to perspective. At the same time, this gap shows
be three times the footprint of the 1960s (WWF, the extent to which western and central Europe
2006). For most pan-European sub‑regions the is dependent on using environmental resources
ecological footprint of consumption is estimated to supplied by third countries and makes a strong case
be well above the respective regions' biocapacity, for ensuring that resources, both across — but also
effectively implying that most of the region beyond — the pan-European region, are used in
is running an ecological deficit. (In 2002, the a sustainable manner. This becomes all the more
ecological footprint amounted to about 1.2 global important in the wider context of other global
hectares versus a biocapacity of 1.1 in the environmental changes that threaten to diminish the
Caucasus; 2.2 versus 1.9 in Central Asia, 2.2 planet's biocapacity, such as climate change, water
versus 1.6 in south-eastern Europe, 3.9 versus 5.5 scarcity and biodiversity loss.
in eastern Europe, and 4.7 versus 2.3 in western
and central Europe — based on data available at
www.eea.europa.eu/highlights/Ann1132753060).
Map 1.3 Ecological footprint (top) and biocapacity (bottom)
Note: Top: Ecological footprint — the size of each territory shows the proportion of the global footprint. (The ecological footprint is a
measure of the area needed to support a population's lifestyle. This includes the consumption of food, fuel, wood, and fibres.
Pollution, such as carbon dioxide emissions, is also counted as part of the footprint.)
Bottom: Biocapacity — territory size shows the proportion of all biocapacity that is found there. (Biocapacity measures how
biologically productive land is. It is measured in 'global hectares': a hectare with the world average biocapacity. Biologically
productive land includes cropland, pasture, forests and fisheries).
Note: Global map of land area in identical projection in bottom left corner of respective maps, for comparison.
Source: www.worldmapper.org (copyright 2006 SASI Group (University of Sheffield) and Mark Newman (University of Michigan)) based
on data from WWF, 2006).

1.3 Towards pan-European Development (WSSD) calls for strengthened

sustainable development cooperation to reach these goals.
Facing the challenge: environmental policy At the pan-European level, the intergovernmental
across the pan-European region 'Environment for Europe' (EfE) process provides
In progressing towards sustainable development, a platform for member countries of the United
sound environmental governance is needed to Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE)
tackle the environmental challenges and safeguard to jointly address and tackle environmental concerns
Europe's environment. To do so, it will be in Europe. The First Ministerial Conference of
necessary to adapt effectively to the dynamics and the EfE process in 1991 was hosted at Dobris
transitions outlined above, and continue to integrate Castle in what was then Czechoslovakia. Since
environmental values in all relevant areas of then, four further Ministerial Conferences have
international cooperation, not least by implementing promoted environmental protection and sustainable
agreed international strategies and policies. development in the region (see Box 1.5). Today, this
Environmental and sustainability principles feature process provides a unique partnership that includes
prominently in various international, regional, governments from more than 50 countries —
national and local policy agendas and plans. At the involving virtually the entire pan-European
global level, the Millennium Development Goals region, from Albania to Uzbekistan, as well as the
(MDGs) establish a set of internationally accepted transatlantic UNECE member countries: Canada and
targets, and the World Summit on Sustainable the United States of America.
Box 1.5 The Ministerial Conferences in the 'Environment for Europe' process
Year Ministerial conference in Key outcomes

1991 Dobris, Czechoslovakia Development of a set of basic guidelines for a pan-European
cooperation strategy.
Call for a first pan-European State of the Environment Assessment.
1993 Lucerne, Switzerland Adoption of a Ministerial Declaration setting out the political
dimension of the 'Environment for Europe' process, aiming at
harmonising environmental quality and related policies on the
continent, and securing peace, stability and sustainable development.
1995 Sofia, Bulgaria Adoption of a Ministerial Declaration reaffirming commitment to
cooperation in the field of environmental protection in Europe based
on the principles decided upon at the Second Conference in Lucerne.
1998 Aarhus, Denmark Adoption of the Resolution and Convention on Access to Information,
Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in
Environmental Matters.
2003 Kiev, Ukraine Adoption of a Ministerial Declaration underlining the importance
of the 'Environment for Europe' (EfE) process as a tool to promote
environmental protection and sustainable development in the region,
and adoption of the Environment Strategy for Eastern Europe,
Caucasus and Central Asia (EECCA Strategy).
2007 Belgrade, Serbia The Belgrade conference is designated to be a 'conference of delivery'
and sets out to address three themes:
1) evaluation of progress in the implementation of agreed
commitments;
2) capacity building and partnerships to support implementation; and
3) setting the way forward for EfE process towards a sustainable
future.
Source: Based on www.unece.org/env.

One of the key outcomes of the EfE process so far financial resources to achieve environmental
has been the 'Environment Strategy for Countries of objectives;
eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia' (EECCA • Objective 6: Provide information for
Strategy) adopted at the ministerial conference environmental decision-making, promote public
in Kiev in 2003. The strategy's overall aim is to participation and environmental education;
strengthen efforts in environmental protection and • Objective 7: Identify and address transboundary
to facilitate partnership and cooperation between problems and strengthen cooperation within the
countries in the Eastern Europe, the Caucasus framework of international conventions.
and Central Asia region as well as with the rest
of Europe. Seven initial key objectives and their At the EU level, the overarching policy goals are
respective areas for action have been identified: outlined in the Sustainable Development Strategy
and the Lisbon Strategy on Growth, Jobs, and
• Objective 1: Improve environmental legislation, Competition. These are complemented by the
policies and institutional framework; Environment Action Programmes (EAP), which
• Objective 2: Reduce the risks to human health provide key planning tools for environmental
through pollution prevention and control; policy within the European Union. The current
• Objective 3: Manage natural resources in a 6EAP (adopted in 2002 by the European
sustainable manner; Parliament and European Council) focuses on
• Objective 4: Integrate environmental the priority areas of climate change, nature and
considerations into the development of key biodiversity, natural resources and waste, as well
economic sectors; as environment and health and quality of life. In
• Objective 5: Establish and strengthen addition, it lists seven areas for thematic strategies
mechanisms for mobilising and allocating (see Box 1.6).
Box 1.6 Thematic strategies in the EU's Sixth Environment Action Programme (6EAP)
The thematic strategies introduced in the 6EAP include quantified environmental targets for EU
represent an innovative approach to policy Member States. Two of the thematic strategies
development and a shift away from the previous (urban environment and sustainable use of
incremental policy-making that led to fragmented natural resources) do not include proposals for
legislation. The thematic strategies focus on any legislative measures, but instead focus on
cross‑cutting environmental issues and problems, formulating recommendations for national action
seeking to address them in a systematic and and soft forms of cooperation at EU level.
comprehensive manner, by establishing clear
objectives and timetables for implementation and an
The development process for the thematic strategies
overall framework for future legislative development,
involved several stages. Following initial research
where appropriate. Thematic strategies have been
and a review of existing policies, the European
drawn up for seven areas: air pollution, waste
Commission issued a communication analysing each
recycling and prevention, marine environment, soil
issue, examining various policy options and inviting
protection, sustainable use of pesticides, sustainable
comments from Member States and stakeholders.
use of resources, and urban environment.
This served as a basis for extensive consultations
through the internet and through various meetings
Five of the seven strategies are accompanied by convened by the Commission services. Subsequently,
legislative proposals. In two cases (air pollution each proposed Thematic Strategy was subjected
and waste), these proposals are aimed at revising to a comprehensive Impact Assessment (IA) in
and simplifying existing Community legislation. accordance with the Commission's general guidelines
The three other legislative proposals are proposals for major policy proposals. The broad participatory
for new framework directives (on the protection approach to the development of the Thematic
of the marine environment, the protection of soil, Strategies was intended to involve all relevant
and the sustainable use of pesticides), designed to stakeholders, in accordance with the principles of
achieve the objectives of the respective strategies. the Aarhus Convention, thereby increasing political
These proposed directives do not, however, support for and ownership of the strategies.

The increase in the European Union from for sustainable development addresses relevant
12 Member States in 1990 to 27 Member States participatory and democratic processes as well as
by 2007, led to the implementation of common placing environmental issues in a wider development
environmental regulations across most of western context.
and central Europe. Meanwhile the enlargement
of the membership of the European Environment The concept of ESD typically builds on three main
Agency to 32 member countries in 2007 (the latest components. The first component is the formal
additions being Turkey and Switzerland) ensures education system in schools, which often includes
a shared perspective on environmental issues. environmental topics. This is relatively well
As countries of south-eastern Europe prepare for developed in much of western and central Europe
accession, environmental regulations of the EU are as well as in many SEE and EECCA countries.
being and have been transposed and implemented However, often this still relies on passive transfer of
in this region. In addition, the EU actively promotes information, but increasingly there are developments
cooperation on environmental issues with its towards a more interactive processes (involving, for
immediate neighbours through the European example, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs))
Neighbourhood Policy (4) and the Stabilisation and and addressing environmental issue in the context of
Association and Accession processes for the countries sustainable development.
in South Eastern Europe. The EU–Russia Strategic
Partnership provides an umbrella for strengthening A second component of ESD focuses on non-
cooperation on environmental issues, in particular formal education and raising awareness of all
transboundary elements. sections of society. Public awareness is essential in
encouraging active public participation in decision-
In the next few decades, environmental and making on matters concerning the environment.
sustainable development (SD) strategies will be Examples for this type of non-formal education are
increasingly put to the test of bridging the gap provided in the Aarhus centres on environmental
between policy decisions and the achievement of information (named after the Aarhus Convention)
goals — the 'implementation gap'. Coordination and through information centres established by
across strategies — and between global, international, environment ministries in several countries across the
regional, national and local programmes, plans pan‑European region.
and strategies — will be the other key challenge.
Responses are particularly needed to impacts The third component is adult training and
from long-term environmental shifts including retraining. This area can contribute substantially
climate change. Even well coordinated strategies, towards changing behaviour and working practices
conventions, and programmes can only achieve so for both decision-makers and employees across
much. To bridge the gap it is equally important to society as a whole. NGOs and other independent
better inform, train and educate people in general agencies can play an important role in delivering
about the environment and sustainable development. such training.
The younger generation should be a priority focus, as
they are tomorrow's environmental guardians. The need and the commitment to strengthen ESD
in the region and globally were recognised during
Strengthening education for sustainable the preparation of the World Summit on Sustainable
development Development (WSSD) in 2001, the WSSD in
The relatively new and developing concept of Johannesburg in 2002, and through the adoption
education for sustainable development (ESD) by the UN General Assembly in December 2002 of
aims to expand environmental education. Whilst the resolution 57/254 declaring the period 2005 to
environmental education has previously focussed 2014 as the 'Decade of Education for Sustainable
on the transmission of scientific facts, education Development'.
(4) See also ENP/Progress reports: http://ec.europa.eu/world/enp/documents_en.htm#3.

Enlargement/Progress reports: http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/key_documents/reports_nov_2006_en.htm.

Building on these developments, the Ministerial in Vilnius, Lithuania. It should be noted that a
Environment for Europe Conference in Kiev in platform of NGOs (i.e. the ECO-Forum) played
2003 agreed to develop a UNECE Strategy on ESD, an important role in promoting, drafting and
pulling together ongoing ESD activities across the finalising the UNECE Strategy for ESD.
pan-European region (see Boxes 1.7 and 1.8). The
strategy was adopted in 2005 at the High Level Alongside the ESD Strategy, the 'Vilnius Framework'
Meeting of Environment and Education Ministries was established in recognition of the challenges
Box 1.7 A diversity of actions and initiatives addressing Education for Sustainable Development
At the EU level, the renewed EU Sustainable the adoption of the Hague Declaration). The
Development Strategy (2006) highlights the education component of Baltic Agenda 21 is a
importance of ESD as a 'cross-cutting policy specific initiative to create a network of relevant
contributing to a knowledge society'. It defines the authorities and educational institutions involved in
following guiding principles: the participation of the implementation of sustainable development by
citizens in the decision-making process; the promotion means of education and training. Furthermore, an
of SD through education and public awareness; and Agenda 21 programme for Education in the Baltic
informing of citizens on their environmental impact as Sea region, the 'Baltic 21E' was agreed in 2002.
well as on their options for more sustainable choices. Also in the region, UNESCO has set up a network
Member States are encouraged to further develop of 300 schools in Baltic Sea countries (the Baltic
national action plans, making particular use of the EU Sea project), to focus on the specific environmental
Education and Training 2010 work programme. An problems of the region, giving particular emphasis
integrated action programme on lifelong learning was to sustainable development (the Baltic Sea Project
adopted for 2007–2013 (European Parliament and webpage at www.bspinfo.lt).
Council, 2006).
In Central Asia a pilot review by CAREC (Regional
In the Mediterranean region, the launch of the UN Environment Centre for Central Asia) with support
Decade of Education for Sustainable Development from OSCE Almaty and using the UNECE set of
(DESD) took place in 2005 in Greece. A resolution indicators revealed, amongst other things, that:
was adopted, calling for the development of a • the concept of ESD is relatively new in the
Mediterranean Strategy on ESD, following the UNECE region; and,
model. Other initiatives in the region include the
• in spite of significant progress, the distinction
Mediterranean Network on ESD (MEdIES), which aims
between environmental education and ESD
to engage the educational community in Agenda 21
is still not clear (for example, traditional
and the MDGs, through the implementation of
environmental education activities are often
innovative educational programmes on sustainable
presented in national reviews as ESD).
development (www.medies.net).
(CAREC — Regional Environmental Centre for
Since 2000, the Baltic region has benefited Central Asia, 2006).
from a comprehensive framework for ESD (with
Box 1.8 Six objectives of the UNECE Strategy for Education for Sustainable Development
The basic aims of the UNECE Strategy for Education • strengthen cooperation on ESD at all levels
for Sustainable Development are to: within the UNECE region.
• ensure that the policy, regulatory and The UNECE Strategy provides a comprehensive
operational frameworks support ESD; framework for implementation covering national
• promote SD through formal, non-formal and state implementation, areas for actions, international
informal learning; cooperation, roles and responsibilities of all involved
stakeholders, financial matters, and monitoring and
• equip educators with competence to incorporate evaluation.
SD into their teaching;
• ensure that adequate tools and materials for SD
Source: Strategy for Education for Sustainable Development,
are accessible; Vilnius, 18 March 2005,
• promote research on and development of SD; see www.unece.org/env/esd/Strategy&Framework.htm.

for implementation. This framework envisages a One of the priority actions identified under the
three‑stage implementation timetable. The first phase, 'Vilnius Framework', and at the same time an
in which countries identify their current practices and important tool for measuring progress in the
set priorities for future action, is due for completion implementation of the ESD Strategy, was the
in 2007. The regional implementation of the UNECE development of a specific set of indicators. These
Strategy started to take shape in dedicated regional indicators are structured around the six key objectives
workshops. A UNECE workshop hosted by Greece of the Strategy. Based on the voluntary participation
in November 2005, for example, highlighted that in of countries, a first progress report will be presented
almost all SEE countries, the introduction of ESD at the Belgrade Environment for Europe conference.
principles will coincide with general educational
reforms. A second UNECE workshop, hosted by the It should be noted, that at national level, the range
Russian Federation in November 2006, registered of initiatives strengthening education for sustainable
progress in promoting ESD both at the national and development (ESD) or environmental education
regional level in EECCA countries whilst noting that is diverse (see Box 1.9). Nevertheless, they show
many initiatives are either informal or extra-curricular a broad recognition of the topic across the whole
due to limitations in ESD funding. pan‑European region.
Box 1.9 Examples of national level initiatives on education for sustainable development (ESD) or
environmental education
• In Armenia and Azerbaijan laws on • In Slovakia a national strategy on SD was

environmental education were adopted in 2001 adopted in 2001, complemented more recently
and 2003, respectively. by the adoption of an action plan of sustainable
• Belarus is currently preparing a national development covering the period 2005–2010 and
programme 'Promotion of ESD to the system of aligned to UNECE strategy objectives.
formal and informal education'. • The Russian Federation is developing a national
• In the Czech Republic a national programme of Strategy and Action Plan on ESD in line with the
ESD was approved by the government in 2000 UNECE strategy.
and complemented by a Third Action Plan for the • In the United Kingdom education is recognised
period 2007–2010. A strategy on ESD is subject by the government as a key part of the solution
for adoption in 2007. to sustainable development and features
• France has a comprehensive ESD framework prominently in the British Government's own
through the adoption of both the National strategy of 2005 'Securing the Future'. A
Strategy for Sustainable Development as well as multitude of initiatives are under development
the 'Charte de l'environnement'. The aim is to throughout the country. In Northern Ireland,
develop the attitudes of active and responsible for example, sustainable development will
citizens through appropriate education and have a high profile and become a key theme in
awareness-raising. Since 2004, ESD has been the revised school curriculum at primary and
introduced and integrated in all schools, including post‑primary level from September 2007.
training and adult education programmes. • In Ukraine and Kazakhstan the concept of
A national institution for ESD ('Observatoire environmental education has already been
national pour l'éducation a l'environnement recognised in national legislation since 1991 and
pour un développement durable') was created 1998 respectively.
to provide pedagogical support and elaborate • Uzbekistan has established a programme and a
educational programmes. national network on environmental education and
• Greece is preparing a national strategy on ESD.
ESD following the UNECE model. Furthermore, • Education was also identified as an important
since 2005 special subjects addressing the ESD component of the national environmental
components have been introduced in school strategies, as is the case regarding Armenia's
curricula for the period of 2005–2014. National Action Plan on Environmental Protection,
• In Kyrgyzstan an ESD Coordination Council has and Turkmenistan's Programme on Biodiversity
been established at government level. Conservation (see also Chapter 4, Biodiversity).
Sources: Various sources; including materials presented at UNECE workshops on the implementation of the UNECE Strategy for ESD for
the sub-region of South-East Europe in November 2005 (UNECE, 2005b), for Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia in
November 2006 (UNECE, 2006a), and the UNECE Steering Committee on Education for Sustainable Development in December
2006 (UNECE, 2006b).

Enhancing environmental awareness and including timely and effective notification of public
public participation concern, reasonable timeframes for participation, as
Across the pan-European region it is recognised well as prompt public notification of decisions and
that public participation in decision-making is their underlying justification (see Box 1.10).
central to sustainable development. The Aarhus
Convention (i.e. the UNECE Convention on The availability and accessibility of information
Access to Information, Public Participation is essential for public participation. New
in Decision‑making and Access to Justice in communication and networking tools have
Environmental Matters), adopted in 1998, sets out reshaped the way information is provided and how
requirements for facilitating public participation, it feeds into policy making and implementation.
Box 1.10 Public participation in EECCA and SEE regions
In 2005 the UNECE Secretariat assessed the main tasks, to ensure availability of information
implementation of the Aarhus Convention on the at different levels to all stakeholders from the
basis of reports prepared by countries. The review general public to professionals. Also the Public
showed that EECCA countries have been most active relations office in the Former Yugoslav Republic of
in implementing the access-to-information pillar Macedonia has amongst its tasks the provision of
while the other two pillars are still lacking behind. environmental information and education. A variety
As regards country progress, implementation of the projects focused on raising public awareness
appeared most advanced in Belarus, Kazakhstan, about, and public participation in, environmental
Republic of Moldova and Ukraine, somewhat less policy and decision‑making and implementation is
so in the three Caucasus countries, whereas carried out. […] In this, framework strategies for
Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan seemed to implementation of the Aarhus Convention have
have made the least progress (Excerpt from UNECE, been developed in several SEE countries along with
2005a). implementation guides and a capacity building/
training programmes regarding implementation
Access to official environment information, including practices at national and local levels. Through
national state of environment (SoE) reports, is technical assistance projects, notable progress has
regarded as a prerequisite for public participation been made with respect to stakeholder participation
in the environmental decision-making. National in the development of policies and programmes, but
SoE reports are prepared regularly in seven EECCA participation of NGOs and civil society in permanent
countries (every year in Ukraine, Republic of coordination committees and/or working groups
Moldova, Russian Federation, and in Kyrgyzstan, that have significant influence on the environmental
every two years in Tajikistan, every three years in policy-making has been low. Public participation
Uzbekistan, and every four years in Belarus). Real in project level decision-making has also not yet
practices of public participation are emerging. The become a general practice (Excerpt from UNDP, 2007
public is increasingly allowed, and even encouraged, (Chapter 3.5, Access to information and public
to provide input to draft laws. On-line forums and participation)).
other forms of consultations are being established
to receive feedback from stakeholders during A variety of projects focused on raising public
the design of new environmental regulations. awareness about, and public participation in,
In Kyrgyzstan it has become mandatory. environmental policy and decision-making and
Examples of government/NGO collaboration keep implementation have been carried out. Strategies
increasing — such as work of NGOs in Tajikistan for the implementation of the Aarhus Convention
on compliance assurance and in Kazakhstan on have been developed in several SEE countries
promoting eco‑tourism (Excerpt from OECD, 2007 alongside implementation guides and a capacity
(Chapter 6.2, Public participation in environmental building programmes to strengthen implementation
decision‑making)). at national and local level. Through technical
assistance projects, notable progress has been
In SEE significant progress was mainly achieved made with respect to stakeholder participation in the
in the field of specific legislation related to public development of policies and programmes, although
participation by the ratification of the Arhus participation of NGOs and civil society in permanent
convention and/or through the adoption of national coordination committees and/or working groups has
laws and strategies in this area. However, the been low. Furthermore, public participation in project
implementation of access to information acts is not level decision-making has not yet become a general
going smoothly across the region. For example the practice (Excerpt from UNDP, 2007 (Chapter 3.5,
Croatian Environmental Agency has, as one of its Access to information and public participation)).

This is as true for environment as it is for other Thus, new communication and networking
policy areas. Indeed, never before have people been opportunities provide a platform to further
as connected as they are today. The internet has enhance transparency in policy making, public
not only revolutionised access to information and participation and environmental justice. However,
knowledge and facilitated the spreading of ideas, it environmental awareness does not always lead to
has also empowered citizens more than ever before a change in behaviour. 'E-government' initiatives
to express their opinions and to be engaged in and are radically improving access to information, but
influence policies. Already we see a growing public not necessarily motivating public participation
awareness, albeit uneven, of environmental issues in policy processes. In many WCE countries,
across the pan-European region. On-line debates governments have formulated and implemented
about the future of the European Union reveal that national 'e‑government' strategies for the use of
concerns for environment and the quality of life of electronic tools to facilitate administrative processes
future generations are high on EU citizens' agenda. and services. Nevertheless, taking the step from
increased awareness of the public to enhanced
Nevertheless, it should be noted that access to the individual, corporate and local-level responsibility
internet is still uneven across the region. In 2006, remains a challenge for policy makers and society at
on average more than half of households in WCE large (see Box 1.11).
had access to the internet, ranging from 23 % in
Greece to above 75 % in the Netherlands, Denmark Improving and sharing environmental
and Sweden (Eurostat, 2006). Large differences can information
also be seen within the EECCA region: Tajikistan The formulation of environmental policies and
and Turkmenistan have virtually no access to monitoring of their impacts relies on the availability
internet (0.1 % and 0.5 % respectively) while and quality of the underlying data and information.
in Belarus 35 % of the population have access. Measuring the environmental impact of human
However, these gaps are disappearing fast. Growth activities is a complex issue requiring a holistic
figures for 2000–2007 show a more than 20-fold approach, extensive inter-disciplinary cooperation
increase for some countries (Internet World Stats, and access to a vast amount of data. Today,
2007). information and communication technology is
already widely used to ease the tasks of gathering,
Environmental information available through storing and processing environmental data, and
the internet has generally or partly increased available computational power can deal with huge
since 2005 throughout the region. Most countries amounts of data, opening new perspectives for
maintain national web portals or other sites of advanced modelling.
interest to ensure that environmental information
is available electronically. Several countries Overall, the European capacity to access and manage
have an Aarhus Clearinghouse web portal (5) in the wide range of information and services required
operation to promote the exchange of information, for environmental management is still fragmented
and to ensure public access to information and and suffers from considerable heterogeneity in
participation in decision-making. Such web portals terms of organisation, system architecture, technical
have often been used in public consultation implementation and data structure as well as data
processes. The Belgian website (6), for example, access policy. The challenge is to interconnect the
regularly features consultations on environmental many information sources and to build an integrated
decisions and acts as a portal to direct citizens and dynamic information system for environmental
to national or local level e-consultation websites. management. Currently activities regarding
Nevertheless, much work is still needed to integrated assessment and reporting on the state
improve procedures for e‑participation in both the and outlook of the environment increasingly rely
EU and EECCA region. on spatial information, including remote sensing
(5) For further details see http://aarhusclearinghouse.unece.org.

(6) See www.aarhus.be.

Box 1.11 Local Agenda 21 achievements
Local governments are important actors in Active involvement: Local Agenda approaches
implementing sustainability strategies. They are that incorporate various stakeholders have
essential partners of the European Commission and become a precondition for successfully defining
national governments in supporting environmental and implementing local policies. Increasingly, joint
and sustainability targets. At the same time, many implementation has become a key purpose to
local governments across Europe have started their encourage early cooperation of stakeholders.
own initiatives in developing and disseminating
innovative approaches towards public participation,
Local sustainability management: Following
environmental protection and resource management,
the process outlined in the Aalborg Commitments,
as well as integrating the social, economic and
Cities and Towns build on planning cycles including
environmental perspective into their future
the following steps: Baseline Review, Target
development.
Setting, Political Commitment, Implementation and
Monitoring, as well as Evaluation and Reporting.
In 1994, the first European Sustainable Cities and
Towns Conference, in Aalborg (Denmark) adopted the
Partnerships: An increasing number of local
Aalborg Charter which outlined the concept of 'urban
governments are joining European-wide projects for
sustainability' and local action. It has since been
pioneering and advancing innovative policies. For
signed by more than 300 local governments across
example, 25 cities, towns, and regions have joined
40 European countries. Ten years later, in 2004, the
the R&D project 'Managing Urban Europe 25'; see
Aalborg Commitments reinforced the existing Local
www.mue25.net.
Agenda 21 processes and opened new prospects for
actions, by designing flexible tools to be used at local
level in the context of existing and future action plans European impulses: Ideas, support systems,
(for more information see www.sustainable-cities.eu). directives, and funding from the European level
have instigated activities on the local level and
continue to provide an important catalyst for action.
This umbrella initiative covers a range of important
For example The European mobility week initiates
local government activities, such as:
car-free days in many cities.
Leadership: Local leaders and decision-makers

Research and action: The European Commissions'
increasingly show commitment to moving
Framework Programmes for Research have
communities towards sustainability; urban
supported a multitude of cooperation projects
sustainability and environmental protection have
between researchers and local governments.
become important political themes independent of
One of many results is the Internet portal 'local
party politics.
sustainability'; see www.localsustainability.eu.
Public awareness: Increasingly, among thousands

Support mechanisms: Available support
of cities and towns in Europe, sustainability issues
mechanisms substantially increase the efficiency of
are rated higher on the local agenda. The City of
local action, helping local authorities to fulfil their
Oslo, for example, has calculated its impact on the
responsibilities towards targeted environmental
globe through an 'ecological footprint' analysis — as
protection and sustainable development. Examples
starting point for raising awareness.
of such support mechanisms include the Italian
Local Agenda 21 Association; Service-Agency
Implementation: In moving from awareness Communities in One World; local government
to action a multitude of local governments has associations such as ICLEI, CEMR, Climate Alliance,
successfully developed and implemented policies for Energie-Cités, Union of Baltic Cities and support
urban sustainability. The City of Växjö in Sweden, for agencies such as the Regional Environmental Centre
example, set the target of becoming 'fossil fuel free' in Budapest.
by 2050.
Source: ICLEI-Local Governments for Sustainability, European Secretariat, www.iclei-europe.org.
data. European and other international initiatives Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES)
such as the development of an Infrastructure for and the Global Earth Observation System of Systems
Spatial Information in Europe (Inspire), the Global (GEOSS) support this trend.

Current technology allows us to build integrated developing an infrastructure for spatial information
information systems where environmental in Europe (Inspire):
institutions and service providers can share data and
information without barriers, irrespective of the issue • information should be managed as closely as
(e.g. water, air, soil, climate change), mandate (local, possible to its source;
sub-regional, regional, or global), technology (in situ • information should be provided once and shared
or satellite monitoring), language or location. with others for many purposes;
• information should be accessible to enable
In dialogue with the Member States, the EU has clients to make comparisons at the appropriate
recently agreed upon the concept of a Shared geographical scale (e.g. countries, cities,
Environmental Information System for Europe catchment areas); and
(SEIS). This is progress since the Third Assessment, • information should be made available to
where the idea was presented only as a vision. the public after due consideration of the
The scope of SEIS is to establish an integrated and appropriate level of aggregation, given possible
sustained environmental information system to confidentiality constraints, and at national level in
improve the sharing of data within Europe and the national language(s).
beyond. Such an information system should lead to
an improvement in both the quality of environmental SEIS is based on a distributed or decentralised
data and information, and in its management, use network of public information providers for sharing
and dissemination. The benefits of such a shared environmental data and information. This concept
information system are compelling and have already reflects, on the one hand, Europe's commitment
been recognised by regional and international to an open society and good governance, and, on
organisations beyond Europe. For example, at the other hand, the possibilities offered by today's
the regional level, within the framework of the information and communication technology. SEIS
Barcelona Convention, UNEP/MAP (Mediterranean is seen as an evolution, not a revolution, building
Action Plan) has proposed to establish a shared on discussions that began in the late 1990s on how
environmental and sustainable development to streamline reporting of data and information by
information system for the Mediterranean region, countries to the European and international level.
InfoMAP. This will be based on the SEIS concept and Effective implementation of SEIS will contribute
will make use of tools and technologies which already considerably to the EU policy agenda of better
exist at the European level and can be customised. regulation and streamlining of reporting processes.
Such an approach will allow InfoMAP to evolve as an In particular, if the objective of SEIS can be achieved,
integral component of a Mediterranean SEIS, while it should be possible to replace or reduce many of
meeting the specific requirements of the Barcelona the existing data reporting requirements — to the
Convention and user needs across the region. European Commission, international conventions,
EEA and others — while at the same time not only
At the international level, UNEP has expressed maintaining, but also improving, access to the
interest in learning from European experiences over information and assessments needed for policy work.
many years of networking and sharing data and
information. In addition, some convention secretariats Major challenges of SEIS are to: organise, among
are looking closely at the organisational and the many actors in Europe, the vast array of existing
content‑related aspects of SEIS, in order to facilitate environmental data and information; to integrate
a more coherent approach to data and information these, where desirable, with existing data and
delivery and dissemination at the global level. information from the social and economic realms;
make them available together with tools that
SEIS will be built incrementally upon the information allow experts to do their own analyses; and finally,
and systems that already exist in the EU Member communicate them in ways which the public can
States, other European countries and at the readily understand and use as a basis for their own
international level. The concept of SEIS is based on actions. Thus, 'collaboration' and 'coordination' are
similar principles to those applied in the Directive for essential for the success of SEIS.

Box 1.12 Strengthen environmental monitoring and information management
Data collection: EECCA countries have a long seven in the Russian Federation, and Armenia has
history of collecting environmental data. These earmarked USD 420K for air and water monitoring
efforts involve a broad array of institutions such in 2007–2008. Thanks to those efforts, monitoring
as hydro-meteorological and geological services, of fine particulate matter (PM10) has finally started
environmental inspectorates, water and forestry in the region — in Moscow since 2004 and in Minsk
committees, and health ministries. However, since 2006. In addition to ambient data, getting hold
institutional coordination is loose, at best, and often of emissions data is crucial for the environmental
results in incompatible data. To start solving this information system to produce usable results.
problem, inter-agency monitoring commissions have
been established in Belarus and Ukraine. Belarus'
Dissemination: Website-based communications
model emphasises streamlining of information flows
are taking off — several countries have worked
(11 agencies are obliged by law to provide data),
on developing their websites and Azerbaijan has
while Ukraine's model emphasises harmonisation
included an environmental electronic information
with the EU. Little coordination seems to be taking
centre where a state-of-the-environment bulletin is
place in most other countries — such as Republic of
posted daily. But those websites are not fully used for
Moldova or Tajikistan.
communicating environmental information (whether
statistical data, environmental analyses, strategies or
Environmental monitoring: Overall, progress in programme implementation reports).
environmental monitoring is mixed. Little progress on
monitoring priority-setting has taken place, with the
Data storage and management is still a major
exception of Belarus. Progress on harmonisation is
issue. Environmental data are not always stored
also slow — for example, air quality data generated
using electronic media, databases being sketchy and
by hydro-meteorological services and ministries
generally inaccessible (Tajikistan measurements are
of health are still generally incompatible as they
still recorded on paper). Although in many EECCA
use differing equipment and methods. In most
countries the publication of the national state of
cases, existing observation networks have not
the environment report serves as a driving force for
been reviewed since their inception decades ago
environmental data coordination and exchange, this
and do not meet current national requirements.
has not yet resulted in the creation of centralized
Some significant efforts are being made. Armenia,
electronic databases. Environmental statistics are
Azerbaijan and Uzbekistan have developed, or are
frequently published in statistical yearbooks and
in the process of developing, monitoring plans.
specialised environmental statistical compendiums.
Armenia, Belarus, Russian Federation and Tajikistan
But with few exceptions these data are unavailable
have installed a number of new air quality monitoring
on the internet.
stations. Funding for monitoring has multiplied by
Source: Excerpt from OECD, 2007.
Progress in the management and sharing of terms. In the field of environment, the past few
environmental information is gradually observed years have seen a number of initiatives to identify
also in the EECCA, region although the picture is key indicators, update them or look for ways of
relatively mixed across the region (see Box 1.12). streamlining. Driven by the EEA, the establishment
Over the past few years the UNECE Working of a set of indicators for monitoring environmental
Group on Environmental Monitoring and progress across all member countries was initiated
Assessment (WGEMA) has continued to provide in 2001. The first outcome was completed in 2004
capacity building and in particular develop with the establishment of an EEA core set of
guidelines for indicator and assessment reporting indicators, fed primarily through the EEA priority
leading to, among other things, the development data flows and designed to answer key policy
of a compenduim of EECCA indicators in questions at both international and Community
coorporation with UNEP and EEA (UNECE, 2007 levels. Since then, the set has been updated
(ECE/CEP/2007/7)). annually and reviewed regularly to maintain its
policy relevance. Moreover the information is freely
Meanwhile, environmental indicators have become available on-line via the EEA website. Wherever
a major instrument for assessing performance and possible the report makes use of these indicators
for communicating complicated issues in simple for conveying key findings.

The western Balkan countries, which have been One additional challenge will be to collect data and
cooperating with the EEA for several years and develop indicators for the less established policy
have put in place most of the priority data flows, issues which are of increasing importance. There
have also initiated a process of using the EEA core are many 'traditional' policy areas, including, for
set of indicators in the region. Consequently, in example, air emissions and water quality, where a
2006 within a CARDS/EEA support project, the significant amount of information has been collected
first indicators for the western Balkan countries over the years. On the other hand, more recent
using the EEA methodology were produced. This policies identify new areas where information is
activity has brought a number of benefits. Among needed, such as environmental impacts of resource
others, a detailed analysis of the existing reporting use, consumption patterns, health and environment,
obligations at national and international level was global shifts of environmental burdens, or chemicals
made, additional monitoring requirements for in the environment. It will be necessary to provide
regular indicator production were identified, and relevant data and information on these emerging
considerable expertise was accumulated at the areas to better target policies and monitor their
national level while producing the indicators. implementation.
In 2002, within the preparation phase of the

Kiev report, the development of key indicators 1.4 Assessing the pan-European
was extended to the EECCA countries through state of the environment
UNECE/WGEMA with TACIS/EEA assistance.
With the EEA core set of indicators as a reference, Background and context of the report
the EECCA core set gradually took shape with In support of the 'Environment for Europe'
substantial input from the EECCA experts process, the European Environment Agency
assisted by partner organisations. Indicators has been regularly requested to prepare state
which are similar to the EEA core set in structure, of the environment assessments that provide
methodology and policy relevance have been policy‑relevant, up-to-date and reliable information
established. The key products of this work are a on the interactions between environment and
methodological guide to producing the EECCA society for the pan-European region. The first
indicators, complemented by a trial compendium such pan-European assessment entitled 'Europe's
which contains a number of selected EECCA Environment' was presented in Sofia in 1995, in
indicators. These are important steps towards response to a request for such a report at the First
streamlining environmental reporting across Ministerial Conference. Since then, the EEA has
the pan-European region. These two products produced and presented, updated assessments
accompany this report as they underline the need to further support the 'Environment for Europe'
for long-term cooperation and partnership in (EfE) process (see Section 1.3) at the Ministerial
building a sustainable process. Conferences in 1998 and 2003.
In the long term it is expected that all these activities For its fourth assessment, the EEA has been
will be integrated into one single process aiming called upon to give particular attention to priority
towards the establishment of a coherent coreset areas such as: air emissions, urban air quality,
of environmental indicators for the pan-European transboundary inland and groundwater pollution,
region. Furthermore, SEIS could represent the marine pollution, chemical, hazardous waste, waste
information platform to regularly present key management, human health and biodiversity. This
indicators for various policy needs at different fourth pan-European state of the environment report
levels. It is expected that a process of streamlining assesses progress towards goals and targets for these
and harmonisation of environmental information and other environmental priorities. It does this by
will gradually facilitate the production of various building on, and complementing, the work of a suite
assessment reports, among which the future of international organisations and institutions as
pan‑European assessments will feature. well as individual countries (Figure 1.5).

Figure 1.5 Context of the EEA's pan-European State of the Environment Assessment report
National level Pan-European and regional Global

(i.e. WCE, SEE, EECCA, the Caucasus, Eastern Europe,
Central Asia, Western Balkans,
SEE, EU-15 and EU-10)
Environmental
Policy review
EECCA 6th EAP

Policy
Environmental Strategy Mid-term
in South East
performance Progress Review
Europe
reviews
(OECD, 2007) (EU, 2007)
(UNDP, 2007)
Carpathian
Environment
GEO-4
Outlook
Pan-European (UNEP, 2007a)
Environment
Cross-cutting
(UNEP, 2007b) Assessment
(EEA, 2007)
The European
State OECD
Environment —
of the Environment
State and
environment Outlook
Outlook 2005
reports
(OECD, 2007)
(EEA, 2005)
State
Pan-European
National Environment of transboundary Millennium
Ecological
Communications and Health waters and Ecosystem
Network Progress
UNFCCC Assessment international Assesment
Report
lakes
(CEHAPE)
Thematic focus
(PEBLDS, 2007) (MA, 2005)

(WHO, 2007) (UNECE, 2007b)
Mapping SCP
NEHAP Implementation Climate Change
in SEE and
(National of the — Fourth
EECCA
environment UNECE Strategy Assessment
countries
and health for ESD Report
action
(UNEP/EEA,
programmes) (UNECE, 2007a) (IPCC, 2007)
2007)
Source: EEA, 2007.
Thus, this report should be seen and read as a step coherent environmental information. In particular,
in the journey towards a hitherto unprecedented this report complements the regional‑focused
cooperation and partnership between European policy reviews provided by OECD (for the EECCA
countries and a range of regional and international region, see Box 1.13), UNDP (for South East
organisations, including the European Europe, see Box 1.14) and the European Union
Environment Agency, to provide better and more (see Box 1.15).

A brief guide to reading the report risks to human health. In addition, the impact
The fourth assessment report focuses on a number of hazardous chemicals on these environmental
of pressing concerns which the pan-European media is highlighted, and in a separate section
region currently faces. Although it provides a the impacts on health and quality of life are
broad overview of key environmental challenges, considered. Chapter 3 is dedicated to the
the report does not aim or claim to be a fully discussion of trends, impacts and adaptation to
comprehensive assessment. In response to the climate change. The issue of climate change is one
request of the Kiev Ministerial Declaration, of the four areas of priority action addressed in
it highlights progress, measured against the the 6EAP and is likely to affect society's ability to
environmental goals outlined in the 'EU Sixth meet objectives to manage natural resources in a
Environment Action Programme' (6EAP) and in sustainable manner.
the 'Environment Strategy for Countries of Eastern
Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia' (EECCA Both the EECCA Strategy and the EU 6EAP also
Strategy). Thus, the focus of this assessment specifically refer to the need for biodiversity
is on the current state of the environment and conservation and protection of ecosystems.
developments since the turn of the century. Chapter 4 looks in detail at the challenge of
halting biodiversity loss. Chapter 5 then expands
Chapter 2 of the report evaluates progress in air, the discussion of managing natural resources to
water and soil quality in the context of reducing the marine and coastal environment. In doing so,
Box 1.13 Progress in Environmental Management in Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia
The OECD report concludes that progress across The experience since 2003 confirms that
different policy areas is uneven. It highlights that environmental progress in EECCA will take much
notable progress seems to have been made in the longer than in central European countries. But there
context of compliance, water supply and sanitation, are signs that consistency and patience will pay
water resources management and agriculture. In off — recent progress in some countries was made
contrast, less progress seems to have been made possible by the foundations established several years
on waste management, biodiversity, transport, and earlier.
energy efficiency. The report also notes that progress
is rarely consistent — there is little evidence of
Although there is no single roadmap for accelerating
countries taking a coherent approach to reform in
progress in environmental management across
any single policy area. It is not random, however, it
EECCA countries, a number of key, common areas for
is driven by various factors such as donor support,
action have been identified:
industrial lobbying, presidential attention, and
determined leadership.
• a clear vision of where each EECCA country
wants to go and how to get there
A key problem is the implementation status —
• a step-by-step approach to reform
from lack of implementing regulations to weak
enforcement capabilities. The implementation • a stronger focus on implementation
gap is particularly evident at the sub-national • an approach that focuses on providing real
level — where progress in many environmental incentives to encourage improved environmental
issues will ultimately be decided. Another finding performance
relates to the relationship between environmental
• an improved institutional framework
authorities and line ministries. While it is increasingly
recognised that progress on environmental policy • a comprehensive approach to environmental
integration will largely determine overall progress financing
towards environmental sustainability, environmental • a strategic investment in skills
authorities are still ill-prepared to engage in • a stronger engagement of stakeholders
meaningful cross-sectoral policy dialogue and little
progress has been made towards adopting integrated • a more supportive international cooperation
policy responses. framework.
Source: Based on OECD, 2007.

it provides the first update of a comprehensive addresses the role of key economic sectors,
assessment of the state of the marine environment including agriculture, energy, transport, tourism,
presented in the first pan-European assessment with respect to the state of the environment. At
report in 1995. the EU level, but also in the EECCA strategy, the
integration of environmental considerations into
The issue of environmental impacts of the development of key economic sectors is an
consumption and production has moved up the important objective.
policy agenda over the last couple of years and
is often discussed alongside the issue of waste Where possible and meaningful, the assessment
management and resource use. Chapter 6 focuses of the issues presented in this report is illustrated
on sustainable consumption and production as by indicators that reflect recent changes in the
well as waste management. Finally, Chapter 7 state of the environment. It makes use of the
Box 1.14 Progress in Environmental Policy in South East Europe
The UNDP report points out that the environment gradually comply with the EU standards and
sector has been one of the leaders in the overall norms;
reform process in the region. With donor support key • climate change — still no national
successes have been achieved: communications on GHG, Kyoto Protocol not
ratified;
• major progress in institutional development, • environmental financing — some investments
drafting and adoption of new environmental in environmental infrastructure are recorded
legislation and capacity building for sustainable in the past years, yet very low (and not
development; growing significantly) share of environmental
• comprehensive policies and programmes have expenditures in state budgets;
been developed and adopted in the environment • economic sectors (energy, tourism, transport,
sector (including NEAPs, NEHAPs, waste, water agriculture) — there is an evident move towards
and wastewater master plans); integration of environmental and sustainable
• international environmental agreements and the development issues in sectoral policies, yet
EU acquis are playing an important role in the implementation remains rather slow.
process of environmental improvement in the
region; Finally, the report stresses that important challenges
• regional cooperation in the environment sector for the future remain in the following areas:
has been strong especially in environmental
enforcement and compliance, but needs to be
• there is limited success of mechanisms for the
extended to other sectors;
integration of environmental aspects into other
• the NGOs are progressing steadily and are policies, particularly at the level of strategic
gradually becoming capable of undertaking documents and in sectors where the link with
significant projects and actions, thereby the environment is clear;
influencing environmental decisions.
• effective compliance with EU legislation requires
a higher level of investment and considerable
Meanwhile, the report sees mixed success in the administrative effort, especially in the areas of
following: waste management and water treatment;
• only limited success in ensuring that the
• Increased public participation in environmental appropriate institutional set-up is provided
(and in general) policy making, yet there is around environmental projects, and in ensuring
much room for improvements both in this a sufficiently high quality of the proposed
area and in particular in the area of access to projects in the first place;
information; • major weaknesses in the country's enforcement
• Most environmental legislation is in place; capacity need to be addressed before the Acquis
although implementation is lagging behind. can be effectively implemented. Data collection
A step-by-step approach will be needed to needs to be strengthened in a number of key
areas.
Source: Based on UNDP, 2007.

EEA core set of indicators (CSI) i.e. a selection of and the impacts these changes may entail. In
indicators that are updated regularly to describe appreciation of the full chain of causalities
the state of the environment in WCE countries and interdependencies outlined in the driving
as well as in some countries in SEE (see EEA, forces — pressures — state — impact — response
2005). This set of indicators is complemented by framework (DPSIR framework), we provide a
a selection of further indicators available across background for discussing options to address
the pan‑European region. Annex 3 of this report environmental concerns in a sustainable manner.
presents these indicators and provides an outlook
on the expected future development of selected As far as possible, this report presents
issues described by the indicators. environmental information on the state of the
environment covering all 53 pan-European
However, this assessment goes beyond countries of the 'Environment for Europe' (EfE)
indicator‑based reporting. Environmental changes process. As outlined in Table 1.1, this includes
and the pressures that cause them can only be all of western and central Europe; south-eastern
properly understood, if they are discussed in the Europe including the western Balkans, as well as
context of the human activities or driving forces eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia.
which give rise to them. The report therefore Alongside information for individual countries,
takes an integrated perspective — as have some issues are discussed for groups of countries
previous pan‑European assessment reports — to highlight commonalities and allow more general
when describing the state of the environment conclusions, or in some cases, because information
Box 1.15 Progress in environmental policy in European Union
Overall EU environmental policy has contributed the proposed framework Directive on Waste,
to the improvement of the quality of life of its the Landfill Directive and the Waste Shipment
citizens and significant progress has been made in Regulation. An Action Plan on EU Sustainable
areas such as: greenhouse gas emissions, wetland Consumption and Production is also expected in
conservation, sustainable forest management and 2007.
waste management. Sustainable development is the
overarching objective of the EU. Despite the progress
achieved in many areas, Europe is not yet on the Apart from the four thematic areas identified in the
path towards a genuinely sustainable development. 6th Environment Action Plan, attention will be given:
Further actions are oriented towards:
• to enhance international cooperation in
• on climate change: further cutting of addressing global concerns (climate change,
greenhouse gases and shift towards a low carbon biodiversity loss etc.) doubled by strengthening
economy; continue playing a leading role at the regional approach (with particular focus on
global level in this area; formulation of options the Mediterranean, Baltic and Black Seas);
for action to adapt to climate change; • to improve the use of market mechanisms,
• on nature and biodiversity: full and effective closely involving in this work all the stakeholders
implementation of existing legislation; (such as NGOs and the private sector) and to
promote good regulatory practices;
• on environment, health and the quality
of life: ensure the implementation in the • to improve environmental information (in
medium term of four pieces of legislation: Water particular by the development of a Shared
Framework Directice, the chemicals legislation Environmental Information System (SEIS));
REACH, the current proposal for a directive on • to promote policy integration (by better
ambient air quality and clean air for Europe integrating environmental concerns into
and the proposal for a framework directive on agriculture, research and development policies)
pesticides; and to improve the implementation and
• on natural resources and wastes: enforcement of EU legislation by Member States
implementation of the Thematic Strategy on (a revised strategy on implementation and
Waste Prevention and Recycling, including enforcement will be presented in 2007).
Source: Based on Mid-term review of the Sixth Environment Action Programme of the European Union — COM(2007)225 final.

is either only available or meaningful at an is substantial room for further improvement in

aggregate level. making much-needed data and information not only
available, but also more comparable and reliable. In
Reporting on the progress achieved over the past this respect, the present report manages only partially
four years with regard to the state of the environment to achieve its mandate. Nevertheless, the report
proved to be challenging and the results vary greatly highlights for each thematic area where progress has
from one thematic area to another. Environmental been achieved and which current challenges need to
information is still diverse across the region, and be fully and better addressed — to support the future
availability and reliability differs considerably. There 'Environment for Europe' process.

02
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Environment and health perspective
2.2 Air quality
2.3 Inland waters
2.4 Soil
2.5 Hazardous chemicals
Environment and health

and the quality of life
Environment and health and the quality of life | Introduction
2.0 Introduction
A healthy environment is essential for improving consequences of many of these are currently
development and sustaining human well-being being exacerbated by a lack of preparedness and
(GEO-4, 2007; EEA, 2005). Human health is one by human activities (Section 2.1 and Chapter 5,
of the key constituents of human well-being, Marine and coastal environment).
and the need to protect it by achieving a good
quality of the environment is highlighted in the The strongest evidence of environment-related
EECCA Environment Strategy and the EU Sixth health impacts and the best known overall health
Environment Action Programme (6EAP). effects are from air pollution (Section 2.2) and
those related to poor water quality and insufficient
Chapter 2 of this report 'Environment and sanitation (Section 2.3). Much less is known
health and the quality of life' focuses on the about the health impacts of hazardous chemicals
environmental media specified in these policy (Section 2.5), particularly at the low exposure
documents in the context of human health: air, levels normally experienced by most Europeans
water, and soil. This is complemented by the over long, sometimes life-long periods, and
cross��
‑��
cutting issue of hazardous chemicals. usually from a combination of sources.
The chapter addresses the ways they influence
and impact human health in the pan-European Chemical substances can be transported and
region, and presents some regional estimates accumulate in soil (Section 2.4), leading to
of the burden of ill health attributable to major contamination of crops or pollution of ground and
environmental factors. Due to lack of reliable data, surface waters, and ultimately to human exposure.
these estimates are not comprehensive and will Soil degradation combined with unsustainable
require further work. land use is indirectly linked to human health.
Knowledge of the impacts of soil quality on human
There have been substantial developments in health is limited, and further assessment of the
policies and initiatives that address environment scientific information is needed.
and health hazards in the region since the Kiev
conference. The chapter examines the effectiveness Many pollutants in air, water and soil that are
of the environmental measures being taken, with known to have significant health effects are
the focus on EECCA and SEE countries. Progress gradually coming under (regulatory) control
in implementation is relatively slow and varies (e.g. Clean Air for Europe (CAFE); Registration,
markedly across the region. Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals
(REACH)). However, there is a large and
The chapter reflects some aspects of the probably growing number of substances entering
scientific complexity of environment and health the environment from a wide range of human
relationships (Section 2.1, Environment and activities, whose environmental pathways and
health perspective). Emerging issues related to effects on health are poorly understood.
environment and health, mostly the subject of
continuing research, are not extensively discussed. Other aspects of environmental issues relevant
This is, for example, the case for several physical to human health are covered in the subsequent
stressors. The health impacts of environmental chapters of the report. Climate change (Chapter 3)
noise are probably underestimated and require is likely to contribute directly to the global
further attention. Increased UV intensity and burden of disease and premature death through
human exposure is a growing health concern. changing weather patterns and indirectly through
Electromagnetic fields from power lines and radio changes in air, water, ecosystems, food quality
transmitters are receiving much public attention, and quantity (e.g. influences on plant pests and
although scientific evidence of health impacts is diseases), agriculture (droughts, crop failure, etc.),
still weak. distribution of infectious diseases, and, overall,
on the economy. The effects may currently be
Human health is also threatened by natural small but they are projected to increase in all
disasters and man-made hazards, and the countries and regions (IPCC, 2007). Concerted

Environment and health and the quality of life | Introduction
international cooperation, involving a broad range forests for household fuel can reduce the risk of
of stakeholders and the development of adaptation landslides).
policies are necessary to tackle the problem.
Transport, a major contributor to human exposure
The health benefits of maintaining biodiversity to air pollution and noise, especially in urban areas,
(Chapter 4) include supportive recreational is also linked to the patterns of human physical
outdoor environments and the provision of natural activity. Transport-related accidents have major
medicines and locally relevant crops (MA, 2005; direct impacts on human health (Section 7.2).
BirdLife, 2006).
An extensive overview of current environment and
The quality of the marine environment (Chapter 5), health issues has recently been presented in a joint
including the availability and contamination of EEA/JRC report (EEA, 2005). A comprehensive
fish and other sea food, and toxic algae, can affect assessment of environment‑related health problems
human health in various ways. requires consideration of risk factors that include
genetics, lifestyle, and workplace quality, as well as
The sustainable use of natural resources, political, socio‑economic and demographic factors
production and consumption patterns, and waste (Chapter 1). In the broader context of the complex
management (Chapter 6) can contribute to reducing interrelations between human health, well-being,
hazardous exposures, and also to improving the environment, socio-economy, and culture, further
quality of the immediate human environment and assessments should be based on the ecosystems
making it safer (e.g. reducing the cutting of local approach (1) (MA, 2005a).
(1) In this conceptual framework, people are an integral part of and in a dynamic interaction with other parts of ecosystems. Human
well-being is underpinned by the benefits provided by ecosystems (e.g. fresh water, air, relatively stable climate). 'Ecosystem
services' can be classified as: provisioning (e.g. food and fresh water), regulating (e.g. climate regulation, water purification),
supporting (needed for the production of all other ecosystem services, e.g. nutrient cycling), and cultural (non-material benefits,
e.g. cultural heritage) (MA, 2005a).

Environment and health and the quality of life | Environment and health perspective
2.1 Environment and health perspective
Photo: Cycling in the Silesian forest, Poland © Waldemar Jarosinski
Key messages
• Major environment-related health concerns • Although cause and effect relationships are
in the pan-European region continue to be hard to establish, there appear to be a number
linked to poor air and water quality, hazardous of associations between outdoor and indoor
chemicals, and noise. These are often air pollution, water and soil contamination,
interconnected through common driving forces hazardous chemicals and noise and respiratory
or pressures. and cardiovascular diseases, cancer, asthma,
allergies, as well as disorders of reproductive
• The burden of ill health attributable to and neuro-developmental systems.
environmental causes is much higher in EECCA
and SEE than in WCE. One reason for this is • There is growing concern about adverse
the coexistence and combination of 'traditional' impacts of exposures to low levels of
(e.g. unsafe water and sanitation) and chemicals, often in complex mixtures. Several
'modern' (e.g. urban air pollution, chemicals) adult diseases are suggested to be linked to
hazards. exposure in very early childhood or exposure
of parents before conception. Persistent
• Responses to environment-related health chemicals with long-term effects, and those
challenges in Europe at the international, used in long-life articles, may present risks
regional and national level are improving. even after their production has been phased
International action plans focus on out.
children's health and reducing the burden of
environment-related health problems in this • Human health impacts of soil degradation
vulnerable group. However, for many health across Europe are currently difficult to
hazards, actions lag well behind policies. estimate. Efforts to achieve the sustainable
use of soil will also have positive impacts on
human health and quality of life.
• The health toll of natural disasters such as
violent storms, floods, heatwaves, landslides
and droughts is being exacerbated by
urbanisation, deforestation and climate
change, and lack of preparedness.

2.1.1 Introduction Evaluation and Authorisation and Restriction of

Chemicals (REACH), the proposal for a directive on
The major environment-related health threats in ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe, and
Europe are air pollution, poor water quality and, in the proposal for a framework directive on pesticides
some areas, inadequate quantity, poor sanitation, are highlighted in the mid-term review of 6 EAP
and hazardous chemicals. This is reflected in the as the foundation of the EU approach to limiting
main environmental policies. Human health has also environmental threats to human health (European
always been threatened by natural disasters, and the Commission, 2007).
health consequences of many of these are currently
being exacerbated by a lack of preparedness and by In 2003, the European Commission developed a
human actions such as deforestation. An emerging proposal for a Community Strategy for Environment
environmental health issue is noise. and Health, followed in 2004 by the European
Environment and Health Action Plan 2004–2010
This section discusses the main human health (European Commission, 2004). The Commission
aspects of pollution of air, water and soil, and the proposes a holistic approach to address the complex
situation regarding chemicals, and examines the issues of environmental quality and human health
effectiveness of the environmental measures being and to create an integrated environment and health
taken to protect human health and quality of life. information system where environmental and
It presents recent developments in policies and human health information can be combined.
initiatives that address environment and health
hazards in Europe, with the focus on EECCA In the EECCA Environment Strategy, reduction
and SEE countries, given their higher burden of urban air pollution, improved management
of environment-related diseases. The human of municipal water supply and sanitation
health consequences of natural and man-made infrastructure, and improved management of waste
hazards, including possible long-term impacts are and chemicals are specified under the umbrella
then discussed, followed by regional estimates of reducing 'the risks to human (health) through
of the burden of ill health attributable to major pollution prevention and control'.
environmental factors, focusing on children as a
vulnerable group. Then follows the section on the Environment and health policies have recently
health impacts of noise. Finally, some aspects of the focused on children. In the Science, Children,
scientific complexity of environment and health Awareness, Legislation and Evaluation (SCALE)
relationships are discussed, especially in the context process, the European Environment and Health
of the potential impacts of chemicals, as well as Strategy (European Commission, 2003) identified
challenges for future research and actions. four priority diseases — childhood cancer, asthma
and allergy, neuro-developmental disorders and
Environment and health strategies and endocrine-disrupting effects — to be addressed in
policies the EU Environment and Health Action Plan.
Environmental quality and the link to human
health are highlighted as a priority in the EU Sixth WHO Europe has developed the Children's
Environment Action Programme (6 EAP), which Environment and Health Action Plan for Europe
aims to achieve 'a quality of the environment where (CEHAPE), adopted at the Fourth Ministerial
the levels of man-made contaminants, including Conference on Environment and Health in
different types of radiation, do not give rise to Budapest in June 2004 (Box 2.1.1). Support for the
significant impacts on or risks to human health'. implementation of CEHAPE is reflected in the
The programme specifically addresses air pollution, Renewed EU Sustainable Development Strategy of
water quality, supply and sanitation, and hazardous June 2006 (European Council, 2006).
chemicals.
The WHO Budapest Declaration of 2004 also
Four pieces of legislation — the Water Framework reaffirmed the need for an environment and health
Directive, the Regulation on the Registration, information system based on indicators, and

progress towards meeting health-related objectives

Box 2.1.1 Children's Environmental Health to be unsatisfactory, and the policy actions taken so
Action Plan for Europe (CEHAPE) far not to be sufficiently adequate and effective to
Adopted at the WHO Fourth Ministerial Conference protect health and the quality of life across the EU
on Environment and Health, in June 2004, CEHAPE (European Commission, 2006a).
identifies four Regional Priority Goals (RPG) for
action to protect children's health from harmful
environmental exposures and reduce the health In EECCA, the 'baseline' report for the Environment
impacts of: Strategy concluded that a significant burden of
environmental disease persists in the region, with
• unsafe water and sanitation; crumbling and unaffordable water infrastructure
• air pollution (respiratory diseases, asthma and systems, increasing urban air pollution from rapid
allergy);
motorisation, and largely deficient waste and
• hazardous substances; and
chemicals management (OECD, 2005).
• insufficient physical activity and obesity; and to
promote supportive environments.
Source: WHO, 2004. The recent UNDP report Environmental Policy in
South East Europe identified air pollution (outdoors
and indoors), unsafe drinking water, improper
waste and waste water management, transport,
formulated recommendations on public health and workplace safety as key environmental health
responses to extreme weather events and the health hazards (UNDP, 2007).
consequences of climate change (WHO, 2004a).
In June 2007, the WHO Intergovernmental Mid‑term
European processes aiming at integration of policies Review evaluated progress in implementing the
are particularly relevant for environment and health. pan-European action plan to improve children's
Environmental integration (the Cardiff Process), environmental health. The first outputs of the
required under the EC Treaty and reaffirmed in Environment and Health Information System
6EAP, means full consideration of environmental developed through several WHO collaborative
concerns in the decisions and activities of other projects (1) were presented, forming the basis for an
sectors, with a view to promoting sustainable assessment of the current status of children's health
development. Integration of health in all policies and the environment in Europe (WHO, 2007).
was taken forward as part of the 2006 Finnish
Presidency of the EU, and included organisation of a Since 2006, WHO, supported by the European
high level ministerial conference, which underlined Commission (DG Health and Consumer Protection),
the need to give greater consideration to health has been implementing a project to facilitate
impacts in decision-making across policy sectors the preparation of Environment and Health
at different levels in order to protect, maintain and Performance Reviews (EHPR), expected to provide
improve the health status of the population (Finnish country-specific evaluations and recommendations
Ministry of Social Affairs and Health, 2006). for action. Work on the first EHPR started in early
2007 in Slovakia, and three other countries have
From policies to action already expressed their interest: Czech Republic,
Regional initiatives Estonia and Poland. The report from EHPR will be
In the EU, so far, more than 30 actions have been a contribution to the Fifth Ministerial Conference of
initiated in the area of 'Environment, health and the Ministers of Health and Environment in 2009 in
the quality of life' of 6EAP (European Commission, Italy.
2005). In the 2006 consultation for the mid‑term
review of 6EAP, over 40 % of respondents Also this year (2007), the European Commission is
representing various stakeholders considered preparing a review to present the progress achieved
(1) Projects ECOEHIS (2002–2004), ENHIS (2004–2005), and ENHIS2 (2005–2007) supported by the European Commission DG Health
and Consumer Protection, implemented with several Member States.

at the mid-term of the EU Environment and Health the national and regional level. Three case studies
Action Plan 2004–2010 (European Commission, illustrate the many programmes/activities that
2004), to highlight areas that should receive more are in place across Europe, with different designs,
attention, to propose new orientation for the second coverage, and range of challenges addressed
half of the first cycle, and to open the debate for the (Box 2.1.3).
second cycle (beyond 2010). The pilot project on
Human Biomonitoring (Box 2.1.2) is an example of The WHO National Environmental Health Action
implementation of the Action Plan commitments. Plan (NEHAP) process initiated cooperation
between health, environment and other relevant
In the countries of the UNECE region, adoption sectors, and a new approach to working together
of the Protocol on Water and Health to the on health and environmental issues. NEHAPs have
1992 Convention on Protection and Use of proved successful in several countries, however
Transboundary Watercourses and International in many there is a gap between the policy process
Lakes marked progress in addressing environment and its implementation. Improved cooperation
and health issues related to water in an integrated between health and environment ministers,
manner (UNECE, 2000). It is too early to evaluate adequate financial resources, and methodological
implementation of the Protocol, since it only became support are needed for effective implementation of
legally binding for the 20 ratifying countries in these innovative plans. At the time of the Budapest
August 2005. The first meeting of the parties in Ministerial Conference in 2004, NEHAPs had
January 2007 agreed on the work programme for been developed in 46 out of 52 countries. In the
the next three years, including development of post‑Budapest process, by the end of 2006, national
indicators and reporting mechanisms, surveillance, Children's Environmental Health Action Plans had
and mechanisms to facilitate the preparation of been developed in 12 countries, and 16 others were
projects to be implemented under the Protocol revising their NEHAPs to include child-oriented
(UNECE, 2007). activities (EEHC, 2006).
National initiatives The recent UNDP report on south-eastern Europe

There is a growing number of coordinated efforts recommends urgent implementation of NEHAPs,
to address environment-related health challenges at together with improved collaboration between
ministries in charge of environment and health and
with public health institutions, in order to determine
priority environmental health risks, development
Box 2.1.2 The pilot project on Human
Biomonitoring (HBM) of well-targeted policies and campaigns to reduce
the risks, and integration of environmental health
Measuring substances in the human body (e.g. blood, objectives into overall development plans (UNDP,
urine) allows estimation of exposure to chemicals
from multiple sources, identification of excessively 2007).
exposed people, and monitoring and evaluation
of progress once measures to reduce or eliminate
Human impacts of natural and man-made
exposure have been introduced.
hazards
The HBM pilot project aims at developing a
The human health consequences of many natural
coordinated approach to human biomonitoring in disasters, such as floods and landslides, are being
Europe with focus on children. As of late 2006, two exacerbated by a lack of preparedness and by
proposals have been put forward for discussion
by the Member States. One uses biomarkers of human actions such as deforestation and inadequate
well recognised health hazards — lead, cadmium, storage of hazardous materials (EEA, 2004).
methylmercury, and cotinine (for environmental Extensive impacts of human activity on ecosystems
tobacco smoke), the other focuses on organic
pollutants and proposes several biomarkers for are increasing the risk of serious and irreversible
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and change. Loss of the services provided by ecosystems
phthalates. (fresh water, clean air, etc.) and climate change may
Source: European Commission, 2006b. enhance the impacts of other hazards (e.g. floods,
heat stress, exposures to hazardous materials)

Box 2.1.3 National initiatives in environment and health
The Flemish Environmental Health Action The German Environmental Survey (GerES) has
Programme (2002–2006), in one of the most been carried out repeatedly since 1985 to analyse and
populated areas in Europe, covered two urban document the extent, distribution and determinants of
areas (Antwerp and Ghent), fruit orchards, a rural exposures of the general population to environmental
area, and four types of industrial area. In total pollutants. The current survey (GerES IV, 2003–2006),
4 800 participants from three age groups: mothers with a representative sample of 1 800 children aged
and their newborns, adolescents (14–15 years) 3–14, is a module of the 'National Health Interview
and adults (> 50–65 years) were included in a and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents'.
biomonitoring programme in which blood and Its design allows linking the data to analyse health-
urine samples were collected. Data on exposure related environmental exposures. Most of the analyses
to selected pollutants and effects were combined were done in 2006–2007. Some preliminary results are
with information on health. Living in different presented further in this section. The final results will
geographical areas has significant impacts on the provide the basis for the identification of health risks to
body burdens of lead, cadmium, dioxins, PCBs, children and for environmental and public health policy
hexachlorobenzene, and DDE. Participants from decisions, to help develop preventive measures and
rural areas showed elevated levels of persistent advance research.
chlorinated compounds, compared with the rest of
the population. Mothers residing in the urban areas Source: German Environmental Survey, 2006.
had statistically significantly higher prevalence of
asthma, and the same trend was observed in other Since 1994, the Czech Environmental Health
age groups. Several hot spots could be identified, Monitoring System (see Map 2.1.1) has covered
where residents had elevated levels of heavy outdoor and indoor air, drinking water, food safety,
metals, DDE or benzene metabolites. Higher blood noise, soil pollution in cities, and human biomonitoring.
lead levels were associated with increased asthma Traffic-related air pollutants remain of concern.
prevalence. Exposure to persistent chlorinated In 2005, 81 % of the monitored population was
compounds was associated with increased estimated to be excessively exposed to suspended
risk of fertility problems in mothers, and with PM10, and 35 % to NO2. The target limit of
precocious puberty development in adolescents. benzo(a)pyrene has long been exceeded at most of
The programme was framed within a participative the urban stations. The levels of toxic metals in urban
communication plan based on open interaction air are up to half of the limit values, except in heavily
and mutual exchange of information between polluted areas. Human biomonitoring indicates a
participants, scientists and the authorities. downward trend in the burden of chlorinated persistent
organic compounds. Indications of increasing burdens
Source: Schoeters et al., 2006.
of genotoxic substances in the Czech population will
require more detailed analysis of the possible causes.
Map 2.1.1 Environment health monitoring system in the Czech Republic
12° Ústí nad

14° Liberec 16° 18°
Environmental health
Labem
Dĕčín monitoring system in
Meziboří Tanvald
Teplice P O L A N D the Czech Republic
Litvínov Litoměřice Jablonec
nad Nisou Participating cities
Most Lovosice Hradec Type of system
Sokolov Králové Air
Kladno Mělnik
Ústí nad Drinking water
Kolín Orlicí Šumperk 50°
50° Prague Ostrava Karviná Noise
Benešov Svitavy Dietary exposure
Plzeň Havličkύv
Brod Olomouc Biological monitoring
Příbram Health status
Klatovy Jihlava Žďár nad Soil
Sázavou Kroměříž
Jindřichύv Uherské
Hradec Hradiště
České Brno
Budĕjovice
Znojmo Hodonín
G E R M A N Y
S L O V A K I A
0 50 100 150 Km A U S T R I A
14° 16° 18°
Source: Environmental Health Monitoring System in the Czech Republic, 2006.

on human health and well-being (see Chapter 1, Long-term human impacts and environmental recovery
Europe's environment in an age of transition). The public health consequences of natural and
human-induced disasters can be very long-term,
Over the past 15 years, extreme events, both even multi-generational. These impacts remain to
natural and induced by human activity, have be fully evaluated, and adequate measures need
caused around 96 000 deaths, and affected more to be taken to minimise risks to human health.
than 42 million people in Europe (WHO, 2006). However, this is a difficult task. Our ability to
As estimated by the European Commission predict long‑term environmental recovery is
Humanitarian Aid Office (ECHO), 5.5 million limited; moreover, human impacts of particular
people were affected by natural disasters in five environmental conditions need to be assessed
Central Asian republics, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, in the broader context of behavioural, socio-
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, over the economic, political and demographic factors,
past decade, and about 2 500 people were killed often of a transboundary nature (Box 2.1.5). The
(Eurasia, 2005) (Box 2.1.4). Chernobyl accident and the Aral Sea crisis illustrate
the complex interplay between environmental
The incidence of events such as floods, droughts, hazards and other factors, including substantial
and heatwaves is likely to increase in the coming socio-economic changes, emergence of independent
years. Consolidated efforts are therefore needed countries, disruption of health-care systems
to achieve sustainable use of ecosystems, and to and forced migration, which can have severe,
develop preparedness, response and adaptation interconnected impacts on public health.
mechanisms, and adequate environmental
measures to ameliorate negative impacts on human Human impacts of extreme temperatures – heatwaves
health and well-being. Extreme temperatures and their effects on human
Box 2.1.4 Coexistence of natural and man-made hazards poses higher risks to people in vulnerable
places
In April 2005 a landslide of almost 300 000 m3

hit an area near a town in southern Kyrgyzstan,
halting the flow of a river, and causing concern
because of its proximity to huge radioactive dumps
from Soviet-era uranium mines. No casualties were
reported directly after the event, but around 3 000
village inhabitants were temporarily cut off and
needed supplies.
In the landslide-prone areas of southern Kyrgyzstan,

almost half of the mountain villages need to be
relocated, as estimated by local authorities. The
seismically-triggered risk of landslides is being
exacerbated by deforestation in the hilly parts of the
south, and by the conversion of flatlands to marshes
and swampy areas by the large dams in the
Ferghana Valley (see also Chapter 6, Sustainable
consumption and production).
Photo: Uranium Mine Tailings, Taboshar, Ferghana Valley,
Tajikistan © UNEP/ENVSEC, 2005
Several inadequately protected uranium mining
tailing dumps in Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and
Tajikistan are of particular concern, since they are
located directly on the flood plains of rivers, and
there have already been episodes of flooding that
have washed away the protective dams at uranium
and lead treatment plants.
Sources: IRIN, 2003; IRIN, 2003a; IRIN, 2005; ENVSEC, 2005.

Box 2.1.5 Long-term environmental impacts on humans
Chernobyl — 20 years after Ozone layer depletion, other ultraviolet

radiation exposures and cancer
The long-term impacts of the Chernobyl accident on
human health, quality of life, and the environment Increased exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation,
are still difficult to assess. In 2005, the United especially in childhood, as a result of stratospheric
Nations (UN) and the governments of Ukraine, ozone depletion, intense suntanning, and the use
Belarus and the Russian Federation released a of sunbeds are major risk factors for malignant
comprehensive assessment of the accident, the melanoma later in life. This skin cancer is increasing
conclusions of which are given in the WHO report in Europe, also in young people. The rates in
(WHO, 2006a). Based on the 600 000 people living western Europe are 2–3 times higher than in
in the vicinity of the accident site, it was estimated eastern European countries, mainly as a result of
that roughly 4 000 will die because of Chernobyl, leisure activities. Excessive solar UV exposure was
and out of 6.8 million that live further from the estimated to cause between 14 000 and 26 000
explosion site and who received much lower radiation premature deaths in Europe in the year 2000. A
doses another 5 000 may die because of Chernobyl recent assessment suggests that the ozone layer
exposure. In Belarus, exposure to radioactive iodine will take 5 to 15 years longer than previously
is linked to significant increases in thyroid cancer, estimated to recover from damage caused by
mainly in those who were under 15 years of age at chlorinated pollutants in the atmosphere. Climate
the time of exposure. Increasing numbers of younger change may also alter human exposure to UV, as
women are being diagnosed with breast cancer. In there are complex couplings between climate change
contaminated areas fewer children are born and and the recovery of the ozone layer; for example,
more people die, and life expectancy fell from 73.1 to greenhouse-induced cooling of the stratosphere is
67.2 years between 1993 and 2001. Poverty and expected to prolong the effect of ozone-depleting
extreme poverty risks are higher in Gomel, Mogilev substances.
and Brest oblasts, which were the most affected
by the Chernobyl accident. Psycho-social problems Sources: IPCC/TEAP, 2005 ; WMO/UNEP 2006;
created by the accident (related to rapid relocation, de Vrijes et al., 2006; WHO, 2007.
breakdown of social networks, fear and anxiety
about health effects, etc.) are considered the most
serious impacts of Chernobyl, affecting several The Aral Sea crisis — the human health
million labelled victims of the accident, living in three perspective
countries.
Disruption of institutional capacities to provide
The environmental impacts of the Chernobyl accident health services and environmental management has
are also difficult to assess. Forests, mires and put extra burdens on people chronically exposed
lakes accumulated radionuclides and released them to pesticides and industrial pollution as a result
continually to the environment. Forest fires and the of the Aral Sea crisis. Over 1.5 million people in
erosion of agricultural and abandoned land transfer Karakapalstan are considered the most affected.
contamination to adjacent clean areas and across Almost all women of childbearing age suffer from
the border. Flooding can be a problem in areas where anaemia, which is of highest concern in pregnant
agriculture has been extended to marginal lands. women. Most babies are born anaemic. There are
In the direct vicinity of the accident site, studies on increasing rates of miscarriages and pregnancy
birds (barn swallows) show symptoms that can be complications. Thyroid problems are common,
ascribed to radiation exposure. Whether the lower probably due to iodine deficit. Repeated outbreaks
levels of exposure, more distant from the accident of infectious diseases are reported and the average
site has had or will have ecological effects remains life expectancy has shortened (from 64 to 51 years
to be elucidated. Earlier experience from radioactive in the Kzyl-Orda region of Kazakhstan). Studies on
spills and from nuclear testing grounds is that exposure and impacts of environmental pollutants
the impact of radioactivity in the environment on are scarce, but of most concern are toxic organic
ecosystems is small. compounds. One of the most toxic dioxin congeners
dominated in milk of women from Karakalpakstan
Sources: UNDP, 2002; UNECE, 2005; Chernobyl and Kazakhstan, and the levels were among the
Forum: 2003–2005; WHO, 2006a. highest ever documented. A study involving children
from Kazakhstan and Germany indicated high
body-burdens of the product of the pesticide DDT
in children living in Aralsk, formerly on the Aral Sea
shore, and in central Kazakhstan. Average levels
in urine were three times higher than the 'normal'
values found in children in Germany.
Sources: Ataniyazova et al., 2001; Erdinger et al., 2004.

Box 2.1.6 Impacts of a heatwave — August 2003
In France, Germany, Switzerland and the United resulting in disruption of irrigation and power-plant
Kingdom, temperatures exceeded previous record cooling. Elevated temperatures led to permafrost
levels, and daytime maximum temperatures of 35 to thawing in the Alps.
40 °C were repeatedly recorded in most southern and
central European countries (Map 2.1.2). About 50 000
In southern Europe more than 62 000 forest fires
excess deaths were recorded in several western and
burned more than 742 000 ha of vegetation. In
central European countries, mostly among older
Portugal alone 8.6 % of the forest cover was burnt
people. People suffering from chronic diseases, on
(Map 2.1.3). The 2003 fire season in southern Europe
certain medications, and not physically fit were at the
caused at least 40 deaths. In Portugal alone there
highest risk. Living in the city, being alone, and living
were 21 deaths and the economic damage of the fires
on upper floors were associated with higher mortality.
was estimated at around EUR 1 billion.
The estimated costs of damage to agriculture

exceeded EUR 11 billion. Many rivers, e.g. the Po, Sources: European Commission, 2004a; European
the Rhine and the Loire, were at record low levels, Commission, 2004b; WHO, 2006b.
Map 2.1.2 Duration of heatwave in Portugal, Map 2.1.3 Burnt areas in Portugal,
July and August 2003 summer 2003
P O RT U G A L PORTUGAL
S PAI N SPAIN
0 50 100 150 Km 0 50 100 150 Km
Duration of heatwave in Portugal, Burnt areas in Portugal,

July and August 2003 summer 2003 (to September)
Number of days Mapped with MODIS satellite imagery
0 6–7 8–9 10–11 > 11 Burnt areas
Source: Portuguese Meteorological Institute, 2007. Sources: European Commission, 2004a; 2004b.
health came to widespread public attention in that which occured in 2003. In the United Kingdom,
summer 2003, when much of Europe was affected by a 250 % increase in heat mortality has been projected
unusually high temperatures (see Box 2.1.6). Regional for the 2050s (WHO, 2006b). The increasing number
climate simulations indicate that by the end of the of older people in Europe and their social isolation
21st century, summers may regularly be as hot as are likely to increase the number of vulnerable

citizens. With the projected increase in the frequency on associations between a single risk factor and
of such episodes, the estimated costs of inaction may a health outcome, and does not address multiple
be large (WHO, 2005). causal pathways or interactions between factors.
No estimates are yet available for hazards such
The summer 2003 heatwave highlighted as noise, endocrine-disrupting substances and
shortcomings in public health preparation and environmental tobacco smoke (WHO, 2006).
responses, and insufficient mechanisms to predict or
prevent health effects, or even to detect them rapidly In September 2006, a scientific workshop was
(WHO, 2005). This episode triggered actions in organised jointly by JRC, EEA and WHO to
many countries (for example Portugal and Hungary) discuss current approaches to measuring EBD,
to develop heatwave preparedness and response methodological challenges in moving from
plans. In France, such a national plan was launched single‑factor causality towards multicausality,
in 2004. In July 2006, a heatwave again affected as well as applicability of EBD estimates
Europe. It was less severe and the death toll was for communication and policy-making. The
lower than in August 2003. At the international level, collaborative work has continued, aiming at
WHO has recommended strategies to reduce the scientific review of existing methodologies, and
health impacts of heatwaves, stressing the value facilitating transfer of research topics to existing
of information on potential threats and impacts in consortia or new initiatives under the Seventh
preparing the public and facilitating the response Research Framework Programme (FP7).
(Menne and Ebi, 2006).
Children are particularly vulnerable to
Which are the major environmental impacts environmental hazards in the first years of life.
on health in Europe?
Major environment-related health concerns in
Europe are linked to the quality of air and water, Figure 2.1.1 Mortality rate (per 1 000 live births) in
hazardous chemicals, and noise. These are often children under five years
interconnected. The environmental burden of Per 1 000 live births

disease (EBD) is not equally distributed among
100
European countries, and is much higher in EECCA
90
and SEE than in WCE. 80
70
In the WHO study for the ministerial conference 60
in Budapest in 2004, outdoor and indoor (solid 50
fuel combustion) air pollution, unsafe water 40
conditions, exposure to lead, and injuries 30
accounted for one‑third of the total burden of 20
disease in children and adolescents aged 0–19 in 10
the European region (WHO, 2004b). The estimates 0
are available for three sub-regions (2) of the WHO Central Caucasus Eastern EU-10 EU-15
Asia Europe + EFTA
European Region. The environmental burden of
disease (EBD) methodology allows comparisons of EECCA SEE WCE
health losses in populations due to risk factors or
diseases in terms of mortality (death) or so-called 1990 2000 2004
disability‑adjusted life years (DALYs), indicating
loss of years of healthy life. However, EBD focuses Source: UNICEF, 2006.
(2) Eur-A (very low mortality in both children and adults): EU-15, EFTA, other WCE countries, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Slovenia,
Cyprus and Malta.
Eur-B (low mortality in children and adults): western Balkans (except Croatia), the Caucasus, Central Asia (except Kazakhstan),
Poland, Slovakia, other SEE countries (Romania, Bulgaria, Turkey).
Eur-C (low mortality in children, high in adults): eastern Europe, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Hungary and Kazakhstan.

Exposures to 'traditional' environmental hazards, international organisations. For example, in 2003

such as unsafe water, air pollution, poor nutrition the official figures and the WHO conservative
and parental exposure to chemicals, constitute (low) estimate on mortality in children differed
important risks to infant health. Childhood almost five times for Tajikistan, and around three
mortality in all regions has been decreasing times for Georgia, Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan
during recent years, although at different speeds (WHO, 2005a).
(Figure 2.1.1). The overall mortality rate in
children under five in EECCA decreased from Respiratory diseases are the most common, and
62.7 per 1 000 live births in 1990 to 53.8 per 1 000 acute respiratory infections are among the leading
in 2004. In Central Asia not much progress was causes of death in infants and young children,
made over the last decade, and this contributed especially in the eastern part of the pan‑European
to widening the difference between the countries region (WHO, 2007; Interstate Statistical
(WHO, 2005a). In the EU-25, the average mortality Committee of the Commonwealth of Independent
rate in the same period declined from 11.9 to 6.2 States, 2005) (Figure 2.1.2).
per 1 000 live births. Access to good preventive
and curative health care is essential to reduce There is sufficient scientific evidence that
infant mortality, but also reduced poverty and respiratory health in children benefits from
improved environmental management are reducing air pollution (WHO, 2005b; WHO, 2007).
of relevance, particularly for respiratory and As estimated by WHO, outdoor air pollution
diarrhoeal diseases. by particulate matter accounts for 6.4 % of all
deaths in children aged 0-4 in Europe. This
The quality of reporting is a relevant issue, burden is higher (7.5 %) in the countries of WHO's
especially in the EECCA region. There are marked subregions (see footnote 2) 'Eur B' and 'Eur C',
differences between the official country statistics while in 'Eur A' it is less than 1 % of the total
and the estimates of WHO, UNICEF and other burden of disease.
Noise — an emerging environmental health

concern
Figure 2.1.2 Infant mortality (under 1 year) per Environmental noise can affect people's health
10 000 live births due to selected causes
in EECCA countries
and quality of life, as it interferes with basic
activities such as sleeping, resting, studying,
Per 10 000 live births and communicating. The overall burden of ill
350 health due to noise in Europe has not yet been
quantified. WHO is currently developing a
300
study, addressing several health end-points:
250
cardiovascular disease, cognitive impairment
200 in children, hearing impairment due to leisure
150 noise, tinnitus (commonly called a 'ringing in
100
the ears'), annoyance, and sleep disturbance.
The results are expected in 2007. In addition, the
50
impacts of noise are enhanced when they interact
0 with other environmental stressors, such as air
1995 2004 1995 2004 1995 2004
pollution and chemicals. This may be particularly
All causes Respiratory Infectious and
diseases parasitic diseases the case in urban areas, where most of these
stressors coexist. This was highlighted recently at a
Central Asia Caucasus Eastern Europe
workshop organised by DG Joint Research Centre
Note: Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan most recent data from 1999; (JRC) in collaboration with EEA, WHO and the
Tajikistan most recent data from 2000; Georgia most Coordination of European Research for Advanced
recent data from 2003.
Transport Noise Migration (CALM) Network
Source: Interstate Statistical Committee of the Commonwealth of
Independent States, 2005. (CALM, 2007).

In accordance with the Environmental Noise pattern, while one in five reported that annoyance
Directive, exposure to noise will be monitored from various noise sources disturbed their normal
in the EU starting this year. Several countries daily activities (UNECE, 2004).
already have national or local estimates of noise
exposure and the associated health effects. In Germany 60 % of the population is annoyed
Compared to noise from neighbours and industry, by road traffic noise and 10 % is highly annoyed
many people are severely annoyed by noise (UBA, 2005). It is estimated that approximately 16 %
from transport‑related sources. However, due to of the population is exposed to road traffic noise
differences in the measurement of annoyance and levels of more than 65 dB(A) outside their dwellings
definition of sources, only an indicative comparison during the day and approximately 49 % to noise
between countries and regions is now possible. A levels of more than 55 dB(A) (UBA, 2005), which
Swedish questionnaire study of 19 000 12-year‑olds should not be exceeded to avoid serious annoyance,
identified noise as a disturbance to normal sleep according to WHO recommendations (WHO, 1999).
for almost 8 % several times a week (Swedish Approximately 3 % of acute myocardial infarctions
Environmental Health Report, 2005). In the Russian per year in Germany may be attributed to road
Federation, about 38 million people live in areas traffic noise (Babisch, 2006).
of noise nuisance caused by road, rail, and air
transport. Roughly 60 % of Moscow residents In the Dutch national survey on annoyance, sleep
currently live in zones subject to road traffic-related disturbance, risk perception and the quality of
noise nuisance, almost three times the average the living environment, road traffic (mostly from
across the Russian Federation (ECMT, 2004). In mopeds) was the source of severe noise annoyance
Belarus, 15 % to 35 % of the population in the cities for 29 % of the respondents. Noise from air traffic
of Brest, Vitebsk, Mogilyov and Bobruisk live in and neighbours was severely annoying for 12 %
conditions of acoustic discomfort (Environmental of the surveyed population. The severe annoyance
Conditions in the Republic of Belarus, 2003). from mopeds, highways and building and
demolition sites has a rising trend as compared
Some European countries estimate that the social with 1993. The need for quieter residential areas has
cost of road noise pollution is about 1 % of GDP increased from 8 % to 10 % (RIVM, 2004).
(Martin et al., 2006). In Switzerland, about 15 % of
the population live in areas where exposure limits of Air pollution and health
traffic noise are exceeded. An ongoing programme Air pollution is an important public health problem,
(started in 1986) to reduce noise exposure from as shown consistently in the studies covering
traffic infrastructure, industry, trade, and shooting various regions and using different methodological
ranges will be completed by 2018, at an overall approaches. The evidence on airborne particulate
cost of around EUR 4 billion (Boegli, 2006). In matter (PM2.5 and PM10) and health indicates
Spain, general traffic noise was reported as the adverse effects at exposures experienced by urban
most annoying, and 41 % of people interviewed populations across Europe. Affected are respiratory
felt highly disturbed by it (Martin et al., 2006). In and cardiovascular systems in adults, children, and
Norway, noise annoyance from road traffic increased other vulnerable groups. Health impacts of urban air
by 5 % from 1999 to 2003, while there was a drop pollution with particulates and ozone are discussed
in noise levels from industry (6 %), aircraft (22 %) in detail in the section on air quality (see Section 2.2,
and railways (20 %). Since road traffic is the major Air quality).
contributor to noise annoyance, the total noise
annoyance in Norway increased by 2 %. Norway Industrial pollution in urban-industrial areas
has a national target for noise reduction of 25 % by may still affect human health in EECCA and SEE
2010. According to a survey, 5 % of the Norwegian (Box 2.1.7). Regions such as SEE have already been
population have noise-related sleep problems supported by large-scale environmental protection
(Statistics Norway, 2006). A study in Sarajevo and cooperation efforts to address the impacts of
showed that one in four people living in noisy urban environmental degradation, mostly transboundary
areas experienced disturbance of their normal sleep (Environment and Security, 2003).

Box 2.1.7 Respiratory symptoms in children and adults living near the ash deposition of the Thermal
Power Plant 'Nikola Tesla', Obrenovac
The thermal power plant 'Nikola Tesla' operates in in respiratory symptoms between the two locations
Obrenovac, 26 km from Belgrade. The transport were even more pronounced. A child in Grabovac
and deposition of fly ash particles by wind has was almost three times more likely to visit the
been determined using data on the sedimentary doctor because of wheezing, 1.5 times more likely
substances (or aerial sediment) collected for many to have breathing problems for three consecutive
years by the network of the City Institute for Public months a year, and 2.3 times more likely to suffer
Health, Belgrade. The wind carries ash particles from from asthma. Asthmatic children in Grabovac were
the ash deposition landfill towards Grabovac. 6.6 times more likely to be on constant medication.
Between 2002 and 2004, respiratory health in A decision on investment was made on the basis of
relation to industrial air pollution was evaluated by a the results of this study. The European Agency for
questionnaire in Grabovac — located next to the ash Reconstruction invested EUR 26 million to change
landfill, and in Drazevac — located in a 'clean' area, the technology of ash landfill to solve the problem of
not affected by industry. With the same proportion of air pollution, starting from 2006. It is expected that
smokers (53 %), the inhabitants of Grabovac were morbidity in the exposed population will decrease
1.7 times more likely to visit the doctor because and the quality of life improve, especially among
of difficulties in breathing than the inhabitants of children.
Drazevac, and the relative risk of chronic cough or
asthma was about 1.5 higher. In children, differences Source: Paunovic et al., 2006.
Indoor air quality children aged 0–4 in the WHO European Region,
A substantial portion of outdoor air pollution most of them in the countries of central and eastern
migrates indoors, affecting the quality of this Europe and Central Asia (WHO sub-region 'Eur B' —
micro-environment. Specific indoor sources include see footnote (2)) (WHO, 2004b).
building and construction materials, furnishing,
paints and consumer products. Environmental Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke in the
tobacco smoke remains the most important home environment is still common: in EECCA and
indoor air pollutant across Europe. Domestic SEE more than 50 % of children are exposed. In
combustion of solid fuels is a relevant source of Georgia, Armenia, Croatia, and Serbia more than
exposure to particulate matter and hazardous 90 %. In Switzerland, Italy and the Netherlands,
organic compounds, such as polycyclic aromatic approximately 50 % of examined children aged
hydrocarbons (PAHs) (Box 2.1.8). 6–12 live with a current smoker (WHO, 2007).
Causal links between indoor air quality and health
The use of solid fuels in households differs are not clear, but several pollutants appear to
markedly across Europe, and is linked to poverty. exacerbate asthma, especially in children. 'Energy
Around 16 % of the population in central and saving' buildings, if not adequately ventilated, may
eastern Europe relies on solid fuels, more than 50 % contribute to increased indoor humidity and the
in Albania and in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and growth of biological pollutants. Indoor exposure
more than 70 % in some Central Asian republics. to dampness, dust mites and fungal allergens
The figure is estimated to be below 5 % in upper‑, (moulds) may account for 20 % of asthma prevalence
middle- and high-income countries (Rehfuess (WHO, 2006c). Preliminary results of the recent
et al., 2006). Economic growth and modernisation German Environmental Survey (Ger ES IV) show
are likely to contribute to decreasing use of these sensitisation against common moulds in almost
fuels and consequently to a reduced health risk. 10 % of examined children aged 12–14. This may
Ventilation and other techniques may reduce or be a risk factor for asthma and allergies. 23 % of
eliminate emissions from combustion processes. examined children report irritation of the eyes, and
However, acute lower respiratory tract infections, 12 % irritation of the nose and/or throat that may
attributable to indoor air pollution from solid fuel be caused by volatile organic compounds (German
use alone, still account for 4.6 % of all deaths in Environmental Survey, 2006).

Box 2.1.8 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the environment — a threat to human health
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are

Figure 2.1.3 1-hydroxypyrene (1-HP) in urine
products of incomplete combustion of organic
of never smokers in Germany
matter (e.g. fossil fuels), released to the
(geometric mean, 95 % CI)
atmosphere from industrial sources (e.g. steel
or aluminium plants, coking plants), power
ng/L
plants, individual coal-based heating systems and
600
residential wood burning, and from traffic (see
also Section 2.2, Air quality). They occur in the
environment as complex mixtures with widely 500
varying toxicities. The effect of most concern is
cancer, and epidemiological studies suggest an
400
association between exposure to PAHs and lung
cancer. Exposure to airborne PAHs can also affect Adults Children
the foetal growth (Choi et al., 2006). People are 300
exposed mostly by inhalation of particles or aerosols
containing PAHs, both outdoors and indoors, and by
200
ingestion of contaminated food, soil particles and
water.
100
In Ukrainian children living near (< 5 km) a steel

mill and coke oven in the industrial city of Mariupol, 0
mean urinary levels of the PAHs biomarker, GerES II GerES III GerES II GerES IV
1‑hydroxypyrene (1-HP) were the highest yet 1990/1992 1998 1990/1992 2003/2006
reported in young children. The coking facility was East West
reported to emit over 30 kg of benzo(a)pyrene
Source: German Environmental Survey (GerES II, GerES III,
a year into the atmosphere, and two major steel GerES IV).
plants emit thousands of tonnes of nitrous oxides,
carbon monoxide, and particulate matter a year.
The highest levels in exposed children overlapped
Figure 2.1.4 Concentration of benzo(a)pyrene
with those reported in occupationally exposed adults
(BaP) in the upper soil in
and smokers. Children in Mariupol had significantly
kindergartens in the Czech cities
higher levels of 1‑HP than those living in the urban,
monitored in 2004
high‑traffic environment of Kiev (Mucha et al.,
2006).
mg/kg
Clean air measures and altered patterns of fuel 2.0
use in Germany have dramatically reduced air 1.8
pollution by PAHs in the past decade. The most
1.6
likely reason for the significant decreases in the
levels of 1‑HP in adults living in eastern Germany 1.4
between 1990/1992 and 1998 was the decreasing 1.2
ambient air concentrations of PAHs, resulting from 1.0
reductions in industrial emissions and in the use of Recommended
0.8
coal for heating in private homes. Results from the limit 0.1 mg/kg
recent German Environmental Survey in children 0.6
(2003–2006) indicate substantially lower levels of 0.4
1‑HP compared with the early 1990s, again with 0.2
a more pronounced decline in the eastern part of 0.0
the country (German Environmental Survey, 2006) N. ec ny L.
ice lic
e
er ice lse
n
(Figure 2.1.3). n. n p ov ca n. Pi
c ko Te Lib ej ky s ti
o ne S tra Bu
d Ro U
bl e
Ja sk
Soil contamination with PAHs may be a source Ce
of human exposure, for example in children's Range Arithmetic mean Median
playgrounds (Figure 2.1.4). Children may ingest
contaminated soil particles through their intensive
hand to mouth activity (Environmental Health Source: Environmental Health Monitoring System in the Czech
Monitoring System in the Czech Republic, 2006). Republic, 2006.

Lead
Lead exposure is probably one of the most Box 2.1.9 Leaded petrol is still a problem in
recognised health hazards — affecting the Georgia
intellectual development of infants and young

children even at low levels. The estimated burden According to current standards, the maximum level
of lead in petrol is 0.013 g/L. Fuel quality should have
of mild mental retardation attributable to lead in improved from 2005 onward (max. to 0.005 g/L),
children aged 0–4 is more than three times higher but implementation was delayed until 2007, due
in the WHO 'Eur C' region than in 'Eur B' or 'Eur A' to the possibility of negative social consequences
(e.g. increased prices of products and services),
countries (see footnote (2)) (WHO, 2004b). and difficulties with enforcement. In practice,
average lead concentrations are much higher than
Banning leaded petrol has resulted in remarkable the permissible limits. The vehicle fleet consists
mainly of second-hand European cars, with catalytic
declines in blood lead levels in many European converters often destroyed or removed, as well as
countries. The decision to eliminate lead additives of Soviet-made vehicles. Soviet models can run
was based both on human health considerations on low-octane fuel, while European models run
better on highoctane. A major problem is posed by
and technological developments, since leaded the illegal import of low-octane fuel, which is then
petrol is harmful to catalytic converters. By the upgraded with lead additives to increase the octane
level. Also, many older cars require leaded petrol
end of 2006, most of the EECCA and SEE countries
because the lead lubricates and protects their soft
had banned leaded petrol. It is still being sold in valves.
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, the Former Yugoslav
Source: THE PEP, 2006.
Republic of Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro.
Bosnia and Herzegovina will phase it out in 2010
(OECD, 2005; UNEP, 2007). The shift towards
unleaded petrol is expected to result in decreasing a marked decline from the early 1990s (Figure 2.1.5).
exposure levels and reductions of the associated The magnitude of the health impacts of drinking
health risks. However, information is insufficient water quality is probably under-reported.
to evaluate progress in many of these countries.
There are no estimates of the actual consumption More than one-third of the population in many
of leaded petrol, including the unofficial market EECCA countries drink water that does not meet
(Box 2.1.9). Reliable information on blood lead hygiene standards, and reported outbreaks of
levels from many parts of the pan-European region water‑related diseases in the region are increasing
is lacking. (OECD, 2005) (Box 2.1.10). However, outbreaks of
waterborne diseases occur across Europe. Between
Industrial emissions remain an important source 2000 and 2005, Croatia, United Kingdom (England
of lead exposure in some parts of Europe. Data and Wales), Finland, Greece, Hungary, Italy and
from hot spots in Bulgaria, Poland and the Former Slovakia reported outbreaks, the highest number
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia indicate impacts of being in Finland. Inter-country comparisons are
lead emitted from plants on the blood lead level of limited by differences in monitoring and reporting
children (WHO, 2007). systems (WHO, 2007).
Water and sanitation and health Health impacts related to water quality and
Insufficient water supply and sanitation, and poor quantity and insufficient sanitation are priorities
water quality continue to affect public health in for action in Europe. Chemical contamination
several countries (see Section 2.3, Inland waters). of water may also be of relevance in some areas,
Diarrhoeal diseases annually cause the deaths for example naturally occurring arsenic, as in
of an estimated 13 000 children under the age of the case of Hungary, or lead from old pipes
15 (5.3 % of all deaths in that age group), with dissolving into water. The recreational (bathing)
the largest burden in the countries of central and water environment also carries a range of
eastern Europe and Central Asia (WHO, 2004b). The hazards to human health, including exposure to
standardised death rates for diarrhoeal diseases in microbiological pollution, toxic algae products,
children remain the highest in Central Asia, despite

Figure 2.1.5 Standardised death rates (per 100 000) occasionally to chemicals, and other related hazards
for diarrhoeal diseases in children under (sunburn, drowning, etc.).
5 years
Per 100 000

Complexity of interactions between chemicals
160 and health
There is growing concern that 'even low-level
140
exposure over decades to a complex cocktail of
120
pollutants in air, water, food, consumer products
100 and buildings can have a significant effect on the
80 health status of European citizens' (European
Commission, 2003). In addition, the time between
60
critical exposures and health outcomes may
40 be decades or even trans-generational. A new
20 dimension is the concern about delayed health
0
impacts of foetal exposure and even of prospective
Central Caucasus Eastern EU-10 EU-15 parents before conception. Since the Kiev report
Asia Europe + EFTA
there has been growing evidence of 'late effects of
EECCA SEE WCE
early exposures', and new research is providing
1990 2000 2003 insights into the possible ways of transmitting
environmental impacts through generations
Note: WE: 1990 — no data for Cyprus, Denmark, Iceland,
Luxembourg, Malta, Slovakia, Czech Republic; 2000 — no (Weinhold, 2006). The origins of several adult
data for Cyprus, for Belgium data from 1997 used; 2003
— no data for Belgium, Cyprus, Denmark, Italy, Sweden;
cancers can be traced back to environmental
SEE: 1990 — no data for Albania, the Former Yugoslav exposures early in life. It is becoming ever
Republic of Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro; 2000 — no
data for Bosnia and Herzegovina; 2003 — no data for clearer that parents are giving their offspring an
Bosnia and Herzegovina, for Serbia and Montenegro data
from 2002 used;
'environmental heritage' which could result in
EECCA: 1990 — no data for Azerbaijan; 2000 — for disease later in life. The transmission is 'silent',
Turkmenistan data from 1998 used; 2003 — no data for
Georgia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan; for Belarus, Kazakhstan, meaning that the parent experiences no effect
Kyrgyzstan, Republic of Moldova, the Russian Federation,
Ukraine, Uzbekistan data from 2005.
or ill health because of the exposure. In a recent
Source: WHO, 2006.
review of animal studies, more than 50 chemicals
that caused cancer in adult animals after exposure
in the womb before birth were identified (Barton
Box 2.1.10 Water and health issues in EECCA
• In Belarus, the physical condition of rural • In Ukraine, access to clean water is a priority
drinking-water pipes has deteriorated markedly issue in the Millennium Development Goals.
over the past seven years, leading to increased In 1997, 70 % of the urban population, but
microbial contamination and a higher incidence only 24 % of the rural population, were
of acute gastro-intestinal infections and viral connected to a centralised drinking-water
hepatitis (UNECE, 2005). system. Several national strategic programmes
have recently been developed to improve the
quality and availability of water. However, during
• In Azerbaijan, deterioration of water quality
2001–2004 only 10 % of the necessary funds
and related increases in water-borne diseases
were allocated, and none of the planned water
were identified as one of the main problems
supply systems for rural communities were
in the National Environmental Action Plan.
built (UNECE, 2006).
The State Program on Poverty Reduction and
Economic Development for 2003–2005 also
recognised diarrhoeal diseases as one of the
primary causes of childhood morbidity and
mortality (UNECE, 2003).

et al., 2005). Exposure during early life to toxicants, ramifications of climate and ecological changes on
such as persistent organic compounds (POPs), the communicable disease burden in Europe.
pesticides, and heavy metals, have been linked to
neuro-developmental effects. Learning disabilities, Further advances in classical toxicology, including
hyperactivity and other cognitive deficiencies are multi-generation models are needed to achieve a
already manifested during the first years of life, better understanding of environment and health
but are important health impacts with lifelong relationships and prevent adverse impacts on
consequences. There has been speculation that early human health and the quality of life. Rapid scientific
exposure to household chemicals, POPs, ozone and development is promising to provide, in the near
other air pollutants (PM2.5) could be responsible future, new methods and approaches for more
for the current increase in childhood asthma, realistic assessments of the long-term impacts of
particularly in western Europe and USA, but the environmental factors on health.
evidence is not conclusive (EEA, 2005).
Given the limited knowledge and understanding of
An issue of particular scientific interest is chemicals the complex associations between the environment
that may interfere with hormonal regulation and human health, a precautionary approach is
mechanisms. Endocrine-disrupting substances appropriate and is required under the EU Treaty
have been indicated in a range of health and (EEA, 2002). It should also apply in addressing
developmental impacts, including some hormone- emerging issues such as nanotechnology and
dependent cancers. Evaluation of the ten years genetically modified organisms.
of research on endocrine disrupters since the
Weybridge report (European Commission, 1996) Further development of the frameworks to
concluded that there is increasing evidence that assess environment and health linkages and
certain health outcomes, such as reduction in sperm translate knowledge into action should facilitate
count, precocious puberty, testicular and breast incorporation of new scientific findings and more
cancer are linked to environmental factors (EEA, the informed decisions. Protecting human health from
Finnish Academy of Sciences, in press). environmental hazards/threats requires broad
involvement of stakeholders. Good communication
Environment and health — challenges for and cooperation in addressing environmental
research and action problems relevant to human health may still be a
The new EU framework research programme challenge. Continued efforts are therefore needed to
(FP7) for 2007–2013 encourages further work on strengthen intersectoral cooperation at local, national,
environment and health issues, recognising the and international levels, as well as to develop
challenges posed by the increasing natural and methods to assess the effectiveness of the measures
man-made pressures on the environment and its taken.
resources.
Provision of reliable, relevant, timely and accessible
'Environment and health' is being considered under information must be a part of the framework of
the theme 'Climate change, pollution and risks' in activities in environment and health, in line with
the Environment research area. This reflects the the provisions of the first article of the Aarhus
need to improve our understanding of the potential Convention: 'In order to contribute to the protection
impacts of climate change on human health, by of the right of every person of present and future
means of multidisciplinary and integrated research generations to live in an environment adequate to
to advance knowledge on the interactions between his or her health and well-being, each Party shall
climate, biosphere, ecosystems and human activities guarantee the rights of access to information, public
(European Community, 2007). In March 2007, the participation in decision making, and access to
European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control justice in environmental matters in accordance with
(ECDC) hosted the workshop on infectious diseases the provisions of this Convention' (UNECE, 1998)
and environmental change jointly organised (see Chapter 1, Europe's environment in an age of
by ECDC, WHO, JRC, and EEA, to assess the transition).

Environment and health and the quality of life | Air quality
2.2 Air quality
Photo: Moscow © Rolf Kuchling
Key messages
• Air pollution, mainly by fine particles and • The projected emission reductions in WCE
ground-level ozone, continues to pose a and SEE will reduce impacts on public health
significant threat to human health: it shortens and ecosystems significantly by 2020, but
average life expectancy in WCE by almost one not enough to ensure no significant threats to
year and threatens the healthy development of human health and the environment.
children.
• The main contributor to air pollution in cities
• In EECCA, the poor quality of the data is the continuing growth in road transport.
precludes in-depth assessment of the state of Emissions from industry, power production
air quality and its consequences. The limited and households also contribute substantially in
data available indicate that the main health urban areas in many parts of EECCA, central
threat, as in WCE, is from small particles and and eastern parts of WCE, and SEE.
their toxic constituents.
• Emissions from shipping (NOX and SO2) are
• In EECCA, emissions of most air pollutants projected to exceed emissions from land-based
have increased by more than 10 % since 2000 sources if measures to reduce these emissions
as a result of economic recovery, increase in are not implemented in the future.
transport, and the persisting poor effectiveness
of air pollution protection policies. Emission
projections for 2010 and 2020 expect a further
increase, and greater efforts will be needed to
achieve levels of air quality that do not give
rise to significant threats to human health and
the environment.
• In WCE and SEE, emissions of air pollutants

are projected to decline during the next
two decades as a result of progressive
implementation of current and envisaged
emission control legislation and continuing
structural changes in the energy system.
The largest projected reductions are for
energy‑related emissions, especially SO2, NOX,
VOCs and primary PM2.5, with lower reductions
for emissions from agriculture.

2.2.1 Introduction All the WCE countries, and Bulgaria and Romania,
are parties to CLRTAP and almost all have signed
Despite a substantial body of international and protocols under the Convention. Nine EECCA
national legislation and significant reductions in countries — Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia,
the emissions of some common pollutants, poor Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Republic of Moldova,
air quality is still causing hundreds of thousands the Russian Federation and Ukraine — are parties
of premature deaths in Europe every year and to the Convention. Belarus, the Russian Federation
continues to damage crops and ecosystem health. and Ukraine have accepted the first three protocols.
In 2002 the Republic of Moldova ratified protocols
Air pollution by fine particles represents the highest on heavy metals and POPs. The western Balkan
risk to public health in all regions, higher than that countries are parties to CLRTAP. Croatia has
of other air pollutants. The estimated annual loss ratified the 1994 Protocol on sulphur and signed
of life is significantly greater than that due to car protocols on heavy metals, POPs and the 1999
accidents. Protocol to abate acidification, eutrophication
and ground-level ozone — the Gothenburg
However, current air quality protection policies in 'multi‑pollutant' Protocol.
the EU (and SEE) and in EECCA are not yet focused
on the need to abate air pollution by fine particles By March 2005, sixteen parties (most EU and
directly and effectively and thus need significant EFTA countries, and Bulgaria and Romania) had
revision and improvement. ratified the Gothenburg Protocol. The ceilings of
the Gothenburg Protocol represent cost-effective
Acidification and eutrophication of ecosystems and simultaneous reductions of acidification,
by air pollutants and exposure of vegetation to eutrophication and ground-level ozone. There has
excessive concentrations of ground-level ozone been no progress in ratification of the Gothenburg
continue to exceed critical loads and levels. They Protocol in EECCA since the Kiev assessment.
still pose a serious threat to the environment and
agricultural production in many parts of Europe. Air quality is one of the environmental areas in
which the European Community has been most
Strategic development of the UNECE Convention active. A thorough overhaul of legislation was
on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution carried out in the 1990s with the aim of developing
(CLRTAP) and of EU air pollution protection a coherent and comprehensive EU strategy through
policies needs to be focused mainly on reducing the twin-track approach of long-term air quality
particulate pollution and on the linkages between objectives together with overall and specific limits
air pollution and climate change. The emissions on emissions. Further streamlining of air quality
targets currently being discussed also recognise the legislation is under negotiation (see Section 2.2.6
need for substantial improvements in the protection below).
of ecosystems and vegetation against acidification,
eutrophication and ground-level ozone. During the period 1999–2004 the Framework
Directive 96/62/EC (FWD) on ambient air quality
assessment and management (European Council,
2.2.2 Progress in air quality 1996) was complemented by four daughter
protection policy since Kiev directives (European Council, 1999; 2000; 2002 and
2004). The 1996 Directive sets common objectives
Air pollution issues in the UNECE region are and basic principles, and the daughter directives
addressed by the Convention on Long-range set limit and target values for pollutants listed in
Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP), which has the Framework Directive. Together these directives
been one of the main means of protecting public aim at establishing a harmonised structure for
health and the environment from the harmful effects assessing and managing air quality throughout the
of air pollution across the region. EU.

The air quality directives require EU Member give rise to significant negative impacts on and
States to assess air quality throughout their risks to human health and the environment, and
territory. For zones and agglomerations where to assess progress towards this objective. CAFE
the levels of one or more pollutants are higher addresses health and environmental problems
than the limit value, they are required to develop related to fine particles (1), ground-level ozone,
plans and programmes aimed at attaining the acidification and eutrophication.
limit values within the set time limit. In addition
to establishing limit or target values and alert The need to revise current air quality protection
thresholds for the identified pollutants, the legislation was revealed by analysis under the
daughter directives aim to harmonise monitoring CAFE programme that showed that the health
strategies, measuring methods, calibration and risk of pollution by fine particles was at least an
quality assessment methods in order to arrive at order of magnitude higher than that of the other
comparable measurements throughout the EU and pollutants (WHO, 2004a and 2004 b; CAFE WG,
provide effective public information. 2004). In terms of lives lost the impacts are even
higher than those of car accidents (Amann et al.,
Parallel to the CLRTAP Gothenburg 2004; 2005b). Neither the NEC Directive nor the
'multi‑pollutant' Protocol is the EU National Gothenburg Protocol addressed the issue of air
Emissions Ceilings Directive (NECD) (European pollution by particulate matter.
Parliament and Council, 2001). NECD is a key
element of EU legislation on emissions: it sets Air quality protection policy in SEE is driven by
emission ceilings for sulphur dioxide, nitrogen the overall goal of joining the EU, and efforts
oxides, ammonia and volatile organic compounds and cooperation have focused mainly on this
(VOCs) to be attained by 2010. Under this process. The countries and territories of the region
directive, Member States are obliged each year to are at various stages of accession or association
report their national emission inventories and their and stabilisation. Bulgaria and Romania became
projections to 2010 to the European Commission Member States in 2007 and were obliged to fully
and the European Environment Agency. They harmonise their air quality protection legislation
must also draw up national programmes in order with the EU within the framework of the accession
to demonstrate how they are going to meet their process. As EU accession is also a priority for
emission ceilings by 2010. To achieve emission the rest of the western Balkan countries, there is
reductions, the EU has developed legislation relatively good information on the process of legal
aimed at reducing emissions from specific transposition and institutional development at the
economic and societal source categories. The most national level. Obviously, the SEE countries will be
important is the legislation to control emissions obliged to harmonise their air quality and emission
from large point sources (LCP Directive) and road reduction targets with the EU (UNDP, 2007). Aid
vehicles (EURO emission standards). to the region, including for the harmonisation
process, has been streamlined through the
In 2001 the European Commission launched the CARDS programme (Community Assistance for
Clean Air for Europe (CAFE) programme. The Reconstruction, Development and Stabilisation).
main tasks of CAFE are to inform and assist
the development of a Thematic Strategy on Air In EECCA, ministers have adopted the EECCA
Pollution towards the long-term objective of the Environment Strategy (UNECE, 2003) which
Sixth Environment Action Programme (6EAP), provides a political framework similar to the 6EAP
which is to achieve levels of air quality that do not for the EU.
(1) The WHO Systematic Review of Health Aspects of Air Pollution in Europe (WHO, 2004a) indicates that many studies have found that
fine particles (PM2.5 — airborne particles smaller than 2.5 µm) have serious effects on health, such as increases in mortality rates
and in emergency hospital admissions for cardiovascular and respiratory reasons. Up to now, coarse and fine particles have been
evaluated and regulated together, as the focus has been on PM10 (airborne particles smaller than 10 µm). However, the two types
have different sources and may have different effects. The systematic review therefore recommended that consideration be given to
assessing and controlling coarse as well as fine particles PM2.5.

In the area of air quality protection, the EECCA targets, rely on unreformed or poorly combined
strategy is focused mainly on improving instruments, and are often dominated by
environmental legislation, policies, and the revenue‑raising objectives. Environmental
institutional framework. One of the objectives legislation is extensive but inconsistent and
is the optimisation of environmental quality unenforceable. And compliance levels are very low
standards: to ensure that the substances (OECD, 2007).
regulated can be effectively monitored, and to
set realistic standards based on risk management A large number of policy measures can be applied
considerations and internationally accepted to manage air quality. Some of these are under
norms. To reduce the risks to human health, the the purview of environmental authorities but
EECCA strategy aims to implement pollution many are the responsibility of other ministries or
prevention and control procedures similar to the even local authorities. For example, as emissions
EU Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control from power generation are determined both by
(IPPC). generation technologies and the level of electricity
demand, energy efficiency measures, generally
The Environment Strategy identified several urban a responsibility of energy ministers, constitute
air pollution problems: an important part of a comprehensive approach
to air quality management (OECD, 2007; and
• the major impacts on human health, Section 7.3, Energy, of this report). Progress with
particularly from pollution from mobile transport-related policy measures (such as product
sources; standards for fuel and vehicles, fuel taxation and
• the weakness of air quality control systems; banning of leaded fuels) is discussed in Section 7.2,
• excessively strict ambient air quality Transport, of this report (see also OECD, 2007).
standards (2);
• weak technological capacity, resulting in higher
emissions; 2.2.3 Atmospheric emissions
• lack of economic incentives to reduce
emissions per unit of output; and Particulate matter and ozone are the main threats
• inadequate regulation of road transport to public health. This part of the report therefore
emissions. focuses mainly on emissions of particulates
(primary PM10) and particulate precursors (SO2,
There is no evidence of progress on air pollution NOX and NH3), and on emissions of the precursors
control. Overall, the problems identified in the of ground‑level ozone (NOX, NMVOC, CO and
EECCA strategy persist. EECCA countries still face CH4), and less on emissions of acidifying (SO2,
a major environmental policy and institutional NOX and NH3) and eutrophying gases (NOX and
reform challenge. Institutions suffer from NH3).
weak authority, scarcity of resources, outdated
management, high turnover of professionals Emission trends
and frequent restructuring, thereby lacking Figure 2.2.1 shows the general trend of emissions
both the incentives and the means to ensure the of primary particles and particulate precursors and
achievement of environmental improvements. ozone-forming substances in EECCA, WCE and
Policies in general, and specifically related SEE for 2000–2004, and projections to 2020 (EEA,
to air quality protection, do not have specific 2006b). The bars show the quantities emitted,
(2) The EECCA countries use the maximum allowable concentrations (MAC) and Guiding Safe Exposure Levels established by the
Ministry of Health of the former USSR 30–40 years ago as air quality standards. Some EECCA countries have recently updated and
supplemented these standards. In the Russian Federation, for instance, the Ministry of Health approved a health standard in 2003
listing MACs for some 660 substances (MoH USSR, 1983). While an assessment of the hazards presented by such a broad range of
pollutants might be justified, their comprehensive and regular control is extremely difficult and costly. However, attainment of MACs
is not legally binding as is the case for EU limit values. A comparison of MACs with EU limit values and WHO standards is given in
Table 2.2.3. From this comparison it is evident that for basic pollutants MACs are not stricter than WHO standards or EU limits or
target values.

Figure 2.2.1 Emission trends and projections by region
PM10 primary particles and particulate percursor Ozone percursor
kt/y kt/y
30 000 35 000
25 000 30 000
25 000
20 000
20 000
15 000
15 000
10 000 10 000
5 000 5 000
0 0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2010 2015 2020 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2010 2015 2020
SEE EECCA WCE SEE EECCA WCE
Source: 2000–2004 emission data: official country reports to UNECE/EMEP.

2010–2020 emission projections (CAFE baseline current legislation with climate policies): IIASA/RAINS, 2004.
scaled to take into account their contribution to the of air pollutants — more than 80 % of the total.
formation of particulate matter, ground-level ozone Mobile sources are also important in other large
and acidifying and eutrophying gases (3). Table 2.2.1 cities including metropoles such as Baku, Bishkek,
shows the percentage changes (2000–2004) for the Chisinau, Kiev, Minsk and Yerevan. The main
most important pollutants. causative factors include the age of the vehicle fleet,
low quality and high sulphur content fuel, poor
In WCE, despite continuing economic growth, infrastructure and maintenance, and a declining
legislation on air quality, together with associated share of public transport. Industrial sources have
abatement measures and economic instruments, declined in importance, but remain relevant and
have led to a continuing decrease in emissions of difficult to address.
air pollutants since 2000. In SEE, emissions do not
indicate any clear trend since 2000. The EU-15 as a whole is making good progress
towards meeting the 2010 targets of the NEC
In EECCA, economic recovery and the growth
in transport since 2000 have led to increases in
the emissions of most air pollutants, because of
Table 2.2.1 Percentage changes in emissions,
the poor effectiveness of protection policies. The 2000–2004
reported decrease in SO2 emissions in EECCA since
2004 is only due to decrease in these emissions in Pollutant WCE SEE EECCA
Ukraine and Belarus. Reported SO2 emissions from NOX – 8.7 % + 5.7 % + 13.1 %
other EECCA countries have increased slightly SO2 – 19.6 % + 1.5 % – 10.3 %
or remained constant over this period. The major VOC – 13.6 % – 12.3 % + 11.2 %
problem for the urban environment has been the
NH3 – 2.6 % – 5.7 % – 14.4 %
rapid increase in private transport. In capitals
TOFP – 11.3 % – 2.1 % + 11.5 %
such as Ashgabat, Dushanbe, Moscow, Tbilisi
PM10 – 9.7 % + 2.2 % + 12.6 %
and Tashkent, transport is the dominant source
(3) Acidifying substances: the pollutants (SO2, NOX and NH3) are each weighted by an acid equivalency factor prior to aggregation to
represent their respective acidification potentials. These factors are: w(SO2) = 2/64 acid eq/g = 31.25 acid eq/kg, w(NOX) = 1/46
acid eq/g = 21.74 acid eq/kg and w(NH3) = 1/17 acid eq/g = 58.82 acid eq/kg.
Tropospheric ozone formation: the relative impact of the combined contribution of NOX, NMVOC, CO and CH4 can be assessed based
on their tropospheric ozone forming potentials (TOFP). These are: 1.220, 1.000, 0.110 and 0.014, respectively.
Particle formation: emissions are estimated using the following aerosol 'formation factors': primary PM10 = 1, NOX = 0.88,
O2 = 0.54 and NH3 = 0.64. (EEA, 2006b; de Leeuw, 2002).

Directive, but additional effort is still required in (26 %). The shares have not changed since 2000
order to meet the targets for particular pollutants except for the transport sector where non-road
(mainly NOX). The new Member States have made transport emissions increased by 12 % while road
excellent progress in terms of meeting their NEC transport emissions decreased by 10 %. NMVOCS
Directive targets, with seven countries already and nitrogen oxides were the most significant
having met them. NOX and NMVOC emissions pollutants contributing to the formation of
reductions are due mainly to the continuing ground‑level ozone in 2004.
introduction of catalytic converters for cars and, for
NMVOCs, and implementation of the EU Solvents PM precursors and primary PM10 emissions
Directive in industrial processes. The most important sources of PM precursor
emissions in 2004 (Figure 2.2.2) were the energy
Between 2005 and 2020 emissions in Europe (49 %) and transport sectors (25 %), followed by
overall are projected to decline further. The largest industry (15 %) and agriculture and waste (11 %).
reduction (35 %) is projected for WCE. In SEE, The most important contributors to particulate
emissions are also projected to fall by 27 % over the formation were emissions of NOX (49 %) and
period as a result of harmonisation of air quality and SO2 (27 %). Most of the reductions in emissions
emission reduction targets with the EU. Emissions in of primary PM10 and secondary PM precursors
EECCA are projected to be higher in 2010 than those between 2000 and 2004 were in the energy supply
reported for 2004, and by 2020 to have increased and road transport sectors.
slightly above the 2010 levels (IIASA/RAINS, 2004;
Vestreng V. et al., 2005). Emissions of primary PM10 and secondary PM
precursors are expected to decrease as further
Ozone precursors improved vehicle engine technologies are adopted
The WCE region was responsible for 70 % of total and stationary fuel combustion emissions are
ozone-forming gases (expressed as TOFP) emitted controlled through abatement or use of low‑sulphur
in 2000 and 65 % in 2004, and the EECCA region for fuels such as natural gas.
20 % in 2000 and 24 % in 2004.
Acidifying and eutrophying precursor
Transport (Figure 2.2.2) is the dominant source and emissions
contributed 44 % of total emissions in Europe in The most significant sources of emissions of
2004, followed by energy (26 %) and industry/other acidifying and eutrophying gases in 2004 were
Figure 2.2.2 Sectoral contribution in 2004 to PM10 (left) and ozone-generating substances (right)
PM precursor emissions per sector in Europe, 2004 Ozone precursor emissions per sector in Europe, 2004
(percentage of total) (percentage of total)
Road transport Road transport

17 % 34 %
Agriculture
and waste
Other 11 %
transport Agriculture
8% and waste
Other 4%
transport
10 %
Industry
15 %
Energy
26 %
Energy Industry
49 % 26 %
Source: Official country reports to UNECE/EMEP.

energy, agriculture and waste, followed by road Figure 2.2.3 shows recent changes in the percentages
transport and industry. In 2004, the relative weighted of urban populations exposed to concentrations of
contributions of acidifying substances were: SO2 SO2, NO2, ozone and PM10 over the limit and target
42 %, NOX 32 % and NH3 27 %. Between 2000 and values (4) in EEA member countries (except Turkey).
2004, emissions of acidifying substances in EECCA
decreased by 5.2 % and in WCE by 10.7 %. In SEE In the period 1997–2004, 23–45 % of the urban
they increased slightly, by 1.6 %. During the same population was potentially exposed to ambient air
period, eutrophying emissions decreased in WCE (by concentrations of PM10 in excess of the EU limit value
5.8 %) and EECCA (by 0.5 %) and increased in SEE set for the protection of human health. There was
(by 3.8 %). no discernible trend over the period. Meteorological
variability may explain a significant part of the
Emissions from shipping slightly increasing trend since 2000.
Emissions from international shipping and
aviation are not subject to the policy controls of For ozone there is considerable variation from year
the Gothenburg Protocol and the NEC ceilings, to year. During most years, 20–25 % of the urban
so are not included above. A baseline scenario population was exposed to concentrations above
developed by the Environmental and Engineering the target value. In 2003, a year with extremely high
Consultancy company (ENTEC) (ENTEC, 2002; ozone concentrations due to specific meteorological
2005) clearly shows that emissions of all pollutants conditions, this increased to about 60 %.
from international shipping are likely to increase
dramatically. Projections suggest that emissions The situation for NO2 is improving, with about
of NOX in 2030 will be 87 % higher than in 2000, 25 % of the urban population in WCE, Romania and
increasing by 25 % between 2020 and 2030. SO2 Bulgaria now potentially exposed to concentrations
emissions may be 82 % higher, increasing by almost above the limit value.
30 % between 2020 and 2030. Emissions of NMVOCs,
PM10 and PM2.5 are projected to more than double The percentage of the urban population exposed to
between 2000 and 2030, with substantial increases SO2 concentrations above the short-term limit values
between 2020 and 2030. Emissions of NOX and SO2
from shipping seem likely to exceed all land-based
emissions in the future. The scope for reducing Figure 2.2.3 Percentages of the urban population in
emissions of these pollutants from shipping through WCE, Bulgaria and Romania exposed to
air pollution over the limit and target
best available technology is very large: 88 % and 78 %,
values
respectively, by 2030.
% of urban population
100
Progress since Kiev
2.2.4 Ambient air quality
80
Trends in air quality in WCE and SEE 60

Despite continuing reductions in the emissions of
atmospheric pollutants in WCE (and in some SEE 40
countries), exposures of the urban population have
20
not improved significantly since the late 1990s. Across
Europe, people are exposed to levels of air pollution 0
that exceed air quality standards set by the EU and 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04
19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20
the World Health Organization (WHO). This occurs
NO2 PM10 O3 SO2
mainly within urban/suburban areas, and for PM10
and ozone also in rural areas. Source: EEA, 2006a.
(4) Limit values are: PM10 — 50 µg/m3 24-hour average not to be exceeded for more than 35 days; NO2 — 40 µg/m3 annual average;
SO2 — 125 µg/m3 24-hour average not to be exceeded for more than 4 days; O3 — 120 µg/m3 8-hour daily maximum not to be
exceeded for more than 25 days averaged over three years (European Council, 1999).

decreased to less than 1 % and the EU limit value is EECCA. Although air quality has been monitored
thus close to being met. in all countries for many years, the lack of data of
sufficient quality precludes in-depth assessment
The patterns and significance of exposures to of the state of air quality in the region. The EECCA
traditional traffic-related toxic pollutants in WCE countries have redesigned their monitoring
are changing. Lead is becoming more related to systems in recent years, but lack of funds has
isolated industrial sources. Carbon monoxide no inhibited any major progress. Obsolete measuring
longer appears to be an issue. Only benzene remains methods are therefore still widely in use (UNECE,
specifically related to traffic. There is potential for 2006). Monitoring is under the control of different
exceedances of the target values for the heavy metals authorities with often poorly-defined responsibilities
cadmium and arsenic from the industry and heating (WHO, 2005b) and/or very different functional
sectors in both urban and rural areas (EEA, 2007a). competences. Monitoring of small particles (PM10
and PM2.5) and ozone is limited at present. Positive
An increasing trend in the number of exceedances examples are Moscow (Box 2.2.2) and St. Petersburg.
of daily limit SO2 concentrations (125 µg/m3) has
been reported in recent years in Serbia (SEPA,
2006; see also Box 2.2.1). More than 25 % of the
Box 2.2.2 Air quality monitoring system in
urban population, and about 27 % in Bosnia and Moscow
Herzegovina, is exposed to exceedances lasting
The air quality monitoring system in Moscow is based
more than four days. The highest urban NO2 annual on 28 automatic control stations (ACS) that measure
concentration in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2004 concentrations of the 18 most important pollutants —
was 32 µg/m3 (Federal Meteorological Institute in including PM10 and ozone. ACSs monitor air quality at
all types of sites — residential, industrial, and sites
Sarajevo, 2007). The annual limit value of NO2 was along highways and in zones of protection.
not exceeded. The limits referred to are the EU limit
values. All data from ACSs are sent to an information
analytical centre — Mosecomonitoring — a state
environmental protection enterprise.
(http://www.mosecom.ru/).
Box 2.2.1 Exceedance of air quality limit values
in urban areas in Serbia
Anthropogenic air pollution has been and continues

to be viewed as a serious environmental and public
There is no mechanism for exchanging air quality
health problem in Serbia. Air quality controls, carried
out in Vojvodina since 2000, have included larger monitoring data in EECCA like the one in place
industrial centres as well as small settlements where in the EEA region. Some ambient air quality
there might be ambient air pollution from different
sources. Traffic also has a strong influence on air data have been found in various national 'state
quality and daily exceedances of limit values set by of environment' reports and websites (Bel NIC,
the Serbian national legislation for nitrogen dioxide, 2006; Roshydromet, 2005; Statistica Moldovei,
sulphur dioxide and soot have been recorded during
the year in Vojvodina. However, annual limit values 2006). Seven EECCA countries (Azerbaijan,
for these pollutants were not exceeded, being in Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, the
the interval 12–40 µg/m3 for nitrogen dioxide,
6–28 µg/m3 for sulphur dioxide and 2.5-34 µg/m3
Republic of Moldova, Ukraine and Uzbekistan)
for soot (Vujic et al., 2006). For the whole of Serbia, have provided 'official' urban air quality data for
the percentage of the urban population exposed to basic pollutants for 2004 within the framework
concentrations of nitrogen dioxide over the annual
limit value (40 µg/m3) was estimated to be around of the TACIS project (5). Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan
10 % in the last five years (Popovic, 2007). and the Republic of Moldova have also provided
these data for 2000–2004 (Figure 2.2.4). Though the
data do not cover the whole region, they indicate
Air quality in EECCA high levels of pollution by particulate matter
Air pollution is among the most serious (monitored as total suspended particles (TSP)) and
environmental problems faced by cities in by nitrogen dioxide. Figure 2.2.4 shows that in 2004
(5) TACIS Project (2006–2007). Support to the European Environment Agency data collection in EECCA, funded by EC.

the urban populations in Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Sea bed, which add to the impacts of particulates
Ukraine and Uzbekistan were exposed to average from cheap, low-quality coal used for power
TSP concentrations exceeding the maximum generation and from road transport (see also
allowable concentration (MAC) (6) (150 µg/m3). Box 2.2.3).
Population‑weighted annual urban concentrations
of NO2 in these countries (including the Republic The levels of air pollution in the largest cities of the
of Moldova) show an increasing trend, and in 2004 Russian Federation, expressed as an air pollution
exceeded the MAC (40 µg/m3, equal to the WHO index (API) (7), have increased over recent years,
guideline). mainly as a result of an increase in air pollution
by benzo(a)pyrene in these cities. The number
The data indicate that large cities and industrial of cities with concentrations of benzo(a)pyrene
centres, e.g. Almaty, Karaganda, Aktobe,
Shymkent, Ust-Kamenogorsk, Ridder and Temirtau
in Kazakhstan, Dniprdzerzhinsk, Donetsk,
Dnipropetrovsk, Krasnoperekopsk, Kryvyi Rih, Box 2.2.3 Atmospheric air pollution in
Kyrgyzstan
Mariupol and Zaporozhia in Ukraine, Tashkent
in Uzbekistan and others, regularly exceed the The problem of atmospheric air pollution in
Kyrgyzstan is basically a local one, peculiar to large
MACs for TSP, NO2 and other pollutants. The cities and industrial centres, particularly Bishkek.
reasons for high air pollution levels in these cities Despite significant reductions in production,
are outmoded production technologies, ineffective air quality in Bishkek remains unsatisfactory,
with high levels of formaldehyde, particulate
sanitation facilities, low-quality fuel, and little use matter and benzo(a)pyrene. Annual average
of renewable and alternative energy sources. concentrations of formaldehyde exceed the MAC
5 to 8 times, of particulate matter 3 to 4 times,
and of benzo(a)pyrene 30 to 60 times. The main
In the Central Asian republics, TSP concentrations contribution to air pollution today is the transport
are also high as a result of elevated concentrations sector, with a steady increase over recent years.
from desertification, desert dust and the dried Aral
Figure 2.2.4 Population-weighted annual average concentrations of TSP, SO2 and NO2 in some EECCA countries
µg/m3 TSP µg/m3 SO2 µg/m3 NO2

250 60 70
60
50
200
50
40
150
40
30
30
100
20
20
50
10 10
0 0
0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Azerbaijan Belarus Kazakhstan The Republic of Moldova
Ukraine Uzbekistan MAC The Russian Federation
Source: Officially delivered data from the hydrometeorological offices of the EECCA countries.
(6) See footnote (2).

(7) Air pollution index, API: ECE/CEP/AC.10/2006/3, UNECE, 2006 (GOST 17.2.3.01-86).

over the MAC has also increased during the 35 days per year (Map 2.2.1). The highest urban
last five years (to 47 % in 2004). This increase is concentrations were observed in Belgium, Bulgaria,
assumed to be caused by forest fires, an increase the Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, Italy,
in industrial production without implementation Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal,
of appropriate abatement measures, an increase in Romania, Spain as well as in the cities of the
the use of diesel cars, and waste incineration. High western Balkan countries.
concentrations of benzo(a)pyrene are observed
in the winter months, which reflects increased Estimates based on of the EMEP unified Eulerian
consumption of solid fuels for domestic heating model for 2000, 2002 and 2003 show that regional
(Roshydromet, 2005). as well as urban background PM10 concentrations
persistently exceeded the limit of 50 μg/m3 on
Air pollution by particles more than 35 days in a year in several locations
Many areas in WCE and SEE, particularly urban (Po Valley, parts of Belgium and the Netherlands
areas, experience daily average PM10 concentrations countries and the southern coast of Spain) (EMEP,
in excess of 50 µg/m3 on more than the permitted 2006).
Map 2.2.1 Map of PM10 concentrations in WCE and SEE, 2004, showing the 36th highest daily values at urban
background sites superimposed on rural concentrations. Maps constructed from measurements and
model calculations (EEA-ETC/ACC Technical Paper 2005/2008)
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60°

PM10 — 36th highest
daily value
Reference year: 2004
combined rural and urban
map
60°
µg/m3
< 20
60°
20–30
30–50
50–65 > limit value
> 65
Area with poor data

coverage
Outside report
50° coverage
50°
40°
40°
0 500 1000 1500 Km

0° 10° 20° 30°
Source: EEA, 2007a.

Figure 2.2.5 compares annual average PM10 Observed as well as modelled PM10 data indicate
concentrations to which the population was that the pollution levels by small particles in
exposed in 2004 in various EU, SEE and EECCA (8) the cities of most WCE, SEE (see also Box 2.2.4)
countries. Monitored data are displayed together and EECCA countries are higher than the WHO
with modelled urban population-weighted PM10 guideline — with corresponding health effects in
concentrations, calculated by the Global Model the populations in these cities.
of Ambient Particulates (GMAPS) (Pandey et al.,
2005) (9).
Figure 2.2.5 Average annual population-weighted PM10 urban concentrations in WCE and SEE countries, and
population-weighted PM10 concentrations based on monitored TSP concentrations in EECCA.
Comparison of monitored data with PM10 concentrations modelled by the Global Model of Ambient
Particulates (GMAPS)
µg/m3
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
*
ly
Gr a
ce
ic
nd
ov l
ia
ia
y
s
ce
en
a
nd
ia
Uk ia
e
n
an
s
ro
ga
nd
ru
an
in
i
ni
ov
ai
ta
ija
io
bl
Ita
en
ak
ar
an
iu
do
ee
an
ed
st
la
la
eg
st
rtu
ra
Sp
to
at
la
kis
pu
la
ld
rm
ba
lg
lg
ov
m
Po
Fin
kh
ng
Au
Fr
Sw
Be
en
Es
er
er
Mo
Be
Bu
Re
Po
be
er
Ro
Ge
Sl
Sl
za
Ki
d
th
nt
Az
Fe
Uz
Ka
of
h
Ne
Mo
d
ec
ite
ic
ia
Cz
bl
Un
an
ss
pu
Ru
ia
Re
rb
Se
Population weighted PM10 annual average 2004 Population weighted PM10 as TSP*0.5, annual average 2004
PM10 GMAPS 2002 WHO guideline EU limit value
Sources: EU data — Eurostat Structural indicators: Urban population exposure to air pollution by particulate matter. Population-weighted annual
mean concentration of particulate matter. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page?_pageid=1133,47800773,1133_47802558&_
dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL. The source of PM10 annual average concentrations in the EU and SEE countries (Bulgaria, Romania and
Serbia* (data available for Serbia only) was AirBase. EECCA — officially delivered data from the hydrometeorological offices of the
EECCA countries and data from some SoER of the EECCA; MNR RF, 2006.
(8) Annual PM10 concentrations in EECCA countries were estimated on the basis of observed TSP concentrations. The monitored TSP
concentrations were multiplied by a conversion factor of 0.5 which are applied in epidemiological studies (Reshetin and Kazazyan,
2004; Strukova et al., 2006) to estimate PM10 if only monitored data on total suspended particles (TSP) are available (see also
WHO, 2005a; CAFE WG, 2004).
(9) With exception of Belarus, observed TSP concentrations in EECCA countries are quite high comparing with the modelled data.
Generally applied sampling procedures — 20 minutes three or four times a day — seem to lead to rather unreliable, and to some
extent, systematically overestimated results (UNECE, 2006).

premature deaths in the cities than a reduction

Box 2.2.4 PM10 concentration in SEE to 25 μg/m3, and reducing them to 10 μg/m3
Air quality investigation in the Belgrade urban area to five times more than to 25 μg/m3 (22 200 vs.
has shown that annual PM10 concentrations are 4 400 deaths) (10) (Figure 2.2.6).
significantly higher (77 µg/m3 annual mean) than
in most other European cities. The main sources of
suspended particles are traffic, power stations, local In the EECCA region, estimates come from
heating and dust re-suspension (Tasić et al., 2006). individual studies with different coverage and
methodologies and no comprehensive estimates of
Monitoring data collected in Albania in the the health impacts of air pollution are available due
framework of the CARDS project also indicate very
high levels of air pollution by particles — the PM10
to lack of reliable data (Box 2.2.5). Monitoring of
population‑weighted annual mean in 2004 was more total suspended particulate matter (TSP), common
than 100 µg/m3 (IPH, 2006). However, the quality of in the region, is less suitable for health-oriented air
the data is unknown and questionable.
quality estimation. A rather broad span of estimated
health outcomes indicates a high uncertainty both
in the air pollution data and in the epidemiological
2.2.5 Impacts of air pollution inputs, and shows that further assessment based on
quality-assured data is needed. Nevertheless, even
Health impacts the most conservative estimates establish the great
The impacts of air pollution on human health can seriousness of the public heath risk of particulate
be expressed in terms of a reduction in average
life expectancy, additional premature deaths Figure 2.2.6 Potential reduction in total annual
and hospital admissions, and increased use of premature deaths (central estimate and
medication and days of restricted activity. On the 95 % confidence interval (CI)) among
people 30 years and over in 26 APHEIS
basis of the anthropogenic emissions in 2000, EU's cities
CAFE programme estimated a total of 348 000
premature deaths per year due to exposure to Number of premature deaths
anthropogenic PM2.5. At this level of exposure, 40 000

average life expectancy is reduced by approximately
35 000
one year. However, in the most affected areas of
Belgium, the Netherlands, northern Italy, and parts 30 000
of Poland and Hungary, the average loss of life 25 000

expectancy may reach two years (Watkiss et al., 2005) 22 000
(see Map 2.2.2, left, in Section 2.2.6). 20 000
15 000
13 2000
The potential health benefits of reducing annual
10 000
mean PM2.5 levels from the current observed
7 300
values to 25, 20, 15 and 10 μg/m3 were estimated 5 000 4 400
for the 26 European cities of the APHEIS (Air
0
Pollution and Health: A European Information 5 10 15 20 25 30
System) network totalling 41.5 million inhabitants PM2.5 (μg/m3)
in 15 European countries, using well-established Note: PM2.5 target/limit values (annual average concentration):
methods and published results of research on the 25 μg/m3 — concentration cap by 2015 in the draft new
Directive on ambient air quality (CAFÉ Directive)
effects of current air pollution on public health 20 μg/m3 — target value proposed by the European
Parliament
(APHEIS, 2006). All other things being equal, 15 μg/m3 — US EPA standard
policies to reduce annual mean levels of PM2.5 10 μg/m3 — the annual WHO guideline
to 15 μg/m3 would prevent three times more Source: APHEIS, 2006.
(10) The concentration cap of 25 μg/m3 in the proposed directive on ambient air and cleaner air for Europe (European Commission,
2005c) is meant to be a legally binding level which should not be exceeded even in hot spots. However, the proposed directive
introduces an exposure reduction target of 20 % of average levels in 2010 at urban background locations calculated as three year
averages (for 2008, 2009 and 2010) for the overall reduction of the exposure of the population to fine particles.

Box 2.2.5 Public health impact studies of outdoor air pollution in EECCA
In the Russian Federation, an assessment of the of about 10–15 million urban Russian residents. In
impact of outdoor air pollution on public health, the large city centres, road transport may account for
based on the 1993 and 1998 monitoring data, more than 80 % of total air emissions. In 2002, the
showed that 15–17 % of total annual mortality (up average annual concentrations of harmful pollutants
to 219 000–233 000 premature deaths) might be exceeded maximum permissible levels in 201 Russian
caused by fine particles (Reshetin and Kazazyan, cities, home to 61.7 % of the urban population.
2004). An estimated 22 000–28 000 additional deaths in
the Russian Federation were attributable to road
transport-related emissions in people over the age of
In Ukraine and the Russian Federation, estimates of 30 (ECMT, 2004).
health losses from urban air pollution based on TSP
monitoring data in Ukraine indicated considerable
health and mortality consequences. In Ukraine, The WHO project 'Comparative Quantification of
the low (conservative) estimate was 27 000 excess Health Risks' has estimated the health impacts of
deaths annually, and for the Russian Federation the outdoor air pollution in major cities (population
estimate was about 85 000 excess deaths (Strukova > 100 000 people) of the world grouped in
et al., 2006). 14 regions, including EUR-C, consisting mostly of
EECCA countries. The annual impact of air pollution
by particulate matter for this region was estimated at
As estimated under Transport Health and 46 000 premature deaths and 320 000 years of life
Environment Pan-European Programme (THE PEP), lost (WHO, 2004b).
air pollution from road transport affects the health
air pollution in these countries. WHO is working forests and other ecosystems. Acidification can result
with the EECCA countries on a framework plan to in the loss of fauna and flora, and ecosystems may
develop monitoring of particulate matter (PM2.5 and take many decades to recover after acidifying inputs
PM10) concentrations (WHO, 2006). are reduced to sustainable levels.
Exposure to ground-level ozone has long been In 2000, acidifying deposition was still above critical
found to impair human health; this has been loads (11) in parts of central and north-western
confirmed in a recent WHO review (WHO, 2003). Europe. The percentage of EU-25 forest areas
There is strengthened epidemiological evidence for receiving acid deposition above their critical load is
the effects of ozone, independent of those of other projected to decrease from 23 % in 2000 to 13 % in
pollutants, from short-term studies on pulmonary 2020. For those areas still at risk — above the critical
function, lung inflammation, respiratory symptoms, loads — ammonia is projected to be the dominant
morbidity and mortality, particularly in the summer source of acidification (EEA, 2007b).
season. Excess concentrations of ozone are thought
to hasten the deaths of up to 20 000 people in the Eutrophication — excess nitrogen deposition — poses
EU each year (Watkiss et al., 2005). Further, ozone a threat to a wide range of ecosystems, endangering
is responsible for people vulnerable to its effects biodiversity through changes in plant communities.
having to take medication for respiratory conditions Excess nitrogen deposition above critical loads is
for a total of 30 million person-days a year. Some currently widespread, due to the limited reductions
studies also suggest that long-term exposure to in nitrogen deposition over the past ten years. For
ozone reduces lung function growth in children. the period 2000–2020, the protection of ecosystems
from eutrophication is expected to improve only
Acidification and eutrophication slightly under current legislation, mainly because of
Emissions of SO2, NOX and NH3 contribute to the the relatively small projected decline in ammonia
acidification and eutrophication of lakes, rivers, emissions (EEA, 2007b).
(11) Critical load means a quantitative estimate of an exposure to one or more pollutants below which significant adverse effects on
specified sensitive elements of the environment do not occur, according to present knowledge (UNECE, 1999).

Exceedances of critical loads for acidification and 2.2.6 Prospects

eutrophication in EECCA countries are usually
low, due to low sensitivity of the soils (UNEP/ 6EAP calls on the Commission to develop seven
RIVM, 1999), with the exception of Ukraine and thematic strategies, including one on air pollution.
north‑western Russia where critical loads are Informing and assisting the development of the
exceeded on a regular basis. Thematic Strategy on Air Pollution towards the
long‑term objectives of 6EAP has been one of the
Impact of ground-level ozone on vegetation main tasks of CAFE programme.
Ground-level ozone can damage forests, crops
and vegetation where a critical level (12) of Thematic Strategy on Air Pollution
ambient concentration is exceeded. Exposure of Following a CAFE analysis of a number of possible
ecosystems and agricultural crops to excessive ozone scenarios, the Commission presented its Thematic
concentrations results in visible foliar injury and a Strategy on Air Pollution (European Commission,
reduction in crop yields and seed production. For 2005a) in September 2005. The strategy establishes
vegetation under European conditions, long‑term interim environmental air quality objectives for the
cumulative exposure to ozone concentrations during EU up to 2020. Results of the CAFE analysis are
the growing season (assessed as accumulated summarised in Table 2.2.2, which also shows the
one-hour ozone concentrations over a threshold of estimated benefits of the strategy.
40 ppb — AOT40), rather than episodic exposure
is of concern. The EEA analysis shows that in 2004 The specific air quality policies of the CAFE
the EU target value was exceeded in a substantial Strategy, if implemented, should significantly
fraction of the agricultural area of EEA 32 countries improve air quality and reduce the impacts on
(except Turkey), about 26 % of a total area of human health and ecosystems. The strategy is
2.06 million km2 (EEA, 2007a and 2007b). projected to have the largest effect on the air
Table 2.2.2 Summary table of the CAFE analysis and the strategy
Benefits
Human health Natural environment (1 000 km2)
Level of
Monetised Life years lost Premature Acidification Eutrophication Ozone (forest
ambition
health benefits due to fine deaths due to (forested area (ecosystem area exceeded)
(Euro bn) particles (PM2.5) fine particles exceeded) area exceeded)
(million) and O3
2000 — 3.62 370 000 243 733 827
Baseline 2020 ( ) 13
— 2.47 293 000 119 590 764
Thematic Strategy 42–135 1.91 230 000 63 416 699
2020
MTFR 2020 (14) 56–181 1.72 208 000 36 193 381
Source: European Commission, 2005b.
(12) Critical level means the concentration of pollutants in the atmosphere above which direct adverse effects on receptors, such as
human beings, plants, ecosystems or materials, may occur, according to present knowledge (UNECE, 1999).
(13) CAFE baseline 2020 (also Current Legislation (CLE)) is the expected evolution of pollutant emissions in the EU-25 up to 2020
assuming that all current legislation to reduce air pollution is implemented. The baseline is based on forecasts of economic growth
and changes in energy production, transport and other polluting activities.
( ) MTFR is the Maximum Feasible Technical Reduction and includes the application of all possible technical abatement measures
14
irrespective of cost.

pollution problem which is clearly the most crucial Directive on National Emission Ceilings (European
one: loss of life expectancy because of PM exposure Parliament and Council, 2001), with new emission
(Map 2.2.2). Its benefits are projected to be smaller, ceilings based on the agreed interim objectives up to
but still significant, for the three other impact 2020.
indicators: forest damage due to exceedance of
critical loads for acidification, damage due to excess In EECCA, the projected economic growth will
nitrogen deposition, and premature deaths due to not immediately bring in new technology for
ozone exposure. Compared with 2000, the strategy industrial sources (Box 2.2.6). Growth in transport
should result in a reduction of around 44 % in the and a greater proportion of new vehicles can be
area of ecosystems receiving excess acid deposition, expected, but improvements in air quality will
but current data suggest only a 14 % reduction in take many years. Therefore, emissions cannot be
areas affected by eutrophication, because of only expected to decrease, and the negative impacts of
modest reductions in projected ammonia emissions. air pollution on public health and the environment
are expected to persist.
On the legislative side, the strategy is accompanied
by a proposal to merge the air quality framework Challenges for the LRTAP Convention
directive and three daughter directives into one Future progress in air quality protection in
containing minimum requirements for air quality. EECCA and the UNECE region in general can be
It will introduce new provisions for fine particles connected with envisaged future challenges for
(PM2.5). As one of the main policy instruments, the the Convention. These are focused mainly on the
Thematic Strategy announced a revision of the reduction of pollution by particulate matter and
Map 2.2.2 Loss of statistical life expectancy (months) that can be attributed to anthropogenic contributions to
PM2.5 for the emission levels in 2000 (left), and projected emission levels of the Thematic Strategy on
Air Pollution for 2020 (right)
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
60 60
50 50
50 50
40 40
40 40
0 500 1000 1500 Km 0 500 1000 1500 Km

0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Loss in statistical life expectancy that can be attributed to man-made emissions of PM2.5 for the emission levels in the
year 2000 (left), and projected emission levels of the Thematic Strategy for 2020 (right)
Months 0–1 1–2 2–4 4–6 6–9 9–12 12–36 Outside report coverage
Sources: Amann M. et al., 2005a (left); Amann M. et al., 2005b (right).

on air pollution and climate change issues and

Box 2.2.6 The 'CAPACT' project their linkages (UNECE, 2004a) (see also Box 2.2.7).
Air pollution, particularly from the energy and
transport sectors, is a significant problem in Central To include particulate matter under the framework
Asia. Pollution levels in urban areas are high and
of the Convention, may require both the setting
have a significant impact on the health of the
population and the environment. of emission ceilings for anthropogenic emissions
of PM10 and/or PM2.5 and a further lowering of the
UNECE and UNESCAP have developed a project: existing emissions ceilings for their precursors.
Capacity Building for Air Quality Management and the
Application of Clean Coal Combustion Technologies
in Central Asia (CAPACT) in collaboration with Air pollution and anthropogenic climate change
energy and environmental authorities in Central are closely connected in a number of ways. Both
Asia. Funding comes from the UN Development are caused mainly by the burning of fossil fuels:
Account. The project will help to identify appropriate
technologies for a cleaner use of coal, and aim sulphur and nitrogen oxides cause air pollution,
to raise the capacity of air quality management carbon dioxide contributes to global warming. In
within the institutions of Central Asia. The project addition, agriculture influences both acidification
deals specifically with implementation of the
UNECE Convention on Long-range Transboundary and eutrophication (through NOX and ammonia
Air Pollution (CLRTAP). The project duration is emissions) and climate change (through emissions
three years starting from mid-2004. Countries
of methane, nitrous oxide and CO2). Air pollutants
eligible to participate in the project are: Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan such as NOX, VOCs, CO and CH4 (precursors of
(UNECE, 2004b). ozone) and aerosols/fine particulates not only
affect air quality but also contribute to global
warming (Box 2.2.8).
Box 2.2.7 Hemispheric transport of air

pollution
While local and regional emissions sources are the

main cause of air pollution problems worldwide,
there is increasing evidence that many air pollutants
are transported on a hemispheric or global scale.
Observations and model predictions show the
potential for intercontinental transport of ozone and
its precursors, fine particles, acidifying substances,
mercury and persistent organic pollutants.
In the northern hemisphere, these flows may be

important for understanding air pollution problems
in population centres and impacts on remote areas.
To develop a fuller understanding of this growing
body of scientific evidence, the Executive Body of
the UNECE CLRTAP has established a Task Force
on Hemispheric Transport of Air Pollution. The task
force will also estimate the hemispheric transport
of specific air pollutants for the use in reviews of
protocols to the Convention (http://www.unece.
org/env/tfhtap/).

Box 2.2.8 Positive side effect of climate change policies on air quality
A recent study (EEA, 2006c) showed that EU efforts • such benefits are expected to be more
to meet its long-term climate change objectives significant in 2030 than in 2020 since a longer
could make a substantial contribution to reducing air period of time will be available for implementing
pollution. In particular, benefits of climate change measures and for changes in the energy
policies would lie in: system. Nevertheless, climate change policies, if
• a reduction in the costs of controlling air successful, will reduce the overall cost of the air
pollutant emissions: reducing greenhouse gas pollution abatement measures needed to meet
emissions, by burning smaller amounts of fossil the objectives of the Thematic Strategy on Air
fuels, will mean less air pollution. As a result Pollution by 2020.
the cost of tackling air pollution will be cut
significantly (by about EUR 10 billion per year); However, the report also states that in order to
• less damage to public health and ecosystems: meet the EU long-term objectives for air pollution,
the reduction of greenhouse gases as a result significantly greater efforts will still be needed in
of climate change policies would lead to a fall in the form of further targeted air pollution abatement
air pollutants from fossil-fuel combustion (most measures. For example, reductions in emissions from
notably oxides of nitrogen, sulphur dioxide, and non land-based sources, especially shipping, would
particulates (Figure 2.2.7) and their associated be necessary to reduce health effects to the target
health effects (more than 20 000 fewer levels (see also Chapter 3, Climate change).
premature deaths per year);
Figure 2.2.7 Benefits of climate policy
Benefits CO2: SO2 reduction in 2030, Benefits CO2: PM2.5 reduction in 2030,
baseline compared with climate action baseline compared with climate action
50 % 50 %
40 %
40 %
Reduction of PM2.5 -->
Reduction of SO2 -->
30 %
30 %
20 %
20 %
10 %
10 %
0%
0% 10 % 20 % 30 % 40 % 50 %
0%
0% 10 % 20 % 30 % 40 % 50 % – 10 %
Reduction of CO2 --> Reduction of CO2 -->
Average EU-15 EEA-5 EU-10
Note: EEA-5: Bulgaria, Norway, Romania, Turkey and Switzerland.
Source: EEA, 2006c.

Table 2.2.3 Maximum allowable concentrations in EECCA countries, EU air quality limits/targets for the protection
of public health, and WHO air quality guideline values
EECCA μg/m3 EU μg/m3 WHO (15) μg/m3

Sulphur dioxide, SO2 20 minutes 500 500 (16)
1-hour mean 350
not to be exceeded
> 24 times per year
24-hour mean 50 (17) 125 20
not to be exceeded
> 4 times per year
Nitrogen dioxide, NO2 20 minutes 85 (18)
1-hour mean 200 200
not to be exceeded
> 18 times per year
24-hour mean 40 (19)
Annual mean 40
Particulate matter, PM10 Hourly
24-hour mean 50 50
not to be exceeded
> 36 times per year
Annual mean 40 20
Particulate matter, 24-hour mean 25
PM2.5 Annual mean 25 (20) 10
Total suspended 20 minutes 500
particles, TSP 24-hour mean 150
Carbon monoxide, CO 20 minutes 5 000
1-hour mean 30 000
8-hour mean 10 000 10 000
24-hour mean 3 000
Ozone, O3 20 minutes 160
1-hour mean
8-hour mean 120, target value not 100
to be exceeded > 25,
average over three
years
24-hour mean 30
Benzene, C6H6 20 minutes 1 500 (21)
24-hour mean 100
Annual 5 (22)
Lead, Pb 20 minutes 1
24-hour mean 0.3
3-month mean
Annual 0.5 0.5
Benzo(a)pyrene 24-hour mean 0.001
Annual 0.001
(15) WHO air quality guidelines global update 2005. Report on a Working Group meeting, Bonn, Germany 18–20 October 2005.
(16) 10-minute exposure.
(17) In Belarus — 200 μg/m3.
(18) The revised MAC is 250 μg/m3 in Belarus and 200 μg/m3 in the Russian Federation.
(19) In Belarus — 100 μg/m3.
(20) Concentration cap suggested by the proposed directive on 'Ambient Air Quality and Cleaner Air for Europe'.
(21) In Belarus and the Russian Federation — 300 μg/m3.
(22) As of 1 January 2010.

Environment and health and the quality of life | Inland waters
2.3 Inland waters
Photo: Danube river © George Buttner
Key messages
• In many EECCA and SEE countries there the annual water use by agriculture, industry
was a significant decline in the monitoring of and cooling for power production have
water quality during the 1990s. Since then, remained nearly constant.
improvements have been observed but in
several countries water monitoring is still • High leakage losses in water distribution
inadequate if a clear picture of the status and systems, poor management and maintenance
trend in water resources is to be obtained. of irrigation systems, and unsustainable
cropping patterns are all exacerbating the
• More than 100 million people in the impacts of droughts.
pan‑European region still do not have access
to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation. • The latest climate change scenarios suggest
While there is generally continuous access significant summer drying across many parts
to good quality drinking water in WCE, the of Europe, in particular in the southern part.
supply in EECCA and SEE is often intermittent
and of poor quality and the quality of water • Both in EECCA and SEE the daily switching
supply and sanitation services has deteriorated on and off of the water supply network allows
continuously over the past 15 years. pollutants to contaminate the network and
increases the wear of the infrastructure. Leaks
• Unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene results in allow for cross contamination between water
18 000 premature deaths, mostly of children, and sanitation networks.
each year in the pan‑European region, mainly
in EECCA and SEE. • Most of the urban population's housing in
the region is now connected to sewers, but
• The rural population in the EECCA and SEE wastewater in some EECCA and SEE countries
countries suffers more than urban citizens is still discharged directly to the environment.
from deficient water supply and sanitation
infrastructures. • The available data suggests an improvement
of water quality in rivers in recent years,
• One-third of the pan-European population lives but some large rivers and many smaller
in countries where water resources are under watercourses remain severely polluted.
substantial pressure (water stress).
• In the last five years, the pan-European region
• Total water abstraction in the region has has suffered more than 100 major floods.
decreased by more than 20 % over the last Inappropriate river management, soil sealing
15 years. Most of the decrease occurred in and deforestation all exacerbate the risk of
EECCA and the EU-10. Since the late 1990s, flooding.

2.3.1 Introduction clean fresh water, achievements and standards are

unequally shared across Europe.
The hydrological cycle may be the ultimate form of
recycling but the volume of freshwater available to
humankind is finite, and because all life and health 2.3.2 Water resources and use
on Earth depends on water, it is a precious resource,
and one with which we tamper at our peril. The Water availability
amount available to us today is no different from Overall, Europe uses a relatively small portion
that which was available to our ancestors; only, there of its total renewable water resources each year:
are more of us than ever before, making more calls total water abstraction is about 524 km3/year, or
on this finite resource, and expecting more of it — its around 7 % of the long-term annual average (LTAA)
availability, its cleanliness, and its ability to wash available freshwater resource of 7 400 km3. However,
away our waste. because available water resources and people are
unevenly distributed, the amount of water available
Currently, precipitation — the hydrological cycle's per capita varies widely. Such countries as Iceland
method of renewing freshwater resources — is and Norway have plentiful supplies, while the
highest in the north-western part of Europe and in Mediterranean islands of Cyprus and Malta, some
mountainous areas such as the Alps and the Pamir of the densely populated central EU-25 Member
Mountains. But climate patterns are changing, States including Germany, Italy, Poland, Spain and
and with them patterns of rainfall. Generally it is southern United Kingdom, and some of the Central
expected that as Europe warms, so precipitation Asian countries have the least available water per
will generally increase in the north, but decrease capita.
further south — emphasising the current inequities
of freshwater distribution, while raising the risks of Europe's reservoirs have a total capacity of about
floods and droughts. 1 400 km3 or 20 % of the overall LTAA. Six relatively
water-short countries, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan,
With water becoming more limited on a per capita Kyrgyzstan, Romania, Spain, and Turkey, are able
basis, our husbandry of this vital resource increases to store more than 40 % of their LTAA, and another
in importance. Some of our uses of it, such as six countries, Cyprus, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Sweden,
over‑use for irrigation, are profligate and remove Czech Republic and Tajikistan, have smaller, but still
water from its cycle of renewal for a long while; the significant storage capacities. Although such huge
same is true of wastage from water delivery systems. structures are beneficial for securing supply, they
Other major uses return it more quickly, but add can adversely affect the regional water cycle and
pollutants, making it unfit for other uses, potentially sediment transport, and act as barriers for migrating
damaging human health, the biology of water fish, including salmon and sturgeon.
courses, and ultimately the marine environment. Yet
others, like water used as a coolant in the generation Water abstraction
of energy, do return water to the hydrological cycle Total water abstraction has remained largely
rapidly, but, by changing its medium from liquid constant since 1998, but a 15 year perspective reveals
to vapour, can deprive people downstream of a 20 % reduction (Figure 2.3.1) with a rapid decline
drinking water and water needed to maintain their from 1991 to 1997. The largest reductions, 35–40 %,
livelihoods. were in EECCA and SEE. By contrast, in southern
Europe, abstraction increased by more than 15 %,
Much has been done across Europe — through particularly in Turkey. In the SEE, it has remained
efficiency and innovation — to maintain the almost constant and is low when compared to other
availability of water for all and to improve its regions.
quality, both for human consumption and for the
wider environment. Yet, as this sections shows, Water stress can be defined by the water exploitation
there is more that can be done, and more that needs index (WEI) which divides the total water
doing since, like precipitation and ready access to abstraction by the LTAA resource (Figure 2.3.2).

Figure 2.3.1 Change in total water abstraction in the Figure 2.3.2 Water exploitation index (WEI) (total
period 1990–2005 water abstraction per year as percentage
of long-term freshwater resources in
Million m3 1990 and 2002/2004)
350 000 Total abstraction/long-term available resource

Progress since
Kiev
Uzbekistan
300 000 Cyprus
Turkmenistan
Azerbaijan
250 000 Bulgaria
Spain
FYR of Macedonia
Armenia
200 000
Belgium
Malta
Italy
150 000 Kazakhstan
United Kingdom
Germany
100 000 Kyrgyzstan
Poland
France
50 000 Romania
Turkey
Portugal
0 Lithuania
90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 Greece
19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 Czech Republic
Tajikistan
EECCA North-western EU-15 + CH Netherlands
EU-10 Southern EU-15 + Turkey Republic of Moldova
SEE Ukraine
Estonia
Note: North-western EU-15 + CH : DE, DK, FR, NL, AT, FI, SE, Hungary
CH, England and Wales; Switzerland
EU-10: CZ, EE, LV, LT, HU, PL, SL, SK, BG, RO; Southern Austria
EU-15 + TR: ES, GR, PT, TR;
Denmark
SEE: HR, MK, RS.
Georgia
Sources: EEA CSI18; UN Statistics Division, 2006; CISSTAT, 2006. Luxembourg
Belarus
Finland
Russian Federation
Sweden
The warning threshold, which distinguishes a Ireland
Slovakia
non‑stressed from a stressed region, is around 20 %, Serbia and Montenegro
with severe water stress occurring where the WEI Slovenia
exceeds 40 %. Croatia
Latvia
Norway
Twelve countries can be considered water-stressed, Iceland %
Uzbekistan, Cyprus, Turkmenistan, Bulgaria, 0 20 40 60 80 100
Belgium, Spain, Azerbaijan, Malta, Former WEI90 WEI02_04
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Italy, the United
Sources: EEA CSI18; UN Statistics Division, 2006; CISSTAT, 2006.
Kingdom (1), and Germany, representing a third
of the region's population, but only in Uzbekistan,
Cyprus and Turkmenistan does the WEI exceed The WEI decreased in 28 out of 37 countries
40 %. Most of the countries with high WEI have high included in Figure 2.3.2 during the period 1990
abstraction for irrigated agriculture, although some to 2002, most markedly in EECCA and EU-10,
countries have high abstraction rates for cooling while in six countries — the Netherlands, the
water particularly in Germany, the United Kingdom, United Kingdom, Greece, Portugal, Turkey and
Bulgaria and Belgium. Turkmenistan — WEI increased.
(1) England and Wales.

Water use abstractions by private agriculture and industry in

Across Europe, 45 % of total water abstraction in the national statistics.
region is used for agriculture, 40 % for industry and
energy generation (cooling in power plants), and In WCE and SEE (Figure 2.3.4) irrigation and energy
15 % for public water supply. However, this masks cooling each account for around a third of the water
considerable regional differences. abstraction while public water supply and the
manufacturing industry account for 18 % and 12 %
In some Mediterranean countries, the public respectively of water abstraction.
water supply accounts for a higher than average
proportion, for example 34 % in Cyprus and 87 % in Despite the introduction of more efficient cooling
Malta (UNEP/MAP, Blue Plan, 2005), with seasonal technologies only a minor reduction in the use
demands varying considerably to cope with the of water in energy generation has been achieved
inflow of tourists in summer. between 1990 and 2002, with many of the WCE
countries still using more than half of their
In the EECCA countries, agriculture and industry abstracted water in power plants. Over the same
and energy generation are still the dominant water period, industrial abstraction in WCE and SEE fell
users in spite of a fall of more than 40 % during by more than 40 %, with a 75 % reduction in EU-10,
the 1990s (Figure 2.3.3). In the mid-1990s there was but only 25 % in the EU-15.
also a 20 % reduction in water use for public needs
(households and service sector). However, there is
a risk that the reduction in water use in the EECCA Figure 2.3.4 Trend in water abstraction for sectors in
countries is over-estimated due to omission of water selected WCE and SEE countries
Million m3
100 000
Figure 2.3.3 Trend in water use by sectors in the Progress
EECCA countries, 1990 to 2005 since
90 000 Kiev
Million m3
80 000
120 000
Progress since
Kiev 70 000
100 000 60 000
50 000
80 000
40 000
60 000 30 000
20 000
40 000
10 000
20 000 0
90 92 94 96 98 00 02
19 19 19 19 19 20 20
0 Energy Industry Public water supply
90 92 94 96 99
8 00 02 04
19 19 19 19 1 20 20 20
Note: Energy cooling: CZ, EE, HU, PL, BG, RO, DE, ES, FR, NL, AT,
Irrigation/agriculture Public needs FI, England and Wales;
Industry: CZ, LV, HU, PL, SI, SK, BG, RO, DK, ES, FR, NL,
AT, FI, SE, England and Wales, DE;
Industry/energy
Public water supply: CZ, HU, PL, SI, SK, BG, RO, BE, DK,
DE, ES, FR, NL, AT, FI, SE, UK, IS, NO, CH.
Sources: EEA CSI18; UN Statistics Division, 2006; CISSTAT, 2006. Source: EEA CSI18.

In WCE and SEE there has been a general and those with intensive agricultural or industrial
downward trend in the public water use, most activity. Apart from the problems of providing water
pronounced in EU-10 (– 30 %). In these countries, to users, over-exploitation has led to the lowering of
economic restructuring led to water companies groundwater levels, the drying-out of water courses
increasing prices and installing water meters: as a and wetland areas in Europe, and to salt‑water
result, both people and industry used less water. intrusion in aquifers — a particular problem in
Nevertheless, in most EU-10 Member States, the large areas along the Mediterranean coastline (EEA,
supply network is obsolete and losses in distribution 2003). High irrigation water use may also lead to
systems require high abstraction volumes to salinisation of the soil (see Section 2.1).
maintain supply (see Section 2.3.3). Abstraction for
agriculture (Figure 2.3.5) is highest in arid regions In Central Asia, groundwater levels have changed
including the Mediterranean, southern EECCA and significantly as a result of abstraction for agriculture.
Turkey, irrigation accounts for more than 60 % of Declining water levels in the region's rivers and
water use (see also Section 7.1, Agriculture). the Aral Sea have affected their ability to recharge
groundwater supplies, resulting in a lowering of the
The decrease of agricultural activities in EECCA water table by up to 50 cm per year on non‑irrigated
and central and eastern European countries during territories and in some regions by as much as
the transition period led to marked decreases in 10–15 m in total. On irrigated land, however,
water use. In contrast, Turkey's withdrawals for groundwater levels have risen with consequential
irrigation has recently increased by 35 % as a result flooding of centres of population. For example, in
of major new irrigation projects over an area of Uzbekistan, groundwater levels have increased by
more than 7 million hectares within the basins of up to 1.5 m in 70 % of the total area of the Khorezm
the Tigris and Euphrates. region and over 50 % in the lower reaches of the
Zeravshan river, respectively (GIWA, 2005).
Impacts of water abstraction
Water availability problems generally occur in Some EU-25 Member States are also suffering the
areas of low rainfall and high population density, results of overexploitation most often associated
with irrigation but in some places also with tourism
(see Section 7.4 on Tourism). In Spain, more than
Figure 2.3.5 Water use for irrigation in European regions
half of the total abstracted groundwater volume
Million m3 is obtained from areas facing overexploitation
120 000 problems (MIMAM, 2000); groundwater levels of
the Milan aquifer have decreased between 25 m
and 40 m over the last 80 years; and on Greece's
100 000
Argolid plain it is common to find 400 m deep
boreholes contaminated by sea-water intrusion
80 000
(UNEP/MAP, Blue Plan, 2005).
60 000 Promoting sustainable use

Most countries have water resource management
40 000 plans that address both supply and demand.
Indeed the EU Water Framework Directive
(European Parliament and Council, 2000)
20 000
acknowledges that modern water management
needs to take account of ecological, economic —
0
including pricing — and social functions
EU-10 Turkey WCE Southern EECCA
EU-15 throughout an entire river basin, while the EECCA
1990 2002/2004
Environment Strategy includes integrated water
management programmes based on similar river
Sources: EEA CSI18; UN Statistics Division, 2006; CISSTAT, 2006. basin principles.

Over the past ten years, many governments, NGOs, Although there are wide variations in water charges
municipalities, water companies and international across Europe because of, for example, different
organisations have focused on providing an attitudes to cost recovery, in real terms water prices
increasing amount of information on sustainable have tended to rise over the past 20 years. In several
and water-wise farming, gardening and household countries, exemplified by Denmark and Estonia,
practices, often through dedicated websites but rising water prices have significantly lowered
also through such mechanisms as water-efficiency household water use (Figure 2.3.6). In Estonia,
labelling on household appliances. where, in common with other eastern European
and EECCA countries, water prices were heavily
Water pricing is another of the strategies that is subsidised before 1990, increased prices together
being employed to encourage sustainable use. with the introduction of more advanced sanitation
The EU's Water Framework Directive requires devices have led to more than a 50 % reduction in
Member States, by 2010, to recover the cost of water use.
services that impact the environment — such as
damming, channelling and pumping — from users Charges linked to water metering have proved to
including farmers, hydropower generators, riverine provide a high incentive to save water, and indeed
transporters and ordinary household consumers, experience shows that households with water
splitting the costs by sector on the polluter-pays meters generally use less water than those without
principle. them. Many of the WCE countries already meter
the majority of water uses, but metering elsewhere,
There is a risk that if Member States only include particularly for agriculture, is still in its infancy.
drinking water and wastewater treatment
infrastructures in their economic analyses, the entire Both the EU and the governments of EECCA
economic burden of improving water bodies by 2015 countries recognise the need to find a balance
would fall on ordinary citizens who already pay between water charges and their citizens' ability to
high prices for their water services. maintain levels of health and personal hygiene. To
Figure 2.3.6 Water pricing and household water use in Denmark, 1990–2005 (left) and Estonia, 1992–2004 (right)
Household water use (l/capita/day) Price DKK/m3 Household water use (l/capita/day) Price EEK/m3
200 45 200 10.0
Progress since
Progress since
180 Kiev
40 Kiev
160 8.0
35
150
140
30
120 6.0
25
100 100
20
80 4.0
15
60
10 50
40 2.0
20 5
0 0 0 0.0
85 88 91 94 97 00 03 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04
19 19 19 19 19 20 20 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20
Household water use Household water use

Price Price
Source: DEPA, 2004 updated by EEA. Source: Estonian Environment Information Centre, 2006.

this end the EU Water Framework Directive seeks to • the focus of the MDG 'access to an improved
guarantee an affordable basic level of domestic water water source' means access to a source of at
(Article 12a) while the EECCA Environment Strategy least 20 litres per person per day within 1 km
includes subsidies for low-income households to of their home, be it piped water, a public
secure their access to water services. standpipe, a protected well or a spring;
• the EECCA Environment Strategy focuses on
management of municipal water supply and
2.3.3 Drinking water sanitation infrastructure, that is service from
a centralised or piped water supply, sewerage
Most people in WCE have continuous access to clean networks and wastewater treatment.
drinking water, and take that for granted, while
their counterparts in EECCA and SEE are likely Access to an improved water source
only to have access to poor quality water, and in In 2005, the World Bank reported on the status of
some places even the supply of that is intermittent. the seventh MDG in Europe and Central Asia based
Indeed, the World Health Organization (WHO) on data from the WHO-UNICEF Joint Monitoring
estimates that more than 100 million Europeans do Programme (World Bank, 2005). Overall, 91 %
not have access to safe drinking water and adequate of people within these regions have access to an
sanitation, making them vulnerable to water-related improved water source. However, a more detailed
diseases (WHO, Europe). Furthermore, WHO look at EECCA and SEE countries (Figure 2.3.7)
reports that unsafe water and poor sanitation result reveals that the situation has not progressed since
annually in around 18 000 premature deaths, 736 000 1990, with some of the Central Asian countries and
disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) and the loss Romania still having a higher proportion of the
of 1.18 million years of life (WHO, 2004), many of population without access to an improved water
which would be preventable, were cleaner water and source.
adequate sanitation available. The majority of deaths
are of children and most of the deaths and DALYs Urban-rural disparities are also significant.
occur in the EECCA and SEE countries. The regional averages show that 98 % urban
and 79 % rural people have improved drinking
Improved water sources and connection to water. However, between 1990 and 2004 access
supply networks to improved drinking water in rural areas
In 2000 the UN member states adopted eight deteriorated with 4 million people losing access. As
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the a whole, Europe is not making progress towards
seventh of which aims to 'halve, by 2015, the the MDG, but there are some improvements; both
proportion of people without sustainable access to Azerbaijan and Turkey are on track to meeting the
safe drinking water and basic sanitation'. target (UNICEF, 2006).
One of the objectives of the EECCA Environment Centralised water supply (piped water)
Strategy is to 'improve the management Coverage by centralised water supply and
of municipal water supply and sanitation sanitation services in urban areas of EECCA and
infrastructure'. This includes the improvement of SEE is generally high (OECD, 2005), for example
institutional and regulatory frameworks to ensure 90 % in the Russian Federation, Belarus and
financial viability of utilities, to provide access Ukraine, but water supply systems serve less
of the poor to water services, to safeguard public than 60 % of the urban population in Central
health, and to protect the environment. Asia (Figure 2.3.8). In rural areas connectivity is
generally much lower with people having to rely
Although the two policies both aim to improve on water from wells, rivers, canals or springs.
access to sufficient drinking water of good quality,
it is important to understand the differences Almost all, 90–100 %, of the urban population in
between the indicators used to assess the SEE countries are connected to piped water, but
achievement of the objectives: here, too, the rate among rural populations is much

Figure 2.3.7 Population with access to an improved distribution network, has remained at very high
water source (household connection, levels in all EECCA countries (Figure 2.3.9 left),
public standpipe, protected wells and and has steadily increased in some of them. For
springs) (selected countries, 1990 and
2004, %) instance, the proportion of unaccounted-for
water in Georgia, the Republic of Moldova and
Belarus Uzbekistan rose from about 30 % to 45 % and it
Latvia remained at 50–60 % in Armenia and Kyrgyzstan.
Hungary
Losses are also substantial in some Mediterranean
Bulgaria
Russian Federation countries, for example: Albania, up to 75 %;
Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia, 30–60 %; Czech Republic, 20–30 %; France,
Ukraine 30 %; and Spain, 24–34 % (EUWIMED, 2006).
Turkey
Albania
In some European countries including the United
Republic of Moldova
Kingdom and Denmark there has been a focus on
Armenia reducing losses from public water supply systems. In
Kazakhstan Denmark, these were reduced from around 10–12 %
Uzbekistan in the 1980s to 6 % in 2004, while in England and
Georgia
Wales losses have decreased from around 30 % at the
Kyrgyzstan
Azerbaijan
beginning of the 1990s to 23 % in 2004 (Figure 2.3.9
Turkmenistan right).
Tajikistan
Romania
0 20 40 60 80 100 Figure 2.3.8 Urban population with centralised/piped

% of population water supply (EECCA and SEE countries,
1998–2003, %)
1990 2004
Coverage with centralised/piped water supply
Notes: All of the population of AD, AT, BG, CH, CY, DE, DK, FI, IS,
LU, MT, NL, NO, SE, SK have access to improved water
supply. Serbia and Montenegro
No information from BE, EE, FR, GR, IE, IT, LV, MC, PL, PT,
ES, UK. Romania
Source: UN Statistics Division, 2007.

FYR of Macedonia
Croatia
Bulgaria
lower, with, in some countries, less than one third
of these people having access to piped water. Many
Albania
rural populations mostly rely on open wells, many
of which are unprotected from pollution including
Ukraine
chemical pollution from wastewater discharges,
Tajikistan
from agriculture and urban area run-off, and from
Russian Federation
landfills.
Republic of Moldova
Kyrgyzstan
Connectivity in most urban areas is one thing, the
Kazakhstan
quality of water supply and sanitation services
Georgia
delivered to clients is another, and this has
Azerbaijan
deteriorated over the last 15 years. Hence, while the
Yerevan
vast majority of urban populations may have access Armenia
to water utility services, the quality of the services (without Yerevan) %
is increasingly weak. Two indicators demonstrate 0 20 40 60 80 100
this situation particularly well. 2003 2001 1999

2002 2000 1998
The amount of water that is produced, but which
is either lost through leakage or stolen from the Sources: OECD, 2005; Speck, 2005.

Both in the EECCA and the SEE countries the hours per day as it is in Albania, where it has been
continuity of water supply has been deteriorating. reported that water is generally only available for
In EECCA, apart from the Russian Federation and three to four hours per day, with some areas only
Belarus, users in all countries surveyed currently receiving supplies once in three days (Rohde et al.,
receive water for less than 24 hours per day 2004).
(Figure 2.3.10). Generally water is available for fewer
than 20 hours a day, but in Armenia and Azerbaijan Drinking water quality
it can be as low as five to seven hours, tempting While most people in WCE have access to drinking
people to leave taps open so that they can collect a water of good quality, in the EECCA and SEE
few buckets of water when it comes. To make matters countries quality frequently does not meet basic
worse, in some cities the pressure is only sufficient to biological and chemical standards. A recent
provide water to the lowest floors of buildings. The World Bank study of five countries — Armenia,
daily switching on and off of the network, in many Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Republic of Moldova,
places several times per day, allows micro-biological and Serbia and Montenegro — found that water
and other pollution to contaminate the network, quality had deteriorated in all cases and was of
diminishing the quality of the water supplied, and particular concern in Kazakhstan and the Republic
increasing the deterioration of the infrastructure. of Moldova (World Bank, 2005).
In SEE countries, the water availability can Microbial contamination has been recognised as
regularly be interrupted or restricted to several the prime concern throughout the region (WHO,
Figure 2.3.9 Unaccounted-for water in EECCA countries (%) (left); Water lost from public water supply systems in
Croatia, Denmark, and England and Wales (1990–2004, % of delivery) (right)
Unaccounted-for water Public water supply — water losses

% of delivered water
50
Ukraine Progress since
Kiev
Tajikistan
40
Russian Federation
Republic of Moldova
30
Kyrgyzstan
Kazakhstan
20
Georgia
Azerbaijan
10
Yerevan
Armenia
(without Yerevan)
% 0
0 20 40 60 80 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04
19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20
2003 2001 1999
Croatia Denmark England and Wales
2002 2000 1998
Sources: OECD, 2005a; CROSTAT, 2006; Statistics Denmark, 2006; DEFRA, 2005b.

Figure 2.3.10 Continuity of supply (hours per day) • In Uzbekistan in 2004 and 2005, 16.3 % and
18.9 % of the studies of the public water
systems and 14.6 % and 11.6 % of tests of
Ukraine
the official water pipes did not correspond
Tajikistan to national standards (National contribution
received during Belgrade review process.
Russian Federation http://belgrade-consultation.ewindows.eu.org/
reports/rep285401).
Republic of Moldova
Drinking water quality in SEE often does not meet

Kyrgyzstan
standards:
Kazakhstan
• in Albania urban water rarely has even
Georgia preliminary treatment as a result of the lack of
adequate treatment and disinfection facilities
Azerbaijan and the unreliable supply of chemicals. The
water situation in rural areas is even worse.
Yerevan
With no piped water supply, rural householders
Armenia
dig their own wells, in some cases on the
(without Yerevan) banks of heavily polluted rivers whose waters
0 4 8 12
Hours per day
16 20 24 are unsuitable for human consumption.
Additionally, a lack of sanitary protection
2003 2001 1999
zones is causing contamination of groundwater
2002 2000 1998
sources;
Source: OECD, 2005. • in Bosnia and Herzegovina only 32 % of the
urban population is supplied with safe, treated
Europe), with chemical pollution more localised but drinking water and indeed some 42 % of
where it exists it can also have a significant impact laboratory-tested water samples were deemed
on health. New and emerging protozoan pathogens, to be unsafe and microbiological analyses show
such as Giardia and Cryptosporidium and some that 32.5 % of all water samples were unsafe. It
chemicals, pose additional challenges in the short is likely that significantly more than 68 % of the
term (see also Section 2.5, Hazardous chemicals). rural population is exposed to unsafe drinking
water;
In the European countries of EECCA, chemical • deterioration of the water supply infrastructure
pollution is the more immediate problem, while in Serbia and Montenegro, including the
in the Central Asian countries microbiological chlorination systems, has contributed to a
pollution of drinking water is more important decline in the quality of piped drinking water.
(WHO, 2004). However, a paucity of adequate data The problems with contaminated water supplies
on drinking water combined with incompatible are prominent in Serbia where 29 % of samples
reporting systems makes it difficult to produce from piped systems in 2001 did not meet the
adequate analyses beyond the country level. physical/chemical or bacteriological standards
(World Bank, 2003).
• In rural areas of the Republic of Moldova, where
most of the population draws its drinking water It is clearly the poor and rural populations that
from underground sources and only 17 % of are most affected by deteriorating water supplies.
families use central supply sources, bad water In Tajikistan, for example, less than one-tenth
quality has a direct impact on health, causing of the poorest 40 % of the population has access
increased morbidity and generating additional to piped water at home, compared to more than
health-related expenditures for the state budget three‑quarters of the richest 20 %. Further, water
and economy (UNECE, 2005). taken directly from shallow wells, ponds and

irrigation canals, and frequently contaminated • worn-out water and sewerage networks;
with untreated domestic wastewater, is all that • continued deterioration of water utilities;
is available for these people, exposing them to • lack of skilled staff — due to low pay and low
diarrhoea, dysentery and hepatitis. status of the water sector, and;
• poor chemical and biological quality of raw water
Policies to ensure safe water and water supplied.
The 1999 UNECE Protocol on Water and Health
to the Convention on the Protection and Use of Urgent action is needed to address these issues
Transboundary Watercourses and Lakes was the and improve urban and rural water supplies
first international agreement to provide a basis for across EECCA. Improved coordination of river
a reasonable and equitable management of water basin management of water bodies, including
resources that serves the needs of ecosystems, transboundary rivers, a strengthening of the legal
agriculture, industry and human health. and regulatory framework, and the attraction of
foreign investments will all be needed.
The protocol, which entered into force in August
2005, calls on the parties to:
2.3.4 Climate impacts on water
• strengthen their health systems and address
future health risks; Rising temperatures worldwide are likely to
• improve planning for and management of water intensify the global hydrological cycle. Annual
resources; precipitation trends indicate that northern Europe,
• improve the quality of water supply and over the last century, has become wetter by 10–40 %,
sanitation services; and whereas southern Europe has become up to 20 %
• ensure safe recreational water environments. drier (Chapter 3, Climate change; Klein Tank et al.,
2002). Over the same period, annual river discharges
The EU Water Initiative — EECCA component have increased in some regions in northern Europe,
(EUWI-EECCA) is a partnership that seeks to while they have fallen in others, particularly in
improve the management of water resources in the southern Europe (EEA, 2004). Further, predicted
region. The partnership was established between EU increases in temperature are very likely to bring
and the EECCA countries at the World Summit for with them unpredictable shifts in precipitation and
Sustainable Development in 2002. snow cover, which may reduce the availability of
groundwater, together with more extreme weather
The partnership is intended to build on and events leading to an increase in the frequency and
reinforce existing partnerships and bilateral and severity of flooding and droughts (Eisenreich,
regional programmes by bringing partners with 2005).
related water activities together within a common
framework. It is open to all stakeholders and Climate change may also markedly change
draws together government, inter-governmental the seasonal variation in river flow. Higher
organisations, civil society, private sector, NGOs and temperatures will push the snow limit upwards
academia. both in northern Europe and in mountainous
regions and this, in conjunction with less
From a stock-taking exercise on country precipitation falling as snow, will result in higher
performance in late 2005 carried out by the EU on winter run-off in northern European, Central
the EUWI-EECCA component, it is clear that there Asian and mountain-fed rivers such as the Rhine,
is a long way to go before the provision of access to the Danube and the Syr Darya. Moreover, earlier
safe drinking water and basic sanitation to all in the spring melts will lead to a shift in peak flow levels.
EECCA countries becomes a reality. For each of the As a result of the declining snow reservoir and
countries examined, the underlying problems are decreasing glaciers, there will be less water to
the same, but vary in intensity. The problems are: compensate for the low flow rates in summer.

Higher water temperature Changes in average water availability in most

Higher air temperatures lead to higher water European river basins are likely to be relatively
temperatures, as evidenced by an increase of 1–3 °C small over the next 30 years (EEA, 2005b).
in European rivers and lakes over the last century However, over the longer term (see Figure 3.6)
(Figure 2.3.11). In particular, one-third of the 3 °C most climate change scenarios predict that northern
increase in temperature of the Rhine is believed to and eastern Europe will see an increase in annual
be the result of climate change and the remaining average river flows and water availability (IPCC,
two‑thirds of more cooling water being returned to the 2001; Arnell, 1999; Arnell 2004). In contrast, average
river in Germany (MNP, 2006). run-off from southern European rivers is expected
to decrease; particularly some river basins in the
Increases in water temperature reduce the oxygen Mediterranean and southern parts of EECCA,
content and increase biological respiration rates which already face water stress, may see marked
and thus may result in lower dissolved oxygen decreases in water availability.
concentrations, particularly in summer low-flow
periods. Changes in flow regimes and annual availability
as well as in the biological and chemical
Fish, for example salmonids, and other aquatic characteristics of Europe's water resources will
organisms have specific temperature preferences have far-reaching economic effects, particularly on
which determine their spatial distribution along a such activities as irrigated agriculture, hydropower
river or at a regional scale. Warming could lead to generation and use of cooling water. Moreover,
the extinction of some aquatic species or at least to wetlands and aquatic ecosystems are threatened,
modifying their distribution in a river or move their
distribution northwards in Europe.
Figure 2.3.11 Trend in annual water temperature in
Increased water temperature also affects ice formation, the Rhine (1909–2006), the Danube
(1901–1990) and average water
and there are several examples from the northern
temperatures in August in Lake Saimaa,
part of the region where the duration of ice cover, Finland (1924–2000)
and its extent and thickness in lakes and rivers, have
decreased. For example, the ice break‑up in Russian Water temperature °C
rivers currently happens 15–20 days earlier than in 25
the 1950s, and a shift towards a longer annual ice-free

period and earlier ice break-up has been observed for
many Nordic lakes. Such effects may, in turn, have 20
ecological impacts on the biology of lakes, causing

shifts in the composition of plankton communities and
changes in the timing of phytoplankton blooms. 15
Changing river discharges

Water flowing out of rivers 'freshens' seawater, 10
making it less salty. Changes in the freshening of the

Arctic Ocean, the result of increased river discharge
and melting of sea ice, including Greenland's ice sheet, 5
could have major implications for the global climate

by altering the large-scale ocean currents such as the
Gulf Stream (see Chapters 3 and 5). A major source 0
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
of freshwater out-flows into the Arctic Ocean are the
Eurasian rivers, the six largest of which have increased Rhine, Lobith Danube, Vienna
their discharge by 7 % over the past 70 years (Peterson Lake Saimaa (August), Finland
et al., 2002; Hadley Centre, 2005; Richter-Menge et al., Sources: River Rhine: Rijkswaterstaat; River Danube: Hohensinner,
2006). 2006; and Lake Saimaa: Korhonen J., 2002.

affecting those sectors that depend on the goods Recent severe and prolonged droughts (see Box 2.3.1)
and services they provide. Reduced raw water have highlighted Europe's vulnerability to shortages
quality will affect drinking water supplies and of water, and alerted the public, governments
those industries that depend on high water quality, and operational agencies to the need for drought
including tourism, and may in the worst case impact mitigation measures. Policies are needed to
human health. encourage demand management that increases water
use efficiency, rather than supply-side approaches
Climate change and European water policies such as dams, reservoirs and large-scale water
The integration of adaptation provisions into transfers. Measures could include the use of economic
European policies is just beginning. In 2005 an instruments, water‑reuse and recycling, increased
extensive assessment of the potential impacts of efficiency of domestic, agricultural and industrial
climate change on water resources was carried out water use, and water-saving campaigns supported
at the request of EU Member States (Eisenreich, by public education programmes tuned to local and
2005), resulting in the European Commission national circumstances (see also section on education
launching the second phase of its climate change for sustainable development in Chapter 1).
programme, focusing on impacts and adaptation,
including water management. Additionally, the EEA The latest climate change scenarios suggest
prepared a summary of best adaptation practices in significant summer drying across many parts of
the water sector (EEA, 2007) and in February 2007 Europe in particular in the south, lower rainfall
the EU German Presidency organised a symposium in other seasons, and increased variability (see
to discuss climate change and the European water previous section). Combining these patterns leads to
dimension (http://www.climate-water-adaptation- an assertion that, over the coming decades, Europe
berlin2007.org). All these activities provided input to is likely to suffer more frequent meteorological
the Green Paper from the Commission of June 2007. droughts, potentially further exacerbated by
generally elevated temperatures increasing the
Climate change is one of the key issues being demand for water.
considered as EU-25 Member States undertake an
initial assessment of flood risks and draw up the risk In recognition of the seriousness of these challenges,
management plans as part of a proposed directive the European Commission is undertaking an
on flood risk management (see next section). in‑depth assessment of the situation, and will
Similarly, climate change will be taken into account present its findings during 2007.
in relation to water management planning, droughts
and water scarcity. Floods
Floods endanger lives and inflict heavy economic
losses, but in addition they can have severe
2.3.5 Droughts and floods environmental consequences, for example when
installations holding large quantities of toxic
Droughts chemicals are inundated. The coming decades are
Conflicts between human requirements and likely to see a higher flood risk in Europe with
ecological needs for water are on the increase, increasing economic damage.
and these intensify during severe and extensive
droughts. While the primary cause of droughts is Over the last five years, Europe suffered over
a deficiency in rainfall, rising human demand for 100 major floods, including those along the Danube
water is an important factor. The main impacts and Elbe rivers in summer 2002, in the northern
include water supply problems, shortages and Caucasus in July and August 2002, in the Alps in
deterioration of water quality, intrusion of saline summer 2005, and along the Danube in the spring
water in groundwater bodies, and increased 2006. In all, since 2000 floods in Europe have caused
pollution of receiving water bodies as a result of at least 700 deaths, the displacement of about half
there being less water to dilute pollutants, and drops a million people and at least EUR 25 billion in
in groundwater levels. insured economic losses (Table 2.3.1).

Box 2.3.1 Recent drought events in the pan‑European region
In 2000 and 2001, parts of Central Asia were hit by which affected the river basin in the southern part
a severe drought. In 2000 it was called the 'worst of the country, reducing run-off by 50–70 % of the
in 95 years', but the second year was even more long-term average. There were shortages in the
devastating, at least in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan's supply of drinking water, energy generation was
districts of Khorezm and Karakalpakstan close adversely affected, and in some areas agricultural
to the Aral Sea, where much rice, cotton and production fell by 40–60 % (World Bank, 2003).
fodder was lost. The impact of the drought was
exacerbated by poor water management and poor During the 2003 heatwave and drought much
maintenance of the irrigation system as well as of southern and central Europe experienced a
unsustainable cropping (Wegerich, 2001; UNECE, substantial drop in crop yields — the strongest
2001). negative deviation from the long-term trend in
Europe in the last 43 years (UNEP, 2004).
The SEE countries are increasingly facing long
periods of drought creating economic problems. In 2005 and 2006, Spain and Portugal have
Bulgaria, for example, has experienced several suffered from water shortages. The hot dry summer
summer droughts since the mid-1980s: in the in 2005 followed a period of winter drought in
summer droughts of 1993, crop losses were 2004–2005. In Portugal, 97 % of the land area
estimated at 2 % of GDP, while in 1996 and 2000, was afflicted with severe to extreme drought — the
annual maize and wheat production fell to around most severe conditions since the 1940s, and a
half of the average achieved in 1961–1990. From contributing factor to the forest fires which caused
1982 to 2000, Romania suffered from droughts widespread destruction.
Some areas are more affected than others sudden, localised but severe floods — flash floods —
(Map 2.3.1). Between 1998 and 2005 north-western are expected to rise, increasing the likelihood of
Romania, south‑eastern France, central and casualties. However, to properly assess the climate
southern Germany, northern Italy, and the east of impacts on the occurrence of floods, further study
England experienced the highest concentration of of the complexity of other driving forces of flooding
repeated flooding. needs to be undertaken.
Unwise river basin management also plays a In order to improve flood protection, the European
significant role in the occurrence of floods. In Commission presented its draft Floods Directive
converting land for agriculture by preventing in January 2006, laying down a series of steps to be
it from flooding, rivers have been deepened, implemented by Member States — but subject to
culverted and straightened, and dykes have been change. The first step calls for preliminary flood risk
built. Further, the natural retention capacity of assessments of their river basins and their associated
floodplains has been destroyed by urbanisation, coastal zones; the second step involves drafting
increasing the risk of floods through the sealing of flood risk maps. These will be followed by a final
soil, resulting in the rapid run-off of storm water to phase involving the creation of integrated flood
the river. Deforestation of upstream mountainous risk management plans for each flood zone.
areas, too, accelerates run-off. Unless future river
basin management makes space for water, floods The management plans will:
are likely to become even more devastating as the
climate changes bring more intense rainfall. • include measures to reduce the probability of
flooding and its consequences;
Although establishing clear links between climate • address all phases of the flood risk
change and increased flooding is difficult, the management cycle, focusing particularly on
magnitude and frequency of extreme weather preventing damage by avoiding the location
events are expected to increase with hydrological of houses and industries in present and future
extremes, including floods, likely to be more flood-prone areas and by adapting future
frequent and severe. In particular, the number of development to the risk of flooding;

• support measures to reduce the likelihood of production, intensive agriculture and population
floods and/or their impact in a specific location growth. The extent to which wastewater from
such as by restoring flood plains and wetlands; population and industry is discharged into waters
• improve preparedness such as providing is dependent on the condition of the sewage
instructions to the public on how to react in the collection system and the treatment facilities
event of flooding. available. While, in many areas, considerable
investment and change has been made to
Since many of Europe's river basins are shared counteract point sources of water pollution,
by more than one country, concerted action discharges from diffuse sources, in particular
at European level should result in the better agriculture, are much more difficult to control.
management of flood risks. Furthermore, countries
should exchange information, coordinate their risk Sanitation
assessments, flood maps and preventative efforts, Improved sanitation, an important public health
and make action plans publicly available. And they measure essential for the prevention of disease,
should encourage active public participation in the refers to the number of people with access to
drafting and updating of flood risk management public sewer connection, septic system connection,
plans specifically by those citizens and businesses pour‑flush latrines, simple pit latrines, or ventilated
directly 'in the line of fire'. improved pit latrines (WHO/UNICEF Joint
Monitoring Programme).
2.3.6 Pollution and water quality In 2004 around 90 % of the population in the
EECCA and SEE countries had access to improved
The main drivers of pollution discharges and sanitation (Figure 2.3.12). Six countries, Bosnia and
the deterioration of water quality are industrial Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Turkey, Ukraine and
Map 2.3.1 River catchments affected by flooding (1998–2005)
-60° -70° -80° -100° -120° -140° -160° -170°

Flood events 1998–2005
Number of events
40°
2
Kolym 3
a
Al
5
40° en
L
a ≥6
da
n
Outside report
Am
Vi coverage
ur
lyuy
Pe
a
Yen
Angar
ch
ey
in e
is
ne
ora
ô Ob
Rh
Rh 40°
a
r
Po
D ni ep e
ol
m
Ka
Tob
n Irt
D a
Do
30° an lg
ys
ub Ural
Vo
Syrd 30°
a
r’y
Am
T da
u
r’y
ig ri
20°
0 500 1000 1500 Km a
s
20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90° 100° 110°
Source: EEA, based on Global Active Archive of Large Flood Events, Dartmouth Flood Observatory — EMDAT.

Table 2.3.1 Major floods in the pan-European region during 2005 and 2006
2006
• Spain and Portugal, October–November 2006: 155 300 km2 affected.
• Greece, October 2006: Thessaloniki received more rain in 24 hours than it usually does during the entire
month of October. Worst floods in 50 years in Volos. 100 000 hectares crops damaged. EUR 4.5 million damage
to roads and infrastructure. Hundreds of homes flooded.
• Romania, Bulgaria, Ukraine, April–May 2006: 144 600 km2 affected. Highest level of the Danube in Romania
and Bulgaria since 1895.
2005
• Romania and Bulgaria, September 2005: 10 deaths. 29 370 km2 affected.
• Switzerland, Austria, Germany, August 2005: USD 790 million damage. 44 900 km2 affected. 12 deaths. Worst
flood in central Europe for a century.
• Romania, Republic of Moldova, Hungary and Bulgaria, August 2005: USD 625 million damage, 34 deaths.
68 750 km2 affected by this record flood which lasted for 20 days.
• Romania, July 2005: USD 800 million damage. 13 000 displaced. 23 deaths. 40 040 km2 affected. Worst flood
in 30 years.
• Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Afghanistan, June 2005: USD 50 million damage, 103 000 km2 affected. 11 000
people displaced and 39 died in this flooding that lasted for 37 days.
• Bulgaria, May 2005: USD 10 million damage, six deaths and 71 250 km2 affected. Caused by the heaviest
rainfall in more than 50 years.
• Russian Federation, May 2005: Lasted a month. Nearly 500 houses flooded but only one fatality. 279 300 km2
affected after the Amur river rose to its highest level in 30 years.
• Finland, May 2005: Worst spring flooding since 1981. Damage running into millions of euro, 24 900 km2
affected, and 400 people displaced.
• Poland, Romania, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, March 2005: Melting snow and continuous rainfall caused
flooding that killed four people and affected 673 500 km2. Lasted for 26 days.
• Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, February 2005: A dam broke as snow melted causing flooding over 135 400 km2
and displacing 30 000 people. Lasted for 28 days.
• United Kingdom, January 2005: Over 3 000 homes flooded leaving thousands homeless and three dead.
Millions of pounds damage.
Source: EEA, based on Global Active Archive of Large Flood Events, Dartmouth Flood Observatory — EMDAT.
Uzbekistan, are on track to meet the MDG target of before its discharge into open waters. Despite the
'halving, by 2015, the proportion of people without rather high connection rate, the wastewater is in
sustainable access to … basic sanitation', but in some many cases not treated, either because there is no
countries, mainly in rural parts of Central Asian wastewater treatment plant or the plant does not
countries sanitation is still very deficient with more function properly (Box 2.3.2).
than one-third of the population living without
improved sanitation (UNICEF, 2006) — a situation Before 1990, large volumes of effluent were
that has essentially remained the same since 1990. discharged into surface water bodies from municipal,
industrial and agriculture sources, causing pollution
Wastewater treatment of both surface and groundwaters. This diminished
With increasing urbanisation and development in the early 1990s, not generally as the result of
around Europe, households and industries are the introduction of pollution control technologies
generally connected to sewers. Connection to a such as improved wastewater treatment but rather
collection system, however, does not guarantee because of the collapse of many industries and
that the water is adequately treated. Indeed, the reduced agricultural activities. Moreover, a number
sewerage connection rates in EECCA and SEE of polluting activities still exist, notably mining,
countries cannot be used as an indicator for the metallurgical and chemical industries. In rural areas
amount of wastewater actually being treated connectivity to sewers and wastewater treatment

is generally very low, resulting in most of the improvements in wastewater treatment technology.
wastewater being discharged untreated. In the northern and central countries most of
the wastewater now receives tertiary treatment
Across the EU-25 in 2002, 90 % of the population — i.e. nutrients are removed — while in the southern
were connected to sewerage networks (Eurostat, countries and the EU-10 most wastewater receives
2006). However, some wastewater is discharged secondary treatment — primarily removal of organic
without or with only limited treatment. Some matter.
regional differences exist: in the northern and central
European countries generally more than 90 % of the In Turkey, the percentage of people connected to
population is connected to wastewater treatment sewers increased from 52 % in 1994 to 66 % in 2004.
plants. In southern Europe and the EU-10 connection This period of economic development saw a near
varies between 50–80 %. In 2002 there were still doubling in the amount of wastewater discharged
some large cities that discharged their wastewater (Figure 2.3.13), a quadrupling in the number of
nearly untreated, such as Cork, Barcelona, Brighton, wastewater treatment plants from 41 to 165, and
Milan (European Commission, 2004), and Bucharest by 2004 more than half of the country's wastewater
(National contribution received during Belgrade received some kind of treatment.
review process. http://belgrade-consultation.
ewindows.eu.org/reports/rep285401). As a result of the economic recession in the 1990s,
the amount of wastewater and pollutants discharged
The last twenty years have seen marked increases in the EECCA, SEE and new EU-10 decreased
in the proportion of the population whose housing markedly mainly as a result of the decline in
is connected to wastewater treatment and in highly polluting industry. Although many of these
economies have since improved and industrial
output has increased, there has been a shift towards
Figure 2.3.12 Total population with access to improved less polluting industries in the EU-10, with several
sanitation, selected countries
(%, 1990 and 2004)
Figure 2.3.13 Wastewater treatment in Turkey
Slovakia
Bulgaria Million m3
Czech Republic 3 000 Progress since Kiev
Estonia
Ukraine
Hungary
2 500
Georgia
Albania
Turkey 2 000
Russian Federation
Belarus 1 500
Armenia
Latvia
Kazakhstan
1 000
Republic of Moldova
Uzbekistan
Turkmenistan
Kyrgyzstan 500
Azerbaijan
Tajikistan
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
94 95 96 97 98 01 02 03 04
% of the population with improved sanitation 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20
Tertiary Secondary
1990 2004
Primary Without treatment
Source: UN Statistics Division, 2007. Source: Turkey Statistical Yearbook.

Box 2.3.2 Examples of poor and deteriorating sewerage networks and wastewater treatment in
EECCA and SEE countries
In Albania, the wastewater collection and treatment In Georgia only one of 30 municipal wastewater
infrastructure has neither been maintained nor treatment plants is functional (national
developed quickly enough to cope with the increasing information).
flow of pollution. No new wastewater infrastructure
has been built to keep pace with the increasing
population in the major cities of Tirana and Durrës In the Republic of Moldova wastewater discharged
(UNECE, 2002). from residential and industrial areas is a major
pollution contributor to surface waters as most of
the treatment plants are not operational. Out of the
The condition of wastewater facilities in Azerbaijan 580 plants built before the early 1990s, only 104
is generally very poor. Lack of maintenance for more were still in use in 2003. As a result, since 2000
than a decade, excessive leakage and infiltration, and the quantity of untreated or insufficiently treated
a low standard of construction, including materials, wastewater has risen dramatically (UNECE, 2005).
are the main causes. Discharges of insufficiently
pre-treated harmful industrial wastewater into the
municipal sewer systems impair the efficiency of the In Tajikistan many wastewater treatment plants are
wastewater treatment plants not designed to deal obsolete and only 20 % still work. Other than in the
with these loads (UNECE, 2003). capital, Dushanbe, there is no biological treatment
either because the plants never had the capability
or because the cost of electricity needed for their
In Bosnia and Herzegovina's urban areas, the operation is too high (UNECE, 2004b).
connection rate for households is 56 %, but in
villages and rural areas a maximum of 10 % of the
households are connected to sewerage systems. In Serbia and Montenegro ten years of little
Due to the lack of resources, the sewerage systems maintenance and no investment has resulted in
are on the whole poorly maintained and in many most municipal and industrial wastewater being
cases may not even have been completed. At discharged largely untreated. It is estimated that
the time of the civil war 1992–1995, only seven only 13 % of treatment plants work satisfactorily
municipal wastewater treatment plants were in and that only about 12 % of municipal wastewater
operation, and although since then many of the is treated. Lack of access to water and sanitation
plants were returned to operation, more than 95 % is a public health issue for some populations,
of the municipal wastewater is still discharged, particularly those living in urban slums (World
untreated, into water bodies (UNECE, 2004a). Bank, 2003).
new wastewater treatment plants helping to reduce mainly agriculture — have generally remained
pollution further. constant. The changes in point-source discharges
are mainly due to improved treatment of urban
Despite huge investment in better wastewater wastewater — particularly in WCE countries where
treatment eutrophication caused by large inputs treatment is now very effective — the lowered
of nutrients, mainly nitrogen and phosphorus, is phosphate content of detergents, and reduced
still a major environmental problem across Europe, industrial discharges. However, measures to reduce
affecting all types of waters. Diffuse source run-off the nitrogen surplus from agricultural land have
from agricultural land is the principal source of only had limited success so far, but are now slowly
nitrogen pollution, typically contributing 50–80 % beginning to show results in terms of a reduction in
of the total load (EEA, 2005a), while households diffuse losses.
and industry point sources still tend to be the more
significant sources of phosphorus, though the input The state of water quality
from agriculture is far from negligible. In addition to the water quality assessment below,
an in-depth report on the status of transboundary
In general, discharges of both nitrogen and rivers, groundwater and lakes in the UNECE region
phosphorus from point sources — industries and under the auspices of the UNECE Transboundary
people — have decreased significantly over the past Watercourse and International Lakes Convention
30 years, whereas the losses from diffuse sources — (see Box 2.3.3) was presented at the 2007 Belgrade

Conference. Other initiatives such as those of with the Water Framework Directive monitoring,
the World Water Assessment Programme and while Armenia, Azerbaijan and Uzbekistan have
its 2006 report (Unesco, 2006) and UNEP Global developed, or are in the process of developing
Environment Monitoring System (GEMS Water) monitoring plans.
add to an understanding of the status of global and
regional water bodies. Water quality in EECCA and SEE countries
As data on the quality of the surface waters are very
Most European countries have water quality limited, the following assessment has been based on a
monitoring programmes for groundwater, review of the latest national state of the environment
rivers, and lakes. In the EU, this is currently reports, UNECE Environmental Performance
being harmonised and strengthened by the Reviews (EPRs) and World Bank Country Water
implementation of the Water Framework Directive. Notes.
Generally, in EECCA and SEE countries, although Analysis of available data indicates an
several institutions such as hydro-meteorological improvement in the water quality of the EECCA
services, environmental inspectorates and regional and SEE rivers in recent years. The large southern
authorities are involved in water monitoring, and western EECCA rivers generally show a
there is limited coordination. In the Volga basin, moderate level of pollution, while the pollution
for example, many private enterprises carry out levels are low around large EECCA rivers running
monitoring and, as they are the main owners of north through sparsely populated lands. Some
updated environmental information, charge for large rivers including the Kura, Amu Darya, Syr
access to their data. Darya and Volga are polluted; while other large
rivers have hot spots downstream of large cities
Such non-coordinated systems can easily lead to which discharge insufficiently treated wastewater.
the use of different methods for sampling and The pollution of many small water courses remains
measuring, resulting in low comparability of data, severe.
which in turn does not allow a clear picture of
the status of water resources to be established. According to their own national standards, most
Some countries, however, including Belarus Russian rivers and lakes can be characterised as
and Ukraine, have recognised the necessity of moderately polluted. Almost all reservoirs, too,
better coordination in order to improve water are significantly polluted, and their water quality a
management. cause for concern.
In much of the EECCA and SEE, water monitoring • The Volga, one of Europe's largest rivers, flows
declined during the era of economic restructuring through one of the Russian Federation's most
in the 1990s. Monitoring was generally focused important economic regions. This concentration
on larger rivers, with an emphasis on waters of people and industry has resulted in heavy
upstream and downstream of major cities, while environmental pollution, with, in 2002, the
the monitoring of lakes, reservoirs, smaller rivers Volga and its tributaries receiving 8.5 km3
and groundwater was extremely limited, and only of polluted wastewater, the majority from
a few countries showed any interest in diffuse household and industrial discharges (43 % of all
sources of pollution. polluted discharges in the Russian Federation)
0.76 km3 of which had not been treated at all
However, there are now widespread indications of (Demin, 2005). As a result, most sections of the
improvement in both EECCA and SEE countries, Volga are classified as polluted and 22 % of
particularly since 2003, as a result of increased sections as dirty: the water of Volga's tributaries
funding and the extension of monitoring networks. also vary from polluted to extremely polluted.
Funding has multiplied seven-fold in the Russian • In 2004, 30 % of analysed samples of Ukraine's
Federation (OECD, 2007), Croatia and Serbia and surface water for agricultural use showed
Montenegro show progress towards compliance contamination by nitrates, and more than a

Box 2.3.3 UNECE transboundary water bodies assessment
Under the 1992 UNECE Convention on the Protection of the territory falls within transboundary river basins:
and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and there are more than 12 large transboundary rivers and
International Lakes, the parties take measures to four transboundary lakes in the area. Major challenges
prevent, control and reduce water pollution that for the management of transboundary water resources
has transboundary impacts. Under the auspices in the SEE region include:
of the Convention's Working Group on Monitoring
and Assessment, with Finland as lead country, • Water quantity management. In several
a comprehensive assessment was drawn up as cases, one-sided exploitation of water resources
a contribution to the 2007 Belgrade Ministerial by upstream parties causes critical deficiencies in
Conference 'Environment for Europe'. The report the water supply to downstream users and affects
analysed pressures on water bodies and provided the natural water cycle in wetlands and aquifers.
information on trends in their ecological and chemical
status. It also shed light on the effectiveness of • Water quality management. Water in some
measures taken, and culminated in a set of measures shared water bodies is unfit as drinking water, or
to prevent further degradation of transboundary waters even for bathing, without extensive treatment
and achieve their long-term health. — with, in most cases, water quality still in
decline. Shared water bodies have been used
as convenient sinks for urban and industrial
The report covers the entire UNECE region, with the wastewater, with unsustainable agricultural
exception of northern America. Special attention was practices further adding to the problem.
given to EECCA countries as they face the biggest Investments in municipal wastewater treatment
challenge in reducing transboundary impacts. Although and regulation of both industrial effluents and
some 20 % of the rivers in the Caucasus and Central agricultural run-off have been introduced in
Asia, including most of the transboundary rivers in several cases, but still only address a small part
mountain areas, are still in 'high and good status', of the problem.
some of these water bodies show signs of increasing • Flood management. All rivers in the SEE region
pollution or are potentially threatened by mining and are subject to irregular flooding and it is likely
ore processing. The majority of the rivers in EECCA that annual flood damage will increase, given
fall into the category 'water bodies with moderate prevailing unsustainable management practices
pollution'. Rivers, which take up their pollution load at national level and limited investment in flood
in lowland areas and/or foothills with intensive mitigation.
industrial and agricultural activities, are deemed
'polluted'. Insufficiently treated wastewaters add to
this pollution load. This and the subsequent pollution The Petersberg Process Phase II/Athens Declaration
of drinking water sources have resulted in an increase aims to build capacity and share experience among
in water‑related diseases in the region; indeed many key partners in the countries of the SEE region
of the area's rivers have become practically unfit on Integrated Water Resources Management
for the supply of drinking water. Ever increasing (IWRM) of transboundary water bodies. It provides
eutrophication remains the worst phenomenon the framework for exchange of information and
affecting transboundary lakes. experience, in support to future investments. The
process is a joint effort of the German Ministry for
Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety,
Improving the status of waters in EECCA will first the Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the World
and foremost require investments in largely outdated Bank.
municipal sewage treatment facilities, which often
also receive wastewater from small and medium-sized
enterprises. Apart from sewage, manufacturing waste Although there is an increasing consensus that
and general waste management are challenging. This the available water must be shared amongst
includes waste storage ponds containing hazardous individuals, economic sectors, intrastate jurisdictions
waste from mining, metal processing and chemical and sovereign nations — transcending political
industry; illegal waste disposal along rivers; and old and administrative boundaries — there are still
and often uncontrolled waste disposal sites which will numerous obstacles to achieving this aim. The main
generate increasing amounts of pollution if they are not obstacles derive from the interdependencies and
properly handled. Additionally, strategies are needed conflicting interests among different uses — fisheries,
for the better integration of policies to control diffuse agriculture, hydropower generation, water supply,
pollution from agriculture and to adapt to climate tourism, etc. — coupled with different levels of
change. infrastructure, legal and institutional frameworks,
policies, priorities and interests of each country
exacerbated by entrenched positions over issues
The effective management of transboundary water including historical rights, cultural values and political
bodies is of particular importance in SEE since 90 % persuasions.
Sources: UNECE Water http://unece.org/env/water/welcome.html; Petersberg Process http://www.bmu.de/english/water_management/
current/doc/36213.php; Transboundary Waters Information Exchange Network for South Eastern Europe: http://www.watersee.net/.

further 1 % by pesticides. Further, in 2005 Darya, the two of the main water resources of
national data showed that 25–30 % of all Central Asia, are turned brackish by the return
the country's natural water bodies did not of waters used for land-washing and irrigation
meet its sanitary standards, with the smaller making it unpalatable during low-flow periods
Ukrainian tributaries being more heavily (Crosa et al., 2006; Murray-Rust et al., 2003).
polluted, mainly by agricultural run-off, than • At present Kazakhstan's water bodies are
the main rivers. Nonetheless, there are many intensively polluted by the country's mining,
unspoiled water bodies in Ukraine, particularly metallurgical and chemical industries and city
in the mountainous areas. In the Republic of utilities which are a serious ecological threat.
Moldova, the main rivers Dniester and Prut are Most polluted of all are the Irtysh, Nura, Syr
moderately polluted, while smaller rivers like Darya, and Ili rivers, and the Balkhash Lake.
the Reut and Bicu are more polluted (UNECE, • Kyrgyzstan's water is particularly pure in the
2006). upper stretches of such rivers as the Naryn,
• The quality of the Dniepr is a major concern Amu-Darya, and others flowing from the
because the river is Ukraine's main water body, mountain. However, in the vicinity of urban,
making up 80 % of the country's total resources agricultural and industrial centres, the water
and providing water for 32 million people. In the quality deteriorates, with pollution hot spots
1990s, the water was made undrinkable in many found in the densely populated Chu river
areas by discharges of a number of pollutants basin.
from various sources. While substantial progress
has been made since then, much remains to be Many SEE water bodies are polluted and have poor
done (UNECE, 2006). quality water.
• During the time of economic transition,
pollution of Caucasian surface waters decreased, • Albanian surface waters are heavily
and the scarce data available indicates that there contaminated from two major sources: urban
has been an improvement of water quality in wastewater directly discharged into surface
Armenian rivers in recent years. In Georgia water bodies, and pollution by industry, though
ambient water quality has also improved the latter has lessened during the economic
somewhat during the last 15 years, not from the crisis. Many Albanian rivers, including the
introduction of pollution control technologies Ishem, Tirane, Erzeni, Shkumbini, and the
but from drastic reductions in industrial Semani, show a deficit of dissolved oxygen,
production and therefore wastewater discharges. with high chemical (COD) and biochemical
• The transboundary Kura river system is polluted (BOD) oxygen demand values, which indicate
by the discharge of poorly treated or untreated pollution by organic matter, generally of
wastewater from the 11 million people living in domestic origin. The Alb Gjanika and Semani
its catchment area. About 70 % of the population rivers, in which wastewater from oil extraction
of Azerbaijan uses its water for drinking and and processing is discharged, are among the
household purposes. Due to the collapse of most polluted in the country.
many industries in the early 1990s, pollution has • The quality of surface water in Bosnia and
decreased; nonetheless, a number of polluting Herzegovina varies from relatively clean to
activities still exist, most notably the mining, poor primarily because of an insufficient
metallurgical and chemical industries which number of adequate urban/industrial
produce heavy metals, ammonia and nitrates. wastewater treatment plants and diffuse
• The waters of the downstream sections of the agricultural pollution primarily from pesticides
rivers in Central Asia and the Aral Sea as well and fertilisers.
as the Aral Sea itself are heavily polluted by • In the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
salts and chemical pollutants discharged by groundwater and surface waters are relatively
agriculture and other industries (GIWA, 2005; clean in their upper courses, but rapidly
CA REAP, 2006). On their way towards the Aral deteriorate along their middle and lower
Sea, the clean freshwaters of Amu Darya and Syr courses. The major polluters are discharges

of municipal or industrial wastewater but in Concentrations of phosphorus have also generally

the agricultural north-east, there is significant decreased in rivers, and to a lesser extent lakes, in
pollution from livestock waste and food the WCE area since the 1990s, reflecting the general
industries. In general, polluted wastes are improvement in wastewater treatment. Overall,
discharged directly into receiving water there has also been a minor decrease in nitrate
bodies without any treatment. In recent years concentrations in European rivers over the same
the country's water quality has somewhat period, but indicators suggest little or no change
improved because of industrial decline. in nitrate concentrations in Europe's groundwaters
• The discharge of untreated municipal and and lakes (Figure 2.3.15).
industrial wastewater within Serbia and
Montenegro has resulted in the significant
pollution of the water resources. River stretches
downstream of major settlements show a
marked decline in water quality as the result of Figure 2.3.14 Trend in total ammonium (NH4)
concentrations and BOD5 in selected WCE
untreated municipal and industrial discharges. rivers (1992–2004)
Water quality in WCE NH4 (mg/l) BOD5 (mg O2/l)
Water data for WCE are plentiful and consistent 0.25 4.0
Progress since
and reflect developments over considerable time. Kiev
Collected by individual countries, the data are 3.5
designed to provide representative assessments
0.20
for the countries themselves, and for the region
3.0
as a whole. Collected annually from more than
3 500 river stations in 32 countries, more than
2.5
1 500 lake stations, and around 1 100 groundwater 0.15
bodies, the data are stored within the EEA's
Waterbase, to which the European Commission and 2.0
national and regional bodies all have access. The

0.10
overreaching indications from Waterbase are that 1.5
while, in comparison to some areas, the quality of

water in WCE is enviably good, there remain areas 1.0
of concern and areas in which improvement is both 0.05
possible and desirable.
92 94 96 98 00 02 04
19 19 19 19 20 20 20
Concentrations of organic matter (as biochemical
Total ammonium (902) BOD5 (588)
oxygen demand over 5 days (BOD5)) and total
ammonium (NH4) have generally decreased in Notes: Numbers of river monitoring stations in brackets.
Total ammonium data from AT, BE, BG, DK, ET, FI, FR, DE,
rivers in the EEA member countries in the period HU, LV, LT, PL, SL, SE.
1992 to 2004, reflecting the general improvement BOD5 data from AT, BE, BG, CZ, DK, FR, HU, LV, LT, SK, SL,
UK.
in wastewater treatment over this period. The
Source: EEA CSI19.
decrease is mainly due to improved sewage
treatment as a result of the EU's Urban Waste
Water Directive, but also to a decline in polluting
manufacturers after the economic recession of the There have been significant decreases in
1990s. river nitrate concentrations in some countries
(Figure 2.3.16). Denmark and Germany had the
BOD and ammonium concentrations are highest highest proportion of river stations reporting
in some central countries and lowest in northern decreasing trends, indicating that national and EU
European countries, with EU-10 Member States measures introduced to reduce nitrate pollution,
showing the greatest declines (Figure 2.3.14). such as those in the Nitrates Directive, are taking

Figure 2.3.15 Nitrate and phosphorus concentrations in Figure 2.3.16 Percentage of river monitoring stations
selected WCE freshwater bodies per country reporting increasing (upward)
(1992–2004 ) or decreasing (downward) trends in
nitrate concentrations (1992 to 2004)
Nitrate mg NO3/l Phosphorus μg P/l
20 80 Denmark (36)
Progress since
18 Kiev 70 Germany (148)
16
60
14 Czech Republic (72)
12 50
Latvia (63)
10 40
Poland (128)
8 30
Hungary (98)
6
20
4 Austria (147)
2 10
Bulgaria (65)
0 0
Sweden (96)
92 993 994 995 996 997 998 999 000 001 002 003 004
19 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
Slovakia (55)
Rivers — Nitrate (1 140)
Groundwater — Nitrate (173) United Kingdom (172)
Lakes — Total phosphorus (49)
France (414)
Lakes — Nitrate (21)
Rivers — Orthophosphate (906) Lithuania (65)
Note: Numbers of groundwater bodies, lake and river monitoring Spain (231)
stations in brackets.
Lakes: nitrate data from Estonia (4 stations on 1 lake), Estonia (53)
Finland (6 stations on 6 lakes), Germany (5 stations on
5 lakes), Hungary (15 stations on 6 lakes), Latvia (1 station Norway (88)
on 1 lake) and Slovenia (4 stations on 2 lakes).
Total phosphorus data from Austria (5 stations on 5 lakes), Finland (84)
Denmark (19 stations on 19 lakes), Estonia (4 stations
on 1 lake), Finland (11 stations on 11 lakes), Germany Italy (10)
(5 stations on 5 lakes), Hungary (11 stations on 2 lakes),
Latvia (1 station on 1 lake), Sweden (3 stations on 3 lakes) Luxembourg (3)
and Slovenia (4 stations on 2 lakes).
Groundwater bodies: 147 groundwater bodies with Netherlands (5)
data from Austria, Bulgaria, Denmark, Estonia, Finland,
Germany, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Slovenia (23)
Slovakia, Slovenia and the United Kingdom.
Rivers: data from Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, 0 75 50 25 0 25 50 75 0
Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, 10 – – – 10
–
Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Sweden and
the United Kingdom. Downward Upward
Concentrations are expressed as median of annual average
concentrations for groundwater, rivers and lakes. Note: Negative values on 'y' axis equate to decreasing trends,
Data are from representative river and lake stations. positive values increasing trends.
Stations that have no designation of type are assumed to Analysis based on representative river monitoring stations
be representative and are included in the analysis. except for Norway where flux monitoring stations were
used.
Source: EEA CSI20.
Source: EEA CSI20.
effect. The Czech Republic, Latvia, Hungary and

Poland, also had a high proportion of river stations and EU initiatives, for example the Directives on
reporting decreasing levels of nitrates. These are Nitrates, Urban Waste Water and Drinking Water,
likely to be related to the decrease in agricultural supplemented by international marine conventions,
activities that has been occurring in these countries the UNECE Convention on Transboundary Rivers
during their transition to a market-oriented and Lakes and the EECCA's Environment Strategy,
economy (see Section 7.1, Agriculture). have been agreed and implemented by countries to
varying degrees. The last two political frameworks
Key policies to improve the aquatic and the EU Water Framework Directive of 2000
environment clearly recognise that traditional end-of-pipe
Pollution control has been high on the political solutions, targeted at solving water quality issues
agenda for almost 50 years, and several national originating from one specific source, have not

proved adequate to re-establish clean rivers and There are tremendous challenges ahead if this
lakes supporting healthy aquatic ecosystems. concept is to be successful across Europe, and
there is a need to define clear and measurable
As a consequence, the concept of transboundary targets for the achievement of the goal, which, in
and integrated river basin management has Europe, is the establishment of good ecological
been introduced taking account of the fact that potential for surface water bodies by 2015.
sustainable water resources management should Across the wider region, a strengthening of water
not only result in better water quality but also monitoring and information management is badly
ensure that aquatic habitats and their biological needed to assess whether any progress is being
communities are protected and restored. made.

Environment and health and the quality of life | Soil
2.4 Soil
Photo: Soil, a life-supporting system © Erika Michéli
Key messages
• Since the Kiev conference, progress has been • The importance and the complexity of
made both in terms of policy development and analysing current risks, especially climate
the availability of information. However, 'soil change, emphasise the need for new thinking
work' is still at too early a stage for any marked on mechanisms to ensure that the evidence
improvements in the status of the soil resources base for soil meets future policy challenges.
to be recorded. For example, the exchange of best practices,
between countries and regions with similar
• Soil legislation is evolving. The recently soil conditions could reduce remediation costs
adopted EU Soil Thematic Strategy (2006) across many soil threats and provide valuable
includes the proposal for a soil framework areas for cross-border cooperation.
directive addressing the issues in a holistic and
integrated way. This progress was facilitated • Uncontrolled soil sealing — the urban sprawl
both by increased knowledge and by positive that is widespread across Europe — may result
developments in national legislation. in the unnecessary loss of good quality soil.
Detailed and sound information about soil
• Soil is a resource of global concern. Some is required as a core element of integrated
problems associated with its management, planning, if the goal of sustainable urban
such as erosion and its transportation in floods development is to be achieved.
and by wind, may have transboundary effects.
Others, including desertification, are common to • In the SEE and EECCA regions, particularly in
a number of areas in Europe, while yet others, rural areas, soil degradation is exacerbated
such as the effects of soil degradation on the by socio-economic factors such as weak or
carbon cycle, can potentially worsen global recovering economies with limited budgets for
warming. environmental protection, poverty, political
tensions, insufficient environmental regulation
• Although the ecological and socio-economic or implementation, limited public participation,
functions provided by soil are essential to and restricted access to cleaner technology and
social and economic well-being, soil is still a environmental information.
relatively neglected natural resource across the
pan-European region. This is evidenced by a • In these regions, the consequences of soil
lack of information available to analyse known degradation include the loss of livelihoods
threats, by the relative paucity of budgets leading to unemployment and poverty, health
allocated to tackling soil problems, particularly problems, land abandonment and depopulation
when compared to those available for the other of rural areas. Further, this last factor can, of
environmental media air and water, and for the itself, cause increased population pressure in
piecemeal character of soil policy actions across other areas.
the pan-European region.

• In WCE and some SEE countries, soil polluting • Large sums of public money are needed to
activities are estimated to have occurred fund remediation activities, typically 35 % of
at nearly three million sites. Thorough the remediation costs. This is because many
investigations carried out up to 2005 identified of the legally responsible polluters either are
more than 1 800 000 potentially contaminated insolvent, no longer exist, cannot be identified,
sites, of which 240 000 are in need of remedial or cannot be made liable. Remediation of about
treatment. One positive aspect of this is that 80 000 sites across Europe is complete. In spite
it indicates an increased awareness of soil of these considerable efforts, it will take decades
contamination issues. to clean up the legacy of contamination.
2.4.1 Introduction The partial coverage of geographical areas and

soil threats in this section also reflects gaps in
Well-functioning soil is essential for the scientific knowledge, and the lack of up-to-date and
maintenance of the socio-economic and ecological comparable data and information.
systems which support our livelihoods and
underpin our society. It not only supplies most of The state of soil in Europe is influenced by its
our food, raw materials and ecosystem services — diversity, distribution and specific vulnerabilities
it also forms the basis for the development of across the region, as well as the diversity of climate,
human settlements: the building of homes and topography and the availability of other natural
infrastructure, recreation facilities, and waste resources. Soil conditions are also determined
disposal. Soil conserves the remains of our past, by the spatial distribution and intensity of
is a reservoir for genes, and hosts a wide range economic activities, together with the underlying
of biodiversity. It is itself a relevant part of our social, political, legislative, financial, scientific
cultural heritage through its underpinning and institutional frameworks within individual
of landscapes. Due to these many values, the countries.
distribution and the use of soil have influenced
the growth and collapse of entire civilisations Soil should also be considered as a transboundary
(Diamond, 2005). However, we still seem not to concern. Some problems associated with its
fully realise its importance. Soil's resilience to management cross borders, for example erosion
natural and anthropogenic pressures, and the long and the transportation of soil in floods and by wind.
time it takes to show changes in its status, are Others are common to a number of areas, including
perhaps the reasons why we take it for granted. desertification — a phenomenon in both Central
Its buffering capacity and its capability to filter Asian and Mediterranean countries, while yet
and absorb contaminants mean that damage is not others can be attributed and contribute to problems
perceived until it is far advanced. It is a limited outside the areas directly affected, such as the
resource that needs to be managed in a sustainable melting of permafrost due to climate change, with
way (EEA/UNEP, 2000). the consequent release of CO2 and CH4, potentially
worsening global warming.
This assessment is mainly concerned with various
aspects of soil degradation in SEE and EECCA, The sharing of information and knowledge across
since this is seen as a priority. WCE countries are borders is essential if these inter-relationships are
only partially covered, with particular reference to to be addressed. Joint action programmes between
soil contamination and soil sealing, as a broader neighbouring countries and across Europe would
overview of the current status of soil in the EU help to convert an improved understanding into
is included in the EEA's report The European practical action. International programmes, such
environment — State and outlook 2005 (EEA, 2005). as the UN Convention to Combat Desertification

(UNCCD), have fostered action to combat land and the introduction of measures similar to those
degradation in affected countries in Europe through required by current EU legislation are expected
the implementation of national, sub-regional and to improve the capacity of the administrations to
regional action programmes (1). The implementation respond effectively.
of regional programmes, particularly those
addressing transboundary issues, such as the Despite the fact that a wide range of activities
Regional Environmental Reconstruction Programme rely on soil and contribute to the depletion of soil
(REReP) for the Balkans, and the Regional resources, there is no specific EU legislation on soil
Environmental Action Programme for Central protection. Unlike water and air, the protection
Asia (CA REAP) should provide a basis for further of soil is addressed indirectly through measures
progress (REC, 2006; UNEP, 2006). primarily aimed at the protection of other media
such as groundwater, or developed within
The major threats to soil have not changed in sectoral policies. However, some progress has
the past decades. They still include physical been registered since the Kiev conference, both in
degradation — erosion, sealing and large-scale land terms of policy development and the availability of
movements, contamination, salinisation, loss of information. For example, the EU Thematic Strategy
organic matter — and a decline in soil biodiversity. on Soil, which focuses on its protection as an
Urbanisation, tourism, transport, agriculture essential of sustainable development, has marked an
and industry are all sectors that apply particular important first step in EU soil policy. This strategy
pressures on soil. In southern, central and eastern was adopted in September 2006 and includes
Europe, after decades of economic development a legislative proposal (European Commission,
based on the heavy exploitation of natural 2006a) (2).
resources, the economic crises which followed
conflicts and the collapse of the centrally‑planned More information has been progressively made
economies have in general lowered some of available to cover specific issues, such as soil
these pressures. But several soil problems, such contamination, and for more countries, especially
as erosion and historical contamination, have in the SEE and EECCA regions. Nevertheless, much
intensified as a result of deficits in national work still has to be done to register an improvement
budgets, an inability to maintain physical in the state of soil resources across the pan-European
and institutional infrastructures, poverty and region.
environmental security issues (OECD, 2005; UNEP,
2003, 2005) (see Chapter 1, Europe's environment in
an age of transition). 2.4.2 Soil in urban and industrial
areas
In the EECCA and SEE regions, institutional
infrastructures, legislative frameworks and funding Contamination and soil sealing are the main soil
for soil protection are generally adequate neither problems in urban and industrial areas.
to cope with the extent of the existing problems
nor to prevent further degradation. Additionally, Contamination can be a legacy stretching back
there is a general lack of awareness on the part of many decades or centuries. As a consequence,
both soil users and policy-makers of the effects of the responsibilities for pollution and, therefore,
their actions. The situation has been made worse by remediation are often difficult to identify because
limited access to efficient equipment and cleaner the polluters are often no longer in business.
technologies, together with a paucity of adequate This in turn contributes to making it difficult,
knowledge (OECD, UNECE EPRs). However, the time‑consuming and costly on the public purse to
wider implementation of proven best practices manage contaminated sites.
(1) Two regional implementation annexes (Annex IV, Northern Mediterranean and Annex V, Central and Eastern Europe) and a
sub‑regional action plan (Central Asia) are in place.
(2) Detailed information on the Soil Thematic Strategy is available on the European Commission website on EU soil policy:
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/soil/index.htm. Last accessed January 2007.

Uncontrolled urban expansion — the urban sprawl (EEA, 2007). Thorough investigations carried out
that is widespread across Europe — may result up to 2005, leading to registration and eventually
in the unnecessary loss of good quality soil. The remediation, identified more than 1 800 000
Community Strategic Guidelines on Cohesion potentially contaminated sites, of which 240 000 are
2007–2013 states that the redevelopment of in need of remedial treatment (Figure 2.4.1).
brownfields (3) and the rehabilitation of the physical
environment are important measures to improve These estimates have increased considerably over
the competitiveness of European urban areas. The the past years, due to progress in investigation,
regeneration of public spaces and industrial sites monitoring and data collection, and are expected
can play an important role in helping to create the to continue to rise in the future. According to
infrastructures necessary for sustainable economic projections based on the analysis of changes
development (European Council, 2006). In western observed in the last five years, the total number of
Europe the low price of agricultural land — in most contaminated sites identified as being in need of
cases good agricultural land — compared to that remediation could increase by more than 50 % by
of already urbanised or derelict land — brownfield 2025. In those countries for which remediation data
sites — is an important factor underlying urban
sprawl. In many development projects, the cost of
acquiring agricultural land is low relative to using
Figure 2.4.1 Overview of progress in management of
already urbanised land, allowing for better profits soil contamination in WCE and some SEE
to be made. Two factors are at work here: a failure to countries
take into account the value of the future agricultural
use of land and demographic patterns together
Remediated sites
with changing social and economic aspirations that 81
encourage farming families to sell off their land

cheaply. The maintenance of artificially low prices Contaminated
242
for good agricultural land in western Europe is also sites (estimate)
reinforced by the use of expropriation tools (EEA,

2005). Potentially contaminated 1823
sites (identified)
Soil contamination
Contamination from local sources and air deposition Potentially polluting
2925
activity sites (estimate)
of traffic and industrial effluents affect soil and
groundwater quality throughout the pan-European 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
50 00 50 00 50 00 50
region. Soil contamination can have serious effects 1 1 2 2 3 3
on human health through direct contact and by the Number of sites in 2006 (x 1 000)
ingestion of contaminated soil, for example through
drinking water from sources that flow through Note: The graph shows an overview of the status in the
management of contaminated sites in EEA member
contaminated areas, through the food chain, and countries.
even by children in playgrounds. Data coverage: AT, BE (Flanders and the Brussels region),
BG, HR, CZ, DK, EE, FI, FR, DE, GR, HU, IS, IE, IT, LV, LI,
LT, LU, MK, MT, NL, NO, RO, RS, SK, SI, ES, ES, CH, TR, UK
(England and Wales). Time reference: FI, FR, GR, LV, LT,
In WCE and some SEE countries, potentially NO, TR: 2006; HR, DK, NL, ES: 2004; IS: 2002; SI: 2001;
polluting activities are estimated to have occurred LI: 2000; other countries: 2005.
at nearly three million sites and investigation is Sources: Eionet priority data flows on contaminated sites; Turkey:
NATO/CCMS-Turkey, 2006; United Kingdom: Environment
needed to establish where remediation is required Agency, 2005.
(3) In this report, brownfields are sites:

• of formerly industrial or commercial used land, now derelict or underused;
• have been affected by former uses of the site or surrounding land;
• require intervention to go back to beneficial use; and
• may have effective or suspected contamination problems.
Source: Cabernet (website: http://www.cabernet.org.uk/index.asp?c=1134. Last accessed April 2007).

are available, about 80 000 sites have been cleaned commercial activities, and the treatment and
up in the last 30 years (EEA, 2007). disposal of waste are the most significant in
the EEA countries (Figure 2.4.2). At industrial
In most SEE and EECCA countries the real extent and commercial sites handling losses, leakages
of contamination is unknown because systematic from tanks and pipelines, and accidents are the
inventories do not exist or cover only specific most frequent causes of soil and groundwater
sites — for example mining or waste disposal contamination, with the chemical and metal working
sites — and some specific regions, such as those industries, energy production, and the oil industry
affected by the Chernobyl accident: activities to the greatest contributors (EEA, 2007).
rectify this are only at an early stage of development.
However, some progress has been observed Within SEE, the inappropriate disposal and
recently, especially in SEE (EEA, 2007; results of the treatment of waste from municipal and industrial
OECD EECCA questionnaire 2006 summarised in sources, and regular industrial activities, including
OECD, 2007) where Croatia, the Former Yugoslav inadequate storage of chemicals, are the major
Republic of Macedonia and Serbia have reported sources of contamination. Adequate waste
the establishment of centralised inventories. In these management systems do not exist in most countries
countries, soil in urban and industrial areas that has and illegal dumping is widespread, more so in
been subjected to regular monitoring is reported to rural than in urban areas. In Turkey, municipal,
be contaminated with heavy metals, hydrocarbons industrial and illegal waste disposal sites account
and organic chemicals (SOER-RF, 2005; UNECE, for 80 % of all sources of contamination, with other
2006) (see also Section 2.5, Hazardous chemicals). industrial facilities and mining tailings providing
In the EECCA region, large areas are heavily

contaminated as a result of poor practices and
accidents in various sectors including agriculture, Figure 2.4.2 Overview of economic activities causing
soil contamination in some WCE and SEE
mining (especially for uranium and metal ore), oil countries (% of investigated sites)
and gas extraction, nuclear power generation, waste
disposal and recycling, the storage of hazardous Others Industrial production
9%
chemicals, and at research and military installations, Military and commercial services
Mining 1 % 36 %
such as nuclear testing, bio-chemical research and 2%
Transport spills
rocket launching sites. Many industrial, military and on land 3 %
mining installations are now abandoned, reducing Storage 4 %
some of the pressures on the environment, but Power plants
leaving a large number of sites unattended (UNECE, 4%
2000; RLNP, 2002; UNEP/GRID, 2006). Industrial waste
treatment
and disposal
Parts of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine 9%
are still heavily contaminated with radionuclides

as a result of the Chernobyl accident. Health and
lifeexpectancy have decreased markedly in the Municipal waste
contaminated areas and thousands of people living treatment and disposal
15 %
in the high-risk zones have been relocated. The most Oil industry
17 %
affected areas have been removed from economic
use and cannot be restored to pre-existing conditions Note: The graph shows the main sources of soil contamination
(UNECE, 2005) (see also Section 2.1, Environment in Europe as percentage of the number of sites where
preliminary investigations have been completed. European
and health perspective). shares have been calculated as a weighted average over
22 EEA member countries, using the total number of
investigated sites as weights.
If soil contamination is common across the Data coverage: AT, BE (Flanders and the Brussels region),
HR, CZ, EE, FI, MK, GR, IT, LT, LU, MT, RO, SK, ES, SE, CH.
pan-European region, the activities causing Time coverage: 2006; BE, HR; 2004; ES: 2002.
contamination vary. In general, industrial and Source: Eionet priority data flows on contaminated sites, 2006.

the remainder (Source NATO/CCMS-Turkey, 2006). only been made by four countries in Central Asia,
In Croatia, about 200 landfills and 3 000 illegal while national clean-up programmes have been
waste deposits have been targeted for remediation established in just three. Further, these may cover
(National Environmental Action Plan adopted in only specific sites, such as tailing and mining waste
2003). In Bulgaria, the storage of obsolete chemicals sites in Kyrgyzstan (according to the results of the
is predominant; while in the Former Yugoslav OECD EECCA questionnaire 2006 summarised
Republic of Macedonia, mining sites represent 27 % in OECD, 2007). Clean-up is expensive — for
of all sources of contamination. example, for a single mining site in Kazakhstan an
estimated EUR 62 million are needed, while the
Management of contaminated sites annual funding for containment to avoid further
Although many countries in WCE have legislative contamination amounts to about EUR 2 million
instruments that apply the 'polluter-pays' principle (UNEP/GRID, 2006). Such costs are frequently
for the management of contaminated sites, large beyond the scope of the public purse in countries
sums of public money are also provided to fund where the polluters often cannot be made liable.
remediation activities (EEA, 2007). This is due to
limitations on the application of the principle for the Soil sealing
remediation of historical contamination since many of Estimates, based on the analysis of Corine land
the legally responsible polluters either no longer exist, cover data which covers most WCE and some SEE
cannot be identified or made liable, or are insolvent. countries, show that the extent of built-up areas has
On average, more than 35 % of total remediation increased by more than 5 % between 1990 and 2000.
expenditures in the surveyed countries derive from These trends are most pronounced around existing
public budgets, with a maximum of 100 % of public urban centres and along the coast (EEA, 2006).
funds employed in the Czech Republic, the Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Spain, and The sealing of soil, often without the necessary
a minimum of about 7 % in France, where a large planning permission, is common in and around
share of the funding comes from the private sector. urban and coastal areas. Such uncontrolled
However, it should be noted that while information urbanisation is often the result of rapid economic
on public expenditures is widely available, growth and the expansion of tourism, leading to
information on private expenditures is scarce. internal rural-to-urban migration, and facilitated
by a lack of spatial planning and a limited capacity
In WCE and some SEE countries, progress can be of the public administration to enforce building
observed in the remediation of sites. In the countries regulations.
for which comparable figures are available, the
average number of cleaned-up sites increased by Sealing also increases pressures on agricultural
more than 150 % between 2001 and 2006, with land, as urban expansion usually takes place at
increases in individual countries ranging from about the expense of good soil. In most EECCA and
30 % in Austria and Italy to around 600 % in Belgium SEE countries, there are no coherent national
and Norway. The total number of sites awaiting strategies for spatial development, and building
remediation has grown on average by about 40 % regulations are rarely enforced. Across Europe
over the same period, while estimates on the number there is a general lack of national programmes for
of sites where potentially polluting activities have promoting the rehabilitation of brownfield sites.
taken place have more than doubled (EEA, 2007). One Above all, such programmes could contribute
positive aspect of these outcomes is that they indicate to the improvement of the urban environment
an increased awareness of soil contamination issues. and a reduction in the unnecessary consumption
of productive agricultural land. It could also
In EECCA, although some remediation has contribute to economic development and
been carried out by both the public and private employment — in Ireland, for example, urban
sectors — for example, the oil companies — renewal has provided an estimated 80 000 net
concerted regional action is currently far from additional jobs in city and town centre locations in the
satisfactory. Inventories of contaminated sites have period 1986–1996 (EPA, 2005).

Box 2.4.1 Brownfields — illegal building and human exposure to soil contaminants
The sealing of the soil by building and infrastructure

construction, often without any planning permit, is
common in the vicinity of urban and coastal areas
in some countries. Previously developed land or
brownfields may be reused, sometime without
prior remedial action. For example, in Albania, the
construction of houses in abandoned industrial
sites has been reported and nearly one-third of
the population live in illegal settlements. The use
of former industrial sites for residential purposes
increases the exposure of the population to
hazardous substances which are left in the soil by
past activities. This might result in significant risks
to human health, especially for the children, who
may come in direct contact with contaminated soil
and, due to the 'hand to mouth' activity, may ingest
particles of contaminated soil. Photo: Former industrial site close to residential areas in
Albania © Gordon McInnes, 2003
In the United Kingdom, targets have been established than 45 % of total reported volumes (EPA, 2006). This
to minimise the consumption of agricultural land reflects the fact that contaminated soil is frequently
and the recycling of previously developed land is treated as waste to be disposed of, rather than as a
regularly monitored. The percentage of new building valuable resource that can be cleaned and reused.
on previously developed land exceeded 60 % in Again, in Albania the enforced destruction of illegal
2003, while the share of new dwellings converted buildings has created huge amounts of construction
from existing buildings on previously developed waste that may contain toxic material, such as
areas increased from 54 % to 73 % in the period asbestos, in a country that has no capacity for its
1990–2005. In Germany, where almost 34 000 ha treatment.
were lost to development in 2003 — 80 % for human
settlements — targets have been set to reduce the To increase the uptake of both contaminated
conversion of greenfields (4) by more than 65 % and non‑contaminated brownfield sites
or to 30 ha/day by 2020 (Thornton, G. et al., 2006). for redevelopment, there is a need for the
However, as data on the redevelopment of urban implementation of a complete package of measures,
areas are patchy and not really comparable, partly including economic, legal and fiscal incentives
as the result of the lack of common definitions — for (Thornton, G. et al., 2006). In the period 2000–2006,
example of brownfields, it is difficult to draw the EU structural funds for the EU-25 included
pan‑European conclusions (EEA, 2007; Cabernet, EUR 2.25 billion for the rehabilitation of industrial
2004). sites and about EUR 2 billion for the rehabilitation of
urban areas (ENEA, 2006). This has been translated
If, on the one hand, brownfield redevelopment into national operational programmes — in Italy,
provides many opportunities for improving the for example, in the same period, expenditure from
quality of life in urban areas, on the other it presents EU structural funds, together with other public
many challenges. In Ireland, for example, brownfield and private sources, were targeted to finance the
redevelopment is reported to be the cause of a clean-up of 17 out of the 54 contaminated areas, the
recent increase in the volume of hazardous waste: remediation of which was identified as being in the
contaminated soil was the largest single hazardous national interest. The total estimated cost of this
waste type generated in 2004, accounting for more programme was EUR 770 million (ISS, 2005).
(4) The term 'greenfields' indicates land — agricultural or other land — which is undeveloped, as opposed to brownfields.

2.4.3 Soil in rural areas environmental priorities for the region (UNEP,
2006).
The soil threats analysed here for EECCA and
SEE countries are diffuse contamination by the Chemicals and unexploded ordinance
agricultural sector, and air depositions, physical Deposits of obsolete pesticides and
degradation as a result of erosion or compaction, pharmaceuticals pose risks in most SEE and
salinisation, and the impacts of wars. EECCA countries, with the IHPA (5) estimating
that stockpiles of obsolete pesticides may exceed
The major problems causing degradation of soil in 60 000 and 180 000 tonnes respectively in the two
rural areas of SEE are poor agricultural practices, regions (IHPA, 2006; see Sections 2.5, Hazardous
especially inefficient irrigation schemes, the chemicals; 2.3, Inland waters; and Chapter 6,
overuse and stockpiling of chemical fertilizers and Sustainable consumption and production for more
pesticides, and mining operations (UNEP, 2003). details). Measures have been taken to improve the
In EECCA, the main causes are the over-use of storage of agrochemicals, but these are insufficient
agrochemicals, especially organic pesticides (see to cope with the problem, so in the Republic of
also Sections 2.5, Hazardous chemicals; and 7.1, Moldova, for example, a project funded by the
Agriculture), large‑scale irrigation and drainage World Bank is expected to eliminate 1 150 tonnes
schemes, irrigation with waste water that contains of obsolete pesticides in the period 2006–2007 (see
industrial and livestock farm effluents, salinisation also Section 2.5, Hazardous chemicals).
and water logging, and the uncontrolled storage
of mineral fertilisers. Water and wind erosion, In Belarus, radionuclides from Chernobyl have
compaction and degradation of the permafrost contaminated nearly 4.5 million ha, almost 40 %
layer in the northern latitudes are additional main of which is agricultural land, and more than
factors in play. New legislative instruments and 20 % of the country's area (Ministry of Natural
programmes aimed at reducing and preventing Resources and Environmental Protection, 2006).
soil degradation are being put in place, some of The total cost of the damage resulting from the loss
which have been devised within the frameworks of productivity of agricultural land, forests and
of international conventions such as UNCCD. mineral deposits is likely to reach USD 235 billion
However, these often lack explicit financial by 2015 (UNECE, 2005).
support, hampering their implementation.
In Ukraine, fallout has affected more than
In the Caucasus and Central Asia, the harsh climate 6 million ha, contaminating large areas of forest
and topography, coupled with the pressures and agricultural land, including highly fertile soils
caused by the concentration of population in (Ministry of Environment of Ukraine, 2007). Some
certain areas, make the soil particularly vulnerable. 5–7 % of the Ukrainian annual state budget is being
Transboundary environmental problems are used to alleviate the consequences of the disaster,
particularly important around the Aral and with nearly USD 7.5 billion having been spent in
Caspian seas, while parts of the territory are the period 1991–2005 (UNECE, 2006).
still affected by conflicts (UNEP/GRID, 2006;
UNEP, 2005). The situation is made worse by In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the European country
the recurrence of natural phenomena such as worst affected by land mines, minefields extend
earthquakes, landslides, floods, droughts and to over 4 % of the land area, rendering some
extreme weather events, which can aid the spread 10 000 hectares of agricultural land and 20 % of
of contaminants, even to remote areas. To help the forests unusable (ICBL, 2005). In Croatia 2 % of
solve these problems, some action is being taken the land area, inhabited by about 1 million people,
through the Regional Environmental Action is still mined (ICBL, 2006). Clearance is difficult,
Programme for Central Asia (CA REAP), which slow and costly, and is likely to take many years,
identifies land degradation as one of the main but annual budgets are persistent. In Croatia, for
(5) International Hexachlorocyclohexane and Pesticide Association.

Box 2.4.2 Flooding — export/import of 'brown water'
The extreme floods of recent years are a reminder

that water takes everything. Additional to the loss
of human life and the economic impacts, floods
transport large amounts of soil downstream.
Ecosystems close to the river are affected, upstream
by erosion and downstream by sedimentation,
but little is yet known about the composition of
the transported material. However, the expected
consequences of climate change and changing
precipitation patterns are likely to make full
analyses of the process more important in the near
future.
The transboundary nature of this challenge is

obvious. It shows the requirement to address
soil issues in the context of river catchments for
which a clear understanding of the soil conditions
in different catchments, through an increase
exchange of information and experience, will be
needed. An example of future EU instruments to
address this issue is the proposed directive on the
assessment and management of floods in which
soil is mentioned as a relevant aspect of flood risk
management.
Source: European Commission, 2006b. Photo: Flooding in the area of river Regen, Bavaria
© www.agroluftbild.de
example, EUR 250 million were spent between 1998 Effects include the loss of soil fertility, land
and 2005, while total de-mining costs are estimated abandonment and increased hydro-geological risks.
to eventually run to EUR 1.5 billion (ICBL, 2006). In Bosnia and Herzegovina, half the arable land
was not used in 2001, while annual losses, caused
Water and wind erosion by mismanagement, expansion of the karstic area
In SEE, soil erosion caused by water and, to a lesser and forest fires, amounted to an annual average of
extent, by wind is both severe and widespread. 10 000 ha in 2002–2003. Hydro-geological risks —
The abandonment of agricultural areas and their flooding and soil mass movements — concern large
subsequent reversal to permanent vegetation portions of the region; indeed several disastrous
may have contributed to a reduction of erosion in events have occurred as a result of extreme weather
some places, but in mountain areas, which cover or accidents, with important social and economic
a large part of the region, the lack of maintenance impacts (see Section 2.3, Inland waters).
of terraces may actually have increased erosion.
In some countries the whole area under risk may Considerable efforts to deal with erosion have been
extend to 80–90 % of the national territory, as in made in some countries. In Turkey, for example,
Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Serbia 1.2 million ha were restored between 1992 and
and Montenegro, and Turkey (SOVEUR, 2000). 2004 (MEF-T, 2006). Further progress is expected
Large parts of the territory are already irreversibly with the implementation of the 2005 law on soil
degraded — in some areas, such as the Croatian protection and land use.
karstic region, the soil layer has completely
disappeared. Structural changes in land ownership, In the western part of EECCA, water erosion
with increases in the number of larger farms, are affects more than 35 % of the Republic of Moldova
expected to intensify the risk of future erosion. and 30 % of Ukraine. Wind erosion is worst in

Belarus, where nearly 20 % of the total area is capacity to produce food, which in turn has severe
impacted, and in the drier areas in the southeast socio-economic implications.
European part of Russia and Ukraine (SOVEUR,
2000; UNECE, 2006; Ministry of Natural Resources According to conservative estimates gathered from
and Environmental Protection, 2006; Ministry of various sources, salinisation affects nearly 50 % of
Environment of Ukraine, 2007). the total irrigated land area — 15 % of all arable
land in Central Asia. The worst situation is found in
The impacts of erosion, such as the transfer the region around the Aral Sea where up to 95 % of
of contaminants, can be severe. These include the territory is affected. Salinisation is also reported
economic losses: in 1998 in Ukraine these in the lowlands of the southern Caucasus, where it
amounted to nearly EUR 1.5 billion (TACIS, 1998a) covers nearly 1 million ha, corresponding to 40 %
and between EUR 35–43 million in the Republic of of the total irrigated land or about 30 % of the total
Moldova, while the benefits of soil conservation arable land (World Bank, 2003). Economic losses can
measures were valued ten times higher (TACIS, reach 40–60 % of the yield in moderately salinised
1998b). Although these data are old, they remain areas, with peaks of 80 % in severely salinised ones
the best currently available. (World Bank, 2003). In Turkmenistan, for example,
the direct economic damage of yield losses was
Soil erosion is most severe in those parts of Central estimated to be well over USD 140 million, while the
Asia and the Caucasus with steep slopes, a harsh cost of the rehabilitation of salinised land amounted,
climate and strong winds, and where inadequate in 2001, to about USD 65 million (UNEP, 2006).
land management practices have accelerated the
process. These include farming on land with steep Salinisation and waterlogging are also found in
slopes and fragile, shallow soils; overgrazing; the western part of the EECCA region. In Ukraine,
deforestation; and inefficient irrigation. To make they are estimated to affect about 3 % and 12 %
matters worse, energy shortages have dramatically of the total land area respectively — 9 million ha
increased demands for fuel wood resulting in in total (Ministry of Environment of Ukraine,
deforestation. Other drivers of erosion include land 2007). Although in the Russian Federation these
privatisation when private owners do not have the problems cover a smaller part of the territory, they
means to maintain anti-erosion measures or apply nonetheless have severe impacts (IIASA, 2002;
other environmentally friendly practices; flooding; SOVEUR, 2000).
and rising levels of water bodies, contributing to
the erosion of coasts and river banks, especially in Most remediation projects at the local level
the Caspian coastal areas. focus on improving irrigation systems and the
efficiency of water use, and maintaining drainage
Erosion is perceived as an environmental systems. Many of these projects are linked to
priority in all countries of Central Asia and the programmes to combat desertification and other
Caucasus due to its serious effects on agriculture, international programmes and are mainly funded
food security and livelihoods, and its links to by international sources.
desertification. Crop yields can be seriously
impacted, as in Armenia where losses in grain Compaction and permafrost
production due to erosion have been estimated to Compaction — mainly caused by bad agricultural
amount to 50 000—60 000 tonnes per year (UNECE, practices and in particular the use of heavy
2000). This, in turn, contributes not only to food machinery, more common in the past but still
shortages but to the loss of livelihoods in countries used today as a result of the inability of farmers to
such as Tajikistan, where agriculture employs large acquire new equipment — is the most widespread
parts of the population. form of degradation in the cultivated areas of the
western part of the EECCA region, especially in the
Salinisation and water logging Republic of Moldova, the Russian Federation and
Salinisation and waterlogging alter soil quality Ukraine, and it is often found in combination with
and reduce crop yields, thereby reducing an area's surface crusting. In Ukraine, for example, it affects

nearly 40 % of the total land (SOVEUR, 2000), while

Box 2.4.3 Frozen ground in the Russian Federation, it covers more than a
quarter of the agricultural land (IIASA, 2002).
Permafrost is ground that is at or below the freezing
point for water for two or more years. This definition About 65 % of the land area of the Russian
only depends on temperature and not on the soil
moisture content, the nature of the ground or its Federation is covered with permafrost (IIASA,
location. Permafrost may consist of mineral or 2002) (6) , the top layers of which are very sensitive
organic soil (Cryosols), rock or ice and can occur on to temperature increases and disturbance. Its
land or under offshore artic continental shelves. Its
thickness may range between less than one metre degradation is due to both natural seasonal changes
to more than one kilometre. in temperature and human-induced climate change.
Source: National Snow and Ice Data Center internet:
The melting of permafrost increases the risk of
http://nsidc.org/sotc/permafrost.html. Last accessed flooding and of surface mass movements, such as
May 2007.
landslides and the slow flowing of soil down-slope
over an impermeable layer, a degradation process
known as 'thermokarst'. Many ecosystems in
northern latitudes depend on permafrost conditions
and thermokarst can have major impacts, such as
replacing boreal forests with wetlands (in the case
of 'wet thermokarst') and replacing boreal forests by
steppe-like habitats (in the case of 'dry thermokarst').
Moreover, as the permafrost melts, the

decomposition of organic material in the soil
provokes the release of large quantities of CO2
and CH4, powerful greenhouse gases, thus in turn
potentially contributing to global warming. Western
Siberia has warmed by up to around 3 °C in the last
40 years or so (Pavlov et al., 2004). Impacts on the
permafrost include melting of the world's largest
frozen peat bog which could unleash billions of
tonnes of trapped CH4 into the atmosphere and at
the same time dramatically alter valuable landscape
and ecosystem characteristics (see also Chapter 3,
Climate change).
2.4.4 The way forward
The ecological and socio-economic functions

provided by soil are essential to the social and
economic well-being of Europe and as such deserve
to be addressed more fully both in scientific and
Photo: A frozen, organic-rich soil (Cryic Histosol) located to policy terms. These functions include soil as a source
the west of the Ural mountains in northern Russia.
The photograph clearly shows both the frozen soil of biomass and support to food production, as a
and the ice layer at the base.
© Andreas Lehmann, 2004
filter and buffer that reduces the harmful effects of
pollution, as a home for a wide range of biodiversity,
as support to human settlements, as a source of
(6) OECD EPR, 1999 reports a 40 % coverage of permafrost.

raw materials, and as a store for carbon and other Consideration should also be given to minimising
elements. The latter function in particular could the pressures on the environment associated with
become much more important in the context of agricultural production. These include measures
future climate change risks. to minimise erosion and increase the efficiency of
irrigation systems, implementation of good farming
In the SEE and the EECCA regions, the direct practices, introduction of sustainable farming
causes of soil degradation are exacerbated by systems, organisation of services providing advice,
socio-economic factors such as limited budgets training and support to farmers, and increased
for protection and restricted access to cleaner investments in environmental measures (see also
technology, and natural factors such as high Section 7.1, Agriculture).
seismic, hydro-geological or climatic risks. Together
these can trigger consequences such as the loss of The keys to progress towards sustainable use of
livelihoods, unemployment and poverty leading to soil across Europe remain better integration of soil
mass migration and land abandonment. protection into sectoral, local and regional policies,
and spatial planning instruments in particular,
The transboundary effects of soil contamination implementation of preventive measures, and
are worsened by differing national regulations widespread introduction of proven best practices.
and environmental standards, suggesting that Further progress on the implementation of
concerted regional initiatives are necessary — some international conventions such as the UNCCD could
programmes, such as the Regional Environmental provide opportunities and important additional
Reconstruction Programme (REReP), are reported resources, especially for those countries which are
to have generated good results (REC, 2006). not directly involved in the EU accession processes.
Nonetheless, the relationship between the reduction
of degradation and progress in policy in the regions Although existing monitoring and modelling
cannot be analysed sufficiently due to gaps in activities on soil produce a wealth of data, their
existing data. varied formats and poor targeting in terms of
policy priorities and future risks make these wholly
Many countries across Europe do not have inadequate as a basis for enabling organisations,
specific legislation covering the management such as the EEA and UNEP, to undertake
of contaminated sites: rather issues are often assessments that are robust enough to support the
addressed within general environmental, waste monitoring of the impacts of policy actions. To make
management or water regulations. The adoption matters worse, there are increasing pressures on
of measures to prevent new contamination and national budgets for soil monitoring and modelling,
introduce risk‑based management options for and in many countries soil studies are being given
tackling historical soil contamination would help lower priority, with the result that, in future years,
greatly in countries lacking specific legislation. In there is likely to be a shortage of qualified personnel
particular, efficient permit systems to prevent new to undertake monitoring and modelling activities in
contamination and promote best practices in the parts of Europe.
management of existing contamination are measures
that have been shown to work. The importance and complexity of analysing current
risks, especially climate change, emphasise the need
The establishment of systematic inventories of for new thinking on mechanisms to ensure that the
contaminated land, use of appropriate technologies evidence base for soil meets future policy challenges.
and techniques for clean-ups, and the establishment The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
of specific funds and economic instruments are other Change (IPCC) and the proposed mechanism
measures to be considered. In WCE environmental under the EU biodiversity communication
permit and risk management systems, together with (European Commission, 2006c) to provide
national and EU legislation and the application of independent, authoritative, research-based advice
the polluter-pays principle, have contributed to a to policy‑makers are the types of mechanisms that
substantial improvement. could be considered in the area of soil.

Environment and health and the quality of life | Hazardous chemicals
2.5 Hazardous chemicals
Photo: Vaskh obsolete pesticide storage sites, Tajikistan

© ENVSEC Ferghana Valley Programme, 2006
Key messages
• The chemical industry has been growing • The economic cost of late action — both in terms
worldwide and is economically significant in of remediation of contaminated sites and health
Europe, especially in the EU, Switzerland and impacts — can be high. Implementation of the
the Russian Federation. The production of toxic new EU legislation on the Registration, Evaluation
chemicals has increased at almost the same and Authorisation of Chemicals (REACH) is
rate as the total chemical production, and both estimated to result in benefits 2 to 50 times
have grown faster than the GDP. Since the higher than the costs.
Kiev conference, about one billion tonnes of
toxic chemicals have been produced in the EU. • Globalisation is resulting in a shift of
Demand for chemicals is now increasing across environmental burdens to developing
EECCA and SEE countries, leading to rising countries, and the re-importation of hazards
imports. via transboundary pollution and contaminated
products.
• Past accident and other sites, sometimes
contaminated with obsolete chemicals, • The lack of relevant data and information
continue to have environmental impacts. covering the whole region means that it is not
possible to conclude whether serious threats from
• New problems are appearing, resulting from chemicals to human health and the environment
exposures to low levels of an increasing have been reduced since the Kiev report.
number of chemicals, often in complex
mixtures. New risks from 'old' pollutants are • The past few years have seen important new
also becoming evident in the light of increased agreements and legislation, both in Europe
scientific knowledge and new uses. and globally, that address the safer handling
and management of chemicals to protect both
• There is still a lack of data on inherent human health and the environment. Successful
properties — hazards — and on exposures, implementation of these agreements, which
sources of releases, hot spots, and associated is being urgently called for, requires that they
risks. Only 14 % of more than 2 000 high be linked to other environmental policies and
production volume chemicals (HPVCs) had fully incorporated in the social and economic
basic toxicity information in 1999 and there development strategies of countries in the UNECE
has been little improvement since then. region.

2.5.1 Introduction risks may require adapted or additional measures,

as in the case of heavy metals and chemicals of
emerging concern. Overall, progress in bringing
'The sound management of chemicals is essential
for the protection of human health and the the problems under control is slow, especially for
environment, and [for] sustainable development. persistent chemicals that have been produced in
It is consequently important for the Millennium large quantities.
Development Goals and the World Summit on
Sustainable Development (WSSD) Johannesburg
Plan of Implementation goal that by 2020 chemicals This section examines the latest trends in chemical
are used and produced in ways that lead to the production, and potential environmental and
minimization of significant adverse effects on human
health and the environment.' human exposures. It focuses on recent information
about both well-known chemicals and emerging
Source: IOMC, 2006.
issues; describes potential exposures from
consumer products, contaminated sites, obsolete
chemicals, and industrial accidents; and discusses
Significant progress has been made on the policy recent progress in policy responses for the sound
front with regard to the sustainable management management of chemicals.
of chemicals since the Kiev assessment. At EU
level, this includes the Registration, Evaluation and
Authorisation of Chemicals (REACH) legislation, 2.5.2 Trends in production of
and the integrated pollution prevention and hazardous chemicals
control (IPPC). The global harmonised system
on classification and labelling (GHS) was agreed The increasing production, trade, and use of
and two major conventions entered into force, manufactured goods — electronics, clothing, cars,
the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic etc. — account for most of the flows of chemicals in
Pollutants (POPs) and the Rotterdam Convention today's society, and thereby increasing exposure to
on Prior Informed Consent (PIC). The Strategic them of people and the environment (ASEF, 2006).
Approach to International Chemical Management
(SAICM), adopted by the UN International European countries contribute significantly to
Conference on Chemicals Management and the the global trade in chemicals, which increased by
Global Ministerial Environmental Forum (Dubai, an average of 14 % a year between 2000 and 2005
2006) renewed the United Nations Conference (WTO, 2006a). The EU-25 and Switzerland together
on Environment and Development (UNCED, have a 59 % share of world exports and 48.4 %
Rio, 1992) target of global implementation of the of world imports. Although EECCA accounts for
sound management of chemicals, 'so that, by 2020, just 1.8 % of world exports and 2.1 % of imports
chemicals are used and produced in ways that lead (WTO, 2006a), the Russian Federation's exports
to the minimization of significant adverse effects grew by 13 % from 2000 and in 2005 its trade in
on human health and the environment' (IOMC, chemicals was valued at USD 13.2 billion. Exports
2006). An EU goal in the Sixth Environment Action from Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine are also
Programme (6EAP) strengthens this commitment. increasing, while the trade in chemicals in Armenia,
Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan and the Republic
Nonetheless, it has not been possible to conclude of Moldova is characterised by higher imports
whether significant threats to human health and than exports, with demand increasing, for example
the environment are declining because of a lack for agrochemicals and consumer products (WTO,
of comparable and systematic data on emissions, 2006a; 2006b). In SEE there is a similar trend, with
environmental concentrations and the impacts of increasing imports and, to a lesser extent, exports
hazardous chemicals. The decreasing environmental between 2001 and 2005 (WTO, 2006b).
loads and human-body burdens of some regulated
chemicals clearly show that risk reduction measures The EU chemical industry has grown faster than
can be successful. However, the identification of new gross domestic product (GDP) over the past ten

years, with the production of industrial chemicals Figure 2.5.2 Production of toxic chemicals in the
increasing by 31 % and GDP by 25 % between 1995 European Union *
and 2005. Production of toxic chemicals (1) increased
by 23.5 % and that of the most dangerous — Million tonnes
<------------------- EU-15 -------------------> EU-25
carcinogenic, mutagenic and repro-toxic chemicals Progress since Kiev
200
(CMR) by 22 % (Eurostat, 2006).
The annual production of toxic industrial chemicals

in the EU-25 in 2005, as registered in the Prodcom 150
database, was 212 million tonnes (see Figures 2.5.1

and 2.5.2), of which 9.3 % was in new EU Member
States. In all, since the Kiev conference, about one 100
billion (1 000 million) tonnes of toxic chemicals have
50
Figure 2.5.1 Production volumes of industrial chemicals

relative to GDP for EU-15 Member States
1995–2005
0
Production index 95 996 997 998 999 000 001 002 003 004 005 04 005
19 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 20 2
140
Progress since Kiev
CMR — chemicals Toxic chemicals
Chronic toxic chemicals Harmful chemicals

130
Very toxic chemicals
Note: * = Confidential data have been excluded, but make no

significant difference to the result.
120
Source: Eurostat, 2006, derived from production statistics.
110 been produced in the EU. Comparable information

is not currently available for EECCA countries.
100
The chemical industry has been a leading innovator
in environmental technologies compared with other
industries and organisations (Arduini and Cesaroni,
90
95 996 997 998 999 000 001 002 003 004 005
2004; European Commission, 2005). Driven by
19 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2
environmental regulation and economic interests,
Production volume of toxic industrial chemicals the number of patent applications by chemical
Total volume of chemicals produced companies, for example, have been higher for clean
Gross domestic product technologies — one of the 12 principles of green
Note: The indicator of total production of toxic chemicals chemistry (Anastas, 1998) — than for end-of‑pipe
is compiled for 168 toxic chemicals using production
quantities collected under the 'Prodcom Regulation' (Council
solutions.
Regulation (EEC) No 3924/91 on the establishment of a
Community survey of industrial production). The toxicity
classes have been assigned according to the classification
and labelling system ('risk phrases' or R-Phrases)
designated for the individual substances in Annex VI to
2.5.3 Some chemicals of concern
the 'Dangerous Substances Directive' 67/548/EEC as
amended (Eurostat, 2005; 2006; for further details on the
methodology, see Eurostat, 2006a). The lack of sufficient information about inherent
Source: Eurostat, 2006 derived from production statistics. properties and environmental monitoring data for
(1) Those classified as toxic according to the EU legislation, Council Directive 67/548/EEC of 27 June 1967 on the approximation of
laws, regulations and administrative provisions relating to the classification, packaging and labelling of dangerous substances.

chemicals have long been identified as problems Emission Register (EPER) since 2004. This is the
that seriously impair the analysis, evaluation and first register of industrial emissions to air and
assessment of potential threats to humans and the water, and gives access to information on annual
environment (European Commission, 2001; EEA, emissions from about 12 000 industrial facilities
2003; UNEP, 2003). in the EU‑25 and Norway (5) (see also Section
2.5.4, Policy responses for sound management
A study by the European Chemicals Bureau (ECB) of chemicals). The European Pollutant Emission
on data availability in 1999 showed that base-set (2) Register (EPER) review report 2004 reveals that
data were only available for 14 % of more than 2 000 about two-thirds of the 50 air and water industrial
EU high production volume chemicals (HPVCs); for pollutants have been decreasing. These include
65 % there was less than base-set data, and 21 % had nitrogen pollutants released into water bodies
no data at all (Allanou et al., 1999). This situation (– 14.5 %), the various types of phosphorus
had not changed significantly by 2006 (ECB, 2006). (– 12 %), and the emissions of dioxins/furans
(– 22.5 %) into the atmosphere. An upward trend
The International Council of Chemical can be observed in emissions of certain pollutants,
Industries Associations (ICCA) initiative on such as carbon dioxide which increased by 5.7 %
high‑production‑volume chemicals (HPVCs), between 2001 and 2004. In 2004, key tools to control
launched in 1998 to bring the data sets for more than carbon dioxide emissions such as the Emissions
1 300 HPVCs to the level of the OECD SIDS (3) data Trading Scheme (ETS) were not yet in place
package, itself comparable to the EU base set, by (European Commission, 2007; EEA, 2007).
2004 has only partly reached its target. By October
2005, a total of 334 ICCA chemicals had been There are increasing concerns about environmental
assessed, and the ICCA list had been extended to and health effects of diffuse chemical releases
1 428 HPVCs (ICCA, 2006) (4). arising from consumer products and unintentional
by‑products, such as PAHs and dioxins from
Emissions and releases of chemicals can occur industrial or traffic‑related combustion (see also
during every stage of their lifecycles, from Section 2.1, Environment and health perspective).
production and processing, through manufacturing, The United Kingdom Royal Commission on
their use in downstream production sectors and Environmental Pollution concluded that diffuse
by the general public, to disposal. Any of these pollution from products is 'more pervasive and more
can lead to localised pollution, for example from difficult to detect and correlate with adverse effects
poorly managed industries, contaminated sites, or on the environment and human health' than that
accidents, and to diffuse releases causing long-term released accidentally during the production process
exposure to low levels of individual or mixtures of (RCEP, 2003).
chemicals. For chemicals used in long-life articles
— such as construction materials — emissions One way of signalling the extent to which consumer
related to their disposal can occur several decades products pose a risk to human health is through
after their production and processing. This is one the EU rapid alert systems. These include the Rapid
reason why some chemicals are still found in the Alert Systems for Food and Feed (RASFF) and the
environment or in human tissue long after they have Community Rapid Information System (RAPEX) for
been withdrawn from use. non-food consumer products — cosmetics, clothes,
toys, jewellery, etc. Through these two indices the
Public information about industrial emissions in the system records the number of health risks reported
EU has been available via the European Pollutant for consumer products (Box 2.5.1).
(2) The base set is the information requirement defined in Annex VIIa of Directive 67/548. It is comparable to the OECD Screening
Information Data Set and includes physico-chemical properties, results of environmental fate testing, results of environmental
effects testing, and results of health effects testing.
(3) Screening Information Data Set (OECD).
(4) http://www.cefic.org/activities/hse/mgt/hpv/progress.htm. Accessed 30 January 2007.
(5) http://www.eper.ec.europa.eu/.

Box 2.5.1 The EU rapid alert system for consumer products
• The rapid alert system for consumer products • Under the RASFF system for food/feed products,
gives a rough indication of the number and 386 out of 3 228 risk notifications in 2005 were
character of risks posed to human health. It has for chemical risks, including from heavy metals
two components: and residues of veterinary medicines. The main
– a system for food/feed products (RASFF) — notification categories were mycotoxins (31 %)
includes risk categories such as pathogenic and pathogenic micro-organisms (27 %).
micro-organisms, heavy metals, residues of • In 2005, the vast majority of RASFF notifications
veterinary medicinal products, and chemical arose from border or market controls while
contamination; only 71 out of the total of 3 228 resulted from
– a system for non-food consumer products a company's own checks. There was 22 %
(RAPEX) — includes risk categories such increase in notifications in 2005.
as allergies, cancer, chemical risk injuries, • Under the RAPEX system for non-food consumer
electric shock, and fire risk. products, 95 out of 1 051 risk notifications
• This notification system allows EU Member in 2006 were for chemical risks. The main
States to take immediate action once a risk from categories included injuries (25 %), electric
a consumer product has been reported through shock (24 %) and fire risk (18 %).
a quick information-exchange system.
Source: European Commission, 2006; 2007.
In 2005 the RASFF registered a significant increase PCBs that have been regulated and monitored for
in hazards arising from materials which are in a long time, continue to pose problems because
contact with food, such as the migration of lead from of their persistence, their use in new technologies
ceramic ware, the migration of chromium and nickel including nanotechnology, newly identified
from metal ware, or the migration of isopropyl exposure routes such as the case of acrylamide in
thioxanthone from carton packages — notified for food (ECB, 2002); or other concerns, for example
the first time. In case of plastic materials and articles, pesticide spraying leading to chemical exposure of
rapid alerts of primary aromatic amines (PAA), people living nearby or passing fields (RCEP, 2005).
suspected human carcinogens, were in most cases
related to migration from kitchen utensils made of Contaminated sites and obsolete substances
nylon imported from China (European Commission, Industrial and agricultural activities in countries
2006). where disposal of waste has been unsustainable
have created a legacy of environmental and
As the People's Republic of China is rapidly economic impacts. The storage and disposal of
becoming one of the largest exporters of consumer obsolete chemicals, including pesticides, have been
products to Europe and was indicated in 48 % of identified as major environmental problems in
all notifications under the RAPEX system, the EC many EECCA and SEE countries — and are still
signed a Memorandum of Understanding with the relevant in EU Member States (UNEP, 2006; BauA,
Chinese authorities in 2006 to enhance the safety of a 2000; see Chapter 6, Sustainable production and
wide range of products as well as a specific roadmap consumption).
for safer toys (European Commission 2006; 2007).
Environmental hazards from stocks of obsolete
Old problems and new concerns chemicals include leakage to soil and groundwater,
New uses, improved analytical methods, and volatilisation or dispersal to air of pesticide dusts on
increased knowledge of hazardous properties have contaminated soil particles, and contamination of
led to environmental concerns about chemicals that vegetation. This can lead to direct or indirect acute
had not previously been regarded as problematic. and chronic toxic effects in humans, livestock and
Nonetheless, other compounds, such as heavy wildlife resulting from environmental contamination
metals, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins and or via the food chain (see also Section 2.4, Soil).

Box 2.5.2 Reducing the burden of the past: soil clean-up activities in Albania
Former chemical plant in Bishti I Palles, Durres electrolysis building and near the vinyl chloride
The storage areas of this factory in Bishti I Palles station; and 10 000 ng/m3 in the area of the sludge
contained 106 tonnes of carbon disulphide, 56 tonnes depository.
of dimethylamine, 10 tonnes of ethylenedieamine
and 9 tonnes of trimethylamine in metal drums, as Marine deposits at the sewerage outlet contain
well as 400–500 tonnes of HCH isomers in plastic 2 010 µg Hg/kg, and levels are still 50 µg Hg/kg 550 m
bags. The site has been cleaned up with support from the shore. High mercury concentrations have
from the Dutch government, which provided also been detected in Vlora Bay water: 22.5 ng Hg/l
about EUR 2 million for clean-up, repackaging and compared with 2.8–6.8 ng Hg/l in the Adriatic Sea,
removing the hazardous substances for treatment and in sediment: 0.34 mg/kg compared with
outside Albania. The project was successfully 0.05–0.1 mg/kg in other areas of the Mediterranean
finalised in 2006, and most indicators for sea. Mercury concentrations in Vlora Bay mussel
groundwater, surface water and air are now within samples are 0.29 mg/kg, higher than those in other
the limits. areas on the Albanian shoreline (0.02–0.04 mg/kg).
Former Lindane and Dichromate factory in

Porto-Romano, Durres
The former Lindane and dichromate factory and a
nearby dumpsite are located some 6.5 km north of
Durres city. After clean-up activities were completed,
monitoring results still demonstrated very high levels
of persistent and toxic substances. For example,
the level of HCH isomers in milk was approximately
50–100 times the German limit of concern and the
measured level of chlorobenzene in drinking water
was more than 4 000 times the German limit of
concern.
Source: Source: Etleva Canaj, NRC Chemicals, Albania.
Former Soda-Polyvinylchloride (PVC) Plant in

Vlora
In PVC production, elemental mercury (Hg) is
used as a catalyst. On about 11 hectares of the
plant, near the electrolysis building, mercury
concentrations in the top 250 mm of soil are
between 10 mg and 100 mg/kg with hot spots
showing up to 20 000 mg/kg. In the air, the
concentration of mercury was far above the quality Photo: Bor mining complex, Albania © ENVSEC Ferghana
limit of 50 ng/m3: 30 000 ng/m3 around the Valley Programme (2006)
Source: NRC Chemicals, Albania.
Although much uncertainty is associated with increased due to IHPA efforts. However, many
the stock-taking of obsolete chemicals, the clean-up activities have been initiated with some
International HCH and Pesticides Association having been successfully finalised (Box 2.5.2).
(IHPA) has put a lot of effort into providing In the Republic of Moldova, the removal of
up-to‑date estimates of known stockpiles. The 1 150 tonnes of obsolete pesticides, financed by the
historical use of hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) World Bank, should be completed by the end of
and the production of the pesticide Lindane 2007. In Romania, through the EU Phare project,
(gamma‑HCH), for instance, have led to an the Ministry of Agriculture, Forest and Regional
estimated total of 1 600 000–1 900 000 tonnes of Development was able to remove 2 300 tonnes of
HCH wastes worldwide, including 150 000–500 000 obsolete pesticides in 2006 (see also Section 2.4,
tonnes in eastern Europe (IHPA, 2006). Soil; and Chapter 6, Sustainable consumption and
production).
Since the Kiev assessment, total quantities of
identified stocks of obsolete chemicals have

Persistent organic pollutants and heavy result from several industrial and combustion
metals processes. Significant emissions are also found
Heavy metals, such as mercury, lead and cadmium in connection with private burning of household
(see Box 2.5.3), and persistent organic pollutants waste (BUWAL, 2004). As dioxin releases from
(POPs), which include dioxins, polychlorinated industry are heavily controlled, levels in biota,
biphenyls (PCBs) and hexachlorobenzene (HCB), including food and human samples, have generally
are examples of chemicals that continue to occur been decreasing (Van Leeuwen and Malisch,
in the environment at levels that are close to 2002), although high levels are still found in 'sinks'
(eco)toxicological effect levels, despite restrictions such as the Baltic Sea. However, such findings
on their production and use. After controlling as a recent report from the environmental health
emissions from industrial point sources, diffuse biomonitoring programme in Flanders that
sources of these persistent and cumulative demonstrated a significant association between
compounds are causing more and more concern. exposure to dioxin-like compounds, PCBs or
HCB, and fertility problems (Schoeters et al., 2006;
For example, dioxins, a group of substances see also Section 2.1, Environment and health
covered by the Stockholm Convention (see perspective) supported the introduction of new EU
Section 2.5.4, Policy responses for sound measures establishing stricter maximum levels for
management of chemicals) are not produced, but the sum of dioxins, furans and dioxin-like PCBs in
Box 2.5.3 Potential toxic effects of mercury, lead and cadmium
Mercury
Mercury compounds may affect human health in
several ways. Of the highest concern is organic
mercury — methylmercury — which is particularly
harmful to the developing brain of the foetus and
young child. Mercury persists in the environment and
bioaccumulates in fish and other aquatic species,
and can therefore be hazardous to humans through
the consumption of contaminated food. Although the
beneficial effects of eating fish normally outweigh
possible hazards from contamination, for vulnerable
groups, including pregnant women and young
children, several EU Member States have already
issued specific advice on limiting the frequency of
consumption and volume of particular predatory
fish, such as swordfish, marlin, pike and tuna. Also,
in 2004, the European Commission issued targeted
consumer advice on methylmercury in fish and
fishery products, based on the scientific opinion of
Photo: ��
Haidarkan Mercury
��
plant, Kyrgyzstan
the European Food Safety Authority (Watanabe et al.,
© ENVSEC Ferghana Valley Programme (2006)
1996; Clarkson et al., 2003; European Commission,
2004).
to be safe — 100 μg/litre (Lanphear et al., 2000;

Lead Canfield et al., 2003; Fewtrell et al., 2004).
The greatest concern for lead is its effects on the
central nervous system in young children. Blood
levels of lead in the population have been shown to Cadmium
drop quickly in response to reduced exposure as a Cadmium, a metal that is cumulatively toxic to
result, for example, of phasing out leaded petrol (see plants, animals and micro-organisms, can be
Section 2.1, Environment and health perspective). transferred from contaminated soil to crops and
However, in recent years adverse impacts of lead on animals, and through food, on to people where it
the intellectual development of young children have may affect kidneys and bones (ECB, 2003; UNEP,
been found at levels below those previously assumed 2006a).

feed and food products, applicable from November Commission, 2005). In February 2007, UNEP's
2006 (European Commission, 2006). Governing Council concluded that current efforts to
reduce the risks from mercury were not sufficient
In EECCA countries, POPs contamination is to address the global challenges and recommended
also a problem, as confirmed by the national further long‑term international action (UNEP, 2007).
implementation plans provided by several countries With regard to lead and cadmium, it was agreed
under the Stockholm Convention. In Armenia, to complete the reviews of scientific information
for example, the energy sector is one of the main and report back to the Governing Council in 2009.
sources of pollution with PCBs, present in oils used These reviews will focus especially on long‑range
in electrical equipment. Residual amounts of DDT environmental transport in order to inform
continue to be detected in environmental media — discussions on the need for global action.
soil, surface water, and water from Lake Sevan, for
example — foodstuffs and human organism. The Map 2.5.1 shows the spatial distribution of
monitoring data indicate the presence of Lindane anthropogenic emissions of mercury, cadmium,
and DDE in 87 % to 97 % samples of human breast and lead in the Cooperative Programme for
milk from feeding mothers in rural regions of Monitoring and Evaluation of the Long-range
Armenia. Based on the assessment of 2000–2001, Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe (EMEP)
uncontrolled burning of wastes is the main source area in 2004 compared with 2001 (EMEP, 2005).
(58–92 %) of unintentional generation and emission High mercury deposition levels are characteristic
of dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/DF) of countries with high emission levels and also of
to the air (Republic of Armenia, 2005). the Arctic regions of Finland, Norway, the Russian
Federation and Sweden, due to atmospheric and
Mercury is a recognised global pollutant (UNEP, marine transportation processes known as 'the
2002) and is the subject of international and grasshopper effect' and 'mercury depletion' of the
regional action plans, including those developed atmosphere in high latitudes causing preferential
by the United Nations Environment Programme deposition in the Arctic (Environment Canada,
(UNEP), the Arctic Council and the EU (European 2004; EMEP, 2003).
Map 2.5.1 Anthropogenic emissions of heavy metals in the EMEP region
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° -30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70°
60° 60°
50° 50°
50° 50°
40° 40°
40° 40°
0 500 0° 1000 1500 10°

Km 20° 30° 40° 0 500 0° 1000 1500 10°
Km 20° 30° 40°
Cadmium (Cd) anthropogenic emissions in 2001 and 2004 (g/km2/y)

Outside
<1 1–3 3–10 10–20 20–30 30–50 50–150 > 150 report
coverage

Map 2.5.1 Anthropogenic emissions of heavy metals in the EMEP region (cont.)
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° -30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70°
60° 60°
50° 50°
50° 50°
40° 40°
40° 40°
0 500 0° 1000 1500 10°

Km 20° 30° 40° 0 500 0° 1000 1500 10°
Km 20° 30° 40°
Mercury (Hg) anthropogenic emissions in 2001 and 2004 (g/km2/y)

Outside
<1 1–3 3–5 5–10 10–50 50–100 100–300 > 300 report
coverage
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° -30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70°
60° 60°
50° 50°
50° 50°
40° 40°
40° 40°
0 500 0° 1000 1500 10°

Km 20° 30° 40° 0 500
0° 1000 1500
10°
Km
20° 30° 40°
Lead (Pb) anthropogenic emissions in 2001 and 2004 (g/km2/y)

Outside report
< 0.1 0.1–0.5 0.5–1 1–2 2–3 3–5 >5 coverage
Source: MSC-East, 2007.
Emerging chemicals Criteria for the selection of substances for these

In the past, emerging chemicals often have only surveys include high production volume, toxicity,
been detected by accident or as a result of research bioaccumulation potential and persistence causing
projects. The EU Water Framework Directive environmental degradation. The surveys provide
(WFD) (see also Section 2.3, Inland waters) now information for setting priorities and the efficient
requires EU Member States to conduct investigative focusing of further monitoring. Some countries
monitoring as well as regular surveillance controls. have already implemented screening programmes:

Box 2.5.4 Emerging chemicals — are these the new POPs?
Brominated flame retardants (BFR) PFOS is currently being discussed as a candidate

BFR, which are used in many products including for inclusion in the Stockholm Convention. At the
electronic equipment, upholstered furniture and car EU level, legislation has been adopted to restrict
seats, are found everywhere in the environment: the marketing and use of PFOS from 27 June 2007
in European lakes (Kohler et al., 2005), in deep (European Commission, 2006). In early 2006,
ocean waters (de Boer et al., 1998); in the Arctic the US Environmental Protection Agency invited
environment; in humans worldwide, including in producers to participate in a voluntary PFOA Global
breast milk samples (Birnbaum and Staskal, 2004; Stewardship Programme. Participating companies
Vieth et al., 2005), and in the eggs of seabirds in have committed themselves to achieving, no later
northern Norway (Knudsen et al., 2005). Recycling than 2010, a 95 % reduction in emissions and
of redundant electric and electronic equipment has content in products compared with a 2000 baseline,
been identified as an activity with a high potential and to work towards the elimination of PFOA by
for BFR emissions (Morf et al., 2005). 2015 (US EPA, 2006).
Geographic trends of BFR in polar bears, whales, Platinum group elements (PGE)
ringed seals and seabirds are similar to those PGE are increasingly released into the environment,
for PCB, which suggests that these chemicals raising concern over ecological and human health
are transported to the Arctic and accumulate by risks (WHO, 2000; LAI, 2002). In Europe, the main
the same pathways (AMAP, 2005; ACAP, 2005). anthropogenic source is emissions from automobile
Uses of pentaBDE and octaBDE, both BFR, catalytic converters that contain platinum or
have been strictly limited in the EU, and these palladium and rhodium. Other sources are dental
substances are candidates for inclusion in the alloys, electronics, anti-cancer drugs and catalysts
Stockholm Convention (ENDS Europe, 2006) (see in various industrial applications. PGE are found in
Section 2.5.4). airborne particles and road and river sediments,
but their dispersion and transformation in the
environment is still largely unknown (Sure et al.,
Perflourinated organic compounds (PFC) 2002). A recent study on PGE in the river Rhine and
This is a group of compounds widely used its tributaries found concentrations that were low
in fluoropolymers, elastomers — especially but still could not be entirely explained by direct
perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and discharges. The authors postulate that indirect
perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) — which are discharges as well atmospheric deposition could
components in industrial and consumer products be responsible. This hypothesis is supported by
including metal plating, fire-fighting foams (OECD, measurements in rain, fog and dust (IWW, 2004).
2005; OECD, 2006), textiles, packaging material,
and cleaning products (Caliebe et al., 2004).
PGE have been associated with aquatic toxicity
and several human health effects (Ravindra et al.,
PFC that are widely found in the environment, 2004). These are mainly attributed to the soluble
particularly in wildlife including marine mammals, forms, especially halogenated salts, while the
and human tissues (Olsen et al., 2005; LGL, 2006; metallic form is relatively inert (Moldovan et al.,
Kannan et al., 2004; So et al., 2006; BfR, 2006) 2002; IPCS, 2002; WHO, 2000). The relevance of
are transported to the Arctic by ocean currents these hazards at the low concentrations found in
(Prevedouros et al., 2006). PFOS and PFOA have the environment is still under debate. However, the
also been detected in human umbilical cord blood, potential of PGE to accumulate in the environment
which means that they are able to pass through and in biological material, their presence in
the placental barrier and enter foetal circulation remote areas, such as Greenland ice and the Alps
(Inoue et al., 2004; Greenpeace and WWF, 2005). (Barbante et al., 2001), indicating the potential for
This gives special cause for concern as PFOS and long‑range transport, give cause for concern (see
PFOA have been found to be toxic to reproduction also Chapter 6, Box 6.5 for environmental impacts
in animal experiments. Map 2.5.2 illustrates some of PGE mining).
recent monitoring results from the North Sea.
indeed, Nordic countries have been screening increasing use or their persistence and/or potential
the environment systematically for potentially for bioaccumulation in the environment. These are
hazardous substances since 2001 (IVL, 2005). brominated flame retardants (BFR), platinum group
elements, perfluorinated organic compounds and
Four examples of emerging chemicals are pharmaceuticals (Boxes 2.5.4 and 2.5.5).
highlighted here, due to their widespread and

Box 2.5.5 Emerging chemicals — pharmaceuticals
There has been increased concern since the At the Gothenborg sewerage plant, 26 substances
Kiev conference about diffuse sources of were measured as part of an EU research project,
pharmaceuticals in the environment (Apoteket, REMPHARMAWATER (Andreozzi et al., 2003).
2006; NORMAN, 2007). Potential hazards arise from Fourteen drugs could be detected in concentrations
threats to ecosystems, species, and the efficacy that ranged from nanograms to milligrams per litre —
of drugs as a result of increased resistance from a widely used anti-inflammatory and analgesic drug,
very low but widespread contamination of water ibuprofen, was detected at the highest concentration,
and soils. There seem to be no direct threats to 7 mg/L.
health from the trace amounts detected in drinking
water. However, there is little research on this
issue, and the focus of pharmaceutical companies Sweden has pioneered a simple drug hazard
and regulatory agencies is largely on drug efficacy categorisation tool based on a weighting of
and acute environmental impacts while it is the persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity which is
health and environmental hazards from long‑term, the basis of information provided to patients, doctors
sub‑therapeutic exposures that are of main and other specialists (Wennmalm and Gunnarsson,
concern (Jones et al., 2005; Sachverständigenrat 2005). Proposals for drug research that gives more
für Umweltfragen, 2007). Recent data indicate the weight to environmental impacts have been made
scale of the problem. (Jjemba, 2005). There is very little data on this issue
in EU, EECCA, and SEE countries, but pharmaceutical
hazards are of increasing concern due to the rising
In a study of 159 drug substances by Stockholm use of drugs. Early use of screening tools, like those
County Council, 157 were found to be persistent or developed in Sweden, in all European countries, and
lacked data about their biodegradability, 54 were 'take-back' measures, as in Sweden and Germany
bioaccumulative and 97 were of high or very high for example, would be useful and precautionary
eco-toxicity (Miljöklassificerade läkemedel, 2005). measures.
Map 2.5.2 PFC concentrations in surface water (5 m) in the North Sea, August 2005
0° 10° PFC concentrations in

surface water (5 m),
60° August 2005
ng/l
6
5
PFOA
4
3
2 PFOS
1
0
050° 200 0° 400 600 Km 10°
Source: Theobald et al., 2006; N. Theobald, pers. comm., BSH, 2007.

Distant impacts of chemical pollution in the Considering the number of major chemical accidents
pan-European region with linked transboundary pollution issues in
Persistence, increasing concentrations up the food China, harmonisation around the European
chain — bioaccumulation, and the atmospheric standards would help reduce overall risks of
and marine transportation of chemicals over long importing chemical hazards, not only into China,
distances may result in environmental and human but also into Europe via transboundary pollution or
exposure in areas far from where the chemicals from the use of consumer products made in China.
were released. For example, there are serious International companies have an important role to
concerns about the Arctic region being a global play in exporting EU safety standards, in line with
sink for mercury and other persistent chemicals, the 'Responsible Care Global Charter' and 'Global
impacting not only the human population but Product Stewardship' launched by the International
other mammals, fish and plant life. The Baltic Sea is Council of Chemical Associations (ICCA) in
affected by historic and current contamination with February 2006.
POPs and other toxic compounds. Further, POPs
are found in high-altitude mountain areas, such
as the Alps, which serve as cold condensers for 2.5.4 Policy responses for sound
POPs (Kallenborn, 2006; Kallenborn and DiGuardo, management of chemicals
2006) (Box 2.5.6). Global action to deal with this
problem is taken under the frame of the Stockholm There has been substantial progress in the evolution
Convention (see Section 2.5.4). of policy to promote sound chemicals management
since the Kiev conference. Across pan-Europe,
Industrial accidents, transboundary pollution countries have developed or are in the process of
and effects of globalisation developing national implementation plans for both
In some countries, accidental chemical spills EU and global policies, such as REACH; the Globally
significantly affect both the environment and harmonised system for classification and labelling
human health. Their impact may be regional as (GHS); the Strategic Approach to International
well as local, and in some cases may even have Chemicals Management (SAICM); the Rotterdam
transboundary effects. Mining, a major economic Convention on the Prior Informed Consent
activity, is one of the sectors in which there have Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals, which
been major accidents, often associated with the entered into force 24 February 2004; the Stockholm
release of large amounts of toxic substances (EEA, Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, which
2003). entered into force on 17 May 2004 (see Box 2.5.7);
and the Basel Convention on the Control of
In recent years, globalisation has led to the Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
outsourcing of chemical production from rapidly and their Disposal (1989). However, not all countries
developing regions — for example, according have ratified the relevant international conventions
to their own website, 14 of the 16 European (see Annex 1, Legal instruments).
companies that belong to the 'world majors' (Cefic,
2005) have business relationships in China, where, Although the formal effectiveness evaluation is a
according to UNEP, chemical spills have led to rare feature of global conventions, the effectiveness
major releases of chemicals to the environment, of the Stockholm Convention has to be evaluated
leading to transboundary pollution (UNEP, 2005). regularly, starting four years after its entry into force.
For example, the Songhua River spill in November In anticipating this requirement, the secretariat has
2005 affected the water supply of thousands of requested parties to identify existing monitoring
people in the Russian Federation. The positive programmes that could be used in its Global
consequence of this particular event was a formal Monitoring Programme (GMP). A link between
agreement, signed on 21 February 2006, between those concerned with policy and scientific experts
the Russian Federation and China to jointly is very important to ensure the input of information
monitor cross-border rivers to ensure water quality on and from existing monitoring programmes on
(Environment News Service, 21 February 2006). regional and national levels (further details can be

Box 2.5.6 Regional case studies
The Arctic — a sink for pollutants from distant

sources
POPs and other hazardous contaminants, such as

mercury, are not produced or used in the Arctic.
They are mostly transported by rivers, air and ocean
currents from industrialised areas in the south.
Accumulation of POPs in the food web can result in

high exposures to wildlife and humans. Arctic animals
need large deposits of blubber to survive when food
is scarce. This makes them particularly susceptible
to POPs that can bind to fat. When fat deposits are
used, chemicals stored in them are remobilised and
can affect organs and functions vital to survival
and reproduction, such as hormons, vitamins,
the immune and enzyme systems. Although
understanding of what happens in the organism is
limited, it is likely that populations of Arctic animals
at the top of the marine food chain such as polar Photo: A female glaucus gull dies after brooding and hatching
bear, arctic fox, killer whale and glaucus gull are her chicks. Every year since 1986, scientists have
found glaucus gulls dead or dying in convulsions near
negatively affected. Low temperatures that slow the
the bird colonies on Bear Island in the Barents Sea.
breakdown of chemicals are another reason why the Very high levels of POPs have been found in the liver
Arctic is vulnerable to chemicals. and brain of such birds, and their fat deposits are
usually depleated
© Hallvard Strøm, Norwegian Polar Institute
People in the Arctic, living on traditional diets with a
high blubber and fat content are also affected. Inuits in children. Traditional diets are easily accessible,
in Canada and Greenland have higher levels of PCBs, cheap, have high cultural significance and protect
HCB, chlordanes and mercury in their blood than in better against cardio-vascular diseases than imported
other circumpolar countries (see Figure 2.5.3). On food. Arctic peoples therefore find themselves in a
the Faroe Islands, exposure to methylmercury and/or dilemma where cautious dietary advice is needed.
PCBs during foetal development was associated
with adverse neurological and behavioural effects Sources: Burko and Kallenborn, 2000; AMAP, 2002; 2004.
Figure 2.5.3 Levels of PCBs in the blood of people in the Arctic (the most widespread contaminant in this area)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Source: Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP), 2003. AMAP Assessment 2002: Human Health in the Arctic.

Box 2.5.6 Regional case studies (cont.)
The Baltic Sea — toxic burdens of the past and Very little is known about the migration and impacts
present problems of toxic agents associated with chemical munitions
in the marine environment (OSPAR, 2006; HELCOM,
2003). To date the advice has been that, if left
The Baltic Sea is a sink for many persistent and undisturbed on the seabed, dumped conventional
toxic substances (Nordic Council of Ministers, 2005). and chemical munitions pose no risk to humans.
Levels of heavy metals in blue mussels have been If disturbed, however, they represent a risk to
decreasing, but concentrations of some contaminants fishermen and seafarers, and, if washed ashore, to
are still up to 20 times higher than in the nothern the general public. Remediation of marine dumpsites
Atlantic. POPs, such as dioxins and PCBs, continue of chemical weapons and munitions is technically
to cause concern (see also Chapter 5, Marine and challenging (OSPAR, 2006). Most recently this
coastal environment) with Baltic seafood being found problem became newsworthy in relation to 'Nord
to strongly influence human body burdens of PFCs Stream' — formerly called the North European
(Falandysz et al., 2006). gas pipeline, a planned offshore pipeline through
the Baltic Sea to transport gas from the Russian
In the past, the area has also been a dump for Federation to western Europe (Germany and the
various waste including toxic substances, dredged United Kingdom) (see Map 2.5.3). According to
spoils containing considerable quantities of heavy the project information document, military practice
metals, and conventional and chemical munitions. areas and dumping sites may well require additional
Swedish cartographers recently discovered 30 barrels large-scale field surveys to identify and assess areas
containing 9 000 kg of mercury, that had, like with suspected ammunition. These could be followed
21 000 other containers containing toxics, been by mitigation measures such as the re-routing of
dumped legally during the 1950s and 1960s (Spiegel pipelines; sub-sea risk reduction measures on site
on‑line, 22 August 2006). After World War II at including the moving dumps on the sea bottom; or
least 100 000 tonnes of traditional munitions the removal of the ammunition (Nord Stream, 2006).
(Nehring, 2005) and about 40 000 tonnes of The documents were provided for the Baltic region
chemical munitions, containing some 13 000 tonnes countries in November 2006 in voluntary fulfilment
of chemical warfare agents, were dumped in the of the requirements under the Espoo Convention
Baltic, mainly to the south-east of Gotland, east (UNECE Convention on Environmental Impact
of Bornholm and south of the Little Belt (HELCOM, Assessment in a Transboundary Context) (See
2003). Annex 1, Legal instruments).
Map 2.5.3 North European gas pipeline
15° 20° 25°

FINLAND
North European gas
60°
60°
pipeline
Pipeline
Planned platform
Exclusive economic
ESTONIA zone (EEZ)
Chemical and conventional

ammunition
SWEDEN Dumping area
Single dumping
LATVI A Area of risk for

dumping
Transport routes
Abandoned
LITHUANIA
minefields
55° 55°
Not detonated
THE RUSSIAN explosive charges
FEDERATION
POLAND 0 100 200 300 Km Mine threat sites
15° 20° 25°
Source: Nord Stream, 2006.

Box 2.5.6 Regional case studies (cont.)
The Alps — monitoring persistent and other large-scale transnational inventory of POPs pollution
organic pollutants in the Alps — MONARPOP in the Alps — MONARPOP (Monitoring Network in
network the Alpine Region for Persistent and other Organic
Pollutants). The project measures the pollutant levels
in mountain vegetation and soil, across the Alps and
There is justified concern that mountain ranges are along selected altitude profiles, where biochemical
meteorological traps for POPs, but little is known methods are used to reveal the biological effects.
about their loads in the Alps compared with other MONARPOP, part of the UNEP Master List of Actions
remote European regions. Pesticide concentrations to reduce or eliminate the release of POPs, focuses
in needles and humus were found to increase on POPs regulated under the Stockholm Convention,
with altitude, and sediments in remote alpine but also includes a number of other toxic organic
lakes show unexpectedly high levels of certain compounds.
POPs — despite the absence of nearby sources.
Accumulating local evidence gave rise to the first Sources: MONARPOP, www.monarpop.at.
found at www.pops.int). Human milk has been framework to support the achievement of the goal,
identified as a preferred matrix for monitoring agreed at the 2002 Johannesburg World Summit on
(UNEP, 2003). The next round, the fourth, of the Sustainable Development (WSSD), of ensuring that
World Health Organization (WHO) coordinated by 2020, chemicals are produced and used in ways
studies on exposure levels of POPs in human milk that minimise significant adverse impacts on the
will be adjusted to provide monitoring data useful for environment and human health.
the effectiveness evaluation (Malisch et al., 2006), the
first of which will be completed at the fourth meeting The overarching policy strategy, which sets out
of the Conference of the Parties (COP 4) in 2009. the scope of SAICM, identifies objectives for
risk reduction, knowledge and information,
The third Conference of the Parties (COP 3), held in governance, capacity-building and technical
May 2007, agreed to establish a global monitoring cooperation, illegal international traffic, as well as
plan to study the impact of the convention on POP underlying principles and financial and institutional
levels, and adopted a 'dioxin toolkit' for governments, arrangements. Proposed work areas and activities for
setting out rules for estimating the emissions of implementation of the strategic approach are defined
dioxins from anthropogenic and natural sources. in a global plan of action.
However, the delegates failed to reach an agreement
on a compliance regime for the convention. The Since the first ICCM session, more than hundred
meeting also adopted guidelines on Best Available governments have nominated SAICM national focal
Technology (BAT) and Best Environmental Practice points. Regional focal points for the five United
(BEP) for reducing POPs emitted as by-products Nations regions as well as non-governmental and
of industrial processes, — mainly dioxins, but also intergovernmental organisations have also been
furans, PCBs, and hexachlorobenzene (ENDS Europe, nominated. Regional meetings have been held to
2007). initiate SAICM implementation, and a quick‑start
programme has been launched to support activities to
The Strategic Approach to International enable initial capacity building and implementation
Chemicals Management (SAICM) was adopted activities in developing countries.
by the International Conference on Chemicals
Management (ICCM) in Dubai on 6 February 2006. In 2004 the OECD, responding to the request
SAICM was developed by a multi-stakeholder by WSSD, initiated the development of a global
Preparatory Committee, co-convened by UNEP, the portal to information on chemical substances,
Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety and eChemPortal TM, to improve availability and
the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound access to information on chemicals. The portal,
Management of Chemicals. It provides a policy which is planned to be operational in 2008, is under

preparation in cooperation between several OECD Under the IPPC Directive, details of industrial
member countries, the European Commission, emissions have to be reported to the European
the International Council of Chemical Industry Pollutant Emission Register (EPER) and made
Associations, the International Programme publicly available on a website hosted by the
on Chemical Safety, UNEP Chemicals and EEA. The EPER, launched in early 2004, gives
environmental NGOs. access to information on annual emissions from
about 9 200 industrial facilities in the EU-15,
In addition, many countries are preparing to Norway and Hungary — mostly for 2001, and
implement the Globally Harmonized System (GHS) about 12 000 facilities in the EU-25 and Norway
for classifying and labelling hazardous chemicals, for 2004. The EPER will be replaced by the
with a target date of 2008, agreed at WSSD. The European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register
system aims to ensure that information on physical (European PRTR), as laid down in Regulation
hazards and toxicity will be available in order to (EC) No 166/2006 adopted on 18 January 2006. The
enhance the protection of human health and the European PRTR implements the UNECE PRTR
environment during the handling, transport and Protocol, signed in May 2003 in Kiev. The first
use of chemicals. edition of PRTR is expected in autumn 2009 and
will include data for the first reporting year, 2007.
In the EU, after many years of debate and
negotiation, new chemicals legislation on the The Seveso II Directive, adopted in 1996 replaced
Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of the original Seveso Directive of 1982, developed
Chemicals (REACH) was adopted by the European following the accidental dioxin release in Seveso
Parliament and the Council, and entered into force in 1976. The Seveso II Directive was broader in
on 1 June 2007. REACH is seen as the European scope and introduced new requirements for safety
contribution to SAICM. Its key elements are: management systems, emergency and land‑use
planning, and reinforced the provisions on
• equal requirements for new and existing inspections by Member States to prevent risks to
substances — for example, toxicity testing and the environment and human health from industrial
information; chemical accidents. In 2003, in the light of serious
• shifting the burden of proof from competent industrial accidents, the Directive was extended
authorities to manufacturers and importers; to cover risks arising from storage and processing
• involvement of downstream users; activities in mining — the case of cyanide spill in
• better risk communication via chemical safety Baia Mare, 2000; from pyrotechnic and explosive
reports. substances — the case of Enschede fireworks
accident, 2001; and from the storage of ammonium
REACH is expected to have an impact far beyond nitrate and ammonium nitrate based fertilisers —
the EU, as its requirements are applicable to the case of the explosion in a fertiliser plant in
substances that are imported into the EU. Indeed, Toulouse, 2001 (European Parliament and Council,
some countries are already developing their own 2003). The Member States were to comply with the
national legislation along the lines of REACH. extended Directive by mid-2005.
Emissions of hazardous chemicals from industrial There is no comprehensive overview available on

installations and agricultural activities are the status of chemicals management in EECCA,
regulated in the EU through the Integrated although some countries — Armenia, Belarus,
Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Directive Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and the Russian
(European Council, 1996), by applying an Federation — have published national profiles to
integrated approach, best available techniques, assess their national infrastructure for the sound
flexibility, and public participation. The first round management of chemicals, under SAICM. An
of 31 best available technique reference documents analysis of the existing chemicals management
(BREFs) under the IPPC Directive was completed in system in the Russian Federation, elaborated in
December 2006. the framework of a cooperative project between

the Russian Federation, the Nordic Council of on the environment and human health,
Ministers, Sweden and Finland, is therefore used as including corporate liability and compensation;
an illustrative example (Box 2.5.7). • the precautionary principle.
Policy challenges Although the benefits of chemical production and

The safe management of chemicals requires the use are clearly reflected in rising sales of chemicals,
cooperation of many stakeholders in different the benefits of reductions in chemical hazards are
sectors and a range of different tools (for much more difficult to quantify because of their
an overview of the status of ratification and diffuse, long-term, and mostly qualitative nature.
implementation of international conventions Unlike the transport and energy industries, there
see Annex 1, Legal instruments). Producers and have been no comprehensive quantitative studies of
manufacturers have special responsibilities to which the external costs of chemical production and use.
they can respond not only by fulfilling their legal However, retrospective analyses can help illustrate
obligations but also by applying the principles the large potential costs of inaction on harmful
of Green Chemistry, (Global) Responsible Care, chemical exposures, as indicated by the EEA report
and (Global) Product Stewardship (Anastas, 1998; Late lessons from early warnings: the precautionary
Green Chemistry Network, 2006). But legislation principle 1896–2000 (EEA, 2002) for chemicals such as
on chemicals and legislative tools that ensure PCBs, CFCs, TBT, and the Great Lakes' pollutants.
environmental quality or health protection from
hazardous chemicals are often developed and A recent retrospective analysis of the cost to the
executed by different authorities, which leaves gaps EU‑25 of the failure to act on PCB exposures when
and results in a need to improve interlinkages and the first early warnings arose in the 1930s, or the
cooperation between these authorities. 1960s with the first indications of environmental
damage, shows that the remediation and site
An integrated approach to sound chemicals clean‑up costs alone — excluding health and
management would contain the following elements: ecosystem damage costs — between 1971 and
2018, will be at least EUR 15 billion (TemaNord,
• the substitution principle, to ensure that 2004). Meanwhile, a summary of 36 studies on the
hazardous chemicals, products and processes future costs and benefits of REACH concluded
are replaced by safe alternatives; that the costs of better controls would be around
• the 'polluter pays' principle and economic EUR 4 billion, while the benefits are estimated at
responsibility for damage and negative impacts between EUR 10 and EUR 200 billion.
Box 2.5.7 EECCA: chemicals management in transition
The Russian Federation's legislation on chemicals no uniform requirements for labelling or common
is in transition. The framework for this legal classification criteria such as those in the present EU
development is laid down in the strategic document system and GHS. Instead, standards depend on the
'the foundations of the state policy for ensuring product category, and labelling on expert knowledge
chemical and biological safety of the Russian in interpreting test results. There is no unified
Federation for the period up to 2010 and the longer approach for testing, other than for pesticides, and
term', approved by the President on 4 December tests do not necessarily follow OECD methods. One of
2003. the major challenges will be harmonisation with the
provisions of international law, international treaties
and agreements of which the Russian Federation is
A system has been in place since 1992 for the part. GHS and REACH are of particularly of interest
registration of hazardous substances, based on for the development of the Russian systems for
available information, and since 1994 for safety data classification, labelling and registration.
sheets (SDS). However, enforcement is poor and
the legal status of SDS is unclear. Further, there are Sources: Ruut and Simanovska, 2005.

Some of the economic benefits expected from more for example, what discount rate, if any, should
eco-efficient management of chemicals include the be used to estimate the present value or future
stimulation of eco-innovation, for example green costs and benefits of persistent chemicals. Such an
chemistry; greater energy efficiency; and less energy approach requires public participation.
import dependence. Furthermore, environmental
technology industries and smarter use of existing The focus on integration and wider involvement
laws such as the IPPC Directive, where future has been strengthened and now needs to be
performance standards could complement best put into practice: IPPC provides an integrated
currently available technologies, are likely to approach to protecting all environmental media
stimulate an increase in the number of jobs and the and disseminating better technologies, SAICM
volume of exports as a result of increased demand encourages countries to set up inter-ministerial
from the wider chemicals sector. or inter‑institutional arrangements for chemical
management, and REACH will actively involve
The distribution of costs and benefits is often both downstream users and producers in reducing
neglected in conventional cost benefit analysis: chemical hazards.
between different social groups — producer
interests and societal interests; between These new frameworks for sustainable management
geographically disparate groups — for example, of chemicals will contribute to reaching the goals of
Arctic and European citizens; and across the United Nations Conference on Environment and
generations. Equity issues are therefore important, Development.

03
Climate change
Climate change
3 Climate change
Photo: Glacier, Norway © George Buttner
Key messages
• New scientific insight and new research • Even if global emissions of greenhouse gases
have confirmed that global climate change are drastically reduced, some unavoidable
is taking place and is projected to continue. climate change impacts are still projected to
Impacts of climate change on society and occur in most sectors of the economy and on
natural resources are already occurring natural resources. It is therefore also urgent
worldwide and are projected to become even to adapt to those impacts in developing and
more pronounced. Much of the recent global implementing policies and measures in all
warming can be attributed to greenhouse gas sectors of society.
(GHG) emissions from human activities.
• Climate change and depletion of the ozone
• Many European countries have adopted layer are two separate issues, but with
national programmes including policies and interactions related to the emissions of
measures to reduce GHG emissions. However, compounds as well as the physical and
they have increased in recent years in most chemical changes in the atmosphere.
countries and are projected to continue to Ozone‑depleting substances and their
do so in the future. Many WCE countries replacement compounds are GHGs with long
will have difficulties in meeting their Kyoto atmospheric lifetimes and they will, therefore,
commitments, while those EECCA countries contribute to climate change for many years to
with a Kyoto commitment are projected to come.
meet them.
• The Kyoto Protocol under the UN Framework

Convention on Climate Change and its
first commitment period is only a first
step in addressing climate change. To
avoid unacceptable future impacts, further
substantial global GHG emission reductions
are needed and strong mitigation measures
must be implemented. The EU has proposed
a target of limiting temperature increase to a
maximum of 2 °C above pre‑industrial levels.
To achieve this, a global emission reduction of
up to 50 % by 2050 is necessary.

Climate change
3.1 The challenge: tackling There is increasing scientific and political concern
climate change that climate change may be more rapid and
pronounced than suggested in previous projections
The earth's climate is changing. The average (e.g. IPCC). In addition to gradual changes, a
temperature — globally and in Europe — continues number of non-linear, abrupt changes may occur.
to increase. Globally it has increased 0.74 °C Although uncertainties still surround this possibility,
between 1906–2005. In Europe the temperature is were they to occur they might have severe
about 1.4 °C higher than pre-industrial levels with consequences, such as shifting the climate system
the last decade the warmest for 150 years, and 1998 from one state to another in a relatively short time.
and 2005 warmer than any year on record (CRU, One such change could be the melting of the large
2006; GISS/NASA, 2006; IPCC, 2007). Global mean ice sheets in Greenland and in western Antarctica,
temperatures are projected to increase by 1.8–4.0 °C, which would release enough water to increase sea
during this century, with some studies suggesting levels by 13 metres, something that could happen
a wider possible range of 1.1–6.4 °C (IPCC, 2007). over the next 1 000 years.
Europe is likely to become warmest in the eastern
and southern parts of the continent. Even if global warming is to some extent the result
of natural factors, the latest scientific insight shows
Sea levels are rising and the melting of glaciers is that over recent decades much of it can be attributed
accelerating. The global mean sea-level rose by more to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human
than 1.7 mm/year during the 20th century and is activities (IPCC, 2007): carbon dioxide (CO2) is
projected to rise by 0.18 m to 0.59 m during the 21st the largest contributor at about 80 % of total GHG
century (IPCC, 2007). emissions. Substantial reductions in GHG emissions
are needed if the impacts of climate change are to be
The impacts of climate change, including those on kept at manageable levels.
natural ecosystems, biodiversity, human health and
water resources such as floods and droughts, are At the global level, the threat of climate change is
already being observed and are projected to become being addressed by the United Nations Framework
more pronounced. The least developed countries,
such as some of those in EECCA, are among the
most vulnerable, having the least financial and Figure 3.1 The vulnerability of various sectors to
changes in global average temperature
technical capacity to adapt, for example, to droughts
or increased flooding.
Ecosystems
The impacts are affecting many economic sectors
including forestry, agriculture, tourism and the Food production (global)
insurance industry. In recent years, for example Food production (regional)
through the summer of 2005, heavy rains have led Sea level rise (especially
to destructive flooding in eastern parts of Europe, irreversible melting of the
Greenland ice sheet)
particularly in Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary and the
Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, causing Disappearance of Artic ice
damage to property, infrastructure and agriculture.
Such individual episodes cannot be attributed to
Collapse of the
global climate change alone, but illustrate what may thermohaline circulation
become more frequent as climate change continues.
1 2 3 4 5
Not all current and projected effects of climate Average world temperature increase (˚C)
change are adverse: for example in some parts of Positive effects
Europe the agricultural sector may benefit from a
Limited negative effects
temperature rise.
Considerable negative effects
Source: MNP, 2005a.

Climate change
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and the instruments as the Clean Development Mechanism
Kyoto Protocol under that convention. The Kyoto (CDM, see below) and the removal by sinks are
Protocol, which entered into force on 16 February taken into account. The other EU Member States
2005, sets binding emission targets for a basket of will meet their targets with already implemented
six GHGs (1) for those industrialised/developed measures, except Slovenia which is in the same
countries (Kyoto Annex B countries) that have situation as EU‑15.
ratified it.
Between 1990 and 2003, emissions in EECCA
The targets in the Kyoto Protocol are only a countries fell by about 27 % mainly as a result
first step towards the more substantial global of economic and structural change, but most
emission reductions that will be needed to reach emissions have started to increase again as
the UNFCCC's long-term objective 'to stabilise economies recover. Nonetheless, those EECCA
atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations at a countries with Kyoto commitments, the Russian
level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic Federation and Ukraine, are projected to meet
interference with the climate system'. The EU has them. Over the same period, emissions in SEE
pointed to the need to reduce global emissions increased by about 2 % after a strong decrease
by about 50 % by the middle of the 21st century during the first half of the 1990s. In EFTA they
(Environment Council conclusions, 20 February increased about 4 %.
2007) which implies the reduction or limiting of
emissions by countries other than those that are In order to reduce the cost of mitigation, Kyoto
already included in Annex B. New targets for mechanisms can be used (clean development
industrialised countries and possible new emission mechanism, joint implementation and trading
reduction strategies for other countries have been with Assigned Amount Units (AAUs) (2). In
discussed within the UNFCCC since 2005, but no addition investments can be made in so-called
agreement has been reached. green investment schemes, which can be set up by
Annex 1 (developed) countries of the convention
Many European countries have adopted national that have a surplus of assigned amount units.
programmes aimed at reducing emissions. Key These include the EECCA countries, the Russian
policies and measures include national taxes on CO2 Federation, Ukraine and the SEE countries
emissions: the EU carbon dioxide Emission Trading Romania and Bulgaria. Internally in the EU,
Scheme (EU ETS); increased use of renewable industries can trade emission allowances within the
energy (wind, solar, biomass) and combined heat EU ETS to find more cost-effective measures.
and power installations; improvements in energy
efficiency across the spectrum from buildings In many of the economies in transition and
and industry to household appliances; abatement developing countries in SEE and EECCA,
measures in transport, households and industry; investment in the energy sector is urgently needed.
and measures to reduce emissions from landfills. The CDM, and indeed green investment schemes
(GIS), could provide an opportunity to boost
In the EU, GHG emissions fell by about 5 % energy efficiency or the production of renewable
between 1990 and 2004: decreases from energy energy, while providing win-win situations: the
generation and from the industrial, agriculture host country benefits from cleaner energy and
and waste sectors all played a part, but were from new infrastructure, while investing countries
partly offset by increases from transport. The joint and corporations benefit by offsetting their excess
EU‑15 Kyoto target will only be attained when all emissions often at a lower cost than introducing
planned measures, including the use of such Kyoto internal reduction measures.
(1) Carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and the F-gases hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and
sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).
(2) The allowable level of emissions for a party over the commitment period (2008–2012) is called its assigned amount. This quality
is denominated in individual units or AAUS, each of which represents an allowance to emit one metric tonne of carbon dioxide
equivalent.

Climate change
However, even immediate and large reductions in The increase in global temperature, particularly
GHG emissions will not halt climate change, due in recent decades, is one of the clear signs that
to time lags in the climate system: some impacts the climate is changing (Figure 3.2). The global
of climate change — both environmental and average temperature is now 0.8 °C higher than in
economic — are now, inevitable. Thus, in addition pre‑industrial times (CRU, 2006; GISS/NASA, 2006).
to emission reductions, measures across a wide On average, 2005 and 1998 are among the warmest
range of sectors will be needed to adapt to the years on record. Note that there was a strong El
consequences of climate change. In parallel to Niño in 1998, which generally results in more
mitigation programmes, more and more countries warming, whereas 2005 was about as warm but
have therefore started investigations into and without such an event.
development of national adaptation programmes to
deal with current and future impacts. Up to 2005, data for Europe, including all EECCA
countries, show a 1.4 °C increase in the annual
average temperature over land, compared with
3.2 Climate change and its pre-industrial levels (3) (Figure 3.2). As such Europe
impact has warmed more quickly than the global average.
Particularly significant warming has been observed
3.2.1 Temperature over the Iberian Peninsula; south‑eastern Europe,
including Turkey; north‑western Russia; and
Global temperature has been recorded the Baltic states. The largest warming, however,
systematically since the early 19th century, and has been in the Arctic regions of the Russian
using indirect methods, global average temperatures Federation, where temperatures have increased
have been reconstructed for more than the past 3 °C over the past 90 years (Russian Third National
400 millennia. The gradual changes over time in Communication (NC3), 2002; ACIA, 2004).
global average temperature provide an indicator
of the vulnerability of different sectors to climate The global average temperature is projected to
change (e.g. IPCC, 2007; EEA, 2004, 2005). increase 1.8–4.0 °C, with some studies suggesting
Figure 3.2 Observed annual average temperature — global (left) and UNECE Europe (right)
Temperature deviation, compared to 1961–1990 average (˚C) Temperature deviation, compared to 1961–1990 average (˚C)
1.5 1.5
1.0 1.0
0.5 0.5
0.0 0.0
– 0.5 – 0.5
– 1.0 – 1.0
– 1.5 – 1.5
50
60
70
80
90
00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
00
50
60
70
80
90
00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
00
18
18
18
18
18
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
18
18
18
18
18
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
Source: CRU, 2006.
(3) Pre-industrial means the average of the 1850–1919 averages, based on IPCC standards.

Climate change
a wider possible range of 1.1–6.4 °C (IPCC, 2007). and southern Europe warming is projected to peak
Europe, excluding the EECCA countries, is likely in summer, with local increases of 6 °C (Räisänen
to warm 2.1–4.4 °C by 2080, or possibly 2.0–6.3 (4) et al., 2004; Giannakopoulos et al., 2005).
(Schröter et al., 2005), with the largest increases
projected for northern and eastern Europe.
Projections for the Russian Federation indicate an 3.2.2 Precipitation
average increase of 1–3 °C by 2020 and 3–6 °C by
2080, with the largest increases, 5–9 °C by 2080, in The amount of annual precipitation in Europe
eastern Siberia and the Far East (Alcamo et al., 2003; varies widely, depending on geographical location
Ruosteenoja et al., 2003). In other EECCA countries (IPCC, 2001; Klein Tank et al., 2002). In the 20th
the annual temperature may increase by 1–6.9 °C century, it has increased in northern Europe (by
by 2050, and 4–6.6 °C by 2080/2100 (Table 3.1). 10–40 %), in the Arctic region (by 8 % (ACIA,
2004)), and in the Russian Federation, while
Models project greater warming in winter than in southern Europe became up to 20 % dryer. Most
summer in northern Europe, up to 8–10 °C by 2080 EECCA countries show no clear trend (Peterson
in Arctic regions (ACIA, 2004), whereas in central et al., 2002).
Table 3.1 Climate projections in EECCA and SEE countries (based on national communications (NC))
EECCA and SEE Observed Temperature increase Observed Precipitation change Source
countries temperature (in °C) precipitation (in %)
(mm yr-1)
2050 2080/2100 2050 2080/2100
Albania 7.0–6.0 1.2–1.8 2.1–3.6 1 485 – 6.1 to – 12.5 to NC1, 2002

– 3.8 – 6.0
Armenia* 1.7 569 – 5.4 – 10.3 NC1, 1998
Azerbaijan* 0–14 4.3–5.1 200–1 400 – 15 to 7 NC1, 2000
Belarus* 4.5–7.0 1 1.9 600–700 3 4 NC1, 2000
Bulgaria 1.6–3.1 2.9–4.1 630 Winter >, NC4, 2006
summer <
Croatia – 3 to 22 1.0–2.1 2.4–3.2 600–3 500 2.4–6.5 6–10 NC1, 2001
Georgia* 0–14 1.0–1.5 400–1 600 NC1, 1999
Kazakhstan* – 18 to 26 4.5–6.9 150–1 500 1–3 NC1, 1998
Kyrgyzstan* – 17.1 to 25.4 1.4–2.2 1.8–4.4 100–500 3–37 NC1, 2003
FYR of 11–14 1.3–1.7 1.7–3.2 500–1 000 – 1.8 to – 2,4 to NC1, 2003
Macedonia* – 2.4 – 4.4
Republic of 8–10 2.3–2.4 3.3–4.6 450–620 – 2.7 to 0.1–11.0 NC1, 2000
Moldova* 11.8
Romania 2.6–11.7 2.7–3.4 400–600 NC4, 2006
Russian – 40 to 25 3–6 NC3, 2002
Federation*
Tajikistan* – 6 to 17 1.8–2.9 70–1 800 3–26 NC1, 2002
Turkey 1.8–2.0 3.2–4.4 35 50
Turkmenistan* 16 4.6–6.1 76–398 – 56 to 0
Ukraine* – 4 to 20 500–700 NC1, 1998
Uzbekistan* – 8 to 30 1.5–3.0 80–200 NC1, 1999
Note: * = EECCA countries.
(4) The range is smaller because the used models and scenarios are a sub-set of the ones used to define the IPCC range.

Climate change
Map 3.1 Changes in annual precipitation for the IPCC A2 scenario (2071–2100 compared with 1961–1990) for
four different climate models
HadCM3 NCAR-PCM CSIRO2 CGCM2
Annual precipitation change for IPCC A2 emission scenario, 2071–2100 compared to 1961–1990
Calculated with four climate models (HadCM3, NCAR-PCM, CSIRO2, CGCM2)
% anomaly
Outside report coverage
–25 –20 –15 –10 –5 0 5 10 15 20 25 >25
Note: The spatial pattern projected by each climate model remains the same for different emission scenarios, only the size of the changes
varies.
Source: Schröter et al., 2005.
Over the last decades, western and central Europe in summer precipitation (June–August) in most of
and the Arctic experienced additional rainfall in Europe.
winter, whereas southern and south-eastern Europe
became dryer (Giorgi, 2004b). In contrast, during the
summer, most parts of central and northern Europe 3.2.3 Temperature and precipitation
experienced less precipitation over the last decades extremes
(Klein Tank et al., 2002).
Climate change is experienced most intensively
Precipitation projections for Europe vary between through the impacts of extremes, rather than
climate models and scenarios (Table 3.1, Map 3.1). gradual changes. Impacts include river floods,
In general, annual mean precipitation is projected droughts, forest fires, and human health problems
to increase continuously in northern Europe, for due to heat waves. Even areas that benefit from
example by 20 % in Arctic regions (ACIA, 2004), changes in average climate are still likely to suffer
and decrease further south (Schröter et al., 2005). from more intense and more frequent climate
Decreasing precipitation is projected for most extremes. For example, agriculture in northern
EECCA countries, by about 3 % by 2080 (Table 3.1). Europe is projected to benefit from increasing
For most but not all of the Russian Federation, temperatures and atmospheric CO2 levels, but the
precipitation is projected to increase, with the gain could be nullified by more frequent heavy
largest projected increases in the range of 20–30 % rainfall events (IPCC, 2007).
in north-eastern Russia, but decreases in south-
western Russia/northern Caucasus. In recent decades Europe has experienced hotter
summers than ever before and extremes of high
In winter, Europe may experience more precipitation temperatures — the 2003 heat wave in Europe and
except in the Mediterranean region; for example the 2005 heat wave in the Russian Federation were
15–30 % in central and northern Europe (Giorgi the most extreme summers since observations
et al., 2004). In general, models project a decrease started — and more frequent and intense droughts,

Climate change
whereas the number of cold extremes has fallen 'summer days' with temperatures above 25 °C, and
significantly (Giorgi, 2004b; Klein Tank, 2004). The the number of 'hot days', those with temperatures
trend in temperature extremes is consistent across above 30 °C, may increase in other regions
Europe, including the EECCA countries. (Map 3.2) (Beniston, 2004; Giannakopoulos et al.,
2005). Since the yearly minimum temperature is
There has also been an increase in the number of projected to increase even faster, cold winters, which
wet days and heavy rainfall events in central and occurred once every ten years from 1961–1990, are
northern Europe and in western Russia, and a projected to disappear almost entirely from Europe
decrease in southern Europe (Klein Tank et al., 2002) by the end of the century.
and Siberia (Ruosteenoja et al., 2003).
The probability of extreme precipitation events is
Projections for temperature and precipitation projected to increase in western and northern Europe
extremes are highly uncertain. Nonetheless, warm (Palmer and Raisanen, 2002), while many parts
periods, including heat waves, are expected to be of Mediterranean Europe may experience further
more intense, more frequent and longer-lasting. reduced rainfall and longer periods of drought (Klein
These changes are projected to occur especially in Tank, 2004; Good, 2004; Holt and Palutikof, 2004).
the Mediterranean and eastern Europe. Indeed,
by 2050–2060 the Mediterranean region may Higher temperatures and less precipitation can
experience one additional month per year of increase the risk of salinisation, land degradation and
Map 3.2 Occurrence of heat wave events with a duration of 7 days (left: 1961–1990 average; right: 2071–2100
average)
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° -30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60°
60° 60°
60° 60°
50° 50°
50° 50°
40° 40°
40° 40°
0 500 1000 1500 Km 0 500 1000 1500 Km

0° 10° 20° 30° 0° 10° 20° 30°
Heat wave frequency for the periods 1961–1990 (left) and 2071–2100 (right)
Based on the IPCC-SRES A2 emission scenario and the DMI climate model
<1 1 2–3 4–5 6–7 8–9 ≥ 10 Outside report coverage
Note: The A2 baseline scenario in combination with the Danish regional climate model.
Source: Indicator elaboration: R. Hiederer, European Commission DG Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, 2007.
Data: PRUDENCE Project 12km HIRHAM4, Danish Climate Centre, 2006.

Climate change
desertification (5). These impacts, which can cause These projections do not incorporate the melting of
serious social and economic problems, are already the Antarctic (WAIS) and Greenland ice sheets, which
major concerns for many SEE and EECCA countries, may add 0.1–0.2 m during this century. Larger values
for example Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, cannot be excluded, but estimates cannot be given
where agriculture — particularly vulnerable due to a limited understanding of some factors (IPCC,
to all three — is an important sector (see also 2007). In the long term, further rises of several metres
Section 3.2.7). For example, there is already a severe are possible, since these ice sheets contain enough
drying out of large areas of Kazakhstan, mainly water for a sea-level rise of up to 13 m — about 7 m
the Aral Sea. Although only partly for climatic from Greenland alone. Recent research indicates that
reasons, climate change is expected to accelerate this a process of irreversible melting of the Greenland ice
trend. The main problems in mitigating this trend sheet may start at a local temperature increase of 3 °C
are insufficient financing, absence of monitoring, which corresponds to a global mean temperature rise
non‑sustainable use of natural resources, sometimes of about 1.5 °C (Gregory et al., 2004; Lowe et al., 2006).
a lack of coordination between the bodies involved This, however, has a very high uncertainty.
and insufficient support from international
organisations. Even the projected gradual sea-level rise of
0.18–0.59 m by 2100, combined with possible
increases in the frequency and/or intensity of
3.2.4 Sea-level rise extreme weather events, can have a variety
of impacts for Europe's coastal areas. Coastal
Sea-level rise is highly relevant to coastal countries. ecosystems appear to be threatened, especially
One third of the EU population lives within 50 km those in the Baltic, Mediterranean and Black
of the coast. Impacts of sea-level rise include Seas (Johansson et al., 2004; Meier et al., 2004).
inundation and displacement of wetlands, coastal These habitats could be severely reduced or even
erosion, increased salinity, and impeded drainage. disappear during the 21st century because of the
low tidal range in these areas; the limited scope for
Global mean sea-level rise is distinct from local or onshore migration, due to the intense human use of
relative sea-level rise, which depends on regional the coastal zone; and coastal subsidence (Gregory
variations in ocean temperature and salinity — et al., 2001; Nicholls and Klein, 2003).
variations can be up to 100 % — and vertical
movements of the land surface — for example,
caused by tectonics or land subsidence due to water 3.2.5 Glaciers and Artic sea ice
extraction. For the 20th century the average global
mean sea-level rise was 1.7 mm/yr (IPCC, 2007). Changes in mountain glaciers provide some of the
This increased to 1.8 ± 0.5 mm/yr for the period clearest signals of climate change (IPCC, 2001).
1961–2003 and to 3.1 ± 0.7 mm/yr for 1993–2003 Effects of the melting and even disappearance of
(IPCC, 2007). These increases were mainly the result glaciers are an increase in the number of natural
of thermal expansion of the sea water due to higher hazards such as falling ice and land slides; a
temperatures, and additional freshwater from the reduced supply of drinking water; weakened
melting of glaciers and the Antarctic and Greenland irrigation facilities; and reduced generation of
ice sheets (IPCC, 2007). Local increases along the hydropower. Until recently, data for 19 glaciers in
European coasts between 1896 and 1996 were the EECCA countries were reported to the World
between 80 mm and 300 mm (Liebsch et al., 2002). Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS). However, for
various reasons only six of them, all of which are
By 2100 global sea level is projected to rise by retreating though to different degrees, are currently
0.18–0.59 m (IPCC, 2007). Relatively large sea‑level being observed and data reported (Table 3.2 and
rises are projected for the Arctic region (ACIA, 2004). Figure 3.3). Restarting the observations of the other
(5) Much of the information presented is derived from the review of the reports on implementation of the United Nations Convention to
Combat Desertification (UNCCD), as input to their Fifth Conference of the Parties, held 12–21 March 2007 in Buenos Aires.

Climate change
Table 3.2 Observed and reported glaciers in EECCA countries
Glacier name 1st survey year Last survey year Country Location
Abramov 1968 1998 Kyrgyzstan Pamir Alai
Djankuat 1968 2004 Russian Federation Caucasus
Garabashi 1984 2003 Russian Federation Caucasus
Golubin 1969 1994 Kyrgyzstan Tien Shan
Igli Tuyuksu 1976 1990 Kazakhstan Tien Shan
Kara-Batkak 1957 1998 Kyrgyzstan Tien Shan
Kozelskiy 1973 1997 Russian Federation Kamchatka
Leviy Aktru 1977 2004 Russian Federation Altay
Maliy Aktru 1962 2004 Russian Federation Altay
Manshuk Mametov 1976 1990 Kazakhstan Tien Shan
Mayakovskiy 1976 1990 Kazakhstan Tien Shan
Molodezhniy 1976 1990 Kazakhstan Tien Shan
No. 125 (Vodopadniy) 1977 2004 Russian Federation Altay
Ordzhonikidze 1976 1990 Kazakhstan Tien Shan
Partizan 1976 1990 Kazakhstan Tien Shan
Shumskiy 1967 1991 Kazakhstan Dzhungarskiy
Ts. Tuyuksuyskiy 1957 2004 Kazakhstan Tien Shan
Visyachiy-1-2 1976 1990 Kazakhstan Tien Shan
Zoya Kosmodemya 1976 1990 Kazakhstan Tien Shan
Note: Lines in blue: continued; not coloured: interrupted due to different reasons.
Source: Zemp, M., 2006.
Figure 3.3 Changes in cumulative net balance of glaciers for EECCA countries
Cumulative specific net balance (mm w.e.)
5 000
Progress
since
Kiev
– 5 000
– 10 000
– 15 000
– 20 000
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Ts. Tuyuksuyskiy Igli Tuyuksu Manshuk Mametov Mayakovskiy Molodezhniy

Ordzhonikidze Partizan Shumskiy Visyachiy-1-2 Zoya Kosmodemya
Abramov Golubin Kara-Batkak Djankuat Garabashi
Kozelskiy Leviy Aktru Maliy Aktru No. 125 (Vodopadniy)
Note: mm w.e.: mm water equivalent.
Source: Zemp, M., 2006.

Climate change
glaciers would give important information on the Federation — the inflow to the Aral Sea (Clarke
impacts of climate change. and King, 2004). Increased discharge is observed
in the rivers flowing from the Russian Federation
Summer Arctic sea ice is projected to almost into the Arctic Ocean (see Section 2.3). Seasonally,
disappear by the end of this century, but its winter across Europe river discharges have decreased in
extent will shrink less. Reduced ice coverage will summer and increased in winter. These changes
increase the absorption of heat from the sun and in seasonal discharge have probably increased the
therefore contribute to further global warming risks of droughts in some periods and floods at
(ACIA, 2004). Further, the shrinking of the sea ice other times, although floods are not just the result
will endanger the habitats of the highly diverse of climate change, they are also partly caused by
ice-associated flora and fauna and threaten the mismanagement and inappropriate land use.
traditional lifestyles of indigenous peoples (see also
Section 5.3.7). The projected changes in climate during the
21st century may further intensify the hydrological
cycle. Annual river discharge and the resulting
3.2.6 Water resources water availability is projected to increase in
northern and north-western Europe and decrease
Climate change is often an additional pressure in parts of Mediterranean Europe especially
on water resources. Annual discharges of many (Map 3.3, Lehner et al., 2005). In many parts of
rivers have decreased significantly in recent EECCA, water scarcity is likely to increase due to
decades including, in southern Europe — from the a combination of increasing demand, temperature
river Adige in Italy and from parts of the Russian increase and precipitation decrease (national
Map 3.3 Projected changes in annual river discharge in Europe for 2070, using different climate models
2070s 2070s
(ECHAM4) (HadCM3)
Change in river discharge in the 2070s compared with 2000

Based on IPCC baseline A emission scenario and ECHAM4 (left) and HadCM3 (right) climate models
Decreases Small changes Increases

Outside report coverage
– 50 % – 25 % – 10 % + 10 % + 25 % + 50 %
Source: Lehner et al., 2005.

Climate change
communications). Important agricultural areas of example, a 30–50 % expansion of the sugar maize area
the Russian Federation may experience a larger in Europe has been projected by 2100 for the range of
variability in water availability, with higher risk of IPCC scenarios.
water scarcity during the growing season (Peterson
et al., 2002). Models project increased crop yields in middle and,
especially, northern Europe, and large reductions
in the Mediterranean and south-eastern Europe
3.2.7 Agriculture (Schröter et al., 2005). The main causes of increased
yields are increasing CO2 levels, and northwards
Agricultural production, important for the and upwards movement of agricultural potential.
economies of many SEE and EECCA countries, is The decrease in southern and south-eastern Europe
sensitive to climate change. However the impacts of is related particularly to the extent and severity of
climate change should be seen against continuously drought periods.
increasing production over recent decades, due
mainly to technological development. A critical issue is climate variability, since this is
a major determinant of inter-annual variations in
Agriculture in some parts of Europe might benefit agricultural productivity. This can be illustrated
directly from increasing CO2 levels in the atmosphere by the remarkable heatwave of 2003 which led to
(IPCC, 2007). Changes in precipitation will also yield losses of up to 30 % in some European regions
affect crop production, because the balance between (European Commssion, 2003). Similarly, various
precipitation and evaporation is the main factor extreme weather events caused the loss of about one
that governs production. Temperature increases can third of agricultural production in Tajikistan during
reduce yields under already dry conditions, and 1991–2000 (NC1, 2002). If such events become more
this could become worse if precipitation declines. frequent and/or more intense, many areas that
Despite stimulating growth, warming and increased stand to benefit from changes in average climate
CO2 levels can have negative effects on the feed may be adversely affected. This has been projected,
quality of pasture areas, due to their effect on species for example, for the Netherlands (MNP, 2006) and
composition, shifting it towards less preferable plant the Russian Federation (Golubev and Dronin, 2004;
species (IPCC, 2007). Temperature increases may Alcamo et al., 2006, case study on agriculture).
also lead to a northwards and upwards, in terms of
altitude, expansion of crop types currently grown Another issue related to climate variability is the risk
in southern Europe, including sunflower, soybeans, of land degradation, desertification and salinisation.
and sugar maize (European Commssion, 2003). For Agricultural production in semi-arid areas, such as
Box 3.1 Climate change and its impact on agriculture in Russia *
Russia is the largest country in the world and cropland still lies in zones of risky agriculture
has many different ecological zones. In many (Golubev and Dronin, 2004). This is because the
parts of Russia agriculture is problematic because areas with better soils and climate often also
temperatures are too high in the south and too have high year-to-year climate variability, posing
low in the north and because of short growing challenges for agriculture. Only 15 out of 89
seasons, limited water availability, poor soils, lack of administrative regions are 'main crop producing
infrastructure and/or remoteness from agricultural regions', that is regions that are responsible for
markets. Even when agriculture is possible, only about 50 % of Russian agricultural production and
rarely are optimum combinations of temperature thus provide the rest of Russia with much of its basic
and soil moisture available. For centuries agriculture food requirements. It should also be stated that
was concentrated near populated areas in European recent warming has led to improved agroclimatic
Russia where crop potential was limited by short conditions in large parts of the main agricultural zone
growing seasons. Although this changed somewhat of Russia except the Black Sea area and the southern
about 100 years ago, 80 % of current Russian regions of eastern Siberia (NC4).

Climate change
Box 3.1 Climate change and its impact on agriculture in Russia (cont.)
Agriculture in the Russian Federation is also vulnerable availability and socio-economic barriers including the
to climate variability due to crop selection (wheat — lack of infrastructure.
the most important food crop — is very vulnerable to
cool weather), and an economically weak agricultural
sector with a low adaptive capacity (Golubev and Furthermore, there is considerable geographic
Dronin, 2004). This vulnerability is shown by many variation. By 2010–2015 more favourable climatic
catastrophic events over the past 100 years, in which conditions may result in 10–15 % higher yields in
severe droughts frequently reduced crop production in various parts of the country (NC4). Likewise, a 25 %
major agricultural areas causing food shortages over yield increase has been projected for some northern
the entire country. Over recent decades, the Russian and north-western regions by around 2050, whereas
Federation has substantially raised its agricultural the yield increase in the Ural region might be 15 %.
productivity through technological improvements, At the same time the agricultural production in 'the
with, for example, the cereal yield now being current main crop producing regions' is projected to
comparable with that in other countries at the same drop by 23–41 % relative to the current average by
latitudes including Canada. However, large fluctuations the 2070s, because these are the regions that will
in agriculture yield are observed, due mainly to face decreasing precipitation. The net effect of these
irregular precipitation patterns, causing droughts in opposing trends could be a change in the agricultural
one year, floods in others. production of the Russian Federation from – 9 %
to + 12 % by the 2020s and – 12 % to – 5 % by
2070, depending on the climate model and the global
An important question is how Russian agriculture will emission scenario used. Further, taking projected
develop, taking into account projected climate change. changes in extreme events into consideration, a large
Many of the past problems of reduced food production part of the Russian Federation may experience more
have been caused by periods of droughts. The bad harvests. The frequency of these could double
projected increased temperatures and precipitation in by the 2020s and even triple by the 2070s, mainly as
many parts of the Russian Federation, together with a result of more droughts in the 'main crop-growing
increasing CO2 levels, may lead to an expansion of areas' (Alcamo et al., 2007, Figure CS-1). This may
the potential crop growing area as well as increased threaten the Russian Federation's food security, unless
yields in many areas that are currently marginal adaptation measures, including changing crop types;
(Alcamo et al., 2003; NC4). This may, however, not enhancing fertiliser and irrigation use; importing more
always lead to increased food production because of food; and changing food consumption patterns, are
other environmental constraints, for example, nutrient taken.
Map 3.4 Frequency of bad harvest years for the IPCC A2 scenario in combination with the HADCM3 climate model
-15° -150° -150° -15° -150° -150°
45° 45°
45°
45°
45°
45°
0 1000 Km 0 1000 Km
60° 75° 90° 105° 120° 135° 60° 75° 90° 105° 120° 135°
Years with bad harvests for Russia for 1961–1990 (left) and in 2070 (right)
Based on the IPCC A2 emission scenario and the HadCM3 climate model
Number of years
0 1 2 3–4 5–6
Main crop growing area No substantial crop production Outside report coverage
Note: * = Based on Alcamo et al., 2003; Golubev and Dronin, 2004; Alcamo et al., 2007; and NC4, 2006.
Source: Alcamo et al., 2007.

Climate change
Box 3.2 Changes in permafrost
Air temperature, snow cover, and vegetation, all

of which are affected by climate change, affect the
temperature of the frozen ground and the depth
of seasonal thawing. Permafrost temperatures in
the northern hemisphere have increased in recent
decades, by about 1 °C at depths between 1.6 m
to 3.2 m between the 1960s and the 1990s in east
Siberia, about 0.3 to 0.7 °C at 10 m in northern west
Siberia (Pavlov, 1996), and about 1.2 to 2.8 °C at
6 m between 1973 and 1992 in northern European
Russia (Oberman and Mazhitova, 2001).
Over the next 100 years, these changes are Photo: © Schirrmeister, AWI, 2006
projected to continue and their rate to increase, with
degradation projected to occur over 10–20 % of Based on a moderate global emission scenario
the present permafrost area. The southern limit of running to 2050, risks to several Russian population
permafrost is projected to shift northward by several centres (Yakutsk, Norilsk, Vorkuta), important
hundred kilometres (ACIA, 2004). river terminals (Salekhard, Igarka, Dudinka, Tiksi),
industrial facilities (Nadym-Pur-Taz natural gas
When permafrost thaws, the ground surface production complex), and transport infrastructures
subsides (thaw settlement). Typically, this is not (Trans-Siberian and Baikal-Amur railway) have been
uniform but results in a chaotic surface with small identified in Siberia. The Bilibino nuclear power
hills and wet depressions known as thermokarst station and its grid are in an area of high hazard
terrain. On slopes, the thawing can lead to active potential in the Russian Far East (ACIA, 2004).
layer‑detachment slides (Lewkowicz, 1992).
Extensive thermokarst development has been The effects on infrastructure up to 2100 are
discovered, for example in central Yakutia (Gavrilov projected to be more serious and immediate in the
and Efremov, 2003) where a significant expansion discontinuous permafrost zone — large parts of
and deepening of thermokarst lakes was also north-western and central Siberia as well as of the
observed (Fedorov and Konstantinov, 2003). Russian Far East than in the continuous zone — areas
located mostly more north. Complete thawing is
The most sensitive regions of permafrost degradation expected to take centuries, and benefits, such as
are coasts with ice-bearing permafrost around the construction on totally thawed ground, would occur
Arctic Ocean. The destabilisation of coastlines is only after that time.
further amplified by decreasing sea ice on the Arctic
Ocean. Even the ice-poor permafrost coast along Possible adaptation measures include the re‑design
the Russian Arctic coast is retreating by 1.0 m/yr and re-engineering of infrastructures. This will
(Rachold et al., 2003). Another point of concern increase investment costs in the short term, but can
is potential thawing of 'sub-sea permafrost' which avoid the substantial consequences of infrastructure
depends mainly on sea-water temperature that is failures experienced in Yakutsk and elsewhere in the
projected to increase (Walsh et al., 2005). Arctic (ACIA, 2004).
Impacts on infrastructure Impacts on natural systems

Already occurring and projected increases in There are important interactions between changes
permafrost temperatures are likely to cause severe in permafrost and vegetation. For example thawing
damage to infrastructure such as roads, buildings can lead to severe leaning or total toppling of trees
and industrial facilities. Failures in transportation and (ACIA, 2004).
industrial infrastructures are becoming more common
as a result of permafrost thawing in northern Russia.
Many railway lines have been deformed, buildings, The thickening of the active layer — the top layer of
power stations and airport runways in several cities permafrost that thaws each year during the summer
have been severely damaged (ACIA, 2004), and oil season and freezes again in winter — and the
and gas pipelines have broken, causing accidents and melting of permafrost may have already contributed,
spills that have contaminated soil over large areas. in part, to increased run-off in Arctic rivers (Zhang
The concerns of the impacts of thawing permafrost et al., 2005). Thickening of the active layer results
on infrastructures in the Russian Federation were directly in the thawing of decomposed plant materials
confirmed at the World Climate Change Conference in and other organic matter frozen in the upper
Moscow 2003 (e.g. Shoigu, 2003). permafrost. Thus carbon can be decomposed by

Climate change
Box 3.2 Changes in permafrost (cont.)
microbial activities, which can release carbon dioxide Sub-sea permafrost contains or overlies large
and methane to the atmosphere (Randerson et al., volumes of methane in the form of gas hydrates at
1999). depths of up to several hundred meters. As sub-sea
permafrost warms and thaws, destabilisation of the
gas hydrates could increase the emission of methane
Another important potential source of greenhouse
to the atmosphere (Walsh et al., 2005).
gas emission is the thawing permafrost itself. The
vast carbon reservoir contained in permafrost soil
in northwest Siberia contains about 500 billion Reducing permafrost stability and intensification of
metric tonnes of carbon. If all Siberian permafrost coastal erosion due to global warming would increase
thawed, it could nearly double the 730 billion sediment and carbon input to the Arctic Ocean.
metric tonnes of carbon now in the atmosphere This could cause considerable changes in the Arctic
(Zimov et al., 2006). coastal currents and circulation.
many parts of several EECCA countries, is highly northern countries may consist of invasive species
vulnerable to climate variability as well as change. (Bakkeness et al., 2006).
The possibility of extending irrigation is one of the
essential determinants of this risk (IWMI, 2006), Another major issue for both plants and animals
because the extension of rain-fed agriculture is often is the frequency and extent of forest fires and how
limited. these will change as a result of climate change.
Projections show a considerable increase in the extent
and frequency of fires, for example in the Iberian
3.2.8 Nature and biodiversity peninsula (IPCC, 2007) and the Russian Federation
(Vorobyov, 2004). This may lead to changes in
Climate change is one of the factors that threaten ecosystem composition, favouring fast‑growing
biodiversity. Its influence has increased over recent species.
decades and it is expected to be the main driver of
biodiversity loss in the future (Thomas et al., 2004). These issues are further discussed in Chapters 4
The most vulnerable European regions appear to be and 5.
mountain areas, the Arctic and the Mediterranean
(Brooker and Young, 2005; Schröter et al., 2005).
3.3 Interaction between climate
Various impacts of changes in climate on nature have change and ozone-layer
been observed. Growing seasons have extended, depletion
leading to dis-synchronisation of food patterns; the
composition of ecosystems has changed; and the
productivity of many ecosystems has increased, on Climate change affects the depletion of the ozone
land as well as in the marine environment. layer and vice versa, both with respect to the
emissions of compounds and to the physical and
Even more impacts of future climate change on chemical changes in the atmosphere, although the
nature have been projected, but these will not be the overall effects of this interaction on the recovery
same in all regions, for example the growing season of the ozone layer are unclear. So even if climate
is expected to lengthen in many parts of Europe change and depletion of the ozone layer are two
but not in the south (EEA, 2005). Projections show separate issues, it has for this reason been included
northwards and upwards shifts of many species, in this chapter on climate change.
affecting current endemic species. For example, 25 %
of today's plant species in Romania, Bulgaria, the The ozone layer, located in the stratosphere at an
Iberian peninsula and some other Mediterranean altitude between 12 and 50 km, protects life on
countries may disappear by 2100, and by then earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation from the
more than 35 % of the plant species composition in sun. Chlorine and bromine containing compounds

Climate change
have caused a thinning of the ozone layer in the to decrease, due to their long lifetime they will
past decades. These compounds are emitted into remain in the atmosphere for decades or centuries
the atmosphere mainly from human activities, to come. However, reductions are not taking
including industry and the use of products in place for HCFCs and HFCs which have a smaller
households. The most important ozone-depleting effect on the ozone layer and are, in part, used as
compounds are the so-called chlorofluorocarbons replacements for CFCs.
(CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs),
halons, carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform, Depletion of the ozone layer and climate change
methyl bromide and methyl chloride. Their are two separate issues, but with interactions:
application was, and partly still is, as an agent
for refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing, • many substances that deplete the ozone layer
aerosol dispersion, fire extinguishing, soil are potent GHGs with warming potentials up
fumigation, and as solvents. to 10 000 times larger than CO2. They stay in
the atmosphere for decades and even centuries
Since about 1980 the ozone layer has become due to their long atmospheric lifetimes and will
thinner at mid-latitudes, but measurements and continue to contribute to climate change;
model calculations indicate that at the moment the • the temperature in the stratosphere has
ozone layer is not depleting further: it is near its decreased, in part due to the reduction of
minimum in northern hemispheric mid latitude stratospheric ozone, but also because of the
(30–60 °N) where it averages about 3 % below increases of CO2. These lower temperatures
pre‑1980 values. Furthermore an ozone hole forms may cause changes in wind patterns in the
over the Antarctic every spring due to emissions of stratosphere but also in the troposphere and
ozone-depleting substances from human activities near the earth's surface. There are indications
and very low local temperatures. Depletions of the that the increase in the CO2 concentration and
ozone layer also occur frequently over the Arctic in depletion of the ozone layer can cause stronger
spring, but to a lesser extent than over the Antarctic westerly winds over Europe with possible
and only partly due to ozone depleting substances. effects on temperatures and precipitation;
Variations in meteorological conditions play a • the increase in CO2 concentrations also affect
more important role over the Arctic than over the the ozone layer through the decreases in
Antarctic. temperatures in the stratosphere. The lower
temperatures are likely to increase the thickness
The thickness of the ozone layer exhibits a natural of the ozone layer at mid‑latitudes, but will
year-to-year variability. Detection of the start of probably result in decreases of the thickness of
the recovery is therefore difficult and not expected the ozone layer over the polar regions;
before the next decade, while a complete recovery • increases in the emissions of other greenhouse
of the ozone layer is not expected to occur before gases such as CH4 and N2O also affect the
the middle of this century. The recovery will lead to chemistry of the ozone layer and may cause
a different atmosphere than that before 1980 due to decreases and increases in thickness of the
an increase in the concentrations of GHGs; indeed, ozone layer;
a super-recovery may occur with a thicker ozone • ozone is a GHG and depletion of stratospheric
layer than before 1980. ozone has caused an indirect cooling effect;
• ozone-depleting substances are replaced
International actions to protect the ozone in their traditional applications in part
layer were agreed in the Vienna Convention of by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and
1985 and the Montreal Protocol of 1987, with perfluorocarbons (PFCs). These substances are
subsequent amendments and adjustments. This GHGs with long atmospheric lifetimes — more
has resulted in a strong reduction in the global than 10 000 years for some PFCs — and they
production, use and emissions of the major ozone will, therefore, contribute to climate change for
depleting substances. Although the atmospheric many years to come (see also the section above
concentrations of these substances has also started on GHG emissions from industry).

Climate change
Both the size of the overall effect of GHGs, and polluting and energy-intensive industries. The
their significance for the recovery of the ozone economies in these countries have now recovered
layer, and the chemical and dynamic changes in the and increased emissions have been seen during
stratosphere are unclear and need further research the past few years. Total emissions in EFTA, except
to be resolved. Switzerland, increased during the 1990s as a result
of economic growth.
3.4 Greenhouse gas emissions (6) CO2, the most important GHG, contributes about
80 % of total GHG emissions. Supply and use of
3.4.1 Emission trends energy — including transport — is by far the most
important source across Europe, making up 80 % of
Total emissions emissions in EU‑25. Transport counts for about 20 %
After a decrease during the early 1990s, total of the emissions. Emissions from transport are more
emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) in each
European region increased again during the first
years of the 21st century (Figure 3.4). In 2004, total Figure 3.4 Trends in total greenhouse gas emissions
emissions from WCE were 5 091 million tonnes
CO2-equivalent (7), excluding land use, land-use %
change and forestry (LULUCF). This was 23 % of 115

Progress since
the total (17 981 million tonnes) for all Annex I 110 Kiev
countries — industrialised countries and countries
105
that are undergoing the process of transition to
market economies. Emissions from EECCA were 100
2 996 million tonnes, of which 2 074 million (69 %) 95

were from the Russian Federation and 413 million 90
(14 %) from Ukraine. Emissions from SEE were
85
599 million tonnes.
80
As a comparison the shares of total GHG emissions 75

from industrialised countries, excluding LULUCF,
70
in 2004 were about 40 % for USA, about 8 % for
65
Japan and about 4 % each for Australia and Canada
(UNFCCC). 60
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
Total emissions in the EU fell by about 5 % between EU-25 EFTA EECCA SEE
1990 and 2004. Decreases from the energy, industrial,
agriculture and waste sectors were partly offset Note: Total greenhouse gas emissions are based on sectoral
by increases from transport. The decrease in total reported data by gas, mostly to the UNFCCC. For some
countries the reporting of some gases, mainly the
EU emissions during the 1990s was due mainly to fluorinated gases (and if a few number of cases of N2O),
substantial reductions in the new Member States was incomplete. Because of the relatively low weight
of the F-gases in total greenhouse gas emissions, the
(EU‑10). This, together with reductions during the trends presented in the chart above should reflect rather
accurately the development of total greenhouse gas
same period in SEE and EECCA, was due mainly emissions in the four regions.
to the introduction of market economies and the Index 1990 = 100. The volume of emissions in million
tonnes of CO2-equivalents in 1990 was:
consequent restructuring or closure of heavily EU‑25 = 5 231; EECCA = 4 630; SEE = 620; EFTA = 106.
(6) For the presentation in this section the following grouping of countries has been used: EU‑25 (EU Member States before 1 January
2007), EFTA, WCE (EU‑25 + EFTA), EECCA and SEE. The data presented for those groups of countries is an average and there may
be large variations between the individual countries within a group. Furthermore the quality of data used is of varying quality and
sometimes data and/or time series are lacking from some of the countries. As far as possible, this is mentioned in footnotes or in
the text.
(7) Different greenhouse gases have different climate change effects. To simplify presentations, all gases are expressed as the
corresponding effect of CO2 (CO2-equivalents).

Climate change
important in the WCE than in the SEE and EECCA The comparatively high per-capita emissions from
regions (Figure 3.5). the EECCA countries is explained by the dominance
of the Russian Federation.
Per-capita emissions
Emissions per capita differ widely between the Sectoral emissions
European countries, even within each region Emissions from energy supply and use, excluding
(Figure 3.6), which indicates that the overall transport, are the dominant source, contributing
economic situation may not be the only determinant. about 60 % to total GHG emissions in the EU
Figure 3.5 Share of total greenhouse gas emissions by sector in 2004
EU-25 EFTA
Waste Other non-energy Other non-energy

Waste
Agriculture 2.7 % sources Agriculture 2.3 % sources
9.2 % 0.3 % Energy
9.2 % 0.4 %
industries
Industrial Energy 14.3 %
processes industries Industrial
7.6 % 30.4 % processes Manufacturing
Fugitive 12.4 % and construction
emissions 9.2 %
1.7 %
Fugitive
emissions
3.3 % Transport
Households, Manufacturing 27.7 %
services and other and construction
energy sources Households,
13.2 %
15.5 % Transport services and other
19.4 % energy sources
21.2 %
EECCA SEE
Waste
Industrial Agriculture 8.4 % Other non-energy sources
Waste
processes 7.2 % Agriculture
0.1 %
Energy
2.8 % Other non-energy
7.0 % 8.8 % industries
Fugitive emissions sources
Industrial 28.7 %
2.6 % 0.0 %
processes
8.6 %
Households,
services and
other energy
sources
5.3 %
Transport Fugitive
2.4 % emissions Manufacturing
3.2 % and construction
18.4 %
Manufacturing and
construction Households,
Energy industries Transport
4.3 % services and other
68.4 % 13.0 %
energy sources
10.7 %
Note: The sectoral shares have been calculated using available sectoral data at the time of writing this chapter. For the EECCA countries the
sectoral shares presented in the chart above fail to capture the current situation. This is mainly due to incomplete sectoral reporting
by the Russian Federation. Emissions from transport and fugitive emissions were not reported separately in their NC4, and seemed to
have been included under energy industries. The Russian Federation submitted their greenhouse gas national inventory report and CRF
tables to the UNFCCC in January 2007. According to the CRF for 2004, fugitive emissions account for about 10 % of total greenhouse
gas emissions. Transport was not reported separately. Since the Russian Federation represents more than 2/3 of the total emissions in
the EECCA countries, the share of fugitive emissions in EECCA countries would be closer to 9–9.5 %.
The volume of emissions in million tonnes of CO2-equivalents in 2004 was: EU‑25 = 4 980; EECCA = 2 996; SEE = 599; EFTA = 111.

Climate change
Figure 3.6 Total greenhouse gas emissions per capita in 2004
Luxembourg
Ireland
Estonia
Finland
Czech Republic
Russian Federation
Belgium
Netherlands
Denmark
Greece
Germany
Kazakhstan
Norway
Austria
United Kingdom
Cyprus
Iceland
Spain
Poland
Italy
Slovenia
Slovakia
France
Ukraine
Bulgaria
Turkmenistan
Hungary
Malta
Portugal
Liechtenstein
Sweden
Belarus
Switzerland
Romania
Turkey
Croatia
FYR of Macedonia
Lithuania
Uzbekistan
Azerbaijan
Latvia
Republic of Moldova
Albania
Georgia
Monaco
Kyrgyzstan
Armenia
Tajikistan
EFTA
SEE
EECCA
EU-25
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Tonnes of CO2-equivalent per person
Note: Total greenhouse gas emissions are based on sectoral reported data by gas, mostly to the UNFCCC. For some countries where UNFCCC
data, or official data provided by the country directly to the EEA, was not available, the IEA was the source of CO2 emissions from the
energy sector. For some of these countries (Albania, Armenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro) CH4 and N2O were
estimated using the GAINS model. In some other countries (Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, Republic of Moldova, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan,
Uzbekistan) N2O was not estimated. In the latter three (Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan) estimates of N2O and CH4 were not
available. As a result, total greenhouse gas emissions per capita, as presented in the chart above underestimate total greenhouse
gases in these countries. The level of the underestimation is directly proportional to the size of the gas/gases not being included.
Therefore, the country ranking does not necessarily provide a fair comparison of these countries vis à vis the countries where all gases
were either officially reported or estimated.

Climate change
and SEE and about 80 % in EECCA. The share EFTA), 13 % in SEE and 2 % in EECCA (8), with the
of emissions from the energy sector in EFTA is sector showing the strongest increase during the
lower, about 50 %, because of the high share of 1990s, other than in EECCA. Emissions are projected
hydro‑power in their energy mixture. to increase in all regions if no further actions are
implemented.
During the 1990s emissions from this sector
decreased in all regions except EFTA, with the Within the transport sector, road transport is the
largest decrease of around 40 % occurring in largest source. International aviation and shipping
EECCA. However, in recent years, emissions in all are not covered by the Kyoto Protocol and are not
regions have increased. included in Figure 3.8 left. While emissions from
international marine transport were rather constant
For further information on the energy sector, see between 1990 and 2003, emissions from international
Section 7. 3. aviation increased by 50 % (UNFCCC, home page)
and are projected to increase dramatically in the
Emissions from transport account for about 20 % coming years (European Commission, 2005a).
of total GHG emissions in WCE (around 27 % in
For further information on the transport sector, see
Section 7. 2.
Figure 3.7 Trends in energy-related greenhouse gas
emissions, excluding transport, 1990–2004
Emissions from industrial processes, excluding
% emissions from energy use in industry, contribute
120 about 10 % to total GHG emissions in WCE (7.6 %
Progress since
Kiev
in the EU and 12.4 % in EFTA), 9 % in SEE and 7 %
in EECCA. The main sources are CO2 from cement
110
and lime production, and iron and steel production;
HFCs from consumption of halocarbons, mainly in
100 refrigeration, air conditioning, foam production and
as aerosol propellants; and N2O from the chemical
90 industry, adipic and nitric acid production.
Emissions from industrial processes in the EU

80
have increased in recent years and are projected to
increase further (Figure 3.8 right). The main reasons
70 for the growth in 2004, compared with 2003, were
increases in cement production in France, Germany
60 and Italy and increases in HFC consumption in
refrigeration and air conditioning equipment
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
in Germany and Italy (EEA Report No. 9/2006).

EU-25 EFTA EECCA SEE Emissions in EECCA and SEE have also grown in
recent years and are projected to continue doing
Note: Emissions from transport were not reported separately by
the Russian Federation, neither in their NC4, nor in their so. In Turkey, for example, emissions rose by 69 %
later 'greenhouse gas inventory' submission to the UNFCCC
of January 2007. Transport emissions seem to be included between 2000 and 2004 in spite of the introduction of
under 'energy industries'. Because of the significant improvements in energy efficiency in the steel and
impact (i.e. 2/3 of the total GHG emissions) of the Russian
Federation on the overall development for the EECCA cement industries (Turkey, NC1, 2007).
countries, the trends shown in the chart above should be
treated with some caution.
The volume of emissions in million tonnes of GHG emissions from agriculture are dominated
CO2‑equivalents in 1990 was: EU‑25 = 3 294;
EECCA = 3 650 (including transport from the Russian by nitrous oxide (N2O) from soils, mainly due to
Federation); SEE = 396; EFTA = 47.
the application of mineral nitrogen fertilisers; and
(8) This is based on available data but the share for EECCA countries seems to be far too low.

Climate change
methane (CH4) from enteric fermentation, mainly GHG emissions from waste management in WCE
from cattle. fell markedly the last 10 years (Figure 3.9 right).
The reduction is due mainly to legislation aimed at
In 2004 agriculture contributed about 9 % of total reducing the amount of waste sent to landfill and
emissions in both WCE and SEE and about 7 % in requiring capture of CH4, for example for energy use.
EECCA.
Emissions from waste management in EECCA and
Emissions from agriculture in EU‑25 fell by 13 % SEE increased during the same period but seems to
between 1990 and 2004 (Figure 3.9 left) and are have stabilised in recent years in SEE.
projected to decrease by a further 18–19 % by 2010.
Decreases in fertiliser use and a reduction in the
application of manure on land are likely to reduce 3.4.2 Emission targets and
N2O emissions, and decreases in the number of projections
cattle and increases in cattle productivity are likely
to contribute to a decline in CH4 emissions. Kyoto Protocol targets
The UN adopted a Convention on Climate
GHG emissions from waste management are Change in 1992. A separate protocol under this
dominated by CH4 from solid waste disposal in convention — the Kyoto Protocol — was adopted
landfills. Smaller sources are wastewater handling in 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005.
(CH4, N2O), and waste incineration (mainly CO2). This sets binding targets for industrialised (Annex
B) countries to reduce their emissions of GHG by
In 2004 waste management contributed about 3 % 2008–2012. The EU‑15 has a collective reduction
of total emissions in both WCE and EECCA, and target which replaces the individual commitments
about 8 % in SEE. of these Member States. To meet this joint target,
Figure 3.8 Trends in greenhouse gas emissions from transport (left) and industrial processes (right)
% %
140 120
Progress since Progress since
130 Kiev Kiev
110
120
100
110
90
100
90 80
80 70
70
60
60
50
50
40 40
30 30
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
EU-25 EFTA EECCA SEE EU-25 EFTA EECCA SEE
Note: Emissions from transport were not reported separately by the Russian Federation, neither in their NC4, nor in their later 'greenhouse
gas inventory' submission to the UNFCCC of January 2007. Transport emissions seem to be included under 'energy industries'. Because
of the significant impact (i.e. 2/3 of the total greenhouse gas emissions) of the Russian Federation on the overall development for the
EECCA countries, the trends shown in the chart above should be treated with great caution.
Index 1990 = 100. Emissions from transport in million tonnes of CO2-equivalents in 1990 were: EU‑25: 768; EECCA: 137 (excluding
the Russian Federation); SEE: 55; EFTA: 27. The chart excludes emissions from international transport (which are not covered by
the Kyoto Protocol, but for which data are reported by countries separately as a memo item). Emissions from industrial processes in
million tonnes of CO2-equivalents in 1990 were: EU‑25: 431; EECCA: 268; SEE: 56; EFTA: 18.

Climate change
Figure 3.9 Trends in greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture (left) and waste (right), 1990–2004
% %
110 170
Progress since Progress since
Kiev 160 Kiev
100
150
140
90
130
80 120
110
70
100
60 90
80
50
70
40 60
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
EU-25 EFTA EECCA SEE

EU-25 EFTA EECCA SEE
Note: Index 1990 = 100. Emissions in million tonnes CO2-equivalent in 1990 from agriculture were: EU‑25: 524; EECCA: 495; SEE: 79;
EFTA: 11 and from waste: EU‑25: 199; EECCA: 74; SEE: 32; EFTA: 3.
the Member States have agreed to meet individual lower than foreseen in 1997. Current information
burden-sharing targets laid down in the Council on emissions indicates that the reductions projected
Decision 2002/358/EC. The targets for the EU‑15 for the ratifying countries are offset by increased
and other European Annex B countries are shown emissions from the industrialised countries that
in Table 3.3. have not ratified the protocol.
By 1 January 2007, 168 countries and one regional Progress towards Kyoto targets
economic integration organisation (EU‑15) had Annex B parties to the Kyoto Protocol recently
ratified the Kyoto Protocol (UNFCCC). Among the reported their GHG emission projections in their
industrialised countries with high GHG emissions fourth national communications to UNFCCC.
that have chosen not to ratify the protocol are, most Projections are also available for some non-Annex B
strikingly, USA, which produces 40 % of the total countries. In 2004, the aggregate GHG emissions
emissions from industrialised countries in 2003, of the EU Member States with a joint commitment
and, to a lesser extent, Australia with 4 % of the (EU‑15) were 0.9 % below the base‑year level,
total emissions in 2004. with an increase of 0.3 % or 11.5 million tonnes
CO2-equivalent between 2003 and 2004. A
The commitments originally included in the further reduction of 7.1 % or 303 million tonnes
protocol, including for USA and Australia, would CO2‑equivalent is needed to meet the Kyoto target.
have reduced total GHG emissions of a basket of This is projected to be met by the implementation
six GHGs from industrialised countries to 5.2 % of further domestic policies and measures, and
below their levels in the base year — 1990 for most the use of the Kyoto mechanisms such as the
countries (9). Since not all developed countries have Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), Joint
ratified the protocol, the overall reduction target is Implementation (JI) and emissions trading (see
(9) For the following countries 1990 is not the base year for CO2: Hungary (average 1985–1987), Poland (1988), Slovenia (1986),
Bulgaria (1988) and Romania (1989). Except Finland (1990) and France (1990), countries have selected 1995 as the base year for
F-gases.

Climate change
Table 3.3 Reduction targets (commitments) for The SEE and EECCA countries with Kyoto Protocol
industrialised (Annex B) countries in the targets, Russian Federation, Ukraine, Bulgaria and
Kyoto Protocol for 2008–2012 Romania, all expect to meet them, as does Belarus
with the proposed amendment to – 8 %.
Country Target (%)
EU‑15 –8
Post-Kyoto targets
Belarus * –8
The Kyoto Protocol is only a first step towards
Bulgaria –8 the objective of the UNFCCC, which is to stabilise
Croatia ** –5 greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at
Czech Republic –8 a level that would prevent dangerous interference
Estonia –8 with the climate system within a time frame
Hungary –6 sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to
Iceland + 10 climate change, to ensure that food production is not
Latvia –8 threatened, and to enable economic development to
Liechtenstein –8
proceed in a sustainable manner (UNFCCC).
Lithuania –8
As a long-term target, the EU has proposed limiting
Monaco –8
global temperature increase to a maximum of
Norway +1
2 °C above pre-industrial levels. To meet this, it
Poland –6 has stated a need for a global emission reduction
Romania –8 of 15–50 % by 2050 compared to 1990 levels. For
Russian Federation 0 developed countries, the EU indicates that this may
Slovakia –8 mean a reduction to 15–30 % by 2020 and 60–80 %
Slovenia –8 by 2050. To achieve that, newly industrialised and/or
Switzerland –8 developing countries, in addition to the current
Ukraine 0 Annex B countries, will have to take actions to
reduce their GHG emissions (10).
* Belarus: Proposed amendment by CMP 2 in Nairobi.
Pending ratification by other parties.
** Croatia: Not ratified as of January 2007. Furthermore, the European Commission has
Note: The commitments refer to a base year — normally 1990. presented a comprehensive package of proposed
policies and measures to establish a new energy
policy for Europe to combat climate change and
Section 3.4.2). Member States forecast that they will boost the EU's energy security and competitiveness.
achieve reductions of over 100 Mt CO2-equivalent It was presented on 10 January 2007 and contains
per year through the use of the Kyoto mechanisms a series of ambitious targets for greenhouse gas
(EEA, 2006). emissions. The Commission was seeking, and
essentially achieved, endorsement of the energy
The eight new EU Member States that have a and climate change proposals during the Spring
Kyoto Protocol target project to meet are, with European Council on 9 March 2007 and will come
the exception of Slovenia, doing so, and in some forward with legislation in light of the Council
cases even over-achieving their targets by 2010, conclusions.
with existing domestic policies and measures.
Slovenia, in order to meet its target, will have to At the UNFCCC COP11/MOP1 meeting in
use additional policies and measures and include Montreal in December 2005 a procedure started
CO2 removals from land-use change and forestry. to further develop emission reduction approaches
with all countries under the Convention, and
The EFTA countries Norway and Switzerland project to establish a second commitment period for all
that they will fall short of their Kyoto targets. developed countries. This procedure continued at
(10) Council conclusions 10 March 2006 (7225/06).

Climate change
Figure 3.10 Relative gaps (over-delivery or shortfall) 3.5 Mitigation

between projections and targets for 2010
Domestic programmes with policies and measures
Estonia – 52
to reduce GHG emissions, mainly in order to
Ukraine – 48
meet the Kyoto targets, have been implemented
Lithuania – 43 in Annex B countries. In addition to domestic
Latvia – 41 measures, the flexible mechanisms under the
Bulgaria – 39 Kyoto Protocol, including the use of carbon sinks,
Romania – 32 can be used to meet the targets. In the EU many
Russian Federation – 23 of the domestic actions that have already been
Hungary – 23
implemented are based on EU coordinated policies
Czech Republic – 19
and measures.
Slovakia – 17
Iceland – 7.6
Poland – 6.1
Slovenia – 2.0
3.5.1 Domestic policies
Switzerland – 0.7
EU-15 0.0 Domestic policies and measures intended to
Liechtenstein 12 reduce national emissions are discussed in this
Norway 22
%
section. Measures to achieve reductions in other
countries (Kyoto mechanisms) are discussed in
60
50
40
30
20
10
10
20
30
0
the next section. There may be synergies between

–
Over-delivery (–) or shortfall (+) of

respective emission target in percentage actions to mitigate other environmental problems
points relative to base-year emissions
such as air pollution and those to mitigate climate
change, but this section focuses on specific GHG
Note: A negative figure means that the Kyoto target is projected
to be reached ('over-delivery') by the country. A positive emission‑reduction measures.
figure means that the Kyoto target is not projected to
be reached ('shortfall') by the country. Data based on
projections provided by countries before 6 June 2006 GHG emission-reduction measures need to be
(except for Russia and Ukraine). Projections include, where
data were available, the projected effects of domestic implemented in all sectors of the economy. They
policies and measures intended but not yet implemented, may be applied to just one sector or more generally
the use of Kyoto mechanisms and carbon sinks, except
for Norway, Liechtenstein, Poland, Iceland and Lithuania. to influence a number of sectors. An example of a
Norway and Liechtenstein project to reach their targets
with the use of Kyoto mechanisms. policy instrument focusing on one sector is direct
Sources: EEA report No 9/2006: Greenhouse gas emissions trends emissions regulations for certain types of products,
and projections in Europe 2006; Ukraine's report on such as the commitment made by European,
Demonstrable Progress Under the Kyoto Protocol, 2006;
Draft of NC4 of the Russian Federation for the Articles 4 Japanese and Korean car manufacturers for CO2
and 12 of the UNFCCC and article 7 of the Kyoto Protocol,
2006. emissions from new passenger cars sold in the EU.
An example of a more general measure is a CO2 tax
on fossil fuels, which in some EU Member States
has been replaced by the EU Emissions Trading
the COP12/MOP2 meeting in Nairobi and further Scheme (ETS), which affects a large number of
discussions will take place in future COP/MOP energy and industry installations.
meetings.
As the energy and the transport sectors are by
Longer-term projections, up to 2020, are available for far the largest contributors to GHG emissions,
some countries in their national communications. they require special attention when designing
With few exceptions, these projections show mitigation programmes. These have, to some
increasing emissions after 2010, indicating that extent, been successful in the energy sector but
mitigation programmes so far might have been less so in the transport sector. Experience with
focused on the Kyoto targets and that further programmes in EECCA and SEE shows that there
far‑reaching measures will have to be implemented is a large potential for improvements in energy
to meet the longer-term targets. efficiency (see Section 7.3, Energy).

Climate change
Examples of policies and measures to reduce other SEE and EECCA countries are projecting
emissions of GHGs, including F-gases (11), from increases — indicating a potential for mitigation
industrial processes are: abatement measures in measures. In the EU, due to the Landfill Directive,
adipic and nitric acid production to reduce N2O CH4 emissions fell by around 25 % between 1990
emissions; the use of alternatives to HFCs in and 2004. Emissions in the EU are projected
refrigeration and air conditioning; and modernisation to decline further by increasing the use of
of the steel and cement industry in for example, CH4 for energy generation, and the diversion
Turkey and Ukraine. Direct regulations and voluntary of biodegradable waste from incineration to
agreements are used in many countries as the main composting or anaerobic treatment.
policy instruments for achieving emission reductions.
For example in June 2006, the EU presented
legislation on F-gases and mobile air conditioning 3.5.2 Kyoto mechanisms
(European Parliament and Council, 2006a; 2006b) to
further reduce emissions of F-gases. The Kyoto Protocol provides for three flexible
mechanisms: Joint Implementation (JI), Clean
In the agriculture sector, decreases in fertiliser use Development Mechanism (CDM) and international
and a reduction in the application of manure on land emissions trading, which parties, under certain
are likely to reduce N2O emissions, while decreases circumstances, may use to supplement domestic
in the number of cattle, as in the EU, and increases in measures to meet their commitments. In addition,
cattle productivity are likely to contribute to a decline green investment schemes (GIS) have been
in CH4 emissions. promoted, without being specifically mentioned
in the protocol. Such schemes involve trading of
The strong decline in livestock numbers and assigned amount units (AAUs) but also include
agricultural input use in many EECCA, SEE and emission reduction projects and therefore are a net
EU‑10 countries resulting from the political changes environmental improvement, unlike international
since 1990 are the key factors behind falling emissions emission trading. The EU emissions trading
from the farming sector in these regions. scheme, introduced in 2005 and linked to the Kyoto
mechanisms, allows operators within the EU to use
Technological change, increased economic efficiency, credits generated by JI or CDM up to a maximum
implementation of the EU Nitrates Directive and decided by the individual Member State.
reforms of the EU agriculture policy have all
contributed to the fall in emissions from agriculture Joint Implementation
in EU. Under Article 6 of the Kyoto Protocol, Annex B
countries may invest in Joint Implementation (JI)
Increased use of less energy-intensive crops and a projects which produce emission reduction units
decrease in more energy-intensive ones are helping to (ERUs) by reducing GHG emissions or increasing
reduce GHG emissions (e.g. Ukraine). removals by carbon sinks — land use, land-use
change and forestry — in other Annex B countries.
A substantial reduction in CH4 emissions from Any such projects need the approval of the
waste management can be achieved by reducing countries involved and must result in emission
the amount of landfilled waste and requiring the reductions that would not otherwise have occurred.
capture of CH4 emissions from landfills, for example The ERUs generated are transferred to the investing
for energy generation. This is an area for quite country which can use them to fulfil its reduction
cost‑effective measures. commitments. Generation of ERUs can only take
place during the commitment period (2008–2012).
The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and
Ukraine project a slight decrease in emissions The JI mechanism gives countries that are having
from the waste sector from 2000 to 2010, while all difficulties in meeting their Kyoto targets an
(11) F-gases are a group of greenhouse gases (fluorinated gases) with a very high climate change potential.

Climate change
opportunity to invest in projects to reduce GHG countries that are not on track to achieve their
emissions in other countries that have a Kyoto Kyoto targets, and also Japan and possibly Canada,
target. GHG mitigation costs in these latter will, to some extent, rely on CDM to achieve their
countries, for example in the energy demand targets. Since there is a strong need for investments
and supply sector, are expected to be lower than in non-Annex B countries in SEE and EECCA,
in western Europe. In addition, many of these in particular in the energy sector, there is a large
countries need investment in their energy sector. potential for CDM. During recent years, financial
Thus this is potentially a win‑win situation. and technical support has been offered to EECCA
countries, including through TACIS financing, for
In principle, there are two tracks to follow when capacity building to improve their ability to act as
establishing a JI project. In Track I the host country host countries for CDM projects. These projects
itself may decide how to monitor, verify and have resulted in organisational improvements
issue ERUs. To be eligible to do this it has to fulfil and identification of possible future projects,
certain requirements, one of which is having a with, in some cases, memoranda of understanding
national system for GHG inventory compilation being signed between EU and EECCA countries.
and reporting. In Track II, the projects are However, by the beginning of 2007, very few
subject to a mandatory international verification projects hosted by EECCA countries had been
procedure established within UNFCCC. A special JI registered by the CDM Executive Board (see
supervisory committee must then verify the ERUs Box 3.3).
generated.
Many CDM projects are small-scale, which may
As of today a number of EU Member States have be a barrier to the large increase in CDM projects
set up organisational structures and allocated that is needed. Special procedures are continuously
government funding for JI projects, for example being implemented for 'bundling' such small-scale
Romania and Bulgaria have signed a Memorandum projects to reduce the administrative costs.
of Understanding with a number of EU Member
States (EEA, 2006). EECCA countries, for example International emissions trading
Belarus and Ukraine, have reported that they are in Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol allows Annex B
the process of setting up JI projects and aiming to be countries to transfer assigned amount units (AAUs)
eligible to do so by Track I. among each other through emissions trading.
Countries that have achieved emission reductions
Clean Development Mechanism over and above those required by their Kyoto
Under Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol, Annex B targets may sell their excess AAUs.
countries can use the Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM) to invest in projects to reduce GHG emissions The Russian Federation and Ukraine had relatively
in developing countries (non-Annex I countries). large emissions in 1990 — the Russian Federation
Depending on the emission reductions achieved, 2 961 million tonnes of CO2-equivalent (Ref: NC4)
certified emission reduction units (CERs) are issued and Ukraine 925 million tonnes (Ref: Report
which Annex B countries can use to meet their on demonstrable progress) — both without
commitments. As with JI, CDM projects must result LULUCF (12). Emissions then fell during the first
in reductions that would not otherwise have been half of the 1990s due to economic restructuring
achieved. They have the additional aim of promoting and a decrease in economic activity. Although
sustainable development in the host country by these economies have since recovered, Russian
offering modern technology. and Ukrainian emissions are projected to be
substantially below their Kyoto targets (to keep
The costs of CDM projects to reduce emissions are emissions at the 1990 level). Together they will
generally expected to be low compared with many be around 1 100 million tonnes below their Kyoto
domestic policies and measures. Many European targets by 2010. The Russian Federation and
(12) Land use, land-use change and forestry.

Climate change
Box 3.3 Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) — an opportunity for win-win projects
The use of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) reductions (UNFCCC). In addition it is possible to
was included in the Kyoto Protocol to encourage the bundle small-scale projects into one to further limit
industrialised countries to invest in environmentally the administrative burden.
beneficial technology in developing countries, while
at the same time using the resulting GHG emission
reductions to help meet their Kyoto targets. To avoid creation of other environmental problems
the description of the CDM project must include an
Environmental Impact Assessment.
A separate organisation has been set up with an
Executive Board and a number of panels dealing
with different questions such as monitoring CDM projects have been able to generate CERs
methodologies, accreditation issues and small-scale since January 2000 and these can be banked for use
projects. This organisation and the administrative during the first commitment period (2008–2012).
process is there to ensure that the number of CERs The rules governing CDM projects allow only
generated by a project is appropriate. certain types of sink projects — afforestation and
reforestation — and may not exceed 1 % annually
of a party's base-year emissions. Countries will not
To set up a CDM project the following steps have to be able to use credits generated by nuclear power
be followed: projects towards meeting their Kyoto targets.
1. project design;
2. formal approvals by host and investing parties; By 1 January 2007, 472 projects were registered
3. validation and registration of the project by the CDM Executive Board. These were estimated
activity; to generate at least 700 million CERs (tonnes of
CO2-equivalents) up to the end of 2012. Major host
4. implementation and monitoring;
countries, by number of projects, are India, 29.9 %;
5. verification and certification; Brazil, 18.6 %; and Mexico, 15.3 %. China, with
6. issuance and distribution of CERs. a 43 % share, is by far the largest host country in
terms of number of CERs generated.
For small-scale projects certain simplifications have

been implemented in the formal process such as a Taking into account the need and potential for,
simplified project design document, methodologies for example, energy efficiency improvements in
for baseline determination, monitoring plans and EECCA and SEE countries, the use of CDM should
provisions for environmental impact analyses. The be an obvious area for win-win activities in Europe.
review period for registration is also shorter and However, by 1 January 2007 only five CDM projects
the same Designated Operational Entity (DOE) can with EECCA or SEE host countries had been
validate, as well as verify, and certify emissions registered.
Table 3.4 CDM projects hosted by EECCA and SEE countries as of 1 January 2007
REF Host country Other party Reductions Content

CO2-equivalent
tonnes/year
Project 0452 Armenia Denmark 62 832 Methane capture and combustion
11/09/06 from poultry manure treatment
Project 0173 Republic of Netherlands 11 567 Energy conservation
29/01/06 Moldova
Project 0159 Republic of Netherlands 17 888 Biomass heating
20/01/06 Moldova
Project 0160 Republic of Netherlands 17 888 Biomass heating
20/01/06 Moldova
Project 0069 Armenia Japan 135 000 Landfill gas capture
28/11/05

Climate change
Ukraine, and to a lesser extent some SEE countries, 3.6 Adaptation to climate
are therefore likely to have a surplus of emission change
allowances to offer in 2008–2012. In addition, if
Kazakhstan ratifies the Kyoto Protocol and if the More pronounced climate change impacts on most
amendment proposed by the second Meeting of sectors of the economy and on natural resources are
the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (COP12/MOP2) in projected to occur even if emissions of greenhouse
Nairobi concerning Belarus comes into force, there gases are reduced drastically. Adaptation strategies
will be a further surplus of allowances. are therefore required, in addition to mitigation
strategies. Adaptation means policies, practices
Following negotiation in Marrakech, several and projects which can either moderate damage
countries are allowed to include emissions and/or, in some specific cases, exploit opportunities
from forestry management in their base-year associated with climate change.
emissions, and thus in their emission allowances
for 2008–2012. This will increase the number of Adaptation initiatives
allowances available for international trading. The The need for adaptation has been recognised
Russian Federation, for example, is allowed to at different levels. At the global level, the 2004
account around 120 million tonnes of CO2 annually UNFCCC conference agreed to develop a five-year,
during the first commitment period for forest structured programme of work on the scientific,
management activities. technical and socio-economic aspects of impacts,
vulnerability and adaptation to climate change.
Green investment schemes (GIS) Furthermore, UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol
Extensive trading of surplus allowances, as a have initiated several funds specifically to address
replacement of domestic actions, would not adaptation in developing countries, which are often
necessarily decrease GHG emissions during the the most vulnerable and have the least capacities to
first commitment period. This is because the adapt.
country selling the allowances would not need to
invest the resources acquired in measures aimed At the EU level, the need to prepare for and
at reducing GHG emissions. Green investment adapt to the consequences of inevitable climate
schemes (GIS) have therefore been promoted as change impacts in many societal sectors has been
an alternative to international Kyoto emissions highlighted, for example in the Environment
trading to ensure that actual GHG emission Council in 2005. Because of the multi-sectoral and
reductions take place. Profits generated from international nature of the adaptation issue, the
the sale of assigned amount units are invested in second phase of the European Climate Change
programmes that include one or several projects Programme (ECCP), launched in October 2005,
to reduce the GHG emissions. An advantage is includes a work programme on climate change
that GIS funds, in addition to financing concrete impacts and adaptation. The ECCP identified
emission-reduction projects, might finance various reasons why adaptation should have a
capacity building and the establishment of European dimension, although measures will
emissions inventories and reporting systems. actually be implemented at the regional and
local levels. As part of the ECCP, meetings with
The Russian Federation introduced the concept stakeholders from many sectors and countries were
in the formal UNFCCC negotiations in 2002 and, held during the first half of 2006, demonstrating
for example, Romania has made a recent study the need to involve a wide range of sectors and
on the use of GIS (Romania, NC4). Belarus, at the organisations in discussions on climate change
(COP12/MOP2) in Nairobi, stated that, providing adaptation. As an outcome of the programme, the
the proposed amendment to include Belarus in European Commission published a green paper in
Annex B of the Kyoto Protocol comes into force, June 2007 (European Commission, 2007) .
it will invest the income from sales of surpluses
of assigned amounts into emission-reduction At the national level, Member States recognise
projects. the need for adaptation strategies, as shown in

Climate change
their national communications to UNFCCC. Some proposals are changes in lifestyles, for example from
countries, for example Finland have already Romania, and a redirection of water flows, from
developed a national adaptation strategy, others Uzbekistan, amongst others. Various countries,
are in the process of doing so, for example including Belarus, Hungary, the Netherlands and
Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands and the Switzerland, have also proposed flood-control
United Kingdom. In many other countries, such measures, often linked to spatial planning.
as Switzerland, adaptation measures are planned Examples include compartmentalisation of
or being implemented in the context of natural low‑lying areas in the Netherlands to limit the area
hazard prevention, environmental protection and that could become flooded, and the assignment
sustainable resource management (EEA, 2005). of flood areas in Hungary. Various countries have
Furthermore, many EU Member States have proposed measures to combat coastal erosion,
initiated research projects/programmes on climate flooding and inundation of coastal lowlands and
change vulnerability and adaptation. A number of saltwater intrusion caused by rising sea levels.
countries, however, have not yet initiated a national Examples include the establishment of good
adaptation strategy. There are various reasons for monitoring networks in Turkey, changes in the
this, including relatively more focus on climate design of dams, harbours and other structures in
change mitigation, uncertainties concerning future Iceland, enhanced coastal protection in Belgium
climate change impacts, and perceived relatively and the Netherlands, and an improvement of
low vulnerability. coastal environmental conditions.
Most SEE and EECCA countries are also quite Biodiversity

concerned about the issue, as shown by the Although climate change considerations have not
adaptation measures proposed in their national yet been integrated into the EU's Habitats and Birds
communications and the United Nations Convention Directives, the need for adaptation to climate change
on Combating Desertification (UNCCD) review has been explicitly mentioned in the European
report on implementation. Various measures have Commission's 2006 communication on biodiversity.
been proposed, particularly for the agriculture sector
because of its importance for the economies of these Various measures have been proposed and/or
countries. Many of the measures in this sector are planned both at the European and national
related to reducing the risk of desertification and levels to help nature to adapt to climate change.
salinisation. Most of these focus on establishing or Examples include:
improving the efficiency of irrigation systems as a
result of the projected decreases in precipitation, • Communicating the severity of the climate
for example in Armenia, Romania, the Russian change issue among biodiversity experts and/or
Federation, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Other nature conservation organisations;
proposed measures deal with changes in crop • reducing non-climate pressures on biodiversity,
management, such as alternative crop types, and e.g. from land-use changes;
making use of potential new opportunities. The • improving the quality and extent of current
Russian Federation, for example, explicitly mentioned protected areas, such as Natura 2000 areas in
utilising new areas in central and northern Russia the EU;
that are likely to become more suitable for crops as a • connecting protected sites by establishing
result of climate change in its recent NC4. corridors or additional areas outside protected
sites, which could help species to migrate;
Water • integrating/harmonising biodiversity policy
Various adaptation measures for the water sector with other policies.
have been proposed, often aimed at addressing
water shortage issues (EEA, 2007). Measures Various SEE and EECCA countries are concerned
proposed in nearly all countries are improved about the vulnerability of their nature systems
water-use efficiency, a reduction of water losses, to climate change, especially if it results in
and improved water recycling. Less common land degradation or desertification. Proposed

Climate change
adaptation measures include the establishment in Armenia and France; and of drinking water
of a good monitoring network in Albania and quality in Albania.
Georgia; the inclusion of climate change in
nature development plans in Belarus; changes in In general, adaptation measures are currently less
management in the Russian Federation; and the well-defined and implemented than mitigation
establishment of new nature areas to act as 'green measures. Although measures will be implemented
corridors' in Kyrgyzstan. at the national and local level, there is a role for
the EU and UNECE, for example in facilitating and
Human health harmonising the various initiatives that have been
Various countries have also formulated adaptation proposed. A number of research programmes on
strategies in the context of human health and adaptation to climate change have recently been
climate change. Many strategies include measures started at the European level, which should help to
such as improved monitoring of vulnerable people define and implement adaptation measures.

04
Biodiversity
Biodiversity
4 Biodiversity
Source: Lichens, Sweden © Ybele Hoogeveen
Key messages
• Biodiversity decline and the loss of ecosystem • The general biodiversity trend on agricultural
services continue to be a major concern in the land is negative despite agricultural policies
pan-European region. The target of halting being increasingly geared towards biodiversity
biodiversity loss by 2010 will not be achieved conservation. The area of agricultural land in
without additional efforts. use has decreased and management of the
remaining areas has intensified. Identification
• The main pressures on biodiversity continue to of high nature value farmland by 2006, a
be urban sprawl, infrastructure development, target of the Kiev Resolution, has not been
acidification, eutrophication, desertification, fully completed. The proportion of these areas
overexploitation, and intensification of under favourable management cannot yet be
agriculture and land abandonment. Climate assessed.
change is increasingly recognised as a serious
threat, particularly to coastal, arctic and alpine • The number of invasive alien species in the
habitats and species. pan-European region continues to increase.
Although the problem is recognised in most
• More than 700 European species are currently countries and strategic action is being taken,
under threat. 43 % of European bird species the efficiency of control measures needs to
have an unfavourable conservation status. be increased by better monitoring and early
warning systems.
• There has been significant progress in creating
ecological networks, particularly with the • There are major data gaps on species, habitats
Pan‑European Ecological Network and the and related landscape parameters. There
Natura 2000 network, which now covers about has been progress in developing headline
17 % of the total EU-25 land area. However, indicators for evaluating the 2010 target, but
there is little information on the conservation adequate funding for the long-term monitoring
status of these networks. needed has not yet been forthcoming.
• National forest plans that link sustainable forest • Participation and awareness of biodiversity
management with an ecosystem approach are issues is growing and the Kiev Resolution
being implemented. The annual harvest of target of implementing Communication,
wood remains well below its annual increment, Education and Public Awareness (CEPA)
and primary forests (those hardly affected by programmes in half the pan-European
human activity) make up about a quarter of countries by 2010 seems achievable.
the total forest area. However, illegal logging
and human‑induced forest fires are a growing
problem, particularly in EECCA and SEE.

Biodiversity
4.1 The commitment: halting Environment Strategy. This is comparable to

biodiversity loss by 2010 the Sixth Environment Action Programme and
addresses a range of governance aspects, such as
The loss of biological diversity and its components environmental impact assessment (EIA) procedures
(genes (1), species, habitats and ecosystems) is an and compensatory mechanisms for biodiversity loss,
issue of global concern. It is inextricably linked to as well as funding and the creation of ecological
the degradation of ecosystem services, the natural networks of protected areas (UNECE, 2003b).
production capacity and regulating processes that
are essential for the sustainable use of the earth's An initiative, Streamlining European 2010
resources and, ultimately, human well‑being. Biodiversity Indicators (SEBI), was taken in
Evidence is growing that these services are under 2004 to develop biodiversity indicators for the
great pressure due to human-induced climate pan‑European region. Its aim is to provide proper
change and the over exploitation of natural feedback on policy achievements and on progress
resources (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, towards the 2010 target. SEBI is a cooperation
2005). between several international institutes, coordinated
by the European Environment Agency. This chapter
The UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), largely builds on the indicator framework developed
adopted in 1992, marked the political recognition by SEBI.
of biodiversity loss as a serious problem, and
the start of global action. Several thematic work The next section provides an overview of the
programmes have been initiated under the CBD, current status and trends of species, ecosystems
focusing on the biodiversity of marine and coastal and habitats and the main threats to biodiversity.
areas, agriculture, forests, inland waters, dry and The remaining sections examine progress on the
sub-humid lands, and mountains. In addition, a main lines of policy action set out in the Kiev
number of cross-cutting issues, such as invasive Resolution: spatial measures to create ecological
alien species, awareness-raising, and indicator networks; the integration of biodiversity concerns
development, are being tackled. The target of halting into agriculture and forestry; coordinated action
the loss of biodiversity by 2010 was an EU initiative, against invasive alien species; biodiversity indicators
first adopted in the 2001 EU Strategy for Sustainable and monitoring; and public awareness. The focus
Development and later incorporated into the EU's is mainly on terrestrial ecosystems, as the marine
Sixth Environment Action Programme (2002). and coastal environment is dealt with in Chapter 5.
Subsequently, the CBD (2002) and the World Summit Funding issues are not covered.
on Sustainable Development (2002) largely endorsed
this at the global level, agreeing on a 'significant
reduction' of the current rate of biodiversity loss by 4.2 The case: Europe's
2010. threatened biodiversity
At the pan‑European level, the framework for action 4.2.1 Biodiversity distribution and
is the Kiev Resolution on Biodiversity, endorsed trends
by the European environment ministers. In order
to halt biodiversity decline by 2010, key targets Biodiversity assessments require an explicit
have been adopted regarding a pan‑European geographical scale and reference situation as well
ecological network, agriculture and biodiversity, as appropriate units of measurement (species,
forests and biodiversity, invasive alien species, habitats, ecosystems). The relation between local
financing, monitoring and indicators, and public species richness and biodiversity value is not
participation and awareness (see Box 4.1). For straightforward. Habitats or ecosystems may be
the EECCA countries, the implementation of naturally species-poor, but nevertheless contribute
the targets falls within the scope of the EECCA substantially to overall biodiversity at a higher
(1) Genetic diversity is not dealt with in this chapter.

Biodiversity
Box 4.1 The Kiev Resolution on Biodiversity
Main aim: halt the loss of biological diversity at Invasive alien species
all levels by 2010, mainly through achieving the • By 2008, the pan‑European Strategy on
following key targets: Invasive Alien Species developed under the Bern
Convention, fully compatible with the Guiding
Pan-European Ecological Network Principles of the Convention on Biological
Diversity, will be implemented by at least half
• By 2006, the Pan‑European Ecological Network of the countries of the pan‑European region
(core areas, restoration areas, corridors and through their respective biodiversity strategies
buffer zones, as appropriate) in all states of and action plans.
the pan‑European region will be identified and
reflected on coherent indicative European maps,
as a European contribution towards a global Financing biodiversity*
ecological network. • By 2008, there will be substantially increased
• By 2008, all core areas of the Pan‑European public and private financial investments in
Ecological Network will be adequately conserved integrated biodiversity activities in Europe,
and the Pan-European Ecological Network will via partnerships with the finance and business
give guidance to all major national, regional and sectors, that have resulted in new investment
international land use and planning policies as opportunities and facilities as outlined by the
well as to the operations of relevant economic European Biodiversity Resourcing Initiative,
and financial sectors. taking into account the special needs of the
countries of central and eastern Europe, the
Caucasus and Central Asia.
Agriculture and biodiversity
• By 2006, the identification, using agreed
common criteria, of all high nature value Biodiversity monitoring and indicators
areas in agricultural ecosystems in the • By 2008, a coherent European programme on
pan‑European region will be complete. By 2008, biodiversity monitoring and reporting, facilitated
a substantial proportion of these areas will be by the European Biodiversity Monitoring and
under biodiversity-sensitive management by Indicator Framework, will be operational in
using appropriate mechanisms such as rural the pan-European region, in support of nature
development instruments, agri-environmental and biodiversity policies, including by 2006
programmes and organic agriculture, to inter an agreed core set of biodiversity indicators
alia support their economic and ecological developed with the active participation of the
viability. relevant stakeholders.
• By 2008, financial subsidy and incentive
schemes for agriculture in the pan‑European Public participation and awareness
region will take the conservation and sustainable
• By 2008, at least half of the countries in
use of biodiversity into consideration.
the pan-European region are implementing
national 'communication, education and public
Forests and biodiversity awareness' action plans, in line with the
• By 2008, contribute to the implementation CBD's Global Initiative on Communication,
in the pan‑European region of the Forest Education and Public Awareness, in order to
Biodiversity Expanded Programme of Work of communicate biodiversity and landscape policies
the Convention on Biological Diversity through, and to increase multi-stakeholder participation,
inter alia: particularly indigenous and local communities, in
their implementation.
– implementation of the objectives and
activities of the Framework for Co-operation
between the Ministerial Conference on the
Protection of Forests in Europe and the
Environment for Europe/Pan-European
Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy;
– national forest programmes according to
the MCPFE Approach to National Forest
Programmes in Europe (adopted at the
Vienna Conference in April 2003); Note: * = Not dealt with in this chapter.
– application of the ecosystem approach. Source: UNECE, 2003a.

Biodiversity
level (Hoogeveen et al., 2001). Several approaches monk seal, which are on the brink of extinction as
to setting conservation priorities have been the result of habitat destruction, degradation and
suggested (Brooks et al., 2006; Davis et al., 1994, 1997; fragmentation as well as disturbance (Palomo and
Anderson, 2002; Anderson et al., 2005; Van Swaay Gisbert, 2002; Ward, 2005; MOm/Hellenic Society
and Warren, 2003; Heath et al., 2000). Particularly for the Study and Protection of the Monk Seal, 2006;
relevant for assessing Europe's contribution UNEP/MAP, RAC/SPA, 2003). Of European bird
to global biodiversity are the biodiversity hot species, 43 % have an unfavourable conservation
spots as identified by Conservation International status (Birdlife International, 2004). Subsequent red
(Mittermeier et al., 2005, see Box. 4.2) and the global lists reveal that the overall status of European and
species red lists (IUCN, 2006a). In the absence Central Asian birds deteriorated between 1994 and
of quantitative data for habitats and ecosystems 2004 (see Figure 4.2). Only the Caucasus shows a
(particularly in the EECCA and SEE regions) this (minor) increase. The situation for freshwater fish is
assessment builds mainly on species. Red lists even more critical (Map 4.1). In the Mediterranean
of endangered species are a tool for assessing region 56 % of the 252 endemic freshwater fish
biodiversity trends (Butchart et al., 2004, 2005). are threatened with extinction and seven species
Common species in the wider countryside, however, are now extinct. Pollution, water extraction and
are also covered to obtain a general indication of the droughts are considered to be the main threats.
sustainability of land use. Case studies are used to Other major threats are posed by invasive species
highlight particular issues, especially in biodiversity and the construction of dams (Smith and Darwall,
hot spots. 2005).
According to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Figure 4.3 shows that, of the more common bird
Species (IUCN, 2006a), 16 119 plant and animal species, forest and particularly farmland birds
species are threatened at the global level, 729 of them have declined. The initial steep decline of farmland
occurring in Europe. Mammals and birds account for birds is associated with increasing agricultural
the highest numbers of vulnerable and endangered specialisation and intensity in some areas, and
species (see Figure 4.1). Critically endangered large-scale marginalisation and land abandonment
mammals are the Iberian lynx and the Mediterranean in others. The falling trend has levelled off since
Figure 4.1 Globally threatened terrestrial vertebrates in the pan-European region
Number of globally threatened species
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
s s s es s s s es s s s es
an rd al til an rd al til an rd al til
ibi Bi m p ibi Bi m p ibi Bi m p
ph Mam Re ph Mam Re ph Mam Re
Am Am Am
EECCA WCE SEE
Red List categories: Vulnerable Endangered Critically endangered
Source: IUCN, 2006a.

Biodiversity
the late 1980s, partly because of stabilising inputs the modernisation of its agriculture with resulting
of nutrient and pesticides in the EU‑15 and partly large-scale habitat loss and degradation. At the other
because of drastically lower inputs in EU‑10 as extreme, huge undisturbed areas remain in what is
a result of political reforms and the resulting known as the 'Great Euro‑Asian Nature Backbone',
economic crisis in the agricultural sector. Renewed ranging from the vast forests in Russia and Siberia
agricultural intensification in the eastern regions, in the north to the mountains, steppes and deserts of
combined with further land abandonment Central Asia in the southeast.
throughout Europe, is expected to lead to further
decline. Figure 4.4 shows changes in land cover that have
occurred in WCE between 1990 and 2000. A large
part of this region has effectively become urban in
4.2.2 Land-cover change character, with massive sprawl around the existing
urban centres in much of lowland Europe, and
One of the general factors underlying the above along the coasts. In many places agriculture has
trends is land-cover change, the dynamics of which been marginalised as an economic activity, often
vary greatly across Europe. WCE has experienced with resulting land abandonment. Elsewhere new
rapid urbanisation, infrastructure development and areas may be taken into production, but on average
Map 4.1 Distribution of freshwater fish in the pan-European region
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
Share of globally
threatened species
in native freshwater
fish
40° %
60°
0–7
8–15
16–30
31–44
50°
Number of species
30° 0–25
26–50
51–100
40°
101–344
0 500 1000 1500 Km

0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° Introduced species
-30° -10° 10° 30° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90° -30° -10° 10° 30° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
%
0–11
60°
40°
60°
40° 12–20
21–29
30–69
50° 50°
30° 30°
Outside report
40° 40°
0 500 1000 1500 Km
coverage
0 500 1000 1500 Km
0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50°
Source: EEA-ETC/BD, 2006.

Biodiversity
Box 4.2 'Biodiversity hot spots' in the pan‑European region
'Biodiversity hot spots' as identified by Conservation biodiversity in this region. The majority of remaining
International are regions with more than intact habitats are in the higher mountain regions.
1 500 endemic species and more than 70 % habitat
loss in historic times (the baseline varies between
Mountains of Central Asia: Ecosystems range
regions, but typically lies several centuries back). The
from glaciers to desert, and contain ancestors of
identified biodiversity hot spots in the pan‑European
domestic fruit varieties. The region is also home to
region are listed below.
a rich variety of ungulates, including the threatened
argali wild sheep. Main threats to biodiversity
The Mediterranean basin: This region has more reported in the region are expansion of settlements
than four times as many vascular plant species and infrastructure development as well as mining,
than the rest of Europe. It is also the home of the overgrazing, poaching, water abstraction and
critically endangered Iberian lynx and Mediterranean drainage.
monk seal. Main threats are: urbanisation and
tourism, in particular on the coasts, forest fire,
Irano-Anatolian region: This region forms a
land abandonment, intensification of agriculture
natural barrier between the Mediterranean basin and
and forestry, water abstraction and pollution, and,
the dry plateaus of western Asia. It is a centre of
increasingly, desertification.
wild relatives of crops such as wheat, rye, oats, seed
and forage legumes and fruits. The main threats are
The Caucasus: Its deserts, savannas, arid development of irrigation schemes for agriculture and
woodlands and forests contain about 6 400 vascular associated infrastructure such as dams, overgrazing,
plant species, a quarter of which are endemic. overharvesting of woody plants for fuelwood,
Illegal logging, overgrazing, poaching, overfishing, and mining. The region boasts four endemic and
infrastructure development; and pollution of rivers threatened viper species.
and wetlands are reported as the main threats to
-40° -30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
Hot spots of biodiversity
60°
40°
Hot spot regions
Number of plant species

by region
50°
Total number
of species
Endemics
30°
1 500 species
(hot spot lower limit)
40°
Outside report
coverage
20°
30°
Canary Is. Azores Is. Cabo Verde Is.

-30°
30°
Madeira Is.
-30° 0 500 1000 1500 Km

10°
-10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50°
Taxonomic group Number of species (% endemics in brackets)

Mediterranean basin Caucasus Mountains of Central Asia Irano-Anatolian region
Plants 22 500 (52) 6 400 (25) 5 500 (28) 6 000 (42)
Mammals 226 (11) 131 (14) 143 (4) 142 (7)
Birds 489 (5) 378 (0.3) 489 (0) 362 (0)
Reptiles 230 (34) 86 (23) 59 (2) 116 (10)
Amphibians 79 (34) 17 (18) 7 (57) 18 (11)
Freshwater fish 216 (29) 127 (9) 27 (19) 90 (33)
Sources: Mittermeier et al., 2005; Médail and Quézel, 1997; WWF Caucasus, 2004; Blondel and Aronson, 1999; Troumbis et al., 2000.

Biodiversity
Figure 4.2 Red List Index for birds the loss caused by land abandonment outweighs
this. The utilised agricultural area in WCE decreased
Red List Index of species survival by 2.5 % between 1990 and 2000 (EEA, 2006a). No
0.94 comparable land accounts are available for EECCA
0.93 and SEE.
0.92
0.91 Another prominent phenomenon (see Figure 4.5) is
0.90 the increase in forest cover of about 8 000–9 000 km2
0.89 per year since 1990. This expansion has primarily
0.88 happened in the EU and EFTA, mainly due to
0.87 decreasing grazing pressure and spontaneous
0.86 re‑growth, and afforestation on abandoned
20 4
04
20 4
04
94
04
20 4
04
20 4
04
agricultural land. The largest increase in forest area

9
9
19
19
19
20
19
19
EFTA-4 EU-25 Caucasus E Europe SE Europe within the past five years is reported for southern
WCE EECCA SEE
European countries (Spain, Italy, France, Portugal,
Note: The RLI for European birds based on pan‑European Greece and Bulgaria) (UNECE/FAO, 2005a). In
extinction risk uses information from the Birds in Europe
database (Tucker and Heath 1994; BirdLife International,
the Mediterranean region and parts of the steppic
2004) to measure the projected overall regional extinction biogeographic region, afforestation programmes
risk of sets of species, and to track changes in this risk. It
is based on the proportion of species in each category on are being used as one of the tools to combat land
the regional Red List, and changes in this proportion over
time resulting from genuine improvement or deterioration
degradation, combined with the prevention of, inter
in the status of individual species. An RLI value of 1 (one) alia, forest fires (EEA, 2005).
equates to all species being categorised as Least Concern
at the European level, while an RLI value of 0 (zero)
indicates that all species are extinct in Europe.
Sources: BirdLife International/IUCN (unpublished data, 2006).

Sample sizes: EU‑25 (460), EFTA4 (317), EECCA (427), E
4.2.3 Specific threats
Europe (397), the Caucasus (313), SEE (390). No data for
Andorra, Monaco and San Marino.
Urbanisation and infrastructure
In WCE the pressure of urbanisation and transport
on biodiversity is highest in the densely populated
Figure 4.3 Trends in common birds (selected
countries) lowland areas and coastal zones (EEA, 2006b,c).
Gas and oil pipeline construction is causing habitat
Population index (1980 = 100) fragmentation and degradation in the Caucasus
140 (GRID Tbilisi, 2002). In Central Asia urbanisation
120 Progress
has led to loss and fragmentation of the fragile
since sand‑desert ecosystems in Turkmenistan (Chemonics
100 Kiev
International Inc., 2000). The impact of urbanisation
80 and infrastructure in SEE is biggest in Romania,
60 Bulgaria and Turkey, where grasslands and steppes
40 are affected. The steppe ecosystems in Turkey are
particularly threatened by road and dam construction
20
(CBD, 1999) (see also Chapter 5, Marine and coastal
0
environment).
00
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
02
20
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
EBCC/RSPB/BirdLife/Statistics Netherlands Agricultural intensification and land

Other common birds (n = 25) abandonment
Common forest birds (n = 33)
The agricultural pressures on biodiversity are
Common farmland birds (n = 19)
diverse and differ markedly between regions.
Note: Based on data from: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Intensification in terms of fertiliser inputs,
Germany, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden,
United Kingdom, Estonia, Latvia, Poland, Czech Republic, specialisation, and scale enlargement generally
Hungary, Norway and Switzerland.
decreases biodiversity (Donald et al., 2001). The
Source: EBCC, 2005.
most intensive farm systems in WCE have thus

Biodiversity
Figure 4.4 Main land-cover changes from 1990–2000
Changes in coverage of EUNIS 10 main habitat types from 1990 to 2000
Habitat categories (change in ha)
Mire, bog and fen habitats (– 107 044)
Heathland, scrub and tundra (– 298 108)
Coastal habitats (– 3 231)

Inland unvegetated or sparsely vegetated (– 42 197)
Cultivated, agriculture, horticulture (– 801 538)
Grassland (– 223 555)
Marine habitats (– 6 580)
Woodland and forest (603 421)
Inland surface water (99 513)

Constructed, industrial, artificial habitats (779 362)
–4 –2 0 2 4 6
% change
Note: Coverage: EU‑25 excluding Finland, Sweden, Cyprus, Malta.
Sources: EEA, 2005; EUNIS database.
land abandonment and intensification (EEA,

Figure 4.5 Change in annual forest area between
1990 and 2005 2004b; Baldock et al., 1995). More details on the
agriculture‑related pressures on biodiversity are
Km2/year given in Section 4.4.
9 000
8 000
Desertification
7 000
6 000 Desertification is the process of land degradation in
5 000 arid, semi-arid and dry semi-humid areas, resulting
4 000 from unsustainable land use in combination
3 000
2 000
with climatic factors. Drainage, overgrazing and
1 000 irrigation may all lead to soil erosion, salinisation,
0 lowered productivity and vegetation loss. It is a
– 1 000 serious problem in the Caucasian states and Central
– 2 000
WCE SEE Caucasus Central Eastern Asia, for example in the Shiraki, Eldari, Iori, Taribani
Asia Europe and Natbeuri valleys in Georgia (IUCN, 2006b).
1990–2000 EECCA
In Armenia a 1.9 % increase in eroded area was
2000–2005 observed between 1980 and 2000, and in Azerbaijan
Source: UNECE/FAO, 2005a. 3.6 million ha are currently subject to erosion (GRID
Tblisi, 2002; Azerbaijan National Academy of
resulted in highly productive monocultures with Sciences, 2004).
very low biodiversity. At the other end of the scale
are the species rich traditional farming systems, Natural expansion of deserts is observed in several
predominantly found in peripheral (southern areas in Tajikistan, but in the mountains this could
and eastern) regions. They have low stocking be seen as desertification as it is mainly due to
densities, little or no chemical inputs, and labour the intensive use of natural resources resulting
intensive management, such as shepherding. In in degradation of the environment (Novikov and
socio-economic terms these extensive farming Safarov, 2003). Two thirds of Kazakhstan's territory
systems are under pressure and subject to both is affected by different degrees of desertification

Biodiversity
(UNCCD, 2002). In eastern and south-eastern Europe, radioactivity than before the accident — particularly
desertification is mainly restricted to Bulgaria, Turkey high 137Cs concentrations are found in mushrooms,
and especially Romania (Ministry of Environment berries and game. These high levels are expected to
and Water Management of Romania, 2005) (see continue for several decades due to the persistent
Section 2.4, Soil). recycling of radiocaesium in forest ecosystems
(IAEA, 2006).
Acidification and eutrophication
Nitrogen and sulphur emissions, either to the Forest fires
air or directly to soil and water bodies, can cause Apart from immediate damage to people, wildlife
acidification and eutrophication of ecosystems. In and habitats, forest fires can result in erosion
2004 more than 23 % of trees assessed in 31 countries and insect outbreaks, water and air transfer of
were classified as damaged as a result of acidification, combustion products and a release of the carbon
although defoliation varies greatly between species stored by trees to the atmosphere (Riera and
and regions. While defoliation of several main species Mogas, 2004). Very large fires, as reported from
has increased since 1990, defoliation of Scots pine is Russia, can transform the forest environment for
now clearly lower than in the mid 1990s (UNECE, centuries (FAO/ECE/ILO, 2004). The magnitude
2005). In the vicinity of the copper nickel complexes and geographical distribution of human-induced
in Norilsk (Taimyr Peninsula) and Monchegorsk forest fires will be dealt with in Section 4.4.
(Kola Peninsula), acidification has destroyed
vegetation over hundreds of square kilometres (State Illegal logging/wildlife trade
Committee of Russian Federation for Environment Many species are illegally hunted and traded.
Protection, 1997; Ministry of Natural Resources of Quantitative data is limited, but the problem
Russian Federation, 2002). appears to be most prominent in the southern
and eastern regions (see Box 4.3). Illegal logging
Serious pressures on forest and freshwater accounts for more than 50 % of the wood harvested
ecosystems are also reported from Ukraine (UNECE, in the far-eastern parts of the Russian Federation
2001b), Croatia (Ministry of Environmental and in the Caucasus. The occurrence and impact of
Protection and Physical Planning of Croatia, 2000) illegal logging will be dealt with in Section 4.4.
and Albania. In Bulgaria soils representing 56 %
of the territory of the country have been acidified Invasive alien species
as a result of excessive fertiliser use (Ministry In the course of time, many species have been
of Environment and Water of Bulgaria, 2001). introduced into Europe, either on purpose or
Ecosystems in more than 70 % (in area) of WCE accidentally. Many of them have become invasive,
are affected by eutrophication. This damage level successfully outcompeting native species and
is expected to decline only slightly by 2020 (EEA, affecting habitats. This is increasingly regarded as a
2005). In the other regions the problem is less major threat to biodiversity. For the pan-European
prominent, but eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems region, 121 species are now listed as 'worst
and associated algal blooms are also reported in SEE invasives'. Their impact and the policy responses
(Vardaka et al., 2005; Ministry of Environment and will be dealt with in Section 4.5 (see also Chapter 5,
Physical Planning of the Republic of Macedonia, Marine and coastal environment).
2003; Ministry of Environment and Water
Management of Romania, 2005). During recent years Climate change
the environmental conditions in the Black Sea have Climate change is an overarching pressure that
improved slightly (UNECE, 2001b) (see Chapter 5, may aggravate many of the threats discussed
Marine and coastal environment). above. It is expected to become the main driver of
biodiversity loss in the future, affecting physiology
Radioactive contamination (e.g. primary production), phenology (i.e. the
Twenty years after the Chernobyl disaster, about growth cycle of plants and animals) and species
6 million ha of forests in the north of Ukraine distribution (Ciais et al., 2005; Thomas et al., 2004).
and southern Belarus still have higher levels of In the past four decades the start of the growing

Biodiversity
Box 4.3 Endangered species: the saiga antelope and the snow leopard
The saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) occurs in steppic The snow leopard (Uncia uncia), occurring in the
grasslands and semi-arid deserts in Central Asia and mountains of Central Asia, has declined throughout
is classified as 'critically endangered' at global level. its range and is globally classified as 'endangered'.
Mainly due to poaching, its numbers have declined The population in Kyrgyzstan, once the second largest
from over one million in 1993 to less than 200 000 in in the world, has declined by 50–80 %. Illegal trade
2000. In Turkmenistan only 2 000 animals remain of in fur and bones is an incentive for poaching and
a population of 15 000 to 20 000 in the 1970s–1980s. snow leopards are also occasionally killed by owners
However, substantial conservation efforts, including of livestock. However, the main cause of decline of
hunting bans and penalties for illegal trade, have the snow leopard is the depletion of its prey through
been taken by Central Asian countries. In Kazakhstan illegal hunting.
the saiga antelope has again increased by 10–15 %
per year to a current level of 45 000 to 50 000. The
Russian population, estimated at 5 000 to 25 000, Sources: IUCN 2001, 2006a; CITES Secreteriat, 2006; CMS
appears stable. Secretariat, 2006; Dexel, 2002.
season in Europe, as observed in herbs, shrubs, et al., 2002; Parmesan and Yohe, 2003). Plant
trees, birds, butterflies and amphibians, has species richness in north-western Europe has
advanced by an average of 10 days (Menzel et al., increased over the past 30 years, warmth-tolerant
2006; Parmesan and Yohe, 2003; Both et al., 2004). and generalist species becoming more frequent
The longer growing season also affects the annual (Tamis et al., 2005; Preston et al., 2002; Often and
carbon uptake of plants and thereby the net carbon Stabbeorp, 2003). In many mountainous regions,
exchange of the biosphere (Churkina et al., 2005). tree-lines have moved up, pushing alpine species
further upwards (Inter-agency Commission of
The observed northward latitude and upward the Russian Federation on Climate Change, 2002;
altitude shift in the distribution ranges of various Grabherr et al., 2002; Grace et al., 2002; Dullinger
species is attributed to climate change (e.g. Walther et al., 2004). Likewise, endemic species in the arctic,
such as lichens and mosses, have been replaced by
Box 4.4 The impacts of climate change on the alpine ecosystems of Armenia
Mountain ecosystems are vulnerable to climate

change. Historical, archeological, paleobotanic and above sea level. In the above climate change
palynologic data show that significant changes in scenario the reduction of the alpine belt area is
the ecosystems of Armenia have occurred in the projected to be about 22 %. Alpine meadows and
last three millennia, related to global warming and carpets in particular will be reduced, but alpine
a drier climate. During this period the forest areas vegetation will be relatively well preserved in rocky
have shrunk significantly, the semi-desert and areas, stone screes and placers on the highest
steppe vegetation belts have expanded, and the mountain ridges and peaks. Endemic and rare
Alpine vegetation belt has shrunk. plant species growing on lower mountain ridges
(Komarov's caraway, Pallace's immortelle, Caucasian
rododendron, Physoptichis caspica, etc.) are more
Estimates of future vulnerability are based on the vulnerable.
IPCC scenario of an increase of the air temperature
by 2 °C and a reduction of atmospheric precipitation
by 10 % for the republic as a whole. Specially
developed computer models are used to analyse the
vulnerability of natural ecosystems in Armenia.
Source: Ministry of Nature Protection of the Republic of
Armenia, 1998; First national communication of the
The present area of alpine vegetation is about Republic of Armenia under the UNFCC.
2 200 km, located between 2 800 and 4 095 m http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/armnc1e.pdf.

Biodiversity
invading generalist species (Molau and Alatalo, Climate change will also aggravate the problem
1998; ACIA, 2004). of human-induced forest fires (see section below).
Projections show a considerable increase in the
Modelling studies show the potential for significant extent and frequency of fires, for example, in
disruption of terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems the Iberian peninsula and Russia (ACIA, 2004),
by climate change (IPCC, 2001). The impacts affecting ecosystem composition in favour of
will to a large extent depend on the migration fast‑growing species.
capacity of species in relation to landscape
structure as well as their ability to cope with The main threats to biodiversity in Europe are
increasing climate extremes. All available scenarios summarised in Table 4.1.
highlight the vulnerability of arctic, mountain and
Mediterranean ecosystems (Brooker and Young,
2005; Schröter et al., 2005; EEA, 2005; see also 4.3 Providing a backbone:
Box 4.4). In Scotland and Wales, for example, a 1 °C ecological networks
annual temperature increase is expected to reduce
the distribution of arctic alpine ecosystems by 90 % 4.3.1 Pan‑European Ecological
(Ellis and Good, 2005). By 2100, more than 35 % of Network
plant species in northern countries may be invasive,
and 25 % of the plant species in Romania, Bulgaria, The Pan-European Ecological Network (PEEN) is
Iberian countries and some other Mediterranean a non-binding conceptual framework which aims
countries may have disappeared (Bakkeness et al., to enhance ecological connectivity across Europe
2006). by promoting synergies between nature policies,
land-use planning and rural and urban development
Table 4.1 Summary of main threats to biodiversity
Threat WCE EECCA SEE

Caucasus Central Asia Eastern Europe
Climate change ** *** *** ** **
Urbanisation/
infrastructure *** * * ** **
Agricultural
intensification ** * ** ** **
Land
abandonment ** * ** ***
Desertification * ** *** * **
Acidification * *** *
Eutrophication *** * * ** **
Radioactive
contamination **
Forest fires * ** **
Illegal logging ** * ** ***
Illegal hunting/
wildlife trade *** *** *
Invasive alien
species
** * * ** **
Note: The number of stars indicates the importance.

Biodiversity
at all scales (Council of Europe, 2003a). In the areas. Some countries and regions have chosen to
Kiev Resolution on Biodiversity the European integrate ecological networks into nature policy law
environment ministers committed to identifying (Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Germany, the
the core areas, corridors and buffer zones of Russian Federation, the Flemish region of Belgium),
the PEEN by 2006 and bringing the core areas while others have integrated these concepts into
under favourable management by 2008 (see also spatial planning legislation (Switzerland, Lithuania,
Section 4.1). Estonia, France). In other countries, the national
ecological network is supported by a non‑binding
So far only the core areas of the PEEN have been governmental strategy (the Netherlands,
formally designated as protected areas, for example Luxembourg, Kyrgyzstan) (Bonnin, 2004).
Ramsar sites, World Heritage sites, Biosphere
reserves, Biogenetic reserves, and Natura 2000 Regional transboundary initiatives such as the
sites. The designation of Emerald sites is in a pilot Alpine Network of Protected Areas (Réseau Alpin,
phase (see also the following sections). Large sites 2004), the Lower Danube Green Corridor (WWF,
protected under national regulations for nature 2003), the European Green Belt (IUCN, 2006c),
protection can also be considered as core areas of Econet for Central Asia (GEF/UNEP/WWF, 2006)
the PEEN. The effective implementation of corridors and the initiative for Central Asia (see Box 4.5) are
and buffer zones will require a combination of also major contributions to the PEEN.
nature conservation policies, sustainable forestry
and agriculture, as well as restoration measures, As part of the Ecoregional Conservation Plan for the
within a transboundary approach (Brunner, 2002; Caucasus, endorsed during the Caucasian countries'
Bennett, 2004; Kuijken, 2003; Council of Europe, Ministerial Conference in March 2006, a map of
2003b). priority conservation areas (PCA) and corridors
in the Caucasus ecoregion has been prepared by
Based on guidelines set up by the Committee of
Experts for the PEEN (Council of Europe, 2000)
indicative maps of the PEEN have been drawn up Figure 4.6 Area coverage of nationally protected areas
by NGOs and research institutes for south‑eastern in EECCA and SEE countries, 2005
Europe (Biró et al., 2006) and central and eastern
Europe (Bouwma, et al., 2002) (see Map 4.2). A map Serbia and Montenegro
Romania
is currently being developed for western Europe. FYR of Macedonia
The establishment of the PEEN is supported by Croatia
Bulgaria
legal provisions and instruments under various Bosnia and Herzegovina
conventions and international agreements Albania
(Bennett, 2002; Bonnin, 2004), including the Ramsar Georgia
Azerbaijan
Convention, the Bonn Convention, the Man and the Armenia
Biosphere (MAB) Biosphere Reserves Programme, Uzbekistan
Turkmenistan
the Bern Convention, the Alpine Convention and Taijikistan
especially the Carpathian Convention, which Kyrgyzstan
explicitly refers to the need for a Carpathian Kazakhstan
Ukraine
ecological network as a integral part of the PEEN. Republic of Moldova
At the national level, European and Central Asian Belarus
Russian Federation
countries contribute to the PEEN through their own
0 5 10 15 20
system of protected areas. The share of protected
Land territory (%)
areas in the EECCA and SEE countries is shown in
Figure 4.6. Sources: CDDA, 2006 (Serbia and Montenegro, Romania, Former
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Croatia, Bulgaria,
Bosnia and Herzgovina, Albania); GEF/UNEP/WWF, 2006
(Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Taijikistan, Kyrgyzstan,
In addition to their policy on protected areas, a Kazakhstan); WWF, 2006 (Georgia, Azerbaijan, Armenia).
growing number of countries are considering Russian Ministry of Natural Resources, 2006 (Russia);
Ministry of Natural Resources and protection of the
the need to ensure connectivity between core Environment of Belarus, 2006 (Belarus).

Biodiversity
WWF, as a guideline for future action towards an comprised 20 862 sites under the Habitats Directive,
ecological network in this region. The Natura 2000 including 1 248 marine sites (12.2 % of the land
network will be the EU's main contribution to the area of the EU is covered) and 4 617 sites under the
PEEN (see section below). Birds Directive, including 484 marine sites (9.9 %
of the land area of the EU is covered, see Map 4.3).
Combined, the Habitats Directive and Birds Directive
4.3.2 Natura 2000 sites cover about 17 % of the total EU land area.
Article 10 of the Habitats Directive also refers to
The Natura 2000 Network comprises Special ecological coherence, although it does not mention
Protection Areas (SPAs) under the Birds Directive corridors specifically or make them mandatory.
and Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) under the
Habitats Directive (European Commission 1996–2006, The European Commission Communication
2005). In December 2006, the Natura 2000 network Halting the Loss of Biodiversity by 2010 and beyond —
Map 4.2 Indicative map of the Pan‑European Ecological Network for central and eastern Europe
Pan-European Ecological
Network for central and
eastern Europe
Very large area: 5

times or larger than
the critical size for
the most demanding
species
Large area: 1–5
times the critical size.
Enlargement or
connection by
corridors desirable
Suboptimal size.
Enlargement and/or
connection to other
areas highly desirable
Major parts are

cultivated
Internationally
designated or
acknowledged
areas/sites
Corridor for forest

habitat
Outside report
coverage
0
0 250
250 500 750 1000
1000 Km
Source: Bouwma et al., 2002.

Biodiversity
Box 4.5 Transboundary initiatives on protected areas in Central Asia
Initiated by WWF-Central Asia, a framework for past three years: 600 000 ha in Kazakhstan and
the creation of a coherent ecological network in 200 000 ha in Kyrgyzstan.
Central Asia was approved in 2006 by the Central
Asian Intergovernmental Sustainable Development
Commission. The initiative has stimulated the
establishment of new protected areas over the Source: GEF/UNEP/WWF, 2006.
40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°

Econet of Central Asia
RUSSIAN
FEDERATION Core area
50°
50° Corridor
Buffer zone
Outside report
coverage
KAZAKHSTAN
UZBEKISTAN 40°
40° AZER- KYRGYZSTAN
BAIJAN
TURKMENISTAN CHINA
TAJIKISTAN
IRAN
0 500 1000 Km AFGANISTAN
50° 60° 70° 80°
Sustaining Ecosystem Services for Human Well-Being their land territory, followed by Portugal, Greece,
(European Commission, 2006) calls for Member Estonia, Hungary, and Luxembourg, ranging from
States to reinforce the coherence and connectivity 10 % to 17 % of their territories. As for the marine
of the Natura 2000 network. It also highlights environment, Germany makes by far the largest
the need to restore biodiversity and ecosystem contribution (Figure 4.7b).
services in non‑protected rural areas of the EU.
Compliance with these objectives is the key to the The degree to which countries are considered to have
implementation of the PEEN within the EU. fulfilled their obligations with regard to site proposals
under the Habitats Directive is assessed through the
In terms of percentage of their territory covered, Sufficiency Index (SI). Among the EU‑15, Denmark,
Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain make the highest the Netherlands and Belgium have completely
contribution under the Birds Directive — 18–25 % fulfilled their obligations (SI 100 %), followed closely
of the land territory — closely followed by by Germany, Greece and Italy, while Finland is still
Hungary, Cyprus, Estonia and the Netherlands. 32 % off target. Among the EU‑10, Malta fulfilled
Germany, Denmark, Poland, Estonia, Finland and 92 % of its obligation; followed by Latvia, 90 %;
the Netherlands make a significant contribution to Hungary, 87 %; and Estonia, 85 % (see Figure 4.8).
the marine part (Figure 4.7a). Slovenia and Spain
make the highest contribution under the Habitats A consistent scheme for monitoring the
Directive with 32 % and 23 %, respectively, of conservation status of Natura 2000 sites is being

Biodiversity
developed (see also Section 4.6). A preliminary almost 900 species and 220 habitats covered by the
survey of 20 species and eight habitats under Birds and Habitats Directives is not yet possible.
the Birds and Habitats Directives revealed a
'favourable' conservation status in only 6 % of the
sample. Loggerhead turtles in the Mediterranean, 4.3.3 Emerald network
brown bears in Austria and the Eurasian lynx
in the Alps (European Habitats Forum, 2006) The Emerald network, initiated under the Bern
were considered among the 12 species with Convention on the Conservation of European
a 'bad' conservation status.This small and Wildlife and Natural Habitats, aims to extend
non‑representative sample does not allow a common approach to the designation and
any extrapolation, and unfortunately general management of protected areas, equivalent to
assessment of the conservation status of the Natura 2000, to non-EU countries in Europe and
Map 4.3 Distribution of Natura 2000 sites across EU Member States
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60°

Distribution of Natura
2000 sites across EU-25
Natura 2000 sites

Outside report
60°
coverage
60°
50°
50°
40°
40°
-30°
Az ores Is.
Can ary Is.
30° 40°
30°
30°
Madeira
-30° Is. 0 500 1000 1500 Km
0° 10° 20° 30°
Source: EEA-ETC/BD, December 2006.

Biodiversity
Figure 4.7 Proportion of national land territory and marine surface area protected under the Birds and Habitats
Directives
a: Designated as Special Protection Areas (SPAs) under the Birds Directive
35 18 000
16 000
30
14 000
25
12 000
20
10 000
15 8 000
6 000
10
4 000
5
2 000
0 0
ria m (1) blic any ark nia ain nd nce ece ary nd aly nia urg via lta nds nd gal en nia kia om
st giu s u to Sp inla Fra e g la It ua bo La
t Ma la la u ed ove ova d
Au Bel pru Rep erm en Es
m
Gr Hun Ire ith em er Po Port Sw ng
y G D
F
L x t h Sl Sl Ki
C c h u N e e d
e L it
Cz Un
Land territory (%) Marine area (km²)
b: Proposed as Sites of Community Interest (SCIs) under the Habitats Directive
35 20 000
18 000
30
16 000
25 14 000
12 000
20
10 000
15
8 000
10 6 000
4 000
5
2 000
0 0
ria m 1) lic any ark nia ain and nce ece ary and taly nia urg tvia alta nds and gal den nia kia om
st giu s ( ub m sto Sp inl Fra e g l I a bo
La M erla Po
l a
rtu we love lov ingd
Au Bel pru Rep erm en E F Gr Hun Ire hu Po S
Cy ch G D Lit xem et
h S S
d
K
e L u N e
Cz it
Un
Land territory (%) Marine area (km²)

Note: (1) = The area of the Member State and the % corresponds to the area of Cyprus where the Community acquis applies at present,
according to Protocol 10 of the Accession Treaty of Cyprus.
Source: EEA-ETC/BD, December 2006.

Biodiversity
Figure 4.8 Sufficiency of Member State proposals for designating sites under the Habitats Directive
%
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Be ds
k
m ly
n
lta
Fr n
ce
ia
Po ia
Ir al
Es ry
ia
Fi ia
Cz Lith d
Re ia
Cy c
Po s
nd
i
u
ar
an
ec
ni
ur
an
an
ai
e
n
bl
a
tv
ug
en
ak
n
iu
do
ga
an
pr
ed
la
d Ma
st
rla
It
Sp
to
ua
m
bo
pu
re
m
el
nl
La
lg
ov
ov
rt
ng
Au
un
Sw
en
he
G
er
Sl
Sl
Ki
H
D
xe
et
h
N
Lu
ec
te
ni
U
EU-15 EU-10
Source: EEA-ETC/BD, January 2007.
northern Africa (Council of Europe, 1999). Pilot 4.4 Achieving sustainable use:
projects have been implemented in the 12 new EU forestry and agriculture
Member States before they joined the EU, Norway,
Switzerland, Iceland, western Balkans, Turkey, 4.4.1 Ecosystem services
the Republic of Moldova, the Russian Federation,
Ukraine, Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan and The stability of ecosystems and the services they
two African countries (Burkina Faso and Senegal). provide depend to a large extent on their biodiversity
The purpose of these pilot projects is to identify, for and the complex interactions between species and
further protection, Areas of Special Conservation their environment. Human-induced disturbances
Interest (ASCIs), containing the species and habitats may affect the dynamics within ecosystems and lead
listed in Resolutions No. 4 and 6 of the Standing to irreversible damage. The majority of the ecosystem
Committee to the Bern Convention and Annexes I services that support life on Earth are being degraded
and II of the Habitats Directive. or used unsustainably (Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment (MA), 2005). In its analysis, the MA
As a continuation of the initial pilot projects, distinguishes between provisioning services (food,
important further work has been carried out freshwater, roundwood, fuelwood etc.), regulating
in six south eastern European countries under services (climate, disease and water regulation) and
a Community Assistance for Reconstruction, cultural services (non-material benefits).
Development and Stabilisation (CARDS) regional
programme, resulting in more than 80 % of ASCIs One aspect of sustainable use is the exploitation
being identified in each country (Map 4.4). of local resources and their (global) significance.
Food production, for example, seems warranted
The Emerald initiative has been very useful for the at the European scale, but is in fact vulnerable and
EU-12 countries in preparing their contribution to associated with major impacts on the environment.
the Natura 2000 network before accession. From a Worldwide, only 14 animal species and four plant
pan-European perspective, the initiative should help species (wheat, maize, rice and potato) account
stimulate the completion of national networks of for 90 % of our food (EEA, 2006a). In large parts of
protected areas in other European countries. Europe, increasingly intensive food production and

Biodiversity
Map 4.4 Proposed ASCIs under the Emerald process, in the western Balkans area (Albania, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Croatia, FYR of Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro)
15° 20°
Proposed areas of
conservation interest
H U N G A R Y
under the Emerald
process, West Balkan
SL O V E N I A R O M A N I A 45°
Areas of conservation
Za g re b
C R O A T I A Capitals
Be l gr a de
45°
B O S N I A -
H E R Z E G O V I N A
S E R B I A
Sa r a je vo
BULGARIA
M O N T E -
N E G R O
Po d go r ic a
Sk o pj e
FYR of
MACEDONIA
I T A L Y
Tir ana
AL B A N I A
40°
G R E E C E
0
40° 100 15° 200 300 Km 20°
Source: EEA-ETC/BD, December 2006, unpublished.
the resulting large scale monocultures have had a 4.4.2 Forestry

significant impact on biodiversity and its associated
regulating and cultural services. In addition, care Trends and pressures on biodiversity
has to be taken that the original gene pool from The forest area of Europe amounts to
which the cultivated species originate is maintained 10.3 million km2 (79 % of which is located in
(see Box 4.6). the Russian Federation). About one quarter is
considered as primary forest; that is, without clearly
Consumption in Europe can also have significant visible indications of human activities. Another
impacts on ecosystems elsewhere. This 'ecological 50 % is modified natural forests, with little human
footprint' is difficult to measure, but current estimates influence, and the rest heavily modified. In many
suggest that the area needed to provide essential parts of WCE the majority of forest consists of
ecosystem services to the European population plantations. The low degree of naturalness of these
exceeds Europe's surface by a factor of two (EEA, forests is reflected by their low share of deadwood,
2006a). an important indicator of forest biodiversity. Rough
estimates based on total biomass content suggest
The following sections explore sustainability issues that deadwood quantities in the Russian Federation
in more detail for two sectors that depend heavily are three times higher than in north-western Europe
on and affect biodiversity in Europe: forestry and (UNECE/FAO, 2005a). More comprehensive data
agriculture. will be available in the near future from country

Biodiversity
Box 4.6 Global centres of crop origin
Our major food crops have come mainly from high It was Nikolai Vavilov (1887–1943) who pioneered
mountain valleys, isolated from each other to a the study of the systematics of cultivated plants
large extent and with a very great habitat range. and the centres of origin of the world's crops. In
Europe and Central Asia contain three such centres: Transcaucasia and several countries then within the
Soviet Union, he discovered a wealth of strains of
cereals, forage grasses, root crops and vegetables,
Central Asia (Tadjikistan, Uzbekistan, etc.) is a as well as an extraordinary richness of local fruit
centre of the wild relatives of crops such as wheats, tree varieties 'surpassing many other countries in
rye and many herbaceous legumes, as well as the world'. By the 1930s, the Soviet Union had built
seed‑sown root crops and fruits, some 42 species. up an exceptionally complete collection of strains of
The Mediterranean basin is a centre of the wild the world's most important crops.
relatives of crops such as wheats, barleys, forage
plants, vegetables and fruits, especially spices and
ethereal oil plants, some 84 species. The challenge of safeguarding these reservoirs of
genes to ensure resistance to disease and pests,
Near East (including Transcaucasia, Iran and and many other qualities, is today more important
Turkmenistan) is a centre of the wild relatives of than ever.
crops such as wheats, rye, oats, seed and forage
legumes and fruits, some 83 species.
Sources: Bioversity Intenational; Vavilov, N. I., 1992.
Global centres of
crop origin
Crop origin
centres
Near East Central

Asia China
Mediterranean
India
Southern Mexico
and
Central America
Brazil
and
Peru, Paraguay Indo-Malaya
Ecuador,
Bolivia
Chile
0 3000 6000 Km
Source: N. Vavilov, 1949, Chronica Botanica Vol 13. Waltham, Massachusetts, adapted by Reid, Walter and Kenton Miller, 1989.
reporting to the Ministerial Conference on the Europe is 1.8 billion m3, more than half of which
Protection of Forests in Europe (MCPFE). is in the Russian Federation. About 180 million m3
of wood were harvested in the Russian Federation
The total growing stock in Europe is around during 2005, which is less than 20 % of its NAI. In
109 billion m3, of which 80 billion m3 are in the comparison, WCE harvests about 60 % of its NAI,
Russian Federation, about 19 billion m3 in WCE the SEE region and eastern Europe about one third,
and about 4.5 billion m3 in SEE (UNECE/FAO, the Central Asian region about one fifth, and the
2005a). The total net annual increment (NAI) in Caucasus about one eighth (UNECE/FAO, 2000).

Biodiversity
Industrial roundwood is the most important the Caucasus (FAO/ECE/ILO, 2003; FAO/ECE/
forest product. The amount harvested each year ILO, 2004), and reductions in forest fire service
has increased since 1990 in WCE, the Caucasus capacities in EECCA countries have added to the
and Central Asia, whereas it has declined by problem (Dimitrakopoulus and Mitsopoulus, 2006;
50 % in eastern Europe due to the crisis in the Goldammer, 2003; Goldammer, 2006). The summer
Russian forestry industry. Over the same period, of 2003 was one of the most severe fire seasons in
the harvesting of industrial roundwood has been southern Europe, particularly Portugal and France,
quite stable in the SEE (UNECE/FAO, 2005a). In all in recent decades (European Commission, 2004a).
UNECE scenarios, roundwood harvesting in WCE In the Balkan region, Croatia, Turkey, the Former
and eastern Europe appears to be sustainable, at Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and Bulgaria
least for the next 15 years. UNECE does, however, were most exposed to forest fires during the period
identify a number of problems related to economic 1988–2004, with a strong peak in 2000 (Nikolov,
viability, institutional weakness in eastern Europe, 2006). Large forest areas in Kazakhstan were
shortcomings in governance and skills, and forest also affected (Goldammer, 2006), while official
fires (UNECE/FAO, 2005b). Russian Federation statistics report between 20 000
and 40 000 fires annually. Fires in Belarus and
In some regions fuelwood and non-wood Ukraine are more small-scale (Goldammer, 2006).
forest products (such as animal fodder, berries, The number of fires and the annual burnt area
mushrooms, nuts, seeds, cork, meat and skins) in northern and central Europe and in the Baltic
remain important for the rural population, especially countries has been rather stable during the past
in the Caucasus, Central Asia, the Balkans, and decade.
Turkey (UNECE/FAO, 2005a). Poverty may lead to
over-exploitation and impact on forest biodiversity, Policy responses
especially around human settlements (CAREC, Most countries in Europe have prepared or
2005). are in the process of preparing national forest
programmes according to the MCPFE guidelines
A special threat to forest biodiversity is illegal (MCPFE Vienna Resolution V1). Linkages between
logging, often rooted in poverty, but also stimulated an ecosystem approach and sustainable forest
by commercial incentives, and enhanced by flaws management have been successfully established
in forest legislation and its enforcement. Illegal and integrated into forest policy frameworks.
logging tends to be more frequent in private than The total area of forest formally designated for
in public forests, and may also occur in protected production and extraction of forest goods has
forests and forest reserves (Bouriaud and Niskanen, decreased over the past 15 years (most significantly
2003; Ottitsch et al., 2005). In some cases it is a in Sweden, Finland, Ukraine, Romania and
side effect of cross border conflicts. Illegal logging Belarus). National policies are increasingly geared
is most frequent in the Balkan region, the Baltic towards the development of services such as nature
countries, the Russian Federation, the Caucasus, conservation and recreation. The area of forest
Central Asia and in some central and eastern designated for the conservation of biodiversity
European countries (see Map 4.5). Definitions of has increased considerably in Spain, Italy,
illegal logging vary between organisations and the Kazakhstan and Croatia. There has been a slight
estimates of environmental NGOs tend to be higher overall decrease of forest with protective functions
than governmental and industry estimates (Ottitsch (soil, water) since 2000, with, nonetheless, strong
et al., 2005; CEPF, 2003/2004; Gunes and Elvan, 2005; increases in Albania, Estonia, Iceland, Lithuania
UN‑ECE/FAO, 2004; WWF, 2004, 2005a, 2005b; and the United Kingdom. The Caucasus shows a
IUCN and CCI RF, 2005; Illegal logging Info, 2006). negative trend for both protective and production
functions (UNECE/FAO, 2005a). Implementation
Changes in traditional land use and climate have of the Natura 2000 and Emerald networks, inside
increased the number, magnitude and frequency and outside the EU respectively has provided an
of forest fires in the Mediterranean and SEE important impetus for protecting the biodiversity
regions, the Russian Federation, Central Asia and of Europe's forests.

Biodiversity
Map 4.5 Extent of illegal logging in selected countries
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70°
Extent of illegal logging
Official estimates
Total harvested volume %
Not of concern
60° 0–1
1–2
2–10
10–35
50°
No data
Outside report
coverage
50°
40°
40°
0 500 1000 1500 Km

0° 10° 20° 30° 40°
Note: Illegal logging takes place when timber is harvested in violation of national laws (European Commission, COM(2003)251 final).
Sources: UNECE/FAO, 2004; Bouriaud, 2005; Ottitsch et al., 2005, WWF, 2004; WWF, 2005a; WWF, 2005b.
4.4.3 Agriculture 50 % in the use of nitrogenous fertiliser in countries

such as Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland,
Trends and pressures on biodiversity Romania and Slovakia. Compared with the EU‑15,
Agricultural land covers about 50 % of Europe's current input rates in these countries are low, but
total land surface with the share varying the new agro‑economic framework after accession
considerably between countries (FAOSTAT, is expected to lead to some intensification (EEA,
2001). Agriculture‑related biodiversity is highest 2004a).
in traditional extensive farming systems, often
dominated by semi-natural grasslands, but these are After the political changes in the Russian Federation,
suffering from continuing land abandonment and 3.8 million ha of pasture were abandoned and
intensification (EEA, 2004b). turned into shrubland between 1990 and 1994
(National Report to CBD Russia, 1998) and around
In western Europe (EU‑15), agriculture has 20 million ha of arable land is currently abandoned
intensified continuously over recent decades, (Ioffe and Al, 2004). Overgrazing is frequent in
reflected by a steady increase in fertiliser inputs and Romania, the Caucasus and Central Asia, with,
milk and cereal yields: the wheat yield, for example, for example, up to 25 % of pastures in Kyrgyzstan
has roughly trebled since the early 1960s (FAOSTAT, severely degraded through overgrazing (National
2003). In central and eastern Europe investments Report to CBD for Armenia, 2006; National
in the agricultural sector dropped substantially Biodiversity Action Plan Tajikistan, 2003; National
during the time of political and economic change Biodiversity Action Plan Kyrgyzstan, 1998; National
in the 1990s, reflected by a sudden drop of about Biodiversity Action Plan Romania, 1996).

Biodiversity
Irrigation, salinisation and overgrazing are major Figure 4.9 Share of organic farming per country in the
threats to desert, steppe, pasture and, to a lesser pan‑European region, 2004
extent, mountain ecosystems in Uzbekistan,
Liechtenstein
Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan (National Report to
Austria
CBD Uzbekistan, 1998; National Biodiversity Action Switzerland
Plan Kazakhstan, 1999; National Report to CBD Italy
Azerbaijan, 2004). Erosion and desertification have Czech Republic
affected more than 120 million ha in Kazakhstan Finland
(National Biodiversity Action Plan Kazakhstan, Sweden

Greece
1999). In Azerbaijan, uncontrolled imports and
Denmark
excessive use of pesticides and agrochemicals Estonia
further add to the pressures on biodiversity Portugal
(National Report to CBD Azerbaijan, 2004) (see also Slovenia
Section 2.3, Inland waters). Germany
United Kingdom
Norway
Policy responses
The pressures exerted by agriculture on the Latvia
environment, including those on biodiversity, have Hungary
led to policy responses, for example within the Spain
framework of the EU common agricultural policy Slovakia
Luxembourg
(CAP). In subsequent reforms (1992, 1999, 2003)
Netherlands
the CAP has been geared increasingly to non trade Kyrgyzstan
concerns, for example through financial support for France
specific measures beneficial to the environment and Croatia
the decoupling of subsidies from production. Belgium
Lithuania
Ireland
Agri-environment schemes are the most relevant
Cyprus
policy tool for biodiversity conservation on Poland
farmland, although they are not necessarily aimed Romania
at biodiversity goals. In the EU, the share of Azerbaijan
agricultural land under these schemes varies from Turkey
Iceland
less than 5 % in the Netherlands and Greece to
Malta
more than 80 % in Austria, Sweden, Finland and FYR of Macedonia
Luxembourg (EEA, 2006b). Agri-environmental Armenia
approaches in the EECCA and SEE regions are Bulgaria
very varied and usually geared towards general Kazakhstan
sustainability issues (see Box 4.7). Ukraine

Albania
Belarus
Organic farming has developed rapidly since the Bosnia and Herzegovina
beginning of the 1990s, with, by 2004, 6.5 million Georgia
ha in Europe managed organically by around Russian Federation
167 000 farms. Of these, more than 5.8 million ha Republic of Moldova
Tajikistan
were in the EU — 3.4 % of the utilised agricultural
Turkmenistan
area — where there are almost 140 000 organic
Uzbekistan
farms. In the EECCA and SEE regions organic 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
farming covers less than 0.5 % of the agricultural %
land (see Figure 4.9). In most countries organic Share of organic farming in
total agricultural area (%)
farming is supported by legislation and direct
payments. In the EU, the European Organic Action Sources: Organic Centre of Wales, 2006; IFOAM 2006.
Plan is being implemented (Willer and Yussefi,

Biodiversity
2006). Two-thirds of the EECCA and SEE countries Type 1: farmland with a high proportion of
have introduced incentives, such as organic farming semi‑natural vegetation;
schemes and accreditation, but public awareness is
still very limited. Type 2: farmland with a mosaic of low intensity
agriculture and natural and structural elements, such
The identification and conservation of high nature as field margins, hedgerows, stonewalls, patches of
value (HNV) farmland was given high priority woodland or scrub, and small rivers;
in the Kiev Resolution on Biodiversity (UNECE,
2003a). It was agreed to identify all high nature value Type 3: farmland supporting rare species or a high
areas in the pan-European region by 2006, and that proportion of European or world populations.
a substantial proportion of these areas would be
brought under biodiversity sensitive management by A map of HNV farmland prepared for the European
2008. Environment Agency (Andersen et al., 2003; EEA,
2004b) is currently being updated, using the latest
Three main categories of high nature value farmland Corine land cover data (2000), supplemented by
are (adapted after Andersen et al., 2003): data on Natura 2000 sites, Important Bird Areas
Map 4.6 Preliminary distribution map of high nature value farmland in the WCE countries
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° Preliminary distribution
map of high nature value
(HNV) farmland in we stern
and central Europe
Natura 2000
60°
Prime butterfly areas
Important bird areas
60°
HNV farmland %
(Corine land cover
based estimate)
0
1–25
25–50
50–75
50°
75–100
50°
Outside report
coverage
40°
40°
0 500 1000 1500 Km

0° 10° 20° 30°
Note: This map is subject to further improvement. Important bird areas will be reselected on the basis of an updated list of HNV farmland
birds. In addition, refinements on the basis of national datasets may be carried out.
Source: Preliminary data EEA/DG JRC.

Biodiversity
Box 4.7 Pasture rehabilitation in Armenia
In Armenia the extensive development of land and most remote ones. Several measures have been taken
overgrazing have led to the serious degradation including the restoration and construction of about
of high nature value agricultural lands. In 2005, 200 cattle watering facilities in 45 communities, and
the government's Decree No. 800 began the the application of improved fertilising methods to
implementation of such measures as the evaluation 1 770 ha of pastures and grasslands. One of the most
and improvement of natural pastures. The evaluation important projects is a joint pasture reconstruction
was carried out under the natural resources programme carried out by the government and the
management and poverty reduction project and the International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dry
'Food safety policy of Armenia' (2004) on 9 500 ha of Areas (ICARDA). Within this, experts have developed
pastures in 59 communities. surface improvement technology to raise the quality of
pastures and teach farmers sustainable management
methods — as a result 3 300 ha of pastures and
The 'Strategy on Development of Agriculture in
grasslands will be improved.
Armenia' pinpoints the need for natural rehabilitation
of pastures and grasslands to mitigate pressures on
them near settlements and make better use of the Source: Third National Report to the CBD, 2006.
(Heath and Evans, 2000), Prime Butterfly Areas (van farming systems. Regional case studies are necessary
Swaay and Warren, 2003) and national data sets. A to analyse the links between biodiversity, agricultural
preliminary updated map (2) of HNV farmland is practices, and policy support.
shown in Map 4.6. SEE and EECCA are not covered
in the data sets and, hence, are not represented. The
share of HNV farmland in these regions is most 4.5 Controlling invasive alien
probably higher than in WCE, but the currently species
available data do not allow a precise estimate. The
Kiev target of identifying high nature value farmland Trends and pressures on biodiversity
in the pan-European region by 2006 has thus only Invasive alien species are species whose introduction
partly been met. and/or spread outside their natural distribution
range threaten biological diversity (CBD, 2007).
As a consequence, achievement of Kiev's second This threat is considered one of the major global
target — favourable management in place by 2008 — pressures on biodiversity (Millennium Ecosystem
is also in doubt. The preliminary data for EU‑25 show Assessment — MA, 2005). Globalisation processes
that agri-environment support is not correlated with have created new pathways for the introduction of
the share of HNV farmland per country (EEA, 2004b). alien species to Europe and elsewhere. Most recent
A limited proportion of HNV farmland is designated introductions have happened unintentionally,
as protected sites. Regions with a high proportion of through trade, transport — for example in ship
such protected farmland habitats do not appear to be ballast water — and through tourism. In the past,
particularly targeted by agri-environment schemes, alien species were often deliberately introduced for
nor do they have a high share of organic farming hunting purposes and as resources for agriculture,
(EEA, 2006a). For the SEE and EECCA regions, lack of aquaculture, gardening, pest control, erosion
data prevents a quantitative assessment. control, etc. Some of them have become invasive,
out-competing native species and taking over their
To judge the effectiveness and future prospects of niches.
policy interventions, it is crucial not only to obtain
ecological data, but also to gain detailed insight into Figure 4.10 shows the recorded establishment
the socio-economic mechanisms underlying HNV of alien species in terrestrial and freshwater
(2) The data on HNV farmland presented here aim at showing the distribution of HNV farmland areas in Europe based on a consistent
methodology for all countries. Work is also ongoing for defining an indicator on 'high nature value farmland and forestry' in the context
of evaluating EU rural development programmes. This rural development indicator will integrate not only the 'state' of HNV areas (as
presented in Map 4.6) but also 'driving forces' (e.g. management systems) supporting and maintaining HNV farmland and forestry.

Biodiversity
environments in parts of Europe (see Chapter 5 ecosystems; a number of species occur in more
for coverage of invasive alien species in the marine than one ecosystem. Figure 4.11 shows that since
environment). The rising trend indicates that the 1950, on average more than one of the listed species
situation is far from under control, with impacts establishes itself each year, and there is no clear sign
on biodiversity expected to increase because of that the situation is improving.
the growing number of species involved, and the
increasing vulnerability of ecosystems to such The geographical distribution of the 121 terrestrial
invasions, which results from fragmentation and and freshwater species on the list of worst invasive
climate change. species is shown in Map 4.7. The distribution
appears rather even but with proportionally
Not all invasives are equally harmful to native low numbers in the large northern and eastern
biodiversity. The 'worst invasive alien species' in countries. These country figures are only very rough
Europe have therefore been identified as a first indications of the actual impact, which may differ
step in developing the Convention on Biological markedly between species and regions.
Diversity indicator 'Trends in invasive alien species'
(EEA/SEBI 2010, 2006). The 163 species on the list, Policy responses
of which vascular plants are the biggest taxonomic The Kiev Resolution on Biodiversity (UNECE,
group with 39 species, have a significant impact 2003a) urges the European countries to implement
on native biodiversity at the genetic, species or the European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species as
ecosystem levels, and may also affect human health, established under the Bern Convention (Council of
society or the economy. The list includes 53 species Europe, 2003) and in accordance with the Guiding
in the marine environment, 18 in brackish waters, Principles for Invasive Alien Species under the
50 in freshwaters and wetlands and 75 in terrestrial Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 2002b) (3).
Figure 4.10 Cumulative number of alien species established in 11 Nordic and Baltic countries* since 1900
Cumulative number of species (Terrestrial environment) Cumulative number of species (Freshwater environment)
2000 160
1800
140
1600
120
1400
1200 100
1000 80
800 60
600
40
400
200 20
0 0
00 909 919 929 939 949 959 969 979 989 999 00– own 00 09 19 29 39 49 59 69 79 89 99 0– wn
19 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 20 kn 19 –19 –19 –19 –19 –19 –19 –19 –19 –19 –19 200 kno
> 00– 10– 20– 30– 40– 50– 60– 70– 80– 90– > 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Un
Un 0
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19
Year of introduction Year of introduction
Primary producers and fungi Primary producers
Vertebrates Vertebrates
Invertebrates Invertebrates
Note: * = Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Germany and the Russian Federation (west of
Ural).
Sources: EEA/SEBI 2010, 2007; NOBANIS, 2007.
(3) Additional examples of international agreements are e.g. the FAO Codes of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (FAO, 1995), the
International Plant Protection Convention and the International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships Ballast Water
and Sediments established by the International Maritime Organization under the United Nations.

Biodiversity
Figure 4.12 shows the response by the countries so Figure 4.11 Establishment in the pan-European
far. region of the worst invasive alien species
threatening biodiversity (all ecosystems)
The target of half of the countries in the Cumulative number of species

pan‑European region meeting the obligations of 180
the Bern Convention and the CBD on invasive alien 160
species through national strategies and planning by 140
2008 seems achievable; indeed, the majority of the 120
countries have paid explicit attention to invasive alien 100
species in their biodiversity strategies as reported 80
to CBD. Dedicated National Strategies on Invasive 60
Alien Species have been established, for example, in 40
Austria, Norway and the United Kingdom and are 20
in preparation in a number of other WCE countries. 0
A few countries, such as the Netherlands, have taken 50
–
95
96
97
98
99
00
19
–1
–1
–1
–1
–1
20
action to control invasives, but are yet to formalise
<
50
60
70
80
90
19
19
19
19
19
this in a national strategy or report it to CBD. Policy
responses in EECCA are lagging somewhat behind Source: EEA/SEBI 2010, 2007 Expert Group on trends in invasive
alien species.
and may need to be supported through capacity
building. A more in‑depth analysis of how the
countries are turning the national strategies into which are usually both difficult and costly (see
actions should be carried out. Boxes 4.8 and 4.9). Within the EU, the LIFE
programme finances management actions to
Actions necessary to counter invasive alien species control invasive alien species. During the period
include measures for management and restoration 1992–2002 in total approximately EUR 28 million
Map 4.7 Number of species in the pan-European region listed as 'worst invasive alien species threatening
biodiversity in Europe' occurring in terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
Number of worst
invasive alien
species registered
per country
8
40° Species per 1 000 km²
48 53
60°
< 0.10
44 39
36 13 0.10–0.25
43
0.25–0.7
37 12
69 39 60 0.7–3.0
34 63 25
Outside report
50°
49 58 14 coverage
46 44 43
19 19
46 40 30°
66 43 17 16
40 36 39 13
35 34
67
28 12 34
40° 29 22
34 21
38
30
0 500 1000 1500 Km 28
0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50°
17
Note: Species native to a country are not included in figures for this country.
Source: EEA/SEBI 2010, 2006 Expert Group on trends in invasive alien species.

Biodiversity
Figure 4.12 Progress in developing national strategies for invasive alien species
WCE (n = 32) SEE (n = 8) EECCA (n = 12)
A national strategy on invasive alien species is established or the work developing such a strategy is in progress
Invasive alien species explicitly recognised in national biodiversity strategy/action plan reported to CBD
Action for invasive alien species not identified on national level

No information
Note: A country is assigned to one category only, a specific national strategy for invasive alien species is given priority over general national
biodiversity strategies/action plans. Information is lacking from the following countries: WCE: Monaco, San Marino and Andorra;
EECCA: Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Belarus.
Sources: Council of Europe, 2004; EEA/SEBI 2010 Expert Group on trends in invasive alien species.
was spent in LIFE actions to manage invasive alien 2004). When fully implemented, monitoring under
species (European Commission, 2004b). The list of the Birds and the Habitats Directives, which is
worst invasive species that threaten biodiversity in compulsory, will provide a regular and updated
Europe can serve as a tool to prioritise management assessment of the status of biodiversity components
actions, in establishing monitoring of invasive alien of Community interest (see also Section 4.3).
species and 'early warning' systems.
The 2010 target to halt biodiversity loss has
initiated development of headline indicators and
4.6 Getting the message across: reporting processes at global level (Convention on
monitoring and public Biological Diversity), at pan-European level (Kiev
awareness Resolution on Biodiversity), and at EU level (the
Malahide Declaration, endorsed by the Environment
Biodiversity indicators and monitoring Council (European Commission, 2004c)). The Kiev
Due to its broad scope and complexity, biodiversity Resolution states that by 2008, a coherent European
has long suffered from uncoordinated and scattered programme on biodiversity monitoring and reporting,
monitoring across Europe. Recent surveys have facilitated by the European Biodiversity Monitoring and
shown that most programmes work in isolation Indicator Framework, will be operational in the region,
and only cover parts of biodiversity or focus on in support of nature and biodiversity policies, including,
specific targets, often not aimed at policy-makers by 2006, an agreed core set of biodiversity indicators,
(Nieto and Delbaere, 2005). Over recent years the developed with the active participation of the relevant
interest in monitoring has increased, politically stakeholders.
as well as in science and society. At the EU level,
legal instruments such as the Birds and Habitats In 2004 the European Environment Agency,
Directives and, to a lesser extent, the Water European Centre for Nature Conservation and
Framework Directive provide a framework for UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre
structured and focused monitoring of specific initiated the SEBI 2010 (4) process to support this
elements of biodiversity across the EU (Romao, (Nieto, 2005; McInnes, 2005, 2006a, 2006b). The
(4) Streamlining European 2010 Biodiversity Indicators. This project integrates the previous activities under the 'European Biodiversity
Monitoring and Indicator Framework' as referred to in the Kiev Resolution on Biodiversity.

Biodiversity
Box 4.8 Worst invasives — the iceplant
The iceplant, Carpobrotus edulis, native of the Cape

Region of South Africa, was intentionally introduced
into Europe as an ornamental plant, and for erosion
prevention, for example on roadsides. Today it is a
major problem in southern Europe and in the British
Isles. It grows abundantly on coastal dunes, shrub
areas and cliffs and in salt marshes, rapidly forming
large mono-specific stands, and creating extensive,
impenetrable and species-poor mats up to 50 cm
thick that displace native vegetation. The species
also alters the ecosystem by increasing the level of
organic carbon, acidifying the soils, and producing
considerable amounts of litter.
There is an urgent need for control and management

of the iceplant in Europe, and a number of actions
have been carried out at a high cost. A 2002–2005
LIFE Nature project (LIFE2000NAT/E/7355) for the Photo: The iceplant, Carpobrotus edulis, Cyprus
conservation of the endangered flora in Menorca, © Tor-Björn Larsson
Spain, focused on its control and eradication from
about 68.7 affected ha. Eradication, which could only
be carried out by hand, took more than 250 days and on Menorca. The results of the eradication were
involved moving some 2 500 m3 of plant material, at positive, but, as the plant has a high capacity to
a cost exceeding EUR 120 000. regrow, mainly through the soil seed bank, all the
cleared areas are visited about every six months, to
remove seedlings and vegetative regeneration.
As a result of opposition from two landowners, the
iceplant still remains in natural habitats in two places
Distribution of the iceplant in Menorca before eradication
Iceplant area Roads

Photo: Carpobrotus control campaign in Menorca, Spain
© Pere Fraga i Arguimbau
Sources: EEA/SEBI 2010, 2006; Vila et al., 2006; Consell Insular de Menorca, 2001.
SEBI headline biodiversity indicators are clustered across Europe and more integrated and regular
in focal areas defined by CBD (5). Beyond the reporting of results. An initial survey by the
production of indicators, the SEBI 2010 process European Environment Agency (EEA-ETC/BD)
should lead to harmonised long term monitoring in 18 European countries shows that, so far, only
(5) Decision VII/30 and SBSTTA Recommendation X/5.

Biodiversity
Box 4.9 Worst invasives — the American

mink
The American mink, Mustela vison, was brought

to Europe in the 1920s, mainly for fur farming.
Animals have since escaped or been released and
have established large breeding populations across
Europe, reducing populations of native water
mammals and birds, especially sea birds on which
it preys. The Bern Convention has recommended its
eradication, and a number of control campaigns have
been launched, usually involving hunters and other
volunteers in major trapping efforts. However, as it
is almost impossible to eradicate the American mink
from continental areas because of its high rate of
reproduction, eradication has only been successful
on some islands, such as in the outer archipelago of
south-western Finland and eastern Sweden, and as
shown in the example from Estonia below. Photo: Mink control campaign in Baltic coastal region, Sweden
© Anja Kjellsson/Swedish Association for Hunting and
Wildlife Management
A so far successful mink campaign took place on the
Estonian 1 000 km2 island of Hiiumaa in 1998–2000,
as a preparatory phase for establishment of the finally considered successful in 2000. A programme
island's critically endangered European mink, Mustela to re-establish an island population of European mink
lutreola, reserve. The American mink population was began which is only now showing the very first signs
established on the island by escapes from a single of success.
mink farm which closed in 1996. After local hunters
had only limited success, a specialist team from Sources: Convention on the Conservation of European
Belarus undertook four eradication campaigns in Wildlife and Natural Habitats. Standing Committee.
Recommendation No. 77 (1999) on the eradication
the course of which 53 American mink were caught. of non-native terrestrial vertebrates.
As subsequent inventories did not reveal signs of Hiiumaa example: Tiit Maran, Foundation LUTREOLA
any remaining American mink, the eradication was at Tallinn Zoo, Estonia.
a few headline indicators are reflected in national (EEA, in preparation). The development of the
monitoring programmes (Nieto Serradilla and biodiversity headline indicators is thus largely on
Delbaere, 2005). SEBI 2010 currently involves track, but adequate funding for the implementation
around 124 experts from 24 countries but will in 2008 of the corresponding monitoring has not yet
expand to reach a full pan-European dimension. been secured.
Several workshops (6) have been organised to
stimulate its implementation in EECCA and SEE. A Increasing public participation and environmental
lack of specialists in certain taxonomic groups, low awareness is advocated by the Århus Convention
awareness, the difficult accessibility of many areas, on Access to Information, Public Participation
and a lack of funding for monitoring have been in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in
reported as the main bottlenecks (Delbaere, 2006). Environmental Matters. The Convention on
The latter is also a serious problem in EU Member Biological Diversity acknowledged its relevance
States and EFTA countries. for biodiversity conservation by adopting a
Communication, Education and Public Awareness
As a first output of the SEBI 2010 process, a set (CEPA) Programme (CBD, 2002a). The European
of 24 indicators was delivered in January 2007 Ministers of Environment further committed
(6) Western Balkans, September 2006 (ECNC); Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia, April 2006 (ECNC); the Caucasus, May
2006 (IUCN).

Biodiversity
themselves in the Kiev Resolution on Biodiversity and others, in Apeldoorn, the Netherlands,
to implement national action plans in at least half bringing together more than 650 people and
of the countries by 2008 (see also Section 4.1). resulting in the Apeldoorn Appeal, which
stressed the relevance of connecting people
Progress towards this target was reported during and nature;
the Fourth Intergovernmental Conference on • the Beautiful Europe Initiative of NatureNet
Biodiversity in Europe held in Croatia in February Europe, focusing on finding common ground
2006 (Council of Europe and UNEP, 2006). Several between nature conservation and stakeholders
initiatives have been launched: in land use, finance and other sectors of society.
• the Countdown 2010 alliance, initiated by The third national biodiversity reports to the
IUCN — the World Conservation Union — and Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 2006)
supported by the pan-European Biological provide insight into progress with implementing
and Landscape Diversity Strategy Council, national action plans. Of the 52 countries covered
the European Commission, several European by this analysis, nine have CEPA action plans and
countries, and other organisations; nine others are currently preparing them, which
• a number of regional projects in central and yields a preliminary score of 35 % (Figure 4.13).
eastern Europe, including communication Thus, the Kiev target of 50 % by 2008 seems
projects developed and implemented by the realistic.
European Centre for Nature Conservation,
with the support of Norway, the Netherlands The most active EECCA country in implementing a
and Switzerland; CEPA strategy is Kazakhstan with its adoption, in
• the European Nature Conference organised in September 2002, of the Concept for Environmental
September 2005 by Natuurmonumenten, EEB, Education (CBD, 2006). The country is also active
ECNC, Eurosite and Europarcs with EUCC in the elaboration of the Education Strategy for
Box 4.10 The Caucasus region, a case for joint efforts in biodiversity conservation
As a biodiversity hot spot, the Caucasus ecoregion, Conservation and Sustainable Management of
which spans Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia and parts Natural Resources in the Caucasus.
of Iran, the Russian Federation and Turkey, has
been in particular focus over the last few years for
The Caucasian countries' Ministerial Conference
the implementation of monitoring programmes and
on Nature Protection in the Caucasus — Promoting
conservation.
Transboundary Cooperation for CBD Implementation
took place in Berlin in March 2006, organised by
The Caucasus Initiative was launched in 2001 by the KfW Development Bank and WWF-Germany. This
German Federal Ministry of Economic Development high-level political platform gave governments and
and Cooperation with the aim of enhancing international organisations an opportunity to discuss
collaboration with Caucasian countries on the their activities to protect biological diversity and to
protection of nature and biodiversity conservation announce commitments to their implementation of
through cross-border projects. the ECP. Additionally, a Regional Monitoring Network
was established to evaluate the current status of
biodiversity in the Caucasus ecoregion.
Within this framework and in collaboration with
the Critical Ecosystems Partnership Fund and the
MacArthur Foundation, WWF's Caucasus Programme A Caucasus Protected Areas Fund was also launched
Office prepared an Ecoregional Conservation Plan at the Caucasus Ministerial Conference. Developed
(ECP) — a comprehensive strategy to conserve and in collaboration by the German Government, WWF,
restore the ecoregion's biodiversity over several and Conservation International, the new fund will
decades that is also a practical instrument for the provide up to half of the basic annual operating
implementation of the Convention on Biological costs of priority protected areas.
Diversity (CBD). The implementation of the ECP is
to be guided by the Regional Council for Biodiversity Source: WWF, 2006a.

Biodiversity
Figure 4.13 Progress in the implementation of the Sustainable Development for the Asia-Pacific
Communication Education and Public region (UNESCO, 2005). Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,
Awareness (CEPA) Programme Uzbekistan and Armenia report that strategies are
14 under development. According to the Kyrgyz Third
12 National Biodiversity Report, public awareness at
10 a community level is currently very restricted, and
8 the potential role of NGOs in its development is
6 recognised.
4
2
Little information is available from SEE countries.
0
Romania reports that a communication strategy
EECCA SEE WCE has been developed, but has not yet been formally
endorsed. Among the WCE countries that have
No CEPA strategy reported, only Finland has developed a CEPA
CEPA strategy under development strategy and promoted public participation to
CEPA strategy developed and public participation any significant extent. According to the Finnish
promoted to a limited extent
development plan (2003–2008) for the National
CEPA strategy developed and public participation
promoted to a significant extent
Board of Education approved by the Council of
State in December 2003, principles of sustainable
No third National Biodiversity Report or no answer
to the question ecological, social and economic development are
fully integrated in the educational and research
Source: Third National Biodiversity Reports to the Convention on system.
Biological Diversity.

05
Marine and coastal
environment
Marine and coastal environment
5 Marine and coastal environment
Source: Mediterranean Sea, Cyprus © George Buttner
Key messages
• The 1995 Dobris report provided the first major support to the development of such policies. In
review of the state of seas in the pan-European addition, EECCA countries have environmental
region, while the subsequent 2003 Kiev report opportunities to benefit from, as many of
focused only on some key issues. The overall their coastal ecosystems remain unaffected by
picture in 2007 has hardly changed from that tourism, and water quality is not always under
in 1995: pressures on the seas and coasts as much pressure from nutrient-intensive
continue to be high. agricultural practices as in the EU.
• Goods and services from pan-European • Eutrophication remains a problem in all

marine and coastal ecosystems support major enclosed seas and sheltered marine waters
economic activities: In 2004, the EU‑15 across the pan-European region. There have
marine industry had an estimated value of been some improvements in the western seas,
EUR 310 billion. This is additional to other, less extending to the north-western shelf of the
obvious, services including climate change Black Sea, as a result of large cuts in point
regulation, flood protection, nutrient cycling and sources of nutrient pollution from industry
harbouring a wide array of animal and plant and wastewater by EU‑15 Member States.
species. All of these are put at risk if human However, diffuse nutrient sources, particularly
activities are not well managed. from agriculture, remain a major obstacle for
recovery and need increased control throughout
• EU policies and action from regional sea Europe. EECCA countries need to both
conventions have led to improvements in water reduce point sources and prevent the export
quality in the western seas. A single-issue of nutrients to marine waters from further
approach is, however, not enough to halt or agricultural expansion and intensification.
reverse the generally poor state of marine and
coastal ecosystems. New EU policies, following • Overfishing is still widespread in all
an ecosystem-based approach such as the pan‑European seas. Stocks in the North and
proposed Marine Strategy Directive, are now Celtic Seas — and probably the Black Sea — are
being developed or implemented. These policies in the poorest condition, whereas stocks around
offer an opportunity for the integration of Iceland and east Greenland are in the best.
existing measures. However, most commercial fish stocks are not
assessed and fishing quotas tend to be beyond
• The Black and Caspian Seas are generally limits recommended by scientists. Improved
in a poorer state than western seas. This fisheries policies and stricter enforcement
is partly due to their natural vulnerability are needed, especially to stop illegal fishing.
and partly because modern environmental There is evidence that fish stocks with high
policies have not been sufficiently introduced, reproductive rates can recover where proper
adopted or implemented across the EECCA measures are implemented.
region. EU and global instruments can offer

• Destructive fishing practices continue, though it • Population densities along the coasts of the
is hard to assess their extent. Bottom trawling pan-European region are high and continue
keeps benthic ecosystems in a juvenile stage to increase — with built-up areas growing at
with low biodiversity. This also affects fish the expense of agricultural, semi-natural and
and the whole marine ecosystem negatively. natural land in all EU Member States. Tourism
By‑catch and the discard of non-target fish, has played a crucial role, in particular along
birds, marine mammals and turtles also the Mediterranean coast, and is becoming a
contribute to the large-scale impacts of fisheries driver of development on the Black Sea coast.
on the ecosystem. The EU Integrated Coastal Zone Management
Recommendation has resulted in some
• The wider impacts of increasing aquaculture beneficial initiatives in the Baltic, Black and
were highlighted in the Kiev report, but still Mediterranean Sea regions and should be
seem largely unresolved. Increased demand extended to prevent further conflict of uses.
for fish feed from the growing mariculture
industry adds to the already high global fishing • Climate change will very likely cause large
pressures and appears to be an inefficient way scale alterations in sea temperature, sea
of producing marine proteins for humans. level, sea-ice cover, currents and the chemical
properties of the seas. Observed biological
• Measures taken to reduce concentrations impacts include altered growing seasons, and
of some well-known hazardous substances, shifts in species composition and distribution.
such as heavy metals and certain persistent Further impacts could also include the loss
organic pollutants (POPs), have generally been of marine organisms with carbonate shells
successful in the western seas. Sparse data as a result of acidification. Adaptation
indicate high levels of hazardous substances, policies should include measures to reduce
particularly POPs, in the Black and Caspian non‑climatic impacts in order to increase
Seas. POPs, which can have serious detrimental the resilience of marine ecosystems and the
effects on marine organisms, are transported coastal zone to climate change.
over long distances and can be found even in
the remote Arctic. • Lack of comparable data across all seas still
presents a major obstacle for pan‑European
• Major accidental oil spills have generally marine assessments, even of well-known
decreased in pan-European seas. However, problems such as eutrophication and
oil discharges from regular activities, such as overfishing. More and better data are needed
transport and refineries, are still significant to develop a pan-European marine protection
along major shipping routes and at certain hot framework that addresses environmental
spots along coasts, for example in the Caspian issues in a cost-effective way.
Sea. Without effective countermeasures, the
expected increase in oil transport, especially
in the Arctic, Baltic, Black, Caspian and
Mediterranean Seas, will add significantly to the
risk of regional oil pollution.
• Alien species are a major cause of biodiversity

loss and continue to invade all seas in the
pan-European region mainly via ships' ballast
water. The highest numbers are found in the
Mediterranean Sea. The collapse of the Black
Sea ecosystem in the 1990s demonstrates how
alien species can aggravate other pressures
and cause great economic losses.

5.1 Introduction people depend. Some of the ecosystem services

and resources they provide have been valued in
This chapter provides a general pan‑European review monetary terms as they form the basis of major
of the main issues of concern on the state of seas and economic activities. For example, the marine industry
coasts, as far as current EEA and other data allow. in the EU‑15 had an estimated value of EUR 310
Such a review has not been undertaken since the first billion in 2004 (Marine Institute, 2005). Extraction of
assessment of Europe's environment, the 1995 Dobris marine resources, such as fishing, and oil and gas
report. It updates the partial assessment carried out production, represented a value of EUR 37 billion.
for the 2003 Kiev conference by reporting, as far as But the largest value stemmed from marine services,
possible, on progress made since then, both in terms such as shipping and tourism, at EUR 239 billion
of general policy development (Section 5.2) and our (Marine Institute, 2005). However, marine and coastal
understanding of certain marine and coastal issues ecosystems provide other goods and services with
(Section 5.3). high value for humans, which are not always so
obvious or quantifiable in monetary terms. Examples
The seas and oceans covered in this chapter are are regulation (e.g. for climate change and flood
highlighted in Map 5.1. They are as diverse in protection), cultural (e.g. leisure and recreation),
their structure and functioning as their terrestrial and supporting services (e.g. nutrient cycling and
counterparts. Stretching from the sub-tropical biologically-provided habitats) (Beaumont et al.,
Atlantic to the high, ice-covered Arctic, the 2006). Thus it follows that some of the environmental
pan‑European marine environment includes the open changes described in this chapter are likely to have
oceans, seas forming the edge of ocean basins as well significant economic and social consequences.
as semi-enclosed, fully enclosed, and brackish seas.
Such physical diversity is also well-reflected in their Pressures and drivers
chemistry and biology. Differences in their resilience The state of the marine and coastal environment is the
mean that some are particularly vulnerable to certain combined effect of human pressures interacting with
drivers and pressures (ELOISE, 2004; EEA, 2005a). one another, and natural variability. The pressures
and drivers on pan-European marine and coastal
The seas and coasts in the pan-European region ecosystems (Table 5.1) are not evenly distributed
are a vital resource upon which many millions of around the region.
Table 5.1 Impacts related to main pressures on the coastal and marine environment
Pressures Main impacts

Climate change Increased/changed risk of floods and erosion, sea-level rise, increased sea surface
temperature, acidification, altered species composition and distribution, biodiversity
loss
Agriculture and forestry Eutrophication, pollution, biodiversity/habitat loss, subsidence, salinisation of
coastal land, altered sediment balance, increased water demand
Industrial and infrastructure Coastal squeeze, eutrophication, pollution, habitat loss/fragmentation, subsidence,
development erosion, altered sediment balance, turbidity, altered hydrology, increased water
demand and flood-risk, seabed disturbance, thermal pollution
Urbanisation and tourism Coastal squeeze, highly variable impacts by season and location, artificial beach
regeneration and management, habitat disruption, biodiversity loss, eutrophication,
pollution, increased water demand, altered sediment transport, litter, microbes
Fisheries Overexploitation of fish stocks and other organisms, by-catch of non-target species,
destruction of bottom habitats, large-scale changes in ecosystem composition
Aquaculture Overfishing of wild species for fish feed, alien species invasions, genetic alterations,
diseases and parasite spread to wild fish, pollution, eutrophication
Shipping Operational oil discharges and accidental spills, alien species invasions, pollution,
litter, noise
Energy and raw material Habitat alteration, changed landscapes, subsidence, contamination, risk of
exploration, exploitation and accidents, noise/light disturbance, barriers to birds, noise, waste, altered sediment
distribution balance, seabed disturbance
Sources: Based on ELOISE, 2004; the proposed EU Marine Strategy Directive — European Commission, 2005a.

Map 5.1 Pan‑European marine ecosystems
-90° 120° 110° 110°

Pan-European marine
-20°
c
ecosystems
A
r c t
i
O n Barents Sea
c e a 1: White Sea
Norwegian Sea
East Greenland
Shelf
60° Iceland Shelf
Baltic Sea
1
North Sea
50°
t
Faroe Plateau
as
n
ea
-E
Celtic-Biscay
Shelf
Oc
50°
th
Iberian Coastal
or
ic
Mediterranean Sea
N
nt
40°
la
2 Caspian Sea
At
40° Black Sea

2: Sea of Azov
30°
30°
0 -10°1000 0° 2000 Km 10° 20° 30° 40°
Surface area (million km2) Catchment area (million km2) Catchment population (millions) Volume (million km3) Retention time (years)
10.0 3.5 200 10.00 160
3.0 140
2.5 150 120
1.00 100
2.0
1.0 100 80
1.5
60
1.0 0.10
50 40
0.5 20
0.1 0.0 0 0.01 0
Baltic Sea Caspian Sea North Sea
Barents and White Seas Faroe Plateau, Celtic-Biscay Shelf and Iberian Coastal Norwegian Sea
Black and Azov Seas Mediterranean Sea
Note The assessment in this chapter focuses on the Barents, Baltic, Black, Caspian, Mediterranean, North-East Atlantic, Norwegian, and
Russian Arctic Seas. Where relevant, details have been provided for other seas e.g. the Azov and White Seas.
The different seas on the map are defined following the Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) approach (http://woodsmoke.edc.uri.edu/
Portal/jsp/LME_EA.jsp). However, this approach is not always followed in the chapter.
Not all the seas that appear on the map are covered by the statistics below it.
Sources: EEA, 1995; GISCO/Eurostat, 2006; ICES, 2007; LandScan, 2005; OSPAR, 2000; UNEP, 2004a.

Pressures resulting from global processes leading • the Tehran Framework Convention on the
to, for example, increased temperatures, rising Protection of the Marine Environment of the
sea‑levels and altered weather conditions, clearly Caspian Sea, in force since 2006.
affect the whole pan-European region. Land-based
socio‑economic activities are more national, regional All of these have specific strategies, plans and
or local in nature, while the pressures from shipping programmes to control all sources of pollution and
and fishing are often transboundary. Unfortunately, to improve the state of the marine environment in
the sum of current knowledge informed by the latest relation to other main pressures and impacts. They
assessments, particularly on the synergies between are all, therefore, relevant when dealing with all the
pressures, is yet to be fully recognised in policy environmental issues highlighted in this chapter.
development and management.
The International Council for the Exploration of
the Sea (ICES) provides scientific advice on the
5.2 Policies to protect management of fish and shellfish stocks, the marine
pan‑European seas environment and the state of marine ecosystems.
This is used for developing management measures
At the global level, the primary legal instrument by its 20 member countries and international
governing the use of the oceans and seas is the organisations, such as HELCOM, OSPAR and the
UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), European Commission.
which came into force in 1994. It establishes a
comprehensive legal regime, including important Although the implementation of strategies and
provisions for marine environmental protection and measures from global and regional sea conventions
the management of fish stocks. There are several are difficult to enforce (European Commission,
other global conventions, including those aiming 2005b), the ratification of particularly those that are
specifically at reducing the impacts of shipping yet to come into force (see annex on 'Conventions'
within the framework of the International Maritime to this report) is important. In the EECCA region,
Organization (IMO) (see reviews in European the coming into force of outstanding international
Commission, 2005c; European Science Foundation, agreements could fill some of the regulatory gaps
2002; see also Annex on 'Conventions' to this report). that arise from the lack of an adequate regional
However, some of these are awaiting sufficient framework for the protection of the marine
ratification to come into force. environment.
In the pan-European region, several international EU framework

regional sea conventions combine with these global A wide range of EU policies and legislation address
policy frameworks and agreements to protect the specific environmental problems relevant for the
marine environment. These include: North-East Atlantic, Baltic, Mediterranean and Black
Seas, including:
• the Barcelona Convention for the Protection of
the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution, in force • Birds Directive (79/409/EEC)
since 1978; • Bathing Waters Directive (76/160/EEC); new
• the Bucharest Convention on the Protection of directive entered into force in 2006 (2006/7/EC)
the Black Sea against Pollution, in force since • Nitrates Directive (91/676/EEC)
1994; • Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive
• the Convention for the Protection of the (UWWT) (91/271/EEC)
Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic • Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC)
(OSPAR), in force since 1998; • for hazardous substances: Integrated Pollution
• the Convention on the Protection of the Marine Prevention and Control (IPPC, 96/61/EC),
Environment of the Baltic Sea (HELCOM), in controls on emissions of dangerous substances
force since 2000; and to the aquatic environment (76/464/EEC), limits
to the marketing and use of both hazardous

substances (76/769/EEC) and plant protection Member States in 2006 following the ICZM
products (91/414/EEC). Recommendation (2002). One key achievement
has been the codification of a common set of
Internationally, it has been recognised that human principles underpinning sound coastal planning
activities need to be managed at an ecosystem level and management. Another benefit has been its
if they are to be effective in halting or reversing role in stimulating the development of relevant
environmental degradation. However, a lack of legal instruments in the Baltic, Mediterranean
coordination between existing global and regional and Black Seas.
commitments and mechanisms prevents this • Application of the Natura 2000 ecological network
from happening (European Commission, 2005c). to the marine environment. Establishing a
The EU has, therefore, reconsidered the way it coherent network of ecologically representative
deals with environmental protection beyond the and well‑managed protected areas should
single‑issue policies highlighted above — indeed the be a key element of the ecosystem‑based
ecosystem‑based approach has been enshrined in the approach to managing and safeguarding the
2005 European Marine Strategy (EMS) (European marine environment, including improving the
Commission, 2005b). sustainability of fisheries. The implementation
of the Habitats and Birds Directives requires
The Water Framework Directive was, in fact, the designation and adequate management of
first EU tool to adopt an ecosystem‑based approach marine sites as part of the Natura 2000 network.
— taking into account pressures and impacts across However, progress in fulfilling this has been
the whole catchment, including coastal waters, slow, in particular when comparing it to what
in order to achieve good ecological and chemical has happened on land, and may be insufficient
status by 2015 (see Section 2.3, Inland waters). This for 'full implementation' of these directives.
directive answers the Dobris report's call for better By 1 December 2006, EU‑25 had designated
catchment management, control and regulation in 4 133 purely land-based SPAs (1) and 19 614
order to reduce riverine pressures on the marine purely land‑based SCIs (2), but only 484 marine
environment. SPAs and 1 248 marine SCIs (European
Commission, 2007a). Most of these so-called
A Marine Strategy Directive (MSD), which aims to 'marine sites' are located in coastal waters
achieve good environmental status of European and usually form a natural seaward extension
marine waters by 2021, is being negotiated by of the land site. Very few are actual offshore
the European Parliament and EU Environment marine sites, which is a problem as Natura
Ministers in order to make the EMS operational. This 2000 should extend, beyond territorial waters,
directive, in combination with the WFD for coastal to all marine areas where Member States claim
waters, should provide a much needed impetus for sovereignty or jurisdiction over the exploitation
fully meeting the objectives of existing single-issue of natural resources (European Commission,
policies since it provides a horizontal dimension for 2006a). Considerable efforts will, therefore, be
their integration, and would thus allow for positive required, not only to fulfil obligations under
synergies in their implementation. the Habitats and Birds Directives, but also to
meet the Convention on Biological Diversity
Following the Sixth Environment Action Programme (CBD) targets of halting marine biodiversity loss
(EAP, 2002), other significant EU developments by 2010, and of establishing a global network
intended to protect marine and coastal ecosystems of marine protected areas by 2012 (see also
are: Chapter 4, Biodiversity).
Making progress with proposing Natura 2000
• Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM). sites in the marine environment has been
Most national strategies were adopted by EU difficult, in part, because it presents more
(1) Special Protection Areas under the Habitats Directive.

(2) Sites of Community Interests under the Habitats Directive.

challenges than originally expected. These

SEE and EECCA frameworks
relate, inter alia, to a lack of scientific knowledge
The Barcelona Convention includes the Adriatic
on the distribution and abundance of species
and habitats, and the high costs of carrying Sea and is of utmost relevance to SEE countries.
out research and surveys in offshore marine Further, those that are EU candidate countries will
areas (European Commission, 2005d). As a have to align their marine and coastal protection
result, the EU is taking several actions. These policies to the EU framework. There are already
include developing practical guidelines in some positive examples of this, for example in
order to facilitate the designation and future Croatia (Box 5.8).
management of marine Natura 2000 sites, and
considering how to improve the annexes of The EECCA Environmental Strategy (UNECE, 2003)
the Habitats Directive to ensure that the most shows that the marine and coastal environmental
relevant marine habitats will be adequately policy gaps highlighted in the Dobris and Kiev
protected and managed. Further, the EU Action
reports have not yet been taken up in the region as
Plan to 2010 and beyond (3) includes objectives
a whole. Although the strategy acknowledges the
on the finalisation of the marine Natura 2000
network by 2008, and on the establishment problems — degradation of ecosystems, habitat
of management priorities and necessary destruction, chemical pollution, invasive alien
conservation measures of both Natura 2000 sites species, overfishing and lack of conservation —
and other designated protected areas in the action to address them has been unfocused and
wider marine environment by 2012 (European insufficiently developed. The recently ratified
Commission, 2006b). Teheran Convention for the Caspian Sea could
• Review of the Common Fisheries Policy (CFP) and be a notable exception — all the governments of
integration of environmental issues. A number of the Caspian states have committed themselves
proposals have recently been put forward as part to implement National Caspian Action Plans.
of the implementation of the revised CFP. These Nonetheless, ongoing negotiations about the legal
aim to control not only the decline in fish stocks, status of the sea, and hence the division of its
but also the general fishing impacts on the wider resources including oil, may seriously limit the
marine environment because existing measures effectiveness of this convention.
have, in many cases, failed to show the desired
effect, in particular on the recovery of fish stocks. Policies similar to those of the EU and international
Success will depend on whether or not they are conventions, if properly implemented and
now sufficient to achieve these goals but, most enforced, could also have positive effects in
importantly, on Member States' commitment the SEE and EECCA regions. The WFD already
to implement them (see also Section 5.3.2, extends voluntarily to other countries sharing EU
Fisheries). catchments. Implementation of the MSD could also
be extended to other countries sharing regional
The EU has also started developing an overall seas with EU Member States, with support from the
Maritime Policy, of which the proposed MSD will relevant regional sea conventions, and influence
constitute the environmental pillar. The further marine protection policies there. Both the EU
development of this policy should ensure closer Water Initiative and the European Neighbourhood
integration of coastal zone management, marine Policy (ENP) are very relevant to promoting the
environmental protection and socio-economic development of environmental policies in SEE and
activities, such as shipping, oil exploitation, and EECCA. The recent proposal to strengthen the
fisheries. It is positive that the Maritime Policy ENP, supported by relevant funding, focuses on
Green Paper recognises climate change as a major cooperation in the Black Sea and Mediterranean
threat, and discusses ways of adapting to changing regions. This may even extend to the neighbours of
coastal risks across Europe (European Commission, EU's neighbours, and reach the Caspian Sea area
2006c). (European Commission, 2006d). However, it is up to
(3) Annexed to the European Commission Communication on Halting the loss of biodiversity by 2010 — and beyond — Sustaining
ecosystem services for human well-being.

the relevant countries to prioritise and negotiate the limited to the priority issues for the Baltic and
inclusion of measures to improve the situation of the North-East Atlantic Seas;
coastal and marine environment in their ENP Action • assessments of the Mediterranean Sea by
Plans. UNEP/MAP/MED POL (4) do not consistently
extend to the whole region;
Support from the international community can also • despite efforts from the Black Sea Commission,
come from the UNEP Global Programme of Action regional assessments of the Black Sea are not
for the Protection of the Marine Environment from very developed;
Land-based Activities (GPA). This is a source of • reports from global organisations such as
conceptual and practical guidance to be drawn the UNEP/GEF Global International Waters
upon by national and regional authorities, which Assessments (GIWA) are valuable, in particular
is uniquely positioned to facilitate improved for EECCA seas;
cooperation and coordination of sustainable • the EU is now working closely with regional
management of freshwater, coastal and marine sea conventions to develop a system for
environments. monitoring and assessment that can assist the
implementation of the MSD in the North‑East
Governance Atlantic, Baltic, Black and Mediterranean Seas.
Governance determines whether the objectives Such a framework, however, does not extend
and instruments defined in policies are first beyond these.
implemented and then enforced. Across the
pan‑European region, policy implementation and
enforcement lags behind legislation. In the EU, this 5.3 Main issues on the state
is due, inter alia, to conflicts between environmental of the marine and coastal
and other policy objectives, for example agriculture environment in the
and transport. That is also the case in the EECCA pan‑European region
region, due in part to the stronger focus on
short‑term economic recovery (OECD, 2005).
Both the legal mandate and capacity of most This section reviews, as far as possible, progress
environmental institutions in EECCA countries made since the Kiev report (EEA, 2003) on
have strengthened in the past decade, but a lack several key issues for the state of the marine and
of funds and human resources remain among the coastal environment across pan-European seas:
challenges that countries will have to confront eutrophication, overfishing, pollution from oil and
if they are to improve the state of their marine hazardous substances, coastal zone degradation
environment (OECD, 2005). and climate change. The assessment now extends
to new issues: invasive alien species and ecological
Assessments of the marine environment impacts of climate change, and highlights areas on
There is growing recognition of the need for sound which further action is needed. The order in which
and comparable data and indicators to support these issues are addressed below does not imply
marine policy development and management, both any particular priority. The better-known problems
at the pan‑European and regional levels. Whilst are dealt with first, followed by others that have
the lack of knowledge is worse in some areas, such intensified over time.
as the Caspian Sea, than in others, there is room
for significant improvement across Europe. For
example: 5.3.1 Eutrophication
• both HELCOM and OSPAR have fairly Nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus are
well‑developed regional assessments, although essential to maintaining primary production
(4) Mediterranean Action Plan under the Barcelona Convention under which the 1975 Programme for the Assessment and Control of
Pollution in the Mediterranean region (MED POL) was initiated.

and thus the healthy structure and functioning north Adriatic Sea is considered eutrophic due
of aquatic ecosystems. Eutrophication, however, to large riverine nutrient inputs, mainly from
is defined as the overload of nutrients in water the Po (EEA, 2006a);
causing an accelerated growth of planktonic • it is largely associated with increased river
algae and higher plant forms. It can lead to loads of nutrients in the Black Sea, particularly
depletion of oxygen (anoxia) followed by loss of on the north-western shelf (Box 5.1), but it only
bottom‑dwelling animals and shifts in the structure appears to have been a major problem since the
of the food web. 1970s (EEA, 2005a; 2005b);
• the Caspian Sea, particularly around the Volga
There is a lack of comparable data and harmonised river delta, has steadily deteriorated since the
methods as needed to assess trends in nutrient early 1980s. However, eutrophication is not a
loads. Further, existing nutrient concentrations, basin-wide problem (Salmanov, 1999);
mainly internal loads from sediments, and changed • it does not appear to be a problem in the
ecological structure in eutrophic areas may delay Russian Arctic, including the White Sea
recovery once nutrient loads are reduced. This (UNEP, 2005a; Filatov et al., 2005); the Barents
makes it difficult to judge the success of policies Sea (UNEP, 2004b); or in the Arctic region of
to combat eutrophication across the pan-European OSPAR, including the Norwegian Sea (OSPAR,
region as a whole. What is clear is that it continues 2000).
to affect most seas, although there have been
reductions in some areas, including parts of the Loads and sources of nutrients
North Sea and also the north-western shelf of In north-western Europe and the Danube river
the Black Sea. These seem to mainly result from catchment, diffuse pollution from agricultural
efforts to control point sources of nutrients in the run-off contributes to 50–80 % of the total load
EU‑15. In contrast, diffuse sources, mainly from of nitrogen. Industry and household wastewater
agriculture, are still a problem across the region. In used to be the main contributors to phosphorus
the EU, but mainly in EU‑15, this could be linked pollution, but reductions in point-source discharges
to the fact that agriculture is highly intensive over the last 30 years mean that agriculture has also
and measures to counter eutrophication, such as become the main source in some countries (EEA,
the Nitrates Directive, are either insufficient or 2005a; see also Section 2.3, Inland waters).
poorly implemented (EEA, 2005a; 2005b; European
Commission, 2007c). These phosphorous point-source reductions have
been achieved in the EU despite a lack of full
Extent of eutrophication compliance with the UWWT Directive (EEA, 2005a;
The extent of eutrophication varies across 2005b; Greenpeace, 2006a; European Commission,
pan‑European seas: 2007b; see also Section 2.3, Inland waters), showing
that, when applied, relevant measures can be
• it is a major problem in the eastern and efficient. Further, some of the measures taken in the
south‑eastern parts of the Baltic Sea, which has EU to reduce diffuse losses of nitrogen to water on
changed from nutrient-poor, clear water in the agricultural land are beginning to show results in
1800s to its present eutrophic state (HELCOM, a few areas, such as certain Danish coastal waters
2006a); (Andersen et al., 2004). Although further action
• in the North Sea, it is found particularly in is needed to reduce the export of agricultural
the estuaries, fjords and coastal areas of the nutrients to the sea, these achievements may serve
southern and eastern part, in the Kattegat, the as a model to other countries.
Skagerrak and, to a lesser extent, in the English
Channel (OSPAR, 2003); In countries bordering the Azov, Black, and
• it occurs in some bays and estuaries in the Caspian Seas both point-source discharges
Celtic Sea (OSPAR, 2003); of nutrients, mainly as a result of inadequate
• in the Mediterranean Sea, it is common in wastewater treatment, and diffuse-source
sheltered water bodies near coastal towns. The discharges from agriculture are significant.

Further industrial and agricultural development Nutrient concentrations

in countries bordering these seas should be carried The distribution of nutrient concentrations in
out in ways that do not increase these loads (see pan‑European seas affected by eutrophication
also Sections 7.1, Agriculture, and 2.3, Inland reflects the main sources of nutrients and their
waters). mixing with recipient waters.
Reported trends in loads of nutrients from rivers In the north-eastern Atlantic — mainly the
and direct discharges to pan-European seas Celtic Seas, the Baltic Sea, the Italian coast of the
affected by eutrophication are less clear: Mediterranean Sea, and the North Sea the majority
of the monitoring stations show no significant
• trends in the OSPAR region between 1990 and change in nutrient concentrations between the
2004 remain uncertain. Detailed analysis of mid-1980s and 2004/2005 (Figure 5.1). However,
OSPAR's Riverine Inputs and Direct Discharges there is evidence that both nitrate and phosphate
Study, which includes data up to 2002, revealed concentrations are decreasing in some areas of the
significant increases in the total loads of Baltic Sea. Additionally, phosphate concentrations
nitrogen and phosphorus to Arctic waters, are decreasing at some Dutch North Sea stations
reductions in total inputs of nitrogen and (MNP, 2006). The results possibly indicate that
phosphorus to the North Sea, and reductions measures to reduce nutrient loads are beginning
of phosphorus to the Celtic Sea. Most of these to have an effect both in coastal and open waters.
changes were associated with increases or This is particularly so for Danish and Swedish
decreases in loads from direct discharges, coastal waters, where 20 % and 8 % of the stations,
rather than detectable changes in riverine respectively, showed a decreasing trend in nitrate
inputs (OSPAR, 2005a); concentrations and there were no stations showing
• riverine inputs are responsible for 77 % of the an increasing trend. A greater proportion of
total nitrogen and phosphorus inputs to the all stations overall reported decreasing trends
Baltic Sea. There has been a significant decrease in phosphate concentrations than for nitrate
in the average phosphorus concentrations concentrations, for example 67 % of the Dutch
between 1994 and 2004, whereas there is and 36 % of the Danish coastal stations. The only
no equivalent trend in average nitrogen increases in phosphate concentrations were found
concentrations. Inputs have varied depending in Irish, Italian and Norwegian coastal waters
on hydrological conditions in the catchment (Figure 5.1).
area, and there is no significant change in
riverine nutrient loads in the 1994–2004 period Information on concentrations of nutrients in the
(HELCOM, 2005a); Caspian Sea is very limited and not geographically
• the Black Sea Commission has reported a specific. Average nitrate levels are estimated at less
steady decline in the discharges of nutrients than 1 µg/l, whereas for phosphate, the averages
from land-based sources between 1996 and 2000 range between 1 and 10 µg/l (CEP, 2002a). For
(BSC, 2002) (Box 5.1); nutrient concentrations in the Black Sea see Box 5.1.
• data on riverine discharges and other loads
of nutrients to the Mediterranean Sea are
scarce. Most rivers that drain into the sea, even
though they are important, are not adequately
monitored for loads of organic and inorganic
pollutants (EEA, 2006a);
• riverine inputs — in particular the Volga —
dominate the loads of total nitrogen (95 %) and
total phosphorus (87 %) discharged into the
Caspian Sea (CEP, 2002a).

Figure 5.1 Change in winter nitrate and phosphate concentrations in coastal and open waters of the north Atlantic
(mostly Celtic Seas), Baltic, Mediterranean (Italian coastal waters only) and North Seas (% of stations,
1985–2004/2005)
Coastal stations Open water stations
Nitrate (66)
Nitrate (39)
Atlantic
Atlantic
Phosphate (66)
Phosphate (39)
Nitrate (92)
Mediterranean Sea Baltic Sea
Nitrate (61)
Baltic Sea
Phosphate (94)
Nitrate (69)
Phosphate (61)
Phosphate (69)
Nitrate (65)
North Sea
Nitrate (84)
North Sea
Phosphate (65)
Phosphate (84)
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
% of stations % of stations
Decrease No trend Increase Decrease No trend Increase
Note: This is part of the EEA core set indicator 21 (http://themes.eea.europa.eu/Specific_media/water/indicators).

'Monitoring stations' refer to those reporting to the EEA by its member countries from the seas shown above. Other seas not included
as riparian countries are either not EEA member countries or, if they are, they did not report to the EEA over 2004–2005.
Source: EEA Waterbase, 2006.
Chlorophyll-a Used with care, satellite imagery provides a useful

The biomass of planktonic algae (phytoplankton) tool to monitor the concentration of chlorophyll‑a.
is most frequently measured as the concentration Map 5.2 provides a snapshot of some of the seas
of chlorophyll-a in the part of the water column that have not been covered in Figure 5.2 where
reached by sunlight. In general, there has been no the generally clear, chlorophyll-poor waters of
decrease in eutrophication — expressed as changes the Mediterranean Sea can be contrasted with the
in summer chlorophyll-a concentrations — in the rather eutrophic waters of the Black Sea (see also
coastal waters of the Baltic Sea, the North Sea or Box 5.1). The main exception to this is in the highly
the Italian coast of the Mediterranean Sea since eutrophic system of the north Adriatic Sea (EEA,
1985 (Figure 5.2). However, by 2004/2005 decreasing 2006a). In the Caspian Sea, the highest chlorophyll
trends were observed for 12 % of the Italian coastal concentrations are observed in the northern,
stations and 6 % of North Sea stations, respectively, shallower part of the sea and close to the Volga
while 7 % of the stations in the Baltic Sea and along delta.
the Italian coastline showed an increasing trend
(Figure 5.2).

Figure 5.2 Change in summer chlorophyll-a concentrations at coastal stations of the Baltic, Mediterranean (Italian
coastal waters only) and North Seas (% of stations, 1985–2004/2005)
Baltic Sea
Chlorophyll-a
(74)
Mediterranean
Chlorophyll-a
Sea
(126) Note: This is part of the EEA core set indicator 23 (http://themes.
eea.europa.eu/Specific_media/water/indicators).
'Monitoring stations' refer to those reporting to the EEA
by its member countries from the seas shown to the left.
Other seas not included as riparian countries are either not
North Sea
EEA member countries or, if they are, they did not report to
Chlorophyll-a the EEA over 2004–2005.
Only coastal data are presented as no trends were found
(68) at the open water stations in the Baltic (27 stations)
and North (56 stations) Seas. For a more detailed map
presentation of the data see: http://themes.eea.europa.
0 20 40 60 80 100
eu/IMS/IMS/ISpecs/ISpecification20041007132031/
% of stations IAssessment1116504836843/view_content.
Decrease No trend Increase Source: EEA Waterbase, 2006.
Map 5.2 Satellite imagery of chlorophyll-a concentrations in selected pan-European seas (mg/m3)
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70°
50 ° 5 5°
60°
45 ° 4 5°
50°
50°
40°
40 ° 40 °
40°
30°
030° 500 0° 1000 1500 10°

Km 20° 30° 0 100 200 Km
50 °
Chlorophyll-a monthly mean in selected European seas, June 2004 Chlorophyll-a monthly mean in the
Caspian Sea, June 2004
0.01 0.025 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 5 10 0.1 0.3 1 3 10 30
mg/m³ mg/m³
Note: Information on the performance of methodologies for the processing of SeaWIFS ocean colour data to retrieve geophysical and
biological variables (e.g. chlorophyll) can be found in the Joint Research Centre (JRC), Institute for Environment and Sustainability
(IES), website http://marine.jrc.ec.europa.eu. Data from the Caspian Sea, in particular, should be treated with special care.
Source: European Commission, DG JRC, IES, 2006.

Box 5.1 Eutrophication in the Black Sea
The input of nutrients to the Black Sea from anoxic conditions in the bottom waters of most of
the rivers Danube, Dnieper and Don increased this sea, which prevent phosphate being bound into
approximately 10-fold between the 1960s and the sediments. Phosphate concentrations are lower
the 1990s as fertiliser use in agriculture grew than in the open sea along the Turkish coast, but
dramatically (Borysova et al., 2005). Since the higher in the Romanian coastal waters influenced by
1970s, this has caused severe eutrophication the Danube river (EEA, 2005b).
problems, including anoxia. Together with pressure
from overfishing, this made the Black Sea a very
The decrease in nutrient inputs has been reflected
sensitive ecosystem aiding the massive invasion of
in improvements in the ecological health of some
the alien comb jelly Mnemiopsis leidyi, which caused
areas of the Black Sea. Satellite images taken
the collapse of anchovy, chub and mackerel stocks,
between 1998 and 2004 show a clear downward
oyster fisheries, and jellyfish populations (EEA,
trend in chlorophyll concentrations during the
2005a; see also Sections 5.3.2, Fisheries, and 5.3.5,
natural seasonal peaks on the north-western shelf
Invasive alien species).
(Parr et al., 2005). The more recent years of 2003
and 2004 are characterised by low chlorophyll
The Black Sea Commission (BSC) has reported a concentrations and small or absent areas of low
steady decline in the discharges of nutrients from oxygen. Other reported indications of recovery in the
land-based sources between 1996 and 2002 (BSC, area include increasing plankton and fish diversity
2002). This observation is supported by the modelled (Zaika, 2006), decreasing mussel mortality (Mee,
nutrient emissions in the Danube basin, which 2006), zoobenthos recovery (Parr et al., 2005), and
indicate that phosphorus loads from the Danube the reappearance of some indigenous species of
river in 2000 had decreased by around 30–50 % crabs, fish and dolphins (Aleksandrov, 2006; Zaika,
compared to loads in the 1980s (Danubs, 2005). The 2006).
assessment of changes of nitrogen loads was not so
conclusive because of the variability of the river flow.
Nutrient reductions are expected to continue in the
Danube basin as a result of the implementation of
Although the overall background concentration EU environmental policies, in particular the WFD.
of nitrate in the Black Sea is very low (1.4 μg/l), However, nutrient loading is expected to increase in
elevated concentrations are observed along the the basins of the rivers Dnieper and Don as a result
Turkish coast, and relatively high concentrations of the development of the agriculture sector in the
are found at certain locations on the north-western Russian Federation, Belarus and Ukraine (Borysova
shelf, for example in Romanian coastal waters (EEA, et al., 2005). The development of policies ensuring
2005b). Between 1990 and 2003, there appears to that further expansion of agriculture in those
have been an increase in nitrate concentrations in the countries occurs in a sustainable manner is essential
north-western shelf waters of Bulgaria, Romania and to guarantee the continued recovery of the Black Sea
Ukraine. However, these do not reflect the general (see also Section 7.1, Agriculture). Agreement on the
decreasing trend of inorganic nitrogen concentrations need to reduce nutrient pollution to the Black Sea
in the Danube river (Parr et al., 2005). The at the February 2007 meeting of the Environment
phosphate background concentration is relatively Ministers of all the 16 countries of the Danube and
high (around 9 μg/l) probably due to the naturally Black Sea regions is a positive step in that direction.
5.3.2 Fisheries scale ecological changes through alterations of the

overall food web. The consequences include increased
This assessment is concerned with the pan-European vulnerability to other pressures, especially pollution
region's marine environment, although its fishing and climate change, and freeing of ecological space
fleets are active across the world's oceans. Thus the for alien species.
figures and analyses presented here reflect only
fish caught by the pan-European fleet within pan- Effective management has allowed some fish stocks
European marine waters. with high reproductive rates, such as Norwegian
spring spawning herring (ICES, 2006a), to recover
Though many commercial fish stocks have not been from past overfishing. However, most stocks show
assessed, the available data indicates that overfishing few signs of recovery. This highlights the need for
is still widespread across the pan-European region. urgent improvement in the overall management of
Fishing practices also continue to affect other fisheries through a wide range of measures, backed
organisms, destroy bottom habitats and cause large by effective implementation and enforcement in

all European seas. The EU has developed many 2000–2005 period, fish catches decreased overall
measures in recent years, under the revised CFP, by 13 % and this affected all regions (FAO, 2007a)
but it is too early to asses the effects of some of (Table 5.2).
these, while others, such as the protection of certain
deep‑sea fish species — for example roundnose
Table 5.2 Change in marine fish catches in
grenadier and orange roughy — appear to be failing pan‑European waters (%)
(European Commission, 2007d).
Country grouping 1990–2005 2000–2005
Deep-sea fishing is increasing as a result of declining
EECCA 91 –5
catches close to shore. Commercial fishing is thus
SEE 19 – 19
turning to deeper waters — defined by the EU
EFTA 34 – 13
as beyond 400 metres — threatening species that
EU‑25 – 15 – 15
live there before sufficient information is available
on which to base management advice (European Source: FAO, 2007a.
Commission, 2007d). This is putting at risk the least

sustainable of all fish stocks, as some deep species do
not mature until they are 40 years old and then may The pan-European overall fish capture (8)(9)
live 240 years (Marine Conservation Biology Institute, amounted to approximately 11 million tonnes (Mt)
2007). The EU is currently reviewing the management in 2000 and decreased to 9.45 Mt in 2005: 4.1 Mt
of deep-sea fish stocks because it considers that from EU‑25, 4 Mt from EFTA, 1 Mt from EECCA
current levels of exploitation must inevitably be and 0.4 Mt from SEE (FAO, 2007a). Around 90 % of
reduced (European Commission, 2007d). this came from north-eastern Atlantic waters, where
over a quarter of assessed commercial fish stocks are
Urgent efforts are needed to reduce fishing impacts already outside safe biological limits (see below).
on bottom habitats in general. Further, establishing
a network of marine protected areas should become To this should be added estimates for illegal,
a priority to improve the sustainability of fisheries, unreported and unregulated landings, which
given the link between biodiversity-poor ecosystems the EU is trying to counter inter alia through the
and increased rates of collapse of remaining fish establishment of the Community Fisheries Control
stocks (Worm et al., 2006). Agency. However, full implementation of the EU
Action Plan for the eradication of illegal, unreported
Fish catches (5) and unregulated fishing adopted in 2002 (European
Over the period 1990 to 2005, fish (6) catches within Commission, 2002) has not been achieved yet
pan-European waters (7) increased overall by 9 %, (European Parliament, 2007). These landing are
mostly in the North-East Atlantic (12 %). Expressed considerable, for example:
regionally, increases can be seen in EFTA, SEE
and EECCA countries, but a decrease in EU‑25 • around 35–45 % of Baltic cod is being caught
(FAO, 2007a) (Table 5.2). However, considering the illegally, but in some countries figures could be
(5) See also the indicator on 'Total and marine catches' in the 'International comparisons' annexed to this report. This considers the WCE
country grouping, which includes both EU‑25 and EFTA groupings used in this section.
(6) Marine fish catches as included in the FAO International Standard Statistical Classification of Aquatic Animals and Plants Division on
'marine fishes'. This means that crustaceans, molluscs, other marine animals and also plants as well as mariculture production are
excluded. Catches of fish that migrate between fresh and salt waters ('diadromous fishes', e.g. sturgeon) have also been included.
(7) For the whole European region, these correspond to two major FAO fishing areas — number 27 (Atlantic, Northeast) and 37
(Mediterranean and Black Sea) — and the Caspian Sea (in the FAO category 'Asian-Inland waters'), see http://www.fao.org/fi/
website/FISearch.do?dom=area. However, because of the country groupings used, the Faroe Islands have not been included in this
assessment.
(8) Note that, for reason of data availability, the overall pan-European production in 1990 includes values for the Socialist Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia as a whole. However, when calculating the trend for the different country groupings, there are no data for Slovenia,
Croatia, and Serbia and Montenegro over 1990–1991 (those became part of the EU‑25 and the SEE assessments, respectively, from
1992).
(9) Excluding the Faroe Islands, which contributed with an additional 0.55 Mt to the pan-European overall marine fish capture in 2005.

much higher (ICES, 2005a; Scientific, Technical Figure 5.3 Change in the pan-European fishing fleet
and Economic Committee for Fisheries, 2006); capacity (%, 1989–2005)
• the illegal catch of east Atlantic and
%
Mediterranean bluefin tuna is estimated to be at
least 40 % above the legal quota (WWF, 2006a); 100
• demand for swordfish from Europe is driving 80

illegal fishing in the Mediterranean Sea. The
60
impact of these illegal activities is exacerbated
by considerable shark and dolphin by-catch 40
(WWF, 2006b).
20
Fishing fleets 0
Overcapacity of the fishing fleet is one of the major
– 20
factors leading to the overfishing of pan-European
seas (Figure 5.3), where: – 40
– 60
• between 1989 and 2005, the capacity of the
EU‑15 fishing fleet decreased in power by 23 %, – 80
in tonnage by 15 % and in number of vessels – 100

Power Tonnage Number
by 22 %. However, advances in technology
and design mean that new vessels can exert EU-15 EFTA EU-10 SEE EECCA
more fishing pressure than older ones of Note: The time period is not uniform for all country groupings.
equivalent tonnage and power. As a result, a EU‑15: 1989–2005; EFTA: 1989–2004; EU‑10:
1992–2005; SEE: 1989–1995, and EECCA: 1991–1995.
chronic overcapacity persists, undermining Comparison of figures related to the newer EU Member
States (EU‑10) before and after their EU membership is
the conservation measures that have been open to potential errors because of the different reporting
introduced (European Commission, 2003); mechanisms applied over the two periods. Regarding
'power', there is no EU‑10 bar as data only exists for two
• similarly, the 2004 (10) EFTA fleet (Norway years (2004–2005).
SEE = Only Croatia and Turkey as well as Bulgaria and
and Iceland) had fewer vessels (– 52 %), but Romania, which belonged to this group at the time;
increased its power (8 %) and tonnage (34 %) as EECCA = Ukraine and the Russian Federation only.
well as benefiting from improved technology; Source: EEA CSI34.
• in 2005, Norway (15 % of the total European

fleet) and Italy (14 %) had the most powerful
fishing fleets within the EU and EFTA • the SEE fleet decreased in tonnage (– 52 %),
countries. By tonnage, the largest fleets were but increased its number of vessels (5 %) from
from Spain (20 %) and Norway (16 %), while 1989 to 1995 (11). In 1995, Turkey had the vast
Greece (19 %) and Italy (15 %) had the most majority of the SEE fleet, and accounted for 7 %
vessels. of the total number of vessels in Europe;
• the Russian fleet (12) was the largest in Europe
Data for other countries is not available over the in 1995 (58 % of total tonnage). However, it had
same period as above. However, the main trends decreased in size by around 40 % by 2005, mostly
are: as a result of reduced fishing outside Russia's
EEZ. Both the Russian and Ukrainian fleets
• the EU‑10 fleet decreased in tonnage (– 83 %) are regarded as old, which could result in the
but increased in numbers (10 %) between 1992 scrapping of more vessels within the next decade
and 2005; (FAO, 2004a; 2004b).
(10) No data for Iceland for 2005.

(11) Although more recent data exist in the case of Croatia, this is not the case for the remaining SEE countries, so the figures for the
whole group have to be limited to the period 1989–1995.
(12) Exceptionally, this figure covers all the seas where the Russian fleet was active at the time.

Status of fisheries of Iceland and east Greenland were in the best

Despite reduced fish landings since 2000, condition overall, with only 8 % of the assessed
overfishing is still widespread in all pan-European commercial fish stocks outside safe biological
seas. This, in contrast, has not led to an improved limits, followed by the western Ireland area (14 %
assessment of the state of commercial fish stocks. outside) and the western Scotland area (20 %
For example, 81 % of Arctic, 67 % of Baltic Sea outside) (Map 5.3).
and 54 % of north-eastern Atlantic commercial
fish stocks remained unassessed in 2006. Of those In the Mediterranean Sea, the percentage of
stocks that had been assessed, 14 % in the Arctic assessed commercial fish stocks outside safe
were outside safe biological limits (13), whilst for biological limits in 2005 ranged from 10–20 %,
the North-East Atlantic and Baltic Seas this was with Aegean and Cretan stocks being in the worst
26 %. Whitin the North-East Atlantic, the North condition (Map 5.3). In the large pelagics group
Sea was the most severely affected with 44 % of (including tuna and swordfish), bluefin tuna stocks
the assessed commercial fish stocks outside safe both in the eastern Atlantic and Mediterranean Seas
biological limits, followed by the Celtic Sea with have been identified as being near collapse (see
30 % outside them (Map 5.3). The Arctic waters reviews in WWF, 2006a and Greenpeace, 2006b).
Map 5.3 Commercial fish stocks outside safe biological limits (2005 and 2006)
Fish stocks of economic

importance,
2005 and 2006
Stock status in
European seas
Non-assessed
Overfished
Within safe limits
Status for
Mediterranean
large pelagics
Non-assessed
Overfished
Within safe limits
Fishing areas
0 1000 2000 Km
Note: Assessment based on the EEA CSI32, but with a different aggregation for Iceland, East Greenland and the Faroe Islands following the
ICES fishing areas. Not all the seas assessed in this chapter are represented above.
All data are from 2006 except for the Mediterranean Sea, which are from 2005 (GFCM, 2005; ICCAT, 2005a; 2005b).
Source: EEA CSI32.
(13) Safe biological limit: a limit reference point for a specific fishery, usually the stock biomass below which recruitment will decline
substantially.

The Black Sea has been characterised as severely fisheries. For example, the anchovy fishery in
impacted by both overfishing and destructive the Bay of Biscay was closed in 2006 due to a
fishing practices (Mee, 1992). By the 1980s, only severe risk of collapse (European Commission,
five stocks could be exploited compared with 26 2006f). The 2007 TAC has been kept at zero,
in the 1960s and 1970s (BSC, 2002). During the although 'experimental fishing' by a maximum
last half of the 1990s, continuous overfishing, the of 10 % of the Spanish and French fishing effort
invasion of an alien comb jelly (see Section 5.3.5, has been allowed in the first half of the year.
Invasive alien species) and pollution resulted in the This is to gather information on the state of the
near commercial extinction of bluefin tuna, bonito, stocks until new scientific advice is provided,
mackerel, anchovy, sprat, whiting and other stocks although catches can be commercialised
(Kideys et al., 2005). Since then, the invasion by a (European Council, 2007).
second comb jelly that preyed on the former species, • Limiting and improving fishing fleet capacity and
combined with a decrease in fishing pressure, has improving fishing methods. However, the 2002
led to some improvements in fish stocks (Shiganova total EU ban on driftnets has recently been
and Bulgakova, 2000). However, there is no superseded in the Mediterranean Fisheries
quantitative assessment of fish stocks in the Black Regulation. This allows the use of bottom-set
Sea despite efforts from the Black Sea Commission. gillnets (European Council, 2006), which can
indiscriminately catch non-targeted fish and
In view of the above, the EU (14) and other endangered species including turtles (WWF,
relevant bodies — including the General Fisheries 2006c) (see also Ecological impacts below).
Commission for the Mediterranean (GFCM) and • Better data. The implementation of a revised
the International Commission for the Conservation Data Collection Regulation under the CFP and
of the Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT) — are developing a the GFCM new database for the Mediterranean
series of measures including: and Black Seas should facilitate assessing the
state of fisheries resources and the fishing
• Improving the thinking behind the current system industry.
of catch limits by Total Allowable Catch (TAC).
Instruments for achieving fishing at maximum In the western Russian Arctic, there has been a
sustainable yields will also be introduced. significant decline in fish landings, down to around
However, the TACs set for 2007 (European 60 % in the mid 1990s, in particular of whitefish
Council, 2007) have been the subject of severe (UNEP, 2005a). Northeast Arctic cod stocks in the
criticism, particularly for disregarding scientific Barents Sea are overexploited (Box 5.2).
advice. This has been the case, for example,
for deep-sea fisheries such as orange roughy The status of Caspian Sea fisheries seems to be
(WWF, 2006c). Other examples include North uncertain. For example, the Caspian Environment
Sea cod, where for the last seven years EU Programme (CEP, 2005) reported rapid growth of
Fisheries Ministers have ignored ICES advice to the kilka fishery over the last two decades, while
close the fishery and, instead, continue to issue the UNEP/GRID-Arendal (2006) reported a 50 %
TACs. Similarly, because of EU pressure, the drop in the kilka caught by Iranian fishermen
overall ICCAT TAC for bluefin tuna has been between 1998 and 2001. CEP (2002a) has also
set at 29 500 (15) tonnes in 2007, compared to reported declines in catches of cyprinids, small
the recent ICCAT recommendation for 15 000 pelagics and salmonids, all stocks of which appear
tonnes (NOAA, 2006). ICCAT scientists believe to be in a very poor condition, whereas herring and
that the stock is heading towards commercial mullet stocks are reported to be in a better state
collapse. (see Box 5.3 for sturgeon).
• Promoting fish stock recovery by targeted measures
to reduce fishing effort and the closure of certain
(14) See examples in Fishing Opportunities for 2007: Policy Statement from the European Commission (European Commission, 2006e).
(15) The EU quota is 16 779.55 tonnes in 2007 (European Commission, 2007e).

Box 5.2 Overfishing in the Barents Sea Figure 5.4 Fishing mortality of Northeast Arctic cod
stocks
As a result of an upwelling of nutrients, associated
with the polar front, and the shallow waters, the Fishing mortality rate
Barents Sea supports some of the world's largest 1.2
Progress
fish stocks (WWF, 2004), including the Northeast since
1.0
Arctic cod fishery — the largest remaining cod stock Kiev
in the world. However, the highly variable nature 0.8
of physical and chemical factors combined with
intense overexploitation has resulted in considerable 0.6
fluctuation in the mortality of this cod species over
0.4
the last 50 years (Matishov et al., 2004) (Figure 5.4).
0.2
Although the Northeast Arctic cod stock is classified 0.0
as overexploited, the catch is much greater than
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
00
05
intended under the management plan set by the
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
Joint Russian-Norwegian Fisheries Commission
Fishing mortality Fishing mortality limit
(ICES, 2006b). Illegal fishing of cod is a serious
problem, increasing official catches by around 35 % Fishing mortality precautionary limit
(ICES, 2006b). Furthermore, discards are estimated Note: Fishing mortality (a measure of the proportion of fish
at 5–13 % of the total catch of all fish (UNEP, taken from a stock each year by fishing activity) rate is
for ages 5–10.
2004b).
Source: ICES, 2006b.
Box 5.3 Overfishing of Caspian Sea sturgeon Figure 5.5 Total sturgeon catch in the Caspian Sea
The Caspian Sea supports 85 % of the world's Tonnes

sturgeon and is the main producer of wild caviar (83 % 30 000
in 2003) (UNEP/GRID-Arendal, 2006). However, there Progress
25 000 since
has been a 40-fold reduction in catches between 1977
Kiev
and 2005, when production fell to less than 800 tonnes 20 000
(FAO, 2007a) (Figure 5.5).
15 000
Hydroelectric development is one of the main factors 10 000

behind this drastic decline. For example the damming 5 000
of the Volga river destroyed approximately 90 % of
sturgeon spawning grounds. Sturgeon populations 0
also suffer from a disease that destroys muscle fibres 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 00 05
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20
(periodic myopathy), which is thought to be linked to
heavy metal and oil pollution.
Source: FAO, 2007a.
Illegal fishing has had a major impact as well, with

an estimated 5–12 illegally captured sturgeon sold
for each legally captured specimen. The EU is the
biggest market for the ensuing illegal caviar (European legislation, promoting regional agreements, and
Commission, 2006g; European Commission and development of marking systems and aquaculture.
CITES (16), 2006).
In May 2006, the European Commission adopted new
Since 1998, international trade in all species of rules to implement the universal labelling system for
sturgeons has been regulated under CITES to control caviar introduced under CITES. The new regulation
the global illicit trade and, in particular, declining updates an existing regulation of 2001 in that it
sturgeon populations in the Caspian Sea. All sturgeons requires that all caviar containers, no matter their
and parts or derivatives thereof (caviar, meat, skin, size and whether the caviar is imported, re‑packaged
etc.) that enter international trade require the or to be exported, bear a label specifying the source
issuance of CITES permits or certificates. A number of the caviar and the year of harvest. Moreover, all
of other conservation management initiatives have re-packaging plants for caviar in the EU have to
also been developed and improved under CITES, be licensed and registered (European Commission,
including fishery management programmes, improving 2006m).
(16) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora in force since 1975. It aims to ensure that
international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.

Ecological impacts major problem. In the North Sea, overall discards

Fisheries can have a severe impact on the ecosystem are estimated to be around 22 % of the total fish
as a result of both direct and indirect pressure. catch by weight, but this is below estimates for
other north-eastern Atlantic waters, where it
Direct pressures include: reaches at least 30 % by weight. Discard is lower
in the Mediterranean and Black Seas (4.9 %) and
• removal of target species leading to changes in the Baltic Sea (1.4 %) (FAO, 2005). Some species
the size and age structure of their populations are particularly vulnerable: in the North-East
and others (decline in trophic level); Atlantic, 75 % of hammerhead sharks, 65 % of
• mortality of non-target species (by-catch and blue sharks, and 75 % of thresher and white
discard), including other fish, seabirds, marine sharks have been lost in the last 18 years, largely
mammals, turtles and benthic marine life; and as victims of by-catch (Baum et al., 2003).
• structural alterations to the seabed habitat, • Mammal by-catch. Lack of adequate monitoring
including damage to sea-mounts and cold-water means that data on populations of cetacean
corals. and reporting of by-catch are rather uncertain.
The situation seems to have been better
Indirect pressures include: studied in the North-East Atlantic and Baltic
Seas, where small cetaceans, such as dolphins
• changes in the food web; and the harbour porpoise, are the most
• pollution from dumping discards and organic affected by pelagic trawls, bottom-sea gillnets
detritus (e.g. offal); and and driftnets. Annually, around 2 200 and
• mortality caused by lost gear (ghost fishing). 8 000 harbour porpoises are caught in the Celtic
and North Seas, respectively (see review in
Examples of the ecological impacts of fisheries in the Greenpeace, 2004). Given the high uncertainties
pan-European region are: in estimating 'sustainable' cetacean by-catch,
several international organisations have set
• Decline in trophic level. Evidence suggests that up precautionary limits — for example, 1 %
overall changes within fisheries of both the of estimated abundance for harbour porpoise
abundance of large individuals, together with according to the International Whaling
concomitant increases in small individuals, Commission. On top of reducing overall fishing
and the composition of predominant species, pressure, there are technical measures to reduce
are linked to the overall level of exploitation. by-catch, for example acoustically alerting the
Research has shown a steady drop in the average animals to the presence of the fishing gear and
trophic level of landed fish in several European exclusion grids to liberate them if trapped (see
seas (EEA, 2005a; SAUP, 2006). Top predators review in Greenpeace, 2004).
such as swordfish, tuna and mackerel have • Turtle by-catch. Over 50 000 turtles in the
practically disappeared from Black Sea nets, Mediterranean Sea had been taken each year by
while in the northern Atlantic, the biomass of surface longlines and driftnets as well as bottom
these top predators has decreased by two-thirds trawls and gillnets; and mortality rates ranged
in the last 50 years. Catches tend to consist of from 10–50 % amongst these already endangered
smaller, plankton-eating species such as anchovy species (Lee and Poland, 1998). More updated
in the Black Sea and sprat in the Baltic Sea, and surveys are not readily available.
equivalent small species in the Mediterranean and • Destruction of bottom habitats. Seabed surveys of
North‑East Atlantic Seas (Caddy and Garibaldi, several European seas have revealed massive
2000). Such changes can weaken the ecological impacts from mainly bottom trawling in high
web by, for example, freeing 'space' for invasions intensity fishing areas, which reduces biomass,
of alien species (see status of Black Sea fisheries production and species richness (Auster and
above and Section 5.3.5, Invasive alien species) Langton, 1999; Hiddink et al., 2006) keeping
• By-catch and discard of fish. Incidental captures the ecosystem in a low-diversity, juvenile state
and discarding of non-target fish species is a (ICES, 2002). The situation of the North Sea

appears to be one of the best documented, but Nonetheless, these have not been very effective
the impacts and how to mitigate them are likely because the problems are not well understood due,
to be common to all seas. For the North Sea, inter alia, to a lack of monitoring, so science and
modelled data shows that the bottom-trawl management lag behind the industrial, extractive
fleet reduced benthic biomass and production activity (Sheppard, 2006), or because they are
by 56 % and 21 % respectively, compared with insufficient, or not adequately implemented
an unfished situation (Hiddink et al., 2006). (Greenpeace, 2004; European Commission, 2006h).
This is because trawling gear destroys biogenic Improving and/or fully implementing these
structures that provide a habitat for many measures will be key if the CBD target of halting
organisms, for example mussel beds, cold-water marine biodiversity loss by 2010 is to be met.
corals and Sabellaria (worm) reefs, and seagrass Regarding the destruction of bottom habitats, it is
beds. Changes in habitat structure are then significant that the UN General Assembly failed to
followed by changes in species assemblages adopt a global moratorium on bottom trawling in
(OSPAR, 2000). The EU has acknowledged the high seas in December 2006.
that recovery from damage to highly sensitive
deepwater habitats in the Atlantic, in particular A note on aquaculture
coral reefs, produced by fishing gear is either Aquaculture is a growing alternative to wild fish for
impossible or very difficult and slow. Therefore, human consumption, which in 2005 was estimated
the EU considers it appropriate to prohibit to provide 45 % of the world's fish and fish products
the use of fishing gear likely to cause damage against 9 % in 1980 (FAO, 2007b). Indeed, between
to habitats in areas where these are still in 1990 and 2005, the pan-European (19) production
a favourable conservation status (European increased by 38 % reaching 2.2 million tonnes (Mt):
Council, 2005). 1.3 Mt from EU‑25, 0.7 Mt from EFTA, 0.2 Mt from
EECCA and 0.2 Mt from SEE, of which around 72 %
Some measures to reduce the ecological impacts of was marine aquaculture (mariculture) (FAO, 2007c).
fisheries exist as a result of:
While this might be seen to be beneficial for the
• global agreements such as the UNCLOS 1995 marine environment, in reality it brings with it a
Agreement on Fish Stocks for by-catch; wide range of new impacts, for example:
• EU policies: several CFP regulations and the
Habitats Directive are directly relevant in the • eutrophication and localised enrichment
case of by-catch and impacts from bottom of sediments. The inputs of nutrients from
trawling. Specific measures to reduce unwanted mariculture are becoming significant in certain
catches and eliminate discards, by establishing seas and areas of production. In Norway, for
a progressive fishery-by-fishery discard ban example, the nutrient loading from fish farming
and setting standards for maximum acceptable contributes to over 60 % of the total phosphorus
by‑catch, are now also being considered in the loading and around 20 % of the total nitrogen
context of the CFP (European Commission, loading to the sea (OSPAR, 2006a);
2007f); • use of wild fish to feed farmed fish and of
• most European regional sea conventions, for wild‑caught fish for fry and rearing in fish
example OSPAR as well as the ASCOBANS (17) farms, contributing to overfishing (Box 5.4);
and the ACCOBAMS (18) agreements regarding • use of antibiotics and chemicals (disinfectants,
mammal by-catch for the Baltic and North Seas pesticides, biocides and anti-foulants);
and for the Black and Mediterranean Seas and • potential transfer of parasites and diseases to
contiguous Atlantic area, respectively. wild fish populations — for example, there is
(17) Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Seas (in force since 1994) under the Bonn Convention
on Migratory Species of Wild Animals.
(18) Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (in force since
2001) under the Bonn Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals.
(19) Because of the country groupings used, the Faroe Islands have not been included in this assessment, but their contribution was not
very significant.

emerging scientific evidence that fish farms 5.3.3 Pollution from hazardous
are responsible for the deaths of up to 95 % of substances
young wild salmon migrating out to sea (US
National Academy of Sciences, 2006); Data on concentrations and impacts of hazardous
• accidental introduction of non-indigenous substances on the marine environment are scarce
species — for example associated with the and fragmented. However, there is clear evidence
deliberate introduction of shellfish (see that exposure to these substances can cause
Section 5.3.5, Invasive alien species). The significant negative immunological, hormonal
EU is trying to reduce impacts of non-native and reproductive effects in marine organisms,
species in aquaculture such as the Pacific oyster particularly top predators. Human health can also
(European Commission, 2006i); be affected by the consumption of contaminated
• genetic impoverishment of wild-fish stocks due marine food.
to breeding with fish that have escaped from
farms; Policies have been developed at the global, regional
• competition for space, interaction and conflict and national levels to both reduce emissions and
with predators. regulate the marketing and use of hazardous
substances, including plant protection products.
Special attention should thus be placed on policies Global mechanisms include the UN Stockholm
regulating the wider environmental impacts of Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (20)
aquaculture in all pan-European seas, in particular (POPs), in force since 2004, and the IMO Convention
the paradox that fishing for food becomes fishing on the control of harmful anti-fouling systems,
for feed. adopted in 2001, but yet to come into force. Where
policies have entered into force and are being
implemented, improvements can be seen, especially
in north-western Europe. However, due to the
persistence of many substances already dispersed
in the environment or used in technical products,
Box 5.4 How aquaculture can contribute to
overfishing the legacy from earlier emissions will remain for
decades (Box 5.5).
Most of the fish feed used in aquaculture is made of
wild-caught fish in the form of fish oil and fishmeal.
It normally takes around 4 kg of wild fish to grow New chemicals are continually being introduced,
1 kg of farmed salmon. In this way, instead of some as alternatives to phased-out substances. Over
relieving pressure on the marine environment, fish
farming is actually contributing to the overfishing of time, some of them have already been proven to
the world's fisheries. Thus, the aquaculture industry have negative impacts (Box 5.5), and this could also
consumed 70 % of the global production of fish oil be the case for others. In the EU, the new regulatory
and 46 % of total fishmeal in 2002. If fish farming
continues to grow at the current rate, then by 2010 system for chemicals, REACH, will provide the
the aquaculture industry could well be using all of future legal framework for limiting the use of
the world's fish oil and half of its fishmeal, when industrial problem chemicals. A strategy for the
the sustainability of wild fish stocks is already
far from certain. In fact many are already fished sustainable use of pesticides has also been proposed
at or over their safe biological limits. The trophic recently in the EU (European Commission, 2006j).
level of the species used for fishmeal is also rising,
implying that fish species previously used for human
consumption are being diverted to fishmeal. Hazardous substances
Hazardous substances of particular concern for the
Sources: FAO, 2006; Malherbe, 2005; SAUP, 2006; WWF, 2003.
marine environment include metals, e.g., cadmium,
lead, mercury, zinc and copper; and POPs. POPs
can be:
(20) The Stockholm Convention seeks to eliminate or restrict production and use of all intentionally produced POPs as well as to
minimise and, where feasible, eliminate releases of unintentionally produced POPs such as dioxins and furans.

• pesticides (for example, lindane/HCH, stores of obsolete chemicals, including PCBs and
hexachlorobenzene/HCB and DDT); pesticides, are also significant (EEA, 2006a);
• biocides (for example, tributyltin/TBT); • in the Black, Azov and Caspian Seas, direct
• industrial chemicals (for example, wastewater discharges from industries, many
polychlorinated biphenyls/PCBs); and of which use outdated and highly polluting
• other chemicals that originate from activities technologies, and from coastal municipalities
such as combustion and transport (for example, with inadequate or no treatment, are major
dioxins and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons/ sources of hazardous substances (UNEP,
PAHs). 2005b; UNEP/GRID, 2002; see also Section 2.3,
Inland waters). For example, in the Azov Sea,
POPs are stable in the environment and accumulate discharges from intensive coal and metal
in the food chain. Their toxic effects include the production and manufacturing as well as
ability to disrupt the normal functioning of the agricultural activities in the surrounding
hormonal systems of animal species, even at very catchment have resulted in considerable
low doses ('endocrine-disrupting substances' pollution (UNEP/GRID, 2002). Pesticides,
or 'hormone mimics') (Box 5.5). Many POPs are considered to be the most harmful pollutants in
transported over long distances in the air and in the Caspian Sea, are largely associated with the
water and consequently circulate globally, so they agricultural areas of river deltas and those along
can be found almost anywhere (see Arctic case the coast of Iran. Although the use of DDT was
study in Section 2.5, Hazardous chemicals). prohibited as early as 1970, local authorities in the
region fail to control both its market supply and
Inputs and sources of hazardous substances use (for other sources of pollution in the Caspian
Main sources of hazardous substances to the Sea, see Section 2.5, Hazardous chemicals);
marine environment are: • there are few local sources of contaminants
in the Arctic, with some notable exceptions
• industry, including industrial processes and such as the big mining and mineral processing
manufactured products, such as furniture complexes in the Kola Peninsula. Most of the
containing fire retardants; contamination of this remote region, therefore,
• mining (both extraction and processing of comes from industrialised areas further
minerals); south. Ocean currents are one of the transport
• agriculture, because of the use of pesticides and pathways for hazardous substances from Europe
insecticides; into the Barents and Russian Arctic Seas (AMAP,
• land transport, including vehicle emissions; and 1998; AMAP, 2002). Large rivers, such as the Ob,
• shipping via, for example, oil discharges (see Pechora, Yenisey and Lena are also significant, as
Section 5.3.4, Oil pollution) and the use of they transport a high percentage of the Russian
anti‑foulants (Box 5.5). territory's total pollutant burden to the Arctic
(UNEP, 2005a).
Hazardous substances can be transported by air, in
rivers and in ice before reaching the sea. Once there, In EU‑15 and EFTA, policies to control pollution
they can be taken up by marine organisms as they have resulted in marked reductions in inputs of
move with currents and eventually sink from the prioritised hazardous substances to some sea areas.
water column into the sediments. In particular: The countries collaborating in HELCOM, OSPAR
and also at the Ministerial level (for example, the
• since most of the Mediterranean coastal area North Sea Conference) are at the forefront. Positive
hosts chemical, oil, and mining industries, waste results include:
from these activities is a key source of hazardous
substances. Marine shipping processes and • reported discharges of cadmium, lead, mercury,
accidents as well as oil terminals are considered lindane and PCB have decreased from the
the main sources of PAHs in the area. Untreated countries bordering the North-East Atlantic from
wastewater discharges together with large 1990 to 2003 (OSPAR, 2005a) (Figure 5.6);

• loads to the Baltic Sea of some hazardous • concentrations of heavily-regulated metals in

substances have also been reduced considerably blue mussels have generally been decreasing
over the past 20–30 years. The 50 % reduction in many areas of the North-East Atlantic, Baltic
target of 46 hazardous substances included in and Mediterranean Seas, even near well-known
the 1988 Ministerial Declaration has been largely point sources (EEA, 2006b). The decrease in one
reached. However, problems still persist with of these, lead, is mainly due to the phasing-out
POPs, such as PCBs, DDTs, dioxins, organotin of lead in petrol in north-western Europe in the
compounds, and brominated flame retardants. 1990s. Thus, atmospheric depositions of lead to
Between 1994 and 2004, riverine heavy metal the North Sea decreased by up to 65 % between
loads, notably of cadmium and lead, seem 1987 and 1995 (OSPAR, 2000);
to have decreased for most of the Baltic Sea • there is some indication that concentrations
Contracting Parties (HELCOM, 2005b); of PAHs and some organochlorines found in
• despite decreasing inputs, concentrations of marine organisms in the Mediterranean, Baltic
some of these hazardous substances are still up and North-East Atlantic Seas have also generally
to 20 times higher in the Baltic Sea than in the decreased (EEA, 2006a; 2006b);
North-East Atlantic (see also Baltic case study in • in the Black Sea, there are indications of high
Section 2.5, Hazardous chemicals). levels of POPs in fish and mammals as well as
seawater and sediments in some coastal areas,
including DDT, PCBs, HCHs, and HCB (see
Figure 5.6 Direct and riverine inputs of hazardous
substances into the North-East Atlantic review in UNEP, 2002; see also Maldonado and
Bayona, 2002; Parr et al., 2005);
Total input as a percentage of 1990 values • in the Caspian Sea, high concentrations of DDT
150
Progress since
compounds, chlordanes, PCBs, HCHs, as well
Kiev as zinc, copper, cadmium and lead, have been
125 measured in sturgeons (CEP, 2002a);
• ringed seals and minke whales in the Kara Sea
100 show the highest levels of organochlorines in
Arctic cetaceans. High levels of PCBs and DDTs
75 have been found in seabirds, including the
glaucous gull, in the Barents Sea. Polar bears
50 from Franz Josef Land and the Kara Sea have the
highest PCB and DDT levels in the Arctic (AMAP,
25 1998; AMAP, 2002). Also, dioxin concentrations
in fish still exceed the new EU food safety limits
0 in some areas of the Russian Arctic. Chemical
identification of PCB and DDT suggest new
03
00
01
02
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
20
20
20
20
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
sources of these banned substances in the Russian

Cd Pb Hg Lindane PCB Federation (AMAP, 2004).
Note: It includes the North Sea.
PCB = Sum of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners There are also some hopeful signals of reduced
28, 52, 101, 118, 138, 153 and 180.
biological impacts. Eggshell thickness of marine birds
Source: Compiled by EEA-ETC/WTR from OSPAR's Riverine and
Direct Input Study, 2005a. is used as an indicator of the effects of hazardous
substances in the Baltic Sea, since thin shells can
prevent their reproductive success. Thin eggshells
Trends in concentrations and impacts of observed in the 1960s were attributed especially to
hazardous substances DDT contamination. Swedish data from the 1990s
The main trends in the concentrations of hazardous show that guillemot eggshell returned to thicknesses
substances in pan-European seas, based on the observed prior to 1940s. Similar recovery can also
limited data available, can be summarised as be seen in Swedish time series of white-tailed eagle
follows: brood size and nesting success (HELCOM, 2006b).

Box 5.5 Anti-fouling substances: substituting Figure 5.7 Percentage of females with imposex
one problem with another? in the whelks Neptunea antiqua and
Buccinum undatum in the Danish
Tributyltin (TBT), an organotin compound widely North Sea (2001)
used as an anti-fouling agent in paint for ships,
causes endocrine disruption even at very low levels.
6°E 8°E 10°E
It has been linked to widespread imposex (females NOR WAY
developing male characteristics, threatening 80 %
58°N 76 %
reproduction) in whelk species in the water and 58°N
sediments of ports and harbours in the North and

14i% 0%
Baltic Seas (OSPAR, 2000). In the open North Sea, 80 %
the occurrence of imposex in the common whelk
(Buccinum undatum) is strongly correlated with
shipping traffic intensity (Ten Hallers-Tjabbes et al., 0%
1994).
37 % 85 %
17 % 70 % 81 %
Under the IMO Convention on the control of harmful 27 %

anti-fouling systems, organotin coatings will be 6%
11 %
prohibited on all ships by 1 January 2008. However,
ratification is slow (21). For example, none of the five
Caspian Sea and none of the four Black Sea non-EU 56°N
D E N M A R K
riparian countries has ratified it. In accordance with 56°N
the convention, the EU banned the application of

new organotin coats on EU ships in 2003, with the
exception of warships. From 1 January 2008, the EU
will also outlaw any presence of organotins on ship 0 50 100 Km
8°E 10°E
hulls within its ports.
Females with imposex in two whelks, 2001
Neptunea antiqua Buccinum undatum

The total amount of TBT lost per year from
anti‑fouling coatings from ships in the greater North
Sea was estimated to range from 120 to 134 tonnes Source: OSPAR, 2005b.
between 1997 and 2003 (OSPAR, 2006b). Despite
efforts to restrict its use, widespread imposex in
dog whelks (Nucella lapillus) shows that TBT is still
Diuron and Irgarol 1051 are the booster biocides
above acceptable levels there (OSPAR, 2005b).
causing the most widespread contamination in
The number of large dog whelk populations in the
north‑western Europe. They are now banned as
Netherlands has actually fallen by two-thirds since
anti‑foulants in the United Kingdom, but they are still
1965 (MNP, 2004a). In inner Danish waters, imposex
used in other European countries (Price and Readman,
in another whelk species (Neptunea antiqua) has
2006). The above-mentioned IMO Convention also
been increasing (Figure 5.7), reaching 99 % in 2003
aims at preventing the potential future use of other
(OSPAR, 2005b). However, in the North-East Atlantic
harmful substances in anti‑fouling systems and should
as a whole, TBT concentrations measured in blue
be applied to booster biocides.
mussels have not changed significantly over the last
ten years (OSPAR, 2006c).
Heavy-metal based anti-fouling coatings, mostly
copper and zinc, are also a problem for the marine
'Booster biocides' have been developed to environment and they remain so, even if there has
substitute the banned TBT. However, they appear been some success in limiting their impact. Demark has
to be particularly toxic to marine plants and reduced copper emissions from anti‑fouling paints by
corals depending on the compound. An estimated around 7.5 tonnes annually during 2003–2006 through
4–5 tonnes of booster biocides per year entered the cooperation of boating/sailing organisations and
the greater North Sea from anti-fouling coatings harbour masters, and by using eco friendly tools and
between 1997 and 2002 (OSPAR, 2006b). techniques to control emissions.
5.3.4 Oil pollution as well as by smothering and poisoning flora and

fauna. The spill of large volumes of oil in a small
Oil pollution can impact marine ecosystems through area can have disastrous consequences, especially in
physical and chemical alterations of natural habitats cold environments.
(21) See latest update at http://www.imo.org/includes/blastDataOnly.asp/data_id%3D17632/status.xls.

Estimates of oil entering the world's oceans tend There is also a continuing need to tackle the
to fall between 1 and 3 million tonnes per year. Of problem of chronic oil pollution from land-based
these, approximately: sources, through limiting direct discharges and
improving the treatment of wastewaters and
• 50 % comes from land-based sources (for storm waters, in particular in the EECCA region.
example, urban runoff and discharges from In the EU, this would require, inter alia, improved
industry); implementation of the UWWT and IPPC Directives.
• 24 % comes from marine transport (18 % from
operational ship discharges and 6 % from Accidental oil spills
accidental spills); Oil spills can have catastrophic effects on coastal
• 13 % comes from atmospheric sources (from oil and marine ecosystems, which can then take
handling facilities and vehicle exhaust); several years, even decades, to recover. The effects
• 10 % comes from natural sources; and of accidental oil spills on seabirds and marine
• 3 % comes from offshore extraction mammals are particularly well known. Spills can
(EEA, 2006c; Global Marine Oil Pollution also have socio-economic impacts by causing the
Information Gateway, 2006). closure of fisheries, limiting tourism, and reducing
clean water supplies for industry as well as
The number of accidental oil spills in most affecting human health.
pan‑European seas has decreased over the
last 15 years. The EU has implemented several There are few studies on the long-term ecosystem
measures for ship safety and prevention of effects of oil spills, although these are known to
accidental oil spills, including speeding up the continue for longer in cold ocean environments
introduction of double hull tankers, as a result of than in warmer ones. One of the few studies is on
UNCLOS and IMO agreements. These have also the 1989 Exxon Valdez spill in Alaska, and shows
influenced strategies to combat oil pollution from the unexpected persistence of toxic sub-surface
regional sea conventions. oil and that chronic exposure, even at sub-lethal
levels, had continued to affect wildlife ten years
Although there have been important reductions in after the event (Peterson et al., 2003). In the summer
the Baltic Sea over the last ten years, operational 2006 armed conflict in Lebanon, a major oil spill
oil discharges, mainly along major shipping (10 000–15 000 tonnes) from a damaged power
lanes, continue to pose a serious problem across station affected 150 km of Mediterranean coastline
pan‑European seas. Emissions from oil exploration, reaching as far as Syria. Parties to the Barcelona
production, land transport and refining are in Convention, in the context of its Emergencies
general smaller, but they can be significant in Protocol and REMPEC (22), took prompt action to
some areas. The north‑eastern Atlantic is one of monitor the extent of the spill and to coordinate
those affected, though important progress has clean-up efforts. However, full effects are still to be
been made there in reducing many of the impacts. studied and understood.
Nonetheless, hot spots remain throughout the
region, especially in EECCA countries where The total amount of crude oil transported by
generally there is little government control of oil tankers through EU waters is at least 1 billion
pollution and the legal consequences of exceeding tonnes per year, approximately 60 % of the global
pollution limits are rarely significant (UNEP, 2004b; total (Oceana 2003; UNEP/GRID-Europe, 2006).
2005a; 2006). In contrast, there is a great risk of Despite an increase in tanker transport, the number
future oil pollution in the EECCA seas as a result of accidental oil spills in the North-East Atlantic,
of the expected increases in oil production and Baltic, Mediterranean and Black Seas has decreased
transport (Box 5.6). This is particularly worrisome over the period 1990–2005 (Figure 5.8). To date,
in the Arctic as it will pose a major threat to this there have been no severe accidental oil spills in the
particularly vulnerable environment. Caspian Sea, and figures describing the size and the
(22) Regional Marine Pollution Emergency Response Centre for the Mediterranean Sea.

extent of the impacts of lesser spills are not available the IMO to choose the best protective measures.
(UNEP/GRID-Arendal, 2002). Similarly, 32 Marine Environmental High Risk Areas
have recently been identified around the United
Nevertheless, major spills still occur across the Kingdom's coast, of which crews are expected to
pan-European region even in EU waters (EEA, keep clear or exercise extreme care when navigating
2006d), such as the Erika in 1999 (20 000 tonnes) them (DFT/DEFRA, 2006).
and the Prestige in 2002 (64 000 tonnes). Experience
from these shows the difficulties in containing and Policies and legislation that set out responsibility
collecting the spilled oil from the sea and coastal for oil pollution and provide effective measures
areas, emphasizing that measures to prevent oil to prevent and respond to oil spills are notably
spills should always be the top priority in combating lacking within the EECCA region (UNEP, 2004b;
oil pollution. The EU is learning these lessons: in 2005a; 2006). And although regional and bilateral oil
2003 single-hull oil tankers carrying heavy-grade spill preparedness agreements and some national
oil were banned from EU ports, while a ban on contingency plans exist for the Black, Russian Arctic
all single-hull oil tankers flying a flag of an EU and Barents Seas (ITOPF, 2006b), UNEP believes that
Member State has now been proposed (European these plans are unlikely to be effective in the event of
Commission, 2006k). Efforts are also being made a large oil spill (UNEP, 2004b; 2005a; 2006).
to limit the routing of ships through areas of
high environmental sensitivity: for example, the Operational oil discharges from ships
Baltic and Wadden Seas have been designated as Operational oil discharges occur during ship
'particularly sensitive sea areas' by the IMO. This deballasting, tank washing and from the normal
requires ships to take special care and allows workings of engine rooms. The North, Baltic,
Figure 5.8 Accidental oil tanker spills in European seas
Tonnes of oil spilt (for accidents > 7 tonnes) No of accidents > 7 tonnes
200 000 20
Progress since Kiev
18
175 000
16
150 000
14
125 000
12
100 000 10
8
75 000
6
50 000
4
25 000
2
0 0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Oil spilt No of accidents > 7 tonnes
Note: 'European seas' as used here covers the North-East Atlantic, Baltic, Mediterranean and Black Seas. Spills shown are over 7 tonnes. Oil spilt
in an incident means all oil lost to the environment, including that which is burnt or remains in a sunken vessel. Despite the fact that the
vast majority of spills are less than 7 tonnes, data on numbers and volumes for small spills are unreliable and such accidents are regarded
to have a relatively small contribution to the overall quantity of oil spilled into the marine environment as a result of tanker accidents.
Source: International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Ltd (ITOPF), 2006a.

Mediterranean and Black Seas have the status of and has reduced by 50 % since 1999. At that time,
'special areas' under the IMO MARPOL73/78 (23), there were 488 discharges compared to 224 in 2005
which prohibits almost all operational oil discharges. and, a slight increase, to 236 in 2006. This is despite
However, surveillance of these seas shows large rapid increases in shipping density in the last decade
numbers of illegal operational oil discharges, mostly (HELCOM, 2006c; 2007), and has been attributed to
within shipping corridors (DG JRC/IPSC, 2000–2004) the adoption of a Baltic Strategy and the MARPOL
(Map 5.4). Unfortunately, the rest of the seas in the 'special area' designation. Any discharge of oil,
pan-European region are not covered by similar or diluted mixtures containing oil in any form, or
extensive monitoring schemes. refined products, is prohibited. Measures such as
providing waste reception facilities in ports and
The number of illegal operational oil discharges in removing fees for waste delivery have also been
the Baltic Sea has been regularly observed since 1988 implemented (HELCOM, 2006d).
Map 5.4 Illegal operational oil discharges in designated European MARPOL 73/78 special sea areas (2000–2004)
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° Operational oil
discharges detected
in European seas,
2000–2004
Oil discharges
60°
Note: This map covers the

North, Baltic, Mediterranean
and Black Seas only.
In the North and Baltic Seas,
50°
illegal operational oil
discharges were detected by
aerial surveillance. In the
Mediterranean and Black Seas,
these have been detected by
radar satellite images
50°
(i.e. 'probable' spills),
but not been cross-validated
by aerial surveillance.
Further, the varying extent of
surveillance in different seas
may lead to over or under
40°
representing the degree of
pollution.
40°
30°
0
30° 500 1000 1500 Km
0° 10° 20° 30°
Note: This map covers the North, Baltic, Mediterranean and Black Seas only. In the North and Baltic Seas, illegal operational oil discharges
were detected by aerial surveillance. In the Mediterranean and Black Seas, these have been detected by radar satellite images (i.e.
'probable' spills), but not been cross-validated by aerial surveillance. Further, the varying extent of surveillance in different seas may
lead to over or under representing the degree of pollution.
Sources: European Commission, DG JRC, Institute for the Protection and Security of the Citizen (IPSC), 2005.
(23) Convention for the prevention of pollution from ships in force since 1983. It aims at minimizing marine pollution, including dumping,
oil and ship exhaust. It designates 'special areas' where oil discharges from ships are prohibited, with minor and well defined
exceptions.

No change in illegal operational oil discharges has the whole distance (UNEP, 2005a). With Arctic
been observed in the North Sea over the past 15 years summer sea ice predicted to melt possibly as early
and long-term monitoring data is not available to as by the middle of this century (see Section 5.3.7,
establish a trend for the Mediterranean and Black Climate change and seas), this will gradually increase
Seas. the navigation season for the NSR, and shipping
could reach several million tonnes by 2020 (UNEP,
Shipping traffic in pan-European seas is likely to 2005a). However, both direct routes across the North
increase rapidly in the next decade. In order to offset Pole and the North-West Passage may also become
up to 95 % increases in inland freight predicted to navigable alternatives. If large increases in shipping
occur in the EU by 2020, the European Commission is traffic do occur in the Arctic seas, the risk of major
currently promoting the trans‑European 'motorways oil spills and other shipping pollution will increase
of the sea', short-haul shipping lanes, linking the significantly, with impacts on the sensitive Arctic
Baltic, Barents, Atlantic, Mediterranean, Black and marine environment likely to be considerable and
Caspian Seas through defined shipping corridors long‑lasting.
(European Commission, 2006l). Though the increase
in shipping intensity in these corridors will increase Pollution from the oil industry
the efficiency of freight transport, it is also likely to Offshore oil installations, the majority of which
greatly increase pressure on the marine and coastal are located in enclosed and shallow sea areas, can
environment, in particular from operational oil have a significant impact on these more sensitive
discharges. areas. Considerable progress has been made in
reducing their impacts particularly in the North‑East
The Northern Sea Route (NSR) can potentially almost Atlantic, where between 1992 and 2004, despite
halve the shipping distance between Europe and increasing production, oil discharges from offshore
northeast Asia. Only parts of the route are used now installations have decreased by 35 % (OSPAR, 2000)
in the summer and very few ships navigate through (Figure 5.9).
Figure 5.9 Oil production and discharges from offshore installations in the North-East Atlantic
Discharges (tonnes) Production (billion tonnes)

20 000 350
Progress since Kiev
17 500
300
15 000
250
12 500
200
10 000
150
7 500
100
5 000
2 500 50
0 0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Discharges Production
Note: Data available from Denmark, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and Norway only; hence the assessment is
restricted to the North-East Atlantic. Data not available for discharges in 1991 and 1993 nor for production in 1990 and 1991.
Sources: OSPAR, 2006d; Eurostat, 2006.

Box 5.6 Potential for future oil pollution in Map 5.5 Selected oil and gas installations and
EECCA seas projects in the Caspian Sea
Rapidly increasing world demand for oil, and a desire

to move away from dependence on politically sensitive
Middle East supplies, has increased attention on oil
reserves in the Russian Arctic and Caspian Sea areas
(IEA, 2005). Don
a
lg
Vo
KAZAKHSTAN
Caspian region production and export routes
RUSSIAN
Oil production in Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan is FEDERATION
Vo
lg
a Atyrau
predicted to increase more than three-fold between
2002 and 2010 (IPIECA, 2005), by which time
approximately 160 million tonnes of crude oil will be Aral
transported each year via either pipelines or shipping, Sea
across the Black Sea and through the Bosporus (CERA UZBEKISTAN
2003 cited in IPIECA, 2005). For example:
Amu Dary
Aqtau
• current Black Sea oil tanker transport is expected
Makhachkala
a
to increase by 52 million tonnes by 2010 (CERA,
GEORGIA
2003 cited in UNEP/GRID-Europe, 2006); Tbilisi Caspian
Sea
• 50 million tonnes of Caspian oil a year will
be carried through the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan ARMENIA
Yerevan
Baku
pipeline, which began operation in 2005, directly AZERBAIJAN Turkmenbasy
linking the Caspian and the Mediterranean Seas TURKMENISTAN
(Map 5.5).
TURKEY Ashgabat
Tabriz
Russian export routes Neka port

IRAQ
The Russian Federation's oil production is predicted IRAN 0 150 Kilometers
0 150 Miles
to grow between 15 % and 30 % in the period Tehran Boundary representation is
not necessarily authoritative.
2002–2020 (IEA, 2004). Much of this will come from DI Cartography Center/MPG 761781AI (R00918) 2-03
the development of new fields in western and eastern Selected oil and gas installation in the Caspian Sea
Siberia, with additional offshore production expected Oil and gas field Planned, proposed, or
from the Barents and Pechora Seas (Bambulyak and Prospective field under construction oil pipeline
Frantzen, 2005). Existing oil pipeline Planned, proposed, or
under construction gas pipeline
Existing gas pipeline
Refinery
The export routes for Russian oil and gas are
highly dependent on the future oil markets and the Source: Redrawn after DI Cartography Center, US Government,
2006.
development of infrastructure, both pipelines and
ports. Nonetheless, traffic along all three westward Tankers from these terminals are part of the heavy
shipping routes, the Barents Sea, the Baltic Sea, and traffic through the Bosporus and Dardanelles, which
the Black–Mediterranean sea route, is expected to several pipeline initiatives are seeking to relieve.
grow. However, some of these would still end up in the
Mediterranean Sea, such as the Burgas-Alexandroupoli
pipeline linking the Bulgarian Black Sea and the
The Russian Federation exported 12 million tonnes of
Greek Aegean, and would increase tanker traffic and,
oil from the Barents Sea region in 2004, but this is
therefore, risks there.
likely to rise to 50 million tonnes per year in the next
decade, even without a trunk oil pipeline from the
western Siberian oil fields to Murmansk. This could Increased risks
mean that ships of up to 250 000 tonnes deadweight
The projected rapid rise in oil production and
destined for Europe and North America will pass
transport brings with it concomitant risks of serious
through the harsh conditions in the Barents Sea on
environmental damage in EECCA and other seas both
a regular basis (Bambulyak and Frantzen, 2005). Oil
from accidental oil spills and operational oil discharges
transport in the Baltic Sea is also expected to increase
along the sea routes followed by tankers. For example,
significantly as a result of the construction of the
it is estimated that concentrations of petroleum
Baltic Pipeline System carrying oil from north-western
hydrocarbons in the northern Caspian Sea from
Russia to the port of Primorsk. Oil is also exported
operational discharges could at least double by 2020,
from Poland and other Baltic states (Bambulyak and
reaching 200 µg/l (Berkeliev, undated). The potential
Frantzen, 2005).
for large oil spills will also rise as a result of increased
oil tanker traffic, and the installation of deep-water
Additionally, Russia has several oil terminals along the pipelines, such as that planned between Aktau and
Black Sea including its largest, Novorossiysk, with a Baku (Berkeliev, undated; see also Section 7.3,
capacity of approximately 100 million tonnes a year. Energy).

Over a similar period, oil discharges from economic ones. They can affect marine ecosystems
North‑East Atlantic refineries have also decreased through predation, competition, mixing of exotic
by 77 % (OSPAR, 2000). Offshore activities and genes, habitat modification and the introduction of
refineries are less of an issue in the Baltic and pathogens.
Mediterranean Seas (ESPON, 2006), whereas
systematic information for other seas is not readily Alien species are now considered to be the second
available. leading cause of biodiversity loss after habitat
alteration (UNEP/CBD, 2006) and are found in
Pollution from oil industry hot spots, such as most pan-European seas. Significantly, they often
those near leaking capped oil wells or areas where become established more easily in ecosystems that
water level rises have encroached on well-oiled are already degraded by other pressures such as
soils, is regarded as one of the most immediate overfishing and pollution. This was the case of the
threats to the Caspian Sea and its biodiversity. Black Sea, which is now recovering from ecological
Additionally, obsolete and poorly maintained oil collapse due, inter alia, to an alien species invasion.
production and transport infrastructure in areas
such as Baku Bay, Cheleken, Makhachkala and Modes, rate of introduction and responses
Atarya have already led to high concentrations More than 1 000 alien marine and estuarine
of petroleum hydrocarbons in the water and species have been introduced to several seas in
sediments (CEP, 2002a; UNEP/GRID-Arendal, the pan‑European region, the majority in the
2002). This contamination has been linked to last century (Gollasch, 2006). The Mediterranean
general ecosystem degradation, the disappearance Sea has suffered most, with approximately
of fish stocks including zander and herring, and 740 introduced species mainly associated with
periodic mass waterfowl deaths (CEP, 2000). the opening of the Suez Canal. But the Black,
However, away from such hot spots, most Caspian North, Celtic-Biscay Shelf, Baltic, Caspian, Iberian
Sea waters have internationally acceptable levels Coastal and Norwegian Seas are also all affected
of hydrocarbons, with the oil industry estimated to (Figure 5.10) by invasive aliens from all over the
contribute just 8 000 tonnes/year or 5 % of the total world — with the east coast of North America
oil in the Caspian Sea (CEP, 2002a; UNEP/GRID- contributing approximately a third of all known
Arendal, 2002). Nevertheless, illegal oil discharges introductions.
have increased in recent years and, in some
cases, their sources, which are not always easy to Taken on board at a ship's origin, ballast water (24)
establish, have been traced to industrial activities can harbour large numbers of organisms, which
(CEP, 2002a; UNEP/GRID-Arendal, 2002). are then released at the ship's destination.
Shipping transfers approximately 3–5 billion
Practically all oil pollution in the Arctic seas, tonnes of ballast water internationally each year
particularly the Kara Sea, is run-off from areas of (Globallast, 2006), making it the most prominent
inland oil production especially in western Siberia, vector for alien introductions, with ship hull
carried to the sea by the Ob and Yenisei rivers fouling and aquaculture as additional significant
(UNEP, 2005a). sources. The spread of invasive alien species to
the enclosed seas in the pan-European region is
then facilitated by inland shipping canals linking
5.3.5 Invasive alien species the Mediterranean, Black, Baltic and Caspian Seas
(Map 5.7).
Invasive alien species are non-native species that
become established in a new environment, and The overall rate of invasive alien species
then proliferate and spread in ways that damage introductions peaked in the 1980s and 1990s but
native biodiversity and human interests, including continues at a steady rate today (Figure 5.10). For
(24) Water taken up or released by a ship to stabilise it or to raise/lower it in the water column.

example, since the year 2000, 105 new species have open sea, and later will introduce ballast‑water
been reported in the Mediterranean Sea, 10 of them in quality standards. Since ratification is only
2006 alone (Zenetos et al., 2006). proceeding slowly, additional effort will be needed to
bring the Convention into force. Both the European
The high number of new introductions makes strategy and the IMO Convention are relevant to
record keeping difficult, and highlights the need for EECCA seas.
continuous research on the issue.
Another positive initiative is the SEBI 2010 (27) process
The Bern Convention ( ) has developed a European
25
in the framework of the CBD, which monitors the
Strategy on Invasive Alien Species, which offers worst invasive alien species, including the marine
specific advice to countries and international environment. Linked also to commitments under the
organisations on measures to combat the threat. A CBD and following from the 6th EAP, the EU Action
new IMO Convention (26) to control these invasions, Plan to 2010 and beyond (28) (European Commission,
adopted in 2004 but not yet in force, will initially 2006b) includes an objective on the control of alien
require ships to exchange their ballast water in the species (see also Chapter 4, Biodiversity).
Figure 5.10 Change in marine invasive alien species in eight pan-European seas
Number of invasive alien species Number of invasive alien species

60 800
Progress Progress
since 700 since
50 Kiev Kiev
600
40
500
30 400
300
20
200
10
100
0 0
00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
00
06
00
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
00
06
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
<
<
Baltic Sea Caspian Sea Celtic-Biscay North Sea

Iberian Coastal Norwegian Sea Black Sea Mediterranean Sea
Note: Data for the Baltic Sea is for parts of the sea with a salinity Sources: Derived by EEA-ETC/WTR, 2006 from the following sources:
of > 5 psu • Celtic Biscay Shelf: HCMR (29) based on contributions to
Sources: Derived by EEA-ETC/WTR, 2006 from the following sources: • the SEBI 2010 workshop, Athens, 2006;
• Baltic Sea: BMB-NEMO, 2006; Javidpour et al., 2006; • North Sea: Gollasch (pers. comm.); Hansson, 2006;
• Caspian Sea: Shiganova et al., 2006; • Black Sea: HCMR based on Alexandrov et al., 2006;
• Cinar et al., 2006; Micu (Romania) (pers. comm.); and •
• Iberian Coastal: Rico and Cabal, 2006; Martínez and • Shiganova (Russia) (pers. comm.);
• Adarraga, 2006;
• Mediterranean Sea: Streftaris and Zenetos, 2006.
• Norwegian Sea: Botnen, 2006.
(25) Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats in force since 1982.
(26) Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments, which would introduce measures to control and
manage ballast water and sediments in ships to prevent alien species introductions.
(27) Process for Streamlining European Biodiversity Indicators to meet the CBD target of halting the loss of biodiversity by 2010.
(28) Annexed to the European Commission Communication on Halting the loss of biodiversity by 2010 — and beyond — Sustaining
ecosystem services for human well-being.
(29) Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (http://www.hcmr.gr/).

Box 5.7 Examples of impacts from marine invasive alien species
The Red King crab (Paralithodes camtschatica) was shown signs of relative recovery after the invasion
intentionally introduced into the Barents Sea in of another comb jelly, Beroe ovata, which appears
the 1960s by the Russian Federation as a potential to prey exclusively on M. leidyi (Kamburska et al.,
new food source. It spread over a large area and 2006). However, during the spring and summer
flourished (Map 5.6), becoming an important absence of B. ovata, M. leidyi still reach densities
fishing commodity. However, this crab has also as high as before (CEP, 2005).
become such a by-catch nuisance for the Norwegian
gillnet fishery that its eradication has been called
for (Streftaris et al., 2005). In addition, its rapid M. leidyi has already spread to the Caspian
population growth has limited food availability for Sea resulting in a depletion of kilka fish stocks
other benthic organisms, including fish fry, and (Shiganova et al., 2001). Were the comb jelly's
threatened cod fisheries as it is an intermediate Caspian populations to develop similarly to those in
host of an important cod fry parasite. the Azov and Black Seas, fisheries could be totally
destroyed in 2012–2015, with ensuing economic
losses likely to be around
EUR 4.5 billion/year
Map 5.6 Spread of Red King crab in the western Barents Sea
(Berkeliev, 2002).
10° 15° 20° 25° 30° 35° 40° 45° M. leidyi is predicted to
invade the Baltic Sea next
1997
due to major shipping
70°
2000 linkages from the Caspian
North Cape 1995 Sea (UNEP/GRID-Arendal,
70° 1999
2006) (Map 5.7). Indeed,
2005 Tromsø 1992 during late summer and
autumn 2006, it has
N O R W A Y
Murmansk already been found in
2001 the south-western Baltic,
along the Swedish North
Sea coast, and along the
south and south-western
F I N L A N D R U S S I A Norwegian coasts. From
the size of the observed
S W E D E N
populations, it is clear that
0 100 200 300 Km
the comb jelly must have
15° 20° 25° 30°
40° been introduced before
2006, but has remained
Red King Crab distribution in the western Barents Sea, 2006 unrecorded until now
(Hansson, 2006) and this is
Core area of distribution
why it does not feature on
Red circles indicate the approximate location and the year of the first observations Map 5.7.
Source: Institute of Marine Research (IMR), Tromsø, Norway, 2007.
The American comb jelly Mnemiopsis leidyi has

recently played a significant role in modifying the
structure and functioning of the Black Sea food
web. M. leidyi is a voracious predator, feeding
excessively on zooplankton, depleting stocks and
altering the food web and ecosystem functions.
And, under favourable conditions, it reproduces
rapidly.
M. leidyi contributed significantly to the collapse

of fisheries in the Black and Azov seas in the
1990s, which had serious economic and social
ramifications. For example, the collapse of anchovy
and sprat fisheries, which had a combined turnover
of around EUR 200 million/year in the 1980s
(Zaitzev and Mamaev, 1997). The zooplanktonic
species on which M. leidyi feeds have recently Photo: Mnemiopsis leidyi © Tamara Shiganova

Map 5.7 Main routes for the spread of the comb jelly Mnemiopsis leidyi in pan-European seas (2006)
Comb jelly
Barents
Sea Mnemiopsis leidyi
spread in
European seas
Norwegian White
Sea Sea Altitudes in metres
Volga-Baltic Canal 3 000

2 000
1 000
Oslo Helsinki 500
Volga
North
Stockholm Saint Petersborg Kazan 200
Tallinn 0
Sea Samara
Baltic Riga Moscow
Copenhagen Sea
lga
Main sea transport
Vo
Kallininggrad routes
Volga-Don Canal
English
Aral Area where the comb
Atlantic Atyrau Sea jelly Mnemiopsis leidyi...
Channel Volgograd
Ocean n
Vo
Do
Rostov-
on-Don
lga Astrakhan ...has already
Aktau appeared during
Sea
the last decades
of Caspian
Azov
Odessa Sevastopol Novorossiilsk Turkmenbashi
...is likely to
Sumgait appear in the next
Black Baku Sea few years
Sea
Corsica Adriatic
Sea Bosporus
Balearic Istanbul
Islands Sardinia Dardanelles Tehran
Gibraltar
Aegan
Sea
Sicily Athens
Mediterranean Sea
Source: UNEP/GRID-Arendal, 2006.
5.3.6 Coastal zones Management (ICZM), are being developed and

implemented within the EU and under the regional
Large parts of the unique coastal ecosystems conventions for the Baltic, Mediterranean and Black
and landscapes in the pan-European region are Seas, but are still needed in the EECCA region. Key
vulnerable to intense human pressures, and these to their long-term success will be the promotion
are mounting. Development of the relatively small of public participation and the introduction of
area along the coast brings a number of conflicting adaptation measures for climate change. There is
demands for land, water, energy and biological also a need for independent land-use monitoring
resources, often followed closely by habitat and improved data, especially in the EECCA region.
destruction and general ecosystem degradation.
Coastal populations and the economic value Concentration of population and major urban
of their assets are rising rapidly, frequently in developments
those places that are already in high demand and Around 16 % of EU citizens live in coastal
environmentally overexploited. Now climate change municipalities, although the coastal zone only
is expected to exacerbate many of the problems represents 11 % of the EU's land area (European
already faced by pan-European coastal zones. Commission, 2004). There are around 280 coastal
cities with more than 50 000 inhabitants in the
The implementation of new EU mechanisms, pan‑European region (EEA, 2006e). The situation of
including the WFD, the proposed MSD and a the different coastal regions is as follows:
future Maritime Policy, should act as drivers for
improved coastal zone management. Further • the Mediterranean, Iberian and North Sea
policies to address coastal issues in a coherent or coasts have the highest population densities, all
holistic manner, such as Integrated Coastal Zone with more than 500 inhabitants/km2, but there

are very different regional situations along

them. Tourism continues to seriously increase Box 5.8 Environmental threats from Caspian
Sea level changes
these populations — more than 170 million
international tourists visited the Mediterranean Multiannual oscillation of the Caspian water level is a
natural cyclic phenomenon reflecting the respiration of
coast in 2000, an increase of 44 % since 1990
the basin, and is linked to atmospheric circulation in
(Blue Plan, 2005) — at least seasonally (see also the Atlantic-European sector. The water level retreated
Section 7.4, Tourism); during the 20th century and the sea area decreased
by approximately 40 000 km2. This decrease was
• approximately 110 million people live in the exacerbated by intense water regulation and the
Black Sea basin (Mee, 2000). The Istanbul region damming of the rivers that feed the Caspian Sea.
has over 12 million inhabitants, while Romania Many coastal areas were taken over for human use
during the low sea-level period (Kosarev, 2005), but
and Bulgaria have high population densities were claimed back as a rapid rise began in 1978. This
around harbours and tourist resorts. In Ukraine, water level rise can cause flooding and increase the
the Russian Federation and Georgia, higher risk of coastal erosion and salinisation. In turn, this
can displace thousands of people, destroy investments
population densities are centred around inland in industry and infrastructure, and cause severe
urban‑industrial centres; pollution through the inundation of coastal waste sites
• the population around the Caspian coastline and oil extraction facilities (CEP, 2006). The possibility
of sea-level changes of 1–1.5 m over the next few
is estimated to be 11 million, with the main decades should, therefore, be taken into account
urban centres concentrated on the western and when developing and implementing economic plans in
southern shores (CEP, 2005); urbanisation is the Caspian coastal zone (Kosarev, 2005).
likely to increase with the expected expansion of

oil and gas activities (CEP, 2002b);
• urbanisation and population density in and Kuban are complemented by the smaller
the Arctic coastal region is low at around deltas of the Turkish coast. The largest of all, the
1 inhabitant per km2. Danube Delta, shared by Romania and Ukraine,
is particularly well‑known for its abundance of
Natural assets and protected areas birds and as one of the last refuges for several
Large areas of wetlands have been lost in the EU mammal species (Box 5.9). The northern coasts
since the beginning of the 20th century (ESL/JRC, of the Black and Azov Seas include extensive
2006). The less disturbed EECCA coastlines, coastal lagoon systems and similar coastal water
therefore, still represent an important natural bodies; there are also numerous coastal lakes
resource. For example: along the Romanian and Bulgarian coastline
and marsh systems in the Kolkheti lowland of
• the coastal zones of the Caspian Sea are Georgia. Wetlands International has proposed
characterised by a wide range of habitats, but a strategic initiative, BlackSeaWet, for the
due to varying water levels (Box 5.8), these are in sustainable use and conservation of coastal
a state of constant flux. The area is of particular wetlands in the Black Sea region (Wetlands
environmental significance as it lies at the International, 2003b).
crossroads of bird migration routes and is a vital
staging point for an estimated 10 million birds Different protection regimes are implemented
each year during spring and autumn (CEP, across pan-European coastal zones in an attempt to
2002a); preserve their outstanding diversity of landscapes
• there are 80 major coastal wetlands in the Black and ecosystems:
and Azov Seas. Thirty-two of them have been
designated as Ramsar (30) sites, representing • Due to its high nature value, an important
a total area of almost two million hectares proportion of the EU coastal zone is expected
(Wetlands International, 2003a). Deltas of large to be protected, both on the land and at sea,
rivers such as the Danube, Dniestr, Dnieper, Don by the designation of Natura 2000 sites. Not
(30) Under the so-called Ramsar Convention on wetlands in force since 1975, which provides a framework for the conservation and wise
use of wetlands and their resources, including coastal wetlands (http://www.ramsar.org/).

all economic activity in the sites is excluded, • SEE countries have almost completed, and
but Member States must ensure that this is EECCA countries have made efforts to determine,
carried out in a way which is compatible with their candidates for the Emerald Network (31) of
the conservation of the habitats and species protected sites. The Emerald Network is based
living and growing within them. In general, the on the same principles as the EU's Natura 2000,
establishment of the network is almost complete and represents its de facto extension to non-EU
in EU‑15, and the analysis of the proposed sites countries. It will, therefore, form the basis for SEE
for EU‑10 is ongoing. For EU‑15, Natura 2000 country participation in the Natura 2000 process
sites cover more than 50 000 km2, approximately (see also Chapter 4, Biodiversity).
15 % of the coastal zone (landwards and • The Caspian Sea coast has few protected areas,
seawards) (Map 5.8). More than 40 % of the but those that exist include the Astrakhan Reserve
total area covered by coastal Natura 2000 sites in the Russian Federation and the Khazar Reserve
is represented by habitats of European interest in Turkmenistan. In the south, the lowland coastal
(listed in Annex I of the Habitats Directive) (EEA, areas are almost entirely cultivated and few
2006e; see also Section 5.2, Policies to protect pan- natural habitats have been preserved (TACIS-CEP,
European seas, and Chapter 4, Biodiversity). 2001).
Box 5.9 The Danube — Black Sea navigation route across the Danube Delta
Some branches in the Danube Delta are adapted Ukrainian wetlands are designated as Wetlands
for navigation from the inland to the Black Sea and of International Importance under the Ramsar
vice versa. The Danube — Black Sea deep water Convention (UNESCO-MAB, 2005).
navigation route is being dredged by Ukraine across
the Danube Delta, bordering Romania; from the city of There has been international concern around the
Ismail seawards via the Chilia branch and the natural potential environmental impacts of the Danube —
Bystroe channel and outlet towards the Black Sea. It Black Sea deep-water navigation project, in particular
will provide access to the Danube river for larger ships from the Romanian authorities The concern of the
to support the economic development of upstream Romanian Government resulted in the initiation of an
regions. It is anticipated that the Danube river may inquiry procedure under the UNECE Convention on
develop into an important cargo route between the Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary
Atlantic, European and Asian regions. Context (32), the first time such a procedure has been
put in place, to advise on the likelihood of significant
The Danube Delta, the second largest delta in Europe, adverse transboundary impacts. In July 2006, the
is a pristine area of high environmental value and an Inquiry Commission concluded, among other things,
important wildlife habitat. It has the highest number that:
of birds of any southern European wetland, being • the navigation route is likely to have a number
a key area of passage for migrating species and an of significant adverse transboundary impacts on
over-wintering habitat for others, with a total of more inter alia habitats, fisheries and birdlife;
than 320 bird species of European importance. Around • the provisions of the Convention applied and,
90 fish species and threatened mammals such as the therefore, Ukraine was expected to send a
European mink, the wildcat, the freshwater otter and notification about this project to Romania;
the globally threatened monk seal are also found in • the procedure for transboundary impact
the delta. assessment should start, including
communication between and public participation
A large part of the delta is incorporated into a in the two countries.
transboundary Biosphere Reserve established in 1998
between the two countries. Most of the Reserve's The works were ongoing over 2006 and the
wetlands fall in Romanian territory and have been navigation route is expected to open this year. For
inscribed in the World Heritage List. Furthermore, further information see http://www.unece.org/env/
580 000 ha of the Romanian and 32 800 ha of eia/news_old.htm.
Source: Based on the Espoo Inquiry Commission report on the likely significant adverse transboundary impacts of the Danube — Black Sea
navigation route at the border of Romania and the Ukraine, UNECE, 2006.
(31) The Emerald Network is an ecological network made up of 'areas of special conservation interest', which was launched by the
Council of Europe as part of its work under the Bern Convention (http://www.coe.int/t/e/cultural_co-operation/environment/
nature_and_biological_diversity/ecological_networks/The_Emerald_Network/).
(32) Called the Espoo Convention after the Finnish city where it was adopted in 1991.

Map 5.8 Coastal zone protected by Natura 2000 (%, 2006)
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60°

Coastal zone protected by
Natura 2000 sites, by
NUTS3 regions, 2006
% of coastal zone covered

by Natura 2000 sites
60°
< 15 %
60° 15–30 %
> 30 %
Outside report
coverage
50°
50°
40°
40°
Canary Is. -30°

Azores Is.
30° 40°
30°
30°
Madeira
-30° Is. 0 500 1000 1500 Km
0° 10° 20° 30°
Source: Based on the Natura 2000 database from EEA-ETC/BD.
Development of coastal zones and related France, and on the North Sea coast, for example
habitat loss in Belgium. Such rate of development is driven
Between 1990 and 2000, development within the by several human activities including particularly
10 km coastal zone increased in all countries of tourism and transport infrastructure, but also
the enlarged EU, with the highest increases of shipping, fisheries, aquaculture and offshore
soil sealing and urbanisation, 20–35 %, in the energy installations, with each increasingly
coastal zones of Portugal, Ireland and Spain (EEA, demanding their share. For example, more than
2006e) (Figure 5.11). Today, across the EU, the 2 720 km2 of semi-natural, natural and agricultural
proportion of built up areas in the first kilometre land (especially mixed agriculture and pasture),
from the coastline, the coastal strip, is in many were lost in the EU predominantly to artificial
cases 15 % to 45 %. This can be even higher along surfaces during this period. Intensive agriculture
a number of coastal stretches in the western part has also claimed natural land and wetlands (EEA,
of the Mediterranean Sea, especially Spain and 2006e).

Figure 5.11 Land-cover change within the 10 km coastal facilities and increasing leisure amenities, including
zone of 17 EU countries (1990–2000) often 'thirsty' golfcourses, are required too. All of
these are taken from coastal lands such as wetlands,
Net change in land cover % of initial year
woodlands and even farms. Additionally, some
8.00 new resorts have been built on the beach, directly
threatening wild species including turtles (see also
Section 7.4, Tourism). However, tourism development
6.00 does not necessarily have to be unsustainable and
ICZM approaches should be used to ensure that this
is not the case (Box 5.10).
4.00
Box 5.10 Application of Integrated Coastal

Management on the Croatian
2.00 Dalmatian coast: Sustainable tourism
through public participation
The COAST (33) project for sustainable coastal

0.00 development was developed using a wide
participatory approach.
Natural and cultural attractions along the Dalmatian

– 2.00
coast in Croatia are extraordinarily favourable for
Artificial areas Semi-natural vegetation tourism, which has a long tradition there and is one
of the most important economic sectors. However,
Arable land and Open spaces/bare soils illegal construction on biodiversity-rich sites is
permanent crops rather frequent and has serious environmental
impacts, as do increasing demands for water, energy
Pastures and Wetlands
and food as well as associated waste production.
mixed farmland
Further, misbehaviour by tourists can cause habitat
Forested land Water bodies degradation, waste pollution and forest fires,
especially on the area's islands (UNDP, 2005).
Note: Countries included here are 17 out of the 22 EU coastal
Member States (the exceptions are Cyprus, Finland, Malta,
Sweden and the United Kingdom).
Even though tourism is one of the most important
Source: EEA, 2006e. economic activities in coastal Croatia, there are a
number of other initiatives that compete with or
impact negatively on it, such as placing tuna farms
Tourism is the main source of income in many EU in tourist areas. This has caused conflict among the
local population but, by applying an ICZM approach,
coastal areas and has played a crucial role in the it has been possible to achieve a comprehensive
growth of settlements along the shore (see also understanding of the relationships between
Section 7.4, Tourism). Turkey's Mediterranean coastal resources, their users and the impacts
of development. These relationships need to be
coast, as well as the Dalmatian (Croatia) and understood and expressed not only in physical and
Bulgarian coasts, have also seen spectacular tourism environmental but also in economic terms. As coastal
resources are simultaneously used by different
development. In the EECCA countries bordering the
economic and social sectors, integrated management
Black Sea, tourism diminished during the 1990s, but can only be successful when all these uses, users and
is now showing signs of recovery. relationships are clearly understood.
Tourism development brings economic benefits, but Within the COAST project, activities of key industrial
sectors — fisheries, agriculture, banking and
also environmental problems. New housing is not particularly tourism — will be modified and adapted
just needed for the visitors but also for those who in order to prevent negative impacts on each other
staff the resorts. More freshwater and more sanitation and on biodiversity.
are needed as well as food, which itself requires more

Source: Croatian Environment Agency, 2006.
freshwater. Roads, airports, ports, waste‑disposal
(33) The Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biodiversity in the Dalmatian Coast through Greening Coastal Development (COAST) is a
UNDP-GEF project.

Many coastal zones along the Mediterranean These impacts will, in turn, modify the ecological
Sea, particularly in southern Spain, and the Black structure of oceans and coasts, their functions and
and Caspian Seas, are now suffering from water the goods and services they provide. Furthermore,
shortages as a result of the introduction of intensive the IPCC (2001) indicates that vulnerability to
agriculture in already water-limited areas. Indeed in climate change increases in areas that are already
southern Spain, competition is developing between under considerable stress from other non-climatic
two thriving industries, tourism and agriculture, for pressures, particularly human activities. This would
increasingly scarce freshwater (see Section 2.3, Inland be the case for the marine and coastal environment.
waters).
Climate change impacts on marine biology are
Climate change will have profound impacts on the becoming more and more obvious. They include
coastal environment for example: desertification disturbances to the growing season of marine
along the Caspian and Mediterranean coasts; organisms and changes in the species composition
sea‑level rise affecting low lying areas; increased of marine communities. Additionally, pressure from
erosion of coastlines and deltas; and higher frequency increased levels of atmospheric CO2 is likely to
of sea storms in the North and the Baltic Seas. Coastal alter the water chemistry of the oceans, increasing
ecosystems, and particularly coastal lagoons along its acidity and thereby preventing calcification.
the shores of semi-enclosed seas, could be severely Experimental evidence suggests that this could
reduced or even disappear during this century. This is eventually cause difficulties for marine organisms
particularly so in areas with low tidal ranges backed that build calcareous shells and skeletons, such as
by intense human use, which limits the scope for cold-water corals.
onshore migration and coastal subsidence (Nicholls
and Klein, 2005). More flooding events, too, are Strong mitigation policies at the global level have to
expected because of both climate change and reduced be given the highest priority. However, adaptation
natural retention capacity of the land following its policies at the regional and local levels are also
sealing or conversion from, for example, coastal needed to tackle climate change impacts on coastal
wetlands. and marine ecosystems. Adaptation strategies must,
therefore, include measures to reduce anthropogenic
non-climatic impacts in order to improve the
5.3.7 Climate change and seas resilience of these ecosystems to climate change. For
example, changes in species composition, abundance
Global climate change is very likely to give rise to and spatial distribution of fish stocks are one of the
large-scale impacts on the physical and geochemical major challenges and should be taken into account
characteristics of the oceans and coasts including: by the CFP. Both the WFD and the proposed MSD
provide an overall framework for developing and
• increases in sea surface temperature and sea level; implementing catchment and marine management
• decreases in sea-ice cover; strategies, and their full implementation should not
• changes in salinity, alkalinity and wave climate; only reduce pressures on coastal and marine waters
• increased freshwater and land-based pollutant but also take into account and allow adaptation to
run-off. climate change (EEA, 2007).
and possibly: The sequestration of CO2 in geological formations

under the sea floor or its injection into the deep
• changes in ocean mixing, deep-water production sea is now being considered worldwide as part
and coastal upwelling, and in the general ocean of climate change mitigation strategies. These
circulation; options require more research and testing in view
• impairment of the oceans' ability to act as a sink of potential environmental risks, quite apart from
for atmospheric CO2 due to positive marine the resolution of legal issues (UNFCCC, 2006;
feedback loops, which will thus stimulate further see also Chapter 3, Climate change). The latter is
global warming. now ongoing as, for example, the IMO London

Protocol (34) has recently been amended to allow the expected to increase by between 1.1 and 4.6 °C from
storage of CO2 in sub-bed geological formations and 1990 levels by 2100 (IACMST, 2004), with increases in
OSPAR has initiated procedures to amend the text of SST in pan-European seas also predicted.
the Convention in order to regulate CO2 capture and
sequestration. Long-term observations of several pan-European
seas already indicate a marked increase in SST
Sea surface temperature although there have been periods of nearly constant
Changes in the sea surface temperatures (SST) of temperature in specific places, extending for a decade
the world's oceans have been reported and seem or more, for example during the 1970s and 1980s in
consistent with variations and changes in the the North‑East Atlantic. Nonetheless, most seas have
global climate system, particularly the atmospheric shown significantly increased SST as follows:
temperature. Over the past 100 years, an initial
warming phase (1910–1945) was followed by a • the Baltic and North Seas have warmed
period of nearly constant temperature. A second approximately 0.5 °C over the last 15 years
warming began during the 1970s and is still (IACMST, 2004; ICES, 2005b);
continuing (Rayner et al., 2006) (Figure 5.12). • in the south east of the Bay of Biscay, the average
SST has increased by around 0.6 °C per decade
The linear warming between 1850 and 2004 was since the mid 1970s (Koutsikopoulos et al., 1998;
0.5 °C for the globe, and overall, global SST is Planque et al., 2003);
• the temperature of the northward flowing
Atlantic water in the eastern Norwegian Sea
Figure 5.12 Anomalies in Northern Hemisphere average has been extraordinarily high during the
sea surface temperature from HadSST2
period 2000–2004 (IMR, 2006), although a
Anomaly ˚C general increasing trend of 0.3 °C per decade is
0.6 observed;
• in the Barents Sea, the mean SST has increased
around 1 °C over the past 30 years (ICES, 2005b);
0.4 • in the Mediterranean Sea, the average increase in
SST has been 2.2–2.6 °C between 1982 and 2003
(Map 5.9).
0.2
Map 5.9 Total sea surface temperature changes in

0 the Mediterranean Sea (°C, 1982–2003)
-10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40°
– 0.2
40°
40°
– 0.4
30°
030° 500 1000 1500 Km
– 0.6 0° 10° 20° 30°
5 0 70 90 10 30 50 70 90
18 18 18 19 19 19 19 19
Total sea surface temperature changes in the Mediterranean
Note: HadSST2 = Hadley Centre SST data set. Anomalies are Sea, 1982–2003
relative to 1961–1990. Annual series are smoothed with
a filter. The line shows the best estimate removing all – 1.0 – 0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
uncertainties (station, sampling, coverage and bias).
Source: Rayner et al., 2006. Source: European Commission, DG Joint Research Centre, IES, 2006.
(34) Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter, in force since 1972.

Sea-level rise Figure 5.13 Change in September Arctic sea-ice extent

The global average sea level rose by 0.17 m over
the whole of the 20th century. Sea-level rise Million km2
9
increased in the decade 1993–2003 to 3.1 mm/year Progress
since
compared to the average of 1.8 mm/year for the Kiev
8
years 1961–2003. The main reason is because
water expands as temperature rises, though losses
7
from ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica
are very likely to have contributed in recent
6
years. Sea-level rise at the end of this century is
y = – 0.0604x + 7.704
projected to be 0.18–0.59 m. This estimate does
5
not take into account increased melting rates of
ice sheets because of high uncertainties in the
4
estimates (IPCC, 2007). There will be regional
0
differences in the way these global averages will 79 82 85 88 91 94 97 00 03 06
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20
be expressed across the pan-European region due
to, for example, differences in ocean currents, air Note: The 'extent' column includes the area near the pole not
imaged by the sensor. It is assumed to be entirely ice
pressure and land level — of particular concern covered with at least 15 % concentration. However,
the 'area' column excludes the area not imaged by the
are low‑lying areas and intertidal habitats (see sensor. This area is 1.19 million km2 for SMMR (35) (from
also Section 5.3.6, Coastal zones, and Chapter 3, the beginning of the series through June 1987) and 0.31
million square kilometres for SSM/I (36) (from July 1987 to
Climate change). present). Therefore, there is a discontinuity in the 'area'
data values in this file at the June/July1987 boundary.
Source: Fetterer and Knowles, 2002, updated 2006.

Arctic ice cover
The annual average Arctic sea-ice extent has
shrunk by an average of 2.7 % per decade between
1978 and 2005. The decreases in summer are larger, Climate change impacts on marine
with 7.4 % on average per decade (IPCC, 2007) ecosystems
(Figure 5.13). In September 2005, the end of the Climate change can affect marine ecosystems in a
summer melt period and the time when it typically variety of ways (see reviews in EEA, 2004 and ACIA,
reaches its minimum, the northern hemisphere 2005):
sea-ice extent fell to a record low 5.6 million km2
(Richter-Menge et al., 2006). • Temperature changes may affect the metabolism
and distribution of organisms, and even cause
Measurements of sea-ice thickness are less reliable. death. Mass mortalities of marine animals
A 10–15 % reduction between 1960 and the late and outbreaks of harmful algal blooms are
1990s has been observed for the Arctic as a whole, considered to be related to anomalies of sea
with large regional variations and reductions of water temperature and climate periodicity.
up to 40 % (ACIA, 2004). The thickness of late Examples are the massive gorgonian (soft coral)
summer sea ice drifting in the polar ocean decreased and coral mortality in the Mediterranean Sea in
around 20 % in the decade 1991–2001 (Haas, 2004). 1999 (Garrabou et al., 2001);
If current rates of decline in sea-ice cover and • Changes in sea ice may result in changing light
thickness continue, the Arctic could be completely penetration, salinity and habitat availability.
ice-free in summertime by the end of this century Shrinking sea ice endangers the whole
(Johannessen et al., 2004; NSIDC, 2005). However, ice‑associated ecosystem, from ice-algae to
recent studies suggest an accelerated melting, with seals, walruses and polar bears. Reduced sea ice
ice-free summers becoming a reality from 2040–2050 also weakens the protection of coasts against
(Holland et al., 2006). severe weather and increases erosion, flooding
(35) SMMR = Nimbus-7 Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer.

(36) SSM/I = Special Sensor Microwave/Imager.

and dispersal of water pollutants. Secondary Figure 5.14 Inter-annual variability in the peak
environmental pressures can arise from the seasonal development of decapod larvae in
the North Sea in relation to SST
opening of new sea routes and increase in
fisheries as well as oil and gas exploration SST Month (phenology index inverted)
and transport options (see Section 5.3.4, Oil 11.5
Progress since
6.0
pollution). Kiev
11.0 6.5
Early seasonal cycles
These ecological changes could affect fisheries and
aquaculture production, and increase risks to human 10.5 7.0
health by enhanced epidemic bacteria incidents and
harmful algal blooms. 10.0 7.5
Marine growing season

9.5 8.0
There are many examples of changes in the growing
season (i.e. peak annual growth) of marine organisms
9.0 8.5
across pan-European seas:
• the phytoplankton spring bloom in the Baltic Sea 8.5 9.0

Late seasonal cycles
begins earlier (HELCOM, 2006e);
• in the Russian Arctic, removal of light limitation 8.0 9.5
58 63 6 8 73 78 83 88 93 98 03
due to reduced ice cover results in longer 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20
phytoplankton growing season and increased SST Phenology Mean
primary production; Note: Phenology is the timing of recurring natural phenomena,
• in both the Celtic, Biscay, North and Norwegian in this case the peak seasonal development of decapod
larvae. With warmer temperatures there is an earlier
Seas, phytoplankton biomass and the length of seasonal peak, and with colder temperatures a later
seasonal peak.
the growth period have increased (EEA, 2004;
Source: Edwards et al., 2006.
Edwards et al., 2005);
Changes in primary production will also affect

species in the rest of the ecosystem. For example, replaced by warm/temperate water species. For
the seasonal cycle of different zooplanktonic larvae example:
is earlier than the long-term average in the central
North Sea, mainly because of changed SST (Edwards • in the Celtic-Biscay Shelf, North and Norwegian
et al., 2006). As a result, the annual peak seasonal Seas, there has been an overall downward trend
abundance of decapod larvae has shown a major in the abundance of copepod zooplankton and
trend towards an earlier seasonal peak since 1988, a shift in the species composition from cold to
with the exception of 1996 (a negative NAO year). warm-water species (for a synthesis see WWF,
It has been up to 4–5 weeks earlier in the 1990s than 2005). Between the 1960s and the late 1990s,
the long-term mean, which is highly correlated the total biomass of the copepod Calanus in the
to increased spring SST (Edwards et al., 2006) North Sea declined by 70 %, which has had
(Figure 5.14). significant consequences for other marine wildlife
including fish larvae (Edwards et al., 2006). In
Northward movement and changes in species composition terms of species composition, a useful indicator
Marine ecosystems are in many ways more sensitive of the warming trend in the North Sea is the
to environmental variability than their terrestrial shift from cold-temperate Calanus finmarchicus to
counterparts. Over the last 20 years, a wide range warm-temperate Calanus helgolandicus copepod
of plankton and fish species have shifted their species (Figure 5.15). In the Norwegian Sea,
distribution ranges northward as a result of warming a temperature increase and a reduction in
in pan-European waters. As sea temperature overturning circulation is very likely to result in a
increases, cold-water species move northward, being shift from Arctic to Atlantic zooplankton species;

• in the Baltic Sea, high spring and early-summer scaldfish and lesser weaver populations along
temperatures, mild winters and reduced the Dutch North Sea coast possibly as a result of
salinity, due to increased precipitation, have warmer waters (MNP, 2004b).
resulted in changes in the species composition
of zooplankton and of the phytoplankton spring Projections of future impacts
bloom (Viitasalo et al., 1995; Vuorinen et al. 1998; The observed ecological changes reported above
Dippner et al., 2000; Möllmann et al., 2002); are all likely to continue under future predicted
• in the Barents and White Seas, marine climate conditions (see Brooker and Young, 2005).
communities are strongly dependent on the However, increasing SST does not always imply
dynamics of Atlantic and Arctic water masses increased plankton abundance, since warming could
(Hop et al., 2002) and so significantly affected by increase water stratification and prevent the mixing
climate change. For example, in the Barents Sea, of nutrient-richer bottom layers with the upper layers
the ice edge, which serves as the main feeding decreasing plankton biomass (Behrenfeld et al., 2006).
area for capelin, is retreating. So the capelin are Further, there is a clear risk of mismatches between
now moving northwards, following the retreating the timing of the presence of predators and their
ice-edge, with some other ice-associated species specific prey, which could lead to a reduction of the
likely to follow; transfer of energy up the food chain (Hiscock et al.,
• in the Russian Arctic, marine algae under the ice 2004).
have been replaced by species usually associated
with fresher water due to ice melting (ACIA, Acidification of the seas
2005); Increasing levels of CO2 in the atmosphere lead to
• in the Mediterranean Sea, plankton species that CO2 uptake across the air-sea interface and increased
were thought to have a southern distribution hydrogen ion concentrations in the ocean, raising
appear to now be extending their ranges all the acidity of seawater and reducing its pH. Surface
over the sea. In contrast, species associated with waters of the world oceans have already experienced
cooler waters are now only being found at greater an average pH reduction of around 0.1 pH units
depths (Boero, 2005 in Brooker and Young, 2005); (OSPAR, 2005c). Further reductions of the order of
• also fish movements seem to be influenced by 0.14 to 0.35 units are predicted over this century
climate change, evidenced by the increase in the (IPCC, 2007). Even larger reductions may occur
Figure 5.15 Changes in species composition between a cold and a warm temperature copepod in the North Sea
Relative abundance of plankton (%)

100
80
60
40
20
0
60
62
64
66
68
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
00
02
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
Cold temperate species Warm temperate species

(Calanus finmarchicus) (Calanus helgolandicus)
Source: Edwards, 2003.

thereafter depending on future emission scenarios the worst affected. However, cold-water coral reefs
(Orr et al., 2005; OSPAR, 2005c; Royal Society, 2005). that are found in many parts of the North-East
Atlantic and the Mediterranean Seas could also
Experimental evidence suggests that if these be adversely affected (Orr et al., 2005). Further,
lowered pH trends persist, key marine organisms, given that the shells and external skeletons of
such as corals and some plankton species, will marine organisms, where the carbon is trapped,
have difficulties in growing and/or maintaining would have eventually sunk to the sea bottom,
calcareous skeletons and shells (Orr et al., 2005). acidification is likely to reduce an important global
These are made of calcium carbonate, which sink of atmospheric CO2.
will be difficult to produce at certain low pH
concentrations, such as some of those predicted by Ocean acidification is essentially irreversible during
the IPCC. At even lower pH, shells of, for example, our lifetimes: it will take tens of thousands of years
mussels could dissolve according to experimental for ocean chemistry to return to a condition similar
evidence (Gazeau et al., 2007). Globally, tropical to that occurring in pre-industrial times, around
and subtropical corals are expected to be among 200 years ago (Royal Society, 2005).

06
Sustainable
consumption and
production
Sustainable consumption and production
6 Sustainable consumption and production
Source: © Stock.xchng
Key messages
In the years since the Kiev conference in 2003, toward 2020, which highlights the urgency of
sustainable consumption and production (SCP) promoting sustainability.
has become more prominent on the policy
agenda although few substantive results have
yet emerged. The impacts on the environment • A life-cycle approach in policy-making ensures
of increased production and consumption are that impacts are assessed from cradle to
growing. The challenge for all countries is to grave, and environmental impacts are not
break the link between economic growth and simply hidden by moving them to different
environmental impacts from consumption, countries or different stages of production or
resource use and waste generation. consumption.
Production and resource use: • As well as improving energy efficiency across

• The economic sectors which cause the the region, it is essential to invest in innovative
most significant environmental pressures in technologies that reduce resource use. This
WCE are: electricity, gas and water supply; includes bringing these technologies to the
transport services; and agriculture. These market.
priority sectors are likely to be the same
in EECCA and SEE countries, although the Consumption:
impact of mining and construction, together • Household expenditure is between three
with production of basic metals and industrial (EU‑15) and five (SEE) times higher than
minerals, are also expected to be significant. public expenditure. Household consumption
per capita is on the increase in all European
• The main trade flows from WCE and SEE to countries, with levels about four times higher
EECCA are in manufactured goods. EECCA in EU‑15 than in EECCA countries.
countries primarily export fuels and mining
products to WCE and SEE countries. Such • Patterns of consumption are changing rapidly
asymmetry causes a shifting of environmental across the region with the food component
impacts across borders. decreasing, and the shares for transport,
communication, housing, recreation and health
• Over the last decade, per capita use of on the rise. In EECCA, many rural households
resources in the pan-European region has still have little or no surplus for non-essential
been stable. Efficiency of resource use varies goods. However, a small but growing urban
significantly between countries. It is several middle class is increasingly adopting the
times higher in EU‑15 than in EU‑10 and SEE consumption patterns of WCE.
countries, and up to twenty times higher than
in EECCA. • Food and beverages, private transport
and housing (including construction and
• The projected outlook for resource use in both energy consumption) are those consumption
EU‑15 and EU‑10 is for a progressive increase categories that are causing the highest

life‑cycle environmental impacts. In WCE, • The volumes of waste range from less than
tourism and air travel are emerging as future 0.5 tonnes to 18 tonnes per person. Per capita
key impact areas. waste generation is, generally, higher in EECCA
than in EU countries due to large amounts
• Whilst some decoupling of economic growth of waste from raw material extraction and
from domestic resource and energy use have processing industries.
been noted in both EU and EECCA, it is not
clear to what extent changes in consumption • Three to four percent of this amount is
patterns have contributed to this since most hazardous waste which presents a special risk
high‑impact consumption categories are to human health and environment. The waste
actually increasing. sites, inherited from the past, present a major
problem in EECCA countries and, to a lesser
• Changing consumption patterns cause degree, in the SEE region. Problems arise
increased impacts as spending shifts to mainly from the storage of hazardous waste
more impact‑intensive categories (transport and old chemicals, including pesticides.
and household energy use). Within these
categories, growth in consumption has • Landfill is still the most common method of
more than offset benefits from improved waste management across the pan-European
technological efficiency. region. However, increasing amounts of
municipal waste in the EU are now diverted
away from landfills as a result of regulations
• Environmental impacts of consumption
and targets. In the EECCA and SEE countries
can be reduced by specific controls at
there has been no measurable progress in
sites of production, use and disposal or by
recycling and recovery of municipal waste
transferring demand from higher to lower
since the Kiev conference.
impact consumption categories. Policy options
for public authorities include improved
environmental information and labelling, • EU and EFTA Member States are increasingly
green public procurement and market‑based focusing on utilising the resources in waste.
instruments. Green taxes increased in EU‑15 In the EECCA and SEE countries, recycling is
from 1992–1995 but subsequently stagnated. driven by financial interests and thus tends to
Applying such mechanisms to break the concentrate on industrial waste.
link between growth and impacts are likely
to be equally challenging in the expanding • Many EECCA and SEE countries have developed
economies of EECCA and SEE countries. waste strategies and legislation for specific
waste streams. However, many countries
Waste: have yet to prepare and implement waste
• On aggregate, the pan-European region is management plans and effective legislation.
generating ever more waste. The amount of Proper collection and safe landfill still remain a
municipal waste increased by an average of challenge.
2 % each year and even more in EECCA. The
intensification of economic activities outweighs
the effects of waste prevention initiatives.

6.1 Introduction of intervention needed to achieve environmental

improvements throughout the product life cycle. The
Sustainable consumption and production (SCP) SCP process extends this life-cycle perspective to the
was put on the global policy agenda at the 1992 economy as a whole and encompasses relationships
United Nations Conference on Environment and which cross over geographical borders and
Development in Rio de Janeiro. Globally, the environmental media.
political framework for action on SCP is based on the
Johannesburg Commitment made at the 2002 United This chapter examines trends and drivers for SCP
Nations World Summit for Sustainable Development across the pan-European region, following the
and the Marrakech Process launched in 2003. The EU sequence of a life-cycle chain — from resource
Sustainable Development Strategy, revised in 2006, extraction through production and consumption to
identified sustainable consumption and production waste disposal.
among its seven key challenges, and the EU is
currently developing an Action Plan on Sustainable Production activities and use of resources are
Consumption and Production. The importance of considered in Section 6.2. Evidence of decoupling
SCP was also recognised within the Environment- the use of resources from the economic growth is
for-Europe process. In the 2003 Kiev Declaration, examined. The analysis also reviews environmentally
Environment Ministers stressed: critical sectors and the efficiency of resource use.
Section 6.3 outlines trends in those consumption
... the importance of the shift towards sustainable categories which generate the greatest life‑cycle
production and consumption patterns and encourage environmental impacts, and discusses the role
regions, subregions and countries, as appropriate, to devise of households. Section 6.4 looks at trends in
programmes to accelerate this shift. waste generation and reviews progress of waste
management measures introduced to ensure
Sustainable consumption and production has been environmental protection and the re-use of resources
defined as: and energy.
… a holistic approach to minimising negative Throughout the chapter, the three main country
environmental impacts from the production-consumption groupings (WCE, SEE and EECCA) are sometimes
systems in society. SCP aims to maximise the efficiency divided further to provide a more meaningful
and effectiveness of products, services, and investments
so that the needs of society are met without jeopardising
the ability of future generations to meet their needs Figure 6.1 Life-cycle chain from extraction — through
(Norwegian Ministry of Environment, 1994). production — to consumption and waste
Emissions
Materials
Biomass
Energy
The concept encompasses the three pillars of

s
sustainability: economy, society and the environment. on
si
re is
The social component is concerned with equity within Em
e
Ra
ph
Extraction w
m
ls
and between generations, together with consumer

re
En a
he
ta
e
en
sp
te
protection. The economic and environmental

ria
nm
rg
ic
ls
y
om
dimensions were described by the Kiev Declaration as

Enviro
Econ
cyclin
'the delinking of economic growth and environmental
Re
Emissions Waste Production Emissions

degradation, so as to promote both economic growth
and environmental protection'. Achieving this in the
s
ct
pan-European region was declared to be 'crucial'.

du
as
W
o
s
te Pr
ce
i
rv
Se
rt
Consumption
po
This chapter will mainly focus on the environmental nsEm

Tra
s
is
on
si
and economic aspects of SCP. The SCP is consistent
Emissions
si
on
is
s
Em
with a life-cycle perspective on resource use which

provides for identification of the most critical points Source: EEA-ETC/RWM.

analysis. Hence, when available data allows, the between resource use, emissions, and economic
analysis differentiates between EU‑15 + EFTA and output.
EU‑10 within WCE, and between eastern Europe, the
Caucasus and Central Asia within the EECCA group
(see Chapter 1 for details of country groupings). 6.2.1 Production and related impacts
The fundamental socio-economic changes

6.2 Production and resource use experienced by many countries in the pan European
region since the beginning of the 'Environment for
The first two stages in Europe' process, have had a strong impact on their
Extraction
the life cycle encompass level of wealth and structure of their economies.
the extraction of These changes have also affected their patterns
Waste Production materials, biomass of natural resource use and the state of their
and energy, and their environment.
Consumption
use for production
or manufacturing Structural changes in the economies
activities. Comparing Since 1990, all countries in Europe have experienced
economic activities (e.g. GDP, gross value added) a structural change towards service oriented
with the amounts of resources and energy used, or economies, resulting in an increased contribution of
the amount of pollution emitted, allows areas of services to GDP (Figure 6.2).
inefficiency, overuse, and excess to be highlighted
together with their damaging environmental The process of economic change has been
impacts. characterised by strong regional differences.
The economies of EU‑15 Member States are
This section will mainly focus on production service‑dominated (services 70 %, industry (1) 28 %
activities and their impacts and explore the relation and agriculture 2 %). Within the economies of
Figure 6.2 Structural changes in the economy by region
% of total gross value added

100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
94 03 94 03 94 03 94 03 94 03 94 03
, 19 , 20 , 19 , 20 , 19 , 20 , 19 , 20 , 19 , 20 19 20
15 15 10 10 pe pe us us sia sia *, *,
EU
-
EU
-
EU
-
EU
- ro ro as as l A l A
SE
E
SE
E
Eu Eu uc uc ra ra
e rn e rn Ca Ca en
t
en
t
st st C C
Ea Ea
Agriculture Industry Services
Note: * = Data available for Bulgaria, Romania and Turkey only.
Source: Adapted from World Bank, 2005.
(1) The term 'industry' covers mining, energy supply and manufacturing. The term 'services' covers, among others, wholesale and
retail trade, repairs, hotels and restaurants, transport, communication, financial services and real estate, public administration,
defence, education, health care and various other services.

EU‑10, the share of services rose to 65 %, while Few reliable and widely accepted methods
industry dropped to 32 %. After a significant are currently available for measuring the
decline over the last decade, agriculture now environmental impacts of resource use and
accounts for only 3 % of gross value-added. production activities (EEA, 2005a). While it is
Amongst the SEE (2) countries, the contribution possible to measure the amounts of pollutants
from services increased to 61 %, with agriculture emitted or waste generated, calculating what
still relatively high at 13 %, whilst that of industry impacts this has (in terms of human health,
was 26 %. ecotoxicology, loss of biodiversity etc.) is not
possible at present. More comprehensive figures
Within the EECCA region, changes have been even on environmental impacts of economic activities
more dramatic. Here, the service sector has almost are therefore not currently available. Research is
doubled, from 34 % to 60 %, at the expense of progressively being carried out, however, to help
industry (down from 48 % to 34 %) and agriculture identify environmentally critical sectors of the
(18 % to 6 % (3)). In the Caucasus and Central Asia economy and to pinpoint priority areas for policy
the contribution from agriculture remains high, at intervention.
18 % and 16 % respectively, whilst that from the
service sector is the lowest in these regions, at 39 % Priority economic sectors
and 49 % respectively. As far as industry and the production are
concerned the economic sectors which generate
As the economies move away from reliance on significant environmental pressures, in addition
heavy industries and intensive agriculture towards to the household sector, are electricity, gas and
services, which tend to be less pollution-intensive, water supply; transport services; and agriculture
environmental pressures are expected to decrease. (Figure 6.3). An ongoing EEA study of eight
This, however, will depend on how industrial EU Member States (Moll et al., 2006) has shown
production changes in absolute terms, and on that these sectors accounted for around 50 %
which technologies are used. Since the beginning of greenhouse gas emissions and 80–90 % of
of the 1990s, environmental impacts from industry all emissions of acidifying gases. With regard
within the EU‑25 have, indeed, decreased. This to materials use, the mining industries and the
has been a result of stricter regulation, better agricultural branch account for the majority of
enforcement and the closure of heavy industries direct materials input.
within the new EU Member States. The situation
in EECCA is less clear as the availability of data Other significant sectors in this respect include:
has only improved in recent years and there are no manufacture of steel and non-ferrous metals and
comparable long-term data series. products thereof, manufacture of coke, refined
petroleum products, nuclear fuels, chemicals,
Environmental impacts and priority areas for chemical products, man-made fibres, and
policy manufacture of non-metallic mineral products
One of the key challenges in environmental such as cement and glass.
policy‑making is to decide which economic
sectors, products or resources should be the These findings are consistent with the so-called
target of policy intervention. When evaluating EIPRO project commissioned by the European
impacts from production, focus should be on the Commission (European Commission, 2006a),
environmentally critical elements which cause which identified eight 'core activities' causing
high environmental impacts.
(2) Data on economic structural change are only available for Bulgaria, Romania and Turkey, which represents 88 % of the total SEE
countries' GDP.
(3) The most significant fall in the contribution of agriculture was in the Russian Federation, skewing the total for the four East
European countries. The share of agricultural activities in Belarus, the Republic of Moldova and Ukraine dropped much less and
remains higher in the total GDP.

the largest component of major environmental For comparison, priority consumer products that
pressures from human activities: cause the greatest environmental impacts include
food and drink (meat and meat products, followed
• combustion processes by dairy products), private transport (mainly cars),
• solvent use and housing (construction, energy and heating )
• agriculture (see Section 6.3, Consumption for details).
• metal extraction and refining
• dissipative uses of heavy metals Priority resources
• housing and infrastructure Another way to target policy action is to identify
• marine activities those types of resource use which cause most
• chemical industry. environmental impacts. A comprehensive study
Figure 6.3 Priority economic sectors generating significant environmental pressures
Direct emissions of greenhouse gases (global warming Direct material input (DMI) by industries and households
potential) by industries and households
Tonnes CO2-equivalents per capita Tonnes per capita

20.0
35.0
18.0
30.0
16.0
14.0 25.0
12.0
20.0
10.0
8.0 15.0
6.0
10.0
4.0
5.0
2.0
- -
00
00
00
95
00
00
0
95
00
00
99
00
00
00
00
00
99
20
20
20
19
20
20
19
20
20
,2
,1
,2
,2
,2
,1
k,
s,
y,
ly,
n,
k,
s,
n,
y,
ly,
ry
ny
en
m
en
m
an
nd
ar
nd
ar
ar
ai
ai
Ita
Ita
a
do
do
a
ed
ed
Sp
ng
Sp
ng
nm
nm
rm
rm
la
la
ng
ng
Sw
Sw
er
er
Hu
Hu
Ge
Ge
De
De
Ki
Ki
th
th
Ne
Ne
d
d
ite
ite
Un
Un
Others Others
Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral products Manufacture of basic metals and fabricated
metal products
Manufacture of chemicals, chemical products and
man-made fibres Manufacture of chemicals, chemical products and
man-made fibres
Manufacture of basic metals and fabricated metal
products Manufacture of coke, refined petroleum products and
nuclear fuel
Transport, storage and communication
Mining and quarrying of energy producing materials
Agriculture, hunting and forestry
Agriculture, hunting and forestry
Electricity, gas and water supply
Mining and quarrying except energy producing materials
Private households
Private households
Source: Moll et al., 2006.

Production of metals and industrial minerals is

Box 6.1 Growth of pollution-intensive
industries in EECCA important due to the environmental damage it
causes. Such production tends to be associated with
In the early 1990s, it was widely believed that
economic reforms in the EECCA region would
high consumption of resources. The ratio between
promote a more efficient use of resources unused and used extraction may range from less
and energy, thereby reducing environmental than 10:1 (for iron and aluminium), through more
problems. Indeed, in those sectors that were
economically profitable and managed to attract than 100:1 (copper), 6 000:1 (zinc) and up to about
foreign investments, such resource gains did 1 000 000:1 for gold and diamonds. In addition to the
occur and environmental impacts per unit of high amounts of mining and quarrying waste, some
production decreased. However, it was the highly
pollution‑intensive industries — such as non-ferrous of the waste may be highly toxic and a risk to the
and ferrous metals, electricity generation, oil refining, local environment (see Box 6.2).
coal and gas extraction — which kept growing. In the
same period, there had been a significant decline in
the less resource and pollution-intensive branches
of industry. Less polluting industries (e.g. machinery 6.2.2 International trade and shifting
and metalworking, light industry, timber and pulp),
which were no longer receiving state support,
of environmental impacts
lost internal markets and were unable to attract
investment to compete internationally. As a result, As a result of global trade, environmental impacts
some of those have declined and, in some cases,
have ceased to operate.
of a particular product or resource may occur in
Source: Cherp and Mnatsakanian, 2003.

Box 6.2 Kumtor gold mine — resource
extraction and environmental risks
for the EU‑25 and three SEE countries (Bulgaria, Since the independence of Kyrgyzstan, its rich gold
reserves have attracted the attention of foreign
Romania and Turkey) used a calculation of both investors. The largest investment was made in the
mass flows ('how many tonnes are used?') and Kumtor gold mine, located 4 000 meters above sea
impacts per unit weight ('how harmful is each level in the permafrost and glaciers of the Tien-Shan
Mountains. The Kumtor area is estimated to be the
tonne?') to combine information on material flows eighth largest goldfield in the world, and accounts
and the life-cycle impact assessment (van der Voet for nine percent of Kyrgyzstan's GDP. In 2002,
et al., 2004). The ten material categories with the Kyrgyzstan produced about 18 metric tonnes of gold.
highest environmental impacts were:

However, gold mining is an industry particularly
damaging to natural ecosystems in the mining
• animal products regions and causes significant man-made changes
• crops to large surrounding areas. In the Kumtor area,
more than 3 000 hectares of land are directly
• plastics damaged by mining activities. Piles of residues
• oil for heating and transport (tailings) — containing nearly 100 million m3 of waste
• concrete (2 million m3 of which is radioactive) — are located in
areas prone to natural disasters such as earthquakes
• hard coal for electricity and landslides. High amounts of cyanide-containing
• brown coal for electricity wastes are also a problem in other countries,
• iron and steel including Ararat in Armenia, Navoi in Uzbekistan,
Kriviy Rig in Ukraine and others.
• gas for heating
• paper and board.
Damage to the local environment may also result
from accidents. Highly toxic cyanide is often used
The preliminary 'priority' lists above reflect in gold extraction, and stringent safety measures
are required at all stages of the process to protect
the situation in the EU Member States. The workers and environmental health. Excessive
environmentally critical sectors in the EECCA concentration of cyanides in water near gold mines
countries are expected to be similar, although the has been identified as a problem in Armenia,
Georgia, and Kyrgyzstan among others (UNECE,
impacts from the mining and extraction industries 2007). Industrial accidents involving cyanide
will be higher there than in the EU (see Box 6.1). compounds are particularly dangerous, especially in
those cases when water bodies are affected.

several countries. In the second half of the 20th countries predominantly exported to WCE and SEE
century, global trade grew by a factor of 6 to 8 for fuels and mining products, which accounted for
raw materials, and by as much as 40 for finished almost 80 % of the exports in 2005.
and semi-finished goods (WTO, 2006).
In the EU‑15, almost four tonnes of fossil fuels are
All European countries have experienced a consumed per capita every year, most of which is
significant growth in imports and exports since the imported from EECCA. Fuel is the fastest growing
1990s. In the EU‑25 as a whole, the contribution export category from EECCA (see Figure 6.4) since
of imports and exports to GDP grew from 27 % in the period 1992–2004 when exports of mineral fuels
1990 up to 33–34 % in 2005. Exports are also one from EECCA to EU‑15 increased by more than
of the main drivers of economic growth in the 400 %. Exports of biomass, minerals, and metals
Member States of EU‑15. In the three largest SEE showed significant but lower increases.
countries (Bulgaria, Romania and Turkey), the
export component of GDP increased from 16 % The greatest rise in imports into the EU‑15 was
to 31 %, while the contribution from imports was from EECCA, although those from the EU‑10 also
even higher, having grown from 21 % to 35 %. In more than doubled over the last decade. Imports of
the countries of EECCA the contribution of imports metals and biomass products from EU‑10 grew by
to GDP grew from 20 % to 29 %, and from exports more than 250 %. Imports of semi-manufactured
from 20 % to 39 %. products of iron and steel dominated the overall
increase between 1992 and 2004 whilst the increase
There is a significant asymmetry in the trade in biomass imports was mainly related to wood
flows between WCE and SEE on the one hand, and wood products.
and EECCA on the other (see Map 6.1). The main
flow from WCE and SEE countries to EECCA was Steel production is a good example of the
in manufactured goods. Meanwhile, the EECCA specialisation of the economies. Although WCE,
Map 6.1 Trade flows between Europe and EECCA, 2005
-60° -70° -80° -90° -110° -130° -150° -160° -170°

Major categories of trade
flows between WCE + SEE
and EECCA, 2005
40°
(billion USD)
Agricultural products
131.95
Manufactures
29.47 Fuels and mining

40° products
6.54 Western and central
Europe (WCE)
and
South-eastern
Europe (SEE)
40°
EECCA
2.43 Outside report

coverage
30° 94.47
10.39
30°
20°
0 500 1000 1500 Km
20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90° 100° 110°
Source: EEA-ETC/RWM calculation based on World Trade Statistics, 2006.

with the exception of Sweden, imports almost

Figure 6.4 EU‑15 imports from EECCA, 1992–2004
all its iron ore, it is one of the biggest users of
iron ore worldwide and is a net steel exporter.
1 000 tonnes
The processing of steel tends to take place at the
500 000
'high‑tech' end of the production chain, resulting in Progress since Kiev
450 000
specialised high-value steel products. By contrast,
EECCA countries (the Russian Federation, Ukraine 400 000
and, to a lesser extent, Kazakhstan), with rich 350 000
deposits of iron ore and plentiful sources of energy, 300 000

tend to process and export crude steel. 250 000
200 000
Raw material extraction and low-level processing
150 000
are associated with high environmental pressures
100 000
including contamination of air, soil and water,
as well as landscape destruction, bringing with 50 000
it threats to biodiversity. International trade, 0

92 993 994 995 996 997 998 999 000 001 002 003 004
therefore, leads to the shifting of environmental 19 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
burdens from the consumer countries abroad, since Not classifiable, confidential data Other products
significant environmental damage occurs in the Mineral fuels Minerals
exporting countries. Biomass
Metals
Resource-exporting countries also run the risk of Source: Eurostat/COMEXT, 2005.

developing into 'single-engine economies', where
economic growth is based on only one dominant long run, countries may prefer to diversify their
sector, such as extraction of natural resources. This economies and build up manufacturing capacities
makes an economy highly vulnerable and in the and services (see Box 6.3).
Box 6.3 Single-engine economies
Some experts argue that having large reserves While this scenario proves true in many cases,
of a highly demanded natural resource can be the example of Norway shows that it need not be
detrimental to the development of a diversified and the case. Norway extracts four times more natural
healthy economy. Increasing reliance on income resources, mainly oil and gas, than it uses within its
generation from resource extraction — be it oil, own economy. It has, however, a highly developed
natural gas, or metal ores — may result in more and diversified industry. Moreover, it also enjoys an
capital being invested there. This can be at the advanced social welfare system financed through a
expense of other sectors. As the dominant sector fund receiving taxes from oil extraction. This ensures
becomes more effective at what it produces and that the benefits from oil extraction are equally
generates even more income, it draws resources distributed within the population. As a result, Norway
away from the development of other areas (hence, is one of the richest countries in the world, with a
the 'single‑engine economy'). GDP per capita of USD 39 200 (constant 2000 USD).
This contrasts strongly with another oil exporting
country: Kazakhstan, with a GDP per capita of
Proven oil reserves for the entire Caspian Sea USD 1 800 (constant 2000 USD). Kazakhstan has
region — estimated to be between 18 billion and a very limited manufacturing and service capacity,
35 billion barrels in 2003 — are comparable to lower social security and education standards and a
those of the United States (22 billion barrels) and rather asymmetric income distribution. However, it
greater than those in the North Sea region (17 billion has started to develop a fund system based on the
barrels). The foreseen oil boom is associated with Norwegian model.
potential economic risks and may weaken other
sectors. This was the experience in the Netherlands
in the 1970s, when investments into the oil and gas
sector were diverted from other industries, leading to Sources: World Bank, 2005; Cherp and Mnatsakanian, 2003;
economic stagnation. US Geological Survey, 2004.

6.2.3 Resource use across the from construction projects. In EECCA, demand is
pan‑European region highest in the extraction of fossil fuels and metals.
There are large differences in per capita resource In 2002, use of industrial and construction minerals
use in individual countries across WCE, and also ranged from over 10 tonnes per capita in the EU‑15
in the efficiency with which these resources are to about 2 tonnes in EECCA (Figure 6.6). Growth
used. Differences are even greater if comparisons in this category was fastest in EU‑10 and EECCA,
are made amongst countries across the whole due to the increase in construction activities. In
pan‑European region. the case of metals, EU‑15 had a very low domestic
metal extraction rate of about 0.2 tonnes per capita,
Per capita resource use compared with about 2 tonnes per capita in EECCA.
The only resource-use indicator available for nearly Extraction of fossil fuels was the highest in EECCA
all countries within the pan-European region is and EU‑10, and relatively low in EU‑15 and SEE.
the Domestic Extraction Used (DEU) index (4). Finally, the highest biomass extraction per capita
The DEU totals all biomass, fossil fuels, metals, was in EECCA and in SEE, compared with the much
industrial minerals and construction minerals lower estimates for EU‑15 + EFTA and EU‑10. The
which are extracted within a country's territory and figures above indicate quite a different pattern of
used in the economy. resource use across the regions and countries.
A comparison of DEU per capita in the four regions Efficiency of resource use
over the period between 1992 and 2002 is shown in Differences between countries are even greater
Figure 6.5. when comparing how efficiently they use resources.
Efficiency of resource use can be examined by
In 2002, per capita DEU within WCE was about relating Domestic Extraction Used to Gross
14 tonnes in EU‑10, and 17 tonnes in EU‑15 + Domestic Product (see Figure 6.7).
EFTA. The use of resources changed little during
the period from 1992 to 2002, which indicates
Figure 6.5 Domestic Extraction Used (DEU) per capita
a weakening of the connection between use of
resources and economic growth (or 'relative DEU tonnes per capita
decoupling', as explained later in this section). The 20.00
Progress
slight growth in resource use within EU‑10, despite 18.00 since Kiev
the closure of heavy industries, was largely due to 16.00
the increase in construction activities. 14.00
12.00
Meanwhile in the EECCA countries, DEU per 10.00
capita went down from 17 tonnes in 1992 to 13 8.00
tonnes in 1997, with a slight recovery to 14 tonnes 6.00
per capita by 2002. This recovery was mainly due 4.00
to a rise in extraction of fuels and metals, following 2.00
an economic recovery in the late 1990s. In SEE, the 0.00
DEU per capita at about 8 tonnes is much lower 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20
and is still slowly declining.
EU-15 + EFTA-3 EECCA
EU-10 SEE
In EU‑15 + EFTA and SEE, and increasingly in
EU‑10, the strongest demand for resources comes Source: MOSUS, 2006.
(4) A whole system of Material Flow Accounting (MFA) exists to describe material use in the economies (EEA, 2005a). The most
commonly used MFA indicators are DMI (Direct Material Input), DMC (Domestic Material Consumption) and TMR (Total Material
Requirement). Compared to DEU, the three above indicators take into account aspects such as imports, exports, and 'ecological
rucksacks' of imported goods. However, these indicators are available only for Members of the European Union. Therefore, to ensure
comprehensive geographical coverage, DEU is used as the material use indicator in this chapter. While its limitations concerning
imports and exports need to be kept in mind, the difference between DEU and DMI is usually only a few percent.

Figure 6.6 Breakdown of resource use per capita by category
Tonnes per capita

20.00
18.00
16.00
14.00
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
EU-15+ EU-15+ EU-15+ EU-10 EU-10 EU-10 EECCA EECCA EECCA SEE SEE SEE
EFTA-3 EFTA-3 EFTA-3 1992 1997 2002 1992 1997 2002 1992 1997 2002
1992 1997 2002
Biomass (used) per capita Industrial and construction minerals (used) per capita
Metal ores (used) per capita Fossils (used) per capita
Source: MOSUS, 2006.
Figure 6.7 Domestic Extraction Used (DEU) over GDP, 2000
DEU divided by GDP

kg per euro
45.00
5.00
40.00
35.00 <----------- EU-15 + EFTA -----------> <----------- EECCA ----------->
30.00
0.00
25.00
IS
UK
U
DK
FI
DE
IE
IT
NL
NO
PT
ES
SE
BE AT
FR
GR
-L
20.00
15.00
<------- EU-10 -------> <------ SEE ------>
10.00
5.00 <----------- EU-15 + EFTA ----------->
0.00
Mo Tu an a
ng en
Ro don a
en ey
nm rg
la k
Gr any
Ic ece
De bou ia
GeFrannd
rm ce
la d
th It nd
la y
Poorw s
rtu ay
ite S Spaal
d we in
p us
b ia
Hu ton c
ng ia
Lit Latary
hu via
Ma ia
P lta
Sl vak d
ov ia
ia
Ka G larun
za eo s
ia f gi an
Ru bli K kha rgia
Fe ld an
en an
Uz Uk stan
kis ne
n
lg a
R erz Croaria
Ma gov tia
nt rk ia
ro
Tu Ta rati a
rk jik on
N nd
Es ubli
m i
Fin ar
ce in
er al
Bu ani
Irelan
o n
Beaija
ta
de ov
g
en
an
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r
do
eg
Re r
Ki d
be rai
ss c o yr st
n Mo st
m ist
Sl ola
of e a
em st
h yp
e
Az rm
b
e
i
ux Au
Al
ec C
A
Ne
FY H
-L
d
Cz
d
Un
m
an
an
pu
iu
ia
lg
ia
Re
rb
Be
sn
Se
Bo
DEU over GDP (kg per euro at 1995 prices)
Sources: Wuppertal Institute, 2005; Eurostat, 2004; van der Voet et al., 2004; MOSUS, 2006.

The efficiency of domestic resource use is the highest Despite their much higher efficiency of resource and
in the EU‑15, with a median value (5) of about 0.8 kg energy use, the ecological footprint of EU‑15 was
per euro. The EU‑10 have a lower efficiency at 2.9 kg significantly higher than in the other regions and
per euro and there are also large differences between more than twice the 'sustainable' level. EU‑10 and
individual countries. The economies of the three SEE also operated on unsustainable levels, although
Baltic states, the Czech Republic and Poland are to a lesser degree. Only the EECCA region was using
much more resource-intensive than the rest of this resources without running an 'ecological deficit' —
group. thanks to their large land areas and high available
bio-capacity (see Chapter 1, Europe's environment in
The resource efficiency of SEE economies is lower an age of transition).
still, with a median resource intensity of 5.6 kg per
euro. By far the highest use of resources compared Outlook for resource use and sustainability
to GDP is in the EECCA region, with a median value The need, and the opportunity, to improve efficiency
of 17.1 kg per euro. However, very large differences of resource use is all the more evident when
between countries are found within this group, looking at the projections of future resource use
where the values range between 3 kg DEU per GDP (see Figure 6.8).
in Georgia to 26 kg in Kyrgyzstan.
In EU‑15, the use of resources in 2000 was about
Overall, the average efficiency of resource use is 5.7 billion tonnes. It is expected to grow up to about
up to twenty times higher in the EU‑15 than it is in 6.8 billion tonnes by the year 2020, an increase of
EECCA. Even taking into account such differences about 19 %. Use of minerals in the construction
between the countries as climate, geography and industry is expected to account for most of the growth.
structure of their economies, there are still vast
opportunities for increasing efficiency in the use of In 2000, EU‑10 were using just over 1 billion tonnes
materials and energy. of resources. It is projected that consumption
Figure 6.8 Aggregated material use, historic and projected, in EU‑15 and EU‑10
EU-15 aggregated material use EU-10 aggregated material use
1 000 metric tonnes 1 000 metric tonnes

8 000 000 2 000 000
7 000 000 1 800 000

Historic Projected Historic Projected
1 600 000
6 000 000
1 400 000
5 000 000 1 200 000
4 000 000 1 000 000
3 000 000 800 000

600 000
2 000 000
400 000
1 000 000
200 000
0 0
19 0
19 2
19 4
19 6
19 8
19 0
92
94
96
98
00
02
19 2
19 4
19 6
04
06
08
10
12
14
16
18
20
98
20 0
02
20 4
20 6
08
20 0
20 2
14
20 6
18
20
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
0
0
1
1
1
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Fossil fuels Minerals Biomass
Source: Skovgaard et al., 2005.
(5) The median value identifies the middle of a distribution, i.e. 50 % of data points lie below and 50 % lie above the median.
The median is more useful than the average (mean) when differences between individual countries under comparison are very
significant, which is the case here.

will grow to almost 1.7 billion tonnes in 2020, and environmental degradation, so as to promote both
an increase of some 60 %. Use of fossil fuels economic growth and environmental protection is crucial.
will decline, thanks to improvements in energy
efficiency and fuel switching. On the other hand, In the past, the link between economic growth and
biomass extraction will increase by about 35 %, environmental impacts was strong. In the twentieth
while the use of minerals is expected to grow by century, the global GDP increased 19-fold, while the
140 %, owing to various infrastructure construction global consumption of energy grew 18-fold over
projects. the same period. Similarly significant growth took
place in the amount of natural resources used by
the economies. Decoupling pre-supposes that the
6.2.4 Policy responses consumption of resources or energy and the related
environmental impacts need not grow when the
Sustainability economy expands.
Sustainable use of resources needs consideration
of their availability, the security of their supply, Relative decoupling occurs when an environmental
and safeguarding productive capacities of pressure continues to grow although at a
ecosystems. At the same time, it is important to slower rate than the economy. Whether a relative
maintain the ability of the environment to act
as a 'sink' to absorb emissions and pollutants. Box 6.4 Policy initiatives on sustainable use
Increasing sustainability in production will require of resources in the European Union
improvement in production efficiency, innovative
In 2005, the EU launched thematic strategies
technical and managerial approaches and better on sustainable use of natural resources and on
environmental monitoring and control. prevention and recycling of waste. The renewed
EU Sustainable Development Strategy, adopted in
June 2006, identifies conservation and management
The need for sustainable management of resources, of natural resources, and sustainable consumption
whilst delinking environmental impacts from and production, among its seven key challenges.
It also identifies corresponding targets and
economic growth and increasing eco-efficiency of operational objectives (European Council, 2006).
production, has become much more prominent on The 6th Environment Action Programme of the
the EU policy agenda (see Box 6.4). As far as the EU EU, revised in 2007, places a special emphasis
on the need for the EU to carry out its social and
is concerned, this is not a radical step, but part of economic development within the carrying capacity
an ongoing process of policy development. Policy of ecosystems. Breaking the link between economic
has been evolving from a focus on the end‑of‑pipe growth and the environmental impacts of resource
use, consumption and waste remains an essential
technologies during the 1980s, through more concern. Particular attention will be paid to the
preventive environmental strategies in the 1990s, to sectors responsible for the greatest use of resources,
the recent drive to reduce impacts during the entire and to areas where implementation gaps have
been identified. EU set itself a target of becoming
life-cycle of products and services. the most resource-efficient economy in the world
(European Commission, 2007c). As part of this
Decoupling objective, in 2006 the European Commission set up,
jointly with UNEP, an International Panel on Natural
One of the recent objectives of environmental policy Resources. The EU is also developing an Action Plan
in Europe is to achieve 'decoupling'. This means on Sustainable Consumption and Production.
breaking the link between economic growth, and
the use of resources and energy with their related Despite such policy commitments, only a handful
of countries within the EU‑25 have adopted
environmental impacts. Addressing the issue of national plans or targets on sustainable use of
the use of natural resources, the May 2003 Kiev resources, eco-efficient production and decoupling.
Declaration of Environment Ministers set out to: The developments in this area include setting of
decoupling targets in Austria, Denmark, Germany,
Italy, the Netherlands, Poland and Portugal, and
... encourage national efforts to promote sustainable developing national SCP policies in the Czech
production and consumption as well as corporate Republic, Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom.
So far, no countries outside WCE have adopted such
environmental and social responsibility and policies.
accountability. ... The delinking of economic growth

decoupling results in decreased environmental Figure 6.9 Relative decoupling of resource use and
impacts is an open question, as it can be achieved CO2 emissions from economic growth,
even when the use of resources or energy continues EECCA
to grow. Absolute decoupling takes place when the Index 1992 = 100
environmental pressure decreases in absolute terms, 110
Progress since Kiev
while the economy continues to grow. For example, 105
by closing down heavy industry, total waste
100
generation in the EU‑10 over the last decade has
95
decoupled from economic growth (see Section 6.4
for more detail). 90
85
In the EU‑25, a relative decoupling between 80
economic growth and energy and material
75
consumption has been achieved in some areas,
70
although some of this decoupling may be due to
increasing imports to compensate for the decline 65
in domestic production or extraction. In the most 60

environmentally critical industrial sectors of the
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
EU, air emissions, such as acidifying substances
GDP (constant 2000 USD)
and chemicals that deplete stratospheric ozone, Domestic extraction (kt)
have decreased whilst production has increased Energy use (kt of oil equivalent)
or remained constant. In the case of greenhouse CO2 emissions (kt)
gases (CO2, N2O and CH4), decoupling has been Sources: World Bank, 2005; MOSUS, 2006.
less pronounced but some improvements have been
achieved through end of pipe technologies and by
switching to natural gas. Life-cycle thinking
Today's environmental policies are increasingly
In EECCA, relative decoupling has been witnessed in based on life-cycle thinking. A life-cycle approach
relation to energy consumption and extraction of raw identifies the negative environmental impacts
materials (Figure 6.9). produced by the use of materials and energy
throughout their life (often referred to as the 'cradle
Between 1992 and 1998, EECCA's GDP, at constant to grave' approach) and determines their respective
prices, fell by about 30 % and their resource use also significance.
fell over the same period. However, from the late
1990s, their economies have been growing steadily, The EU Thematic Strategy on the Sustainable Use
and by 2004 several countries regained GDP levels of Natural Resources is a good example of how,
of the early 1990s. By contrast, energy use and raw by considering the whole life‑cycle of a product,
material extraction have grown at a slower rate. this approach prevents impacts shifting from one
Strongest decoupling was achieved with respect to life‑cycle stage to another, one place to another
CO2 emissions, which after 1998 stabilised at about or from one environmental medium to another
two-thirds of the 1992 levels. (see Box 6.5). If global and cumulative impacts are
understood as a cause-and-effect chain it is possible
This relative decoupling has been achieved through to identify policies that are both effective for the
a combination of factors. The move from heavy environment and cost efficient.
industries to services, better environmental controls
and improved efficiency of using resources and Role of innovation
energy have all played a part. Nonetheless, there As countries develop and the wealth of their citizens
is still potential for further improvements in increases, so does their impact on the environment.
resource‑use efficiency so that absolute decoupling Effectively this means that Europe, together with
can be achieved in the coming decades. other developed nations, must be prepared to

The range of life-spans emphasises the policy

Box 6.5 Thinking in life-cycle terms and the
control over pollution choice. What Europe invests in today can either
lock its citizens, and future generations, into
One example of life-cycle impacts is the use of
the catalytic converters in car exhaust systems.
unsustainable lifestyles with an ever increasing use
The technology, based on the use of platinum and of natural resources, or encourage a sustainable and
palladium, has helped to reduce hazardous air economically competitive alternative.
emissions and improved air quality in cities across
the EU.
WCE imports 14 % of its total requirement for 6.3 Consumption

platinum group metals (PGM) from EECCA countries.
Most of it comes from the Norilsk Nickel Enterprise
As incomes rise so
production facility in the town of Norilsk in Siberia. Extraction
Here, nickel, copper and PGM are extracted in the does consumption and
form of sulphides. During the smelting, converting demand for more food
and refining, sulphides are oxidised into SO2, which
is emitted in large quantities into the atmosphere. Waste Production
and beverages, for
In 2004, the emissions of SO2 attributed to PGM larger, warmer and more
production were estimated at 4 275 tonnes of SO2 convenient living spaces,
per tonne of PGM. This amounts to 120 384 tonnes
of SO2 for the total of the Russian export of PGM
Consumption for appliances, furniture
to Europe. This was comparable to the total direct and cleaning materials,
SO2 emissions of Slovakia in 2003 (106 096 tonnes) for clothes, transport and
and was equivalent to a quarter of the direct
SO2 emissions in France in 2003. The continuous energy. Given that the consumption by households
emissions of acidifying substances have led to a is three to five times that of governments, this
widespread change in soils and vegetation around section focuses on household consumption.
the facilities and are causing health problems among
the local population.
In Europe, the affluence of the majority of the
Significant amounts of SO2 were also emitted population has moved them beyond consumption
from two other large facilities of Norilsk Nickel patterns dictated by need alone, and even, for some
located in the Kola Peninsula, negatively affecting
the environment in the Scandinavian countries.
products and services, beyond convenience and in
In response, the management of the company many cases beyond environmental sustainability.
has announced significant investments in cleaner Recognising the need to alter consumption patterns
technologies, with a significant part of funding
provided by the Nordic countries.
and behaviour, the Kiev Declaration calls for
the environmental impacts of consumption and
production to be decoupled from economic growth.
Mechanisms exist, but progress towards their
reduce their use of resources through efficiency and introduction remain slow within the pan-European
innovation. region.
Many innovative technologies already exist, but

lack of investment, both in further development 6.3.1 Consumption trends and
and marketability, hampers their wider adoption. characteristics
Moreover, in many cases the choices of today will
affect Europe for many decades to come. Europeans Household and public sector consumption
may be able to change their cars or washing Household and public sector consumption remain
machines every decade or so, but the life spans of closely linked to GDP in all country groups in the
other products are much longer and therefore will pan-European region (Figure 6.10). Expenditure
be slower to change. New roads built today are by households is between three and five times
likely to last 20–50 years; power stations are built for higher than by the public sector in EU-15 and
30–75 years depending on their type; commercial SEE respectively. This section therefore analyses
and government buildings, 50–100 years; and the drivers and environmental pressures from
homes, railways and hydro-electric dams up to household consumption and the instruments that
150 years (GFN, 2006). can be used to influence them.

Figure 6.10 Household and public sector consumption as a percentage of GDP
% of GDP
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Public sector Household Public sector Household Public sector Household Public sector Household
EU-15 + EFTA EU-10 EECCA SEE
1990 1995 2000 2005
Source: World Bank, 2007.
Patterns of household consumption are shaped is declining, whilst the average dwelling area is
by a large number of interdependent economic, increasing (6). This has led to an annual increase
social, cultural and political driving forces. Most in the total living space by approximately 1 % in
significant in Europe are: increasing incomes these EECCA countries and 1.3 % in the EU, which
and growing wealth, globalisation of the world tends to promote increasing per capita energy
economy with the opening of markets, increasing consumption for domestic heating.
individualism, new technologies, targeting of
marketing and advertising, smaller households and Levels and distribution of household
ageing populations in some regions (EEA, 2005b). consumption
In WCE, total household consumption expenditure
Populations are relatively stable over the region per capita increased 25 % between 1990 and
as a whole, although they are currently falling in 2005, and is significantly higher than in the other
the Russian Federation and Ukraine and rising in regions — approximately four times the average
Central Asia and Turkey (see Chapter 1). Changes in EECCA (Figure 6.11). In many SEE and EECCA
in population therefore do not currently have a countries, household expenditure recovered to 1990
major role in shaping consumption. However, levels for the first time only in 2002 or 2003 after
in the EU, the Russian Federation, Belarus and the economic restructuring of the 1990s. However,
Ukraine, the number of people per household although EECCA is still the region with the lowest
(6) Enerdata, 2005; Enerdata, 2006; CISSTAT, 2006.

Figure 6.11 Household expenditure per capita While food and clothing still represent a high
proportion of household expenditure across the
Household consumption expenditure per capita in PPP
Constant year 2000 international dollars
EECCA countries (Figure 6.13), they decreased
in relative terms from 65 % to 48 % following the
16 000
end of the recession. Overall income grew by 80 %
14 000
Progress since over the same period. This increment was used
Kiev
progressively on housing and utilities, transport
12 000 and communication, home appliances and
recreation. Spending on recreation, although still
10 000
modest, increased by a factor of five between 2000
8 000
and 2005.
6 000 In the less developed countries of Central Asia

and the Caucasus, food dominates household
4 000 expenditure. This is particularly true of rural
areas where there is little or no surplus income
2 000
for non-essentials. In Tajikistan and Azerbaijan,
0 food represented 64 % and 54 % of expenditure in
2005, down from 87 % and 76 % in 1996. In many
20 3
20 4
05
19 0
19 1
19 2
93
19 4
19 5
19 6
19 7
98
20 9
00
20 1
20 2
0
0
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
0
0
19
20
19
19
EU-15 + EFTA SEE (Balkans)
EU-10 SEE (Bulgaria and Romania)
EECCA SEE (Turkey) Figure 6.12 Changing household consumption patterns

in EU‑10 and EU‑15

Household consumption expenditure per capita in PPP
18 000
per capita expenditure, in recent years expenditure
16 000
has been increasing rapidly at around 8–10 % per
year. 14 000
12000
Across the EU‑25 , expenditure on food has 10 000
remained constant even with increasing incomes,
8 000
and thus presents an ever decreasing proportion
6 000
of overall expenditure, from 14.4 to 12.5 %
between 1995 and 2005 (Figure 6.12). Transport 4 000
and communication, housing (including utility 2 000

payments), recreation, health and education are the 0
fastest growing expenditure categories. In EU‑15, 1995 2000 2005 1995 2000 2005
EU-10 EU-15
recreation now represents the second largest area
Transport and communication
of household spending. Consumption patterns Housing, water, electricity, gas
in EU‑10 are moving closer to those in EU‑15, Recreation, culture, restaurants and hotels
reflecting a change in lifestyles and a general Health and education
increase in disposable income. Other goods and services
Alcohol, tobacco, narcotics
Furniture and equipment
The limited data available for SEE show that Clothing and footwear
the proportion spent on food is decreasing but Food and non-alcoholic beverages
is still over 30 % in most cases. This is followed Note: Sectors are presented in the order of most rapidly growing
by housing (including utilities) and transport in EU‑15.
expenditures. Sources: Eurostat, 2007a; World Bank, 2007.

Figure 6.13 Changing household consumption patterns who are adopting the consumption patterns of
in EECCA WCE (Kilbinger, 2007; Vendina, 2007; Svinhufvud,
2005).
Consumption expenditure per capita per year in PPP
4 500
6.3.2 Impacts of consumption
4 000
Consumption categories with the greatest

3 500
overall impacts
3 000 The European Commission-funded Environmental
2 500
Impact of Products (EIPRO) project undertaken
by the Joint Research Centre has identified those
2 000 goods and services which have the greatest
1 500
environmental impact when viewed across
their full life cycle and summed up across total
1 000 consumption for the EU‑25 (European Commission,
500
2006b). The review of recent European studies (7)
identified the following consumption categories as
0
1995 2000 2005
having the highest overall life-cycle impacts:
Recreation, culture and health care
Other products and services • food and beverages;
Housing, municipal services and fuel • private transport;
Transport and communication • housing, including heating and hot water,
Furniture, appliances and equipment
electrical appliances and structural work.
Clothing and footware (including repair)
Alcohol and tobacco
Food and non-alcoholic beverages Together these areas of consumption account for
70 % to 80 % of environmental impacts, and 60 % of
Note: Sectors are presented in the order of the most rapidly consumption expenditure.
growing.
Source: CISSTAT, 2006. Covers all EECCA except Uzbekistan,

Turkmenistan, all years; Georgia, 1995 and 2005; and These results are consistent with EEA's findings
Kyrgyzstan, 2005.
(EEA-ETC/RWM, 2006a) on environmental impacts
from production and consumption using integrated
environmental and economic accounting for eight
EECCA countries and in parts of the Balkans, the EU countries. This study identified economic
proportion of the population living below the sectors which cause the highest environmental
poverty line is still significant (UNECE, 2006). impacts (see Section 6.2.1).
Economic growth since the late nineties is not Economy-wide analysis of impacts is yet to be
benefiting all parts of society, and inequalities carried out in EECCA and SEE. However, based on
between urban and rural areas are high and comparison of household expenditure patterns, it
increasing. In the Republic of Moldova and is expected that similar consumption categories are
Georgia, for example, average household incomes also of concern.
in rural areas are 40 % and 55 % respectively of
average household incomes in urban areas (World The EIPRO and EEA studies do not differentiate
Bank Development Indicators). Furthermore, in a holiday from home consumption. Other studies,
number of EECCA countries, there is evidence of however, have identified tourism including air
a growing rich urban elite and urban middle class travel as an important and rapidly growing
(7) Dall et al., 2002; Nemry et al., 2002; Kok et al., 2003; Labouze et al., 2003; Nijdam & Wilting, 2003; Moll et al., 2004; Weidema
et al., 2005.

household consumption area, with respect to its Food and beverages

overall impact in EU (Lieshout et al., 2004; EEA, The most significant environmental impacts
2005b) (see also Sections 7.2, Transport, and of food consumption are indirect, and relate
7.4, Tourism). In EECCA and SEE, tourism and to the agricultural production and industrial
air travel currently do not represent a significant processing. These include impacts from: energy,
expenditure category. water use and waste generation in agriculture
and the processing industry; the use of fertilisers
A number of these key areas of consumption (with and pesticides; emissions from livestock; land
the exception of tourism, covered elsewhere in this use and transportation. Direct impacts of food
report) are considered in more detail below. consumption are lower in magnitude and relate to
travel for shopping trips, energy use for cooking
Changing consumption patterns, decoupling and cold storage, and the production of organic and
and regional differences in impact packaging waste (EEA, 2005b).
Changing consumption patterns can aid the
decoupling process by shifting consumption from Expenditure on food across the region appears to
high to low impact-intensive (8) goods and service be decoupled from growth in incomes and GDP (9)
categories. While there has been a decoupling of (Figures 6.12 and 6.13). In addition, agriculture has
domestic resource and energy use from economic been undergoing efficiency improvements over
growth in the EU (see Section 6.2), it is not clear recent decades. However, a number of trends in
which role changing consumption patterns have food consumption are partially offsetting these
played. The decoupling may be largely due to decoupling trends (Kristensen, 2004). Of key
increased production efficiencies and the shift importance is a shift in demand from local and
of impacts abroad through economic structural seasonal towards imported, non-seasonal fruit and
changes in the EU. vegetables, and a general globalisation of the food
market. This increases transportation, cooling and
The EU's EIPRO study ranked services and freezing inputs with a corresponding increase in
products in order of impact intensity with meat energy-related impacts.
and dairy products, lighting and electrical
appliances, heating, air transport and household Greater impacts result from increased use of
furnishings being high on the list (European processed foods and pre-prepared meals. This is
Commission, 2006b). Moreover, consumption of driven by increasing wealth, smaller households
several of these high-impact categories, specifically and less free time for food preparation (Kristensen,
transport, housing, furniture and appliances, 2004; Blisard et al., 2002). Greater processing of
are increasing rapidly rather than levelling off food leads to increased energy and material input,
(Figure 6.12). Other more in-depth studies have and associated packaging waste (Kristensen, 2004).
also failed to find evidence of decoupling resulting
from changing consumption patterns in EU A small but growing group of consumers in WCE
Member States (Røpke, 2001). are switching to organic and/or locally produced
foods. Although organic food only represents
As shown above, consumption expenditure is far 1–2 % of sales (IFOAM, 2006) in EU‑15, demand
lower in EECCA and many SEE countries than in some countries is outstripping national supply,
in WCE. However, the differences in impacts per leading to rapid increases in imports (10). In EECCA
capita are likely to be less marked. This is probably and SEE, levels of artificial fertiliser and pesticides
due to lower efficiency in production (Section 6.2) used in agriculture are significantly lower than
and consumption (for example low thermal in WCE. This suggests an opportunity for greater
efficiency of housing) in SEE and EECCA. production and export of organic-labelled produce,
(8) Impact per unit consumption.

(9) Food and drink consumption is projected to grow 17 % between 2000 and 2020 in EU‑15 compared to a projected 57 % increase in
GDP (EEA, 2005b).
(10) In Denmark, imports of organic food increased by 31 % between 2004 and 2005 due to lack of land for further organic farming.

and eventually a larger domestic market for Figure 6.14 Residential heat consumption, EU‑15
organically grown food.
1990 = 1
1.3
While the environmental consequences of food Progress since
Kiev
production and food safety have gained considerable 1.2
attention in the EU, providing basic food remains
a challenge in a number of countries in Central 1.1
Asia and the Caucasus. Here, malnutrition remains

1.0
prevalent although, since a peak in the mid-1990s,
levels have fallen to less than 10 % of the population 0.9
in all countries of the region except Tajikistan,
Uzbekistan, Armenia and Georgia (FAOSTAT, 2006). 0.8
Heating and hot water 0.7

Space heating accounts for 70 % of household energy 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20
consumption in the EU‑25 with water heating Total residential heat consumption
accounting for 14 % (Eurostat, 2007b). Similar Heat consumption per dwelling
proportions have been estimated for EECCA and
Heat consumption per m2
SEE (UNEP/EEA, 2007). Heating is one of a number
of consumption sectors in WCE where efficiency Source: Enerdata, 2006.
improvements have been more than offset by

increased demand.
Box 6.6 Efficiency improvements and the
In most Member States of EU‑15, the overall efficiency 'rebound effects'
of interior heating of households has increased during Despite efficiency improvements, the overall energy
the last 15 years, mainly through better insulation and consumption of households is increasing in the EU,
due partly to rebound effects (changes in behaviour
heat-loss prevention. However, the growth in number
in response to technological efficiency improvements
of dwellings, floor area per dwelling and increased and lower prices (Hertwich, 2003)).
average room temperatures have more than offset
these improvements (Figure 6.14 and Box 6.6). In the United Kingdom, for example, standards in
building insulation have improved significantly. At
the same time, however, increased insulation and
In EU‑10, and in Bulgaria and Romania, fitting of central heating allow households to heat
energy‑efficiency improvements have been significant more rooms than they actually require and to higher
since 1990. Total energy use for interior heating has temperatures. Average temperatures inside domestic
dwellings (including unheated rooms) are estimated
decreased, although energy use for heating per capita to have increased from 16 °C to 19 °C between 1990
is still significantly higher than in EU‑15. and 2002 (DTI, 2005), offsetting energy savings
from increasing thermal efficiency.
In most EU‑10, SEE and EECCA countries, there

Similarly, it is expected that initiatives in EECCA,
are two characteristics that have a decisive role with the objective to improve the thermal efficiency
in the overall environmental performance of of buildings (Box 6.7), will lead to increases in room
household heating: the huge stock of poorly temperatures rather than reduce heat use. In Central
Asia and the Caucasus, many people currently only
insulated panel‑built apartment blocks (11) and a heat their houses to a limited degree due to the high
large proportion of urban population which is still cost of energy and low thermal efficiency of older
connected to district heating systems where heat buildings. Such energy efficiency improvements will
clearly have strong positive health impacts (Lampietti
from combined heat and power stations (12) are and Meyer, 2002).
often used. These two characteristics pose both an
(11) According to estimates, up to 170 million people reside in over 70 million apartments in panel-type buildings in EU‑10, SEE and the
eastern European part of EECCA (Csagoly, 1999).
(12) District heating covers 60 % of heating and hot water needs in eastern Europe; in the Russian Federation, it accounts for over 30 %
of total energy consumption.

opportunity and a challenge. Fitting such existing

apartment blocks with improved insulation and Box 6.7 Reducing heat consumption in SEE
and EECCA
greater levels of control over heat input can reduce
energy requirements by 30–40 % (UNEP/EEA, In most district heating systems in the EECCA and
SEE regions, heat losses are estimated to be in
2007). Meanwhile, rationalisation of district heating the range of 20 % to 70 %, although it is difficult
systems and insulation of distribution networks to assess losses from the existing infrastructure.
would result in potential savings in the supply A large number of projects have demonstrated
that difficulties can be overcome (see www.undp.
chain of up to 80 billion m3 of natural gas annually org/energy/prodocs/rbec; UNEP/EEA, 2007; CENEf,
across the EECCA region (IEA/OECD, 2004). This is 2001). One example is a partly internationally funded
equivalent to the annual natural gas consumption project in Gabrovo, Bulgaria during the late 1990s.
This included: training of building energy efficiency
of Germany. experts, energy audits, energy-saving measures
in district heating systems in public and residential
The main challenge in many of the countries buildings, installation of meters and heating controls
in individual apartments, and a consumption-based
in these regions is either lack of financing from tariff system. The project resulted in 27 % savings in
municipalities or lack of tariff revenues where heat consumption (UNDP, 2004). Other municipalities
in Bulgaria have since followed this example. A
utilities have been privatised. This is often due
similar project in Almaty, Kazakhstan, will place
to the inability of the average customer to be additional emphasis on activating and strengthening
able to afford higher tariffs to fund the necessary resident housing associations and environmental
service companies to drive forward efficiency
investments. Lack of metering and control of heat improvements at the building level (UNDP et al.,
consumption both at the building and individual 2006). In the municipality of Kraljevo in Serbia and
apartment level give little incentive or ability Montenegro, a rationalisation project financed by the
Serbian Energy Efficiency Agency was carried out in
for residents to save energy. However, there are an apartment block. The immediate saving during the
increasing examples that demonstrate that the first season is expected to be above 10 %, resulting
challenges can be overcome (Box 6.7). from both improved efficiency and consumer savings,
with a capital pay-back period of around 3.5 years
(Simeunovic, 2006).
Building standards are of key importance for future
consumption levels. A wave of new national and
regional building standards and energy labels for
buildings in the Russian Federation, Kazakhstan, companies in the EU are increasingly marketing
Albania, Croatia, Tajikistan, Ukraine and Armenia electricity from renewable energy sources and,
among others have led to new buildings with following a 2003 regulation, all companies are
thermal efficiencies 35–40 % greater than buildings now required to provide details of the sources
constructed in the 1990s (UNEP/EEA, 2007). of electricity (i.e. fossil fuel, nuclear, renewables)
Buildings following the new standards represented being delivered to customers.
8 % of living space across the Russian Federation
and 15 % in Moscow in 2005 (Iliychev et al. 2005). Consumers can reduce impacts more directly by
A number of countries, however, still use outdated reducing consumption. Technological progress,
thermal efficiency standards used in the former stricter product standards and energy labels in
Soviet Union. the EU have led to the improvement in efficiency
of standard household and kitchen appliances
Household electricity consumption, (Figure 6.15). Nevertheless, the total electricity
appliances and electronics consumption per dwelling for lighting and
This is another area where efficiency gains electrical appliances is increasing by 1.5 % per
are more than offset by steeply rising demand year. The main causes are increased ownership of
resulting from behavioural changes. standard appliances and new electrical devices. Air
conditioning units are a particular concern. The
Most impacts of electricity use result from its increase in the total number of dwellings by 0.8 %
production rather than consumption. Currently, per year is an additional driver, giving an overall
consumers have limited influence on the sources of annual growth in electricity use for appliances of
the electricity they consume. However, electricity 2.3 %.

Available data from EU‑10 and SEE show that The quantity of electric and electronic goods for
growth of appliance ownership is slow in some disposal is dependent both on ownership levels in
countries (Bulgaria, Romania and Poland), but rapid the population (Figure 6.16) and their replacement
in others (Slovakia, Croatia and Former Yugoslav rates. Today, replacement is more often driven by
Republic of Macedonia) (13). The picture is similarly changing fashion and small technical advances
mixed in EECCA countries. Ownership of more than by the useful lifespan of an appliance. Mobile
luxury appliances, such as dishwashers and air phones and computers are examples of such
conditioners, shows the greatest differences between production-driven growth in consumption. Mobile
poorer rural and richer urban areas, for example, phones in the EU are now being replaced every
10 % and 15 % respectively for these appliances in 25 months with the younger generation disposing
central Belgrade compared with 2 % for both in rural of them after only 20 months (Telephia, 2006).
Serbia.
While replacement rates of electronics are lower in
For many smaller electric and electronic goods, SEE and EECCA countries, ownership is rapidly
the most critical environmental impacts arise increasing. At the beginning of 2006, there were
from disposal rather than usage because of their 120 million mobile phone subscriptions in the
high content of heavy metals and other hazardous Russian Federation amongst a population of
substances. This waste category now represents one 147 million.
of the fastest-growing waste fractions in the EU.
Figure 6.15 Trends in energy efficiency, ownership, and Figure 6.16 Mobile phone ownership in four
overall electricity consumption of selected pan‑European regions
household appliances, EU‑15
Mobile phones per 1 000 people

1990 = 1 1 000
2.6 Progress since
900 Kiev
2.4 800
2.2 700
600
2
500
1.8
400
1.6 300
1.4 200
100
1.2
0
1.0 90 991 992 993 994 995 996 997 998 999 000 001 002 003 004
19 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
0.8
EU-15 + EFTA EU-10
0.6
SEE EECCA
90 991 992 993 994 995 996 997 998 999 000 001 002 003 004
19 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
Ownership — dishwasher
Ownership — TV
Ownership — washing machine
Elec. consumption per dwelling for lights and appliances
Private transport
Specific energy consumption — TV
While private cars offer benefits in rural areas
Specific energy consumption — washing machine
where public transport is sparse, in urban areas
the private car is the most polluting and least
Specific energy consumption — dishwasher
energy‑efficient method of transportation per
Source: Enerdata, 2006. passenger.
(13) EU‑10, Romania and Bulgaria data obtained from Enerdata, 2005. Other countries' data collected from national statistics offices.

Box 6.8 Electricity drains: stand-by mode on appliances
Electricity used by consumer electronics while on meet such targets, the EU is relying on voluntary
stand-by mode represents 8 % of total United measures under European Codes of Conduct and
Kingdom household electricity consumption (DTI, the Energy Star agreement. Voluntary commitments
2006). The International Energy Agency (IEA) by the European Information & Communications
has estimated that it takes the equivalent of four Technology Industry Association (EICTA) reduced
nuclear power plants to power stand-by mode television and video player stand-by consumption
across Europe. Unless action is taken, this will by half, to around 3.5 Watts between 1996 and
increase to the equivalent of eight nuclear power 2001. However the advent of digital television is
plants by 2010 (Woods, 2005). Much of this wasted presenting new challenges. The code of conduct
energy arises from permanently connected power for digital television has a target for active standby
supplies, which are estimated to average 20 per of 7–9 Watts by 2007, far greater than the 1 Watt
home in WCE. target (14).
The International Energy Agency began a campaign More rapid advances could potentially be made
in 1999 calling on manufacturers to reduce stand‑by through simply encouraging people to turn
consumption to 1 Watt by 2010 (OECD/IEA, 2007). their appliances off. However, a Belgian study
This initiative was approved by the G8 leaders at demonstrates consumer reluctance to take even
their summit in Gleneagles in July 2005 and is now such simple actions. While 81 % of Belgian
being put into practice. While Japan and China homeowners are aware of the impact of stand-by
have taken measures to force manufacturers to mode, only 29 % never use stand-by mode while
37 % always do (Bartiaux, 2006).
Increases in car ownership have been driven by

Figure 6.17 Growth in private car travel versus fuel
perceptions of greater flexibility and improved efficiency in EU‑15
mobility. Car ownership has also become a symbol
of individualism and personal freedom. A recent 1990 = 1
Dutch survey showed perceptions of cars among 1.4

Progress since Kiev
the public to be better than for public transport for
all characteristics except safety (Steg, 2006). The 1.3
negative perception of more sustainable transport
can be reversed through integrated town planning
1.2
and investment in infrastructure, combined
with market-based instruments to reduce the
attractiveness of cars. This has been demonstrated 1.1
in model cities such as Strasbourg and Copenhagen
where car ownership remains low and use of more 1
sustainable transport forms, such as bicycles or
public transport, is high.
0.9
Car ownership has increased steadily with incomes.

Car ownership in EU‑15 and the number of 0.8
kilometres travelled have increased at the same rate
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
as GDP growth since 1990 (Figure 6.17). Moreover,

in many countries (e.g. Austria, Italy, Spain, the Total car km travelled
GDP
United Kingdom and Germany) consumers have Total fuel consumption by private car
shown a strong preference for larger and less Average fuel consumption per car
fuel‑efficient cars, despite unfavourable differential

Source: Enerdata, 2006.
road taxes (Enerdata, 2006). These trends more than
(14) www.iea.org/Textbase/work/2003/set-top/Bertoldi.pdf.

offset voluntary efforts by manufacturers to improve • market-based instruments (e.g. use-based

average fuel efficiency. Overall, fuel consumption by charges, tradeable permits, differential taxes,
cars has grown by 20 % since 1990, despite their fuel subsidy removal);
efficiency improving by more than 10 %. • support for technological innovation; and
• environmental certification standards for
Private car ownership, albeit starting from a much businesses (e.g. EMAS, ISO 14001) and
lower base, is increasing even more rapidly beyond standards for the provision of environmental
EU‑15, together with its associated impacts (section information to consumers (e.g. energy labels,
on Transport). Private car ownership in EU‑10 organic food labels).
doubled between 1990 and 2003. Ownership rates
in individual countries within EECCA and SEE These measures are interactive and have often
vary by a factor of five, with the highest rates in been found to work most effectively when used
Croatia, Bulgaria, the Russian Federation, Belarus in association with one another (OECD, 2001). In
and Ukraine, and the lowest rates in Tajikistan, practice, the challenge is to implement the right
Kyrgyzstan and the Caucasus. combination of policy instruments to achieve a
specific environmental goal.
6.3.3 Options for more sustainable The Kiev Declaration identifies market-based
consumption instruments in particular as a useful tool for
decoupling impacts from economic growth. Use
While there has been a relative decoupling of of such instruments increased rapidly in the EU
material and energy use from economic growth in between 1992 and 1999, but since then the share
WCE (Section 6.2), there is little evidence to show of revenue raised by environmental taxes has
decoupling of the global environmental impacts of decreased (Box 6.9).
European consumption. While current consumption
in WCE is unsustainable, future consumption will The challenge for business is to provide goods
be even less sustainable unless action is taken. and services that are sustainable in both their
Environmental impacts of consumption can be production and usage whilst remaining profitable.
decoupled from economic growth by: In some cases reducing impacts has economic
benefits through improved efficiency, for example,
• reducing the impacts of 'business as usual' provided the pay-back times are acceptable.
consumption through reducing impacts at the Market-based instruments have been used to tip
production, use and disposal stages of common the scales and reduce pay-back times.
consumer goods and services; and
• wholesale shifts in consumption patterns The environmental performance of the business
transferring demand from goods and services can be used as a marketing tool via the ISO 14001
of higher to lower material and energy-use or EMAS environmental management certification
categories. for businesses and organisations. The number
of companies certified under EMAS rose rapidly
Such developments require a concerted effort from between the mid-1990s and 2002 although they still
all actors including public authorities, business and remain a small proportion of the total number of
consumers. Public authorities may invest directly companies. Despite the Kiev Declaration calling
in more sustainable infrastructure such as public for greater corporate environmental and social
transport systems, or adjust the framework within responsibility, certification of new companies
which business and consumers operate, to promote stagnated in the EU after 2002 (European
sustainability. Such adjustments can be carried out Commission, 2007a). However, ISO 14001
using: certification has been growing steadily in SEE
and the eastern European countries of EECCA
• laws and regulations (e.g. emission controls, (plus Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan) since 2001
product standards, control of substances); where, at the end of 2005 over 1 200 companies

Box 6.9 Market-based instruments and environmental tax reform
Denmark and the Netherlands are the most prolific there are no alternatives, such as utilities. In these
users of environmental taxes in Europe with cases, the greatest impacts of environmental taxes
environmental tax contributing nearly 10 % of all can be on low-income families. This has inhibited
taxes. In 2003, the average for EU‑15 and EU‑25 was the use of market-based instruments in a number of
7.2 % and 6.6 % respectively, mostly from energy EECCA countries and SEE, where water and heating
taxes. This was, however, a reduction from 7.6 % in particular are still largely subsidised. The limits
and 6.8 % in 1999 (Eurostat, 2007c). Tax on labour beyond which affordability becomes a problem
meanwhile amounts to 51 % of all tax revenues. are seen as 10 % for energy and 4 % for water,
There is significant potential for environmental as a proportion of total household income (EBRD,
improvements and protection of resources to 2005). When taxes impact on low income families,
be gained from shifting tax on labour towards compensation can be given to those most affected.
environmental taxes such as taxes on unsustainable A number of EECCA countries and new EU Member
goods and services. However, environmental tax States have made progress in developing differential
reform (ETR) has stagnated in most of WCE. tariffs which allow affordability while giving financial
incentives to reduce consumption and improve
efficiency (UNDP, 2004).
One potential problem with consumption-based taxes
is when they are placed on essential goods for which
were certified, after less than one hundred in 2001 provide financial incentives to consumers to make
(UNEP/EEA, 2007). these choices.
Consumers can make sustainable consumption Businesses and public authorities also act as
decisions based on information provided by consumers and can take responsible procurement
government and business. They can choose decisions. There is some evidence that green
a more sustainable product or service from a public procurement (GPP) has become more
group providing the same function by following widespread in a number of EU Member States
eco-labels (Box 6.10), or they can reduce their (Box 6.11). In EECCA and SEE, only Bosnia and
consumption of impact-intensive items. The latter Herzegovina, Bulgaria, and Serbia and Montenegro
requires guidance from government, which is have established a sufficient legal basis for GPP
generally lacking. Market-based instruments can (UNEP/EEA, 2007). Other SEE countries and EECCA
Box 6.10 Labelling and environmental information — the Nordic Swan eco‑label
In 1989, the Nordic Council of Ministers (Finland, increased from 2 % in 1998 to 12 % in 2002
Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark) introduced (Nielsen, 2005).
a voluntary certification programme known as the
Nordic Swan. Only products which satisfy strict
environmental requirements can carry the label. The The European Flower eco-label has been less
label is intended to provide consumers with guidance successful (EVER Consortium, 2005). Although sales
in choosing products which are the least hazardous of items increased 500 % between 2003 and 2004,
to the environment, and to stimulate manufacturers overall penetration is low (European Commission,
to develop such products. Criteria for 42 product 2007b). The main barrier to greater market
categories have been established, and licences have penetration of eco-labelled goods is that a majority
been awarded to over 350 companies and over of consumers are unwilling to pay extra for improved
1 200 products. Product types are concentrated on environmental quality. This could be tackled by
cleaning fluids and powders, toiletries and paper a combination of labelling and market‑based
products. Nordic Swan-labelled washing powder instruments, such as VAT‑reduction for labelled
represents 70 % of sales of all washing powder in products. This has, however, been rejected in the
Norway. In Denmark the share of sales of Nordic short term by the European Commission (European
Swan products within nine main product categories Commission, 2003).

Box 6.11 Green Public Procurement (GPP) in the EU
While government consumption expenditure is three preferences for more sustainable goods and services).
to five times lower than household expenditure across Seven northern European countries were identified
the pan-European region, public expenditure presents as being most progressive in the field of Green Public
a potentially more stable market for environmental Procurement: Austria, Denmark, Finland, Germany,
goods and services. Within EU‑25, just under the Netherlands, Sweden and the United Kingdom.
1 500 local councils have budgetary responsibilities The most important barriers were perceived to be:
for over 30 % of the population. Purchasing decisions
are made by far fewer players and the potential 1) the price of more environmentally responsible
for building up a significant level of sustainable goods and services;
purchasing is higher. Moreover, procurement contracts 2) lack of management support and policy;
with a single large council can create and sustain a 3) lack of knowledge;
market for green products or services, which can then 4) lack of practical tools and information; and
spread into the private sector. 5) lack of training.
Within EU‑25, 67 % of municipalities responding

The EU has published a handbook which aims at
to a 2005 survey stated that environmental criteria
reducing barriers related to knowledge, information
are included in their tender documents (although a
and training (15).
detailed analysis of 1 100 tender documents showed
that a much lower percentage included concrete
countries could consider giving high priority to health. Waste also represents a loss of natural
enabling GPP in national procurement legislation. resources. Sound management of waste can
therefore protect public health and the quality of
Breaking the link between the growth of the environment whilst supporting conservation of
consumption and its environmental impacts will natural resources.
be a particular challenge for the rapidly growing
economies in EECCA and SEE. Part of the solution Historically, waste management systems were
may be found in identifying, improving and introduced to protect public health. In the 1970s
re‑investing in more sustainable infrastructure and and 1980s, waste management systems focused on
behaviour. Potential examples include: widespread controlling outlets to air, water and groundwater.
district heating systems (albeit currently inefficient In recent years, the focus has been increasingly on
and run down), use of market-based instruments, utilising waste as a resource.
and urban development coordinated with public
transport systems. This section explores the generation of waste in
the pan-European region and its connection to
economic activities. It emphasises the importance
6.4 Waste of preventing emissions from landfills, for example
of methane which causes climate change, and
Waste causes a number diverting waste away from landfills. Finally, the
Extraction
of impacts on the possibilities to use some waste as a resource are
environment, including highlighted. In principle, all these challenges —
pollution of air, surface avoiding health risks, reducing emissions to
Waste Production
water, and groundwater. the environment and utilising the resources in
Valuable space is taken waste — should be a pan‑European objective.
Consumption up by landfills and poor However, currently both the main challenges and
waste management the solutions differ regionally.
causes risks to public
(15) http://ec.europa.eu/environment/gpp/guidelines.htm.

6.4.1 Waste generation • the SEE countries are estimated to have an

average total waste generation ranging from 5 to
General trends in total waste generation 20 tonnes per capita per year (16).
Since the Kiev conference, there has been some
improvement in the quality of available data. A rough estimate of the total annual waste
A new EU waste statistics regulation has come into generation in the pan-European region is between
force, and some of the EECCA and SEE countries 6 and 8 billion tonnes. The amount of waste
have introduced better data collection systems. generated is still increasing in absolute terms but
Nonetheless, waste statistics are not complete and, trends differ from region to region (see Figure 6.18).
in many cases, it is necessary to use estimates. In the period from 1996 to 2004 the total waste
Moreover, there are differences in definitions generation increased by 2 % in EU‑25 + EFTA. In
and classifications as well as waste registration EU‑15 + EFTA, total waste generation increased
procedures. This makes comparison between EU, by 5 % in the same period. In contrast, total waste
EECCA and SEE countries difficult. Based on the generation in EU‑10 declined by 6 % in that period.
data available: However, there are large differences between
individual countries, and significant annual
• annual waste generation in EU‑25 + EFTA is variations within a country, mainly due to changes
estimated at between 1 750 and 1 900 million in waste generated in the mining industry.
tonnes, or 3.8–4.1 tonnes of waste per capita;
• the EECCA countries are estimated to generate In the five EECCA countries for which data are
about 3 450 million tonnes of waste annually. available, total waste generation increased by
On average this equals 14 tonnes per capita, but 27 % in the period from 2002 to 2004. Per capita
there are strong differences between countries, waste generation in EECCA is higher than in the
from about half a tonne per capita in the EU because of the raw material extraction and
Republic of Moldova to 18 tonnes per capita in processing industries, which generate large amounts
the Russian Federation; of waste (see Section 6.2.3). For example, in the
Russian Federation waste generation varies from
Figure 6.18 Total waste generation and waste generation per capita
Total waste generation Waste generation per capita

Million tonnes Tonnes per capita
3 000 25
Progress since Kiev Progress since Kiev
2 500 20
2 000
15
1 500
10
1 000
500 5
0 0
6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4
9 9 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04
19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20
EU-25 + EFTA EU-15 + EFTA EU-10 EU-25 + EFTA EU-15 + EFTA EU-10
SEE EECCA SEE EECCA
Notes: EU‑15 + EFTA includes figures from Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Iceland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal and Switzerland.
EU‑10 includes figures from the Czech Republic, Estonia, Malta, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. EECCA includes figures from Azerbaijan,
Belarus, the Republic of Moldova, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. SEE includes figures from Bulgaria and Romania.
Sources: Eurostat, 2007d; UN, 2006; SOE the Russian Federation, 2004.
(16) This figure was calculated based on information from Bulgaria and Romania, which account for about 25 % of the population.

different waste definitions. Many EECCA and

Box 6.12 Waste management and employment
some EU‑10 countries produce large amounts of
The waste management sector can create significant mining waste (see Figure 6.19). In EECCA, between
economic activity and jobs. For example, in 2004, half and three quarters of total waste generated
the waste sector in the Russian Federation was
estimated to employ some 500 000 people in a comes from mining, quarrying and production of
market worth more than 28 billion roubles a year metals. Countries with a high level of household
(about USD 1 billion), of which 70 % to 75 % was consumption such as the EU‑15 + EFTA have high
spent on waste collection and transportation services
(Abramov, 2004). In Turkey, the government rates of municipal waste generation. However, the
estimates that about 75 000 people earn a living single largest waste stream in the EU‑15 + EFTA is
from the informal, kerb-side collection and separation from construction and demolition, generated largely
of waste for recycling.
by intensive construction activities following the
unification of Germany.
5 to 7 tonnes per tonne of actual product, and in The generation of municipal waste is growing in
some cases may be even higher (WasteTech, 2005). the pan-European region except for some countries
in EU‑10 and SEE (see Figure 6.20). This increase is
Furthermore, despite the political importance of related to the increase in household consumption
waste prevention, the amount of waste generated (for example furniture and equipment) and higher
is growing due to the increase in economic activity. replacement rates for many products. However,
Economic growth has proven a much stronger improved registration and collection of municipal
driver for waste generation than different prevention waste could also be a part of the explanation for the
initiatives, including recommendations for the increase.
development of waste prevention programmes in
the Kiev Strategy. The growth is expected to continue, especially
in EECCA, where the average annual increase
Waste generation by sector and type in collected municipal waste in the Russian
Waste generation rates vary strongly between Federation and Ukraine is a consistent 8–10 %
sectors and waste type, reflecting the different (Abramov, 2004; Ukraine, 2006). The slight decrease
socio-economic drivers and, in some cases, in EU‑10 might partly be due to a higher re-use
Figure 6.19 Total waste generation by sector, 2004
EECCA EU-10 EU-15 + EFTA

0%
1% 3%
2% 9% 5%
8% 8% 12 %
15 %
24 %
31 % 39 % 3%
48 %
56 % 0%
2% 17 % 17 %
0%
Municipal solid waste Mining and quarrying Energy production

Manufacturing Construction and demolition Other activities
Mining and production of ferrous and non-ferrous metals in Russia
Notes: The EECCA graph includes figures from Belarus, the Republic of Moldova, the Russian Federation and Ukraine. Ferrous and non-ferrous
metals in the Russian Federation are indicated separately, because it was not possible to obtain data dividing the amount between
'mining and quarrying' and 'manufacturing'.
Sources: Eurostat, 2007d; UN, 2006; SOE the Russian Federation, 2004.

Figure 6.20 Municipal waste collected increase in EECCA until 2003 resulted from
increasing economic activity since the mid-1990s,
Kg/capita although improved registration probably also
700
Progress since Kiev
played a role. The available information does not
600
explain the decline from 2003 to 2004.
500 Accumulated waste — legacy of the past

Many EECCA countries are experiencing
400
environmental problems arising from the long-term
300 storage of hazardous waste generated during the
Soviet era. A variety of pollutants accumulated,
200 including radioactive, military and industrial wastes.
The break-up of the Soviet Union, the formation of
100
new independent EECCA countries and the changes
0 of ownership mean that much of this waste has no
19
95
19
96
19
97
19
98
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05 legal owner. To make matters more complicated, the
smaller EECCA countries often have little capacity to
EU-15 + EFTA EU-25 + EFTA SEE
improve the situation.
EU-10 EECCA
Notes: EECCA includes figures from Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus,

In Central Asia, large amounts of industrial waste
Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, the Republic of Moldova, the Russian have been accumulated, mainly from resource mining
Federation and Ukraine. SEE includes figures from Albania,
Bulgaria, Croatia, Romania and Turkey. and processing activities. The estimated amounts
Sources: Eurostat, 2007d; UN, 2006; SOE the Russian Federation, include 40 billion tonnes in Kazakhstan, 1 billion
2004; Ukraine, 2006.
tonnes in Kyrgyzstan, 210 million tonnes in Tajikistan,
of organic food waste as animal feed, and partly

because of the use of combustible waste as a fuel Figure 6.21 Hazardous waste generation
in individual households as a result of increasing
1 000 tonnes
coal prices. Furthermore, the gradual introduction 400 000
of weigh bridges at the landfills has provided more Progress since Kiev
350 000
reliable information. Previously, the amounts of
municipal waste were estimated according to the 300 000
volume, which may have led to an overestimation
250 000
of the mass.
200 000
Hazardous waste generation 150 000

More than 250 million tonnes of hazardous waste,
100 000
3–4 % of the total waste, are generated annually in
the pan-European region, mostly in EECCA, where 50 000
the Russian Federation dominated hazardous waste 0

generation (Figure 6.21). The large differences in 96 97 98 99 01 02 03 04
19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20
generation of hazardous waste between EECCA and
EECCA RU EU-25 + EFTA
other regions are due to the varying classifications of
hazardous waste. In EECCA, more waste types are EU-15 + EFTA EU-10 SEE
classified as hazardous, and therefore the figures on Notes: EECCA includes Armenia, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, the
hazardous waste are not completely comparable. Russian Federation and Ukraine. SEE includes Bulgaria,
Croatia and Romania.
Sources: Compiled by EEA-ETC/RWM based on data from Eurostat,

Hazardous waste generation in EU‑25 + EFTA 2007e; EEA-ETC/RWM, 2006b; European Commission,
2006; Basel Convention, 2006; UN, 2006; SOE the Russian
increased 20 % over the period 1996–2004. The Federation, 2004 and extrapolated.

Box 6.13 Obsolete pesticides in the Republic of Moldova — a case for waste inventories
Before the 1990s, agricultural Moldova served storehouses were destroyed and only 20 %
as a test bed for the use of pesticides. About remained in a satisfactory condition. Some of the
22 000 tonnes of persistent organochlorinated obsolete pesticides were stolen and used; others
pesticides were brought into the country, and remained unguarded in deteriorated packaging
15–20 kg of active substances were applied per without labels. Currently, the total amount of
hectare each year. As more pesticides than needed obsolete pesticides in the Republic of Moldova
were imported, large stockpiles of unused and is approximately 5 650 tonnes, including about
prohibited pesticides built up. The use of pesticides 3 940 tonnes buried at the pesticide dump in
has now decreased to around 1 kg per hectare Cismichioi and 1 712 tonnes stored in 344 poorly
(2002), but the environmental problems caused by equipped or inadequate facilities. Soil contamination
stockpiles including persistent organic pollutants with chloro‑organic pesticides is high around
(POPs) have remained. many stockpiles, exceeding maximum permissible
concentrations by up to nine times.
Several projects have now been launched to

strengthen the regulatory and institutional
arrangements for long-term control of POPs in
line with the Stockholm convention, including
re‑packaging, safe temporary storage in a
centralised facility, and final disposal of pesticide
waste. The value of the projects is USD 12.6 million,
jointly financed by the Government of the Republic
of Moldova and international donors.
The Republic of Moldova's case underlines the

need for the efficient registration of hazardous
substances, and the maintenance of accurate
statistics, which is often a prerequisite for
initiating action. The Republic of Moldova signed
Photo: Obsolete pesticides in the Republic of Moldova
the Stockholm Convention dealing with POPs and
© GEF/WB 'POPs Stockpiles Management and submitted a national implementation plan in August
Destruction Project'; Ministry of Ecology and Natural 2005. Armenia was the second EECCA country
Resources, the Republic of Moldova to submit an implementation plan in April 2006.
POPs‑related projects have also been launched in
Belarus, Georgia and the Russian Federation.
After independence, the stockpiles were initially
guarded in storehouses, but during land
privatisation, state control was discontinued
in many cases. By 2003, about 60 % of the Source: Ministry of Environment, Republic of Moldova, 2007.
165 million tonnes in Turkmenistan and 1.3 billion the Soviet Union the supply of pesticides stopped,
tonnes in Uzbekistan. The wastes contain radioactive but these stockpiles have increasingly become a
nuclides and metal compounds (e.g. cadmium, lead, problem, as many storage facilities have no legal
zinc and sulphates) (UNEP, 2006). owner. In Uzbekistan about 18 000 tonnes of
banned and obsolete pesticides have been kept in
There are also large stockpiles of obsolete pesticides underground depositories since 1972, while in other
containing persistent organic pollutants (POPs), areas pesticides and their packaging materials were
which date back to the Soviet era and that have buried in landfills.
become a large risk to the environment (see
Section 2.5, Hazardous chemicals). Supply of
pesticides to state-owned collective farms was 6.4.2 Waste management
administered centrally, and substantial amounts
were sent to farms each year regardless of need. The general principles of waste management are
Stockpiles grew gradually, with farmers storing embodied in the so-called 'waste management
them as best they could. Following the break-up of hierarchy'. The top priorities are to prevent the

generation of waste and to reduce its harmfulness. Usually, increasing economic activity means more
Where this is not possible, waste materials should waste generation. Since economic growth is the
be reused, recycled or used as a source of energy predominant policy goal across Europe, it is often
(incineration). As a final resort, waste should be difficult to find politically acceptable instruments
disposed of safely, which in most pan-European which can successfully limit waste generation.
regions means landfilling. Nonetheless, experience shows that successful
prevention does require the use of a variety of
In the EU and EFTA Member States, systems to instruments.
manage waste are already in place, minimising the
risks to public health and reducing emissions to the The objectives of waste prevention are: 1) reduction
environment from disposal and recovery facilities. of emissions; 2) reduction of hazardous substances
In the EU, there has been a policy shift over the in material streams and of their dissipation; and
last 10–15 years away from end‑of‑pipe control 3) improvement of resource efficiency. Consequently,
of waste‑related emissions, and administrative the priority waste streams to be addressed for waste
demands for registration, permits and waste prevention are those with big mass flows, hazardous
management planning. The present approach wastes, and wastes containing scarce substances.
focuses on treating waste as a resource and
using waste prevention and recovery as a way Actions at the enterprise level can address the
of saving resources and minimising impacts on extraction of raw materials, the processing of
the environment. Current EU policies include raw materials and the appropriate design and
requirements for waste prevention, re-use, manufacturing of products. Cleaner technology
recycling and recovery, and restrictions on waste to programmes have proved useful instruments
landfill. in reducing waste generation in industry. For
example, the EU voluntary instrument EMAS
In EECCA and SEE, much more attention is still (eco-management and audit scheme) rewards
placed on developing waste strategies and the those industries that improve their performance
implementation of basic waste legislation. Even on a continuous basis, providing an incentive
though many of those countries draw on EU to improve long-term performance. Life-cycle
policies and directives for their own legislation, approach in product design, extending useful life
they are not under legal obligation to ensure or facilitating waste disposal is another example of
better waste management. The main challenge in an important prevention instrument. An example
countries where the capacity of local authorities of successful prevention is the phasing out or
to deal with waste is often limited, is ensuring reduction of certain heavy metals in batteries, such
the proper collection of waste and disposing of as mercury and cadmium, whereby improved
the waste in legal and safe landfills. In addition, recyclability and limited dissipation of hazardous
the utilisation of resources contained in waste substances to the environment are achieved.
in EECCA and SEE is not driven so much by Economic instruments, such as national taxes on
legislation as by economic forces. waste generation, can further stimulate industries
to limit their wastes.
Waste prevention
Waste prevention is a top priority in the waste Achieving a reduction in waste generated by
hierarchy, but so far, achievements in this field households is a much more complicated task since
have been less than satisfactory. There is a it implies lowering consumption in general and
large gap between the political goals on waste making changes in consumption patterns. This,
prevention expressed in various EU directives and in turn, requires alterations in people's habits
in the Kiev strategy, and the continued growth in and lifestyles. Some options for more sustainable
waste generation. Waste amounts are rising and consumption are described in Section 6.3.
projections expect this trend to continue in the
future, along with the increasing environmental Many successful environmental improvements
impacts from waste. in industry have occurred when government

has played a consistent role by setting goals and 31 % of total waste generated is landfilled, 42 % is
timelines for improvements. Examples of successful recycled, 6 % is incinerated with energy recovery
government actions include: funding or in other and 21 % is unspecified (data from 19 Member
ways supporting innovative changes, setting taxes States). Consistent information on waste disposal
providing significant changes in cost structures or methods in EECCA and SEE is also not available.
intervening with traditional legal requirements. In However, in the Russian Federation, between 40 %
those cases where declared government policies and 57 % of total waste generated from industry
have not been followed by other supportive was landfilled in the period 2002–2004 (SOE the
measures, or even just the threat of future Russian Federation, 2004).
intervention in the case of non-compliance, not
much has been achieved. For municipal waste, landfill is also the dominant
disposal method. However, the percentage
In some cases, policy choices that do not seem to of municipal waste in landfill declined in
have any connection with waste management can, EU‑25 + EFTA from 63 % in 1995 to 42 % in 2005
nonetheless, have significant effects. Organic food (Table 6.1) during a period when generation of
production, for example, has a very high potential municipal waste increased. Nevertheless, similar
for waste prevention, both quantitatively and absolute amounts of municipal waste are landfilled
in terms of toxicity. The elimination of synthetic in the pan-European region today as ten years ago.
pesticides and fertilisers reduces toxicity as well
as the energy consumption associated with their Diverting waste from landfills
production, and thereby the wastes produced in the Since the beginning of the 1990s, many EU
extraction of fuels and their combustion. Another directives and national policies have been
example comes from improved public transport, developed which set targets for recycling and
which could have a positive impact on energy recovery, as well as putting limits on the amount
consumption and on the number of end-of-life of waste that can be sent to landfill. These are now
vehicles and vehicle parts, one of the fastest growing beginning to produce results.
waste streams in Europe.
The percentage of municipal waste recycled
Landfill (including composting) has increased significantly
Landfill — the least preferable environmental (Figure 6.22). In EU‑15 + EFTA, the percentage of
option in the waste management hierarchy — is recycling has almost doubled, reaching 40 % in
still the most common waste management method 2004. In EU‑10, however, recycling and incineration
used across the pan-European region. In the EU, are minimal.
Table 6.1 Municipal waste generated and sent to landfill
Region 1995 or 1996 2004 or 2005

Generation Landfill % of landfill Generation Landfill % of landfill
(1 000 tonnes) (1 000 tonnes) (1 000 tonnes) (1 000 tonnes)
EU‑15+EFTA 187 706 111 535 59 228 372 86 691 38
EU‑10 24 871 22 482 90 22 740 19 098 84
EU‑25 + EFTA 212 578 134 018 63 251 112 105 789 42
EECCA (rough 50 000 45 000– 90–100 66 000 60 000– 90–100
estimates, June 2006) 50 000 66 000
SEE (BG, HR, RO, TR) 42 345 30 200 71 42 841 36 291 85
Notes: The EECCA countries include figures only from Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, the Republic of Moldova, the
Russian Federation and Ukraine. First set of figures is based on data available for either year 1995 or 1996, whichever more recent,
and second set of figures covers either year 2004 or 2005.
Sources: Eurostat, 2007b; UN, 2006; EEA-ETC/RWM's own calculation 2006.

Figure 6.22 Treatment of municipal waste
%
100
0-10 %
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
EU-15 EU-15 EU-10 EU-10 EU-25 EU-25 EECCA EECCA
+ EFTA + EFTA 1995 2005 + EFTA + EFTA 1995- 2004-
1995 2005 1995 2005 estimates estimates
Others Recycling including composting Incineration with energy recovery Landfilled
Sources: Eurostat, 2007b; EEA-ETC/RWM's own calculation based on Eurostat's figures.
Figure 6.23 illustrates the forecast effects of four

Figure 6.23 Projection of waste diverted away from
landfill, EU‑25 selected EU waste-related directives (Waste Electric
and Electronic Equipment, End-of-life Vehicles,
Million tonnes Packaging and Landfill Directives).
60
Municipal waste management

50
With the economic growth in EECCA and SEE,
it is likely that their municipal waste generation
40
will become similar to that in EU, both in volume
and composition. Given this, and the fact that
30
currently almost all municipal waste in EECCA and
20
SEE goes to landfill, it is important that landfills
maintain reasonable technical standards, including
10 the collection of leachate and the safe disposal of
generated methane. However, illegal dumping and
0 inadequate disposal sites still remain a public health
01 03 05 07 09 11 13 15 problem — in the Russian Federation, only 8 % of
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
landfills are estimated to be safe (Abramov, 2004).
WEEE Directive ELV Directive
In Turkey, where Istanbul is the only big city with a
Packaging Directive Landfill Directive proper waste collection and management system, it
is estimated that about 70 % of all municipal waste is
Source: EEA-ETC/RWM, 2006c.
dumped in uncontrolled or illegal sites since in the
whole country there are only 16 sanitary landfills,
Full compliance with EU legislation and four composting plants and one incinerator
implementation of national waste strategies are complying with the legislation.
expected to lead to a further reduction in the amount
of waste sent to landfill, with an estimated 25 million Little progress has been made since the Kiev
tonnes of waste expected to be diverted away conference on the efficient collection of municipal
from landfill to recovery between 2005 and 2016. waste and its safe disposal in EECCA and SEE.

Box 6.14 Waste and climate change
Reducing the volume of biodegradeable waste

Figure 6.24 Generation of municipal waste and
buried in landfills lowers the amount of methane
CO2‑equivalent emissions from landfills,
gas generated in them. Methane gas (CH4) is a
EU‑25
greenhouse gas with up to 20 times the warming
power of carbon dioxide (CO2). Figure 6.24 Municipal solid waste Greenhouse gas
illustrates the situation in the EU‑25 since 1980, and generation/landfilling emissions (million tonnes
projects developments forward to 2020. Assuming (million tonnes) CO2-equivalents)
that all countries comply with the Landfill Directive, 350 120
even if the total amount of municipal waste
increases, by 2020 the expected emissions of CH4, 300
in CO2-equivalents, will be 10 million tonnes lower 100
than in 2000. 250
80
Methane, rather than escaping to the atmosphere, 200
can be recovered and used as a clean burning fuel 60
for the generation of electricity. This has advantages 150
not only in energy terms, but also in economic
40
terms particularly by way of Joint Implementation 100
(JI) and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
of the Kyoto Protocol (see Chapter 3, Climate 50 20
Change). Under the current price regime for carbon
credits, with a value of at least EUR 5 per tonne of 0 0
CO2‑equivalent in 2006, control and use of methane 8 0 8 5 9 0 9 5 0 0 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0
could finance a substantial part of the investment 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20
costs in collection systems and treatments plants.
Total municipal solid waste generation
The Clean Development Mechanism in action Total municipal solid waste landfilling
Kyrgyzstan has recently approved the first CDM Recovered methane from landfilled municipal
projects under a cooperative agreement with solid waste (in CO2-equivalents)
Denmark. The methane gas generated in its capital Sum of total CO2-equivalent emissions from
Bishkek's landfill will be collected and utilised landfilling
as a fuel for the generation of electricity. In the Total potential CO2-equivalent release from
period 2006–2012 the estimated reduction in landfilled municipal solid waste (if no recovery)
CO2‑equivalents will be more than 500 000 tonnes,
and the income from selling this reduction to Source: EEA-ETC/RWM, 2007.
Denmark will be at least EUR 3.3 million. Benefits
may further increase up to EUR 5.2 million,
depending on the income from the sale of energy
generated by the collected methane. These revenues is the first approved by the Armenian and Japanese
will fully cover the project costs and create a net Governments (in 2005). It will save emissions of
benefit of EUR 1.1–2.5 million. 2.2 million tonnes of CO2‑equivalents, and generate
200 GWh of new, clean energy over the project's
lifetime of 16 years.
In Armenia, which has made similar agreements with
both Denmark and Japan, the Nubarashen Landfill Sources: DEPA, 2006 and Nubarashen Landfill Gas Capture
Gas Capture and Power Generation Project in Yerevan and Power Generation Project in Yerevan, 2005.
In general, there is little separation at source of Management of hazardous waste

the different kinds of municipal waste, although Since the cost of hazardous waste disposal in the
in some cases specific fractions are separated, EECCA countries is much lower than in WCE,
and there are even examples of successful there is an economic incentive to export hazardous
implementation (see Box 6.15). Even though most wastes to EECCA countries. Since such activities
have general waste strategies, only a few have are illegal they are difficult to document, but
yet developed legislation and action plans for the risk should not be underestimated. This is
municipal waste, in some cases because of a lack of demonstrated by, for example, the cases of illegal
funding. exports of toxic chemical wastes to Ukraine and

Sometimes, however, improvement of the situation

Box 6.15 Improving municipal waste does not require large investments since smaller
collection in Tashkent investments with proper waste management can
In Tashkent, the capital of Uzbekistan, the two million provide real benefits. Box 6.16 describes a solution
residents produced more than 3 000 tonnes of solid which tackles two problems at once — helping to
waste per day in the late 1990s. Amounts of waste
were increasing and the system of waste collection,
protect the ozone layer and removing hazardous
removal and disposal was at risk of collapse. Waste substances from discarded appliances. It enables
collection vehicles required upgrading, and there was recycling or safe destruction of chlorofluorocarbons
a need for fencing off the collection points and for the
acquisition of new bins. (CFCs) as well as the safe scrapping of cleaned
appliances, allowing the recovery of valuable metals.
As a result of a USD 56.3 million World Bank project,
Tashkent is now among the cleanest cities in the
region. Over 13 000 waste collection containers and
three types of collection vehicle have been purchased. Box 6.16 Refrigeration Management Plan
Excavators and waste compactors operate in the (RMP) in the Former Yugoslav
landfill. Two of four planned transfer stations are Republic of Macedonia
now in operation, each with an annual capacity of
200 000 tonnes of waste. The emergence of about The aim of the RMP project is to develop a
400 serviced and some 700 unserviced collection comprehensive programme for the recovery and
points has stimulated the development of a market recycling of ozone-depleting substances used in
for recycled materials. Individuals can now lease a servicing refrigeration equipment, and to prevent
collection point from the municipality to sort out waste unnecessary emissions of these refrigerants into
and sell recyclables such as paper, bottles and plastic the atmosphere. The project also includes a training
bags. About 1 000 new jobs have been created as a programme on good practices in refrigeration
result. maintenance for service technicians and the training
of customs officers.
Three recycling centres have been established and

the Transdniestria region of Moldova (Environment 109 service stations provided with recovery and
People Law, 2006; Novaya Gazeta, 2004; Kiev recycling equipment for CFCs/HCFCs. Once the
technicians have been trained and provided with
Weekly, 2006). recovery and recycling equipment, they are obliged
to report on quantities of CFC/HCFCs recovered and
Other than Tajikistan, all EECCA and SEE countries recycled. The first successful project, which ran to
the end of 2005 and is now complete, recovered
are party to the Basel Convention on the Control 20.8 tonnes of CFCs of which 19.6 tonnes were
of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous recycled. A second project is now in place, running
Wastes and their Disposal, and, by the end of until 2010.
2005, had implemented most of the principles of Source: Ministry of Environment and Physical Planning, FYR
the Convention in their national legislation and of Macedonia, Ozone Unit, 2006.
strategies, albeit relying greatly on international

support. However, only a few countries have the
technical facilities for the safe disposal of hazardous Waste management planning
waste and therefore, in most cases, these must be Waste management planning is an important
either landfilled or stored within the country itself, tool for implementing waste policies and
or exported for proper treatment. regulations. Planning can emphasise incentives
for diverting waste away from landfill and using
The development of hazardous waste strategies the resources in waste. A recent policy study for
and legislation in EECCA and SEE has mainly EU‑25 (EEA‑ETC/RWM, 2006d) concludes that the
taken place in those areas where countries have following elements are among the most important
international obligations or responsibilities, such in waste management planning:
as under the Basel and Stockholm Conventions.
Countries also try to follow the recommendations • involving stakeholders and the general public in
in the Kiev strategy for EECCA. However, the the procedure of waste management planning;
implementation of legislation on hazardous waste • setting targets for economic sectors, specific
relies to a great extent on international funding. waste streams and waste treatment;

• improving statistics on waste generation, part of the Soviet Union, has overcome in waste
shipment and treatment for relevant economic management, including the modernisation of
sectors and waste streams; landfills, may be typical of those facing many of the
• planning and allocation of responsibility for EECCA and SEE countries (see Box 6.17).
sufficient treatment capacity;
• including definitions of responsibilities,
and descriptions of the ways and means of 6.4.3 Waste as an economic resource
implementation in the plan. — recovery, recycling and trade
Waste management planning is compulsory in the Waste is increasingly seen not only as an
EU (under the Waste Framework Directive) and environmental problem, but as a potential
has been used to good effect — in many EU‑25 economic resource whose recovery can bring
countries, national taxes on waste and waste significant economic benefits. This paradigm
disposal have been introduced to support waste change is partly driven by legislation and partly by
management, making it more attractive to use the market forces, and is well illustrated by packaging
resources in the waste than to dispose of them. waste.
Waste as a resource in EU‑25 and EFTA

Box 6.17 Waste management planning in The 1994 EU Directive on Packaging and
Estonia for modernisation of landfills Packaging Waste introduced specific targets
Before 1991, Estonia had more than 300 municipal concerning recycling and recovery of this type
waste landfills. The first Estonian National of waste. In the period 1997–2004 the amount of
Environmental Strategy required owners and/or packaging waste in EU‑15 increased by 10 million
operators of every existing landfill for municipal waste
to be identified by the year 2000, landfills without tonnes. At the same time, the amount of packaging
operators to be closed, and the number of municipal waste sent for recycling increased by 12 million
landfill sites to be reduced to 150 by the year 2010. tonnes, growing from 45 % to 56 % of the total.
Already in 2000 only 148 landfills for municipal and
other non-hazardous waste were in operation. Disposal of packaging waste declined by 6
million tonnes, a drop from 55 % to 32 % of total
The situation changed further as a result of the packaging waste.
transposition of the EU Landfill Directive to Estonian
legislation in 2000. During the period 2000–2005,
special attention was paid to the construction of new But it is not only regulation that stimulates the
modern landfills and the closure and reconditioning of better use or recovery of the resources in waste.
old ones. In the beginning of 2004 only 37 municipal Increasing demand from the Asian market caused
landfills were in use. According to the 2002 National
Waste Management Plan, just 8–9 regional landfills increases in world market price of waste paper,
of non-hazardous waste are expected to operate in cardboard, plastic and scrap metal. The prices of
Estonia in the future. lower grades of recovered paper have increased for
Source: EEA-ETC/RWM, 2006e. 'mixed paper' from up to GBP 4.3 per tonne in 1998
to GBP 20–30 per tonne in 2005 (constant prices,
2005). This had a stimulating effect on recycling
with exports of waste paper and cardboard to Asia
(especially to China) almost doubling between
The experience of EU‑25 may be useful in helping 2000 and 2004. European exports of 6 million
the EECCA and the SEE countries improve their tonnes make up about 10 % of the total amount
planning processes. For example, sharing experience collected in Europe for recycling. Interestingly, the
in compiling better data on waste could be of current net export of 5.5 million tonnes of waste
benefit, particularly to such countries as Belarus, paper should be compared to a deficit of one
Croatia, the Russian Federation and Ukraine, which million tonnes in 1990. In a similar development,
have now started to improve their data collection exports of scrap metals to Asia increased steeply
systems including those concerned with municipal over the last few years (Figure 6.25).
waste. Or the challenges which Estonia, formerly

Figure 6.25 Export of recyclable paper and cardboard Recycling of municipal waste and incineration
and scrap metals from Europe with energy recovery are used as complementary
Tonnes tools to divert waste away from landfills and
12 000 000 to recover some economic value from waste.
Progress since Kiev However, it should be recognised that strict
10 000 000 technical standards of incineration must be
observed to avoid detrimental effects on public
8 000 000 health and the environment.
6 000 000
When comparing waste disposal options, it is
sometimes argued that incineration of waste
4 000 000
with energy recovery hinders the development
2 000 000 of recycling. However, there is no evidence to
support this. Figure 6.26 on municipal waste
0 shows that those countries with the lowest level
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05 of landfilling of municipal waste (less than 25 %)
also have the highest levels of both recycling and
Total export from EU-25 of scrap iron
incineration with energy recovery. In contrast,
Total import to EU-25 of scrap iron
countries with a medium level of landfill (25–50 %)
Total export of recyclable paper from
CEPI countries have a medium rate of recycling and limited
Export of recyclable paper from CEPI countries incineration with energy recovery. Lastly, countries
to Asia
Export from EU-25 to Asia of scrap iron
with a high share of landfill (greater than 50 %)
Export paper from CEPI countries to other
have neither much recycling nor incineration with
European countries energy recovery.
Notes: Members of Confederation of European Paper Industries
(CEPI): Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark,
Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Norway,
Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom.
Sources: CEPI, 2004; IISI, 2006.
Figure 6.26 The rate of recycling versus incineration with energy recovery of municipal waste, 2005
%
100
80
60
40
20
0
l
nd ds en ark um ny tria urg ay nce ain aly nd nd ga nia om nd blic nia via kia ary nia key ece ria rus lta nia nd tia 5 0 5
-1 -1 -2
e rla rlan wed nm lgi rma us bo orw ra Sp It rela inla rtu sto gd cela pu ove Lat ova ng ma ur re lga yp Ma ua Pola roa EU EU EU
e F I F Po E in I Re Sl T G Bu C th
itz the S De B Ge
A m N
K Sl Hu Ro Li
C
Sw Ne u xe d c h
L i t e e
z
Un C
Landfilled Recycled including composting Incinerated with energy recovery
Source: EEA-ETC/RWM calculation based on data from Eurostat, 2007d.

Waste as a resource in the EECCA and SEE

Box 6.19 Increase in collection and recycling
countries of ferrous and non-ferrous metals in
In general, the level of recycling in EECCA and Bosnia and Herzegovina
SEE is low (Box 6.18), and although the potential The current rate of recycling in Bosnia and
of recycling municipal waste is large in the EECCA Herzegovina is low compared with the EU Member
and SEE countries, little decisive progress has been States, except for the recycling of scrap ferrous and
non-ferrous metals, the collection and recycling of
seen in the recent past, largely because of the low which has recently experienced a sudden increase,
collection rates of separated waste. due to the rise in prices of recyclables in regional and
world markets. The privatisation of the local steel
mill has paved the way for an additional boost in the
Indeed, what recycling does take place is not the ferrous metals collection and processing industry
result of environmental regulations, but is driven sector. Currently, the estimated recycling rate in
by economic forces — recycling in EECCA and Bosnia and Herzegovina is 50–70 % for iron, whereas
for aluminium it is more than 60 %. These rates are
comparable with some EU Member States.
Source: Bosna-S Consulting, 2006.

Box 6.18 Recycling in the Russian Federation
According to the Ministry of Natural Resources of the

Russian Federation, over 30 % of all waste is reused
or recycled. Between 40 and 60 % of industrial waste
is recycled or reused, but only 3 to 4 % of municipal expected for other electronic equipment including
waste. In 2004, scrap metal collection reached computers (see Section 6.3.2). Thus, EECCA and SEE
28.8 million tonnes, a 30 % increase on 2003. are facing the same challenges regarding proper
treatment of these 'new' waste streams (Box 6.20).
The potential gains from better sorting of municipal
waste are very high. The annual losses of useful
resources in municipal wastes in the Russian
Federation are estimated at 9 million tonnes of
waste paper, 1.5 million tones of scrap ferrous and
non‑ferrous metals, 2 million tonnes of polymers, Box 6.20 Treatment of electric and electronic
10 million tonnes of food and 0.5 million tonnes of waste in Moscow
glass.
Moscow's Ecocentre is an advanced treatment facility
recycling waste electric and electronic equipment
It is estimated that the current collection and (WEEE) owned by Moscow's municipal government,
recycling of useful materials in waste generates an and a subdivision of the multipurpose waste
economic activity of 2–2.5 billion roubles (about management company, Promotkhody. In 2003, it
USD 70–80 million), but this is only 7–8 % of its added WEEE recycling to its other activities, which
potential maximum level. include the processing of photographic materials
and recovery of precious metals including silver and
Sources: SOE the Russian Federation, 2004; Press Service of gold. About 80 % of the waste input is recycled to
the RF Ministry of Natural Resources, 29 May 2003; secondary raw materials such as ferrous, non-ferrous
Waste Tech, 2005; Abramov, 2004. and precious metals, stainless steel, plastics and
paper.
The Ecocentre collects the waste in special containers

from the Moscow city area within a 100 km radius.
SEE tends to focus on industrial waste rather than The company, with about 50 staff, is operated
completely on a market basis, without any subsidies
municipal waste (See Box 6.19). from the state or city. Customer fees paid by waste
producers form the basic income of the company. For
In some areas, EECCA and SEE are beginning to some categories of waste, Ecocentre pays money for
waste received.
show similar consumption patterns to the highly
industrialised countries. This is already the case for Source: Ecocentre, Moscow, 2006.
the use of mobile phones, and similar trends are

07
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Agriculture
7.2 Transport
7.3 Energy
7.4 Tourism
Sectors that drive

environmental change
Sectors that drive environmental change | Introduction
7.0 Introduction
The previous chapters have examined recent It is also important to recognise that though
developments in terms of the impacts of human socio‑economic and environmental objectives can
activities on the environment, both directly, as be pursued simultaneously through a carefully
in the case of polluting emissions to air or water, crafted integrated set of policies, it is also possible
and indirectly through mechanisms such as to choose pathways that meet some of the
climate change. Chapter 2 discussed the impacts objectives but not others. For example, the use of
that most directly affect human health, that is domestic coal as the feedstock for the production
air quality, water, soil, and chemicals. Chapters of synthetic diesel for road transport, an option
3 to 6 addressed the issues of climate change, that is being explored in some parts of the world,
biodiversity, the marine and coastal environment, would meet the objectives of competitiveness and
and the sustainable production and consumption, energy security but not that of combating climate
all of which can affect ecosystems as well as change. In another instance, it is possible to choose
humans. a pathway that would meet all three objectives
but which could have major negative impacts on
While many individual improvements could be biodiversity or global food prices.
identified in different regions for different issues,
the overall picture is not one of progress. To gain Therefore, systematic impact assessments of
a better understanding of why this is the case, it is policies, a key element of the EU Better Regulation
necessary to look in more depth at developments in initiative (European Commission, 2005), has
the economic sectors that are driving the pressures the potential to further the integration of
on the environment. environmental concerns into sectoral policies.
There is political recognition (UNECE, 2003) In an attempt to form an overview of these

that to achieve sustainable development and challenges, this chapter looks at four economic
protect the environment it is necessary to include sectors that play a major role in society and have
environmental requirements and objectives in substantial impacts on the environment. Tracking
the decision-making process within the different developments in these sectors — energy, transport,
sectors of the economy. agriculture and tourism — helps to understand
the driving forces behind the changes in the
However, while some efforts have been made to environment that can be observed, and gives
integrate environmental concerns into the policies pointers as to where action should be taken to
dealing with the economic sectors mostly in the EU mitigate the negative effects of human activities on
under the umbrella of the so-called Cardiff strategy, the environment. Indeed, without such action it is
there is still a need for stronger recognition of extremely unlikely that the goals of environmental
the fact that socio-economic and environmental protection and sustainable development will be
objectives are not in conflict with each other, but met.
that rather the achievement of environmental
objectives is an absolute precondition if the Together, the four sectors cover most of the
socio‑economic goals are to be met in the long main environmental issues that society faces.
term. To put it another way, short-term economic Energy provision transforms resources, is the
benefits can turn into long‑term losses, as is clearly main source of greenhouse gases, and is a major
illustrated in the recent Stern report on the cost source of air pollution. The transport sector
of climate change (Stern, 2006), where the cost of consumes land and energy (thus contributing to
inaction in the long run will be far greater than the greenhouse gas emissions), is a major source of
cost of mitigation in a shorter term perspective. air pollution and noise and can have negative
Reactions to the Stern report and recent policy impacts on biodiversity. Agriculture uses land and
developments in the EU linking competitiveness, water, contributes to greenhouse gas emissions,
energy security and the mitigation of climate impacts on biodiversity (both in a positive and
change, show promise for the future. negative sense), and is a major source of water

Sectors that drive environmental change | Introduction
pollution. Finally, tourism is a major driver behind economic investments need to take this into
the growth in transport, and impacts on water account.
resources and sensitive areas such as mountainous
regions and coastal zones. The four sectors focused on here are not the only
ones that need to be considered. Households
In the period since Kiev, these four sectors have and industry are also important sectors with
developed against a general backdrop of growing respect to environmental impacts. They are not
wealth across large parts of the pan-European treated specifically here in Chapter 7, but many
region alongside relatively smooth political aspects of their activities are covered in other
transitions and economic restructuring in most chapters. Households consume energy and
parts of EECCA sub‑region (see also Chapter 1, resources and generate waste and are partially
Europe's environment in an age of transitions). In covered in Chapter 6 on the sustainable use
addition, the general trend towards liberalisation of resources and waste. With the huge growth
and geographical integration of markets following of the service industry, the industry sector is
the removal or weakening of barriers to trade no longer a relatively homogeneous group of
continued across the region, especially in the activities, and treating the sector as a whole has
energy sector. become meaningless. Furthermore, the role of
the industrial sector as a major point source of
Developments in the rest of the world — for air and water pollution has generally become
example in USA, China and India — are increasingly less important, though still very significant in
influencing the situation within Europe, again some regions. Overall, the major impacts of the
especially as regards the energy sector. industrial sector are now as a generator and
consumer of energy and consumer of resources,
Finally, climate change — a consequence of human and as a generator of transport, linked to the
activity — is also beginning to impact on boundary opening of markets and growing specialisation
conditions for decision-making in many sectors in Europe and worldwide. Industry is therefore
and also the resource base for sectoral activity, covered by the other sections and chapters dealing
for example in the agriculture sector. Long-term with these issues.

Sectors that drive environmental change | Agriculture
7.1 Agriculture
Photo: Arable irrigated land, Croatia © George Buttner
Key messages
• The historic impact of agriculture on • The area of irrigated land in southern EU-15
landscapes and biodiversity was positive, but and SEE has increased, showing a continuing
modern, intensive agriculture is often a threat trend of agricultural intensification. Irrigation
to biodiversity. Agriculture has a negative in southern and eastern EECCA countries
influence on the environment through its use is causing declines in water resources and
and pollution of resources such as air, water quality, falling groundwater tables, salinisation
and soil. and degradation of land as well as impacts on
ecosystems.
• Fertiliser input per hectare of agricultural land
is declining from a high level in the EU-15 • The production of bioenergy and, potentially,
and EFTA-4. In the rest of the pan-European carbon sequestration in soils offer both
region it declined strongly after 1990, but new income opportunities to farmers and
is now increasing significantly in the EU-10. environmental benefits. However, the potential
Nitrates from manure and chemical fertiliser environmental pressures from energy cropping
application continue to pollute drinking water need to be well-managed to ensure overall
and cause eutrophication of coastal and environmental benefits.
marine waters.
• Reforms of the EU common agriculture
• While pesticide use has remained constant or policy have largely cut the link between farm
has declined in many countries, it still gives income support and agricultural production
rise to significant environmental concerns. and provide a wide range of environmental
Pesticide concentrations above EU drinking incentives. The policy framework in SEE
water standards are found in several EU and EECCA is less diverse and not so well
Member States, and significant pesticide resourced. There is a considerable untapped
concentrations in surface water bodies also agricultural potential in many of these
occur in many EECCA countries. There has countries that may give rise to intensification
been no significant progress in dealing with as worldwide and national demand for food
the legacy of localised hot spots of pesticide and bioenergy strengthens. Most of SEE and
contamination in SEE and EECCA. EECCA will require continued international
support to achieve a better environmental
management in the agricultural sector.

7.1.1 Introduction 7.1.2 Economic and social trends

in farming
Agriculture provides essential services to
human society through the production of food During the past decades the main agricultural
and biomaterials, rural employment and the policy objective in all regions was to increase
management of landscapes and biodiversity. food production. Agricultural output increased
At the same time, it exerts significant pressures significantly as a result of mechanisation, use of
on natural resources through the consumption non‑renewable inputs such as inorganic fertilisers
of water, the use of chemical fertilisers and and pesticides, installation of large-scale irrigation
pesticides, its influence on soils and water quality, schemes, and cultivation of marginal land and
and its emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). technological developments, including crop and
Minimising the environmental pressures from livestock breeding. However, this trend is only
agriculture while maximising its positive external continuing in the more productive regions and/or
outputs is a key challenge for societies throughout where significant government resources continue
Europe and Central Asia. to support intensive production systems. Some
countries, including Spain and Romania, currently
Across Europe and Central Asia, the farming permit the use of certain genetically modified crops
sector is affected by a growing polarisation (GM crops). In spite of significant concerns over the
between intensive commercial agriculture and use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), this
low-income, less productive farming systems trend may become more widespread in the future.
that are increasingly being abandoned. However, At this stage, however, it is difficult to assess the
agriculture in the region still includes very diverse environmental implications of such crops in the
systems, ranging from large, highly intensive and wider region.
specialised commercial holdings to subsistence
farms mainly using traditional practices. Farming systems and areas that have lower
Consequently, impacts on the environment vary productivity or are a long way from the main
in scale and intensity and may be positive or markets have become economically marginalised or
negative. have already been abandoned. Such trends can be
observed particularly in the rural areas of EECCA and
Agriculture policy, market trends which are SEE where political changes in the early 1990s led to a
increasingly global in their scope, technological period of economic and market instability.
development, and changing consumer preferences
provide the framework within which farmers During the socialist era, government planning
operate. The importance of these individual factors determined agricultural production, frequently
varies according to the integration of farming into without taking into account resource efficiencies
wider markets, the political framework, available or the suitability of production to the environment.
public resources, and farming conditions. In the The area of arable land was expanded at the expense
EU, the common agricultural policy (CAP) has had of forests and grassland, increasing the pressure
a significant influence on farming decisions and on remaining pastures. The development of large
now includes a wide range of rural development irrigation schemes, farm specialisation and investment
and agri-environmental policy instruments. In in animal production were all associated with the
SEE and EECCA, the agri‑environmental policy push to increase output and resulted in a great
framework is less developed and lacks budgetary reliance on fertiliser and pesticide input (EEA, 2003).
resources. This is creating additional challenges While the collective farming system offered secure
for governments in helping farmers to reduce employment to a large part of the rural population,
agricultural pressures on the environment labour efficiency was frequently quite low.
through, for example, access to environmental
farm advice. The major political changes in the 1990s led to a
significant restructuring of agricultural production,

often resulting in the privatisation of previously modern intensive agriculture and the abandonment
nationalised land — more so in the new EU-10 and of farming can have negative impacts on the
SEE than in EECCA. Coupled with a strong decline environment.
in agricultural support and consumer purchasing
power, this had severe economic consequences Agricultural production across the continent
for rural areas. In particular, livestock production continues to rely on such resources as inorganic
and the cultivation of less productive land fertilisers and pesticides (see indicators presented
declined strongly, as did agricultural incomes and in Figures 7.1.1 and 7.1.2). However, there has been
employment (EEA, 2004a and Prishchepov et al., a decline in the use of these with a consequent
2006). The economic and social crisis of agriculture reduction in pressure on the environment.
also resulted in a large drop in the consumption Changes in farming methods, including integrated
of fertilisers and pesticides, and loss of machinery production and low-input or organic farming,
and damage to such shared infrastructure as can help to reduce agriculture's dependence on
irrigation channels, rural roads and cooperative external chemical inputs. Organic farming has
buildings. These effects can still be felt strongly in grown strongly in the last five years and, by 2004,
most countries of SEE and EECCA. However, rural covered about 3.5 % of the total agricultural area
poverty also leads to overexploitation of the local of EU-15 and EFTA. The development of certified
environment, e.g. via overgrazing, in parts of the organic farming in eastern Europe and Central Asia
region. still lags significantly behind this figure although
individual countries, for example Croatia, have
Agricultural trends in EU-15 show more made strong progress in recent years (see Figure 4.9
continuity, with regional specialisation and in Chapter 4, Biodiversity).
intensification of production continuing through
the 1990s (EEA, 2005c). This resulted in a While agriculture can exert significant pressure
considerable decrease in the number of people on the environment, it is also itself subject to such
employed in agriculture and in farm holdings. negative environmental impacts as air pollution, soil
Practical impacts at farm level include increased contamination and urban development. Soil sealing
field sizes and livestock densities, shortening of for transport and housing infrastructure eliminates
crop rotations, and increased use of silage grass many thousands of hectares of agricultural land
and maize as fodder crops. The abandonment every year, in particular in western Europe (EEA,
of farms is not as significant in these countries, 2005c). Industrial pollution in EECCA, in particular
except in some mountain and Mediterranean the radioactive fallout from the Chernobyl nuclear
areas. This relatively low level of abandonment is accident, has made considerable areas of land unfit
at least partially due to the significant budgetary for agricultural production (for more detail please
support for EU agriculture, including targeted consult Section 2.4, Soil). Climate change will
environmental measures. strongly affect agriculture, for example as a result
of changes in rainfall patterns, shifts in growing
seasons, and increasing maximum temperatures
7.1.3 Pressures on the (more information on the impacts of climate change
environment is presented in Chapter 3, Climate change).
Agriculture uses and depends on natural Fertiliser and pesticide consumption

resources: soil, water, fossil fuels and biological Diffuse losses from agriculture continue to be
systems. This exerts pressures on the natural an important source of nitrate and phosphate
environment in the form of soil degradation, pollution in European waters (EEA, 2005 b and c).
water depletion and pollution, air emissions, and For instance, about 40 % of the total nitrogen load
damage to ecosystems. On the other hand, the long in the Danube river and 50 % in the Baltic Sea come
interaction of traditional farming practices with from farming (Behrend/EuroCat, 2004; EEA, 2005b).
the environment has also shaped landscapes and The chapters on water and the marine environment
habitats throughout the region. Consequently, both provide further detail on the effect of agricultural

pollution on water quality. The most suitable fertiliser consumption in the new EU Member
indicator for tracking nutrient pressures from States and many EECCA countries is expected to
agriculture is the gross nutrient balance, but as increase in response to new market opportunities
relevant data are not available for most countries in and a change in the policy framework for the
the region, fertiliser consumption is used instead. new EU Member States (EEA, 2005a). Therefore,
the question of optimising fertiliser use and the
Figure 7.1.1 shows that fertiliser input per hectare treatment of organic manure requires further
of agricultural land generally decreases as one attention as the current fertiliser trend in the new
moves eastward from western Europe to the EU Member States demonstrates.
EECCA region. Since the mid-1990s fertiliser use
has declined in EU‑15 and EFTA whereas it is Agricultural pesticide use can pollute drinking
increasing significantly in the new EU Member water, surface and groundwaters, and soils. Data
States — about 17 % since 1999. After a significant on surface and groundwater bodies in several EU
decline around 1990, fertiliser consumption Member States show that pesticide concentrations
remained more or less stable in SEE and EECCA above the EC maximum of 0.1 µg/l for a single
during the 1990s. Since 1999, however, reported pesticide (Drinking Water Directive 98/83/EC)
data show a drop of nearly 10 % in SEE, whereas can be found regularly (EEA, 2005c). Significant
fertiliser use in EECCA appears to have increased pesticide concentrations in surface water bodies
by about 7 %. Projections of the global outlook in can also be found in a range of EECCA countries
fertiliser consumption up to 2030 are presented in (e.g. UNECE, 2000 and 2003). In addition, there is a
the annexes to this report.
While the decline in fertiliser use and livestock Figure 7.1.2 Total pesticide consumption per hectare of
numbers in SEE and EECCA reduces current agricultural land
pollution problems, the treatment of fertilisers and
Mean consumption (kg/ha)
manure still does not appear to be environmentally 3.0
optimal (EEA, 2003). Furthermore, inorganic Progress
since
2.5 Kiev
Figure 7.1.1 Fertiliser input per hectare of agricultural 2.0 EU-15 + EFTA-4
land
1.5
Mean fertiliser consumption (kg/ha)
160.0 1.0
Progress
since Kiev EU-10
EU-15 + EFTA-4 0.5
120.0
EECCA SEE
EU-10
80.0 0.0
0
1
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
9
9
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
SEE
40.0
Note: The baseline for calculating the consumption of pesticides
EECCA per hectare was total agricultural land area (even though
pesticides are not applied on all farmland).
0.0
Pesticides include the following categories: fungicides and
90
92
94
96
98
00
02
bactericides, herbicides and insecticides. EU-15 + EFTA-4:

19
19
19
19
19
20
20
no data for LU, IS, LI; data for BE available only from 1993
to 1999; no data for GR in 1990; data for IE available only
Note: EU-15 + EFTA-4: no data for LI; no data for BE, LU for from 1994 onward; no data for ES in 2001.
2000–2002. EU-10: no data for CY from 1998 to 2001; no data for
EU-10: no data for SK, CZ for 1990–1992; no data for EE, CZ, MT, SK from 1990 to 1992; no data for EE, LT, SI for
LV, LT, SI for 1990–1991. 1990–1991; no data for LV in 1990–1991 and 1999–2001;
SEE: no data for BA for 1990-1994; no data for HR for no data for PL in 1990.
1990–1992; no data for MK for 1990–1992; no data for CS SEE: no data for AL, BG, BA, HR; no data for MK in
for 1990–1991. 1999–2001; no data for CS in 2001.
EECCA countries: no data for 1990–1991. EECCA: insufficient or no data before 1992 and after 1997.
Source: FAO. Source: FAO.

significant environmental legacy in both SEE and figures for many EECCA and SEE countries hide
EECCA where localised hot spots of contamination local or regional hot spots for pesticide use that can
are often associated with the storage and disposal lead to significant environmental problems (see
of pesticides (see also Section 2.5, Hazardous Section 2.4, Soil, and Box 7.1.1).
chemicals).
Organic farming and extensive pasture systems
The use of pesticides per hectare of agricultural are the only farming approaches that can be
land is much higher in western Europe than in the economically viable without the use of synthetic
other country groupings analysed. However, some pesticides. Consequently, there is a need to
decrease in their use since 1990 could be observed. improve the efficiency and environmental
Combined with the use of less toxic ingredients this management of pesticide use on most agricultural
is likely to have reduced the general environmental land throughout the regions covered in this report.
pressures from pesticide applications although New management practices, such as integrated
their use remains high in certain farming systems. crop management (ICM), enable a reduction
In EECCA, EU-10, and probably also in SEE, in pesticide use if properly applied. However,
pesticide use declined strongly after 1990 and ICM is estimated to cover only about 3 % of the
remained low until 2001. The uneven use of utilised agricultural area in the EU (EEA, 2003)
pesticides across different farming systems needs and requires professionally trained farmers. To
to be taken into account when interpreting these further improve the handling of pesticides — and
figures. Irrigated farming generally relies on fertilisers — more targeted training and advice
high to very high doses of pesticides per hectare, needs to be offered, particularly for newly
whereas they are generally not used, for example, established farmers in eastern Europe and Central
in extensive grazing systems. Thus the average Asia (OECD, 2007).
Box 7.1.1 Reducing dependence on pesticides
Pesticide use appears to have been decreasing EU-25 (the CIFAS project). The project had two
throughout the region since 1990. This is due main goals:
to a more efficient use of pesticides in western
Europe and associated with severe economic a) to compile information on environmental
restructuring of the agriculture sector in SEE and cross‑compliance standards as well as farm
EECCA. However, new approaches to agricultural advisory tools and systems;
management also play a role: the increase in b) to enable an exchange of information between
organic farming in north-western Europe and EU Member States and relevant stakeholders.
the use of integrated crop management (ICM)
techniques in many pesticide-intensive farming This supports the development of farm advisory
systems. A recent report by the OECD suggests that systems at a Member State level for providing
the currently low use of pesticides in the EECCA environmental farm management advice linked to
region in particular could provide a window of cross-compliance. More information is available
opportunity for a more widespread introduction of on the website of the CIFAS project: http://www.
the ICM approach. Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and ewindows.eu.org/cifas.
the Republic of Moldova are quoted as countries that
have made particular progress in this area (OECD,
2007). Appropriate legislation for the handling and The need for the CIFAS project shows that proper
application of pesticides will also play an important information and training is necessary to help EU
role in reducing risks from pesticide use. In the EU, farmers comply with legal standards. The potential
new legislation has been proposed to deal with this benefit of environmental advice for farmers
issue, see for example the Thematic Strategy on the is likely to be even larger in SEE and EECCA
Sustainable Use of Pesticides (COM(2006)327 final). where, in general, farmers have less knowledge
of the environmental effects of different farm
management techniques. Achieving the more
Developing environmental farm advice efficient use of fertilisers, pesticides and water in
The EEA has carried out a study on behalf of the these regions would be advantageous both from an
European Commission on advisory approaches to environmental and an economic perspective (OECD,
supporting environmental farm management in the 2007).

Trends in irrigation Figure 7.1.3 Average irrigated land area as percent of

The use of water for irrigation plays an important agricultural land area (selected countries)
role in current agricultural production systems
% agricultural land irrigated
across Europe and has considerable economic 16
importance — particularly in Mediterranean and Progress since
Kiev
EECCA countries where it is widely used to increase
12 SEE
output. In arid and semi-arid regions, such as
Central Asia, widespread irrigation not only helps EU-15 + EFTA-4
8
to increase yields, but also widens the range of crops
EECCA
that can be grown. However, as described below
4
(and in Sections 2.3, Inland waters, and 2.4, Soil), it EU-10
can have strong environmental impacts.
0
90
92
94
96
98
00
02
Within EU-15 and EFTA, the scale and importance of 19
19
19
19
19
20
20
irrigation is greatest in the Mediterranean countries, Note: Actual irrigation volumes are dependent not only on total
where irrigated areas have increased, most notably irrigation area but also on irrigation efficiency in different
regions.
in France, Greece and Italy, indicating a continuing EU-15 + EFTA-4: no data for IE, LI, IS; no data for BE, LU
for 2000–2003.
trend of agricultural intensification. While there was EU-10: no data for SK, CZ for 1990–1992; no data for EE,
a decline in irrigation in SEE at the beginning of the LV, LT, SI for 1990–1991.
SEE: no data for BA, HR, MK, CS for 1990–1991.
1990s, their total irrigated area is increasing again, EECCA: no data for 1990–1991.
influenced, in particular, by large-scale irrigation Source: FAO.

projects in Turkey — which shows an increase in
irrigated area of about 17 % since 1999. and Turkey. However, these countries are also
characterised by strong environmental problems
Irrigation is of particular economic importance associated with irrigation, such as declining
in southern and eastern EECCA countries – the water resources and quality, falling groundwater
largest irrigated areas are found in southern tables, salinisation, and degradation of land as
Russia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Romania well as impacts on ecosystems (see Box 7.1.2).
Box 7.1.2 The impact of agricultural irrigation in Central Asia
About 75 % of all cropland — approximately The short- and long-term environmental and
36 million hectares in total — in Central Asia was health impacts of irrigation need to be taken into
irrigated in 1999, supporting between 10 % and account when planning for the future. Most current
40 % of countries' GDP. Although this share has drainage systems are in such a poor state that
since fallen, due to the development of other parts waterlogging and salinisation has strongly increased
of the economy and the further decline of irrigation and even affects the foundations of rural villages.
systems and associated drainage systems, irrigated Insufficient drainage requires additional freshwater
agriculture is still the main economic backbone irrigation to remove salts from affected fields,
of many rural areas. A 2003 World Bank study leading to very high water demands. The returned
estimates that irrigated agriculture can remain salt‑contaminated drainage water also contains
or become economically viable if appropriate pesticide and fertiliser residues, which can have a
investments in infrastructure are made. Such severe impact downstream, on rivers and wetlands.
work is of utmost importance to improve very And the result of excessive water demands,
wasteful irrigation systems and practices and to including the death of the delta ecosystems of the
avoid further, often irreversible, salinisation and Amu-Dar and Syr-Dar rivers and the drying up
desertification of important agricultural cropland. of the Aral Sea, are well documented. In spite of
The introduction of user-driven water management some initiatives, started in the 1990s, to improve
systems, social equity in rural areas and the environmental and water management in the Aral
appropriate training of farmers are considered Sea catchment area, the environmental status of
important complements to tackling infrastructural the Aral Sea and the surrounding area remains
decay. extremely serious.
Sources: The World Bank, 2003; WWF, 1999.

Two current factors for these negative impacts pollution, which is exacerbated by inappropriate
are the decline in state support and the lack of manure management. Both remaining production
private capital for maintaining or improving the systems from before 1990 and new large‑scale
efficiency of current irrigation systems. Overall, fattening units can give rise to localised hot spots
irrigation has a particularly strong impact on of nutrient loading wherever they occur.
environmental resources in Central Asia although
its share in total land area there is smaller than The environmental impact of high livestock
in Mediterranean countries. According to recent concentrations is particularly large where it
estimates, salinisation affects nearly 50 % of the coincides with weaker policy standards and poor
total irrigated area — 15 % of all arable land — in management of manure. This seems to be the case
Central Asia (World Bank, 2003). Box 7.1.2 and in Belarus and parts of Ukraine and the Russian
the soil section provide further details on the Federation specialising in animal production
environmental and economic costs of this issue. (EEA, 2003). The contribution of livestock to
gaseous emissions is also significant: 94 % of total
Trends in livestock populations EU‑15 ammonia emissions and about 50 % of total
Livestock is associated with both ends of methane emissions arise from animal husbandry
the farming spectrum: intensive agricultural (EEA, 2004b). This share is somewhat smaller in
production with high pollution pressure, and the other regions covered (see Chapter 3, Climate
extensive farming systems of high nature value. change).
Livestock trends across the regions are thus worth
investigating. The total numbers of cattle, pigs, Intensive livestock production can be found in all
sheep and goats in most of EU-10 and EECCA areas of the EU that have favourable production
decreased by about 40–50 % during the 1990s. conditions — long grazing seasons, proximity to
The numbers of cattle in EU-15 and SEE declined ports for fodder import, etc. Livestock densities
by about 10 % and 20 %, respectively, during the in some parts of EU-15, for example along the
same period (see Figure 7.1.4). Between 2001 and North Sea coast and Brittany, are so high that they
2005 cattle numbers continued to decline in WCE have led to significant impacts on groundwater
and EECCA, with the latter experiencing a drop of quality and nutrient overloads in coastal waters
around 10 % since 2002 alone.
The environmental effects of changes in livestock

Figure 7.1.4 Trends in cattle numbers by country group
farming are linked to the polarisation of farming
between intensification in favourable regions
Millions of cattle
and decline or abandonment of extensive
120
systems in marginal areas. Traditional livestock Progress since Kiev
grazing systems are often associated with high 100
EU-15 + EFTA-4
biodiversity richness and high nature value 80
farmland. Consequently, both an intensification
60
of livestock production through higher stocking
EECCA
densities or a shift to stable-based systems, and 40
the abandonment of grazing practices lead to 20 SEE

biodiversity loss (see Box 7.1.3 and Chapter 4, EU-10
0
Biodiversity). It should be noted that rural poverty
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
can lead to both abandonment process and

overgrazing, depending on the level of economic Note: Similar declining trends are reported for pigs, sheep and
decline and alternative income opportunities goats in most SEE and EECCA countries, while in EU there
was little change in pig, sheep or goat numbers.
outside farming. EU-10: no data for CZ and SK for 1990–1992; no data for
EE, LV, LT, SI for 1990–1991.
SEE: no data for BA, HR, MK and CS for 1990–1991
High livestock population densities, in particular EECCA countries: no data for 1990–1991
in large fattening units, lead to a high risk of water Source: FAO.

(EEA, 2005b). However, legislation and national and eastern European countries. This has eased
programmes have sought to minimise this problem nutrient pressures, but has also led to the decline
with some success. Extensive livestock production in biodiversity and landscape diversity in eastern
systems in marginal regions, for example Europe (EEA, 2004a).
mountain areas or Mediterranean countries,
are generally in decline (EEA, 2005c). Rural In parts of the EECCA region, however,
development measures, such as 'less favoured area' privatisation and the severe economic problems
payments or agri-environment schemes, support led to a stronger emphasis on grazing livestock,
such high nature value livestock systems, but the in particular sheep, during the 1990s. At low
general liberalisation of agricultural markets and stocking densities this can be favourable from
the decoupling of farm support can weaken the an environmental perspective, but many EECCA
financial basis for extensive livestock systems. countries now report serious soil erosion and
desertification threats arising from overgrazing
Traditional livestock systems were often already by sheep (Section 2.4, Soil; UNECE, 2000 and
replaced by more intensive production types 2003). The latter often appears to be linked to
in SEE and EECCA countries during the Soviet basic survival strategies in rural areas but is not
period. At the same time de‑collectivisation and environmentally sustainable, since it destroys the
the loss of livestock markets led to a strong decline very foundation of the affected ecosystems and
of commercial livestock operations in many central ultimately of livestock production itself.
Box 7.1.3 Livestock farming and high nature value farmland in the Balkan region
Much of the Western Balkan region in south- Various options for supporting HNV farmland areas
eastern Europe is characterised by mountain areas, in Western Balkan countries, one of the objectives
traditionally exploited for forestry and livestock of the Kiev conference, were proposed, ranging
grazing, together with some small-scale arable from direct support to HNV farmers, maintaining
farming in river valleys. Given the strong physical traditional livestock breeds, and marketing
limits to agricultural intensification, and the initiatives to wider rural development measures
drastic political changes and conflicts in the region in the areas concerned. Further progress in the
over the last century, livestock production has identification and maintenance of HNV farming
continuously declined, particularly so since 1990. systems will depend on measures taken at
Currently, therefore, mountain farming in nearly national level, where possible with support from
all Western Balkan countries can be considered international programmes.
as marginalised or abandoned. Where livestock
is still kept there are often only one or two cows
per household, and most farmers are 50 years old
or more (EFNCP, 2005). This strongly limits the
possibilities for commercial dairy operations even
where opportunities for quality production exist.
Sheep production is in a similar situation, with most
sheep producers uncompetitive in comparison with
lowland or foreign sheep flocks.
A workshop organised by UNEP and WWF, the

global conservation organisation, on behalf of the
Pan‑European Biological and Landscape Diversity
Strategy (PEBLDS) investigated approaches to
identifying high nature value (HNV) farmland in
the Western Balkan region and discussed options
for supporting HNV farming systems (WWF, 2006).
This demonstrated that political awareness of the
importance of extensive livestock systems for
biological diversity is still low in the Balkan region,
in particular among agricultural policy-makers. Photo: © Rolf Kuchling

Environmental trends and services linked to strategy discussed to slow down climate change
agriculture is that of carbon storage in agricultural soils or
Agriculture fulfils more functions for society than through afforestation. The quantitative values of
merely producing food and providing income this are difficult to estimate, but it appears very
to parts of the rural population. Relevant other relevant in a situation where soil degradation
functions include the maintenance of landscapes and deforestation are environmental threats in
and habitats — environmental services — and themselves. In fact, past and ongoing soil erosion
rural tourism as well as carbon storage and already causes significant losses of production and
bio‑energy production — both important in the hence agricultural income in the affected regions
context of climate change. Some of these will (see Section 2.4, Soil). If one could arrest such
not yet appear so relevant in EECCA, where trends and participate in global carbon markets at
the primary functions of food production and the same time, double benefits could result. The
employment clearly have the greatest weight. It first initiatives of this nature are already taking
is important, however, to look beyond immediate place (World Bank, 2007). The second option that
needs and review options for additional income could contribute to counteracting climate change
and public benefits in rural areas. is the production of bio-energy on farmland, such
as short rotation coppicing for heating purposes
Climate change is a global environmental issue or the cultivation of oilseed rape for biodiesel
that will have a significant effect on agricultural production (see Box 7.1.4).
production throughout the region (see Chapter 3,
Climate change). Agriculture will need to respond Agriculture's link to biodiversity is discussed
to this challenge by adjusting production patterns. in more detail in the relevant chapter but it
However, it can also be a mitigating factor: one is important to highlight that much of the
Box 7.1.4 The potential for bio-energy production
A recent EEA study analyses the 'environmentally of relevant agricultural policy instruments. There
compatible bio-energy potential in Europe' (see are also possibilities for synergies between the
http://reports.eea.europa.eu/eea_report_2006_7/en). production of bio-energy crops and the environment.
For example, innovative crops, such as perennial
grasses as well as short rotation forestry, can
In the study, EEA developed a number of combine high yields with relatively low environmental
environmental criteria for minimising additional pressures. If managed appropriately, they could also
environmental pressures from bio-energy production. add to the diversity of landscapes and help to reduce
Based on these criteria, the environmentally soil erosion.
compatible bio-energy potential for the EU-25 was
calculated up to 2030. The report found that the
Due to increasing internal demand, the EU is already
EU-25 could actually produce 190 million tonnes of
importing biomass or biofuel. Some SEE and EECCA
oil equivalent (Mtoe) of bio-energy per year, in an
countries could benefit from this import demand as
environmentally viable fashion, by 2010. This could
their production efficiency and capacity increases.
reach almost 300 Mtoe by 2030 — about 17 % of the
However, the same environmental concerns, as well
total annual energy consumption of 1 815 Mtoe in
as opportunities, apply to bio-energy production
the EU‑25 in 2004.
in these countries as in the EU. Furthermore, the
potential effect of worldwide bio-energy demands, in
However, it is important that the EU manages any combination with increasing global food consumption,
proposed rise in the production of bio-energy crops could lead to the additional conversion of forests
in line with other Community policies and objectives and grasslands to arable land. This would have
aiming to protect biodiversity and soils and reduce negative consequences for global biodiversity and
waste. The report calls for the implementation of soil resources and lead to significant greenhouse gas
environmental guidelines at local, national and emissions in the conversion process (Petersen and
European levels to achieve this and lists a number Wiesenthal, 2007).

biodiversity in Europe is found on, or adjacent to, will thus be a challenge to achieve the objectives
farmland and is therefore considerably affected of EU environmental legislation such as the Water
by agricultural practices. Agricultural habitats Framework, Nitrates, Birds and Habitats Directives,
support the largest number of bird species of any or of legislative proposals for the sustainable use of
broad habitat category in Europe, including the pesticides. Energy security and environmental goals
greatest number of threatened species (Heath and in the transport sector have already established
Tucker, 1994). Species dependent on farmland are, new obligations for EU Member States to increase
however, threatened by changes in management biofuel production on agricultural land. Hence,
practices, such as the times of sowing and the increasing bio-energy demands on agriculture
harvesting of crops, intensification, abandonment, in the EU — and beyond — will be an important
loss of field boundaries, conversion of grassland factor in determining future agricultural land-use
into arable land and a decline in habitat diversity intensity. As farmers specialise and develop new
due to increased mechanisation (Nagy, 2002; EEA, products so their environmental management
2005c). tasks will become more demanding. This raises
the importance of environmental training and
advice to implement environmental standards and
7.1.4 Policy response and outlook minimise the future environmental effects of EU
agriculture.
Environmental legislation, agricultural policy
measures, research and farm advice as well as The main drivers of change in SEE and EECCA
consumer behaviour are the key mechanisms have been the fundamental political and economic
through which society can influence the shape and changes of the 1990s, including privatisation
intensity of farming. Their relative effectiveness and a strong reduction of agricultural support in
depends on the economic and social status of most countries. Efforts to tackle environmental
farmers and the strength of policy enforcement issues in agriculture need to take account of
and budgetary resources. Any agri-environment the socio-economic situation of farmers, their
strategy needs to take all these factors into levels of training and the reduced capacity of
account, while the EU has more policy tools and government institutions to deliver major policy
resources at its disposal than countries in SEE and programmes. In addition, the lack of jobs and
EECCA. income, emigration from rural areas and low
investment exacerbate farmland management
The last reforms of the CAP — Agenda 2000 problems in the region. Although an increased
and the mid-term review in 2003 — have largely environmental awareness and recognition of the
cut the link between farm income support and complexity of rural socio-economic problems are
agricultural production. In addition, the range apparent, agri-environmental policy development
of agri‑environment policy tools available to EU is still at an early stage. This needs to be carried
Member States has widened in the last reform of through to implementation if the often interlinked
EU rural development policy. The CAP, therefore, problems of rural poverty and environmental
can no longer be regarded as a major driver of degradation are to be reduced. Further support
agricultural intensification. The main challenge from international financing institutions and EU
appears to be to secure enough funding for the donors will be helpful in this regard.
rural development pillar of the CAP and to ensure
the successful implementation of agri-environment Improving agricultural efficiency, output and
measures at Member State level. This is a particular environmental management need to be tackled
concern in the EU-10 and the Mediterranean together. As many of the farmers have only
Member States (EEA, 2004a and 2006). recently acquired their farms, they often have less
agricultural training than their EU counterparts.
EU farms are likely to continue to specialise and Further, machinery and equipment are frequently
to grow in a bid to maintain income levels. Even outdated and they lack capital for significant
with current and future reforms of the CAP it investment. So, just as in the EU, appropriate

advisory services to support environmental farm support will help to develop an agri‑environmental
management and relevant training would be very policy framework and to strengthen the extension
beneficial. services, particularly in the provision of
agri‑environmental advice and training materials.
There is a considerable unexploited agricultural Financial incentives and support are also required
potential in many EECCA countries that may give to improve agricultural and environmental
rise to intensification as worldwide and national infrastructure. In doing this, the aim should be
food and bioenergy demand strengthens. One to minimise or avoid environmental costs and
key aspect to take into account in preserving and focus on agricultural production systems that can
expanding this production potential is the reduction become economically viable without long-term state
of pressures on scarce water and soil resources. In support.
this context, there is a need to equip farmers with
the modern equipment and training they need to This review has shown again that improved
improve their resource efficiency and environmental monitoring and data are needed for a thorough
management. This relates to large-scale water assessment of the impact of agriculture on the
infrastructure, measures to reduce soil erosion and environment throughout the region. At EU level,
degradation, and the farm level management of the conceptual foundation for such a monitoring
manure, chemical fertilisers, and pesticides. system has been laid but individual parts still
require further development. Agricultural statistics
Most countries in SEE and EECCA will require and the associated environmental monitoring also
continued support to integrate environmental require strengthening or rebuilding in SEE and
considerations into the agricultural sector. Such EECCA.


Sectors that drive environmental change | Transport
7.2 Transport
Photo: © Pawel Kazmierczyk
Key messages
• Transport volumes are growing more or growing rapidly along with the general growth
less in parallel with economies across the in transport but also because of a further shift
pan‑European region. In EECCA, economic towards road transport. Progress in reducing
restructuring has led to a decrease in transport CO2 emissions from new cars is slowing and EU
in some countries, but volumes are expected targets are unlikely to be met.
to increase along with the economy over
the next few decades, leading to increasing • Energy consumption and greenhouse gas
environmental impacts. emissions in EECCA have decreased, but less
than transport volumes, indicating a reduction
• EECCA countries have a high share of rail in average fuel efficiency.
transport. It is important to safeguard the
competitive position of rail because of its good • Emissions of air pollutants continue to cause
environmental performance. This requires problems for air quality, especially in cities,
coordination of industrial development and with road transport a significant contributor.
modernisation of the rail system.
• Emissions per capita are expected to remain
• Developing competitive urban transport higher in EECCA and SEE than in WCE because
solutions is a way of fighting traffic congestion of the larger share of older cars. The use of
and air quality problems and improving leaded fuel has been reduced, but several
transport safety. Public transport should countries have not yet banned it; its continued
therefore be a key priority along with safe use is an obstacle to the introduction of cleaner
walking and cycling. For public transport technology in the form of better exhaust gas
to become competitive, cities need to be treatment.
planned and developed with public transport
in mind. Allocation of space for the necessary • Vehicle inspection is a way of ensuring that
infrastructure (rail lines, bus lanes, etc.) is vehicles continue to meet the specifications
of the utmost importance, as is zoning that they were designed for. There are indications
ensures that activities are not spread out to an from EECCA countries that this system requires
extent where only cars can serve them. further attention in the coming years.
• Transport energy consumption and the resulting • More than 106 000 people are killed in traffic
per capita CO2 emissions in WCE continue to accidents in Europe each year. In EECCA, the
be two to four times higher than in SEE and number killed increased by 22 % between
EECCA. 2000 and 2003, and accident rates (per
passenger-km) in some EECCA countries are
• Energy consumption and greenhouse gas more than 15 times higher than in WCE.
emissions from transport in SEE and WCE are

• The limited information available suggests there are indications that this is resulting in
a gradual decay of the transport network accelerated growth in road transport, especially
in EECCA. The large increase in the for freight. This is leading to increasing
motorway network in SEE and EU-10 has been emissions and energy consumption.
accompanied by increased road freight and road
energy consumption. • Problems related to traffic noise, land take
and fragmentation by transport infrastructure,
• Infrastructure investment with the European etc. also pose challenges, but at present
Bank for Reconstruction and Development the magnitude of these problems cannot be
(EBRD) involvement in EECCA has shifted quantified. They are therefore not treated further
towards road transport in recent years, and in this chapter.
7.2.1 Introduction transport's irreversible damage to the environment

and health, without losing the benefits to society
Mobility is essential for the functioning of modern and economies.
societies. It enables free movement of people,
goods and services and offers possibilities for UNECE and WHO have set up a website with
trade, living, leisure, learning and shopping. A information that documents the link between
well‑developed transport system is therefore an transport health and environment in a pan‑European
aspiration of all societies. context (www.thepep.org) as a tool to help countries
develop strategies to address the issues. The problems
But transport in Europe as we know it today is are also highlighted in the EU Sixth Environment
not sustainable. Emissions of greenhouse gases Action Programme (6EAP), under the issue of climate
are increasing as demand for passenger and change, and in the EECCA Environment Strategy.
freight transport offsets improvements due to 6EAP calls for structural changes in the transport
better technology and stricter regulations. In the sector to address transport demand, promote a shift
EU, for example, greenhouse gas emissions from to railways, waterways and public transport and
transport could be 50 % higher by 2030 than they improve transport efficiency. It also calls for the
were in 2000. Despite technological improvements, development of alternative fuels and appropriate
emissions of air pollutants from road transport engine technologies to offer higher efficiency and low
continue to have a major impact on health in or zero carbon emissions. 6EAP further calls attention
cities, particularly in SEE and EECCA. In addition, to aviation emissions, which are expected to grow by
the number of people killed each year in traffic almost 100 % from 1990 to 2010.
accidents is rising in EECCA. The shift from
environmentally friendly modes towards road The EECCA Strategy notes that: The continuing
and air is continuing, with air transport as the expansion of transport demand, heavily dominated by
fastest growing mode. Infrastructure development road transport, (further exaggerated by worn‑out, high
remains dominated by roads. fuel-consuming and environmentally unfriendly vehicle
fleet and transport infrastructure) raises serious concerns
The main driver behind these trends is economic about the long-term sustainability of present mobility
growth, which continues to result in an increase trends. Continuation of current transport trends in the
in transport demand, which in turn causes further region will aggravate environmental and health problems,
pressure on the environment. European societies particularly those related to air pollution, noise and land
are therefore faced with the challenge of reducing use.'

It lists an extensive range of proposed actions: 7.2.2 Transport volumes
• develop and implement national transport In the EU Member States, discussions on transport
strategies for sustainable development policy have long been guided by the aim of
that integrate health and environment decoupling transport volume growth from economic
considerations, drawing on international best growth. Indicators (EEA, 2007) have clearly shown
practices; that progress has at best been limited. Freight
• conduct, if appropriate, assessments with a transport has tended to grow slightly faster than the
view to integrating health and environmental economy, and passenger transport slightly slower.
considerations into transport policies and In the recent mid-term review of the EU common
plans; transport policy (European Commission, 2006b),
• provide incentives for environmentally the European Commission abolished the target of
sustainable transport, including public decoupling and replaced it by 'disconnection of
transport. Particular emphasis should be given mobility from its negative impacts'. However, if
to demand management; 'disconnection' is taken to mean the disconnection
• where appropriate, establish inter-ministerial of mobility from all environmental impacts, then
coordination mechanisms, involving transport, there is in reality no difference because impacts
environment, health and other relevant such as increasing greenhouse gas emission, noise
ministries; and landscape fragmentation are intimately tied to
• monitor the environmental impact of transport transport demand. But it remains to be seen how the
policy, e.g. using indicators developed by EU, concept will be interpreted in actual politics.
the European Environment Agency (EEA) and
the World Health Organization (WHO) and Freight transport
publish the results of this analysis; Freight transport volumes declined between 1993
• promote modernisation of transportation and 2003 (Figure 7.2.1). The overall decrease,
facilities, including use of less energy intensive however, masks a strong decrease in the early 1990s
transport modes; followed by growth, then a small decrease after 1998
• promote investments in the transport sector followed by renewed growth. The overall decrease
and infrastructure, including municipal is therefore more a reflection of the restructuring of
transport; and the economy after the collapse of the Soviet Union
• implement transport strategies for sustainable than an indication of the future. Indeed, a study
development, reflecting specific regional, developed by IEA (Fulton, 2004) showed that road
national and local conditions, to improve the freight transport in EECCA is expected to grow 25 %
affordability, efficiency and convenience of faster than GDP, gradually slowing down to parallel
transportation as well as urban air quality GDP growth around 2020.
and health and reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, including through the development Freight transport intensity is closely linked to the
of better vehicle technologies that are more type of economic activity in a country (see Box 7.2.1).
environmentally sound, affordable and socially The preference for specific modes is dictated
acceptable. partly by the economic structure and partly by the
availability of and investment in infrastructure. If
This chapter reports progress towards these countries invest more in one specific mode, it is
objectives. However, mobility is not just a matter of likely to grow faster. Freight transport intensity
cars, planes and trains, but rather the ability to link (not including sea transport and oil pipelines) in
activities in society. Ideally, an assessment should EECCA in 2000 was 1 360 tonne-km/USD 1 000 GDP,
measure this linkage rather than just focus on a decline of less than 1 % per year since 1993. In
transport volumes. However, such information is SEE, the intensity was only 235 and in WCE only
not yet widely available, so the following sections 185. The EECCA figure covers large differences
will focus on trends in transport but not its impact between countries. Kyrgyzstan and the Republic of
on societal development. Moldova have freight transport intensities of less

than 500 tonne-km/USD 1 000 GDP, while the freight

Box 7.2.1 Freight transport intensity
intensity in Ukraine, the Russian Federation and
Kazakhstan is around 1 500 tonne‑km/USD 1 000 GDP. Freight transport intensity is defined as the total
This reflects the differences in economic structures, volume of freight transport divided by GDP. The unit
is tonne-km/USD 1 000 GDP.
with the latter countries having a large share of heavy
industries and the former having little industry as
An economy based predominantly on industry will
well as being less integrated in the global economy. typically have a higher freight transport intensity
Development in these countries is therefore likely than one with a higher share of services, because
service activities tend to generate less transport. A
to result in a strong growth in freight transport more globalised economy will tend to have higher
(significantly higher than economic growth), while freight transport intensity than a more closed
a more moderate growth is likely in the other economy if the balance between sectors is the same.
countries (ECMT, 2006a).
Freight transport intensity thus measures the
combined effect of two different factors.
Air freight transport is an exception to the decline
in freight transport in EECCA in the 1990s. It
showed a small growth, but from very low levels.
Rail transport is by far the most important means
of transport in the region (Figure 7.2.2), and road
Figure 7.2.1 Average annual change in freight volumes transport only plays a limited role. In SEE, road
in Europe, 1993 to 2003 (variable data and rail transport account for most transport
coverage, see note) movements, followed by inland shipping, mainly on
the Danube river. Pipeline transport plays a limited
role in the overall picture, but is economically
EECCA
Figure 7.2.2 Modal shares of freight transport in

Europe by region
SEE
% (tonne-km)
100
WCE
75
%
– 16 – 12 –8 –4 0 4 8
50
Road Rail Air Inland shipping
Note: WCE data cover 1993–2003 and apply to EU-25 and

Norway and Switzerland (excluding Luxembourg and 25
Slovakia for air). SEE data cover 1993–2002 for rail
(including Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria,
Croatia, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, and Turkey),
1992–2000 for road (including Bulgaria, Croatia, Former
0
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and
Montenegro, and Turkey), 1990–2000 for inland shipping EECCA SEE WCE
(including Bulgaria and Croatia) and 1993–2000 for air
transport (including Bulgaria, Croatia, Former Yugoslav Air Inland shipping Road Rail
Republic of Macedonia, Romania, and Turkey). EECCA
data cover 1993–2000 for road (excluding Armenia,
Tajikistan and Turkmenistan), 1993–2002 for rail (excluding Note: Oil pipelines not included. EECCA data cover Kazakhstan,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan), 1990–1998 for Kyrgyzstan, the Republic of Moldova, the Russian
inland shipping (excluding Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Federation and Ukraine in 2000. SEE data cover Bulgaria,
Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) and 1993–2002 for air transport Croatia, Romania and Serbia and Montenegro in 2001. WCE
(excluding Armenia). data cover EU-25 and Norway and Switzerland in 2003.
Newer data are available for a limited number of EECCA Newer data are available for a limited number of EECCA
and SEE countries. These show similar trends as in the and SEE countries. These show similar trends as in the
figure. figure.
Sources: UNECE, 2006; ECMT, 2006a; EEA, 2007. Sources: UNECE, 2006; EEA, 2007.

important because of the role of pipelines in the Figure 7.2.3 Average annual changes in passenger
export of oil and gas. transport demand in Europe between
1990 and 2004
In WCE, road is by far the most important means

of freight transport (EEA, 2007). With the opening
up of the economies in EECCA, it is likely that an EECCA
increased demand for flexibility will be translated
into strong growth in road transport. From an
environmental point of view, it is important to
safeguard the competitive position of rail transport SEE
because of its better environmental performance

than road. This requires coordination of industrial
development and modernisation of the rail system.
WCE
Passenger transport
%
Passenger transport demand in EECCA has – 20 – 15 – 10 –5 0 5 10
declined, due to the economic restructuring which
has led to a decrease in GDP (Figure 7.2.3). The Bus/coach Rail Air Passenger car
decline has affected all modes of transport.

Note: WCE data cover 1990–2002 and cover EU-15 and Czech
Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Poland, Hungary, Norway
In the EECCA countries for which data are and Switzerland. For air, WCE data cover 1993–2002
and cover EU-25 and Norway, Switzerland and Monaco.
available, total motorised transport declined For bus/coach, WCE data cover 1993–2002. SEE data
by 45 % between 1993 and 2000. The share of cover 2000–2004 for passenger car (including Serbia
and Montenegro and Albania), 1995–2000 for bus coach
passenger car transport is very limited (under 1 %), (excluding Albania, Croatia and Turkey), 1993–2002 for
rail and 1993–2002 for air (excluding Albania and Bosnia
but this figure does not include large countries and Herzegovina and Serbia and Montenegro). EECCA data
such as the Russian Federation and Ukraine. The cover 1994–2000 for passenger car (including Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, the Republic of Moldova and Uzbekistan),
share of air transport increased slightly, from 11 to 1993–2001 for bus/coach (including Armenia, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, the Republic of Moldova, the Russian
14 %. Rail and bus/coach transport remain the most Federation and Uzbekistan), 1993–2002 for rail transport
important means of transport (Figure 7.2.4). (excluding Tajikistan and Turkmenistan) and 1993–2002
for air (excluding Armenia).
Sources: UNECE, 2006; ECMT, 2006a; EEA, 2007.

Passenger transport volumes in SEE and WCE have
grown, mainly as a result of increases in car and air
transport. Volumes of other modes have remained
constant or declined (EEA, 2007). Passenger car other EECCA countries. The EECCA average is
transport in SEE has grown strongly since 1990, at greatly affected by the Russian Federation since
the expense of rail transport. This reflects increased 23 of the 27 million cars in the region are listed as
incomes and a correlated preference for more Russian. The sharp decrease in passenger transport,
flexible private car transport. simultaneously with a strong growth in car
ownership, suggests that there could be significant
People in WCE travelled more than 12 000 km under-reporting of travel distances. This is further
per capita each year (2000). The EECCA countries underlined by changes in fuel consumption
report only 800 km per capita, which is half the (Figure 7.2.7).
1993 figure. Compared on a transport-per-GDP
basis, the difference between the two regions is Private car transport still plays a limited role in
small. Car ownership levels in EECCA are typically most EECCA countries. Studies have shown that
around 50–75 per 1 000 people, compared with 468 car ownership is strongly correlated with GDP.
in WCE (Figure 7.2.5). Car ownership has increased The passenger vehicle fleet is therefore expected to
in most EECCA and SEE countries, except Georgia. grow with the economy over the coming decades,
The Russian Federation had 162 per 1 000 in with a corresponding increase in impacts on the
2003, which is on average three times higher than environment (ECMT, 2006b).

Infrastructure networks Figure 7.2.5 Car ownership in Europe (cars/1 000

The available data on transport infrastructure people)
networks in EECCA is rather sketchy, but Cars/1 000 people
assessments by other organisations (e.g. ADB, 2006) 500
indicate a gradual decay of the network. Decay
does not necessarily mean abandonment but in 400
many cases reflects reclassification of roads, with
unpaved roads sometimes being removed from 300 SEE EECCA
the official road network statistics. There has been

200
a strong growth in the motorway network in SEE
and the countries that joined EU in 2004, along with
100
a strong increase in road transport movements.
The length of the railway network was relatively 0
constant during the 1990s. European Bank for
Ro do ro
M ten tia
m nia
r a
n Alb key
de ia
bl Ka Ar lar n
ic z m us
M hs ia
d n
Ky er org a
rg ba ia
rk jik stan
m is n
n
zb r n
is e
n
CE
ek in
Tu ani
Az Ge ov
o
ol ta
Tu Ta yz ija
en ta
U Uk ista
ta
Fe an
of k n
e g
Beati
of n roa
W
a
e
ac e
Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) loans
r
R Mo C
a
for transport to the EECCA region in recent years
FY nd
ia
have mostly financed roads. This contrasts with
ss
a
pu
Ru
ia
Re
rb
the period before 2000 where rail and port projects

Se
1993 2003
dominated (Figure 7.2.6). EBRD's mission is to
facilitate the transition of the formerly centrally Note: WCE car ownership in 2003 ranged from 252 (Slovakia) to
641 (Luxembourg). The number for Belarus is from 1998.
planned economies in eastern Europe towards Assuming continued growth since then would put the figure
as high as for the Russian Federation. The number for
Armenia is from 1997. The fleet size in that country was
stable between 1993 and 1997.
Figure 7.2.4 Modal shares in passenger transport in Sources: UNECE, 2006; World Bank, 2005.
Europe
%
100
market-oriented policies and to promote private
and entrepreneurial initiatives by loans (OECD,
2000). The increased focus in recent years on road
80
transport is reflected in increased road energy
consumption and, recently, increased road freight
60 transport volumes, which suggest the start of a shift
towards road transport. Thus, there are indications
40 that investment priorities are not being guided by
environmental considerations. However, because the
data set for recent years is not yet complete, this is
20
only a tentative conclusion.
0 In EU, the process of establishing the trans-European

WCE SEE EECCA
transport network is ongoing. In the recent list of
Air Bus/coach Rail Passenger car priority projects agreed, around two-thirds are rail.
In addition, the concept of 'motorways of the sea' has
Note: WCE data cover EU-15 and Czech Republic, Slovakia, been introduced as a means of moving more freight
Slovenia, Poland, Hungary, Norway and Iceland and cover
2002. SEE data cover Albania and Serbia and Montenegro from road to sea. The whole programme is, however,
and are from 2000. EECCA data cover Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, the Republic of Moldova and Uzbekistan and
suffering from a funding shortage. In the financial
are from 2000. outlook for the 2007–2013 period, the funding has
During the review of the information it was suggested that
the low share of passenger transport in EECCA may result been reduced to EUR 8 billion and the expansion of
from a different use of definitions with only passenger cars
for hire (taxis and rental cars) included. It has not been
the networks is therefore expected to slow down. The
possible to verify this claim. funding shortage has, on the other hand, led to an
Sources: UNECE, 2006; ECMT, 2006a; EEA, 2007. increased interest in toll financing of infrastructure,

albeit mainly as a tool to finance road infrastructure. Energy consumption in the transport sector in
It is therefore likely that the funding shortage EECCA fell by 14 % between 1993 and 2004. Over
will result in a relatively faster expansion of the the same period, GDP grew by around 14 %, while
road networks compared with rail, which is not a transport volumes decreased strongly (data series
good development from the point of view of the are not complete so an exact figure cannot be
environment. given). This indicates that transport has become
relatively less energy-efficient. In SEE, transport
There have been some signs, however, that transport energy consumption grew by 39 %, reflecting a
infrastructure planning, albeit at rather localised strong growth in GDP (42 %). In WCE, it increased
levels, is taking environmental (biodiversity) by 23 % and GDP by 30 %.
considerations into account (see Box 7.2.2).
WCE has the highest and fastest-growing transport
energy consumption per capita (Figure 7.2.7). This
7.2.3 Environmental impacts is partly explained by the high passenger transport
intensity and partly by energy consumption for
Energy consumption and greenhouse gas freight transport. Even though the freight transport
emissions intensity in WCE is low, this is balanced by the
Transport depends on fossil fuels, particularly much higher GDP. Transport energy consumption
oil products, which account for more than 98 % per capita is around 50 % lower in SEE and 75 %
of energy consumption by the transport sector in lower in EECCA. The main reason for this is the
WCE. Methane and propane gas, together with low levels of car ownership and air transport use in
biofuels, are the most important alternatives. The these regions.
strong reliance on fossil fuels means that emissions
of greenhouse gases from transport are closely tied Air pollution
to transport demand. Greenhouse gas emission is Air pollution is a major problem in EECCA and
extensively discussed in Chapter 3, Climate change, the data show that road transport is a significant
so only a short overview is presented here. contributor (OECD, 2000; see also Section 2.2,
Figure 7.2.6 Distribution of EBRD loans over time in Figure 7.2.7 Transport energy consumption per capita
transport projects by region 1993 and 2004
% WCE + SEE EECCA

100 Kg oil equivalent/capita
900
800
75
700
600
50
500
400
25 300
200
0 100
04
04
04
0
9
99
20
19
20
20
0
–1
–2
WCE SEE EECCA

–
0–
1–
91
91
91
00
0
9
19
19
20
19
19
20
1993 2004
Ports Air Rail Road Note: Andorra, Liechtenstein, Monaco and San Marino not
Note: WCE + SEE do not include EU-15 in this graph. included.
Source: EBRD, 2005. Source: OECD/IEA, 2006.

Box 7.2.2 Towards environmentally friendly road construction through green corridor planning in
Estonia
The setting up of a green network in Estonia at the or even affect the green areas. Environmental
governmental level and an evaluation of the spatial impact assessments (every road section subject to
distribution of the largest migratory corridors for reconstruction should go through an EIA process)
wildlife a few years ago gave a strong boost to are making more and more use of county-level
much more environmentally friendly planning at green corridor planning as it can provide clear
the county level and a harmonisation of human and information on the possible conflicts between roads
green infrastructures (see Map 7.2.1). The physical and green corridors.
planning process has achieved a new environmental
standard now that thematic planning of green
Source: L. Klein, Estonian Information Center, 2007.
corridors at the county level has been finalised in
almost all counties. Although this is still causing
many misunderstandings at the local government
level because of the need to take county-level
planning into account when making general plans
for municipalities, green corridors, set up at the Map 7.2.1 Estonia 2010 Green network
county level, are already providing a basis for
balanced infrastructure design.
The Estonian Road Agency has recently completed

some initial studies on sections of three main state
roads around the capital Tallinn. The Tallinn‑Narva
road (T1), part of the Via-Baltica transport corridor,
has four animal under-passes planned, designed,
built and currently being monitored at the section
between Tallinn and the Valgejõgi river, because
this was called for by county-level green corridor
planning. Similar studies have also already been
done for the Tallinn-Tartu road section between
Tallinn and Kose villages and for the Tallinn-Keila
road, and there is similar planning for the Tallinn
ring-road (also part of the Via-Baltica corridor) Core areas of international importance
having one location even where the first 'eco-duct' Core areas of national importance
is planned.
Protected areas
Main road cutting into a core area
As general municipal planning around Tallinn is Main green corridors
still very slow and weak, the county-level green Areas with intense impact of human activity
corridors are already a good tool for ensuring
that detailed municipal plans do not destroy Source: Sepp et al., 2001.
Air quality). In Kazakhstan, for example, the contrasts sharply with WCE where an average age
maximum allowed concentration of nitrogen of 6–8 years is more common (TREMOVE, 2006).
dioxide and dust is exceeded in 20 cities (UNECE,
2003a). The health guidelines set by WHO are The use of leaded fuel has been reduced, but it
therefore not being met; the same is true for other is not yet banned in Former Yugoslav Republic
EECCA countries (UNDP/World Bank, 2001). of Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia,
Montenegro, Georgia, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan
Transport emissions are expected to remain higher (UNEP, 2007). In addition there are indications
in EECCA and SEE than in WCE because of the of a significant black market for leaded fuel in
large share of older cars. For example, 40 % of Central Asia. Emissions of lead may therefore still
the vehicles in Bulgaria and 50 % in the Former be significant, albeit decreasing. In addition to the
Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia are more than direct effect on public health, lead makes catalytic
20 years old, and the maintenance standards for converters, which is the single most effective
these are low (OECD, 2000). The age distribution pollution abatement technology, ineffective.

Leaded fuel therefore represents an obstacle to the around twice as high as in other regions (more than
introduction of cleaner technology in the form of three times higher than in Sweden, which is the
better exhaust gas treatment. safest country) even though traffic levels are much
lower (Figure 7.2.9).
Transport safety
More than 106 000 people are killed in transport Safety in EECCA has not improved over the past
accidents each year in the three regions together ten years, and the number of persons killed in
(Figure 7.2.8), and another 2 million are seriously accidents increased by 22 % between 2000 and
injured. Fatality rates per capita in EECCA are 2003. In four countries for which more detailed
data are available, accident rates per passenger–km
are more than 15 times those in WCE. The Russian
Federation is among the most dangerous countries
Figure 7.2.8 Total number of transport fatalities in in Europe as regards transport, with 37 000 people
Europe killed each year (see Box 7.2.3). The situation in
EECCA is closely parallel to changes in energy
1 000
consumption during the period, which indicates
150
Progress since a close link between traffic levels and accident
125
Kiev numbers. It is therefore possible that the risk per
vehicle-km has remained constant, but is, however,
100
still high compared with WCE and SEE.
75
50
7.2.4 Policy prospects
25
0
Greenhouse gas emission reduction
Transport energy consumption and emissions
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
of greenhouse gases per capita are two to four

WCE EECCA SEE
times higher in WCE than in SEE and EECCA
Notes: Andorra, Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino, Serbia and
Montenegro and Uzbekistan not included. (Figure 7.2.7). The tools to address this issue can
Source: UNECE, 2005. be grouped into technology measures, promoting
change in user behaviour, modal balance policy
and taxation measures.
Figure 7.2.9 Number of persons killed in transport
accidents by region The cornerstone of the technology measures in the
EU is a voluntary commitment made by the car
Per million inhabitants manufacturers (the 'ACEA agreement'), to ensure
250
Progress since
that average CO2 emissions of new passenger cars
Kiev sold in 2008/2009 will be reduced to no more than
200
140 g/km. This is a reduction of around 25 % over
150
a ten-year period. Progress is being monitored
annually and the latest monitoring report shows
100 that progress is slowing; indeed, preliminary data
for vehicle sales in 2005 show that progress has
50 almost come to a halt (Figure 7.2.10). Thus, only
half of the target reduction had been achieved by
0
the end of 2005 and it appears unlikely that the
93
94
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
9
industry will meet its own target unless increasing

19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
Note:
WCE SEE EECCA
Andorra, Liechtenstein, Monaco, San Marino, Serbia and
oil prices or changes to vehicle taxation force a
Montenegro and Uzbekistan not included. change in user preferences away from relatively
Source: UNECE, 2005; World Bank, 2005. large cars.

Box 7.2.3 Road safety lessons from the Russian Federation to the other EECCA countries
In the Russian Federation, economically active 230–250 by 2012. The combination of weak
groups aged 15–44 account for more than half of all performance goals and an intrinsically unsafe road
road fatalities, and road traffic injury is the second system points to a growing road safety crisis,
largest cause of death among children and young especially if the growth in car ownership is taken
people. Without effective action, road traffic deaths into account. Other EECCA countries have lower
and disabling injuries are forecast to rise globally by accident rates because of lower car ownership.
67 %, from ninth to third place in the global burden However, growing incomes may increase passenger
of disease. In the Russian Federation, the risk of car mobility strongly. Early action is therefore
being killed in traffic is ten times higher per vehicle needed on road safety in all EECCA countries.
than in Germany and the United Kingdom, and in
recent years the situation has worsened again after
a period of improvement. Almost half of those killed The European Conference of Ministers of Transport
in traffic accidents in the Russian Federation are (ECMT) has published a peer review on road safety
pedestrians. in the Russian Federation, which provides helpful
elements for improving road safety. This covers
both better legal measures including enforcement,
The Russian government's aim is to double national etc. and technical measures related to vehicles and
GDP between 2003 and 2012. The country is in infrastructure.
a phase where increase in GDP rapidly increases
motorisation. As a consequence, car ownership may
increase from 162 per 1 000 people in 2003 to Source: ECMT, 2006b.
The example of Denmark, which has one of the Figure 7.2.10 Average emissions of new passenger
highest rates of vehicle tax in Europe, shows that vehicles in EU-15 as reported under the
user behaviour can be affected by the level of 'ACEA agreement'
taxation. The annual circulation tax system was

gCO2 per km
modified in 1997 to reflect the energy efficiency
210
of vehicles. It now varies between EUR 22 and Progress since Kiev
EUR 3 400, depending on energy efficiency.

200
Between 1998 and 2005 this resulted in a reduction
of 15 % of the average fuel consumption of new JAMA
190
vehicles, compared with 10 % in the EU as a whole
KAMA
(Danmarks Statistik, 2005).
180
ACEA
Countries such as Germany and the Netherlands
are preparing to implement ecodriving campaigns 170
in order to teach road users how to drive as

EU average
efficiently as possible. Preliminary investigations 160
have indicated a savings potential of up to
10 %, but large-scale field trials are still needed 150
to establish whether this can be achieved and
maintained. The tools include: correct tyre 140
pressure and moderate acceleration and use of
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
the appropriate gear, but the largest saving is

achieved if at the same time vehicles are optimised Note: The graph shows average emissions (solid lines) of
for energy efficiency rather than speed and new vehicles as reported by the three manufacturing
organisations in Korea, Japan and Europe as well as
acceleration. Taxation measures could play a the EU average. The EU average curve is extended with
facilitating role in this (see Denmark's example preliminary data for 2005.
ACEA is the European, KAMA the Korean and JAMA the
above). Japanese automakers association.
Sources: European Commission, 2006a; TE, 2006.

For some years the EU had a policy on the modal level of service. The benefits of better planning can
balance of transport. The aim was to return the be significant, but only on a long time-scale and
market share of rail to the higher level it had in therefore of little help in meeting the Kyoto targets.
1998 and thereby exploit the better environmental
performance of rail compared with other modes. Finally, several EU Member States are working to
The aim was not fully achieved but in the case of adapt their taxation system more to environmental
passenger transport a stabilisation of the market performance in general (e.g. the ecotax reform
share of rail at a lower level was achieved. The in Germany). The European Commission has
rail freight sector is still losing market share to recently proposed the development of a common
road transport. One of the policy tools has been charging methodology for infrastructure use (for
investment in high-speed rail to enable competition all transport modes), based on environmental
with short- and medium-distance aviation. On performance (European Commission, 2006b).
some specific routes this has led to significant
reductions in air traffic, but at the same time it Reduction of vehicle emissions and
has expanded the size of the 'commuter zone' improvement of air quality
around major cities. The real saving may therefore Road transport has become more important in
be smaller than originally expected. With the EECCA countries in recent years, and transport
publication of the recent mid-term review of the volumes on roads as well as the number of
common transport policy (European Commission, vehicles are projected to increase during the next
2006b), the modal split target was reformulated decade. Without additional measures, the poor
into 'support modal shift where appropriate'. air quality situation will get worse, affecting both
Because the term 'appropriate' is not clearly the environment and human health. The strategies
defined, it leaves a lot of room for interpretation. that have been applied in WCE are gradually
However, it is clear that the automatic preference being applied in SEE and EECCA, albeit with some
for rail transport has been toned down. delay. These have focused on a total phase‑out
of leaded petrol, improvement of fuel quality,
Reducing transport volumes is a way of reducing reduction of fuel sulphur content, introduction and
emissions of greenhouse gases, but because of the strengthening of vehicle emission regulations and
close link between GDP and transport volumes, improved vehicle inspection and maintenance.
this is often assumed to be the route to economic
hardship. There are nevertheless many planning The phase-out of lead as an anti-knocking agent is
options that aim to constrain traffic growth. For continuing but is still not completed, and with an
example, cities that spread out into suburbs are old vehicle fleet there may be reluctance to phase
difficult to serve with public transport, whereas out lead completely, even though alternatives exist.
more compact cities can more easily provide a good Lead is also a problem because it ruins the effect
of catalytic converters in cars. The introduction of
new technology may therefore be hampered by the
fuel market, but there is also anecdotal evidence
Box 7.2.4 Biking in Belgrade of newer vehicles being sold without catalysts in
Bicycles offer the flexibility of a car without the order to reduce the price of the vehicle.
emissions. They offer exercise for the user and
require less space than cars. Bicycles are therefore More advanced types of catalysts also require very
starting to be seen as an element in planning for
more sustainable transport in cities. low levels of sulphur in the fuel. The EU tightened
Bicycles carry less than 2 % of traffic in Belgrade the limit to 50 ppm in 2005 and will require a
at present, but as part of a master plan for urban maximum of 10 ppm by 2009 (Table 7.2.1) and some
development, the city has embarked on a programme
to construct more bicycle paths. Initially new paths
countries, for example Germany, have withdrawn
for recreational biking are prioritised. The long-term higher sulphur-content fuels from the market well
target is to achieve a modal share of 10 %. ahead of the deadline. Some of the SEE countries
Source: Mirko Radovanac, 2006. are moving in the same direction, but there are
large differences between countries.

EECCA and SEE have their own car industries. because most manufacturers will adhere to the new
Therefore, WCE vehicle technology such as catalysts standard.
will not automatically trickle towards the east.
However, the technology needed is widely available Inspection of the vehicle fleet is one of the ways of
in WCE at low costs. Therefore, the introduction of ensuring that vehicles on the road continue to meet
emission regulation, an aim of the Kiev Strategy, both reasonable safety standards and the emission
may be a cost-effective way of reducing pollutant regulation they were once designed to meet. There
emissions from transport. There has been a move is, however, evidence that the inspection systems in
in recent years to take up some of the elements of several EECCA countries are inadequate. However,
EU emission regulations in the form of the EURO because of the lack of a consistent data set, it is only
emission standards (Table 7.2.2). possible to conclude that this should be an area of
attention in the coming years.
The adoption of EURO vehicle emission norms by
the Russian Federation and Ukraine will affect more Improvement of transport safety
than 70 % of the population of the EECCA region Transport accidents represent a high cost to society
and an even larger share of the economy and vehicle both in direct economic costs and in more indirect
fleet of the region. It will therefore affect other social costs. With the safety situation worsening
countries that have not introduced the standards, significantly in recent years in EECCA, transport
Table 7.2.1 Sulphur content in road transport fuels in SEE and EECCA countries
Petrol Diesel
Sulphur content (ppm) Sulphur content (ppm)
Albania 150 (imported) 350 (imported), 2 000 (national production)
Armenia GOST standard GOST standard
Azerbaijan GOST standard GOST standard
Belarus 500 350
Bosnia and Herzegovina 150 350
Croatia EU directives EU directives
Georgia GOST standard GOST standard
Kazakhstan GOST standard GOST standard
Kyrgyzstan GOST standard GOST standard
Montenegro 1 000 10 000
Republic of Moldova GOST standard GOST standard
Russian Federation GOST standard 500
Serbia 2 000 350–10 000 (depending on grade)
Tajikistan GOST standard GOST standard
FYR of Macedonia 150 350
Turkey 150 (2007) 50 (2007)
Turkmenistan GOST standard GOST standard
Ukraine GOST standard GOST standard
Uzbekistan GOST standard GOST standard
GOST standard 2084/77 (petrol) + 1 000 2 000 and 5 000 grades
305/82 (diesel)
EU Directive 1999/32 + 2003/17 50 (10 in 2009) 50 (10 in 2009)
Sources: REC, 2005; UNEP, 2007.

Table 7.2.2 Adoption of EURO vehicle emission standards by non-EU countries
EURO 1 EURO 2 EURO 3 EURO 4

EU–passenger cars/light commercial 1993/1993 1997/1997 2001/2002 2006/2007
vehicles
Bulgaria 2007/2007
Romania 2006/2007
Turkey 2006/2007
Croatia 2000
Albania National limits for CO and HC
FYR of Macedonia National limits for CO
Bosnia and Herzegovina No regulation
Serbia and Montenegro No regulation
Belarus 2002 2006 Q4-2006
Russian Federation 2006 2008 2010
Kazakhstan Considering the introduction of EURO norms
Ukraine (only on imported vehicles) 2005 2008 2010
Note: The above table is based on information received from contact points in the countries. In the case of Belarus it is not clear whether the
information indicates an obligatory norm or simply the availability of vehicles that conform to the norm. There have been press reports
that the introduction of norms in the Russian Federation will be delayed, but it has not been possible to get either confirmation or
rejection of this. The recently-agreed EURO 5 norm is not included, since non-EU countries have not yet started to implement it.
between 2000 and 2010. The policies used vary

Box 7.2.5 EURO vehicle emission standards
from country to country, but better enforcement
The vehicle emission norms used in the EU have of speed and alcohol limits are among the most
been in effect since 1993 and regulate the emissions effective elements, which have so far led to
of CO, HC, NOX and PM over a standardised drive
cycle. All vehicle types must be tested in order to significant reductions in fatality rates in spite of
obtain a type approval. A tightening of NOX and PM strong growth in transport demand. Also the use of
emission standards from 2010 has recently been 'demerit points', where minor breaches of the traffic
agreed.
code (e.g. speed limits) are added up and may lead
to revocation of the driving license, has been very
effective. For example, Denmark introduced such
a system in 2005 and this has contributed to the
safety needs to be put high on the agenda, especially country almost meeting its 2012 traffic safety target
because car ownership and transport demand are six years ahead of schedule.
expected to rise in the next decade as a result
of GDP growth. Specific safety programmes Internalisation of external and infrastructure
aimed at public education, improving road costs
infrastructure and vehicle safety, introduction of Effective internalisation policies require a package
safety legislation, including on drink driving and of instruments. Key priorities for most of the
speed observance, and increasing seat-belt use, can EECCA countries include the abolition of fuel
improve the safety situation. It is also important to subsidies and the introduction of self-financing for
ensure the observance of safety legislation through the transport system via fuel taxes, as proposed
random controls. in the Kiev strategy. This could be followed by the
introduction of toll charges and the restructuring
The EU Member States have set themselves a of registration and circulation taxes. Currently,
target of halving the annual number of fatalities transport taxes are mostly of a fiscal nature and

their environmental impact is limited (OECD, OECD. For the EECCA countries they found that
2003b). the highest costs arise from accidents and air
pollution (OECD, 2003). In Belarus, the external
In contrast to the principle of internalisation, diesel costs of transport in 1995 were 16 % of GDP, in
fuel in Azerbaijan and all fuel in Turkmenistan Ukraine 17 % and in the Republic of Moldova
is sold at less than the world market price (price 14 %. In SEE, external costs are typically around
before taxes) and thus is subsidised (Figure 7.2.11). 10 % of GDP. In EU-15, the external costs in 2000
This subsidy was introduced for social reasons, but were estimated to be 7 % of GDP (INFRAS, 2004).
nevertheless has had the effect of making transport This is lower than in EECCA mainly because of
artificially cheap. In most EECCA countries, fuel the better safety situation in WCE. Passenger
prices are too low to cover the direct costs of road transport produces the highest share of external
maintenance and construction. An increase in costs, because of the high number of fatalities. The
fuel taxation may therefore be needed to ensure health and environmental impacts of transport can
self‑financing of the transport sector and more be expressed in monetary terms, by calculating the
efficient use of energy resources. indirect monetary costs (value of suffering, health
cost, lost output, etc.). The gap between external
EEA has carried out a survey of transport subsidies costs and variable charges is higher in EECCA than
in EU Member States and found that the most in WCE, not only because of the higher external
significant group of subsidies is free provision costs but also because EECCA generally has lower
of infrastructure (EEA, 2007b). External costs of charges (i.e. fuel taxes). Therefore, based on the
transport, which can also be seen as an indirect general structure of external costs in EECCA and
subsidy to transport, have been estimated by SEE, the OECD recommends improving road safety
Figure 7.2.11 Petrol and diesel fuel prices in Europe by region
Fuel price per litre (USD, October 2004)

2.0
WCE SEE EECCA
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0
o o
m a
ro
Ky kh n
Az yzstan
S nd
Lu P pain
b d
He te nia
ov g
Gr kia
v e
p ia
hu ic
L nia
to a
s
ro y
Ma Alba tia
an M ce nia
Mo Bu ania
en ria
Ta men a
jik ia
ng y
Sw n ia
er y
Ireland
Fin m
Be an
Fe kr s
Ka era ne
Uz erb tan
rk ki an
en n
an
nd
De ede y
n
rm m
Fr any
rtu e
Au gal
No nd
n U laru
Ro vin
eg gr
ke
Ki rwa
Be mar
itz gar
Sw Ital
Po anc
ec Slo eec
Es atvi
ni
i
Sl our
m an
za tio
m sta
Lit ubl
Hu str
Re en
Ar rg
do
Ge giu
eg
d ai
ist
Tu be aij
ist
la
la
nt lga
a
d on do
rz ne
rg s
la
r
xe ol
o
Tu
l
Ge
n
er
C
th
h
Ne
d
te
of
ia
Cz
i
Un
an
R
ss
FY
Ru
ia
ia
rb
sn
Petrol Diesel
Se
Bo
Notes: The red line is the raw cost price for fuel (USD 0.27). Oil prices were at USD 43 per barrel on the date of measurement. Fuel prices
increase by 3 cents per litre for each USD 5 increase in the oil price per barrel.
Source: GTZ, 2005.

and reducing air pollution as the main priorities, reason, public transport should be a key priority,
since these measures provide the greatest benefits along with safe walking and cycling. Economic
to society (OECD, 2003). instruments may help to provide incentives
to change transport behaviour. But for public
Public transport systems such as tram and metro transport to become competitive, cities need to
have a positive impact on both safety and air be planned and developed with public transport
quality in cities and overall on the quality of in mind. Allocation of space for the necessary
life of urban dwellers. Developing competitive infrastructure (rail lines, bus lanes, etc.) is of the
urban transport solutions is therefore an effective utmost importance, as is zoning which ensures that
way of tackling traffic congestion and air quality activities are not spread out in such a way that only
problems and improving transport safety. For this cars and trucks can serve them.


Sectors that drive environmental change | Energy
7.3 Energy
Photo: Wind turbines, the Netherlands © Pawel Kazmierczyk
Key messages
• Since the Kiev conference, energy consumption policy objectives, promote more sustainable
and resulting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions energy production and consumption, and
have been increasing in the pan‑European ensure stability of supply. To achieve a more
region, despite energy efficiency improvements sustainable energy system and at the same
and an increased use of renewable energy time meet the need for substantial investments
in certain areas. This trend is expected to in energy infrastructure, especially in EECCA
continue if no additional policies and measures and SEE, these initiatives should be further
are implemented. Developing and diffusing developed.
clean technologies and know-how across
the pan‑European region will go a long way • To cover external costs, current consumer
towards ensuring a secure and competitive prices of electricity will have to increase
energy system at manageable costs and substantially, especially in SEE and EECCA.
reduced impacts on the environment. Regulatory policies and economic instruments
could be used to ensure continuing access to
• Total energy consumption throughout the energy at reasonable prices.
pan-European region is growing and remains
dominated by fossil fuels. Despite large • Improving energy efficiency, including
reductions in some air emissions in parts of minimising losses resulting from outdated
Europe, the energy supply sector remains industries and infrastructure, is central to
a major contributor to air pollution and limiting growth in energy demand and reducing
greenhouse gas emissions. Current policies energy-related environmental impacts while,
are unlikely to be sufficient to meet long-term at the same time, helps keeping prices at an
climate change and air quality objectives. affordable level. There remains substantial
scope for improving energy efficiency in all
• Energy markets in the three regions are sectors throughout the pan-European region.
closely linked. A significant share of natural
gas and oil imports into WCE and SEE come • Increasing investments in renewable energy
from EECCA and this share is projected to rise production installations in all regions remains a
substantially to 2030. This increased energy key tool to meeting environmental challenges
production will result in new environmental and to improving security of supply.
challenges in EECCA.
• Planning new, long-term investments in energy
• A number of pan-European initiatives have systems must take possible future impacts of
been taken to develop common energy climate change into account.

7.3.1 Introduction The challenge to energy policy is thus to meet

concerns about energy security and affordability at
Continuing economic growth, in Europe as the same time as to reduce environmental impacts.
elsewhere, requires secure and affordable energy
supplies. In EECCA, where economic restructuring A number of policy initiatives are aimed at ensuring
led to falls in energy consumption during the 1990s, that energy supply and consumption and its
energy demand has been rising since 1998. Energy environmental impacts are effectively managed.
consumption has also been growing in SEE and In particular, the EU Sixth Environment Action
WCE since the end of the 1990s. This growth has Programme, adopted in 2002 (covering not only
counteracted some progress in reducing emissions the energy sector, but also other contributors to
of air pollutants and greenhouse gases per unit of emissions and pollution such as industry), and the
energy produced (1). Current policies and actions to EECCA Environment Strategy adopted in May 2003,
increase the efficiency of energy production and use stress the importance of integrating environmental
and switch to low or zero-carbon energy sources are concerns into policies for the energy sector. The
being overwhelmed by growth in energy use. European Neighbourhood Policy aims to ensure
policy alignment between the enlarged EU and
There is a high level of interdependence between the neighbouring countries to the south and east (2).
energy systems in EECCA, SEE and WCE. Changes
in energy policy or fuel mix in one region can impact Most recently, on 10 January 2007, the European
strongly on another. For example, increased EU gas Commission presented a comprehensive package of
consumption might lead some EECCA countries to proposed policies and measures to establish a new
intensify their development of domestic alternatives Energy Policy for Europe to combat climate change
such as coal, to release gas for export. The whole and boost EU's energy security and competitiveness.
pan-European region is becoming increasingly The policy contains a series of ambitious targets for
dependent on imports of gas from the Russian greenhouse gas emissions and aims to create a true
Federation, but faces competition for oil and gas internal market for energy and strengthen effective
resources located in Russia and Central Asia from regulation. The international energy policy priorities
rapidly industrialising economies. in this package include building up energy relations
with EU's neighbours, reducing the threat of
The growth in demand, combined with increasing possible disruptions of critical energy infrastructures
dependence on energy imports, has led to concerns beyond EU's borders, enhancing relations with
about energy security in all net importer countries. Russia, and deepening dialogue and relations with
These concerns have been intensified by recent the key energy producers and transit countries. The
increases in fossil fuel prices. energy and climate-change proposals were endorsed
at the Spring European Council 2007, and the
At the same time, cleaner and more sustainable Commission will come forward with legislation in
energy production and consumption is central to light of those discussions.
the European policy agenda. Energy supply remains
dominated by fossil fuels, the main contributor to In addition, the Kyoto Protocol, which entered into
climate change. In addition, despite large reductions force in February 2005, has helped to focus efforts on
in some air emissions in parts of Europe, the energy improving energy efficiency, developing sustainable
supply sector, together with the transport sector sources of energy and reducing the environmental
(itself a major user of energy), remains a major impacts of energy production and use (see
contributor to air pollution. Chapter 3, Climate change).
(1) In order to base the analyses in this section on a comprehensive and consistent set of data throughout the pan-European region,
the source of data used is OECD/IEA. These data include a certain amount of calculations and may differ from real GHG emission
data reported by individual countries.
(2) ��
The ENP restructures and refocuses EU relations with the new neighbouring countries to the east (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus,
Georgia, the Republic of Moldova and Ukraine) and to the south (the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership countries). The Russian
Federation has a special status as a 'Strategic partner' in the ENP.

For all countries, improvements in energy combustion and methane emissions from leaking
efficiency may reduce dependence on imports and pipes.
environmental impacts. The use of renewable energy
is also an option for improving the security of Finally, there is a continuing need to improve the
supply, but remains a relatively high-cost one. A way quality and collection of energy and emissions
forward is to introduce support for energy-saving data, especially in SEE and EECCA, in order to
measures, switch to less-polluting fuels, remove facilitate timely and accurate assessments for policy
subsidies for indigenous fossil-fuel industries and formulation.
promote pricing that recognises the external costs of
energy production.
7.3.2 Consumption and sources of
There may be trade-offs between these aspects of energy
energy policies. For example, the use of indigenous
coal may limit import dependence, but it remains Total energy and electricity consumption
the most polluting fuel in terms of emissions of During the 1990s, total energy consumption in
greenhouse gases, air pollutants and the production Europe decreased slightly, but it has been rising
of solid and liquid wastes. Natural gas has a lower since 1999, with increases seen in all three regions
carbon content than coal and very little sulphur, but (WCE, SEE and EECCA). This is in sharp contrast to
it still contributes to carbon dioxide emissions from the 1990s trend reported at Kiev (see Figure 7.3.1).
Figure 7.3.1 Total energy consumption and total electricity consumption
Total energy consumption (index 100 = 1999) Electricity consumption (index 100 = 1999)
140 137 140
126
120 114 120 119

111
100 109 100 110
100
100 106 100
94 89
80
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
WCE (index 100 = 1 710 Mtoe) WCE (index 100 = 3 021 TWh)
SEE (index 100 = 153 Mtoe) SEE (index 100 = 273 TWh)
EECCA (index 100 = 884 Mtoe) EECCA (index 100 = 1 210 TWh)
Note: Total energy consumption (also called total primary energy supply or gross inland energy consumption) represents the quantity of
all energy necessary to satisfy inland consumption. Final energy consumption covers all energy supplied to the final consumer for all
energy uses. It is usually disaggregated in the final end-use sectors: industry, transport, households, services and agriculture. The
difference between total and final energy consumption is due mainly to losses in the conversion process, such as electricity generation,
transport and distribution, and the part allocated to final non-energy consumption (e.g. feedstock used by the chemical industry).
No data available for several countries in all three regions for 1990 and 1991.
Source: OECD/IEA, 2006a.

In EECCA, total energy consumption decreased Figure 7.3.2 Total energy consumption, projections
significantly during the 1990s, largely as a result 2004–2030 (index 100 = 2004)
of political transition and economic restructuring,
140 129 134
together with limited investment in efficiency
120 116 117 116
measures. In spite of the rising trend since the end 100
110
100
of the 1990s, in 2004 it was still approximately 20 %
80
below 1992 levels. Consumption of energy per unit
of GDP is still higher than in WCE. 60
40
In SEE, total energy consumption increased 20
by 15 % over the period 1992–2004. Energy 0

2004 2015 2030
consumption per unit of GDP over that period
OECD Europe (index 100 = 1 866 Mtoe)
decreased by 16 %, showing some decoupling of Transition economies excluding the Russian Federation
energy consumption from economic growth. (index 100 = 438 Mtoe)
Russian Federation (index 100 = 640 Mtoe)
WCE has seen a steady growth in total energy Source: OECD/IEA, 2006b.
consumption, with a 13 % increase between 1992
and 2004, lower than the growth in GDP, thereby
demonstrating partial decoupling.
pollutants and greenhouse gas emissions. But
Electricity consumption and production has the rapid increase in electricity consumption
increased much more quickly than total energy gives some cause for concern due to the fact that,
consumption. Throughout the pan-European on average, around 2.5 to 3 units of fossil fuel
region, electricity consumption increased by 13 % are required to generate one unit of electricity.
during the period 1992–2004. Since the late 1990s, Further development of low-carbon options may
growth in electricity consumption in SEE has help ensure that the current trend towards lower
outpaced that in WCE: consumption increased emissions per unit of electricity generation will
by more than 49 %, and resulted in a more than continue.
doubling of gas-fired generation. In comparison,
electricity consumption fell in EECCA and in Sources of energy
2004 was still 12 % below 1992 levels. The fall After a large decrease in the 1990s, reflecting a clear
was accompanied by a steep decline in oil‑fired switch to less-polluting fuels, coal consumption
generation. Total energy consumption and in the pan-European region started to increase
electricity consumption are now rising in all three again and the reductions in GHG emissions
regions. reported in Kiev are now being reversed. Despite
WCE coal import dependence of more than
In the coming years, total energy consumption is 50 %, coal use is projected to increase further as
projected to increase steadily, with faster growth high oil and gas prices, and concerns over the
in SEE and EECCA than in WCE. This is despite security of oil and gas imports, drive a return to
some further decoupling of energy consumption coal-fired electricity generation in all the three
from economic growth in all regions, reflecting the regions. This trend carries the risk of increasing
move to services. Action will thus be required to associated environmental pressures. For example,
minimise the environmental impacts of increasing Kazakhstan's dependence on coal as a major
energy usage, through greater deployment of energy source is responsible for nearly half of air
energy-efficiency measures and greater use of pollutants in Central Asia. Uzbekistan, also using
less‑polluting energy sources (Figure 7.3.2). large amounts of coal, accounts for almost one
third of pollutant emissions. The introduction
Changes in the fuel mix for electricity generation, of clean coal technologies (see Box 7.3.1) could,
and investment requirements in new plants have however, help to limit additional pressures on the
opened up new opportunities to reduce both air environment.

Box 7.3.1 Clean coal technologies
Clean coal technologies are being developed to Coal combustion also releases substantial amounts
mitigate the environmental pressures of coal of greenhouse gases. One of the most promising
combustion. A number of approaches can be used technologies to reduce these emissions is carbon
during refurbishment of existing plants, or their capture and storage (CCS), where CO2 is captured
replacement, combined with the application of direct from the plant and stored deep underground,
pollution abatement measures. Flue-gas treatment either in depleted oil and gas wells, or in aquifers.
technologies can, for example, reduce 99 % of However, the technology has yet to be deployed on
SO2 emissions (desulphurisation systems), remove a commercial scale, and the environmental risks
particulates (electrostatic precipitators) and reduce need to be further investigated. The technology
emissions of NOX. NOX emissions can also be is most likely to be used first in the EU-25 due
controlled by primary measures, such as burner to its initially high costs, but these are expected
optimisation, air staging, flue-gas recirculation, and to fall if the technology is widely used. Its use in
low NOX burners. Coal can also be pre-treated to EECCA countries may be an important option for
remove polluting mineral content. Coal gasification limiting greenhouse gas emissions, but will probably
allows high levels of efficiency and lower emissions, require foreign investment (e.g. through the Clean
although it is yet to be proven on a commercial Development Mechanism).
scale. While technologies to reduce emissions of air
pollutants are commercial and in widespread used in
WCE, their use in EECCA and SEE is limited. Source: WCI, 2004.
Oil consumption has been increasing over the last five years in the EECCA region. The Russian
whole region since the end of the 1990s. In WCE it Federation produces approximately half of all the
remained fairly stable between 1999 and 2004, large gas in the whole region and there are a number of
increases in the transport sector being partially offset other significant producer countries in the EECCA
by a switch to other fuels in other sectors. In WCE, region, including Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and
declines in North Sea oil production have been offset Kazakhstan. The United Kingdom remains WCE's
by increasing imports from the Russian Federation largest single gas market, followed by Germany
and the Caspian basin and the use of a number of and Italy. The largest percentage rise in gas demand
new fields and supply routes. Oil consumption in within the EU has been seen in the Mediterranean
the EECCA region has been increasing following countries, resulting from investment in gas transport
the period of decline during economic restructuring infrastructure.
in the late 1990s. Russian oil production in the late
1990s was little more than half its peak production Consumption of nuclear power increased by 22 %
during the first part of the 1990s, but rising global overall between 1992 and 2004. A downward trend
oil prices resulted in production increasing by more is expected in the EU over the coming years since
than 40 % between 2000 and 2005. several EU Member States have decided to phase
out nuclear power and many existing plants will be
Gas consumption in the region grew significantly decommissioned. This will not be offset by the fact
during the 1990s, both in absolute terms and as that some other Member States have begun or plan
a share of total energy consumption. Natural gas to start the construction of new plants. The Russian
became the fuel of choice for new power generation Federation has published plans to build at least
capacity in WCE at the expense of oil and coal. This 20 new reactors.
was driven by relatively low gas prices and the
lower environmental impacts of gas-fired electricity Renewable energy showed some growth in absolute
generation. Consumption of natural gas increased terms, increasing by 11 % across the region between
by 54 % in WCE and 18 % in SEE over the period 1999 and 2004. Its relative overall share in total
1992–2004. In contrast, consumption in EECCA fell energy consumption has been stable since 1999
by 5 %, due to the economic downturn of the early (Figure 7.3.5). The overall growth in renewable
and mid-1990s. However, consumption of natural energy masked significant regional differences. In
gas has also been constantly increasing during the EECCA, 2004 consumption of renewable energy

Figure 7.3.3 Total energy consumption by fuel, Figure 7.3.4 Total energy consumption by fuel source,
1992–2004 projections 2004–2030
% %
100 100
90
80 80
70
60 60
50
40 40
30
20 20
10
0 0
92 99 04 92 99 04 92 99 04 04 15 30 04 15 30 04 15 30
19 19 20 19 19 20 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
WCE SEE EECCA OECD Europe Transition economies Russian Federation
excluding the Russian
Other sources Natural gas Federation
Renewables Oil and petroleum products Renewables Gas Coal
Nuclear Coal and coal products Nuclear Oil
Source: OECD/IEA, 2006a. Source: OECD/IEA, 2006b.
was only at 84 % of 1992 levels, due to a decrease consumption, respectively, by 2010, but meeting
in production from combustible renewable sources, these targets will require significant ongoing
primarily due to poor maintenance of existing efforts (3).
plants. In SEE, renewable energy had increased by
31 % between 1992 and 2004, primarily from an Energy efficiency and intensity
increase in hydropower and combustible biomass, Improving energy efficiency and minimising
but energy production from biomass has been losses resulting from outdated industries and
decreasing since 1999. The increase was greatest in infrastructure is central to limiting growth in
WCE (39 %), mainly driven by a strong increase in energy demand and reducing energy-related
biomass use for energy production and, to a lesser environmental impacts. The importance of energy
extent, to increased wind capacity. Installed wind efficiency has been recognised in a number of
capacity in WCE grew by approximately 600 % policy agreements in WCE, EECCA and SEE.
between 1997 and 2003 and 23 % in 2003 alone.
This was largely due to the implementation of a Figure 7.3.6 (left) shows that total energy
number of fiscal and regulatory support measures, consumption relative to GDP decreased between
such as feed-in tariffs and obligations regarding 1992 and 2004 in most countries in the pan
share of renewable energy. The EU has set targets European region. This can be explained by a
for both renewable energy and electricity of 12 % combination of improvements in energy efficiency
of total energy consumption and 21 % of electricity and structural and behavioural changes, such as
(3) 10 January 2007 the European Commission presented a package on climate change and energy which included proposed new
targets within the energy sector (see Section 7.3.1).

a shift away from energy-intensive industries and programmes. Despite this converging trend, final
a change in household heating patterns. The larger energy intensity in EECCA is still around three
decreases in energy intensity (relative to GDP) were times higher than in WCE. Reductions in energy
in the EECCA countries, although levels in these intensity in WCE were influenced by the growth of
countries generally remain much higher than in SEE the services sector at the expense of energy-intensive
and WCE. industries, as well as efficiency improvements.
Nevertheless, efficiency improvements in WCE were
Figure 7.3.6 (right) shows similar decreasing trends counteracted by rising living standards and increased
in energy intensity relative to population in almost consumption. This has resulted in a larger number of
all EECCA countries. In contrast, total energy households, lower occupancy levels and an increased
consumption per capita in most WCE and SEE use of household appliances as well as growing
countries increased between 1992 and 2004, despite transport levels. Per‑capita energy consumption has
very different situations in the two regions: in WCE, decreased in EECCA but increased in WCE and SEE.
increased demand has offset improvements in energy
efficiency. Total energy consumption per capita has
been increasing steadily since 1992 and is now higher
than in the two other regions. Despite an increasing Energy intensity is the ratio of energy
trend, total energy consumption per capita in SEE consumption to another measure, such as GDP or
population. It is not a measure of energy efficiency
is still two to three times lower than in WCE and as it can be affected by structural and behavioural
EECCA. changes, such as a shift away from energy-intensive
industries, or a change in household heating
patterns. Improvements in energy efficiency
There has been some decoupling of energy signify the use of less input energy to provide the
consumption from economic growth in all regions. same level of energy service (e.g. less electricity
via the use of a compact fluorescent light bulb or
This has been most marked in SEE and EECCA,
less primary energy used to produce one unit of
where there was a 24 % improvement in final energy electricity). Improvements in energy efficiency can
consumption intensity (4) between 1992 and 2004. be offset by increased demand. The goal is not
just to improve energy efficiency or reduce energy
This improvement was due mainly to the closure intensity but to achieve energy savings, thus
of inefficient energy-intensive industries and the reducing energy consumption in absolute terms.
introduction of large-scale industrial energy efficiency
Figure 7.3.5 Shares of renewable energy sources in total energy consumption and in total electricity consumption,
1992–2004
Share of renewable energy sources in total energy consumption Share of renewable energy sources in total electricity consumption
% %
25 50
20 40
32.4
29.1 30.1
15 13.1 30
11.9
10.4
10 17.6 18.5 18.2
20
6.2 6.7
5.5 17.9 17.4
5 10 15.1
2.6 2.9 2.8
0 0
90
98
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
99
00
01
02
03
04
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
SEE WCE EECCA SEE WCE EECCA
Note: No data available for several countries in all three regions for years 1990 and 1991.
Source: OECD/IEA, 2006a.
(4) An indicator of final energy consumption per unit of GDP output.

Figure 7.3.6 Change in total energy consumption intensity 1992–2004 (%)
Relative to GDP Relative to population
Estonia Latvia
Latvia Lithuania
Poland Estonia
Luxembourg Poland
Ireland Switzerland
Lithuania Germany
Slovakia Slovakia
Hungary Denmark
Czech Republic United Kingdom
Malta Czech Republic
United Kingdom Belgium
Denmark Luxembourg
Germany WCE 2004 Hungary
WCE 2004
energy intensity Netherlands energy consumption
Norway
= 158 toe/PPP = 3.9 toe/capita
Belgium Malta
Netherlands France
Cyprus Sweden
Sweden Norway
Greece Italy
Slovenia Cyprus
Austria
France
Greece
Switzerland
Ireland
Finland
Portugal
Austria
Finland
Italy
Spain
Spain
Slovenia
Portugal
Iceland
Iceland
Romania
Romania
FYR of Macedonia
SEE 2004 Bulgaria
Bulgaria SEE 2004
energy intensity Bosnia and Herzegovina energy consumption
Albania = 209 toe/PPP = 1.4 toe/capita
Turkey
FYR of Macedonia
Croatia
Croatia
Turkey
Albania
Georgia
Tajikistan
Armenia Georgia
Tajikistan Kyrgyzstan
Azerbaijan Republic of Moldova
Kyrgyzstan EECCA 2004 Armenia EECCA 2004
Belarus energy intensity energy consumption
= 507 toe/PPP Azerbaijan
Kazakhstan = 3.4 toe/capita
Belarus
Republic of Moldova Ukraine
Russian Federation Kazakhstan
Uzbekistan Russian Federation
Ukraine Uzbekistan
Turkmenistan Turkmenistan
% %
– 80 – 60 – 40 – 20 0 20 40 – 80 – 60 – 40– 20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Note: GDP used: purchasing power parities (PPP) in constant 2000 USD.
No data available for several countries in all three regions for 1990 and 1991.
No GDP data available for Serbia and Montenegro; 1994 data used for Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1993 data used for Azerbaijan.
Sources: OECD/IEA, 2006a; World Bank, 2007.

Substantial scope remains for improving energy precursors and particulates), oil spills, and nuclear
efficiency in all regions. The energy intensity waste. Since 1992, emissions of air pollutants and,
of GDP in SEE and EECCA countries is likely to a lesser extent, greenhouse gases from energy
to continue to fall, although less slowly than in production and consumption have been reduced.
WCE. GDP growth in EECCA is projected to This is due mainly to reduced use of coal (due
average 4.4 % per year from 2004 to 2025, whereas both to fuel switching and to overall reductions
improvements in energy infrastructure are in energy use in some countries) and, for air
expected to keep the growth in energy demand to pollutants, the introduction of abatement measures
an average of 1.6 % per year. in the electricity production and transport sectors.
As a result, emissions of greenhouse gases and
The 'Energy Charter Protocol on Energy Efficiency air pollutants per unit of total energy consumed
and Related Environmental Aspects' (PEEREA) and unit of electricity generated both decreased
provides transition economies with a menu of good substantially throughout the pan-European region.
practices and a forum in which to share experiences However, the benefits of this were to a large extent
and policy advice on energy efficiency. Particular offset by rising energy and electricity consumption.
attention is paid to such aspects of a national energy
efficiency strategy as taxation, pricing policy in Climate change
the energy sector, environment-related subsidies In 2004, energy-related greenhouse gas (GHG)
and other mechanisms for financing energy emissions accounted for 80 % of total GHG
efficiency objectives. PEEREA's development is emissions in the pan-European region, and 82 %
currently focused on a series of in-depth energy of total emissions in EECCA (see Table 7.3.1). The
efficiency reviews, designed to produce specific energy-supply sector itself is the primary GHG
recommendations for individual governments emitting sector, representing 44 % of total GHG
concerning ways of improving their national emissions in the pan-European region and 70 % in
energy efficiency strategies. Promising options EECCA, due to important fugitive emissions.
include increasing the efficiency of combined heat
and power generation, replacing outdated energy Between 1999 and 2004, energy-related emissions
infrastructures, and replacing old power plants. have been increasing in all regions, although
Other options include improving the energy they decreased by 17 % between 1990 and 2004,
efficiency of appliances and building insulation. with different developments in different regions
(Figure 7.3.7).
Significant investments were made to improve the
efficiency of electricity generation plants in WCE In EECCA, energy-related emissions increased by
and SEE between 1992 and 2004, particularly in 6 % between 1999 and 2004.
refurbishment and new high-efficiency gas turbines
with up to 45 % efficiency. In EECCA, however, In WCE, energy-related emissions in 2004 were
efficiency during the same period fell from 37 % to 4 % above the 1999 level with increases in the
31 %, due to lack of investment. Large investments transport and energy supply sectors (+ 6 % and
will be required to upgrade infrastructures in SEE + 5 %, respectively). Between 1990 and 2004, the
and EECCA countries. growth in emissions from transport increased by
26 %, offsetting the decline in all other sectors
(energy supply, services and industry). This
7.3.3 Environmental impacts decline has been more substantial in central and
of energy production/ eastern European countries due to restructuring or
consumption closure of heavily polluting and energy-intensive
industries. There were also reductions in Germany
The energy sector is the main contributor to total due to economic restructuring in the new Länder,
greenhouse gas emissions and generates other and in the United Kingdom due to a switch
significant environmental impacts, such as emissions from coal to gas. Specific policies and measures
of other air pollutants (acidifying substances, ozone contributed to further emission reductions.

Table 7.3.1 Indicators: total greenhouse gas emissions in 2004, share of the energy sector and of the energy
supply sub-sector in total greenhouse gas emissions
Pan-European region Total GHG emissions in Share of the energy Share of the energy-
2004 (million tonnes) sector in total GHG supply sector in total
emissions in 2004 GHG emissions in 2004
WCE 5 091 80 % 32 %
EECCA 2 996 82 % 37 %
SEE 599 74 % 32 %
Total 8 686 80 % 32 %
Note: The energy sector is composed of the following sub-sectors: energy supply, energy consumption from industry, transport and other
energy consuming activities. Emissions from energy supply consist of emissions from energy industries and fugitive emissions.
The Russian Federation and Kazakhstan are not taken into account in the column 'share of the energy supply sector in total GHG
emissions in 2004', since a detailed split of energy-related emissions is not available.
Source: EEA, 2007.
Figure 7.3.7 Total energy-related greenhouse gas emissions and share by sector, 1990–2004
Total energy-related greenhouse gas emissions Energy-related greenhouse gas emissions by sector
(index 100 = 1999) %
180 100
Progress since Kiev
162
160
80
140
117
119
120
100 106 60
100 105
104
80
40
60
40 20
20
0 0
90
99
04
90
99
04
90
99
04
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
19
19
20
19
19
20
19
19
20
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
SEE WCE EECCA

Other
EECCA (100 = 2 335 Mt CO2-equivalent)
Transport
SEE (100 = 378 Mt CO2-equivalent)
Industry
WCE (100 = 3 934 Mt CO2-equivalent)
Energy supply (energy industries + fugitive emissions)
Note: The figure showing the share by sub-sector of energy-related greenhouse gas emissions (right) does not take into account the Russian
Federation and Kazakhstan, for which a detailed split of energy-related emissions are not available.
Source: EEA, 2007.
In SEE, energy-related emissions increased by more While transport contributes significantly to GHG
than 17 % between 1999 and 2004. This reflects a emissions in WCE, where it accounts for 20 % of
34 % increase in emissions from transport and a total emissions, second only to the energy supply
30 % increase in energy use by industry. sector, its role in SEE and EECCA is less important

(13 % of total GHG emissions in SEE and 9 % in Emissions of acidifying substances, particulates
EECCA(5)). However, transport growth is strongly and ozone precursors are falling across the
correlated with economic development, and pan-European region. This is due mainly to a
transport emissions have begun to increase with reduction in NOX and SOX emissions. In EECCA,
the recovery in the economies of these countries. NOX emissions have fallen mainly as a result
of reductions in energy demand rather than
Methane emissions from the energy sector are a investment in abatement. It should be noted,
strong contributor to total energy-related GHG though, that they have increased during the last
emissions and offer significant potential for five years. Significant further reductions are
reductions. While they represent 2 % and 5 % of the therefore required to improve air quality. There
energy sector's greenhouse gas emissions in WCE has been little or no progress in SEE. The UNECE
and SEE respectively, they represent more than Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air
10 % of energy-related GHG emissions in EECCA Pollution and its protocols require reduction of
(Table 7.3.2). In this region, methane emissions air pollutants, but many EECCA countries are still
from energy supply are very high compared with not party to all the protocols. Health problems
other sub sectors and other regions. related to air pollution continue to be of concern in
a number of EECCA countries, such as the Russian
Air pollution Federation, Ukraine, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan.
Emissions of air pollutants have declined National monitoring and assessment strategies
substantially in WCE during the period 1992 were generally developed some decades ago, but
2004, notably from the energy, industry and funding is often limited.
transport sectors. Much of this improvement was
due to abatement techniques in large combustion Within EECCA, emissions from private cars and
plants (such as the introduction of flue-gas freight transport have become the dominant
desulphurisation), fuel switching, and economic source of many air pollutants due to rapid growth
restructuring. Improvements to road transport of the vehicle fleet within the past decade. In
vehicle emissions are being offset by increases addition, a large number of old vehicles with poor
in traffic (see also Section 2.2, Air quality, and emission reduction technologies and frequent
Section 7.2, Transport). use of low‑quality fuels have led to an increase in
Box 7.3.2 Focus: fugitive emissions
Fugitive emissions arise when gases are released Leakage of gas from the pipeline network in EECCA
from exploration, production, processing, has long been a concern, although the extent of
transmission, storage and use of fuels. Gases may this problem is lessening with increased investment.
be released into the atmosphere in locations remote Analysis of gas emissions from Gazprom's gas export
from gas transportation infrastructure and where pipeline network between 2002 and 2004 concluded
there is no requirement for gas re-injection for that methane emissions, mainly releases from
pressure maintenance, and at oil refineries. The valves, accounted for 0.7 % of the volume of gas
gases can be combusted (flared) or non-combusted exported. Methane leakage accounts for around one
(vented). Combustion is the preferable option since third of total emissions from transport, the remaining
vented gas (predominantly methane) is an up to two thirds resulting from the burning of gas to power
21–23 times more potent greenhouse gas than the turbines used for transmission and provide the
flared gas (where methane is converted to CO2). The electric power required for driving motors.
Russian Federation is the world's fifth largest source
of CO2 emissions from gas flaring, although this
represents only 3 % of total CO2 emissions in Russia. Source: Cenef, 2004.
(5) This value does not take into account Russia and Kazakhstan, for which a detailed split of energy-related emissions are not
available.

Table 7.3.2 Energy-related greenhouse gas emissions in 2004, changes since 1992 and share of energy sector in
total greenhouse gas emissions
Region/ Total energy-related Contribution of Share of CO2 Share of CH4

country GHG emissions in energy-related emissions in emissions in
2004 GHG emissions energy-related GHG energy-related GHG
(million tonnes) to pan-European emissions in 2004 emissions in 2004
energy-related GHG
emissions in 2004
Pan-European 6 990 100 % 94 % 5 %
region
WCE 4 080 58 % 96 % 2 %
EECCA 2 467 35 % 89 % 10 %
SEE 444 6 % 94 % 5 %
Russian 1 754 25 % 89 % 11 %
Federation
Germany 828 12 % 97 % 2 %
United Kingdom 568 8 % 96 % 2 %
Italy 480 7 % 96 % 2 %
France 409 6 % 97 % 2 %
Spain 335 5 % 98 % 1 %
Poland 323 5 % 94 % 6 %
Ukraine 282 4 % 81 % 19 %
Other countries 2 011 29 % 96 % 3 %
Note: Other countries: countries that contribute individually less than 4 % to overall pan-European energy-related greenhouse gas
emissions.
emissions of harmful air pollutants, particularly in EECCA than in EU. Examples include the rupturing
urban centres. The elevated concentration of lead in of an oil pipeline in the Komi Republic and the
ambient air in a number of EECCA countries is due network of leaking pipes and wellheads in the
mainly to the continuing use of leaded petrol. The Caspian Sea. Raising environmental standards
implementation of ECE vehicle regulations and fuel can impose costs on companies developing or
standards in EECCA countries is in progress but an upgrading existing fields. Future oil and gas
effective national enforcement regime is needed (for projects, particularly in EECCA, are expected to be
further information see Section 7.2, Transport). undertaken in increasingly remote areas (east Siberia
and Kamchatka), where large industrial projects
Land use and other environmental impacts could have major environmental impacts. Transport
Although power plants occupy relatively small of oil and gas can result in pipeline accidents and oil
geographical areas, the associated mining, tanker spills. The important and increasing energy
transportation and waste can have significant trade will affect energy transportation, and the
impacts on land. These differ in nature and intensity associated environmental impacts could become an
according to the activity and the fuel used. The issue in the context of pipeline construction between
extraction of oil and natural gas can destroy natural EECCA and EU.
habitats for animals and plants. Waste products,
such as wastewater sludge and residues, can cause The storage and transport of radioactive waste
land contamination if not properly disposed of. from nuclear power production (e.g. spent fuel)
and uranium mining may also exert environmental
Land use and other environmental impacts of pressures. Tailings from historic mining operations
energy production are much more prominent in represent a significant amount of low-level

Figure 7.3.8 Total energy-related CO2 emissions and share by sector, projections 2004–2030
Total energy-related CO2-emissions (index 100 = 2004) % Energy-related CO2-emissions by sector
100
140
125
117 115
120 114
107 80
100
100
60
80
60 40
40
20
20
0 0 04
15
30
04
15
30
04
15
30
04
15
30
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
OECD Europe Transition economies Russian Federation

excluding Russia
OECD Europe (index 100 = 4 078 Mt CO2) Transport
Transition economies excluding the Russian Federation
Final consumption (excluding transport)
(index 100 = 1 048 Mt CO2)
Russian Federation (index 100 = 1 512 Mt CO2) Energy supply
Source: OECD/IEA, 2006c.
radioactive waste in Europe. While uranium mining emission reductions are a policy priority in EU,
in WCE has decreased significantly since 1990, while local environmental impacts such as oil spills,
production continues in the Russian Federation, mining waste, and methane leakage are considered
Ukraine and Kazakhstan. more pressing issues in EECCA.
There are increasing local measures to reduce the Interregional relations

environmental impacts of energy. Environmental Ensuring security of supply, creating market access,
accounting and audits, and the internalisation of and managing the environmental impacts of energy
environmental costs are increasingly common. are the central themes of energy relations between
Recent examples include managing the impact of WCE, EECCA and SEE. Globally, EU is the largest
the Sakhalin II project on the grey whale population, importer and the second largest consumer of energy,
and the rebuilding of the Turkmenbashi refinery to and security of supply is a key economic and
comply with ISO. geopolitical factor. An increasing proportion of gas
will be supplied from the Russian Federation, and
competition for access to Russian energy exports is
7.3.4 Energy and environment: likely to intensify, with China and India projecting
policy prospects rapid increases in oil and gas demand. The 2001
EU Green Paper Towards a European strategy for the
There are a number of common policy challenges, security of energy supply began to address this issue,
centred on three core objectives: environmental and it has been developed more recently through the
sustainability, competitiveness, and security of 2006 Green Paper, A European Strategy for Sustainable,
supply. The challenges and priorities differ between Competitive and Secure Energy for Europe.
regions. For example, EU regards security of supply
as best met by effective and efficient energy markets, As well as maintaining strategic fuel stocks
whereas Russia seeks security of demand and to reduce vulnerability to short-term supply
prefers long-term bilateral supply contracts. GHG constraints, EU aims to enhance strategic energy

Box 7.3.3 Case study: managing environmental impacts of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC) oil pipeline
The BTC pipeline was opened on 25 May 2005, the boundary of the Borjomi-Kharagauli National
connecting Azerbaijan's capital on the Caspian Sea Park, famous for its pristine wilderness, its spas and
to Turkey's east Mediterranean coast. The project Borjomi mineral water, which makes up as much
was built partly to reduce pressures from energy as 10 % of Georgia's export trade. Oil spills could
transport, since up to 350 oil cargo tankers per year have a catastrophic effect. Strict environmental
pass through the Bosporus and Dardanelles. The monitoring and reporting standards have been
development of the Caspian basin pipeline route introduced. The consortium has invested more than
presented a number of environmental difficulties. EUR 30 million in its environmental and community
Oil extraction from the former Soviet Union had left programmes to work with communities affected by
high levels of pollution in the Caspian Sea and the the pipeline.
Kura river, with impacts on the numbers of sturgeon
and caviar production, and further oil extraction
may add to this problem. The pipeline route follows Source: British Petroleum, 2005.
partnerships with neighbouring countries. This that environmental costs are better internalised in
is also a major element of the EU neighbourhood investment planning decisions.
policy (COM(2004)373). So far, EU has signed
individual partnership and cooperation agreements However, under liberalised markets, there has been
with most EECCA countries, the most important a slowdown in energy infrastructure investment,
being the EU-Russia Energy Dialogue in 2000. as private companies lack the necessary long-term
The Energy Community Treaty entered into force incentives and certainty to invest. On the other hand,
on 1 July 2006, creating a legal framework for an a lack of investment carries some environmental
integrated energy market and for promoting energy risk, for example leakage from badly maintained
sustainability. There are also opportunities for the pipelines. Energy investment requirements are
integration of energy and environmental issues, subject to a wide range of uncertainties, such as
based on the EU Cardiff process (6) and the EECCA rates of decline in oil and gas resources, cost‑based
environmental strategy. In November 2006, the pricing, export pipelines and sea terminals,
EU and the countries of the Black Sea and Caspian and market reforms. Cumulative investment
Sea regions agreed on a common energy strategy, requirements for EU energy infrastructure are
based on four areas: converging of energy markets, estimated to be in the range of USD 2 trillion until
enhancing energy security, supporting sustainable 2030 (8). In EU-10, SEE and EECCA, the prolonged
energy development, and attracting investment downturn in electricity demand has provided
towards common projects (7). a margin of spare generating capacity, but this
margin will probably be eliminated by 2010. As a
Investing in energy infrastructure result, large investments in power generation will
The imminent need for investment in new energy be required, especially in EECCA, over the next
infrastructures, especially in SEE and EECCA, to 20–25 years.
replace ageing plants, has created a window of
opportunity to develop a more environmentally In the Russian Federation, investment requirements
sustainable energy sector. This could encompass in energy infrastructure are estimated at being in the
a better focus on energy efficiency and cleaner region of EUR 30 billion per year (9). Whereas Russia
production, making use of the project-based is increasingly able to finance its infrastructure
mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol, and ensuring investment from energy export revenues due to
(6) See also http://ec.europa.eu/environment/integration/integration.htm.

(7) 10 January 2007 the European Commission presented a package on Climate Change and Energy which included proposed new
targets within the energy sector (see Section 7.3.1).
(8) IEA — World Energy Investment Outlook (2003).
(9) Russian Energy Strategy (2003).

higher oil and gas prices, it is very unlikely that in the way that markets operate. Some form of
current market and regulatory arrangements are public intervention in planning and financing
capable of sustaining an efficient combunation new investment in power generation seems to
of new generating capacity in other transition be unavoidable. This may include centralised
countries. Market incentives may be sufficient to contracting of additional capacity through power
underpin investment in small and flexible gas-fired purchase agreements or some form of capacity
units, but there is little prospect that new base-load payments, and/or public-private partnerships to
plants will be constructed without some adjustments finance new plants.
Table 7.3.3 EU energy import dependence
EU import dependence Imports from Russia, % of Imports from Russia, % of

% EU consumption, 2003 EU consumption, 2030
Oil 80 27 > 90
Natural gas 46 25 85
Source: European Commission, 2006.
Box 7.3.4 Energy import/export relationship between EECCA and WCE
After a period of relative security of indigenous with alternative resources, such as renewables,
supply, EU energy import dependence began to unlikely to offset the projected increase.
increase in the early 1990s and reached more than
50 % in 2004, as indigenous supplies began to
decrease. The EU has developed a significant energy A number of regional energy dialogues have begun,
transport infrastructure with exporters in EECCA including the EU Russia Energy Dialogue, and
producer and SEE transit countries. The Russian discussions with Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan.
Federation has retained control and influence over A number of countries, such as the Baltic states,
the pipeline and distribution system from Central Bulgaria, Croatia, Finland, Greece, Slovakia, and
Asia, although there is now potential access to the Republic of Moldova, have a very high level of
Central Asian reserves through the BTC pipeline via dependence on the Russian gas pipeline system.
Turkey and the Caspian basin which began operation During winter 2005–2006, disputes with Gazprom
in 2005. over prices intensified, leading to supplies to
Ukraine and the Republic of Moldova being cut off
for some time. A similar situation arose in December
The dependence of WCE and SEE on oil and gas 2006 due to a dispute between the Russian
from EECCA is set to rise substantially to 2030. Federation and Belarus.
Projected increases in energy consumption could
significantly increase energy production and related
environmental problems in EECCA. Work by the UN Russia is also dependent on these transit countries
Special Programme for the Economies of Central to supply large markets and is developing its
Asia (SPECA) (funded by UNECE and the United international pipeline and transport infrastructure
Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia to bypass potentially difficult transit countries.
and the Pacific (UNESCAP)) has indicated the central Examples include the Baltic Pipeline System
role of oil and gas exports in the development of (oil) which reduces dependence on Latvia and
Central Asian economies. By early 2004, EECCA Lithuania for exports through the Baltic Sea, and
exports to the EU represented 45 % of all its energy the Blue Stream Pipeline (gas) export route to
exports (53 % of oil exports and 36 % of gas Turkey avoiding Ukraine, Romania and Bulgaria.
exports). Likewise, EU imports through the Russian Close relationships have been forged between the
pipeline system totalled 21 % of net oil imports Russian Federation and Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan
(16 % of total EU consumption), and 41 % of net and Turkmenistan, and Russia effectively controls
gas imports (19 % of total EU consumption). The pipeline access to western European markets.
European Commission Green Paper on Security of
Energy Supply (2001 and 2006) indicate that EU Sources: European Commission, 2006; European Policy Centre,
energy dependence could climb to 70 % in 2030, 2005.

Improving energy efficiency supplies, and pollution (see also Chapter 3, Climate
Implementing strategies to improve energy efficiency change).
remains a challenge for all regions. Energy efficiency
also lacks a political lobby to match the energy supply Developing renewable energy
sector when seeking state support, and national Faced by increased energy costs and emission
governments are more likely to invest in increasing constraints, countries are aiming to create a low-
supply than in reducing demand. Nonetheless, the carbon economy using fewer fossil fuels across
Sixth Environment Action Programme provides industrial, transport and domestic sectors, and
specific targets for industry of at least 1 % annual using more renewable energy sources to generate
improvement in energy efficiency, as foreseen in electricity, heating and cooling, and fuel transport.
the EU Action Plan on energy efficiency. There This will require an ambitious switch to wind
remain significant opportunities for low-cost (particularly offshore), biomass, hydro and solar
energy‑efficiency improvements (the value of projects power, wave and tidal technologies and biofuels.
with a payback period of less than five years is Current EU renewable targets remain challenging;
estimated at EUR 5–10 billion) (UNECE, 2005). high growth in onshore wind capacity is being offset
by slower growth in biomass. SEE and EECCA
Energy efficiency is of particular importance have yet to set binding renewable energy targets,
in SEE and EECCA. These regions provide although policy measures are being introduced
significant opportunities for self-financing, to support technology deployment (Worldwatch
low‑cost improvements. Major investment is Institute, 2005). Although there is significant
needed in power generation, transport, buildings, potential for renewables in the EECCA region,
and industrial energy efficiency. Key policy resources are concentrated in certain areas. The
instruments include taxation, pricing policy in the higher cost of renewable energy relative to cheap
energy sector, and environment-related subsidies. indigenous fossil fuels may mean that it is slower
However, SEE and EECCA countries suffer from to develop in the medium term. Policy frameworks
a lower level of awareness among consumers, to promote renewable energy are in their infancy in
vendors, and policy makers than in WCE, and a SEE and EECCA, and the main growth in electricity
lack of up-front capital to buy new energy‑efficient production from renewable sources has come from
equipment or undertake necessary retrofit the rehabilitation and construction of hydro plants.
measures. International donors and lenders have In designing policies for renewable energy, EECCA
responded to this issue with innovative financing countries will need to consider links to other policy
mechanisms. goals, such as managing CO2 emissions, and how
they might interact with the EU emissions trading
Integrating environmental issues scheme. Where the promotion of renewable energy
To develop sustainable energy systems, is a critical component of delivering energy, the
environmental concerns must be integrated into introduction of long-term renewable obligations or
the decision-making processes in the energy sector. feed-in tariffs may be appropriate.
Within the EU, the European Council, through
the Cardiff process (1998), requires different Energy market liberalisation and price
Council formations to integrate environmental reforms
considerations into their respective activities. Liberalisation of energy markets can have both
There is a need for this integration process to be negative and positive environmental impacts.
further developed and fully implemented also in During the 1990s, environmental impacts from
non-EU regions (European Commission, 2006a). the energy sector were reduced, as cheap natural
The influence of future environmental impacts on gas became the fuel of choice for private investors.
energy supply — especially those of unavoidable Working in the opposite direction, however,
climate change — must also be considered. An the price of energy products also decreased,
example of this is the siting of pipelines in areas of which may have counteracted incentives to
melting permafrost, where warming may lead to use less energy and thus have resulted in
ground sinkage, disruption of transport of energy more energy‑related environmental impacts.

Box 7.3.5 Case study: building energy-efficiency capacity in Serbia
The Serbian Energy Efficiency Agency (SEEA) in The Serbian Energy Efficiency Agency has been set
Belgrade faces a number of challenges common up to identify, analyse and propose cost-effective
to many countries in the region. Serbia has a and technically feasible policies and measures for
higher percentage of transport and distribution the improvement of energy efficiency on both supply
losses than the EU average. Investment is limited and demand side, encourage and promote activities
and infrastructure is deteriorating. Almost 70 % aimed at energy savings, promote international
of Serbia's energy is consumed by the residential energy efficiency standards and best‑practice
sector, as a result of poor-quality building stock. exchange, and provide incentives for the use of
District heating is supplemented by electricity, best available technologies. SEEA has had a number
draining resources in the winter months. Prices of successes since it was established in 2004. A
for electricity, district heating, oil and gas have number of energy-efficiency auditors have been
increased substantially, causing major financial trained, energy audits of industrial and municipal
pressures on many consumers. Municipalities no enterprises undertaken and energy-efficiency
longer receive the financial support they used to for awareness campaigns implemented.
the operation of district heating plants, schools and
hospitals. Source: SEEA, 2005.
Liberalisation has been introduced into EU energy exemptions. There is some evidence to suggest
markets and is an ongoing process in SEE and that, in historic terms, renewable energy subsidies
EECCA. The EU facilitates competition with in EU-15 are relatively low in comparison with
funding to connect isolated networks and improve those for other forms of energy during periods of
cross-border interconnections within the EU and fuel transition and technology development. More
with supplier countries. Some SEE and EECCA mature fuels, such as natural gas, continue to benefit
countries seek to provide subsidy support for their from the technological and industrial infrastructure
indigenous energy industries, either to protect poor built up during previous decades.
populations from the full production costs of energy,
or to maintain the security of indigenous supply. Current producer prices for electricity will have to
Direct energy subsidies (i.e. payments to producers be increased substantially in most SEE and EECCA
or consumers) are being phased out in the EU, but countries in order to cover the cost of electricity from
are being replaced by indirect support, such as tax new plants. The median level of average end-user
Box 7.3.6 Household utility pricing and the fuel-poor — lessons from Armenia
A World Bank Study has analysed the impacts of was less than expected by the utilities. Relative to
replacing the block tariff for electricity in Armenia the non-poor, the poor cut consumption more, the
in favour of a higher single price of AMD 25 per percentage of households with debts was higher,
kWh in an attempt to fully cover medium-term and the average size of these debts increased more.
utility costs (including depreciation, debt service, Impacts on the urban poor were greater, due to the
and other capital costs) and reflect the high cost lack of access to low-cost substitutes. In response,
of supplying low-voltage electricity. It indicated the Armenian Government has implemented a
that electricity consumption dropped on average by reshaping of the social benefit payments system and
17 % and that consumption of substitutes such as is monitoring household pricing data more closely.
wood and natural gas increased, leading to potential
environmental problems such as deforestation
and increased air pollution. In addition, payment
collection rates fell by 9 %, and consumer debts
increased four-fold. The resulting utility revenue Note: Exchange rate 1 euro = 500 Armenian dram (AMD).
increase of about 6 % from sampled households Source: Lampietti et al., 2001.

prices across EECCA is about one-half of the level of the household level is becoming a more significant
about EUR 80 per MWh that would be required for issue for the EECCA region, because of rising
full cost recovery. Some attempt has been made to prices and deterioration of the infrastructure. This
raise gas prices on the domestic Russian market, and is especially true for the urban poor, who have no
during negotiations between the Russian Federation alternative access to fuel. When domestic electricity
and EU it was agreed that gas prices for domestic tariffs are increased to reduce state support and
and industrial users would double by 2010. reflect the full cost of supply, significant problems
of affordability typically appear for the lowest
However, liberalisation of energy markets and decile of households. This is a primary concern in
price rises may lead to fuel poverty and — as a the Balkans (Croatia, Former Yugoslav Republic of
rebound effect — to increased environmental Macedonia, and Serbia and Montenegro) and some
pressures. Ensuring access to affordable energy at EECCA countries.

Sectors that drive environmental change | Tourism
7.4 Tourism
Photo: Son-Kul Lake, Kyrgyzstan © Kyrgyz Community Based Tourism

Association
Key messages
• International tourist arrivals in the • Adaptation to climate change may increase

pan‑European region continue to grow, the impacts of tourism on the environment.
as does the economic importance of the Reduction of areas with reliable snow coverage
tourism industry in some traditional and new (66 % in the Alps, under the worst scenario)
destination countries. Growth is particularly may result in higher pressures from winter
rapid in SEE and EECCA, but from a far lower tourism.
level than in WCE, which remains the main
tourist destination globally with 43 % of the • The impact of tourism is projected to increase
world total arrivals. as a result of greater affluence, lifestyle and
demographic change, and growing incomes.
• Tourism is still one of the main drivers of Tourism at peak periods overwhelms the
increased demand for transport, particularly carrying capacity of some destinations.
the most environmentally damaging modes: Tourist behaviour remains a crucial factor for
private cars and, more critically, air transport. sustainability.
In Europe, in 2005, about 59 % of the tourists
reached their destination by road and 34 % by • Recent policy developments aim to increase
air. Low-cost airlines are playing a significant the sustainability of tourism but there has
role in increasing the mobility of visitors. been little progress with implementation. In
particular, no compulsory targets have been
• Coasts, islands and mountains — and in set for the tourist industry.
general settings characterised by attractive
natural resources — remain particularly • Formulation of effective policy measures
sensitive to tourism development. requires reliable and harmonised statistical
Degradation, sometimes irreversible, has information. Efforts are still needed to improve
already occurred in some popular and mass the framework of statistical data collection on
destinations. tourism.

7.4.1 Introduction 7.4.2 Policy progress since Kiev
Tourist volumes throughout Europe are increasing. Since Kiev, important progress has been made in
Tourism is often fragmented: its growth is promoting the 'sustainable development of tourism'
concentrated in specific environments and (SDT).
destinations, creating localised pressures.
Internationally, the role of tourism with regard
Tourism generally makes heavy calls on to biological resources and the conservation of
environmental resources. It contributes to the biodiversity has been addressed since 2004 within the
urbanisation of sensitive areas such as coasts and Convention on Biological Diversity. This recognition,
islands, increased water consumption and litter and other earlier international and UN statements
production, fragmentation of habitats, and loss of (Box 7.4.1), provide a well-defined strategic
biodiversity. It is also one of the main drivers of framework for SDT, the need for which is now widely
increased demand for transport, particularly the recognised.
most environmentally damaging modes.
At the regional level, there are several initiatives to
However, tourism makes major contributions to foster SDT that are showing some progress:
economic development in many places throughout
Europe. Inbound tourism expenditure in the • Mediterranean area: within the Mediterranean
pan‑European region in 2005 was more than Action Plan context, a Mediterranean Strategy for
USD 338 billion. Tourism services also represent Sustainable Development was adopted in 2005.
a significant resource within the marine industry One of its seven priority areas is the promotion
(see Chapter 5, Marine and coastal environment). of sustainable tourism through, for example,
Moreover, tourism is an important factor in social the supply of sustainable tourist facilities and
development and cohesion; at the pan-European improved governance.
level the travel and tourism industry provided • The Alps: within the framework of
employment for an estimated 12 million people in implementation of the Alpine Convention and
2006. its Protocols. The multi-annual work programme
2005–2010 identifies tourism as one of its key
The challenge remains to develop and encourage issues and sets specific measures and priorities
patterns of tourism that do not jeopardise for it.
the benefits to tourists, the local and national • Baltic area: Baltic 21 Tourism, as part of Agenda
economies, and the natural resources of the 21 for the Baltic Sea Region. A wide networking
areas and countries visited. Sustainable tourism project (Agora (1)) focused on sustainable tourism
development is widely recognised as the way initiatives, involving ten countries around the
of fostering the economic and social viability of Baltic Sea, was launched in May 2005. By the end
destinations. of 2006, Agora had created an extensive database
of SDT projects, developed some theoretical work
Unfortunately, the pressures and impacts of on tools and methodologies, and implemented
tourism on the environment remain difficult pilot projects around the region.
to quantify and assess. Reasons include the • The Carpathians: the Framework Convention on
complexity of the tourist industry — tourism the Protection and Sustainable Development of
encompasses a wide variety of enterprises which the Carpathians was adopted in 2003. This new
are integrated vertically and interact horizontally regional agreement directly addresses sustainable
with several other sectors such as transport and tourism in Article 9 of the Convention. The first
energy — and the lack of updated and comparable Conference of the Parties to the Convention
statistics. in December 2006 approved the 2006–2008
(1) Agora home page: http://www.yepat.uni-greifswald.de/agora/.

Box 7.4.1 Main international acknowledgments of sustainable development of tourism
• UN Commission on Sustainable Development of small-sized tourism projects in developing

(CSD), seventh session, 1999. Decision 7/3 on countries, aimed at creating and widely
tourism and sustainable development. distributing economic resources.
• UNWTO Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, • Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), COP 7
1999. A comprehensive set of principles aimed Decision VII/14 on 'Biological diversity and
at guiding relevant stakeholders in tourism tourism', 2004. Also adopting some voluntary
development. guidelines 'to manage tourism activities in an
ecological, economic and socially sustainable
manner'.
• Québec Declaration on Ecotourism, 2002.
Emphasising the role of ecotourism in
contributing to the sustainability of the tourism • A Task Force on Sustainable Tourism was
industry. set up in 2006 within the framework of the
Marrakech Process — an international initiative
to foster the implementation of Chapter III of
• World Summit on Sustainable Development,
the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation. Its
Johannesburg, 2002. Article 43 of the Plan
main objective is the implementation of actions
of Implementation, on the promotion of
promoting sustainable tourism and focusing on
sustainable tourism and necessary actions.
three main topics: the interaction of tourism
with climate change, biodiversity, and protection
• Sustainable Tourism — Eliminating Poverty of cultural and natural heritage.
(ST-EP) Initiative, 2002. On the implementation
work programme, in which several actions a Communication on 'Basic orientations for the
supporting sustainable tourism development sustainability of European tourism' (European
are foreseen. A first assessment report will be Commission, 2003). More significantly and
released in 2007 (2). recently, in March 2006, a further Commission
Communication 'A renewed EU Tourism Policy:
With regard to protected areas, the Federation towards a stronger partnership for European
of Nature and National Parks of Europe Tourism' (European Commission, 2006a) suggested
(EUROPARC), with its pan-European network, has a framework for the development of the sector,
since 2001 been developing a European Charter for also specifying supporting actions to promote
Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas. Signatories its sustainability. Within this communication,
to the Charter are committed to implementing tourism is considered as an important sector for
sustainable tourism strategies within the protected tackling both growth and employment, the two
areas. At the end of 2006, 36 parks, all located in main priorities set by the renewed Lisbon Strategy.
WCE, had adopted the Charter. A further key step in the process for promoting
sustainable tourism will be the preparation of an
According to the provisions of the Treaty on Agenda 21 for European Tourism, to be finalised by
European Union, the EU has no direct competence 2007, broadly based on the reporting activity of the
for tourism policy. However, a number of Tourism Sustainability Group launched in 2004.
Community policies and programmes either refer
explicitly to tourism or influence the tourism sector. Tourism is also closely linked to the preservation
of biodiversity and thus plays a role in the
A vision for European tourism was first set by renewed sustainable development strategy of
the European Council in its Resolution of 21 May the EU. The targets set by the Commission in its
2002. In November 2003, the Commission released Communication on halting the loss of biodiversity
(2) Carpathians Environment Outlook (KEO): http://www.grid.unep.ch/activities/assessment/KEO/KEO_RC.php.

by 2010 (European Commission, 2006b) include houses and tourism infrastructure, as well as by
'significant increase in proportion of tourism nautical activities, are under development; UNDP
which is ecologically sustainable by 2010 and again has reported on the latest developments in tourism
by 2013'. Tourism remains a key sector for the policies in the Balkans (UNDP, 2007).
maritime industry and thus a source of pressure on
marine and coastal environments, as extensively At the policy level, progress in creating the
highlighted in the recently adopted Green Paper necessary institutional and regulatory frameworks
on a Future Maritime Policy for the European has been slow, although recent developments show
Union (European Commission, 2006c). Tourism that a positive change has occurred or is occurring
is also very relevant to the revised Bathing Water as a result of conventions, framework agreements
Directive adopted in 2006 and to the principles of or, in the EU, preparation of an Agenda 21 for
Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) (see Tourism. But implementation is still lagging,
Chapter 5, Marine and coastal environment). being based only on the voluntary use by tourist
enterprises/industry of some of the practical
While the absence of a tourism strategy at the instruments available to partially monitor or
regional level in EECCA (3) and SEE is evident, control the impact of tourism on the environment
there are indications that tourism development (auditing schemes, certification). No compulsory
is actually guided in these regions, as in several targets for the tourist industry have been set.
other European countries, through national policies
and strategies, targeting either the whole industry
or some of its segments. Bulgaria, for example, 7.4.3 The growth of the tourist
has had a national ecotourism strategy since 2002 industry
(UNWTO, 2006a); in 2005 the Slovak Republic
adopted a tourism development strategy, widely Economic importance of tourism
underlying the concept of sustainability (until 2013); Tourism remains mainly a locally shaped activity,
a State Programme for the Development of Tourism substantial at some destinations and marginal at
covering 2004–2009 was adopted in Tajikistan in others. At the pan-European level, the travel and
December 2003 (UNECE, 2004); and a Sustainable tourism (T&T) industry contributes 3.37 % of total
Tourism Development Strategy 2003–2015 was employment and 3.78 % of GDP (data extracted and
approved in the Republic of Moldova in September elaborated from WTTC, 2006); the share of T&T GDP
2003. In SEE, coastal zone management plans in total GDP may reach over 10 % in some countries
focusing on urbanisation pressures driven by (Table 7.4.1).
Table 7.4.1 Share of T&T GDP in total GDP
Country T&T GDP share

Cyprus, Malta Over 10 %
Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro 8–10 %
Austria, Greece, Iceland, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland 6–8 %
Bulgaria, France, Italy, Turkey 4–6 %
Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Netherlands, Slovenia, 3–4 %
United Kingdom
All other countries Below 3 %
Note: 2005 values. No data for Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, Liechtenstein, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and the Republic of Moldova.
Source: WTTC, 2006.
(3) The EECCA Environment Strategy does not address tourism, only briefly mentioning this sector with regard to the integration of
energy considerations.

Figure 7.4.1 shows the percentage contribution (UNWTO, 2006c). Over the same period, growth
of T&T-generated GDP in total GDP in the three has also occurred at the pan-European level, but
European country groupings. Tourism is still a at a different rate in the three main regions. WCE
marginal economic activity in EECCA (4), while remains the main tourist destination, with more than
it has grown in importance in SEE. On average, 346 million international tourist arrivals in 2005,
reliance on tourism in SEE is higher than in WCE, 43 % of the world total of 806 million. However,
where tourism-generated GDP has on average in percentage terms, the most significant increase
decreased since the late 1990s. has been in SEE and EECCA, in particular over the
period 2000–2005 (Figure 7.4.2).
In terms of absolute values, the most significant
growth in GDP generated by the T&T industry since There have been slight changes in the number
2000 (almost 35 %) has been in SEE, with the highest of arrivals in some destinations in recent years.
increase in Serbia and Montenegro; the enlargement Within WCE, arrivals at traditional destinations in
of the EU by ten new Member States in May 2004 the Mediterranean area such as Italy, Malta and to
generally increased the T&T GDP in these countries.
EECCA also showed an increase since 2000 while
WCE recorded a slight overall decrease (5.17 %),
driven mainly by reductions in T&T-generated GDP The travel and tourism industry includes all products
and services delivered to visitors, such as transport,
in France, Italy, Germany and the United Kingdom. accommodation, food and beverages, entertainment,
recreation, etc. (WTTC).
Increasing international arrivals
In terms of volumes, measured by the number of Travel and tourism industry GDP and employment
international tourist arrivals (inbound tourism), refer to traditional travel and tourism providers
such as airlines, hotels, restaurants, car rental, etc.
the tourist industry at the global level continues (WTTC).
to grow. Asia and the Pacific, followed by Africa,
recorded the highest growth from 2000 to 2005, with Visitors: any traveller engaged in tourism. Visitors
annual growth rates of 7.1 % and 5.4 %, respectively can be distinguished as same-day visitors or tourists.
A tourist is an overnight visitor, i.e. a visitor who
stays at least one night in a collective or private
accommodation in the place visited (UNWTO).
Figure 7.4.1 Travel and tourism GDP as percentage of

national GDP
% Figure 7.4.2 International tourist arrivals and

10 percentage change
Progress since Kiev
1 000 arrivals
8 %
360 000 100
6
80
240 000
4 60
40
2 120 000
20
0
0 0
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
WCE EECCA SEE

19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
WCE SEE EECCA 1995 2000 2005 % change 2000–2005
Source: WTTC, 2006; World Bank, 2006. Source: UNWTO, 2006.
(4) However, values are based on data from only three countries (the Russian Federation, Ukraine and Belarus).

a lesser extent France, show a small decline since Generally, domestic tourism is still important in
2000 (but regular growth is recorded in Spain), WCE. In France, Germany and the United Kingdom,
while several northern countries (Norway, Finland, for example, there are far more overnight stays by
Sweden, Iceland, the United Kingdom and Ireland) residents of the country than by inbound tourists.
experienced increases. The highest increases in WCE Other countries, such as Austria, Cyprus, Greece,
were recorded in Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia. In Ireland and Spain, rely more on inbound tourism.
SEE, arrivals in Turkey have more than doubled In SEE, inbound tourism, in terms of nights spent,
since 2000; significant growth was also recorded is more than double compared to domestic tourism.
in Serbia and Montenegro, Bulgaria and Romania. Tourism still plays only a minor role in EECCA,
Montenegro in particular, an independent republic especially in terms of international tourism, with
since June 2006, is projected to become one of the domestic tourism prevailing.
fastest-growing travel and tourism destinations in
the world, with an annualised real growth of 9 % up Tourism expenditure is on the rise
to 2014 in terms of T&T industry GDP, and 4.5 % in EECCA countries show the lowest levels of
terms of employment (WTTC, 2004). inbound tourism expenditure, but their outbound
tourism expenditure is much higher than in SEE,
The emergence of new destinations is thus a and increasing more rapidly: outbound tourism
well‑confirmed trend both in WCE and in SEE. expenditure from EECCA countries doubled between
Within EECCA, substantial growth in arrivals was 2000 and 2005 (Figure 7.4.3 left). The Russian
recorded in Kyrgyzstan, Armenia and Ukraine, the Federation is the major contributor, increasing
last of which had more than 15 million international from USD 8.85 billion in 2000 to USD 17.8 billion
arrivals in 2004, comparable to Turkey. It may in 2005: it is a remarkable driver of the growth of
reasonably be expected that these potential new international tourism expenditure at the global level,
destinations will become more attractive on the and is expected to remain so, both in volume and
international market if they can successfully deal in percentage growth (UNWTO, 2006b). Within the
with the issues of stability and security. Reduction pan-European region, outbound tourism from the
in the complexity of visa, border and customs Russian Federation in 2005 was mainly to WCE (57 %
procedures could also facilitate travelling to these of the total); destinations in other EECCA countries
countries. and SEE attracted 22 % and 21 % respectively of the
Figure 7.4.3 Tourism inbound and outbound expenditure — EECCA and SEE (left) and WCE (right)
Billion USD Billion USD

35 350
30 300
25 250
20 200
15 150
10 100
5 50
0 0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
SEE inbound tourism WCE outbound tourism

SEE outbound tourism WCE inbound tourism
EECCA inbound tourism
EECCA outbound tourism
Source: UNWTO, 2006.

total of Russian tourists. Inbound and outbound its related infrastructure an important precondition
expenditures in WCE are ten times higher than in for the development of tourist activities. Secondly,
EECCA and SEE and show a similar growth pattern tourism depends strongly on natural resources
(Figure 7.4.3 right). (which often determine the attractiveness of the
destinations) and has to provide a wide range of
The growth of the tourism industry in Europe is services and facilities to visitors in order to access
expected to continue, but at an annual rate of 3 % these resources. The intensity of these pressures
(over the period 1995–2020), which is below the also depends on consumer behaviour (demand
global growth rate of 4.1 %; over the same period, side).
East Asia and the Pacific, South Asia, the Middle
East and Africa are projected to have annual growth Tourist mobility: harmful practices still
rates of over 5 %. prevail
The most environmentally damaging modes, car
Preliminary figures for Europe indicate an increase and air, are still the preferred ways of travelling
of 17 million in international tourist arrivals in to destinations (EEA, 2003). Road travel is by far
2006, leading to 458 million arrivals, about 54 % the dominant mode at the pan-European level,
of the world total. UNWTO projects that Europe closely followed by air in WCE and SEE. Rail is still
will still be the top receiving region in 2020 with frequently used in EECCA (Figure 7.4.4).
717 million arrivals, or 45.9 % of the global market,
with new destinations attracting more and more Access to tourist destinations needs to be managed
visitors (UNWTO, 2006c). The recent economic on a wider scale than the individual locations,
growth of EU 10, SEE and EECCA countries (see including at the trans-European level. For example,
Chapter 1, Europe's environment in an age of deregulation of the air transport system has widely
transition) will continue to generate increasing encouraged the use of low-cost airlines, which in
tourist expenditure (see also Annex 3, International turn have sustained the growth of air transport
tourist arrivals indicator). and contributed to increasing the average distance
travelled to a destination.
Inbound tourism: non-residents received by a

destination country from the point of view of that Figure 7.4.4 Arrivals of visitors by type of entrance
destination.
1 000 visitors
Outbound tourism: residents travelling to another
country from the country of origin. 600 000
Domestic tourism: residents of a given country 500 000

travelling within that country.
400 000
Source: UNWTO, 2006.
300 000
200 000
7.4.4 Main drivers of
environmental impacts and 100 000
sensitive areas
0
WCE SEE EECCA
Arrivals by sea Arrivals by air
Pressure on the environment from tourism is
Arrivals by rail Arrivals by road
closely linked to some of the characteristics of
the industry. Firstly, access to the destination is Note: Reference year is 2005 (2004 for some countries).
crucial, making the development of transport and Source: UNWTO, 2006.

According to a recent market update regional. Areas with a high risk of degradation due
(EUROCONTROL, 2006) covering 30 countries at the to the development of the tourism industry are
pan-European level, 16.3 % of all flights by May 2006 often located in the most fragile environments such
were by low-cost airlines. There are 50 low-cost as islands, coasts and mountains. Environmental
carriers operating out of 22 countries. The United impacts range from land take to habitat
Kingdom is the biggest market with more than 32 % fragmentation and biodiversity loss, over use of
of flights operated by low-cost companies, followed water and energy, and the need for additional waste
by Ireland; traditional destinations such as Spain, and wastewater disposal facilities. Pressure on areas
Italy and France have market shares ranging between surrounding harbours is also common (Box 7.4.2).
10 and 20 %. There is no information on the total
number of passengers carried by low‑cost flights, but In terms of water consumption, it is well known that
the 11 member airlines of the European Low Fares tourists consume more than residents. In Majorca,
Association reported 106 million passengers for 2006, for example, UNEP reports daily average water
about 15 % of total air‑transported passengers in 2005 consumption of 440 litres by tourists, compared
to, from and within the EU-25 (Eurostat, 2007). with 250 by residents in urban areas and 140 by
residents in rural areas (UNEP, 2004). A recent
Marketing strategies, thus, do not always encourage benchmarking exercise for accommodation
environmentally sound behaviour, and their effects establishments (Hamele H., Eckardt S., 2006), based
need to be counteracted by appropriate measures. on data collected from a few hundred businesses
The example of low-cost carriers is self-evident. in WCE (5), has calculated an average water
Taking into account the increasing contribution of consumption per overnight stay in a hotel of 394
aviation to global climate change, the Commission litres, the benchmarking value being 213 litres (6);
has recently proposed legislation to include the water consumption in a campsite was 174 litres
aviation sector in the EU Emissions Trading Scheme per overnight stay, against a benchmarking value
(ETS). According to the Commission, this will not of 96 litres. Similar gaps between average and
significantly affect tourism, but will generally affect benchmarking values were recorded for energy
the growth in demand which will inevitably have consumption (77.2 kW/h per overnight stay in a
some effect on tourism, since it is expected that hotel against a benchmark of 30.6) showing that
compliance costs will be passed on to passengers lower consumption and thus lower pressures on
(European Commission, 2006d). local resources may be possible (see also Section 2.3,
Inland waters).
Other policy areas that interact with tourism, such
as transport, energy and marine, remain key to Since the seaside is the favourite destination for most
tourism development. There is therefore a clear need Europeans, coastal areas and islands are subject to
to rationalise measures that affect tourism through significant pressures. Land take for tourism‑related
better regulations and policy coordination. Both buildings and infrastructure (e.g. hotels, second
these requirements are acknowledged in the recent homes, apartments, leisure and commercial activities
Communication of the Commission on a renewed and marinas) has historically occurred along the
European tourism policy (European Commission, French Riviera and the Spanish coast (Costa del
2006a). Sol and Costa Brava), sustained by the growth of a
European middle class, but it has been occurring as
Coasts, islands and mountains are still a development model in other coastal areas such as
sensitive to current tourism development Brittany, the south Baltic and around the Black Sea
patterns (EEA, 2006). Pressures of tourism on the coastlines
The tourism industry is often fragmented and locally are addressed in Chapter 5, especially in terms of
shaped. Pressures can range from the local to the land take by housing and Integrated Coastal Zone
(5) Including data collected through two European cofinanced projects on monitoring, benchmarking and environmental management
in tourism businesses: TourBench and SUTOUR.
(6) Benchmarking values are defined as the average consumption of the 25 % best-performing businesses in terms of consumption.

Box 7.4.2 A new anchorage zone in Dubrovnik to control the impact of large cruisers
Ships have anchored in the channel in front of periods, i.e. 5–10 hours. Because of the limited
Lokrum and the Old Town of Dubrovnik since very capacity of the city harbour, difficulties arise during
ancient times. The size and numbers of vessels the transfer of passengers from the cruisers to the
have changed over the years, but most recently the city, and both the city and the surroundings are
anchorage has been dominated by mega-cruisers, subject to concentrated pressures.
vastly bigger than all the other types of passenger
cruiser (see photo).
Most cruisers anchor during the summer months:
19 % in July, 28 % in August and 21 % in
These mega-cruisers have high-powered propulsion September. The simultaneous anchoring of more
engines, generally resulting in more noise and than two ships, large cruisers in particular, creates
air pollution. They also have a larger number of a significant burden on the existing anchorage area.
passengers and stay on anchorage for shorter The 2005 records show that three ships anchored
simultaneously 12 times and four ships anchored
simultaneously once in the high season. The total
number of passengers on anchorage in the maritime
zone of the city in the peak season ranges from
about four to five thousand.
As well as being a highly valuable coastal zone, the

Old Town of Dubrovnik is protected as a UNESCO
World Heritage site. These circumstances led to the
need to evaluate and consider relocating the present
anchorage area, which has now been moved 200 m
further from the city, so that the larger cruisers
cannot be seen from it. This has significantly reduced
the impact on the environment and the feeling of
overcrowding near the town.
Photo: A cruiser anchored in front of Dubrovnik © Neven Jerković Source: University of Dubrovnik and Croatian Environment
Agency, 2007.
Management considerations, while here the focus is an indicator for the supply side of the tourism
on tourism intensity and density. industry, and may help identify environmental
pressures. The most-visited regions, which include
Coastal regions often account for the highest the mass destinations, have high values of tourism
number of bed places; the number per inhabitant density. They usually include the best known and
(tourism intensity, usually expressed per most developed destinations, the main cities, small
100 inhabitants) is an indicator of accommodation islands and coastal areas (COR, 2006). Map 7.4.1
capacity and highlights potential socio-economic shows evidence of the higher concentration of bed
pressures. In the EU-25, within the ten highest places in sub-regional and regional areas along the
values are six island/coastal regions (COR, 2006): coasts, as well as in the Alps.
Balearic Islands, Spain (52.5 bed places per
100 inhabitants), Notio Aigaio, Greece (49), Corsica, Tourism in mountain environments may also
France (42.3), Ionia Nisia, Greece (34.6), Algarve, impact the landscape and threaten biodiversity.
Portugal (33.3) and Zeeland, the Netherlands (30.1). Box 7.4.3 provides an example of changes in
The other high values are in Alpine regions, such as landscapes and habitat fragmentation as well as
Valle d'Aosta, Italy (44.2) and Tirol, Austria (38.4). decreases in the species richness of birds. Higher
Tourism density, on the other hand, defined as the temperatures during the winter season can lead to
number of tourist bed places per km², provides human interventions. Among the most common

Map 7.4.1 Number of bed places per km2 in the pan-European region
-30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°
Number of bed places
per km2
< 10
> 10
40°
60°
Outside report
coverage
No data
50°
30°
40°
0 500 1000 1500 Km

0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50°
Note: Data are at the NUTS 3 level for most of the WCE countries, and Romania, Bulgaria and Turkey, at the regional or sub-regional level
for the Russian Federation, Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, the Republic of Moldova, and Kyrgyzstan, and at the national level for Andorra,
Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan,
Uzbekistan, and Serbia and Montenegro. NUTS is the Nomenclature of Territorial Units in the EU to which Eurostat data refer.
Sources: Eurostat, 2006b; 2006c; UNWTO, 2006; National sources, 2007.
measures for making or maintaining snow cover are is particularly evident in the choice of transport
artificial snowmaking, grooming of ski slopes and mode to reach destinations. The most common and
repositioning of ski areas at higher altitudes; the general trends of tourist behaviour in the EU-25
use of chemical fertiliser (ammonium nitrate) is also include: domestic trips are generally preferred
common for the preparation of ski runs, especially to trips abroad; shorter trips are preferred to
during competition events. All these interventions long ones; travelling is usually concentrated over
have environmental impacts: snowmaking specific periods of the year, mainly between July
increases water and energy consumption, grooming and September (Eurostat, 2006a). This seasonality,
reduces slope stability, and the repositioning of with large numbers of visitors concentrated over
ski operations disturbs ecosystems (OECD, 2007). short periods of time (peaks), often causes stress
The OECD study also estimates that following at destinations, for example in terms of water
recent climate warming events, a 1 °C increase in shortages, or overwhelms the carrying capacity of
temperature will reduce the number of naturally destinations.
reliable snow areas in the Alps from 609 now to 500,
a 2 °C increase to 404, and a 4 °C increase to 202. Tourist preferences, not necessarily driven by
Under these different scenarios, existing methods for considerations of price, also influence the type
maintaining snow cover will have to be intensified and quality of what is on offer. Growing interest
and the use of alternatives not yet specifically in natural and cultural heritage sites, for example,
regulated, such as chemicals for ski runs, increased. has led to the development of market segments
such as natural tourism, agro-tourism, religious
Main characteristics of tourism demand and cultural tourism. Development of ecotourism
Tourist behaviour influences the level of strategies is particularly evident in new emerging
environmental impact of the tourism industry. This destinations where a balance between generation

Box 7.4.3 What is behind a ski resort, besides fun
The case study of Pilsko Mt area in the Carpathians testing of the trials of 'Ski resort auditing — Guiding
(UNEP, 2006) shows how the structural patterns of principles for ecological revaluation' to more
local landscapes, characterised by extensive pastures countries and to define a set of environmentally
and forests, may change to a more fragmented one, sound requirements for the operation of ski resorts
consisting of small patches of meadows and forests, (Permanent Secretariat of the Alpine Convention,
following the establishment of ski resorts and related 2005).
facilities. Such changes in landscape unavoidably
lead to changes in species composition. Where the
process is particularly advanced, as in some areas
in the West Carpathians, species extinction may
also occur. Deforestation has also been observed
in the western part of Beskidy Mountains in the
Czech Republic, Poland and the Slovak Republic,
and mass summer tourism identified as one of the
underpinning causes (UNEP, 2006).
The impact of ski resorts is a problem shared by

the Alpine environment (the photo shows the
preparation of a ski run on Monte Tamai, Friuli
Venezia Giulia, Italy). Recent research (Rolando A.
et al., 2007) in the western Italian Alps has reported
a decrease in bird species richness and diversity as
well as in the abundance of grassland species on
ski runs, compared with adjacent areas and natural
areas not affected by ski-related development.
The 2005–2010 multi-annual work programme of Photo: Mt. Tamai, Friuli Venezia Giulia, Italy © Marco Lepre
the Alpine Convention includes plans to extend the
of income from tourism, environmental protection 7.4.5 Instruments and monitoring

and preservation of the cultural heritage is tools for tourism
targeted. An example is presented in Box 7.4.4.
Several similar initiatives promoting rural or The tools available for fostering the sustainable
green tourism exist in other EECCA countries such development of tourism at the national and
as the Republic of Moldova (7), Armenia (8) and local level include economic instruments such as
Ukraine (9). ecotaxes and tourism-related taxes in general, and
regulatory and planning tools (environmental
Finally, structural changes in the population, impact assessments, zoning and land-use laws,
for example population ageing in WCE, and the building permits). Results so far have been mixed,
emergence of stronger economies in SEE and with some failures and some success stories. An
EECCA, are likely to influence the development of ecotax on tourist stays in hotels in the Balearic
the industry as a result of increasing expenditure Islands, for example, was established in 2002 by the
potential, and to encourage the growth of different government and withdrawn the following year by
categories of travellers other than those, for the newly elected administration, after a vigorous
example, mobilised by low-cost carriers. See public and political debate. In France, visitors have
also Chapter 6 for considerations of household long been asked to pay a daily tourism tax, the
expenditure trends and tourism. amount of which is set by the local authorities and
(7) UNDP project 'Sustainable Tourism Project': http://www.undp.md/focus_areas/projects/stories/tourism.shtml.

(8) http://www.ecotourismarmenia.com/.
(9) http://www.greentour.com.ua/en/union/.

Box 7.4.4 The ecotourism experience in Kyrgyzstan
Kyrgyzstan has high potential for tourism with had 17 members involving more than 400 families.
its unique natural beauties, and is also part of In 2004, total income generated for its members
the network of routes of the Great Silk Road. was more than USD 94 000 (an increase of 916 %
International tourism development started under compared to 2000), estimated to represent about
the initiative of private tour operators and showed 30–40 % of the family incomes.
high annual growth rates (around 10–25 %). A
community-based pilot action for the development Sources: Community Based Tourism Development in Kyrgyzstan,
of sustainable forms of tourism was launched in 2006; Development of rural regions of Kyrgyzstan
2000 to enable local communities to benefit from through investments into community based tourism,
this new income-generating activity. The project, 2005; KCBTA home page and yearly report 2006
http://www.cbtkyrgyzstan.kg/en/home_en.
supported by the Helvetas Swiss Association for
International Cooperation, aimed to distribute some
of the earnings generated by the tourism market
to rural areas and people, without competing with
tour operators but cooperating with them by means
of framework agreements. The important feature
of this initiative is that it is oriented towards the
development of a sustainable ecotourism model.
The community-based tourism groups created

within the project were formally organised into
the Kyrgyz Community Based Tourism Association
(KCBTA) in January 2003. An accreditation
system was introduced in 2003/2004 covering
accommodation (grouped according to quality), and
guides and drivers. Codes of conduct for ecotourism
organisations were also developed, based on nature
and culture conservation principles. During the period Photo: Sary-Chelek Lake, Kyrgyzstan © Kyrgyz Community
2000–2006, the number of tourists increased from Based Tourism Association
718 to 5 812. At the end of 2006 the association
varies from a few cents to more than EUR 1. A recent tourism industry, are listed in Box 7.4.5. Although
attempt related to land-use regulation is reported in the various environmental schemes are generally
the island of Sardinia, Italy, where a tax on second not comparable with each other, participation by
homes located within three kilometres of the coast tourism enterprises in one or another remains
and used for tourism purposes has been established an indicator of goodwill and commitment to the
since 2006; the tax ranges from EUR 900 to over sustainable use of resources.
EUR 3 000 per year, depending on the size of the
house. Progress has also been made in the sharing of
information on sustainable patterns, the DestiNet
There has been some overall growth in operator-led portal and the visiteurope.com portal being two
networking and tourism initiatives, compilation major examples of initiatives at the European
of good practices and voluntary initiatives, and
certification schemes such as eco-labelling, but
the numbers remain small compared with the
large number of enterprises in the tourism sector. A Tourism Satellite Account is a statistical
Several of the certification schemes have a limited accountancy framework in the field of tourism;
it measures goods and services according to
distribution and often overlap with each other; international standard concepts, classifications
they therefore do not get enough visibility to and definitions which allow valid comparisons
become an effective marketing tool for the adopting from country to country in a consistent manner.
enterprise. The most significant initiatives at the Source: European Commission, 2007.
European and international level, specific to the

Box 7.4.5 Some acknowledged ecolabel schemes for tourism and environmental management systems
and standards
The European Ecolabel for tourist Green Globe Label. Worldwide benchmarking and
accommodation services and campsite services. certification programme for the travel and tourism
Established by the European Commission, this is industry.
certified by an independent organisation and is valid
throughout Europe. It distinguishes enterprises that EMAS (Eco-Management and Audit Scheme). An EU
meet a set of mandatory criteria related to their voluntary instrument acknowledging organisations
environmental performance. that work for the improvement of their environmental
performance. It is not specific to the tourism industry.
Blue Flag Initiative. Ecolabel for beaches
and marinas meeting criteria related to water ISO. Voluntary international standards developed on
quality, environmental education and information, the basis of consensus among providers, consumers,
environmental management, and safety. In 2006 governments and other relevant stakeholders. The
more than 3 200 beaches and marinas were awarded ISO 14 000 series of environmental management
the Blue Flag. It encompasses 36 countries, of which standards may also apply to tourism and its related
26 belong to the pan-European region. services.
level, both promoting the spread of information on 95/57/EC 'on the collection of statistical information
sustainable tourism. in the field of tourism' (European Council, 1995).
This directive shows shortcomings in the definition
Several initiatives on indicators, designed to of the supply side of the tourism industry and in
monitor the environmental and social impacts of the list of items for data collection, all factors that
tourism development, have been finalised in recent call for its review, also important in the light of the
years, from the global (UNWTO, 2004, Indicators of enlargement of the Community (Leidner R., 2006).
Sustainable Development for Tourism Destinations) Since 2002, the Commission has also promoted
to the regional (Eurostat, 2006) and local level. the establishment of Tourism Satellite Accounts
(TSA) in the EU Member States through grant
However, data availability remains crucial. At the programmes but, with a few exceptions, this has
EU level, the focus is on the update of Directive not led to permanent results.


Note: Satellite image composite of the land surface of the Eurasian, African and Australian continents based on Envisat MERIS data from March/April 2006.
An international network of partners is working with the European Space Agency (ESA) on mapping global land-cover data, including the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the European Commission's Joint Research Centre (JRC), the European
Environment Agency (EEA), the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) and the Global Observations of Forest Cover and Global
Observations of Land Dynamics (GOFC-GOLD) Implementation Team Project Office.
Source: © European Space Agency.
Annex 1 Legal instruments
Annexes Annex 2 Country statistics

Annex 3 International comparisons
Annex 1 | Legal instruments
Introduction this section, progress in the ratification process since

the Kiev Conference (e.g. from N in 2003 to Y in
This annex provides an overview of the adoption 2007) is highlighted by a smiley.
and ratification status of the legal instruments
quoted in the report. These encompass conventions, Table A.1.1 lists the countries that have ratified
with their protocols and amendments, and the largest number of conventions, among those
framework agreements. considered, since Kiev. This information focuses only
on progress since May 2003 and does not reflect the
The instruments have been grouped according to total number of instruments ratified by each country.
their geographical coverage into: global, UNECE, Ratification is not an indication of implementation.
and regional. Within each group, they have been
listed following a chronological order based on
the adoption date of the instrument, from the most
Table A.1.1 European countries with significant
recent to the oldest. progress in ratifying environmental
agreements since Kiev
A first section lists the instruments and their
adoption and ratification dates (Table A.1.2).
Country Number of ratified
Progress with the ratification process since the
conventions
Kiev Conference of 21 May 2003 is showed using
a coloured bar. A bar changing from red to green
Albania 9
means that the instrument was ratified after May
2003. Latvia 9
Lithuania 9
A second section provides an overview of the
Belarus 8
ratification status of each instrument by country
(Table A.1.3, A.1.4 and A.1.5). The displayed status Belgium 8
on ratified (Y) and non-ratified (N) instruments is France 7
from the information available through the official
Poland 7
websites of the instruments in March 2007. Also in

Table A.1.2 Overview of environment-related legal instruments relevant for the pan-European region
Progress since
the Kiev Conference
Adoption date Entry into force May 2003 March 2007
Global conventions
Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast 13 February 2004 –
Water and Sediments
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 22 May 2001 17 May 2004
(POPs)
Convention to Combat Desertification 17 June 1994 26 December 1996
Convention on Biological Diversity 5 June 1992 29 December 1993
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety 29 January 2000 11 September 2003
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 9 May 1992 21 March 1994
(UNFCCC)
Kyoto Protocol 11 December 1997 16 February 2005
Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary 22 March 1989 5 May 1992
Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal
Amendment to Basel Convention 22 September 1995 –
Basel Protocol on Liability and Compensation for 10 December 1999 –
Damage Resulting from Transboundary Movements of
Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 22 March 1985 22 September 1988
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the 16 September 1987 1 January 1989
Ozone Layer
London Amendment 1990 10 August 1992
Copenhagen Amendment 1992 14 June 1994
Montreal Amendment 1997 10 November 1999
Beijing Amendment 1999 25 February 2002
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 10 December 1982 16 November 1994
Agreement relating to the implementation of Part XI 10 December 1982 28 July 1996
of the Convention
Agreement for the implementation of the provisions 4 December 1995 11 December 2001
of the Convention relating to the conservation and
management of straddling fish stocks and highly
migratory fish stocks
Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and 19 September 1979 1 June 1982
Natural Habitats (Bern Convention)
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild 23 June 1979 1 November 1983
Animals (CMS or Bonn Convention)
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of 3 March 1973 1 July 1975
Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)
Amendment to article XI 22 June 1979 13 April 1987
Amendment to article XXI 30 April 1983 1983
Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping 13 November 1972 30 August 1975
of Wastes and Other Matter (London Convention)
1996 Protocol — Revised Convention, precautionary 7 November 1996 24 March 2006
approach
Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar Convention) 2 February 1971 21 December 1975
UNECE conventions
Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation 25 June 1998 30 October 2001
in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental
Matters (Aarhus Convention)
Protocol on Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers 21 May 2003 –
(Kiev Protocol)
Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary 17 March 1992 6 October 1996
Watercourses and International Lakes (Water Convention)
Amendments to articles 25 and 26 28 November 2003 –
Protocol on Water and Health 17 June 1999 4 August 2005
Protocol on Civil Liability and Compensation for 21 May 2003 –
Damage Caused by the Transboundary Effects of
Industrial Accidents on Transboundary Waters. This
protocol is a joint instrument to the Convention on the
Transboundary Effects of Industrial Accidents.
Progress since the Kiev Conference:
Not ratified Ratified New conventions and amendments adopted since Kiev

Table A.1.2 Overview (cont.)
Progress since
the Kiev Conference
Convention on the Transboundary Effects of Industrial 17 March 1992 19 April 2000
Accidents
Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a 25 February 1991 10 September 1997
Transboundary Context (Espoo Convention)
First amendment 27 February 2001 –
Second amendment 4 June 2004 –
Protocol on Strategic Environmental Assessment 21 May 2003 –
— SEA Protocol
Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution 13 November 1979 16 March 1983
(CLRTAP)
Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and 30 November 1999 17 May 2005
Ground-level Ozone (Gothenburg Protocol)
Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) 24 June 1998 23 October 2003
Protocol on Heavy Metals 24 June 1998 29 December 2003
Protocol on Further Reduction of Sulphur Emissions 14 June 1994 5 August 1998
Protocol concerning the Control of Emissions of 18 November 1991 29 September 1997
Volatile Organic Compounds or their Transboundary
Fluxes
Protocol concerning the Control of Nitrogen Oxides or 31 October 1988 14 February 1991
their Transboundary Fluxes
Protocol on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or 8 July 1985 2 September 1987
their Transboundary Fluxes by at least 30 per cent
Protocol on Long-term Financing of the Cooperative 28 September 1984 28 January 1988
Programme for Monitoring and Evaluation of the
Long‑range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe
(EMEP)
Regional conventions/agreements
Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine 4 November 2003 12 August 2006
Environment of the Caspian Sea (Tehran Convention)
Framework Convention on the Protection and Sustainable 22 May 2003 4 January 2006
Development of the Carpathians (Carpathian Convention)
Framework Agreement on the Sava River Basin 3 December 2002 29 December 2004
Protocol on the Navigation Regime 3 December 2002 29 December 2004
Convention on the Protection of the Rhine 12 April 1999 1 January 2003
Convention on Cooperation for the Protection and Sustainable 29 June 1994 22 October 1998
Use of the River Danube
Alpine Convention 29 March 1993 6 March 1995
Protocol on Environmental Protection and Landscape 20 December 1994 18 December 2002
Management
Protocol on Mountain Farming 20 December 1994 18 December 2002
Protocol on Land-use Planning and Sustainable 20 December 1994 18 December 2002
Development
Additional Protocol for Monaco 20 December 1994 22 March 1999
Protocol on Mountain Forests 27 February 1996 18 December 2002
Protocol on Tourism 16 October 1998 18 December 2002
Protocol on Energy 16 October 1998 18 December 2002
Protocol on Soil Conservation 16 October 1998 18 December 2002
Protocol on Transport 31 October 2000 18 December 2002
Protocol on Composition of Controversies 31 October 2000 18 December 2002
Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of 22 September 1992 25 March 1998
the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR Convention)
Convention on the Protection of the Black Sea Against 21 April 1992 15 January 1994
Pollution (Bucharest Convention)
Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of 9 April 1992 17 January 2000
the Baltic Sea Area (HELCOM)
Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the 17 March 1992 29 March 1994
Baltic and North Seas (ASCOBANS)

Table A.1.2 Overview (cont.)
Progress since
the Kiev Conference
Convention for the Protection Of The Mediterranean Sea 16 February 1976 12 February 1978
Against Pollution (Barcelona Convention)
1995 Amendments (Convention for the Protection of 10 June 1995 9 July 2004
the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the
Mediterranean)
Protocol for the Prevention of Pollution of the 16 February 1976 12 February 1978
Mediterranean Sea by Dumping from Ships and
Aircraft (Dumping Protocol)
The 1995 Amendments (The Protocol for the 10 June 1995 –
Prevention of Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by
Dumping from Ships and Aircraft or Incineration at
Sea)
Cooperation in Combating Pollution of the 16 February 1976 12 February 1978
Mediterranean Sea by Oil and other Harmful
Substances in Cases of Emergency (Emergency
Protocol)
Cooperation in Preventing Pollution from Ships and, 25 January 2002 17 March 2004
in Cases of Emergency, Combating Pollution of the
Mediterranean Sea (Prevention and Emergency
Protocol)
Protection of the Mediterranean Sea Against Pollution 17 May 1980 17 June 1983
from Land-based Sources (LBS Protocol)
1996 Amendments — Protocol for the Protection of 7 March 1996 –
the Mediterranean Sea Against Pollution from Land-
based Sources and Activities (LBS Protocol)
Protocol Concerning Mediterranean Specially Protected 3 April 1982 23 March 1986
Areas (SPA Protocol)
Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and 10 June 1995 12 December 1999
Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean (SPA and
Biodiversity Protocol)
Protocol for the Protection of the Mediterranean Sea 14 October 1994 –
Against Pollution Resulting from Exploration and
Exploitation of the Continental Shelf and the Seabed
and its Subsoil (Offshore Protocol)
Protocol on the Prevention of Pollution of the 1 October 1996 –
Mediterranean Sea by Transboundary Movements
of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (Hazardous
Wastes Protocol)

Table A.1.3 Progress since Kiev — global conventions
Convention for Stockholm Convention Convention Biosafety

the Control and Convention to Combat on Biological Protocol
Management of on Persistent Desertification Diversity
Ships' Ballast Water Organic (1994) (1992)
and Sediments Pollutants
(2004) (2001)
2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007
European Community N N N Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Albania N N N Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Andorra N N N N Y Y N N N N
Armenia N N N Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Austria N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Azerbaijan N N N Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Belarus N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Belgium N N N Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Bosnia and Herzegovina N N N N Y Y Y Y N N
Bulgaria N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Croatia N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Cyprus N N N Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Czech Republic N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Denmark N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Estonia N N N N N N Y Y N Y
Finland N N Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y
France N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Georgia N N N Y Y Y Y Y N N
Germany N N Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Greece N N N Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Hungary N N N N Y Y Y Y N Y
Iceland N N Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Ireland N N N N Y Y Y Y N Y
Italy N N N N Y Y Y Y N Y
Kazakhstan N N N N Y Y Y Y N N
Kyrgyzstan N N N Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Latvia N N N Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Liechtenstein N N N Y Y Y Y Y N N
Lithuania N N N Y N Y Y Y N Y
Luxembourg N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Macedonia, FYR of N N N Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Malta N N N N Y Y Y Y N Y
Moldova, Republic of N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Monaco N N N Y Y Y Y Y N N
Netherlands N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Norway N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Poland N N N N Y Y Y Y N Y
Portugal N N N Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Romania N N N Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Russian Federation N N N N N Y Y Y N N
San Marino N N N N Y Y Y Y N N
Serbia and Montenegro N N N N N N Y Y N Y
Slovak Republic N N Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Slovenia N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Spain N Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Sweden N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Switzerland N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Tajikistan N N N Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Turkey N N N N Y Y Y Y N Y
Turkmenistan N N N N Y Y Y Y N N
Ukraine N N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y
United Kingdom N N N Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Uzbekistan N N N N Y Y Y Y N N

Table A.1.3 Progress since Kiev — global conventions (cont.)
United Nations Kyoto Protocol Basel Convention Amendment to Basel

Framework on the Control of Basel Convention Protocol on
Convention on Transboundary Liability and
Climate Change Movements Compensation
(1992) of Hazardous
Wastes and their
Disposal (1989)
2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007
European Community Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Albania Y Y N Y Y Y N Y N N
Andorra N N N N Y Y Y Y N N
Armenia Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N
Austria Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Azerbaijan Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N
Belarus Y Y N Y Y Y N N N N
Belgium Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N N
Bosnia and Herzegovina Y Y N N Y Y N N N N
Bulgaria Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Croatia Y Y N N Y Y N N N N
Cyprus Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Czech Republic Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Denmark Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Estonia Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Finland Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
France Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N N
Georgia Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N
Germany Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Greece Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N
Hungary Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N N
Iceland Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N
Ireland Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N
Italy Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N
Kazakhstan Y Y N N N Y N N N N
Kyrgyzstan Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N
Latvia Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N N
Liechtenstein Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y N N
Lithuania Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N N
Luxembourg Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Macedonia, FYR of Y Y N Y Y Y N Y N N
Malta Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N
Moldova, Republic of Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N
Monaco Y Y N Y Y Y N N N N
Netherlands Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Norway Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Poland Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Portugal Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Romania Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Russian Federation Y Y N Y Y Y N N N N
San Marino Y Y N N N N N N N N
Serbia and Montenegro Y Y N N Y Y (*) Y Y (*) N N
Slovak Republic Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Slovenia Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N N
Spain Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Sweden Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Switzerland Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y N N
Tajikistan Y Y N N N N N N N N
Turkey N Y N N Y Y N Y N N
Turkmenistan Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N
Ukraine Y Y N Y Y Y N N N N
United Kingdom Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Uzbekistan Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N
Note: (*) Montenegro ratified in October 2006.

Vienna Convention Montreal London Copenhagen Montreal Beijing

for the Protection Protocol Amendment Amendment Amendment Amendment
of the Ozone Layer
(1985)
2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007
European Community Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Albania Y Y Y Y N Y N Y N Y N Y
Andorra N N N N N N N N N N N N
Armenia Y Y Y Y N Y N Y N N N N
Austria Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Azerbaijan Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Belarus Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y N Y
Belgium Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y
Bosnia and Herzegovina Y Y Y Y N Y N Y N Y N N
Bulgaria Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Croatia Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Cyprus Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y N Y
Czech Republic Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Denmark Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y
Estonia Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Finland Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
France Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y
Georgia Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Germany Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Greece Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y
Hungary Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Iceland Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Ireland Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y
Italy Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Kazakhstan Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N N N
Kyrgyzstan Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Latvia Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Liechtenstein Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y
Lithuania Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y
Luxembourg Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Macedonia, FYR of Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Malta Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y N Y
Moldova, Republic of Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y
Monaco Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Netherlands Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Norway Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Poland Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Portugal Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y
Romania Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Russian Federation Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y N Y
San Marino N N N N N N N N N N N N
Serbia and Montenegro Y Y (*) Y Y (*) N Y N Y N Y N Y
Slovak Republic Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Slovenia Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Spain Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Sweden Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Switzerland Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Tajikistan Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N N N
Turkey Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y
Turkmenistan Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N N N
Ukraine Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N
United Kingdom Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Uzbekistan Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y

United Nations Agreement Agreement for the Convention Convention

Convention on the relating to the implementation of on the on the
Law of the Sea implementation the provisions of the Conservation Conservation
(1982) of Part XI Convention relating of European of Migratory
to the conservation Wildlife Species of Wild
and management of and Natural Animals (1979)
straddling fish stocks Habitats (1979)
and highly migratory
fish stocks
2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007
European Community Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Albania N Y N Y N N Y Y Y Y
Andorra N N N N N N Y Y N N
Armenia Y Y Y Y N N N N N N
Austria Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y N Y
Azerbaijan N N N N N N Y Y N N
Belarus N Y N Y N N N N N Y
Belgium Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Bosnia and Herzegovina Y Y N N N N N N N N
Bulgaria Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Croatia Y Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y
Cyprus Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Czech Republic Y Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y
Denmark N Y N Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Estonia N Y N Y N Y Y Y N N
Finland Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
France Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Georgia Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y
Germany Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Greece Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Hungary Y Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y
Iceland Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Ireland Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Italy Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Kazakhstan N N N N N N N N N Y
Kyrgyzstan N N N N N N N N N N
Latvia N Y N Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Liechtenstein N N N N N N Y Y Y Y
Lithuania N Y N Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Luxembourg Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Macedonia, FYR of Y Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y
Malta Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Moldova, Republic of N Y N Y N N Y Y Y Y
Monaco Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Netherlands Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Norway Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Poland Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Portugal Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Romania Y Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y
Russian Federation Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N
San Marino N N N N N N N N N N
Serbia and Montenegro Y Y (*) Y Y (*) N N N N N N
Slovak Republic Y Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y
Slovenia Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Spain Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Sweden Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Switzerland N N N N N N Y Y Y Y
Tajikistan N N N N N N N N Y Y
Turkey N N N N N N Y Y N N
Turkmenistan N N N N N N N N N N
Ukraine Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
United Kingdom Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Uzbekistan N N N N N N N N Y Y

Convention on Amendment Amendment Convention on 1996 Convention

International to Article XI to Article XXI the Prevention Protocol (1) on Wetlands
Trade in of Marine (1971)
Endangered Pollution by
Species of Wild Dumping of
Fauna and Wastes and
Flora (1973) Other Matter
(1972) (1)
2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007
European Community N N N N N N N N N N N N
Albania N Y N Y N N N N N N Y Y
Armenia N N N N N N N N N N Y Y
Austria Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y
Azerbaijan Y Y Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y
Belarus Y Y Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y
Belgium Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Bosnia and Herzegovina N N N N N N N N N N Y Y
Bulgaria Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y Y Y
Croatia Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y
Cyprus Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y
Czech Republic Y Y Y Y N Y N N N N Y Y
Denmark Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Estonia Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y
Finland Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y
France Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Georgia Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y Y Y
Germany Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Greece Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y
Hungary Y Y N Y N Y Y Y N N Y Y
Iceland Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Ireland Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Italy Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Kazakhstan Y Y Y Y N N N N N N N Y
Kyrgyzstan N N N N N N N N N N Y Y
Latvia Y Y Y Y N Y N N N N Y Y
Liechtenstein Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y
Lithuania Y Y Y Y N Y N N N N Y Y
Luxembourg Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Macedonia, FYR of Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y
Malta Y Y Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y
Moldova, Republic of Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y
Monaco Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y
Netherlands Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y
Norway Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Poland Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y N N Y Y
Portugal Y Y N N Y Y Y Y N N Y Y
Romania Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y
Russian Federation Y Y Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y
San Marino N Y N Y N N N N N N N N
Serbia and Montenegro Y Y Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y
Slovak Republic Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y
Slovenia Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Spain Y Y N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Sweden Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Switzerland Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Tajikistan N N N N N N N N N N Y Y
Turkey Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y
Turkmenistan N N N N N N N N N N N N
Ukraine Y Y Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y
United Kingdom Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Uzbekistan Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y
(1) Date of ratification not available, thus progress cannot be measured.

Table A.1.4 Progress since Kiev — UNECE conventions
Convention Kiev Protocol Convention on Amendments Protocol on Protocol on Civil

on Access to the Protection Water and Liability and
Information, and Use of Health Compensation
Public Transboundary
Participation Watercourses
in Decision- and
making and International
Access to Justice Lakes (1992)
in Environmental
Matters (1998)
2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007
European Community N Y N Y Y Y N N N N N N
Albania Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y N N
Armenia Y Y N N N N N N N N N N
Austria N Y N N Y Y N N N N N N
Azerbaijan Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y N N
Belarus Y Y N N N Y N N N N N N
Belgium Y Y N N Y Y N N N Y N N
Bosnia and Herzegovina N N N N N N N N N N N N
Bulgaria N Y N N N Y N N N N N N
Croatia N Y N N Y Y N N N Y N N
Cyprus N Y N N N N N N N N N N
Czech Republic N Y N N Y Y N N Y Y N N
Denmark Y Y N N Y Y N N N N N N
Estonia Y Y N N Y Y N N N Y N N
Finland N Y N N Y Y N N N Y N N
France Y Y N N Y Y N N N Y N N
Georgia Y Y N N N N N N N N N N
Germany N Y N N Y Y N N N Y N N
Greece N Y N N Y Y N N N N N N
Hungary Y Y N N Y Y N Y Y Y N Y
Iceland N N N N N N N N N N N N
Ireland N N N N N N N N N N N N
Italy Y Y N N Y Y N N N N N N
Kazakhstan Y Y N N Y Y N N N N N N
Kyrgyzstan Y Y N N N N N N N N N N
Latvia Y Y N N Y Y N N N Y N N
Liechtenstein N N N N Y Y N N N N N N
Lithuania Y Y N N Y Y N N N Y N N
Luxembourg N Y N Y Y Y N Y Y Y N N
Macedonia, FYR of Y Y N N N N N N N N N N
Malta Y Y N N N N N N N N N N
Moldova, Republic of Y Y N N Y Y N N N Y N N
Monaco N N N N N N N N N N N N
Netherlands N Y N N Y Y N Y N N N N
Norway Y Y N N Y Y N N N Y N N
Poland Y Y N N Y Y N Y N N N N
Portugal N Y N N Y Y N N N Y N N
Romania Y Y N N Y Y N Y Y Y N N
Russian Federation N N N N Y Y N N Y Y N N
San Marino N N N N N N N N N N N N
Serbia and Montenegro N N N N N N N N N N N N
Slovak Republic N Y N N Y Y N N Y Y N N
Slovenia N Y N N Y Y N N N N N N
Spain N Y N N Y Y N N N N N N
Sweden N Y N N Y Y N Y N N N N
Switzerland N N N N Y Y N N N Y N N
Tajikistan Y Y N N N N N N N N N N
Turkey N N N N N N N N N N N N
Turkmenistan Y Y N N N N N N N N N N
Ukraine Y Y N N Y Y N N N Y N N
United Kingdom N Y N N N N N N N N N N
Uzbekistan N N N N N N N N N N N N

Table A.1.4 Progress since Kiev — UNECE conventions (cont.)
Convention Convention on First Second SEA Convention on Gothenburg

on the Environmental Amendment Amendment Protocol Long-range Protocol
Transboundary Impact Transboundary
Effects of Assessment Air Pollution
Industrial in a (1979)
Accidents Transboundary
(1992) Context (1991)
2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007
European Community Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N Y
Albania Y Y Y Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N N
Andorra N N N N N N N N N N N N N N
Armenia Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N N
Austria Y Y Y Y N Y N Y N N Y Y N N
Azerbaijan N Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N N
Belarus N Y N Y N N N N N N Y Y N N
Belgium N Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N N
Bosnia and Herzegovina N N N N N N N N N N Y Y N N
Bulgaria Y Y Y Y N Y N Y N Y Y Y N Y
Croatia Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N N
Cyprus N Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N N
Czech Republic Y Y Y Y N N N N N Y Y Y N Y
Denmark Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y Y Y
Estonia Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N N
Finland Y Y Y Y N N N N N Y Y Y N Y
France N Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N N
Georgia N N N N N N N N N N Y Y N N
Germany Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N Y Y Y N Y
Greece Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N N
Hungary Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N Y
Iceland N N N N N N N N N N Y Y N N
Ireland N N Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N N
Italy Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N N
Kazakhstan Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N N
Kyrgyzstan N N Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N N
Latvia N Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N Y
Liechtenstein N N Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N N
Lithuania Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N Y
Luxembourg Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y Y Y
Macedonia, FYR of N N Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N N
Malta N N N N N N N N N N Y Y N N
Moldova, Republic of Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N N
Monaco Y Y N N N N N N N N Y Y N N
Netherlands N N Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N Y
Norway Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y Y Y
Poland N Y Y Y N Y N N N N Y Y N N
Portugal N N Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N Y
Romania Y Y Y Y N Y N N N N Y Y N Y
Russian Federation Y Y N N N N N N N N Y Y N N
San Marino N N N N N N N N N N N N N N
Serbia and Montenegro N N N N N N N N N N Y Y (*) N N
Slovak Republic N Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N Y
Slovenia Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N Y
Spain Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N Y
Sweden Y Y Y Y N Y N Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Switzerland Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N Y
Tajikistan N N N N N N N N N N N N N N
Turkey N N N N N N N N N N Y Y N N
Turkmenistan N N N N N N N N N N N N N N
Ukraine N N Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N N
United Kingdom Y Y Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N Y
Uzbekistan N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

Table A.1.4 Progress since Kiev — UNECE conventions (cont.)
POPs Protocol Protocol on Sulphur VOC NOX Sulphur EMEP

Heavy Metals Protocol Protocol Protocol reduction by Protocol
30 % Protocol
2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007
European Community N Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y
Albania N N N N N N N N N N N N N N
Andorra N N N N N N N N N N N N N N
Armenia N N N N N N N N N N N N N N
Austria Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Azerbaijan N N N N N N N N N N N N N N
Belarus N N N N N N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y
Belgium N Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Bosnia and Herzegovina N N N N N N N N N N N N Y Y
Bulgaria Y Y N Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Croatia N N N N Y Y N N N N N N Y Y
Cyprus N Y N Y N Y N N N Y N N Y Y
Czech Republic Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Denmark Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Estonia N Y N Y N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Finland Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
France N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Georgia N N N N N N N N N N N N N N
Germany Y Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Greece N N N N Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y
Hungary N Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Iceland N Y N N N N N N N N N N N N
Ireland N N N N Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y
Italy N Y N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Kazakhstan N N N N N N N N N N N N N N
Kyrgyzstan N N N N N N N N N N N N N N
Latvia N Y N Y N N N N N N N N Y Y
Liechtenstein N Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Lithuania N Y N Y N N N N N Y N Y N Y
Luxembourg Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Macedonia, FYR of N N N N N N N N N N N N N N
Malta N N N N N N N N N N N N Y Y
Moldova, Republic of Y Y Y Y N N N N N N N N N N
Monaco N N N Y Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y
Netherlands Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Norway Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Poland N N N N N N N N N N N N Y Y
Portugal N N N N N N N N N N N N Y Y
Romania N Y N Y N N N N N N N N Y Y
Russian Federation N N N N N N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y
San Marino N N N N N N N N N N N N N N
Serbia and Montenegro N N N N N N N N N N N N Y Y (*)
Slovak Republic Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Slovenia N Y N Y Y Y N N N Y N N Y Y
Spain N N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y
Sweden Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Switzerland Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Tajikistan N N N N N N N N N N N N N N
Turkey N N N N N N N N N N N N Y Y
Turkmenistan N N N N N N N N N N N N N N
Ukraine N N N N N N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y
United Kingdom N Y N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y
Uzbekistan N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

Table A.1.5 Progress since Kiev — regional conventions/agreements
Framework Framework Framework Protocol Convention Convention

Convention Convention Agreement on the on the on
for the on the on the Sava Navigation Protection of Cooperation
Protection of Protection River Basin Regime the Rhine for the
the Marine and (2002) (1999) Protection
Environment Sustainable and
of the Development Sustainable
Caspian Sea of the Use of the
(2003) Carpathians River Danube
(2003) (1994)
2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007
European Community Y Y Y Y
Albania
Andorra
Armenia
Austria Y Y
Azerbaijan N Y
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina N Y N Y
Bulgaria Y Y
Croatia N Y N Y Y Y
Cyprus
Czech Republic N Y
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France Y Y
Georgia
Germany Y Y Y Y
Greece
Hungary N Y Y Y
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Kazakhstan N Y
Kyrgyzstan
Latvia
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Luxembourg Y Y
Macedonia, FYR of
Malta
Moldova, Republic of Y Y
Monaco
Netherlands Y Y
Norway
Poland N Y
Portugal
Romania N Y Y Y
Russian Federation N Y
San Marino
Serbia and Montenegro N N N Y N Y
Slovak Republic N Y Y Y
Slovenia N Y N Y
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland Y Y
Tajikistan
Turkey
Turkmenistan N Y
Ukraine N Y Y Y
United Kingdom
Uzbekistan

Table A.1.5 Progress since Kiev — regional conventions/agreements (cont.)
Alpine Protocol On Protocol on Protocol on Additional Protocol on Protocol on

Convention Environmental Mountain Land-use Protocol for Mountain Tourism
(1993) Protection and Farming Planning and Monaco forests
Landscape Sustainable
Management Development
2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007
European Community Y Y N N N Y N N Y Y N N N Y
Albania
Andorra
Armenia
Austria Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Belgium
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France Y Y N Y Y Y N Y Y Y N Y N Y
Georgia
Germany Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy Y Y N N N N N N N N N N N N
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Latvia
Liechtenstein Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macedonia, FYR of
Malta
Moldova, Republic of
Monaco Y Y N Y N N Y Y Y Y N N Y Y
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russian Federation
San Marino
Slovak Republic
Slovenia Y Y N Y N Y N Y Y Y N Y N Y
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland Y Y N N N N N N Y Y N N N N
Tajikistan
Turkey
Turkmenistan
Ukraine
United Kingdom
Uzbekistan

Protocol on Protocol Protocol on Protocol on Convention for Convention on

Energy on Soil Transport Composition the Protection the Protection
Conservation of of the Marine of the Black
Controversies Environment of Sea against
the North-East Pollution
Atlantic (1992)
(1992)
2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007
European Community N Y N Y N N N N Y Y
Albania
Andorra
Armenia
Austria Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Belgium Y Y
Bulgaria Y Y
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark Y Y
Estonia
Finland Y Y
France N Y N Y N Y Y Y Y Y
Georgia Y Y
Germany Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Greece
Hungary
Iceland Y Y
Ireland Y Y
Italy N N N N N N N N
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Latvia
Liechtenstein Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Lithuania
Luxembourg Y Y
Macedonia, FYR of
Malta
Monaco N N Y Y N N Y Y
Netherlands Y Y
Norway Y Y
Poland
Portugal Y Y
Romania Y Y
Russian Federation Y Y
San Marino
Slovak Republic
Slovenia N Y N Y N Y N Y
Spain Y Y
Sweden Y Y
Switzerland N N N N N N N N Y Y
Tajikistan
Turkey Y Y
Turkmenistan
Ukraine Y Y
United Kingdom Y Y
Uzbekistan

Convention Agreement Convention for 1995 Dumping 1995 Emergency

on the on the the Protection Amendments Protocol Amendments Protocol
Protection of Conservation of the to the to the
the Marine of Small Mediterranean Convention Dumping
Environment Cetaceans Sea against Protocol
of the Baltic of the Baltic Pollution
Sea Area and North (1976)
(1992) Seas
(1992)
2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007
European Community Y Y N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Albania Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Andorra
Armenia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Belgium Y Y
Bosnia and Herzegovina Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y
Bulgaria
Croatia Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Cyprus Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y Y Y
Czech Republic
Denmark Y Y Y Y
Estonia Y Y
Finland Y Y Y Y
France N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Georgia
Germany Y Y Y Y
Greece Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Latvia Y Y
Liechtenstein
Lithuania Y Y N Y
Luxembourg
Macedonia, FYR of
Malta Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Monaco Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Netherlands Y Y
Norway
Poland Y Y Y Y
Portugal
Romania
Russian Federation Y Y
San Marino
Serbia and Montenegro Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y
Slovak Republic
Slovenia Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Spain Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Sweden Y Y Y Y
Switzerland
Tajikistan
Turkey Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Turkmenistan
Ukraine
United Kingdom Y Y
Uzbekistan

Prevention LBS Protocol 1996 SPA Protocol SPA & 1995 Hazardous
and Amendments Biodiversity Amendments Wastes
Emergency to LBS Protocol to the Protocol
Protocol Protocol Dumping
Protocol
2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007 2003 2007
European Community N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Albania N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Andorra
Armenia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina N N Y Y N N Y Y N N N N N N
Bulgaria
Croatia N Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Cyprus N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y N N
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Georgia
Germany
Greece N N Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N N N
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Latvia
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Macedonia, FYR of
Malta Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
Monaco Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russian Federation
San Marino
Serbia and Montenegro N N Y Y N N Y Y N N N N N N
Slovak Republic
Slovenia N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Spain N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N
Sweden
Switzerland
Tajikistan
Turkey N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N Y
Turkmenistan
Ukraine
United Kingdom
Uzbekistan

Annex 2 | Country statistics
Annex 2 Country statistics
Socio-economy
Population Population Total area % change GDP GDP per Economic structural change (sector's
density 2000–2005 capita in contribution to gross value added):
constant 2000–2005 (1)
2000 USD
Year 2005 2005 2005 (1) 2000–2005 (1) 2005 (1) Agriculture Industry Manufacturing Services
Unit 1 000 capita Capita/km² km² % USD/capita % % % %

Albania 3 130 109 28 750 30 1 535 20 26 – 34
Andorra 66 141 470 – – – – – –
Armenia 3 016 101 29 800 78 1 128 53 103 50 73
Austria 8 211 98 83 870 7 25 230 4 8 – 4
Azerbaijan 8 388 97 86 600 88 1 182 31 60 42 37
Belarus 9 776 47 207 600 43 1 868 29 68 71 31
Belgium 10 500 344 30 530 7 23 316 2 2 – 8
Bosnia and 3 907 76 51 210 28 1 486 10 21 26 29
Herzegovina
Bulgaria 7 741 70 110 990 27 2 071 – 1 32 36 29
Croatia 4 444 79 56 540 24 5 138 3 28 21 27
Cyprus 835 90 9 250 12 12 439 – – – –
Czech Republic 10 200 129 78 870 19 6 513 23 12 20 11
Denmark 5 418 126 43 090 8 31 607 2 – 3 – 8
Estonia 1 345 30 45 230 44 5 866 – 8 47 54 27
Finland 5 245 16 338 150 12 25 591 – 4 7 – 11
France 60 700 110 551 500 8 23 658 1 5 – 7
Georgia 4 474 64 69 700 42 971 21 73 33 43
Germany 82 500 231 357 030 4 23 924 2 1 – 6
Greece 11 100 84 131 960 22 12 355 1 17 – 21
Hungary 10 100 109 93 030 22 5 684 28 21 26 21
Iceland 295 3 103 000 16 33 133 – – – –
Ireland 4 151 59 70 270 28 29 295 – – – –
Italy 57 500 191 301 340 4 19 377 0 1 – 3 5
Kazakhstan 15 100 6 2 724 900 63 1 978 32 73 59 67
Kyrgyzstan 5 156 26 199 900 20 319 14 – 2 – 1 41
Latvia 2 300 36 64 590 47 5 023 17 39 37 34
Liechtenstein 34 215 160 – – – – – –
Lithuania 3 415 52 65 300 44 4 838 14 63 61 36
Luxembourg 457 176 2 590 16 49 980 – 20 12 – 11
Macedonia, Former 2 034 79 25 710 7 1 889 0 4 6 11
Yugoslav Republic of
Malta 404 1263 320 0.20 9 604 – – – –
Moldova, Republic of 4 206 124 33 840 40 429 14 53 42 31
Monaco 33 – – – – – – – –
Netherlands 16 300 392 41 530 4 23 578 – 1 – 1 – 5
Norway 4 618 14 323 800 10 39 666 1 0 – 11
Poland 38 200 122 312 690 16 5 190 17 16 33 15
Portugal 10 600 115 92 120 2 10 268 4 – 3 – 6
Romania 21 600 91 238 390 32 2 262 60 32 – 29
Russian Federation 143 000 8 17 098 240 35 2 447 26 33 – 36
San Marino 28 473 60 – – – – – –
Serbia and 8 168 80 102 170 30 1 369 – 10 11 – 31
Montenegro
Slovakia 5 387 110 49 030 27 4 761 27 35 42 23
Slovenia 1 998 99 20 270 18 11 382 – 2 19 23 20
Spain 43 400 86 505 370 17 15 605 – 2 12 4 13
Sweden 9 024 20 450 290 11 29 532 11 13 – 6
Switzerland 7 441 180 41 280 5 34 752 – – – –
Tajikistan 6 507 46 142 550 58 237 67 68 – 38
Turkey 72 600 93 783 560 24 3 392 6 22 26 24
Turkmenistan 4 833 10 488 100 – 753 – – – –
Ukraine 47 100 78 603 550 45 959 23 55 69 40
United Kingdom 60 200 247 243 610 12 26 689 1 0 – 13
Uzbekistan 26 600 59 447 400 30 673 38 21 11 30
Source WB WB/FAO FAO WB WB WB WB WB WB
Accessed Sep. 2006 Sep. 2006 Mar. 2007 Sep. 2006 Sep. 2006 Sep. 2006 Sep. 2006 Sep. 2006 Sep. 2006
Note: – Not available

(1) or most recent available figures (in blue font)
(2) Serbia and Montenegro: average of the values of the two countries
(3) data are for Belgium-Luxembourg.

Socio-economy Health
Household Unemployment International Ageing of Population Life Infant Incidence of
expenditure as % of total net migration population: growth expectancy mortality respiratory
labour force rate % of total at birth infections
population under 5 years
above 65
Year 2005 (1) 2004 (1) 2005 2005 2005 2005 (1) (2) 2004 2005 (1)
Unit Million USD % Per 1 000 % % Years Rate per Incidence per
total 1 000 live 100 000
population births
Albania 4 035 15.17 – 6.5 8.3 0.6 76.24 17 40.41
Andorra – – – – 0.3 – 6 –
Armenia 2 777 – – 6.6 12.1 – 0.3 73.08 29 33.99
Austria 113 426 4.9 2.5 16.7 0.5 79.70 5 0
Azerbaijan 5 422 – – 2.4 7.1 1.0 71.68 75 187.06
Belarus 12 673 – – 0.2 14.7 – 0.5 68.84 9 3.81
Belgium 130 309 7.4 1.3 17.6 0.5 – 4 –
Bosnia and – – 2.1 14.0 – 0.1 – 13 –
Herzegovina
Bulgaria 11 462 13.7 – 1.3 16.8 – 0.3 72.60 12 47.55
Croatia 13 576 14.3 4.4 17.2 0.0 75.44 6 4.24
Cyprus – 4.1 7.1 12.1 1.1 79.54 5 0
Czech Republic 33 189 8.3 1 14.2 – 0.2 76.19 4 2.92
Denmark 79 806 5.2 2.3 15.0 0.3 77.30 4 1.50
Estonia 4 125 10 – 1.5 16.5 – 0.3 72.89 6 5.93
Finland 66 071 8.9 1.6 15.9 0.3 79.36 3 1.05
France 803 262 9.9 1 16.6 0.6 79.44 4 0.92
Georgia 3 944 11.5 – 10.8 14.3 – 1.0 73.10 41 52.88
Germany 1 135 898 9.8 2.7 18.8 0.0 79.36 4 1.38
Greece 88 143 10.2 3.2 18.2 0.3 79.05 4 5.01
Hungary 39 626 6.1 1 15.2 – 0.2 73.02 7 7.13
Iceland 5 432 3.1 1.2 11.8 1.0 81.18 2 4.69
Ireland 50 722 4.4 9.8 10.9 2.0 79.59 5 1.65
Italy 674 415 8 2.1 20.0 – 0.2 80.09 4 1.44
Kazakhstan 18 005 8.8 –8 8.5 0.9 65.89 63 52.28
Kyrgyzstan 1 325 9.9 – 2.9 6.1 1.2 67.72 58 154.20
Latvia 7 137 10.6 –1 16.9 – 0.6 71.06 10 6.74
Liechtenstein – – – – 1.2 – 4 –
Lithuania 10 941 12.4 – 1.1 15.5 – 0.6 71.33 8 11.87
Luxembourg 8 744 4.8 8.7 13.8 0.8 79.71 5 0
Macedonia, Former 2 773 36.7 –1 11.1 0.2 73.54 13 13.66
Malta – 7.9 2.8 13.5 0.7 79.44 5 15.33
Moldova, Republic of 1 772 7.9 – 1.9 10.1 – 0.3 67.76 23 48.68
Monaco – – – – 1.2 – 4 –
Netherlands 188 514 4.3 1.9 14.1 0.3 79.42 5 1.29
Norway 80 023 4.4 2.6 15.0 0.6 80.17 4 0.34
Poland 123 470 19 – 0.4 12.9 0.0 74.99 7 4.27
Portugal 68 898 6.7 4.8 17.1 0.5 78.31 4 2.69
Romania 41 242 7 – 1.4 14.8 – 0.2 71.88 17 111.67
Russian Federation 188 326 8.6 0.6 13.8 – 0.5 65.37 17 17.79
San Marino – 3.1 – – 1.4 – 3 –
Serbia and 10 650 15.2 – 1.9 14.1 0.3 73.50 13 –
Montenegro
Slovakia 13 524 18.1 0.2 11.8 0.1 74.30 6 15.29
Slovenia 12 641 6.6 1 15.6 0.1 77.58 4 1.11
Spain 393 348 11 9.7 16.5 1.6 80.46 3 1.01
Sweden 123 922 6.5 3.5 17.2 0.4 80.09 3 0.86
Switzerland 151 706 4.3 1.1 16.0 0.7 81.44 5 0.55
Tajikistan – – – 10.9 3.9 1.2 72.01 91 152.60
Turkey 168 657 10.3 – 0.7 5.4 1.3 68.90 28 –
Turkmenistan – – – 0.4 4.7 1.4 – 80 –
Ukraine 28 454 8.6 – 2.9 16.1 – 0.7 67.30 14 10.79
United Kingdom 1 064 780 4.6 2.3 16.0 0.6 79.04 5 2.42
Uzbekistan – – – 2.3 4.7 1.5 70.54 57 199.65
Source WB WB UNSD WB WB WHO UNICEF WHO
Accessed Sep. 2006 Sep. 2006 May 2006 Sep. 2006 Sep. 2006 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007

Health Air quality

Incidence of Hepatitis A Population Ozone precursor % change PM precursor % change
diarrhoeal incidence relying on solid emissions per ozone precursor emissions per PM precursor
diseases under fuels capita emissions capita emissions
5 years
Year 2005 (1) 2005 (1) (2) 2002 2004 2000–2004 2004 2000–2004
Unit Incidence per Incidence per % of population Kg NMVOC % Kg/capita %

100 000 100 000 eq/capita
Albania 0 0 50 26.66 – 0.07 24.85 0
Andorra – 0 5 – – – –
Armenia 8.63 18.06 26 19.86 45.39 9.16 108.11
Austria 0.25 1.96 5 65.53 2.86 37.06 7.14
Azerbaijan 34.82 13.99 49 11.56 1.85 7.46 0
Belarus 0.67 19.31 19 60.55 24.97 31.25 – 9.99
Belgium – 5.16 5 66.18 – 11.31 44.11 – 9.05
Bosnia and – 0 51 33.85 – 0.04 82.45 0
Herzegovina
Bulgaria 3.31 67.63 17 62.17 – 19.21 106.36 – 0.38
Croatia 0 1.44 12 47.09 – 4.87 30.88 13.58
Cyprus 0 1.08 5 48.93 – 22.82 54.49 – 15.54
Czech Republic 0 3.15 5 65.96 – 17.05 49.29 – 13.87
Denmark 1.19 0.92 5 75.81 – 6.37 49.31 – 7.46
Estonia 0 1.34 15 78.15 – 7.92 86.36 – 13.41
Finland 0.35 0.50 5 86.77 – 10.95 57.99 – 4.32
France 0.97 – 5 58.85 – 13.98 38.68 – 10.50
Georgia 3.46 19.71 42 24.11 3.21 23.06 1.56
Germany 0.31 1.48 5 44.22 – 17.53 27.48 – 12.08
Greece 0 1.62 5 71.53 – 6.30 60.98 1.51
Hungary 0.42 2.78 5 44.96 – 4.45 38.77 – 24.41
Iceland 0 0.34 5 166 – 0.02 133 0
Ireland 0 1.16 5 59.92 – 16.47 56.99 – 17.12
Italy 0.23 0.65 5 58.39 – 12.18 31.70 – 12.37
Kazakhstan 5.14 70.49 5 25.83 0.94 45.92 0
Kyrgyzstan 29.64 277.59 76 1.52 0 8.76 0
Latvia 0.96 6.30 10 65.38 11.06 26.39 5.96
Liechtenstein – – – 35.05 3.69 13.53 – 15.88
Lithuania 0 2.17 5 45.55 2.98 30.02 26.04
Luxembourg 0 0.22 5 83.51 – 4.62 52.68 – 4.64
Macedonia, Former 8.53 34.71 30 38.21 8.11 43.68 0.43
Malta 0 1.49 5 53.56 – 5.36 53.24 – 28.04
Moldova, Republic of 7.44 40.08 63 23.46 50.32 16.56 36.52
Monaco – – 5 31.16 – 30.07 11.66 – 31.20
Netherlands 0.20 1.32 5 45.01 – 12.18 29.37 – 9.13
Norway 0 1.21 5 127.11 – 18.61 60.71 – 4.20
Poland 0.06 0.25 5 51.66 – 2.92 48.70 – 8.69
Portugal 0.36 2.67 5 66.55 – 2.89 49.24 – 10.20
Romania 8.46 38.19 23 41.58 2.90 49.07 8.44
Russian Federation 3.86 1.15 7 52.08 11.96 31.83 28.42
San Marino – 0 5 – – – –
Serbia and – 13.96 – 8.83 5.83 31.72 2.16
Montenegro
Slovakia 0.39 9.80 5 44.87 – 3.57 35.59 – 14.38
Slovenia 1.12 0.60 8 63.49 – 6.69 49.92 – 21.72
Spain 0.27 2.46 5 76.92 0.35 59.39 – 0.96
Sweden 0 0.98 5 62.81 – 10.55 33.85 – 6.08
Switzerland 0.28 2.07 5 33.09 – 18.52 19.19 – 10.02
Tajikistan 88.53 145.75 75 – – – –
Turkey – 12.61 11 32.53 – 0.09 29.12 0
Turkmenistan – 74.99 5 – – – –
Ukraine 2.01 66.59 6 29.53 5.91 26.88 – 14.97
United Kingdom 0.09 0.77 5 56 – 18.68 37.50 – 15.65
Uzbekistan 2.37 134.18 72 – – – –
Source WHO WHO WHO EEA EEA EEA EEA
Accessed Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007

Chemicals Inland water Climate change

Chemical Overall Water Exploitation Percentage of the Total % change total % change
industry sales chemicals: Index total population greenhouse greenhouse in fugitive
turnover, with access to gas emissions gas emission greenhouse
% change improved water per capita gas emissions
sources
Year 2005 (1) 2000–2004 2002 and 2004 2004 2004 2000–2004 2000–2004
Unit Million EUR % % % Tonnes CO2 % %

eq/capita
Albania – – – 96 3.24 20.87 166.17
Andorra – – – 100 – – –
Armenia – – 27 92 1.71 0.97 0
Austria 7 882 2.06 4 100 11.17 12.35 18.23
Azerbaijan – – 38 77 4.65 16.17 – 97.73
Belarus – – 2 100 7.57 6.56 11.76
Belgium 38 947 33.96 – – 14.22 0.31 – 8.86
Bosnia and – – 0.86 97 2.36 23.18 24.68
Herzegovina
Bulgaria 775 – 4.80 34 99 8.70 5.07 – 0.10
Croatia – – 0.73 100 6.52 11.68 10.95
Cyprus 199 18.75 55 100 10.82 4.71 0
Czech Republic 5 620 44.54 12 100 14.42 – 1.38 – 8.49
Denmark 8 022 7.77 4 100 12.60 – 0.12 5.30
Estonia 358 52.71 7 100 15.81 10.63 – 5.53
Finland 6 624 13.15 2 100 15.58 16.39 – 7.63
France 95 709 14.05 18 100 9.32 0.22 – 20.09
Georgia – – 4 82 1.89 25.52 26.42
Germany 152 833 5.25 20 100 12.31 – 0.74 – 23.21
Greece 2 914 15.25 12 – 12.40 4.46 10.70
Hungary 5 877 107.69 5 99 8.22 2.52 – 15.98
Iceland – – 0 100 10.66 – 5.76 0
Ireland 34 549 38.21 – – 16.83 – 0.39 – 13.45
Italy 76 654 8.44 24 – 10.11 5.03 – 14.11
Kazakhstan – – 23 86 12.30 20.43 1.56
Kyrgyzstan – – 19 77 1.72 13.01 – 10.04
Latvia 190 41.08 1 99 4.65 8.23 – 21.75
Liechtenstein – – – – 7.97 4.66 22.95
Lithuania 610 38.63 13 – 5.91 – 2.56 –
Luxembourg – – 4 100 28.07 31.31 37.91
Macedonia, Former – – 28.86 – 5.93 1.77 0
Malta 102 27.78 26 100 8.06 13.10 0
Moldova, Republic of – – 7 92 3.46 8.55 – 4.60
Monaco – – – 100 3.16 – 11 –
Netherlands 40 000 12.30 10 100 13.36 1.52 – 10.01
Norway 5 180 29.83 – 100 11.96 2.68 – 22.66
Poland 10 215 54.81 19 – 10.11 0.16 3.66
Portugal 4 292 13.90 15 – 8.05 2.88 71.45
Romania 2 422 45.46 17 57 7.13 17.28 – 1.15
Russian Federation – – 2 97 14.40 4.14 –
San Marino – – – – – – –
Serbia and – – 1.16 93 2.81 5.30 – 1.84
Montenegro
Slovakia 1 877 20.86 1 100 9.48 3.33 – 13.98
Slovenia 3 775 39.26 1 – 10.04 6.57 17.96
Spain 43 215 16.43 33 100 10.02 11.36 – 3.61
Sweden 14 680 18.74 1 100 7.77 2.14 – 5.03
Switzerland 37 242 41.46 5 100 7.17 2.64 – 14.56
Tajikistan – – 11 59 0.85 24.15 –
Turkey 8 449 – 22.14 17 96 4.10 5.34 – 23.97
Turkmenistan – – 41 72 8.23 8.40 12.50
Ukraine – – 7 96 8.70 4.64 – 0.92
United Kingdom 57 605 – 13.02 23 100 11.01 – 0.63 – 21.42
Uzbekistan – – 81 82 4.94 7.57 – 21.80
Source CEFIC CEFIC EEA/UNSD/CISSTAT WHO/UNICEF EEA EEA EEA
Accessed Mar. 2007 Sep. 2006 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007

Climate change Nature and biodiversity

% change % change % change in % change in % change in Protected Forest Forest area Share of
in energy in greenhouse greenhouse greenhouse areas as % area as % change wood fuel
industries greenhouse gas gas gas of total area of total in total
gas emissions emissions emissions land area wood
emissions from from from waste removals
from industry agriculture
transport processes
Year 2000–2004 2000–2004 2000–2004 2000–2004 2000–2004 2006 2005 2000–2005 2005
Unit % % % % % % % % %
Albania – 12.12 56.41 0 0 0 2.94 28.98 3.25 85.71
Andorra – – – – – 7.22 35.56 0 –
Armenia – 52.19 1.75 – 0 0 10.04 10.04 – 7.21 87.91
Austria 25.34 31.66 – 1.40 – 5.65 – 2.07 27.99 46.68 0.63 21.21
Azerbaijan – 9.84 35.97 159.81 – – 7.31 11.33 0 43.75
Belarus 6.49 41.68 44.71 – 2.31 50.97 6.34 38.05 0.59 14.53
Belgium 5.21 10.35 – 4.55 – 8.64 – 28.85 3.29 22.03 0 13.74
Bosnia and – 8.90 56.66 0 0 0 0.53 43.07 0 27.69
Herzegovina
Bulgaria 7.93 25.69 2.48 – 5.34 19.15 9.53 32.77 7.41 26.79
Croatia 15.82 21.13 – 4.37 3.05 15.37 6.49 38.18 0.28 26.02
Cyprus 2.46 – 0.13 26.02 10.42 12.72 4.01 18.83 0.58 30.77
Czech Republic – 2.50 36.26 – 2.70 – 4.17 5.39 15.79 34.27 0.42 5.54
Denmark 1.13 7.21 – 9.12 – 5.76 – 5.73 8.75 11.78 2.88 50.19
Estonia 11.52 108.25 98.11 – 6.15 – 32.76 30.95 53.88 1.83 21.87
Finland 50.57 7.56 10.97 – 5.29 – 19.88 7.81 73.90 0.11 8.09
France – 2.26 3.37 – 2.50 – 5.66 – 12.28 11.77 28.27 1.32 35.03
Georgia – 13.95 57.43 – 0 0 4.01 39.72 0 77.22
Germany 4.70 – 6.29 6.19 – 5.09 – 33.10 29.95 31.74 0 10.32
Greece 4.59 12.63 2.47 – 3.41 – 17.03 2.79 29.11 4.19 76.22
Hungary – 12.06 17.93 0.28 8.39 – 8.06 8.92 21.45 3.62 38.12
Iceland 2.02 10.56 – 31.28 – 9.82 0.48 5.57 0.46 21.05
Ireland – 5.07 18.23 – 24.29 – 3.71 11.07 0.68 9.71 9.85 0.78
Italy 9.22 6.56 20.02 – 5.18 – 5.82 12.52 33.93 5.63 60.42
Kazakhstan 22.47 – 33.93 10.90 20.51 2.86 1.24 – 0.83 –
Kyrgyzstan – 22.90 73.77 – 0 0 3.58 4.53 1.28 67.57
Latvia – 14.72 27.25 31.41 7.60 5.95 13.71 47.40 1.94 8
Liechtenstein 37.66 3.30 40 – 0.81 7.33 40.05 43.75 0 23.81
Lithuania – 9.65 6.89 6.03 11.33 – 8.94 10.67 33.49 3.91 23.89
Luxembourg 51.50 40.01 6.61 – 5.68 – 9.75 17.05 33.59 0 2.88
Macedonia, Former – 4.88 – 4.62 – 3.60 – 1.71 – 2.63 7.13 35.80 0 82.52
Malta 15.78 15.78 106.98 13.48 – 12.15 1.36 – – 0
Moldova, Republic of – 6.85 67.85 0 0 0 1.40 10.01 0.92 52.31
Monaco – 30 – 3.17 780.52 0 4.35 25.50 – – –
Netherlands 10.80 5.37 – 23.82 – 7.86 – 18.17 14.33 10.77 1.39 28.33
Norway 22.76 8.17 – 9.61 – 3.97 – 10.36 4.76 30.65 0.92 17.23
Poland 2.39 19.26 3.03 27.47 – 43.29 27.17 30.01 1.47 4.01
Portugal 2.43 3.40 16.50 0.69 – 3.99 4.89 41.34 5.58 6.20
Romania 4.97 75.82 12.95 13.38 5.88 5.04 27.71 0.06 34
Russian Federation 3.69 – 15.54 – 0.91 12.75 8.46 47.89 – 0.06 28.11
San Marino – – – – – – – – –
Serbia and – 6.23 63.99 0 0 0 – 26.41 1.70 49.96
Montenegro
Slovakia – 0.18 26.01 24.16 – 6.72 8.59 25.19 40.12 0.42 5.35
Slovenia 14.56 12.37 18.55 – 7.43 1.99 7.32 62.76 2.02 16.84
Spain 9.66 17.25 – 5.22 – 1.76 11.04 7.77 35.87 9 11.01
Sweden 30.35 5.14 3.34 – 1.47 – 9.93 9.13 66.88 0.20 10.47
Switzerland 16.93 – 1.05 7.94 – 1.69 – 4.24 28.70 30.87 1.83 18.60
Tajikistan – 22.22 54.11 – – – 18.19 2.93 0 100
Turkey – 0.81 16.08 11.63 – 5.91 – 5.15 3.92 13.22 1.22 60.52
Turkmenistan 18.25 13.71 – – – 4.05 8.78 0 100
Ukraine 2.39 11.75 10.41 – 7.51 5.15 3.42 16.53 0.68 55.06
United Kingdom 8.35 4.19 – 12.97 – 7.16 – 33.66 18.29 11.81 1.86 2.98
Uzbekistan 9.36 3.85 – – – 4.58 7.95 2.58 70
Source EEA EEA EEA EEA EEA UNEP/WCMC UNECE/FAO UNECE/FAO UNECE/FAO
Accessed Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Feb. 2007 Dec. 2006 Dec. 2006 Dec. 2006

Marine Sustainable production and

consumption
Total fish % change Aquaculture % change Domestic Extraction Used Municipal waste collected
catches total fish production aquaculture per capita per capita
catches quantities production
(quantities)
Year 2005 2000–2005 2005 2000–2005 2002 (3) 2005 (1)
Unit Tonnes % Tonnes % Tonnes/capita Kg/capita

Albania 3 802 14 1 473 379 2.97 –
Andorra 1 0 – – – –
Armenia 220 – 81 814 –9 7.72 145
Austria 370 – 16 2 423 – 15 15.45 630
Azerbaijan 9 001 – 52 16 – 87 5.84 209
Belarus 900 63 4 150 – 38 13.25 271
Belgium 24 568 – 18 1 200 – 36 13.71 462
Bosnia and 2 000 0 7 070 – 7.01 –
Herzegovina
Bulgaria 5 436 – 22 3 146 – 14 10.98 464
Croatia 34 683 65 13 782 107 9.16 504
Cyprus 1 917 – 97 2 333 24 14.53 662
Czech Republic 4 243 –9 20 455 5 17.08 290
Denmark 910 616 – 41 39 012 – 11 20.93 736
Estonia 99 582 – 12 555 147 27.62 437
Finland 131 741 – 16 14 355 –7 22.70 467
France 651 007 –7 258 480 –3 20.05 560
Georgia 3 000 68 72 – 16 2.20 307
Germany 285 669 39 44 685 – 32 17.30 601
Greece 92 743 –7 106 208 11 17.43 437
Hungary 7 609 7 13 661 6 10.09 459
Iceland 1 682 128 – 16 8 257 128 22.04 518
Ireland 292 034 –7 60 050 17 22.84 733
Italy 299 978 –1 180 943 – 16 13.16 551
Kazakhstan 31 000 – 15 590 – 28 25.85 –
Kyrgyzstan 7 – 87 20 – 66 10.87 315
Latvia 150 618 10 542 67 12.11 311
Liechtenstein 1 0 – – – –
Lithuania 139 787 77 2 013 1 8.74 379
Luxembourg 1 0 – – – 703
Macedonia, Former 246 18 869 – 47 11.64 –
Malta 1 436 33 736 – 58 8.78 609
Moldova, Republic of 531 54 4 470 352 3.15 290
Monaco 2 – 33 – – –
Netherlands 549 208 11 68 175 – 10 17.86 625
Norway 2 546 844 – 12 656 637 34 66.88 757
Poland 156 247 – 28 36 607 2 14.58 245
Portugal 212 382 11 6 486 – 14 12.19 443
Romania 6 068 – 18 7 284 – 25 7.52 383
Russian Federation 3 241 332 – 20 114 997 49 17.16 257
San Marino – – – – – –
Serbia and 2 469 94 4 554 23 8.82 –
Montenegro
Slovakia 1 694 24 957 8 9.28 289
Slovenia 1 229 – 34 1 536 30 17.85 423
Spain 849 261 – 20 221 928 – 29 13.53 592
Sweden 256 360 – 24 5 880 22 23.30 482
Switzerland 1 475 – 11 1 215 10 13.11 664
Tajikistan 184 136 26 – 70 1.78 –
Turkey 426 496 – 15 119 177 51 6.64 410
Turkmenistan 15 000 23 17 – 76 16.24 –
Ukraine 245 473 – 37 28 746 –7 8.76 411
United Kingdom 669 473 – 10 172 813 13 16.44 582
Uzbekistan 1 625 – 51 3 800 – 33 7.63 –
Source FAO FAO FAO FAO MOSUS Project ETC/RWM
Accessed Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Oct. 2006 Mar. 2007

Agriculture Energy
Agricultural Agricultural Fertilisers Pesticides Irrigated Total energy Total energy Renewable
area as % area: input per consumption land as % of consumption consumption: % share in
of total land % change hectare of per agricultural per capita change total energy
area agricultural hectare of land area consumption
land area agricultural
land area
Year 2005 2000–2005 2002 (3) 2001 (1) (3) 2003 (3) 2004 2000–2004 2004
Unit % % Kg/ha Kg/ha % Toe/capita % %

Albania 41 – 2 31 – 31.49 0.8 40 26
Andorra 55 0 – – – – – –
Armenia 49 0 8 – 20.58 0.7 3 8
Austria 40 – 4 62 0.85 0.12 4.1 15 21
Azerbaijan 58 0 4 – 30.60 1.6 12 2
Belarus 43 – 4 84 – 1.47 2.7 9 4
Belgium 46 0 190 5.34 – 5.5 – 2 2
Bosnia and 42 1 15 – 0.14 1.2 17 15
Herzegovina
Bulgaria 48 – 6 31 – 11.04 2.4 1 5
Croatia 48 – 15 55 – 0.35 2.0 13 11
Cyprus 15 – 1 107 – 25 3.2 8 7
Czech Republic 55 0 86 0.89 0.56 4.5 13 4
Denmark 61 – 2 111 1.09 16.89 3.7 4 15
Estonia 20 – 15 39 0.35 0.48 3.8 14 12
Finland 7 2 131 0.61 2.85 7.3 15 24
France 54 0 134 2.99 8.76 4.6 7 6
Georgia 43 0 9 – 15.60 0.6 – 2 42
Germany 49 0 153 1.42 2.85 4.2 1 4
Greece 65 – 2 48 1.19 17.23 2.7 10 5
Hungary 65 0 86 0.87 3.92 2.6 5 4
Iceland 23 0 8 – – 12.0 8 72
Ireland 61 – 4 134 0.43 – 3.7 6 2
Italy 50 – 6 93 4.33 18.24 3.2 7 8
Kazakhstan 77 0 0 – 1.71 3.7 38 1
Kyrgyzstan 56 0 3 – 9.89 0.5 14 44
Latvia 28 9 31 – 1.26 2.0 18 36
Liechtenstein 56 0 – – – – – –
Lithuania 45 – 19 67 0.22 0.28 2.7 25 8
Luxembourg 50 1 – – – 10.5 29 2
Macedonia, Former 49 1 18 – 4.43 1.3 – 1 12
Malta 31 11 70 10.90 18.18 2.3 16 0
Moldova, Republic of 77 – 1 4 – 11.87 0.8 18 2
Monaco – – – – – – – –
Netherlands 57 – 2 172 3.79 29.38 5.0 8 3
Norway 3 – 2 176 0.49 12.21 6.0 7 39
Poland 52 – 14 89 0.46 0.62 2.4 3 5
Portugal 42 – 4 54 3.74 17.05 2.5 5 15
Romania 63 – 2 22 0.53 20.79 1.8 6 12
Russian Federation 13 – 1 7 – 2.13 4.5 4 4
San Marino 17 0 – – – – – –
Serbia and 55 0 55 0.53 0.57 2.1 30 11
Montenegro
Slovakia 40 – 20 56 1.26 8.18 3.4 3 4
Slovenia 25 – 2 138 2.67 0.59 3.6 11 12
Spain 58 – 2 73 1.07 12.97 3.3 14 6
Sweden 8 2 84 0.53 3.63 6.0 11 26
Switzerland 38 0 61 0.95 1.64 3.7 4 18
Tajikistan 30 – 1 7 – 16.97 0.5 15 44
Turkey 54 2 42 0.57 12.83 1.1 6 13
Turkmenistan 70 1 3 – 5.46 3.3 8 0
Ukraine 71 0 14 – 5.34 3.0 8 1
United Kingdom 70 0 106 1.73 1 3.9 0 2
Uzbekistan 64 – 1 27 – 15.70 2.1 8 1
Source FAO FAO FAO FAO FAO IEA/WB IEA IEA
Accessed Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007 Aug. 2006 Aug. 2006 Jan. 2007

Energy Transport
Electricity Final energy Number of % change Transport Transport Total number Road Road
consumption consumption passenger passenger energy energy of road transport transport
per capita cars per cars consumption consumption: accidents fuel fuel prices:
1 000 per capita % change per 1 000 prices: % % change
capita capita change for diesel
for super
gasoline
Year 2004 2004 2003 (1) 2000–2003 2004 2000–2004 2004 (1) 2000–2004 2000–2004
Unit GWh Toe/capita Cars/ % Toe/capita % Car % %

1 000 accidents/
capita 1 000 capita
Albania 3 671 0.67 48 – 0.27 56 0.26 116 240
Andorra – – 1004 10 – – 1.38 – –
Armenia 3 973 0.49 – – 0.08 – 8 0.38 24 81
Austria 58 197 3.38 499 – 1 1 24 5.22 61 61
Azerbaijan 18 325 0.93 45 12 0.20 86 0.29 – –
Belarus 27 235 1.91 – – 0.20 – 1 0.73 – –
Belgium 80 609 3.97 464 3 1.01 6 4.68 56 37
Bosnia and 7 177 0.81 – – 0.19 24 8.67 43 70
Herzegovina
Bulgaria 24 906 1.31 276 – 0.33 26 0.98 31 53
Croatia 13 669 1.57 289 15 0.42 20 3.86 63 88
Cyprus 4 235 2.45 371 13 1.07 1 2.52 – –
Czech Republic 53 832 2.71 363 8 0.62 29 2.60 40 57
Denmark 32 973 2.89 352 2 0.97 8 1.15 50 50
Estonia 5 892 2.22 321 – 6 0.48 10 1.66 57 71
Finland 83 137 5.20 436 7 0.94 9 1.29 45 44
France 415 880 2.85 493 5 0.86 0 1.41 43 52
Georgia 5 885 0.47 56 4 0.11 28 0.65 – –
Germany 513 327 3.05 546 3 0.78 – 4 4.11 60 65
Greece 49 719 1.93 349 20 0.73 11 1.40 58 73
Hungary 31 818 1.90 275 17 0.40 20 2.07 60 54
Iceland 7 800 8.51 576 5 1.22 0 2.77 – –
Ireland 23 051 2.94 383 16 1.16 15 1.42 79 79
Italy 295 531 2.51 596 5 0.78 6 3.90 58 58
Kazakhstan 46 832 2.09 77 15 0.24 33 1.02 44 31
Kyrgyzstan 7 097 0.43 37 0 0.07 70 0.64 9 30
Latvia 5 398 1.72 279 17 0.42 29 2.20 40 55
Liechtenstein – – 692 8 – – 15.06 – –
Lithuania 7 650 1.48 364 7 0.40 27 1.85 56 85
Luxembourg 6 377 9.89 638 5 5.97 41 1.53 – –
Macedonia, Former 5 764 0.80 148 0 0.17 – 3 0.98 54 64
Malta 1 790 1.17 507 7 0.68 12 38.98 – –
Moldova, Republic of 4 610 0.51 63 11 0.07 50 0.63 – –
Monaco – – – – – – – – –
Netherlands 103 118 3.88 426 – 0.95 6 1.95 57 58
Norway 109 853 4.63 422 4 1.08 9 1.84 35 25
Poland 100 195 1.59 294 13 0.31 18 1.34 58 68
Portugal 44 668 2.03 557 – 0.71 12 3.71 79 –
Romania 38 775 1.18 142 – 1 0.21 33 0.31 109 160
Russian Federation 645 532 2.95 160 15 0.66 19 1.45 67 55
San Marino – – 958 – – – – – –
Serbia and 27 755 1.28 168 – 0.27 162 – – –
Montenegro
Slovakia 24 027 2.11 252 6 0.41 49 1.57 70 75
Slovenia 12 597 2.57 446 2 0.71 5 6.37 78 68
Spain 230 669 2.42 445 7 0.92 16 2.20 66 69
Sweden 130 361 3.97 455 2 0.95 4 2.01 61 71
Switzerland 56 171 2.97 518 7 0.94 – 6 3.10 65 63
Tajikistan 14 233 0.47 – – 0.17 53 0.22 49 7
Turkey 119 618 0.88 66 6 0.18 6 0.95 64 70
Turkmenistan 6 332 2 – – 0.17 14 0.32 0 – 50
Ukraine 120 039 1.78 – – 0.27 15 0.96 49 47
United Kingdom 340 042 2.73 452 8 0.92 3 3.46 33 31
Uzbekistan 42 084 1.54 – – 0.16 4 – – 19 7
Source IEA IEA/WB UNECE/WB UNECE IEA/WB IEA/WB UNECE/WB WB WB
Accessed Jan. 2007 Sep. 2006 Oct. 2006 Oct. 2006 Jan. 2007 Jan. 2007 Oct. 2006 Mar. 2007 Mar. 2007

Tourism
Tourism and travel % change % change in number Inbound tourist % change inbound
GDP Tourism and travel of tourist arrivals expenditure tourist expenditure
GDP
Year 2005 (1) 2000–2005 (1) 2000–2005 (1) 2005 (1) 2000–2005 (1)
Unit Million USD % % USD/capita %

Albania 173 33.30 43.75 274 120.31
Andorra – – – 18.01 – –
Armenia – – 608.89 45 255.26
Austria 12 541 15.98 10.96 1 873 53.09
Azerbaijan – – 72.83 7 – 4.76
Belarus 139 – 20.20 51.67 26 169.89
Belgium 6 827 – 22.73 4.49 934 48.83
Bosnia and 200 40.44 24.56 125 109.44
Herzegovina
Bulgaria 724 43.51 73.68 276 99.26
Croatia 1 968 23.02 45.21 1 658 167.22
Cyprus 1 090 – 17.93 – 8.04 2 788 19.99
Czech Republic 1 378 – 1.49 35.79 454 55.84
Denmark 5 150 – 4.66 29.05 1 046 53.96
Estonia 267 1.78 55.74 705 87.72
Finland 4 237 – 0.74 15.70 417 55.48
France 61 690 – 7.47 – 1.54 696 36.40
Georgia – – 41.60 39 82.47
Germany 52 352 – 8.24 13.26 354 56.85
Greece 8 608 29.90 9.01 1 145 37.92
Hungary 1 943 – 20.27 – 422 14.06
Iceland 615 9.41 37.38 1 247 62.11
Ireland 2 796 1.64 10.34 1 106 75.49
Italy 49 993 – 9 – 11.34 614 28.68
Kazakhstan – – – 47 98.88
Kyrgyzstan – – 433.90 15 406.67
Latvia 146 46.43 119.25 148 160.31
Liechtenstein – – – 19.16 – –
Lithuania 261 34.35 66.20 270 135.55
Luxembourg 599 4.15 7.16 7 948 115.30
Macedonia, Former 57 – 11.61 – 12.05 41 121.05
Malta 481 – 8.17 – 3.70 1 944 27.87
Moldova, Republic of – – 27.78 30 228.21
Monaco – – – 4.67 – –
Netherlands 11 876 – 6.55 0.09 638 44.56
Norway 4 164 – 4.77 24.32 638 42.98
Poland 3 734 – 1.87 – 12.64 153 2.75
Portugal 6 726 – 2.22 – 3.97 748 51.27
Romania 902 23.45 64.94 49 192.76
Russian Federation 4 865 30.30 2.48 38 59.36
San Marino – – – 2.33 – –
Serbia and 969 57.02 203.35 – –
Montenegro
Slovakia 552 50.78 43.87 225 179.45
Slovenia 746 26.93 42.66 814 69.09
Spain 45 576 – 0.75 16.03 1 103 54.53
Sweden 7 048 19.79 14.09 824 83.05
Switzerland 15 641 0.42 – 7.57 1 483 41.69
Tajikistan – – – – –
Turkey 14 295 36.11 111.49 250 137.74
Turkmenistan – – – – –
Ukraine 648 28.41 143.03 24.02 189.59
United Kingdom 56 088 – 7.94 18.89 471 29.49
Uzbekistan – – – 13.25 1 3.70
Source WTTC/WB WTTC/WB UNWTO UNWTO/WB UNWTO
Accessed Jan. 2007 Jan. 2007 Sep. 2006 Sep. 2006 Sep. 2006


Annex 3 | International comparisons
Annex 3 International comparisons
Introduction outlooks for specific thematic areas and for the

regions in question (IEA, OECD, etc.). Therefore,
This annex aims to place environmental the countries and groupings used in the outlooks
performance in the pan-European region within the do not always match those used in the main report;
global context through the use of a number of key they are listed after the introduction. The outlook
indicators. These have been selected on the basis information presented on the maps relate to the
of two main criteria: their relevance to the thematic regions where they are found.
chapters of the report, and the availability of data. To
create a storyline, whenever possible, the indicators
line up with those presented in the Kiev report. Structure
Furthermore, in order to analyse any significant
changes that may be expected, assessments of A list of the indicators by theme is given in
progress since Kiev have been complemented by Table A.3.1. Out of the 15 indicators covered, 11 also
outlooks for the indicators. However, this has not contain an outlook (green in the table). When
been possible for all the indicators, either because appropriate, two indicators have been combined
of a lack of well-established methodological to provide better support for the key messages
approaches or because of inadequate data coverage. presented in the thematic chapters of the report.
The three pan-European regions addressed in the Each indicator is connected with a key message
report, Western and Central Europe (WCE), South from the report, supported by facts and figures on
Eastern Europe (SEE) and Eastern Europe, the progress in the pan-European region since Kiev or,
Caucasus and Central Asia (EECCA) are compared if more appropriate, since 1990, assessed in relation
with USA and Canada (as UNECE countries) and to other countries or regions. The outlook part of the
with China and India (as emerging markets). Where indicator, where available, includes a short summary
available, comparisons with global figures are also of outlooks under a baseline or reference scenario
provided. and, where relevant, also an alternative scenario.
The outlooks timeframe is mostly to 2030, but for
The sources of information for the outlooks were transport it is extended to 2050.
other institutions that were already publishing

Indicators
Table A.3.1 List of indicators by theme
Theme Indicator
Socio-economy Gross domestic product & Population
Climate change Greenhouse gas emissions
Nature and biodiversity Percentage of forest area in total land area
Marine and coastal environment Total and marine catches
Sustainable production and consumption Domestic extraction used
Municipal waste generation
Agriculture Total fertiliser consumption
Energy Total energy consumption per capita & Final energy
consumption per capita
Electricity consumption per capita & Final energy
consumption per capita
Renewable share of total energy consumption
Transport Passenger transport & Car ownership rate
Tourism International tourist arrivals
Indicators containing outlook are marked in green.
Note: More information on outlooks can be found at: http://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/scenarios.
Countries and groupings
Table A.3.2 Countries and groupings — Present trends
Present trends
Western and Central Europe (WCE)
South Eastern Europe (SEE)
Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia (EECCA)
The United States (USA)
Canada
China
India
World

Table A.3.3 Countries and groupings — Outlooks
Theme Indicator name Country groupings
Socio-economy Gross domestic product Western Europe (WEU): Austria, Belgium, Denmark,
Finland, France, Germany, Gibraltar, Greece, Iceland, Ireland,
Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom
Central Europe (CEU): Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary,
Latvia, Lithuania, the former Yugoslav Rebublic of Macedonia,
Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Yugoslavia
EECCA: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan
USA
Canada
India
China
Socio-economy Population Western Europe (WEU): Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Czech
Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg,
Malta, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, San Marino,
Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United
Kingdom
SEE: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the
Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and
Montenegro, Turkey
Canada
USA
India
China
Climate change Greenhouse gas EU-15: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany,
emissions Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal,
Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom
EU-10: Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia,
Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia
SEE: Bulgaria, Croatia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of
Macedonia, Romania, Turkey
USA
Canada

Table A.3.3 Countries and groupings — Outlooks (cont.)
For energy related CO2 emissions:

Transition countries (without Russia): Albania, Armenia,
Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia,
Cyprus, Estonia, Georgia, Gibraltar, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Latvia, Lithuania, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia,
Malta, Republic of Moldova, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro,
Slovenia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan
Russian Federation
OECD Europe: Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark,
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland,
Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal,
Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United
Kingdom
USA
India
China
Agriculture Total fertiliser Industrial countries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada,
consumption Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland,
Israel, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands,
New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, South Africa, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, the United Kingdom, USA
Transition countries: Albania, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic,
Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania,
Republic of Moldova, the Russian Federation, Tajikistan,
Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan
China
India
Energy Total energy consumption Transition countries (without Russia): Albania, Armenia,
per capita & Final energy Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia,
consumption per capita Cyprus, Estonia, Georgia, Gibraltar, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Russian Federation
Kingdom
OECD North America: Canada and Mexico
USA
India
China

Energy Electricity consumption Transition countries (without Russia): Albania, Armenia,

per capita & Final energy Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia,
consumption per capita Cyprus, Estonia, Georgia, Gibraltar, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Russian Federation
Kingdom
USA
India
China
Energy Renewable share of total Transition countries (without Russia): Albania, Armenia,
energy consumption Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia,
Cyprus, Estonia, Georgia, Gibraltar, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Russian Federation
Kingdom
OECD North America: Canada and Mexico
USA
India
China
Transport Passenger transport & OECD Europe: Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark,
Car ownership rate Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland,
Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain,
Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United Kingdom
OECD North America: Canada, Mexico, USA
Former Soviet Union: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia,
Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Republic of
Moldova, Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine,
Uzbekistan
Eastern Europe: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria,
Croatia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Poland,
Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia
India
China

Tourism International tourist Western Europe (WE): Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Czech
arrivals Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, the
Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, the United Kingdom
SEE: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the
Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Romania, Serbia and
Montenegro, Turkey
Central and Eastern Europe: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus,
Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania,
Republic of Moldova, Poland, the Russian Federation, Slovakia,
Canada
USA
India
China

PRESENT
THEME: Socio-economy
INDICATORS: Gross domestic product & Population
Gross domestic product per capita

USD per capita
Population
40 000
Million people Key message
1 400
30 000 There is a wide and increasing gap
1 200
in GDP per capita between North
1 000 America and WCE countries and all
20 000 800 other countries/regions, which all
600 have GDP per capita below the world
10 000
average.
400
Asian countries continue to
200
experience remarkable population
0 0
1990 1995 2000 2005 growth while European countries
1990 1995 2000 2005
show very limited increases. North
India SEE Canada Canada USA India American countries have higher
China World USA SEE WCE China population growth rates than
EECCA WCE EECCA Europe.
Percentage change in total population

and GDP per capita from 2000 to 2005 Definitions
EECCA GDP is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy,
plus any product taxes, minus any subsidies not included in the value of the
China
products. It is calculated without making deductions for depreciation of fabricated
India assets or depletion and degradation of natural resources. It is expressed in
SEE constant 2000 USD. GDP (PPP) per capita is GDP in purchasing power parity terms
USA
per capita (WB).
Canada Total population includes all residents regardless of legal status or citizenship
(WB).
World
WCE
%
– 10 10 30 50
GDP per capita Population
Facts and figures
• Since 2000, EECCA and China have recorded impressive increases in
Gross domestic product, total,
GDP per capita, although absolute values remain far lower than in USA
constant 2000 USD and WCE (USD/capita in 2005: China 1 445, EECCA 1 770, WCE 20 067,
Billion USD USA 37 574).
• Only USA, Canada and WCE have above world average values of GDP per
34 000
capita (5 656 USD/capita). India has the lowest figure (586).
• The relative positions do not change significantly when considering GDP
25 500 (PPP) per capita.
• The most significant increase in population — above the world average —
17 000 is in India, followed by USA and Canada. The only decrease since 2000 is
in EECCA. WCE population increased by only 1.52 % since 2000.
8 500 • China (more than 1.3 billion) and India (almost 1.1 billion) are the most
populated countries.
0
Ca a
da
EE a
ld
SA
E
CE
in
di
SE
CC
or
na
In
Ch
U
W
W
2000 2005
Geographical and temporal coverage:

WCE: no data for AD, MC, LI, SM. SEE: no data for BA from 1990 to 1993; no data for CS from 1990 to 1992. EECCA: no data for TM from 2002 to 2005,
for which the 2001 figure is used.
Sources:
World Development Indicators, World Bank.

Outlook to 2030 Projected percentage change in GDP

per capita from 2005 to 2030
GDP per capita a) is projected to increase globally, most rapidly in EECCA,
EECCA
China, India and CEU. Although GPD per capita in WEU will grow much
more slowly (by 64 %) than in CEU (141 %) and EECCA (182 %), absolute WEU
values of GDP per capita in WEU in 2030 will remain more than twice those USA
in other European countries. USA will have the highest GDP per capita in
2030, followed by Canada and WEU. China will continue to be among the India
most impressively developing economies, with the highest increase in GDP China
per capita from 2000 to 2030 (more than 200 %). India will stay below the
CEU
world average, though with a large increase (169 %) from 2005 to 2030.
Population trends a) in Europe from 2005 to 2030 will vary between Canada
%
regions. The WEU population will grow by 1.1 % to around 477 million. The 0 50 100 150 200 250
highest growth (16 %) will be in SEE, from 127 million in 2005 to about
142 million in 2030. The EECCA population will decrease by 6.1 %, from
277 million in 2005 to 260 million by 2030. The most populated countries, Projected percentage change
India and China, will continue to grow with the largest increase (31 %) in in total population from 2005 to 2030
India, with the population overtaking that in China around 2030. The total
China
population of Canada and USA will increase from 330 million in 2005 to 400
million by 2030 (21 %). India
WEU
a)
Projections are based on the baseline OECD scenario. The baseline is a no new policies USA
scenario by design, without anticipating deliberate interventions requiring new or intensified
policies in response to the projected developments. Population indicators were adopted from EECCA
the most recently published UN demographic projection, and economic developments were
taken from the economic baseline elaborated with the ENV Linkages model of the OECD. SEE
Canada
%
– 10 0 10 20 30 40
Gross domestic product per capita Population

USD/cap Million people
60 000 Forecast USA 1 600 Forecast China
Canada India
45 000 1 200
WEU
30 000 800
EECCA
WEU
China
15 000 CEU 400 USA
EECCA
India SEE
0 Canada
0
2005 2010 2020 2030 2000 2005 2010 2020 2030

See country groupings in Table A.3.3.
Sources:
GDP: OECD Outlook (Analysis of environmental pressures and impacts of the baseline for the second OECD Environment Outlook). Netherlands
Environmental Assessment Agency (2006).
Population: United Nation Population Division (UN) World Population Prospects: The 2004 Revision, http://esa.un.org/unpp/.

PRESENT
THEME: Climate change

INDICATOR: Greenhouse gas emissions
Greenhouse gas emissions per capita

Tonnes of CO2
eq/capita
30 Progress
since Key message
Kiev
Many European countries have adopted national programmes including
20 policies and measures to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However,
emissions have been increasing in most countries and are projected to
continue to do so.
10
Many EEA countries will have difficulties in meeting their Kyoto
commitments, while those EECCA countries with Kyoto commitments are
projected to meet them.
0
90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04
GHG emissions will have to be reduced substantially in order to limit global
19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 climate change impacts to a manageable level.
USA WCE SEE
Canada EECCA
Change in GHG emissions per capita

from 2000 to 2004 Definitions
Total GHG emissions refer to the sum of CO2 (carbon dioxide), CH4 (methane),
WCE
N2O (nitrous oxide), PFCs (perfluorocarbons), HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons),
and SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride), weighted using their 100-year global warming
SEE
potentials (IPCC, 1996). National totals exclude emissions from natural resources
EECCA
and international bunker fuel emissions.
Canada
USA Facts and figures

%
– 10 –5 0 5 10
• USA had the highest values of GHG emissions per capita in 2004
(24 tCO2/cap), closely followed by Canada. Emissions in Europe ranged
from 5 tCO2/cap in SEE to 11 tCO2/cap in WCE.
Total emissions, 2004
• Emissions per capita in EECCA showed the most significant decrease from
Billion CO2 eq/year 1990 to 1999 (35 %), converging towards the values in WCE. However,
8 since 2000, emissions per capita in EECCA have increased by 6 %.
• In general, at the pan-European level, total GHG emissions fell during the
6 early 1990s, but have increased again since 2000. Per capita emissions
have also increased since 2000, by almost 1 % in WCE and 6 % in SEE.
4 The decrease in the EU was due mainly to substantial decreases in the
countries that became Member States in 2004. In these, as well as in
SEE and EECCA, market economies led to the restructuring or closure of
2
heavily-polluting and energy-intensive industries. The recent increased
emissions are the result of the recovery of the economies in these
0 countries.
WCE SEE EECCA Canada USA
• Canada is the only country with an increasing trend since 1990. USA
recorded about a 2 % fall in emissions since 1990 and 3 % since 2000.
No time series are available for China and India (1).
• USA has the highest total emissions, with more than 7 billion tonnes of
CO2-equivalent per year.

WCE: no data for AD, MC, LI, SM.
Sources:
European Environment Agency (GHG emissions) and World Bank (population); UNFCCC report 2006 for GHG emissions of Canada and USA.
(1) No trend data are available from UNFCCC for China and India. A single value of emissions is given for these two countries, related to 1994.

IEA estimates and projections of

Outlook to 2020/2030 energy-related CO2 emissions
per capita from 1990 to 2030 c)
With current trends and policies a), GHG emissions per capita are projected Million tonnes per capita
to increase until 2020 in the EU-10, EECCA and SEE more than in the EU‑15, 20
Canada and USA. The biggest increases in total GHG emissions per capita in
Forecast
the pan-European region from 2000 to 2020 are projected for EECCA, the 15
EU-10 and SEE, and the smallest for the EU-15 b). The increase in USA is
10
larger than in Canada and the EU-15, but smaller than in EECCA, EU-15, the
EU-10 and SEE. In 2020 USA and Canada will remain the highest total GHG 5
emitters per capita globally, closely followed by Russia.
0
Global energy-related emissions of CO2 c), the largest contributor to total 1990 2004 2015 2030
GHG emissions, will increase by 29 % up to 2030. China will be the main USA Other transition
engine for this growth. Russia countries
However, if countries were to adopt all the energy security and OECD Europe World
China India
energy‑saving policies that they are currently considering to tackle CO2
emissions d), total emissions avoided by 2030 could equal more than the Projected change in energy-related CO2
current emissions of USA and Canada combined (or 16 % of the total 2030 emissions for IEA reference and
emissions in the IEA reference scenario). In OECD Europe in 2030 they could alternative scenarios, 2004–2030
be less than today's level. Transition
countries
(excl. Russia)
a) Russia
Baseline scenarios presented in the national communications of climate change. Emissions in 2030
b)
OECD could be below
On 10 January 2007 the European Commission presented a package on climate change and Europe current levels
energy which was endorsed by the European Council on 9 March 2007. It includes targets for
USA
the reduction of GHGs by 2020. This will influence the reported projections for the coming
years. India
c)
Projections are based on the International Energy Agency (IEA) reference case scenario,
China Million
which takes into account government policies enacted and adopted by mid-2006, regardless
tonnes
of the implementation. – 2 000 0 2 000 4 000 6 000
d)
IEA alternative policy scenario presents the situation if countries were to adopt all the energy Reference scenario c)
security and energy policies they are currently considering. Alternative scenario d)
Projected change in GHG emissions (CO2 eq/capita) from 2000 to 2020

based on national communications on climate change, baseline scenario (% change)
pan-European region
15.4
14.3
4.2
Canada 14.3
EECCA
EU-10
11.7 6.5
EU-15 SEE
USA

Note on data from national communications:
SEE: no data for AL, BA and CS; EECCA: no data for TJ all years, no data for MO for 2000, no data for AM, GE, TM, UZ, UA for 2020, for which 2010
and 2015 (for UA) figures are used.
Sources:
Total GHG emissions: national communications on climate change (UNFCC).
Energy-related CO2 emissions: World energy outlook 2006. © OECD/IEA (2006), Tables for Reference and Alternative Policy Scenario Projections, as
modified by the EEA.

PRESENT
THEME: Nature and biodiversity

INDICATOR: Percentage of forest area in total land area
Percentage of forest area in total land area

%
50
40 Key message
30 Pan-European forest cover continues
to increase slightly, mainly as a
20 result of spontaneous re-growth
and afforestation on abandoned
agricultural land.
10
0
Canada EECCA WCE USA China SEE India
1990 2000 2005
Percentage change in forest area

from 2000 to 2005 Definitions
China Forest is defined as 'land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than
5 metres and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach
WCE
these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under
SEE agricultural or urban land use' (FAO).
USA
Canada
EECCA
India
% Facts and figures
– 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
• The increase in forest cover in the pan-European region is almost entirely
due to WCE.
• The slight decrease in EECCA since 2000 (0.01 %) is due mainly to a
World share of forest area, 2005 reduction of 478 000 ha in forest cover in the Russian Federation, and
a minor reduction in Armenia. However, the reduction in the Russian
Canada Federation is probably due to a change in the reporting methodology.
10 % China
7%
• The highest percentage of forest cover is in Canada (about 44 %), the
Others India lowest in India (about 8 %). In absolute terms, EECCA has the largest
47 % 2% forest area (842 million hectares).
USA
8% • EECCA also has the highest share of global forest area (21 %).
WCE
4%
SEE
1%
EECCA
21 %

WCE: no data for MT, MC, SM.
Sources:
FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005. World Resources Institute, Earth Trends, for the world value related to year 2005.

PRESENT
THEME: Marine and coastal environment
INDICATOR: Total and marine catches
Total and marine catches
China
WCE
Key message
USA
In 2005, global capture fisheries totalled 93.8 million tonnes, of which Marine catches
84.2 million tonnes were marine catches. China was the largest contributor 1990
India 2000
with more than 17.3 million tonnes and WCE the second with around
10 million tonnes, of which almost 9 million tonnes were marine catches. 2005
EECCA
Since 2000, both total and marine catches at the pan-European level and for Total catches
1990
India have been falling; while for China they have remained stable, and they Canada
2000
have increased for USA and Canada.
2005
SEE
Million
tonnes
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Total and marine catches,

Definitions change from 2000 to 2005
Total catches: nominal catch of fish, crustaceans and molluscs, the production of Canada
other aquatic animals, residues and plants and catches of aquatic mammals, taken
for commercial, industrial, recreational and subsistence purposes from inland, USA
brackish and marine waters. The harvest from mariculture, aquaculture and other China
kinds of fish farming is excluded. Data include all quantities caught and landed for
both food and feed purposes but exclude discards. Catches of fish, crustaceans World
and molluscs are expressed in live weight, i.e. the nominal weight of the aquatic India
organisms at the time of capture. The harvest of aquatic plants is given in wet
weight. Whales, seals and crocodiles are excluded (FAO). SEE
Marine catches: limited to the ISSCAAP divisions 'marine fishes' and 'diadromous WCE
fishes'. ISSCAAP is the FAO International Standard Statistical Classification of EECCA
Aquatic Animals and Plants. %
– 30 – 20 – 10 0 10 20
Total catches Marine catches
Facts and figures

Marine catches in European waters
• The individual countries considered here (China, India, Canada and USA) from 1990 to 2005
do not have relevant or significant fishing activities in European waters Million tonnes
(1). For example, China fishes in the North East Atlantic but the catch 14
is limited to very few tonnes. While the assessment in Chapter 5 refers
only to fish caught by the European (WCE, SEE and EECCA) fleet within 12
European waters, here the analysis is widened to all fishing areas and
10
refers not only to marine but also to total catches, and thus includes non-
fish catches. 8
• In 2005, in terms of total fish catches, China and WCE were the largest
6
contributors to global total catches.
• For total and marine catches in all fishing areas in 2000–2005: 4
- For China, total and marine catches remained stable, while for India 2
they decreased by 7 % and 3 %, respectively.
0
- Catches by the European fleet decreased. There were substantial
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
decreases in total and marine catches for EECCA (22 % in both cases) 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20 20 20 20
and WCE (14 %). The decrease in marine catches was also remarkable SEE EECCA WCE
for SEE (19 %). The Russian Federation remained the largest
contributor to total EECCA catches (more than 90 % in 2005). Geographical and temporal coverage:
- For Canada and USA both total and marine catches increased. WCE: no data in 1990 for CZ, SK, SI, BA, HR,
MK, CS; no data for SM.
• For marine catches in European waters: Sources:
- From 1990 to 2005: marine catches in European waters increased FISHSTAT, FAO. World figures are from:
FAO, 2007. The State of the World Fisheries
from 8.6 to 9.45 million tonnes. Details of changes are provided and Aquaculture 2006. Data for 2005 are
in Chapter 5. For WCE, catches at the global level decreased, but preliminary estimates.
marine catches in European waters increased by 4 % because of the (1) European waters correspond to two major
substantial contribution from Norway and Iceland. FAO fishing areas, number 27 (Atlantic,
Northeast) and 37 (Mediterranean and
- From 2000 to 2005, however, there was an overall decrease in Black Sea), and the Caspian Sea (Asian —
European marine catches in all regions. Inland waters).

PRESENT
THEME: Sustainable production and consumption

INDICATOR: Domestic extraction used
Domestic extraction used per capita
Tonnes per capita

50 Key message
40 There are large differences in natural

resource use per capita across the
pan-European region.
30
Differences are even larger when
20
comparing countries/regions across
the world, with North American
countries consuming the most on a
10
per capita basis.
Both EECCA and WCE are
0
India China Canada USA World WCE SEE EECCA
significantly above the world
average resource use per capita.
1992 1997 2002
World share of domestic

extraction used, 2002 Definitions
Domestic extraction used (DEU) is a material flow accounting (MFA) indicator
WCE which totals all biomass, fossil fuels, metals and industrial minerals, and
14 % SEE construction minerals extracted within a country's territory and used in the
Other
2% economy. Other commonly used MFA indicators include DMI (direct material input),
countries
40 % EECCA DMC (domestic material consumption) and TMR (total material requirement).
7% Unlike DEU, these three indicators take into account imports, exports, and
'ecological rucksacks' of imported goods. However, DEU is the only indicator
China available for most of the pan‑European region. While its limitations concerning
13 % imports and exports need to be kept in mind, the difference between DEU and DMI
is usually only a few per cent.
Canada India
2% USA 5%
17 %
Facts and figures

• World average DEU in 2002 was 8.8 tonnes/capita. Total world DEU in
2002 was 54.9 billion tonne.
• The highest DEU per capita is in North America: 37.14 tonnes/capita in
Canada and 31.59 tonnes/capita in USA.
• Within the pan-European region there are large differences between
countries. The highest values are in WCE (16.6 tonnes/capita), followed
by EECCA (13.83 tonnes/capita) and SEE (8.30 tonnes/capita).
• China with 5.43 tonnes/capita and India with 2.67 tonnes/capita are well
below the world average.
• Since 1992, China has had the highest increase in per capita DEU
(20 %). WCE recorded a very small increase (1 %), while all other
countries/regions reduced their per capita DEU. The reduction was
particularly evident in EECCA (18 %).
• In absolute terms, USA, WCE and China use most resources, with their
share ranging from 17 % to 13 % of total world DEU.

WCE: no data for LI, AD, MC, SM; no data for CZ, SK from 1990 to 1992; no data for EE, LT, LV, SI from 1990 to 1991. SEE: no data for HR, MK, CS, BA
for 1990–1991. EECCA: no data for all countries for 1990–1991.
Sources:
MOSUS project http://www.materialflows.net/.
Data are from the database set up in the course of the EU-funded MOSUS project (Modelling opportunities and limits for restructuring Europe towards
sustainability). The nomenclature and categorisation of materials are those listed in the handbook for economy-wide material flow accounting published
by the Statistical Office of the European Union (Eurostat, 2001). Data was compiled at the national level, covering the period 1980–2002, taking into
account changes of borders.

PRESENT
THEME: Sustainable production and consumption
INDICATOR: Municipal waste generation
Municipal waste generation per capita

Kg per capita
Key message 900
The generation of municipal waste in 750

the pan-European region and North
600
America is growing. This is projected
to continue, especially in EECCA. 450
There are no signs of decoupling:
waste generation closely follows 300
the trends in economic growth and
150
household consumption.
0
EECCA Canada WCE USA SEE
1995 2003
Change in municipal waste generation

Definitions per capita from 1995 to 2003
Municipal waste is the waste collected and treated by or for municipalities; the
main part originates from households, but similar waste from commerce and SEE
trade, office buildings, institutions and small businesses is also included.
USA
WCE
Canada
Facts and figures EECCA
%
• The total amount of municipal waste generated per capita in the – 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
countries/groups analysed is calculated on the basis of data from various
sources. Definitions may differ, as is the case in Canada. Information may
be biased by estimates of data gaps. No reliable data are available for the
Asian countries.
• USA produces the highest quantities of municipal waste per capita,
737 Kg (in 2003). WCE and SEE follow with 532 and 423 Kg per capita,
respectively; values for 2005 are rather similar, suggesting stabilisation
of the quantities generated per capita. The figures for EECCA countries
are far lower. Figures for Canada refer only to residential waste; including
waste from industrial, commercial and institutional sources would
increase the figure to more than 800 Kg per capita.
• Quantities of municipal waste generated per capita have generally
increased everywhere. Increases are usually related to increases in
household consumption and higher replacement rates for many products.
SEE is the only exception to this trend, with a decrease of 2.74 % from
1995 to 2003 and 5 % from 1995 to 2005. The reasons for this decrease
are still to be investigated.

WCE: no data for AD, LI, MC, SM. SEE: no data for AL, BA, CS, MK. EECCA: no data for KZ, TJ, TM, UZ.
Sources:
Eurostat, UNSD/UNEP Questionnaire 2006 on Environment Statistics, OECD Factbook 2006: Economic, Environmental and Social Statistics.

PRESENT
THEME: Agriculture
INDICATOR: Total fertiliser consumption
Total fertiliser consumption

Million tonnes Million tonnes Key message
(other countries) (World)
Progress
60 145 Diffuse losses from agriculture,
since Kiev
50 140 e.g. nitrates from manure and
135 fertiliser applications, continue to be
40 130
an important source of pollution in
30 125
European waters.
20 120
115 Agricultural production across the
10 110 world continues to rely on non-farm
0 105 inputs such as inorganic fertilisers.
92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 While there has been a decline in
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20 20 20
China Canada WCE SEE the use of these inputs in Europe,
India USA EECCA World consumption in China and India has
Note: The world values (dark green line) refer to the right Y axis. All increased strongly between 1992
other countries refer to the left Y axis. and 2002.
Change in fertiliser consumption

from 2000 to 2002
Definitions
China
Canada Fertilisers refer to the total sum of nitrogen (N), phosphate (P2O5) and potash
EECCA (K2O).
World
USA
India
WCE
SEE
%
Facts and figures
– 10 – 5 0 5 10 15 20
• Data on fertilisers are outdated. The last available year at the time of the
Fertiliser consumption in
Kiev report was 2000. Currently, values are available only up to 2002. An
kg per hectare of agricultural land
update from FAO is expected in spring 2007.
Kg/ha
120 • Canada, EECCA and SEE have lower absolute levels of consumption than
the other countries/regions. However, while Canada and SEE use about
90 38 Kg of fertiliser per hectare of agricultural land per year (more than the
60
world average of 28 Kg/ha), EECCA countries use only 7 Kg/ha.
• The highest values are in WCE (100 Kg/ha), India (89 Kg/ha) and China
30 (71 Kg/ha). Consumption in WCE, both in absolute and in per hectare
0 terms, started to fall in the mid-nineties and has since continued to fall.
• Since 2000, China has had the most impressive increase in fertiliser
CE
SA
da
ld
A
di
in
SE
CC
or
na
W
U
In
Ch
use, 16 %, or more than five million tonnes. China is the world's largest
W
EE
Ca
1995 2002 consumer of nitrogen fertilisers, with very low efficiency; up to 50 %
of the applied nitrogen is lost by volatilisation and another 5–10 % by
Contribution to global fertiliser
consumption, 2002 leaching (1). Since 2000, world fertiliser consumption has increased by
almost 5 %. EECCA and Canada recorded similar increases (5 % and
EECCA SEE 7 %, respectively).
3% 2%
WCE • China is the world's biggest consumer of fertilisers (27 %), followed by
13 % China USA (14 %), WCE (13 %) and India (11 %).
27 %
Rest of India
the world 11 %
28 % Canada
USA 2%
14 %

WCE: no data for AD, MC, SM, LI; no data for CZ, SK from 1990 to 1992; no data for EE, LV, LT, SI from 1990 to 1991. SEE: no data for BA from 1990 to
1994; no data for MK from 1990 to 1992; no data for HR, CS from 1990 to 1991. EECCA: no data for 1990 and 1991.
Sources:
AOSTAT, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations.
(1) FAO, World Agriculture: Towards 2015–2030. An FAO Perspective. Food and Agriculture Organisation, 2003.

Outlook to 2030 Projections of fertiliser consumption

Million tonnes
If current trends continue and the efficiency of fertiliser use is improved a), 60 Forecast
global fertiliser use is projected to increase by 37 % from 1997 to 2030. 45
Current transition economies (EECCA, SEE and some EU-10 Member States)
are projected to account for only 5 % of world fertiliser use by 2030. 30
However, fertiliser use in these countries is expected to increase by 32 % 15
from 1999 to 2030, more rapidly than in industrialised countries, following
the stabilisation of the economic situation during recent years and the 0
projected economic growth in these regions.
15
30
96
98
99
20
20
/1
/1
/1
North America, western Europe and other industrialised countries are
61
79
97
projected to account for more than 30 % of all fertiliser use in 2030. The
19
19
19
increase in these countries (about 28 % from 1990 to 2030), especially Industrial countries China
Transition countries India
in Western Europe b), is expected to lag significantly behind that in other
world regions as a result of the implementation of a number of research and
regulatory measures to limit pollution from fertilisers; this would, however,
Change in fertiliser consumption
still not be enough to prevent a serious build-up of nitrates in waters.
from 1997/1999 to 2030
In 2030, China is still likely to be the biggest single consumer of fertilisers —
up to 28 % of total world use, with the world's highest increase of fertiliser World
consumption (48 %) in the period from 1999 to 2030.
India
a)
Projections are based on the Food and Agriculture Organisation vision concerning food, China
nutrients and agriculture. The vision takes into account current economic, social and industry
trends as well as improved efficiency of fertiliser use. Transition
b) countries
The European fertiliser manufacturers association forecasts show a decline of all nutrients in
EU for 2012 compared with the base year average (1999–2001) (nitrogen 7 %, phosphorus Industrial
13 % and potassium 12 %). Source: Forecast of food, farming and fertiliser use in the countries
%
European Union, 2002–2012, EFMA2012.
0 30 60
Fertiliser consumption in 1997/1999 and projections for 2030

pan-European region
58.0 7.6 10.1

45.2
Transition
countries
Industrial
countries
52.7
35.6
Million tonnes
China
200 188.0 17.1 22.0
India
137.7
100
1997/1999
0 2030
World

Sources:
World Agriculture: Towards 2015/2030. An FAO Perspective. Food and Agriculture Organisation, 2003.

PRESENT
THEME: Energy
INDICATORS: Total energy consumption per capita & Final energy consumption per capita
Total energy consumption (TEC) per capita

and final energy consumption (FEC) per capita
Toe/capita
9
Key message
Total energy consumption per capita
has been increasing globally since
6 2000.
Final energy consumption per capita
has also increased steadily, both
3 globally and within the individual
regions/countries.
Total energy consumption per capita
0 is growing faster than final energy
TEC FEC TEC FEC TEC FEC TEC FEC TEC FEC TEC FEC TEC FEC TEC FEC
World WCE SEE EECCA USA Canada China India consumption per capita in India
and China, reflecting the use of less
1992 2000 2004
efficient technologies.
Change in TEC per capita and

FEC per capita from 2000 to 2004 Definitions
World Total energy consumption (TEC) is made up of production plus imports, minus
WCE exports, minus international marine bunkers plus/minus stock changes. It is also
SEE called Total primary energy supply (TPES) or Gross inland energy consumption and
represents the quantity of all energy necessary to satisfy inland consumption.
EECCA
Final energy consumption (FEC) covers all energy supplied to the final consumer
USA
for all energy uses. It is usually disaggregated into the final end-use sectors:
Canada
industry, transport, households, services and agriculture.
China
The difference between total and final energy consumption is due mainly to
India
% losses in the conversion process, such as electricity generation, transport
– 10 0 10 20 30 40 and distribution, and the part allocated to final non-energy consumption
TEC FEC (e.g. feedstock used by the chemical industry).
Share in world TEC, 2004
Facts and figures

India
7% WCE
24 %
• Canada and USA have by far the highest levels of total and final energy
China consumption per capita (8 toe/capita for TEC, 6 and 5, respectively, for
21 % FEC). WCE and EECCA are significantly above the world average (4 and
SEE 3 toe/capita for TEC, 3 and 2 for FEC), SEE is slightly below, and China
Canada 2% and India far behind.
3%
EECCA • Overall, total and final energy consumption per capita have increased in
12 % all countries/regions since 1990, with two exceptions: in USA, and in SEE
USA where consumption fell between 1991 and 1994 and between 1997 and
31 % 1999 but has recovered since 2000 (a 5 % increase in TEC and 8 % in
FEC between 2000 and 2004).
• USA has the highest share in global total energy consumption (31 %),
followed by WCE (24 %), and China (21 %). Global total energy
consumption in 2004 was more than 11 Gtoe.

WCE: no data for AD, MC, LI, SM; no data for 1990–1991 for LV, LT, EE, SI. SEE: no data for 1990–1991 for BA, HR, MK. EECCA: no data for 1990–1991.
Sources:
International Energy Agency (total energy consumption and final energy consumption) and World Bank (population).

Projected percentage changes

Outlook to 2030 in TEC per capita and FEC per capita
from 2004 to 2030
If current technological trends continue and government policies that have
China
been adopted are implemented a), world average total (TEC) and final (FEC)
energy consumption per capita will increase by about 27.5 % between 2004 India
and 2030. The fast-growing economies of Asia, Latin America and Africa are
USA
expected to account for 70 % of this increase, the OECD countries for almost
a quarter and the transition countries for the remaining 6 %. OECD
North America
The Russian Federation is projected to have the highest increase in the Russian Fed.
pan‑European region in TEC (52 %) and FEC (51 %) per capita from 2004 to Transition
2030. TEC and FEC per capita in the other transition countries are projected countries
(excl. Russia)
to increase less (TEC by 32 %, FEC by 41 %). At the same time, absolute OECD Europe
values of TEC and FEC per capita in these other transition countries are
projected to remain the lowest in Europe (2.9 toe TEC, 1.9 toe FEC), and the World
%
levels in OECD Europe the highest in Europe (3,9 toe TEC, 2,9 toe FEC). 0 20 40 60 80 100
Globally, China is projected to have the largest increase in TEC (90 %) and TEC FEC
FEC (89 %) per capita and USA the smallest (TEC by 4%, FEC by 6%) to
Projected regional share in world TEC
2030. This, however, is not expected to remove current regional inequalities. in 2030
Thus, FEC per capita in 2030 in USA (5.7 toe) is expected to remain almost
OECD
four times that in China (1.5 toe) and more than ten times that in India Europe Transition
(0.5 toe). 13 % countries
Other world (excl. Russia)
In contrast to Europe and North America, TEC is growing faster than FEC in regions 3%
the Russian Federation, India and China, reflecting the use of less efficient 32 % Russian
technologies, mostly for power generation. Federation
5%
OECD
a)
Projections are based on the IEA reference case scenario, which takes into account North America
government policies enacted and adopted by mid-2006, even though many of them have India 21 %
not been fully implemented. It is assumed that energy-supply and energy use technologies 6%
become steadily more efficient, though at varying speeds for each fuel and each sector, China
depending on the potential for efficiency gains and the stage of technology development and 20 %
commercialisation.
Total energy consumption per capita and final energy consumption per capita in 2004
and projections for 2030
pan-European region
6.3 6.7 6.8
4.4 4.7
4.5 4.5
3.0
7.8 8.1 3.9

3.5
2.9
2.5 2.9
OECD 5.4 5.7
2.2 2.0 Russian
North America 1.4 Federation
(excl. USA)
OECD
Europe Transition 2.3
countries 1.2 1.5
0.8
(excl. Russia)
USA
China
0.8
0.5 0.4 0.5 Million tonnes from oil
India equivalent (toe) per capita
9
8
7
6
5
TEC in 2004 4
FEC in 2004 3 2.1
2 1.6
TEC in 2030 1.1 1.4
1
FEC in 2030 0
World

Sources:
World energy outlook 2006. © OECD/IEA (2006), Tables for Reference and Alternative Policy Scenario Projections, as modified by the EEA.

PRESENT
THEME: Energy
INDICATORS: Electricity consumption per capita & Final energy consumption per capita
Final energy consumption per capita

and electricity consumption per capita
in 1995, 2000 and 2004
Tonnes per capita Key message
8
Final energy consumption and

6 electricity consumption are
increasing globally and in the
pan‑European region. This increase
4 is reflected in the per capita values.
In the pan-European region,
electricity consumption — and
2
95 00 04
19 20 20
production — have increased much
more rapidly than total energy
0
consumption.
World WCE SEE EECCA USA Canada China India
Electricity consumption
Final energy consumption minus electricity
Percentage change in per capita

electricity consumption and final energy Definitions
consumption from 2000 to 2004
Final energy consumption (FEC) covers all energy supplied to the final consumer
World for all energy uses. It is usually disaggregated into the final end-use sectors:
industry, transport, households, services and agriculture.
WCE
Data on electricity is on calculated consumption. This equals the energy supplied
SEE minus transmission and distribution losses.
EECCA
USA
Canada
Facts and figures
China
India • Since 2000, only in USA have FEC per capita and electricity consumption
% per capita fallen slightly. Both are increasing in all other countries/
– 10 10 30 50 70
regions.
Final energy consumption
• The most significant growth in per capita consumption has been in China
(32 % for FEC and 61 % for electricity) and India, and the lowest in
Share of electricity consumption
Canada (2 % for FEC and 1 % for electricity). SEE has also recorded
per capita and final energy remarkable increases in per capita consumption since 2000 (8 % for FEC
consumption per capita, 2004 and 13 % for electricity).
%
100 • Electricity consumption per capita is below the world average in SEE,
China and India; it is the highest in Canada (1.35 toe), followed by USA
80 (about 1 toe), WCE and EECCA.
60 • The highest shares of electricity consumption in final energy consumption
40 are in Canada, USA and WCE; the lowest in India, EECCA and China. SEE
is at the world average level.
20
0
ld
A
SA
da
a
CE
in
di
CC
or
SE
na
U
W
In
Ch
W
EE
Ca
Final energy consumption

WCE: no data for AD, MC, LI, SM; no data for 1990-1991 for LV, LT, EE, SI. SEE: no data for 1990–1991 for BA, HR, MK; no data for 1990–1991 for CS
for electricity consumption. EECCA: no data for 1991–1992.
Sources:
International Energy Agency (final electricity consumption and final energy consumption) and World Bank (population).

Projected percentage change in per

Outlook to 2030 capita electricity consumption
from 2004 to 2030
World
been adopted are implemented a), electricity consumption per capita is
expected to continue to grow in all regions/countries. The increase in the OECD Europe
pan-European region from 2004 to 2030 is projected to be much smaller (up Transition countries
(excl. Russia)
to 70 %) than in the Asian countries (200 % in China), but higher than in
Russian Federation
USA (19 %).
USA
The highest increase in electricity consumption per capita in the
pan‑European region from 2004 to 2030 is projected for the Russian China
Federation (about 70 %), followed by the other transition countries (about India
%
58 %), and OECD Europe (38 %). Thus electricity consumption per capita in 0 50 100 150 200 250
the Russian Federation would almost reach the same level as OECD Europe
by 2030 (0.65 toe per capita compared with 0.69), while other transition
countries would still lag behind (0.31 toe per capita). Share of electricity consumption in
final energy consumption by region
The percentage change in per capita electricity consumption from 2004 to in 2004 and projections for 2030
2030 is expected to remain the lowest in USA (about 20 %), but USA is still
2004
30
projected to have the highest per capita consumption (1.25 toe), three times %
20
100
the world average.
80
Globally, the increase in per capita electricity consumption from 2004 to
60
2030 would be the highest in China and India, reaching almost 200 %.
The share of electricity consumption in final energy consumption in these 40
countries would double. 20
0
World OECD TransitionRussian USA China India
a) Europe countries Fed.
Projections are based on the IEA reference case scenario, which takes into account
government policies enacted and adopted by mid-2006, even though many of them have (excl.
not been fully implemented. It is assumed that energy-supply and energy use technologies Russia)
become steadily more efficient, though at varying speeds for each fuel and each sector, Electricity consumption
depending on the potential for efficiency gains and the stage of technology development and Total final energy consumption
commercialisation.
minus electricity
Electricity consumption per capita and final energy consumption per capita in 2004
and projections for 2030
4.5
pan-European region
3.0
5.7
5.4 3.2
2.7
2.0
1.4 Russian
Federation
OECD
Europe
Transition
countries 1.5
USA
(excl. Russia) 0.8
Tonnes per capita
6
0.4 0.5 China
India
4
FEC minus electricity in 2004

2
Electricity consumption in 2004 1.4
1.1
FEC minus electricity in 2030
Electricity consumption in 2030 0
World

Sources:

PRESENT
THEME: Energy
INDICATOR: Renewable share of total energy consumption
Renewable share of total energy consumption

%
60
Progress since Kiev Key message
Increasing the use of renewable
45
energy remains a key policy tool to
meet environmental challenges in
all regions and improve security of
30
supply.
Renewable energy everywhere is
15 showing some growth in absolute
terms.
Its share of total energy
0 consumption, however, has been
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 000 001 002 03 04 rather stable at the pan-European
19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 2 2 2 20 20 level, and has decreased in the other
China USA SEE countries/groups.
India WCE World
Canada EECCA
Total renewable energy consumption

Million tonnes Definitions
1 600 Total energy consumption (TEC) is made up of production plus imports, minus
exports, minus international marine bunkers plus/minus stock changes. It is also
called total primary energy supply (TPES) or gross inland energy consumption and
1 200
represents the quantity of all energy necessary to satisfy inland consumption.
Renewable sources include hydro, geothermal, solar thermal, solar photovoltaic,
800 tide, wind, solid biomass, renewable municipal waste and gas from biomass. They
do not include industrial waste, non-renewable municipal waste, and pumped
400 storage production.
0
ld
Ca A
da
a
CE
in
di
CC
S
or
SE
na
U
W
In
Ch
Facts and figures

W
EE
1995 2000 2004

• Globally, the share of renewable energy in total energy consumption has
decreased slightly over the period 1990–2004; this decreasing trend has
Share of renewables in total energy persisted since 2000. Over the period 2000–2004, the share remained
consumption
% basically stable in EECCA, SEE and WCE, with a decrease in the share of
50 hydropower offset by increases in the shares of other sources, especially
biomass and, to a lesser extent, wind energy.
40
• The share of renewable energy in total energy consumption in the period
30 2000–2004 decreased slightly in Canada, USA and India; the most
evident decrease was in China (from 21 % to 16 %).
20
10
0
A
Ca A
da
a
ld
CE
in
di
CC
S
SE
or
na
U
In
Ch
W
EE
W
2000 2004

WCE: no data for AD, MC, LI, SM; no data for 1990–1991 for LV, LT, EE, SI. SEE: no data for 1990–1991 for BA, HR, MK. EECCA: no data for 1990–1991.
Sources:
International Energy Agency.

Projected percentage change in

Outlook to 2030 renewables consumption by type
from 2004 to 2030
been adopted are implemented a), the use of renewable energy in the China
pan‑European region is projected to increase, mainly because of the large India
increase in OECD Europe, where the share of renewables in total energy USA
consumption is projected to more than double between 2004 (7 %) and OECD
North America
2030 (15 %). Projections for the rest of Europe show a smaller increase in
Russian Federation
the share of renewables: from 4 % in 2004 to 7 % in 2030 in the transition Transition countries
countries (excluding Russia) and from 3 % in 2004 to 4 % in 2030 in the (excl. Russia)
Russian Federation. OECD Europe
OECD North America shows similar trends to OECD Europe but on a smaller World
%
scale. – 200 0 200 400 600 800
Declines in renewable use are projected for India and China. These are Other renewables Hydro
because of the replacement of biomass for cooking and heating by modern Biomass and waste Total
commercial energy.
Fuel shares in total renewable
Although losing part of its share to other forms of energy, biomass is consumption in 2004 and
projected to continue to dominate the renewables market in all the regions projections for 2030
except the eastern part of Europe. Hydropower is expected to remain the %
20 4
30
0
20
second largest renewable source, but to remain the most important in the 100
eastern part of Europe (about 50 % in 2030). Non-hydro renewables b) 80
are projected to grow the fastest, but with their share in total energy 60
consumption still only reaching 1.7 % in 2030 — up from 0.5 % today. 40
The global share of renewables in total energy consumption will rise slightly 20
(from 13 % in 2004 to 14 % in 2030), due to the efforts in Europe and North 0
OECD Transition Russian OECD USA China India
America. Europe countries Fed. North
a)
Projections are based on the IEA reference case scenario, which takes into account (excl. America
Russia)
government policies enacted and adopted by mid-2006, even though many of them have not
been fully implemented. Other renewables Hydro
b) Biomass and waste
Non-hydro renewables — solar, geothermal, wind, tide and wave energy.
Renewable share of total energy consumption in 2004 and projections for 2030
pan-European region
9
6 3 4
15 Russian
OECD
7 Federation
North America 7
(excl. USA) 4
OECD
8 Europe Transition
4 38 16
countries 10
USA (excl. Russia) 26
China
%
40
India
30
20
13 14
2004 10
2030 0
World

Sources:

PRESENT
THEME: Transport
INDICATORS: Passenger transport & Car ownership rate
Passenger transport by mode

in passenger km per capita
Car ownership Key message
Cars/1 000 persons
Passenger km per capita
30 000 600 Transport volumes across Europe are
growing more or less in parallel with
25 000 500
economic growth and are projected
to continue to do so over the coming
2090
2000
03
20 000 400
19
300
decades, leading to increasing
15 000
environmental impacts. Growth is
10 000 200 mainly in passenger car and air
5 000 100
transport.
0 In most EECCA and SEE countries,
0
private car transport still plays a
da
SA
A
CE
da
SA
ld
a
CC
EE E
E
limited, although increasing, role,
SE
in
di
CC
na
or
U
SE
W
na
In
Ch
EE
W
Ca
Ca
while the share of rail transport

Road Rail Air 1990 1995 2000 2003 continues to decrease.
Transport by mode, passenger km

per capita change from 2000 to 2003
Definitions
India Passenger cars refer to road motor vehicles, other than two-wheelers,
China intended for the carriage of passengers and designed to seat no more
SEE than nine people (including the driver).
EECCA Road transport includes transport by private cars, buses and coaches.
WCE
USA
Canada
%
– 80 – 60 – 40 – 20 0 20 40 Facts and figures
Road Rail Air
• The highest passenger km per capita are in USA and Canada, with road
Change in car ownership per and air contributing most to the totals. Next is WCE (more than 13 000
1 000 capita values from 2000 to 2003 passenger km per capita) and, at much lower levels, SEE (about 2 200)
SEE and EECCA (about 1 440).
Canada • Passenger km per capita by air increased generally between 2000 and
WCE 2003, but fell in USA (by 9 %), closely linked to the 11 September 2001
attack, and in SEE (by 8 %).
EECCA
China • China and India have very low values of passenger km per capita by air;
% however, China's growth is remarkable (35 % since 2000).
– 20 – 10 0 10 20 30 40 50
• Passenger km per capita by rail decreased markedly in EECCA and SEE
Geographical and temporal coverage: since 2000 (by 67 % and 24 %, respectively).
Car ownership WCE: incomplete data for AD, CZ, • Passenger km per capita by road in WCE and USA increased since 2000,
DE, LI, MC, SM. SEE: incomplete data for AL, BG,
BA, CS. EECCA: incomplete data for AM, BY, TJ, TM,
but decreased slightly in Canada (by 3 %), SEE and EECCA (both by 5 %).
UA, UZ. • Since 1990, car ownership levels have increased in each country/group
Air transport WCE: no data for AD, LI, SM, MC; considered, the only apparent exception being USA. Actually, in USA,
incomplete data for EE, LT, LV, SI, SK. SEE:
incomplete data for AL, BA, CS, MK, HR. EECCA: no
a gradual shift from traditional passenger cars towards SUVs, pick-ups
data for 1990–1991; from 1992, incomplete data and similar vehicles is occurring; the share of these vehicles used for
for BY, KG, RU, TJ, TM, GE, AM. the transport of passengers rather than for commercial purposes is not
Rail transport WCE: no data for AD, CY, IS, LI, MT, recorded, but it is reasonable to assume that they contribute to private
MC, SM. SEE: incomplete data for AL, BA, BG, CS. passenger transport. In 2001, there were more than 84 million such
EECCA: incomplete data for TJ, TM, UZ, UA, RU,
KZ, GE, BY. vehicles, an increase of 74 % over the period 1990–2001 (1). Overall,
Road transport WCE: no data for AT, AD, CY, CZ,
the number of passenger transport vehicles in USA is therefore probably
DK, GR, IE, LI, LU, MT, MC, NL, PT, SM, SK, UK. increasing slowly.
SEE: no data for BA. EECCA: no data for AM, KZ,
KG, TJ, TM, UZ.
• China and India, and most probably SEE (showing a reduction of 12 %
Sources:
over 2000–2003), are well below the world average for car ownership
United Nations Statistical Division for air transport; (no data series for the world average starting from 2001 available).
UNECE for rail transport; ECMT for road transport
and OECD for USA and Canada; UNECE and WB for
• EECCA has higher values of car ownership than the world average and
passenger cars; WB for population. also a steadily increasing trend (15 % over the period 2000–2003).
(1) US Bureau of Transportation Statistics.
http://www.bts.gov/publications/national_
transportation_statistics/html/table_01_
11.html.

Projected percentage change in

Outlook to 2030 passenger transport by mode and
car ownership rate from 2000 to 2050
If present policies and technological trends continue a), passenger transport
India
will continue to grow worldwide. Passenger-km per capita per year in Eastern
Europe (SEE and some EU-10) is projected to almost triple from 2000 to reach China
the OECD Europe level (about 20 000 passenger-km per capita per year) in
2050, while it will remain much lower in the former Soviet Union countries. Eastern
Europe
Although passenger travel per capita in China will remain rather low compared Former
with other regions, it is expected to have the second biggest share of Soviet
Union
transport volumes in the world (11 608 billion passenger-km per year), after OECD
OECD North America (15 111 billion). Europe
OECD
Transport modal shares are expected to shift in a less sustainable direction. North
Air passenger transport is projected to be the fastest-growing mode in all America
%
regions (ranging from a 1 167 % increase in India to 337 % in OECD Europe).
0
0
20
40
60
80
00
20
Passenger rail will be the second most rapidly growing mode, with the biggest
1
Road Total for all modes
increase in China and India. Road transport is expected to increase slowly, but Rail
loosing its share in total due to air transport, which is projected to increase Air Car ownership rate
from around 10 % to one third of total passenger transport.
Modal split in 2000
Car ownership rates are expected to increase globally, but at a faster rate in and projected modal split in 2050
Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union and China. In Eastern Europe and
2000
50
%
the former Soviet Union, car ownership will exceed today's level in OECD
20
100
Europe (390 cars/1 000 people). Car ownership in China will increase from
80
13 to 230 cars/1 000 people in the period 2000–2050.
60
40

a)
Projections are based on the reference case scenario — one possible set of future conditions,
based on recent trends. Adjustments are made for expected deviations from recent trends 20
due to factors such as existing policies, population projections, income projections and 0
the expected availability of new technologies. No major new policies are assumed to be China India EECCA SEE OECD OECD
implemented beyond those already implemented in 2003, and no major technological & Baltic & some Europe North
breakthroughs. states of EU-10 America
Road Rail Air
Passenger-km per year per capita in 2000 and projected for 2050 & Projected car ownership rates in 2050
pan-European region
15 239
25 876 20 230 5 569

21 523 20 329
11 979
Former
6 950 Soviet Union
OECD
OECD Europe Eastern 7 886
North America Europe 2 081
China
Passenger-km 4 354
2 208
per year per capita
30 000 India
25 000 Cars per 1 000 people in 2050
20 000 800
698
15 000
10 000 7 942 OECD North America 600 570 551
5 000 5 364 2000 OECD Europe 447
0 2050 Former Soviet Union 400
World 231
Eastern Europe 200
China 105
India 0

Sources:
World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) 'The Sustainable Mobility Project'.

PRESENT
THEME: Tourism
INDICATOR: International tourist arrivals
International tourist arrivals
Key message
2005
The tourism industry is continuing
to grow, globally and in the
pan‑European region.
2000
EECCA and SEE are generally
characterised by a particularly
rapid growth in international tourist
1995
arrivals, but from a far lower level
than WCE, which remains the
Million
0 150 300 450 600 750 900 favourite destination globally.
India Canada SEE EECCA A confirmed trend in WCE and SEE is
China USA WCE World the emergence of new destinations.
World share of international

tourist arrivals, 2005 Definitions
The number of international tourist arrivals is used to quantify the volume of
international tourism. Data refer only to overnight visitors staying at least one
Canada China
2% night in collective or private accommodation in the country visited.
6%
EECCA
Rest of 5%
the world
33 % India
0%
Facts and figures
• WCE remains the largest tourist destination, both at the pan-European
USA WCE level and globally. More than 346 million international tourists arrived in
6% 43 %
SEE WCE in 2005, about 43 % of the global total of 806 million. In 2004, five
5% of the world's top 10 tourism destinations were in WCE countries (France,
Spain, Italy, United Kingdom and Germany) (1).
• International tourist arrivals in USA, China, EECCA, SEE, Canada, and
India are at much lower absolute levels, ranging from 49 million (USA) to
Percentage change in international about 3 million (India).
tourist arrivals from 2000 to 2005 • Only USA and Canada have experienced a decrease in arrivals since
USA 2000.
Canada • Over the period 2000–2005, while the increase in WCE was relatively
WCE
small (about 5 %) and well below the world average (17 %), SEE had an
extraordinary growth of almost 84 %. Within SEE, the largest increases
World
since 2000 were in Serbia and Montenegro, Turkey, Bulgaria and
India Romania.
EECCA • EECCA also had a remarkable increase in arrivals (40 %), although lower
China than China (50 %). China and India are among the Asian destinations
SEE growing at a rate above the world average (1).
%
– 20 5 30 55 80

WCE: no data for AD, HU; estimates for 2005 — made equal to 2004 value — have been made for LT, PT, SM. EECCA: no data for KZ, TJ, TM; estimates
for 2005 — made equal to 2004 value — have been made for UA, UZ.
Sources:
World Tourism Organisation. World figures are from: WTO, Tourism Highlights 2006 Edition.
(1) UNWTO, World's top tourism destinations (2004) and World's top emerging tourism destinations in the period 1995–2004.

Outlook to 2020 World share of international

tourist arrivals, 2010
If current economic, social and industry trends continue a), tourism Canada SEE
worldwide will grow at an average rate of 4.1 % a year. Globally, 2.6 % 3.7 %
Central and
international tourist arrivals are projected to reach more than 1.6 billion Eastern Europe
Other regions
in 2020, almost doubling the 2005 level. High tourist growth will cause 31.4 %
7.5 %
significant pressure on the environment and biodiversity in all the USA
7.2 %
countries/regions.
International tourist arrivals in the pan-European region by 2020 are
projected to reach about 717 million. WE will continue to be the most China
visited tourist destination in the world with a total of more than 500 million 6.1 %
WE
tourists in 2020. However, the market share of WE is expected to fall from India
0.5 % 40.9 %
43 % in 2005 to 33 % in 2020, mainly because of the high increase in SEE,
CEE, China and India. SEE and CEE tourist arrivals are projected to grow
to almost twice the 2000 levels by 2020 (the rate of increase ranging from
5.5 % per year in Turkey to 8.4 % per year in Croatia). World share of international
tourist arrivals, 2020
International arrivals in India and China, increasing by 5.9 % and 7.8 %
Canada SEE
per year respectively, will pass Canada and USA (up to 3.6 % per year), 2.6 % 3.8 %
turning the Asian region to the second largest receiving region after WE. The Central and
Other regions Eastern Europe
number of international tourist arrivals in China alone is expected to reach 36.3 % 8.7 %
130 million, almost 650 % higher than in 1995. As a result, its market share USA
will increase to 8.2 % in 2020. 6.6 %

a)
Projections are based on the World Tourism Organisation's baseline scenario. This takes
account of current economic, social and industry trends (including travel forecasts of China WE
aircraft manufacturers); considerations are also given to the wide range of individuals and
8.3 % 33.2 %
organisations that present views on the future from one perspective or another.
India
0.6 %
Projections of international tourist arrivals (million) for 2010 and 2020

pan-European region
519 Million
1 561
135
412
75 1 500
27 41
Central
Canada and Eastern
Europe
102 59
38
73 WE 1 006
130
1 000
SEE
USA 62
China
5 9
India
500
2010
2020 0
World
Sources:
WTO, 2001. Tourism 2020 Vision: Global Forecasts and Profiles of Segments. Volume 4 and 7. World Tourism Organisation.

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Europe's environment

The fourth assessment

European Environment Agency

Tirana Skopje Astana

Yerevan J AN I GY D E S E R T Global land cover

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Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2007

© EEA, Copenhagen, 2007

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REG.NO. DK- 000244

European Environment Agency

Abbreviations and acronyms....................................................................................... 5

1 Europe's environment in an age of transition....................................................... 19

1.1 Is the pan-European region meeting its environmental challenges?.........................20

2 Environment and health and the quality of life..................................................... 53

3 Climate change................................................................................................... 145

3.1 The challenge: tackling climate change.............................................................147

4.1 The commitment: halting biodiversity loss by 2010.............................................177

EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT 

5 Marine and coastal environment......................................................................... 207

5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................210

6 Sustainable consumption and production........................................................... 251

7 Sectors that drive environmental change........................................................... 291

Annex 1 Legal instruments......................................................................................358

 EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT

Abbreviations and acronyms

AAUs assigned amount units CCS carbon capture and storage

ACAP Arctic Council Action Plan Cd cadmium

ACEA European Automobile Manufacturers' CDDA Common Database on Designated Areas

AMD Armenian dram CENEf Center for Energy Efficiency

ASCOBANS Agreement on the Conservation of Small CEPI Confederation of European Paper

ASEF Asia-Europe Foundation CERA Cambridge Energy Research Associates

AWI The Alfred Wegener Institute CERs certified emission reductions

BaP benzo(a)pyrene CFCs chlorofluorocarbons

BTC Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (oil pipeline) CLE current legislation

°C degree Celsius CLRTAP Convention on Long-range

CARDS Community Assistance for CO2 carbon dioxide

EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT 

CROSTAT Central Bureau of Statistics of the EEA European Environment Agency

DOE designated operational entity EMS European Marine Strategy

DPSIR driving forces — pressures — state — ENEA European Network of Environmental

EAP Environment Action Programme ENP European Neighbourhood Policy

EBCC European Bird Census Council ENTEC Environmental and Engineering

EC European Commission EPER European Pollutant Emission Register

ECB European Chemicals Bureau EPR Environmental Performance Review

ECHO European Commission Humanitarian Aid ERUs emission reduction units

 EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT

EUR-C Eastern Europe, Estonia, Latvia, ha hectare

FEC Final Energy Consumption Hg mercury

F-gases fluorinated gases HNV high nature value

FISHSTAT software for fishery statistics HP hydroxypyrene

FP Framework Programme HPVC High Production Volume Chemical

FSA Food Standards Agency IA Impact Assessment

FWD Framework Directive IACMST Inter-Agency Committee on Marine

EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT 

ICES International Council for the Exploration k kilo

 EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT

NAI net annual increment pH hydrogen ion concentration

NERI National Environmental Research R&D Research and Development

NH3 ammonia RAPEX Rapid Alert System for non-food

EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT 

SF6 sulphur hexafluoride UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law

TBT tributyltin WCMC World Conservation Monitoring Centre

EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT

EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT

EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT

EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT

EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT

EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT

EUROPE'S ENVIRONMENT | THE FOURTH ASSESSMENT