DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOLAR TRACKING

MOHAMAD FAZMAN BIN MOHAMAD YUNUS

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

 PSZ 19:16 (Pind. 1/07)

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

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Author’s full name : MOHAMAD FAZMAN BIN MOHAMAD YUNUS

Date of birth : 20th SEPTEMBER 1987

Title : DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOLAR TRACKING

Academic Session : 2009/2010

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870920495181 MOHAMAD SHUKRI BIN ZAINAL ABIDIN

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Date : 26 APRIL 2010 Date : 26 APRIL 2010

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 *I heneby d€ctae th.t I ire rd ths coutent of this thesis ad acoording to

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affading a Bacblor Deglec of Electficsl gngiffifitrS (Mccffimics)."

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Name Of $Wcrvisor : MOSAMAD $IIUKRI BIN ZAINAL ASIIIIN
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DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

MOHAMAD FAZMAN BIN MOHAMAD YUNUS

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Engineering (Electrical - Mechatronics)

Faculty of Electrical Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

MAY 2010
 I dsclare that this thesis entitled Design md Development of a Solar Tracking
System is the result of my own research except as citd in the references. The thesis

has rot bwn accepted for any degree and is not concurrently submittd in
candidature ofany other degree.

Signature
Name FAZMAN BIN MOIID YTNTUS

Date 256 APRIL 2O1O

 III

Specially dedicated to
mom Fatmah binti Halipa, dad Mohamad Yunus Ambosaka,
special friend Nur Hazilah Binti Omar,
brother Fazdee, sister Fazdiana, friends, cousins
and other friends and relatives who have encouraged, guided
and inspired me throughout my journey of education
 IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

As with any other text, the number of individuals who have made it possible
for exceeds those whose names grace the cover. At the hazard of leaving someone
out, I would like to explicitly thank the following respective individuals for their
priceless contribution and commitment towards in accomplishing this project
proposal.

First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor, En. Mohamad Shukri
Bin Zainal Abidin, for his patience and guidance throughout the whole year for the
completion my Final Year Project (FYP).

I would also like to thank my family members and Nur Hazilah for always
being there to support me all the time and give me the courage and strength that are
necessary for me to carry on with this project.

Last but not least, I would like to thank all the lecturers that have taught me
throughout my education in Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, and also to my
fellowfriends in campus and hometown.

Once again, a sincere thanks.

 V

ABSTRACT

Renewable energy is rapidly gaining importance as an energy resource as

fossil fuel prices fluctuate. One of the most popular renewable energy sources is
solar energy. This thesis describes the design and development of a ‘microcontroller-
based solar panel tracking system’. Solar tracking enables more energy to be
generated because the solar panel is able to maintain a perpendicular profile to the
sun’s rays. As such, it is vital that those in engineering fields understand the
technologies associated with this area. The project includes the design and
construction of a Microcontroller-Based Solar Tracking Control. These solar
tracking systems are controlled using PIC18F452 Microcontroller. This project also
covers the designing and construction of the Solar Tracking mechanical structure
together with the associated electronic circuits. Two Servo motors (HX5010) is
mounted to control the altitude angle, and one Servo Motor (HXT12K) for the
elevation angle. Two pairs of Light sensors (CdS) were installed for detecting the
light source position. The PIC18F452 is programmed using C language in microC
PRO for PIC. A working system will ultimately be demonstrated to validate the
design. Problems and possible improvements will also be presented.
 VI

ABSTRAK

Kejatuhan harga sumber tenaga seperti minyak galian menyebabkan

kepentingan sumber tenaga alternatif semakin berkembang pesat. Salah satu sember

tenaga alternatif yang paling popular adalah tenaga solar. Tesis ini akan

membincangkan rekabentuk dan pembangunan ‘microcontroller-based solar panel

tracking system’. "Solar tracking" dapat menghasilkan keluaran tenaga yang lebih

banyak, kerana solar dapat mengekalkan permukaannya selari dengan cahaya

matahari. Oleh itu, adalah tanggungjawab bagi mereka yang berkencimpung dalam

bidang kejuruteraan untuk memahami teknologi yang berkaitan dengan bidang ini.

Projek ini akan membincangkan rekabentuk dan pembangunan ‘microcontroller-

based solar panel tracking system’. Projek ‘Solar Tracking System’ in menggunakan

PIC18F452 Microcontroller sebagai kawalan. Projek ini juga merangkumi

rekabentuk dan pembangunan struktur mekanikal ‘Solar Tracking’ bersama litar

elektronik yang berkaitan. Dua Servo Motor (HX5010) digunakan untuk mengawal

sudut ‘altitude’ dan satu Servo motor (HXT12K) untuk mengawal sudut ‘elevation’.

Dua pasang penderia cahaya (CdS) digunakan untuk menentukan kedudukan sumber

cahaya. PIC18F452 diprogram menggunakan bahasa C di ‘microC PRO for PIC.

Pada akhir tesis ini, sistem yang siap dan dapat berfungsi dengan baik akan

dibentangkan. masalah dan penambahbaikan untuk projek yang akan dibuat pada

masa akan datang juga akan dibentangkan.

 VII

TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES x
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF APPENDICES xiii

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Study 1
1.2 Objective of Project 2
1.2 Justification for the Research 2
1.3 Definition of Research Project 3
1.4 Scope of Research Project 3
1.5 Thesis Layout 4

2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Background Theory 5
2.1.1 Solar Cell Theory 6
2.1.2 Maximizing Power Obtained from 8
Solar Cells
2.1.3 Tracking Techniques 9
 VIII

2.1.4 Servo Motor 10

2.1.5 Cadmium sulphide 12
2.2 Literature Review 13
2.2.1 Solar Tracker by Bill Lane 14
2.2.2 Solar panel tracking by Isaac Aunkst 16
2.5 Summary 17

3 METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN 18

3.1 Methodology 19
3.2 Design
3.2.1 Method of Alignment 20
3.2.2 Servo Motors 21
3.5 Light Sensor Theory 25
3.6 Sensor design 26
3.7 Tracking Controller 27
3.7.1 Choice of Control Chip 27
3.7.2 Controlling Motors 29
3.7.3 Tracking program 29
3.8 Mechanical design 29
3.9 Electronic design 34
3.9.1 Voltage Regulator Circuit 34
3.9.2 Oscillator and Master Reset Circuit 35
3.9.3 ICSP Programmer to Microcontroller 36
interface
Circuit
3.9.4 Light Sensor to Microcontroller 38
Interface Circuit
3.9.5 Battery level indicator 39
3.9.6 Solar Panel Circuit 41
3.10 Software Development 42
3.10.1 mikroC PRO for PIC 42
3.10.2 How to program or write source codes 44
using mikroC PRO for PIC IDE?
 IX

3.10.3 How to load the source code into the PIC 45

3.10.4 Algorithm 47
3.11 Summary 49

4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Achievements 50
4.2 Problems Encountered and Solutions 51
4.3 Robot’s Gallery View 54

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusion 56
5.2 Recommendations 57

REFERENCES 59
APPENDICES 61
 X

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE TITLE PAGE

2.1 Current delivered for various angles of incidence. 8
3.1 Specifications of the servo motors 23
3.2 Input/output pins used in PIC18F452 38
 XI

LIST OF FIGURE

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

1.1 Scope of Research Project 2

1.2 Methodologies 3
2.1 Energy-band diagram of a silicon p-n junction solar cell 6
under solar irradiation.
2.2 Idealised equivalent circuit of a solar cell. 7
2.3 Schematic representation of a silicon p-n junction solar 7
cell.
2.4 Graph of data contained in Table 2.1 9
2.5 Servo Motor 10
2.6 Pulse Width Modulations 11
2.7 Position of Servo Motor 12
2.8 Cadmium Sulphide 13
2.9 Illustration of the summer and winter solstices 13
2.10 One Axis Tracker b) Light sensor 15
2.11 Sun path 15
2.12 Solar Panel Tracking 16
3.1 Methodologies 19
3.2 Two methods of alignment 20
3.3 Gear System 21
3.4 HXT12k hexTronik servo motor 24
3.5 HX5010 hexTronik servo motor 24
3.6 CdS Photocell Circuit 26
3.7 sensor design 26
 XII

3.8 PIC18F452 Microcontroller 28

3.9 Mechanical design
(a) Based structure 30
(b) Upper Structure 30
(c) Engineering Drawing 31
(d) Complete design structure 32
(e) Complete hardware structure 33
3.10 Schematic of Voltage Regulator Circuit 5V for Circuit and
Motor Driver 35
3.11 Schematic of Voltage Regulator Circuit 6V for Circuit and 35
Motor Driver
3.12 Schematic for oscillator and master reset for the 36
microcontroller
3.13 ICSP Programmer to Microcontroller Interface Circuit 37
3.14 Light Sensors to Microcontroller Interface Circuit 37
3.15 Battery level Indicator Circuit 39
3.16 Complete Main board Circuit 40
3.17 Complete Battery level Indicator Circuit 40
3.18 Solar panel 41
3.19 mikroC PRO for PIC IDE 44
3.20 The new project file display with the microcontroller 45
configuration bits
3.21 ICSP Programmer using USB cable 46
3.22 PICkit 2 version 2.40 display window 46
3.23 Flow chart 47
3.24 Servo Motor output algorithm 48
4.1 Pulse Width Modulations (PWM) 52
4.2 Angle of servo motor for various PWM 53
4.3 Sample program for 90° servo motor output 53
4.4 mechanical structure designs 54
4.5 Robot gallery view 55
 XIII

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A C language source code for Microcontroller Based Solar 61

Tracking Control.
B INSTRUCTION SET FOR P18F452 66
MICROCONTROLLER
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter will briefly discuss about the background study of the project,
the light radiation and solar array. Other than that, main criteria of the project which
were discussed are the problem statement, objectives, scope and methodology of the
project.

1.1 Background Study

As the range of applications for solar energy increases, so does the need for
improved materials and methods used to harness this power source. There are several
factors that affect the efficiency of the collection process. Major influences on
overall efficiency include solar cell efficiency, intensity of source radiation and
storage techniques. This makes it particularly difficult to make considerable
improvements in the performance of the cell, and hence restricts the efficiency of the
overall collection process. Therefore, the most attainable method of improving the
performance of solar power collection is to increase the mean intensity of radiation
received from the source.
 2

1.2 Objective of Project

Essentially, there are three main objectives that are accomplished by doing
this project:

 To design and construct a 2-axis solar tracking system for moving base
(vehicles, bot, and etc.).
 To build a microcontroller solar array that actively tracks the sun to
maximum solar panel output.
 To build a sensors to locate the sun's position at any instance, and aligning
the array using the microprocessor so that all incident rays are normal to the
array surface.

1.2 Justification for the Research

There are three distinct methods of increasing the mean intensity of solar
radiation received by a solar array. These include focusing the incident rays, tracking
the path of the sun using fixed control algorithms, and dynamic tracking. The first
method involves focusing incident rays onto a rigid array, this allows incident rays to
reach the array normal to the array surface. The second method uses a controller
device to determine the position of the sun with reference to the current day, month
and year. The dynamic tracking is similar to this method, however sensors are used
to determine the current position of the radiation source. Currently there are a
number of variations on each of these methods. The research undertaken in this
thesis is directed towards the design of a dynamic tracking system. The dynamic
tracking system was chosen because it proposed the most accurate method of
maintaining maximum power collection possible.
 3

1.3 Definition of Research Project

The objective of this project is to design a Microcontroller Base Solar

Tracking Control. The concise definition of this system is as follows. A
microprocessor-controlled solar array that actively tracks the sun so that maximum
power is received by the array at all times. This is achieved by using sensors to locate
the sun's position at any instance, and aligning the array using the microprocessor so
that all incident rays are normal to the array surface.

1.4 Scope of Research Project

Main Brain
(Microcontroller
PIC18F452)

Design a control
system that track Light sensor
the movement of (Cadmium
sun (Servo Sulphide)
Motors)

Voltage level
Energy converter
indicator (monitor
from light
the battery capacity
radiation to
or for indicator
electricity (Solar
output of solar
Cell)
panel)

Figure 1.1 Scope of Research Project

 4

The scope of this project involves both hardware and software

implementation. As for the hardware, designing and construction of mechanical
structures are needed. The scope of the project is to design a control system that track
the movement of sun (light radiation) to maximize the output of the solar panel by
using PIC18F452 microcontroller based on the tracking system. LDR (light
dependent resistance) type CdS (Cadmium sulphide) used as light sensor to
determine the sun position and solar panel that convert the light radiation into
electricity. The output of the solar panel will be monitor by the Voltage Level
Indicator and also be used for monitoring the battery voltage level.

1.5 Thesis Layout

The first chapter is the introduction part and has discussed briefly on the
background study, objectives and scope of the project, which are already mentioned
above. The second chapter will discuss on the literature review, whereas the third
chapter will focus on methodology and design of the project. The project evaluation
and analysis will be conferred in fourth chapter. The final chapter will outline the
conclusion and future recommendations of this project.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Before starting on a project, some fundamental steps are really necessary.

Among of the steps, the preliminary one is to conduct research based on the chosen
title and collect appropriate information from what others had done and achieved.
Below are some theories and researches that are related to this project.

2.1 Background Theory

Before beginning the design of the tracking system, it was necessary to obtain
some background information on solar cells and methods of energy collection. It was
equally important to research the various tracking systems available. To obtain this
information a study of relevant literature was conducted. This study involved a
review of solar cell theory, an investigation into the sources of loss in solar systems
and an examination of current tracking methods.
 6

2.1.1 Solar Cell Theory

Nuclear fusion reactions on the sun's surface supply earth with solar energy.
This energy is primarily released in the form of electromagnetic radiation in the
ultraviolet, infrared and radio spectral regions. Presently, the most efficient means of
harnessing this power source is the solar cell, which converts solar radiation directly
into electricity. Solar cells are fabricated from various semiconductor materials using
numerous device configurations and selecting single-crystal, polycrystalline, and
amorphous thin-film structures. The following theory considers the silicon p-n
junction cell, because it acts as a reference device for all solar cells. The solar cell
has a single energy band gap Eg, shown in Figure 2.1 When the cell is exposed to the
solar spectrum, a photon with energy less than Eg makes no contribution to the cell
output. A photon with energy greater than Eg contributes an energy Eg to the cell
output, and the remaining energy is wasted as heat. The idealized equivalent circuit
of the cell is shown in Figure 2.2 where a constant-current source is in parallel with
the junction. The source IL results from the excitation of excess carriers by solar
radiation; is the diode saturation current and RL is the load resistance.

Figure 2.1 Energy-band diagram of a silicon p-n junction solar cell under solar
irradiation.
 7

Figure 2.2 Idealised equivalent circuit of a solar cell.

A typical schematic representation of a solar cell is shown in Figure 2.3. "It

consists of a shallow p-n junction formed on the surface (e.g., by diffusion), a front
ohmic contact stripe and fingers, a back ohmic contact that covers the entire back
surface, and an antireflection coating on the front surface."

Figure 2.3 Schematic representation of a silicon p-n junction solar cell.

 8

2.1.2 Maximizing Power Obtained from Solar Cells

Through experiments conducted during research by Elliot Larard (1998), it

was concluded that the current obtained from solar cells is influenced by the angle at
which incident rays strike the cell surface. By using a stationary light source and
adjusting the angle at which the light rays strike the cell, a plot of current delivered
vs. angle of incidence can be created. This property of solar cells is confirmed by the
data contained in Table 2.1, and illustrated by Figure 2.4

Table 2.1 Current delivered for various angles of incidence.

 9

Figure 2.4 Graph of data contained in Table 2.1

After considering the experimental data obtained, it can be stated that, to

maintain maximum power output from a solar array, the angle of incidence must be
held at zero degrees. Hence the array must constantly face the sun. This requires a
tracking system that can continuously align the array into the desired position.

2.1.3 Tracking Techniques

There are several forms of tracking currently available, these vary mainly in
the method of implementing the designs. The two general forms of tracking used are
fixed control algorithms and dynamic tracking. The inherent difference between the
two methods is the manner in which the path of the sun is determined. In the fixed
control algorithm systems, the path of the sun is determined by referencing an
 10

algorithm that calculates the position of the sun for each time period. That is, the
control system does not actively find the sun's position but works it out given the
current time, day, month, and year. The dynamic tracking system on the other hand
actively searches for the sun's position at any time of day (or night). Common to both
forms of tracking is the control system. This system consists of some method of
direction control, such as DC motors, stepper motors, and servo motors, which are
directed by a control circuit, either digital or analog.

2.1.4 Servo Motor

Figure 2.5 Servo Motor

Servos are controlled by sending them a pulse of variable width. The control
wire is used to send this pulse. The parameters for this pulse are that it has a
minimum pulse, a maximum pulse, and a repetition rate. Given the rotation
constraints of the servo, neutral is defined to be the position where the servo has
exactly the same amount of potential rotation in the clockwise direction as it does in
the counter clockwise direction. It is important to note that different servos will have
different constraints on their rotation but they all have a neutral position, and that
position is always around 1.5 milliseconds (ms).
 11

Figure 2.6 Pulse Width Modulations

The angle is determined by the duration of a pulse that is applied to the

control wire. This is called Pulse width Modulation. The servo expects to see a pulse
every 20 ms. The length of the pulse will determine how far the motor turns. For
example, a 1.5 ms pulse will make the motor turn to the 90 degree position (neutral
position). When these servos are commanded to move they will move to the position
and hold that position. If an external force pushes against the servo while the servo is
holding a position, the servo will resist from moving out of that position. The
maximum amount of force the servo can exert is the torque rating of the servo.
Servos will not hold their position forever though; the position pulse must be
repeated to instruct the servo to stay in position.

When a pulse is sent to a servo that is less than 1.5 ms the servo rotates to a
position and holds its output shaft some number of degrees counter clockwise from
the neutral point. When the pulse is wider than 1.5 ms the opposite occurs. The
minimal width and the maximum width of pulse that will command the servo to turn
to a valid position are functions of each servo. Different brands, and even different
servos of the same brand, will have different maximum and minimums. Generally
the minimum pulse will be about 1 ms wide and the maximum pulse will be 2 ms
wide.
 12

Figure 2.7 Position of Servo Motor

Another parameter that varies from servo to servo is the turn rate. This is the
time it takes from the servo to change from one position to another. The worst case
turning time is when the servo is holding at the minimum rotation and it is
commanded to go to maximum rotation. This can take several seconds on very high
torque servos.

2.1.5 Cadmium sulphide

Cadmium sulphide is a chemical compound with the formula CdS. Cadmium

sulphide is yellow in colour and is a semiconductor. Cadmium sulphide is a direct
band gap semiconductor and has many applications for example in light detectors.
Cadmium sulphide (CdS) cell is a resistor whose resistance decreases with increasing
incident light intensity. It can also be referenced as a photoconductor. If light falling
on the device is of high enough frequency, photons absorbed by the semiconductor
give bound electrons enough energy to jump into the conduction band. The resulting
free electron (and its hole partner) conduct electricity, thereby lowering resistance.
 13

Figure 2.8 Cadmium Sulphide

2.2 Literature Review

As depicted in Figure 2.9, the position of the sun with respect to that of the
earth changes in a cyclic manner during the course of a calendar year. Tracking the
position of the sun in order to expose a solar panel to maximum radiation at any
given time is the main purpose of a solar tracking PV system.

Figure 2.9 Illustration of the summer and winter solstices

 14

For many years, several energy companies and research institutions have
been performing solar tracking for improving the efficiency of solar energy
production. A variety of techniques of solar energy production used have proven that
up to 30% more solar energy can be collected with a solar tracker than with a fixed
PV system. The cost of such systems is however still very prohibitive for the average
consumer or for a small-scale application. The current work shows that a comparable
system can be designed at a much lower cost particularly for academic institutions.
In addition, the solar trackers currently available are generally not programmable for
location flexibility. Moving a system from the northern hemisphere to the southern
hemisphere, coupled with latitudinal and longitudinal position changes, can result in
considerable design changes to the tracker’s control circuitry.

2.2.1 Solar Tracker by Bill Lane

In 2008, Bill Lane has built a solar Tracker for his final year project. Bill lane
is a graduate student, from department of electrical and computer engineering,
Cleveland State University. In his Solar Tracker project, Bill Lane used a single axis
design for the tracker, meaning the tracker only control one angle. Using the
Cadmium Sulphide (Csd) as the light sensors, he used 2 light sensor as comparator of
the light radiation. When one of the sensor has higher intensity of light, the position
of the sun is on the side of that light sensor. Then, by using unipolar stepper motor,
the solar panel will be rotate or move until both sensor has the same amount of light
on it. Bill Lane solar tracker is using PIC16F877 as the microcontroller of the
tracker, the microcontroller has a 10 bits multichannel ADC (analog digital
converter), 5 input/output ports and 256 x 8 bytes of data EEPROM memory.
 15

(a) (b)

Figure 2.10 a) One Axis Tracker b) Light sensor

The advantage of this tracker is it used a single axis design. Therefore, the
solar tracker must be mounted in fix position where it can be tracker the path of the
sun. Refer to Figure 2.11, the one axis tracker only can track path 1 but not Path 2,
where to enable the path 2 the tracker must be able to control the azimuth and
latitude angle.

Path 1

Path 2

Figure 2.11 sun path

 16

2.2.2 Solar panel tracking by Isaac Aunkst

Isaac Aunkst received his Bachelor's degree in Electrical Engineering

Technology from Penn State Erie, The Behrend College in 2006. Upon graduation he
worked for GE Transportation Systems on locomotive electrical and instrumentation
systems. He has recently been hired to work on power electronic system design for
General Dynamics Electric Boat Division. In 2005 Isaac Aunkst has built a Solar
Panel Tracking to increase the efficiency of a photovoltaic (PV) system. 8051
microcontroller was used to control the movement of the solar panel. The system was
designed to be autonomous, such that energy generated by the solar panel would be
used to charge two lead acid batteries. Isaac Aunkst Solar panel tracking is a single
axis design, and by using Light sensor (ldr) to detected the position of the sun.

Figure 2.12 Solar Panel Tracking

The advantage of Solar panel tracking by Isaac Aunkst is the same with Solar
Tracker by Bill Lane where it used a single axis design. To improve the efficiency of
the tracker, dial axis can be implementing to control bolt azimuth and latitude of the
sun position.
 17

2.5 Summary

The ideas of the above researches were extracted to accommodate this

project. Certain important elements of each research were taken into consideration.
In this project, the usage of wireless PIC18f452 and 2-axis Solar Tracking becomes
the main element. Other than that, servo motor and tracking algorithms were
implemented for this project. Some hardware designs of the robots were also taken
into consideration in order to design the Solar Tracking System.
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN

3.1 Methodology

The project took place in duration of almost one year. The first step before
the project implemented is to review the project scope and research area. In this case,
the field of tracking the sun light radiation is reviewed thoroughly in order to
establish the Microcontroller Based Solar Tracking to perform the specified task.
Then, the next task is to design the mechanical structure and circuitry of the robot
which is to be built. At the same time, studies on programming PIC18F452
microcontroller to the hardware is also been done. Then, if all the design has been
finalized, the implementation of the hardware and the circuitry takes place.

Reaching the peak of the project, the programming segment takes place
especially for the sensor input by the CdS to the ADC of the microcontroller,
tracking process and output to the servo motors. Last but not least, certain
modification on the circuitry and software took place in order to make the robots
perform in finer movements. Thus, troubleshooting process also took place o correct
certain faulty processes while the robot is performing its task.
 19

Concept and idea Testing Modification

Literature review Programming Result

Mechanical &
Both construction
electrical design

Figure 3.1 Methodologies

3.2 Design

When beginning the design for the tracking system, a TOP/DOWN approach
was used to break the project into separate tasks. Taking the project as a whole, it
involves reading voltages from a sensor array, then comparing these voltages
digitally to determine the direction the array must move to align itself with the sun.
To perform this movement a motor circuit is needed to receive output from the
controller and step the motors accordingly. The following sections of this chapter
outline the methods and designs used to implement this system. Design requirements
are:

 During the time that the sun is up, the system must follow the sun’s position in
the sky.
 20

 This must be done with an active control, timed movements are wasteful. It
should be totally automatic and simple to operate. The operator interference
should be minimal and restricted to only when it is actually required. The major
components of this system are as follows.

 Input Light Sensors (CdS).

 Analog to digital converter.

 Microcontroller.

 Tracking software.

 Output mechanical transducer (Servo Motor).

3.2.1 Method of Alignment

Before the design of the sensing circuit can be considered, it is necessary to

choose an appropriate method of alignment. There are two feasible methods for
aligning the array.

he first method involves tilting the array in two axes to maintain the required
position, illustrated in Figure 3.2(a). The second method involves rotating and tilting
the array to achieve the same result, illustrated in Figure 3.2(b).

(a) Two axis tilt (b) Rotate and tilt

Figure 3.2 Two methods of alignment
 21

After investigating the two methods, it was concluded that the rotate and tilt
method was mechanically less complicated to construct. The mechanical design of
the tracking system involves two stepper motors that are directed by the controller
circuit, as shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3 Gear System

3.2.2 Servo Motors

A Servo is a small device that has an output shaft. This shaft can be
positioned to specific angular positions by sending the servo a coded signal. As long
as the coded signal exists on the input line, the servo will maintain the angular
position of the shaft. As the coded signal changes, the angular position of the shaft
changes. Servos are extremely useful in robotics. The motors are small, have built in
control circuitry, and are extremely powerful for their size.

Servo motors (see Figure 3.4) incorporate several components into one device
package; a small DC motor; a gear reduction drive for torque increase and an
 22

electronic shaft position sensing and control circuit. The output shaft of a servo
motor does not rotate freely, but rather is commanded to move to a particular angular
position. The electronic sensing and control circuitry which is the servo feedback
control loop will drive the motor to move the shaft to the commanded position. If the
position is outside the range of movement of the shaft, or if the resisting torque on
the shaft is too large, the motor will continue trying to attain the commanded
position.

The servo motor control is inherently consists of the three wires: power,
ground, and control. The power and ground wires are simply connected to a power
regulated first to 5V before applying to the servo motor. But in this project, a 6V
regulated voltage is desired as the servo used works above 6V only.

The control signal consists of a series of pulses that indicate the desired
position of the shaft. Each pulse represents one position command. The length of a
pulse in time corresponds to the angular position. Typical pulse times range from 0.7
to 2.0 milliseconds for the full range of travel of a servo shaft. Most servo shafts 24
have a 180 degree range of rotation. The control pulse must repeat every 20
milliseconds. For this project, four servo motors activating at 6V will be used for
tracking the angle of the light radiation (altitude and elevation). Table 3.1 below
shows the specifications of some servo motors that are found in the market. The
tracking of altitude servo uses HX5010 while the elevation tracking servo uses
HXT12K as it needs higher torque that carries the load together with the altitude
servo.
 23

Table 3.1 Specifications of the servo motors sold (shaded cells are the one used in
 24

Figure 3.4 HXT12k hexTronik servo motor

Figure 3.5 HX5010 hexTronik servo motor

 25

3.5 Light Sensor Theory

Light sensors are among the most common sensor type. The simplest optical
sensor is a photoresistor which may be a cadmium sulfide (CdS) type or a gallium
arsenide (GaAs) type. The next step up in complexity is the photodiode followed by
the phototransistor.

The tracker uses a cadmium sulfide (CdS) photocell for light sensing. This is
the least expensive and least complex type of light sensor. The CdS photocell is a
passive component whose resistance in inversely proportional to the amount of light
intensity directed toward it. To utilize the photocell, it is placed in series with a
resistor. A voltage divider is thus formed and the output at the junction is determined
by the two resistances. Figure 3.6 illustrates the photocell circuit. In this project, it
was desired for the output voltage to increase as the light intensity increases, so the
photocell was placed in the top position.

(b) Voltage divider (a) Cadmium sulphide

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(c) Circuit schematic

Figure 3.6 CdS Photocell Circuit

3.6 Sensor design

To design the sensor circuit, a suitable method for determining the position of
the sun was needed. This involved a process of design and testing to establish the
most efficient and accurate method. After testing several designs, the most effective
design was found to be a simple four-sided with a shadow blocking. The design
incorporates four solar cells acting as sensors. Each sensor is positioned on the
pyramid so that it is orthogonal to its opposing sensor. This is shown in Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7 sensor design

 27

The sensors are arranged so that the voltage across each sensor is the same
when the sensor points at the sun. This is possible because the sensors are set at 45o
to the base of the sensor. Hence, when the pyramid is not pointing at the sun, the
voltage will increase on the side that is most exposed to the sun. This allows for a
simple comparison to determine the direction in which the array must move. To
simplify the comparison even more, two opposing sensors are dedicated to rotating
and two are dedicated to tilting. The shadow block is used so the change of sun
position will immediately can be determine by the sensor, when the sun move to the
sensor 1, the shadow made by the block will cover the opposing sensor (sensor 3).

3.7 Tracking Controller

In designing the tracking controller, there are three aspect need to be

considered, that is choice of control chip, controlling motors and tracking program.

3.7.1 Choice of Control Chip

When choosing a controller chip for the tracking system, it was important to
consider the functions it would need to perform. The functions include converting the
analog voltages from the sensor circuits into digital values that can then be
compared. The controller also needs the capacity to handle inputs from the user
interface and the outputs to the stepper motor control circuit. These inputs and
outputs need to be clarified before the controller is chosen. To handle the analog to
digital (A/D) conversions, the control chip must read four voltage levels
simultaneously and continuously. The output to the motor circuit requires four data
channels to control movement of the servo motors. After researching an appropriate
 28

control chip, the PIC18F452 microcontroller was found to be the preferred choice as
it can perform all required functions using only a single chip.

The chip contains an on chip A/D converter, adequate programmable memory

space, ample input and output pins and a supply voltage of five volts. This powerful
10 MIPS (100 nanosecond instruction execution) yet easy-to-program (only 77 single
word instructions) CMOS FLASH-based 8-bit microcontroller packs Microchip's
powerful PIC© architecture into an 40- or 44-pin package and is upwards compatible
with the PIC16C5X, PIC12CXXX, PIC16CXX and PIC17CXX devices and thus
providing a seamless migration path of software code to higher levels of hardware
integration. The PIC18F452 features a 'C' compiler friendly development
environment, 256 bytes of EEPROM, Self-programming, an ICD, 2
capture/compare/PWM functions, 8 channels of 10-bit Analog-to-Digital (A/D)
converter, the synchronous serial port can be configured as either 3-wire Serial
Peripheral Interface (SPIT) or the 2-wire Inter-Integrated Circuit bus and
Addressable Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (AUSART).

Figure 3.8 PIC18F452 Microcontroller

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3.7.2 Controlling Motors

The microcontroller controls the servo motors by setting pins on the output
ports that are connected to the motor input. These pins represent the Pulse Width
Modulation (PWM) for the servo motors input to control the angle of their rotation.
The value of PWM that feed in into the servo motors is depending on the input from
the light sensor to control the angle of elevation and altitude of the sun or the light
source.

3.7.3 Tracking program

The program for the tracking controller has been written in C language code
for the PIC18F452 microprocessor by using mikroC PRO for PIC. From the A/D the
processor directly accesses the voltages and performs the necessary comparisons.
After the comparisons are complete the processor uses a step algorithm to move the
servo motors in the direction determined by the comparisons.

3.8 Mechanical design

Figure 3.9 below show the mechanical design for the solar tracking. It
consists of the solar panel, main board, sensor and motor. Figure below draw by
using Sketch-up software. Figure 3.9 (a) show the base structure of the mechanical
design where it consists elevation base, elevation servo motor, and lower structure of
the tracking system. Figure 3.9 (b) shows the upper structure for the altitude tracking.
 30

(a) Based structure

(b) Upper Structure

 31

(c) Engineering Drawing

 32

(d) Complete design structure

 33

(e) Complete hardware structure

Figure 3.9 Mechanical design

(a)Based structure (b) Upper Structure (c) Engineering Drawing
(d) Complete design structure (e) Complete hardware structure
 34

3.9 Electronic design

The electronic design will be related to the circuits connection that needed to run
the microcontroller, i.e. running the robots and its’ programs. This includes the

 Voltage regulator circuits,

 Servo motor circuit,
 Oscillator and master reset circuit for the PIC 18F452,
 ICSP Programmer to microcontroller interface circuit.

3.9.1 Voltage Regulator Circuit

Since there are two different powers supply being used; one for the circuit
(5V) and another for the servo motor (6V), the voltage regulator circuit is needed to
regulate high voltage (9V or 12V) from direct power supply. The main purpose of
using two different power supplies is to accommodate the servo motor with enough
current. This is because the servo motor drains out high current when they are
initialized.

Below are shown two different voltage regulator circuit using LM7805 and
LM7806 respectively, for Figure 3.10 and Figure 3.11. In this project two 5V
regulated circuit is established for circuit and externally for motor driver to activate.
The external regulated 5V is supplied from a 9V while the other 5V and 6V is
supplied by one 12V lead acid battery which drains 1.2Ah.
 35

Figure 3.10 Schematic of Voltage Regulator Circuit 5V for Circuit and Motor Driver

Figure 3.11 Schematic of Voltage Regulator Circuit 6V for Circuit and Motor Driver

3.9.2 Oscillator and Master Reset Circuit

Microcontroller can be classified as the core or the brain of a robot, where it

interconnects every component in the circuitry thus controls and coordinates all
activities done by the robot. The oscillator shall generate a stable and accurate
periodic clock signal to the microcontroller. The frequency of the clock can be in the
range of from few kilohertz (kHz) to tens of megahertz (MHz). This clock will
determine the time required by the microcontroller to execute the instructions. For
this project, pin 13 and pin 14 of the microcontroller will be interfaced with a 20
MHz oscillator (Figure 4.5). The frequency applied to these pins should be four times
 36

higher than the desired external clock rate. Two 30pF capacitors were use to filter out
external noise from interfering the crystal frequency.

Besides the oscillator, another essential circuit for a microcontroller is the

master reset circuit. Once a low input is given to the pin 1 (MCLR/Vpp), the
microcontroller will be reset and start to execute the very first instruction which is
already been programmed into it. Therefore, in the circuit, a pull-up resistor is
connected to the pin. Once the pull up resistor is omitted, the microcontroller will be
reset.

Figure 3.12 Schematic for oscillator and master reset for the microcontroller

3.9.3 ICSP Programmer to Microcontroller Interface Circuit

There is also a need of a programmer interface circuit. The programmer is a

hardware circuit that is used to program the robot via software called the PICkit. The
 37

programmer is created in such that the .hex file which is compiled from the program
source code is loaded into the microcontroller (in the main board). Thus, the
preparation of an interface connection between the PICkit programmer and the
microcontroller PIC18F452 is essential (see Figure 3.13).

Figure 3.13 ICSP Programmer to Microcontroller Interface Circuit

 38

3.9.4 Light Sensor to Microcontroller Interface Circuit

This project implements the usage of 4 light sensors (Cds). The main reason
for these sensors is to program the robot to tracking the sun radiation or a light
source. Four of the sensors namely the south sensor, east sensor and north sensor,
and west sensor are used to sense the light source. The 4th pair called the identifier
sensor is used to detect the presence of extra stripe on the right hand side. The Cds
sensor is connected to the ADC input pin on the microcontroller. The Input/output
(I/O) ports used for the sensors are described in Table 3.2.

Figure 3.14 Light Sensors to Microcontroller Interface Circuit

Table 3.2: Input/output pins used in PIC18F452

PIN (TYPE and NUM) Descriptions

PA0 (Pin 2) - input North sensor
PA1(Pin 3) - input South sensor
PA2(Pin 4) - input West sensor
PA3(Pin 5) - input East sensor
PD4(Pin 27) - output Elevation motor
PD7(Pin 30) - output Altitude motor
 39

3.9.5 Battery level indicator

This level battery indicator circuit is build to monitor the battery level of a
device from the number of LEDs that are glowing. An input voltage of 12.65 volt is
connected between the positive and negative poles, and the 10kΩ potential meter is
adjusted until the Led 10 light up. Lower the voltage input and in sequence all others
Led’s will light up.

The green Led’s (Led 6 to Led 10)indicate the battery capacity is more than
50%, the red Led’s (Led 1 to Led 5) indicate the battery capacity less than 50%. If
the Led 10 light up, it will trigger the transistor to conduct current trough the relay,
then the relay will open circuit and stop the charging. If the battery not reaches its
full capacity (Led 10 not light up), the relay will normally close and the solar will
charging the battery.

LM3914 have 2 modes, first dot mode where the only one or two led will
light up for given voltage level. The second mode is bar mode, where all the Led’s
will light up as the given level of voltage. The diode 1N4007 was included to protect
the circuit from a wrong polarity connection.

Figure 3.15 Battery level Indicator Circuit

 40

Figure 3.16 Complete Main board Circuit

Figure 3.17 Complete Battery level Indicator Circuit

 41

3.9.6 Solar Panel Circuit

The solar panel is used to convert the light radiation into electricity. The solar
panel can be used for application where a 12 Volt Battery is Used. The actual output
of the solar panel measured directly from the sun is 0.01A and 24 Volt for light
radiation that fall normal (90°) to the solar panel. For the solar tracking, the solar
panel will be connected to the Battery Level Indicator circuit and to the battery, the
relay on the battery indicator circuit then will act as the switch for charging the
battery.

Figure 3.18 Solar panel

 42

3.10 Software Development

Without software development, there is no use of establishing any robots. In

software development of any Mechatronics project, there is a need in programming
the microcontroller. In other words, programming the microcontroller is like
inserting intelligence into the robot’s brain.

3.10.1 mikroC PRO for PIC

The programming part is the most crucial part in this project. There are two
types of programming language we are familiar with which are C language and
assembly language. The C language is selected for programming Microcontroller
Based Solar Tracking Control because it is easier and faster to learn with compared
to assembly language. For programming in C language, the mikroC PRO for PIC
software is chosen as it has all necessity of programming a PIC microcontroller unit.

The mikroC PRO for PIC is a powerful, feature-rich development tool for
PIC microcontrollers. It is designed to provide the programmer with the easiest
possible solution to developing applications for embedded systems, without
compromising performance or control.

PIC is the most popular 8-bit chip in the world, used in a wide variety of
applications, and C, prized for its efficiency, is the natural choice for developing
embedded systems. mikroC PRO for PIC provides a successful match featuring
highly advanced IDE, ANSI compliant compiler, broad set of hardware libraries,
comprehensive documentation, and plenty of ready-to-run examples.
 43

mikroC PRO for PIC allows a quickly develop and deploy complex
applications:

 Write C source code using the built-in Code Editor (Code and Parameter
Assistants, Code Folding, Syntax Highlighting, Auto Correct, Code
Templates, and more.)

 Use included mikroC PRO for PIC libraries to dramatically speed up the
development: data acquisition, memory, displays, conversions,
communication etc.

 Monitor the program structure, variables, and functions in the Code Explorer.

 Generate commented, human-readable assembly, and standard HEX

compatible with all programmers.

 Use the integrated mikroICD (In-Circuit Debugger) Real-Time debugging

tool to monitor program execution on the hardware level.

 Generate COFF(Common Object File Format) file for software and hardware
debugging under Microchip's MPLAB software.

 Inspect program flow and debug executable logic with the integrated
Software Simulator.

 Get detailed reports and graphs: RAM and ROM map, code statistics,
assembly listing, calling tree, and more.

 mikroC PRO for PIC provides plenty of examples to expand, develop, and
use as building bricks in your projects. Copy them entirely if you deem fit –
that’s why we included them with the compiler.
 44

Figure 3.19 mikroC PRO for PIC IDE

3.10.2 How to program or write source codes using mikroC PRO for PIC IDE?

Programming using mikroC PRO for PIC IDE is just as simple as 1, 2, and 3.
Upon launching the mikroC PRO for PIC IDE, a blank window appears and the above
Menu for Project>Project Wizard is selected to create new project file. The first step
is to select the PIC microcontroller unit used (PIC18F452) and the second step is to
choose the language tool suite i.e. the mikroC PRO for PIC IDE compiler. The third step
is creating the project file name directory. Figure 3.18 below shows the final output
window after we configure the device in the project file. We can start writing our
program source code using C language in the untitled window. Upon finish writing,
the file is saved with extension .c.
 45

Figure 3.20 The new project file display with the microcontroller configuration bits

3.10.3 How to load the source code into the PIC Microcontroller?

Once the completed and built successfully source code file, the compiled file
is has created the desired file with extension .hex in the same folder directory. The
next step is to use PICkit software to load the particular .hex file into the robot’s
microcontroller. The programmer in Figure 3.18 below is connected to USB port in
PC while the other end is connected to the completed electronic circuit.
 46

Figure 3.21 ICSP Programmer using USB cable

Once the hardware and the robot’s circuit are connected, the PICkit 2
program is launched. The displayed window will show that there is device found by
the programmer which is the PIC18F452 (see Figure 3.22). The next step is to import
the particular .hex file from the correct directory and write the file. The programmer
will automatically load the chosen .hex file into the microcontroller.

Figure 3.22 PICkit 2 version 2.40 display window

 47

3.10.4 Algorithm

Microcontroller acts as brain of the whole solar tracking system. It will

receive the desired light radiation through the Cds sensors. The input radiation to the
sensors then been compared to determine the position of the sun or the light source.
The microcontroller then send the output signal to the servo motor for the desired
angle of altitude and elevation angle.

An algorithm has to be developed to make the microcontroller to read the

input and respond accordingly. Therefore, the algorithm is established and
represented by a flowchart in Figure 3.23 and Figure 3.24. These flowcharts are then
translated into C language and compiled using mikroC PRO for PIC IDE, the PIC18F452
software development tool. The program in C language can be referred in Appendix
A.

Figure 3.23 Flow chart

 48

Figure 3.24 Servo Motor output algorithm

 49

3.11 Summary

This chapter has discussed about the robot’s design in means of the hardware,
electronic circuits and the software development. In order to make this project
successful, all these elements have been designed, implemented and tested according
to the need of the project’s objectives. At the end of this chapter, Microcontroller
Based Solar Tracking Control have been designed and built to show sun light or light
source tracking and perform the required task.
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

This chapter discusses on the result, analysis and problems that are
encountered throughout the completion of Design and Development of Solar
Tracking. After the development and completion of the robots, it will then be
evaluated in order to measure the effectiveness and to ensure whether it had met the
outlined objectives successfully.

4.1 Achievements

When this project is brought into testing and evaluation, it can be observed
that it is a success and have met the objectives flawlessly. Below are the lists of
achievements that can be highlighted:

 The Solar Tracking use the „light tracking‟ method to align the solar panel
normal to the incident ray, using 4 CdS as the sensor to find the light source.
 The elevation servo and the altitude set to increase or decrease by 10° when it
move toward the light and the servo work effectively thought the process of
tracking the light and position the solar panel normal to the incident ray
accurately.
 51

 The Solar Tracking has achieved its objective as 2-axis solar tracking system
for moving base. The Solar Tracking can be used as a power supply charge
for vehicle such as car, bot and etc.

4.2 Problems Encountered and Solutions

Throughout the project development, quite a number of problems are faced

and appropriate steps are taken to solve it. Among the main problems together with
the suitable solutions are:

 The sensor was modified thoroughly.

 The design of the sensor takes a long time and was modified
thoroughly to get the best result of finding and tracking the light
source. At the end the best method of finding the light source is using
the „shadow blocking‟ where a block is place between the opposing
sensors so the shadow of the block will cover the sensor when the
light travel to the opposing sensor.

 Servo motor stall torque.

 The stall torque of the motor is a major issue in designing the
hardware. Many modification of the hardware including the solar
panel is made for the required stall torque of the motors. The chasing
of the solar panel is taken out and only the solar cell is used in the
solar tracking due to the weight of the solar panel. The elevation servo
motor required large torque compare to the stall torque of the altitude
servo because the elevation servo hold the entire upper structure of the
solar tracking including the altitude servo and the solar panel where
else the altitude servo only hold and support the solar panel weight.

 Servo motor control without “Servo Controller”.

 It is very difficult to control multiple servo motor at the same time and
maintain its position. The servo motor is control by feed in a PWM
 52

input to the servo with certain value of duty cycle will move the motor
with certain angle. In the project, the programming of the servo output
is done by using the delay function. To produce a PWM signal, the
output signal must have the uptime and down time with required
frequency for servo motor to operate. The general requirements for
operating the servo motor is:

Frequency: 50Hz
Up-time: 0.9mS->2.1mS
Down-time: 19.1mS-17.9mS

Figure 4.1 Pulse Width Modulations (PWM)

 The Up-time is what determines the angle the servo motor moves to.
Since standard servos can rotate up to 180° and 360° with
modification to the servo, the different range of possible up-time
values will equal a certain angle. Figure 4.2 show some examples of
output angle of servo for given PWM:

Figure 4.2 Angle of servo motor for various PWM

 53

for(count=0;count<50;count++) //50 * 0.020 Seconds = 1 Second

{
PORTB = 0x01; //PortB Pin 0 = 5v (logic 1)
Delay1KTCYx(7); //Delay 1.5mS
Delay100TCYx(5);
PORTB = 0x00; //PortB Pin 0 = 0v (logic 0)
Delay1KTCYx(92);//Delay 18.5mS
Delay100TCYx(5);
}

« End Code »

Figure 4.3 Sample program for 90° servo motor output

 54

4.3 Robot’s Gallery View

The completed robot is taken from multiple angles as shown in Figure 4.5, so
that a perfect 3 dimensional view can be seen and understood. Figure 4.4 show the
mechanical structure design that leads towards the final structure.

Figure 4.4 Mechanical Structure Designs

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Figure 4.5 Robot gallery view

 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

This chapter confers on the conclusion of Microcontroller Based Solar

Tracking Control project. Besides, it also discusses some recommendations and
suggestions for future endeavour.

5.1 Conclusion

This paper has presented a means of controlling a sun tracking array with an
embedded microprocessor system. Specifically, it demonstrates a working software
solution for maximizing solar cell output by positioning a solar array at the point of
maximum light intensity. This project presents a method of searching for and
tracking the sun. While the project has limitations, particularly in hardware areas,
this provides an opportunity for expansion of the current project in future years.
Upon completion, it can be concluded that the project has successfully met all the
objectives stated in Chapter 1. Hence:

A 2-axis solar tracking system for moving base (vehicles, bot, and etc.) had
been build.
 57

A microcontroller solar array that actively tracks the sun so maximum solar
panel output had been successfully build.

A sensor to locate the sun's position at any instance, and aligning the array
using the microprocessor so that all incident rays are normal to the array
surface has been build.

Though many types of Robotics and Mechatronics projects in Universiti

Teknologi Malaysia have been successfully implemented, this is the first project of
using a tracking system to maximize the solar output with microcontroller based. It is
believe the tracking technology in this project has given much impact for future
research. The tracking technology can be adapt to many field and other project such
as satellite tracking, tracking the movement for security camera (CCTV) and others
to improve its output. The project also can be categorize as friendly environment
project where it used alternative source (sun light radiation) and converted it into
electricity with maximum output.

5.2 Recommendations

There is always a saying that conveys it is better to learn from mistakes, but it
is wiser to learn mistakes from others too. Let this project to be a reference for those
interested in venturing into combining Eectric Power field with Mechatronics and
Robotics field. The goals of this project were purposely kept within what was
believed to be attainable within the allotted timeline. As such, many improvements
can be made upon this initial design. That being said, it is felt that this design
represents a functioning miniature scale model which could be replicated to a much
larger scale. The following recommendations are provided as ideas for future
expansion of this project:

High powered battery is necessary for solar tracking performing

outdoor chores especially when multiple servo motor is used.
 58

Increase the sensitivity and accuracy of tracking by using a different

light sensor. A phototransistor with an amplification circuit would
provide improved resolution and better tracking accuracy/precision.

Utilize a dual-axis design versus a single-axis to increase tracking

accuracy.

Identify potential systems (such as the solar oven concentrator,

satellite, and etc.) that may be employed using this system.

Implementing heat management system to cool solar cells for

improved efficiency, as it was found during the design stage and
testing, that the efficiency of the cells varies considerably with
varying heat conditions.
 59

REFERENCES

A.K. Saxena and V. Dutta (1990), “A versatile microprocessor based controller for
solar tracking,” in Proc. IEEE, pp. 1105 – 1109.

Cytron Technologies Sdn Bhd. www.cytron.com.my; August 15, 2008.

Elliot Larard (1998), Research of Sun Tracking Solar Array System, University of
Queensland, pp. 5.

http://solar4power.com/solar-power-global-maps.html

http://solardat.uoregon.edu/ SolarPositionCalculator.html

Intelligent Control Systems Laboratory (2008), (Cooperative Autonomous Mobile

Robots) http://www.gu.edu.au/text/centre/icsl/home.html; September 10.

Koyuncu, b., and Balasubramanian, K., "A microprocessor controlled automatic sun
tracker,"IEEE

M. F. Khan and R. L. Ali (2005), “Automatic sun tracking system,” presented at the
All Pakistan Engineering Conference, Islamabad, Pakistan.

Maniktala, Sanjaya (2005), Switching Power Supply Design & Optimization,

McGraw-Hill Publishing, pp31-60.

Microchip Inc., “PIC18F452 Datasheet,” www.microchip.com (2001).

 60

Midya, P., et al, “Dynamic Maximum Power Point Tracker for Photovoltaic
Applications,” IEEE Explore, Online,
<http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel3/3925/11364/00548811.pdf>, accessed 09-23-
2005.

Pereira G.A.S. (2002), Distributed Sensing for Cooperative Robotics, GRASP –

General Robotics Automation Sensing and Perception Laboratory /UPENN.

T.A. Papalias and M. Wong (2005), “Making sense of light sensors,”

http://www.embedded.com.

Takemaro, S. and S. Yukio (1983). Theoretical concentration of solar radiation by

central receiver systems. Intl. J. Solar Energy, 31: 261-270.

Tan, K.K. et al. (2000). Solar engine system. Proc. Malaysia Science and
Technology Congress, UITM, Shah Alam.
Technology Research News (NASA: Cooperative robots share the load)
http://www.trnmag.com/index.html; September 25, 2008.
 61

APPENDIX A

C language source code for Microcontroller Based Solar Tracking Control.

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APPENDIX B

INSTRUCTION SET FOR P18F452 MICROCONTROLLER

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