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http://www.cormix.info/pdf/Burns&McDonnell2001-3.pdf
[H.W.] Supercritical Steam Power Plant with Reheat
•Thermodynamic property
•Transport property
•History
Assessment of Carbon Dioxide as a Refrigerant
In the early part of this century, carbon dioxide (R-744) was widely used as a refrigerant.
Its popularity was based principally on its low toxicity, non-flammability, low cost and
universal availability. Other refrigerants, such as ammonia, sulfur dioxide and methylene
chloride could achieve much higher cycle efficiencies, but had other handicaps that
limited their application. The advent of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) in the 1930's
provided refrigerants that had low toxicities as well as high cycle efficiencies, removing
most of the incentives for choosing carbon dioxide its use thus dropped sharply.
However, two basic features still limit its acceptance: low cycle efficiency and high
operating pressures.
Cycle Efficiency
Evaporating pressures for typical air conditioning duty using carbon dioxide are about
3,400 to 4,800 kPa (490 to 700 psia) while high-side pressures are about 8,300 to
13,800 kPa (1,200 to 2,000 psia).
These pressures are about five times higher than with conventional refrigerants. This
presents obvious problems of providing thicker walls for piping, heat exchangers,
receivers and compressor shells. On the other hand, the higher fluid densities lead to
lower velocities and lower pressure drops. The higher densities can also lead to more
compact heat exchangers.
Perhaps the most serious challenge is the design of new compressors for these high
pressures. On the positive side, it has been claimed that pressure ratios for R-744 are
lower than those for other refrigerants and therefore will improve compression efficiency
(Ref. 5, Ref. 7 and Ref. 8).
In summary,