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Using
Technology
as
an
Educational
Tool:
Cognitive
Changes
in
the
Classroom


Fiona
Fogarty


SUNY
Plattsburgh



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 Like
any
institution
in
our
society,
schools
are
unable
to
hide
from
the
ever‐changing


winds
of
technological
advancement.
Computers
and
the
Internet
seem
to
be
on
the
minds


and
occupying
the
time
of
even
today’s
youngest
students.
Many
classroom
teachers
use


computers
as
a
means
of
convenience,
but
do
not
form
their
lessons
around
how


technology
in
the
classroom
can
improve
student
learning.
School
districts
jump
to
allocate


funds
to
technology
in
hopes
that
test
scores
will
improve
and
learning
will
be
enhanced.


Questions
are
always
being
asked
about
how
technology
is
affecting
our
children.
Research


and
experience
tell
us
that
technology
is
best
used
as
a
tool
in
the
classroom,
and
not
as
a


replacement
traditional
lesson
planning
strategies
and
pedagogies.
However,
many


educators
believe
strongly
that
computers
have
shifted
our
culture
in
such
a
way
that
the


students
of
the
twenty‐first
century
are
having
a
hard
time
learning
in
an
environment
that


is
socially
driven.
Some
also
believe
that
in
our
world
of
fast‐paced
competition,
students


need
as
much
computer‐aided
education
as
possible
to
stay
on
top
in
the
business
world.


Like
most
issues
in
education,
the
controversies
surrounding
the
uses
of
technology
in
the


classroom
are
best
mediated
by
remembering
that
the
goal
of
education
is
student
learning,


and
that
in
our
classrooms,
technology
should
be
used
as
tool
to
help
students
learn.


McClintock
postulates,
“What
pedagogical
resources
will
best
enable
students
to
explore,


select,
and
appropriate
the
skills
and
ideas
that
the
culture
proffers
to
them?”
(McClintock,


1992).
Technology
answers
this
question
with
its
many
opportunities
for
appropriating
the


skills
and
ideas
that
culture
extends
to
our
students.



 When
discussing
technology
as
an
educational
tool,
many
topics
come
to
mind.
At
the


forefront
of
how
technology
has
changed
education
in
the
twenty‐first
century
is
distance


learning
or
online
learning.
In
order
to
understand
how
classroom
teachers
might
be
able

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to
harness
the
potential
in
today’s
new
technologies,
it
is
useful
to
look
at
how
universities


use
distance
education
to
expand
learning
opportunities
and
methods
for
students
seeking


degrees
in
higher
education.
While
research
is
still
being
performed
on
all
fronts
regarding


technology
and
student
learning,
distance
learning
has
proven
its
successes
in
terms
of


student
accessibility.
Beller
(2008)
states,
“Distance
learning
provides
answers
to
the


problems
of
availability
(accessibility
and
cost)
and
the
demand
for
flexibility
(time,
place


and
pace)
of
learning.”
While
this
may
seem
like
a
convenience
that
only
affects
students
in


higher
education,
distance
learning
is
also
applicable
to
students
in
secondary
school.
Many


middle
school
and
high
school
students
who
are
looking
for
a
challenging
academic


experience
turn
to
online
coursework
through
local
universities
in
addition
to
their


physical
classrooms
at
school.

Like
all
of
the
many
ways
to
obtain
information
and
to
learn,


online
learning
may
be
for
some
types
of
learners,
but
not
for
others,
“distance
learning
is


essentially
self‐learning,
and
requires
great
will
power
and
self‐discipline
on
the
part
of
the


student
as
well
as
suitable
learning
skills”
(Beller,
1998).

In
this
regard,
online
learning
can


be
used
as
a
supplement
to
traditional
classroom
learning
in
secondary
schools.
Teachers


can
model
parts
of
their
classes
after
an
online
class
in
order
to
prepare
students
for


collegiate
course
experiences.
Students
can
also
engage
in
coursework
via
the
Internet
if


they
are
absent
from
class
or
miss
a
lesson.
Another
convenience
of
using
online


coursework
in
addition
to
classroom
teaching
is
that
students
are
able
to
work
at
their
own


pace
and
can
often
interact
with
other
students
in
ways
that
differ
from
in‐class


participation.
For
example,
a
student
who
is
shy
and
reluctant
to
contribute
to
a
class


discussion
might
be
able
to
earn
his
participation
points
and
make
his
voice
heard
by


interacting
with
peers
on
the
class
blog,
wiki,
or
other
methods
of
online
discussion.


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 In
addition,
online
discussions
in
the
form
of
online
classes,
collaborative
wikis,
or


blogs
have
the
ability
to
change
the
social
culture
of
the
classroom.
Swan
(2003)
explains


the
culture
and
atmosphere
that
online
discussion
can
facilitate,
showing
that
student‐

centered
learning
is
often
the
result
of
distance
learning
and
online
collaboration:



The
asynchronous
nature
of
the
discussion
makes
it
impossible
for
even
an
instructor


to
control.
Whereas
discussion
in
traditional
classrooms
is,
for
the
most
part,


transacted
through
and
mediated
by
the
instructor,
online
discussion
evolves
among


participants.

Accordingly,
many
researchers
have
found
that
students
perceive
online


discussion
as
more
equitable
and
more
democratic
than
traditional
classroom


discourse.

In
addition,
because
it
is
asynchronous,
online
discussion
affords


participants
the
opportunity
to
reflect
on
their
classmates’
contributions
while


creating
their
own,
and
on
their
own
writing
before
posting
it.

This
tends
to
create
a


certain
mindfulness
and
a
culture
of
reflection
in
online
courses.
(Swan,
2003).




In
this
way,
using
online
tools
as
provided
by
the
school’s
network
can
aide
in
a
student’s


overall
social
and
academic
performance
in
class
as
well
as
outside
of
class.
A
teacher
might


even
set
up
a
message
board
for
students
to
interact
with
each
other
as
they
prepare
for


tests
or
work
on
a
writing
project.
Peer
editing
takes
on
a
new
form
with
wikis
and
ongoing


discussion
boards,
and
students
can
exchange
ideas,
offer
support,
and
ask
questions
of


their
fellow
students
and
of
the
teacher
in
a
safe
and
accessible
learning
environment


outside
of
the
classroom.
This
method
makes
it
possible
for
classroom
discussions
and


collaborations
to
continue
at
home
for
any
homework
assignment
or
formative
assessment.



Furthermore,
distance
learning
continues
to
provide
broader
opportunities
for


students
across
the
country
in
their
educational
goals,
“The
State
of
California,
with
its

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Virtual
University
(CVU),
provides
students
with
a
choice
of
1,600
courses
offered
by
95


schools,
all
of
which
are
available
entirely
online”
(Beller,
2008).
In
all,
distance
learning
as


it
has
been
implemented
at
universities
around
the
world
can
provide
an
example
to


secondary
schools
as
an
effective
means
of
utilizing
technology
for
learning.




 The
debate
over
whether
or
not
distance
learning
and
classroom
learning
provide
the


same
academic
outcomes
is
contestable.

Many
critics
of
distance
education
state
that


without
social
interaction,
outcomes
of
education
can
be
of
lesser
quality
with
distance


learning
than
with
classroom
learning:
“The
goal,
the
raison
d’etre,
the
stuff
of
education
is


learning.

Thus
learning
effectiveness
must
be
the
first
measure
by
which
online
education


is
judged.

If
we
can’t
learn
as
well
online
as
we
can
in
traditional
classrooms,
then
online


education
itself
is
suspect”
(Swan,
2003).
Researchers
who
have
delved
into
the
real


similarities
and
differences
between
learning
online
and
learning
in
the
classroom
have


concluded
that
based
on
grades,
online
learning
yields
similar
or
better
results
than
grades


taken
from
classroom
learning
in
terms
of
overall
student
learning,
“it
is
clear
that
when


compared
using
gross
measures
of
learning
effectiveness,
students
learn
as
much
if
not


more
from
online
courses
as
they
do
in
traditional
higher
education
courses”
(Swan,
2003).



But
do
grades
tell
the
truth
about
the
effects
of
online
learning?
Barnum
(2003)
argues,


“The
use
of
grades
to
operationalize
learning
may
not
always
provide
the
best
results…


Students
may
already
know
the
material
when
they
enroll
or
their
grade
may
be
more


related
to
class
participation,
work
turned
in
late,
or
attendance
than
to
learning.”


Therefore,
educators
must
base
the
successes
or
failures
of
online
learning
and
the


integration
of
technology
into
the
classroom
by
paying
close
attention
to
how
students


interact
with
each
other
when
provided
with
new
tools:
"Learning
effectiveness
means
that

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learners
who
complete
an
online
program
receive
educations
that
represent
the
distinctive


quality
of
the
institution.

The
goal
is
that
online
learning
is
at
least
equivalent
to
learning


through
the
institution’s
other
delivery
modes,
in
particular
through
its
traditional
face‐to‐

face,
classroom‐based
instruction
.
.
.
Interaction
is
key”
(Sloan,
2002).
Interaction
means


synthesizing
ideas
from
other
students
and
from
high‐quality
sources,
making
meaning


based
on
collaborative
efforts
and
original
opinions
through
online
discussions.
It
is


arguable
that
students
cannot
receive
the
same
type
of
interaction
online
as
they
can
face‐

to‐face,
which
is
true
–
the
modes
of
interaction
are
inherently
different
due
to
the


technology
involved
in
online
collaboration.
However,
the
outcomes
of
these
different


forms
of
interaction
can
be
made
similar.
Students
can
engage
in
discussion,
validate
one


another’s
opinions
or
findings,
disagree
with
one’s
stance
on
a
particular
issue,
synthesize


information
from
the
web
with
experiential
knowledge
and
observations,
and
learn
to


respect
the
opinions
and
ideals
of
his
or
her
peers.
Willingham
(2010)
also
agrees
that
the


effectiveness
of
technology
cannot
be
measured
through
mere
grades:
“Teachers
should


carefully
monitor
students
to
see
if
new
technology
in
a
lesson
is
enhancing
comprehension


or
becoming
overwhelming.”
Whether
teachers
observe
students
as
they
respond
to
a
class


wide
lesson,
work
in
small
groups,
or
individually,
paying
close
attention
to
how
students


react
to
new
educational
tools
is
the
only
way
in
which
to
assess
the
effectiveness
of
those


tools.
Teachers
should
be
making
educated
observations,
and
recording
changes
that
they


see
in
the
learning
patterns
of
their
students.
Students
may
become
confused
with
new


technologies,
or
they
may
simply
become
distracted
from
the
academic
task
at
hand.


Assessing
the
effects
of
technology
on
student
learning
is
an
ongoing
process
that
will
yield


new
results
as
new
technologies
continue
to
be
invented
and
integrated
into
schools.


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 It
is
also
important
to
remember
that
comparing
classroom
teaching
and
learning


with
online
teaching
and
learning
can
be
challenging
based
on
the
fact
that
these
two


methods
are
very
different.
According
to
Swan
(2003),
“Trying
to
make
online
education


"the
same"
most
likely
will
lead
to
less
than
optimal
learning,
when,
in
fact,
online


education
has
the
potential
to
support
significant
paradigm
changes
in
teaching
and


learning.”
Instead,
teachers
should
think
about
what
goals
they
have
for
their
classroom,


and
then
ask
what
tools
technology
can
provide
to
help
them
reach
those
goals


(Willingham,
2010).

Throughout
the
debates
over
the
integration
of
technology
into


schools,
researchers
and
educators
have
held
that
no
technological
advance
should
replace


what
already
works.
“Media…[are]
like
trucks,
they
[are]
delivery
vehicles
and
no
more”


(Swan
2003).
Educators
and
parents
may
fear
that
computers
will
replace
traditional


classrooms,
when
their
purpose
is
really
to
enhance
the
classroom
environment
in
ways


that
make
learning
more
versatile,
flexible,
and
accessible.
Computers
can
individualize


learning
more
efficiently
than
a
teacher
can
because
the
teacher
may
have
thirty
students


who
he
or
she
is
trying
to
focus
on
in
the
course
of
the
school
day.
Littleton
(2010,
pp.
362)


states,
“…technology
is
significant
in
shaping
knowledge…knowledge
is
shaped
through
the


range
of
modes
and
resources
a
technology
makes
available,”
while
Swan
says,
“online


environments
can
take
advantage
of
the
unique
ability
of
the
computing
medium
to


respond
to
users
and
so
individualize
their
learning
according
to
their
particular
learning


needs
and
styles”
(Swan,
2003).
Thus,
online
environments
and
the
very
nature
of


computers
can
provide
learning
environments
to
students
that
are
multifaceted
and


personalized,
but
these
resources
are
only
as
effective
as
the
thinker
behind
the
lesson


plan.
Teachers
must
remember
to
use
the
computer
as
a
tool,
not
as
a
crutch.
To
support

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the
need
for
the
re‐thinking
of
lessons
and
of
the
positive
integration
of
technology
in


education,
McClintock
(1992)
says,
“in
order
to
have
a
substantial
effect
improving


education,
the
digitization
of
our
culture
will
need
to
elicit
a
full
systemic
innovation
in


education,
one
that
changes
not
only
the
medium
of
cultural
exchange,
substituting
digital


code
for
print,
but
the
entire
educational
context
for
working
with
that
medium.”
While


McClintock’s
postulation
may
seem
extreme,
educators
should
keep
their
fingers
on
the


pulse
of
technological
change,
specifically
change
that
will
effect
classrooms
so
that
this


change
may
be
harnessed
and
discussed
in
the
context
if
improving
education
through


improving
student
learning,
which
is
best
done
through
cognitive
studies
on
technology


and
thinking.




 Educators
also
fear
that
the
way
in
which
students
process
information
has
changed


due
to
the
prevalence
of
fast‐paced
technologies
in
students’
lives.
Some
teachers
believe


that
they
must
change
how
they
deliver
information
in
order
to
appeal
to
their
students


who
seem
“engaged”
in
technology
more
than
they
are
engaged
in
the
academic
content
of


school.
Willingham
(2010)
argues
that
a
change
in
student
learning
is
not
a
question
of


engagement,
but
merely
the
fact
that
modern
technologies
are
new.
We
become
engaged
in


anything
that
is
new,
because
we
seek
information
–
we
want
to
learn.
Educators
may


attempt
to
integrate
technology
into
their
lessons
in
order
to
hold
the
attention
of
their


students,
which
is
ineffective
without
thinking
about
how
the
technology
will
impact


student
learning.
He
states,



In
order
for
technology
(or
any
instructional
tool)
to
increase
student
engagement
in


academic
content,
it
has
to
aide
in
presenting
problems
as
both
challenging
and


solvable…
For
example,
students
in
a
physics
class
may
grasp
the
idea
of
sensitivity
to

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initial
conditions
more
easily
with
graphing
software
that
allows
them
to
make
small


changes
in
input
data
and
then
immediately
see
large
changes
in
the
resulting
graph.


(Willingham,
2010)


The
key
is
to
use
technology
so
that
it
can
display
problems
as
solvable
and
challenging,


and
can
therefore
engage
students
to
learn
new
things.
Showing
a
bulleted
list
on
a


projection
screen
from
a
PowerPoint
slide
show
will
not
engage
students,
as
they
have
seen


hundreds
of
slide
shows
in
their
lifetime.
Rather,
using
technology
as
a
tool
for
creating


new
means
of
engagement
will
create
new
meaning
through
student
learning,
therefore


allowing
students
to
propel
their
own
engagement
while
using
technology
as
an
endless


tool
for
learning.
Examples
of
positive
ways
to
integrate
technology
into
the
classroom


beyond
the
Smart
Board
and
PowerPoint
are
constantly
being
shared
by
teachers.
New


ways
of
using
collaborative
Internet
tools
are
proving
themselves
effective
in
secondary


classrooms.
Readwritethink.org
provides
English
Language
Arts
lesson
plans
that
integrate


technology
into
reading
and
writing,
valuing
student
voice
and
interaction
while
using


technology
as
an
educational
tool.




 Freeman
(2010),
in
her
lesson
plan
titled
“Twenty‐first
century
informational


literacy:
Integrating
research
techniques
and
technology,”
creates
a
research
unit
based
on


the
graphic
novel
genre.
An
emerging
genre,
graphic
novels
are
great
for
integrating


technology
with
literature
in
a
way
that
lets
students
create
their
own
story
or
perform


research
in
a
more
personalized
way.
For
Freeman’s
lesson,
students
“research
a
self‐

selected
topic
using
web‐based
resources…
follow
the
research
process
and
synthesize
the


information
they
obtained
to
create
their
graphic
novel
using
the
Comic
Life
software
or


other
comic
software.”
Instead
of
writing
a
traditional
research
paper,
students
integrate

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their
experiential
knowledge
of
graphic
novels
with
research
skills
to
create
a
research‐

based
graphic
novel
of
their
own.
The
student
objectives
for
this
lesson
state
that
students


will
“employ
and
practice
a
wide
variety
of
research
techniques
by
navigating
websites,


synthesizing
and
citing
information,
and
creating
questions
and
theses
statements”


(Freeman,
2010).

Rather
than
just
using
the
Internet
as
a
tool
for
citing
information,


students
must
keep
their
audience
in
mind
and
also
think
about
how
they
will
convey
the


information
that
they
have
found
through
their
research
in
the
format
of
an
original


graphic
novel.
Through
this
unit,
students
actively
use
technology
as
a
way
to
create
new


meaning
for
themselves
while
honing
in
on
research
skills
to
complete
a
task.
While
this


lesson
does
not
provide
opportunity
for
students
to
interact
with
each
other,
it
takes
the


task
of
researching
and
writing
a
research
paper
and
makes
it
more
creative
and


innovative.
With
a
research
assignment,
computers
and
the
Internet
in
class
can
provide


students
with
much‐needed
workshop
time
to
work
on
their
researching
and
writing
skills.




 Probably
the
biggest
theme
of
technology
today
is
its
effect
on
communication.
The


way
in
which
we
are
able
to
communicate
through
modern
technologies
is
changing
every


day,
and
many
adolescents
are
intrigued
by
their
ability
to
be
involved
in
texting
and
the


many
other
uses
of
the
cell
phone.
Filkins’
lesson
titled
“If
a
body
texts
a
body:
Texting
in


The
Catcher
in
the
Rye”
integrates
texting
as
a
mode
of
communication
with
the
theme
of


communication
in
the
novel:
“Students
imagine
the
possibilities
afforded
by
text
messaging


technology
in
The
Catcher
in
the
Rye
in
this
lesson
that
serves
as
a
review
of
the
novel,
an


exploration
of
Holden
Caulfield's
character
and
narrative
voice,
and
a
study
of
a
now


everyday
form
of
communication”
(Filkins,
2010).

In
addition
to
using
technology
as
a


cognitive
tool
(students
are
thinking
about
technology
and
relating
it
to
classic
literature),

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students
are
making
text‐to‐world
connections
through
thinking
about
and
discussing
the


importance
of
communication
today
and
in
the
past.
Through
writing
their
own
text


messages,
students
will
“determine
audience,
purpose,
voice,
and
rationale
for
text


messages
written
in
selected
situations”
(Filkins,
2010).
This
activity
will
certainly
engage


students
in
a
creative
and
productive
way.
For
students
who
love
to
text
their
friends,
they


can
now
relate
to
Holden
Caulfield
through
writing
text
messages
for
him.
Filkins


integrates
the
technology
of
text
messaging
into
a
creative
writing
unit
that
supports
the


inter‐textualities
between
classic
literature
and
present‐day
communications.




 Wikis
are
a
key
online
collaborative
tool
when
they
are
used
in
a
progressive
and


productive
way.
In
Chin
and
Luce‐Kapler’s
lesson
“Collaborating,
writing,
linking:



Using
wikis
to
tell
stories
online,”
students
use
the
unique
medium
of
the
wiki
to
develop


their
reading
and
writing
skills
while
interacting
with
their
classmates.
Chin
and
Luce‐

Kapler
state,
“when
students
read
online,
they
engage
with
text
differently.
Clicking
on


links
and
images
for
more
information
easily
takes
them
down
unexpected
paths,
links
to
e‐

mail
addresses
allow
them
to
interact
with
authors,
and
wikis
allow
them
to
make
changes


to
published
text.”
In
this
way,
technology
actually
changes
student
learning
for
the
better.


Chin
and
Luce‐Kapler
keep
student
cognition
in
mind
when
constructing
this
online
lesson:


“Students
begin
by
reading
untraditional
books
that
use
fragmented
storylines,
multiple


perspectives,
and
unresolved
plots.
They
apply
these
same
types
of
strategies
to
their
own


writing,
which
they
then
publish
using
wiki
technology.
In
doing
so,
students
practice


important
literacy
skills
including
searching
for
information,
integrating
images
into
text,


and
creating
storylines
that
are
reflective
of
the
new
types
of
reading
found
on
the


Internet.”
Another
unique
aspect
of
this
lesson
is
that
students
can
share
their
work
with

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their
classmates
and
with
the
world.
Students
will
“Explore
the
possibilities
of
online
text,


including
the
use
of
links
and
images,
by
writing
stories
online
and
then
editing
them”
and


“Work
collaboratively
to
brainstorm
and
write
their
own
stories
and
link
them
to
the
work


of
their
peers”
(Chin,
2010).
They
can
be
proud
of
their
finished
product,
while
also


expanding
their
reading
and
writing
skills
and
learning
how
to
write
informally
and
for
a


collaborative,
peer
audience.




 These
lessons
provide
examples
of
how
educators
have
enhanced
student
learning


through
computers
and
the
Internet.
They
show
the
shift
from
teacher‐centered
learning
to


student‐centered
learning
by
using
technology
as
a
forum
for
collaborative
and
interactive


learning.
They
also
prove
that
technology
can
be
used
to
affect
cognition,
not
just
as


another
tool
for
convenience
in
the
classroom.
Littleton
(2010,
pp.
177)
says,



The
traditional
individualistic
conceptions
of
learning
that
pre‐dominated


psychological
and
educational
research
over
many
decades
have
gradually
been


yielding
to
community
centered
approaches
to
learning…
from
teacher‐centered
to


more
student‐centered
approaches
that
highlight
learners’
active
constructive
efforts,


[and]
from
individually‐oriented
towards
socially‐oriented
notions
of
constructive


processes.


This
is
the
way
in
which
teachers
must
think
about
technology
and
education;
as
a
tool
for


making
students’
lives
better
through
helping
them
learn
more
effectively
alongside
their


peers.
Teachers
must
also
keep
in
mind
that
technology
should
not
replace
their
own


critical
thinking
and
lesson
planning
legwork,
as
the
lesson
is
only
as
good
as
he
or
she
who


delivers
it.




 Changing
one’s
methods
and
pedagogical
outlooks
in
order
to
better
serve
one’s

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students
is
the
sign
of
an
effective
teacher.
Swan
(2003)
says,
“Well
designed
instruction…


was
well
designed
instruction,
regardless
of
how
it
was
delivered.

Thus,
they
maintained,


as
long
as
the
quality
of
instruction
delivered
over
distance
was
as
good
as
the
quality
of


traditional
education,
there
would
be
no
significant
differences
in
learning
between
them.



Indeed,
as
we
have
seen,
the
research
supports
such
a
view.”
In
the
same
way
that
distance


learning
relies
so
heavily
on
collaborative
reading,
writing,
and
discussion,
integrating


technology
into
the
classroom
in
any
discipline
should
focus
on
technology’s
ability
to


expand
the
interactive
interface
of
the
classroom.

The
need
for
new
research
in
the
field
of


educational
technology
is
constant,
end
educators
of
all
ages
should
keep
their
fingers
on


the
pulse
of
what
is
new
in
the
world
of
technology
and
cognition.
“Teachers
need


professional
development
to
create
lessons
that
exploit
the
potential
advantages
of


technology;
crafting
such
lessons
is
not
straightforward”
(Willingham,
2010).
By
always


remember
this
fact
–
that
technology
will
not
enhance
student
learning
by
its
mere


presence
in
the
classroom‐
teachers
can
effectively
integrate
the
Internet,
computers,


interactive
white
boards,
and
other
tools
of
technology
into
their
lessons
in
a
way
that
will


affect
cognition
and
improve
student
learning
opportunities.




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References


Barnum,
Kirk
T.,

and
Rovai,
Alfred
P.
(2003).
On‐line
course
effectiveness:
An
analysis
of



student
interactions
and
perceptions
of
learning.
Journal
of
Distance
Education,
18.



Retrieved
from


http://topshare.che.nl/downloadattachment/177224/Artikel%20over









%20eff%20van%20online%20studeren.pdf


Beller,
Michal.,
and
Or,
Ehud.
(1998).
The
crossroads
between
lifelong
learning
and



information
technology:
A
challenge
facing
leading
universities.
Allenberg
School
for


Communication,
University
of
Southern
California,
4.
Retrieved
from


http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol4/issue2/beller.html


Chin,
Jane
Ann.,
and
Luce‐Kapler,
Rebecca
Jean.
(2010).
Collaborating,
writing,
linking:



Using
wikis
to
tell
stories
online.
International
Reading
Association/National
Council



of
Teachers
of
English.
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from
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resources/lesson‐plans/collaborating‐writing‐linking‐using‐1087.html


Sloan
Consortium.
(2002).
Elements
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The
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framework.
Needham,
MA:




 Sloan
Center
for
OnLine
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Filkins,
Scott.
(2010).
If
a
body
texts
a
body:
Texting
in
The
Catcher
in
the
Rye.



International
Reading
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from:
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texts‐body‐texting‐1170.html


Freeman,
Jennifer.
(2010).
Twenty‐first
century
informational
literacy:



Integrating
research
techniques
and
technology.
International
Reading
Association/



National
Council
of
Teachers
of
English.
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from


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century‐informational‐30581.html


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Karen.,
Wood,
Clare.,
and
Staarman,
Judith
Kleine.
(2010).
International
handbook




 of
psychology
in
education.
Bingley,
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Emerald
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McClintock,
Robbie.
(1992).
Power
and
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 information
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Cumulative
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 http://schoolnetafrica.org/fileadmin/resources/Power_and_Pedagogy.pdf


Swan,
Karen.
(2003).
Learning
effectiveness:
What
the
research
tells
us.
J.
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C.


Willingham,
Daniel
T.
(2010).
Have
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rewired
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 learn?
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