Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Using Technology as an Educational Tool: Cognitive Changes in the Classroom
Fiona Fogarty
SUNY Plattsburgh
USING
TECHNOLOGY
AS
AN
EDUCATIONAL
TOOL:
COGNITIVE
CHANGES
IN
THE
CLASSROOM
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Like
any
institution
in
our
society,
schools
are
unable
to
hide
from
the
ever‐changing
winds of technological advancement. Computers and the Internet seem to be on the minds
and occupying the time of even today’s youngest students. Many classroom teachers use
computers as a means of convenience, but do not form their lessons around how
technology in the classroom can improve student learning. School districts jump to allocate
funds to technology in hopes that test scores will improve and learning will be enhanced.
Questions are always being asked about how technology is affecting our children. Research
and experience tell us that technology is best used as a tool in the classroom, and not as a
replacement traditional lesson planning strategies and pedagogies. However, many
educators believe strongly that computers have shifted our culture in such a way that the
students of the twenty‐first century are having a hard time learning in an environment that
is socially driven. Some also believe that in our world of fast‐paced competition, students
need as much computer‐aided education as possible to stay on top in the business world.
Like most issues in education, the controversies surrounding the uses of technology in the
classroom are best mediated by remembering that the goal of education is student learning,
and that in our classrooms, technology should be used as tool to help students learn.
McClintock postulates, “What pedagogical resources will best enable students to explore,
select, and appropriate the skills and ideas that the culture proffers to them?” (McClintock,
1992). Technology answers this question with its many opportunities for appropriating the
skills and ideas that culture extends to our students.
When discussing technology as an educational tool, many topics come to mind. At the
forefront of how technology has changed education in the twenty‐first century is distance
learning
or
online
learning.
In
order
to
understand
how
classroom
teachers
might
be
able
USING
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to
harness
the
potential
in
today’s
new
technologies,
it
is
useful
to
look
at
how
universities
use distance education to expand learning opportunities and methods for students seeking
degrees in higher education. While research is still being performed on all fronts regarding
technology and student learning, distance learning has proven its successes in terms of
student accessibility. Beller (2008) states, “Distance learning provides answers to the
problems of availability (accessibility and cost) and the demand for flexibility (time, place
and pace) of learning.” While this may seem like a convenience that only affects students in
higher education, distance learning is also applicable to students in secondary school. Many
middle school and high school students who are looking for a challenging academic
experience turn to online coursework through local universities in addition to their
physical classrooms at school. Like all of the many ways to obtain information and to learn,
online learning may be for some types of learners, but not for others, “distance learning is
essentially self‐learning, and requires great will power and self‐discipline on the part of the
student as well as suitable learning skills” (Beller, 1998). In this regard, online learning can
be used as a supplement to traditional classroom learning in secondary schools. Teachers
can model parts of their classes after an online class in order to prepare students for
collegiate course experiences. Students can also engage in coursework via the Internet if
they are absent from class or miss a lesson. Another convenience of using online
coursework in addition to classroom teaching is that students are able to work at their own
pace and can often interact with other students in ways that differ from in‐class
participation. For example, a student who is shy and reluctant to contribute to a class
discussion might be able to earn his participation points and make his voice heard by
interacting
with
peers
on
the
class
blog,
wiki,
or
other
methods
of
online
discussion.
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In
addition,
online
discussions
in
the
form
of
online
classes,
collaborative
wikis,
or
blogs have the ability to change the social culture of the classroom. Swan (2003) explains
the culture and atmosphere that online discussion can facilitate, showing that student‐
centered learning is often the result of distance learning and online collaboration:
The asynchronous nature of the discussion makes it impossible for even an instructor
to control. Whereas discussion in traditional classrooms is, for the most part,
transacted through and mediated by the instructor, online discussion evolves among
participants. Accordingly, many researchers have found that students perceive online
discussion as more equitable and more democratic than traditional classroom
discourse. In addition, because it is asynchronous, online discussion affords
participants the opportunity to reflect on their classmates’ contributions while
creating their own, and on their own writing before posting it. This tends to create a
certain mindfulness and a culture of reflection in online courses. (Swan, 2003).
In this way, using online tools as provided by the school’s network can aide in a student’s
overall social and academic performance in class as well as outside of class. A teacher might
even set up a message board for students to interact with each other as they prepare for
tests or work on a writing project. Peer editing takes on a new form with wikis and ongoing
discussion boards, and students can exchange ideas, offer support, and ask questions of
their fellow students and of the teacher in a safe and accessible learning environment
outside of the classroom. This method makes it possible for classroom discussions and
collaborations to continue at home for any homework assignment or formative assessment.
Furthermore, distance learning continues to provide broader opportunities for
students
across
the
country
in
their
educational
goals,
“The
State
of
California,
with
its
USING
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Virtual
University
(CVU),
provides
students
with
a
choice
of
1,600
courses
offered
by
95
schools, all of which are available entirely online” (Beller, 2008). In all, distance learning as
it has been implemented at universities around the world can provide an example to
secondary schools as an effective means of utilizing technology for learning.
The debate over whether or not distance learning and classroom learning provide the
same academic outcomes is contestable. Many critics of distance education state that
without social interaction, outcomes of education can be of lesser quality with distance
learning than with classroom learning: “The goal, the raison d’etre, the stuff of education is
learning. Thus learning effectiveness must be the first measure by which online education
is judged. If we can’t learn as well online as we can in traditional classrooms, then online
education itself is suspect” (Swan, 2003). Researchers who have delved into the real
similarities and differences between learning online and learning in the classroom have
concluded that based on grades, online learning yields similar or better results than grades
taken from classroom learning in terms of overall student learning, “it is clear that when
compared using gross measures of learning effectiveness, students learn as much if not
more from online courses as they do in traditional higher education courses” (Swan, 2003).
But do grades tell the truth about the effects of online learning? Barnum (2003) argues,
“The use of grades to operationalize learning may not always provide the best results…
Students may already know the material when they enroll or their grade may be more
related to class participation, work turned in late, or attendance than to learning.”
Therefore, educators must base the successes or failures of online learning and the
integration of technology into the classroom by paying close attention to how students
interact
with
each
other
when
provided
with
new
tools:
"Learning
effectiveness
means
that
USING
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learners
who
complete
an
online
program
receive
educations
that
represent
the
distinctive
quality of the institution. The goal is that online learning is at least equivalent to learning
through the institution’s other delivery modes, in particular through its traditional face‐to‐
face, classroom‐based instruction . . . Interaction is key” (Sloan, 2002). Interaction means
synthesizing ideas from other students and from high‐quality sources, making meaning
based on collaborative efforts and original opinions through online discussions. It is
arguable that students cannot receive the same type of interaction online as they can face‐
to‐face, which is true – the modes of interaction are inherently different due to the
technology involved in online collaboration. However, the outcomes of these different
forms of interaction can be made similar. Students can engage in discussion, validate one
another’s opinions or findings, disagree with one’s stance on a particular issue, synthesize
information from the web with experiential knowledge and observations, and learn to
respect the opinions and ideals of his or her peers. Willingham (2010) also agrees that the
effectiveness of technology cannot be measured through mere grades: “Teachers should
carefully monitor students to see if new technology in a lesson is enhancing comprehension
or becoming overwhelming.” Whether teachers observe students as they respond to a class
wide lesson, work in small groups, or individually, paying close attention to how students
react to new educational tools is the only way in which to assess the effectiveness of those
tools. Teachers should be making educated observations, and recording changes that they
see in the learning patterns of their students. Students may become confused with new
technologies, or they may simply become distracted from the academic task at hand.
Assessing the effects of technology on student learning is an ongoing process that will yield
new
results
as
new
technologies
continue
to
be
invented
and
integrated
into
schools.
USING
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It
is
also
important
to
remember
that
comparing
classroom
teaching
and
learning
with online teaching and learning can be challenging based on the fact that these two
methods are very different. According to Swan (2003), “Trying to make online education
"the same" most likely will lead to less than optimal learning, when, in fact, online
education has the potential to support significant paradigm changes in teaching and
learning.” Instead, teachers should think about what goals they have for their classroom,
and then ask what tools technology can provide to help them reach those goals
(Willingham, 2010). Throughout the debates over the integration of technology into
schools, researchers and educators have held that no technological advance should replace
what already works. “Media…[are] like trucks, they [are] delivery vehicles and no more”
(Swan 2003). Educators and parents may fear that computers will replace traditional
classrooms, when their purpose is really to enhance the classroom environment in ways
that make learning more versatile, flexible, and accessible. Computers can individualize
learning more efficiently than a teacher can because the teacher may have thirty students
who he or she is trying to focus on in the course of the school day. Littleton (2010, pp. 362)
states, “…technology is significant in shaping knowledge…knowledge is shaped through the
range of modes and resources a technology makes available,” while Swan says, “online
environments can take advantage of the unique ability of the computing medium to
respond to users and so individualize their learning according to their particular learning
needs and styles” (Swan, 2003). Thus, online environments and the very nature of
computers can provide learning environments to students that are multifaceted and
personalized, but these resources are only as effective as the thinker behind the lesson
plan.
Teachers
must
remember
to
use
the
computer
as
a
tool,
not
as
a
crutch.
To
support
USING
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the
need
for
the
re‐thinking
of
lessons
and
of
the
positive
integration
of
technology
in
education, McClintock (1992) says, “in order to have a substantial effect improving
education, the digitization of our culture will need to elicit a full systemic innovation in
education, one that changes not only the medium of cultural exchange, substituting digital
code for print, but the entire educational context for working with that medium.” While
McClintock’s postulation may seem extreme, educators should keep their fingers on the
pulse of technological change, specifically change that will effect classrooms so that this
change may be harnessed and discussed in the context if improving education through
improving student learning, which is best done through cognitive studies on technology
and thinking.
Educators also fear that the way in which students process information has changed
due to the prevalence of fast‐paced technologies in students’ lives. Some teachers believe
that they must change how they deliver information in order to appeal to their students
who seem “engaged” in technology more than they are engaged in the academic content of
school. Willingham (2010) argues that a change in student learning is not a question of
engagement, but merely the fact that modern technologies are new. We become engaged in
anything that is new, because we seek information – we want to learn. Educators may
attempt to integrate technology into their lessons in order to hold the attention of their
students, which is ineffective without thinking about how the technology will impact
student learning. He states,
In order for technology (or any instructional tool) to increase student engagement in
academic content, it has to aide in presenting problems as both challenging and
solvable…
For
example,
students
in
a
physics
class
may
grasp
the
idea
of
sensitivity
to
USING
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initial
conditions
more
easily
with
graphing
software
that
allows
them
to
make
small
changes in input data and then immediately see large changes in the resulting graph.
(Willingham, 2010)
The key is to use technology so that it can display problems as solvable and challenging,
and can therefore engage students to learn new things. Showing a bulleted list on a
projection screen from a PowerPoint slide show will not engage students, as they have seen
hundreds of slide shows in their lifetime. Rather, using technology as a tool for creating
new means of engagement will create new meaning through student learning, therefore
allowing students to propel their own engagement while using technology as an endless
tool for learning. Examples of positive ways to integrate technology into the classroom
beyond the Smart Board and PowerPoint are constantly being shared by teachers. New
ways of using collaborative Internet tools are proving themselves effective in secondary
classrooms. Readwritethink.org provides English Language Arts lesson plans that integrate
technology into reading and writing, valuing student voice and interaction while using
technology as an educational tool.
Freeman (2010), in her lesson plan titled “Twenty‐first century informational
literacy: Integrating research techniques and technology,” creates a research unit based on
the graphic novel genre. An emerging genre, graphic novels are great for integrating
technology with literature in a way that lets students create their own story or perform
research in a more personalized way. For Freeman’s lesson, students “research a self‐
selected topic using web‐based resources… follow the research process and synthesize the
information they obtained to create their graphic novel using the Comic Life software or
other
comic
software.”
Instead
of
writing
a
traditional
research
paper,
students
integrate
USING
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their
experiential
knowledge
of
graphic
novels
with
research
skills
to
create
a
research‐
based graphic novel of their own. The student objectives for this lesson state that students
will “employ and practice a wide variety of research techniques by navigating websites,
synthesizing and citing information, and creating questions and theses statements”
(Freeman, 2010). Rather than just using the Internet as a tool for citing information,
students must keep their audience in mind and also think about how they will convey the
information that they have found through their research in the format of an original
graphic novel. Through this unit, students actively use technology as a way to create new
meaning for themselves while honing in on research skills to complete a task. While this
lesson does not provide opportunity for students to interact with each other, it takes the
task of researching and writing a research paper and makes it more creative and
innovative. With a research assignment, computers and the Internet in class can provide
students with much‐needed workshop time to work on their researching and writing skills.
Probably the biggest theme of technology today is its effect on communication. The
way in which we are able to communicate through modern technologies is changing every
day, and many adolescents are intrigued by their ability to be involved in texting and the
many other uses of the cell phone. Filkins’ lesson titled “If a body texts a body: Texting in
The Catcher in the Rye” integrates texting as a mode of communication with the theme of
communication in the novel: “Students imagine the possibilities afforded by text messaging
technology in The Catcher in the Rye in this lesson that serves as a review of the novel, an
exploration of Holden Caulfield's character and narrative voice, and a study of a now
everyday form of communication” (Filkins, 2010). In addition to using technology as a
cognitive
tool
(students
are
thinking
about
technology
and
relating
it
to
classic
literature),
USING
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students
are
making
text‐to‐world
connections
through
thinking
about
and
discussing
the
importance of communication today and in the past. Through writing their own text
messages, students will “determine audience, purpose, voice, and rationale for text
messages written in selected situations” (Filkins, 2010). This activity will certainly engage
students in a creative and productive way. For students who love to text their friends, they
can now relate to Holden Caulfield through writing text messages for him. Filkins
integrates the technology of text messaging into a creative writing unit that supports the
inter‐textualities between classic literature and present‐day communications.
Wikis are a key online collaborative tool when they are used in a progressive and
productive way. In Chin and Luce‐Kapler’s lesson “Collaborating, writing, linking:
Using wikis to tell stories online,” students use the unique medium of the wiki to develop
their reading and writing skills while interacting with their classmates. Chin and Luce‐
Kapler state, “when students read online, they engage with text differently. Clicking on
links and images for more information easily takes them down unexpected paths, links to e‐
mail addresses allow them to interact with authors, and wikis allow them to make changes
to published text.” In this way, technology actually changes student learning for the better.
Chin and Luce‐Kapler keep student cognition in mind when constructing this online lesson:
“Students begin by reading untraditional books that use fragmented storylines, multiple
perspectives, and unresolved plots. They apply these same types of strategies to their own
writing, which they then publish using wiki technology. In doing so, students practice
important literacy skills including searching for information, integrating images into text,
and creating storylines that are reflective of the new types of reading found on the
Internet.”
Another
unique
aspect
of
this
lesson
is
that
students
can
share
their
work
with
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their
classmates
and
with
the
world.
Students
will
“Explore
the
possibilities
of
online
text,
including the use of links and images, by writing stories online and then editing them” and
“Work collaboratively to brainstorm and write their own stories and link them to the work
of their peers” (Chin, 2010). They can be proud of their finished product, while also
expanding their reading and writing skills and learning how to write informally and for a
collaborative, peer audience.
These lessons provide examples of how educators have enhanced student learning
through computers and the Internet. They show the shift from teacher‐centered learning to
student‐centered learning by using technology as a forum for collaborative and interactive
learning. They also prove that technology can be used to affect cognition, not just as
another tool for convenience in the classroom. Littleton (2010, pp. 177) says,
The traditional individualistic conceptions of learning that pre‐dominated
psychological and educational research over many decades have gradually been
yielding to community centered approaches to learning… from teacher‐centered to
more student‐centered approaches that highlight learners’ active constructive efforts,
[and] from individually‐oriented towards socially‐oriented notions of constructive
processes.
This is the way in which teachers must think about technology and education; as a tool for
making students’ lives better through helping them learn more effectively alongside their
peers. Teachers must also keep in mind that technology should not replace their own
critical thinking and lesson planning legwork, as the lesson is only as good as he or she who
delivers it.
Changing
one’s
methods
and
pedagogical
outlooks
in
order
to
better
serve
one’s
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students
is
the
sign
of
an
effective
teacher.
Swan
(2003)
says,
“Well
designed
instruction…
was well designed instruction, regardless of how it was delivered. Thus, they maintained,
as long as the quality of instruction delivered over distance was as good as the quality of
traditional education, there would be no significant differences in learning between them.
Indeed, as we have seen, the research supports such a view.” In the same way that distance
learning relies so heavily on collaborative reading, writing, and discussion, integrating
technology into the classroom in any discipline should focus on technology’s ability to
expand the interactive interface of the classroom. The need for new research in the field of
educational technology is constant, end educators of all ages should keep their fingers on
the pulse of what is new in the world of technology and cognition. “Teachers need
professional development to create lessons that exploit the potential advantages of
technology; crafting such lessons is not straightforward” (Willingham, 2010). By always
remember this fact – that technology will not enhance student learning by its mere
presence in the classroom‐ teachers can effectively integrate the Internet, computers,
interactive white boards, and other tools of technology into their lessons in a way that will
affect cognition and improve student learning opportunities.
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References
Barnum, Kirk T., and Rovai, Alfred P. (2003). On‐line course effectiveness: An analysis of
student interactions and perceptions of learning. Journal of Distance Education, 18.
Retrieved from
http://topshare.che.nl/downloadattachment/177224/Artikel%20over
%20eff%20van%20online%20studeren.pdf
Beller, Michal., and Or, Ehud. (1998). The crossroads between lifelong learning and
information technology: A challenge facing leading universities. Allenberg School for
Communication, University of Southern California, 4. Retrieved from
http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol4/issue2/beller.html
Chin, Jane Ann., and Luce‐Kapler, Rebecca Jean. (2010). Collaborating, writing, linking:
Using wikis to tell stories online. International Reading Association/National Council
of Teachers of English. Retrieved from http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom‐
resources/lesson‐plans/collaborating‐writing‐linking‐using‐1087.html
Sloan Consortium. (2002). Elements of quality: The Sloan‐C framework. Needham, MA:
Sloan Center for OnLine Education.
Filkins, Scott. (2010). If a body texts a body: Texting in The Catcher in the Rye.
International Reading Association/National Council of Teachers of English. Retrieved
from: http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom‐resources/lesson‐plans/body‐
texts‐body‐texting‐1170.html
Freeman, Jennifer. (2010). Twenty‐first century informational literacy:
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National
Council
of
Teachers
of
English.
Retrieved
from
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http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom‐resources/lesson‐plans/twenty‐first‐
century‐informational‐30581.html
Littleton, Karen., Wood, Clare., and Staarman, Judith Kleine. (2010). International handbook
of psychology in education. Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
McClintock, Robbie. (1992). Power and pedagogy: Transforming education through
information technology. Cumulative Curriculum Project Publication, 2. Retrieved from
http://schoolnetafrica.org/fileadmin/resources/Power_and_Pedagogy.pdf
Swan, Karen. (2003). Learning effectiveness: What the research tells us. J. Bourne & J. C.
Willingham, Daniel T. (2010). Have technology and multitasking rewired how students
learn? American Educator. Retrieved from
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