St. Alcuin House Journal Vol.8

ST.
ALCUIN HOUSE JOURNAL
The Minorcans' Faithful Priest, Father Pedro Camps

St. Augustine, Florida
Spring 2011
Volume 8, Number 1
Copyright © 2010 St. Alcuin House
Spring 2011 St. Alcuin House Journal Volume 8, Number 1 Page ii

Cover photo by Rev. Christopher Priest

For additional information on Father Camps, Catholic priest in Florida during British rule, please visit
http://www.halsema.org/people/theleonardifamily/culture/fatherpedrocamps/index.html
Spring 2011 St. Alcuin House Journal Volume 8, Number 1 Page iii
St. Alcuin House is a non‐profit ministry and educational institution. St. Alcuin House is
a communion of Christian ministers and ministries across the globe representing the
Anglican Communion and Anglo‐Catholic philosophy. St. Alcuin House educational
programs offer Bible‐centered Christian education to all who seek the knowledge of the
LORD and offers academic programs for the love of learning. This journal brings
together a variety of articles, insight, and research from religious scholars: students,
graduates, clergy, ministers, lay ministers, and those seeking to further their knowledge
of God, His Word, and the Church.

The Faculty, Administrators, Clergy and Bishops of St. Alcuin House would like to
express our sincerest appreciation for the contributions made by the scholars and
authors. We hope this journal will be a blessing to those seeking knowledge for the love
of learning and provide useful insight and views for all seeking further knowledge of
God’s Kingdom.

The contributors for this journal are from a variety of religious and educational
backgrounds and as such St. Alcuin House makes no claims for the content of the
entries. The content also does not necessarily represent the views or beliefs of the
people associated with St. Alcuin House Ministries or the Anglican Communion. Each
article in this journal was formatted by the author and merely placed in this publication
by the editor. The contributing authors take sole responsibility for the content of the
article he or she has submitted. The formatting may vary slightly from article to article,
but that is the intent for this publication, to allow academic freedom in presentation by
each contributor.

Copyright © 2010 by St. Alcuin House.

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Spring 2011, volume 8, number 1
Spring 2011 St. Alcuin House Journal Volume 8, Number 1 Page iv
Spring 2011 St. Alcuin House Journal Volume 8, Number 1 Page v
Introduction
St. Alcuin House has been providing educational programs “for the love of learning” for
almost three decades to those seeking to study the Word of God, the history of God’s
Church, and for those who have been called into ministry to build the Kingdom of God.

St. Alcuin House is a part of the Anglican Communion through the Convocation of
Anglicans in North America (CANA) but welcomes students and scholars from a broad
range of religious backgrounds. The goal of the administration and faculty of St. Alcuin
House is to provide an opportunity for scholars and students to advance their
knowledge of God, create a thirst and further knowledge of God, and to enhance each
student’s academic abilities through study and research. Graduates and students from
St. Alcuin House educational programs have entered into a variety of ministries such as
chaplaincy, Church leadership, Church planting, pastoral counseling, and Christian
education, to name a few. Many have gone on into ordained ministry as deacons,
priests, and even bishops within the Church.

Knowing God through Christ is central to the mission of St. Alcuin House, to “go and
make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son
and of the Holy Spirit, and teaching them to obey everything that I have commanded
you” (Matthew 28:19‐20). In a continuing commitment to that mission, we have joined
together in a common confession of the Gospel and strive to spread the Gospel in order
to further build the Kingdom of God. Sharing this knowledge of God through Christ is
central to God’s plan for all who come to know Him. The authors who have so
generously contributed to this edition of the St. Alcuin House Journal are following this
mission. Through prayer, study, research, experience, insight, and an imparting of
knowledge and vision from the Holy Spirit, the scholars have authored a variety of
articles, book reviews, sermons, lessons, and historical reviews of God’s Word and the
Church to further this mission.

The contributing authors to this journal are from a broad base of religious backgrounds
and denominations. Some of the viewpoints expressed are indeed controversial, and
more hopefully thought provoking, but that is indeed the intent of higher education, to
broaden one’s mind and experiences and to promote healthy discussion and debate. It
is my prayer for those in higher education that we never loose our ability or desire to
seek new points of view, especially on topics we hold most dear. This truly makes us the
“salt” and adds flavour to life and learning.

It is with great pride and pleasure that the administration and faculty
of St. Alcuin House offer this journal for the publication of thoughts and
ideas to promote the further truths of the Gospel of Christ and examine
the thoughts and ideals of our scholars. May God bless this work and
provide you with blessings as you review the entries.

The Reverend Christopher Priest, Ed.D., D.Div.
Editor, St. Alcuin House Journal
Spring 2011 St. Alcuin House Journal Volume 8, Number 1 Page vi
Spring 2011 St. Alcuin House Journal Volume 8, Number 1 Page vii
Table of Contents

RESEARCH

1. The Christian Faith and the Interpretation of the Christian Life in the Thought of John
Henry Newman in Consideration of English Intellectual History and its Relevance for
Religious and Moral Life in the 19th Century (Abstract)
by The Reverend Friedhelm Haas, M.Div., D.Phil.. .............................................................................................. page 3

2. Biblical Relations Between Israel and Madagascar (Abstract)
by HRH The Prince Reverend Ndriana Rabarioelina, Ph.D., OSA. ............................................................... page 9

3. The Trinitarian Shape of Liturgical Worship
by The Reverend T.J. Gentry, D.Min., Th.D. .......................................................................................................... page 17

4. Alexander Hall and Richardson Auditorium: Speaking of Architecture
by The Rt. Reverend Peter Riola, D.Litt.. .............................................................................................................. page 33

5. Themes in the Theology of Repentance and Reconciliation in the Liturgy of the 1662
Book of Common Prayer
by The Reverend Daniel Thomas, OSA. ................................................................................................................. page 41

6. Choose the City of God: Why Robert Hugh Benson's novel, Lord of the World, is still
relevant today
by Kim Strifert, D. Litt. .............................................................................................................................................. page 113

7. The Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist
by Dr. William Michael Harris D.O., M.A., B.A. ................................................................................................ page 165

THEOLOGICAL DISCUSSION

1. Latin American Christianity and Reality
by The Reverend Carlos Cortes Perez ................................................................................................................. page 183

2. Barth on Sacraments
edited by The Rt. Reverend Peter Riola, D.Litt. .............................................................................................. page 191

3. ODIUM SANCTUM (Holy Rest)
by Jean Correo, OSA and Fr. Bob Correo, OSA. ............................................................................................... page 199

4. How I Learned To Quit Looking For Church Unity In Organized Religion and Found It
In the People In the Pews
byThe Rt. Reverend John Keliher .......................................................................................................................... page 203

5. The Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist
by Dr. William Michael Harris D.O., M.A., B.A. ................................................................................................ page 213

Spring 2011 St. Alcuin House Journal Volume 8, Number 1 Page viii

FINE ARTS

1. Heaven is Waiting
by The Reverend Lara Bolander ................................................................................................................... page 223

2. Poems
by Brian Nixon, D.Phil., D.Litt., OSA. ............................................................................................................ page 245

3. Mount Vernon: A Photo Journal
by The Reverend Christopher Priest, Ed.D., D.Div.. ............................................................................... page 251

4. Historic Cathedral of our Merciful Saviour: Pen and Ink Illustration
by The Reverend Christopher Priest, Ed.D., D.Div.. ............................................................................... page 267

St. Alcuin House Seminary Logo

St. Alcuin House Journal, vol. 8, no. 1
RESEARCH

Page 1
Page 2

The Christian Faith and the Interpretation of the Christian Life
in the Thought of John Henry Newman
in Consideration of English Intellectual History
and its Relevance for Religious and Moral Life
in the 19th Century

Inaugural Dissertation for
the Attainment of the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
at
St. Alcuin House Seminary

Submitted by Friedhelm Haas
Baden‐Baden 2010

Page 3
Page 4
Summary/Abstract

John Henry Newman is the greatest theological genius in England’s modern Church his‐
tory.1 He is justifiably considered to be the most important anglo‐catholic author of the
19th century. Newman lived in a century which has been called „the century without
God”.2 In living contact with intellectual powers of his day and especially the supportive
ideas of England’s intellectual history he was able to recognize the approaching dangers
and attempted to combat them.
In this short reference to the dominant intellectual current it becomes clear that in the
19th century, which Newman’s life filled out (1801‐1890), nothing less than that the ex‐
istential right of Christianity as a religion of revelation was at stake. Essentially this con‐
flict has extended into the 20th and 21st centuries and is as relevant and controversial
as it was in Newman’s time. For this reason his theological answers remain relevant.
The theology of the 20th century was also occupied with subjects such as religious justi‐
fications, the rationality of the act of faith, supernaturalism of revelation, understanding
the truth of dogmas and their development within the spiritual history of the Church.
The acceptance of Newman after the First World War (Erich Przywara, Matthias Laros,
Edith Stein) and after the Second World War (Gottlieb Söhngen, Robert Grosche, Wern‐
er Becker, Heinrich Fries, Günter Biemer) and his far reaching influence on Karl Rahner,
Hans Urs von Balthasar, Yves Congar, Henri de Lubac, Bernard Lonergan, Avery Dulles
and many others the modern theological history is unimaginable.
In an address preached on October 27th 1963 at the Beatification of Blessed Dominic
Barberi during the Second Vatican Council Pope Paul VI characterized Newman as fol‐
lows:
„. . .to him who, in full consciousness of his mission – ‘I have a work to do’ – and
guided solely by love of the truth and fidelity to Christ, traced an itinerary, the
most toilsome, but also the greatest, the most meaningful, the most conclusive,
1
Gerhard Ludwig Müller: John Henry Newman begegnen. Augsburg, 2003, 8.
2
Alfred Müller‐Armack: Das Jahrhundert ohne Gott. Münster, 1948.
Page 5
that human thought ever travelled during the last century, indeed one might say
during the modern era, to arrive at the fulness of wisdom and of peace“.3
Though much has been written about him and much research done, there is missing
from the academic publications – except for some few exceptions which only contain
short articles – an in‐depth presentation of what Newman understood to be the Chris‐
tian way of life, i.e. how the Christian faith and the Christian life expresses itself in a
practical way in the individual Christian. This work attempts to close this gap. This
submitted dissertation purposes to lead the academic Newman research further with
the goal of presenting Newman’s convictions in this area. Christianity is more than a
guide for living a good, moral, middle‐class life. It is more than simply growing into the
great cultural tradition of the West. Christianity is the belief in a personal God and the
justified faith in His presence in one’s own life and in death.
Newman does not derive the further contents of the faith from basic theological terms.
Neither does he appeal to certain feelings or experiences such as the influential “senti‐
mental theology” of his time attempted, independent of rationality and science, to make
the world of religion accessible through feelings. He understands the faith as the clear
knowledge of God and the divine revelation based on the authoritative testimony of the
human carrier of the Word of God in the history of mankind. Faith speaks to man in the
totality of his existence, which in the context of nature and in the development of the
history of human society takes place as the agreement of the conscience in complete li‐
berty. That is why in the relationship of man to God the personal dimension of know‐
ledge comes into play, which over against the knowledge of matter, the formal logic and
the outward unfolding of history forms its own dimension of reality. It is only with the
category of the personal relationship of God and man that a level is reached on which
the statements of faith can be understood. That is also what the motto in his cardinal’s
crest wishes to express: „Heart speaks to heart” (cor ad cor loquitur).
In the personal life story of every person the drama of spiritual and moral challenges
begins anew in the center of his conscience. Everyone is motivated by his desire for love
and happiness, the question of life’s purpose, the endless reality. Everyone has a deci‐
3
Acta Apostolicae Sedis, vol. 55, 1963.
Page 6
sion to make – to face the claim to truth of the revelation of God or to turn away from it.
These are the questions of every person throughout all times. This is what makes John
Henry Cardinal Newman’s thoughts so relevant.
Newman’s theology differs from the usual way theology is done in academic schools
and universities. He never worked out a systematic complete overview of the Christian
faith. His originality is expressed in the art of subtle analysis and exact observation of
individual aspects of circumstances or problems. His conceptualization is always based
on an impartial perception of the phenomena of reality which he takes up as his subject.
He never determines or confines reality with predetermined conceptions. He never just
always so much which corresponds to the prejudices of a theory of the world. If one
would formulate the basic principle of his theory of knowledge it would have to be that
true knowledge roots in a comprehensive realization of the whole whose parts are then
analyzed. The total impression of the physical, historical, moral and religious reality
forms the integrating horizon of knowledge.
Proceeding from this overall impression Newman’s conviction concerning the Christian
way of life and in consideration of the latest research results will be worked out in this
dissertation.

Page 7
Foreword

The life and work of John Henry Newman have found much interest in Germany. During
the time of the Second Vatican Council and especially during the pontificate of Pope
John Paul II and the continuation in Pope Benedict XVI his personality has lost none of
its early charisma. I have my friend Max Weremchuk DD to thank for making me
acquainted with this great personality of the English Church and in aftermath a string of
professors and authors, at the head Prof. Dr. Günter Biemer who aroused my interest in
Cardinal Newman through his many studies and publications. Newman, who in the first
half of his life was an Anglican priest and converted to Catholicism in 1845, has become
a part of my life. Through my intensive occupation with his works he has become my
spiritual father and I am very grateful for that.
This study has been accepted by St. Alcuin House Seminary as a dissertation in 2010.
The Rt. Rev. Prof. Dr. Peter Riola OSA instructed and supported me with much interest
and commitment during the composition of my dissertation. I thank him especially. I
would also like to thank my friend Joachim Kuhs very much who invested much time in
proof‐reading and giving me valuable hints. I thank Rev. Karl‐Heinz Gaßner especially
as well who with great commitment contributed to the financing of my doctoral studies.

Baden‐Baden, August 2010

Friedhelm Haas

Please contact the author for the complete work.
Page 8

THESIS OF PhD IN THEOLOGY: ABSTRACT:
BIBLICAL RELATIONS BETWEEN ISRAEL AND MADAGASCAR

By HRH The Prince Reverend Ndriana Rabarioelina, PhD, OSA

Page 9
Page 10
HRH THE PRINCE REV. DR. NDRIANA RABARIOELINA, PhD, OSA:

THESIS OF PhD IN THEOLOGY: ABSTRACT:

SAINTALCUIN HOUSE SEMINARY:
JUNE, 16 2010:

TITLE: “ BIBLICAL RELATIONS BETWEEN ISRAEL AND MADAGASCAR”

1. FROM THE LAST VESTIGES OF THE BIRTHPLACE OF HUMANITY
TO THE FOUR CORNERS OF THE WORLD:

From our researches, Madagascar was at the center of the supercontinent Gondwana
which was one and alone bloc of continent in the beginning. The African continent,
the Indo‐European continent, the Australian continent, the South‐American
continent and the Antarctic were joined with Madagascar in the beginning. Then, the
drift of continents separated them. Many indices in different scientific domains, like
in Geology, Mineralogy, Gemology, Paleontology, Biology, Zoology, Mythology,
History, Linguistics, History of Religions, Human Genetics and Theology, and many
others, show us that Madagascar is an exceptional country in the world. Because it is
a sanctuary of the nature, and that this Great Island contains the oldest living beings,
the oldest fossils of animals, many gemstones and some rare inorganic elements in
the world.

Then, Madagascar is also among the last vestiges of the birthplace of humanity. From
oral traditions, one of the four rivers in the Eden Garden cited in the Bible is in
Madagascar. This river is the Pishon River. This river has his source in the Central
Highlands of Madagascar, especially in the Kingdom of Imerina. From our
researches, the first events, concerning the first men, cited in the Bible since the
epoch of Adam and Eve until the epoch of Noah, have taken place in Madagascar.
Therefore, Noah and his family have inhabited in the Great Island of Madagascar.
The Ark of Noah came from Madagascar, especially from the Mountains of An‐
(k)Har‐Arat or Ankaratra in the Central Highlands. The word Ankaratra does mean
the Mountain of the Divine Energy or the Mountain of the Divine Power. Because of
the divine commandment, through the worldwide flood, Noah and his family were
obliged to go away. In addition, they traveled, on his famous Ark, during one year
and two months, before his arrival to the Ararat Mount, which remembered the An‐
(k)‐Har‐Arat Mount in Madagascar. Then, in following the Bible, Noah and his three
sons, named Shem, Cham and Japheth, and his whole family, engendered, little by
little, all tribes and nations in the world.

Later, about the last vestiges of the birthplace of humanity, some researchers have
found that the Old Merina language is the dean of all languages in the world. There is
close relationship between the Old Merina language in the Central Highlands of
Madagascar and other languages in the five continents, and especially the Old
Page 11
Hebrew language. All languages in the world, before and after the epoch of the
Tower of Babel, have connections with the Old Merina language, which is also the
dean of all languages in the world, as have said some scholars in and outside
Madagascar. For examples, many old languages in the world, like Sumerian,
Akkadian, Assyrian, and Chaldean languages have close relations with the Old
Merina language. Then, some African, European, Amerindian, Oceanic and Asian
languages have also close relations with the Old Merina language. We can find in the
Old Merina language many roots and meanings of words in other languages in the
world. They prove the important place of the Old Merina language in the world.
Moreover, from Merina oral traditions, the first men in the world, Adam and Eva
were in Madagascar. In addition, their descendants spread to the four corners of the
world.

2. FROM THE FOUR CORNERS OF THE WORLD TO THE LAND OF OPHIR:

Later, Ophirans, Nephilims, Chaldeans, Sumerians and Jews returned successively to
the last vestiges of the birthplace of humanity. They left archaeological traces of
their passages in this Great Island, like old Hebrew inscriptions on some rocky
mountains in many places in Madagascar. There are many migrations of Jewish
people from Israel to Madagascar during more than 3,500 years. These Jews came
from the Near Eastern, the African continent, the Asiatic continent, the Oceanic
world, the European continent and the American continent. The majority of the
names of villages, cities, rivers, mountains, valleys, and people in Madagascar have
Jewish roots.

The Merina people in the Central Highlands of Madagascar have safeguarded a part
of the primitive religion in the world. They believe in one Lord, the Creator of the
Universe, called Yah‐Nahar who does mean “I am the Creator”, and Andriamanitra,
(Heb. Adri‐Min) who does mean: the Lord God who is the Origin of all things, and
Andriananahary (Heb. Adri‐Nahar) who does mean the Lord King who is the Origin
of Light. The religion of the ancestors of the Merina people is a pre‐Talmudic Jewish
monotheism. Then, they have worshiped the Lord Adonai Elohim of Israel, the Lord
Yah of their ancestors. In addition, they follow the Torah, especially the Aaronic
rites. They did know neither the Talmud of Babylon nor the Talmud of Jerusalem
because they have left Israel before the invasion of Jerusalem by the Army of the
King Nebuchadnezzar in 587 BC.

The royal family in the Kingdom of Imerina, especially the family of H.M the King and
High Priest Andriantompokoindrindra (Heb.Adri‐Tapa‐Kohen‐Dor‐dor, who does
mean the King who safeguards the Priesthood from generation to generation), the
Eldest of Imerina, is descendant of Aaron the High Priest who has served ‫יהוה‬ the
Lord YHWH, the Creator of the Universe, the Lord Adonai Elohim of Israel, in the
Tabernacle in the Desert of Sinai, then in the First Temple of Jerusalem. The royal
family in Imerina is constituted of descendants of Eleazar the third son of Aaron, and
the descendants of Ithamar his fourth son, especially the descendants of Yehoiariv,
Page 12
Harim, Myamin, and Immer, a descendant of Ithamar, and the descendants of Bukki
in the fifth generation from Eleazar.

The Merina Royal Family founded the Kingdom of Imerina in the Central Highlands,
then the Kingdom of Madagascar. The Merina kingdom is a kingdom of Priests. We
know that the ancestors of the Andriantompokoindrindra Royal Family are
descendants of Aaron the High Priest who have served the Lord Adonai Elohim of
Israel in the First Temple of Jerusalem, like their ancestors Ithamar, Yehoiariv,
Harim, Myamin, Immer and Bukki. They emigrated from Israel to Madagascar or
Ophir, from their oral traditions, many centuries before the Christian era. And the
Ark of the Covenant was in the Tabernacle in the Desert of Sinai, then in the Holy of
holies in the Firt Temple of Jerusalem. From their oral traditions, they transported
the Ark of the Covenant from Israel to Madagascar. One of their proofs is the fact
that the name of this Ark of the Covenant is the same in the Merina language (Mer.
Arona) and in the Hebrew language (Heb. Aron).

Andriantompokoindrindra was a King and a High Priest in the sacred and royal
village of Ambohimalaza inside the Kingdom of Imerina. Among the marks of his
royalty were his coronation, his royal purple turban, his royal scepter, his royal
sacred house or Tranomasina, the mastering of the royal game called Fanorona, the
royal dance called Dihy Soratr’Andriamanitra or the Dance on the Divine Inscription,
his twelve advisors and his army, the secret convention with seven parts that his
brother H.R.H the Prince Andrianjaka had followed. H.M the King and High Priest
Andriantompokoindrindra was the Eldest of Imerina and the Eldest of the royal
family. The Andriantompokoindrindra Royal Family is the depositary of royal
traditions in Imerina. In fact, this family is the dynastic center in the Kingdom of
Imerina, and by extension in the Kingdom of Madagascar.

Moreover, the place of the Merina royal family is also at the heart of the Twelve
Tribes of Israel in the world. They are among the lost tribes of Israel who were lost
of sight and who are now found again. As the other tribes in Israel, they were
dispersed in the whole world during more than 2,400 years. Now is the time for
their gathering. The Lord Adonai Elohim of Israel, the Creator of the Universe, begins
to gather them from the four corners of the world.

On the earth, the Andriantompokoindrindra royal family has three functions: Primo,
they have a royal function (Genesis 17:6). They are the source of kings in Imerina
and in Madagascar. They have the mission to represent the Lord Adonai Elohim, the
Creator of the Universe, in Madagascar. They have the mandate to reign and to
govern in the country where they dwell with all resources given by the Lord Adonai
Elohim. Their mission is to bring the peace of the Lord Yah in the country where
they inhabit, then to judge with justice and to bless all people in their country.

Secundo, they have a sacerdotal function (Exodus 19:6). They are the source of High
Priest in Imerina and in Madagascar. Moreover, the central point of the function of
the Andriantompokoindrindra royal family is their spiritual communion with the
Lord Adonai Elohim, the Creator of the Universe, in order to be at the service of the
Lord Yah and to be the intermediary between the Lord Adonai Elohim and his
people in the Tabernacle, with close relations with the Ark of the Covenant,
Page 13
especially in the Holy of holies, then in the First Temple of Jerusalem. From their oral
traditions, the Ark of the Covenant is now in Madagascar. Moreover, they are the
only Jewish family in the world who has safeguarded the true model of the sacred
clothes of Aaron the High Priest (Exodus 28). Thus, their sacerdotal function
continues in Madagascar.

Next, the Hebrew Bible has said that all nations will be blessed by the posterity of
Abraham, and that the salvation comes from the Jews. In opposite to many people
who have a human sacerdoce, they have a spiritual sacerdoce because they are a
chosen people, a kingdom of priests and a holy nation (Exodus 19:6), from
generation to generation, chosen by the Lord Adonai Elohim. Consequently, they
have the mission to announce the Divine Grace to the whole world. They have also
the mission to explain the Holy Scripture to the whole world, the mission to bring
the People of the Lord Adonai Elohim from the comprehension and the knowledge of
the Holy Scripture to the Divine Word, and the mission to prepare the coming soon
of Yahushuah the Messiah who will come with his Divine Almighty Power. They have
also the mission to bring all people in the world from the darkness to the Divine
Light.
Tertio, the Andriantompokoindrindra royal family has a prophetic function (Isaiah
61). They have the mission to announce the Divine Word to the world from
generation to generation. In opposition to many others who have a human prophetic
function, some chosen Andriana among them have a spiritual prophetic function,
from generation to generation. Moreover, they know in advance, by divine
revelations, in following only the Hebrew Bible, the Will of the Lord Adonai Elohim
through the progression of the history. From divine revelations, the Light of the
Lord Yah will come from Madagascar to the four corners of the world (Isaiah 60).
Then, the Ark of the Covenant will reappear in few times, and the Celestial Jerusalem
will descend from heavens, also in few times.

3. FROM THE LAND OF OPHIR TO THE CELESTIAL JERUSALEM:

Thus, if we refer ourselves to all that the Lord Adonai Elohim has revealed through
the history and to the different servants of the Lord Yah who have lived during many
different epochs, Ny Andriantompokoindrindra royal family has a triple function:

‐ Primo, the sacerdotal function, which was already realized by the existence of
many High Priests of the Lord Adonai Elohim in Israel, from where were issued His
Majesty the King and High Priest Andriantompokoindrindra and his ancestors. As
descendants of Aaron the High Priest (Heb. Kohen Ha Gadol) in the Holy of holies in
the Tabernacle, they are intermediaries between Adonai Elohim and the People of
the Lord Yah, on the earth and in the Celestial Jerusalem. They are the messengers of
the Lord Yah of Israel to the people, and they are the intercessors of the people
toward the Lord Elohim. They have close relationships with the Lord Yah that any
one can not have. That is why, they know many things who will happen in advance.

Page 14
‐ Secundo, the royal function, which was already realized by His Majesty the King
Andriantompokoindrindra and his descendants, and they will fulfill it again in the
future in Madagascar. At the end, they will reign on their golden thrones with the
Lord Yahushah Ha Mashiah, the King of kings and the Lord of lords, in the Celestial
Jerusalem.

‐ Tertio, the judicial function, which was realized by the existence of great judges
descendants of His Majesty the King Andriantompokoindrindra. It is a prediction of
judges on the twelve thrones in the Celestial Kingdom, near the Throne of Glory of
the Lord Adonai Elohim, and near the Messiah King who will come for judging the
Twelve Tribes of Israel and the world, and where His Majesty the King
Andriantompokoindrindra and his descendants who believe in the Lord Yah will
take part. The third function of this royal family, which will be fulfilled in the
heavens, is their judicial function. For those who believe in the Lord Yah of Israel,
they will judge all nations with the Lord Adonai Elohim, the Creator of the Universe.

Thus, the duties and responsibility of this royal family do not stop on the earth. The
Andriantompokoindrindra Royal Family is both Andriana on the earth and Andriana
in the heaven, in the Celestial Jerusalem. They are both princes of the sanctuary and
princes of the Lord Yah (Isaiah 61: 9). They will be eternally at the service of the
Lord Adonai Elohim, not only on the earth, but also in front of the Lord Adonai
Elohim, in the Celestial Jerusalem.

Next, the Ark of the Covenant, the symbol of the divine power, will be removed to
the Celestial Jerusalem. For those who believe in the Lord Yah, they will live,
eternally, with Him in the heavens. Glory to the Lord Yah of Israel, the Creator of the
Universe, the One and Alone Lord Adonai Elohim!

HRH the Prince Rev. Dr. Ndriana RABARIOELINA, PhD in Theology from SaintAlcuin
House Seminary, OSA, is specialist of the Old Testament, the History of the Jewish
People and the History of the Royal Family in Madagascar. He is also member of the
World Reformed Fellowship. Moreover, he is the Chief of the Conference of Kings and
Princes in Madagascar.


Page 15
Page 16
The Trinitarian Shape of Liturgical Worship
By T.J. Gentry, DMin, ThD
Page 17
Page 18
CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 3

DEFINITION OF TERMS ........................................................................................................................... 4

THE TRINITARIAN SHAPE OF LITURGICAL WORSHIP ............................................................ 8

CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................. 15

BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................................ 16
Page 19
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INTRODUCTION
Pastor: In the name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit.
Congregation: Amen!1
So begins, Sunday after Sunday, in this form or one that is closely related, the
services of countless liturgical churches throughout the world. They begin with a
confession of the Trinity. But why? Is it merely a thoughtless expression of empty
tradition and rote formalism? Or is there more to it than mere words? Perhaps this
practice reveals something much deeper about the process that it initiates and those
who faithfully participate therein. Perhaps there is an inextricable and necessary link
between the Trinity and liturgical worship.2 What is contained in the pages that follow
is written with these possibilities in view. Beginning with a definition of the terms
Trinity, liturgical worship, and Trinitarian liturgical worship, an attempt will be made
to explain how the shape of liturgical worship reveals the doctrine of the Trinity,
concluding with a brief consideration of the relationship between Trinitarian liturgical
worship and Trinitarian belief. The material presented presupposes an evangelical
commitment to the authority of Scripture and its message of salvation as by grace
through faith in Christ alone, as well as an admitted preference for a more formally
structured and ritually conducted expression of corporate worship.3 With these
presuppositions disclosed, it is appropriate to define the terms Trinity, liturgical
worship, and Trinitarian liturgical worship.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Of the three definitions that follow, the third – Trinitarian liturgical worship – is
most germane to this study. However, as it is a compound definition, it is best to define
the individual concepts from which it is drawn. First, what is the definition of Trinity?
As stated by Dorman, “[t]he word Trinity is nowhere found in the Bible. The doctrine is
implicit in numerous statements found in Scripture, however, particularly in the New
Testament.”4 And yet, as Grudem observed, “[t]he doctrine of the Trinity is one of the

1
This expression (with some variation) may be found in Reformed, Lutheran and Anglican liturgies.
2
It would be remiss to conclude that non‐liturgical services are not concerned with affirming the
Trinity. In such services the doctrine is, however, ordinarily affirmed by implication rather than explicit
statement/confession.
3
These distinctions are highlighted at the beginning of the paper to allay any concern that there is an
implicit sacramentalism necessarily connected to this or any discussion of liturgical worship. While it must be
conceded that many who embrace liturgical worship also view salvation in a more sacramental and less
straight‐forwardly evangelical manner, the two are not necessarily related.
4
Ted Dorman, A Faith for All Seasons: Historic Christian Belief in Its Classical Expression (Nashville, TN:
B&H Publishing Group, 2001), 50.

Page 21
most important doctrines of the Christian faith.”5 Although it is beyond the purview of
this paper to provide a detailed analysis of either the philosophical or Biblical basis for
the Trinity, these statements from Dorman and Grudem are introduced for the purpose
of giving at least a passing acknowledgment that there is much mystery and importance
attached to this doctrine. Accordingly, Trinity may be defined both technically and
descriptively.
Technically speaking, “God is one essence or substance, eternally existing in
three Persons: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit,”6 and “each
[P]erson is fully God, and there is one God.”7 Descriptively speaking (i.e., understood
according to the cosmic actions of the three Persons), “God [is] Father Almighty, the
source of life, who makes Himself known in Jesus Christ by the power of the Spirit of
God who is present throughout the historical process, working to transform it according
to God’s purpose.”8 While these two approaches to defining the Trinity are not the only
ones, they do provide an adequate foundation to consider the next of the three
definitions – that of liturgical worship.
Speaking primarily of liturgy but with an obvious application to liturgical
worship, White observed that, although
“often confused with smells and bells, [the word liturgy] has a secular
origin. It comes from the Greek leitourgia, composed from words for
work (ergon) and people (laos). In ancient Greece, a liturgy was a public
work performed for the benefit of the city or state. Its principle was the
same as the one for paying taxes, but it could involve donated service as
well as taxes…Liturgy, then, is a work performed by the people for the
benefit of others…To call a service “liturgical” is to indicate that it was
conceived so that all worshipers take an active part in offering their
worship together…it could not describe a worship in which the
congregation was a merely passive audience…[Thus,] Western Christians
use “liturgical” to apply to all forms of public worship of a participatory
nature.”9

5
Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine (Grand Rapids, MI:
Zondervan Publishing House, 1994), 226.
6
Dorman, A Faith for All Seasons, 50.
7
Grudem, Systematic Theology, 226.
8
Thomas C. Oden, Classic Christianity: A Systematic Theology (New York, NY: Harper Collins
Publishers, 1992), 105.
9
James F. White, Introduction to Christian Worship, 3rd ed. (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 200), 26.
Page 22
Stated more succinctly, Lathrop defined liturgy as “the ancient name of the assembly for
worship and its actions.”10 (Although more will be considered later, note that Lathrop
included among the actions of liturgy the following: gathering, hearing Scripture read
and explained, on occasion a baptism, and sharing a fragmentary meal.11) Dix proposed
that liturgy “is the name given ever since the days of the apostles to the act of taking
part in the solemn corporate worship of God by the ‘priestly’ society of Christians, who
are the Body of Christ, the church. The liturgy is the term which covers generally all
that worship which is officially organized by the church, and which is open to and
offered by, or in the name of, all who are members of the church. It distinguishes this
from the personal prayers of the individual Christians who make up the church.”12
Drawing upon these definitions from White, Lathrop and Dix, liturgical worship may be
defined as a corporate expression of essential and repeated elements that are conducted in
such a way that all the people actively participate.
And so, coming to the third definition, the question now is what makes liturgical
worship Trinitarian, or what is Trinitarian liturgical worship? Before considering a
more‐or‐less formal definition, notice what is necessarily coming together in its
composing. The definition of Trinity is somehow combining with the definition of
liturgical worship. Thus, whatever the definition is, it must articulate the impact of the
doctrine of the Trinity on the practice of the Christian assembly. This is because
doctrine and worship are essentially joined, such that misunderstanding or overlooking
one will likely lead to a significant modification and/or diminution of the other. As
Torrance stated, “[i]f out of the confessional…statements of the Bible come doxological
statements, Christian dogmatics unfolds from reflection on doxology. True theology is
done in the presence of God in the midst of the worshiping community.”13 Similar to
Paul’s words to the Ephesians that “through [Christ] we…have access by one Spirit to
the Father”14 Torrance went on to define worship as “the gift of participating through
the Spirit in the incarnate Son’s communion with the Father.”15 Notice in his definition
the interplay of the Persons of the Trinity and the worshiper’s participation – belief and
corporate practice appropriately coming together.

10
Gordon W. Lathrop, Holy Things: A Liturgical Theology (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1993), 3.
11
Lathrop, Holy Things, 2‐3.
12
Dom Gregory Dix, The Shape of the Christian Liturgy, 3rd ed. (New York, NY: Continuum, 2005), 1.
13
James B. Torrance, Worship, Community and the Triune God of Grace (Downers Grove, IL: Inter
Varsity Press, 1996), 9‐10.
14
Ephesians 2:18, NKJV
15
Torrance, Worship, 20.
Page 23
Written with a similar concern to properly consider the relationship of the
Trinity and liturgical worship, Meyers stated that “[t]rue Christian worship can only be
offered to God the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. More specifically, true worship is
offered to the Father through the Son and in or by the Holy Spirit. Anything else is sub‐
Christian at best.”16 Even though Meyers did more in this reference than simply define
Trinitarian liturgical worship – actually touching therein upon the shape of such liturgy
– he clearly recognized what he referred to elsewhere as the “[n]exus [b]etween
[w]orship and [c]onfession.”17 Again, theology and doxology are two sides of the same
coin – to deny this is perilous indeed!
What then, building upon these considerations, is a workable definition of
Trinitarian liturgical worship? Consider the following formulation, which will serve as
a touchstone for the remainder of this paper: Trinitarian liturgical worship is the
gathered Christian community’s commonly structured and participatory service from and
to the Father as those united by faith to Christ and indwelt by the Holy Spirit. Thus, as
Lathrop stated, the
“primary, experienced theology of the assembly is Trinitarian. To begin
[the liturgy] is to be in Trinity. To read scripture and preach – to read the
word of God, enlivened by the Spirit, to speak of Christ – is to be in the
Trinity. To [baptize], to enact the event that the Synoptic Gospels show as
an image of the triune God – Jesus standing with the people being washed,
the Spirit descending, the voice speaking – is to be in the Trinity. To give
thanks at table – to eat and drink the signs of Christ, enlivened by the
Spirit, in thanksgiving to God – is to be in the Trinity.”18
Notice, in concluding this formulation and evaluation of a definition of Trinitarian
liturgical worship, that all of the things Lathrop spoke of – gathering, preaching,
baptizing, the Lord’s Supper – all are understood by the definition given above as
occurring within a commonly‐ structured and participatory service. This leads to a
further question: What is the particular shape of that service?
THE TRINITARIAN SHAPE OF LITURGICAL WORSHIP
When considering the shape of Trinitarian liturgical worship, what is actually
under consideration is the liturgy’s structure – what is sometimes properly referred to
as the Order of Worship. For evangelicals, establishing such an order necessarily begins

16
Jeffrey J. Meyers, The Lord’s Service: The Grace of Covenant Renewal Worship (Moscow, ID: Canon
Press, 2003), 122‐123.
17
Ibid., 105.
18
Lathrop, Holy Things, 137‐138.
Page 24
(as with all other considerations) with Scripture.19 The problem immediately arises,
however, that the only detailed instruction regarding an order of worship is found in
the Old Testament – specifically related to the sacrificial system that was fulfilled in
Christ (cf., Matthew 5). What is found in the New Testament is less specific and more
principial. Jesus spoke, for example, of worshiping the Father “in spirit and truth.”20
Immediately following Pentecost, the earliest disciples are described as having
“continued steadfastly in the apostles’ doctrine and fellowship, in the breaking of bread,
and in prayers…continuing daily with one accord in the temple, and breaking bread
from house to house.”21 Paul urged the Romans to “present [their] bodies a living
sacrifice, [as their] reasonable service.”22 Of the Corinthians, he demanded that “all
things [pertaining to their worship gatherings] be done decently and in order.”23
Consider it – Jesus, Luke and Paul all stated something about worship but none
of the three provided anything specific. This had led many in the history of the church
to conclude that, as opposed to the rigor and precision required in the Old Testament,
worship in the New Testament is essentially undefined and open to whatever might
work best as long as it doesn’t contradict Scripture. And they may be correct, for surely
if God was concerned with exactness in New Testament worship He would have given
more detail. And if that is one’s conviction, then this brief research paper will not likely
convince otherwise. However, the extant extra‐Biblical writings of the earliest Christian
communities reveal that a particular shape (i.e., order) did begin to emerge in worship
soon after the death of the last apostle.
As detailed by Thompson24 and White25, in first through third century writings
such as the Didache, the First Apology of Justin Martyr, and the Apostolic Tradition of

19
Even though the preceding definitions of the Trinity and liturgical worship were not established via
explicit proof‐texts, two things should be observed. One, there are texts to support both doctrines (e.g.,
Matthew 28:18‐20 and Romans 12:1‐2); and two, understanding what Trinity and liturgical worship mean is
best accomplished by an inductive approach that draws upon the themes and other examples from the Biblical
text (i.e., both concepts are more systematically derived). Likewise, what is considered from a Biblical
perspective relative to the shape of worship is only selective; the same essential approach applies.
20
John 4:24
21
Acts 2:42,46
22
Romans 12:1
23
1 Corinthians 14:40
24
Bard Thompson, Liturgies of the Western Church: Selected and Introduced (Philadelphia, PA:
Fortress Press, 1961), 3‐24.
25
James F. White, Documents of Christian Worship: Descriptive and Interpretive Sources (Louisville,
KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1992), 101, 182‐183.
Page 25
Hippolytus a basic and commonly held structure of gathering and confessing, reading
Scripture and teaching, offering and prayers, and the Lord’s Supper and blessing
emerged as the basic sequence of the Christian community in worship on Sunday.
Regarding this structure, Jordan contended that it was formed based on the words of
Jesus and the example of the apostles as set against the backdrop of the order of
sacrifice in Leviticus 9.26 That is, it is assumed that Jesus and the apostles were familiar
with and would have intended that not the details but the essential structure of the
sacrificial system remain as the skeletal structure for New Testament worship. Thus, in
parallel form the following outline is suggested to visually associate the two.
Leviticus 9 Church Liturgy
Aaron calls Israel to come and sacrifice The community gathers under the leadership
of a presider
Sin offering The community confesses sin27
Whole Burnt offering The community hears the Scriptures read
and taught
Grain and Incense The community brings their offerings (bread
and wine) and makes a prayer
of general intercession and
petition
Peace offering The Lord’s Supper
Aaron blesses the people The presider blesses the people
Whether or not this parallel is accepted as legitimate or necessary, it is clear that the
Medieval and Reformational churches kept the basic structure of the early church for
use in their worship. Speaking specifically of the Reformed churches and their
appreciation of such Patristic worship, Old commented that
“[w]hile the Reformers understood the Scriptures to be their sole
authority, they were very interested in how generations of Christians
down through history had understood the Scriptures. In the history of
Christian worship they found many good examples of how the church had

26
James B. Jordan, Theses on Worship: Notes Toward the Reformation of Worship, 2nd ed. (Niceville,
FL: Transfiguration Press, 1998), 27‐31.
27
The confession of sin is sometimes implied or wholly absent in the earliest liturgies; the
development became more pronounced in the later Patristic period.
Page 26
truly understood Scripture. Often the Fathers of the early church had
been most faithful witnesses to the authority of Scripture. The Reformers
learned from Athanasius about Christian psalmody, from Ambrose about
catechetical instruction, from John Chrysostom about preaching, and from
Augustine about the sacraments.”28
These quotes and ideas from Old and others are presented here to lay the
groundwork for the particular shape of liturgical worship that is still in use in many
churches today. (Although the point may have been labored, its foundational
significance cannot be minimized. Simply put, unless the structure offered above
appears at least viable and plausible, the consideration of how it is also necessarily
Trinitarian may seem presumptuous.) Thus, trusting that the basic shape of gathering
and confession, reading and teaching, offering and prayer, and Lord’s Supper and
blessing are at least conceived as possible from Scripture and present in history, the
question remains: How is this particular shape Trinitarian? Consider the following two
ways.
One, the shape of the traditional liturgy is Trinitarian in its basic movement from
start to finish. (For convenience, Wilson’s adopted structural labels of Call, Confession,
Consecration, Communion and Commissioning are utilized in what follows.) Call
correspond to gathering for worship; Confession corresponds to confessing sin;
Consecration corresponds to the reading and teaching of Scripture and the response of
offering and prayers; Communion corresponds to the Lord’s Supper; and
Commissioning corresponds to the blessing/dismissal.29 This structure reveals the
Trinity as follows. The Father calls the assembly to worship Him through the words of
the presider. They confess their sins, seeking forgiveness in Christ. The Word is heard
and taught, with the Holy Spirit making application in their lives and imparting faith to
their hearts (cf., Romans 10). The service moves from Father (Call) to Son (Cleansing)
to Holy Spirit (Consecration). (Notice that the standard articulation of the Trinity is
being followed – Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This is sometimes referred to as the
theological Trinity.30)
From this point forward in the service, beginning with the offering and prayers
through the dismissal, the Trinity is revealed again. In this latter half, however, the

28
Hughes O. Old, Worship: Reformed according to Scripture (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox
Press, 2002), 4.
29
Douglas Wilson, A Primer on Worship and Reformation: Recovering the High Church Puritan
(Moscow, ID: Canon Press, 2008), 37‐38.
30
David Chilton, The Days of Vengeance: An Exposition of the Book of Revelation (Horn Lake, MS:
Dominion Press, 2006), 58.
Page 27
Persons are emphasized according to what may be identified as the liturgical Trinity.31
According to this formulation, rather than speaking of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, the
liturgical Trinity speaks of Son, Holy Spirit, and Father (or vice‐versa). This structuring
seems to be intended in Revelation 1:4‐7, where John greeted the seven churches in
Asia with the following: “Grace to you and peace from Him who is and who was and
who is to come [i.e., the Father], and from the seven Spirits who are before His throne
[i.e., the Holy Spirit], and from Jesus Christ, the faithful witness, the firstborn from the
dead, and the ruler over the kings of the earth [i.e., the Son].” The idea here, as
explained by Wilcock, is that “perhaps the unusual order of the Trinity…corresponds to
the plan of the earthly sanctuary, where the ark in the holy of Holies represents the
throne of God [i.e., the Father], the seven‐branched lamp stand in the Holy Place before
it represents the Spirit, and in the courtyard before that stands the altar, with its priest
and sacrifice both representing, of course, the redeeming work of Christ.”32
Given this possible arrangement, the liturgical Trinity (in reverse order) may be
identified in the latter half of the worship service as follows. The offering and prayers
are made in union with Christ, the great high priest; the Holy Spirit brings about a
mysterious participation in the spiritual body and blood of Christ in the Lord’s Supper
(this view is obviously shaped by Calvin’s receptionism – by which he maintained that,
by faith, “the visible sign [of bread and wine] is given to us to seal the gift of the invisible
substance [of Christ’s true body and blood];”33 it is willingly admitted that a more
Zwinglian understanding of the Lord’s Supper may necessitate a recasting of this
particular consideration of communion as identified with the Holy Spirit); the blessing
and dismissal are the Father’s sending out for mission those He called to come in for
worship. So, the service concludes by moving from Son (Offertory – including prayers)
to Spirit (Communion) to Father (Commission).
A second way in which the basic shape of the liturgy is Trinitarian relates to the
concomitant emphases upon God’s transcendence and His immanence throughout the
movements of the service. As developed by Chan,34 the worshiping community
experiences God as both holy and loving. Coming into His presence through a Call, the
magnificent character and “otherness” of God is emphasized, leading to the admission of
human sinfulness in the Confession. However, at the moment of the assurance of
pardon and the tender teaching of the Word during Consecration, as well as the

31
Ibid., 58.
32
Michael Wilcock, I Saw Heaven Opened: The Message of Revelation (Downers Grove, IL:
InterVarsity, 1975), 34. As quoted in Chilton, The Days of Vengeance, 58.
33
Calvin, Institutes 4.17.10. As quoted in Geddes MacGregor, Corpus Christi: The Nature of the Church
According to the Reformed Tradition (Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1958), 181.
34
Simon Chan, Liturgical Theology: The Church as Worshiping Community (Downers Grove, IL: Inter
Varsity Press, 2006), 56‐58.
Page 28
intimacy of the Communion meal, the gracious love of God is experienced – His
“nearness.” Then, in a manner related to but different than the Call, the Commission
reminds the community of their obligation to go forth and serve in the name of the
sovereign God. At this point, Jordan’s idea that worship moves from tension to rest is
helpful.35 God calls and sin is confessed – tension; assurance is given and teaching and
meal ensue – rest; orders are announced and mission resumes – tension (albeit, as
stated above, of a different kind than the tension at the Call and Confession.)
How does this liturgical movement, with its related emphasis on transcendence
and immanence reveal the Trinity? The Father Calls and Confession is made to Him –
His holiness is most clearly in view. The Son is proclaimed as the payment for sin and
His Word is heard and visibly displayed in the teaching and the Lord’s Supper – God’s
love is experienced. The Holy Spirit is the source of the relationships and power
necessary to go forth into mission – holiness and love remain side‐by‐side as the church
mobilizes to announce God’s righteous judgment on sin and His grace for sinners. Thus,
Call and Confession relate to transcendence and the Father; Consecration and
Communion relate to immanence and the Son; Commission relates to both
transcendence/immanence and the Holy Spirit.

35
Jordan, Theses on Worship, 54.
Page 29
CONCLUSION
To summarize the material thus far, a development of the definition of key terms
related to a discussion of the Trinitarian shape of liturgical worship was followed by a
consideration of two particular ways in which the traditional order of worship reveals
the Trinity. As the information was presented, various secondary but related ideas
were also considered, to include a rationale for developing a liturgical order based on a
New Covenant transformation of the sacrificial sequence of Leviticus 9; which order
was used in some sense in the Ancient, Medieval and Reformational church eras. One
final consideration is presented in conclusion.
If what is done is worship inevitably impacts what is believed by the worshiper
then perhaps the evangelical church should seriously reconsider how worship services
are shaped and whether or not they accurately reflect the formulations of the Trinity
that lay at the heart of orthodoxy. The Latin phrase lex orandi, lex credendi expresses
the gist of this point.36 Lex orandi – the law of prayer (i.e., how worship is conducted)
will inevitably influence lex credendi – the law of belief (i.e., what is believed). It is
certainly the case that the reverse is also true (and necessarily so!) – What is believed
will impact how worship is conducted. Either way, the doctrine of the Trinity must
inform the order of worship, and the order of worship must convey the doctrine of the
Trinity. It just may be that the key to transforming the church and the society in which
it exists is found in once again returning to an intentional liturgical confession of the
one true God – to a resounding chorus of “In the name of the Father, and the Son, and
the Holy Spirit. Amen!”

36
Meyers, The Lord’s Service, 109‐113.
Page 30
Bibliography

Chan, Simon. Liturgical Theology: The Church as Worshiping Community. Downers
Grove, IL: Inter Varsity Press, 2006.

Chilton, David. The Days of Vengeance: An Exposition of the Book of Revelation. Horn
Lake, MS: Dominion Press, 2006.

Dix, Dom Gregory. The Shape of the Christian Liturgy. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Continuum,
2005.

Dorman, Ted M. A Faith for All Seasons: Historic Christian Belief in Its Classical
Expression. 2nd ed. Nashville, TN: B&H Publishing Group, 2001.

Grudem, Wayne. Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine. Grand
Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1994.

Jordan, James B. Theses on Worship: Notes Toward the Reformation of Worship. 2nd ed.
Niceville, FL: Transfiguration Press, 1998.

Lathrop, Gordon W. Holy Things: A Liturgical Theology. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press,
1993.

MacGregor, Geddes. Corpus Christi: The Nature of the Church According to the Reformed
Tradition. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1958.

Meyers, Jeffrey J. The Lord’s Service: The Grace of Covenant Renewal Worship. Moscow,
ID: Canon Press, 2003.

Oden, Thomas C. Classic Christianity: A Systematic Theology. New York, NY: Harper
Collins Publishers, 1992.

Old, Hughes O. Worship: Reformed according to Scripture. Louisville, KY: Westminster
John Knox Press, 2002.

Thompson, Bard, Liturgies of the Western Church: Selected and Introduced. Philadelphia,
PA: Fortress Press, 1961.

Torrance, James B. Worship, Community and the Triune God of Grace. Downers Grove, IL:
Inter Varsity Press, 1996.

White, James F. Documents of Christian Worship: Descriptive and Interpretive Sources.
Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1992.

Page 31

‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐‐. Introduction to Christian Worship. 3rd ed. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press,
2000.

Wilson, Douglas. A Primer on Worship and Reformation: Recovering the High Church
Puritan. Moscow, ID: Canon Press, 2008.

Page 32
Alexander Hall and Richardson Auditorium: Speaking of Architecture
Research by Peter W. Riola
Page 33
Page 34
Alexander Hall and Richardson Auditorium: Speaking of Architecture

Recently, Yale professor Paul

Goldberger wrote “Why Architecture
Matters” and then presented the
material in a lecture at the University
of Notre Dame. It is not a work of
architectural history or a guide to the
styles or an architectural dictionary,
though it contains elements of all
three. The purpose of Why
Architecture Matters is to “come to
grips with how things feel to us
when we stand before them, with
how architecture affects us
emotionally as well as
intellectually.” Paul Goldberger
writes, “Architecture begins to matter when it brings delight and sadness and perplexity and
awe along with a roof over our heads.” He shows us how that works in examples ranging
from a small Cape Cod cottage to the “vast, flowing” Prairie houses of Frank Lloyd Wright,
from the Lincoln Memorial to the highly sculptural Guggenheim Bilbao and the Church of
Sant’Ivo in Rome, where “simple geometries . . . create a work of architecture that embraces
the deepest complexities of human imagination.”
A Notre Dame reviewer noted, “Based on decades of looking at buildings and thinking about
how we experience them, the distinguished critic raises our awareness of fundamental things
like proportion, scale, space, texture, materials, shapes, light, and memory.”
My first excursion into the world of architecture began when I was a young boy. I would
board the subway from Brooklyn to Manhattan to attend performances at the old
Metropolitan Opera House and Carnegie Hall. Sundays I would walk to the Brooklyn
Museum to visit both the architecture and the art it contained. I always found the architecture
more fascinating than what was going on inside the buildings. Even the movie theatres were
interesting, with wonderfully carved balconies. When I first visited Oxford University,
visiting the Sheldonian Theatre and Radcliffe Camera was an experience, just to admire the
architecture, and of course, sit among the old books. The first time I visited Princeton
University, 1957, was to attend a Tigers football game in old Palmer Stadium. When my wife
Martha and I go to Tigers football games today, I always imagine us sitting on the old
wooden boards of old, storied Palmer. It is a major concession to use new concrete seats in
the new stadium. The cheerleaders wear garb from one hundred years ago, so why can’t we
sit in the old Palmer Stadium?
Buildings don’t have to be old to be beautiful. I visited St. Mary’s Anglican Church in
Tacoma, Washington and found it simple and beautiful, relatively new, and beautiful. But if
Page 35
I’m looking for tradition and beauty, I don’t have to go very far from Palmer. Richardson
Auditorium is a mile away. We travel from Minnesota to Princeton often, just to sit in
Richardson, observe the wonderful carvings, and of course, enjoy the performances.
Richardson Auditorium in Alexander Hall
Princeton University does everything possible to protect the history of its
structures and does this by telling the historic story which includes Princeton’s
involvement as the seat of government and a place where George Washington
actually slept. In 1890, the trustees of the College of New Jersey (as Princeton
University was then known) determined that Princeton needed a convocation
hall that could seat the entire student body for commencement and other large
gatherings. Mrs. Harriet Crocker Alexander donated the money for such a
building to be named in honor of her husband Charles B. Alexander ’1870, his
father Henry M. Alexander ’1840 (a college trustee and member of the
Committee on Commencement Arrangements), and his grandfather Reverend
Dr. Archibald Alexander (founder of the Princeton Theological Seminary and
its first professor, honorary Princeton doctorate ’1810).
The Princeton trustees had expressed hope that some benefactor of the college
would provide funds for the erection of a commencement hall, for with the
growth of numbers the Presbyterian Church present facilities had become
inadequate. It was customary to erect a platform for the trustees, faculty and
guests, and so this encroached on the main floor of the old building, leaving
insufficient room for students at various ceremonies. There was a strong feeling
that guests were to receive first class treatment, so guests were always given
prime seating. So there was much rejoicing when Princeton President Patton
announced November 1890 that Mrs. Harriet Alexander had provided funds for
a large auditorium. Alexander Hall, designed by William Potter, a member of
Richardson school of architecture, differed radically from any other Princeton
building on campus. Princetonians could have overlooked this, had not it been
over-ornate, heavy and ill-proportioned. There was high praise for the exterior
sculptures by J. Massey Rhind and the interior mosaics by J. A. Holzer
illustrating the Homeric story, but heavy Romanesque arches of the ambulatory,
the round dunce-cap towers, the expanse of the rounded roof, the bands of red
free-stone, according to some, robbed the structure of all grace and proportion.
Construction on Alexander Hall began in 1892 and was completed two years
later (though carving of the exterior sculpture continued long after the building
was opened and dedicated on June 9, 1894). During its early years, Alexander
Hall was used for many lectures, mass meetings, and various assemblies, such
as the events at the 150th anniversary celebration and Woodrow Wilson ’1879’s
inauguration as University President. For thirty years, freshmen were welcomed
and seniors graduated in Alexander, but by 1922 commencement exercises had
outgrown the building and thereafter were held in front of Nassau Hall. When
the University’s Marquand Chapel burned in 1920, Alexander was used for
religious services until the new University Chapel was completed in 1928. An
organ had been installed in Alexander Hall in 1910 and was used for forty years,
Page 36
but is not usable now. Alexander Hall continued to accommodate the needs and
activities of many generations of Princeton students, from pep and political
rallies to many concerts, speeches, and lectures. Course grades also used to be
posted on the interior walls of the building.
In 1984-85, Alexander Hall was extensively renovated and renamed as a result
of a major gift to a Campaign for Princeton from David A. Richardson ’66 in
memory of his father, David B. Richardson ’33. The elder Richardson, a
lifelong enthusiast of classical music and a successful lawyer and investor, died
in 1980. This project revitalized the building for use as an 891-seat concert hall.
Buddy Graham, winner of six Grammys and one of the most highly regarded
engineers for symphonic recording in the late twentieth century, listed
Richardson Auditorium in the company of Carnegie Hall and the
Concertgebouw in Holland as one of the world’s acoustically “great” concert
halls.
Today, Richardson Auditorium is Princeton University’s premiere performance
venue for a wide variety of events presented by the Department of Music, as
well as student and community organizations. Richardson is also home to the
annual Princeton University Concerts series, featuring world-class professional
musical artists. In addition, the hall is often used for the recording of chamber,
orchestral, and solo instrumental and vocal music. Richardson Auditorium
occasionally houses dance and dramatic performances, though it is not primarily
equipped for this use. Finally, Richardson is the site of many official University
ceremonies, lectures, and assemblies, from Freshman Orientation to Reunions
activities.
As one of the most historic and recognizable structures on the Princeton
campus, Alexander Hall was chosen by the U.S. Postal Service to appear on a
postcard commemorating Princeton’s 250th anniversary in 1996.
The Architecture of Alexander Hall
Alexander Hall culminated the work of architect William Appleton Potter on the
Princeton campus. Potter—who was not a Princeton alumnus—was the former
Supervising Architect of the U.S. Treasury (in effect, the official architect of the
United States). In Princeton, Potter had designed Chancellor Green Library,
Stuart Hall at the Princeton Theological Seminary, and several other University
buildings. He also collaborated with Robert H. Robertson on Witherspoon Hall.
After Alexander Hall was completed, Potter also designed Pyne Library, now
known as East Pyne Hall.
The design of Alexander Hall drew on several architectural sources, but was
mostly Richardsonian Romanesque in style, as evidenced by the contrasting
rough-faced granite walls and brown sandstone trim, as well as the steep gabled
roof with tall dormers and zigzag detail under the eaves. (Note: The present
name of the auditorium bears no relation to the name of its architectural style,
which refers to Henry Hobson Richardson, one of the foremost American
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architects of the late nineteenth century.) Alexander Hall was the last High
Victorian Gothic building constructed at Princeton, which was soon dominated
by Collegiate Gothic architecture. As such, the building’s unusual features
convey both monumentality and whimsy. Alexander was conceived as an
academic theater and cultural temple, and both its structural design and
iconography reflect a scholarly, yet secular agenda.
Interior: On each of the column capitals of the ambulatory window arches is
carved the names of scholars from many eras and nationalities. The east side of
the building displays great scientists and mathematicians, such as Newton,
Galileo, Ptolemy, Copernicus, Franklin, Bunsen, Dalton, Henry, and Guyot. On
the west side of the hall appear the masters of the arts: Brunelleschi,
Shakespeare, Goethe, Milton, Dante, Homer, Horace, Montesquieu,
Thucydides, Descartes, Kant, Bacon, Plato, and Aristotle. The ambulatory was
originally open, which created seven entrances to the hall and ensured good
circulation. After more than thirty years of exposure to the elements, the
ambulatory was enclosed with glass windows in 1928.
A beautiful mosaic with depictions of scenes from Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey
dominates the back wall of the stage. Homer himself is pictured in the center
panel, framed by Helen, Paris, and Mentor from the Iliad on the right, and
Telemachus, Penelope, Odysseus, and Achilles from the Odyssey on the left.
The Greeks prepare for war on the far left, while Trojan warriors with chariot
and horses await the call to battle on the far right. These panels were designed
by J.A. Holzer and made of tiles from Tiffany Glass and Decorating Company.
A carving of Henry Alexander ’1840 is set into the wall on the right side of the
stage (from the perspective of the audience). Above this image, on the balcony
level, is a Venetian choir loft for antiphonal singers. The opposite alcove still
houses organ pipes from the instrument used during the first half of the
twentieth century.
Exterior: The ornately carved southern exterior features a large, Tiffany stained
glass rose window that portrays an allegorical study of Genius, Knowledge,
Study, and Fame. Underneath the rose window is a bas-relief sculpture designed
by J.A. Bolger and executed by J. Massey Rhind. The central figure,
symbolizing Learning, sits on a massive throne and carefully steadies the Book
of Knowledge on his knee. He is framed by Oratory, Theology, Law, History,
Philosophy, and Ethics on his left, and Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Poetry,
Music, and Belles-Lettres on his right. Each figure holds an object that reveals
the identity of its owner—Theology carries a Bible, Architecture holds a
miniature Greek temple, Painting grasps a paintbrush, Music displays his lyre,
and so on.
On either side of this horizontal gallery there are four sculptured panels, stacked
vertically. The enthroned figures of Christ and Moses, who holds the tablet of
the Ten Commandments, sit at the top. Directly below, the story of the
differentiation of Good and Evil is related through depictions of the Tree of
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Knowledge from both the New and Old Testaments. Below on the right stand
men of science, such as an astronomer, geologist, botanist, and a mathematician
(drawing geometric forms). The corresponding figures on the left gallery
represent the literary and theatrical arts. The quasi-triangular shapes above the
horizontal gallery feature scenes showing the exploration of nature and the
study of books.
Two Latin inscriptions appear on the southern exterior. In translation, the top
message reads, “Harriet Crocker Alexander gave and dedicated this building to
Princeton University in the glory of God and in the growth of knowledge the
thirteenth of June 1894.” The lower inscription is from Lucretius and translates,
“There is no greater joy than to hold high aloft the serene abodes well
bulwarked by the learning of the wise.”
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SUMMARY OF THE DISSERTATION
THEMES IN THE THEOLOGY OF REPENTANCE AND RECONCILIATION IN THE
LITURGY OF THE 1662 BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
By The Reverend Daniel Thomas, OSA
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Page 42
SUMMARY OF THE DISSERTATION
THE REVEREND DANIEL THOMAS, OSA
THEMES IN THE THEOLOGY OF REPENTANCE AND RECONCILIATION IN THE LITURGY
OF THE 1662 BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
The contention of this study is that the theme of the Liturgy of the 1662 Book of
Common Prayer is repentance and reconciliation. Therefore, this study was designed to
determine the theme of the Liturgy of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer and how
Archbishop Cranmer developed and structured this liturgy for the advancement of the
rediscovered Augustinian theology of repentance and reconciliation during the period
of the Reformation he was active in to the end that a determination may be made as to
the effectiveness of his endeavors. Cranmer blends various theologies within this
framework to give the theology of the Liturgy its own unique outlook. The findings of
this research included similarities with other ancient liturgies and the efforts Cranmer
made to surpass them while holding to his theological beliefs. The discoveries identified
in this study were integrated into proposed content for practical applications in on‐
going discipleship and outreach.
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
A. PROBLEM STATEMENT
There seems to be a lack of recent scholarship into the purpose and theology of
the Liturgy of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer. The major theme of the Liturgy needs
to be explored so a greater understanding of the influence it has on its users can be
ascertained and to discover if the Liturgy accomplishes the task for which it was
created.
B. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The purpose is to examine the Liturgy to ascertain its central theme and fill a gap
is scholarly study.
C. THESIS
The central idea of the Communion Liturgy of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer
is repentance from sin and reconciliation to God.
D. METHODOLOGY
The methodology used to investigate the theme uses a quantitative approach to
examine the structure of the Liturgy. A qualitative analysis is concerned with the
history, text, and structure. The model used, as well as the theology is looked at. The
scriptural foundation is viewed, taking an exegetical approach to determine their
application to the Liturgy.
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E. LIMITATIONS
Important limiting factors are the lack of published work on the subject and the
age of most of it. Time and topic are also limiting factors. The length of the dissertation
is a limiting factor. Every effort has been made to get to the point and yet, say what
needs to be said to prove the thesis.
F. DELIMITATIONS
Delimiting factors are the vast amount of Scripture referenced or quoted in the
Liturgy so only some of those that directly relate to the issue are examined. There are
many versions of the Book of Common Prayer so this study only focuses on that of
1662. The entirety of the Prayer Book must be overcome so only the communion
Liturgy is examined. The topic itself has a large volume of material incidentally related
so that material not directly on topic is often ignored.
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
A. BACKGROUND:
The Liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer did not arise in a vacuum. It is based on
what has come before it. There is a long history of liturgical development using the
same discernable format that probably predates Moses. Moses marries into the family
of the Yahwist priest of Midian and learns his liturgical style of worship at that time.
This format is passed down to the Israelites, and to Christ and his apostles. They give
their stamp of approval to it and continue that Jewish worship as they are forced to find
places of their own to worship God. One method current in Jesus’ day was the Temple
form and the other was the Synagogue form. The Christians, being Jewish early on,
combined these two services into one liturgy, with the same order of worship,
processions, structure, hallowing of God’s name, praise, confession of sins, intercession,
sacrificial idea, and glorifying God. Included in all of these ancient liturgies, that the
Cranmerian liturgy was based upon, is an explicit call to repentance.
During the Reformation this evangelistic idea of repentance and reconciliation is
rediscovered. When Cranmer starts work on the Book of Common Prayer he comes
under the influence of noted Reformation theologians Peter Martyr, Martin Bucer, and
John Hooper. From these men he is influenced in his understanding of Man’s depravity.
Martyr writes the third exhortation and is the cause of the Decalogue being included in
the Liturgy, and Cranmer’s adherence to the Early Church Fathers. Bucer’s influence is
felt in Scripture being the test and foundation of the Liturgy. He also influences Cranmer
to include lay participation in the service. Hooper’s covenantal theology makes itself felt
in that all people must come to faith in Christ to be saved by repenting of their sins in
order to be reconciled to a holy God. The background shows the theme of the Liturgy to
be repentance and reconciliation.
B. STRUCTURE
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Repentance from sin and reconciliation to God is the constant central theme of
the Liturgy. The background, origin, and structure bear this out. Most Christian liturgies
have the same structure, and this includes the 1662 Liturgy. They are developed around
two solemn entrances, the Eucharistic prayer, and Holy Communion framed on each
end by an opening rite and a dismissal rite. Distinctively, rather than the Gospel
Entrance forming the central portion of the Cranmerian Liturgy, as it does in all other
ancient liturgies, the Sacrament of Confession and Absolution holds that position.
Cranmer added this unique event to the Liturgy and removed the Great Litany from the
Liturgy so that the Confession is shifted back toward the center. Rather than begin with
a blessing, the Liturgy now begins with two prayers of an entrance rite that ask for
forgiveness of sins. This is followed immediately by the requirements of the law with
petitions for God’s mercy and the reading of the Scriptures. The Gospel Entrance is
truncated and is only retained as a short procession from the altar to the place where
the Gospels are read. The Great, or Eucharistic, Entrance is also reduced, the gifts being
processed only from the table of preparation directly to the altar due to processions
being outlawed in England at the current time. Also, in all ancient liturgical rites the
Sacrament of Confession must occur before a person communes. In Cranmer’s Liturgy,
the sacrament is included within the Liturgy, and before communion. The Absolution is
included. This public sacrament is unique to the English Liturgy. The Eucharistic
prayers that follow are in the same ancient pattern. The consecration used is the same
for all ancient liturgies as can be seen by the comparison in Table 1. Communion follows
with an element of praise. Cranmer moves the Great Doxology or Gloria en excelcis from
the beginning to the end of the Liturgy to emphasize to the departing faithful that Christ
forgives the sins that humans will commit.
The liturgical units work to proclaim the message of repentance and
reconciliation. At least thirty‐three times the call to repent and be reconciled is given.
During the entrance rite that call begins and continues through the Exhortations, the
Sacrament of Confession and Absolution, consecration, Holy Communion, and the Great
Doxology. The structure of the Liturgy shows the theme to be repentance from sin and
reconciliation to God.
C. THE MODEL
When Cranmer sets out to find a model for his liturgy of repentance and
reconciliation he finds it in the story of the Prodigal Son. He believes that humans
cannot make themselves acceptable to God so God forgives humans out of his own love
and goodness for his own glory. Cranmer upsets the Reformation idea of God as an
angry God who is wrathful towards sinful Man. He creates a paradigm shift with his idea
of God as a loving Father who diligently seeks his lost children and rejoices over their
repentant return. The Prodigal Son parable is the under girding of the entire Liturgy.
There is an event for event correlation between the Prodigal Son story and the Liturgy.
While Cranmer wrote about the Prodigal Son and the similar story of Nathan and David,
he was not alone in his assessment that this is what God is like. John Fisher has the
same idea and is influential upon Cranmer in this matter. Cranmer believes that God so
loves Man that the sinner need only say the smallest prayer of repentance and God is
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already there, having forgiven, to welcome them home, so to speak. In the Liturgy, as
well as in the parable, there is the knowledge of God the Father, the areas of God’s law
humans have transgressed, the coming to one’s senses in repentance, the forgiveness
and reconciliation of the sinner by the loving Father, the restoration to the pre‐fallen
position, and the partaking of the heavenly Eucharistic banquet. The model affirms the
theme of repentance and reconciliation.
D. SCRIPTURAL FOUNDATION
Under Cranmer’s three mentor’s influence, Scripture must be the foundation for
everything and this is reflected in the Liturgy. Scripture is the basis for each liturgical
unit. The exegesis of the each scripture examined as foundational, and therefore, an
exegetical look at each liturgical unit reveals repentance and reconciliation to be at the
heart of the units, and therefore the Liturgy. This can be shown in Table 3.
E. THEOLOGICAL INFLUENCES REGARDING REPENTANCE AND RECONCILIATION
Cranmer creates a major paradigm shift when he modifies the Reformation idea
of God as an angry God who waits to punish all sinners to a God who is a loving Father
that longingly and lovingly watches for the least sign of return of his lost children. This
is based in his growing Augustinian theology. God is brought down to people and is a
loving God who makes every effort to find lost sinners and bring them home. Some of
the theologies that influenced Cranmer and that can be felt are Anselm’s Satisfaction
Theory, Abelard’s Moral Influence theory, and the Christus victor theory of the early
Church. While Cranmer holds views in common with Early Church Fathers, it is St.
Augustine’s theology that is the most important. He makes this theology a matter of
public worship. Humans must seek justification that is alien to them and comes directly
from God. Humans cannot do anything to affect their own salvation. People are
pardoned based upon the meritorious work of Christ on their behalf. Faith in Christ and
his work on the cross alone justifies the sinner. Repentance is the fruit of salvation by
faith alone. It is the proof that the Holy Spirit is working within the person. Humans still
have the freedom of choice to accept or reject God’s grace. True freedom is not in the
ability to choose sin, but to choose to do good. Only the redeemed and truly do good.
Since the Fall of Man, humanity is in a sad state whereby death reigns over the whole
race. Sin robs Man of the life God would that they have. The solution of a loving God is
that the Only‐Begotten Son of God becomes Incarnate, suffers death, rises again, and
destroys sin and death in his undeserved loving generosity. This Augustinian theology
of a loving, caring God is forever enshrined in the Book of Common Prayer in General,
and in the Liturgy in particular. The theology of the Liturgy is repentance and
reconciliation.
CHAPTER THREE: PRACTICAL REALIZATIONS
A. PRACTICAL THEOLOGICAL REALIZATIONS:
The theme of the Liturgy being repentance and reconciliation has far reaching
implications for Mankind. No person is beyond the hope of redemption. A person, no
matter how sinful their life is able to come to God in repentance, be reconciled to him,
Page 46
and be changed. This affects society, as well. Changed lives change society. ACNA has
been exploring the implications of outreach and discipleship. So too, has the Anglican
Diocese of West Malaysia. The structure of the Liturgy, leading as it does, a person to
repentance and reconciliation, is a helpful model in fulfilling the aims of each of these
Anglican groups.
CONCLUSION:
The theme of the Liturgy of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer as standardized by
the Church of England is repentance from sins and reconciliation to God.
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Dissertation by The Reverend Daniel Thomas, OSA
THEMES IN THE THEOLOGY OF REPENTANCE AND RECONCILIATION IN THE LITURGY OF THE
1662 BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER
Chapter One: Introduction
Problem Statement
While researching the Liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer of 1662, one is struck by the lack
of recent scholarship into the purpose and theology found therein. Most studies were
conducted in the Nineteenth Century. Even then, an analysis of the purpose and theme seem to
be absent. There are works of recent origin that touch on questions related to this, but these are
few and are not directly on the subject. There must be scholarly analysis if we are to know that
the Book of Common Prayer does what it purports to do.
The Book of Common Prayer did not just come into being ex nihilo, out of nothing. There is an
entire liturgical and theological tradition that exists for thousands of years before Cranmer first
set pen to paper to compose his master work. Certainly, he has the ancient patterns and
liturgical practices for guides, but he inserts some unique units that go toward his purpose in
his Liturgy. He has an apparent goal and a theological purpose when he pens the Liturgy. What
some of his influences are and how he utilizes the tradition he receives to obtain his purpose
are areas that need to be explored. More importantly, his major theme for his Liturgy needs to
be explored so there can be gained a greater understanding of the influence the Book of
Common Prayer has on its users and to ask if the Liturgy accomplishes the task it was created
for.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine the Book of Common Prayer to ascertain the central
theme of the Communion Liturgy, or the Liturgy proper. What this theme is will be examined
along with how this theme was arrived at. In order to know that the Liturgy accomplishes its
purpose of bringing man into worship of God and right relationship with him, this theme must
be understood. This study hopes to fill a gap in scholarly investigation into the Liturgy of the
1662 Book of Common Prayer so that new understandings are gained and new areas of
research may be opened up.
Thesis
While all ancient Christian and Jewish liturgies have a common organization and many common
theological attributes, only the Liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer focuses upon the idea of
repentance and reconciliation. This is the genius of Thomas Cranmer. The central idea of the
Communion Liturgy in the Book of Common Prayer is repentance from sin and reconciliation to
God.
The liturgy found in the Book of Common Prayer did not arise in a vacuum. First, there is the
pre‐biblical and the Mosaic origin. We also find the early Christian liturgies to be part of the
formative background, along with the biblical background of the prayers and recitations
(Palmer, 1885. Bailey, 1835). There was a lengthy history, probably predating Moses, of
worship in this liturgical fashion. Certainly, by the time of Moses, we see a developed liturgical
style in the worship of Yahweh. Jesus, the same God who hands down this form to Moses,
worships in the same way while on earth and His disciples keep this practice. When they are
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forced to find their own places of worship, they keep the pattern they know and important to
this worship is repentance from sin and turning to God.
Ancient Christian liturgies have this same Jewish/Yahwistic pattern, such as the Liturgies of St.
Mark, St. James, St. John Chrysostom and St. Basil. Included in each of these is an explicit call to
repentance from sin and reconciliation between God and Man. During the Reformation, this
evangelistic idea caught hold once again. There is, at this time, great emphasis on repentance
and being reconciled to God. When Thomas Cranmer begins his work on the Book of Common
Prayer, he comes under the influence of noted Reformation theologians Peter Martyr Vermigli,
Martin Bucer, and John Hooper. By these men Cranmer is influenced to show what God expects
of Man and his depravity due to sin (Leuenberger, 1990). The Decalogue which Cranmer places
in the Liturgy preaches repentance from sin to those who believe. The Decalogue is to be kept at
the present day since it is part of the Covenant agreement of the Old and New Testaments.
Staying true to the Church Fathers becomes important when he fully develops his
understanding of repentance and holds to an Augustinian (Null, 2000) view during his final
formation of the Book of Common Prayer. The Book of Common Prayer is thus designed to
awaken faith and lead one back to God through the road of repentance and back into the
covenant relationship.
It would seem, then, that the model for the Liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer may have
come from one of Jesus’ parables. Jesus told the parable of the Prodigal Son in which the son
strayed and wasted his inheritance. When he repented, he returned to his father, only to find his
father running to him instead. This seems to be the purpose of repentance in the Book of
Common Prayer: that humans be led to repent of their sins and in faith turn to God. In this
turning, they find, instead, that God runs to meet them and has already accepted them to his
banquet table. The start is painful, but the end of the liturgical journey is joy.
Methodology
The Book of Common Prayer is of vital importance to the various branches of Anglicanism. It is
the book that shapes its spirituality. The traditional view of the Church that the law of prayer is
the law of belief, lex orandi, lex credendi (Paul, 1995), has been shown to be important
(Stephenson, 1988) for Anglicanism. The contention of this dissertation is that the central
theme of the Liturgy in the Book of Common Prayer is repentance from sin and reconciliation
with God.
The methodology used to investigate this problem has several things that need to be
considered. A quantitative approach will be taken when looking at the structure of the Liturgy
to shed light on its purpose and theme. A qualitative analysis of the Book of Common Prayer
concerning the history, text, and structure will be undertaken. For the Liturgy proper and the
various collects found therein one must first look at the historical background to see what light
this sheds upon the theme of the Liturgy in the Book of Common Prayer. What the structure has
to say regarding the theme of the Liturgy is examined. Also, what the context, both literary and
theological, illuminates as to the central theme of the Liturgy is looked into.
The model Cranmer chooses for his Liturgy needs to be examined to discover how it shapes the
thoughts and attitudes of the worshipper. The theological makeup of the Liturgy needs
explaining. An examination of sources and content is critical to understanding how the Liturgy
moves a person towards repentance and reconciliation.
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Each of the various collects, Scripture citations, and other literary forms found within the
Liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer need to have the Scriptures they are based upon
examined to see if they support the idea they are purported to support. For example, one must
look at the meaning of the Scripture passages alluded to in the Collect for Purity. These will
need an exegetical examination. This exegesis will take into account the historical‐cultural
background of the passage, plus the context within the Bible, both general and specific. It will
also include lexical‐syntactical analysis, as well as a theological investigation (Virkler, 1981).
This is done to draw out the meaning of the Scripture passages to let them speak to what they
meant to the original audience and then gain an understanding of the application made of them
by Cranmer. After these things are completed a good picture of the theme of the Book of
Common Prayer will emerge.
Limitations
There are important limiting factors to consider that affect the completion of this work. One of
the factors limiting research into the topic is the lack of published work within the last century.
Very few works that speak directly to the subject have been published. Most of the material
available is from the middle of the 19th Century to the early 20th Century. Much of it is older.
Another factor that places limits on what can be researched is time. Focusing on the Liturgy
proper, rather than the entire Book of Common Prayer is a limiting aspect, as well. Finally, the
topic itself is purposely limiting in its scope. If the topic were to be narrowed even more there is
a danger of there not being enough reference material to complete the project and if it were
broadened there would be too much material to sort through.
Delimitations
One of the factors that delimits the topic is the amount of Scripture references alluded to, or
quoted in the prayers and other items contained in the Liturgy. To surmount this problem, only
those Scriptures that are directly related to the issue will be considered. In many cases, because
of the sheer number of possible references only a sampling of the most important Scriptures
pertaining to the liturgical unit will be taken under consideration. Plus, some Scripture passages
will have to be left out of the work itself. There are a number of versions of the Book of Common
Prayer and considering these would make this study too broad. Therefore, this study focuses on
the standardized 1662 Book of Common Prayer. The entirety of the Book of Common Prayer is a
delimiting component. To overcome this delimitation the focus will only be upon the Liturgy
proper. The topic can be broad and therefore, the topic must be reduced to a more narrowly
defined arena in order to make it easier to handle. The volume of material incidentally related
to the topic is fairly large and therefore will need to be carefully judged as to their worth to the
work at hand and often ignored.
Chapter Two: Literature Review
Background
The liturgy found in the Book of Common Prayer did not arise in a vacuum. First, there is the
pre‐biblical and the Mosaic origin. We also find the early Christian liturgies to be part of the
formative background, as well as the biblical background of the prayers and recitations
(Palmer, 1845; Bailey, 1835). There is a lengthy history, probably predating Moses (Bright,
1981, 127), of worshipping Yahweh in the particular liturgical fashion later developed in Israel
with the usage of the same architecture, same rituals, and same pattern of prayer and sacrifice.
Certainly, by the time of Moses, we see a developed liturgical style in the worship of Yahweh.
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Moses marries into the family of the priest of Yahweh and learns from his father‐in‐law the
patterns of worship unique to the worship of this God. God himself decrees that he will be
worshipped in a certain form characterized by the performance of certain ritual duties
(Dyrness, 1979, 144). It is to be a visible expression of the faith of the people of Israel. This
worship includes a sacred place of worship and a sacred calendar (Dyrness). Time becomes
sacred and therefore the basic feature of the Judaic and Christian lex orandi is the liturgy of time
(Schmemann, 1996, 68). Sacred actions, such as entrance rites into the covenant community,
sacrifices and purification rituals are required, as well (Dyrness, 1979, 145‐156). In Ancient
Israel, as later in the Church, it is understood that the call to repentance from sin and being
reconciled to God is an explicit call in the worship of Israel (for example Is. 30:15; Ps. 7:12; Dt.
4:30ff).
Jesus, the same God who, pre‐Incarnate, hands down this form of worship to Moses, and who, in
his Incarnation, also worships in the same way while on earth thereby setting the continuing
example for his followers. His disciples keep the practice of worship handed down from the
beginning. Those who are witnesses of the Lord’s Supper when Jesus first institutes it are
careful to do and say exactly what he did and said at that original institution. Jesus commands
that they observe the Lord’s Supper and teaches them the pattern and words which they are
required to use (Maskell, 1846). When the disciples of Jesus are forced to find their own places
of worship, the original Jewish Christians keep the pattern they know (Williams and Anstall,
1990) and were shown. Important to this worship is repentance from sin and turning to God.
Jesus, in teaching his disciples to worship in this pattern, teaches them the necessity of
repentance from sin and being reconciled to a loving God (for example Lk. 15:11ff).
There are two distinct methods of worship being practiced during the days of Jesus. One is in
the Temple at Jerusalem and the other is the Synagogue which is found in the towns inhabited
by the Jews (Burbidge, 1885, 1). The Temple worship is founded on the Ordinances of the Law
as given to Moses by God on Mount Sinai. The Synagogue arises amongst the Jews to help keep
the remembrance of God during times when they are unable to attend worship in the Temple.
Jesus and his apostles worship in both and set a continuing pattern of preferred worship for the
New Israel, the Church, to follow.
The Christian services, if it is remembered that the earliest Christians were Jews, are Jewish in
pattern upon development as this is precisely how they learned to worship (Burbidge, 1885, 4).
These two liturgies, Jewish and Christian, are one and the same type of worship (Schmemann,
1996, 55). There is a structural dependence that goes beyond similarities in prayers and
scripture usage. Within the liturgical units of the Synagogue service and the Christian Liturgy,
for instance, the content and movement of the liturgy is the same in both cases. Both have the
same order and relationship in the structure: the blessing of, or hallowing of God’s name, praise,
confession of sins, intercession, and glorifying God for his work in history (Schmemann). Even
the movement of the Torah from the place it was kept in procession to the place it is read and
expounded upon is kept in Christian liturgies. The Torah is replaced with the Gospels. The
Gospels are processed out, read, and are expounded upon in the same manner.
The Temple sacrifices point to the Messiah and the early Christians do not hesitate to transfer
the Temple sacrifices to the Holy Communion service, which they see in terms of Christ’s
sacrifice once and for all (Burbidge, 1885, 4). They regard it as the means provided by Christ
himself for keeping the connection with his sacrifice on the Cross and for “pleading the merits of
his death” (Burbidge, 1885, 4). This is no repetition of Christ being sacrificed all over again at
every liturgy. Rather, it is a bloodless sacrifice of thanksgiving. It is the Eucharist, from
eucharisto, the giving of thanks.
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Ancient Christian liturgies have this same Jewish/Yahwist pattern, such as the Liturgies of St.
Mark, St. James, St. John Chrysostom and St. Basil. Included in each of these is an explicit call to
repentance from sin and reconciliation between God and Man. For example, before communing,
the congregation says a prayer of repentance in the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom
asking for forgiveness of sins known and unknown, in thought, word, or deed and that there be
a purification of the sinner (Chrysostom, 1996).
Wherefore I pray thee, have mercy on me, and pardon my transgressions both voluntary and
involuntary, of word and of deed, of knowledge and of ignorance; and make me worthy to
partake without condemnation of thine immaculate mysteries unto forgiveness of sins and unto
life everlasting. (Chrysostom)
Cranmer follows this example in his Liturgy. He is not making a new worship. He is following
the example given him by the Church of the united past. Before taking Communion the people
pray a prayer of repentance in a similar, but expanded, manner.
Almyghtie God father of oure Lord Jesus Christ, maker of all thynges, judge of all men, we
knowlege and bewaile our manyfold synnes and wyckednes, which we from tyme to tyme, most
grevously have committed, by thought, word and dede, agaynst thy divine maiestie, provokyng
moste justely thy wrath and indignacion against us, we do earnestly repent and be hartely sory
for these our misdoinges, the remembraunce of them is grevous unto us, the burthen of them is
intollerable: have mercye upon us, have mercie upon us, moste mercyfull father, for thy sone
our Lorde Jesus Christes sake, forgeve us all that is past, and grant that we may ever hereafter,
serve and please thee in neunes of life, to the honor and glory of thy name: Through Jesus
Christe our Lorde. (1549 BCP)
Given the cultural situation at the time, one wonders where Cranmer learns of his doctrine of
repentance and how the origin of the Book of Common Prayer relates to that knowledge. During
the Reformation, this evangelistic idea catches hold once again. There is great emphasis on
repentance and being reconciled to God. When Thomas Cranmer begins his work on the Book of
Common Prayer, he comes under the influence of noted Reformation theologians Peter Martyr,
Martin Bucer, and John Hooper. From these men Cranmer is influenced to show what God
expected of Man and his depravity due to sin (Leuenberger, 1990, 24ff). Peter Martyr’s
contributions to the Book of Common Prayer are significant. He instills in Cranmer a sense of
the deep depravity of Man. He writes the third exhortation and is the force behind the
Decalogue and the Summary of the Law being included at the beginning of the Liturgy. He feels
that the Old Testament Law, especially as found in the Decalogue preaches repentance from sin
to those who believe. The Decalogue is to be kept at the present day since it is part of the
Covenant agreement between the Old and New Testaments.
Martyr also influences Cranmer regarding the Early Church Fathers. Staying true to the Church
fathers becomes important when he fully develops his understanding of repentance
(Leuenberger, 1990) and holds to an Augustinian (Null, 2000, 213ff) view during his final
formation of the Book of Common Prayer. The Book of Common Prayer is thus, designed to
awaken faith and lead one back to God through the road of repentance and back into the
covenant.
Bucer’s role is significant, as well. For Bucer, Scripture plays the central role and is the test of
everything. The divine services exist for the awakening and spreading of the faith. In that light,
he believes the congregation should understand and be engaged in the services. It is his
influence that is the cause of so much congregational participation in the performance of the
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Liturgy. For example, the responses during the Liturgy are not only for the clergy, but for the
laity as well (Leuenberger, 1990). When Cranmer makes changes in the English worship he
makes a change here, that the laity has a major role in taking part in the Liturgy along with the
clergy. For Cranmer, not only are the ordained clergy priests, but so are all the people of God.
The biblical idea of the priesthood of all believers is evident here.
For Hooper’s covenantal theology, the way into the covenant is by repentance from sin and of
faith. One remains within the covenant community by living a Christian life. A person must
believe on the Lord Jesus Christ by faith and repent of his or her sins to belong to the covenant
community. Through repentance and faith in Jesus and his promises a person becomes a
member of the new covenant. This is no passive participation, however. One must keep the Ten
Commandments and actually live a sanctified life. Hooper places a great deal of stress on
repentance in individual salvation and this is seen clearly in the Book of Common Prayer as
finally adopted (Leuenberger, 1990).
In review, the Liturgy found in the Book of Common Prayer follows the pattern of worship used
by the worshippers of YHWH, probably pre‐dating Moses. This worship uses common liturgical
architecture, rituals, patterns of prayer, and sacrifice. This liturgical form is decreed by God and
is to be the visible expression of the faith of Israel. Common to these ancient Yahwistic liturgies
is the idea of repentance from sin and being reconciled to God by a people alienated from him
by sin and is explicit in this worship.
When YHWH becomes Incarnate in the Person of Jesus Christ, he follows this same form
of worship. His disciples, all being Jewish, follow the same pattern of worship found in the
Temple and Synagogue they see their Master participate in. Even the wording of the ritual, in
many cases, is retained in the Christian Liturgy. When these Jewish disciples begin to worship in
their own spaces, they continue to worship in the pattern they were taught. The Jewish
and Christian Liturgies are, in reality, one Liturgy. There is a structural dependence that is far
more complex than similarities in prayer and scripture usage. Both have the same structure,
movement, content, and purpose.
The Temple sacrifices point to the Messiah. The early Christian liturgies also point to the
Messiah and keep this idea of sacrifice but see it in terms of a completed, once for all sacrifice.
While there is no connection to being sacrificed anew each time the service is performed, as in
the Hebrew services, there is a purposeful connection with the Cross and the merits of the death
of Christ.
The necessity of repentance and reconciliation is present in all ancient liturgies. However,
this idea seems to be lost in the Roman Church during the Cranmerian period. It is a mystery
how Cranmer learned of the doctrine of repentance and reconciliation but it is certain that the
Book of Common Prayer is the fruit of that knowledge. Cranmer is widely read of the Church
Fathers, especially Augustine, but is influenced by noted reformers such as Martyr, Bucer, and
Hooker. Thus, his final formulation of the Book of Common Prayer is an enshrined
Augustinianism and his focus in the Liturgy is repentance and reconciliation.
Structure
Repentance from sin and reconciliation to God is the central theme of the Liturgy of the Book of
Common Prayer. The background, origin, and structure of the Liturgy of the Book of Common
Prayer shed light on how this theme is introduced to it. Most Christian Liturgies have the same
basic format, regardless of where they developed (Dix 2005). The services are developed
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around two solemn entrances, the Eucharistic prayer, and the distribution of Holy Communion
(Litsas 1984). The Liturgies are bound on each end by the enarxis, or opening rite, and the
apolysis or dismissal rite. The basic pattern can be laid out thus:
Enarxis
Synaxis
Greeting and Response
Prayers and hymns
Little entrance
Reading of Epistles, etc.
Reading of Gospels
Homily
Dismissal of those not baptized (catechumens)
Great Entrance
Greeting and response
Creed and prayers
Anaphora
Eucharistic prayers and offertory of bread and wine
Consecration of gifts
Communion
Thanksgiving
Benediction (apolysis) (Thomas, 1998)
Outline 1: Delineation of the Ancient Christian Liturgical Format
The basic pattern of the Book of Common Prayer of 1662 can be shown as:
Enarxis
Lord’s Prayer
Synaxis
Collect for Purity
10 Commandments
Prayer for the King
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Little entrance
Reading of Epistles, etc.
Reading of Gospels
Nicene Creed
Homily
Offering
Great Entrance
Bringing in Bread and Wine
Little Litany
Exhortations
General Confession
Absolution
Comfortable Words
Trisagion Hymn
Anaphora
Prayer of Humble Access
Preparation of bread and wine
Consecration of gifts
Eucharistic Prayers
Communion
Thanksgiving
Great Doxology
Benediction (apolysis)
The Blessing
Outline 2: Delineation of the Liturgy of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer Format Showing Affinity
With Other Ancient Liturgies
It is easily seen from the structure of the Liturgy in the Book of Common Prayer the important
and central place repentance from sin has as well as the familial similarity to ancient Christian
liturgies. From the opening salvo the need for repentance from sin for those who have not lived
up to God’s standards is encountered. With the Exhortations, followed by the General
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Confession and Repentance people are encouraged to, by faith, repent and be reconciled with
God. This occurs before the Liturgy can move to the following liturgical units of the Anaphora
and Communion. The admonitions of 1 Corinthians 11:23‐34 are given close attention. In the
Liturgy no one comes to the Table of the Lord without first being in right standing with a Holy
God.
It is true that in the earliest times of the Christian Church some parts of the Liturgy were
sometimes celebrated separately. The Synaxis often contained a litany of prayers and hymns
that were used as a separate ceremony from the Eucharistic Liturgy. However, as one can see
from the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, they were joined quite early. Cranmer brought
this separation back to his Liturgy when he separated the Great Litany from the Communion
Liturgy. The Litany, or deacon’s prayers, no longer is immediately connected with the Liturgy,
but is a stand alone service in the Book of Common Prayer (Sparrow, 1684). The Litany was not
originally included but was soon added to later versions of the 1549 Book of Common Prayer
after Communion. It was added to its present position in the version of 1552. This separation
makes the Liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer unique in that it does not begin with an
opening rite of blessing the Kingdom of God and petitions followed by an entrance rite. Rather,
the synaxis begins with two prayers that ask for forgiveness and a purified heart and a right
standing before God. This is followed immediately by God’s requirements for human living and
petitions for mercy and a changed life (Blunt, 1907, 372). This occurs during the Liturgy of the
Catechumens before the reading of the scriptures, after which reading, also uniquely, there is no
dismissal of the catechumens.
During the Liturgy of the Eucharist, the Little Entrance, or the Gospel Entrance is retained as a
short procession from the Altar to the Gospel stand (Blunt, 1907, 374). This occurs in the same
manner as in the ancient Synagogue procession of bringing out the Torah. This entrance occurs
before the teaching on the Gospel during the Liturgy of the Catechumens. The Gospel is
processed out in a short procession and carried into the sanctuary and laid upon the altar in
ancient liturgies. In the Liturgy of Constantinople, as the procession makes its way around the
front of the parish the priest lifts up high the Gospel book and intones, “Come, let us worship
and bow down before Christ. Save us, O Son of God who rose from the dead, as we sing to you,
Alleluia” (Liturgikon, 1996. p. 72). Now the priest lays the Gospel Book upon the altar and
censes it. Then the Gospels are brought out to the lectern, or reading stand, in order to be read.
The exclamation is made, “Wisdom! Stand upright. Let us hear the Holy Gospel!” (Liturgikon. p.
73). In the English rite of Cranmer, the Gospel Book may be moved from the rear of the nave but
the procession is normally seen in the moving of the Gospel Book from one side of the altar to
the other. It then processes out into the nave to be read, or to the pulpit for the same reason. It
is preceded to the reading place by the cross and candles or lamps as in the older rites. As it
processes out, the priest merely mentions the location of the Gospel reading rather than
commanding the people to pay attention to what is about to be read.
In the Early Church, the gifts are normally kept in a separate building outside of the Church and
there is some sort of procession while they are brought in to form the Great or, Eucharistic
Entrance. This rite occurs during the Liturgy of the Eucharist or, as it is sometimes called, the
Liturgy of the Faithful. As the priest processes with the chalice held aloft he intones, “May the
Lord God remember us all in his kingdom, now and always and forever and ever” (Liturgikon,
1996. p. 79). Other Entrance rites include the time when the Bishop would process into the
Church for the celebration of the Eucharist. The Great Entrance with the Elements or gifts in the
Book of Common Prayer of 1662 is seen in reduced form. After the Creed is said, there is an
offertory, where in ancient times families would bring gifts of bread and wine, plus monetary
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offerings into the church. From these would be selected the bread and wine for Communion.
The gifts in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer are set on a table to the side, or in some other
place in the church and brought in a small procession and set upon the altar after the offertory
is completed. The rubrics say: “And when there is a Communion, the Priest shall then place
upon the Table so much bread and Wine as he shall think sufficient” (BCP 1662). This is all that
remains of this beautiful liturgical movement, processions being outlawed in England earlier,
but Cranmer managed to retain it as much as possible when composing his Prayer Book.
The earliest Christian liturgies all contain a time of repentance before the Eucharist. For
example, before communing, the congregation says a prayer of repentance in the Divine Liturgy
of St. John Chrysostom asking for forgiveness of sins known and unknown, in thought, word, or
deed and that there be a purification of the sinner (Liturgikon). Any sacrament of Confession is
done privately, before communion in the Eastern and Roman rites. In the Book of Common
Prayer, the Sacrament of Confession also occurs before the Eucharist (BCP, 2006, 251).
However, unlike the Liturgy of Constantinople of St. John Chrysostom, what occurs afterward is
an Absolution. It is a public Sacrament of Confession with the rite of Absolution performed
publicly within the context of the Liturgy itself. This is followed by assurances that God loves
humanity and forgives the repentant their sins and transgressions, willfully receiving those who
repent whole heartedly. There is nothing like this in the Eastern or Roman Liturgies of the time.
There is no warning in these Liturgies regarding the unrepentant partaking of the Body and
Blood of Christ, nor is there an opportunity for confession and absolution in the Eastern or
Roman Rites. In Cranmer’s Liturgy, warning, opportunity to repent of sins, absolution and
reconciliation are all given (Leuenberger, 178‐179) in the Liturgy of the Book of Common
Prayer. Here, again, is that evangelistic call to repent and be reconciled to God.
The Eucharistic prayers follow in the same ancient pattern. There is a prayer of humble access
before the consecration. Then there is a consecratory prayer which all ancient liturgies use in
common. Taken from 1 Corinthians 11:23‐25 and Matthew 26:27‐28, this prayer, along with the
Lord’s Prayer, is a most primitive liturgical Christian prayer. A comparison between the
consecrations of the Liturgies of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, the ancient English Rite of
Sarum, and of Constantinople in the table below shows the similar use of this prayer.
1662 Book of Common Prayer The Rite of Sarum Divine Liturgy of St. John

Chrysostom

Almighty God, our heavenly
Father, who of thy tender mercy With these blessed Powers we
We therefore beseech thee, also, O master who lovest
didﬅ give thine
0 Lord, that being mankind, cry aloud and say:
appeased thou wouldst Holy art thou and all‐holy, thou
only Son Jeſus Chriﬅ to ſuffer accept this oblation of our and thine Only‐begotten Son,
death on the Croſs for our servitude, as also of all thy and thy Holy Spirit: holy art
redemption; who made there family, and dispose our thou and all holy, and
(by his one oblation of himſelf days in thy peace, and magnificent is thy glory: Who
once offered) a full, command that we may be has so loved thy world as to
delivered from eternal give thine Only‐begotten Son,
perfect, and ſufficient ſacrifice, damnation, and numbered that all who believe in Him
oblation, and in the flock of thy elect. should not perish, but have
Through Christ our Lord. everlasting life; Who when he
ſatiſfaction for the ſins of the
Amen. Which oblation do had come and had fulfilled all
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whole world; and did inﬅitute, thou, O Almighty God, we the dispensation for us, in the

beseech thee, vouchsafe in night in which he was betrayed,
and in his holy Goſpel command
all respects to ‐‐‐ or rather, gave himself up
us to continue, a perpetual
make hallowed, for the life of the world, ‐‐‐ took
memory of that his
approved, ratified, bread in his holy and pure and
precious death, until his coming reasonable, and blameless hands; and when he
again: Hear us, O merciful acceptable, that it may be had given thanks and blessed it,
made unto us the body and hollowed it and broken it,
Father, we moﬅ humbly beſeech
and blood of thy most gave it to his holy Disciples and
thee; and grant that we dear Son our Lord Jesus Apostles saying: Take, eat: this
receiving theſe thy creatures of Christ. Who, the day before is my Body which is broken for
bread and wine, according to he suffered, took bread in you, for the remission of sins.
thy his reverent and holy And likewise, after supper, he
hands, and lifting his eyes took the cup, saying: Drink ye
Son our Saviour Jeſus Chriﬅ’s to heaven to you his own all of this: this is my Blood of
holy inﬅitution, omnipotent Father, giving the New Testament, which is
thanks to thee, he blessed, shed for you and for many, for
in remembrance of his death he brake and gave it to his the remission of sins. (Antioch,
and paſſion, may be partakers of own disciples, saying, Take 1971, 112)
and eat ye all of this, for
his moﬅ bleſſed body andblood:
this is my body. In like
who, in the ſame night that he manner after supper,
was betrayed, took Bread; and, taking this excellent
when he had given thanks, he chalice in his own holy and
brake it, and gave it to his reverent hands; also to
diſciples, ſaying, Take, eat, this thee giving thanks,
is my Body, which is given for he blessed, and gave to his
you: Do this in remembrance of own disciples, saying:
me. Likewiſe after ſupper, he Receive and drink ye all of
took the Cup; and, when he had it for this is the chalice of
given thanks, he gave it my blood, of the new and
eternal Testament, the
to them, ſaying, Drink ye all of
mystery of faith, which
this; for this is my Blood of the
shall be shed for you and
New Teﬅament, which is ſhed for many for the remission
for you, and for many, for the of sins. As often as ye shall
remiſſion of ſins; Do this, as do these things, ye shall do
often as you drink it, in them in remembrance of
remembrance of me. Amen. me.
(BCP 1662, 255)
(Sarum, 2010)

Table 1: Comparison of the Consecrations of Constatinopolitan, Sarum, and Cranmerian Liturgies
This prayer occurs in the same place during the Liturgy in the ancient liturgies and in the Book
of Common Prayer as penned by Cranmer. In these liturgies the words of Christ are quoted to
show that the communion is specifically said to be for the remission of sins.
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Communion follows the consecration and there is a unit of praise and thanksgiving as is
common to ancient liturgies. While in most ancient liturgies, the Gloria en excelcis, or the Great
Doxology, is sung at the beginning of the service, in the Book of Common Prayer of 1662 it is
sung as a thanksgiving hymn after the Communion. This is a most ancient hymn. It was spoken
of in the Apostolic Constitutions, Book VII, which was compiled before 325 A.D. (Constitutions,
1995) of much earlier material. This hymn remarks, in a tri‐fold pattern, that Christ takes away
and forgives sins in his mercy. The hymn placement by Cranmer is important because of the
central emphasis the hymn gives to the forgiveness of sins provided by Christ who not only
forgives, but takes away the sins of the world. Man and God are reconciled in the forgiveness
provided by the work of Christ. The benediction closes the Liturgy with a blessing.
When looking at the call to repentance in the Book of Common Prayer Liturgy, one is struck by
the frequency of references to repentance and how the structure of the liturgical units works to
proclaim this message. At least Thirty‐three times in the Liturgy the message of repentance is
repeated explicitly or implicitly. This is followed, frequently, but not always, by an explicit or
implicit incitement to reconciliation between God and man. At the opening of the Liturgy, and
again near the close of the Liturgy just after the Communion, the Our Father prayer is said
asking God to forgive the sins of those attending the Liturgy. The first time it is said by the
priest alone as he enters the altar area and after Communion by the priest and the people
together (BCP, 1662). In most ancient liturgies, the entrance rite is said before the Liturgy
begins. Due to the separation of services in Cranmer’s Prayer Book, the entrance rite is said
immediately at the beginning of the Liturgy. No one comes before the holy altar in a familiar
manner. The altar area is holy. One must come repentant and seeking justification. In the
Eastern Orthodox Church, before the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom begins, the priest
stands at the Holy Doors of the Iconostasis and says the following before he enters:
Stretch forth thy hand, O Lord, from they holy dwelling place on high, and strengthen me for
this thine appointed service, that standing without condemnation in thy dread sanctuary I may
offer the unbloody sacrifice. (Antioch, 1971. p. 83)
As he enters the altar area he says further, “I will enter into thy house: I will worship toward the
holy Temple in thy fear” (Antioch). In Cranmer’s Liturgy the Lord’s Prayer was substituted for
such rites of entrance to the altar area. The priest approaches the altar and prays:
Our Father, which art in heaven, Hallowed be thy Name. Thy Kingdom come. Thy will be done,
in earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our trespasses, As we
forgive them that trespass against us. And lead us not into temptation; But deliver us from
evil. Amen.
(BCP 1662, 2006. p. 237)
Like the Eastern rite, it asks for forgiveness and purity while at the same time serves as a
reminder of the priest’s standing as the reconciled child of God. The priest enters in a manner
that reflects the holiness of the altar and of the holiness of God. Yet, at the same time, he enters
as one who has familiar familial privileges. He stands in the altar, not because of his own
righteousness, but because of the righteousness of Christ and his adoption into the family of
God.
The next prayer in the opening rite is the Collect for Purity. This was originally found in the
Sarum Rite (Sarum) and was not a part of the Roman Rite (Blunt, 1907, 371). In the Liturgy of
the 1549 Book of Common Prayer this is made part of the rite the priest says upon entering the
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Holy Altar (1549 BCP), along with the Lord’s Prayer. This repentant prayer for purity asks God
to “cleanse the thoughts of our hearts.” This is a cleansing from impure thoughts and impulses
and the resulting sinful actions. Jesus said in Matthew 15:19 that it is out of the heart that sinful
thoughts and actions come and these are the things that defile a person. In this same prayer is a
petition of reconciliatory love from the action of the cleansing of the Holy Spirit. After the
opening request for forgiveness of sins, the reading of the Decalogue occurs which shows what
God requires of each person and where a person may fall short of those requirements. After
each of the requirements of the Ten Commandments, there occurs a petition asking God’s
forgiveness for not having obeyed the commandment and a request for a change of heart so that
reconciliation may occur.
While the prayer for the King contains a petition for God to have mercy on the whole Church,
the next major unit to deal with repentance, which comes after the little litany, is the
Exhortations. The priest, before he next offers communion, reminds the people of Christ’s
sacrifice upon the Cross for their sins and admonishes them to confess their sins to God with the
purpose of amending their lives. In other words, the people are called upon to repent of their
sins. Following this, they are admonished to be reconciled to God and fellow humans. At the
time of communion, however, the priest offers an exhortation that calls for people with penitent
hearts to repent of sins committed in the past. Here is a dire warning, but also a comfort. For
those who partake of the Eucharist with a repentant heart are able do so with thanksgiving.
They are to remember the great love of the Savior who died for mankind so that those who truly
repent are acceptable to God.
The confession is preceded by an invitation. It stipulates that those who earnestly repent of
their sins and intend to go on leading a godly lives are encouraged and welcome to receive of
the body and blood of Christ. Therefore, all those who wish communion are asked to kneel
devoutly and confess their sins to God, in the presence of others. This leads the Liturgy to the
heart of the matter, the Sacrament of Confession and Absolution, so that those receiving
communion are able to repent and be reconciled to Almighty God.
The Confession first appears in the English Liturgy in 1548 (Blunt, 1907) and is brought into the
full Communion Office in 1549. It stands after the consecration in that Liturgy. In the 1552 Book
of Common Prayer it is moved to its present position. Cranmer probably feels that since humans
are unworthy to offer any sacrifice to God it is needful that everyone confess their sins and
receive the Absolution before continuing (Blunt).The Confession of sins is normal in Christian
Liturgies, but the Absolution as a part of the Liturgy is unique to the Church of England. During
the Confession, three times, using differing terms, repentance of sins and the asking for
forgiveness of those sins is prayed about. Here we have acknowledgement of sins and telling
God that the sinner repents and is deeply sorry for any wrongdoing, followed by a request for
mercy from God to the sinner. What follows is astounding. There is an absolution granted by the
priest upon the confession of the sins of the people. This amounts to a sacrament within a
sacrament for this is the Sacrament of Confession or Penance. The authority for this comes from
Scripture in John 16:3 and John 20:23. This confession and absolution are similar in nature to
the Order of Confession used in the Eastern Orthodox Church and in the Roman Catholic
Church. In the Orthodox Church, the Sacrament of Confession and the reception of the
absolution must be accomplished before a person may partake of the Eucharist. The same is
true in the Liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer. Instead of a stand alone office, the Order of
Confession and Absolution is offered within the Liturgy just prior to Communion. True to the
revivalistic theology of the Reformation (Leuenberger, 1990) the individual is led to repentance
and is given absolution so that he stands in good relationship with God and can partake of the
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Lord’s Supper with a clear conscience. However, the people collectively confess and repent of
their sins and are together given the absolution by the priest in corporate repentance of
transgressions and corporately are reconciled to God, as well. This shows not only the care with
which Cranmer wants the Eucharist partaken of, but also the sense that what affects one, affects
all. There is a corporate, as well as individual, need to repent and be reconciled to God. Just as
Israel entered a covenant with God and had corporate times of repentance and covenant
renewal, just so, the English Church must together renew the covenant and be reconciled to God
through repentance.
During the Prayers of Oblation and Thanksgiving following Holy Communion, the Lord’s Prayer
is again said. This time it is said by the priest and the people together. It is said after the
consecration in every ancient liturgy (Blunt, 1907) and it is likewise said in Cranmer’s Liturgy
after the consecration but is placed after the Communion. This emphasizes the reconciled
relationship of the repentant person to a Holy God. It further asks, again, for forgiveness of sins
as a reminder that all humans sin and when sinned against, the same consideration that is
shown to a person receiving communion by God should be shown to others by them. People
must give to others that same type of forgiveness they have received from God and be
reconciled with one another in a similar manner in which they have been reconciled to God.
When people leave the Communion they have a remembrance of how they are to behave upon
leaving the heavenly reality of the Church and going back out into the temporal existence of this
world. The people are sent back into the world to carry the joy and peace they have found to
those who do not experience this (Schmemann, A., 1995) and so, to affect a change in that
world.
The Liturgy concludes with the Great Doxology. This magnificent hymn, being very ancient, is
normally sung at the beginning of ancient liturgies. It is placed in this position at the end of the
Liturgy and this placement is unique to the Liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer. It is
interesting that here, at the end of the service, people are reminded of their sinfulness and need
of God’s mercy. This hymn has a three‐fold petition asking that as Christ is he who takes away
the sins of the world he will have mercy and thus take away the sins of those who sing to him. It
further proclaims that only Christ is holy and reminds those who have communed and now sing
that only Christ is sinless. While God is exalted in this hymn, the over all tenet of this part of the
service is a humbling of those who have communed and a recognition that all sin and fall short
of God’s glory. The hymn is, therefore, a request for the people to be reconciled to God by his
great mercy.
In review, repentance from sin and reconciliation to God is the central theme of the Liturgy of
the 1662 Book of Common Prayer. The background, origin, and especially the structure shed
light on how this theme was introduced to the Liturgy. Most Christian liturgies have the same
format, being centered around two entrances, the Eucharistic prayer, and Communion. The
comparison of the basic outline of the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom and that of the 1662 Book
of Common Prayer show striking similarities because there is a common origin and structure of
ancient Jewish, and later Christian liturgies. Repentance plays an important central position in
these liturgies. This is especially true of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer Liturgy. People are
encouraged to have faith in God to forgive, repent of their sins, and be reconciled to God. This
occurs before the Liturgy can move on to Communion.
Cranmer brings a separation of the Liturgy and the Synaxis. The Litany is no longer a part of the
Liturgy but is a stand‐alone service. This means that the Liturgy starts with a call to be obedient
to God and for God to have mercy upon humans who have erred. The Liturgy then follows with
the two entrances, the Gospel and the Great Entrance, though in reduced form. At this time
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comes the expounding of God’s word and the recitation of the Creed. Here, again, people
participate in a service that brings them to understand that they may have failed to obey, or
believe, as they should and stand in need to repentance.
All early Christian liturgies contain a time of repentance before Communion. As in
the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, the 1662 Book of Common Prayer has this time of
repentance and purification. The Liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer uniquely contains an
absolution of sins followed by assurances that God loves and accepts those who repent and
wish to be reconciled to God. In this Liturgy also, uniquely, there is a warning, an opportunity to
repent, absolution, and reconciliation given which amounts to an evangelistic call to make
oneself in right standing with God in Christ.
The Eucharistic prayers follow the same ancient form. In order are a prayer of humble
access and a consecratory prayer which all ancient liturgies use in common. The consecratory
prayer comes from 1 Corinthians 11:23‐25 and Matthew 26:27‐28 and this prayer and the
Lord’s Prayer are most ancient Christian liturgical units of prayer and are seen in the
Constantinopolitan, Sarum Rite, and the 1662 Book of Common Prayer liturgies in essentially
the same form. This prayer of consecration occurs in both liturgies in the same place and are
specifically said to be for the forgiveness of sins.
Communion follows the consecration and a unit of praise and thanksgiving for the
Eucharistic sacrifice that is common to all ancient Christian liturgies. Cranmer moved the Gloria
en excelcis to the end of the Liturgy thus making it a three‐fold hymn that Christ takes away sins
and forgives in his mercy. A blessing closes the Liturgy at this point.
One is struck at the frequency of the call to repentance in Cranmer’s Liturgy. At least
thirty‐three times the message of repentance is repeated explicitly or implicitly. This occurs so
often that there can be little doubt as to the intent. This is followed frequently by an explicit or
implicit incitement for the sinner to be reconciled to God through the pathway of repentance.
Some examples are the opening of the Liturgy where the Lord’s Prayer begins the service by
asking for forgiveness and immediately the Collect for Purity asks for a cleansed heart so the
human worshipper is reconciled to God. Even the Ten Commandments ask for God’s mercy
because humans have not kept these laws of God. The prayer for the king petitions God to have
mercy on the Church. The Exhortations remind the worshippers of Christ’s sacrifice for their
sins and admonishes them to confess and repent of them. They are then admonished to be
reconciled to God. The invitation to confess speaks of those who earnestly repent of their sins
and this leads to the Confession. There is a corporate, public confession of private sins of the
individual. Following this, amazingly, is the Absolution, so unique to Cranmer’s liturgy, which is
granted based upon the people’s public confession of their sins. All of this repentance,
confession, reconciliation, absolution must be done before the Eucharist is partaken of.
After the Eucharistic part of the service, the Lord’s Prayer is said again to remind
everyone present to emphasize the reconciled relationship. It asks for forgiveness of sins to
remind all present that humans do sin and that now they have been reconciled to God, they are
to give their fellow humans who sin against them the same consideration God has given them
when they repented and were reconciled to him. The Liturgy concludes with the Great
Doxology, and here again, the people are reminded that they are sinful and ever in need of God’s
mercy. It is Christ who takes away sins and reconciles humans to God. Therefore, it is easily
seen in the structure that the Liturgy is intended to draw a person to God in stages. They are
shown God’s laws and how they have failed, led to repentance, and brought to reconciliation
with God and Fellow Man.
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The Model
When Cranmer sets out to find a model for his liturgy of repentance and reconciliation, he finds
what he is looking for in the parable of the Prodigal Son. There is no greater passage in the Bible
that illustrates repentance and reconciliation than the Prodigal Son narrative. God loves
repentant sinners. He is no angry God who is easily offended and, therefore, must be placated
by sacrifices and incense. He is not a God who is far removed from us. He is a God who is within
the heart of all believers. If we have an idea that God requires strict theological correctness this
will affect the way in which we worship him. But God is the God of the Prodigal Son. He is our
Loving Father. The God worshipped in the Book of Common Prayer is the one revealed to us by
His Son Jesus Christ. Because God is a Spirit, he can be loved and worshipped by us who have
spirits. He is our Father and we are his beloved children. (Suter and Addison, 1919). This is the
unique approach to worship in the Book of Common Prayer. We approach God as his beloved
children. Like the Prodigal Son, when we sin we turn to God who loves us in repentance and we
find that he receives us gladly.
Early on, Cranmer wrote:
He that hath this faith, converteth from his sin, repenteth him, that he, like the prodigal son,
vainly consumed his will, reason, wit, and other goods, which he received of the mere benefit of
his heavenly Father, to his said Father's displeasure; and applies himself wholly to please him
again, and trusts assuredly, that for Christ's sake, he will and does remit his sin, withdraws his
indignation, delivers him from hell, from the power of the infernal spirit, takes him to his mercy,
and makes him his own son and his own heir: and he has also the very Christian hope, that after
this life he shall reign ever with Christ in his kingdom. For St. Paul saith, If children, then heirs;
heirs of God, and joint heirs with Christ.
This is the very pure Christian faith and hope, which every good Christian man ought to profess,
believe, and trust, and to say of himself, even as Job said, I know that my Redeemer liveth, and
that he shall stand at the latterday upon the earth: and again I shall be in this skin, and in my
flesh I shall see God: whom I shall see for myself, and not another. This hope is laid up in my
heart. (Cranmer, 1842. p. 86)
Cranmer came to believe that humans cannot make themselves acceptable to God as the basis
for forgiveness. The very idea that we could make ourselves acceptable is an insult to the love of
God shown to humans by Christ’s death on the cross. God alone forgives the sinner and gives life
to sinners out of his own goodness for his own glory. Sinners are made righteous when they
turn to God in faith (Null, 23, 2000) by the loving and merciful efforts of God. God does not sit
passively by awaiting some action of purification by a person. God does not act only when
people perfectly obey his laws. God justifies sinners who are made ‘right‐willed’ by faith
because of the righteousness of Christ being imputed to sinners (Null, 24, 2000). Christ has
done the work on the cross and God acts on behalf of the person so that the righteousness of
Christ is made the righteousness of the human and humans are actively declared not guilty in
the eyes of God. We are made righteous by the righteous act of God and this justification
produces fruit in keeping with repentance. As an apple tree bears forth fruit as evidence as to
the type of tree it is, the evidence of justification is repentance from sins and love of God and
fellow human.
For Cranmer, faith alone justifies the sinner. However, that does not mean that faith is alone.
Our works of righteousness are not meritorious and are insufficient to obtain justification from
God. Though faith in the atoning work of Christ alone justifies the sinner repentance must
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accompany the faith that justifies (Jenkyns, H. 1833, p. 143). We cannot atone for our sins. We
are unable to offer anything to aid in our justification. Only faith leading to repentance matters.
Suffering, whether of sickness or situation does not avail the soul of Christ’s cleansing. Suffering
cannot purge the soul of sin. A person must repent of his sins in order to partake of the effectual
cleansing power of Christ’s blood (Jenkyns, H. 1833, p. 234).
The parable of the Prodigal Son is important to the Book of Common Prayer because for
Cranmer it is the model of repentance and reconciliation. Cranmer causes the parable of the
Prodigal Son to be the under girding of the entire Liturgy. Consequently, it entirely affects the
manner in which people pray and believe. However, this is not a unique idea to Cranmer. He is
not alone in his belief that the Prodigal Son is the proper basis for a theology of repentance. He
inherits an existing theological outlook. John Fisher, for example, being influenced by a revival
in Augustinian theology, is strongly committed to the proclamation of the necessity of grace in
the process of salvation (Null, 2000). For him, penitence is the central act of the Christian life.
Sinners are helpless to do anything good in their own power. The sinner requires God’s grace to
enable him to do any good. Citing the example of the Prodigal Son, Fisher urges Christians to
repent of their sins when the Spirit of God convicts them by coming to their senses, as did the
Prodigal. Sinners acknowledge their wretchedness (Null, 2000) and turn away from their
former ways with the Spirit’s aid. Sinners, by faith, then depend upon God and not his or her
own efforts. “Man hath no power of himself, it lieth not in his will to continue or do any
goodness, but only by the mercy of God” (Fisher, 1876, p. 259).
For Cranmer, being justified is a coming to one’s self and being right willed. The fruit of
this is repentance. Justification is being truly repentant. He writes in his Great Commonplaces
that the words ‘repentance’ and ‘repent’ signify not works of any kind, but of a coming to one’s
senses (Null, 2000). He notes that when the prophet Nathan faces David with his sin in 2 Kings
13:13 David immediately replies that he has sinned. God forgives David based upon his words
of repentance and does not wait upon external works performed by David. Human
acknowledgment of their helplessness which moves one to confession of sins leads one to
justification. Such a person, upset over their sins, is assured that God has not abandoned them.
Rather, this is the sign that a person has the Holy Spirit and is united to God in love (Null). This
is the mark of the Holy Spirit at work in the life of the repentant person. All one need do is say
even the smallest prayer, in faith, and God immediately forgives all sins. St. Luke’s Gospel likens
faith to seeds that are planted in a garden. This is found in Chapter seventeen, verse six. Here
we are shown that God rewards faith even as small as a grain of mustard seed, which is the
smallest seed that people in Jesus’ time in that area are familiar with. When David confesses his
sin as soon as Nathan confronts him, God acts even more quickly to forgive his sin. He did this
based upon David’s words of repentance before he had made any actions. God is willing to
forgive any repentant person’s sins who turn to him. God hears the cry of their heart before it
reaches their lips and has already forgiven the person (Null) and God rushes to their side to
welcome them home, so to speak.
This is exactly the model found in the story of the Prodigal Son. This parable is found in
the context of Jesus illustrating God’s, and therefore his, concern for lost sinners (Luke 15:1,2).
He first tells the parable of the lost sheep in which the owner finds that one of his many sheep
has wandered from the flock and become lost. He looks everywhere and when he finds it he
calls his friends and neighbors together to celebrate the event. Jesus says there is even greater
rejoicing in heaven over one sinner who repents than over many more who do not need to
repent.
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The next parable concerns the lost coin. A woman loses a coin and searches everywhere
until she finds it. She, too, calls her friends and neighbors together in a celebration for the
finding of the lost coin. Jesus, likewise, says there is rejoicing in the presence of the angels over
one sinner who repents. The implication is that God will not stop trying to recover even one
sinner who has strayed and become lost from him. He rejoices, as does all heaven when one
sinner is recovered, so much is his concern for humanity.
The parable found in St. Luke 15:11‐32 commonly called the Prodigal Son might better
be called the Lost Son. It is found in this context of something being lost and then found, of
sinners who repent and are received by God. This is, perhaps, the most beautiful parable of all
in the Bible. It is rich in detail and so graphic we can actually feel the emotion within it. In
verses 11‐12 the father is introduced to us. He has two sons, both of whom, it turns out, need to
repent of their sins. One, the youngest, demands his share of his inheritance. This amounts to
one‐third of the father’s wealth. The older son gets a double portion, or two‐thirds of the estate
(Liefeld, 1984). The father distributes his wealth accordingly.
In verses 13‐16, the youngest son takes his inheritance and leaves his father’s
household. He goes to a far off country that is outside of the Jewish territories (Liefeld) and
squanders his inheritance in wild, sinful living. He has nothing left of his fortune. He cannot
even feed himself. He takes the most debase employment imaginable for a Jew—that of feeding
swine‐‐‐in order to support himself. To make matters worse, a severe famine has hit the land
and he does not have enough to eat. He wants to eat even the carob pods that are used to feed
the swine, but he is so neglected by other humans, since he has no money, that no one will
attend to his needs. It seems that he sinks even lower and may be guilty of violating the
commandment not to steal as he was certainly guilty of violating the commandment to honor
his father and mother. By the wrong choices he makes, he places himself in the most pitiful
situation.
In verses 17‐20 there is a turn around. Verse 17 says that the wayward son “came to his
senses” or, literally “came to himself” (eis eauton elqon, eis eauton elthon). In other words, he
repents. He becomes hungry and this motivates him to return home to seek a job (Liefeld). He is
aware of how well his father’s hired servants are treated so he desires even that small station in
life as opposed to what he now has. His present station as a hired servant is without benefits,
but he is aware that the servants his father employs always have enough to eat. He makes up a
speech of repentance to say to his father in which he acknowledges that he has sinned against
God. This is a classic speech of repentance (L. Morris, 1988). The son is finally thinking rightly
and is in his right mind. He does not go back home. He does not have the right to call it home
any longer. Significantly, he returns to his father.
The parable is not mere allegory with the father representing God. The Prodigal’s father
portrays the characteristics and attitudes of a loving heavenly Father (Liefeld). He shows us
what God is like: loving and concerned. The father obviously daily looks for his son’s return, as
would any parent of a lost child. He spots his son coming from a great distance, somehow.
Uncharacteristically for a Middle‐Eastern gentleman, he runs to meet his son at distance from
his home. He fervently or continually kisses him and hugs him to comfort his son who has
returned. Here is not the picture of an angry father nor, an angry God. Here is the picture of a
loving father, heart‐sick with worry, which now has his child back safely at home. This picture
shows the character of God. He worries over us until we return to him. When a sinner makes the
slightest move to repent, God the Father rushes to his side and receives him. He welcomes him
or her back into his home where the wayward person belongs. God then comforts him or her by
his Holy Spirit with all measure of comfort and reconciliation.
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Verses 21‐24 The Prodigal Son, who has now been found, never gets a chance to fully
make his eloquent speech of repentance. He tells his father that he has sinned, but that is as far
as he is able to get. David found that when he turned to God, before he had done anything to
show repentance, God was there to forgive him already. Likewise, this returning son finds his
father already has forgiven him and will not let him get in a word. He was barefoot, the mark of
a slave, and a slave he intended to be. Yet the father calls for sandals, the mark of a free man
(Liefeld). Rather than a lowly position, he is given a robe of position. He is restored as the
father’s son and heir. He is given a ring to signify his authority given from the father. The son
who was dead is now alive again. The son who was lost has now been found. The father’s joy at
his son’s return knows no bounds. This is the perfect picture of what Jesus was teaching in this
entire progression of parables. Sinners who repent bring unbridled joy in heaven and to the
heart of God.
In the culture of the time, sharing a meal with someone is an important event. A shared
meal may be as important as a covenant being made between two parties. Who a person eats
with seems to indicate a shared status, in any case. Jesus, for example, frequently comes under
attack because he eats with the wrong sorts of people. Here, the final surprise that awaits the
repentant son is that his father throws a banquet of celebration for his return. He, who is
unworthy, is not only invited, he is the one honored at the banquet. All of the things the son
squandered his inheritance on, sinning against God and his father, are provided for him in a
good way upon his repentant return (L. Morris)
The Parable of the Prodigal Son is exactly what we see in the liturgical pattern as Cranmer
developed it. It is all too easy to become out of balance when being faced with sin and the
prospect of facing God. This is all put into balance in Cranmer’s Liturgy (Wright, 1996). There is
a confession of God as Father as seen in the Lord’s Prayer. It is a relationship established right
at the beginning. This is followed by the Ten Commandments so humans can hear and see what
God requires. This lets people know where they have transgressed and wandered away from
the Father. The General Confession allows people to come to their senses, repent and return to
the Father, as the Prodigal Son did. The repentant sinner is embraced by the Father’s love in the
absolution as the father did the Prodigal Son upon his return. The repentant also are comforted
by the Heavenly Father in the Comfortable Words even as the father comforted his son while
bringing him home. Finally, the restored are brought to the Lord’s Banquet in the Eucharist,
even as the father held a banquet for his restored son in the parable.
The structure of the Liturgy, therefore, shows more than an affinity with the parable of the
Prodigal Son. There is an exact event for event correlation. This is certainly more than
coincidence. The parable is about repentance, coming to one’s senses, and reconciliation, as is
the Liturgy. In the table below the parallels between the parable and the Liturgy are shown.
Prodigal Son Parable in Luke 15:11ff Liturgy of 1662 Book of Common Prayer
The father v. 11 Our Father…
The son’s wasteful lifestyle vs. 12ff violating The requirements of God’s Law humans have
the Commandments transgressed: 10 Commandments
The son comes to his senses v. 17 The Immediate Invitation: Ye that do earnestly
repent…
The son’s confession vs. 18‐21 General Confession
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The father’s loving reception of the repentant Absolution
son v. 20
The father’s comfort v. 20 Comfortable Words
The restoration and banquet vs. 22‐24 Lord’s Supper, the Heavenly Banquet
Table 2: Parallels Between the Prodigal Son Parable and the Cranmerian Liturgy
It seems clear that Cranmer has the parable of the Prodigal Son in mind when he looks for a
model for his liturgy. The Liturgy then, molds those who pray into the model Jesus gave in this
parable. They are not to remain sinners, grieving over their sins. Nor, are they to see God as an
over stern father and so remain away from him in fear. They are to come into their right minds
and be embraced by a loving Father and remain in his good graces at the feast. God has gone so
far as to prepare a place for us in his grand mansion (John 14:2), as the father of the Prodigal
did for his son, so that we might be with him forever and enjoy his company. This is certainly
not the angry God model so often spoken of. This is the concerned father who is heart‐sick over
his lost and wayward children. Anyone who has had a child that has strayed knows the heart‐
sick worry that accompanies each waking thought over the fate of that child. In the parable of
the Prodigal Son and in the Liturgy it is easily seen the care and concern for each person that is
exhibited by a loving God. It draws one into a right believing relationship of wonder and love.
Cranmer’s use of the Prodigal Son as a model for the Liturgy represents a major paradigm shift.
Other liturgies may focus on God’s holiness or transcendence, such as the Divine Liturgy of St.
John Chrysostom. In Reformation Theology and worship, God is the angry God and humans but
worms before him. God is wrathful and vengeful towards sinners. But the shift in this Liturgy is
towards the loving concern God clearly has for all humans who sin and are apart from him. This
is no small idea. This paradigm shift is still as radical today as it was then, in many ways, and
probably has affected theology and preaching beyond the Church of England in other Protestant
groups.
In review, Cranmer finds a model for his Liturgy of repentance and reconciliation in the parable
of the Prodigal Son. This parable has no equal in the illustration of repentance from sin and
reconciliation to God. In Cranmer’s Liturgy God is no angry God in the sky who is easily
offended and must be placated by sacrifices and incense or he will retaliate. God loves humanity
and he is not far removed from us. He is within the hearts of all believers. God is the loving
father of the Prodigal Son parable. God, who is revealed in this manner by his Son Jesus Christ is
the God worshipped in the Liturgy. He is our Father and human believers are his beloved
children. This is the unique approach to worship found only in the Liturgy of the Book of
Common Prayer.
Cranmer believes that humans cannot make themselves acceptable to God as the basis for
forgiveness. God alone forgives sinners based upon the work of Christ on the Cross out of his
goodness for his own glory. God actively justifies sinners who turn to him in faith because of the
imputed righteousness of Christ. Christ did the work and God makes us righteous by his
righteous acts on human behalf. This justification of the sinner produces the fruit of repentance
which is the evidence of its reality.
While human works are neither meritorious nor sufficient for justification, faith alone
that justifies the sinner must produce repentance. Humans cannot atone for their sins nor are
we able to aid in our justification. Only faith leading to repentance matters. This makes effectual
the cleansing power of the blood of Christ.
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The importance of the Prodigal Son parable is that it is the model par excellence of
repentance from sin and reconciliation to God. This parable under girds the entire Liturgy and
therefore, affects the manner in which people worship and how they believe. This idea was not
unique to Cranmer as he inherited an existing theological outlook current at the time. John
Fisher is one example of a theologian who held this viewpoint. Sinners must acknowledge their
wretchedness and turn away from their sinful living by God’s aid since humans have no power
in themselves. It is the goodness of God in his mercy that humans depend on.
Justification is a coming to one’s senses, for Cranmer. The fruit of this is repentance.
When humans acknowledge and confess their sins they are led to justification. God has not
abandoned the sinner. Repentance is the sign that God actually is at work in their lives. All one
need do is pray the smallest prayer of repentance in faith and God immediately forgives all sins.
Like the father a prodigal son, God rushes to the side of the repentant sinner to welcome them
home in reconciliation.
This is exactly the model found in the Prodigal Son parable. This parable is found in the
context of other lost items: a coin and a sheep. In the Prodigal Son the son demands his
inheritance, becomes lost, and then is found again. He goes to a far off country, squanders his
inheritance in sinful living and gets in such dire circumstances he cannot even feed, nor take
care of himself. He sinks ever lower, even violating the command not to steal as he had violated
honoring his parents. He comes to his senses and repents, returning to his father. He does not
get to make his intended speech of repentance for his father sees him coming and runs to him,
hugging and kissing him, comforting him, and welcoming him home. He restores him to a high
station and holds a banquet in his honor.
This parable shows us what God is like. He is loving and concerned. In this parable, all of
the things the son squandered are provided for him in a good way upon his repentance. This is
the irony. What he desired and squandered in sinful living, was given to him in the proper,
healthy way upon his repentance. This is exactly what is seen in the liturgical pattern Cranmer
developed. Cranmer puts everything in balance, bringing a person to repentance and
experiencing a loving God upon repentance. The structure of the Liturgy shows an exact event
for even correlation with the parable of the Prodigal Son. Cranmer clearly had this parable in
mind as a model upon composing his Liturgy. Repentance and reconciliation based upon the
parable of the Prodigal Son is a major paradigm shift in the model of Liturgy and shapes the way
Anglicans pray and worship.
Scriptural Foundation
Under Cranmer’s three mentor’s encouragement, Scripture must be the basis for everything.
Therefore, in composing the Book of Common Prayer, Scripture necessarily plays a large part.
Whether Scripture is read or alluded to, it is the basis, or foundation, for all the liturgical units
contained therein. It is needful, therefore, to examine a few of the collects, or liturgical units, to
ascertain that the Scriptures do, in fact, support the intent of the collects, or liturgical units, and
the theme of the Book of Common Prayer. First, however, the idea of repentance and
reconciliation in Scripture must be briefly examined.
Repentance from sin and reconciliation to God is important to the 1662 Book of Common
Prayer in particular and to Anglicanism in general. It is the theme that moves the spirituality of
the Liturgy and shapes Anglican worshippers into its mold. Repentance is a turning from
something and then toward something else. When speaking of sin, the Scriptures say that it is
missing the mark, as in target practice or a standard of something that has been set. Repentance
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is the realization that what a person has been doing is harmful, or not lawful, and the person
changes his or her mind and does something else. It does include an element of sorrow for the
deed, but it is primarily a change of heart or attitude and a decision to do something different. In
the Book of Common Prayer, repentance is having a change of mind, turning from sin and
turning to God in order to be reconciled. The English word repent comes from the Old French
repentir, which means to feel regret or to be sorry for one’s crimes. Repentir, in turn, comes
from Latin poenitire, to make sorry (Harper, 2010)
The biblical notion of repentance is seen in the words used to convey the idea. In Hebrew the
usual word is bvw, shub. This word, as it related to repentance, means to turn from something
toward something. In this case, it is a turning from sin toward God after having changed one’s
mind about how one is living or behaving. Sin is no ineradicable stain. God gives the power to
repent so a person can change their destiny (TWOT, 1980). God gives free mercy to the one who
changes his or her mind and decides to live to God and God, following this, cleanses the person
from unrighteous stain.
From the beginning, after Adam sins, God desires that he repent so that reconciliation is
possible. Adam does not do this. Sin has already done such a work in Adam that he blames the
cause of his own sin on others. He blames the woman and the serpent. His son, Cain, does the
same thing when he murders his brother. There is already an inclination to sin in the human
race. Sin fathers sin and the interconnectedness of human actions is seen in how sin is passed
from generation to generation (Dyrness, 1979). Original sin is not an isolated event, but is part
of every human since Adam. Scripture knows no notion of sin only affecting the sinner.
Sin causes alienation. It causes alienation from God and from other humans, as well. It causes
humans to see other humans as something less than human and exalts one person not only
above his or her fellow man, but above God. Sin, thus, mars the image of the Trinity in Man. Man
is created to love God and love his or her spouse and other humans. He is then to receive love
from God and love from others. This Trinitarian image of love relationships completes the
image of the God in Man and is the target of sin. Sin sets out to destroy each of these
relationships and cause separation between God and Man and Man and Man. Man is only fully
human when Man truly loves.
Still, from the beginning, God seeks repentance in humans so they can be reconciled to him. He
institutes a system of sacrifice in the nation of Israel. He establishes daily sacrifices but the most
important is the yearly observance of the Day of Atonement. This is a day of repentance from
sin and a nation being reconciled to their God. Sin has to be dealt with if there is to be any
happiness in relation to God (Dyrness, 1979). But faith must accompany the sacrifice and
confession must precede it. Confession is an inner response that acknowledges God’s place and
human responsibility. These elements, a change of mind, confession, faith, and sacrifice make up
the essence of repentance. When these are there, reconciliation is possible.
In the New Testament the usual word is metanoew, metanoeo, from meta and noeo, and
it’s derivative metanoia, metanoia. The root noeo means to direct one’s mind to something. It
can mean to grasp something or understand something with the mind (Bromiley, 1985). It
means that a person can understand God from his works and turn toward him. In the New
Testament, metanoia and metanoeo refer to a change of mind, therefore repentance. It is a
change of heart that directs one to God and leads to salvation (Bromiley).
In every religion found among humans, save one, people propitiate their gods (White,
1984). Only in Christianity is God the propitiation and it is God who reconciles the world of
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sinners to himself. 2 Corinthians 5:19 declares, “…in Christ God was reconciling the world to
himself, not counting their trespasses against them…” God has given humans reconciliation
(Romans 5:11). God acts, not Man for Mankind is the enemy of God apart from Christ. Humans
cannot, of their own abilities or efforts, find their way to God. God initiates a work of grace in
the heart of the sinner and carries it to completion. His enemies are no more. He vanquishes
them by an act of selfless love, reconciling them to himself by his own efforts on their behalf.
The Greek for reconcile or reconciliation is katallasso, katallasso. It means to bring
about change. In this case, it means to bring about a change of state, or to reconcile. This word
was used of husbands and wives, for example, that were separated or divorced and then
reconcile (Bromiley). In the New Testament, God reconciles humans to himself. It is his work to
do so. Reconciliation is only through, and because of, the death of Jesus Christ. Christ was made
sin for the sake of fallen humanity and his righteousness is imputed to them. Reconciliation is
not a mere transaction, but is the work of the Holy Spirit bringing about the effects of the work
of Christ into the life and conscience of the human recipient. The Holy Spirit enables humans to
walk in the Spirit (Romans 8:4). Humans are hostile to God because of sin. Sin causes the breach
in the relationship and puts people at odds with God’s demand for righteousness. In the Cross
God reconciles the world to himself through the death of his Son. However, God “reconciled us
to himself in Christ Jesus” (2 Cor. 5:18 ESV). Humans who were once hostile to God and
alienated, divorced so to speak, are reconciled to God by God, justified, forgiven, and accepted in
the Beloved. “For if while we were enemies we were reconciled to God by the death of his Son,
much more, now that we are reconciled, shall we be saved by his life” (Rom. 5:10 ESV) Those
who were far off are brought near by God the Son’s own sacrificial efforts (Eph. 2:13) and his
righteousness is imputed to sinful humans so they can boldly come near the throne of God,
having been reconciled in his blood.
To repent and be reconciled to God is to realize the state one finds one’s self in does not
bode well for life. Sinful Man is alienated from God and his enemy surely as much as England
and Nazi Germany were enemies during World War II. Realization sets in because of the work of
the Holy Spirit in the human heart and the person has a change of mind about their station in
death, not life, because of sinful actions. The person desires to be reconciled but now
understands he or she has nothing to offer that can affect the change required and to bring
about reconciliation with God. The person finds, however, that God has done the work required
in his Son who spilt his blood upon the Cross in order that repentant Man might be reconciled
to a Holy God. The sinful person repents of his or her sins and confesses them to God. This
person, not having a righteousness of his or her own, accepts the work Christ has done for him
or her, by faith and is reconciled to God.
However, true repentance involves our attitude towards others, as well. If one truly
repents, has a change of mind and feels sorrow for his or her sins, this person will also be
willing to forgive someone who has sinned against him or her. Jesus’ only commentary on the
forgiveness of sins as he expressed in the Lord’s prayer touched on this one point. Jesus said, in
St. Matthew 6:14‐15, “For if you forgive others their trespasses, your heavenly Father will also
forgive you, but if you do not forgive others their trespasses, neither will your Father forgive
your trespasses” (ESV). True repentance means a change of heart towards God and towards
fellow humans.
In light of this, it is interesting that the opening of the Liturgy begins with the Our Father prayer,
or, as it is often called, the Lord’s Prayer. This prayer is to be a model of what our prayers
should contain. While many of the elements contained in this prayer are also found in the
ancient prayers of the Jews, only in this prayer given by Jesus are these things found in this form
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(Barnes, no date). Right at the beginning of the Liturgy during this prayer the supplicants are
called upon to repent of their sins and to forgive anyone who has sinned against them. This
event occurs again after communion and indicates that humans need a reminder of their sinful
condition and must always be ready to repent. People can, and do, sin again (Chrysostom, J.
1995). In the Gospels of Matthew (6:9‐13) and Luke (11:2‐4), from whence this prayer was
taken, the meaning is that humans need to repent of their sins against God and forgive their
fellow humans. Humans cannot deny that they sin or they deceive themselves and the truth is
not in them (1 John 1:5‐10). It is on the basis of the blood of Jesus that humans are cleansed
from sin and are forgiven. Humans must, in the same manner they are forgiven, forgive the sins
that others have committed against them (Morris, L., 1992). The idea is that to be reconciled to
God, one will also be reconciled with fellow humans. Likewise, when a person is reconciled to
fellow humans through forgiveness, one is reconciled to God. The leaders in the Early Church
used as an illustration a wagon wheel. The rim is the world and the hub is God. The spokes in
the middle are the people. As the spokes grow closer to the hub they get closer to God and
necessarily, to one another. Just so, when humans get closer to one another, they necessarily get
closer to God (Bondi, 1987). Since the petitioner has called God “Father,” he is already a believer
but must remove any hindrances to fellowship with God (Liefeld, 1984). Already there is the
beginning of the idea that the one who worships must repent of any sins committed and be
reconciled to God, even if this reconciliation also means forgiving humans who have done
terrible things.
This prayer has been a part ancient liturgies from the earliest days of the Church. The
Liturgy of St. James and the Liturgy of the Blessed Apostles have this prayer after the
consecration, but before the communion (Early, 1995). In the ancient Use of Salisbury, this
prayer is a part of the Introductory Service and is said by the celebrating priest before he
approaches the Altar. In Cranmer’s original prayer book of 1549, the rubrics require the
celebrant to say this prayer standing before the Altar before the service begins (Blunt, 1907),
alone, without congregational participation. It is an entrance rite to the holy place and the priest
does not come without first seeking forgiveness of his sins. The Lord’s Prayer provides the
keynote that sets the tone for the rest of the Liturgy, which is that of repentance from sins
committed and being reconciled to God as a necessary requirement for worship.
This prayer is said again, after Holy Communion. It holds this place in all ancient
liturgies. It is significant that this prayer holds this position after the requirements of God’s law
are heard, and after repentance and absolution are given. Nicolas Cabasilas, in his Commentary
on the Divine Liturgy says:
When he as thus edified the faithful, and in so many ways aroused them to virtue, the priest,
considering that their preparation is now complete and that they are worthy of Divine adoption,
asks God that they may be held worthy to say with him the prayer in which we dare to call him
Father. (Cabasilas, 1998. p. 87)
Humans are worthy once more to call God father. By the time this prayer has been said the
second time, they have repented, been given absolution, given assurance God is their loving
Father, and taken the Blood of Christ which is for the forgiveness of their sins. They, indeed, are
now worthy to call God Father because of that Blood of Christ, partaken of in a repentant
manner, by faith in the work of Christ.
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The Collect for Purity comes just after the opening prayer. It is a continuation of the
process begun in the opening prayer that reminds the individual that he must put into practice
what was prayed in the opening prayer (Leuenberger, 1990). God sees what is in the heart of
every human being. Nothing is hid from his sight. The Collect for Purity sees man as totally
depraved to the very core of his being. It is from the depths of a person’s being that evil action,
evil thoughts, and evil words proceed. In this prayer, a person is faced with what is in his
deepest parts and shown that he must be made right with God and Man. A person must be
cleansed by the power of the Holy Spirit (Leuenberger) before being able to truly love God and
Man and is then able to magnify God as he ought to be magnified.
One of the Scripture passages behind the Collect for Purity is James 4:8 (Bailey, 1835. 265),
“Cleanse your hands, you sinners, and purify your hearts, you double‐minded” (ESV, 2001).The
context of this verse is the worldly lifestyle. In 3:14‐16 he speaks to an attitude of life that is the
product of the unregenerate mind and its worldliness. In 4:1‐10 James examines this worldly
attitude by showing the source of ungodly antagonisms in verses 1‐3. He reproaches those who
are spiritual adulterers in 4‐6 and pleads with them to repent and be reconciled to God in
verses 7‐10. In verse eight James writes to those who have become worldly in their actions
which causes estrangement from God. James calls them to repentance by telling them first to
cleanse their hands. This is a way of saying they need to cease with their sinful behavior and
make their conduct pure. He next commands them to purify their hearts. Here he is insisting
that conduct is not enough. The thoughts and inward desires of a person matter as well and
these need to be purified (Burdick, 1981).
Matthew 15:19 also underlies this prayer (Bailey, 1835), which says, “For out of the
heart come evil thoughts, murder, adultery, sexual immorality, theft, false witness, slander”
(ESV). The context of this passage is the uncritical tradition that has developed among the
religious leaders in Israel over even the smallest points of the Law that results in bizarre
interpretations and actions. One such is the practice of a ritual washing of the hands before
eating. There has risen the idea that a person must wash his hands ritually before eating or that
person will become defiled. They are under the mistaken idea that an external action is all that
was required to make a person pure and give a person a right standing with God. Jesus and his
disciples are under fire from the Pharisees for violating this tradition. In verse 17 Jesus tells
them that they should have thought through this and so understand that food goes into the
stomach and is digested and the impure waste passes out of the body. It is not food, nor is it
external actions that make a person clean or unclean before God. Rather, it is what is in the
heart that matters, in verse 18. The source of all evil in a person is in the heart in verse 19. He
arranges a list of evil thoughts that originate in the heart and later become actions, according to
the order of the 10 Commandments, which incidentally, follow next in the Liturgy. These are all
plural and emphasize the many sins of each person (Morris, 1992. 398). These sins all ensue
from evil desires within a person’s inner most being and a person must repent of these and
have his heart purified so that his actions will be pure, as well.
The kyrie eleison, or Lord have mercy, which follows each of the Ten Commandments is
a part of all ancient Liturgies (Blunt, 1907). This is found, for example, in the Liturgy of St. Mark,
the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, the Liturgy of St. Basil, and the Liturgy of St. James. It is an
element of the ancient Eucharistic Litany, especially in expanded form. One place it is found in
the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom is during the Great Litany. Here there are a series of
short petitions: for peace, salvation, clergy, good weather, all travelers, etc. Each of these
petitions is followed by the response Kurie e\lehson (kyrie eleison), or Lord have mercy. There is
similar usage in the Book of Common Prayer as a response to the requirements of the Law, but
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in expanded form. Some ancient missals contain many pages of expanded kyrie eleisons. Twenty
nine of the expanded form of the kyrie eleison are to be found in Henderson’s edition of the York
Missal, for example (Blunt, 1907).
Luke 18:13 is a key underlying passage of Scripture to the kyrie eleisons found following each of
the Ten Commandments (Bailey, 1835. 266). The context of the passage is to be found in a
series of stories illustrating true discipleship Jesus gives while traveling from Galilee to
Jerusalem. Here is the famous story about the Pharisee and the Publican. The Pharisee and
Publican both go to the Temple to pray. This story illustrates the spirit in which people are to
pray and that no one can be saved by his own merits (L. Morris, 1988), but only by the mercy of
God. The Pharisee probably prays the truth. He is not guilty of the type of sins a corrupt tax
collector would be expected to be guilty of. His problem is self‐righteousness which will not
justify a man before God. The Tax Collector, on the other hand, is so overcome by his guilt of
whatever sin he had committed, that he refers to himself as “the” sinner, tw amartwlw, to
hamartolo. This is the article par excellence (Wallace, 1996) and shows he is declaring himself to
be the worst of sinners. He is under great conviction. Where the Pharisee is not repentant, the
Tax Collector is. He will not even look up to heaven, but smites his breast asking God to have
mercy upon him. The word mercy, here, is ilasqhti, ilastheti. It means to be the propitiation for
sins, (Kittle, 1985), and thus, to have mercy upon, the sinner. He asks God to be the propitiation
of his sins, which is precisely what God does in Christ for those who repent in faith. Of the two,
only the Tax Collector goes away justified, forgiven and declared not guilty of his sins. The point
of the story is that without repentance no one will be justified.
Two passages to consider that fill out the expanded kyrie eleison are 1 Kings 8:58 and
Psalm 119:36 (Bailey, 1835). In the first, Solomon has finished building the Temple. It is being
dedicated and the first worship is taking place within it. In this context of worship, Solomon
prays that God will incline the people’s hearts to Himself to keep his commandments and
statutes. This speaks of a continued working in the hearts of people by God so that they will be
obedient and conformable to his will (Patterson, 1988). Ultimately, the enablement to be
obedient to what God requires comes from God. This is the intent in Cranmer’s Liturgy, as well.
In his Liturgy the people respond to each of the Ten Commandments, “Lord, have mercy upon
us, and incline our hearts to keep this law” (BCP 1662, 2006. 238). The Reformation theology
Cranmer embraces at this time recognizes no ability of humans to do anything good or to be
obedient to God’s will apart from the enablement of the Holy Spirit.
The second passage that upholds the expanded kyrie eleison is to be found in Psalm
119:36. This Psalm is divided into twenty‐two sections of eight verses each. Each section begins
with a verse, in order, of the Hebrew alphabet. The Psalmist is intimately aware of suffering for
a variety of reasons, such as persecution, sinfulness, sorrow, disgrace and being surrounded by
wickedness (VanGemeren, 1991). He finds comfort in the strength of God and this psalm of
loyalty to the way of God is also one of love for God. He asks God to incline his heart to God’s
Law. He uses eight words for the Law of God. In verse 36 he uses statute or testimony,‫ ֵעדְוֹ ֶת י ָך‬,
from t v.df2, edut. This plural noun is always used in reference to the testimony of God. These
are laws given by divine decree (TWOT, 1980). This word is used of the ark of the testimony
(Ex. 25:22) It is used of the two tablets containing the Ten Commandments ((Ex. 31:18), and of
the Covenant (Ex. 25:10). The observance of these statutes shows loyalty to the God of the
Covenant (VanGemeren, 1991). In this verse, it is God who provides the internal motivation to
obedience and inclines the heart of man to keep his law. Obeying God is not a matter of external
observance, but internal, of the heart as in Deuteronomy 5:29. As is found in this passage, also
found in the Book of Common Prayer is the idea that God must be the motivator of the human
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heart. He must bring about a change in the heart’s orientation. He must incline our hearts to
keep his commandments.
Ten times, one after each of the Ten Commandments, is the mercy of God implored.
Human behavior breaks down at various times on one of these points. Humans need help but
are still responsible. It requires, therefore, the efforts of both God and Man to keep humans in a
right relationship with God. First, it requires that humans recognize their sinfulness and turn
from their sins to God. They must repent of those sins in order to be reconciled to God and
justified. However, God must do a work in the human heart so that the heart has an inclination
towards obedience to God’s commandments and repentance from the sinful breaking of those
commandments. For Cranmer, this ability to repent and inclination towards obedience to God is
the surest sign that a person has the Holy Spirit and is therefore, born again (Null, 2000).
The Exhortations contain the essence of Reformation revivalistic ideology
(Leuenberger, 1990). The Exhortation at the time of Celebration of the Communion, for
example, requires that the person wishing to commune repent of his or her sins and turn to
God. Self examination is required so that a person may see his sins and repent of them. In this
manner the person will partake worthily of the holy sacrament without being judged harshly by
God. Christ receives all who repent with faith in Him. Isaiah 55:7 underlies this admonishment
(Bailey, 1835. 299). This passage has much to tell us about the Admonition that is given at the
time of Celebration of the Eucharist. Chapter 55 begins a new section within the Deutero‐Isaiah.
In verse 3 is the Davidic covenantal reintroduction that is further developed in verse 4. David
was a faithful witness to the Lord and there is anticipation that the Messiah would have both
prophetic and kingly functions. People from the far parts of the earth will hear and come to Zion
(Grogan, 1986). In verse 6 this evangelistic call is echoed in stronger terms. There is an urgency
in the call because the time to repent and turn to God is limited. Sinners live their lives in
pursuit other things but life is to be found in God alone (Childs, 2001). The sinner is wrong in
his style of living and in his attitudes. Repentance is required to come to God, but that
repentance must include the heart, not just actions (Grogan, 1986). This particular call to
repentance and turning to God is not to Israel, nor to the world as a whole. Rather, in this verse,
it is to individuals that the call to repentance is offered. This call comes with the assurance that
one who repents will be received, pardoned, and reconciled to God.
Chapter One of the Gospel of Mark begins, not with a birth narrative, as one might
expect, but with ministry. John the Baptist is ministering to the people as the Forerunner of the
Messiah. He preaches repentance from sin in anticipation of the arrival of the Messiah and the
ushering in of the Kingdom of God. Jesus quickly arrives on the scene and is identified as the
long awaited Messiah. As soon as John’s ministry ends, Jesus begins his ministry and starts
preaching as John did. In Mark 1:15 (Bailey, 1835), the Gospel writer sums up the content of
Jesus’ preaching. The Kingdom of God is right now. It is both present and future. This kingdom
is the reign of God. It is the personal relationship between a Sovereign God and the person
((Wessel, 1984). As the kingdom is present and future, so is the Fatherhood of God over all
creation and in the life of the individual. How one approaches the Kingdom is the question
answered in this passage. Jesus has brought the Kingdom of God near in his own person,
spatially, and temporally since his coming brings about the end of all things (Wessel). There is
great urgency about entering the Kingdom because time is running out. There will not always
be available the opportunity to enter the Kingdom and so be saved. Individuals are confronted
by their need to be in the Kingdom of God immediately in the person of Jesus and to enter
requires faith in the Gospel message and repentance from sins. Repentance is the necessary
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remedy for the sickness in the human heart that separates people from a loving Father. As
Jerome wrote:
The sweetness of the apple makes up for the bitterness of the root. The hope of gain makes for
pleasant the perils of the sea. The expectation of health mitigates the nauseousness of medicine.
One who desires the kernel breaks the nut. So one who desires the joy of a holy conscience
swallows down the bitterness of penance (Oden, 1998, 18).
Another passage that upholds the idea of repentance from sin and reconciliation to God
in this exhortation is to be found in John 6:37 (Bailey, 1835). In Chapter Six, Jesus has just
finished feeding the multitudes, walked on water, and declared himself to be the Bread of Life
come down from heaven. The people stayed after him wanting to be satisfied with bread of
earthly origin that would never end. They no longer would go hungry nor, would they have to
labor after food. However, this earthly bread is a kind of bread that cannot ultimately satisfy. No
matter how long it lasts, it will not finally sustain life. Only the Heavenly Bread Jesus can satisfy
the real need in a human being. It gives life that will last. Salvation, eternal life, which is a
restored relationship with the God in whose image they are created is what humans really need.
They cannot save themselves, however. Salvation belongs to God (Ps. 3:8; Rev. 19:1).
In verses 34‐36 the request is made to give the people bread and this parallels the
request of the Samaritan woman in chapter four (Tenney, 1981). There is an ontological
misunderstanding. The request shows a lack of perception as to Jesus’ meaning and as to his
very nature. Jesus is the only permanent satisfaction for humans for only he can offer the life
they so crave. This life is only appropriated by faith. It is a commitment to him based upon trust
in his person. Jesus tells them, “I Am” (εγω ειμι) the Bread of Life. This is the same self
designation found in Exodus 3 where God introduced himself to Moses and later told him, “I
Am”, εγω ειμι, in the Septuagint (Brenton, 1995). He added there O Wn, ho on. It shows he is the
same God who offered deliverance and life to the enslaved Jews on Mt. Sinai. He is the Being
One, who has life in himself. He is “the” Bread, definite article, restrictive article (Tenney, 1981).
There is life in no other.
In verse 37 true salvation is inspired by God. The desire to repent of sins and believe on
Jesus to eternal life is given only by the Father’s invitation. Salvation is offered to all, regardless
of race or culture (Tenney, 1981) and all are accepted who hear the invitation and believe.
There is no need to fear being rejected, therefore. Jesus accepts all those the Father gives him.
The Father and Jesus are one in the purpose of salvation of Man (Bruce, 1983). The Son is
entirely devoted to doing the Father’s will and came into the world for this purpose. He came to
carry out the Father’s will in the salvation of humanity and will not turn away those given him
by the Father. Here is the dichotomy shown by the use of pan, pan, all. This neuter singular
word shows the sum total of all believers (Bruce) in the first part of the verse and is contrasted
with “the one who comes” in the second half of the verse that shows the individual believer. The
one shows a community of repentant faithful and the other shows the individual repentant
faithful. Both are given by the Father and both are received by the Son and given life at the
acceptance of the call of God.
The major concern underlying the Exhortations is the pericope found in 1 Corinthians
11: 27‐32:
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27 Whoever, therefore, eats the bread or drinks the cup of the Lord in an unworthy manner will
be guilty concerning the body and blood of the Lord. 28 Let a person examine himself, then, and
so eat of the bread and drink of the cup. 29For anyone who eats and drinks without discerning
the body eats and drinks judgment on himself. 30That is why many of you are weak and ill, and
some have died. 31 But if we judged ourselves truly, we would not be judged. 32But when we are
judged by the Lord, we are disciplined so that we may not be condemned along with the world.
(ESV, 2001)
This pericope is given in the context of the Corinthians partaking of the Lord’s Supper in an
unworthy manner. They are coming to the Lord’s Supper in an irreverent and sinful way (Mare,
1976). Paul tells the Corinthian Christians they are receiving judgement from the Lord and this
is the reason some are sick and some had died. Partaking of the Lord’s Supper in the right way
is supposed to be for the forgiveness of sins. Instead, the Corinthians are being judged for their
sinful actions. What the Corinthians need to do is to examine themselves, inwardly in the
attitude of their hearts and outwardly regarding their conduct (Mare). This self‐examination
affords the opportunity to repent of sinful attitudes and actions before coming to the Lord’s
Supper.
This admonition to self examination so as not to partake of the Lord’s Supper unworthily and to
repent of one’s sins is found in the Book of Common Prayer. For example, the Third Exhortation
tells the Communicant, “the danger is great if we receive the same unworthily” (BCP 1662,
2006. 250). The First Exhortation requires that the Communicants examine themselves before
communing. The people are not to lay themselves open to the judgement of God by casually
taking communion while still living a consciously sinful life as if communion were nothing at all.
The one wishing communion must repent of his or her sins before partaking of the Lord’s Body
and Blood in faith.
In the Invitation, there is a call to be repentant of sins committed. The people are encouraged to
repent of their sins and then acknowledge their failings before God, confessing their sins to him.
God, then, they are assured, will pardon them and give them the blessing of restored fellowship
with him. There is a subtly here. During Cranmer’s day England was under a monarchy. A
person who angered the King with some indiscretion might find himself in trouble and in need
of a restoration of relationship to the King. This might be done by admitting wrongs and
pleading for forgiveness. But it may entail something more serious. Israel, in a similar manner,
has angered the Almighty King and stands in need of confession and repentance of
transgressions to have that relationship restored. One of the passages that underlies the
Immediate Invitation before the General Confession is Jeremiah 3: 13 (Bailey, 1835. 305). In this
passage, the prophetic message is given to Israel calling her to repent and confess her sins.
Israel is following after other gods and committing acts that are in opposition to the dictates of
Yahweh, who rules Israel as King over a Theocracy. Israel is being disobedient to what God had
told them in the past (Thompson, 1980). They are not now listening to the voice of God. God the
Sovereign King is still willing to forgive them and be merciful but Israel must be willing to be
honest about their sins. Israel has already had a good portion of their people deported because
of their unfaithfulness to Yahweh. The Northern Tribes of Israel were not totally exterminated
and still exist (James 1). God still has concern for them. He calls on them to repent of their sins
and return to him. This is the prerequisite for pardon and blessing: the repentance and
confession of their sins. The covenant relationship Israel had enjoyed with their Sovereign Lord
will be restored once they accomplish this repentance and confession.
The climax of the idea of repentance from sin as a prerequisite for reconciliation with
God is found in the General Confession. Everything in the Liturgy, to this point, is aiming here.
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Scriptural basis for the confession of sins is to be found in 1 John 1:8‐9, “If we say we have no
sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us. If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just
to forgive us our sins and to cleanse us from all unrighteousness (ESV, 2003).” A Proto‐
Gnosticism is a problem at this point in the Early Church. The Christians John writes to hold to
the idea that a Christian could not sin. This passage refutes that idea. This passage is concerned
with those who walk in darkness as opposed to those who walk in the light. Those who walk in
darkness are those who live sinful lives. Those who walk in the light are those who live sinless
lives. The denial of sin in a person’s life, whether actual or by practice, is not of the truth.
Humans can and do sin and are responsible for it. Walking in the light is not the denial of sin,
but the confession of it (Barker, 1981) as an act of repentance.
We are then righteous when we confess that we are sinners, and our righteousness depends not
upon our own merits, but on the mercy of God, as the Holy Scripture says, “The righteous man
accuseth himself when he beginneth to speak,” and elsewhere, “Tell thy sins that thou mayest
be justified.” (Jerome, 1995, 454)
Since God is both faithful and just humans can confess “our sins,” τας αμαρτιας ημων, literally
“the sins of us,” fearlessly and with confidence (Barker, 1981) in God’s love and care for us. It is
not that there is nothing to punish, rather, in the confession of sins, God finds something to
forgive (Augustine LXIV, 1995)
Since, in the Prayer of Confession, the penitent acknowledges and bewails his many sins at this
point, one of the passages that underlies this idea is to be found in Isaiah 59:12 (Bailey, 1835.
305), “For our transgressions are multiplied before you, and our sins testify against us; for our
transgressions are with us, and we know our iniquities (ESV).” The context in Third Isaiah is the
prophet’s condemnation of paganism, which is likened to adultery in Chapter 57. In Chapter 58
hypocrisy is condemned which is the cause of unanswered prayer. The entire of Chapter 59 is
devoted to the confession of sin. In particular, this verse, and those that follow, shows a hatred
of sin and its destructive effects. Here is confession of sin and repentance from it. However,
mere hatred of sin’s consequences is not true repentance. It is when sin is faced as it really is,
rebellion against God, that humans begin to understand sin as God looks upon it (Grogan, 1986).
This is no mere lamentation over sin and its affects. Sin is a heavy burden and the plight of the
confessing community is acknowledged to be their own fault due to their sins (Childs, 2001).
They thrust themselves, in an act of contrite confession and repentance, onto the mercy of God
who loves them.
Psalm 38:4, 18 (Bailey, 1835) nicely underpins this portion of the prayer. It says, “For
my iniquities have gone over my head; like a heavy burden, they are too heavy for me. I confess
my iniquity; I am sorry for my sin.” This Psalm is a lament over a debilitating disease for which
there is no cure. The Psalmist finds himself overwhelmed with feelings of guilt and remorse
(VanGemeren, 1991). He feels he is separated from God because of his situation. Sin is likened
to a disease and is the cause of disease. Sin caused his disease and is what cuts him off from God.
In verse four he is so overwhelmed with his guilt and shame over his sin that he feels like his
sins are drowning him, just as a man who cannot swim drowns in water that goes over his head.
Sin has become a burden that weighs him down, like a millstone that is tied around one’s neck
as he is cast into the sea as Jesus referred to in Matthew 18:6.
In verse eighteen he confesses his sin. He bemoans what he has done. He is deeply
disturbed by his sin and it’s consequences but he steadfastly clings to the Lord for assurance
(VanGemeren, 1991). He is not going to hide his sin. He readily admits he has done wrong. He
knows the cause of his illness is his own sin. But it is the fact that he is a sinner that so troubles
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his mind (Barnes, 1995). He cannot simply confess his sin and forget it. Nor, can he have the
attitude that he can safely confess his sin and then commit it again. He needs to take steps to
have his sin and its effects cured (Augustine, 1995). Therefore, his suffering leads him to
repentance. He confesses his faults, repents, and throws himself on the mercy of God. This
Psalm ends on the note of hope and faith in God, who shows mercy and forgives even the vilest
sin.
The General Confession is appropriately supported by James 4:8‐10 (Bailey, 1835. 306)
where the people admit and lament their many sins. James 4:8‐10 tells us:
Draw near to God, and he will draw near to you. Cleanse your hands, you sinners, and purify
your hearts, you double‐minded. Be wretched and mourn and weep. Let your laughter be
turned to mourning and your joy to gloom. Humble yourselves before the Lord, and he will exalt
you (ESV).
This passage is an obvious choice to have in mind when composing such a petition. The author
of this epistle writes to Jewish Christians that are spread out over the Roman Empire in the
Eastern Mediterranean area (Burdick, 1981). They are experiencing hard times, oppressions,
superficiality of their religion, are engaging in discriminatory practices and are sinful in their
conduct. Sin is one of the major themes of this letter and is seen as universal among humans. Sin
results in anger, moral filth, blasphemy, discrimination, bitterness, lust, pride, theft, oppression,
and ill advised intimate ties with the evil world (Burdick). In Chapter 3, there is a discussion of a
philosophy of life that is a trait of a mind that is unregenerated. This is a major component of a
worldly life. In Chapter 4 the author examines worldliness in greater detail, noting the source of
the problem and then rebukes those who live such sinful lifestyles. In the passage under
consideration, the author pleads with his readers to repent and submit to God.
In verse 7, Believers should submit to God. This is not obedience, but a full surrender of
the will which will lead to obedience (Burdick). There follows, in quick succession, ten aorist
imperatives in verses 7‐10. These commands, that are to be immediately obeyed, are “submit,”
“resist,” “ draw near,” “cleanse,” “purify,” “be wretched,” “mourn,” “weep,” “change,” and
“humble.” James demands the action of resisting the devil rather than God (Burdick).
Verse 8 commands the readers to “Draw near to God.” They have drifted away from God
and no longer know him as they should. God will welcome them back. However, they must do
something first. In order to be in a right relationship with God they must make a complete turn
around in their lives. They must “wash” their hands. This is a command to make all of their
outward actions pure. However, since outward actions spring from the inner person, the
command is given to “purify” their hearts. Thoughts and motives must be clean. Their sinful
lives are the result of their inner evil compulsions and this is reflected in their outward conduct.
It is impossible to love God and love sin at the same time so there is a real need of repentance.
The General Confession says, “We acknowledge and bewail our manifold sins and
wickedness” (BCP 1662, 2006. 251). In verse 9 we find the commands that are behind the term
in the General Confession “bewail.” This is from a Middle English word biwailen and means to
cry over, or lament something (Free, 2009). This is a very good word to express what James is
saying to his readers. He says they must repent of their sins in four terms (Burdick). First, they
must ταλαιπωρησατε, talaiporesate. This aorist imperative from talaipwro" is a command to be
wretched, miserable, or afflicted (Moulton, 1977) over their sins. They are further commanded
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to πενθησατε, penthesate, mourn, over their sins outwardly. In opposition to the laughter and
celebratory sinful lives they formerly lived, James commands that they κλαυσατε, klausate, wail,
over their sins (Burdick, 1981). Rather than be comfortable and happy in their sins, James
orders his readers to be remorseful to the point of uncontrolled grief over their sins in
repentance.
In verse 10, however, he does not leave his readers in that pitiful condition. He tells
them, instead, to humble themselves before God. God gladly gives grace to those who do so. He
gives grace to those who repent of their sins. God goes even farther by raising them up,
restoring them. Here, again, is that Prodigal Son model. The Prodigal Son bewailed his stupid
decisions that led to a sinful life. He repented and long before he was able to speak to his father
about it, his father ran to him and lovingly restored him. This is the mindset in this prayer of
confession.
The next phrase in the General Confession is that the people ask for God’s mercy. God’s
mercy is implored because it is based upon God’s love. At this point, far from being the angry
God, the people find that God is merciful because he loves them. They find comfort in his
presence. Psalm 51:1 beautifully illustrates this when it says, “Have mercy on me, O God,
according to your unfailing love; according to your great compassion blot out my transgressions
(NIV, 1984).” David has had an adulterous affair with Bathsheba. He has committed murder to
cover up the affair. He repents of his sin and throws himself upon the loving mercy of God. A
common Hebrew word for repent is nacham. This word is used of Job, in Job 42:6, who though
sinless, never the less, repents of his words of accusation towards God. But it carries a common
meaning of comfort, as well (TWOT). For example, in Isaiah 40:1, God says, “Comfort ye,
Comfort ye, my people.” David finds solace in his repentance and trusts himself to God’s hesed,
God’s unfailing love.
In this prayer of confession in the Liturgy repentance is not punishment. The purpose is for the
person to recognize their sinful attitudes, thoughts, and actions. Once recognized it must be
confessed and repented of. Confession that is based on faith is much like the doctor’s scalpel
that excises a cancerous growth. Repentance is reconciliation. It is the healing balm placed upon
the sore of separation from God. Rather than finding an angry God, those who repent find that
God is their loving Father. They find their relationship with God restored and deepened.
The Absolution is unique among all Christian liturgies. While some sort of confession of
sins is to be found in ancient liturgies before communion, the absolution is given in a separate
rite by the priest. In the Liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer of 1662 the absolution is given
by the priest immediately after the General Confession of sins. The Eastern Orthodox and
Roman Catholic Churches, which had great influence upon the English Church, have long held
that the priest has the power to offer remission of sins.
The Mystery of Repentance is a grace‐giving sacred rite in which, after the faithful offer
repentance of their sins, the remission of sins is bestowed by the mercy of God through the
intermediary of a pastor of the Church, in accordance with the Savior’s promise. (Pomazansky,
1997, 286)
The power to grant absolution is based upon John 20:23, “If you forgive the sins of any, they are
forgiven them; if you withhold forgiveness from any, it is withheld (ESV).” The context of this
passage is the resurrected Jesus is appearing to his disciples for a commissioning rite. He
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previously prays in John 17:18 regarding sending them out from himself into the world as God
the Father had sent his Son from himself into the world. Now is the time of fulfillment. He is
sending them out (Bruce, 1983). Before sending them, he gives them the Holy Spirit so that they
have his aid in performing their ministries. He imparts the Spirit by his breath as God did in
Genesis 2:7 to make the original man a living soul (Bruce, 1983). As the first Man was
empowered to live and fulfill God’s purpose, so now the Disciples are empowered to fulfill the
commission Jesus has given them. This commission includes being given authority to retain or
remit the sins of others.
Sins are ultimately forgiven by God alone. Daniel 9:9 tells us, “To the Lord our God
belong mercy and forgiveness, for we have rebelled against him” (ESV). Priests are merely the
visible instruments by which absolution is performed. They perform visibly what God has
already done invisibly (Pomazansky, 1997). God alone sees the heart. Man sees the sin that has
been committed, but God sees every tear of repentance a person has cried over it in his struggle
against it (Bondi, 1987). However, in 1 Corinthians 3:16 the Church is the Temple of the Holy
Spirit. In 1 Corinthians 6:19 each faithful Believer is the Temple of the Holy Spirit. Therefore, St.
Augustine writes that it is through God’s holy faithful ones, in the Church, that sins are remitted
because they are living Temples (Augustine XLIX, 1995). St. John Chrysostom further
elaborates:
For if any one will consider how great a thing it is for one, being a man, and compassed with
flesh and blood, to be enabled to draw nigh to that blessed and pure nature, he will then clearly
see what great honor the grace of the Spirit has vouchsafed to priests; since by their agency
these rites are celebrated, and others nowise inferior to these both in respect of our dignity and
our salvation. For they who inhabit the earth and make their abode there are entrusted with the
administration of things which are in Heaven, and have received an authority which God has not
given to angels or archangels. For it has not been said to them, “Whatsoever ye shall bind on
earth shall be bound in Heaven, and whatsoever ye shall loose on earth shall be loosed in
Heaven.” They who rule on earth have indeed authority to bind, but only the body: whereas this
binding lays hold of the soul and penetrates the heavens; and what priests do here below God
ratifies above, and the Master confirms the sentence of his servants. For indeed what is it but all
manner of heavenly authority which He has given them when He says, “Whose sins ye remit
they are remitted, and whose sins ye retain they are retained?” What authority could be greater
than this? “The Father hath committed all judgment to the Son?” But I see it all put into the
hands of these men by the Son (Chrysostom Priesthood, 1995).
The following table illustrates some of the Scriptural foundation in the examined liturgical
units:
Liturgical Unit Scripture
Our Father Matthew 6:9‐13; Luke 11:2‐4; 1 John 5:1‐10
Collect for Purity James 4:8; Matthew 15:19
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Kyrie eleison, Lord have mercy Luke 18:13; 1 Kings 8:58; Psalm 119:36;
Deuteronomy 5:29
Exhortation at the Time of Communion Isaiah 55:7; Mark 1:15; John 6:37; (Psalm 3:8;
Revelation 19:1); 1 Corinthians 11:27‐32
The Immediate Invitation Jeremiah 3:13; Job 34:31,32
The General Confession 1 John 1:8,9; Isaiah 59:12; Psalm 38:4,18; James
4:8‐10; Psalm 51:1
The Absolution John 20:23; Daniel 9:9
Table 3: Scriptural Foundation of Selected Major Liturgical Units
In review, because of the influence of Bucer, Vermigli, and Hooper, Cranmer bases his
Liturgy in the Book of Common Prayer on Holy Writ. The opening rite, in which the priest
approaches the altar area, begins with the Lord’s Prayer. Here, he seeks forgiveness of his sins
and reconciliation with God so he may offer the Liturgy and the Eucharist to God. It is also a call
to all who hear the prayer to repent and be reconciled to God, and to stand in familial relation to
the Father based upon the work of Christ on the Cross. This prayer is part of all ancient
liturgies, normally coming after communion, as it does in the Book of Common Prayer. But,
Cranmer places it in the beginning and couples it with the ancient Collect for Purity as an
entrance rite. Not only does the priest need to stand clean before God, but so too does the
congregation present.
The Collect of Purity reminds everyone that God sees what is in secret. Nothing is
hidden from his eyes. James 4:8 is one of the passages underlying this prayer in which sinners
are urged to cleanse their lives of sinful behavior and purify their hearts and minds of evil.
Thoughts as well as actions must be cleansed. This is echoed in St. Matthew’s Gospel, Chapter
15, verse 19. The heart, which no one but God can see, is the source of all sin. Sin originates
within a person’s innermost being and this innermost being needs to be purified, not just a
person’s actions.
The Lord have mercy prayers following the Ten Commandments are also a part of all
ancient liturgies. Luke 18:13 is a key passage that is the base for using this prayer. This is the
story Jesus told regarding the Publican and the Pharisee. The Publican, who only sought God’s
mercy for his breaking of God’s laws, rather than a prideful self‐justification, is the one who
went away justified by God. Psalm 119:36 and 1 Kings 8:58 tell us that God works in people’s
hearts to obey him. The enablement to be obedient to God comes from God. This is the intent
found in the Liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer as the Reformation theology Cranmer
embraces recognizes no ability of the human apart from God’s enablement to do anything good
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or to repent. Obeying God must be of an internal act, based on the actions of God within a
person’s heart as he provides the motivation for doing so.
The Exhortations contain the essence of Reformation revivalistic ideology. People who
wish to take Communion must repent and be reconciled to God, first. Isaiah 55:7 underlies such
admonishment. People must repent and those who do so are reconciled to God, being pardoned
and received. In Mark 1:15 is given the content of Jesus’ preaching. The kingdom is now, present
and future. God’s Fatherhood is over all creation and in the life of the individual. The Kingdom
of God is brought near in Jesus Christ and there is great urgency about entering the kingdom
because the end of all things is near. Faith in the Gospel message and repentance from sin is
required to enter. In John 6:37 Jesus is the food from heaven that can alone satisfy the needs of
humanity and give salvation. Salvation belongs to God. The desire to repent and believe the
Gospel is only given by God and is open to everyone. There is no fear of being rejected. This is
found in the Liturgy’s exhortations. Those who repent and believe are accepted.
1 Corinthians 11:27‐32 gives the warning about partaking of the Eucharist unworthily.
Nowhere in Scripture are people dying in such a manner except they give an affront to the
Person of a holy God. The Corinthians are sick and dying for their sinful actions being
unrepented of when taking the Body and Blood of Christ. The people are not to lay themselves
open to God’s judgment by taking communion in an unworthy manner. They must repent and
come by faith.
In the invitation there is a plain call to repentance. When this is accomplished, they are
assured that God will pardon them. Jeremiah 3:13 tells us that Israel is called to repent and
confess her sins. God still cares for them and is still willing to forgive them. The prerequisite for
pardon is the confession and repentance of sins. The Liturgy is supported by this. In the Liturgy
a person will be restored to fellowship with God once they accomplish this.
The climax of the idea of repentance as a prerequisite for reconciliation with God is in the
General Confession. To this point, all of the Liturgy has been aiming here. One of the scriptural
foundations of this is found in 1 John 1:8‐9 where humans are told not to live in denial, but to
confess and be cleansed. Isaiah 59:12 says that a person’s sins testify against him. Sin must be
faced and people must thrust themselves onto the mercy of God who loves them. Psalm 38:4,18
is a Psalm lamenting over the effects of sin in the Psalmist’s life. He is burdened down and sick.
This suffering leads him to repentance. In the Liturgy, suffering over sins and their affect on
human life becomes the vehicle propelling a person onto the mercy of God through repentance.
In James 4:8‐10 humans are commanded to drawn near to God. They are to purify their
actions, but also their inward motives and thoughts. They are to be sorrowful over what they
have done and their condition only to find God ready to heal and forgive. The Liturgy would
have it that mere participation in the ritual of confession is not enough. There must be a change
of heart, as well. This is the basis for repentance and reconciliation, that humans truly to have a
change of mind, wanting the things of God rather than the sin that has corrupted them.
The next part of the General Confession is based upon Psalm 51:1. God’s mercy is
implored and it is given because it is founded in God’s love for people. Confession is not
punishment. Rather confession is a time for people to examine themselves and once sin is
recognized it must be repented of. In the Liturgy, repentance is reconciliation and in it people
find love and healing. They find their relationship with God restored and deepened.
The Absolution is unique among all Christian liturgies. The priest is given power by
Christ himself, according to Holy Writ in John 20:23, to forgive sins. Christ’s commission
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includes this authority, even though sins are ultimately forgiven by God alone, as in Daniel 9:9.
Man sees only the sin, but God sees the heart. He sees every tear of repentance a person cries in
their effort to be free from sin. The Absolution conferred by the priest is only valid upon those
who with faith truly repent. It is not a blanket magical absolution as in the Roman Church. God
sees the heart, but fully forgives those who actually repent.
The Liturgy is based upon Scripture. This was a purposeful endeavor by Cranmer, being
influenced by his mentors. The Scriptural background shows that the purposeful theme of the
Liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer is to bring a person to repentance of sin and to be
reconciled to God in the process.
Theological Influences Regarding Repentance and Reconciliation
In the 1962 revision of the Book of Common Prayer, the Ash Wednesday Office is now changed
and is replaced by the Penitential Office. The chief difference being that in the Ash Wednesday
Office God is seen as an angry God threatening punishment to all violators of his laws. In the
new Penitential Office, God is no longer angry rather, he is the loving Father (Oxford, 2006) who
woos sinners to repentance. This is a shift back towards the Cranmerian paradigm.
Cranmer creates a major paradigm shift when he modifies the Reformation idea of God as an
angry God who waits to punish all sinners. His is not an angry God. His God is a loving Father
who watches longingly for the return of his lost child. This is the new paradigm which brings a
change of attitude wrought by Cranmer in his Liturgy. God’s love and willingness to be
reconciled with wayward sinners compels people to repent and return to him. This is a major
shift in worship. Other liturgies, such as the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, hold up God
as king and highly exalted. He is a God who is high and lifted up. A comparison between the
Trisagion Hymn liturgical unit in the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom and that the of 1662
Book of Common Prayer is instructive in this matter.
Divine Liturgy 1662 BCP
For You, our God, are Holy, and to You we offer Lift up your hearts. We lift them up unto the
glory: to the Father and to the Son and to the Lord. Let us give thanks unto our Lord God. It
Holy Spirit…Holy God, Holy Mighty, Holy is meet and right so to do. It is very meet,
Immortal, have mercy upon us…Holy God, right, and our bounden duty, that we should at
dwelling in Your holy sanctuary, praised by all times, and in all places, give thanks unto
the Seraphim with the thrice‐holy hymn, thee, O Lord, Holy Father, Almighty,
glorified by the Cherubim and adored by all Everlasting God. Therefore with the Angels
the heavenly powers, You have brought all and Archangels, and with all the company of
things into being out of nothing. You created heaven, we laud and magnify thy glorious
us in Your own image and likeness and Name; evermore praising thee and saying:
adorned us with all Your gifts. (Chrysostom) Holy, Holy, Holy, Lord God of hosts, heaven
and earth are full of thy glory: Glory be to thee,
O Lord most High. Amen. (1662 BCP)
Table 4: Comparison of Trisagion Liturgical Units
In the Divine Liturgy, God is the King who is high and lifted up. In the Book of Common Prayer,
he is the holy Father to whom humans lift up their thankful hearts. Though he is all holy, and
worthy to be praised and thanked, he is also the comforting familial head to whom humans may
lovingly approach.
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Cranmer brought God down to his people. He is a loving God who makes every effort to find lost
sinners and bring them to repentance based upon his love and concern for them. This love and
concern is shown most clearly in his sending is Only‐begotten Son Jesus Christ to die upon the
Cross to make reconciliation between God and Man possible. And it is here, at the Thrice‐Holy
hymn, that the comfortable words are offered showing most clearly God’s running to repentant
Man to be reconciled to him in love.
Hear what comfortable words our Savior Christ saith unto all that truly turn to him:
Come unto me all that travail and are heavy laden, and I will refresh you. St. Matth. xi. 28.
So God loved the world, that he gave his only‐begotten Son, to the end that all that believe in
him should not perish, but have everlasting life. St. John iii. 16
Hear also what Saint Paul saith.
This is a true saying, and worthy of all men to be received, That Christ Jesus came into the
world to save sinners. 1 Tim. i. 15.
Hear also what Saint John saith.
If any man sin, we have an Advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ the righteous; and he is the
propitiation for our sins. 1 St. John ii. 1
Let us lift up our hearts. We lift them up unto the Lord. Let us give thanks unto the Lord. It is
meet and right so to do.
It is very meet, right, and our bounden duty, that we should at all times, and in all places, give
thanks unto thee, O Lord, Holy Father, Almighty, Everlasting God. With Angels and Archangels,
and with all the company of heaven, we laud and magnify thy glorious Name; evermore praising
thee, and saying, Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of hosts, heaven and earth are full of thy glory: Glory
be to thee, O Lord most High. Amen. (1662 BCP, 2006).
The reason for the praise is evident. God loves mankind. He has done everything to bring them
home again in repentance so he can now succor them. This comfort is read and heard and elicits
praise and glory to the God of love.
Many of the influences that cause Cranmer to make this shift are known only to Archbishop
Cranmer. However, the theologies of the past, plus the theologians he admires are discernable
influences. Anselm’s Satisfaction Theory of the Atonement is one influence upon Cranmer and
his Liturgy. The idea of many of the Early Church Fathers, of which Cranmer is intimately aware,
holds that Christ is Victor over sin, death, and the devil. These are conquered by Christ and no
longer hold us in slavery. Abelard’s Moral Example Theory also makes itself felt in the Liturgy of
the Book of Common Prayer. Reformation theologies from Bucer, Vermigli and the like are also
reflected in important ways in not only the theology, but in the content of the Liturgy. However,
it is the theology of St. Augustine that makes the most prevalent presence in the Liturgy.
There is a strict feudal system of social standing during the Middle Ages. The lower classes owe
the higher a debt of honor not only because of the nobleman’s station, but because he offers
protection and help to the lower classes. There is no mixing of classes. One must keep to his
station and give honor where honor is due. Lower classes of people offending a high ranking
nobleman would be in serious peril. They might be beaten, imprisoned, or killed. Anselm,
Archbishop of Canterbury from 1093‐1109, living in this culture with this mindset, develops a
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theory of atonement that insists that Adam and Eve, and thus all humans, are an offense to
God’s honor because of their sin (Musser, 1992). Humans have dishonored God, who is
sovereign. A sovereign cannot, for the sake of his honor, pardon an insult, for the whole
kingdom is dishonored along with him. Satisfaction must be given. Since he is God, the insult is
so great that the only one who can provide satisfaction of an equal kind is God (Atonement,
2010). This is the reason for the Incarnation. Since we had offended against God’s dignity some
sort of compensation must be offered to God. Christ died to satisfy God’s honor. His death is the
penalty that should have been meted out to individual sinners (Erickson, 790). Since only God
Incarnate can offer due satisfaction, Christ died. This death is of such merit that there is an
abundance of it remaining to be appropriated by those who repent.
Anselm’s theory of the Atonement is very influential and shows its influence in the Liturgy. For
example, in the General Confession people pray that they will not provoke the Divine Majesty of
God’s indignation. In the First Exhortation humans are warned not to “offend” against God’s
laws and repent if they do so. They are to examine themselves to see if they have given offense
against God and to make restitution and satisfaction if they have done so. In the Second
Exhortation the people are admonished not to commit a great injury or wrong to God and
thereby provoking God’s indignation. During the Third Exhortation giving offense to God causes
God to smite the person with diseases and death, just as the feudal lord would smite a vassal
who has offended him. The only remedy for the situation, in this case, is to repent.
Peter Abelard (1079‐1142) develops a theory often called the moral‐influence theory of
atonement during the Twelfth Century. He develops this view in opposition to Anselm’s view
that Man has offended God, who requires satisfaction. This theory holds that God is love. Christ
does not die on the cross to satisfy God’s wounded honor. Rather, Christ dies to show man the
full extent of God’s great love. It is man’s fear of God, based in his ignorance, that needs to be
remedied (Erickson, 785). The only thing a person needs do to obtain salvation is to repent.
When a person repents and asks forgiveness of sins, God immediately does so out of his love.
When we come to our senses, repent, and are converted as we contemplate the cross on which
Jesus died we enable God to forgive us. The significance of the cross is that it causes us to love
God so that he does not have to punish our sins (Stott, J.R.W., 2006).
While this theory has many weaknesses, one of which is that it does not take the reality of sin
seriously, some of its influence is found in the Liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer. As has
already been shown, Cranmer notes that David is forgiven his sin even before he has done
anything but express a desire to repent. The Prodigal Son parable which he used as a model has
the son repenting of his sins and immediately finding his loving father running to his side with
love, comfort, and forgiveness. He is then restored to a high place, back in his father’s house, and
has a banquet thrown in his honor. The Liturgy has the communicant moving by stages from a
realization of sins committed to supping at the heavenly banquet. Along the way he comes to his
senses, realizes what God has done for him, and repents of his sins. He now finds a loving God
who is already there comforting him and accepting him.
The strength of this influence in the Book of Common Prayer is that, for one, it takes the love of
God to be important. Without this understanding, God is just the offended socio‐path in the sky
waiting to smash and burn all who offend him. It also takes seriously the words of Jesus when
he spoke of God and all heaven rejoicing over one sinner who repents. It also does justice to the
loving father motif presented in the Prodigal Son parable, in Paul, and elsewhere in the Bible.
Finally, the Liturgy’s use of this theory shows the importance of changing one’s mind and
repenting of a wayward life and sin. In a great many ways this theory’s influence on the Book of
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Common Prayer closely mirrors the model of the Prodigal Son Archbishop Cranmer uses to
mold his Liturgy.
The theologies of Anselm and Abelard in the Liturgy are two sides of the same coin. One cannot
be had without the other. Their influence is deep and wide. While it is true that the propitiatory
sacrifice of Christ is a satisfaction for sin, this idea needs the companion side of God’s love and
acceptance of the repentant. This is seen in the Liturgy in mature form. These two views are
reconciled in the Liturgy and show that once a person repents he can be reconciled to God.
Augustine’s theology is the most influential on the Reformers and Cranmer forever enshrines
Augustinianism in the worship of God in composing his Prayer Book. Cranmer believes that
repentance is the sure sign of salvation. Repentance is the evidence of God’s good will towards
the penitent and not the other way around. Only those sinners who have been chosen as one of
God’s elect are able to repent, and thus, show God’s work in their lives (Null) Cranmer pulls
from a variety of sources when espousing his theology. This is why it is difficult to nail down his
beliefs. He holds some views in common with Melancthon and uses the Early Church Fathers,
such as Chrysostom, Augustine, Basil, writings at will. He also borrows from Cardinal Cajetan’s
writings to prove the points of his own theology. Mainly, however, Cranmer makes Augustinian
theology a matter of public worship. Therefore, justification of sinners he sees in terms of
forensic imputation. The righteousness that justifies is foreign to humans because all are
sinners against God. Humans are forced to seek a righteousness that is apart from their selves
(Null). Humans must seek a justification that comes directly from God. Humans cannot do
anything to effect their own salvation. Their guilt is upon them and nothing they can do is
meritorious. This flies in the face of current Roman Catholic teaching. People are justified,
pardoned from sin, because of the merits of Christ’s efforts on the cross on their behalf. They
are justified because of God’s mercy and this justification must be received by faith in the work
Christ has done. Even though this is not inherent righteousness, is regarded so by God since it is
God who acts in Christ for Man. Christ’s death satisfies God’s justice, but it also manifests his
mercy. That faith in Christ and his work alone justifies is seen in Irenaeus. He says:
Since, therefore, Abraham was a prophet and saw in the Spirit the day of the Lord’s coming, and
the dispensation of His suffering, through whom both he himself and all who, following the
example of his faith, trust in God, should be saved, he rejoiced exceedingly. The Lord, therefore,
was not unknown to Abraham, whose day he desired to see; nor, again, was the Lord’s Father,
for he had learned from the Word of the Lord, and believed Him; wherefore it was accounted to
him by the Lord for righteousness. For faith towards God justifies a man; and therefore he said,
“I will stretch forth my hand to the most high God, who made the heaven and the earth.”
(Irenaeus, 1995. p. 467)
Faith as a mere intellectual assent does not justify the believer, only a lively faith in Christ’s
merits. Faith only justifies, but real faith must produce the fruit of repentance and love for God
in the believer. Since justification by faith is faith in the merits of Christ, his work on the cross,
and power of God on behalf of the sinner, this removes any merit based upon human effort and
shifts the glory for Man’s salvation from the human solely to God alone (Null).
Repentance is the fruit of salvation by faith alone. It is a reflexive response to the Gospel of
Christ that God has done everything required to secure the salvation of those who repent. God’s
efforts come from God, and are, therefore, acceptable to him. God’s completely gracious love
inspires humans to grateful love in return. The newfound love inspires repentance and an
amended life (Null).
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Augustine’s theological views are the most influential views on the reformers and his writings
being rediscovered are the foundation of much of the theology of the Reformation and
especially upon the Book of Common Prayer. His influence is so vast that it would not be
possible to cover every influence upon the Reformation in general and upon the Book of
Common Prayer in particular. However a few more things must be said. For Augustine, free‐will
belongs to all humanity and was created good. Sin began with free will. Free will requires that
there be the ability to do evil and it is, thus, a voluntary and noncompulsory act. The original
humans chose to sin, exercising their free will. With the fall humanity lost the ability to do good
without the aid of God’s grace. Humans still are able to exercise free choice to accept or reject
God’s grace, however. True freedom is not found in the ability to choose to sin. Rather it is to be
found in the ability to do good. Only the redeemed are able to truly do good (Elwell, 1984).
Humanity is a direct creation of God, according to Augustine, and originally created sinless. The
whole human race derives from the first human, Adam. When Adam chooses to sin rather than
obey God all humanity sins seminally in him (Elwell). Augustine deduces this from his Latin
translation of Paul’s Epistle to the Romans Chapter Five, verse twelve. Here, death spreads to all
humanity because all sin in Adam seminally, since Adam is the father of the human race. This is
similar to the manner in which Israel tithes through Abraham when Abraham tithes to
Melchizadec and is later required to tithe to the priesthood. Israel is in him seminally tithing
since Abraham is the father of the people Israel (Hebrews Chapter 7).
Humans are a duality of body and soul and are created in the image of God, which is in the soul.
The fall does not erase the image of God in humans, but humanity’s nature is corrupted by sin
(Elwell). Humanity has gotten itself in a sad state whereby death reigns over the whole race. Sin
is the culprit that robs humans of the life God would that they have. There is no good that
humans can do to save themselves. There is no effort that humans can do to free themselves of
sin and the awful mortality that ensues from it. For Augustine, God’s solution is to send his Son
to take on a flesh, which is not part of his original nature. The purpose of this is to save
humanity from death and sin. He does this, not out of some offense that must be satisfied
against his honor or laws broken that must be satisfied. He does this rather out of his great love
for humans. This is the only solution to the problem of the lost and damned condition of
mankind. The Only‐begotten Son of God, who is co‐eternal with the Father, becomes man by
putting on a human soul and body and becoming mortal. He suffers death on a cross and by this
means destroys the power of sin and death. Augustine says:
We should show not that God had no other method possible, since all things are equally subject
to his power, but that no other more fitting method existed, or could have existed, for curing our
unhappy state. For in order to raise our hopes, to free mortal minds, cast down by that very
condition of mortality, from despair of attaining immortality, what was needed above all was
that we should have proof of how highly God valued us, how much he loved us. And could there
be a proof of this more clear and cogent than that God’s own Son, the un‐alterably good, while
remaining in himself what he was, should receive from us and for us that which he was not, and
without derogation from his own nature should deign to share our nature and should bear our
ills, with no previous ill‐desert on his part? So that when we came to believe in God’s great love
for us, and to hope for what we had despaired to attain, he should bestow on us, with
undeserved generosity, his gifts of good, without, on our part, any good, but rather ill‐desert.
(Bettenson, 1972)
God, in his great love, gives to Man what he does not deserve. He gives himself in his
undeserved generosity toward Man that Man might be saved.
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The salvation of the human race is tied up in God’s decrees which were from eternity.
These decrees are unchangeable and so, therefore, is the salvation of Man. God has predestined
some to salvation. Predestination is according to God’s foreknowledge of man’s free choice in
choosing God’s grace. Salvation is wrought by the substitutionary death of Christ alone (Elwell).
It is received by faith that is exercised by the human who is enabled by God.
Cranmer ensured Augustine’s theology of salvation by justification by faith alone would
be seen and felt in the Book of Common Prayer. While the overarching influence is Augustine,
his theology comes out particularly in a few places. In the prayer books of 1549, 1552, and
continued in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, Augustine’s doctrine of forgiveness of sin
through justification by faith is seen in the Absolution where it says: “Almighty God, our
heavenly Father, who of his great mercy hath promised forgiveness of sins to all them, that with
hearty repentance and true faith turn unto him…(1662 BCP; see Null, p. 238).
Cranmer’s use of an Augustinian idea of the necessary fruit of true repentance which is an
amended life, rather than making satisfaction is seen in the General Confession. “Forgive us all
that is past, and grant that we may hereafter serve and please thee in newness of life, to the
honor and glory of thy name” (BCP 1662). This is also seen in the Absolution where it says,
“confirm and strengthen you in all goodness” (BCP, see Null, p. 239).
The Comfortable Words are unique to the Liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer. They are
found in no other formula of liturgy in Christendom. They are not taken from any English
translation. They are a unique translation for the Book of Common Prayer. The purpose of these
comfortable words is to support the Absolution given by the priest showing the connection with
Christ and the Apostle’s teaching (Blunt, 1907). Also, however, there can be no doubt that
Cranmer placed these in this particular place to further emphasize his Augustinian doctrine.
They repeat the theology expressed in the exhortations and provide support for it
(Leuenberger, 1990).
Augustine’s belief in the act of selfless love bestowed upon an undeserving mankind by a
gracious God is an Augustinian theme that runs all through the Liturgy. The Liturgy is an
encounter with the undeserved love of God in Christ. It expects that humans will return to God a
love that is based in repentance and appreciation for God’s benefits in Christ. This is seen most
clearly in the selection of the particular passages used in the Comfortable Words (Matthew
11:28; John 3:16; 1Timothy 1:15; 1 John 2:1), for example. God will not reject those weighed
down with sin. Rather, he will refresh them. “Come unto me all that travail and are heavy laden,
and I will refresh you” (BCP). God is no angry, offended God in the sky, as some hold. In fact, this
is a change that Cranmer made in the theology of the Prayer Book that purposely is in
opposition to much of the prevailing teachings at this time (Oxford, 2006). Further, in
opposition to current Roman Catholic teaching, he does not demand penance or some good
work to save a person. God is love, as 1 John 4:7 tells us, and wants only faith in him and love
returned for what he has done in Christ for humanity. God’s love for all humanity is assured.
God loves sinners and wants them to be saved. He will not turn any away that come to him in
faith. “So God loved the world, that he gave his only‐begotten Son, to the end that all that believe
in him should not perish, but have everlasting life” (BCP).
But more, an amended life means loving God, but also loving others. There is no true repentance
if it does not bear this singular fruit. True repentance is a gift of God the Holy Spirit. If anyone
has repented and truly is in love with God and his neighbor, as the Prayer Book admonishes,
they do show that they are of the Elect and God has worked in their hearts. As Augustine says in
On the Trinity:
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Therefore the Holy Spirit, of whom He hath given us, makes us to abide in God, and Him in us;
and this it is that love does. Therefore He is the God that is love. Lastly, a little after, when he
had repeated the same thing, and had said “God is love,” he immediately subjoined, “And he who
abideth in love, abideth in God, and God abideth in him;” whence he had said above, “Hereby we
know that we abide in Him, and He in us, because He hath given us of His Spirit.” He therefore is
signified, where we read that God is love. Therefore God the Holy Spirit, who proceedeth from
the Father, when He has been given to man, inflames him to the love of God and of his neighbor,
and is Himself love. For man has not whence to love God, unless from God; and therefore he
says a little after, “Let us love Him, because He first loved us.” The Apostle Paul, too, says, “The
love of God is shed abroad in our hearts by the Holy Ghost, which is given unto us.” (Trinity,
1995. p. 217)
Augustine believes that humans have freedom of choice in whether to accept or reject
God’s grace (Elwell, 1984) in the offer of salvation. The comfortable words remind us of God’s
love in that it tells us “Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners” (BCP 1662). This was
the purpose of Christ Jesus and enshrined in the Book of Common Prayer is the idea that, since
God loves the world, Christ’s offer of salvation is for all humans, everywhere, who repent and
turn to Christ. As it says, “This is a true saying, and worthy of all men to be received…” (BCP
1662). Man is sin sick and Christ is the cure. Like a loving physician who cares for the well being
of his charge, so Christ, that Great Physician, is come to heal the sickness leading to the death of
the human race. B.B. Warfield, quoting Augustine, wrote: ““There was no reason,” he insists, “for
the coming of Christ the Lord except to save sinners. Take away diseases, take away wounds,
and there is no reason for medicine. If the great Physician came from heaven, a great sick man
was lying ill through the whole world. That sick man is the human race” (Pelagian, 1995. p.
xxiii). Humans, because of sin, are unable to love God as they ought to do just as a lame man
cannot walk because of his infirmity. When the Holy Spirit works in a human heart and grants
repentance, this produces the fruit of love for God and fellow human in return.
Therefore, anyone who sins and repents is comforted to hear that they “have an
Advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ the righteous” (BCP 1662). Man cannot save himself and
needs a mediator between God and Man. God himself becomes that mediator in the Person of
the Only‐begotten Son of God. Humans are unable to obtain perfection of themselves. They are
unable to obtain righteousness and still sin from time to time, though they are in Christ Jesus.
Augustine comments saying:
Moreover, because even for those who are under grace it is difficult in this mortal life perfectly
to keep what is written in the law, Thou shall not covet, Christ, by the sacrifice of His flesh, as
our Priest obtains pardon for us. And in this also He fulfills the law; for what we fail in through
weakness is supplied by His perfection, who is the Head, while we are His members. Thus John
says: “My little children, these things write I unto you, that ye sin not; and if any man sin, we
have an Advocate with the Father, Jesus Christ the righteous: He is the propitiation for our sins.”
(Manichaean, 1995. p. 242)
Jesus Christ is the propitiation for the sins of repentant humanity. No more comfort can be
given than to know that if someone sins, the work of Christ on his or her behalf is all sufficient
for the case. This person, once repenting, has good standing with the Father through Jesus
Christ once again being reconciled to God.
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In review, the Ash Wednesday Office is replaced by the Penitential Office because the
Ash Wednesday Office shows God as an angry God who threatens punishment to humans. The
Penitential Office, on the other hand, shows Cranmer’s idea of God being a loving Father.
Cranmer modifies the Reformation idea of the angry God, creating a paradigm shift towards a
loving Father who waits and watches in concern for the return of his wayward child. Cranmer
brings God down to people and shows his loving concern and care for his people.
There are many influences upon Cranmer’s Liturgy, one of which is the feudal system of
social standing. Anselm’s theology of the Atonement came out of this milieu. God’s offended
honor must be satisfied, somehow. Christ’s death alone satisfies this debt to God and its benefit
is appropriated by those who repent. This theologies influence is seen in the General Confession
and the three exhortations.
The answer to Anselm has come by Peter Abelard. He has a theory now called the
moral‐influence theory of the atonement. God is love. Christ dies to show Man the full extent of
God’s love. Humans who repent are forgiven based upon God’s love. The significance of the
Cross is that it causes humans to love God so that he does not have to punish our sins. While this
theory does not take sin seriously, it has as a strength the love and willing forgiveness of God.
It’s influence is seen in the Book of Common Prayer regarding this love of God. This keeps God
from appearing as a socio‐pathic monster waiting to smash all who offend him. It takes
seriously Jesus’ words about rejoicing in heaven over one sinner who repents. This theory
closely mirrors the Prodigal Son model Cranmer used for his Liturgy. Both of these theologies
are two sides of the same coin. They balance each other and complete each other, in many ways,
in the Book of Common Prayer.
Cranmer forever enshrines Augustine’s theology in the Book of Common Prayer.
Cranmer believes the Augustinian concept that repentance is the surest sign of salvation. It is
the evidence of God’s good will towards the penitent since only the elect are granted
repentance. All humans are sinners against God and must seek a righteousness apart from
themselves. This is found in the imputed righteousness of Christ. It is based upon the merits of
Christ’s work on their behalf that the repentant are justified. It is faith in this work alone that
justifies. Repentance is the fruit of salvation by faith alone. It is a auto‐response to the Gospel
that Christ in God has done everything required for salvation. The glory goes to God and is not
shared by humans.
Augustine’s view points are the most influential upon the Reformers and is the
foundation of much of the theology of the Book of Common Prayer in general, and the Liturgy in
particular. Humanity is in a state where death reigns supreme over the race. Sin robs humans of
life and they can do nothing to save themselves. God’s solution is to send his Son to take on
flesh, which is not part of his original nature, in order to save humanity from sin and death. He
does this out of love, not out of a need to satisfy God’s broken laws. His death, based on God’s
love, on the cross destroys death and sin.
Augustine’s enshrined theology is seen in such places as the Absolution and the General
Confession. It is also seen in the Comfortable Words that support the Absolution. Augustine’s
belief in the selfless act of God’s love in Christ bestowed upon an undeserving mankind is a
theme that runs throughout the Liturgy. The Liturgy is, in fact, an encounter with the
undeserved love of God. God loves sinners and wants them to be saved and will not turn away
any that respond to him in faith. Not only does an amended life mean loving God, but it means
loving other humans, as well. There is no true repentance if it does not bear this singular fruit.
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This repentance and its fruit is the gift of the Holy Spirit. Anyone who has this shows they are
the elect of God and God has working in their heart.
As the comfortable words remind us, the purpose of Christ Jesus is the save sinners and
this is forever glorified in the Liturgy. The human race, being sick to the point of death because
of sin needs a savior to put repentance in their heart and heal them of the sickness of sin.
Anyone who repents finds they have an Advocate with the Father in the person of Jesus Christ
so that if they do sin, they will find forgiveness because Christ is the propitiation for human sin.
He provides reconciliation between God and Man.
The theological influences upon the Book of Common Prayer are many and varied.
Abelard and Anselm had great influence with their theories of the Atonement. Repentance is
required in order to stand in right relations with God. However, Augustine’s theology is the
most wide reaching influence. No one can repent except the Holy Spirit enables him and his
means he is one of the Elect of God. God, in his great love, grants repentance, and its fruit, love,
to anyone who will come in faith in the work Christ did on the Cross. People are justified by
faith in Christ’s atoning work alone, quite apart from any merit of their own. Those who are
thus justified by faith and have repented are reconciled to the God who loves them. Repentance
and reconciliation is the work and gift of God and this is seen throughout the Liturgy.
Chapter Three: Practical Realizations
Practical Theological Realizations
The theme of the Liturgy of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer being repentance from sin and
reconciliation to a loving God, the questions arise: What does this matter and what response to
this should there be? In other words, if the Liturgy is transformative, what should the Church do
to insure repentance and reconciliation actually occur in a person’s life? Should this be an
ongoing process as seems to be indicated by the structure of the Liturgy? Society has been
shaped by the Liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer and may be again. If societal attitudes and
actions are molded by the Liturgy then so is the thought, even if unconscious, of the individual.
Thought and actions may be shaped by the Liturgy as repentance and reconciliation become
reality in the lives of worshippers. One example of a person who propagates thought shaped by
the Gospel idea of repentance and reconciliation in the Book of Common Prayer is Alfred Lord
Tennyson. Tennyson believes that repentance is possible for any person, no matter how great
their sin. Throughout the Idylls of the King, repentance and a changed life is seen. It is a running
theme. No matter how dark the past or great the sin, forgiveness is always within reach of the
repentant. There is great hope for Man still. In the following, the one which was lost is now
greeted in heaven after repentance has taken place.
Have ye look'd
At Edyrn? Have ye seen how nobly changed?
This work of his is great and wonderful,
His very face with change of heart is changed.
(Tennyson, H., 1897. 132.)
The whole aspect of the man is changed once change is wrought in his heart through
repentance. Repentance and reconciliation affect the whole of life, from inward thoughts and
attitudes to plans and actions of the one redeemed by the act of repentance.
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Guinevere’s repentance of her betrayal and adultery and her subsequent forgiveness by King
Arthur mirrors the forgiveness God gives each human when they repent. However, though
Lancelot likewise repents, and he dies as a holy man, still the effects of the sin of these two have
destroyed the Kingdom and the dream of the Round Table (Tennyson, H.). Sin has consequences
that reach beyond even the one who sins. It affects even Arthur and in the last battle:
Nor even yet had Arthur fought a fight
Like this last, dim, weird battle of the west.
A death‐white mist slept over sand and sea,
Whereof the chill, to him who breathed it, drew
Down with his blood, till all his heart was cold
With formless fear; and even on Arthur fell
Confusion, since he saw not who he fought.
For friend and foe were shadows in the mist,
And friend slew friend not knowing whom he slew…
(Tennyson, A., 1922. 309‐310)
People who sin cause other people to sin, though they be seemly unrelated to them. Sin causes a
mist to fall over the eyes of the soul so that the sinner cannot see, nor appreciate, what he does.
Sin’s consequences are a spiritual and moral blindness in which people cannot even fathom the
evil they do to others. There is forgiveness and reconciliation with the King for Guinevere and
Lancelot and this is enough to remove the stain from their souls. Yet, it is not enough to save the
kingdom that is destroyed by sin that originates in the hearts of these two. Sin has far reaching
consequences.
Sin is a communicable disease. It is passed from one generation to another. The much loved
Origen of the Early Church speaking on a passage in Matthew gives an insightful discussion on
the human condition, which he calls “spiritual epileptics.”
But since our present object is not to make inquiry about every case, but about the passage
before us, let us, adopting a figurative interpretation, consider who we may say the lunatic was,
and who was his father who prayed for him, and what is meant by the sufferer falling not
constantly but oft‐times, sometimes into the fire, and sometimes into the water, and what is
meant by the fact that he could not be healed by the disciples but by Jesus Himself. For if every
sickness and every infirmity, which our Savior then healed among the people, refers to different
disorders in souls, it is also in accordance with reason that by the paralytics are symbolized the
palsied in soul, who keep it lying paralyzed in the body; but by those who are blind are
symbolized those who are blind in respect of things seen by the soul alone, and these are really
blind; and by the deaf are symbolized those who are deaf in regard to the reception of the word
of salvation. On the same principle it will be necessary that the matters regarding the epileptic
should be investigated. Now this affection attacks the sufferers at considerable intervals, during
which he who suffers from it seems in no way to differ from the man in good health, at the
season when the epilepsy is not working on him. Similar disorders you may find in certain
souls, which are often supposed to be healthy in point of temperance and the other virtues;
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then, sometimes, as if they were seized with a kind of epilepsy arising from their passions, they
fall down from the position in which they seemed to stand, and are drawn away by the deceit of
this world and other lusts. Perhaps, therefore, you would not err if you said, that such persons,
so to speak, are epileptic spiritually, having been cast down by “the spiritual hosts of
wickedness in the heavenly places,” and are often ill, at the time when the passions attack their
soul; at one time falling into the fire of burnings, when, according to what is said in Hosea, they
become adulterers, like a pan heated for the cooking from the burning flame; and, at another
time, into the water, when the king of all the dragons in the waters casts them down from the
sphere where they appeared to breath freely, so that they come into the depths of the waves of
the sea of human life. This interpretation of ours in regard to the lunatic will be supported by
him who says in the Book of Wisdom with reference to the even temperament of the just man,
“The discourse of a pious man is always wisdom,” but, in regard to what we have said, “The fool
changes as the moon.” And sometimes even in the case of such you may see impulses which
might carry away in praise of them those who do not attend to their want of ballast, so that they
would say that it was as full moon in their case, or almost full moon. And you might see again
the light that seemed to be in them diminishing,—as it was not the light of day but the light of
night,—fading to so great an extent, that the light which appeared to be seen in them no longer
existed. But whether or not those who first gave their names to things, on account of this gave
the name of lunacy to the disease epilepsy, you will judge for yourself. (Origen, 1995. 477)
We are all spiritually sick from the sins and passions that control our lives. Only in Jesus Christ
is found the cure for what ails us. As Tennyson points out, through it all there is still a light of
hope. That hope is seen in the Gospel of Jesus Christ and this is presented in the Liturgy of the
Book of Common Prayer where there is a firm offer of reconciliation and a changed life if one
repents. The damage done to society, to families, to friends, may not be able to be totally
repaired. However, the healing and the removal of the stain from the soul of the sinner and
reconciliation with God, who will eventually make all things right, is possible. The sinner is
bidden to come and pray, come and worship. In that worship, a chance at repentance and
forgiveness is offered to those, who with faith, reach out to a loving God who watches for the
least sign of a return, and then runs to comfort the one who repents.
This idea of repentance and reconciliation is the power to change society. There is
power in Liturgy that brings a serious offer of repentance and reconciliation. It is the Gospel
itself. It needs to be explained. It needs to be proclaimed. Its power is such that it will transform
the wayward. Those, who through sin, are marginalized in society, are able to find forgiveness
and a place in the Kingdom. As Jesus said, “Go out quickly to the streets and lanes of the city, and
bring in the poor and crippled and blind and lame” (Luke 14:21). These unfortunate ones who,
once overcome by sin, now have a place to meet the God that created them and no more find
themselves outcast.
How this message is to be proclaimed so that it is understood by those outside the
Church and those within is a matter to be considered. The Bishops of the newly formed
Province of the Anglican Church in North America have developed a working document called,
Toward an Anglican Catechumenate to address the issue of proclamation of the Gospel of
reconciliation to society in general and ongoing discipleship within the walls of the Church.
The Taskforce proposes a mission‐minded dual catechetical approach: (1) catechetical
evangelism, which focuses on disciple‐making in an evangelistic situation (from the ‘front
porch’ of the church); and (2) liturgical catechesis, which focuses on disciple‐making within the
formational contexts of family and church (from the font). (ACNA, 2010. 1)
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The task force was implemented to advise the House of Bishops regarding the training and
instruction of church members, and the instruction of those apart from Christ so as to make
disciples. Catechism is especially vital for the life of the Church if its members are to be
strengthened, equipped, and motivated toward holy living. The problem is how to effectually
make disciples of those who see no place for Christ in their lives, as well as, those who feel so
unworthy as to never dare cross the threshold of a local church. Combined with this is the issue
of how to properly train and equip those who attend church so they live a reconciled life in
Christ, repenting when necessary, but growing in holiness. One problem here, it would seem, is
that catechism is seen as being largely something for children and adult converts and this is not
effective. In addition, baptized adults have no consistent process for ongoing learning. Indeed,
the taskforce reports that most adults in ACNA churches are dissatisfied with the catechesis of
their children. A similar amount of people are doubtful about the effectiveness of training and
making disciples (ACNA). Indeed, in an informal survey of Reformed Episcopal Churches
performed by this writer, the results were discouraging. Thirty‐six ministers were polled. They
were asked the following questions:
1. Do you have an ongoing, step by step discipleship program for adults?
2. If so, does it include classes in an ongoing life long process?
3. Is it required for all mentally capable adults?
One hundred percent of the respondents said they did not have an ongoing, step by step
discipleship program for adults. None included a lifelong process of any sort. Not one required
any sort of class for adults. Another poll of Roman Catholic and, Eastern Orthodox priests, plus
Pentecostal ministers, shows that this is not unique to the Reformed Episcopal Church.
This brings up a few areas that need to be explored with further research. If the Liturgy
is transformative, why has it been so neglected in ongoing catechesis? If the Liturgy brings a
person to repentance and reconciliation, why are there not more of these phenomena taking
place? Has catechesis gone far enough with adult training and discipleship? Why has adult
training and discipleship not been given more attention? Why is there no consistent process for
ongoing learning? Why has the intent and effectiveness of the Liturgy been left out of the
process?
The ACNA Taskforce (Anglican Church in North America) is thinking missionally about
catechesis. It is looking at two intersecting pathways. One is catechetical evangelism, or
catechism from the “front porch” of the church for non‐believers. They are also looking at
liturgical catechesis, or catechism “from the font” or inside the church for believers. The first
focuses on conversion of the un‐churched. It is a process of stages or rites of passage that will
culminate in conversion and baptism and finally into a full sacramental life in the church. The
second approach is conversion from cradle to the grave, so to speak. It emphasizes spiritual
nurture of baptized children by godly parents (ACNA). People, whether they are evangelized in
the street or evangelized in the church move in stages of salvation. Conversion may or may not
occur in a moment. But becoming truly Christian is a process of many steps that moves a person
from the spiritual bareness of this world to the fullness of life of the heavenly world. Any
liturgically based catechism must lead converts into a full sacramental life where they
encounter God in full and meaningful ways. People must be nurtured and enabled to grow
spiritually healthy so they become fully functional members of the Body of Christ just as natural
children must be nurtured so they grow strong and healthy and become functional members of
society.
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Worship is essential to the making of a Christian (ACNA). Participation in the rites of
passage and in the full liturgical life of the Church is necessary for a person to grow into a
strong, mature Christian. In the Liturgy itself, a person passes though stages of instruction,
admonition, confession, repentance, absolution, reconciliation, adoption, communion, praise,
and blessing. John Westerhoff III wrote:
We are formed by the liturgy so that we might live a Eucharistic life, a life in gratitude to God.
We gather in the grateful awareness that God is with us. We listen and thank God for God’s
word. In grateful response to God’s Good News we sing a love song of thanksgiving. We pray,
thankfully, knowing that God is already seeking to do good things for us and all people. In
gratitude for the gift of community we share God’s peace. In thanksgiving we bring to God what
God has already given to us. In thanksgiving we share God’s gifts and with gratitude we go forth
to bring God’s grace to all peoples. Christian stewardship implies a Eucharistic life. When the
Eucharist is at the center of our lives then both a proper understanding of stewardship and a
faithful life as stewards of God are made possible, indeed are enhanced. (ACNA. 9)
The Church only has one mission, not many missions. We are to be about making
disciples; disciples of Jesus, not of ourselves. This discipleship cannot be divorced from the life
of the Church, as is so popular today. It must be within the context of the liturgical life of the
Church that feeds the soul of man on God. Probably nothing is more damaging to the Church,
and thus to all of humanity, as when well meaning, though mistaken, Christians bring revival
meetings within the walls of the local congregation thus replacing traditional worship that leads
to a fuller life. Revival meetings are only geared towards winning souls. This is done to cause
the church to grow. But by making the local church merely a place to evangelize, the local
church has stopped being a place to worship the Uncreated God who gives of himself to feed
those who need nourishing in their souls. Life and discipleship have deteriorated in this
environment. Now worship is seen as something one may do anywhere, in any context, if one is
so inclined. It makes no demands on a person and feeds not the soul on the Life of
God. Discipleship, on the other hand, is the ongoing training in, and living of, the life of
Christ within the person who worships and is converted. There is a famine in the land of the
food of the spirit, which is the life of the Son of God who is to live within us and become our very
life, even as it causes the death of us. We are to be put to death with Christ and no longer live.
Christ is to live in us instead. It is a great paradox that our death causes us to live by the life of
another. But the soul that is made alive in Christ is made alive by His life within it.
Life and discipleship cannot be divorced from the liturgy. The Liturgy of the Book of Common
Prayer calls out of the depths to the human who continually strays, because he has not died, to
come and repent and die. It calls a person to the Cross, the place of death. There is death in
repentance. It is a trip to a personal cross. It is a death of the old self. It is death to the old ways
of doing things and the old desires. In the Liturgy one confesses and repents, thus dying to self.
But resurrection is on the other side of death, for life comes upon confession and joy upon
reception by God. The Liturgy gives absolution and acceptance by God who reconciles the one
who has died in repentance to himself. God is about reconciling the world to himself. It is odd
that God is the one who seeks reconciliation when it is the human that needs to accomplish it
because of sin. Yet God is about reconciling sinful humanity to himself in Christ Jesus. The one
who in faith repents is reconciled by God, given life by God, and comforted by God. This takes
place within the context of the Church through Liturgy. This is why having Morning Prayer in
place of the Liturgy gives no life, only a semblance of it. We may enter his courts with praise but
praise must be followed by repentance and reconciliation. This must be followed by feeding on
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Him in the Eucharistic banquet who is Himself life and in Whom only is life. There is life in no
other.
Within this Liturgy is a Sacrament of penance. The person who is baptized into the One who
provides forgiveness experiences forgiveness in the sacrament of Confession and Absolution
occurring within the context of the Liturgy. Sin may be a breaking of God’s laws, but it is first
and foremost a departure from love and a move towards self. It is, therefore, a movement away
from God. In Christ alone is forgiveness and in repentance, man finds reconciliation to God. It is
the return to love as it is meant to be. In the Sacrament, which takes place within the life of the
Church, the Body of Christ, sin is forgiven and the possibility of true repentance becomes
possible. It leads the way to the Banquet of Banquets, the Eucharistic feast, which is the
satisfying of the hunger of the soul upon the Body and Blood of Christ.
This is why evangelism is so important. The Church is the entrance into the life of Christ. Those
who separate themselves from the Church because of a mistaken notion of worship have
separated themselves from Life itself. A person cannot say that he or she can worship God
anywhere and does not need to be a part of the life of the local church. They separate
themselves from any true life because the Church is the Body of Christ himself in whom, and
from whom, is life. The same is true for those who wish to hold continual revival meetings
instead of true worship for the sake of numbers. Numbers may be appealing, and may be
important, but souls nurtured on the Life that springs Eternal, Christ, are the most important
thing. Nothing less than the life of the world is at stake, here. Because those Spirit fed souls
carry the Life of the One who died to give life to the world, back into the world once having fed
on Him within the Body that has given them life.
The Anglican Diocese of West Malaysia is implementing a program for the transformation of
individuals, families, and culture. Bishop Ng Moon Hing says that the transformation is planned
for four areas: Inward, Sideward, Upward, and Outward (Malaysia, no date). This program is a
four year plan of action to transform the nation of Malaysia by Christianizing it. The Inward
transformation refers to the individual’s transformation. The concentration here is the
discipleship of the individual. This is followed quite naturally by the Sideward transformation.
This is the transformation of whole families. Following this is Upward transformation which is
the transformation of Christian churches at the local congregational level. This being set in
motion the final phase is the Outward transformation (Malaysia). The goal in this phase is to
transform the communities of the Nation by means of the transformed people, families, and
churches. This is reminiscent of the command of Jesus to be witnesses in Jerusalem, Judea,
Samaria, and the uttermost parts of the earth (Acts 1:8).
This plan is done within the life of the Church, not apart from it. First, they have developed, and
now utilize a Liturgy specifically for each phase (Malaysia). Nothing is done apart from the
liturgical life of the Church. They have set concrete goals and are implementing Bible Studies
that were developed to educate the leaders in these transformations. They have implemented
theological studies to further their aims, as well. Their strategic approach is targeted at various
levels with modules for each: the Provincial, the Diocesan, the Archdeaconry, the Parish, and the
Individual levels (Malaysia).
Within the larger Anglican Communion, some see the solution to be the transformation of
society and the loss of individual salvation. Alleviating suffering in society through
transformation through compassion and justice is the goal of the Gospel. If society is
transformed, the individual is saved. Johannes Seoka writes:
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Spirituality in general, then, and our role as leaders within the Anglican Communion in
particular, cannot direct itself only to the crucified Christ as a private and spiritualized matter,
but must acknowledge at the deepest level that ‘if the title “Christ” refers to the redeemer and
liberator then “practical” Christian action can only be directed towards the liberation of man
from his humanity.’ (Percy, 2010, 71)
However, the problem is not with society, per se. It is with sin. And sin cannot be simply
covered over and assuaged, as can guilt. The problem is that sin is a rupture from the
relationship between Man and God, Who is life Himself (Eucharist, 1988). This is why the fall of
Man is so cataclysmic, because all of life, not just actions, becomes sinful. This fallen life, under
the sentence of death, cannot heal itself, revive itself, nor does it have the power to change one
errant human heart. Only God can save us for our whole life needs salvation, and not merely
help. Only God can fulfill what all religions and social actions seek to accomplish. He
accomplishes this in his Only‐Begotten Son whom he sent precisely to die for the salvation of
the world so that the person who sins can live and be transformed. Society is transformed by
truly saved humanity and in no other way can it be so. All other methods are based in sin and
only the sinless Son of God can affect repentance in the human heart so that reconciliation and
real transformation can begin.
Realizing the necessity of repentance and transformation when looking at the ACNA and the
Diocese of Malaysia plans, the purpose of the Liturgy in bringing about repentance and
reconciliation so people may be nurtured on the Life of the resurrected Christ may make those
efforts more fully realized. Perhaps utilizing the structure of the Liturgy, along with ritual,
would be more helpful in bringing to realization the efforts of both parties. Ritual is, after all, an
important element in being human. Humanity uses ritual for every important event and this is
true across all cultures. Most cultures have elaborate ceremonies for marriage, recognizing its
importance. One could argue that having a baby is merely a biological act. However, it is
celebrated with ritual. People pass out cigars, bring items of blue, pink, or yellow (Howard,
1984). People learn from sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch. The more vivid the things are that
are encountered through the senses the more memorable they are. Ritual provides a vivid
learning experience for everyone present and when a person reaches a milestone in their
spiritual life it should be celebrated with ritual. For example, an adult who has only just
embraced Christ, the God he did not formerly know in a meaningful way, should have his or her
conversion celebrated in and by the Church. Since baptism is the entrance rite perhaps a
conversion ritual that brings the person from outside of the parish into the narthex would be
appropriate? This makes for a nice, connected progression of ritual events the convert will
begin to encounter. Such a ritual celebrating the person’s reconciliation with God would also be
cause for inviting the friends and relatives of the convert to the church who might also be
estranged from God.
Humanity is estranged from God. Since the first man rebelled against God, humanity has gone
its own way. Humanity, God’s child created in God’s own image, has become the Prodigal Son
and has wasted what God has given it. Sin has bogged mankind down in a morass and mankind
perishes for lack of true nurture and from a separation from the life found in God. Humans need
to be brought to their senses. They need to be brought to repentance. Repentance finds
reconciliation and forgiveness in the loving embrace of a concerned Heavenly Father. God has
sent his Only‐begotten Son to perish for the sins of the whole world so that all might be saved.
God actively seeks the lost and runs to them when he finds them starting to turn to him.
In answer to this the estrangement from God of humanity the Liturgy begins with some
knowledge of who God is. He is “our Father”, he is “in heaven” and his name is to be “hallowed.”
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This is followed by a proclamation of his holy requirements “God spake these words”. One
cannot assume, today, that people have even the vaguest concept of who God is. Proclamation
must begin, as the Liturgy, with who God is. The concept of the Christian God is fading. Most
cultures in the past had some clear notion of what the words “God” and “gods” meant and these
words were the foundation of the social and cosmic order. In modern cultures the concept of
“God” has lost its original function (Pannenberg, 1991). The term has become uncertain as
society is more and more freed from religious restraints. People in the modern world often
simply do not understand what is meant when a Christian mentions the name “God.” Years of
pastoral experience has shown that even amongst those who attend church regularly this term
may mean many things to many different people. Man is estranged from God and does not know
him, nor does it know the way back to him. The Liturgy offers help in this matter. It begins with
the very definition lost to many people. “Our Father, Who art in heaven” provides the necessary
starting place for a conversation about repentance from sin and reconciliation to this estranged
God. Man was thrust from Paradise because of unrepented sin (St. Symeon, 1995). Jesus Christ
is the way back to Paradise for he is the doorway to life. Jesus, who said, “I am the Way” also
said, “I am the door, and if anyone enters through me he shall be saved” (John 10:9 Author’s
translation). Faith in Christ is the new Paradise (St. Symeon). He is the restored life in God and
the resting place of God. Repentance is the way to Paradise (St. Symeon).
Paradise is also the place of the Tree of Life. Because of unrepentance Man lost access to this
tree. Jesus is that tree. We read in the Revelation of Jesus Christ to John that the Tree of Life is
found in the new Paradise of God (Revelation 22:2,14). He is Life (John 14:6) and in him is life
(John 1:4) and there is life in no other. The Way to life is modeled in the Liturgy. We have life in
his Name and it begins with repentance and produces reconciliation and life. It ends at the
Eucharistic feast at which we sup around the heavenly table upon the Tree of Life which is the
body and blood of Jesus Christ himself.
To facilitate the reconciliation between God and Man any program developed should keep the
following liturgical structural for catechetical considerations in mind:
Liturgical Feature Mode Consequence
Our Father identification understanding
Law and Gospel proclamation evangelism
Creed instruction conversion
Confession recognition forgiveness
Absolution admission reconciliation and healing
Comfortable Words reception acknowledgement and thanksgiving
Trisagion expression enter his courts with praise
Eucharist sanctification heavenly communion
Our Father position familial standing
Doxa Patri glorification change of heart
Benediction permission descent for proclamation
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Table 5: Structure of the Liturgy as Catechism
The goal is to produce a catechetical method based in the structure of the Liturgy. It should be
done in a step‐by‐step method to produce healthy, mature, disciple‐making Christians. It should
include life‐stage ongoing catechesis. The Liturgy offers the tools for the propagation of the
Gospel through repentance and reconciliation. It is the way back to Paradise for all those who
have become estranged by sin and the pressures of this world.
In précis, the Liturgy has the capability to mold societal attitudes and actions. Tennyson
is a good example of this, being born into the English Church. He believes repentance is possible
no matter how great the sin and there is hope for Mankind because of this. Repentance and
reconciliation affect the whole of life. Edyrn is an example of a changed life because of
repentance in his writings. The sin of Guinevere and Lancelot, their subsequent repentance and
forgiveness by Arthur mirror the same between Man and God. Sin, however, is a communicable
disease and all humans are sick spiritually from it and have been infected by it. There is hope of
a cure and that is found in the Gospel of Jesus Christ as presented in the Liturgy of the 1662
Book of Common Prayer. Here is the power to change society and individuals marginalized
through sin.
The Province of the Anglican Church in North America has been working on the issue of
such proclamation and the House of Bishops has produced a preliminary document regarding
this. Their concern is to train and instruct church members to make disciples of them. However,
a survey conducted by them shows that the congregational members are not satisfied with the
current level of catechesis for any age range within their parishes and that such catechesis is
not effective. A survey by the Author found that of thirty‐six pastors polled, none had an
ongoing, step by step discipleship program for adults, none had a life long process of any sort,
and none required any such program for adults. A poll of various Roman Catholic, Eastern
Orthodox, and Pentecostal ministers has given a similar finding.
ACNA and the Diocese of West Malaysia are focusing on the need of transformation. ACNA is
thinking missionally about catechesis in two intersecting ways. Evangelism is catechesis “from
the front porch” focusing on the unchurched and liturgical catechesis that is “from the font”
which focuses on those born within the Church. Worship is essential to the process and
participation in the rites of the Church is vital for formation. The Liturgy itself passes a person
through various stages reflective of the process. It calls a person to the Cross and to repentance.
From that event, reconciliation can take place and the Liturgy acts as a vehicle to drive a person
to that goal. The Anglican Diocese of West Malaysia is also addressing the need for
transformation of persons, families, churches, and culture and doing so liturgically. They have
developed a four fold plan of action with concrete goals, developed a Liturgy to support it, as
well as training and Bible studies to ensure the aim is met.
The Liturgy of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer offers an outline that can be used to
enhance the efforts of both parties. For example, in today’s world one cannot assume another
person has the same concept of God, or any concept at all, as the traditional understanding. The
Liturgy begins, helpfully, with this information. Repentance, as found and taught within the
Liturgy, is the way back to the Paradise of God, which is Christ Jesus. He is the entryway to
everlasting life and reconciliation to God. He is the Tree of Life and the Liturgy moves a person
from need to fulfillment, from evangelism to completion, from spiritually dead to feasting on the
tree of life in the Eucharist. The intent of the Liturgy is to lead people back to God through
repentance and to life by reconciliation and it does so by its very structure.
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Conclusion
An analysis of the purpose of the Liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer as to its theme seems to
be lacking in scholarly studies. Cranmer has a purpose in composing the Liturgy. The major
theme of his Liturgy needs exploring so a greater understanding of the influence of the Book of
Common Prayer has on its users and to find whether to the Liturgy accomplishes its task.
Cranmer certainly draws from ancient liturgical sources. Both Jewish and Christian liturgies
arise from a common fountain and are influential on the Cranmerian Liturgy. However, only
Cranmer’s Liturgy focuses on the central idea of repentance from sin and reconciliation to God.
There is so much information and there are many variations of the Book of Common Prayer that
the study of Cranmer’s Liturgy could be overwhelming. Therefore the focus of the study must be
narrowed. In this instance the focus will be the Book of Common Prayer of 1662 which is the
edition finally adopted by the English. Repentance from sin and reconciliation to God makes up
the central theme of the Liturgy of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer.
The background behind the Liturgy bears out the theme. The ancient liturgy inherited
by Israel, as well as that predating, use the same form, rituals, and ideas as that passed down to
the Church. The liturgies of the Church are based on the earlier liturgies. These in turn are the
foundation for the English Liturgy. In ancient times God decrees how he wants to be
worshipped to these ancient peoples. The call to repentance from sin and to be reconciled to
God is an explicit call in the worship of Israel. Jesus, the same God who, pre‐Incarnate, hands
down this form of worship to Moses is the same God who, in his Incarnation worships in this
same manner while on earth and sets the example for his followers. His disciples keep the
practice of worship handed down from the beginning and validated by their Lord. When they
are forced to find their own places of worship outside of the Temple environs, they keep the
same form of worship and pass this down to future generations. Again, important to this
worship is the teaching of Jesus regarding repentance and reconciliation to God.
The early Christians are Jews and they practice worship in the Temple, which was
founded by the ordinances of Moses, and the Synagogue, which arises to meet the needs of
those who can not attend the Temple service. Jesus and his disciples worship in both and pass
down both traditions. The Christian and Jewish services are one and same types of worship, not
different and there is a structural and purpose dependence that goes beyond similarities in
prayers and scripture usage. The content, movement, order, structure, and purpose of both are
the same. There are the blessings of God, praise, confession of sins, intercession, and movement
of the Scriptures in procession that are the same. Even the idea of a sacrifice is the same. All
ancient Christian liturgies have the same Jewish/Yahwist pattern. Some examples are the
Liturgy of St. Mark, the Liturgy of St. James, the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom and
Antioch, and the Liturgy of St. Basil. Included in each of these ancient Christian liturgies is an
explicit call to repent of one’s sins and be reconciled to God.
During the Reformation this evangelistic idea found a fresh foothold. Cranmer comes
under the influence of noted Reformation theologians Peter Martyr, Martin Bucer, and John
Hooper as he starts to compile his Book of Common Prayer. From these men he learns the deep
depravity of Man, the need for the recitation of the Decalogue, the importance of Scripture in
practice, and a respect for the Fathers of the Church and their liturgies. Cranmer learns the
importance of the person believing on the Lord Jesus Christ in order to be saved and belong to a
covenant community. Through repentance and faith in Christ a person becomes a member of
the New Covenant. This idea of repentance in individual salvation is a major idea in Cranmer’s
Liturgy.
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The structure of most ancient liturgies is the same regardless of where they developed.
They represent a faithful adherence to what is being passed down to them. They services are
developed around two solemn entrances, the Eucharistic prayer, distribution of Holy
Communion and are bound on each end by an opening rite and a dismissal rite. This pattern
holds true for Cranmer’s Liturgy, as well, and it is easily seen from the structure of this liturgy
the central place given to repentance from sin and reconciliation to God. From the opening
salvo the need for repentance from sin for those who do not live up to God’s standards is met.
With the Exhortations, General Confession and Repentance people are encouraged to, by faith,
repent and be reconciled to God.
Cranmer’s Liturgy brings a separation of the Litany from the Liturgy at the Synaxis.
Rather than begin with the Deacon’s Prayers, or the Great Litany, the synaxis begins with two
prayers that ask for forgiveness and a right standing before God. This is followed by the
requirements of God for human living, petitions for mercy, and a changed life. The Gospel is
processed out in a short procession keeping ties with ancient practice. The Gospel requirements
are then expounded upon. The Liturgy follows the familiar pattern of the ancient liturgies. The
earliest Christian liturgies all contain a time of repentance before the Eucharist. Before
communing the congregation says a prayer of repentance in the Divine Liturgy of St. John
Chrysostom asking for forgiveness of sins known and unknown, in thought, word, or deed and
that the sinner be purified. The Sarum Rite, which is foundationally influential on Cranmer’s
Liturgy is similar. However, different from any other ancient liturgy, the Liturgy of Cranmer
contains a rite of Confession, including within it a confession of sins, repentance, and the
Absolution. There is a warning before the sacrament of the Eucharist coming before the General
Confession and here, again, is that evangelistic call to repent and be reconciled to God. The
Eucharistic prayers that follow use the ancient pattern. There is a consecratory prayer that all
ancient liturgies use in common, as does the 1662 Liturgy. Taken from 1 Corinthians 11:23‐25
and Matthew 26:27‐28, this prayer, along with the Lord’s Prayer, is a most primitive Christian
liturgical prayer. A comparison (see Table 1: Comparison of the Consecrations of
Constatinopolitan, Sarum, and Cranmerian Liturgies) between the consecrations of the Liturgies
of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, the ancient English Rite of Sarum, and of Constantinople
show the similarities of use. This prayer occurs in the same place during every Christian ancient
liturgy and in the Book of Common Prayer. These prayers are said to be for the forgiveness of
sins.
One is struck by the frequency of calls to repentance in the Liturgy of the Book of
Common Prayer and how liturgical units function to propagate this message. At least thirty‐
three times during the Liturgy the message of repentance is explicitly or implicitly given. For
example, all Eastern rites have an entrance rite before the priest enters the altar area. Cranmer
substitutes the Lord’s Prayer for the traditional models because it asks for repentance and
serves as a reminder of the priest’s standing as a reconciled child of God. The collect for purity,
kyrie eleison, prayers, and exhortations all call humans to remember the great love of God in
Christ who dies for mankind so that those who truly repent in faith may be acceptable to God.
The heart of the matter is the Rite of Confession. It comes into the Communion Office in
1549. Cranmer feels that humans are not worthy to offer any sacrifice to God and it is needful
for everyone to confess their sins and receive Absolution before communing. This is unique to
the Liturgy of the Church of England. During the Confession, three times repentance of sins and
asking for forgiveness is prayed about. For, while all ancient liturgies seek forgiveness, Cranmer
inserts the actual Sacrament of Confession within the Liturgy that contains the Absolution by
the priest. Here humans acknowledge their sins and in repentance seek reconciliation with God
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and are pronounced forgiven and reconciled by the priest. This rite is a sacrament within a
sacrament.
After the consecration of the gifts, the Lord’s Prayer is said. This emphasizes the
reconciled relationship between God and Man but also serves as a reminder to humans of their
need to give others the same consideration of forgiveness when a person has sinned against
them and repents. People must be reconciled with one another in the same manner God
forgives them and reconciles with them. The Liturgy concludes with the Great Doxology, which
is sung at the beginning of other ancient liturgies. It has a three‐fold petition asking Christ to
take away the sins of those who sing to him. It reminds the people that only Christ is sinless and
they all fall short of God’s glory. This hymn is a request for the people to be reconciled to God by
his great mercy.
The structure brings people to the point of repentance and then reconciliation with God.
It reinforces this theme throughout the Liturgy. The structure is more like a flowing stream
than building blocks. It carries the worshipper along to ever farther reaching heights of
awareness and required action and finally deposits the worshipper back upon the sands of the
world he or she came from in a nature that under goes change along the way. The structure
accomplishes its purpose completely in bringing about a change of mind, or repentance, in the
person who worships with the Prayer Book. This person is brought to reconciliation with the
God who loves him or her who is about reconciling the world to himself.
When Cranmer looks for a model for his Liturgy he seeks one that reinforces the idea of
repentance and reconciliation. He finds it in the parable of the Prodigal Son. God loves
repentant sinners and this story illustrates that point as no other. The parable has direct point
for point correlations to the structure of the Liturgy that cannot be accidental (see Table 2:
Parallels Between the Prodigal Son Parable and the Cranmerian Liturgy). There is an exact event
for even correlation between the two. There is the introduction of the father in both, one earthly
and one Heavenly. There is the son’s sinful lifestyle and violating the commandments in one and
the requirements of God’s law humans are braking in the other. In one the son comes to his
senses and decides to repent. In the other there is an invitation to come to one’s senses and
repent. In the parable the son gives a confession of his sins. In the Liturgy there is the General
Confession of sins each person participates in. In the parable there is the loving reception and
running to the repentant by the father. In the Liturgy there is the loving Absolution of the
repentant. The parable has the father comforting his son, rather than the expected other way
round. In the Liturgy the people are comforted by their Heavenly Father as the priest reads the
Comfortable Words. Finally, the restoration of the son to the position he was born to by the
father and the subsequent banquet in the parable are mirrored in the Liturgy. The Liturgy has
the reconciled people of God restored to their pre‐Fall position as the children of God brought
to the heavenly banquet, the Eucharistic Feast.
This development is surely the most remarkable in all Christendom. Here, in the
practice of prayer and worship is acted out the events of salvation from conviction, through
repentance, to reconciliation and restoration. There is nothing like it anywhere and one
wonders, given the political and theological situation in England, where Cranmer got such a
brilliant idea? It did not arise in a vacuum, as has been shown. He early on writes of it and later
pens a note regarding a similar situation regarding David and Nathan. Fisher, an influence upon
Cranmer, holds this parable in high esteem. Fisher develops his theology of repentance based
upon this parable, being under the influence of the revival of Augustinian theology. For him,
penitence is the central act of the Christian life and sinners, who are helpless to save
themselves, require God’s grace to come to their senses, repent, and be reconciled with God.
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Cranmer also comes to believe these things and repentance becomes a coming to one’s
senses. Repentance is the sign that the Holy Spirit is actually at work in a person and even the
smallest prayer is heard by God on the matter. God alone forgives sinners and they are made
righteous when they turn to God in faith by God’s own loving efforts. God does not wait, as did
not the father in the parable, rather he acts positively in the righteous work of Christ on behalf
of sinners. Through faith in the atoning work of Christ alone a sinner is justified and reconciled
to God and repentance is the key. The parable of the Prodigal Son is important to the Book of
Common Prayer precisely because it is the model of repentance and reconciliation based upon
the active work of a loving and merciful God. This represents a major paradigm shift. Other
liturgies focus on God’s holiness or transcendence. The Reformation worship shows God as
angry at humans and people are worms before his wrathful vengeance towards them. But in the
Liturgy of the Book of Common Prayer God is seen as loving and concerned for all humans who
are apart from him because of sin, just as the loving father of the Prodigal is beside himself with
worry and loving concern and daily searches for his lost son.
There is strong biblical support for the Liturgy of 1662. Cranmer’s three mentor’s
insistence that Scripture must be the basis for everything is carried out fully in the Liturgy.
Scripture is the basis of all liturgical units and collects found therein. Repentance from sin and
reconciliation to God are at the heart of each Scripture pericope that upholds the liturgical units
examined (see Table 3: Scriptural Foundation of Selected Major Liturgical Units). Sin, missing the
mark, is no ineradicable stain. Based upon the Liturgy, God gives the power to repent so a
person can change their destiny. It is not locked into the predetermined will of God. He gives
mercy freely to the one who changes his or her mind and decides to live for God. God, then,
cleanses the person from unrighteous stain.
In every religion, save one, people propitiate their gods. Only in Christianity is God the
propitiation for the people. It is God who actively reconciles the world of sinners to himself. God
acts, not Man. Mankind is the enemy of God apart from Christ and humans cannot find their way
to God by their own efforts. God solves the problem of enmity by eradicating his enemies and
making them no more. He vanquishes them by an act of selfless love, reconciling them to
himself by his own efforts in Christ Jesus. He initiates a work of grace in the heart of the sinner
and carries it to reconciliatory completion. This change in a person involves the attitude toward
God, others, and self. True repentance is brought about by the work of the Holy Spirit within a
person, and results in a changed heart that bears the fruit of reconciliation.
It is interesting to note that the Liturgy begins, therefore, with the Our Father and this occurs
again before communion takes place. This sets the tone for the service to follow. Humans need
to repent of their sins, be forgiven, and forgive their fellow humans. People need to be
constantly reminded of this. In the same manner they are forgiven, they must freely forgive. To
be reconciled to God a person will need to be reconciled to other people. This is based upon
Matthew 6:9ff, Luke 11:2ff, and 1 John 5:1ff. This prayer is followed by the Collect of Purity
(James 4:8; Matthew 15:19) and the Kyrie eleison (Luke 18:13; 1 Kings 8:58; Psalm 119:36;
Deuteronomy 5:29). The Exhortations (Isaiah 55:7; Mark 1:15; John 6:37; 1 Corinthians 11:27ff)
precede the Immediate Invitation (Jeremiah 3:13; Job 34:31,32). The heart of the matter is the
General Confession (1 John 1:8,9; Isaiah 59:12; Psalm 38:4,18; James 4:8ff; Psalm 51:1) is
followed by the crux of the matter, the Absolution given by the priest (John 20:23; Daniel 9:9).
Far from being alien to the Liturgy, Scripture plays a vital role in its make up. The Liturgy is
concerned with repentance and reconciliation. The liturgical units that make it up are founded
upon Scriptures that hold this same truth: sinners have a destiny not written in stone. They are
called to repent of their sins and to be reconciled to a loving God and enjoy a changed destiny.
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Theologically the Liturgy of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer is astounding. Cranmer creates a
major paradigm shift when he changes the Reformation idea of an angry God to a God of moving
compassion based in love. God is no angry God waiting to smash and burn all who offend
against him. He is now a loving Father who watches and searches longingly for his lost child.
This new paradigm brings a new attitude wrought by the change Cranmer makes in composing
his Liturgy. God’s love and willingness to be reconciled with wayward sinners compels people
to repent and return to him. Other liturgies hold God up as exalted, but as Table 4: Comparison
of Trisagion Liturgical Units points out, in the Book of Common Prayer he is the loving father to
whom humans lovingly lift up thankful hearts. Cranmer, in effect, brings God down to people.
God is now approachable. He loves wayward humans and actively searches for them to bring
them to repentance based on his love and concern for them. He sends his Only‐begotten Son to
die on the cross out of love to make reconciliation possible between God and Man.
It is interesting that Cranmer is so skillfully able to interweave competing theological views into
his Liturgy. He neither excludes, nor does he overly favor a particular view, except for his
overarching Augustinianism. Even here, He is no Continental Reformed theologian. He has his
own unique theological outlook that is, in many ways, surprising, given the influences he is
under. Certainly he melds Anselm’s Satisfaction Theory of the Atonement masterfully with
Abelard’s Moral Example Theory of the Atonement. He does not allow one to outshine the other
and solves some of the weaknesses of each. It is true that man has violated God’s holy laws. But
it is also true that God satisfies himself by going to the cross to die for human offenses. He does
this out of love and compassion, not of necessity. The Liturgy moves the communicant by stages
to a realization of the sins he or she has committed, through repentance, and the ultimate
reconciliation at the heavenly Eucharistic banquet. Along the journey through the Liturgy the
person is enabled to come to his or her senses, finds realization of what God has done on his or
her behalf out of love, repents of sins committed and is absolved, and finds a loving Father
running to meet him or her who comforts and accepts the returning sinner. These two
theologies are two sides of the same coin. One does not stand without the other. This influence
in profound in its effect on humanity and may be seen in the missionary activity of Anglicans
around the world reconciling people to a loving God through the Prayer Book.
As already stated, Cranmer is no Calvinist. There are major differences between his theology as
penned in the Liturgy and that of the Continental Reformers. For Augustine and, therefore
Cranmer, predestination is based upon God’s loving foreknowledge of how a person responds
to God’s love in Christ. The Fall does not erase the image of God in Man. This image is corrupted,
however. Humans cannot save themselves. There is no effort they can do to free themselves
from sin and the awful mortality that ensues from it. Humans still have the ability to respond to
God in free choice to accept or reject him. For Augustine God’s solution is to send his own Son to
take on flesh to save humanity from sin and death. This is not done because of wounded honor
or out of righteous anger. God does this out of his great love for humans. The only solution for a
loving God to save a lost and damned humanity is to suffer death on the cross and destroy the
power of sin and death over humanity. Salvation comes when faith in the work of Christ is
exercised by humans who are enabled by God.
Forgiveness of sins is through justification by faith and this is clearly seen in the Absolution.
Cranmer uses Augustine’s idea of the necessary fruit of repentance being an amended life,
rather than making satisfaction. This is reflected in the General Confession and in the
Absolution. The Comfortable Words that follow give further emphasis to his Augustinian
doctrine as they repeat the theology expressed in the Exhortations and provide further support.
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Augustine’s belief in the act of selfless love bestowed upon an undeserving mankind by a
gracious God is an Augustinian theme that runs all through the Liturgy. The Liturgy is an
encounter with the undeserved love of God in Christ. It expects that humans will return to God a
love that is based in repentance and appreciation for God’s benefits in Christ. God will not reject
those weighed down with sin. Rather, he will refresh them. God is no angry, offended God in the
sky, as some hold. In fact, this is a change that Cranmer made in the theology of the Prayer Book
that purposely is in opposition to much of the prevailing teachings at this time. Further, in
opposition to current Roman Catholic teaching, he does not demand penance or some good
work to save a person. God is love, as 1 John 4:7 tells us, and wants only faith in him and love
returned for what he has done in Christ for humanity. God’s love for all humanity is assured.
God loves sinners and wants them to be saved. He will not turn any away that come to him in
faith. But more, an amended life means loving God, but also loving others. There is no true
repentance if it does not bear this singular fruit. True repentance is a gift of God the Holy Spirit.
If anyone repents and truly is in love with God and his neighbor, as the Prayer Book
admonishes, they do show that they are of the Elect and the God of love has worked in their
hearts.
Cranmer’s theology is enough alike, and enough different from, prevailing theologies and
systems to conjure great controversy as well as produce great love. For those holding to one or
another theological theory, they will look in vain for complete support from Cranmer. However,
Cranmer’s theology is immanently practical and biblical. He embraces enough of each to
provide a place of agreement for those holding to the wide breadth of theological influences
current.
The Church only has one mission and it that of making disciples. The theme, therefore, of the
Liturgy of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer is repentance from sin and reconciliation to a
loving God. The Liturgy is a discipleship tool. The actions and thoughts of people are shaped by
it. As Tennyson points out, no matter how dark or great a person’s sin, forgiveness is always
within reach of the repentant in this life. There is great hope for Man, as a result. While people
pass their sins down through the generations and cross generational, as well, sin is never the
final answer. In Jesus Christ the answer to the disease of sin is to be found and the Liturgy
propagates that hope. In it there is a firm offer of reconciliation and change to those who repent
of their sins with faith in the work of Christ on their behalf. The sinner is bidden to come and
pray, come and worship and in that prayerful worship find a loving God who is reaching back
for them at the smallest sign of repentance and faith.
There is a growing need to effectively disciple members with the Church and those who are yet
outside and need to be brought within. The Bishops of ACNA, the Anglican Church in North
America, have a task force that is to give study to developing a discipleship training and
instruction program for their church members. The Diocese of West Malaysia is implementing a
program for reaching their nation on four levels, while that of ACNA focuses on two. Both,
however, express a desire to have any program connected to the liturgical life of the Church.
The structure of the Liturgy of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer gives a helpful pattern for
such an endeavor and to facilitate reconciliation between God and Man. This can be seen in
Table 5: Structure of the Liturgy as Catechism. The goal is to produce a catechetical method
based upon the Liturgy’s structure that would enable a step by step program to be developed of
ongoing discipleship, from cradle to the grave, and from the front porch and from the font, so to
speak.
The Liturgy is a brilliant effort that stands on the shoulders of the giants of liturgy of the past. It
is similar and it is unique. Where it differs, it does so strikingly and with good effect. It succeeds
Page 105
in bringing those who worship using it to repentance and complete reconciliation with God by
stages. It is solidly founded upon the Scriptures. Its theology is solidly Augustinian with helpful
corrections toward other theologies in good balance brings a person from the introduction to
who God is to the need of repentance, repentance, reconciliation, and full familial participation
in the Kingdom of God. It is truly a master work, having, as it does, the unique theme of
repentance from sin and reconciliation to a loving Heavenly Father.
Soli Christus Gloria

Page 106
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Dissertation
Choose the City of God:
Why Robert Hugh Benson's novel, Lord of the World, is still relevant today
Kim Strifert, D. Litt

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Page 114

Kim Strifert, D. Litt
Dissertation
August 30, 2010
Choose the City of God:
Why Robert Hugh Benson's novel, Lord of the World, is still relevant today
Introduction
This paper examines the relevancy of Robert Hugh Benson's novel, Lord of the
World. The first section is a brief description and gives the background of the novel,
which was written over one hundred years ago. This is followed by a section that
explores the relevance of the content of a book. It discusses the attributes that have
allowed the book to stand the test of time. These attributes include: Benson's use of St.
Augustine's book, The City of God; the effects of secular humanism on society; the
absence of faith in a secular society; the tendency for people to be persuaded by
personalities; the increasing authority and influence of psychology and science; and the
steady demise of the sacrament of marriage. The third section considers how the book
achieves relevancy through literary style and literary mechanisms. It investigates how
Benson uses the characters, the format of the book in three sections, and the story of Fr.
Percy's spiritual trial to illustrate his contention and create a novel that is still relevant
today. The last section of the paper is a conclusion that determines that the novel is
germane and pertinent for this day and age.
1. Description and Background
In Lord of the World, Robert Hugh Benson describes a dangerous cultural hazard,
the decline of the human capacity to make a personal decision about the ultimate
question: does one belong to God or to the world? He describes the advance of
secularism and Godless humanism that we experience today. Benson describes the
tendency of an age to embrace scientific and technical progress without noticing that it
pulls humanity apart from itself and from God.
The novel is often categorized as an apocalyptic novel and is one of the first
modern descriptions of a dystopia. Like others in its genre, this novel is a vision of a
futuristic society, which has developed into a negative version of Utopia. The novel
imagines a secular and humanistic world where religion has been suppressed or
ignored. People live in a sterile, noiseless and customized urban setting under created
sunlight. They are eerily isolated from contact with the natural world. The society has
eliminated suffering and turns to legalized euthanasia to end any possible experience of
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suffering or hint of death. There is a one‐world government that uses Esperanto for its
language. This government willingly becomes the servant and slave of the Antichrist.
In this novel, Pope John XXIV has made a compromise with the Italian
government and the Catholic Church is confined to Rome. Only Ireland and a few small
settlements round the world remain Catholic. In London, the Westminster Cathedral is
the only Catholic Church. All the rest of the churches have become Freemasonic
temples filled with people who search for divine truth through science and technology.
The people that live in this society have no history and live without hope. They turn to
the seductive mass movement of Freemasonry, a fraternal organization, which for
centuries has been rendered incompatible with religion and condemned by the Church.
The consequences of the loss of Christian faith and the demise of the Catholic Church
are central to the book.
This dystopian novel, like others, has a hero, Fr. Percy Franklin, who becomes
Pope Silvester III. There is also an unknown anti‐hero, Julian Felsenburgh, who looks
just like Fr. Percy, and becomes Lord of the World. Written prior to World War I, this
novel predicts future innovations such as the computerized phone, the interstate
highway system (trunk, main junction), and air travel using "volors", a sophisticated
form of a Zeppelin. The novel also assumes the predominance of train travel. The
novelist predicts the rise of popular psychology, its influence on religion, and its
contributions to New Age religion and spirituality. The novel also alludes to the
downfall in the tradition and practice of sacramental marriage.
There is a prophetic feel to the novel in that it describes the apocalyptic demise
of the world. Calling it prophetic implies that Benson saw a societal trend and predicted
the growth of that trend. Benson was pursuing something larger than a growing societal
trend. He describes a universal condition and not just the perennial problem of good
versus evil. Benson describes a narcissistic world where man has fallen in love with
himself, his knowledge and his reasoning abilities. He portrays a world where man has
forgotten the real mysteries of life. Benson paints the picture of a world where men
exchange their freedom and forfeit their individualism for the beliefs of other powerful
and persuasive men. When this society turns away from Christ toward secular
humanism, the members give up their dignity as free and rational creatures. Benson's
central contention is that to depart from Christ is to consent to dismemberment as a
human being. Benson was an innovator in literature. His thought provoking and
inspired portrait of a dystopia predates by twenty years Aldous Huxley's Brave New
World and George Orwell's 1984. These two books are considered classics while
Benson's novel is rarely read outside small Catholic circles. Brave New World,
published by Aldous Huxley in 1932, is also set in London around AD 2540. The novel,
like Benson's, portrays a futuristic society and predicts developments in science that
combine to alter society. In Huxley's book the science is in the areas of reproductive
technology and sleep‐learning. Huxley and Benson both use the setting and characters
to express their contentions. Huxley uses the form of futuristic science fiction to
express widely held opinions of his time, particularly the fear of losing individual
identity in the fast‐paced world of the future. Benson explores the loss of identity but in
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a much larger context than the world. Benson's novel examines the decline in the
human ability to make personal decisions about the ultimate question: Is man allegiant
to God or to man?
Nineteen EightyFour is a dystopian novel published in 1949 by George Orwell.
This science fiction is about the totalitarian regime of the Party. Its futuristic portrayal
is of an oligarchical collectivist society where life in the Oceanian province of Airstrip
One is a world of continuous war, invasive government surveillance, and relentless
mind control. Like Benson's book, the individual is always subordinated to the masses,
which allows the Party to manipulate and control humanity. Once again, the similarity is
in the predicted loss of individualism and the subordination of the masses. But the
ultimate questions in life are not addressed by Orwell as Benson addressed them.
Benson moved beyond the form of science fiction and created a novel that is inspired
and prophetic. Benson's visionary novel is predictive of more than worldly events. He
is concerned about the condition of man's soul and his relationship with his Creator.
2. Relevance today
How is it that a novel written over 100 years ago can still be relevant today?
What attributes have allowed it to stand the test of time? The novel is relevant today in
many ways. It is relevant because it evokes St. Augustine's book, the City of God. It is
germane because it highlights the challenges that occur when deciding which master to
serve and in which city one chooses to live. This novel addresses a current
phenomenon; the effects of secular humanism on a society. The novel also speaks to the
absence of faith that occurs in widely secular societies. The book explores the current
tendency for people to be attracted and persuaded by personalities. In addition, the
book deals with the increasing authority and influence of science and psychology on
important life decisions. It takes a look at a society, such as the current one, that favors
contractual relationships and reflects upon the demise of the sacrament of marriage.
The novel points out the risks involved when choosing whom to follow, God or Man. It
is a reminder that it is a personal decision to decide whom to follow and in which city
one lives.
The following sections will address each of these points individually.
a. The City of God
Benson's story evokes St. Augustine's Work, The City of God, and the lines that he
draws are the principles of two cities. There exists the city where man loves God to the
point of detesting himself, or the city where man loves himself to the point of detesting
God. Only in the city of God is it possible to save ones humanity, one's dignity as a free
and rational human being. The essential argument that Benson makes is as suitable for
this day and age as it was during his time. One must commit to Christ and repeatedly
choose to live in the City of God. Only then is one a free individual with the full capacity
bestowed by Christ to make personal decisions about ultimate questions. Only in the
City of God is one a member of the real body.
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In Benson's novel he references Augustine's two cities and establishes his
contention. "All forces in the world were concentrating into two camps‐ the world and
God" (Lord 107). He writes about the reconciliation of the world occurring on a basis
other than that of Divine Truth. For although it is God's intention to reconcile all to
Jesus, the people in the novel reject the cornerstone once again. Instead of the
prophesied chaos that was to occur, "there came into existence a unity unlike anything
known before" (Lord 107). This was made more deadly by the fact that the movement
responsible for this contained so many elements of unquestionable good. War was
made extinct although it had not been accomplished by the efforts of Christianity.
Union was seen to be better than disunion. Important lessons had been learned outside
the church and natural virtues were viewed as positive while the supernatural
despised. "Friendliness took the place of charity, contentment the place of hope, and
knowledge the place of God" (Lord 108).
Benson is acknowledging St. Augustine's, City of God, and illustrating that there
are two answers to the problems of life, two cities, two lords, two crowds. The two
cities of Augustine are presented for the people to choose. The one is that of a world
self‐originated, self‐organized, and self‐sufficient, interpreted by socialists, materialists,
and hedonists and brilliantly summed up in the character Felsenburgh. The other lies
in the belief of a Creator and of a creation, of a Divine purpose, a redemption, and a
world transcendent and eternal. One of the two, Percy or Julian, is the Vicar of Christ,
and the other an imposter. Fr. Percy's heart makes its conviction for the City of God.
For Percy "the act of faith was so sublime... he was not ashamed to appeal from man to
God, to assume insignia which the world regarded as playthings, but which to those that
believed were emblems of supernatural commission" (Lord 115). But others in the
novel, Oliver, Mabel, Fr. Francis, the massive crowd, choose the City of Man. By
choosing the City of Man they pledge allegiance to the Antichrist, Felsenburgh, and
initiate their downfall.
Choosing the right city is as important today as it was during the time the novel
was written. As Benson points out, unless the City of God is chosen over and over again,
one may drift into the other city and be unprepared for the "agony of divided homage"
(Lord 253). The temptations to join the City of Man are great but one must realize the
imminent danger. In the City of Man, one succumbs to the material world, gives up
natural birth‐rights, and turns away from God and His desires. It is essential that
Christians maintain the individual human capacity to make personal decisions about
life's ultimate questions and not give up this responsibility to the pressure of the
powerful masses. A Christians needs to remain an individual, endowed with free will
and a soul that longs for God's city, comfortable in the Church, and ever ready to make a
stand for Christ. Otherwise, one will perish in the crowd, captivated by well‐speaking
men and women.
Benson depicts a society captivated by the City of Man and describes aspects that
are also apparent in our modern world. He portrays a humanistic world that values
reason above all other faculties, one that is inhabited by people that are enamored with
the power of science and technology. He shows a like society that has exchanged
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personhood for the power of the person, the personality, one that is easily persuaded by
artful expression. He depicts a culture similar to contemporary culture that appears to
be losing its faith in Christ as the one way to God and in doing so may be headed for
ruin. Benson reveals a society so distanced from what it means to be a real person that
its members are easily persuaded by grandiose gestures and verbosity. It is a society
that has forgotten God and worships man. This is the mirror that Benson holds up for
the reader.
b. Secular Humanism
Humanism is prevalent in the European culture that Benson illustrates in the
novel. He portrays a secular ideology which espouses reason, ethics and justice and
rejects supernatural and religious dogma as a basis of morality and decision making.
Characters Oliver Brand and Mrs. Brand are humanists and hold that humanity must
seek truth through reason alone. They endorse scientific skepticism and the scientific
method as solutions for all problems and they stipulate that decisions of right and
wrong are to be based on the individual and common good. As humanists they do not
consider metaphysical issues such as existence or nonexistence. They are engaged with
what is human not supernatural. They are only concerned with the present and do not
consider the after‐life. Their ultimate goal is human flourishing and making life better
for all people. They are also concerned for the welfare of the planet, peace for all men,
and for leaving the world a better place as a whole. Benson's illustration of the couple
as secular humanists is revealing and effective.
The impending culture of the free thinking Masonry that Benson describes is
secular in the terms that George Holyoake describes in his 1896 publication, English
Secularism (Wikipedia secular ethics). Holyoake maintains that secularism is a code, a
philosophy, pertaining to life that is founded on purely human considerations. It is a
philosophy for people like the Brands that find theology inadequate, unreliable or
unbelievable. The mass movement of people in Lord of the World rejects religion and
relies on free thinking. Holyoake outlines the essential principles of this type of secular
society: 1. Improvement of life through material means. 2. Science is the Providence of
man. 3. Good is to do good. The good of the present life is good, and it is good to do
good. This kind of society is interested in the present and does not concern itself with
the supernatural world. Holyoake maintains that the secularist should take no interest
in religious questions at all.
Oliver Brand is a secularist and he prides himself in his goodness and for the
ability of man to improve upon life with science and technology. He believes in the
equality of all people, and he does not think in terms of barriers of class and caste. He
believes in the mass movement. Oliver's philosophy dictates that the present life is the
sole standard by which to judge a man's worth. He is a firm believer in peace among
men, brought about by men. As a free thinker, Oliver and the Masons, share a great
concern for culture and social progress. Oliver also believes that all problems are
solved rationally through the examination of facts. Oliver is representative of the
secular culture of which he is a leader.
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The people of the new movement believe in the Humanity‐Religion as opposed
to Christian religion. The movement, of which Oliver and Mabel are part, has attempted
to abolish human suffering. They feel that man has evolved and that people are able to
control suffering and death. Suffering is archaic and unnecessary given the resources of
science and technology at their disposal. The people of the movement believe that they
can control their destiny. For them man is god and therefore he is in charge of fate.
They make a convincing argument. However, lest the reader be persuaded by the
humanist, Benson illustrates the key to suffering in this novel. While the secular
humanists endeavor to abolish suffering, the Divine religion embraces it. God permits
suffering because it is in his plan for the salvation of the world.
Benson wants to draw the line between humanist thought and Christianity so
that it is clear that God is the one that is in control. Catholicism may not explain all the
mysteries but it is accountable for and embraces the suffering of sin and death. That
Jesus was incarnate God was proven by His death and resurrection. These things are
foundational and Benson feels that they are the "bones of the universe" (Lord 117).
Benson believes that Catholicism establishes a right relationship between God and His
people. It is emphatic that God alone is Creator and Redeemer. Catholicism also
includes and accounts for man's essential nature and for his reason for existence.
Benson illustrates that Catholicism takes into account both the human and spiritual side
of mankind. The Humanity‐Religion considers only half of man. This being the case, the
movement puts themselves at great risk when they chose the Humanity‐ Religion over
Christianity.
Benson illustrates the problematic aspects of a secular and humanistic society.
He writes about a mass movement that is wildly out of control spinning away from
traditional religious values and toward Godless modernization. He points out that the
construct of secular goodness sounds valid until one realizes that the fundamental
principle of secularism is that man should be guided exclusively by considerations
derived from the present life itself. Things above and beyond present life are to be
overlooked. Secularism cannot answer questions about whether or not God exists or
whether or not the soul is immortal. Consequently, no motives of action can be based
on God or the existence of a soul. Secular motives are not derived from Christian
religion; they are in opposition to essential Catholic doctrine. This is what worries
Benson.
Benson is worried about a society that has distances itself from God and the
future life rendering religious motives as worthless. Benson argues for the presence of
the Church. As a Christian Catholic, he believes that the present life is not an end in
itself, nor is it independent of the future life. The whole aspect of present life changes
whether man makes present happiness and fulfillment the only criteria for the value of
life, or if on the contrary he acknowledges the existence of God, Divine Revelation, and a
future life. Questions about how to live one's life, moral questions, arise when one
acknowledges the possibility of life beyond the present. Benson's novel illustrates that
these kinds of questions about the existence of God, His relationship with the soul, and
his plan for mankind cannot be ignored. Moral conduct and the development of the
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moral and intellectual nature of man to his fullest depend on the answer to these
important queries. Secular truths based on human considerations, no matter how good
and noble, must be judged from a higher point of view. The present life cannot be the
only standard to judge a man's worth.
If the tendencies of the secular society described in The Lord of the World are not
concern enough, Benson describes what happens when the Church conforms to the
ways of the secular society. Benson's illustration of corporate humanism at worship
based on secular truths is truly chilling. Benson describes it as Satan's attack. "Once in
the early ages, Satan's attack had been made on the bodily side, with whips and fire and
beasts; in the sixteenth century it had been on the intellectual side; in the twentieth
century on the springs of moral and spiritual life" (Lord 108). Now the assault is on all
three, the body, the intellect, and the moral and spiritual. A chief fear for Benson
is the positive influence of the Humanitarianism, which is misleading the masses. "It
was coming like the kingdom of God, with power...it was assuming rather than asserting
its own truth" (Lord 108). Most troubling for Benson is that the influence of the
movement was forcing its way into the interior world of the soul. "Persons who had
scarcely heard its name were professing its tenets; priests absorbed it...The soul
naturally Christian seemed to becoming the soul naturally infidel" (Lord 108). Exposing
his greatest fears, Benson writes that Humanitarianism would "presently put on the
dress of liturgy and sacrifice, and when that was done, the Church's cause, unless God
intervened, would be over" (Lord 109). In this sad state, "persecution was to be
welcomed like salvation" (Lord 108).
Clearly Benson saw humanism and secularism as an undermining threat to his
society
one hundred years ago. Are they still a threat? The answer is yes; they are still a
threat. Here is why they are still a hazard. If alive, Corliss Lamont, contemporary
philosopher, author and poet, would argue that humanism is a viable philosophy that
many enjoy today. He has written twenty two books on the subject of humanism and
taught this philosophy at the prestigious Columbia University. His web‐site calls Corliss
Lamont (1902‐1995) "a 20th century American hero whose independent thinking
challenged prevailing ideas in philosophy, economics, religion, patriotism, world peace
and the exercise of our cherished civil liberties" (Lamont). Corliss Lamont's humanist
belief that men have evolved without supernatural involvement and are responsible for
their own survival on this planet caused conservatives to label him a "godless atheist".
In Lamont's philosophy of humanism the greatest difference between the
Humanist ethic and that of Christianity is that it is entirely based on happiness in this
one and only life. It is not concerned with supernatural immortality nor with the glory
of God. It denies the philosophical and psychological dualism of soul and body. It
argues that a human being is a oneness of mind, personality, and physical organism.
Lamont, like Oliver Brand, thinks that the Christian insistence on the resurrection of the
body and personal immortality has often led to ineffectual action here and now, and has
led to the neglect of present human welfare and happiness. Lamont, the humanist,
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"rejects the puritanical aspects of Christianity and affirms the ethical right of enjoying
to the utmost the goods of this existence" (Lamont).
Lamont suggests that "one of the chief issues in ethics that philosophers have
been arguing about since the age of the ancient Greeks is that of self‐interest in relation
to altruism. It has frequently been phrased as the false dichotomy of self‐interest versus
altruism" (Lamont). Lamont feels that the Humanist ethic demonstrates that there is no
need for antagonism between the two. For Lamont, the theory that people invariably
act from self‐interest alone is psychologically unsound. Like Oliver in the novel, Corliss
suggests that the "highest Humanist ethical aim is the community good, with the
community being one's family, one's city, one's college, one's state, one's nation, or all
humanity, which is the ultimate community". Community good is to be achieved not
merely through individual regeneration, as in Christianity, but through social
collaboration and the modernization of basic institutions.
The supreme ethical end for Humanists is the worldwide community good, that
is, the welfare, progress, and happiness of the entire human race, irrespective of nation,
race, sex, or economic status. Just as the New Humanity Movement held peace on earth
to be its prime objective, so too does Lamont's Humanist philosophy. Lamont suggests
that "in working for peace the Humanist again combines self‐interest with altruism. The
Humanist wants to preserve his or her own life as well as the lives of fellow humans"
(Lamont). Lamont would believe in its tenets and embrace the movement described in
the book. He would choose the City of Man.
Paul Kurtz, Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at the State University of New York
at Buffalo, would also embrace the movement described by Benson. Kurtz (1925‐) is
known for his role in the skeptical community of the United States. He is the founder of
the Council for Secular Humanism. Kurtz taught at Vasser, Trinity, and Union colleges.
He is editor in chief of Free Inquiry magazine, a publication of the Council for Secular
Humanism. He was co‐president of the International Humanist and Ethical Union. He is
a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and Humanist
Laureate and president of the International Academy of Humanism. As a member of the
American Humanist Association, he contributed to the writing of Humanist Manifesto II
(Wikipedia Kurtz).
Humanist Manifesto is the title of three manifestos which describe in detail a
Humanist worldview. The original Humanist Manifesto was written in 1933. The second
Humanist Manifesto II was completed in1973. The latest update is titled Humanism and
Its Aspirations and was published in 2003. The central theme of all three manifestos is
the elaboration of a philosophy and value system which does not include belief in any
personal deity. Of note is that "each has been signed at its launch by various prominent
members of academia and others who are in general agreement with its principles"
(Wikipedia Human Manifesto). Lamont and Kurtz are just two of the prominent
contemporary academicians that believe in the philosophy of humanism but it appears
to be evidence of a strong following in the philosophy. Many of its goals are positive
and to some it may sound like a good and acceptable way to live.
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Secular humanism is often associated with the Age of Enlightenment in Europe
and yet it currently plays a major role in Western society. This may be partly due to the
commonly held belief in the separation of church and state. Secular humanists tend to
prefer that
politicians make decisions for secular rather than religious reasons. They think that
policy
decisions pertaining to topics like abortion, contraception, embryonic stem cell
research, and
same‐sex marriage should be decided by the state and not the church. Recently, there
has been
consternation over these highly sensitive topics both at the church, state and national
level. Churches are embroiled in heated discussions about these topics. Many
Christians support a secular state and may acknowledge that the concept of the secular
state has support in Biblical teachings, particularly Jesus' statement, "Then give to
Caesar what is Caesar's, and to God what is God's." But what about morality, what
about the moral component of issues like abortion, same sex marriage and stem cell
research? The secular state does not concern itself with the morality of these practices.
Often times the moral component of these issues is brushed aside, called politically
incorrect to discuss. Sometimes scientific or financial reasoning lead the argument for
the justification of these procedures, arrangements, and research. These are complex
and important issues concerned with the meaning of life. The influence of the secular
may be confusing to some and cause vacillation in their thinking. For others the
influence may lead them astray from traditional church teaching.
c. Absence of Faith
Christians believe that faith in Christ and the indwelling of the Holy Spirit lead
the moral life. The moral life is built upon Christ and His life. If Christ is rejected, as He
is in
the novel, then there is no moral life as there is nothing on which to base morality.
Without
faith in Christ at the center, morality becomes a personal construct and means different
things to
different people. Benson worried that the people of his day were losing faith, just as Fr.
Francis lost his faith. Is it possible that the people of our society are also losing faith in
Christ? Pew research on Religion Among the Millennials, Feb. 2010, reports something
about the state of religious views in the United States. The report says that Americans
ages 18‐29 are considerably less religious than older Americans and that fewer young
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adults belong to any particular faith. One in four adults under 30 is unaffiliated,
describing their religion as "atheist," "agnostic" or "nothing in particular."
Absence of faith in Christ in a secular world is problematic for Benson and is part
of his
warning. Benson is deeply concerned that rejecting Christianity will bring demise.
In January 2009, a nationwide survey by The Barna Group indicated that half of
all adults in the United States contend that Christianity is just one of many options that
Americans choose from and that a huge majority of adults pick and choose what they
believe
rather than adopt a church or denomination's slate of beliefs. By a ratio of three to one
adults noted that they are personally more likely to develop their own set of beliefs
than to follow a comprehensive set established by a church. Four out of five people
under the age of 25 said that they developed their own beliefs rather than adopt a set
proposed by a church. These statistics attest to the legitimacy of Benson's concerns
from a century ago.
George Barna, the founder of The Barna Group, concludes from this information
that Americans are increasingly comfortable picking and choosing what they find to be
helpful and accurate theological views and have become comfortable discarding the
rest of the teachings in the Bible. He also points out that growing numbers of people
are embracing an unpredictable and contradictory body of beliefs. He comments that in
the past most American people determined their moral point of view based on Christian
options. Today they are more likely to pit a variety of non‐Christian options against
Christian based views. This has led to the abundance of unique worldviews based on
personal combinations of theology drawn from world religions. And, with people
spending less time reading the Bible and less time engaged in Bible study or activities
that deepen their biblical literacy, views about faith are more often based on self‐
reflection and observation than on moral teaching.
Often feelings and emotion play a larger role in the development of faith views.
In many
cases feelings and emotions play a larger role than listening to preaching or
participating in Bible
Study (Barna). This trend to pick and choose and develop one's own belief system is of
reminiscent what Benson warns against. People are rejecting traditional Christian
traditions and opting for personalized religion based on secular or humanistic notions.
Even some traditional Christian denominations are embracing aspects of psychology,
New Age spirituality and Eastern philosophy and incorporating them into the worship.
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Churches are pressured by the enormous amount of information in circulation and
often succumb to these additions to attract more parishioners. Unfortunately, they
incorporate ideas based on secular wisdom that are contrary to the Gospel. Biblical
passages are being dismissed by leadership as old fashioned or out of date and doctrinal
lines are being blurred. This is evidence of the influence of secularism and humanism
that Benson feared.
Benson would argue that the Church would fail in her Divine mission if she did
not insist
on the insufficiency of a life conducted exclusively along secular and humanistic lines.
The Catholic Church does not view religion as simply a private affair. God is the author
and ruler not only of individuals, but also of societies. How far in practice Church and
State should go together depends on a number of circumstances and cannot be
determined by a general rule, but it remains true that religion is a social as well as an
individual duty. Man must not only be learned in human science; his whole life must be
directed to the higher and nobler pursuits of morality and religion, and to God Himself.
Benson appreciates that although the Church recognizes the value of the present life,
the Church doesn't look upon the present life as an end in itself, but only as a movement
toward a future life for which preparation must be made by compliance with the laws of
nature and the laws of God. Benson's point is that there is no possible compromise
between the Church and Secularism, since Secularism would stifle that which, for the
Church, constitutes the highest and truest motives of action, and the noblest human
aspirations.
d. Personality vs. personhood
Benson portrays a society that is mesmerizes and persuaded by personalities
and not by
the qualities of the actual people. He uses Felsenburgh as the ultimate charismatic
personality that the people mistakenly follow. They are persuaded by perception and
intoxicated by his reasoning, facts and language. They swoon over Felsenburgh's
capacity for detail, grasp at his words and facts, and yet they "had no precise or verbal
record of what he had said" and they were not sure about what he did say. Still their
hearts, their emotions "asserted it" (Lord 180‐183). Felsenburgh, the supreme
personality, speaks for them collectively as if "he knew their own souls"(Lord 180‐183).
Manipulated by the promise of true knowledge of human nature and by the promise of
peace and unity, the society worships the ideal Man, pays homage to Man and despises
the supernatural (Lord 132). "Who in God's name is Felsenburgh" (Lord 47)? Fr.
Blackmore cannot get him out of his head even though he knows nothing of the man.
Felsenburgh is a mysterious character. It is of note that no one can describe the
man. No one knows much about him but he has a magnetic personality and that is what
is fascinating and of the most value to this society. The characters are drawn to him and
are enthusiastic about him; he is alluring. They talk about him and yet none of them can
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say anything about him other than that he is the one that they are waiting for; he is their
savior. "Who is Felsenburgh," asks Mabel? Oliver replies that is what the whole world
is asking. "Nothing is known except the he was included in the American deputation at
the last moment. He has been quite obscure until now" (Lord 23). "I hear that
Felsenburgh is a Mason," observed the Cathedral Administrator. "But who is
Felsenburgh?" ask a young priest. "He's a mystery," says another. "Nothing is known of
him, except his extraordinary eloquence....he is a great linguist." He is the one that" no
one knows but whose name is in everyone's mouth" (Lord 43‐44).
Felsenburgh employs none of the methods common in politics. He has no
control of newspapers, champions no one, no bribes, no crimes, clean hands and a
stainless past and a magnetic character. It is as if he appears from nowhere and yet that
does not matter to his subjects. He is "a pure, clean, compelling personality, like a
radiant child" (Lord, 45). Felsenburgh is the perfect representative for a world that is
entirely impressed with personality and not personhood. He is the preference of a
society that prefers gilding and eloquence over substance.
Apparently, Benson himself was quite a charismatic and often compelling
personality. In her biography of him, Robert Hugh Benson, Life and Works, Janet
Grayson portrays him as a captivating person of many artistic talents and one who
caused quite a stir among the people of his day. She writes that his physical presence
and his ability to outrage and delight Catholics and Protestants alike allowed him to
command the center stage. Grayson writes that the provocative and prolific Benson
magnetically engaged the public with lectures, sermons and Masses as well as books.
"Through his exciting personality he claimed them and held them" (Grayson 184).
Benson understood the character of Felsenburgh; he managed some of the same
personality traits. Benson had experienced the power of captivating an audience with
his presence and he recognized the danger.
A personality, the "ideal man," is still compelling and persuasive today. People
are still fascinated and enamored with the powerful, the charismatic, the popular. Often
times people are blind to the human frailties of the personality and are then
disappointed and upset when the facts of a hidden life surface. It happens in politics,
sports, business, the church, and of course in the entertainment industry. Jim Bakker,
Jim Swaggart, Cardinal Law, John Edwards, Eliot Spitzer, Tiger Woods, Lance Armstrong
to name a recent few. These people are presented as ideal, they are promoted as model
citizens. They are people that are supposed to be a cut above and therefore deserving
of respect and admiration. One sees them on television, reads about them in the news,
listens to friends discuss them, and although the person is unknown, a picture of their
personality is formed. It is the personality that is followed and watched; the real
personhood is hidden or disguised.
It is the personality that becomes known because the person is too far removed
to understand the personhood that makes them unique. The media enhances that
personality to attract attention, to persuade the world that these people are ideal. It is
one thing to be misled by politicians, entertainers and sports figures, but as Benson
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would acknowledge, the worst that can happen to one is to be misled by a prominent
religious figure or the church. For these people are the very ones that are responsible
for providing what is fundamental. These are the people that are responsible for
ensuring the truth. However, like the people in the novel, we are the consumers, we
choose whom we follow.
e. Psychology
Benson also predicts that the rise of interest in the science of psychology will
contribute to the downfall of culture and society. He portrays a society that is
enthralled with psychology and one that finds the workings of the human mind more
significant than the Divine, a society that replaces Divine Revelation with the science of
human psychology. This is pertinent today. The enthusiasm for psychology began to
some extent with the advent of the Human Potential Movement (HPM) of the 1960s.
HPM was formed around the concept of cultivating untapped potential in people. The
movement took as its premise the belief that through the development of human
potential, humans can experience an exceptional quality of life filled with happiness,
creativity, and fulfillment. As a corollary, those who begin to unleash this potential often
find themselves directing their actions within society towards assisting others to
release their potential. Supporters believe that the net effect of individuals cultivating
their potential will bring about positive social change. The movement has its conceptual
roots in existentialism and humanism. Its appearance is linked to humanistic
psychology. Some consider the Human Potential Movement synonymous with
humanistic psychology. The movement views Abraham Maslow's theory of self‐
actualization as the supreme expression of a human's life. (Wikipedia Human Potential).
The Human Potential Movement of the 60's gave rise to the popular self‐help, or
self‐improvement movement that is prevalent today. This movement is based on self‐
guided improvement economically, intellectually, or emotionally with a considerable
psychological foundation. Like the characters in the novel, people believe that through
self‐improvement techniques they can help themselves outside of a relationship with
God. There are many different self‐help movements and each has its own focus,
techniques, associated beliefs, proponents and leaders. Information is often distributed
through the popular genre of self‐help books. A trip to the bookstore reveals a dizzying
array of self help‐books and self‐help gurus, all promising to equip the individual with
the tools to improve one's life and well‐being.
The methods and techniques, books and authors, are often promoted by the
media and seen on television or in the news. Self‐help often utilizes publicly available
information or support groups where people in similar situations join together.
According to the APA Dictionary of Psychology, potential benefits of self‐help groups
include friendship, emotional support, experiential knowledge, identity, meaningful
roles, and a sense of belonging (APA). Of note, all of these relational things are also
found in a church setting where the emphasis is on God's teaching instead of man's.
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Benson makes it clear that the society he portrays is delusional and that the
psychology that they rely on is inadequate and harmful. Dr. Donald Campbell, past
president of the American Psychological Association, points out the dangerous effects of
psychology and unbridled selfism on our current culture. He writes the following:
There is in psychology today a general background assumption that the
human impulses provided by biological evolution are right and
optimal, both individually and socially, that the repressive or inhibitory moral
traditions are wrong. This assumption may now be regarded as
scientifically wrong (Groeschel, 96).
Benson foresees how belief in psychology rather than religion might undermine the
permanent commitment on which all culture and family like are built.
f. Science
Benson also forecasts the intervening control of science on decisions regarding
the quality of human life. Benson uses euthanasia to illustrate how scientific methods
and practices might intervene in questions of life and death. In the novel, euthanasia is
used to relieve people of any possibility of suffering or experiencing death. Euthanasia
allows a person to control their death and in effect take their own lives. Instead of
relying of God to decide when it is time to die, the people made this determination for
themselves. Benson is predicting that people will rely on themselves and on the
accomplishments of modern science rather than rely on God and his divine intentions.
He cautions about self‐reliance in scientific attempts to take control of important issues
regarding the sanctity of human life. Jack Kevorkian made a science out of euthanasia.
Today it is still a controversial procedure with many opinions about its use. In addition,
there are many other scientific advances that lead toward self‐reliance: genetics, stem
cell research, abortion, artificial intelligence.
Probably no area of scientific research has peaked the public imagination and
started as much public controversy as the role of stem cell research. This area has
probably created more political action than reproducible clinical advances. For years,
scientists with federal grants have had to compete for access to a limited number (21)
of approved stem cell lines, or colonies of stem cells derived from a human embryo. The
Bush administration imposed a moratorium on federally‐funded research on new
embryonic stem cell lines created after August 9, 2001. But, President Obama, under
pressure from passionate supporters of stem cell research, overturned the Bush
moratorium on March 9, 2010. The President and the NIH have announced a new
process for approving federally‐funded embryonic research. Of note, the government no
longer takes into consideration when an embryonic stem cell line was created. They
only consider whether the scientists followed strict ethical guidelines on how the
embryo was donated, who gave consent, and that nobody was paid for a donation (Peck
and Cox pick top medical advances).
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Most stem cell research uses cells obtained from adult tissue, umbilical cord
blood, and other sources that pose no moral problem. However, the Church is opposed
to harvesting stem cells from human embryos because the harvesting kills the embryo.
As with euthanasia and abortion, the Church opposes the direct destruction of innocent
human life for any purpose, including research. The same applies for frozen embryos.
These embryos will not die because they are inherently unable to survive on their own,
they will die when they are handed over for destructive research rather than implanted
in the mother's womb. Science is only speculating that stem cell research will provide
cures for many diseases. They currently have stem cell material to work with and can
utilize adult tissue and umbilical blood and other sources to discover cures. The sense
of urgency to use stem cells from passionate people is motivated by the urge to control
human life and needs to be balanced with moral considerations in light of what is
scientifically possible.
Science also assumes the role of God in certain aspects of the human genome
project. The mapping of the entire human genome was a race involving time and money
in the 1990's. Started in 1990 the government‐funded Human Genome Project released
data to the public daily as it built technologies and mapped animal genomes. The group
completed a draft of the human genome in about 10 years. $2.5 billion in taxpayer
dollars was spent on the entire activity. $300 million of that was spent for the human
genome. In 2000, scientists with the International Human Genome Project released a
draft of the human genome to the public. For the first time and available on the World
Wide Web, the world could download and read the complete set of human genetic
information. In the wrong hands, this valuable and important tool could lead to
immoral techniques and treatments.
"It's one of the major landmarks that rank up there with going to the moon.
Obviously people think I could be a little biased, but I think historians will agree with
me," said Dr. Francis Collins, who was the director of the National Human Genome
Research Institute when the genome was mapped. Dr. Collins, currently the director of
the United States National Institutes of Health said, "I think when people look back in
100 years, and look at what was the most significant advance in medicine and all of
scientific research in this decade it will be the human genome." Dr. Collins also expects
people will opt to have their genome sequenced in the next five years or so. He believes
that this will happen when the cost of sequencing the genome reaches $5,000 and
privacy protections are in place. (Peck and Cox pick top medical advances) As
wonderful as this scientific advancement appears to be there are many ethical and
moral considerations. The U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institutes of
Health agree and have devoted 3% to 5% of their annual Human Genome Project
budgets toward studying the ethical, legal, and social issues surrounding accessibility of
genetic information. This represents the world's largest bioethics program
(Genomics.energy.Gov). Among the issues being raised and studied are the conceptual
and philosophical implications regarding human responsibility. This is largely
concerned with the dispute over free‐will versus genetic determinism. Some people are
anxious about the possibility that genes determine how a person turns out, that the
genes alone determine human traits and behaviors. There is alarm about the loss of
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free‐will. There are also reproductive issues including adequate informed consent for
complex and controversial procedures, reproductive rights, and the use of genetic
information in reproductive decision making. Issues were raised about the
psychological impact in people due to an individual's genetic differences. There are
privacy and confidentiality issues for handling genetic information. Lastly it is apparent
that the information could be misused by insurers, employers, courts, schools, adoption
agencies, and the military (Genomics.energy.Gov).
Science also assumes the role of God in the practice of aborting babies. Abortion,
a medical practice to terminate a pregnancy, has been available for most of history. The
early Church, confronted with widespread Greek and Roman practices of infanticide
and abortion, evaluated such customs in light of the teachings of Jesus. Jesus stressed
that God's care extends to every human being. Jesus preached the dignity of children
and the good news of God's love for the "little ones". Jesus Himself as the new Adam is
created by the overshadowing Spirit in the Virgin Mary's womb, where He is already
Lord, the Holy One, the Son of God. The conviction that God is the creator of human life
from the moment it begins, so that the person is defined primarily by this unique I‐Thou
relationship to its Creator, has always guided the Church in thinking about the unborn
child. The dignity of the child asserted by Jesus led to the practice of infant baptism.
And, the sacredness of human life is so fundamental to the practical moral exhortations
of the New Testament that abortion is not even mentioned in the teachings of family life
in the Epistles.
Like the people in the novel who thought euthanasia was their right, secularists
today might argue that no one but the mother has the right to decide if she should carry
the child to term. Some argue that a woman might have an abortion not to deprive the
child but to defend her own right, in some circumstances, to refuse to lend her body to
support the child. In their book Health Care Ethics, A Theological Analysis, Benedict M.
Ashley OP and Kevin D. O'Rourke OP discuss Catholic teaching about abortion. They
advise that taking into consideration the moral teaching that from conception the
human organism is a human person endowed with a spiritual soul and therefore
endowed with the same human rights as any adult person, its rights cannot be placed in
competition with those of the mother, because both have the same basis and are to be
equally respected (Ashley, O'Rourke 252‐270). Catholic teaching is against direct
abortion, the procedure that terminates pregnancy by destroying the human fetus any
time after conception. Like euthanasia, direct abortion, willed as an end or as a means,
always constitutes grave moral disorder as it is a deliberate killing of an innocent
human being.
In addition to scientific medical advancements that are vulnerable to misuse,
artificial intelligence may be reshaping human lives in potentially misguided and
damaging ways. The First Church of Robotics, is an article by Jaron Lanier. Lanier is a
partner architect at Microsoft Research and an innovator in residence at the Annenburg
School, University of Southern California. The article was written for the New York
Times on Monday 9, August 2010. Lanier's contention is that artificial intelligence
clouds the view of the world, and that " the very idea of artificial intelligence (A.I.) gives
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us the cover to avoid accountability by pretending that machines can take on more and
more human responsibility" (Lanier). Lanier writes that the technical elite are
"terrified by the human condition...and seek some way of thinking that gives answers to
death, for instance" (Lanier). As in the novel, the perennial questions about life and
death are still prevalent and scientists are still trying to use science and technology to
provide answers to these questions.
Lanier speaks of the influence of Silicon Valley. In the article Lanier provides the
story line that comes from the technological sphere. He writes that some people predict
that the internet will suddenly coalesce into a super‐intelligent A.I., come to life, and
take over the world before humans even realize what happened. This sounds far‐
fetched and even Lanier allows that it sounds "nutty". But he points out the risk in the
development of A.I. when he writes that "these are ideas with tremendous currency in
Silicon Valley; these are guiding principles, not just amusement, for many of the most
influential" (Lanier). Lanier thinks that the engineering culture is creating a new ultra‐
modern religion. With this, he means that technology is moving from being a service to
becoming a religion. He lists all that technology does to benefit mankind: "our
inventions can ease burdens, reduce poverty and suffering...we can give people more
options to act morally because people with medicine, housing, and agriculture can more
easily afford to be kind, than those who are sick, cold and starving" (Lanier). This
disturbing article sounds like science fiction but also allows that to some people
technology makes a compelling argument. Although this science is extremely powerful
and AI is a seductive science, they do not begin to explain the great mysteries of life and
death.
g. Demise of the sacrament of marriage
Benson also envisions the demise of the sacrament of marriage and depicts a
society that employs social contracts instead of religious vows. Oliver and Mabel have a
state contract, a "terminal contract" based on the "creed of human love" and not on
Divine love. Mabel loses her own identity in this contract and becomes an extension of
Oliver's belief system parroting his thoughts and feelings. Oliver says that there was
between them a "double affection" and he loved to hear "his own thoughts echoed so
perfectly" (Lord 32). Benson might argue that this kind of narcissist partnership is
similar to that found in the same sex unions that exist today. One could make the case
that same sex unions are based on the creed of human love and not Divine love as these
relationships are not presented in the Bible as viable unions.
Ross Douthat, a New York Times writer, summed it up in an article addressing
the California ruling that laws defining marriage as heterosexual union are
unconstitutional, irrational and unjust. In the article, The Marriage Ideal, August 9,
2010, Douthat argues that lifelong heterosexual monogamy is based on the Jewish and
Christian beliefs about the right order of creation. He writes, "lifelong heterosexual
monogamy at its best can offer something distinctive and remarkable ‐ a microcosm of
civilization, and an organic connection between human generations" (Douthat).
Douthat says that to accept the shift toward homosexual unions, would mean "giving up
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on one of the great ideas of Western civilization" (Douthat). He argues that the
celebration of lifelong heterosexual monogamy is a unique and indispensable estate
worth honoring and preserving. He point out that the public needs to recognize that
homosexual relationships are different than heterosexual unions "both in their
challenges and their potential fruit" (Douthat). Homosexual unions, and all those that
are based upon the creed of human love, are not capable of bearing fruit.
Benson warns about the demise of a society built upon human love and not upon
the love of Christ. His forewarning is realized today in that many people have freed
themselves of the religious and sacramental aspect of marriage and entered into secular
contractual unions. In the United States, Connecticut, Iowa, New Hampshire, the
District of Columbia and Massachusetts all recognize same‐sex unions and court cases
in California and Massachusetts are challenging the constitutionality of state and federal
laws against it. Around the world same‐sex unions are recognized in Europe, Canada,
Iceland, South Africa, and recently in Uruguay, Columbia and Argentina. The
phenomenon of same‐sex unions appears to be spreading across the globe. There is
also evidence that the younger people in the United States are more accepting of these
relationships than the older generation. One wonders if their concept of love has
changed or if they have been influenced by secular ideas currently held and
promulgated.
NPR News reporter Barbara Bradley Hagerty published an article about gay
marriage and the millennials in a news report published March 3, 2010. She reports
that Philip Dunham, a gay man in a committed relationship, said that he has felt
snubbed by the Roman Catholic Church for a long time. "But the final straw came when
Catholic Charities in Washington, D.C., stopped handling adoptions so that it would not
have to place children in the homes of gay couples. And as of Tuesday, it stopped
providing spousal benefits for all employees, lest the organization give benefits to a gay
spouse" (Hagerty). This is more evidence of secular ideas penetrating the society at the
deepest level. Here is a Catholic man who has thrown out the moral tenets of the
church to which he belongs. His comments eerily echo Benson's words: "The soul
"naturally Christian" seemed to be becoming the soul "naturally infidel"" (Lord 108).
The article also printed the viewpoint of Rev. Joseph Palacios, an openly gay
priest affiliated with Georgetown University. He said while the new Catholic Charities
policies may allow the Catholic Church to keep its contracts with D.C., the church itself
will lose the faithful.
"The church will find itself in increasing isolation with its own Catholic community,"
Palacios says (Hagerty). Palacios sees this particularly among students, a trend that
was captured by a recent poll of Catholics under 30 years old. "The millennials who
identify as Catholics are thinking of themselves as increasingly spiritual and less Roman
Catholic," he says, and thus less bound to the traditions and rules of the church
(Hagerty). This of course means that there will be fewer young people in the pew.
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Most pointedly, Palacios said that churches that accept same‐sex unions are
benefiting from the Catholic Church's stand. "You could find any Episcopal Church in
any big city, and you're going to find loads of former Catholics filling the ranks of the
Episcopal Church," Palacios said (Hagerty). Of course, conservative Episcopalians, like
Benson in the past, have moved to the Catholic Church because of its harder line on
moral issues. All this suggests that the battle over marriage and theology will continue
because as Benson points out, there are problems in a society that is based on human
love and not on Divine love.
h. Risk
Risk exists today when choosing whom to follow and which city to live in. Does
one evaluate one's life based on a personality, an expert, or on the advice of self‐ help
books or scientific research? Does one follow the teachings of a church whose
leadership says that there are many ways to God, not just through Christ? Does one
continue to worship under religious leaders who reject or misconstrue portions of Holy
Scripture? Does one keep membership in a church that allows same sex marriage
thereby condoning this marriage? The secular world has infringed upon and persuaded
many churches and religious leaders that they should reevaluate God's Word and His
intentions for how people should live. However, as Benson illustrates, it is still a
personal responsibility to decide whom to follow. God gives the freedom to choose and
it is important to maintain independence and choose to live in the City of God. Benson
asks the following question. Does one follow God or does one follow a personality,
something that man has created in his own image? He asks if we are willing to be
misled by men instead of following Christ. These same questions are as important
today as they were for Benson one hundred years ago or sixteen hundred years ago
when St. Augustine asked these same questions.
2. Achieving relevancy through literary style
Benson uses the characters, the format of the book, and the story of Fr. Percy's
spiritual journey and trial to illustrate his contention. Through these mechanisms
Benson is able to create a story that, although written a century ago, is still relevant
today. This section will analyze the character, explore the format of the book into three
sections, and delve into Fr. Percy's spiritual journey and trial.
a. Characters
Benson's characters are richly developed and compelling. They are one of the
ways through which the book achieves relevancy. Benson employs the characters to
further the plot and to illustrate his central contention. He uses them to examine and
explores the decline of the human ability to make personal decisions about ultimate
questions. Benson investigates how, once persuaded by mass movements, people give
up personal freedom jeopardizing their individualism. Benson depicts the
particularities of the problem in an increasingly secularized society, one that is no
longer sensitive to the deeper manifestations of human life. Benson reveals the real
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mystery involved with the conflict of good and evil and moves the reader to take a
closer look at the real drama in life as opposed to man‐made drama.
Benson's characters provide a vision of human life and further the dramatic
story. They illustrate the powerful struggle to commit their allegiance for or against
God. Through them observations can be made about the human vulnerability to the
seduction of evil, the possible recognition of that vulnerability, and the courage it takes
to resist the power of evil. Through character analysis one can grasp what is at stake
for the characters. They bring to light the characteristics of their struggle over choosing
their allegiance. As they wrestle with their choice, the reader is confronted with the
importance of their own personal choice in the matter.
Through the struggle over choosing allegiance one can understand how
Providence works in the lives of the characters. One may consider Providence on the
level of human choosing in the manifestation of an interior or exterior faith in the
characters of Fr. Francis, Oliver, Mabel, Mrs. Brand, Felsenburgh. In Fr. Percy, Benson
depicts Providence on the level of a soul favored by Grace and renders the free and wise
man focused on God. Benson also provides a vision of Providence throughout history in
the character of the narrator of the third section, the Syrian priest.
i. Fr. Francis
Fr. Francis is the doubter, the questioner, one who is embroiled in the conflict
between his lapsing Catholic faith and the religion of the New Humanity. He tells Fr.
Percy that he believes nothing and no longer has faith. Fr. Francis is finished with the
traditions of the church and captivated by the new movement. The personal struggle to
choose proves too much for Fr. Francis and his faith begins to leave him. Fr. Francis
does not emphasize the internal life enough and he is altogether impressed with the
theatrics of the new movement. Even though Percy talks to him about the inner life and
the acts of faith, Fr. Francis abandons his inner life and ceases his communication with
his Creator. Percy urges prayer and humility but Fr. Francis allows ceremony to play
too great a part in his religion. Percy knows that Francis had "eyes but did not see, ears
and was deaf" (Lord 38). Fr. Francis caught up in the mass movement, the New
Humanity. The New Humanity values external facts and reasoning and "faith, except to
one who had learned that Will and Grace were all and emotion nothing, was a child
crawling about in the midst of some huge machinery; it might survive or it might not"
(Lord 37).
Percy understands what Fr. Francis does not, that although the "alliance of
Psychology and Materialism did indeed seem to account for everything" it needed "a
robust supernatural perception to understand their practical inadequacy" (Lord 37). In
Fr. Francis's case, the external has absorbed the internal (Lord 37). Fr. Francis chooses
the external faith promoted by the material world over his spiritual inner life with
Christ. Benson uses this character to illustrate the nature of the person who decides to
turn away from God. Fr. Francis makes a reasoned decision and leaves the Catholic
Church for the New Humanity Religion. Like those that he follows, he denies the
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supernatural and declares man to be a god. He is persuaded by the movement and its
absolute rejection of all religious tenets. It is no surprise that Fr. Francis is the Catholic
priest who becomes a "master of ceremonies" in the new compulsory worship. He joins
the masses that are worshiping life not God. He is willing to serve the gods of the New
Humanity in their ritualized ceremony. Instead of honoring the Christ, Fr. Francis
honors the created gods of Maternity, Sustenance, and Paternity (Lord 129).
In a painful departing scene between Fr. Francis and Fr. Percy, Benson illustrates
the truth about real friendship. Fr. Francis asks if they can remain friends and the two
have a difficult departure. Fr. Francis identifies friendship superficially with a hand
shake and politeness rather than the friendship in Christ that Percy honors. Fr. Percy
knows that friendship can only occur between people who have the highest love for the
greatest goodness. Fr. Francis is willing to trade that friendship in for something much
cheaper. He gives up his Savior, his religion, and his friend to follow the masses.
In a significant conversation about religion and faith with Mabel, Fr. Francis
reveals what he thinks and feels about Catholicism and his faith. After describing the
Catholic view of faith to Mabel, she questions him by asking if it ever comes back to him
and he replies "never, except as a dream" (Lord 218). She queries further by asking
"How do you account for it then. If it was all self‐suggestion, you have had thirty years
of it" (Lord 218). She continues and asks "How would your old fellow Catholics account
for it" (Lord 218). He tells her that "they would say that I had forfeited the light ‐ that
Faith was withdrawn" (Lord 218). When she asks what he would say about the loss of
his faith, Fr. Franklin gives the perfect humanistic answer and says, "I would say that I
had made a stronger self‐suggestion the other way" (Lord 218). With the rendering of
this character, Benson shows one who has turned away from God and mistakenly
realigned himself with the ideology of the material world. He has allowed the external
to govern his will. He has indeed forfeited the light.
ii. Oliver
Oliver the politician, husband of Mabel, "born actor" as described by his mother,
loves every hint of human life and disdains the religious life (Lord 51). Benson employs
Oliver to illustrate the mind of the humanist, extremely content with himself and the
world, excited and pleased with his political work and with his well reasoned life. Oliver
represents those who find Catholicism "most grotesque and enslaving" (Lord 28). For
them, Christianity is both weak and dull, a superstition that should go away. It is "wild
because it is so grotesque and impossible, dull because it was so utterly apart from the
exhilarating stream of human life" (Lord 28).
Oliver is a pantheist. For him God is the developing sum of created life, and
impersonal unity is the essence of His being. Competition is the great sacrilege that sets
men against each other and delays human progress. To Oliver's way of thinking,
progress lay in "the merging of the individual in the family, of the family in the
commonwealth, of the commonwealth in the continent, and of the continent in the
world" (Lord 22). Oliver believes in impersonal unity and thereby is comfortable
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forfeiting his individualism to be merged into one giant mass of humanity. For Oliver,
the world itself at any moment is no more than the mood of an impersonal life. For
Oliver, it was "the Catholic idea with the supernatural left out, a union of earthly
fortunes, an abandonment of individualism on the one side and of supernaturalism on
the other" (Lord 25). Oliver thinks that it is treason to appeal from God immanent to
God transcendent. For him, there is no God transcendent. As far as Oliver is concerned,
"God was man" (Lord 25).
Benson utilizes Oliver to explain the fully reasoned humanistic thought and its
vision of world peace. Of humanistic reasoning, Oliver says that "there were mysteries
in it, but mysteries that enticed rather than baffled, for they unfolded new glories with
every discovery that man could make" (Lord 25). In his mind, man is the responsible
one, not God. Man is capable of reasoning and that power is all that is necessary for
man to live a good life. This is how Oliver lives his life, through reason. For Oliver and
the humanists, peace is a reasoned accomplishment made possible by man and his
knowledge of men and of the world. Oliver claims that "the one condition of progress
and the building of Jerusalem, on the planet that happened to be men's dwelling place,
was peace. Peace that arose from, not passed, understanding; the peace that sprang
from a knowledge that man was all and was able to develop himself only by sympathy
with his fellows" (Lord 25).
Oliver understands and believes Felsenburgh's argument for the destruction of
Christianity. First of all, Oliver firmly believes that peace had become a universal fact
that was brought about by man. The second main argument he addresses again to
reason. Oliver thinks of persecution as the method of a majority who desires to force a
set of opinions upon a minority who does not share them. Oliver also believes that the
wickedness of persecution in the past lay, not in the employment of force, but in the
abuse of it. Oliver reasons with Felsenburgh that no country should dictate religious
opinions to a minority of its members because no one State has the right to lay down
universal laws, the contrary to which might be held by its neighbor. Oliver recognizes
this as nothing other than the individualism of nations. He feels this to be a heresy even
more disastrous to the commonwealth of the world than the individualism of the
individual. But he thinks that with the arrival of the new universal community of
interests the whole situation will be positively changed.
"The single personality of the human race had succeeded to the incoherence of
divided units, and with that consummation—which might be compared to a coming of
age, an entirely new set of rights had come into being" (Lord 212). Benson writes of the
horrifying consequences of the humanitarian movement. The human race had become
a single entity with the ultimate responsibility towards itself, a society turned inward
and away from its Creator. Private rights that had existed in the past no longer existed.
Man was finally in charge of all things. "Man possessed dominion over every cell which
composed the massive body of the movement, and where any such cell asserted itself to
the detriment of the Body, the rights of the whole were unqualified" (Lord 212). The
individual was consumed into the greater body. These were the arguments, upheld by
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Felsenburgh and Oliver, promoting the destruction of the Catholic Church that they
both rejected.
Oliver feels that the very essence of the Catholic religion was treason to the
humanistic idea of man. Christians direct their homage to a supernatural Being who is
not only outside of the world but transcends it. Ironically, Oliver rationalizes that
Christians deliberately sever themselves from that body of which by human generation
they had been made members. To Oliver, Christians are like diseased limbs on the
human tree. They defer to the authority of an outside force other than that which is
their own life. It follows, for Oliver, that by that very act alone they endanger the entire
newly created body of mankind. For Oliver, this is the ultimate crime against man "and
nothing but complete removal from the world could be an adequate remedy"(Lord
213). These are the main arguments that were used to address the few parts of the
world that flinched from the intentional statement made by Felsenburgh to destroy
Christianity.
iii. Mabel
Benson explores a human with noble aspirations in the character of Mabel.
Mabel's humanistic beliefs are similar to those of her husband and she often looks to
him for reassurance that those beliefs will hold fast. She thinks that her western life is
sensible and peaceful; "folks had their feet at last upon the rock" (Lord 29). Mabel is
content with her beliefs until she is horribly shaken by witnessing the crash of a voler.
She is shaken because she has never before witnessed suffering of any kind. In Mabel's
world people are euthanized and die peacefully before any suffering or trauma. For
Mabel, the crash was like some "ghastly monster, pouring out human screams, and
beginning almost instantly to crawl with broken life" (Lord 29). She has never seen
suffering in her life and she was "dazed by the suddenness of the whole affair" (Lord
29). When she encounters Fr. Percy at the sight of the volor crash, Mabel watches
"almost unintelligently" as the young priest with the crucifix attends to the dying.
Mabel is curious about the priest and about the course of action that he takes with the
suffering victims of the crash and yet, when the ministers of euthanasia come to the
scene of the accident, "her heart leapt in relief" (Lord 30). She does not know that Fr.
Percy is comforting the victims and administering last rites. She has no experience with
the way in which the church addresses death and dying. Mabel rejects the supernatural
and yet there is something about the manner of the priest that catches her attention and
plants the seeds of doubt.
Mabel's attention is aroused by the events of the crash and she asks Oliver about
Christian beliefs, "do people really believe all that" (Lord 31). She recalls that the
accident happened quickly, suddenly and that the priest arrived immediately, "just as if
he had been expecting it"(Lord 31). Oliver tells her that people will believe anything
and that Christian beliefs are superstitious and vulgar. Mabel has never seen anyone
die before because the euthanasia people arrive quickly to alleviate suffering and bring
a peaceful death. She realizes that she has no words of comfort for the dying. Mabel
says that she couldn't possibly have talked about Humanity. Those were not the words
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to comfort the dying. She doesn't possess the language to talk about death and dying
nor words to provide comfort when confronted by death. All of this is foreign to her.
Mabel continues her questions with Oliver and wonders aloud what happens to the
people. Having lived a sheltered life, she thinks that when people die "they just
stopped."
Mabel persists in her interest in the priest and wonders about his thoughts on
suffering and death. She wants the answers to difficult questions and when pressed to
respond to questions about life and death the ideology of humanity does not adequately
explain death for her (Lord 31). She continues to press Oliver about the after‐life and
Oliver explains the concepts of the Trinity and the after‐life to her. He reassures her
that although it sounds nice it isn't true. But Mabel perseveres and inquires again about
the priest and why it is that he believes. Curiously she asks how the priest can believe
in Christianity. For Mabel thinks that he looks "too intelligent" to believe in such
nonsense as Christianity. Mabel and Oliver believe that "the euthanatizers are the real
priests" (Lord 32). In the character of Mabel, Benson illustrates the person who is
curious about the greater mysteries of life and pursues answers to the complex
problems of human destiny.
The sight of blood on her shoe is a turning point for Mabel. The unfamiliar
crusty red splash left from the accident is a curiosity for her. The sight makes her
frightful and she turns white at the sight of this alien substance on her shoe. It is
symbolic of the human suffering that occurred during the crash. She cannot deny that
she heard and saw people suffering from the accident. She doesn't know what to make
of this incident and is very upset by it. Oliver sees her response and catches her at once
asking her not to be foolish, not to become sentimental over the blood. He wants her to
share his view point and to find comfort in reason. That it is merely blood and blood is
yet another fact of everyday life. The Humanity creed answered all questions about
blood because it was a fact and nothing more. But Mabel is at the point where reason,
psychology and the Humanity creed do not satisfy her or answer her concerns about
suffering and death
She encounters death again with her aging mother‐in‐law, Mrs. Brand. Mabel's
idea of duty does not include telling Oliver's mother, Mrs. Brand, that she was in danger
of death, for there was "no past to set straight, no judge to be confronted" (Lord 57).
Death was an ending, not a beginning, people just stopped. Without a Christian belief
system, Mabel sees death as just the end. She herself will be euthanized and fade into
nonexistence. Once again she contemplates death and the implications of an after‐life
interest her imagination (Lord 57). When Mabel discovers Fr. Percy at the house
reconciling Mrs. Brand to the Catholic Church, Mabel is inquisitive and she questions
him: "may we know what good comes from being received into the church, the soul
reconciled to God" (Lord 73). She wants to know why Mrs. Brand sent for the priest
and why she would need to be reconciled.
Mable discovers that the priest has heard Mrs. Brand's confession and has given
her absolution. Mabel desires to know more about the process of forgiveness and she is
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curious to know why Mrs. Brand would need anointing and holy communion (Lord 74).
Unlike her mother‐in‐law, Mabel does not feel the need to be pardoned for her sins or to
be reunited with God. Her society has abandoned the concept of the after‐life. All of
these Catholic traditions are foreign to Mabel and yet they capture her attention. Mabel
is questioning and seeking answers. Her imagination is engaged as she is tries to make
sense of death and dying within an intellectual framework that cannot provide the
answers that she needs.
Mabel is dealing with a universal riddle: why is there pain and suffering in the
world? Her reasoning cannot explain the riddle for her and she is without a
constructive way to resolve the riddle. She is not a Christian and she lives without the
Christian framework that addresses the significant role of suffering in life. Christians
believe that Christ, incarnate God, suffered and was crucified without guilt. He suffered
and was crucified for human sinfulness. Through this event one can see that one can
suffer and acquiesce in suffering knowing that because God's atonement is so vast and
fundamental even God Himself can submit to it. The Crucifixion is the reassurance that
is needed; "since it demonstrates to us that pain is not an unhappy accident of life...but a
part of life so august and so far‐reaching that, since the Creator himself can submit to it,
it must fall under that divine standard of justice into which our own ideas of justice
must someday be expanded" (Friendship 89‐91).
In his book, The Friendship of Christ, Benson writes about the value of suffering
and about a willing sacrifice. Benson believed that the Catholic concept of a willing
sacrifice solves the problem of pain and suffering. For Benson, a willing sufferer rises
above his intellect and aided by Divinity has "risen to that high atmosphere in which
Christ rendered his soul into his Father's hands, and embraced, and thereby silenced, at
least in himself, that question which tortures perpetually those of us who merely stand
by and look on (Friendship 92). Mabel is the person that stands by and looks on. She is
the character that Benson employs to explore the Christian viewpoint on human
suffering.
Like Oliver, Mabel is impressed with Felsenburgh because "here was one instead
whom she could follow, a god indeed and a man as well‐ a God because human, and a
man because so divine" (Lord 90‐91). Felsenburgh is man‐made and an intoxicating
personality for whom she falls and like Oliver, she would die for him. She is also
impressed with his new corporate worship, the "crowning triumph for Humanity" (Lord
132). Her heart had yearned for such a thing as corporate worship, consecrated not by
priests but "by the will of man" (Lord 132). Mabel acknowledges that humans "must
worship or sink" (Lord 132) and that Christians understand this need. However, she
thinks that Christians "degraded it, darkened light, poisoned thought, and
misinterpreted instinct" (Lord 132).
She longed to pay "homage to life declaring the sole divinity of life" (Lord 136).
Searching for a higher purpose she even becomes contemplative and enters into a
meditative state while in a church. Although of the world and a member of the
humanist movement, she is searching and reaching out to the Divine. However, she
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misplaces her attention on humanism and Felsenburgh rather than Christ. She has
longings and up to the point of the rebellion, she places her trust in her new savior,
Felsenburgh. However, when she witnesses the mob and the killing of Catholics, the
notion of human suffering is fully revealed to her and she recognizes that man has not
evolved. She is bitterly disillusioned by her form of religion. The horrific blood‐ shed,
the impaled bodies, and the violent cruelty at the hands of her fellow humanists unlock
the concept of suffering for Mabel and she is appalled.
When Oliver tells her that the dispatch of volors to destroy Rome was
regrettable but necessary and that it was a punitive act, she is overcome with the
presence of horror surrounding the action. She is conflicted by the loyalty to her new
faith and her "hatred of those crimes in the name of justice" (Lord 168). Her hatred
prevails and "ruins all her hopes," ending her religion. "The murderous passion of the
people of her faith, they were no better than Christians" (Lord 168‐169). The burning
churches, the hunted Catholics, the raging streets and the bodies carried on poles were
too much for her and "the collapse was complete" (Lord 169). Mabel is disgusted with
the events that surround her. She feels discouraged and lost. She deeply wanted her
new religion to sustain her and provide her with all that it promised. Her conflict is
deep and she needs something to support her. Unfortunately, she continues to cling to
the idea that Felsenburgh will be the answer.
Although Oliver himself is unsure about the obliteration of Rome, he is not able
to convince Mabel that destroying Rome was in the best interest of humanity. Like
Pontius Pilate, Oliver stood by and permitted the destruction (Lord 170). After the fall
of Rome, Mabel's world disintegrates around her. "She had thought revenge and cruelty
and slaughter to be the brood of Christian superstition, dead and buried under the new‐
born angel of light," Felsenburgh (Lord 168‐169). But the monster stirs around her as
the raging mob roars through the streets (Lord, 177). She contemplates her own death
but remembers Felsenburgh and "his personality" prevails once again. Poor Mabel
mistakes Felsenburgh for her Savior making him the God of her religion. "God was man,
then after all...and Felsenburgh his Incarnation. She believed in Him" (Lord 179).
Mabel needs a Savior at this point, her faith is shaken, her husband is a key participant
involved with the destruction of Rome, and her world is quickly crumbling around her.
But the true Savior of the world is not man‐made.
When it becomes clear to Mable that Oliver had indeed declared the
extermination of the Supernaturalists to be a necessity, there is a terrible scene
between the husband and wife furthering the downfall of Mabel's world. She feels that
she was supremely deceived and that the world's hope turned out to be a monstrous
mockery. She recognizes that the reign of universal peace is as far away as ever. Most
painfully she comprehends that Felsenburgh had betrayed his trust and broken his
word. She has made the wrong choice, she has been led astray and she is devastated by
this revelation. In Mabel, we observe a person with noble aspirations who is crushed
by her allegiance to an evil movement led by a deceitful and malevolent leader,
Felsenburgh.
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iv. Mrs. Brand
Benson explores the sentimental in the character of Mrs. Brand, Oliver's mother.
Mrs. Brand was brought up as a Catholic. She keeps a Christian book, A Garden of the
Soul, by her bed. She reads this book even though her son, Oliver, despises Christianity
and wishes she would burn the book and stop referring to Christian things. Oliver feels
that his mother is being sentimental and worries she is "falling back" to her Christian
ways and that would be too awful for him to bear. He is unsettled and upset that she
cannot get Christianity out of her head even after 50 years. But Mrs. Brand remembers
her Christian upbringing and part of her longs for communion, longs for reunification
with her church. She struggles with the notion of faith as she approaches the end of her
life. Benson employs Mrs. Brand to question whether her character is sentimental or
being called by God in an act of grace. By extension he explores those who are
sentimentalists and whose actions are based on emotions rather than God's grace.
When Oliver is shot by the Catholics he tells her what happened to the shooter
and says to her that "there was no time for a priest this time for the crowd trampled
and strangled him immediately" (Lord 52). Oliver thinks this merciful behavior and
says that he had done what he could. However, his mother, anxiously questioned if he
had done all that he could. She is not convinced that he acted appropriately, that he did
everything he could do. No, she is worried about the afterlife; she is concerned about
the repercussion of the actions taken in this life. Mrs. Brand is one who still thinks
about what happens to people in this life and whether or not one shows mercy. Her
conception of mercy and compassion is different from Oliver's because it is built on a
different belief system than his. She recalls something about suffering and death that
the others do not understand. After fifty years she is still apprehensive about suffering
and death and turns to her bedside book for reassurance.
Mrs. Brand is afraid of Felsenburgh and like Fr. Blackmore she also associates
him with doom. This fear is something that motivates her in her desire to return to the
church. She is afraid for her soul and so she sends a servant to get Fr. Percy to come to
her death bed. She tells Fr. Percy that she is afraid of Felsenburgh and wants him to
reassure her that Felsenburgh cannot hurt her. She says to Percy, "Father I am a little
afraid when I think of that man. He cannot harm me, can he? I am safe now? I am a
Catholic" (Lord 68). Even after Percy's comforting and reassurance, she tells him of her
dream and her worries about Felsenburgh. Mrs. Brand is stressed and pressured by the
evilness that she feels surrounding Felsenburgh. Recognizing his evil she reaches out to
the one true source of comfort, the Church and its faithful servant, Fr. Percy.
Mabel tries to get Mrs. Brand to denounce her Catholic faith, because for Mabel
there is no such thing as sin, no past to settle, no judgment, and so for her there is no
reason to be Catholic. In Mabel's rational world there is only crime and communion.
But Mrs. Brand does not denounce her Catholic faith; she returns to it. Perhaps it is
because she knows that sin is a far greater evil to man than pain and suffering. Sin and
evil, not pain and suffering, will tear the world apart. Mrs. Brand's response to Mable's
insistent plea to condemn the church is her crying out, "the priest knows". This is
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because the priest still has faith and the mother knows and recognizes that gift. It is
poignant that Mrs. Brand tries to resist the euthanasia that Mabel orders. Sentimental
or not, Mrs. Brand hears the call of Providence and tries to answer that call.
v. Fr. Percy Franklin/Pope Silvester
Fr. Percy, the priest, has a shock of white hair, fine features, strong, black
eyebrows and very bright green eyes. Eerily, Fr. Percy and Felsenburgh look alike.
Percy is Benson's character that illustrates Providence on the level of a soul favored by
Grace. Though the inner life of Fr. Percy, Benson portrays the free and wise man, one
who is focused on God. Percy is not without struggle and yet it is his inner life, his
focused meditation and inner feeling of God's loving presence that assist him with his
choice of masters to serve. Early in the novel, Percy shows that he has an interior life of
faith that guides and sustains him.
In the custom of his mental prayer, his work, he deliberately distances himself
from the world and comes into God's presence (Lord 40). Percy talks with God; he has a
relationship with God that he nurtures in this interior life. When Percy speaks with God,
he waits for communication and experiences the mystical presence of God (Lord 42,
43). Fr. Percy's firm faith is pivotal for this novel. From the beginning, Benson shows
that Percy has an interior life that is critical to his well‐being. Percy is motivated by his
love for and obedience to God. Although subject to the world, Percy is not a slave to the
world. Percy struggles but relies on God and on this faith. He is an example of the free
and wise man living out his faith in all situations.
When introduced, Percy is discouraged and worried about the effects of the
humanist movement and its condemnation of the church that he loves. A learned and
faithful man, Percy wrestles with his feelings about the mass movement that is roiling
around him. He is distressed with priests like Fr. Franklin falling away from the church
and into the mass movement of humanism. Percy is also troubled about the arrival of
Felsenburgh. He becomes concerned after hearing Fr. Blackmore's comments and his
worry increases after the fearful comments made by Oliver's mother upon her
deathbed. The conversation with Mabel and Oliver does nothing to ease his fear when
he notices the slight touch of fear in Mabel's excited voice.
Percy cannot avoid the fear and doom that people are suggesting about
Felsenburgh. He views London as the "superior mansions of hell,"' a world without
hope or faith. He finds himself in a world where to him it seems that God has
withdrawn Himself and left in His place a state of complacency. Percy's world is in a
state where there is no hope or faith because although life continues, there was "absent
the one essential to well‐being" (Lord 94). Percy reveals that the one essential to well
being is a relationship with the Creator. It is this relationship, which makes "life worth
living (Lord 95). Percy is different from most of the characters in the book because he
has a firm faith. Percy, unlike the others, tries to resist the movement and remain
grounded in Catholicism.
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Percy's soul is uneasy, he feels tested, and so he turns to his Creator, to the
relationship that he has established through his interior life of faith. Percy turns to God
and his meditations with Him are intense. God's grace and communication with Percy
are apparent as he dramatically envisions the Crucifixion in the first section of the book.
In his meditation, Percy calls out to God for help because the people are falling away
from the church. Percy feels that he cannot bear the agony of a world without God's
presence and he appeals to God with outstretched hands. When God is silent his will
"flickered in self‐consciousness" (Lord 41) but he steadies it with repeated acts of faith,
hope and love.
Percy controls his will and he begs for God to speak to his soul, to relieve his
burdens. In his passion he sees the Body Mystical in its agony with the world gathered
round mocking Him. In this vision, God shows Percy that there were a thousand
horrors yet to come before the end, the final crucifixion. "That inner world, to which by
long effort he had learned the way, was all alight with agony" (Lord 42) and yet Percy
knows that he must faithfully watch and wait on the eternal patience of God. Percy will
be patient and he will control his will and conform it to the will of God. It is the intense
power of faith and Percy's committed interior life that sets him apart from the other
characters in the novel. He is unique among the characters because he has been given
many spiritual gifts.
Percy has what St. Thomas Aquinas calls the Holy Spirit's gift of understanding,
wisdom and counsel. In his Summa Theologiae, Aquinas writes about these gifts
(Aquinas IIa‐IIae, q.8,a. 1,c), the first being the gift of understanding. Aquinas makes
the distinction between what one knows from the external versus what one knows from
internal knowledge. He writes that sensitive knowledge is concerned with external
qualities, but intellective knowledge penetrates into the very essence of things. Aquinas
suggests that there are hidden things within and that one must "penetrate within" to
find the "hidden nature of the substantial reality". Aquinas is pointing out that human
knowledge begins with external things and yet deeper understanding can happen
within. It can happen with the aid of supernatural light. This supernatural light, God's
grace, is a gift bestowed upon Percy so that he can understand things that cannot be
known just by external evidence. Percy has the Holy Spirit's gift of understanding. It is
apparent through his inner life, his meditations, his communicative relationship with
God.
Percy also has what St. Thomas called the Holy Spirit's Gift of Wisdom (Aquinas
IIa‐IIae, q. 45, a. 5, c,). Percy has the kind of good judgment that comes from
contemplation and consultation with God. Aquinas writes that people receive various
degrees of wisdom through unity with the Divine. Some receive a higher degree of this
gift from the Holy Spirit. The degree of wisdom is not common to all but belongs to the
gratuitous graces, which come from the Holy Spirit. Percy has both aspects of the
wisdom that Aquinas writes about. From contemplation and his deep relationship with
God, Percy is able to understand the exalted mysteries and impart his knowledge to
others. He is also able to direct himself and others according to Divine rules that he
receives through his knowledge and understanding of the Divine.
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Percy benefits from the Holy Spirit's gift of counsel, which is also described by
Aquinas in the Summa Theologiae (Aquinas IIae, q. 52, a. 1). Aquinas allows that God
moves everything including the corporeal creature through time and place. The
spiritual creature He moves through time but not through place. People, rational
beings, move through the research of reason to perform a particular action. This is
what Aquinas calls counsel. The Holy Spirit is said to move rational beings by the way
of counsel, a gift of the Spirit. In search of counsel, one requires the direction of God
who comprehends all things and this is done through the gift of counsel. Benson
illustrates this gift when Percy seeks counsel with God, seeking counsel from one who is
wiser than himself. Benson creates Percy to show how Providence works in a man of
faith who is dependent upon God, one who conforms his will to the will of God. He is a
man who receives and understands the gifts of the Holy Spirit given to him so that he
may grasp the greater mysteries of life.
Percy is an important character for Benson, one that he knows very well. Fr. C.C.
Martingale, Benson's biographer, objects to Benson's habit of reinventing himself in his
books (Grayson 25). Benson and Fr. Percy do have a lot in common. Both priests
wrestle with deep religious questions about their ultimate allegiance and both have
remarkable conversion experiences. Throughout Benson's spiritual quest, the issue
was not which church was the bearer of Christ's presence in the world, but which
church had Providential protection. Fr. Percy was established in the church for which
Benson was looking, the authentic church of Christ, the Roman Catholic Church. Benson
wanted to make certain for himself that he received Christ's grace and had Providential
protection; he did not want anything less than that. Benson saw something new and
dangerous at the beginning of the century. His conversion from the Church of England
to the Roman Catholic Church included his desire to find the most reliable and safe
place to live in faith. He wanted to be properly fortified so that he could confront the
trials and challenges that he thought were coming.
Fr. Percy also faced questions of morality and allegiance. Percy feels the
powerful draw of the humanist’s philosophy and he is witness to the human loss of
dignity. Percy sees mankind give up personal responsibility. The massive crowd of
people that is freed of religious concern loses its ability to live life realistically and loses
its human dignity. Percy sees people willing to give up their lives to the management of
powerful personalities and in the end submit to a meaningless death by euthanasia for a
final nameless peace. All is really nothingness in the City of Man. Like Benson, Percy's
struggle leads him to a focal point, an understanding of the reality of life. Personal love
for Christ "makes life tolerable" for Fr. Percy.
Both Percy and Benson choose the City of God and the Catholic Church. They
know that any proposal to renew humanity without Christ at its center is sure to fail.
The age of peace that Felsenburgh promotes is a fraud. It will turn destructive because
of the sinfulness of men. Percy knows that any plan to lead humanity out of suffering
and into peace without Christ will be one that yields to the exploitations of the enemy of
God. The Devil uses the human race to accomplish his work. He desires to take down
human life with him. Percy understands that the choice of whom to follow is not an
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indulgence but a power to be used in favor of Christ. Through conversion both Percy
and Benson appreciate the absolute necessity to choose to live in the City of God. They
recognize the danger of drifting into the other city and warn against the "agony of
divided homage." They sound the alarm about giving up the ability to make personal
decisions that affect the condition of the soul.
vi. Felsenburgh
Felsenburgh is a creation of the movement and the people are mesmerized by
him. The New People evening edition describes him as the greatest orator, of many
tongues, one who has knowledge of everything, an impressive personality. The people
are enraptured with him as a great personality (Lord 81‐84). He is their messiah, the
one they are waiting for, and even though they do not know anything about him they
firmly believe in him and trust him. Mabel trusts him as God and Oliver, persuaded by
the "power of his personality," says that he would die for him (Lord 86 ‐ 87).
Felsenburgh accomplishes a work that seemed miraculous. He has broken down
divisions between East and West, prevailing by the sheer force of personality over
religious fanaticism and party government. "Called son of Man, because he was so pure‐
bred a cosmopolitan; the Savior of the world because he had slain war and himself
survived…Even Incarnate God because he was the perfect representative of divine man"
(Lord 108). Here is the one for whom the crowd clamors. He is their self‐created leader
and lord. He is also the clever, crafty one that will seduce them into self‐destruction.
When the enigmatic Felsenburgh arrives for corporate worship, the enormous
crowd rises to its feet to honor this extraordinary "personality." They vibrate in the
enormous human emotion that is corporate worship. He merely lifts an arm and they
rise to their feet and roar, screaming their admiration, and then he stands perfectly still,
commanding all eyes upon him, and he silences the crowd. His theatrics mesmerize the
crowd. "His domination was complete and there was but one will, one desire, and that
beneath His Hand" (Lord 181). Although the people submit to him they have "no
precise or verbal record of what he said". "It was Man Himself speaking...a soliloquy
rather than an oration" (Lord 182). Here is a charismatic and persuasive character
capable of leading the massive mob into demise for they will do anything for him. They
surrender themselves to the supremacy of Felsenburgh.
In the novel, the Pope tells of the biography of the character Felsenburgh. The
biography tells of a paradox of a man. Its brusque aphorisms illustrate the egotism and
pompousness of Felsenburgh's character. Felsenburgh proclaims confusing maxims
such as "No man forgives, he only understands." "It needs supreme faith to renounce a
transcendent God." "A man who believes in himself is almost capable of believing his
neighbor." "To forgive a crime is to condone a crime." "The strong man is accessible to
no one, but all are accessible to him" (Lord 189). He spews forth fiery streams of
eloquence and yet his statements are full of contradictions. He speaks with kindness
and at the same time utter ruthlessness. Felsenburgh uses whatever is necessary to win
his position. "He who had wept over the Fall of Rome, a month later had spoken of
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extermination as an instrument that might be judicially used in service of humanity. A
paradoxical statement from one who preached peace and tolerance" (Lord 188). The
secret lay in his personality. "To see him was to believe him" (Lord 188‐189). As the
ideal humanist he knows that sentimentality must not be permitted to dominate reason.
His biographer calls him creator, redeemer, Son of Man, Savior, Absolute,
Eternal, Infinite, and Alpha and Omega (Lord 189). Even Felsenburgh quotes Jesus in
referring to himself, "I am the Door, the Way, the Truth and the Life, the Bread of Life
and the Water of Life. My name is wonderful, Prince of Peace, the Father
everlasting...and of my kingdom there shall be no end" (Lord 190). The irony is
frightening as the monster refers to himself in terms reserved for the real Savior, Jesus
Christ. Here is the Antichrist, the great deceiver of men, referring to himself as Lord of
the World. Scripture warns about this.
Benson uses the character of Felsenburgh to illustrate the Antichrist. 2
Thessalonians, 2:3‐12 (NAB 330) is one of the Holy Scriptures that cautions of the
power of the Antichrist. It says:
Let no one deceive you in any way. For unless the apostasy comes first and the
lawless one is revealed, the one doomed to perdition, who opposes and exalts
himself above every so‐called god, and object of worship, so as to seat himself in
the temple of God, claiming that he is a god ‐ do you not recall that while I was
still with you I told you these things? And now you know what is restraining, that
he may be revealed in his time. For the mystery of lawlessness is already at
work. But the one who restrains is to do so only for the present, until he is
removed from the scene. And, then the lawless one will be revealed, whom the
Lord Jesus will kill with the breath of his mouth and render powerless by the
manifestation of his coming, the one whose coming springs from the power of
Satan in every mighty deed and in signs and wonders that lie, and in every
wicked deceit for those who are perishing because they have not accepted the
love of truth so that they may be saved. Therefore, God is sending them a
deceiving power so that they may believe the lie, that all who have not believed
the truth but have approved wrongdoing may be condemned.
Saint Augustine comments on 2 Thess. 2: 3‐12 in his book The City of God, Book
XX no. 19. Augustine writes, "For then shall Satan be loosed and by means of that
Antichrist shall work with all power in a lying though wonderful manner". It is may be
questioned whether these works are called "signs and lying wonders" because Satan
will deceive men's senses by false appearances, or because the things he does, though
they are true prodigies, will be a lie to those who believe that such things could be done
only by God. The crowd in the novel is ignorant of the Devil's power, and especially of
such unexampled power. Augustine writes, "For when he fell from heaven as fire, and
at a stroke swept away from the holy Job his numerous household and his vast flocks,
and then as a whirlwind rushed upon and smote the house and killed his children, these
were not deceitful appearances, and yet they were the works of Satan to whom God has
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given power. Why they are called signs and lying wonders we shall then be more likely
to know when the time itself arrives" (Augustine no. 19).
But whatever is the reason for the names, there will be signs and wonders that
will seduce those who deserve to be seduced, "because they received not the love of the
truth that they might be saved" (Augustine no. 19). God will permit the Devil to do
these things, the permission being by His own just judgment. Just as it is in the novel,
the doing of these things is in pursuance of the Devil's lack of virtue and his wicked
purpose. All beware "that they all might be judged who believed not the truth, but had
pleasure in unrighteousness" (Augustine no.19). Augustine recommends that people
love and believe the Truth that brings salvation and desist from being seduced by
deceitful evil. This is because all will be judged in the last by the judgment administered
by Jesus Christ. It is of great concern for the soul to choose the Truth over evil.
So it is that Julian Felsenburgh seduces and misleads the swooning crowd, with
his signs and lying wonders. Felsenburgh takes advantage of the human fear of pain
and twists it into a vision of a progressive society. But his proposal to renew humanity
without Christ is a farce because the biggest problem is not pain, but sin and unless sin
is dealt with, all the best‐laid plans will fail. Felsenburgh's false promise of peace
without pain will produce nothing because the enemy of God seduces the human race to
accomplish his own personal vendetta: the destruction of the Christ that might still live
in the people on earth.
The massive crowd, freed from religion, has lost its humanity, its capacity to face
life realistically. The crowd is willing to give up all individual power and allow Julian
Felsenburgh to rule their lives until they are euthanized and die peacefully. Seduced by
him, they will have peace at any cost. They have given up their responsibility and allow
him to rule. They have been manipulated to believe that suffering is their enemy, not
the wonderful savior Julian Felsenburgh who promises them peace. They have been
seduced by the Antichrist and by his sign and lying wonders. So distanced are they
from God that they are unaware of the judgment that awaits them. The rendering of
Felsenburgh illustrated that the Devil wants to seduce and corrupt the members of
Christ's body. He is ruthlessly aggressive in his pursuit of men.
vii. Syrian Priest
The Syrian priest, Silvester’s chaplain, narrates the last section of the book, The
Victory. He is a man who is simple in his life and in his faith. It is through his
perception that the final stage is set and the Apocalypse occurs. He is a man who has
escaped the ideas of the world and relies on the things that Christ, St. Paul and St. John
report. These things make up his reality. This sensitive man has a strong inner life and
he is intuitively aware that something strange and great is impending. It is though his
eyes that we see the “mystical union of the ineffable God head and the Humanity of
Jesus Christ” (Lord 206). In his “inner sense” the Syrian sees a change in Silvester when
he celebrates the Mass. “There was an aroma of an emotion about the vestmented
figure that affected him almost physically – an entire absence of self‐consciousness, and
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in its place the consciousness of some other Presence” (Lord 206). The priest, although
unable to explain the change, senses it when Silvester experiences union with the
Divine at the Eucharist (Lord 206). Benson uses the character of the Syrian to describe
the mystery of union, the last stage of the spiritual journey.
The Syrian Priest himself experiences union as the world around him is
dissolving and he joins the remaining Cardinals and priests prostrate on the chapel
floor. He describes the feeling of union and the soul in repose. All of his thoughts
ceased and he experienced that “superb tranquility, possible only when the senses are
physically awake, with which, God, perhaps once in a lifetime, rewards the aspiring
trustful soul” (Lord 249). He speaks of the “point of complete rest in the heart of the
Fount of all existence” (Lord 249). Like Silvester, this priest has an intense inner life
and he has the experience of one that passes “from that circle whence the soul looks
within, from that circle, too, whence it looks upon objective glory, to that very center
when it reposes” (Lord 249).
The priest understands for “thought was no longer the process of a mind, rather
it was the glance of a spirit” (Lord 251). Even though the material world is dissolving
around him, the Syrian priest is in repose. He is balanced with knowledge of the
“innermost heart of reality” (Lord 250) and he is prepared for the coming historical
event. He appears to himself as scarcely more than a soul, “intent and steady” (Lord
250). In his unity he feels scarcely interested and without distress. Benson draws
attention to this final section by the change in narrators. He also illustrates Providence
on the historical level of the human experience through the thoughts and narration of
the Syrian priest.
viii. Providence
The novel illustrates the role that Providence plays in the world. God's rule in
the world, the plan for all order of things, preexists in him. His providence and the
exercise of it in the world are what cause everything which comes to pass in the world.
St. Aquinas discusses Providence and destiny (predestination) in his Summa Theologiae.
He talks about how from eternity some people are destined to eternal life, while others
God allows to fall short. Reprobation, however, is more than foreknowledge; it is the
"will to permit a person to fall into sin, and to impose the punishment of damnation on
account of that sin" (Aquinas Ia, q. 23, a. 3, c). The effect of predestination is grace. Since
God is the first cause of everything, He is also the cause of even the free acts of men
through predestination (Aquinas Ia. q.22, a. 2, ad4). However, He extends his
providence over the just in a certain more excellent way than the wicked" (Aquinas Ia,
q. 23, a. 3, c).
Aquinas writes that the justification of the ungodly is brought about by God
moving man to justice according to the conditions of his human nature. It is in this
nature that man has free‐will and so it is that God's motion to justice does not take place
without the a movement of free‐ will. On moral grounds Aquinas advocates freedom.
Benson, like Aquinas, believes that God respects man's freedom and free‐will until the
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end. All of the characters in the novel have free‐will and they use it when determining
whom they will follow and which city they will inhabit. God has given them this elective
power and He values their free will. But even though God respects man's free‐will, God
also possesses an perfect knowledge of man's future actions. God's omnipotent
providence exercises a complete and perfect control over all events that happen, or will
happen, in the universe.
So it is that God sets the stage for the Antichrist and once again he checks the
Devil. At the end of the book, the Church is going out into the world in a Eucharistic
procession led by Christ through Percy. The priests singing the battle hymn of the
church sing about the entrance into eternity for they are firm in their faith and
following Christ. During the procession, the entire world begins to dissolve and fall
away as Felsenburgh draws near unaware that the world was disintegrating. "It was He
for whom God waited" (Lord 253) to administer His justice. Felsenburgh came in his
"swift chariot, blind to all save that on which He had fixed His eyes so long, unaware
that His world corrupted about him" (Lord 253). He was coming and "the earth, rent
once again in its allegiance, shrank and reeled in the agony of divided homage" (Lord
253). Benson's created world passes but not to the Antichrist.
St. Augustine addresses the way that the justice of God overcomes the power of
the Devil in his book De Trinitate (Augustine 356‐359). He points out that the Devil's
love of power was his essential flaw. And, being a lover of power, the Devil is a deserter
and attacker of justice. This means that the more that men imitate the Devil, the more
they will neglect or even detest justice. Augustine writes that it pleases God to save
man from the Devil's authority by "beating him at the justice game, not the power game,
so that men too might imitate Christ by seeking to beat the Devil at the justice game and
not the power game (Augustine 356‐358). Power is not something bad but needs to be
put into a right order so that justice is preserved.
Benson knows precisely the power that overpowers the Devil. Like St. Augustine
before him, Benson writes about the justice of Jesus Christ. And how does this justice
work? The Devil found nothing in Christ deserving death and yet he killed him. It is
therefore just that the Devil should let the debtors that he holds free, those that believe
in Christ, the one that was without debt. Christ overcomes the Devil because the blood
of Christ, the one who had no sin or debt, was shed for the forgiveness of sins. The Devil
who once held the sinful under sentence of death is deservedly obliged to give them up
to the One that he had undeservedly condemned to death though guilty of no sin. It is
the justice of Jesus Christ that over powers the Devil once again.
b. Format and the spiritual journey
In addition to the use of the literary device of characters, Benson uses the format
of the book to establish his contention. The book is purposefully divided into three
sections that correlate with the experience of the spiritual journey and the conversion
of the soul in allegiance to God. The three parts of the book describe Fr. Percy's spiritual
journey making it a relevant source for contemplating the growth of the human soul in
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friendship with Christ. Benson believed that the soul grows while in relationship, in
friendship, with Christ. Benson thought that a friend in Christ, the newly initiated soul,
must be educated. The soul has to be purified and cleansed so that the soul is united in
Christ by nothing but His grace (Friendship 30). The soul is purged and illuminated,
stripped of itself and then graced with Christ's favor, before being ready for union.
Spiritual writers call these stages the Way of Purgation, the Way of Illumination and the
Unitive Way. In The Friendship of Christ Benson, published in 1912, Benson outlines
these stages; in Lord of the World he illustrates them. The Lord of the World echoes the
three stages of spiritual growth and illustrates them through Percy's spiritual journey.
The first section of the book is entitled Advent, and is the section that describes
Percy's trial and purgation. The first stage in purgation is when the soul becomes
disillusioned with human things and questions even Christian things finding that
although Christian, they are not Christ. The second stage in purgation is where the soul
does not feel as cleansed of sin as it had imagined. It is the stage where it is difficult to
distinguish between Christ and the imagination's conceptions of what grace should be
or do (Friendship 33). Benson warns that at this stage there is the danger of gradually
losing hold of religion and if discouraged enough there is the chance for resentment and
disappointment. At this the stage, if the resentment is great enough, one might turn to
another religion for a quick resolution or to some new modern fad that promises
spiritual relief. One might even turn back to the point where Christ was unknown to
them. There exists one further and more unnatural state and that is of the cynical and
disillusioned Christian. This is a soul in spiritual crisis.
Through this often times turbulent purging, the soul realizes that it is better to
kneel at the feet of Jesus than to go back to the world and mix in its ways. The soul
recognizes that the object of religion is that the soul serves God and not that God should
serve the soul (Friendship‐ 33‐34). Learning this lesson, the soul becomes disillusioned
with itself and comes to recognize the truth. The truth is that it is not something in
people or the soul that attracts Christ. The human being does nothing to attract Christ
and yet, He never fails; humans fail Him. This recognition brings about the final
stripping away of coverings, clothes, beliefs, and the self itself. This is the real essence
and object of purgation. Once purged the soul recognizes that Christ must do it all and
there is no power except the power that He gives. The self is not pure unless it is
altogether lost in Christ (Friendship 35). Benson writes that "Christ purges his friends
of all that is not of Him; that he leaves nothing of themselves, in order that he may be
wholly theirs; for no soul can learn the strength and the love of God, until she has cast
her whole weight upon Him" (Friendship 36).
The second part of the book is The Encounter and addresses the illumination of
Fr. Percy. In purgation, it is discovered that external things are worth nothing. In the
Illuminative Way, corresponding with the purgative, the soul learns that if they are used
properly, external things are worth a great deal. The first step is to perceive their value
intellectually and interiorly so clearly that the soul bends the will to accept and use
these things as God wills. This is the point in the spiritual journey where "the soul
ceases to be bewildered by the problems of pain for while it cannot solve the problem
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intellectually, the soul can answer it by grasping the pain and acquiescing to it"
(Friendship 38‐39). The second step of the Illuminative Way, and corresponding with
the purgative, consists of light being gained from God about interior things; light that is
shed upon truths, like the truths of religion. Extraordinary change comes with this
stage of illumination.
Mysteries do not cease to be mysteries, but an inner light shines in a spiritual
sense and point‐by‐point the truth begins to emerge. As with Fr. Percy's experience, the
path that was in darkness becomes dimly lit. Through this inexplicable process of
spiritual verification, Percy's soul experiences God's favor through clear‐sighted
intuitions or the infusion of knowledge that is characteristic of the saints (Friendship
39‐42). The third stage of illumination deals with the actual relations between Christ
and the soul involved in divine friendship. Percy takes the last step of purgation, which
is the abandonment of self into Christ. The corresponding step of illumination is the
accession of light which the soul receives as to the abiding presence of Christ within. It
is at this point, for Percy, that the divine friendship becomes the object of actual
intelligence and contemplation. He not only enjoyed but consciously perceived and
understood. This is contemplation, a state to be prayed for. It is a state which every
sincere and devout Christian may aspire (Friendship 42).
The third section of the book is entitled the Victory and is Benson's expression of
the Unitive Way, the final spiritual stage of union. Benedict Groeschel writes about this
final stage in his book Spiritual Passage, The Psychology of Spiritual Development.
Groeschel's description matches Percy's spiritual journey and interior life. Groeschel
suggests that there are two distinct contemplative experiences. The first is a simple
quiet contemplation and then later a phase of total contemplative absorption. The first
is an introduction to union and is developed in the last stages of illumination. It is
called acquired contemplation and is simply affective prayer or contemplation in which
intellectual acts are simplified as a result of activity assisted by grace. Infused
contemplation comes at the latter phase and is a free gift from God. This happens when
Percy's acts of the intellect and will are simplified by a special grace which takes hold
and causes him to receive special lights and affections, which God produces. Infused
contemplation often occurs after the dry time, a time called the Dark Night. After this
uncomfortable Dark Night, there is a "sweet quietness leading to a period of prayer
which goes by the name of "full union" with God" (Groeschel 161).
During this final stage in spiritual growth, Percy experiences more episodes of
contemplation that are beyond his own power. In this stage, there is an opening beyond
oneself and the presence of God brings a new openness to His presence in other people
and other things. The enlightened Christian experiencing the Unitive Way will find the
presence of Christ everywhere. Full union with God means that everything is in
harmony and the mind and the will are in agreement and full accord with the loving
plan of God. The enthusiasm, the total detachment of self and the obedience of the
individual act together to make a new person. This is a person who is perfectly at
peace, unafraid of harm, and filled with generosity. Fr. Percy makes his transition from
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priest to Cardinal Protector to Pope through his spiritual journey. It is in the Unitive
Way that God leads Percy's actions and he experiences a new faith reality.
Groeschel points out that one can observe behavioral characteristics of those at
the transition to the Unitive Way (Groeschel 164). These are the things that the Syrian
priest points out about Fr. Percy in the final section. The Syrian priest is witness to
Percy's transition. As a person experiencing the Unitive Way, Fr. Percy exhibits great
purity of heart and refrains from deliberate sin. In the beginning of the book he
struggled with his will but in the Unitive Way, he has great control and mastery over his
behavior accomplished with little effort. Percy no longer experiences repression,
reaction formation, or other defenses that come from conflict. He is balanced and
steadfast under God's guidance and friendship. Groeschel's writing echoes the
comments made by the Syrian priest about the habitus of Fr. Percy when he writes that
"watching a person in the Unitive Way is like watching a great musician playing an
instrument over which he or she has complete mastery and control" (Groeschel 164).
The spiritual journey through purgation and illumination to union with God is
relevant because through contemplation of the Triune God, humans come to know and
experience what it means to be fully human and created in the image of God. It is
through the communion with Jesus Christ that God shares himself with humans, in
order to conform them to all that He is in knowledge, goodness and holiness. As God
became human in all ways but sin, he will make humans gods in all ways except His
divine essence. Christ unites the human and the divine nature so that it is possible to
experience fellowship with God.
Benson writes the novel so that the reader will understand the true reality of life.
That reality is that all of humanity will be fully restored to the full potential of humanity
because the Son of God took to himself a sinful nature and takes to himself also the
sufferings of sin. Holy God and sinful man are reconciled in principle through one
sinless man, Jesus Christ. This restoration, reconciliation, is made actual through the
struggle to conform to the image of Christ. Without the struggle, the praxis, there is no
real faith. One must unite the will, thought, and action to God's will, thought and action.
The humanists in the novel have an abhorrence for struggle and suffering, and
by extension, for the suffering Savior. They mistakenly think that they have evolved and
no longer need restoration and reconciliation. Percy, however, says that it is the
personal love for Christ that "makes life tolerable". Only the love of Christ provides a
real explanation for mysteries of life. Those who are faithful to Christ are those that are
still able to confront the reality of life and the mystery of death. The very ones that the
world views as slaves to religious dogma are the freest through their relationship with
Christ.
c. Percy's trial purgation and illumination
The novel, intentionally divided into three sections, corresponds with Percy's
trial and his spiritual journey. Percy's trial, and his awareness of the pure evil that is
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coming in his direction, begins near the end of the first section, entitled Advent. This
begins Percy's period of purgation. He arrives in London, a city gone mad with the
arrival of the new world leader, Felsenburgh. Benson models Percy's experience after
Christ's temptation described in St. Mathew's Gospel (NAB Mt. 4: 8‐11). St. Matthew
writes:
Then the Devil took him up to a very high mountain, and showed
him all the kingdoms of the world in their magnificence, and he
said to him, "All these things I shall give to you, if you will prostrate
yourself and worship me." At this, Jesus said to him, "Get away Satan! It
is written: 'The Lord, your God, shall you worship and him alone shall
you serve.'" Then the Devil left him and, behold, angels came and
ministered to him.
Percy is standing on a platform that gives him an extraordinary advantage. The
Devil takes him to the top to see the glory of the world and it is Godless. Percy sees a
unified crowd that is not like anything he has seen before. He witnesses a magnetism in
the crowd that is intoxicating and he describes the massive movement stirring beneath
his post. "It was as if a creative act were in process, whereby thousands of individual
cells were being welded more and more perfectly every instant into one huge sentient
being with one will, one emotion, one head" (Lord 77). He is witnessing the power of
the movement luring people into its form and body and Percy is aware of evil. He is
conscious of the presence on the Antichrist. Percy knows for what the intoxicated
crowd is waiting. "He knew it was for a revelation‐ for something that should crown
their aspirations, and fix them forever" (Lord 77). The crowd was longing for a messiah
of its own creation, a man‐made god that would be their head.
On the high platform Percy's soul is tempted. He has a sense that he has seen
this before, that he once dreamt of Judgment day, of humanity like this gathered to meet
Jesus. Percy thinks of Jesus and "how tiny that Figure seems...how far away‐ real
indeed, but insignificant to himself‐ how hopelessly apart from this tremendous life"
(Lord 77). Percy thinks about the "little piece of the wood on which a Poor Man had
died twenty centuries ago...a long way off" (Lord 77). At the time, Percy does not
immediately understand what it happening to him, that he is being tempted by the
Devil. In despair he thinks "to look into the future was as useless as to look into the past.
There was no future, and no past; it was all one eternal instant, present and final" (Lord
77). The Devil is playing with Percy's mind, manipulating him, drawing him into the
humanistic philosophy, and causing him to falter. The Devil is trying to pull Percy into
the movement; he wants Percy's allegiance.
Percy becomes swept up into the energy of the crowd that is waiting for
Felsenburgh. "There was no longer any individual voice: it was the breathing of the
giant that had been born; he was crying out too; although he did not know what he said,
but he could not be silent" (Lord 78). We realize that Percy's will is being tested as he
waits for something that he does not know. He too is caught up in the intoxication of
the crowd. He has trouble controlling his will and he is unable to think consciously.
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Then Percy sees what they have all been waiting for. He sees the slender, ghostly and
silent volor that is carrying a man with "a pale face, strongly marked, as of a young man,
with arched black eyebrows, thin lips, and white hair" (Lord 78). Percy is looking for
the first time at Julian Felsenburgh, who although he looks like Percy, he is the
antithesis of Fr. Percy. Percy manages to come to his senses and regain his conscious
thought but the image of Felsenburgh is impressive and unsettling.
Percy reflects on his trial and continues to think about his experience. He
deliberates about the crowd of humanists and their adoration for Felsenburgh. He
thinks about the humanists and how they enthusiastically persecute the Catholics. The
outburst of enthusiasm for humanity perplexes Percy. Man had fallen in love with man
(Lord 95‐97). The conventional people were wondering why they had ever believed
that there was a God to love. In his trial, Percy "scarcely knew if he believed what he
professed (Lord 97). His emotions were finally extinguished with the sight of the white
car, the silence of the crowd, three weeks earlier. "It was horribly real and positive"
(Lord 97). He had never seen anything like it. "No congregation under the spell of the
most kindling preacher alive had ever responded with one‐tenth the fervor with which
that irreligious crowd had greeted the coming of their savior, Felsenburgh" (Lord 97).
Percy cannot understand Felsenburgh, the man that looks so much like him, nor
can he analyze him. He recalls the terrifying experience of the Devil's pursuit and
temptation. He thinks about his weakened will and unconscious mind. Yet, Percy had
called out to Jesus in his confusion and trial, repeatedly muttering His name. "He only
knew that a hand had gripped his heart and had quenched, it seemed, all sense of
religious conviction" (Lord 97). It took all of his effort and strength not to allow his will
to yield to the force of evil. He had refrained from "that interior act of capitulation that
is so familiar to all who have cultivated an inner life and understand what failure
means" (Lord 97). Percy had cried out to Jesus. "His emotions had been stormed, his
intellect silenced, his memory of grace obscured, a spiritual nausea had sickened his
soul, yet the secret fortress of the will had, in the agony, held fast the doors and refused
to cry out and call Felsenburgh the king" (Lord 97).
Percy prays when "lances of doubt thrust again and again" (Lord 98). He is
emotionally weakened by the trial and his inner life is actively trying to push out the
doubtful thoughts and emotions brought on by Felsenburgh and the crowd of
humanists. His mind reels, he sleeps with a crucifix. His intellect challenges him about
his religion and his emotions for it shrivel. He forces himself, forces his will to
reconsider. He tries to keep a "foothold on the supernatural, sending up cry after cry to
the Lord who hid himself" (Lord 97). Fortunately, Percy does experience reassuring
moments during his Dark Night. At those times, he recognizes that "God was all, that
the Creator was the key to the creature's life and Christianity alone made life tolerable"
(Lord 98).
During his trial, Percy questions: Why is God permitting this to happen? What
was the Roman Church made for if not to convert the world, and why did God allow the
church to dwindle to a handful and the world to find peace without him? And in this
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horrible place of trial and temptation, Percy wonders about a thousand more horrors
that are permitted and yet, God made no sign and spoke no word. It is only through
faith that Percy comprehends this mystery; God permits horrors. He allows man his
free‐will. Percy learns from his trial; his faith grows on his spiritual journey. He
acknowledges that he once believed that divine truth could be demonstrated on
intellectual grounds. Through his trial he discovers that the supernatural cries out to
the supernatural, "the Christ without to the Christ within" (Lord 118). Percy ascertains
that pure reason cannot contradict nor can it prove the mysteries of faith. One must
embrace "Revelation as a fact and recognize that it is the moral state, not the intellect, to
which God speaks with greater certitude" (Lord 118).
With restored faith and strength, Percy moves through the period of his trial and
into the period of illumination in section two, entitled The Encounter. His visit to Rome
is uplifting and meeting with the Pope helps to soothe his spirit. The Pope was pleased
with Percy because he had "foreseen things in a very remarkable manner" (Lord 101).
Percy is fortified in the eternal city and his will is reinforced. His inner life and faith
have brought him recovery from the trial. He no longer fears his own religion and his
faith is secure and beyond shaking. Percy understands that "while the Humanity‐
Religion endeavored to abolish suffering the Divine Religion embraced it, so that the
blind pangs even of beasts were within the Father's Will and Scheme; or that while from
one angle one color only of the web of life was visible‐material, or intellectual, or
artistic ‐ from another the Supernatural was eminently obvious" (Lord 117).
Humanity‐Religion could only be true if at least half of man's nature, hopes and
regrets were ignored. Christianity, on the other hand, accounts for these things, even if
it does not explain them. All this made the one perfect and whole Catholic Faith more
certain to Percy than his own existence. The truth still lives on. Jesus Christ is
Incarnate Deity and the events of His death and Passion are the "bones of the Universe"
(Lord117). The certainty that Percy feels is the certainty that Benson desired. It was
what motivated Benson's conversion. He needed the certainty that the Catholic Faith
provided him. For Percy and also for Benson, the Catholic religion was the only system
of thought that "satisfied man as a whole and accounted for him in his essential nature"
(Lord 194). It also was the one religion that provided Providential protection.
Percy sees himself as Peter with the apostles as they proclaimed through the
world. Their weakness demanded God's strength; they had to depend on Him and so
did Percy. For Peter, the spiritual world had an interpretation and a guarantee in the
outward signs he had witnessed. He had handled the risen Christ. Not so for Percy. He
needed illumination. He apprehended the power of the Resurrection and therefore
Christ was risen (Lord 194). Percy traveled far in the mystical life and in his meditation
he recognizes that the world had pronounced the Gospel false, "false in external
credentials, and false therefore in its spiritual claims" (Lord 195). "One thing gave him
the power to go on, so far as his consciousness was concerned, and that was his
meditation" (Lord 195). In meditation, Percy finds union with God, "the mythical union
of the dedicated soul with the ineffable Godhead and Humanity of Jesus Christ" (Lord
206).
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4. Conclusion
Lord of the World, Robert Hugh Benson's century‐old apocalyptic novel, is still
relevant today because it describes a universal human condition: the entropic drift
away from a God‐centered life to a self‐centered life. Benson saw this condition, was
frightened by it, and was inspired to write a warning. He not only addresses the ever‐
popular themes of the fight against good and evil and the apocalypse, he writes of the
slow shift in man's thinking about himself in relation to his Creator. In writing Lord of
the World, Benson attempts to send a warning about not only disturbing societal trends,
but on the perennial problem of choosing allegiance between God and man. Benson
attests that the question of allegiance is the most important one that will ever be
addressed.
Benson demonstrates that man still has to choose whom will be the master of his
life and that the consequences of the choice are life threatening. Benson warns that
humanism and secularism will adversely affect man and ultimately man will suffer the
loss of the capacity to make personal decisions about ultimate realities. He shows the
increasing tendency to embrace scientific and technical progress without noticing that
it pulls humanity away for itself and from God. When man chooses to follow man
instead of God, he surrenders his birth right, to be a member of the body of Christ.
Benson cautions against the growing temptation to serve man over God.
The desire to serve man rather than God is still tempting to human beings. We
live in a world where human knowledge is extremely valuable and coveted. Knowledge
is the most precious of our resources and possessions giving ultimate power to those
that have it. Knowledge is considered power. The desire for knowledge is so deep and
robust in humans that vehicles are created to provide more information, more
expediently. The World Wide Web supplies information, data and facts, more than one
can possibly take in or absorb, but the Web doesn't grant wisdom. It doesn't impart the
kind of wisdom that St. Aquinas speaks of as the gift of the Holy Spirit. Knowledge is a
good thing until it is used in the wrong way without moral consideration. If used for
man's purposes alone, knowledge may or may not be used for good purposes. However,
if knowledge is not governed by the influence of the One greater than man, it will likely
fall into evil hands.
The scientific and technological advances that have occurred in the last century
are profound and in‐and‐of themselves they are good things. However, when misused
as tools of power, or against God's design, they are no longer benign. When science is
exploited and used to control or destroy life or to alter God's designs and plans, it is no
longer good. Benson saw this tendency to over value and exploit science and
technology a century ago and was compelled to write about it as something to avoid. In
the novel he writes, "that on the whole the latter‐day discoveries of man tended to
distract immortal souls from the contemplation of eternal verities ‐ they were too
exciting for the imagination"(Lord 104).
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People are still captivated by science and technology, often praising it as having
the ultimate solutions to the world's problems. They often look to science instead of
looking to God. They contemplate scientific and technological advancements rather
than the mysteries of God. People still fall hostage to the myriad of scientific view‐
points that persuade them to think that they are the ones in charge, that they
understand all things and ultimately know better than God. Arrogantly, people
endeavor to be in control of destiny; they strive to be self‐reliant, and attempt to be
independent from God. Mistakenly people make man god and choose the man‐made
solutions over God's plans. Striving for control, power, independence, people still
distance themselves from God. It is part of the human condition and propensity to sin
It is an illusion for man to think that he is the one in control of his destiny.
Although sometimes compelling, this is not the reality of life. It is a seductive illusion
and one that is promoted by those that turn away from God and have lost the sense of a
"higher power" than man himself. Benson, like Augustine, reveals that there are two
cities and that as humans endowed with free‐will people need to make a choice about
how to live. If one is not daily conscious of the choice, the surrounding noise of
mankind will slowly influence one's thoughts and little by little one will succumb to
what sounds good rather than to what is inherently good. When man relies on himself
and tries to take control of destiny, he becomes sinful and he distances himself from
God. Perhaps he falls out of the practice of communicating with God, stops worshipping
God, ceases to think about God. Gradually, he loses touch with God and is either
straddling the two cities or living in the City of Man.
One might think that it is not only better, more convenient, more pleasurable,
and perhaps even easier to live in the City of Man. For the present time, that might be
true because to live in the City of God means that one must comply with God's rule. One
must be prepared for judgment and accountable for their life. Often people find this too
difficult, requiring too much thought, time and energy. Some prefer to live as they
choose, outside of God's city. As Benson points out, this has dire consequences. The
presence of Satan is as real today as it was in Benson's day. He waits for man to turn
away for God and then he makes his stealthy attack. The crafty one knows all about
temptation and surreptitiously grasps at those that yearn for power and independence
from God. His covert mission and furtive manipulations are effective. That there is an
absence of Christian faith in the United States is evidence of the power of sin and the
Devil. Faith is a gift from God, but one can choose to turn away from God and reject His
offer of grace. Without God at the center of life, it is impossible for one to steer clear of
evil.
What of this lack of faith and hardness of heart? How does this happen? In
Summa Theologiae, St. Thomas writes that God will withdraw His grace from those in
whom he finds an obstacle (Aquinas I‐II, q. 79, a.3). The cause of the grace that God
withholds is not only the man who raises the obstacle, but also God, who withholds the
grace. God is the first cause and He is also relational. He offers his gift of grace and only
withholds it after man has raised an obstacle and rejected the gift. It is still the case that
man raises obstacles and rejects God's gift. Man has the option to do that through the
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use of his free‐will. The obstacle may be spiritual blindness, hardness of heart, or
deafness to His Word. Or, the obstacle may be turning from God's reality and truth
towards man's reality and truth. It is easy to fall into sin and live with the sinful, those
who welcome others like themselves.
Benson contrasts the spiritually blind and those with hardened hearts with Fr.
Percy. Percy chooses to remain in the City of God and to follow a spiritual path led by
God. Percy relies on his interior life and communication with God to guide and direct
his actions. He clears away the obstacles in his life so that he may have God's gift of
grace. Percy's faith is resilient and he is fortified by his faith and by his religion. It is
also true today that man can and must ultimately choose the City of God. Even the
ungodly can be brought to justification by God. God brings about the goodness in man
by moving him to justice. St. Thomas writes that in those that use the power of
reasoning, "God's motion to justice does not take place without a movement of free‐will;
but He so infuses the gift of justifying grace that at the same time He moves the free‐will
to accept the gift of grace" (Aquinas I‐II. q. 113, a. 3, c). With God's grace, it is still
possible to move the human will to conform to God's will.
For Benson and for Percy, the Catholic Church is the one true church, man's
spiritual director. In the novel, Benson writes, "The object of the Church was to do glory
to God by producing supernatural virtues in man, and that nothing at all was of any
significance or importance except so far as it effected this object"(Lord 103). The
Catholic Church is the world's largest Christian church and is still available to all people
for spiritual direction and support. The mission of the church remains as it did in
Benson's day. The Church still defines its mission as spreading the gospel of Jesus
Christ, administering the sacraments, and exercising charity. The Church teaches that it
is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops
are consecrated successors of His apostles, and that the Pope as the successor of St.
Peter possesses a universal primacy of jurisdiction and pastoral care. Benson
converted to the Catholic Church because he wanted his soul to be in a safe place under
Providential protection. The systematic nature of the Catholic Church, its dogma and
doctrines, its apostolic tradition and firm teachings, provided the reassurance that
Benson desired. Providence provided the protection.
Most importantly, Benson requires that we contemplate the promise of the
Prince of Peace that it is through Him alone that one has access to God the Father. The
true peace passing understanding, concerns not only the relations of men between
themselves, but, above all, the relations of men with their Maker. The efforts of the
world are still found wanting. The Savior said that He came to bring not peace but a
sword, and that it is through many trials and troubles that it is possible to enter the
kingdom of God. Jesus says "seek ye first the kingdom of God and then all these things
shall be added unto you". Benson's novel suggests that man should establish peace with
God and after that the unity of man with man will follow.

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Appendix
Benson's Conversion
In his book, Confessions of a Convert, written in 1913, Benson reconstitutes the
events surrounding his conversion from the Church of England to the Catholic Church.
This conversion influences the story in the novel and often times Percy's conversion
parallels that of Benson's.
Benson was the youngest son of the Archbishop of Canterbury. His father,
Edward White Benson, was a demonstrative and powerful figure in Benson's life, one
that commanded respect. He was an intense personality with a fierce faith. However,
even as a young child, Benson was aware of what he calls his father's inconsistencies
and his failure in carrying out religious principles. Benson never understood how his
father interpreted the words "I believe in the Catholic Church". Benson was unclear
about how his father viewed the relationship between the Church of England and the
Roman Catholic Church. Nor did he understand his father's attitude toward certain
corporate disciplines such as the Sacrament of Penance. His father never urged the
practice of confession and never went himself. Benson writes that although his father
had an enthusiastic love for church principles, he did not understand how he justified
his positions because they were often inconsistent. The lack of rigor within the
workings of the Church of England was troubling even for the young Benson.
Benson distinctly remembers three Church principles rooted in antiquity and
church history, custom in the Book of Common Prayer, that his father ignored or held a
position different than custom. They included the custom to abstain from eating meat
on Friday, the necessity for clergy and bishops to remain unmarried, and the church's
position on divorce. Although Benson felt the principles to be significant ones, he could
not understand how his father, the Archbishop of Canterbury, justified his position on
these three customs. Although it was custom, his father never denied himself meat on
Fridays or any other days. He raised no objections to Anglican clergy or bishops
contracting in marriage. And, Benson thought that his father was inconsistent in his
dealings with divorce for he held that the guilty party in divorce should not seek the
blessing of the church upon a subsequent union, but the innocent party was free to do
so. It is early in his religious formation that Benson identifies what will manifest as
problematic in the future. He doesn't realize it in his youth but the lack of dogmatic
systemization in the Church of England will cause him future consternation.
Benson writes that as a young person he did not feel strongly about his Anglican
faith. He was unmoved, indifferent, and wholly uninterested. Confirmation was
postponed because of his indifference. His was unmoved through Eton and Cambridge.
He reports that his religion had no spark of real vitality. This was until his sister died
and he decided to take the "path of least resistance" and become a priest. He knew that
this decision would give his father extraordinary pleasure. He followed in his father's
footsteps and was ordained by his father in 1894. Just before his ordination, he asked
to make a full confession of his entire life. The "joy that followed that confession was
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simply indescribable" (Confessions 13) for Benson. Unlike his father, the Sacrament of
Penance was an important part of Benson's redemptive process. Self‐examination and
repentance were not enough for Benson. The discipline of confession helped him grow
into the "mature manhood, to the measure of the statue of the fullness of Christ" (NAB
Eph.4:13).
Benson's father died in 1896 and it felt like "the roof were lifted off the world"
(Confessions 6). Of note, his father's last written words were a draft letter to the Times
of London on the Pope's Bull, then just issued, that condemned Anglican Orders as null
and void. Apostolicae Curae is the title of the papal bull, issued in 1896 by Pope Leo
XIII. The Anglican Archbishops of Canterbury and York of the Church of England
responded to the Pope's Bull with an unofficial church document, the encyclical Saepius
Officio in 1897. The principal objection to Anglican orders being valid, was the
"deficiency of intention and of form of the Anglican ordination rites" (Wikipedia
Apostolicae Curae). In the case of deficiency of intention, the Pope declared that "the
rites expressed an intention to create a priesthood different from the sacrificing
priesthood of the Roman Catholic Church and reduced ordination to an ecclesiastical
institution, an appointment or blessing, instead of a sacramental conferral of grace by
the action itself" (Wikipedia Apostolicae Curae).
The continuing authority of Apostolicae Curae has been reinforced ever since its
writing in 1896. In 1998, Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, later Pope Benedict XVI, issued a
doctrinal commentary which established penalties in Canon law for failure to accept
“definitive teaching”. Despite the ongoing work of the ecumenical Anglican Roman
Catholic International Commission (ARCIC), Ratzinger’s commentary listed Pope Leo's
statement in Apostolicae Curae that Anglican orders are “absolutely null and utterly
void” as one of the teachings to which Catholics must give “firm and definitive assent”
(Wikipedia Apostolicae Curae). Although these teachings are not understood by the
Church as revealed doctrines, the church’s teaching authority finds them to be so
closely connected to God's revealed truth that belief in them is required. Little did
Benson know how significant that Bull would be for him.
Benson suffered from health problems after his father's death and went to Egypt
for the winter. During the five months that he spent in the East the claims of the
Catholic Church revealed themselves to him. He began to see how "small and
unimportant the Anglican communion really was" in the world (Confessions 15). He
recognized he was on a huge continent that was ignorant of the existence of the
Anglican Communion. It was the first time that it occurred to him that Rome could be
right and the Church of England wrong. He felt a "tinge of respectful fear"
(Confessions16). After this awakening in the East, Benson became restless for the first
time. There were two things that troubled him. One was the sense of Anglican isolation
that he was forced to notice when abroad. The second was the strong case for Roman
continuity with the pre‐Reformation Church and the respective weakness of the Church
of England.
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Back in England Benson visited a convent for Anglican nuns whose outward
practices were indistinguishable from those of a Catholic nunnery. He attended their
Roman services and concluded that the atmosphere bore no resemblance at all to the
Church of England. He discussed and criticized the differences with the chaplain, a man
that preceded him into the Catholic Church. The chaplain, a learned man, told him that
since the Church of England was Catholic, she had every right to all Catholic privileges.
This answer did not satisfy Benson for the fact that the Catholic privileges "were
obviously alien to her character and seemed to imply that she was not Catholic"
(Confessions 20). Benson writes that the visits to the convent began to influence him
and emphasize the real gulf that separated him from Catholic Christendom.
Benson entered the Community of the Resurrection and found some happiness
in religious life and mission work. However, before giving his profession, he was asked
by his superior if he was in danger of lapsing to Rome. He said no and in July 1901 he
took the step. But Benson continued to struggle with theological issues and continued
to have reservations about the Church of England. For two years he tried to interpret
the role of authority and come to terms with the discrepancies that challenged him.
During this time Benson began to systematize his devotion and learned how to
meditate. He acknowledges that God was preparing him for the most important
decision in his life.
Disciplined reading and counsel brought Benson to the realization of the need
for a teaching church to protect the truths of Christianity for succeeding generations.
He finds this in the Catholic tradition, "which safeguards the things that directly and
practically affect souls, the things necessary for salvation" (Confessions 34). He writes
that this was not the case for the Anglican Communion. He was "an official of a church
that did not seem to know her own mind even on matters directly connected with the
salvation of the soul" (Confessions 34). He knew that as an Anglican priest it was his
"duty to preach and practice the system of redemption which God had given through
the life and death of Jesus Christ" (Confessions 34), a system that he thought
sacramental. Yet when he looked to the Church of England for a clear statement as to
that system, he could not find one. Benson was consumed by his controversial studies
and he was losing belief in his church. Still he continued his study and examination
because he needed to see the human fallacies that might lie on either side of the
argument.
Finally, it was the reading of the Scripture that satisfied Benson as to the positive
claims of Rome. Benson turned to the New Testament, seeking to find some thread to
hold things together, "some living authority to which the Scriptures themselves might
point, testing, above all the claims of that authority which on logical and human
grounds seemed to him...the claim of the occupier of Peter's Chair to be the Teacher and
Lord of all Christians" (Confessions 41). The Petrine claim solved the problem for
Benson and provided him the authority that he desired. On Cephas He will build His
church. Peter has the keys to the kingdom. Benson claims to have found twenty‐nine
passages of Scripture in which the Petrine prerogative was mentioned or implied and
not one contrary or incompatible with its commission (Confessions 42). After much
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study and thoughtful counsel, Benson did eventually convert to Catholicism. He writes
that while in the Church of England "he accepted her authoritative statement that he
was a priest and that the grace of her ordinances were sacramental" (Confessions 31).
However, when he submitted to Rome, he "accepted with far greater security, with an
internal as well as external consent, her authoritative statement that he was never a
priest at all" (Confessions 31).
Both Benson and his character Fr. Percy choose the City of God and the Catholic
Church. Their spiritual journeys lead them to understand that any proposal to renew
humanity without Christ at its center is sure to fail. They recognize that any plan to lead
humanity out of suffering and into peace without Christ will be one that yields to the
exploitations of the enemy of God. Both priests understand that the choice of whom to
follow is not an indulgence but a power to be used in favor of Christ. Through
conversion, both Percy and Benson appreciate the absolute necessity to choose to live
in the City of God. They recognize the danger of drifting into the other city and warn
against the "agony of divided homage."

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Works Cited
APA Dictionary of Psychology, 1st ed., Gary R. VandenBos, ed., Washington: American
Psychological Association, 2007.
Aquinas, St. Thomas. Summa Theologiae. London: R. & T. Washbourne, 1925
Ashley, Benedict M. , O'Rourke, Kevin D. Health Care Ethics, A Theological Analysis. Washington,
D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1997.
St. Augustine, The Trinity. Brooklyn, New York: New City Press, 1991
St. Augustine, The City of God. New York: Random House, 1950.
Benson, Robert Hugh. Confessions of a Convert. Danver, MA: General Books LLC, 2009.
Benson, Robert Hugh. Lord of the World. Doylestown, PA: Wildside Press, 1907
Benson, Robert Hugh. The Friendship of Christ. London: Longmans, Green, and Co.,
1912
Farina, John. (Editor in Chief). Augustine of Hippo Selected Writings. City of God.
Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1984.
Grayson, Janet. Robert Hugh Benson, Life and Works. Lanham, Maryland: University
Press of America, 1998.
Groeschel, Benedict J. Spiritual Passages, The Psychology of Spiritual Development. New
York, NY: Crossroad Publishing, 2001
Hagerty, Barbara Bradley. For Gay Catholics, D.C. Marriage Win Bittersweet. NPR News
web‐site, 2010
Lamont, Corliss. Affirmative Ethics of Humanism. Corliss Lamont web‐site.
Lanier, Jaron. The First Church of Robotics. New York Times. August 9, 2010
Peck, Peggy, Cox, Lauren. From Genome to Hormones, Doctors Pick the Top Medical
Advances of The Decade. ABC news and Medpage, 2009
Pew Research Center. The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. Religion Among the
Millennials. Feb 17, 2010. Pew Research Center web‐site.
The Barna Group. Christianity is No Longer Americans' Default Faith. January 12, 2009.
The Barna Group Web‐site.
Wikipedia. Humanist Manifesto, Human Potential Movement, Paul Kurtz, Secular Ethics

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Page 164

Masters Thesis
The Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist
By Dr. William Michael Harris D.O. M.A. B.A.

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The Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist
Masters Thesis
Dr. William Michael Harris D.O. M.A. B.A.
June 20, 2010

The doctrine of the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist is a central doctrine of the
ancient Christian faith. Through the centuries, it has been defended against the attacks of
the heretics and heterodox. This doctrine has often been at the center of great theological
discussions, as well as, schisms in the church. Even today this doctrine is at the center of
dividing the Catholic‐Orthodox world from the Protestant Evangelical world. In this short
paper, a basic biblical review of the Real Presence will be given. Then a short review of the
different theological positions will be given.
Before proceeding, a few terms must be defined. The doctrine of the Real Presence
of Christ means that in a way beyond our understanding, Jesus Christ is present in the
elements (bread and wine) of the Eucharist. The term Eucharist refers to the Greek work
Eucharistos, which means to give thanks or be thankful. Many churches use the term Holy
Eucharist to denote their main service.
Another term used in some churches is Holy Communion. This denotes the
communion or “oneness” of the people with Jesus Christ and the Holy Trinity. The term
Sacrament may refer to the Eucharist in that a sacrament is an outward manifestation of an
inward gift of the Holy Spirit.
A term used in Evangelical churches is Lord’s Supper referring back to Christ’s last
supper before his arrest and Crucifixion. Finally in Eastern Orthodoxy, the term Divine
Liturgy referring to the Greek leitourgia refers to the common corporate action of the
Church in prayer and worship.
Any discussion of the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist must begin with the
Holy Scriptures. The pertinent Scriptures are the Gospel of Saint Matthew 26:26‐29, the
Gospel of Saint Luke 22:15‐20, and the Gospel of Saint John 6:25‐58. Finally, in the New
Testament the Epistle of Saint Paul to the Corinthians (1) 11:23‐25. In the Old Testament
references to manna in the desert are instructive. These are Exodus 16:31 and Psalm 78:24,
25. First, the New Testament references will be studied, and then the Old Testament
references will be studied.
In the Matthew 26:26‐29, the Lord is celebrating the festival of Passover in the
upper room when He makes changes in the Passover ritual. Matthew 26:26‐29: “And when
they were eating Jesus took break and blessed it, and broke it, and gave it to the disciples
and said, “Take, eat; this is my body.” And when he took the cup and gave thanks and gave
it to them, saying “Drink ye all of it; for this is my blood of the New Testament which is shed
for many for the remission of sins. But I say unto you, I will not drink henceforth of this
fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father’s kingdom.”
In Mark 14:22‐26: “And as they did eat Jesus took break and blessed and broke it
and gave it to them and said, “Take, eat: this is my body.” And he took the cup and when he
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had given thanks he gave it to them and they all drank of it. And he said unto them, “This is
my blood of the New Testament which is shed for many. Verily, I say unto you, I will drink
no more of the fruit of the vine until that day that I drink it new in the Kingdom of God.”
In Luke 22:15‐20, again an account of Jesus’ Last Passover Supper. “And he said unto
them, “With desire I have desire to eat this Passover with you before I suffer. For I say unto
you, I will not any more eat thereof, until it be fulfilled in the Kingdom of God.” And he took
the cup and gave thanks, and said, “Take this and divide it among yourselves: For I say
unto you, I will not drink of the fruit of the vine until the Kingdom of God shall come.” And
He took bread and gave thanks and broke it and gave unto them saying: “This is my body
which is given for you. This do in remembrance of me.” Likewise also the cup after supper
saying, “This cup is the New Testament in my blood which is shed for you.”
These three scriptures show Jesus changing the emphasis of the Passover meal unto
Him. At this time he is pointing to his impending death, burial, and resurrection. In these
three scriptures, we see the reality of His body and blood in the bread and wine. A careful,
honest reading of these gospel accounts reveals the utter reality of the Real Presence of
Jesus in the Eucharist.
While Luke 22:19 calls for a remembrance of Christ, it does not mean the Eucharist
is merely a memorial. We are to remember Christ, but we are also to remember that He is
always present with us particularly in the Eucharist. Next, the Gospel of Saint John Chapter
6:25‐58, very eloquently and plainly illustrates the presence of Christ in the Eucharist.
John 6:25‐58: “and when they had found him on the other side of the sea, they said
unto him, “Rabbi when camest thou hither?” Jesus answered them and said, “Verily, verily, I
say unto you, ye seek me, not because ye saw the miracles, but because ye did eat of the
loaves and were filled.” Labor not for the meat which perisheth, but for that meat which
endureth unto everlasting life which the Son of Man shall give unto you for Him hath God
the Father sealed.
34 Then said they unto him, “What shall we do that we might work the works of
God?” Jesus answered and said unto them, “This is the work of God that ye believe on him
whom he hath sent.” They said therefore unto him, “What sign showest thou then that we
may see and believe thee? What dost thou work?” Our fathers did eat manna in the desert:
as it is written, He gave them bread from heaven to eat.
35 Then Jesus said unto them, “Verily, verily, I saw unto you Moses, gave you not
that bread from heaven, but my Father giveth you the true bread from heaven.”
36 For the bread of God is he which cometh down from heaven giveth life to the
world.
37 And Jesus said unto them, “I am the bread of life: he that cometh to me shall
never hunger and he that believeth on me shall never thirst but I said unto you, that ye also
have seen me and believe not.
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38All that the Father giveth me shall come to me and him that cometh to me I will in
no wise cast out.
39 For I came down from heaven not to do my own will but the will of him that sent
me. And this is the Father’s will which hath sent me that all which he hath given me I
should lost nothing but should raise it up again at the last day.
40 And this is the will of him that sent me that everyone which seeth the Son and
believeth on him many have everlasting life and I will raise him up at the last day.
41 The Jews then murmured at him, because he said, I am the bread which came
down from heaven.
42 And they said, Is not this Jesus, the Son of Joseph, whose father and mother we
know? How is it then that he saith, I came down from heaven?
43 Jesus therefore answered and said unto them, Murmur not among yourselves.
44 No man can come unto me, except the Father which hath sent me draw him and I
will raise him up at the last day.
45 It is written in the prophets, And they shall be all taught of God. Every man
therefore that hath heard and hath learned of the Father cometh unto me.
46 Not that any man hath seen the Father save he which is of God, he hath seen the
Father.
47 Verily, verily I say unto you, He that believeth on me hath everlasting life.
48 I am that bread of life.
49 Your fathers did eat manna in the wilderness and are dead.
50 This is the bread which cometh down from heaven that a man may eat thereof
and not die.
51 I am the living bread which came down from heaven: if any man eats of this
bread, he shall live forever, and the bread that I give is my flesh which I will give for the life
of the world.
52 The Jews therefore strove among themselves saying, How can this man give us
his flesh to eat?
53 Then Jesus said unto them, Verily, verily I say unto you, except ye eat the flesh of
the Son of Man and drink His blood ye have no life in you.
54 Who so eateth my flesh and drinketh my blood hath eternal life: and I will raise
him up at the last day.
55 For my flesh is meat indeed and my blood is drink indeed.
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56 He that eateth my flesh and drinketh my blood dwelleth in me, and I in him.
57 As the living Father hath sent me and I live by the Father: so he that eateth my
flesh, even he shall live by me.
58 This is that bread which came down from heaven: not as your fathers did eat
manna and are dead: he that eateth of this bread shall live forever.
The passage in John 6 is crucial to understand the idea that Jesus is truly present in
the bread and wine of the Eucharist. In this lesion, Jesus compares himself as bread and
leaven contrasting with the manna from heaven. Let us next examine the Passover and
manna as prophecies of the Eucharist.
The Passover is the central observance of the Jewish faith. It’s culminated in the last
plague to befall Egypt. This was the death of the first born. Only the blood of the
unblemished Passover lamb was to be placed on the door lintels of the faithful. The Lord
was specific in his instructions to His people.
In Exodus 12:21‐27, Moses relates the Lord’s instructions:
Then Moses called for all the elders of Israel and said unto them, Draw out
and take you a lamb according to your families and kill the Passover. And ye
shall take a bunch of hyssop and dip it in the blood that is in the basin, and
strike the lintel and two side posts. The Lord will passover the door and will
not suffer the destroyer to come into your houses to smite you.
Then in Exodus 12:29: And it came to pass that at midnight that Lord smote all the
first born in the Land of Egypt. From the first born of Pharaoh that sat on his throne unto
the first born of the captive that was in the dungeon and all the first born of cattle.
In the original Passover, the key element was the blood of the lamb. This prevented
the destroying angel from killing the houses so marked. Jesus at the last supper gives us his
own blood. The blood of Jesus shed at Calvary is ever with us in a fusion we do not
understand. However, instead of saving only the first born, the blood of Jesus saves us all.
As it is stated in Hebrews 13:5, “…for he hath said. I will never leave thee nor
forsake thee.” Jesus is truly with us as his word states. He is with us in the Real Presence in
the Eucharist. As St. Irenaeus states around AD 180,
“Our opinion is in accordance with the Eucharist, and, in turn, the Eucharist
establishes our opinion. For we offer to Him His own, announcing consistently the
fellowship and union of the flesh and spirit. For the bread which is produced from the
earth, whom it recieves the invocation of God is no longer common bread, but the
Eucharist, consisting of two realities, earthly and heavenly. So also our bodies when they
receive the Eucharist are no longer corruptible, having the hope of the resurrection to
eternity.”1

1
Irenaeus Ante‐Nicene Fathers voll pg. 486
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Irenaeus gives further testimony of the reality of the Eucharist. “[The wine and
bread] having received the word of God, become the Eucharist which is the body and blood
of Christ.”2
Another reference in the Old Testament to the future Eucharist is that of manna. We
first see it in Exodus 16:14‐16,
And when the dew that lay was gone up, behold on the face of the wilderness
there lay a small round thing, as small as the hoar frost on the ground. And
when the children of Israel saw it, they said one to another, It is manna, for
they wist not what it was. And Moses said unto them, This is the bread which
the Lord hath given you to eat. This is the thing which the Lord hath
commanded,gather of it every man according to his eating, an omer for every
man, according to the number of your persons; take ye every man for them
which are in his tomb.
This is a reference to bread given by God, completely by grace to the children of
Israel. They did not know how to produce it. In Psalm 78:24‐25 gives a description of
manna: And He rained manna for them to eat, And he gave them the bread of heaven, Man
ate the bread of angels.
So the Lord God sent nourishment to the Hebrews, which they did not earn, or toil to
produce, completely a gift of God. Just as God sent manna to be bread, He sent Jesus to be
the bread and blood of everlasting life.
As the Old Testament Law was inferior to the New Testament Gospel, so manna was
inferior to the Eucharist. The crucial difference being that manna was not indicated to have
the Real Presence of Christ whereas the Eucharist does. Jesus affirms this in John 6:58,
“This is that bread which came down from heaven; not as your fathers did eat manna. He
that eateth of this bread shall live forever.
However, as noted in Hebrews 1:4: “Being made so much better than the angels as
he hath by inheritance obtained a more excellent name than they.” God the Father was
determined to provide us a more excellent way. Even though the ancient Israelites ate the
“bread of angels,” They still died, as Jesus said, “Your fathers did eat manna in the
wilderness and are dead.” Jesus tells them, “This new bread they will eat and not die, never
hunger, never thirst, and be raised up at the last day.” A crucial verse is John 6:40 as
follows: “And this is the will of Him that sent me, that everyone which seeth the Son and
believeth on Him may have everlasting life and I will raise him up at the last day.3
In this verse in order to have everlasting life, we must see that Son and believe upon
him. How can we do this? Since Christ’s ascension, all generations up to now must be
hopeless. How can we see Jesus in our age? This is simple yet profound and complex
beyond our limited understanding. We see Him in the Eucharist, by grace of the Father and

2
Irenaeus Ante‐Nicene Fathers vol 1 p. 528.
3
John 6:40
Page 171

the aid of the Holy Ghost, the bread and wine become for us that body and blood of Christ.
Thus it is possible to see Christ and to believe upon him in all ages, times, and places.
Throughout the ages, Christians have believed that the bread and wine are the real
presence of Christ. An early example is from the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom.
After signing the bread with the sign of the cross, the priest says, “And make this bread the
precious Body of thy Christ.” Then the priest makes the sign of the Cross over the chalice.
“And that which is in this cup, the presious Blood of Christ. Changing them by thy Holy
Spirit. Amen. Amen. Amen.4
Similar prayers have been in other liturgies from the early church, all are similar, all
affirm the same concept. Early liturgies such as the liturgy of St. James, the Lorra Stowe
Missal and the Liturgy of St. Gregory have similar blessing over the bread and wine. In the
modern age we find in the Book of Common Prayer, “Sanctify them [bread and wine] by
your Holy Spirit to be for your people the Body and Blood of your Son, the food and drink of
the new and unending life in him.”5
In the previously mentioned verses, in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke,
Jesus boldly calls the bread His body and the cup His blood, this is not a metaphor, this is
not mere symbolism, this is reality.
Saint Paul the Apostle goes on to affirm this in 1 Cor 11:23‐30:
23 For I have received of the Lord that which also I delivered unto you that the Lord
Jesus the same night in which He was betrayed took bread.
24 And when He had given thanks (eucharisteo) he broke it and said, “Take, eat, this
is my body, which is broken for you, this do in remembrance of me.
25 And after this same manner also he took the cup, when he had supped saying,
This cup is the new testament in my blood, this do ye, as oft as ye drink it, in remembrance
of me.
26 For as often as ye eat this bread and drink this cup, ye do show the Lord’s death
till he comes.
27 Wherefore whosoever shall eat this bread and drink this cup of the Lord
unworthily shall be guilty of the body and blood of the Lord.
28 But let a man examine himself and so let him eat of that bread and drink of that
cup.
29 For he that eateth and drinketh unworthily eateth and drinketh damnation to
himself, not discerning the Lord’s body.

4
A Pocket Prayer Book for orthodox Christians, Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America. P 88‐
89
5
Book of Common Prayer 1979 p363.
Page 172

30 For this cause many are weak and sickly among you and many sleep.
This scripture in verse 29 is the key understanding of eating and drinking
unworthily. As well as being in a state of unrepentance from sin, which will cause
unworthiness. Paul indicated not discerning or recognizing the Lord’s body is
unworthiness.
If we do not believe Christ is truly present in the bread and wine, then we take the
sacrament unworthily. We do not see the Lord’s body. When we discern the Lord’s body,
we see the flesh and blood in the bread and wine. As stated before, we do not know how
this occurs, only that it does.
Saint Paul states that this lack of discernment may result in bodily sickness and even
premature death. Again evidence that something powerful is present in the Eucharist. If it
were only a symbol, then this would not occur. Truly Saint Paul testifies in 1 Cor 10:16:
“The cup of blessing which we bless, is it not the communion of the blood of Christ? The
bread which we break, is it not the communion of the body of Christ?”
In this next section, I would like to present some of the views of the early church
fathers on the Real Presence. “You have food and drink to men for enjoyment that they
might give thanks to you, but to us you freely gave spiritual food and drink and life eternal.6
Breaking one and the same bread, which is the medicine of immortality and the antidote to
prevent us from dying, so that we should live forever in Jesus Christ.7
I desire the bread of God, the heavenly bread, the bread of life – which is the flesh of
Jesus Christ, the Son of God…and I desire the drink of God, namely His blood, which is
incorruptible love and life eternal. Take bread, then, to have only one Eucharist. For there is
one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ and one cup to the unity of His blood.8
They (the Gnostics) abstain from the Eucharist and from prayer, because they do not
believe the Eucharist to be the flesh of our Savior Jesus Christ…Those, therefore, who speak
against this gift of God, incur death.9
We do not receive these as common bread and common drink. Rather Jesus Christ
our Savior having been made flesh by the Word of God had both flesh and blood for our
salvation. So, likewise, we have been taught that the food and flesh by transmutation are
nourishment is the flesh and blood of the Jesus who was made flesh.10
Various Theologies of the Eucharist:
1) The Real Presence of Christ: This view, heavily supported by history and
scripture, is largely seen in Orthodox and in Anglican churches. As noted
before, this position acknowledges the reality of Christ’s presence in this

6
Didache c. 80‐140, Ante‐Nicene Father 1.380 A Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefe, David Bercot, Ed p. 251.
7
Ignatius c AD 105 ANF 1.77 A Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefs, David Bercot, Ed p. 25.
8
(ibid) Ignatius
9
(ibid) Ignatius p 252
10
(ibid source) Justine Matyr AD 160 ANF 1.185
Page 173

Eucharist without explaining the mechanism. It is considered a mystery.
The Anglican Church actually has a spectrum of beliefs about the
Eucharist. High Church or Anglo‐Catholics hold to the doctrine of
transubstantiation, despite it being denied by the Thirty‐nine articles in
Article XXVIII,
“Transubstantiation (or change of the substance of bread and wine) in
the Supper of the Lord cannot be proven in Holy Writ, but is
repugnant to the plain words of Scripture, overthroweth the nature of
a Sacrament, and hath given occasion to many superstitions.”11
Many Anglican Churches tend toward the Holy Mystery of the Eucharist as
taught by Eastern Orthodoxy. Other Anglican Churches or “Low Churches” practice
memorialism.
2) Transubstantiation largely seen in Roman Catholic Church states that the
bread and wine physically transform into human flesh and blood –
Christ’s blood and body. Transubstantiation is he view held by the Roman
Catholic Church and some Eastern Churches such as the Uniates.
The Greek term is metousiosis which means a change of the elements into
the actual body and blood of Jesus Christ while to the human senses
remain bread and wine.
Among Orthodoxy, the term transubstantiation is usually eschewed.
Orthodoxy prefers to believe the Eucharist is a Holy Mystery that the
bread and wine become the body and blood of Jesus Christ during the
Divine Liturgy. Most Orthodox do not try to define or explain it.
The Roman Catholic Church teaches that the underlying reality of the
bread and wine are actually flesh and blood. We are unable to perceive
that. As a result Roman Catholics may practice Eucharistic Adoration. In
the Catholic catechism it is stated that Christ is “really, truly, and
substantially present” in the Eucharist”12
3) Consubstantiation is that the elements remain bread and wine but, Christ
is actually present in, with, and under the elements. Consubstantiation
attempts to define the Eucharist as the fundamental substance of the
body and blood of Jesus Christ being alongside the substance of the bread
and wine. This doctrine is currently believed by some Lutheran Churches.
4) Sacramental Union is the doctrine of Martin Luther and most Lutherans.
This doctrine states that the consecrated bread is united with the body of
Christ and the wine is united with the blood of Christ. This is analogous to
the two natures united in the person of Jesus Christ. The bread and wine
remain for all appearances bread and wine. This results from the original
institution of the Eucharist by Jesus Christ two thousand years ago. Also
sacramental union is believed to occur when the words of institution are
spoken over the elements. The Formula of Concord defines the Lutheran

11
Book of Common Prayer. Oxford University Press, New York 1979 ed. P 875.
12
Catechism of the catholic church p1374
Page 174

view. For the reason why, in addition to the expressions of Christ and St.
Paul ( the bread in the Supper is the body of Christ or the communion of
the body of Christ) also the forms: under the bread, with the bread, in the
bread (the body of Christ is present and offered) are employed, is that by
means of them the papistical transubstantiation may be rejected and the
sacramental union of the unchanged essence of the bread and of the body
of Christ is indicated (ref: Formula of Concord Solid Declaration, Vol VII
35, Triglot Concordia 1983). Some groups do not celebrate a physical
Eucharist at all. Those such groups are the Quakers (Society of Friends)
and the Salvation Army. These groups believe all life is a Sacrament and
that a physical Eucharistic ceremony was not meant to be permanent.
5) Memorialism is that the bread and wine are symbols only. It is a
REMEMBRANCE or COMMEMORATION only. Largely in reaction to the
abuses of the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages, some reformers over
reacted to anything remotely Roman Catholic. High on that list was the
doctrine of transubstantiation. Discarding a more real presence of Christ
in favor of symbolism was a dividing point not only from the Catholic
Church, but among the Reformers. This view was greatly propagated by
Ulrich Zwingli, a Swiss Reformer: 1 Jan 1484‐ 11 October 1531. Zwingli
credits the Dutch humanist Cornelius Henrici Honius (Hoen) for
suggesting that the word “is” in the words of institution “This is my body”
means “signifies.” The reinterpretation of a single word has caused untold
strfte. (Ref: Patter ER (1976) Zwingli, Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press pg. 292‐293). Zwingli denies the doctrine of transubstantiation by
using the scripture John 6:63 “It is the Spirit that gives life, the flesh is no
avail.” (Ref: Courroisier, Jagues 1963 Zwingli, A Reformed Theologian.
Richmond Virginia: John Knox Press pg. 67‐69). Zwingli’s views
contrasted with those of Martin Luther, resulting in conflict between the
two theologians.
The end result was the symbolic memorialist view became the
dominant view among Baptists, Evangelicals, Pentecostals, and
Charismatics. It also became the dominant view among American
Restortionists such as the Stone‐Campbell movement. These churches
use the scripture in Luke 22:19, “…this do in remembrance of me.”

In this short paper I have tried to express the concept that Jesus Christ is with us
through the Eucharist. Why is this important? We live in the last days. All about us evil
increases. People say we live in a post Christian era, more and more people are attracted to
non‐Christian religions such as Islam, Buddhism, or the New Age. Even in Christendom,
large segments deny the concept that Christ is truly present in the true Eucharist. Some
groups never celebrate communion; others seem to esteem the Eucharist lightly. I read
about the pastor who used Coca‐cola and Twinkies in an effort to modernize the
communion. Even Christians in sacramental churches have become “deadened” to what is
actually happening in the Eucharist.
Page 175

Because the Real Presence of Christ is in the Eucharist, we have fellowship
with the Holy Trinity. Most people do not realize what that means. It means God, who
created us in His image, has offered us continual communion with Him. If as Christians we
believed that the Christian world would be far different. We are each on a road toward
God’s Throne. The Eucharist ties us to the Holy Trinity and aids us on that journey. By
celebrating the Eucharist, we become aware that we are citizens of the Kingdom of God. It
becomes more difficult to exhibit the attributes seen in 2 Timothy 3:1‐4. These know also
that in the last days perilous times shall come.
2 For men shall be lovers of their own selves, covetous boasters, proud,
blasphemers, disobedient to parents, unthankful, unholy.
3 Without natural affection, truce breakers, false accusers incontinent, fierce,
despisers of those that are good.
4 Traitors, heady, high minded, lovers of pleasures more than lovers of God.
“Instead of these attributes, we can grow into the fruits of the Spirit, but the fruit of
the spirit is love, joy, peace, longsuffering, gentleness, goodness, faith.”13 This is the road we
choose to travel if we follow Christ. It is not an easy road. It is in our nature to sin. The
world encourages us to sin, but by choosing the road to God we travel every step with
Christ our Savior. This is why the doctrine of the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist is
important. When it ceases to be a doctrine but a living reality in our lives is when the
power to overcome the world becomes real.
The daily walk with Christ has a definite goal again mediated by Christ’s Real
Presence. This is the goal of theosis or divinizatioin of man. The early church saw theosis as
participation in the likeness of God. Through the work of grace, through the Holy Trinity
man may attain to the likeness of God. This must have been God’s intention from the
beginning since “God made man in his own image after his own likeness.”14
In the third century, Athanasions wrote, “god became man that man might become
god,” is man while created in the Image of God is fallen, therefore that image has been
15
marred. But, God in is grace provides the cure for the disease. This is the infinite atonement
of Jesus Christ our Savior through his shed blood.
As Isaiah the Prophet states,
“Surely he hath born our griefs and carried our sorrows; yet we did esteem
him stricken, smitten of God and afflicted. But he was wounded for our transgressions, he
was bruised for our iniquities, the chastisement of our peace was upon him and by his
stripes we are healed.”16

13
Galatians 5:22
14
Gen 1:27
15
On the Incarnation St. Athanasions, St. Vladimirs Seminary Press, New York 1996 54:3 ph 25
16
Isaiah 53:4‐5 The Hebrew‐ Greek Key Study Bible, King James Version, ed Sprios Zodhiates Ame publishers,
Chattanooga, Tn.
Page 176

In this scripture, we see the healing of mankind not only spiritually, but physically.
This concept does not mean we become God is His essence. The early, church fathers did
not teach this idea. They believed that we would share his energies or attributes. A
common example is a piece of metal being heated in a fire. The metal remains metal,
becomes hot, but does not become the fire. As the moon shines only by reflected light of the
sun so we shine only by the light of God.
By theoria, meaning the contemplation of God we realize the true meaning of being
created in the image of God. Through communion with Jesus Christ, God shares himself
with humanity. This communion is affected by the Real Presence of Jesus Christ in the
Eucharist.
I do not want to be one dimensional however, God shares Himself through all the
Sacraments as well as the indwelling of the Holy Ghost on a daily basis. This is the daily
faith walk with our cross, denying ourselves.
St. Maximus the Confessor wrote, “A sure warrant for looking forward with hope to
deification of human nature is provided by the incarnation of God, which makes man god to
the same degree as God himself became man….Let us become the image of the one whole
God bearing nothing in ourselves so that we may consort with God and become gods
receiving from God our existence as gods. For it is clear that He who became man without
sin will divinize human nature without changing into the divine nature, and will raise it up
for his own sake to the same degree as he lowered himself for man’s sake. This what St.
Paul teaches mystically when he say…that in the ages to come he might display the
overflowing richness of His grace.17
From the Anglican world, a quote by Lancelot Andrews, “Whereby as before He of
ours, So now we of his are made partakers. He clothes with our flesh and we invested with
His Spirit. The great promise of the Old Testament accomplished that He should partake of
our human nature; and the great and precious promise of the New, that we should be
consorts divine nature, partake His divine nature both are this day accomplished.18
Part of the process of sanctification is praxis Greek for struggle. Of course, salvation
is by faith, but St. James states, “faith without works is dead.” The daily walk as a Christian
is praxis. We choose to follow Christ daily. At times that is a struggle. As noted before we
live in an evil world. Daily we must make choices. Do we drink to excess and become
drunkards? Does the lure of even more powerful drugs ensnare us? Does a person violate
their marital vows to become an adulterer? Do we steal?
Satan is there encouraging us to do so. The temptations of one may not be the
temptations of another, but we all have them. By constant prayer and the Real Presence, we
have the choice to choose a more excellent way. The way of Christ, the way of peace, the
way of Salvation. It is not the way of this world, but of the world to come. The world does

17
Eph 2:7 Philokalia, ed. Palmer Sherrard, Ware, Faber and Faber 1979 London. P. 178
18
Ninety‐six sermons, by Lance Andrews p 109
Page 177

not see this way, as it cannot see the Real Presence of Christ. By seeing Christ in the
Eucharist we are able to enter into the narrow way which leads to life.19
We travel that road; we struggle along with one Lord who has promised us victory.
The Evil one may throw his fiery darts, but Jesus is there to deflect them. Through the grace
of Christ, we can overcome the world. As the Lord tells in the Apocalypse of St. John,
“He that hath an ear, let him hear what the spirit saith unto the churches; to
him that overcometh will I give to eat of the hidden manna and will give him
a white stone, and in the stone a new name written which no man knoweth
saving he that recieveth it.”20
And finally,
“He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches. To him
that overcometh will I give to eat of the tree of life which is in the paradise of God.”21
In the name of the Father and of the Son and the Holy Ghost.
Amen.

19
KJV
20
Rev 2:17 KJV
21
Rev 2:7 KJV
Page 178

Bibliography
Hebrew‐Greek Key Study Bible King James Version
Ed.Spiros Zodhiates
AMG Publishers Chattanooga TN

On The Incarnation
St Athanasius
St Vladimir’s Seminary Press
Crestwood New York 1996

A Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefs
David W. Bercot, Ed
Hendrickson Publishers
Peabody Massachusetts 1998

Ninety‐six Sermons
Lancelot Andrews
Page 109

Formula Of Concord Solid Declaration
Volume 3 page 35
Triglot Concordia 1983

A Prayer Book for Orthodox Christians
Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America
Englewood New Jersey 1956

The Book of Common Prayer
The Episcopal Church
Oxford University Press New York 1979

Page 179

Page 180
THEOLOGICAL
DISCUSSION
Page 181
Page 182

LATIN AMERICAN CHRISTIANITY AND REALITY

By Carlos Cortes Perez, Barranquilla Colombia

Page 183
Page 184
LATIN AMERICAN CHRISTIANITY AND REALITY

By Carlos Cortes Perez, Barranquilla Colombia

Please read Luke 4: 16‐21, John 8: 31‐8, 2 Peter
2: 19.

If we analyze the potential problems of Latin America
are the following: hunger, unemployment, underemployment,
low and inadequate wages, lack of housing
appropriate, infant mortality, lack of good
hospital medical care and pharmaceuticals,
inhuman overcrowding in urban areas, the
violence, the violation of human rights,
inflation, dependence, abuse of power,
illiteracy, barriers to access the
universities, alcoholism, drug addiction,
gambling, economic groups interested in
unscrupulous exploitation at the expense of the majority
popular simony of many religious groups, and
other social sins are an offense to
God still calls himself Latin America
Christian.

The causes of these diseases largely originates in
economic corruption, political social and religious
there may be other causes, but certainly by
that corruption in these power structures
are at the back of God. It is logical that
responsible for Latin American ills not
only are these structures. It would be easy demagoguery
charge regimes of oppression and ignore the
sins of the people remember what God says in his
word: there is just not one .... (Romans
3:10‐12).

A false pose of Latin American reality may
lead us to believe that the fault has the
prevailing socio‐economic organization in
international capitalism and sometime envoy
Occasionally, while the poor are victims of
them, but without ignoring the context of
oppression, the Bible says that all are sinners and
need to repent Luke 13: 1‐5. Sin is not
a theological term, not a word exclusive
political lexicon, but a reality, both personal and
Page 185
collective. The Bible teaches that all human race
rich and poor alike, are guilty before God.
So Latin America's sin is the sin of
all the Latin American people and each person
particular, any social condition. If
gospel is voice call trial and
repentance for the exploiters and oppressors
privileged to the same mode is called the
oppressed, exploited and marginalized their sins are
different but all must repent and change
proceed.

But recognition of this biblical truth we do not
authorized to close our eyes to the tragedy
Latin America. The prophets, apostles and other
God sent denounced injustice. If Men
like Isaiah, Jeremiah, Micah masters, James, Paul,
etc. living in our times do not hesitate
Bury the Latin American condition. Here
Children crawl on the ground like worms, for
beg. Here are people who want to work and
do not get a stable job and working
make the job of 2 or 3 employees to earn
inadequate wages, whose children have to grow
without education and hygiene, drinking contaminated water
Exposed to the diseases of
malnutrition, tortured by poverty, forced to
migration aimlessly, harassed and
condemned, perhaps to die prematurely. There
elderly homeless who are homeless and wander
street almost always mentally impaired,
until someone finds their anonymous corpses.
Millions of Latin Americans insist they are victims of
food shortages. The sole non‐protein
cause irreparable years children's brains
can lead to a lifetime of psychological and delay
psychic. There are also criminal traffickers
drug traffickers, loan sharks glove
scammers black and living in mansions receiving
Continuous demonstrations of appreciation teachers
bribery and lies, thieves and blue blood
famous murderers. Dishonesty can be found
in all circles and at any level. Simony
and hypocrisy of many church members
Catholic, Protestant and other religious sects.
Envy, bitterness, slander, hatred are
Page 186
common. Crime is an everyday thing. The premium
speculation with its procession of illegal maneuvers,
belong to the daily routine. Corruption and
vices have cracked all structures
society, equally threatening to the oppressors and
oppressed. There are broken marriages, families
simulated homes destroyed and whose apparent
stability is the result of expediency and hypocrisy.
There is confusion, anxiety, fear, and a clear
inability to recognize reality.

In this dark Latin American context, there arises a
impetuous clamor of millions of people. Is a
protest growing ever more threatening, that
many regions has become dangerous forms of
violence as in my country: Colombia. No way
justify violence, wherever it comes. But
these outbursts that rock to Latin America are
eruption of a volcano that has frightening
pressures. Revolutionary outbreaks, the
extreme reactionaries, guerrillas and other
manifestations of violence, are victims of
crisis could not be ignored. Man
thirsts for justice in Latin America is looking for
desperately a way out, even at the risk of destroying
his own world. Unfortunately, in their thirst for
justice is not enough evidence of a thirst
God.

Latin America is nominally Christian and Catholic
but the truth is increasingly pagan. It is obvious that
the continent retains visible structures
religious traditions and other institutions
apparently Catholic. But the Christian influence
is almost imperceptible because due to their
limitations, the Latin American people are more inclined
materialistic and hedonistic attitudes that
spiritual. The Roman Catholic church is a factor
power, but within it there are many members
devotees but most governors and many
diverse political leaders want to sign
strategic alliances of convenience. For similar
reasons it is almost impossible to find a background
truly Christian in multiple movements
American release, despite the large
efforts of not a few theologians. So catch more
Page 187
secular messianic force as Communism,
neo‐socialism, liberation theology, etc.. as
ideological movement in these processes
revolutionaries. So theologians change
radical social development managers
Latin America, have had to adopt have been adopted
hand, some aspects of the Marxist world view
coming to use the same vocabulary. Thus the language
our Christian faith is dissolved in the language
political science and the meaning is lost
transcendental salvation is uncertain
message of the church and stand to lose their
identity.

I repeat that the Latin American Man thirsts
justice and is desperately seeking a way out and
runs the risk of destroying their environment.
Unfortunately insist, in his headquarters justified
justice is not enough evidence of a host
God. By forgetting this God of love and justice,
One True God, Latin American Male
unaware of his condition of sin and therefore unknown
possibility of salvation in Christ. Imagine
salvation as a result of the revolutionary struggle
but sees it as God's work.

So a summary of Biblical Christianity
would require much longer than the time of this
study. We can not interpret the Bible
only by the hermeneutics of liberation, but
we must recognize that we have not thought
enough about the Latin American reality
particularly in the past. This circumstance
now exposed to serious danger of infiltration
ideological. Like it or not we like members
our Christian church are inevitably
stuck in the political and economic
Latin America. Our Christian faith is not
secret in church or a private matter. We
live in the context with which we are related
daily, which influences us and receiving
our influence. The church is a social group
visible and not an esoteric community that meets in
hidden premises. So the church has a
ethical commitment.
The Church of Christ lives in the here and now, no
Page 188
only in the past in biblical times or
eschatological future of their expectation. And here and now
God's people should be light and salt of the world
land, although some of the prophets complete its
life with his head on a tray and finish the
Life of John the Baptist, so brothers, faith without
works is dead James 2: 26 works are
fruit of faith and we as children of God are
restore the environment in the Fall of Man
complicity of Satan was destroyed
Amen
Page 189

Page 190

Barth on Sacraments: A Reflection or Think Piece
Edited by Peter Riola
Page 191

Page 192

Barth on Sacraments: A Reflection or think piece

Edited by Peter Riola
Justification and sacramental theology were the chief doctrinal issues in the division between
Roman Catholicism and the Reformers at the time of the Reformation, and divisions remain
within the church concerning these doctrines. Within sacramental theology, no issue has been
so divisive as the doctrine of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. Early in the
Reformation, Luther chastised Catholics for being disciples of Aristotle instead of Christ, but
then also offered his mock-Aristotelian critique of Catholic dogma. Not long after, Luther
chastised Zwingli with equal vigor for undermining the clear words of Scripture: Hoc est
corpus meum.
Too often, however, ecumenical debates concerning sacramental theology and the doctrine of
the real presence have been conducted without any attention to Zwingli and Zwinglian
sacramental theology, apparently under the impression that these anti-sacramental theologies
have nothing to contribute to the discussion. In this brief reflection, I argue to the contrary
that the neo-Zwinglian sacramental theology of Barth italicizes a crucial dimension of
sacramental theology and the doctrine of the real presence, one that is too often lost in the
linguistic and metaphysical conflicts that have often dominated the discussion. In particular,
Zwingli and Barth both place sacramental theology firmly within ecclesiology, and develop
an ecclesial understanding of real presence.
Barth Back to Front
Ecclesiology and sacramental theology are normally among the last items covered in a
systematic theology textbook, but a good case could be made for evaluating theologians back
to front. We know that the Christian life is lived out in the community of believers, and we
know that this community initiates by baptism and celebrates at the Lord’s Table. If a
theologian comes to the last volume of his dogmatics and is incapable of providing, on the
basis of the theology developed in the previous volumes, to give an adequate account of these
unquestionable facts of Christian living, that is strong prima facie evidence that something is
seriously awry in his fundamental theology.
Example: As a counter-check to his sacramental theology, Louis-Marie Chauvet briefly
discusses the non-sacramental theology of Karl Barth. Citing Barth‘s denial that baptism is a
mediation of an event of grace, Chauvet suggests that this anti-sacramental emphasis derives
from Barth’s exaggerated emphasis on the transcendence of God. Barth’s Christocentrism
does not, Chauvet argues, qualify this emphasis; on the contrary, Barth’s Christology already
bears within itself . . . his non-sacramental theology. Even in Christ, Barth avoids any notion
that God’s action is mediated through human action. Hence his tendency to speak of the
incarnation as the Word living in the flesh rather than the Word made flesh, and his
insistence that the Word wins the victory, the Word in the flesh and by the flesh but the Word
and not the flesh. Linked with this purely instrumental understanding of the humanity of the
Incarnate Word is a paradox concerning Barth’s view of history. As Chauvet comments,
there are few theologies that speak so much of events and history, and yet there are few
theologies where so little takes place on the properly historical plane. Therefore the church
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is reduced, in the judgment of A. Dumas, to �an a historical unfolding which God

accomplishes within God’s self.
The force of Chauvet’s criticism is blunted, for Reformed Christians, by his further claim that
Barth’s Nestorian tendency is found also in Calvin, and the suggestion that Barth robs history
of reality because Barth believes that what happens in time is merely the execution of God’s
original decision. Yet, doubts about Barth’s sacramental theology remain and are sharpened
by the work of Bishop Stephen Sykes of Ely. Sykes traces the development of what he calls
the inwardness tradition that attempts to define the essence of Christianity by appeal to some
inward feeling or event in the soul. Barth, on Sykes reading, does not counter this tradition
but represents its apotheosis and radicalization. Barth insisted that man is never in possession
of the Word and can never hold it in his control because the Word is not a verbal reality or
even a religious experience but an ineffable event. Barth rejects the terms of the debate on
the essence of Christianity in favor of an inwardness that is deeper than the religious feeling
of Schleiermacher or the moralistic kernel identified by Harnack. Barth’s repeated attacks on
religion are also relevant here, since he attacks religion as an externalization and fixing of
what is continually dynamic, ineffable, and deeply internal. On this basis, it is difficult to see
how any significant room can be built for the church and sacraments.
Chauvet and Sykes provide sufficient and sufficiently persuasive evidence to warn us about
potential pitfalls in Barth’s sacramental theology. Despite the force of these objections,
Barth’s sacramental theology rewards examination and shows genuine ecumenical promise.
Zwingli on Church and Sacrament
A key initial issue is the question of Barth’s relation to Zwingli. Barth himself described his
sacramental theology as Neo-Zwinglian. To see the continuity between them, however, it is
important that we have a clear understanding of Zwingli. Contrary to popular caricature,
Zwingli rejected the Anabaptist as much as the Catholic and Lutheran understanding of the
sacraments. Instead, he defined sacraments as signs or ceremonies by which man presents
himself to the church as a disciple of Christ. They certify faith to the church infinitely more
than to oneself. Because if faith is such that it is necessary to have a ceremonial sign for
confirmation, that is not faith. True faith sets itself unshakeably, firmly, and imperturbably
on the mercy of God.7
As Jaques Courvoisie explains, Zwingli parts company with alternative sacramental
theologies primarily by setting sacraments in an ecclesiological framework; they are signs for
the church, not means of grace for isolated individuals. Thus, the Supper joins us with other
brothers into one body which is the body of Christ. On this basis, he insists that the body of
Christ is present to those who believe in it, hence we are the body of Christ in that we come
to the same action of grace and that we break the same bread. Courvoisier summarizes
Zwingli’s view: the sacrament is essentially ecclesiastical; it is not to be conceived without
the church and without the visible church. It illumines the fact that a Christian without the
church is an impossibility and that all individualistic conceptions of the sacrament are
negations of the very idea of a sacrament. . . . the body of Christ is really present in the
Supper, not in the bread but truly in the reunited assembly that takes the bread.
Barth’s Ecclesial Sacramentology
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In this context, the continuity between Barth and Zwingli becomes illuminating. I will focus
on Barth’s brief discussions of sacraments in Church Dogmatics IV/1-2.10 In the first of
these volumes, the comments on sacraments comes in the context of an examination of the
work of the Spirit, which Barth defines as the work of gathering the Christian community.
Following the creed, he insists that Christology is not the husk of which the concrete form of
the church is the existential, substance, but neither is church is not an addendum to the main
substance of faith but an essential part of it. Indeed, the gathering of the church is merely
another side of the doctrine of the atonement. Atonement has both an objective side, having
to do with the work of God in Christ, and a subjective side, having to do with the work of the
Spirit in gathering the church. Thus, the Christian community and Christian faith belong to
the substance of the one confession which has its centre in Jesus Christ. The church’s history
is the actualization of the history of Jesus Christ, in which the history of all men is virtually
enclosed and accomplished. The church is thus the earthly-historical form of the existence of
Jesus Christ.
Practically, this means that membership in the body is a sine qua non of Christian existence.
While hedging the meaning of the patristic dictum that there is no salvation outside of the
church, Barth does argue that there is no revelation, faith, knowledge of salvation, or holiness
extra ecclesiam: We are either in the communio sanctorum or we are not sancti. A private
monadic faith is not the Christian faith. There is no awakening of faith that does not lead into
the community, and there is only one kind of holiness, separation to the communion of saints.
Barth describes this as the awakening of the faith of individuals, the purpose of which is their
gathering into the community the gathering of the community in the form of the awakening
of faith of individuals. Anyone who withdraws from the fellowship, then, denies himself as a
sanctus, as one who believes and knows. What is true is that there is no legitimate private
Christianity.
This actualization of the history of Jesus in the church takes place in real history, among men
in the form of a human activity. Thus, it not only has a history, but . . . it exists only as a
definite history takes place. Though he admits that the church is in one sense invisible, and
that the visible and invisible are as inseparable as mystery and form of the mystery, he insists
that this should not rob it of its necessary historical form. The church is embedded in history
and is an historical community:
It is a phenomenon of world history which can be grasped in historical and psychological and
sociological terms like any other. There is, there takes place, a gathering and separation of
certain men to this fellowship. This involves -- in varying degrees of strictness or looseness
an ecclesiastical organization and constitution and order. In this gathering and separation
there takes place its cultus, teaching, preaching, instruction, theology, confession, and all in
definite relationships to the political and economic and social conditions and movements, to
the scholarship and art and morality, of the surrounding world. . . . In all this, to use the term
which has become classical, the church is visible, ecclesia visibilis. . . . The Church never has
been and never is absolutely invisible.
However right Chauvet might be about the systematic coherence of Barth’s emphasis on
history, one ought not deny that the emphasis exists.
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Consistent with the dynamic emphasis throughout his theology, Barth insists that the church
as a community is the event of gathering. Understanding the church requires that we abandon
the usual distinctions between being and act, status and dynamic, essence and existence with
regard to the church, its act is its being, its status its dynamic, its essence its existence. What
is important here for Barth’s sacramental theology is the suggestion that this event which is
the church takes a concrete, visible form: The Church is when it takes place, and it takes
place in the form of a sequence and nexus of definite human activities. Among the activities
that constitute the form in which the church happens is the Lord’s Supper. Ultimately, Barth
insists, it is the election of God in Christ and not any of the church’s activities that constitutes
its being.
Some of the serious problems with Barth’s theology appear here. Take the comment that the
church may be grasped in historical or sociological or psychological terms, which Barth later
qualifies by insisting that to such two-dimensional evaluations of the church there must be
added a third dimension available to faith. Even so qualified, the statement is dangerously in
error, for it implies that one might pursue a theologically neutral sociological examination of
the church, which would be true as far as it goes or insofar as the church is a human
community. But an examination of the church that operates on the assumption that it is
merely a human community is not neutral; it is simply false. The dynamic emphasis also
moves into unstable territory. Applied to the Word, Barth’s formula suggests that the Bible is
the Word of God only dynamically, that is, when it is involved in a dialogue of faith. Paul, on
the contrary, believed that the text or writings (graphai) the fixed public document was the
product of God’s out-breathing (2 Tim 3:16-17).
Despite these problems, Barth’s insistence on the irreducible visibility of the church is
important and necessary. The church realizes itself as the church in the enactment of the
sacraments. In other words, it is improper to separate, even conceptually, the church and the
Supper. The church exists in its activities, including the Supper, and the Supper is enacted by
the church. Barth points out that the term body is never used of humanity as such but only of
that community where there is a dispensing and eating of the bread which is broken in
common. He goes on:
Only in it is there the visible fellowship . . . of this body, the perceiving and attesting of His
real presence, the recognizable and recognized union of a concrete human fellowship with
Him . . . . Their communion with one another, their common action in remembrance of Him,
their common proclamation of the death of the Lord until He comes . . . , as it takes place in
this action, does not create and put into effect their union with Jesus Christ Himself, which is
unnecessary; it reveals and publishes and documents that union, it is that union in concreto,
as the earthly-historical activity and experience of these particular men. Where there is not
this communion, we cannot speak with the New Testament of a union of men with Jesus
Christ and therefore of a real presence of His body (1.665).
Barth denies that the Supper creates or puts into effect the union of the communicants with
Christ; this union, he insists, was established in their eternal election. Rather, the Supper
reveals that union in a concrete, historical form. In fact, Barth goes further to say that the
Supper not only reveals that union but that it is only in the concrete action of the common
meal that the union of men with Christ has a real, historical presence in the world. The
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Supper is the union of the body, and of the body with Christ, in concrete form (editors
emphasis added).
Thus, to the question, where can we find Christ here and now? Barth answers, where men
and women gather to break bread in His name (editors emphasis added). Where is the
earthly-historical form of Christ’s existence in the church, assembled at the table. Though
this does not resolve the continuing disagreements among Christian churches concerning the
nature of the real presence, Barth’s treatment highlights an indispensable, and often
neglected, dimension of that presence.
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Page 198
ODIUM SANCTUM (HOLY REST)
By Jean Correo, OSA and Fr. Bob Correo, OSA
Page 199
Page 200
ODIUM SANCTUM (HOLY REST)
By Jean Correo, OSA and Fr. Bob Correo, OSA
Absrtact of Presentation from Stuart Florida, Convocation, 2010
References from Scripture:
Jeremiah 6:16, “thus says the LORD: Stand at the crossroads, and look, and ask for the ancient
paths, where the good way lies; and walk in it and find rest for your souls.”
15
Isaiah 30:15, This is what the Sovereign LORD, the Holy One of Israel, says:
“In repentance and rest is your salvation,

in quietness and trust is your strength,
but you would have none of it.
Psalm 46:10 (King James Version)

10
Be still, and know that I am God: I will be exalted among the heathen, I will be exalted in the
earth.
Hebrews 4:9-11 (King James Version)

9
There remaineth therefore a rest to the people of God.
10
For he that is entered into his rest, he also hath ceased from his own works, as God did from
his.
11
Let us labour therefore to enter into that rest, lest any man fall after the same example of
unbelief.
Philippians 4:8 (King James Version)

8
Finally, brethren, whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things are honest, whatsoever things
are just, whatsoever things are pure, whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good
report; if there be any virtue, and if there be any praise, think on these things.
Matthew 11:29 (King James Version)
Take my yoke upon you, and learn of me; for I am meek and lowly in heart: and ye shall find rest
unto your souls.
Page 201
Otium Sanctum, Holy Liesure,” I first heard of these words about three years ago. I began
studying a book: The Celebration of Discipline, by Richard Foster. It was my Lenten companion
as I sensed a need for increased balance in my life.
Bob and I recently married and bought our home in a remote area of northwest Connecticut. It is
on 4+ acres of rugged park like property. Lots of ledge, trees and gardens. It is nine miles from
nowhere. Anyway, we began the process of caring for this property…clearing brusg, raking
leaves. Did I say, raking leaves? We discovered the gardens, the ancient deer paths. We are
surrounded by the wonderment of birds and creatures: beards on our deck, cougars that the DEP
says do not live in Connecticut, bobcats being herded away by a mother deer. Hawks, bluebirds,
hummingbirds, sparrows, wrens, owls and on and on. These sightings add such joy to our souls.
We often sip our coffee in our prayer room and watch and admire and soak in God’s creation as
we prepare for our morning office and prayer time.
We purchased this home praying it will be a place of retreat, rest, and study for others. We began
to ask. “What will we call this place of ours?” AH HA, it struck a loud cord within when I read
the following from Foster’s book” “The early church fathers often spoke of this Odium
Sanctum.” It refers to a sense of balance in the life, an ability to be at peace through the activities
of the day, an ability to rest and take time to enjoy beauty, and ability to pace ourselves.”
“Holy Leisure, lay at the core of human life. Sacred time in which the Spirit was permitted to
convert the mind, sacred space for God in the midst of daily life.”
Contact the authors to receive the full text.
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How I Learned To Quit Looking For Church Unity
In Organized Religion and Found It In the People In the Pews
By John Keliher

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Page 204
How I Learned To Quit Looking For Church Unity
In Organized Religion and Found It In the People In the Pews
By John Keliher

I grew up in the Protestant Episcopal Church U.S.A. in an era when it
was a closed communion church. Only persons confirmed in the Episcopal
Church – minus the odd divorced person whose ex‐spouse was still
living, and those known to the priest to be of a dissolute character –
were admitted to the sacrament. In that rather insular era PECUSA
considered itself the custodian of the heritage of Cranmer’s version
of the Reformation and as an honest broker among theologians of
Protestant Churches, Orthodox Communities and the Roman Catholic
Church. When Presiding Bishop. Henry Knox Sherrill was elected as
president of the World Council of Churches, we all smugly basked in
the shared glory and the expectation that just over the horizon lay a
united church in whose creation PECUSA would play a leading role and
without whom the project was doomed.

Despite the fact that the only tangible result during those Cold War
years was the formation of the Commission on Church Unity – an
organization whose acronym unfortunately often came across pronounced
as “cuckoo” rather than “kOku”. hope triumphed over experience and
in my youth tacit support for COCU could be found in most parishes.
COCU was, however, an idealized hope rather than an ardently embraced
goal. It represented more the Church’s rejection of Jonathan Edward’s
angry God in favor of Norman Vincent Peale’s Benign Being than a
program for change...Then, in the Camelot days of the 1960’s, it was
one of those feel good issues that required neither sweat nor
allegiance. Tragically, it vaporized in the confrontational world of
the Great Society, Civil Rights, and the Viet Nam War.. COCU’s
passing was hardly noticed after Vatican II changed the religious
landscape.

When the Church of Rome adopted the liturgy created by the Calvinist
monastic group at Taize it seemed a harbinger of a new era in which
unity might not hinge on the report of an inter church commission..
After all, that Taize liturgy, slightly modified, was fast becoming
the principal modality of Lutheran and Episcopal church services.
Moreover, since they all used a common three year lectionary, one
could wander into the parish church of almost any stripe hand follow
the liturgy – or be confused by it – as if one were at home.
However, the old adage, “If it walks like duck and it quacks like a
duck, and it swims like a duck, it probably is a duck.” was set on
its head because even as the visible differences that differentiated
these denominations diminished, they diverged philosophically and

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theologically in an inverse ratio to the seeming commonality of their
rites. As little discernable difference one might see separating the
Roman Mass from the Episcopal Eucharist or the Lutheran Communion
Service, the interpretation of the meaning – that is, the theological
purpose behind the symbolism of their ceremonial rites ‐ created a
chasm of frustrated expectations in each venue. PECUSA gave up sin for
Lent and dropped Protestant from its title. Rome gave up Latin but in
a sotto voice affirmed the Council of Trent. Episcopalian church
leaders and Lutheran church leaders had anticipated that Rome would
adopt an ever more liberal, secular friendly theology. The Roman
Curia had hoped that the schism of the Fifteenth Century would come
to a close as the Anglican and Lutheran churches continued to embrace
the artifacts and ceremonies of the Mother Church. In a peculiar turn
of events, these Protestant‐cum‐Catholic‐look‐a‐likes, and the Roman
Catholic‐cum‐Protestant churches shared everything except their
theology and the reason for which each thought the church existed. But
with Episcopal Church USA’s gaze fixed on the late Pontificate of
John XXIII, ignoring the real difficulties of Paul VI’s Church, all
things seemed possible to non‐Romans. And even Romans could reasonably
hope that the Vatican that could accept eating meat on Friday might
eventually allow priests to marry. But Rome found in Liberation
theology a poison, secularism sans salvation, and it quietly
retreated, retrenched, and tightened its disciple of its clergy even
as its laity adopted birth control and gave up going to confession.
Meanwhile the hierarchy of the Episcopal and Lutheran churches marched
every forward under the banner of liberty, equality and fraternity,
eager to build a better world now and less concerned about a world to
come and frankly dubious that this was a world without end. Amen. .
Unfortunately, those who stumbled on the march, those who did not find
in the church as a welfare agency a great comfort in times of stress
and grief , discovered that they were not at liberty to express
dissent, were not prized as members, and indeed, would not be missed
if they quit the religious fraternity – proved they continued to
subscribe to the Every Member Canvass.. Both Rome and non‐Rome viewed
those who departed as individuals who simply failed to understand the
Church’s faith. Those who left were failed Christians. Those who left
thought those who stayed were failed Christians. They were both
right.

Some thirty years ago I found myself in the Anglican Diaspora through
a series of hapless and perhaps witless decisions – many of them mine,
others made upon my prostrate psyche by the leaders of the church. I
had never seriously considered leaving the Episcopal Church. My
departure had nothing to do with the controversy over the new Book of
Common Prayer or the ordination of women. The saga of my folly,
entertaining as it might be as a revelation of just how out of touch

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with reality I was as a seminarian, is decidedly a separate story.
Simply told, I was so enamored of the church that I had no concept of
it as an institution subject to the same social politics I found
abhorrent .in clubs, fraternities, and government. Consequently, my
blundering innocence created enemies which, in time, I would have made
anyway had I been more sophisticated.

In any case, suffice to say that I discovered that amid the myriad
groups in that Anglican alphabetical soup all repeated continuously a
call for unity which, when examined, had no relationship to any
positive action any existing group was willing to take which might
actually achieve that unity. At length I came to realize that the
model for this madness was to be found in the celebrated Chicago
Quadrilateral of 1886. That wonderful document announced that all
persons “ baptized with water in the name of the Father, the Son and
the Holy Ghost are members of the Holy Catholic Church” As to the
form of that Holy Catholic Church, the Episcopal prelates declared
“that in all things of human ordering or human choice relating to
modes of worship and discipline, or to traditional customs, this
Church is ready in the spirit of love and humility to forego all
preferences of her own..” That no one laughed out loud then, and that
no one guffaws now at this obviously preposterous pronouncement, is
simply amazing. The Protestant Episcopal Church had only recently
forced the Assistant Bishop of Kentucky to resign his Orders after
having participated in a communion service in a New York City
Presbyterian Church. The Presbyterians did not have Apostolic
Succession, what in God’s name was that man thinking? Its willingness
to “forego its preferences” had thus been tested And it preferred to
shove the anti‐Oxford Movement Evangelicals into the Reformed
Episcopal Church (along with those African American Episcopalians in
the South whose existence complicated life in a separate but equal
Church). The subsequent Lambeth Conference of 1888 pared away the
pious if wholly unrealistic rhetoric and adopted the view that (1) the
Old and New Testaments contained all necessary knowledge to ensure
salvation ; (2) the Apostles and Nicene Creeds were the two essential
statements of Christian faith; (3) that there were two essential
sacraments: baptism and holy communion; and (4) the historic
episcopate was a necessary form but that it could be adapted to meet
local needs and definitions. And a century later every Anglican
splinter group affirmed the values enunciated in Chicago in 1886. But
a century later, those who declined to ordain women, and sexually
confused persons, would be similarly encouraged to leave The Episcopal
Church and go elsewhere, while those who did ordain women but found
TEC’s theology wanting would find the Anglican Diaspora indifferent
to their existence. All kinds of Anglicans have standards that are
significantly higher than God’s, apparently. .

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Unity, you see, would require that the leadership elite of each group
surrender at least some of their denomination’s autonomy, accept as a
fact of life that differences in interpretation of critical
theological issues were simply unavoidable and that a final decision
regarding which interpretation was entirely correct would have to wait
upon the general resurrection and the judgement of the Church’s risen
Lord. More grievous still, many would have to give up autocratic
power, find comfort in retaining florid if rather meaningless titles,
and learn to pray quietly as one among equals. That is a lot to ask of
mere humans. And few Anglicans think of them selves as mere humans.

Francis of Assisi founded an Order designed be that essentially
egalitarian spiritual home, that model of Christian unity. Even
before his death, the Franciscans had fractured and reassembled as an
Order in two parts, both of which were equally hierarchical and
equally far from their founder’s intent. There is something perverse
in human nature that strives to erect in an ascending and descending
order of importance the status of the members of a family, clan,
tribe, nation, and even among casual associations of persons.
Augustine would have identified it as original sin and traced it to
Eve (Adam, he said, had been beguiled by his wife; and it was she who
bore the greater burden of guilt.) Pelagius would not have thought it
a characteristic inherited from neither Adam nor Eve, but a talent
each child discovered he or she possessed and then quickly acted upon
that talent to choose to do something untoward just to see whether it
was really bad – and by golly, it was. Pelagius thought God might
forgive the penitent because Jesus had died to save us from our sins..
Augustine, who had sinned a great deal more than Pelagius, thought
sinners more likely to find their way to hell, rejected by God, than
to heaven. Historically, Episcopalians have voiced their supported
for Augustine’s theology and practiced Pelagius’.

All organizations create an elite corps whose members exert governance
over others through the exercise of discipline which determines
membership in the elite core.. Obtaining and then maintaining control
is of the chief goals of every organization’s leadership .group and,
alas, the Church in its manifold forms is no exception.

However, below the elite core of every organization are its members,
peasants to the elite in charge. I do not mean this as a pejorative
term. Peasants survive the fall of dynasties because they have
learned to feign acceptance of the dictates of whatever ruling
classes may exist and then to do exactly what they had always done.
When their rulers discover that they have got mud on their shoes and
take themselves off to more uplifting venues than the cow barn, the

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peasants smile knowingly and await the next revolution with
resignation. Mere members are the people who do not aspire to
leadership roles, and who have only a vague interest in how the
organization works, but who firmly believe in the principles the group
espouses regardless of how little the group achieves them. In the
Church, the people in the pews have only vague understanding of
complex theological explanations of how God runs his universe and why.
They do understand that there are singable hymns and hymns which
would be lovely if this parish had the Mormon Tabernacle Choir instead
of just Fred, Irene, George and Mary. They don’t know how or why
prayer works but they know it does. They will balk at sensible
suggestions and embrace totally absurd solutions to practical problems
– if only to demonstrate that they can make decisions even if they are
bad ones. But they will unexpectedly demonstrate charity and
occasionally even forgiveness. And ninety percent of them don’t
really give a fig about Apostolic Succession or their priest’s
explanation of the Real Presence. They have no doubt that God is in
his house or that Jesus is in the sacraments and each believes – or
at least profoundly hopes ‐ his or her understanding is sufficient in
God’s eyes. And they really don’t care what the denomination calls
itself as long as the goodies at coffee hour are tasty and the
clergy remember their names.

It came as a shock at first, the realization that the people in the
pews had found all the unity they needed in the present patchwork of
Christianity. They were oblivious of church politics. They did not
care who became a bishop or an archdeacon, a priest or a deacon as
long as whoever wore the title made the news only because they had
done something nice – or did something nice and never made the news.
And they did not share my concern that the parish at hand survive as
an Anglican church. They were willing simply to be thought a
collection of Christians. They liked the liturgy they used but they
did not care by what brand name it was called. It required me to
reassess my quixotic pursuit of Church unity. I am not sure whether I
have reformed or deformed but in either case, it is I rather than they
who has changed. I have become convinced that the great hope for
Christian unity lies in the disorganized religion of the people in the
pews.

So, I hope you will understand, that I have revised my expectation of
the proper management style for a diocesan bishop to include the
concept that I need to avoid managing. Those dependent upon me for
confirmation, ordination, holy oil and sound advice (and advice is
frequently more sound and fury than useful) need little or no managing
and are willing to accept even less than that. So, then, my agenda as
moderator is to keep turning my plan book to a blank page. Others may

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write thereon – and do – but the members of this Communion are
competent to lead themselves. My goal as a leader of the church is to
leave the church in the hands of God and his people. It is not my
Church. I do not own it and I could not control it if I wanted to.
Moreover I do not have any firm convictions regarding who, that is,
what category of persons ‐ is worthy to be a Christian, a vestry man,
a deacon, priest or bishop. And I simply have to trust God, and you,
to do what is necessary, to do what is right, to choose to do God’s
will – knowing that now we see through the glass darkly.. In a
collegiality that acknowledges our interdependence and equality before
God, we may err, but probably not so nastily as we might if we adopted
a less fluid model of decision making. So how do we know when we are
doing things right – as God might see it?

The Archbishop of the Southern Cone, Greg Venebles, said that on the
eve of going to his first Lambeth Conference shortly after becoming
Bishop of Argentina, he prayed to God for guidance. He felt so
inadequate to go back to Britain in the exalted company of so many
more experienced prelates. As he prayed God spoke to him. “Greg,” he
said God said to him, “when I first called you to ministry, did you
ever think where this would all lead you?” Venebles replied, “No.”
“Greg,” God continued, “nothing has changed.” We cannot be certain
where God will lead any one of us or all of us together. But we can
trust that God will not lead us astray.

We must choose to trust in God or we may choose to trust in politics,
and I, for one prefer the former to the latter. That mankind is a
social animal and in dealing with members of the species will clump
together in groups whose organizations will inevitably choose politics
is an unfortunate reality. We have, therefore, about as much unity as
we can stand. My policy is to accept as authentic and valuable the
profession of faith of any person who subscribes to the Apostles Creed
and the Nicene Creed. On a case to case basis I may even accept some
who have trouble with either or both. I find it amusing that
Congregationalists pride themselves on having no Creed – as if that
were not a creed. Can a Congregationalist be saved? Well, that is
God’s problem and the Congregationalists’. I accept as valid any
ministry based on the proclamation of the Gospel. It would be pleasant
to think that everyone understands the Gospel just as I do but my
experience with the study of Scripture leads me to believe that some
otherwise quite likely recipients of salvation of my acquaintance
disagree vehemently with my interpretation. I will pray for them
anyway. I continue to believe that God infuses common things and
makes them sacraments – and I am not sure how, nor am I certain how
many and I have given up all hope of knowing exactly why. I will
willingly walk with anyone who has the fortitude and charity to walk

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with me, deploring their bad judgment in their choice companions
other than myself but hoping by example to lead them to greater
selectivity. . And the way in which we ought to walk I somewhat
know. The way is Jesus.

So then here is the frail reed of a crosier upon which I lean. My
faith is not in the institution of the Church but in the institution
that is Jesus. In Him we are all one. In Him we are all already one
Church. And I am strangely at peace in that Church. And may the
peace of God that passes all human understanding be with you, now and
always. Amen.

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Aequanimitas
Presented by Carolyn Bunting

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“Aequanimitas”
By definition: E‐kwa‐ni‐ma‐te = Calmness of mind, even mind, patience, goodwill
(equanimity: calmness of mind, even minded, patience, goodwill)
Presented by Carolyn Bunting
It is wonderful to be with you here today. I thank my wife Martha and daughter Mari
Partyka for editing this paper and the Center for Ethics and Culture at the University of
Notre Dame for organizing this wonderful event. I am honored to be a part of this “Call for
Papers,” and to have the opportunity to present this research paper in the company of fine
scholars. I would like to acknowledge up front Charles S. Bryan, MD, Department of
Medicine, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, for his inspirational writing
about Dr. Osler.
My presentation today is about two issues which impact Christian ministry, caring and
competence. Specifically, the role of care providers in caring for patients and each other. I
came across Sir William Osler (Pronounced Oh‐sler), while I was at Johns Hopkins Medical
School doing ethics research. The history books call him “the father of internal medicine.”
He was quite a character and a man of faith. Throughout his life, Osler maintained a
strong Christian belief and witness, and he likened his own impending death to finally
reaching the Harbor after a splendid voyage. He lived the life described in the Letter of
James 3:13:
“Who is wise and understanding among you? Let him show it by his good life, by deeds done
in the humility that comes from wisdom.”
I think of William Osler possessing humility, wonder and joy, and as one whose dignity
and respect for human life is coupled with his faith. And he touched the lives of many, one‐
on‐one. Osler was famous for telling patients‐‐‐open your Bible, and place it in the open
position on your night table, so it is always there for you to read.
WILLIAM OSLER'S LIFE
Sir William Osler (1849–1919) was a Canadian, born in a small town near the wilderness.
As the eighth child of a clergyman, he considered going into the ministry himself.
He held the chair of medicine at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia and in
1888 the first chair of medicine at Johns Hopkins. There is an enormous 1905 painting,
The Four Doctors, by John Singer Sargent, which hangs in the Library at Johns Hopkins. In
the painting are the pathologist William Henry Welch, the great surgeon William Stewart
Halsted, Osler, and the gynecologist Howard A. Kelly. The story goes that Halsted, who
was a difficult, cynical man, sort of infuriated Sargent, who in response painted Halsted's
portrait with pigments that are supposed to fade with time so that eventually Halsted
would no longer be in the picture.
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After his textbook was published, Osler became famous. He was known at Hopkins as “the
saint,” and was characterized in an 1896 cartoon, which showed microorganisms fleeing
in front of the Osler cyclone, with the Johns Hopkins Hospital and its famous dome in the
background. Osler referred to it as “a scandalous canonization.”
To be the best in anything, you have to pay the price. And Osler did. He put off marriage
until he was 42 years old, when he married the widow of a Philadelphia surgeon and
friend, Grace Revere Gross, a granddaughter of Paul Revere, the revolutionary patriot.
Osler, at 56, was burning out. He moved to Oxford, where there was no medical school. His
new position reduced his income to about a third of what it had been, but he had a
wonderful second career in the United Kingdom. He and his wife set up house in a large,
rather mansion‐like building in Oxford, which became known as “the Open Arms.”
English‐speaking guests from all over the world came and stayed with the Oslers. And
Osler also—in a way that most of us cannot emulate—could say, “Grace, I'm bringing 30
people home for supper tonight.” Grace's grocer must have thought she was running a
hotel.
The Osler Library of the History of Medicine at McGill University house Osler's own
writings and the works of Sir Thomas Browne, a 17th‐century English physician who
struggled with the issue of science and faith. Browne wrote a book called the Religio
Medici (Religion of a Physician), which Osler cherished and memorized. Osler's first copy
of the Religio Medici lay on his coffin as he rested in the Lady Chapel at Christ Church
College, Oxford, on New Year's Day, 1920.
During my time in an antique book store, I came upon a little volume of Religio Medici,
published in 1905. When I opened the book, a note dated Dec. 13th, 09 from William Osler
fell out. It reads:
“From the Regis Professor of Medicine, Oxford. Dear Halsted, I am sending you for Christmas
a reprint of the authorized edition of the ‘Religio’ which they published at the Press. You will
be interested also to know that it is printed with, perhaps, the oldest font of type in use in
England, that designed by Bishop Fell about 1660.
Sincerely yours, Wm Osler
From the text:
Source: Religio Medici, Christian Morals (pt. III, XXIX)
Source: Christian Morals (pt. III, XXIX
Dr. Thomas Browne was a confirmed member of the Church of England; “I can dispense
with my hat at the sight of a cross, but scarce with the thought or memory of my Saviour...I
cannot hear the Ave Maria bell without an elevation.”
For Thomas Browne the great “virtue was charity, without which Faith is a mere notion.”
His doctrine was simple: “He that giveth to the poor, lendeth to the Lord: There is more
Rhetoric in that one sentence than in a Library of Sermons.” The center of his Christian
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thought included, faith, hope and charity. Religio was the first English book to reach
European audiences since Thomas More’s Utopia.
He loved science and he loved the Bible. Physicist Albert Einstein’s quotation comes to
mind: “Science without religion is lame, religion without science is blind.”
OSLER ON CARING
Osler considered the ideal of compassion at length. In 1919 he gave his last major address.
As president of the Classical Association of Great Britain he gave an annual address, which
he called “The old humanities and the new science.” In it, he paraphrased the Hippocratic
saying: The love of humanity associated with the love of the craft—love of humanity, love
of technology. The joy of working joined each one to a true love of his brother (or sister).
Memorable sentence indeed. So you have that ideal of combining compassion with
technical competence.
Compassion
He said “Show compassion.” His motto “do the kind thing and do it first.” Another student
wrote his mother, “He seems to be the least sentimental and the most helpful man I've
ever seen. The most lovable.”
One story concerns a small boy with whooping cough. One day as Osler was going to
graduation ceremonies at Oxford in his full academic regalia, he was stopped by a friend
whose son had whooping cough, which then was untreatable. Osler saw that the boy had a
more severe bronchitis than usual. Although he was running late, Osler examined the boy
and sat at his bedside. The boy wouldn't eat. Osler carefully peeled an orange, broke it into
segments, and coated each one with a little bit of sugar. He told the boy that it was magical
fruit and that if he would just eat it one piece at a time he would get well. Osler went
outside the door then and told the dad, “I'm sorry, Ernest, but when they're this bad off,
they seldom make a full recovery.” Osler was told that the little boy thought he was a
magical figure in his academic gown. Thereafter, for the next 40 days, Osler went to the
infirmary carrying his academic gown, put it on outside the boy's door, and then went in.
And the little boy made a steady recovery, regaining his health.
Osler’s theme: “Care more particularly for the individual patient than for the special
features of the disease.”
He wrote about Equanimity (e=kwanimate)
The second aspect is to maintain equanimity. Osler first used the word aequanimitas in an
address to a graduating class at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine. When
he left Penn—as had been the case in Montreal and as later would be the case at Johns
Hopkins—Osler was asked to give a speech. In his 4 short years Osler had become the
students' most popular professor. Osler indicated to them that there were a lot of things
that he could talk about, but of the many virtues he could enumerate, he chose only two:
imperturbability and aequanimitas.
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Osler described imperturbability as “a bodily virtue.” He said some of us have it and some
of us don't, but we can all work on it. He said it means coolness and presence of mind
under all circumstances, calmness amid storm, clearness of judgment in moments of grave
peril. In full development it has the nature of a gift from God. The first essential is to have
your nerves well in hand.
Touching the lives of others
The third component is to touch the lives of others frequently, which Osler did. He had the
extraordinary power of attracting others. When he walked into a room, the atmosphere
suddenly changed. He was charismatic. There are at least a couple of teachable aspects of
charisma shown through his life and work. One is touching people frequently, and the
second is being a child with children. Charismatic persons have high energy, sustained
vitality, courage, composure (especially under stress), strong sense of self, clear direction,
and the determination to succeed. Other qualities include showing an interest in others
frequently and regularly, shining a spotlight on them, putting others at ease, conveying
optimism, a joy for living, maintaining good body language and eye contact, listening well,
and having a high measure of self‐acceptance. Charismatic people are non‐whiners.
OSLER'S HUMOR
Another way to deal with stress is to maintain a sense of humor, an important component
of Osler's caring. Someone said of him, “Never has a man masked so successfully
earnestness of purpose and a real love of his fellow men with a glimmering veil of humor.
He was most in earnest when he was most in fun.”
Osler was a practical joker. One time a visiting clergyman came to see his father, and the
man and his father had never met. Young Willie came to the door and said, “You have to
speak real loud to my dad; he's nearly deaf.” And he goes to his father and says, “You've
got a visitor here. He's really deaf. You'll have to speak real loud to him.” Osler then sat
back and watched them shout at each other throughout the evening.
CARING FOR THE RIGHT REASONS
And finally, care for the right reasons. Much, of course, has been written about
compassion and empathy, but the vocabulary of caring entails a hierarchy of terms:
beneficence, which comes from the Latin word meaning “active kindness;” empathy, which
means “in feeling” (understanding another’s feelings); sympathy, which goes a step
further, meaning “like‐feeling” or “fellow‐feeling;” and compassion, which literally means
“to suffer with.” Compassion means “taking up your place with the sufferer and suffering
with the person.” Osler makes a clear statement about empathy:
Aristotle wrote about the “pleasure of beneficence.” When we do a good act for someone
else, that person then becomes the incarnation of our own goodness, and so we feel better
about ourselves and warmly toward our beneficiary.
That Osler cared for dying patients is vividly reflected in his letter to the father of a dead
patient and the remembrances of the mother of a dead child‐patient for whom he used to
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make house calls.
“In the autumn of 1875, Osler wrote to a family the sad news about their son.
“To Mr. N from W.O. My dear Sir, No doubt before this, the sorrowful intelligence of your
son's death has reached you, and now when the first shock has perhaps to a slight extent
passed away, some further particulars of his last illness may be satisfactory. He was well
aware of his dangerous state. He spoke to me of his home, and his mother, and asked me
to read the 43rd chapter of Isaiah, which she had marked in his Bible. I spent the greater
part of the morning talking and reading with him. About 12 o'clock I heard him muttering
some prayers‐‐‐(referencing) God the Father, Son and Spirit. Shortly after this he turned
round and held out his hand, which I took, & he said quite plainly, Oh thanks. These were
the last words the poor fellow spoke. From 12.30 he was unconscious, and at 1.25 a.m.
passed away, without a groan or struggle. As the son of a clergyman and knowing well
what it is to be a stranger in a strange land I performed the last office of Christian
friendship I could, and read the Commendatory Prayer at his departure. Such, my dear sir,
as briefly as I can give them, are the facts relating to your son's death.”
Young Osler gave not only medical attention but pastoral care.
Oslerisms from the work of William Osler:

The workers in Christ's vineyard were hired by the day; only for this day are we to ask for
our daily bread, and we are expressly bidden to take no thought for the morrow.
As with so many people who have left their mark on humanity, William Osler’s Christian
ministry is found in his presence, in his daily actions.
+++
Often, you cannot identify a Christian by words spoken but you can by what he or she
does. I came across a print of Saints Cosmas (left) and Damian (right) holding medicine
boxes and spoons for dispensing cures

Here is a copy of W. J. Mayo’s reply letter thanking Osler for the print. Copies of the
letter and print and other Osler books and memorabilia, including a letter to Dr. James
William White, a surgeon from Philadelphia, can be found in the Osler Library at McGill
University. An Osler letter written in 1909 to W. J. Mayo says:
I enclose you a little prayer to St. C. & St. D. our patron Saints which may be useful. I have
made a pilgrimage to their mother church and have burnt a candlea small onefor my
surgical colleagues. The instruments with which they cut off a leg which had a cancer &
transplanted the sound leg of a dead man are carefully preserved in the churchwhich an
arm of each saint and a bottle of the milk of the Virgin Mary.
William Osler obtained this print during a visit to the Vatican.
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I am always looking for subtle hints about one’s spiritual life. A while ago, I read about
the life and times of Augustus Saint Gaudens, a great sculptor of one hundred‐plus years
ago. I became curious about his faith life, because his biography made no mention of it.
It merely talked about Saint Gaudens, the artist. I learned Saint Gaudens was a renegade
from his native Catholic faith, and rediscovered his faith in one of the last two pieces of
sculpture he touched with his own hands: a head of Christ to accompany his statue of
the famous preacher Phillips Brooks. Seeking, as usual, every biography he could find to
describe his subject, he finally asked Henry Adams for advice as to the best source on
Jesus. Adams dryly suggested the Bible. As he worked on the Christ, it began to stand no
longer for a “cult that announced bewildering self‐contradictions and endless
punishment of sin, but became the man of men, a teacher of peace and happiness.” The
final face of the Messiah also embodied the sense of mystery with which Saint Gaudens
endowed even the most vigorous and lively of his works.
Sadness was never his theme. Saint Gaudens said, “and while doing all we can to get
somewhere, it is better to be cheerful than to be melancholy; the latter does not help
the situation, and the former cheers up one’s comrades.… Love and courage are the
great things.… The thing to do is to try and do good, and any serious and earnest effort
seems to me to be, to our limited vision, a drop in the ocean of evolution to something
better.” Yes, something better, the saving grace of Jesus. May He continue to bless you in
your daily life. If you’ve been away from your faith, do what Augustus Saint Gaudens
did: rediscover it.
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FINE ARTS
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Heaven is Waiting

by The Reverend Lara Bolander
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Heaven is Waiting
By Lara Bolander
Chapter One
Willow stared out the window at the rain pounding the walk and she shivered. If only
it wasn’t raining she thought. Maybe it wouldn’t feel like I’m all alone. Her thoughts were
such a jumble, she needed to think it out. Willow wished her dearest friend, Pearl, was with
her now. When Pearl moved to Philadelphia from Boston, Willow’s confidante took with her
the heart and soul of their friendship. Everything the two of them thought or did or said or
heard, they shared. Willow decided it was time to write a letter to Pearl just to see what her
thoughts were, and ask her to be with Willow one last time.
14 April 1901
Dearest Pearl,
I miss you and your wisdom. It’s raining today which makes me miss you even more. I’m
thinking back to when we first became friends. We were just children, but even then it seemed like we
had known each other from a previous lifetime. We knew each other’s thoughts before they were even
spoken out loud. We shared the same likes and dislikes, dreamed the same dreams, felt the same
longings. We even fell in love with the same boy at the tender age of 10.
Who can I confide in now? Who knows me well enough to be able to offer me what I need
to hear? No one but you.
If there is any way you can visit me back here in Boston, I pray with all my heart you will come with
all haste, to be with me in my hour of greatest need. Love, Willow
“Willow Elizabeth!” called her mother. “Where have you run off to?”
Willow had a habit of doing her chores until she got interested in something else. Her
mother tried her best to train her in the responsibilities of being a woman and running a
household. Some days it was just a waste of time, other days it was totally frustrating. This
was one of those days.
Willow and her best friend Pearl, had found a perfect hiding place near the creek that
ran between their two properties. They had woven reeds and branches together to create a
cozy, cave-like hide-away. They each brought things from home to complete the feeling of a
“home”. Even on rainy days they could play there, and stay dry. Today that’s where they
were, staying very quiet until the “threat” of discovery passed.
Willow kept a diary and while she wanted to have it tell her real story she couldn’t help
embellishing, just a little, to make it more story like. Each night after her bath and before
getting in bed, she pulled the diary out of its hiding place, and wrote the details of her day.
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Dear Diary,
You’ll never believe what happened today. Pearl confessed that she has a crush on our music
teacher,
Mr. Thatcher. He is quite good looking, but how can she like someone so old? He must be at least
30. Also, we put the finishing touches on our hideout. We found an old rug in the shed, and put it
on the floor. The whole thing is quite comfortable. Tomorrow we’re going to meet there for lunch and
then I’m going to continue to read to Pearl. She likes to listen more than reading it herself. I, on
the other hand, enjoy making the words come alive. Good night dear diary.
The next day her chores as outlined by her mother were, dusting the parlor, helping
with bread baking and beating the dirt out of the rugs hanging on the porch railing. These
were chores not easy to sneak away from, as they were done under the close supervision of her
mother. She was in the middle of dusting the parlor when Pearl came looking for her.
“Would you like me to help? Maybe you’ll get done sooner.” Pearl asked politely.
“It won’t make any difference. When I finish this it’s on to bread baking, then the
rugs. I’m going to be doing this all day.”
“How about if I come back to help with the rugs? If we get that done sooner, we’ll still
have some daylight left to visit the hideout.”
“I suppose that would work. How come you don’t have any chores today?” Willow
wondered out loud.
“My mother’s going to be out and about, and she knows I never get much done if she’s
not here to supervise. So, I don’t have a list of chores. I was hoping we could spend all day
in our special place.” Pearl explained.
“I don’t think mother will mind if you help with the rugs. Come back in a couple of
hours. I should be on to the rugs by then.”
“Yes, I’ll be back.”
Off she skipped like the happy child she was.
When she returned she was wearing “dust coveralls”, a garment to keep her clothing
from getting dirty, and a cap to keep dust out of her hair.
When they took up the rug beaters, they looked like two little old ladies, and they broke out in
a fit of giggling. They pounded away on the rugs like two pint-sized prize fighters. All that
giggling made them breathe in the dust and sent them into a fit of coughing. When they
finished, their faces were quite dirty, but their clothes and hair were pristine. After washing
their faces, they skipped off, hand in hand, to their secret place.
Once they were settled and comfortable, Willow began the book, “Treasure Island”.
This brought out the acting bug in her, and she was all the characters. Her most favorite was
Long John Silver, and she played him to the hilt. Pearl was in stitches and wished she could
do the parts as well as Willow did. When Willow finished chapter three, the girls were quite
tired and took a nap in the hideout.
When Willow woke up, the sun was starting to slide behind the western horizon. They
each got up quickly, gave hasty hugs, and ran home to be back before dark.
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The summer passed quickly, too quickly, as summers do. Before long it was back to
studies. The only good thing about school, Willow decided, was that she had fewer chores
assigned to her. Her parents were big advocates of getting an education, even for girls, and
wanted her to spend her time studying so she could get good grades. School was a breeze for
Willow, Pearl had to work a little harder. Willow was always willing to help her so she too,
got good grades. Together they made plans to attend William and Mary College and find
employment that let them travel to exotic places.
Their first thought was to be nannies, or “au pairs” as they were called in Europe.
Maybe a rich family with lots of children so they would need two nannies. Willow developed
a nagging cough, which was more an annoyance than anything. She kept lemon drops in her
pocket, and they seemed to help.
Dear Diary,
Studies are going very well. Pearl and I both achieved highest scores in mathematics, and
Miss Duncan recognized us in front of the entire class. The boys of course, were quite jealous, and
pouted openly. I offered to tutor anyone who wanted extra help, but they got all mad and insulted. I’ll
never understand boys. Good night dear diary.
Chapter Two
Once the girls were in secondary school, they were too tall for their hideout. They
decided Willow’s bedroom was just as good. Pearl had to share a bedroom with her little
sister, and little sisters didn’t keep secrets very well. Pearl’s crush on Mr. Thatcher was in full
bloom now. She joined the school choir, and signed up for private piano lessons. It was all
she could talk about when she and Willow met in private.
“He has the most dreamy eyes. When he looks at me I just know he wishes we were
together.” Pearl gushed.
“Must we talk about Mr. Thatcher every time we’re together? It’s getting sickening.”
Willow pouted slightly. Then she’d start coughing and Pearl would be all apologetic and
concerned.
Secondary school was almost over, so the girls made plans to go to college. Their
parents were unsure about the girls going so far from home.
Willow and Pearl were able to convince them that it would prepare them for their future
careers. Their fathers thought it was inappropriate for women to have careers. They didn’t
understand why the girls couldn’t get married and settle into homemaking like their mothers.
The mothers weren’t allowed to express their thoughts on the matter.
However, in private, Willow’s mother supported their sense of adventure. She wanted
Willow to get a checkup with their doctor first because she thought Willow looked pale.
Again, Willow protested and minimized it.
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Their last free summer before college was quite busy. They had applied to William &
Mary College by mail, but would have to be at the college a week before the start of classes to
pick their study choices. Both young women were looking forward to the train ride to
Williamsburg, Virginia. This would be the first for them.
Meanwhile, each of them was busy with the mothers, sewing outfits. Most were
simple skirt and blouse combinations. Being practical the mothers made sure they had several
woolen petticoats for cold weather. Pearl was not visiting much with Willow, but Willow
figured her friend was busy with school preparations. As a goodby to her childhood, Willow
visited their hideout one more time. It had pretty much fallen down due to neglect, but
Willow smiled at the memories. That night she wrote:
Dear Diary,
It’s getting harder to sleep at night because I’m so excited about college. Pearl and I have
worked so hard to get to this point. Mother and Father have been so generous. I want to do really
well so they are proud. I can best show my appreciation by doing well. I’m looking forward to being
with Pearl and planning our future together. I visited our special place today for the last time.
Tomorrow I start packing, and begin a new chapter in my life. Good night, dear diary.
The next day her father brought the trunk down from the attic. Willow started to brush
off the dust. Immediately she doubled over in a fit of coughing. Her mother rushed to her,
cradling her face in her hands. Willow’s face was damp with perspiration.
“I really wish you would let me take you to the doctor before you leave. It would help
me not to worry about you so much while you’re away at school.” pleaded her mother.
“All right, mother. I’ll get checked out.” Willow finally capitulated.
As good as her word, Willow went to their family doctor the next day. She did not
want her mother to come along, stating that she wasn’t a little girl anymore.
She told Doc Parsons about the coughing so he listened carefully to her chest and then
her back. He listened twice and had a frown on his face.
“When did you say this started?” he asked.
“I’m not sure exactly. Maybe a month ago.” Willow lied.
“I guess it could be pneumonia. I’ll give you a prescription for some antibiotics, and
come back for a recheck in a week.”
“I have to be on campus in a week. Couldn’t I get checked when I get to school?” she
asked.
“All right. Let me write a prescription for that too. You can give that to the doctor
there.”
“I promise to do exactly that. Thank you, doc.”
When Willow returned home, she showed her mother the medicine she picked up as
soon as she left the doctor’s office. Her mother looked so relieved, Willow left out the part
about getting rechecked in a week.
“Now I really need to finish packing.” she announced.
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Pearl stopped by and asked if she could talk to Willow privately. She went upstairs to
Willow’s room and closed the door. Willow had an odd feeling because Pearl had such a
strange look on her face.
“Why aren’t you home packing? Do you want me to help you?”
“No. I have something to tell you, and I hope you won’t be too angry with me.” Pearl
started.
“Go ahead. You know I won’t get mad.” Willow responded.
“I’m not packing because I’m not going to Virginia. Tom Thatcher and I have been
secretly seeing each other. He’s asked me to marry him and he’s accepted a position in
Philadelphia.” Tears filled her eyes. “Please say you understand, that you’re happy for me!”
Pearl pleaded.
Willow wasn’t sure she heard what she just heard. Did her best friend just tell her she
was throwing away all the plans they’ve been making since they were in grade school? No,
she decided. She must have misheard.
“You’re what?”
“Tom and I are getting married and moving to Philadelphia.” Pearl repeated. “I would
have told you sooner, but Tom only found out today.”
“What about our plans? We’ve had plans since we were 8 years old.” Willow replied
still stunned.
“You know how I have felt about Tom. I’ve loved him since secondary school, and
evidently he felt the same way. I stopped talking about him because you said it was
‘sickening’ so I just kept all this to myself.” Pearl explained.
“I see. You didn’t think I’d be interested in the news that would change the direction
of our lives.” Willow felt lightheaded and sat down heavily.
“To tell the truth, I wasn’t sure how you’d feel about it. You don’t look happy like I
had hoped. I’m really sorry if you can’t feel excited about my news. I hope you have a
wonderful time in college. I’ll miss you.”
“When are you leaving?” Willow managed to ask.
“ The day after tomorrow. We’re getting married tomorrow. Will you consider
being my maid of honor? Please?”
“Yes….thank you for asking. What do you want me to wear?”
“Anything you pick out would be just fine.” Pearl began to look happy. “Meet us at
the rectory at 10:00 tomorrow morning.”
“I’ll be there. I have to get back to packing now.” Willow could not bring herself to
look at her friend. As soon as Pearl closed the door to Willow’s room, Willow dissolved into
tears. That night she wrote:
Dear Diary,
I’ve been dealt a terrible blow. All those exciting plans have just vanished into thin air.
Pearl ’s getting married and going off with Tom Thatcher. With her living in Philadelphia
I will probably never see her again. My heart is breaking.
If it’s possible for one to die from a broken heart, I’ll be dead by morning. Good night dear diary.
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Somehow Willow managed to be at the rectory on time, and even wore a smile on her
face. The preacher’s wife played music on her small organ and a glowing young couple
exchanged their vows. When Willow saw with her own eyes the love they obviously felt for
each other, she was deeply moved and ashamed at the same time. She needed to make sure
Pearl would know that Willow wished her happiness. Willow would not let her leave without
knowing that, and she hugged Pearl.
Chapter Three
After the excitement of Pearl’s marriage, and surprise bridal shower given by Willow
and Pearl’s mother, catching the train to Virginia was almost an anticlimax. Willow used the
last of her prescription and it seemed to be helping. The coughing was less, but not gone.
There was a carriage waiting for her at the train station, and once her trunk was loaded,
she was finally on her way to the boarding house for young ladies. Her parents had made
those arrangements, insisting it was safer than living on campus. That was fine with Willow.
She needed a quiet place to study and had no plans to party.
Mrs. Austin ran the boarding house, and greeted Willow when she arrived. She gave
Willow the grand tour, then went over the house rules and showed Willow to her room. Mrs.
Austin only allowed a maximum of six girls to live in her house. Willow found it to be quite
pleasant. The rules about visitors was quite strict, but Willow didn’t think that would be a
problem; no young men unless picking up one of the girls for a date.
At last, she could unpack now and prepare for orientation in a couple of days. Mrs.
Austin announced that she has tea and biscotti’s in the music room every day at 4:00, because
supper wasn’t until 8:00. This was to give the girls time to go to the library on campus and to
use the laboratories. This sounded very agreeable to Willow, and she was really starting to
feel at home.
Two more new students arrived, and three returning students. The girls took time to
get acquainted while they were unpacking and settling in. Willow noticed that the returning
students stuck together while the new ones were left to get acquainted with each other. After
settling in and introducing herself to the other young women, Willow put on her coat and
decided to explore the campus.
She was a little disappointed that the campus was so small. You’d think a 100+ year
old institution would be bigger. She went to the Admin. Bldg and picked up some history
brochures, then to the library. She was very impressed with the library. From the archives to
the most recent publications, Willow felt she would be able to find pretty much anything she
would need.
After her explorations, she returned to the boarding house to write to her parents.
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Dearest Mom and Dad,

I’m settled in at Mrs. Austin’s and have explored the campus. Tomorrow I’ll be signing up
for my classes and I’ve decided that the classes that will be of most benefit to me as a governess would
be the same as those of a school teacher. I hope to be able to take all the requisite courses over the
next two years, such as, Childhood Psychology, Art 1, 2, and 3, Geography, History, Music and
Dance. I will inquire of my adviroor if he or she thinks this is adequate.
Have you heard any news of Pearl? I thought you might have heard from her mother. I
will write to her after I register for classes. Hugs to you both. I’ll be working very hard.
All my love, Willow
Willow’s mother, Sophia, assumed that no news was good news as far as Willow’s
cough was concerned. She put on her cape and went to visit Pearl’s mother, Grace, and share
the letter with her.
Chapter Four
Registration day dawned bright and sunny, so all the young women at Mrs. Austin’s
were excited. Breakfast was non-stop chatter as they consumed the fruit, French toast, and
coffee. Mrs. Austin was in full mother hen mode, clucking over her brood, making sure they
all had eaten some of everything. Willow found a companion in Angela, another future
teacher. They made arrangements to sign up for as many of the same classes as possible.
As soon as they arrived at the student union they were divided up by alphabet, but they
knew what classes they wanted and agreed to meet after registration. Their next stop was to
buy the books they would need for their classes. Luckily, 3 of the 4 books were used, and they
got a price break. When they met back at Mrs. Austin’s for tea, it was really hard to contain
the excitement. All the young women were comparing classes and instructors. Two of the
returning students were taking difficult pre-med classes, but their dedication to their futures
was obvious. Each of the young women pledged to do her part to maintain a quiet, study rich
atmosphere. This made Mrs. Austin smile. She heard it all before, and knew they meant it.
The first day of classes all the women were up bright and early, too excited to eat
breakfast. However, Mrs. Austin, good mother hen that she was, would not let them leave
until they had at least some fruit. Willow and Angela were starting with Advanced
Mathematics, then study lab and Art History before lunch. After lunch came Music
Appreciation, another study lab, and finally Foreign language skills. Willow chose French
and Angela chose German. When they gathered for tea, they were giddy with anticipation.
Willow’s cough was back. Mrs. Austin had a home remedy she insisted Willow try.
The label on the cough remedy said it was lemon juice, honey and laudanum. She
bought it over the counter, without a prescription, and to her that meant it was ‘benign’ enough
for one of her girls. Willow took her first dose before retiring that night, and she slept
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deeply, with no coughing. Willow awakened the next day full of energy from a good night’s
sleep, grateful for Mrs. Austin’s care. One more dose after breakfast and she was off to her
classes.
After a month of classes one of her classmates, Lars Jenson, approached her and asked
if she would help him with French. He was a typical Swede, blonde hair, blue eyes and very
red cheeks. His parents owned a large dairy herd in Sussex County, and his two younger
brothers were carrying his load of chores so he could attend college. Willow was embarrassed
yet flattered that he chose her to help him. They met in the library after tea, and studied until
nearly supper time.
Willow’s cough was controlled with the ‘remedy’ until the weather turned cold.
Breathing the cold air sent her into coughing spasms that left her breathless and weak. Even
holding a scarf over her face did not help. When Willow spoke with Mrs. Austin about this, it
was decided that she should have a midday dose while the cold weather was upon them. Also,
Willow wondered if she could tutor Lars at the boarding house instead of the library, but Mrs.
Austin would not agree to that. She was worried that if she made an exception for Willow, she
would have to do it for all the girls. Willow was disappointed but she understood.
By the end of the first semester, Lars had aced his French exam. He was so grateful to
Willow that he asked if he could take her out to dinner. She was again embarrassed and
flattered, but agreed to go. There was a unique French restaurant in Williamsburg called Chez
Renee. Lars wanted to show off his command of the French language and gave the waiter
their orders in perfect French even ordering a wine to go with it. They had gotten to know
each other somewhat during tutoring, but stayed pretty much within the parameters of
tutor-student relationship. There was still a lot to know and as Willow soon discovered, there
was a charming young man inside the bashful farm boy.
When he walked her home after dinner, they talked briefly on the porch when Willow
began coughing. This time it was especially bad, and Lars helped her inside. Mrs. Austin
rushed to Willow and helped her out of her coat. She thanked Lars for being a gentleman and
he reluctantly left her as he backed out of the door. Next came the remedy, but before she
could administer it, she saw blood in Willow’s handkerchief. Mrs. Austin had Angela help
Willow into bed, and she went to call the doctor.
By the time the doctor arrived, Willow was sleeping lightly. She was exhausted.
This time the spell had lasted for several minutes and did not stop immediately when Mrs.
Austin gave her the remedy. The doctor listened to Willow’s chest and back for a long time,
tapping every once in a while, then listening again. He took the bloody cloths to look at under
his microscope promising to get back to her later that night.
Being a man of his word, he called the boarding house. He wanted to ask if Willow
could come to his clinic in the morning. He had just acquired a new piece of equipment called
an x-ray machine, and he felt that would give him a definitive diagnosis. Mrs. Austin agreed
to have Willow at the clinic first thing.
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The next morning Angela was quite concerned about the way Willow appeared. Her
eyes had dark shadows under them, there was no sparkle in her eyes and she moved her limbs
as if they were made of lead. She decided to go along with Mrs. Austin in case Willow
fainted. As they were getting ready to leave, one of the pre-med students whispered to
another that she looked like she was dying. Angela flashed her a look that said “Be quiet”.
The x-ray was done. Several different views were taken, and now the pictures had to
be developed. Willow dozed against Angela’s shoulder while Mrs. Austin paced and fretted.
When the doctor came towards them, they looked at each other and knew they read the same
news in his eyes. He stopped in front of them, then went to sit next to Willow. He gently
took one of her hands in his, and stroked her forehead to wake her. As Willow opened her
eyes, looking at the faces staring at her, she had a feeling of dread. Nothing could have
prepared her for what came next.
“My dear, my diagnosis has been confirmed. You have cancer, and your left lung is
full of tumors. Your right lung has small tumors that will continue to grow.”
“What can be done to stop them?” Mrs. Austin asked.
The doctor looked up at Mrs. Austin, “Nothing I’m afraid.”
Angela and Mrs. Austin began to cry quietly, but Willow remained dry-eyed.
“So what do you recommend, doctor?” asked Willow.
“My recommendation is that you leave college, and return to your parents’ home in
Boston. I will contact your family doctor to fill him in, I’m sure he’ll be able to keep you
comfortable.”
“You’re saying I’m going to die aren’t you?” Willow asked with a note of panic in her
voice.
“I know this is difficult for you to accept. You’re young and have your whole life in
front of you. Your faith in God will help you.”
“What do you know about my faith? Or about God for that matter?” Willow asked,
her voice rising. “No merciful God would do this to someone who has lived a life of doing
good, and plans to do more good.”
The doctor stood now addressing his comments to Mrs. Austin.

“I’ll contact her parents with my findings, and then I’ll have them contact you to make
arrangements.”
“Yes, doctor, thank you. I apologize for her outburst.”
“No need to apologize. Her reaction is understandable, even normal.
Her dreams have been shattered, and everything she thought was ahead for her, is now a void.
I highly recommend her pastor follow closely and help her with the depression that’s sure to
come.”
Sophia came to Williamsburg to be with Willow on the ride home. She had done all
her weeping on the train so she could appear strong for Willow. She has just arrived at the
boarding house. Mrs. Austin had been watching for her and opened the door before she could
knock. Both women embraced and Mrs. Austin showed Willow’s mother into the parlor
where Willow was waiting. Willow stood and walked to her mother, tears filling her eyes,
then clutching her mother tightly she began sobbing as if her heart would break.
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There was little conversation on the way home. Both women deep in their own
thoughts, not knowing what to say or what needed to be said. It wasn’t much different when
they arrived home. Willow went to her room to rest while her mother unpacked the trunk.
Willow’s parents talked together in soft tones, almost whispers, and she felt like she was
already at her funeral. The pastor came to see her several times, but Willow declined the
visits. She wasn’t ready yet.
That evening Willow wrote a letter to Pearl asking her to come back to Boston to be
with her. Then she wrote in her diary:
Dear Diary,
Who would have guessed the struggle that now lies ahead for me? I want to reach out to my
parents, but they’re struggling too. I am praying that Pearl can come to visit. Even if she can’t stay
until the end, I won’t feel complete until we’ve shared this one last thing together. I feel so much more
calm when I think of her. I find myself wishing we were children again. Together again, carefree,
happy. Good night, dear diary.
Days passed, then Willow finally received a letter from Pearl. In it she says how
desperately she would want to be with Willow. She is pregnant and about to give birth in a
few weeks. Her doctor has advised her not to travel until after that, and then she will come
and bring the baby with her so Willow can share her joy. She has asked Willow to be the
baby’s godmother. That gave Willow something to look forward to and it made her smile.
Willow did a lot of reading in the next few weeks. She began to let her curiosity lead
her and found several works written about the afterlife. At first she wasn’t sure if she believed
the stories, then she decided it was healthy to be skeptical. However, she also began to accept
visits from her pastor, Rev. Adams. He would only discuss biblical concepts, and many times
these were in conflict with the stories of people claiming to have ‘crossed over’. Rev. Adams
tried to discourage her from reading those other accounts, but Willow felt compelled to
understand both.
Using her research skills and continually attempting to reconcile the differing views
about death, kept her mind active. Although it involved the subject she tried to avoid talking
about, it gave her a purpose. She now saw it as her mission to make people discuss these
views openly, and she knew right where to start. She left her room and went downstairs to
engage her parents in a very important conversation.
“Mom. I’d like to talk with you and Dad. How about some tea and cookies?”
Her mother was surprised but readily agreed to heat the water for tea. Her father was reading
his evening paper, but overheard what Willow had said and put down his paper.
“Willow? What is it?”
“You know all the books I’ve read lately, and the visits with Rev. Adams.”
“Yes. The books seem to have a central theme.”
“Let’s wait for Mom to join us with the tea, and I’ll tell you what’s been on my mind.”
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When they had their tea, Willow opened the discussion by asking, “Do you believe
there’s life after you die?” For a few moments her parents just sat and stared at her. Her
father was the first to respond,
“I believe what the bible says about it.”
“What brought this up, dear?” her mother asked.
“I’m dying. Why wouldn’t I think about and wonder about what comes next?”
“Maybe you shouldn’t dwell on it so much. Concentrate more on living. Have you
finished the needlepoint pillow for Pearl’s baby?”
“Yes, I’ve finished the pillow. Now I want to talk about dying.”
“I don’t think that’s proper for casual conversation, dear. Let’s wait until Rev. Adams
can join us.” her mother offered.
“All he does is preach. I want to discuss divergent ideas and experiences. I need to
know I’m not the only one who has wondered about the hereafter. I’m not sure I’m
comfortable with mansions and streets of gold. That doesn’t appeal to me at all.”
The shocked parents looked at each other but didn’t know quite how to respond to that
declaration. Finally her father cleared his throat,
“Is that what they’re teaching in college now? Maybe we made a mistake letting you
go.”
“I just thought you’d be more open-minded, more adventurous in your thinking. I
think exploring other ideas is exciting. I think I would like to believe in a world that appeals
to me. Why shouldn’t we be able to be in surroundings that make us happy.” Willow
countered.
“That’s starting to sound blasphemous. I won’t enter into that discussion. You need
to talk more with Rev. Adams.” said her father, and to end the discussion he opened his paper
and went back to reading.
“But….”
“You heard your father, dear. There’ll be no more talk about how we interpret
heaven.” and her mother got up and went into the kitchen.
Willow was very disappointed now. She wanted so badly to have this discussion with
someone who would listen to her….someone like Pearl. She went back to her room, quite
puzzled by her parents attitude.
Expending all that emotion and going up and down the stairs got Willow coughing.
The doctor had given his okay for her to keep taking the remedy, but no more than 3 times a
day. When her mother brought her medicine to her, Willow was reading a book titled “Into
the Light”.
“Those books are giving you some strange ideas. Maybe it’s better not to fill your
head with such nonsense.”
“It makes it easier to face what’s ahead. I would think you’d want me to find comfort
wherever possible. These people wrote the books for people like me, people who need to
know.”
“Very well, dear. Just don’t bring up the subject with your father.”
“Don’t worry, I won’t.”
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Chapter Five
That night Willow experienced a dream that seemed very real. Pearl arrived to be with
Willow, but she did not bring the baby. Pearl sat by her bed and held her hand. She was
fascinated by Willow’s questioning, and they talked far into the night. When it was almost
dawn, Pearl said she had to leave, but she would come back when it was time. She kissed
Willow on the forehead and told her not to be afraid, that it was all good.
When it was morning, her mother brought a breakfast tray. She was very chatty this
a.m. and kept up a running monologue. Finally she asked Willow if she slept well.
“Yes I slept very well. I dreamed about Pearl and it seemed like the dream lasted all
night. I didn’t realize how much I missed her. Even a dream is better than nothing.”
When she finished, her mother took the tray back downstairs, and Willow picked up
her book again. She was on the part that spoke about dreaming about a loved one when that
person had died and the living person unaware. Willow heard the doorbell and her mother
answered the door. Her mother came upstairs and announced that we got a telegram. She
didn’t want to be alone to open it. People were very superstitious about telegrams….that they
only brought bad news. She sat on Willow’s bed and opened it.
She closed her eyes and put her fingers to her lips. Then handed the telegram to
Willow. It was from Tom Thatcher. He announced the birth of a son, but sadly had lost
Pearl in childbirth. It all happened last night. Willow read and reread it several times
because she couldn’t believe what it said. Was it possible? Did she spend last night talking
to Pearl’s spirit? It would make sense then why she didn’t have the baby with her, but she was
no longer pregnant. Willow didn’t think she should ask that out loud, but she couldn’t help
wondering.
Willow wanted to get dressed and go visit Pearl’s mother, but her own mother didn’t
think it was a good idea. She asked Willow if it was all right for her to tell Grace about
Willow’s dream.
“Of course, do you want to know some of the conversation?”
“I’ll leave that to you when she’s feeling up to it.”
When her mother left, Willow reached for her diary:
Dear Diary,
I hardly know where to begin. My dearest friend Pearl died last night, giving life to her son.
Yet, I spoke to her in a dream as if she was really here. The dream gives me hope that when my time
comes, she’ll be waiting for me. Was that the purpose of the dream? To help me be unafraid of what’s
beyond this life? This dream has given me more comfort than any of Rev. Adams’ sermons. I want
to know more. It is my hope that Pearl will come again. Good night, dear diary.
Willow again experienced the utter fatigue that comes with fighting for every breath.
She lay back on the pillows, sipping the last of the tea her mother had left her. She also left
her ‘remedy’ by the bed in case she needed it before her mother returned. Willow’s mind was
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filling with questions she would ask Pearl if she came again. As another seige of coughing
left her breathless, she took her medicine and fell into a fitful sleep.
This time she did not dream of Pearl, but a jumble of things, dark and frightening. She
tossed and turned, feverish and in pain. When she woke, she was disoriented. She called out
for her mother, but no sound came out. Her light was still on, and she did finally realize she
was in her own room. She reached for her water glass to moisten her throat, then tried to call
out again. This time her mother was at her bedside in an instant, very concerned at her
daughter’s condition. She had not seen her so feverish, or in such pain before now. The
doctor had told her what to expect, but she had convinced herself it was still a long ways off.
Now, here were the signs that she had been dreading.
She sent word to the doctor to come as soon as possible. When he arrived he knew
Willow was in the final stages of her illness. Rather than say that to her mother he said he was
giving her a different medicine. This one would give better pain control, and help her
breathing. He put the bottle in her mother’s hand with instructions on how to give it. This
one had to be given by syringe, and he showed her how. The morphine was to be injected
every four hours, but she was not to take any more ‘remedy’. It would overload her system
and she might not be able to breathe at all.
Willow did sleep much more peacefully after the injection. When she woke, her
mother brought her some oatmeal, orange slices and tea. Willow didn’t have the heart to tell
her she wasn’t hungry, and forced herself to eat a little of everything. Willow did not
remember much of her dream. All she knew was that she was frightened. So which dream
was about her future; the one of Pearl, or the one that scared her.
Willow didn’t do much reading now. It was hard for her to focus on the print. She
could not do needlepoint either, but she could still knit and do embroidery. Willow decided to
occupy her time with crafts. Her mother read to her, not from the books that interested
Willow, but from the classics. Currently it was “Little Women”. She also liked the poetry of
Elizabeth Barrett Browning. She gave Willow her middle name. Eventually they got around
to talking about Elizabeth Barrett Browning’s illness, about how bravely she faced it. Willow
was beginning to understand that if a person believed that one would be in a better place after
death, one could face it with anticipation not fear.
Rev. Adams still visited Willow, if only to try to convince her that her soul was in
jeopardy. He and Willow debated the pros and cons of what the Bible said versus the
accounts in the books Willow had been reading. The good reverend was convinced that the
promise of mansions should be all the reward anyone could ever want. Willow had her own
very convincing arguments, that each person would have the heaven that most pleased that
person. On, and on they debated. Willow’s father became entirely fascinated with these
discussions, and much to her surprise, he asked if he could sit in. Eventually he joined the
discussion, and this pleased Willow immensely. So much so, that she confided to her diary:
Dear Diary,
I don’t know what’s come over Father, but I’m so pleased he’s finally joined in the discussions
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with me and Rev. Adams. I must say this is certainly a departure from his attitude when I first
brought up the subject. I am enjoying these discussions more than I can say, and I think even Rev.
Adams is getting something out of it. He is beginning to see that perhaps the biblical account was
simplified for the uneducated masses. The people were illiterate, superstitious, and believed their stone
gods had power of life and death over them, when in fact they had no power at all. No one wrote about
their experiences with death, so they met death with fear and trepidation. The biblical offering would
have given them a reason not to be afraid, to face the end of their lives with the hope of a promise of
something better.
I think these books with their accounts from people who have experienced death, or near death,
is their attempt not to contradict the biblical account, but to reinforce it. This alone has given me the
strength to endure the pain. Good night, dear diary.
Willow found that she was looking forward to the discussions, and the visits with Rev.
Adams and her father. That night she slept deeply and to her delight she dreamed of Pearl.
Now she had a chance to ask her questions. Pearl knew about the discussions Willow had and
was pleased and amazed that Willow was holding her own with two very educated men. She
acknowledged to Willow that the afterlife was more complex than most people realize.
Forinstance, Pearl has chosen to be an earthbound spirit while her baby and Tom need her to
watch over them. When she feels her job is over, or if Tom remarries and Pearl is approving
of the new mother, she can then cross over.
Willow was curious about angels. She had always thought angels watched over us
and kept us safe. Pearl conceded that there are angels watching over us. They have strict
rules, however, that must be observed and one of them is not to interfere with our lives unless
we specifically ask for their help. Most people don’t know to ask, and therefore don’t get help
when they need it. We have to ask.
Willow didn’t realize that she was talking in her sleep. When her mother asked her the
next morning if she dreamed about Pearl, Willow was surprised. She shared with her mother
the things she and Pearl had talked about. Her mother was intrigued. No wonder her
husband joined in the discussions with Rev. Adams and Willow. She asked if she could join
in the next one.
“Of course, Mother. That would be wonderful!” Willow exclaimed.
She didn’t have long to wait as they gathered that very evening. This time there was
tea and biscottis. Mother was always the good hostess. Once the discussion started, Willow
mentioned the newest subject she talked about with Pearl. On the subject of angels Rev.
Adams agreed totally because this was scripturally sound. From that point on they all
contributed to the discussion because everybody had an opinion.
When the good reverend left, her mother shared with Willow that she heard through
Pearl’s mother that Tom named the baby Benjamin. That was Pearl’s first choice for a boy
and he was sure that would please her. Also, he thought “Benjamin Thatcher” was a good
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solid male name for a lawyer maybe, or a business owner. Willow agreed, it was a good solid
name.
Chapter Six
Several nights passed before Willow again dreamed of Pearl. When she did, Pearl
indicated she was very pleased with the baby’s name. That was indeed, her first choice. She
said she could see his future, and he was going to become well-known and well-liked. She
couldn’t reveal more, but wanted to enlighten Willow more about angels. Pearl was pleased
with the discussion they had, and told Willow that she had high hopes that Rev. Adams and
both Willow’s parents would be able to see that their beliefs weren’t so far apart after all.
Pearl agreed that everyone’s experience of heaven would be unique.
Pearl then got very sad. Her own mother was not dealing well with her loss of Pearl.
Willow wondered if she should invite Grace to their discussions. Pearl agreed immediately
and said she really wanted her mother to understand that Pearl was doing well. Actually, as
they discussed that idea, Willow suggested that maybe she would accept it more readily if
Pearl would enter her mother’s dream. She could lay some of the groundwork so as not to
frighten her mother. Pearl then disappeared from the dream and Willow slept peacefully.
A few days later, Pearl’s mother stopped by to visit with Willow. She apologized for
not coming sooner, and Willow could tell Grace had not been sleeping well. Grace seemed
reluctant to bring up the subject of Pearl, but Willow assured her it was more than okay. They
visited a long time, and Grace related that she had dreamed of Pearl, and she had requested that
Grace join the discussions going on in Willow’s home. This brought a smile to Willow’s face,
and she assured Grace she was welcomed.
Willow’s breathing was becoming very difficult now. Doc Parsons said it was
probably time to fix up an oxygen tent for her. This announcement caused Willow’s mother,
Sophia, to leave and retire to her own room. Willow protested, but the doc managed to
convince her she would be more comfortable, without losing any contact with visitors. There
was a mesh window for them to talk to her, and to hear her when she spoke.
It was one more sign that her death was closer.
Willow persuaded her mother to read to her from the books about the afterlife. She
was tired of the classics, and wanted the stimulation of something she was interested in.
During these times she and Sophia had their own sessions, and there was a unique bonding
happening with mother and daughter. Willow was moved to record it in her diary:
Dear Diary,
Mother and I have become so close since we began sharing about the afterlife. As long as
we look ahead without fear, there’s no reason to think that she will be anything but okay. If I can
leave this earth, knowing my parents will not be devastated, I too, will be at rest. I find myself actually
looking forward to being with Pearl again. This was the way it was meant to be, and I can’t help but
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feel almost content about what lies ahead. It is my fervent prayer that my parents will find that too.
Good night, dear diary.
Rev. Adams excused himself from the next discussion group. He said he felt
outnumbered by heretics. This made Willow very sad, because she tried so hard to show him
how positive it is for the dying to be able to find what makes them accept and thus help the
family accept what’s ahead. His objective was to win souls which was really the same thing.
Willow found she was looking forward to meeting the Christ, to sit at the feet of God, to hear
the angel choirs and all the things Rev. Adams expounded. She was not able to separate those
things from the things she hoped would be waiting for her and her alone.
All these things she wanted to say, but tired so quickly it was difficult to get all her
thoughts out. Then she decided to write down her thoughts:
To all who search for their life’s meaning,

Let me first explain I do not have answers….only questions. Things like; Why am I here?
What did I accomplish? What am I expected to accomplish? Is it enough to “just be”? Did
I love enough? Did I give enough? Will I ever know the answers?
I waited too long to explore these questions. The asking has to come long before one is staring
at eternity. The asking comes throughout one’s life so that the answers have time to be revealed. The
revelation could mean a glorious life, filled with honor and good deeds, not necessarily riches and fame,
but the satisfaction of knowing you made a difference.
Now in my eleventh hour of life, I find little satisfaction in the answers to my question. The
one thing left for me to do is to make a difference. Only you who read this will be able to answer that.
If the questions I posed made you think and then act, I have made a difference, and I can rest in
peace.
God Bless you seekers. The sin is not in the questioning and searching, but in allowing
ignorance to be enough.
With sincere affection,
Willow Goodhugh
When she finished writing, Willow was exhausted. The paper lay in her lap as she
napped. She dreamed of beautiful places, restful places. When she woke from her nap she
felt peaceful, folding the paper to fit in an envelope and sealing it to be read after her funeral.
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Chapter Seven
It was decided mutually by Willow and Sophia that it cost Willow too much energy to
have the extended discussions. She slept much more now, and was eating only broth and sips
of water. When Grace came by that night, she brought some nightgowns she had made for
Pearl, but wanted Willow to have them. Sophia was sponging off Willow’s fragile frame and
she smiled when Grace showed her the nightgowns. After her bed bath, and a few sips of
broth, Sophia brushed her hair and put a fresh pillowcase on the pillows propping her up.
Willow requested that her mother and Grace sing to her. She knew they both had beautiful
voices. They took her requests and sang in soft harmony, mostly familiar hymns; “All is Well
With My Soul”, “Amazing Grace”, and especially “Just As I Am”. She was asleep when the
songs were done.
The doorbell rang and Sophia was surprised to see a young man with blonde hair, blue
eyes and red cheeks. He introduced himself as Lars Jenson, a friend from college. He knew
Willow was quite ill, and he wanted to pay his respects to her for being his tutor. Sophia
invited him in, took his coat and updated him on Willow’s condition. She also wanted to
prepare him for Willow’s appearance, as she had lost a lot of weight in recent days. Lars said
he understood, but was not prepared for the ravaged person he saw lying in the bed. He
swallowed hard, and vowed not to betray how he felt about what he saw.
He sat next to the bed, took Willow’s hand in his and spoke to her softly to get her
attention. Willow opened her eyes wide in surprise and then a smile lit up her face. Her
pleasure at seeing her visitor was evident, and Sophia left the two of them alone to share
memories. Lars at last was able to express his feelings for Willow. He wanted her to know,
even if she was dying, that she was leaving someone who loved her. He had wanted to tell her
the night they went to the restaurant, but then Willow became ill and before he knew it she was
on her way back to Boston. Her eyes filled with tears at his admission of love. She admitted
she had been looking forward to a continued friendship with him. What a cruel blow this was
indeed, for both of them.
However, it did no good to dwell on the cruelty of fate. Lars did not want to spend this
time on anything but good and positive things. He told her he probably would have asked her
to marry him, and if she accepted he went on to describe their life together. What a beautiful
fantasy he wove. He had a parcel of land on his father’s farm where he intended to have his
own. He did not want a dairy farm though, he was excited about raising horses. Lars wanted
to raise the fastest, most beautiful thoroughbreds on the east coast.
Willow would doze off now and then, and he would stop talking and let her have a nap.
Sophia brought him some tea, and also some for Willow even though she knew she probably
would not drink any. She was pleasantly surprised to see Willow taking a few sips for Lars.
Willow asked her mother if she would play the piano for a while. They would be able to hear
it with the door open to her room. Sophia graciously accepted and went downstairs.
When Lars was putting on his coat he asked Sophia if he could come again tomorrow.
She said if Willow was up to it, that would be fine. She knew the time was very close when
Page 241
family and friends would be sitting vigil for Willow. The custom of sitting with the dying
gave comfort to the patient as well as the visitors. Lars vowed to be back.
A man of his word, he returned day after day, sitting with Willow for hours at a time.
He read to her from the books she had indicated, and found them intriguing. She could hear
his voice even as she slept lightly, and was comforted by it. He delighted her by reading
French poetry. She told him he spoke it like a true Frenchman. That made him blush, and
she laughed only to be enveloped by another fit of coughing.
Rev. Adams came to visit once and was leaving as Lars was arriving. He introduced
himself and Lars did the same. The reverend was curious about his relationship to Willow.
When Lars told him he loved her and wanted to spend as many “earthly” minutes as possible,
Rev. Adams raised his eyebrows.
“You believe those books she’s been reading?”
“I don’t know….but she believes them, and that’s good enough for me.” he responded.
“What’s wrong with looking ahead without fear?” Lars asked innocently.
“And what do you expect to happen when Willow dies?” the reverend asked.
“I expect to miss her terribly. I also hope she’ll wait for me when it’s my time to enter
eternity.” Lars said with absolute certainty.
Rev. Adams did not want to debate here in the foyer, and so he bid the young man good
evening. As the reverend had observed all through Willow’s illness, the people who began to
see heaven differently seemed less fearful. This fascinated Rev. Adams and then he shook
himself and chastised himself vigorously for allowing those thoughts. What was in the Bible
was the only true account as far as he was concerned.
It was equally amazing to Sophia that Willow seemed to be lingering longer than Doc
Parsons expected, wondering if it was because she was enjoying being with Lars. If only love
could heal, she wished. Willow would be up and dancing at her wedding. Those thoughts
just made her sad so she forced her thoughts in another direction. One day when she realized
there would be no grandchildren she dissolved into tears. No daughter, no
grandchildren…..where was the purpose in her life now? This question would bother her for
many months.
Willow now slept so much there was little conversation opportunities so Lars sat with
her, watching, reading, humming and professing his undying love. He had watched her so
closely, he was keenly aware when she took her last breath. She looked so utterly at peace.
He pressed her hand to his lips, then gently kissed her mouth and turned to her parents, “I
think she’s gone,” he said sadly then moved from her bedside.
Grace stood and put her arms around his waist and her head on his chest, crying softly.
They held each other watching Willow’s parents holding her, talking softly, shedding tears. It
was a beautiful moment.
* * *
Page 242
“That wasn’t so bad was it?” Pearl asked.

“Not quite what I expected, but no it wasn’t bad at all,” responded Willow. “Are you
sure they’re going to be all right? I’m most concerned about my mother.”
“There will be time for you to comfort her in her dreams.”
* * *
A few years later, a blink of the eye in eternity, a young man with blonde hair, blue eyes
and red cheeks was working one of his horses, and fell off. He lay undiscovered for several
hours. When a farm hand found him, he was lifeless. What they didn’t see, was the image of
this young man walking away, hand in hand with a lovely young woman named Willow.
Epilogue
Before I retired as a hospice chaplain, I encountered impending death many times, and
in many ways. This story is a composite of those stories. Some meet death with complete
denial, leaving this world kicking and screaming. Others with joy, still others with relief
especially if they’ve been in pain.
We chaplains have an obligation to those to whom we minister, to walk the journey

with them. Not to proselitize or convert. We are also there for the family and treading on
their belief systems in any way only adds to the stress. We must never lose sight of the fact
that they are losing someone near and dear to them. Just as with the patient, whatever gives
them comfort is the formula to be followed. It is hoped that during the journey there will be
time to be with the family, to get to know their personalities, their beliefs and customs.
Whenever possible the family should be engaged in dialogue with you as much as the patient.
More, if the patient is comatose. You will only have them to help you come to know the
patient.
It was part of my experience to have ministered to a couple of patients who proclaimed

to be either agnostic or atheist. The family was so concerned about the salvation of the
patient’s soul, they could not accept that this person had a set of beliefs that even though it
conflicted with theirs, was private and personal to the patient. I engaged cautiously with them
and asked first for their permission, explaining I was visiting at the request of the family.
The response was identical for each. If I didn’t get preachy or start talking “church
stuff” I could visit. Thus my education as a chaplain really began. The visits began as social
visits, but as they got closer to the end of their lives, they suddenly wanted to know about
things spiritual. One challenged me by saying if I could prove the existence of our souls, he
would accept that there is a God. This struck me first as a very daunting task.
It became obvious to me that he professed to believe things that could be proven

through science. I knew I could use that. On our next visit I began by asking him if he could
define “energy”. He gave it a good try, but conceded defeat. This was my response:
Page 243
Energy is the force that runs our bodies. It runs our brains, our hearts, our lungs, and it
runs whether we are awake or asleep. We know this because we have machines to measure
this. It is our “life force”. It is the essence of who and what we are. That sounds mighty
like the definition of a soul to me.
Now we know and it has been proven through physics, that energy cannot be destroyed.
It can change form but it cannot be destroyed. So when our bodies die, what happens to the
energy that was running the body?
It must somehow leave the body. It’s not in that box in the ground….it’s not in the urn on the
shelf. We can’t see it, it has changed form, and it’s still with us.
Another patient who did not fear his approaching death, wanted to imagine the heaven
he was going to was an endless golf course….with no water hazards. He was a golf fanatic
who went golfing with his son every week, until the week he died. I would never have taken
that image away from him. When he passed, he had the most peaceful look on his face I’ve
ever seen.
I guess my point here is this, if you are with someone who is dying, and they want to
talk about it, let them talk. You don’t have to be clergy or a philosopher, you don’t have to try
to be profound. Let the patient do the talking so you have an idea where they’re at, and what
their beliefs are. If they’re just looking for reinforcement of those beliefs, that’s easy. Go to
the source. If they’re not verbal any longer, or comatose, take a lesson from Lars Jenson’s
book. It has long been a saying among hospice workers that the hearing is the last to go.
Touch and sound become extra meaningful near the end. You will make a difference.
* * *
Page 244

Poems by Brian Nixon, D.Phil, D. Litt, O.S.A

Blink
Email Chat about Him
Hole
Walking the Plaza on a Wednesday Morning

Page 245
Page 246
Blink
By Brian Nixon

See how the lilies of the field grow. Matthew 6:28b

I suppose I could
spend my whole
day looking at you

[though the river is
drying, and wars rumor,
with disease knocking
and pestilence abounding]

my little flower: orange‐
red with yellow pistils
perched among purple lavender.

[I breathe and think of
lifting my eyes
to see this Earth
passing]

But for a moment
there is nothing as
fair as God’s fingerprint

pressed upon this

field of silence

asking me not to blink.

Page 247
Email Chat about Him
By Brian Nixon

I
He’s the cheese maker on TV that talks about politics in a funny way and tells little
people all around the world where foxes run to find a rose.

II
He has the attention span of an ant in Time Square with coke spills, cigarette butts, and
human presence as obstacles; all the while trying to read the first ten pages of Ulysses
under the bright, neon lights on New Year’s Eve; and feeling as though he needs to
figure out how the newest sale of an Andy Warhol painting went for 66 million.

III
I hear he likes frog legs as well, at least after doing stomach yoga while playing Yahtzee
with his pet chimpanzee.

IV
I wonder if he has ever dreamed of walking inside‐out with an invisible walking‐stick
named Charlie?

V
Ask him if it easier to get to the bottom of a frosty milkshake with a microscopic straw
or to inhabit the moon with worms wearing tutus?

VI
I agree. I heard he is really interested in the “secret art” presented by Mr. Shinto. They
say he knows the clandestine recipe for KFC.

VII
http://him.conversations

Page 248
Hole
By Brian Nixon

Sipapu is a word the
Tewa people use for
the hole
where the first people
emerged on earth.

I sit by the Rio Pueblo,
watching the river
run; the sun sets over
the Sangre De Cristo
Mountains.

One child—almost a man—
fishes, whipping the line
in subdued expectation,
standing on rocks
that hold time.

The other child watches
a bat dive and dance
above his head, seeking
gnats that provide
the air with life.

But once caught—fish or gnat—
in water or sky—
a hole
is created that emerges
someplace else—

Amidst the Blood of Christ.

Page 249
Walking the Plaza on A Wednesday Morning
By Brian Nixon

Walking the plaza before it awakes,
I enter the church and read the liturgy,
Saying prayers for the world asleep.

The armless man rides a horse,
As the stone man sits on the bench, cold.
The red, blue, and yellow swirls

Over the white lightening: a tree mixed
With metaphors. The torso is one and
The propeller sits, never taking flight.

There is a dancer in the yard with flute
And feathers. And a mother offering
Sounds for a good life, blue lips, closed eyes.

This is La Jornada, a walk around the dirt
path. Above me wood tools sit and a
Shepherd with a staff stares across

The street, saying not a word.

Adam’s spirit is alive here: in the man with a
Paper; in the girl stretching her legs; in the
Lover’s embrace; and the gentleman whispering to his dog.

Here Cervantes’ head fell off, rolling until
It stopped, looking out towards the eastern sky
Where the pueblo man holds out his arms

Welcoming the sun above the snow‐peaked mountains.

Page 250
Hi
Historic
i Mount
M Vernon
V
A Photo Journal
Christopher Priest, Ed.D.
June 30, 2010
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Historic Cathedral of Our Merciful Saviour
Faribault, Minnesota

Pen and Ink by Christopher Priest
Page 267

Page 268

Published by St. Alcuin House Journal
Volume 7, Number 1, 2010 ISSN 15484459

Memphis, Tennessee
Historic St. Mary’s Cathedral

St. Alcuin House Journal Vol.8

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ST.

ALCUIN HOUSE JOURNAL

The Minorcans' Faithful Priest, Father Pedro Camps

Cover photo by Rev. Christopher Priest

St. Alcuin House Journal

Alexander Hall and Richardson Auditorium: Speaking of Architecture

Research by Peter W. Riola

Alexander Hall and Richardson Auditorium: Speaking of Architecture

Recently, Yale professor Paul

1662 Book of Common Prayer The Rite of Sarum Divine Liturgy of St. John

whole world; and did inﬅitute, thou, O Almighty God, we the dispensation for us, in the

Liturgical Feature Mode Consequence

Our Father identification understanding

Law and Gospel proclamation evangelism

Creed instruction conversion

Confession recognition forgiveness

Absolution admission reconciliation and healing

Comfortable Words reception acknowledgement and thanksgiving

Trisagion expression enter his courts with praise

Eucharist sanctification heavenly communion

Our Father position familial standing

Doxa Patri glorification change of heart

Benediction permission descent for proclamation

St. Alcuin House Journal

Barth on Sacraments: A Reflection or Think Piece

Edited by Peter Riola

Barth on Sacraments: A Reflection or think piece

is reduced, in the judgment of A. Dumas, to �an a historical unfolding which God

ODIUM SANCTUM (HOLY REST)

By Jean Correo, OSA and Fr. Bob Correo, OSA

ODIUM SANCTUM (HOLY REST)

By Jean Correo, OSA and Fr. Bob Correo, OSA

Absrtact of Presentation from Stuart Florida, Convocation, 2010

References from Scripture:

“In repentance and rest is your salvation,

Psalm 46:10 (King James Version)

Hebrews 4:9-11 (King James Version)

Philippians 4:8 (King James Version)

Matthew 11:29 (King James Version)

Contact the authors to receive the full text.

St. Alcuin House Journal

Dearest Mom and Dad,

The doctor stood now addressing his comments to Mrs. Austin.

To all who search for their life’s meaning,

“That wasn’t so bad was it?” Pearl asked.

We chaplains have an obligation to those to whom we minister, to walk the journey

It was part of my experience to have ministered to a couple of patients who proclaimed

It became obvious to me that he professed to believe things that could be proven

Christopher Priest, Ed.D.

June 30, 2010

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