ilrry

,ESSENTIAL

MATHEMATICAL
SKILLS

This page intentionally left blank

MATHEMATICA
SKILLS
for engineering, science and applied mathematics

Dr Steven Dr Stephen
+

Ian Barry Alan Davis

A UNSW Press book Published by

University of New South Wales Press Ltd University of New South Wales UNSW Sydney NSW 2052 AUSTRALIA www.unswpress.com.au © Steven Ian Barry and Stephen Alan Davis 2002 First published 2002 This book is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for purposes of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part may be reproduced by any process without written permission. Inquiries should be addressed to the publisher. National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: Barry, Steven Ian. Essential mathematical skills for engineering, science and applied mathematics. Includes index. ISBN 0 86840 565 5. 1. Mathematics. 2. Mathematics - Problems, exercises, etc. I. Davis, Stephen. II. Title.

510
Printer BPA

CONTENTS

Preface 1

lX

Algebra and Geometry 1.1 Elementary Notation 1.2 Fractions 1.3 Modulus....... 1.4 Inequalities .... 1.5 Expansion and Factorisation 1.5.1 Binomial Expansion 1.5.2 Factorising Polynomials 1.6 Partial Fractions . . . 1.7 Polynomial Division . 1.8 Surds . 1.8.1 Rationalising Surd Denominators 1.9 Quadratic Equation 1.10 Summation ... 1.11 Factorial Notation. 1.12 Permutations 1.13 Combinations 1.14 Geometry . . 1.14.1 Circles 1.15 Example Questions Functions and Graphs 2.1 The Basic Functions and Curves 2.2 Function Properties 2.3 Straight Lines 2.4 Quadratics. 2.5 Polynomials. 2.6 Hyperbola.. 2.7 Exponential and Logarithm Functions 2.8 Trigonometric Functions 2.9 Circles....... 2.1 0 Ellipses . . . . . . 2.11 Example Questions

1
2 3 3 4 5

6 6
9 10 10
11

12 12 13 13 14 15 16

17
17 18 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

Vi

3 Transcendental Functions
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Exponential Function Index Laws . Logarithm Rules . Trigonometric Functions Trigonometric Identities Hyperbolic Functions Example Questions

31
31 32 33 35 36 38 39

4 Differentiation
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 First Principles Linearity.... Simple Derivatives Product Rule Quotient Rule . . . Chain Rule .... Implicit Differentiation Parametric Differentiation Second Derivative. Stationary Points Example Questions

41
41 42 43 43

44
45 46 47 47 48 50

5 Integration
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Antidifferentiation Simple Integrals .. The Definite Integral Areas . Integration by Substitution Integration by Parts Example Questions

51
51 52 53 55 56 57 58 59 59

6 Matrices
Addition. Multiplication Identity ... Transpose.. Determinants 6.5.1 Cofactor Expansion. 6.6 Inverse............ 6.6.1 Two by Two Matrices. 6.6.2 Partitioned Matrix 6.6.3 Cofactors Matrix 6.7 Matrix Manipulation ... 6.8 Systems of Equations . . . 6.9 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors. 6.10 Trace . 6.11 Symmetric Matrices. . . . . . 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5

60
61 62 63 64 65 66

66
67 68 70 73 74 74

CONTENTS

Vll

6.12 Diagonal Matrices. 6.13 Example Questions 7 Vectors 7.1 Vector Notation 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 8 Addition and Scalar Multiplication Length . Cartesian Unit Vectors Dot Product . . . . . Cross Product . . . . Linear Independence Example Questions .

74 75

77
. . 77 78 79 80 80 82 83 86

Asymptotics and Approximations 8.1 Limits . 8.2 L'H6pital's Rule. 8.3 8.4 8.5 Taylor Series .. Asymptotics ... Example Questions

87
87 88 88 89 90

Complex Numbers 9.1 Definition.......... 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Addition and Multiplication Complex Conjugate .. Euler's Equation .... De Moivre's Theorem. Example Questions

91
91 92 92 93 94 95

10 Differential Equations
10.1 First Order Differential Equations 10.1.1 Integrable . 10.1.2 Separable . 10.1.3 Integrating Factor . 10.2 Second Order Differential Equations 10.2.1 Homogeneous . 10.2.2 Inhomogeneous. 10.3 Example Questions 11 Multivariable Calculus 11.1 Partial Differentiation 11.2 Grad, Div and Curl 11.3 Double Integrals. . 11.4 Example Questions

97
97 97 98 99 100 100 102 105

107
. 107 108 111 114

Vlll

12 Numerical Skills 12.1 Integration. 12.2 Differentiation .. 12.3 Newton's Method 12.4 Differential Equations. 12.5 Fourier Series ..... 12.5.1 Even Fourier Series. 12.5.2 Odd Fourier Series 12.6 Example Questions 13 Practice Tests 13.1 Test 1: First Year 13.2 Test 2: First Year 13.3 Test 3: First Year 13.4 Test 4: First Year 13.5 Test 5: Second Year 13.6 Test 6: Second Year

115 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 131

Semester Semester Semester Semester .

One . One . Two. Two. .

14 Answers
15 Other Essential Skills Index

143 146

PREFACE

lX

PREFACE
TO THE STUDENT

There are certain mathematical skills that are essential for any of your courses that use mathematics. Your lecturer will assume that you know them perfectly - not just a vague idea, but that you have completely mastered these skills. Without these necessary skills, you will find present and later subjects extremely difficult. You may also lose too many marks making 'silly' mistakes in exams. So what skills do you need to have? This book contains the mathematical skills we think are essential for you to not only know but remember. It is not a textbook and does not attempt to teach you, hence there are no long wordy explanations. This book should act as a reminder to you of material you have already learned. If you are having trouble with a section or chapter then we suggest you consult a more thorough textbook. We have left a number of blank pages at the back of the book for you to add in skills that you or your lecturers think are important to remember but we did not include. This book covers the essential mathematics in the first one to two years of a science, engineering or applied mathematics degree. If you are in a first year undergraduate course you may not have covered some of the material included in this book. As a guide, we expect our students at University College to have mastered (by the start of each semester) the following: • First Year • First Year Semester One: Chapters 1-3. Semester Two: Chapters 1-7.

• Second Year: Chapters 1-10. • Third Year: Everything in the book! There are practice tests in Chapter 13 based on these divisions. Can you do the practice test at the end of these notes? If you can't then perhaps there are some skills you need to do some revision on. If you can then you may need this book to help you revise those skills later on. If you want more questions to practice on then see our extensive website: http://www.ma.adfa.edu.aul ...sib/EMS.html

It contains extra questions, fully worked solutions, practice tests and also code for the Maple algebraic manipulation package giving solutions for every example and question.

TO THE LECTURER

What do you assume your students know? What material do you expect them to have a vague idea about (say the proof of Taylor's Theorem) and what material do you want students to know thoroughly (say the derivative of sin z)? This book is an attempt to define what material students should have completely mastered at each year in an applied mathematics, engineering or science degree. Naturally we would like our students to know more than the bare essentials detailed in this book. However, most students do not get full marks in their previous courses and a few weeks after the exam will only remember a small fraction of a course. They are also doing many other courses not involving mathematics and are not constantly using their mathematical skills. This book can then act as guide to what material should realistically be remembered from previous courses. Naturally both the material and the year in which the students see this material will vary from university to university. This book represents what we feel is appropriate to our students during their degrees. We invite you to look at our extensive web site: http://www.ma.adfa.edu.aul ...sib/EMS.html

It contains more questions, solutions, practice tests and Maple code. There is a database of questions in LaTeX and pdf, which you can use to format your own tests and assignments. We are not concerned that students may access this database; if they can do the questions in the database then they have, in effect, learned the necessary skills. If you have any questions or queries please do not hesitate to email us.

Steven Barry and Stephen Davis School of Mathematics and Statistics University College, UNSW Canberra, ACT, 2600 email: s.barry@adfa.edu.au

CHAPTER

ALGEBRA AND GEOMETRY

1.1

ELEMENTARY NOTATION

I. {}: A set of objects. 2. E: A member of a set. For example 3 E

{I, 2, 3}.
E

3. R: The set of real numbers. For example -1,3,3.2,.J2

4. Z: The set of integers. For example -2, 0, 3 E Z.
5. 6. 7.

R.

<, >: Less than, greater than. For example 5 < 6,7> :5,~: Less than or equal to, greater than or equal to.
===}:

5.

Becomes. For example x - 2 = 3

===}

x = 5.

8. [a, b]: Bounds of a variable. For example x E

[1,3] means

:5 x :5 3.

9. (a, b): Bounds of a variable. For example x E (1,3) means 1

10. -+: Tends to. For example

< x < 3.

l/x -+ 0 as x -+

00.

11. ~: Approximately equal to. For example 3.02 ~ 3.

EXAMPLES
1. W = {f(x) = a + b» : a, bE R} means W is the set of all functions f(x) are real numbers (constants), Hence 1 + 2x E Wand 3 - 1.2x E W. 2. also written as x E [5, (0).

= a + b» where

a, b

S = {x : x 2: 5, x E R} means that S is the set of all numbers bigger than or equal to 5. This is

ALGEBRA

AND GEOMETRY

1.2

FRACTIONS

A fraction is of the form tor.

where a is called the numerator and b is called the denomina-

Rules for operating on fractions

1.

a b a+ b -+-=-c c c

(c ~ 0)
(b,d ~ 0) (c,d~O)

2.

b+d
a
a

ad+bc

bel

3.

- x - =c d cd

ab
ad x ~ = be

4.

b+d

cad

(b,c,d ~ 0)

EXAMPLES I. -x-=-=2. 3

2 9

3 8

6 72

1 12

112131 +- = - +- =- =36 66 6 2

+2

_ x - 2 = (x
x

. x- 2

+2

+ 2)2 (x - 2)(x

(x -

+ 2)

2)2 =

(x2

+ 4x + 4)
(x2

(x2

4x

+ 4)

=~
x2
-

4)

11 1 4. To rearrange the equation - + - = - to find y write x y 10

1
Y

= =

===> ===>

1 1 10 x x -10

lOx
lOx

NOT

10- x

y = x -10'

MODULUS

1.3

MODULUS

The absolute value or modulus of x, written

lxi, is defined

by

Ixl = {

x, -x,

~fx

2:: 0 lf x < O.

The absolute value is the magnitude of a number and ignores whether it is positive or negative.

EXAMPLES
1. 2. 3.

1+51 = 5 1-31 = 3
I-xllyl = Ixllyl = IxYI

1.4

INEQUALITIES

I. If x 2. If x 3. If x

>y >y

then

x + a > y + a for any a.

but ax

> y then ax > ay if a is positive,

and u

< ay if a is negative.

> v, then x + u > y + v.

EXAMPLES
I. To find

x such that -5x - 2 :5 3 write

-5x - 2:5 3

===> ===>

-5x:5 5 x 2:: -1.

2. To find values of x such that x

+ 1 > 2x
< 6.

- 5 we write

x+1>2x-5

===>

ALGEBRA

AND GEOMETRY

Inequalities

with modulus

I. The inequality 2. The inequality

Ix - bl < a can

be written as -a written as

< x - b < a.

Ix - bl > a can be

x - b > a or (x - b) < -a.

EXAMPLES I. To find x such that 12x - 11

:s 3 write s3
===} ===} ===}

12x - 11

-3:S 2x - 1 -2:S 2x:S 4 -1:S x S; 2.

:s 3

3 2. To find x such that -4-

1 -11
x

;:::2 write

or

--

3x-l <-2 43x S; -7 7 x <-3'

x;::: 3

or

1.5

EXPANSION AND FACTORISATION

(a+b)(c+d) (a-b)(a+b) (a±b)2

= =
=

a(c+d)+b(c+d) a2_b2 a2±2ab+b2

=ac+ad+bc+bd

EXAMPLES I. (x2 - 3)2 =

X4

+ 2( -3)x2 + 9 = X4

6x2

+9

EXPANSION

AND FACTORISATION

2.

(x - 3)(x

+ 5)2(x + 3)

= (x - 3)(x =
(X
"

+ 3)(x + 5)2 9)(x + lOx + 25)

2
" " "

3.

s2-4 2+s

(s-2)(s+2) = -'-----:-'-'--_-'2+s =s-2

4.

(a

+ 1)3 = (a + l)(a2 + 2a + 1) = a3 + 3a2 + 3a + 1

1.5.1

BINOMIAL EXPANSION

(a

+ b)n

= an

+ nan-1b +"n(n

2!

-1) n 2 2 "a - b

+ ... + nabn-1 + bn

(See also Section 1.13). To remember the coefficients of each term use Pascal's triangle where each number is the sum of the two numbers above it. 1 1 1 1 14 1 5 10 2 1 1

3
6

3
4 10

1 1 5 1

Each term in a row represents the coefficients of the corresponding term in the expansion.

EXAMPLES

2. (1 + X)4

= 1 + 4x + 6x2 + 4x3 + X4 + x)5

is 10
X

3. The coefficient of x3 in (2

22

= 40.

ALGEBRA

AND GEOMETRY

1.5.2

FACTORISING POLYNOMIALS

Factorising a polynomial is the opposite of the expansion described above, that is, splitting the polynomial into its factors: p(x) = (x - al)(x - <l2) ... (x - an).

EXAMPLES
I. x2 2. x2 3. 3x2 4. x3 5. a3
-

1 = (x - 1)(x 3x

+ 1)

+ 2 = (x +2 = + 4x =

- 2)(x - 1)

7x 4x2

(3x - l)(x - 2) x(x - 2)2

+ 3a2 + 3a + 1 = (a + 1)3

1.6

PARTIAL FRACTIONS

It is sometimes convenient to write

ex+d A ..,---::-;-----,:-:--=
(x

+ a)(x + b)

+ --B x +a x +b

where A and B are constants found by equating the numerators of both sides once the light hand side is written as one fraction:

ex

+ d = A(x + b) + B(x + a).

1

Some similar partial fraction expansions are

(x (x2

+ aF(x + b) + a)

--+ x+a
Ax+B x2 + bx

ABC

(x+aF

+-x+b
C

1 + bx + c)(x

+ c + x + a·

PARTIAL FRACTIONS

EXAMPLES
1. Wntmg

..

x+l

1 )(

x-I

. cAB. ) m the rorm --

x+l

+ -x-I

implies

A(x - 1)

+ B(x + 1) = 1.

The constants A and B can be found two simple ways. First, setting

x=1 x=-1

===}

===}

Alternatively the equation could be expanded as

Ax
and the coefficients of
Xl

+ Bx
and
xO

-A

+B

=1

equated giving

A+B=O -A+B=1.
Solving these equations simultaneously gives A = -1/2

(x
2.
'T'

+ 1)(x

- 1)

="2

1( 1
x-I

and B = 1/2. Thus

-x

+1

1)

10

3x + _ . . expan d (x + 7)(x 1 3) using partiial fracti ractions wnte

(x
giving

+ 7) (x

3x+l

A - 3) = x

+7 +x
= 3x

B -3

A(x - 3)

+ B(x + 7)

+ 1.

Setting x = 3 implies B = 1 and setting x = -7 implies A = 2. Alternatively, equating the coefficients of

Ax
gives

+ Bx

- 3A

+ 7B

= 3x

+1

A+B=3 -3A+ 7B = 1.
These simultaneous equations are solved for A and B to give A = 2 and B = 1. Hence

3x+l 2 1 --;-( x-+----,7:-;-)--;-( -x-+-7 + -x---3 . x-_-3::--c-) =

ALGEBRA

AND GEOMETRY

30 The partial fraction for (

x+l

)!(x+2 )

is

1 ABC --,------~------,--=--+ (x+l)2(x+2) x+l giving

(x+l)2

+-x+2

1 = A(x + 1)(x + 2) + B(x + 2) + C(x + 1)2

so that

x =-1 x =-2 order x2

Thus

===} ===} ===}

I=B I=C O=A+C

===}

A =-1.

--,------~------,--=

1 (x+l)2(x+2)

1 (x+l)2

---+--

1 x+l

1 x+2°

40 The partial fraction for ( 2

x +x+l

3 )(

x+2

) is

--,----;;,-----------::-;:---;--------:::-;=2 + -giving

3 (x2+x+l)(x+2)

Ax+B x +x+l

C x+2

3 = (Ax + B)(x + 2) + C(x2 +

Hence

+ 1)0

x =-2 x=O order x2

Thus

===} ===} ===}

C=1 3=2B+C O=A+C

===} ===}

B= 1 A= -1.

(x2 +

3 + 1)(x + 2)

1
--

x+2

----0----

x-I x2 +x+ 1

POLYNOMIAL

DIVISION

1.7

POLYNOMIAL DIVISION

Polynomial division is a type of long division for polynomials best illustrated by the following examples.

EXAMPLES
1. When dividing x2 + 3x + 4 by x + 1consider only the leading order terms to begin with. Thus x goes into x2, x times. Thus x(x + 1) = x2 + z, which is subtracted from x2 + 3x + 4. The first step is therefore x

+ 1 ) x2 + 3x + 4
x2 +x

2x+4
The division is completed by considering that x (the leading order of x times. Subtracting 2(x + 1) from 2x + 4 gives

+ 1) goes

into 2x

+ 4 two

x+2 x+1)x2+3x+4 x2 +x 2x+4 2x+2

2

Thus

x2 + 3x+ 4
---1-

X+

= (x+2)+--1'

"

X+
gives

2. Dividing 3x3

+ 2X2 + X + 1by x-I

3x+2x+x+l
32 .

x- 1
4x3+6x2+4x+l ------2x + 1
22

= x+

3256

x+

7 +--1'

x-

3.

=x

+ 2· x+

10

ALGEBRA

AND GEOMETRV

1.8

SURDS

A surd is of the form nJii (= a1/n): I.

Jii x Vb = VQi,

2.

~=J¥

3. bJii ± cVa = (b ± c)Jii

EXAMPLES I. 2.

v'5 x v'2 =v'iO .../27 = .J9X3 = 3V3 .

14 =

3. 3v'iO - 2v'W = v'W

4.
-Vi4.

v'2

{l4 V2 = .,J7
SURD DENOMINATORS

1.8.1

RATIONALISING

For an expression of the form

a b+ ..jC
it may be preferable to have a rational denominator. A surd denominator is rationalised by multiplying the expression by :
a

=~
a

(= 1):

b+ ..jC

--x--

b+v'c

b-..jC b-v'c

a(b - v'c) 1? - c .

QUADRATIC

EOUATION

II

EXAMPLES
1.

--=--x-1+V5

I-V5 I--V5

1+V5

= =
=
2. --= 1 + 2JX

5 - 5-V5

(1)2 - (J5)2
5 - 5-V5

(-4)
5V5-5 4

6x

= =

6x 1- 2y'X x-----=-= 1 + 2JX 1 - 2JX 6x -12xy'x

1-4x

1.9

QUADRATIC EaUATION

A quadratic equation is of the form y = ax2 where

+ bx +c

a, b, c are constants. The roots of a quadratic equation (when y = 0) are

A quadratic is factorised if it is written in the form

EXAMPLES
1. The solutions to x2

+ 3x + 1= 0 are
x=
-3 +-V5 2
-

or

-3 --V5 2

2. The quadratic y = x2

+X

6 is factorised into y = (x

+ 3)(x

- 2).

3. The quadratic y = x2 + 2x + 1 is factorised into y = (x + 1) 2.

12

ALGEBRA

AND GEOMETRV

4. The solutions to 3x2

+ 5x + 1 =
x=

0 are
6

-5 ± y'25 -12

so that

x=

-5+ vTI
6

or

-5 -V13
6

1.10

SUMMATION

The summation sign

L is defined
n

as

L:f(i)
i=l

= f(l)

+ f(2) + f(3) + ... + f(n

- 1) + f(n).

EXAMPLE

L:i2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 = 30
i=l

1.11

FACTORIAL NOTATION

The factorial notation is defined as follows:

n! = n.(n - 1).(n - 2) ... 3.2.1

where n is an integer.

EXAMPLES

I. 5! = 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 120
2. O! = 1 by definition. 3. n! = n(n - I)!

4. 2.4.6.8 ... 2n = (2.2.2 ... 2)(1.2.3 ... n) = 2nn!

PERMUTATIONS

13

1.12

PERMUTATIONS

A permutation is a particular ordering of a set of unique objects. The number mutations of r unique objects, chosen from a group of n, is given by

of per-

pn=
r

(n - r)!

n!

EXAMPLE
The number of ways a batting lineup of 3 can be chosen from a squad of 8 cricket pi ayers is given by
8 8! 8! P3 = (8 _ 3)1 = 5! = 8 x 7 x 6 = 336.

1.13

COMBINATIONS

If order is not important when choosing r things from a group of possible combinations is given by

n then the number of

cn=
r

r!(n-r)!

n!

EXAMPLES
1. The number of possible groups of 4 delegates chosen from a group of 11 is given by
11

C4 = 4!(11 _ 4)! = 4!7! = 4 x 3 x 2 x 1 = 330.

2. The number ways of choosing a team of 5 people from 7 is

11!

11!

11 x 10 x 9 x 8

cl

= 21.

14

ALGEBRA

AND GEOMETRV

1.14

GEOMETRY

The trigonometric ratios can be expressed in terms of the sides of a right-angled triangle:

c
()

b
b a sinO . a sin 0 =-, cosO = -, tan 0 = -b = --0· e e cos The longest length, opposite the right angle, is called the hypotenuse. Pythagoras' Theorem states

The sine, cosine and tangent of the common angles can be related to the following triangles:

v'2

Jrj4
1

J2

GEOMETRV

15

EXAMPLE

The three common triangles are the I. isosceles: any two sides are of equal length. 2. equilateral: all three sides of of equal length.

3. right angled: one of the angles is

i.

All triangles have three angles that sum to

1f.

EXAMPLES
1. A right angled triangle has one other angle

-i.

Hence the third angle is

2. An equilateral triangle must have three identical angles of

i.

i.

1.14.1

CIRCLES

A circle of radius r has

2, circumference

= 21fr

EXAMPLES
I. The area of a circle with diameter d = 6 is 11"32 911". = 2. The circumference of the circle with diameter d = 7 is 711".

16

ALGEBRA

AND GEOMETRY

1.15

EXAMPLE QUESTIONS

5. Write the following expressions as partial fractions. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

(Answers are given in Chapter 14)

1. Simplify the following. (i)

3
(x - 2)(x - 4) 4x -1 (x - 1)(x + 2) 1 x2+5x+6 3x (x - 2)(x + 4) 1 (x + 3)2(X - 2)

:2 - (; +
-----

1 10 5 x+2 2x x-2 x-I x+2 x+ 3 x

(ii)

x x-3

(iii)

-----

x-I x+2

6. Simplify the following. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

2x+ 1 (iv) x-4

-----

y'27v'3

v'5
y'45 v'I7 + 5v'I7 2v'I7 2

x2 - 2 (v) --+-x-I x3 _ x2 (vi) x(x2 - 1)

3+v'3 + 6x + 5 +5

2. Find the solution set for the following inequalities. (i) 2d+2:::;4d-3 (ii) 3d-2>4d+6 (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)

7. Factorise the following quadratic equations. (i) Y = x2 (ii) Y = x2 - 6x

(iii) Y = x2 +4x - 5 (iv) y = x2 - 4x - 5 (v) y = 2X2 +x-l 8. Find the zeros of the following quadratics. (i) Y = x2 +4x+4 (ii) Y = x2

Ix -101 < 5 Iz+31 ~ 8 la+41 > 1

1~-~1<2

+ 7x + 6

(iii) Y = x2 +x -12 (iv) y = x2 +x - 2 (v) y = x2 (vi) y = x2 +x -

3. Expand the following. (i) (x - 3)(x (ii)

+ 3)

+ 3x - 4 3

(4 - 3X)2 + y)2(X - y)

9. Use polynomial division to calculate the following. (i) (x2 (ii) (x2 (iii)

(iii) (x (iv)

(3 + x)(3x + 2)(x - 3) 10.

+ 3x + 4)/(x + 2) + 3x + 2)/(x + 2) (x3 + 5x2 + 7x + 2)/(x + 2)

1O! 7!

(v) (x - 4)3 4. Use Pascal's triangle (Binomial theorem) to find (i) the expansion of (2

Find the following. (i)

+ x)4

(ii) p'6 2 (iii)

6 C2 6

(ii) the expansion of (1 + x)8 (iii) the coefficient of x5 in (1 + x)1.

(iv) l)i+
i=l

1)

CHAPTER

FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

.2.1

THE BASIC FUNCTIONS AND CURVES

The standard functions and shapes are I. Straight Lines: y = mx

+c + bx + c + ... + atX + ao

2. Quadratics (parabolas): y = ax2 3. Polynomials: y = anxn 1 4. Hyperbola: y = -

5. Exponential: y = eo; == expx 6. Logarithm: y = 7. Sine: y = sin x 8. Cosine: y = cos x 9. Tangent: y = tan x 10. Circles: 11.

In x

y2 + x2 = r2 y)2 + (X")2 Ellipses: ( a: b

= 1.

18

FUNCTIONS

AND GFiAPHS

2.2

FUNCTION PROPERTIES

A function is a IUle for mapping one number to another. For example: f(x) mapping from x to x2 so that f(3) = 32 = 9.

= x2 is a

EXAMPLES I. If f(x) 2. If f(z) = 3x = Z2

+ 1 then
-

f(2) = 7 and f(a) = 3a

= 0.

+ 1.

1 then f(l)

The domain of a function is the set of all possible input values for that function.

EXAMPLES I. Y = x2

+ 4 has domain

of all real numbers.

2. Y = 1j(x - 1) has domain x t- 1. That is, all real numbers except x = 1 can be used in this function. If x = 1 then the function is undefined because of division by zero. Sometimes the domain is defined as part of the function such as y = x2 for 0 domain is restricted to be in the interval zero to three.

< x < 3 so that the

The range of a function is the set of all possible output values for that function.

EXAMPLES I. Y = x2 has range y ~ 0 since any squared number is positive. 2. Y = sin x has range -1 one. 3. Y = x2,

:5 y :5 1 since the sine function is always between positive and negative

the domain is restricted to x E (0,3) has range 0

°<

< 3 (so

< y < 9.

FUNCTION

PROPERTIES

19

The argument of a function could be the value of another function. For example if I(x) = x2 and g(x) = x + 1 then

I(g(x))

= (g(X))2 = (x

+ 1)2.

EXAMPLES
1. If f(x) 2. If f(x) = 3x - 1 then I(x + 1) = 3(x + 1) - 1 = 3x + 2. = 2x + 1 and g(x) = cos(x) then f(g(x)) = 2 cos(x) + 1 and g(1(x)) = cos(2x + 1).

The inverse of a function is denoted

1-1(x)

and has the property that

EXAMPLES
1.

1(x)

= x2 and g( x) =.jX are inverses since ..jX'i = (vfx)2 = x.

2. If J(x) = 3x2 + 1 then the inverse is found by rearrangement:

f(x)

= =

3x2 x ± ~

+1

===>

~ f-l(X)

==>

The zeros of a function, I(x),

are the values of x when I(x)

= O.

EXAMPLES
1. f(x)

. = 2x+3haszerox

= --.

3 2

2. f(x) = x2

+ 3x + 2 has zeros

x = -1, -2.

20

FUNCTIONS

AND GFiAPHS

A graph y = f(x) in the form

shifted from being centred on (0,0) to being centred on (a, b) is written

y - b = f(x - a).

EXAMPLES I. A circle with centre (1,2) has form (x - 1)2

+ (y

- 2)2 = r2.

2. A parabola y = x2 with turning point (0,0) if shifted to having turning point (3,4) has equation (y - 4) = (x - 3)2. y
11

to 8
6

0 0
2 3 4

A function is even if f(-x)

= f(x)

and odd if f(-x)

= -f(x).

EXAMPLES I. Y

f(x)

= x3

is odd since f( -x)

(-x)3

-x3

=-

f(x).

2. Y = f(x)

= X4 is even since f( -x)

= (_X)4 = X4 = f(x).

STRAIGHT

LINES

21

.2.3

STRAIGHT LINES

A line has the general form

y=mx+a
where a and m are real numbers and m is the slope of the line.

EXAMPLES
I. Part of the straight line y

= 0.6

- x is drawn in the following diagram:

1.0

~--~--~----~--~----~--~x
1.0

2. The line y = 2x

+ 1 cuts

the x axis when y = 0 giving x = - ~ as the zero.

3. The line 5y = x-I

has slope m =

"5

since it can be rewritten as y =

"5 - "5'

4. The equation of a line that passes through the points (0, -1) and (3,0) is y = ~ -1. The gradient .. 3 is found from m=
Y2-Yl X2 - Xl

=--=-.

0+11 3-

22

FUNCTIONS

AND GFiAPHS

2.4

QUADRATICS

A quadratic (parabola) has the general form

y = ax2 +bx+ c
and can have either no real zeros, one real zero or two real zeros. If the quadratic has two real zeros, C!,
C2

then it can also be written as

y = a(x - ct}(x - C2).

EXAMPLE
Sections of the three quadratic functions y = (x - 1)2 are drawn in the following diagram: Y

+ 1,

y = (x - 3)2,

Y = (x - 5)(x - 6)

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

.5

.0 +---,----,--------"-f"------,,-------\,--------f------,

POLVNOMIALS

23

.2.5

POLYNOMIALS

A polynomial has the general form

where ai, i = O ... n, are real numbers, and has the following properties. I. The polynomial has degree

n if its highest power is xn.

2. A polynomial of degree n has n zeros (some of which may be complex). 3. The constant term in the above polynomial is no. 4. The leading order term in the above polynomial is anxn since this is the term that dominates as x -+ 00.

EXAMPLES
1. Y = 2x3

+ 4x2 + 1 has degree

3, constant term I and leading order term 2x3.

2. y = x2

+ 5x + 6 has two zeros

x = -3 and x = -2.
-

3. The third degree polynomial y = (x - l)(x - 2)(x - 3) = x3 for x E [0,4]:

y
6

6x2

+ llx

- 6 is plotted below

·6

24

FUNCTIONS

AND GFiAPHS

2.6

HYPERBOLA

A hyperbola centred on the origin is usually written in the form

k y= x
although other orientations of hyperbolas can be written as

or

EXAMPLE
The hyperbola y = 0.15 is drawn in the following diagram:

y
1.5

1.0

0.5

X 0.5 1.0 1.5

The hyperbola above is not defined for x =

o.

EXPONENTIAL

AND LOGARITHM

FUNCTIONS

25

.2.7

EXPONENTIAL .AND LOGA.RITHM FUNCTIONS

The exponential function is

y = e~ == expx
with its inverse the logarithm function y = lnx. The general properties of the exponential are listed in the next chapter on transcendental functions.

EXAMPLE
The exponential function y = e~ (upper curve) and logarithm function y = In x (lower curve) are drawn in the following diagram:

-4

The logarithm function is not defined for x

:5 o.

26

FUNCTIONS

AND GFiAPHS

2.8

TRIGONOMETRIC

FUNCTIONS

The main trigonometric functions are sinx and cos z, which are cyclic with period 27r thus sin(x + 27r) = sin x. Sine and Cosine can be defined in terms of angles as discussed in sections 1.14 and 3.4.

EXAMPLES I. The function y = sin 2x will have a period of

1f.

2. The functions sin x and cos x are plotted below for the first period x E [0, 27r], while tan x = sin x/cos x is plotted for x E [-7r /2,11: /2]. Y

y
1.0

1.0

0.5

O+----4----~--~~--~x

2~

-1.0

sin x Y

cos z

-rrJ2 ,------.------~-=----_,------_.

x
1112

tan

·6

CIRCLES

27

.2.9

CIRCLES

A circle centred on the origin has the general equation

x2

+ y2

= r2

where r is the radius. This is often written in parametric form

x(t) = rcost,

y(t) = rsint, t E [0,2111

EXAMPLES
I. The circles x2

+ y2

= 1 and (x - 2)2
y
3

+ (y

- 1.5)2 = 1 are drawn in the following diagram:

~----~----~~----~----~
-1 2 3

2. The curve x2 + 2x + y2 + 4y = -4 can be written as (x centred on (-1, - 2) with radius I. 3. The curve represented by x(t) centred on (1, -3).

+ 1)2 + (y + 2)2

= 1, which is a circle

2 cost

+ 1, y(t) =

2 sin t - 3, t E [0,211")is the circle radius 2

28

FUNCTIONS

AND GFiAPHS

2.10

ELLIPSES

An ellipse centred on the origin has the general equation

C1X 2

+ C2XY + C3y2

= 1.

If the x and y axes are the axes of the ellipse then it is usually written in the form

x2 y2 a2+62=1
where 2a is the length of the ellipse in the x direction and 2b the length of the ellipse in the y direction. An ellipse is often written in parametric form x(t) = asint, y(t) = bcost, t
E

[0,2x].

EXAMPLES I. The ellipse (~)

2

+ x2

= 1 is drawn in the following diagram:

-2

-,

x
2

2. The curve (x - 2)2 + 16y2 = 1 is an ellipse centred on (2,0) with major axis of length 2 in the x direction and minor axis of length ~.

EXAMPLE

QUESTIONS

29

2.11
1. If I(x) 2. If I(x) 3. If I(x) 4. If I(x) 5. If I(x) 6. If I(x)

EXAMPLE QUESTIONS
Circles and ellipses 23. Draw the circle y2

(Answers are given in Chapter 14)

= x3 = x3 = x3 = x3

+ 1 what is 1(2)? + 1 what is I(g)? + 1 and g(x) = (x + 1 and g(x) = (x + 1 find

1(I(x)).

24. Draw the ellipse y2 1) what is I(g(x))? 1) what is I(g(b))? and g(l(x)). 25. Draw the ellipse

+ (x + 2x2 4y2 + (x

2)2 = 4. = 1.

- 1)2 = 1.

26. Where does the ellipse (x - 1)2 axis?

+ 2y2

= 1 cut the x

= x2 and g(z) = sin z find I(g(a)) = x2

27. What is the equation for an ellipse centred on (0,0) with x axis twice as long as the y axis? 28. What is the equation for a circle centred on (1, 2) with radius 2? 29. What is the equation for a circle centred on (a,2) radius 3? with

7. If I(x) = (x - 1)2 and g(x) and g(l(x)). 8. If I(x) 9. If I(x) 1 =-

= x2 - 1 find I(g(x))

._ + 1 find the mverse 1

lex).

= --

x+1

. _ find the mverse I lex). ._

General 30. What type of curve has equation y2 + (x - 1)2 - 2 = O? 31. What type of curve has equation 2y2 + (x - 1)2 - 2 = O?

10. If I(x)

1 = 2"

+ 1 find the inverse

lex).

Lines 11. Draw the line y = -2x

+ 1 for

x E [0,1].

32. What type of curve has equation

2y+(x-1)2-2=0?
33. What type of curve has equation 2y + (x - 1) = O? 34. What type of curve has equation 2 -- + (x -1) = O?

12. Where is the zero of the line y = x-I? 13. Where does the line 2y + x-I What is the slope of the line? = 0 cross the y axis?

14. Draw 3y - x+ 3 = Of or x E [0,4].

y-1

35. What is the equation of the quadratic below: Quadratics 15. Draw the quadratic y = x2 - 2x 16. Where are the zeros of the curve

+ 1 for

x E [0,2].
4 3
2

y = (x - 3)(x - 4)?
(For more questions on manipulation Chapter 1.) of quadratics see

0+-----,---,-------,-----, o 234 36. What is the equation of the shape below:

Sines and cosines 17. Draw the curve y = 2sin3x 18. Draw the curve y = cos from x = 0 to x = n, from x = 0 to

:z;
2

x = 47r.

19. Draw the curve y = cos 2x 20. What is the period of y

+ 1 from x = sin(x + I)? + I)?

= 0 to x = 27r.

21. What is the period of y = cos 3x? 22. What is the period of y = sin(3x

30

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CHAPTER

3
FUNCTIONS

TRANSCENDENTAL

3.1

EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION

An exponential function is defined by

I(x) = a;l:,

so that

x = log,

I,

a> 0,

where a is the base and x is the index.

EXAMPLES
I. If 8 2. 3. 4.

= x3 then x = 81/3 = 2. If 3 = log2 y then y = 23 = 8. If 2 = 10glO Y then y = 102 = 100. If y = log2 16 then since 16 = 2 Y = 4.
4 ,

The most useful exponential function is I(x)

= e" == exp e where e = 2.71828 ...

32

TRANSCENDENTAL

FUNCTIONS

3.2

INDEX LAWS

I.

a/ = .._,__.. for i an integer . 0,.0, ... a,

i times

2. aman = am+n am 3. = am-n an 4. ambm = (ab)m 5. ::

} Equal Bases Rule

G)m
1

} Equal Indices Rule

6. a-n =an

7. (am)n = amn

Power of a Power Rule

8.

0,0

=1

EXAMPLES

3. To simplify y = 3293 write 9 = 32 so that

-=
soy

4 y

641/3

=4

1.

LOGARITHM

RULES

33

3.3

LOGA.RITHM RULES

I. lo~(xy)

= log; x

+ log, y

LQg of a Product Log of a Quotient LQg of a Power

2. log, (;)

= logax -logaY

3. log, x·P = p log; x

4. lo~(a;l:) 5. a1og"z=x 6. log, 1 = 0 and log; a = 1 =x

EXAMPLES

3. Ifloga

= 4, log b = 9 then log(a2b3) = 210ga = x- Y

+ 3 log b = 8 + 27 =

35.

4. log2 (~:)

The natural logarithm of z, the inverse of the exponential function eX, is loge (also denoted log x): ln z = c Note that: I. Inez = x 2. e1nz = x 3.1ne=1 4. In! = 0 means eC =

== In X

z.

34

TRANSCENDENTAL

FUNCTIONS

EXAMPLES
1. exp(3In

2) = exp(In 23) = exp(In 8) = 8 = e"'eln2 = 2e'"

In",

2. 3
.

e",+ln2

eln",-2Iny

= _e_ = ~ e21ny y2

4. Ifln

= 2 and In y = 5 then to find In(x3y2) we write In(x3y2) = Inx3

+ Iny2 = 3Inx + 2Iny = 3(2) + 2(5)

= 16.

5. If In y = 3In 2x

+ c then

to find y write Iny = In (2x)3

+c + c)
where eC = k

===}

y = exp(In (2x)3 = k(2x)3.

= kexp(In (2x)3),

6. If x = In 3 and y = In 4 then to find exp( x e",+2y = e"'(ey)2 = 3 x 42 = 48.

+ 2y)

write

8. Ify = a'" then In y = x In a

===}

y = e'" In a .

TRIGONOMETRIC

FUNCTIONS

35

3.4

TRIGONOMETRIC

FUNCTIONS

The unit circle can be used as an aid for finding the sin and cos of common angles. For example, cos 7r /6 =../3/2. By symmetry all the other major angles can be found.

sinO

-1

EXAMPLES
1. From the diagram we see that
11"

cosij

2'

va

7r

cos

"4 = .J2'

11"

cos

"3 = 2'

CQS7r

= -1.

~. sm 6 - sm 6 - 2 37r 3. tan 4 = -tan

11"

.51r=.~_!

"4 =-1
n = 0, ±1, ±2, ...

4. cos(n7r) = (-1)'\

5. sin(n7r) = 0, n = 0, ±1, ±2, ...

6.SlD

. (2n+ 1)7r
2

=-(-I),n=0,±I,±2,

...

36

TRANSCENDENTAL

FUNCTIONS

sin(-a:)

= -sin(a:),

cos(-a:)

= cos e

Sine is an odd function while cosine is an even function.

The Reciprocallligonometric

Functions are
1 see a: = --, cos a:

1 cosec a: = -.-, sm z

cot e = --. tan a:

3.5

TRIGONOMETRIC

IDENTITIES

A fundamental trigonometric identity is

EXAMPLES I. To prove the identity tan a: + cot a: = sec a:cosec a: consider the left hand side: sin a: cos z tan x + cot a: = -+ -.-

1 ---cosxsinx 2. It is easy to prove 1+ tan2 x

2

cose sine 2 Si8 x + cos2 x cos x sin x

= see x cosec x.

by simply dividing

= sedl x cot x + 1 = cosec2 x sin2 a: + cos2 a: = 1 by either

sin2 a: or cos" a:.

TRIGONOMETRIC

IDENTITIES

37

sin(a: + y) cos(a: + y) sin2a: cos2x

= sin e cosp + cos e siny a: = CQS cos y - sin a: sin y 2 sin a:cos a: cos2 x - sin2 a: 1- cos2a: sin2a: = 2 1+ cos2x CQS2a: =
2

EXAMPLES
1. sin(x - y) = sin x cosy - cos x siny

2. cos(a: - y) = cos XCQsy + sin a: sin y 3. sin

(x + ~) = sin
+ 11)

cos ~

+ cosx

sin ~ = cos z

4. cos(x

= cos x COS1r- sin x sin 11 = - cos x

5. To find sin ~ consider

6. Alternatively the following method can be used:

sm-=· 12 -.
• 11:

- Jl-

Jl-

CQs1rj6 .
2

V3j2 . 2

38

TRANSCENDENTAL

FUNCTIONS

3.6

HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS

EXAMPLES I. It is easy to show that sinh 0 = 0 cosh 0 = 1 and that COSh2 X since
-

sinh2 x = 1

2. The plots of sinh x and cosh x are illustrated below on the interval x E [- 2, 21.

sinh x

-2.5

-5.0

EXAMPLE

QUESTIONS

39

3.7

EXAMPLE QUESTIONS

(Answers are given in Chapter 14)

1. Simplify as much as possible (i)

6x

3y-2
2

x 1 5y4 24

_x-

7. Solve the following for values of (J between 0 and 2n (i) cos2 (J + 3sin2 (J = 2 (ii) 2 cos2 (J = 3 sin (J 10glO 2 8. Prove the following identities: 1 + sin(J (i) --. -(J = (sec (J + tan (J)2 1-sm (ii) 3sin2 (J - 2 = 1- 3cos2 (J (iii) sinh x - cosh x = _e-x (iv) sinh x

(ii) 8-"3

(iii) 210g105

+ 10glO 8 -

(iv) 3-1og3 p (v) Inx2 + Iny -Inx (vi) e21nx

_lny2

2. Solve for t using natural logarithms: (i) 5t = 7 (ii) 2 = (1.02)t (iii) 3t7 = 2t5 (iv) Q = Qoant (v) y=3-2Int (vi) 3y = 1

+ cosh

x = e"

9. Use the trigonometric

addition of angle formulae to show

cos'lr_ = ~(v'6 12 4

+ h).

10. For the following angles find cos (J, sin (J, tan (J, and sec (J:

2e4t (i) (J=7r_ 4

3. If In s = 2 and In t = 3 calculate (i) In(st) (ii) In(st2) (iii) In(Vsi) (iv) In~ (v) Int s

(ii) (J = 137r_ 6 (iii) (J = 2n 3 (iv) (J = _ 5n 3 (v) (J = 5n 4 11. Use the multiple angle formulae to find cos 'lr_. 12 12. In an experiment you have to calculate the time to melt a block of ice using the formula t = _l (,--A_:_P_-_c_T,---,o,-,p_,_)

4. If

t3

= In 3 and y = In 5 then find (i) eXeY (ii) eX+Y

(iii) e2x (iv) eX

+ eY
where

5. Evaluate
(i) tan(n) (ii) sm (iii) cos

tcr;

. (6n) 8

l = 0.1,

A = 3 X 105, To = -20,

C~n)
Find t. 13. Is I(x) tan2 (J

c = 2 X 103, Ta = 20, P = 1 X 103.

h = 10,

(iv) sec ( 4; ) 6. Simplify (i) _1 __ cos2 (J (ii) (sin x (iii) tan(J

= x cos X an odd or even function?

+ COSX)2
(J

+ (sin

x-

COSX)2

VI + tan2

40

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CHAPTER

DIFFERENTIATION

4.1

FIRST PRINCIPLES

The definition of a derivative of a function f(x)

is:

f(x) = df = lim f(x dx h-+O

+ h)

- f(x).
at the point x. The following diagram

This is the slope of the tangent to the function iIIustra tes:

f (x)

y=

f(x}
tangent

f(x + h} f(x)
x x+h

42

DIFFERENTIATION

EXAMPLES I. If lex) = x2 then

f'(x)
.

lim (x
h-->O

+ h)2
h

-x

. + 2hx + h2 - x2 = h-->O hm------~----h = lim 2hx+ h

h-->O 2

x2

= =

h-->O

h lim 2x+ h

= 2x.
2. If f(x) sin x then

f'(x)
.

lim sin(a;
h-->O

+ h)
h

- sin x

sin x CQS + cos x sin h - sin x h = lim----------~--------h-->O h = lim sinx(cos h -1) + cos x sin h h-->O h = CQSX

since lim CQsh-1

h-+O

=0

'

(see the Asymptotics chapter for how to evaluate these limits).

4..2

LINEARITY

!
where c is a constant,

(f(x)

+ g(x))

~(c!(x)) dx

SIMPLE

DERIVATIVES

43

EXAMPLES
d. 1. dx (3smx)

d. 3 dx sm z

3 cosx.
~SinX

2. If f(x) = sin x

+ e~ then

!,(x) =

+~

e~ = cosx

+ eX.

4.3

SIMPLE DERIVATIVES

The following derivatives of elementary functions are standard:

f(x)
c

-+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+

f'(x) 0 nxn-1
cos x -sinx
e1:

where c is a constant.

xn
sin x cos x
e1:

ln z
sinh x cosh x

x eosh z
sinh x

EXAMPLES
1. -d. (41nx)

d x

1 4x

2. If J(x) = 5x2

+ sinh

x then J'(x) = lOx

+ cosh

x.

4.4

PRODUCT RULE

dx[f(x)g(x)]

df = dx g(x)

+ f(x)

dx

dg

44

DIFFERENTIATION

EXAMPLES I. If !(x) 2. If f(x)

= X2

sin x then f(x)

2x sinx

+ x2

coax.
sin z.

= lnx cos x then P(x)

= .!:. CQSX-lnx x

4.5

QUOTIENT RULE

.!!_ [f(X)]
dx

= jI(x)g(x)

g(x)

- f(X)gl(X) (g(x))2

EXAMPLES I. If f(x)

= -. -. then smx f'(x)

x2

2'

x smx. - x 2 CQSx. sm2x

2. If f(x)

sin x = -then cos x

f (x) =
Thus

I.

cos

CQS X

cos2 X

sin x( - sin x)

= cos2 x'

3.

j_
4.

(Sinx) dx" x2

= CQs(x)x2

X4

2xsinx

!!_ (x2 - x)
dxx2

+ 2,

= li[x

2 - x] (x2 + 2) - (x2 - x) ~[X2 + 2]

(x2
2

(2x - 1)(x + 2) - (x2 = ~--~~~~~--~(x2 + 2)2 x2 +4x- 2 (x2 + 2)2

+ 2)2
-

x) 2x

CHAIN RULE

45

4.6

CHAIN RULE

d dx [f(g(x))]

= dg dx = /,(g(x))g'(x)

df dg

Differentiate the outer function first then multiply by the derivative of the inner function.

EXAMPLES
1. Since ~ sin x = cos x then d d 2 2 dx [sin(x )] = cos(x ) dx = cos(x2)2x.

[x2]

2. Since

ln x = ~ then

d dx [In(x

+x

2'

)] = x

+ x2

dx [x

d,

+x

1+2x

3. Since ~ x3 = 3x2 and ~ sin x

![sin3x]

= =

cos x then 3sin2x cos z.

4. Since

cos x = - sin x and dx '

x5 = 5x4 then

~ [CQS«X2+ 3X)5)] = - sin«x2

+ 3X)5)

~ [(x2 dx

+ 3X)5]

= - sin«x2

+ 3X)5)5(x2 + 3X)4 d~ [(x2 + 3x)] = - sin«x2 + 3x)5)5(x2 + 3X)4(2x + 3) = -5(2x + 3)(x2 + 3X)4 sin«x2 + 3X)5).

46

DIFFERENTIATION

4.7

IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

To find y'(x) where y(x) is given implicitly, differentiate normally but treat each y as an unknown function of x. For example, if given

f(y) = g(x)
then differentiating gives

f'(y):

= g'(x)

===}

dy
dx

g'(x) f'(y)

where the chain rule has been used to obtain the left hand side.

EXAMPLES I. Differentiating

siny = x2
with respect to x where y = y(x) gives

dy cosy dx = 2x
or

dy
dx since CQsy = 2. Differentiating

2x

2x

CQsy

±Vl-

X4

±y'l-

sin'.:!y =

±-v'f="X4.

xcosy+y

= x3

with respect to x where y = y(x) gives • ( cosy - xsm(y) which can be rearranged to give dY) dy dx . + dx

3x

dy 3x2 - CQsy =---..:... dx 1- xsiny

PARAMETRIC

DIFFERENTIATION

47

4.8

PA.RAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION

Given y = f(t)

and x = g(t), dyjdx dy _ dy/dt

may be calculated as

dx - dxjdt

_ /,(t) - !I(t)'

EXAMPLES
1. If y(t) = t2 and x(t) = sin t then dy = dyjdt dxjdt

= 2t
cos

dx
2. Ify(t)

= sin r and x(t) = cost then

dy = dyjdt dx dxjdt = cost - sint

= _ cott

4.9

SECOND DERIVATIVE

The second (or double) derivative is the derivative of the derivative: f'(x)

= ~; = ~

(!).

Higher derivatives are found by repeated differentiation.

EXAMPLES
1. If J(x) =
X4

then /,(x)

= 4x3and r(x) = 12x2.

51

2. If 5(t) = e2t is the position of a particle with time t, then 5"(t) = 4e2t is the acceleration.

(t) = 2e2t is the velocity and

48

DIFFERENTIATION

4.10

STATIONARY POINTS

A stationary point is a point (x, y) where f'(x) graph is flat.

= O. At this point the tangent to the

EXAMPLES I. The function y = x2

+ 2x + 2 has a stationary
dy =2x+2=O dx

point when x = -1.

2. The function y = 2x3

9x2

+ 12x has stationary + 12 = 0

points when

dy = 6x2 _ 18x dx

x= 1,2.

3. The function y = xe-z has a maximum when

x = 1.

A local maximum is when the function at the stationary point is higher than the surrounding points. A local minimum is lower than the surrounding points. An inflection point is where the graph is flat but neither a maximum nor minimum. Y

:
o

:"J
minimum

r>.
~n
...... x ---,
5
6 2 3 4

maximum

0+----;---.----;---.--

STATIONARV

POINTS

49

At a stationary point x = a the second derivative indicates the type of stationary point I. if f'(a)

> 0 then x = a is a local < 0 then x

minimum.

2. if f'(a) 3. if f'(a)

= a is a local maximum.

= 0 then x = a is an inflection point.

Note that x = a is a stationary point so f(a) = O.

EXAMPLES
1. The function y = x2

+ 2x + 2 has a stationary

point at x

-1. The double derivative is

so x = -1 is a minimum. 2. The function y is

2x3

9x2

+ 12x

has stationary points at x

1 and x

2. The double derivative

~ dx which is positive at x

~y

= 12x-18

=
y

2 (a minimum) and negative at x = 1 (a maximum).

10 8 6
4

2 0 0 2 3 X

3. The function y = (x - 1)3

+ 3 has derivatives
'

dx which are both zero at x

dy = 3(x _1)2

-= ~2

~y

6(x -1) "

1, which is therefore an inflection point.

50

DIFFERENTIATION

4.11

EXAMPLE QUESTIONS

(Answers are given in Chapter 14)

1. Use linearity to find dy / dx: (i) y = 3sinx - 5cosx 5. Use implicit differentiation to find dy/dx: (i) y2 = sin(x - 1) (ii) cos(2y) = (1 _ X2)1/2 (iii) In(y) = xe'" - 3coshx (iv) eY = e3", (v) y

(ii) Y = 3e'" - x2 (iii) Y = 3lnx (iv) y = 2sinhx

+5

2. Use the chain rule to find dy / dx: (i) y = sin(2x) (ii) y = sin(x + x3)

+ y3

= x2

(vi) y2 + siny = sinx (vii) y(x + 1) - y2 = x 6. Use parametric differentiation to find dy / dx:

(iii) Y = (x + 4)3 (iv) Y = (x + sinx)5 (v) y = sin(lnx2) (vi) y = exp(cos2 x) (vii) y = cosh(2x2) 3. Use the product rule or the quotient rule to find dy / dx: (i) y= xe'" cos x (ii) y=--

(i) yet) = cos t, x(t) = sin(t2) (ii) yet) = et, x(t) = t2 (iii) yet) = t2,

x(t) = sin t

7. Find the derivative dT / dt:

T=texp(~)
where a is a constant. 8. For the following functions find the stationary points and classify them. (i) Y = (x - 2)2 (ii) Y = x3 - 6x2 (iv) y = xe-'" (v) y = x2In(x) (vi) y=sinx+(1-x)cosx,forxE[-1,2] (vii) y = (x - 1)2e'" 9. The function y = f(x) the function fl(x). is drawn below. Roughly sketch

x2

(iii) Y = e"'sinx (iv) y=lnx

x4
lnx e'"

(v) Y = sinx cos x (vi) y=-

+ 9x + 1

(iii) Y = 3x4 - 8x3 + 6x2

(vii) y = x2sinx (viii) y = cosh x sinh x (ix) y=-

ell'" x

4. Find dy / dx for these more difficult problems: (i) y = exp(x cos x2) (ii) Y = e'" cos((2x (iii) (iv) 1

+ 1)2)
0 -1 -2 -3 -4

y
X 5

Y = ,j2+x2
sinx

y=

(x+1)2
expx2

(v) Y = sin(x2 + exp(x3 + x)) (vi) y=--

x2

CHAPTER
INTEGRATION

5.1

ANTIDIFFERENTIATION

The indefinite integral (antiderivative) of

with respect to x is

f(x) dx = F(x)

+c

where F1(x) = f(x)

and c is known as the constant of integration.

EXAMPLES
1. If

!
dx

x2 = 2x

then

!2X dx = x2

+ c.

2. If ~ In x = _!_

then

!~,
...
then

dx = In

Ixl + c.
+ c. + c.

3. If d~ sin x = cos z

d. 4. If dx sinh x = cosh x

then

! I

cos x dx = sin x

,cosh

x dx = sinh x

52

INTEGRATION

5.2

SIMPLE INTEGRALS

The following integrals of elementary functions are standard: / / xndx

__ 1 xn+l +c

n+l

where

n f:. -1

cosxdx

= sin x + c
- cosx + c

/ sinxdx / eXdx

= e" +c In [z] + c = = cosh z + c

sinh x + c

/1
/

;; dx

sinhxdx

/ coshxdx

Integration is linear so that

/U(x)

+g(x))dx / cf(x) dx

/ f(x) dx

+/

g(x) dx,
where cis a constant,

c / f(x) dx,

EXAMPLES I. 2.

! !

(sin x + eX) dx = - cos x + e" + c 5 cos x da: = 5 sin x + c

3. Simple application of the Chain Rule in differentiation gives coskx dx =

Ii sin kx

+ c.

THE DEFINITE

INTEGFIAL

53

4.

f f

6x dx = 3

2x dx = 3x

+C

6.

3sin(2x)dx

-~COS(2X) +C

5.3

THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL

The definite integral with respect to

lb

x over the interval [a, b] is written as:

[F(x)]!

f(x) da:

= F(b) - F(a)
where F' (x) =

f (z).

This is the Fundamental

Theorem of Calculus.

EXAMPLES

2.

1
o

sin 7rxdx = -- cos 7rX

7r

[1]

1 0

--(COS7r 7r

cos O) = -

7r

3. 11 x dx =

[3

[X4]3
'4

1=

'4 - 4: = 20

81

4.

1-1

sinh x dx = coshj l)- cosh( -1) = 0 since cosh(x) is even.

54

INTEGRATION

la
lb lb
(assuming f(x) EXAMPLES I.

f(x)dx=O

f(x) dx = f(x) dx

-i
c

f(x) dx

f(x) dx =

lC

f(x) dx

can be integrated over the required intervals).

}_1

[z] dx

r Ixl dx + 10 [z] dx r = r -xdx + (2 z d» }_1 10

=
1-1

==-

[~2[1+ [~2J:
[0 - ~] + [2 - 0] =
~

2. If f(x)

{!: : ~~'

then

3. If f(x)

is odd then

fa {o (a i-a f(x) dx = }_a f(x) dx + 10 f(x) dx = O.

AREAS

55

5.4

A.REAS

If f is an integrable function then

fal:> f(x)
in the region a

dx = (area above the z-axis) - (area below the z-axis)

:5 x :5 b.

EXAMPLES
1. Consider the curve given by f(x) = x3 - 9x2 + 26x - 24 = (x - 2)(x - 3)(x - 4). The area between the curve and the z-axis between x = 2 and x = 4 is given by:

0.5

1
2. If /(x)

411(X)1x = d

1
=

f(x) dx -

fs4 /(x)

dx

= 0.25+0.25 =0.5.
is an even function (so f( -x)

f(x))

then

f(x) dx = 2

-c

10

r l(x)

dx

since the area for x E [-c,O) is the same as for x E [0, c).

56

INTEGRATION

5.5

INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION

Integrals that can be written in the form

f(g(x))g'(x)

dx

are solved by the substitution

u = g(x), upon which the integral becomes

f(u) du = F(u)

+ c = F(g(x)) + c,

where F'(x) formed.

= f(x).

For definite integrals the limits of the integration are also trans-

EXAMPLES I. To evaluate

2x sin( x2

+ 1) dx
2x sin(x2

let u = x2

+ 1 then
=

~: = 2x so that

f
vx+ 1
r::-71

+ 1) dx

sin udu

= -cosu+c = - cos(x2 +
2. To evaluate

1) + c.

dx let u = x
1

+ 1 then

f ---== "';x +

dx =

du -d = 1 so that x

u-! du

= 2u! +c = 2";x + 1 +c.

3. To find

1
0

,,/2

sin" x cos x d$ let 1£ = sin x so that the integral becomes

4. To find!

h
l-x2

l f

iU

(.,.-/2)

u4du=

[1£5. ] 1

sin(O)

1 =-,. 5

dx let x = sin 1£ since ";1 - x2 = cos u and dx = cos 1£du so that

1 --===dx = ~

cos -cos

1£ 1£

d1£=

• = arcsmx+c.

INTEGRATION

BV PARTS

57

5.6

INTEGRATION BY PA.RTS

Integration of a product of two functions can sometimes be solved by integration by parts:

I
or in short hand,

dV dx dx = uv - IdUdx dx uvu dv = uv -

v duo

EXAMPLES
1. To evaluate /

x cos x dx let u = x and d$ = cos x then dx = 1and v = sm z, so that

dv

du

/ xcosxdx = xsinx - / sinxdx

= xsinx
= z sin z - (- cosx

+ cd

+ cosx + C2.

2. The integral

Then we have

J0

t' xe :t: dx is performed

2

by setting u = x, ~~ = e2:t: so that ~~ = 1and v = !e2:t:. UOl' UOl' 2

3. Integrating by parts twice we can evaluate / e2:t:sin

xdx = _e2o; cos x + 2 / e2:t:cosxdx

= _e2o; cos x

+2

(e

:t:sin

x-

21 e

:t:sin

x dx)

so by rearranging

e2:t:sinxdx

= 5 (2sinx

e2:t:

- cosx)

+ C.

58

INTEGRATION

5.7
1. Find

EXAMPLE QUESTIONS

(Answers are given in Chapter 14)

4. Evaluate the following integrals using a substitution. (i) 12.dx x3 (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) 2. Evaluate (i) (i)

I (~ l-: + I+ I I
(x9
sinh(2x)

+X5)

dx

(ii) (iii) (iv) (v)

e-14",) dx

x10

+ Xll + X12) dx

dx

I I I I I
i4

xe-",2 dx x+2 x2 +4x --dy 1 ylny 2x3y'7x4 - 1 dx

+5

z cos ( _z2) dz

4cosh(x) - e'" dx

(vi) lev's -ds (vii)

10

5 e= dz

VB fo7r xsin(x2)
9

dx

(ii)

(iii) (iv)

137r/2 sinxdx 7r/2 11/2 -dx 16

1/4

(viii)

e-..;y --dy 2..ffj

5. Evaluate the following integrals using integration by parts.

10
10 10

7r

(i) (ii)

fo7r x cos 12

xdx

sin(3x)

dx
(--) X 3

(v)

57r 4 1/ 7r/4
3

-sin

dx

(iii) (iv) (v)

(vi) 3. Find

te=

dx

2 I(x) dx where I(x) = {

1, (vi)

(i)

I I I I

1 dx o x2 - 2x - 3

e2", sin x dx (integrate twice). (x

+ 1) sinxdx

x2e'" dx
In x dx by using u = In x and dv = 1.

x,

x < 1, x2:1.

6. Find the following integrals using any method. (i)

(ii) j_11 I(x) dx where (ii)

_x2, I(x) = { x3 ,
(iii)

X x

< 0, 2: o.

(iii)

10

I I l="»
cosz
sinz

dz

x2 sinxdx

00

I(x) dx where I(x) = { x~, 1, x < 1, x2:1.

(iv) 1v'U(U+1)dU (v)

I ~+
1

x2

dx (let x = sinhu).

(iv) j_11 I(x) dx where I(x)

= Ix31.

CHAPTER
MATRICES

6.1

A.DDITION

If A and Bare m x n matrices such that

A=

au au .
amI

bu
and B= .

h21
[
bml

then

A+B =

:~ :~~
.
U22
amI

au + bu

+ h22

ai

a2n

+ bIn + h2n
.

+ bmi

amn+ bmn

Addition of matrices of different sizes is not defined.

EXAMPLES
1.

i~ 1 [~~ + [-~
379

3 -14

-~ -~

= [-~

6 -7

10

2.

[~ ~] + [ ~]

cannot be done.

60

MATRICES

6.2

MULTIPLICATION

AB is defined if A is size m x rand B size r x n. If

a.ll
A=

<l2l . .

al2
. .

a22

.. .
.. .

a.1m
<l2m . .

1
and B= [

bu
~1

b.12
~2

..
...

. . .

. . .

..
...

.
airbrj.

arl

ar2

arm

bnl

bn2

then AB = C is an m x n matrix, where Gij = ail b1j + Gij is the dot product of row i of A and column j of B. In general AB

ai2 b2j

+ ... +

That is,

#- BA,

that is, matrices are noncommutative.

EXAMPLES

[1 2] 3412

[1

-1]

= [3

75

3]

2 [1 -1] [1 2] [-2 -2]

. 1234
=

710

3. If A =

-~

4 2 9]
-~ ~

AB

[-~3 ~ -~] ;] [ -q = [ -i
and B= -4 -1
2

then

-1 12

-~
3

0 -4

-1

[ -8+0+27
6+0+3 -4+ 0+6 -28 -4

8+0-36 -6+ 0-4 4+0-8

-16+ 2-9]
12 -1-1 -8+ 1-2

=[

1: -10
2

-23] , 10
-9

IDENTITY

61

while

BA

= = =

-2 0
3

2 -4] 0 1
-4 -1

4 2 9] -3 -1 1
2 12

-8 - 6 - 8 -4 - 2 - 4 -18 + 2 - 8] 0+0+2 0+0+1 0+0+2 [ 12+ 12- 2 6+ 4- 1 27 - 4 - 2 -22 -10 -24 ] 2 2 1 [ 22 9 21

f: AB.
4.

6.3

IDENTITY

The identity matrix, defined only for square matrices (n x n), is

and is defined such that, for all

n x n matrices A,
A.

IA=AI=

EXAMPLE
The 2 x 2 and 3 x 3 identity matrices are

62

MATRICES

6.4

TRANSPOSE

The transpose of a matrix is formed by writing its columns as rows. The transpose of an m x n matrix A is an n x m matrix denoted by At, that is, if

A=

[ U2l an
aml

al2 a22

a," ] U2n
amn

then

At =

[ au an
.
aln

au
a22

aml

7,]

am2

a2n

amn

EXAMPLES

I. If A

~ [~

_~

men

A' ~ [~

~ _:].

If A and Bare matrices and c is a scalar, then I. (At)t = A 2. (A

+ B)t

= At

+ Bt

3. (cA)t = cAt
4. (AB)t = Bt At

EXAMPLE

DETERMINANTS

63

6.5

DETERMINANTS

The determinant of a 2 x 2 matrix A = [~

:]

is

det(A) = IAI = ad - be. all

The determinant of a 3 x 3 matrix A=

an
a:n

(expanding by the first row).

EXAMPLES
1.

2 1= 4- 6 = -2, 34

-1

1= -1-

4 = -5.

2.

-3 21 4 5 6 = -31 5 -3 ~ 1- 21 ; 2 -3 1 = -3(5 = -75

~1

18) - 2(4 -12)

+ 11 ; .: I

(-12 -10)

3.

75 026 003

_112 0 ~I+o+o
=lx2x3=6
is not possible.

4.

I~ :1
7 2

64

MATRICES

6.5.1

COFACTOR EXPANSION

The determinant of an n x n matrix may be found by choosing a row (or column) and summing the products of the entries of the chosen row (or column) and their cofactors: det(A) = o,ljC1j

+ a2jC2j + ... + tlnjCnj,

(cofactor expansion along the det(A) = <lilCi1

ph

column)

+ <li2Ci2 + ... + <linCin,

(cofactor expansion along the ith row) where Cij is the determinant of A with row i and column j deleted, multiplied by (-1) i+J. The matrix of elements Cij is called the cofactors matrix.

EXAMPLES I.

1 5

3 -5

4 -3 4 -4

2 0 1 9 0 3 -2 -7

(Expansion is along the 3rd column since it has two zeros.)

= (O)Cn

+ (I)C23 + (O)C33 + (-2)C43

1 3 2

= (1)(-1)5
= - [1(-28

-4 4 5 -5

3 -7

+ (-2)(-1)7

4 -4

-3 9 43

+ 15) -

3(28 - 15) + 2(20 - 20)]

- 36) - 3(12 + 36) + 2(16 - 12)] = -[13 - 39] + 2[-45 - 144 + 8] = -310.

+ 2[1(-9

2.

~~;

10

= -21 1

21 = -2(11

2) = 2

by expanding along the second row. 3. The full cofactors matrix for the previous question is found by crossing out each row and column

INVERSE

65

in tum remembering to multiply by (-l)i+j:

Cll = +11 ~ ~ 1= -2 C12=<-I)1 ~ ~ 1=2 C13 = +11 ~ ~ 1=

and so one, giving 0

6.6

INVERSE

A square matrix A is said to be invertible if there exists B such that

AB=BA=I.
B is denoted A-I and is unique.

If det(A) = 0 then a matrix is not invertible.

EXAMPLE
The matrix B = [~

~] is the inverse of A =

AB =
and

[31 5] [ -12 2
3

[-i -!] -5] = [1 0] = I 1

since

BA =

[ -12 -5] [3 5] = [1 0]
12

I.

66

MATRICES

6.6.1

TWO BY TWO MATRICES

For 2 x 2 matrices, if A = [~

~]

then

A
If det(A)=

-1 _

- ad _ be

1 [d -ab]
-e

providing ad - be

f- O.

ad - be = 0 then A -1 does not exist.

EXAMPLES I.IfA=[!

2. If A = [ ~

] ;]

then

A -1

= __!_ [
-2

4 -3

-2 ]

1 .

then

A -1 = ~ [ 3 30

-2 ]

6.6.2

PARTITIONED MATRIX

Inverses can also be found by considering the partitioned matrix

then performing row operations until the final partitioned matrix is of the form

EXAMPLE The inverse of 121 010 [1 1 0

can be calculated using row reductions where R3 --t R3 - Rl means that Row 3 becomes the old

INVERSE

67

Row 3 minus Row I.

[ [ [ [ [
hence

2 110 10 0 1 ~ 10 0 0

2 1 10 1 0 01 -1 -1 -1 0

n n n
J] j]

R3-t R3 -Rl

~0

2 1

R3-t R3+ R2

0
-1

10 01 -1 1

1 1 -2 10 0 1 ~ 0 1 1 -1

Rl-t Rl- 2R2

R3-t -R3

0 0 0 -1 10 0 1 ~ 0 1 1 -1

Rl-t Rl- R3

[
6.6.3

2 1 ~1

~r[
=

-1 1 ~ -1 -1

COFACTORS MATRIX

The inverse of a n x n matrix A can be found by considering the transpose of the cofactors matrix divided by the determinant:

A-I = _1_Ct

IAI

where Gil is the determinant of A with row i and column j deleted., multiplied by (-1 )i+l. The matrix C is called the cofactors matrix.

68

MATRICES

EXAMPLES l.If

then

Cll

=I

1=0
~1=1

C21=(-1)1~
and so on. Since

IAI = -1we get

A-1=__!_ -1

-1

~ -~

_~ ]T
0 -1

-~

1 -1 -1

].

2. The matrix

has cofactors matrix

C=
hence the inverse

-2 2 0]
3 -3 4 -2 1 0

6.7

MATRIX MANIPULATION

Matrices do not behave as real numbers. When manipulating matrix expressions a distinction is made between multiplying from the left (pre-multiplication) and multiplying from the right (post-multiplication).

MATRIX MANIPULATION

69

EXAMPLES

1. Given that

ABC = I find B? ABC (A-1A)BC IB(CC-1) B

I

A-1I A-lIC-1 A-1C-1 (CA)-l.

pre-multiply both sides by A -1 post-multiply both sides by C-1 simplifying

2. If A = PDP-1, then A3 is

A3

(PDP-1) (PDP-1) (PDP-1) PD (P-1 P) DP-1 PDP-1 PD2p-1 PDP-1 PD3p-1

since pp-1 = I again since pp-1 = I.

3. If Av = AV then

A3~ = AA A~ = AA(A~) = AAA~ =A2Av =A3V.

4. If Av = AV then if A-1 exists then

A-1 Av = A-1 AV = AA-lV v = AA-lV :x-~=A

1
-1

~.

See Section 6.9 on eigenvalues since this example shows that if A has eigenvalue A, with eigenvector~, then A -1 has eigenvalue 1/ A for the same eigenvector.

70

MATRICES

6.8

SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS

Systems of m linear equations invol ving n unknowns may be written as a matrix equation. For example,

x+y+2z=1 2x+4y - 3z = 5 3x+6y - 5z = 2

is written as

or

Ax

b.

Systems of equations are typically solved by Gaussian elimination. If A is invertible then x = A -1h.

Gaussian Elimination allows • a multiple of one row to be added to another row. • a row to be multiplied by a (non-zero) number. Hence R3 -+ R3 - 2Rl means each element in Row 3 becomes the old Row 3 element minus two times the corresponding Row 2 element.

EXAMPLES I. The augmented matrix is an easy way of writing systems of equations. For the following system

2x

x+y+2z + 4y - 3z

5 =2

3x+6y - 5z

SYSTEMS

OF EQUATIONS

71

the augmented matrix is

[l

1
4

2 -3

-5

[! j] 1 [! -: 1 [! 1 ["
1 2 3 2 -7 -11 1 1 3 2 -7/2 -11 1 1 0 2 -7/2 -1/2

n 1

R2 R3

--t --t

R2 - 2R1 R3 - 3R1

R2

--t

R2/2

R3

--t

R3 - 3R2

1 3/2 ] -11/2

R3

--t

-2R3

o o

1 0

2 -7/2 1

3/~ ]
11

This gives the straightforward solution by back substitution of x = -61, y = 40, z = 11. 2. Consider the system 2x - 5y -2 4

-x

+ 3y

written as Ax = b such that

The matrix A has inverse A -1 = [~

~] so

72

MATRICES

After performing Gaussian reduction by row operations the three cases (no solution, infinite solutions, one solution) are typically represented by the following: I. If you perform row operations to obtain

(where a, .. , f are non-zero real numbers) then you get one unique solution. 2. If you perform row operations to obtain

a [
then if k3

¥-

Ode

k2 0 0 k3

kl

you get no solution.

3. If you perform row operations to obtain a [

Ode

kl k2 00 0
C

then you get an infinite number of solutions that represent a line where you let

z = t, t is some parameter, and then express z , y in terms of t.

EXAMPLE
To solve the system:

perform row reductions to obtain 1 -2 011 -1

000

and setting z = t gives y = 3 -

t and x - 2(3 - t) - t = -1 so

(e, y,z) = (5 - t, 3 - t, t) = (5,3,0) + t( -1, -1,1)

or a line in three dimensional space.

EIGENVALUES

AND EIGENVECTORS

73

6.9

EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS

If A is an n x n matrix then a scalar A is called an eigenvalue of A, if associated with it there is a non-zero vector~, called an eigenvector, such that

Av = AV.
'"
'"

To find the eigenvalues solve the characteristic equation

IA - All
To find the eigenvectors solve

o.

EXAMPLE
To find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors for

set up the characteristic equation

which gives

X}. - 1 = 0 so Al
[ -A

= 1 and A2 = -1 are the eigenvalues. To find the eigenvectors solve

1 _A

1]

~ = O.

For Al = 1 let
VI

'"

X.l.

Yl

then

Both equations give Xl - Yl = 0 so Yl is a free variable, Hence the eigenvector corresponding to Al = 1 is t(l, 1), where t is any number, t ERe. For ).2 = -I let ~ = [ ;~] then [~ ~] [ ;~ ] = [ ~ ] .

74

MATRICES

Both equations give X2 + Y2 = 0 so Y2 is a free variable, Hence the eigenvector corresponding to ).2 = -1 is p(l, -1). The length of the eigenvector is unimportant hence it is convenient to write
Vi

= (1,1),

V2

= (1, -1).

'"

'"

6.10

TRACE

The trace of a matrix is the sum of its diagonal elements. (Note that the trace is also equal to the sum of the eigenvalues.)

EXAMPLE

The trace of

1 23]
5

= 1 + 5 + 9 = 15.

789

6.11

SYMMETRIC M.ATRICES

The matrix A is symmetric

if A = At.

EXAMPLE

The matrix

1 2 3]
5 6

is symmetric.

369

6.12

DIAGONAL MATRICES

A diagonal matrix is one with only terms along the main diagonal.

EXAMPLE

A 3 x 3 diagonal matrix has the form [~

g ~].

EXAMPLE

QUESTIONS

75

6.13
1. Find A (i)

EXAMPLE QUESTIONS + B, AB,

(Answers are given in Chapter 14)

BA and the trace(A): 5. Find the determinants of the following matrices. 1

A=[~
B = [ -~ (ii) A=[ B=[ (iii)

o
3

(i)

[ [

~
6 2

o
2 1 2 1 1

-7 -6
2 6 4 9

1]
-1

-1

-2
1

-1 ]

-2
7

(ii)

~~ o

! ~]
-7
6

(iii)

[!
x+2y-z

oo o o o~

~1

-S

6. Solve the system of equations 2 4 -S.

Sx+3y-7z

o
3

o~ o
S

o
2. FindAB:

] J]
1 1 -1

4y - 12z

7. First showing that a non-trivial solution does indeed exist, solve

4x -y
4y -z

0 0

-4x

+ 17y -

4z

o.

(i) A =

[! ~]

8. For what values of a and c do you get (i) one solution, (ii) no solution, (iii) infinite solutions, for the system

B= [ ~

j]
(iii) A = [ _~ ] B = [1 3. Find At, At A, AAt: (i) A= [ ~ -1 3 3 -1

x+5y+z x+6y-z 2x

0 2 c?

+ ay + z

9. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of A: (i)

-5

(ii) A= [~

-:] (ii)

4. Find the inverse, if it exists, of the matrices (i) [~

!]
~

(ii)

12 1 [ ~3

A=[~

1 2

o~

76

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CHAPTER
VECTORS

7.1

VECTOR NOTATION

A vector in

R2 is represented by an ordered pair ~ = (a, b), or geometrically, by a

directed line segment in the plane.

v
b

~------------------~x
The vector has both length

II~II and direction.

EXAMPLES
1. The vector (1,0) points in the x direction and has length 1. 2. The vector (1, 1) points in a direction with angle
7r /

4 to the x axis.

78

VECTORS

A vector in R!' is represented by an ordered n-tuple

EXAMPLES I. ~ = (1,3,4) is a three dimensional vector so:e E

R3. R5.

2. ~ = (3,5,7,1,2) is a five dimensional vector so:e E

7.2

ADDITION AND SCALAR MULTIPLICATION

If ~ = (Vl,

V2, ...

, vn), ~

= (Wi, =

W2, ...

, wn)

and c is a scalar constant then

... ,Vn+wn)

V+W

(Vi+Wl>tl2+W2, (CIJt,CiJ2, ... ,CiJn).

cv

EXAMPLES I. If ~ = (1, -1,4) and ~

(1, -3,3) then,

~+ ~
and

= (2, -4,7),

4~ = (4,-4,16).
2. If i = (1,0) and j = (0,1) then
.-v .-v

'V
.-v

= (2,3) = 2i then ~

.-v

+ 3j
~

3. If~ = (l,x,2,x) 4. (1,2)

and ~ = (2,I,x,0) is not defined.

+ ~ = (3,1 + x,2 + x,x).

+ (4,5,6)

LENGTH

79

7.3

LENGTH

The length of a vector in B" is given by

II~II =

Jv~+ vi + ... + v~.

EXAMPLES
I. 11(1,2,1)11 =
Vip

+ 22 + 12 = .J6
+ 1 +4+
1 +9 =..ji6 =4

2. 11(1,1,2,1,3)11 =V1

The triangle inequality states that

That is the length of the sum of vectors must be less than the length of the two individual vectors added.

EXAMPLE
(0,3)

+ (4,0)

= (4,3) and 11(0,3)11= 3, 11(4,0)11= 4,11(4,3)11 = V32 y

4

+ 42

=5

< 3 + 4.

(4,3) (0,3) (4,0)

2
3 4

80

VECTORS

7.4

CARTESIAN UNIT VECTORS

The Cartesian unit vectors for

R3 are
t=(O,1,0), ~=(O,0,1).

~=(1,O,0),

Vectors in If3 are often written as the sum of the components in the direction of the Cartesian unit vectors:

v= ........

(VI,V2,V3)

= VI i

~ + V2j~ + V3k. ........

EXAMPLES I. (1,2,3) =

i + 2j + 3~
2j

2. (0,2,0)

7.5

DOT PRODUCT

If ~ and'!!..are vectors in R!' then the dot product is defined by

This is also called an inner product on H", The result of a dot product is a scalar.

EXAMPLES I. (1,2,3)· (1,1,1) = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6

2. (1,2,3)· (1,2,3) = 12 + 22 + 32 = 14
3.

1I~1I2 ='!.:.'!.:

DOT PRODUCT

81

The angle 0 between two vectors is given by

EXAMPLES
1. The angle 0 between (1, 2, 3) and (1, 1, 1) is such that 6

J42'
2. (1,2,3) and (1,1, -1) are at right angles since (1,2,3) . (1,1, -1) = 0 hence cosO

O.

Two vectors, ~ and ~ are orthogonal if they are perpendicular to each other and
U·V

=0.

EXAMPLES
1. ~ = (1,2,1) and ~ = (2,1, -4) are perpendicular since ~ . '!!..

= 2+2-

4 = O.

2. To find a vector, (a, b), perpendicular to (1,2) write

(a, b) . (1,2)

= a + 2b = 0

hence the simplest choice is (a, b) = (-2,1) although any multiple of this will be perpendicular to (1,2). For example (2, -1) and (-4,2) are still perpendicular to (1,2).

82

VECTORS

7.6

CROSS PRODUCT

If ~ and!: are two vectors in R3, then the cross product ~ x ~ is defined in determinant notation by

~j
tt X 11

k
1£3 V3

1£1 Vl

1£2 V2 'U3 V3

= =

""

i 1 'U.2
V2

1_ j 1 1£1
""
Vl

1£3 V3

1+ k 1 'Ul
"" 1£IV2 -

VI

'U. V2 .

(1£2V3 - 1£3V2, 1£3Vl - 1£IV3,

1£2Vt)

EXAMPLES I. (1,0,0) x (0,1,0) = (0,0,1). That is i x j

.-v ~

k.
.-v

2. If ~ = (2, -3, 1) and ~ = (12,4, -6), then

w=uxv=
"" ""

""

2 -3 12 4
= ~ 1 -~

""

j
""

k 1 -6 1- ~ 11~ -12)

-!
""

-!

1+ ~ 11~

-~ 1

= i(18 - 4) - j(-12

+ ~ + 36) k(8

= 14i
""

+ 24j + 44k =
""

(14,24,44).

3. The cross product (1,2,3) x (1,0,1) is: ""

j 2
0

k 3 1

(1,2,3) x (1,0,1)

=
is:

1 1

(2,2,-2). . .

4. The cross product (1, 1,2) x (1, -1,0)

(1,1,2) x (1,-1,0)

i ""

1 1 1 -1

= (2,2,-2).

UNEAAINDEPENDENCE

83

Note that the result of taking the cross product of two vectors is another vector where the direction of ~ x ~ is perpendicular to both ~ and~.

EXAMPLES
1. In a previous example (2, -3, 1) x (12,4, -6) = (14,24,44) and

(2,3, -1) . (14,24,44) = 28 - 72 + 44 = O. Similarly (12,4, -6) . (14,24,44)

0.
= (2,2, -2). Note that (2,2, -2) . (1,1,2) = 0 and

2. In a previous example (1,1,2) x (1, -1,0) (2,2,-2)· (1,-1,0) = 0.

7.7

LlNEA.R INDEPENDENCE

A vector ~ is a linear combination of the vectors Ul, 11

11 = ClUl
t"'o..J t"'o..J

U2, ...

, Un

if it can be written as

+ C2U2 + ... + CnUn

t"'o..J t"'o..J

where Cl,

...

,Cn

are constants,

EXAMPLES
1. (2,7,3) is a linear combination of (1,1,0), (0,2,1), (0, 1,0) since

(2,7,3) = 2(1,1,0)

+ 3(0,2,1)

- (0,1,0).

2. (1,2,1) is not a linear combination of (1,1,0), (2, 1,0), (1,0,0) since we can never combine the three vectors to get the third component of (1, 2,1). 3. Any vector (a, b, c) in R3 can be found from a linear combination of {(I, 0, 0), (0,1, 0), (0,0, I)}.

84

VECTORS

A set of vectors U1, U2, ... , Un are linearly independent that satisfy
ClUJ.

....

if the only constants Cl, ... , Cn

........+

C2U2

+ ... +

CnUn

....

=0

are Cl = C2= ... = Cn = O.

EXAMPLES I. (1,1,0), (0,2,1), (0, 1,0) are independent since

Cl(1,1,0) + C2 (0,2,1) + Cs(0,1,0) = (0,0,0)

implies

Cl = Cl+C2+CS=0 C2
which gives Cl = C2= Cs= O.

° =°

2. (1,1,0), (2, 1,0), (1,0,0) are dependent (not linearly independent) since

Cl + 2C2 + Cs = 0 Cl+C2=0 0=0

has an infinite number of solutions, one being Cl = 1, C2= -1, Cs= 1. 3. The vectors (1,2), (2,1), (1,0) are dependent since

implies

Cl + 2C2 + Cs = 0 2Cl + 2C2 = O.

Since we have two equations in three unknowns we can always find a non-zero Cl, C2, Cs to satisfy these equations, for example Cl = 1, C2 = -1, Cs = 1. More than two vectors in R2 can never be independent. 4. The vectors i, i. k are independent since for any vector v

~~~

(a, b,c) it is possible to write

(a, b, c) =

Cl i
~

C2j

.-v

+ csk = ai + bj + ck
~ ~

.-v

hence if ~ = ~ then Cl = C2= Cs= O.

UNEAAINDEPENDENCE

85

A set of vectors is linearly independent if the determinant of the matrix with vectors as columns is not zero.

EXAMPLES I. For (1, 1,0), (0,2,1), (0, 1,0) the determinant

100 12 010 1

-1

f:-

hence the vectors are independent. 2. For (1,1,0), (2,1,0), (1,0,0) the determinant

121

110
000

hence the vectors are dependent. We can show that

(2,1,0) = (1,1,0)
so they are not independent of each other.

+ (1,0,0)

86

VECTORS

7.8

EXAMPLE QUESTIONS +~, 3~

II~II:

(Answers are given in Chapter 14)

1. Evaluate the sum ~ and 5. Find ~ . ~, ~ the u and v: (i) ~=(1,2,1),~=(-1,3,1) (ii) ~ = (-3,2, -1), ~ = (6,1,1) (iii) ~ = (2,3, 0), ~ = (4, 1, -2) (iv) ~ = (0,0, 0), ~ = (1,4,3) (v) ~ = (3,3, 3), ~ = (-1, -1, -1) (vi) ~ = (1,2, 4), ~ = (2,4, -2) 6. For the previous question verify that ~ = ~ orthogonal (at right angles) to both ~ and ~. 7. Determine whether the following vectors are linearly independent (i) {(4, 1), (1, 2)}
X~ X~

and cos

e where e is the angle between

(i) ~ = (-2, -1), ~ = (1,1) (ii) ~ = (3,4), ~ = (4,3) (iii) ~=(-2,1),~=(-1,-1) (iv) ~ = (3,4, 2), ~ = (1,1,1) (v) ~ = (3,1,1, 0), ~ = (1,0,1,1) (vi) ~ = 2i_ + 3j (vii) u = i
r'V r'V

+~, ~ = i_ r'V

j-~

+ j,
r'V

v = i - 3j
r'V

2. For the above vectors verify the triangle inequality that

is

II~+ ~II :::; I~II+ II~II· I

3. In the diagram below write down the two vectors ~ and ~ in algebraic form then find and draw the vector ~

+ ~.

(ii) {(2, 1), (4, 2)} (iii) {(I, 1), (1,2), (3, I)}

6 5 4 3 2 1
x

(~) {(1,1,1),(0,2,0),(1,3,2)}
(v) {(I, 1,1), (0,2,0),(1,3,

I)}

(vi) {(I, 2, 0,1), (1, 1,0,1), (2, 1,3,1), (0,2, -3, I)} 8. Find a number c so that (1, 2, c) is orthogonal to (2,1,2). 9. Find the vector which goes from the point (1, 3,1) to the point (2, 5, 3). What is the length of this vector? 10. Show that the line through the points (1, 1, 1) and (2, 3, 4) is perpendicular to the line through the points (1,0,0) and (3, -1,0). 11. Show that a . (b xc) can be written as
al a2 b2
C2

a3 b3
C3

1
4. Evaluate the sum ~

a . (b xc) =

bl

+ ~ and II~+ ~II:

C1

= Ulb2C3 - alb3c2

- a2blc3 - a3b2C1.

(i) ~ = (3,2, -1), ~ = (-1, -2, 1) (ii) ~ = (1,0, 9), ~ = (-2, -2, -2) (iii) ~ = (4, -4, -3), ~ = (8,7,1)

+ a2b3C1 + a3blc2
12. Verify the above equation using the vectors a = (1,1,2), b = (1,0,1), c = (0,1,1).

CHAPTER

ASYMPTOTICS AND APPROXIMATIONS

8.1

LIMITS

As x

-+ 0 then

I. xn

< xm

if 1 < m

< n, 0 < x < 1

2. lim !(x)
;l)-tO" ;l)-tO

+ g(x) "

= lim !(x)
z-tO z-tO

+ ;l)-tO g(x) lim

3. lim !(x)g(x)
;l)-tO"

= lim !(x) lim g(x)

;l)-tO z-tO

assuming lim !(x) and lim g(x) exist.

EXAMPLES
" 1. (0.1 )3

<. (0.1 )2

3. lim sin x cos x = lim sinx lim cos z = 0 x 1 = 0

;l)-tO z-tO z-tO

4. lim

;l)-tO

x(x - 1) 1 =x(x - 2) 2

88

ASVMPTOTICS

AND APPROXIMATIONS

8.2

L'HOPITAL'S RULE

If -( ) has lUlllt - or -

f(x) 9x

..

0 0

00 00

as x -+

Xc

then
lim g'(x),

z-tZe

lim f(X)) = lim f'(x)f 9 .x z-tz<

z-tz<

EXAMPLES I. '.x IIm--=1 "'-tl x-I I' . sin x 1m 2

"'-tl

I.'. 2x Im-= 2 1

2.

"'-to

"'-to

I'. cos x 1m -=1 1

8.3

TAYLOR SERIES

f(x) f(x

f(O) 1(0,)

+ x!,(O) + ~! f"(x) + ... + (x

- 0,)1'(0,)

Maclaurin series

+ a)

(x - 0,)2 1"(0,)

2!

+ ...

Taylor series

EXAMPLES I.

sin x = sin 0 + x sin' 0 + = sinO

x2

2 sin" 0 + 6 sin'" 0 + ...

x2
2

x3

+ xcosO
x3

--

sinO - -

x3
6

coso

+ ...

=x--+··· 6 2. eX = 1+ x

x + - + x + ... 2 3

ASYMPTOTlCS

89

8.4

ASYMPTOTICS

As x -+

+00

then
Xffi Xffi Xffi

n < x, < ell"', > ell"',

if if if

m<n a>O a <0.

EXAMPLES
1.

2.

(100)0.2 < (100)0.5

x9 1

3.

< e~/I0
_ ~

as

x -+

00.

4.

-2 > e
x
2

as

x -7

00.

5.

x2 + 1 2x +x+3 x2 + 1 2x3+x+3"""

-+

x2 1 -+ 2x 2
-2

as

x -+

00.

6.

x2 1 2x3""" 2x
as

as

x -700.

7.

x -700.

8.

e2ll' 2e2ll' -,.....-,...., ell' 2 cosh e ell'

as

x -+

00.

9.

x +";x2 + 2x + 1

as

x -+

00.