2
4.003
5
B
Boron10.811
6
C
Carbon12.0107
7
N
Nitrogen14.00674
8
O
Oxygen15.9994
9
F
Fluorine18.9984032
10
Ne
Neon20.1797
13
Al
Aluminum26.981538
14
Si
Silicon28.0855
15
P
Phosphorus30.973761
16
S
Sulfur32.066
17
Cl
Chlorine35.4527
18
Ar
Argon39.948
28
Ni
Nickel58.6934
29
Cu
Copper63.546
30
Zn
Zinc65.39
31
69.723
32
72.61
33
As
Arsenic74.92160
34
78.96
35
Br
Bromine79.904
36
Kr
Krypton83.80
46
106.42
47
107.8682
48
Cd
Cadmium112.411
49
114.818
50
Sn
Tin118.710
51
Sb
Antimony121.760
52
127.60
53
I
Iodine126.90447
54
Xe
Xenon131.29
78
195.078
79
Au
Gold196.96655
80
Hg
Mercury200.59
81
Tl
Thallium204.3833
82
Pb
Lead207.2
83
Bi
Bismuth208.98038
84
Po
Polonium(209)
85
At
Astatine(210)
86
Rn
Radon(222)
He
Helium
Ga
Gallium
Ge
Germanium
Se
Selenium
Pd
Palladium
Ag
Silver
In
Indium
Te
Tellurium
Pt
Platinum
Tb
Terbium
Dy
Dysprosium
Yb
Ytterbium
Lu
Lutetium
65
158.92534
66
162.50
67
Ho
Holmium164.93032
68
Er
Erbium167.26
69
Tm
Thulium168.93421
70
173.04
71
174.967
Energy Critical Elements:
A REPORT BY THE APS PANEL ON PUBLIC AFFAIRS & THE MATERIALS RESEARCH SOCIETY
Securing Materials for Emerging Technologies
ABOUT APS & POPA
Founded in 1899 to advance and diuse the knowledge o physics, the American Physical Society is now the nation’sleading organization o physicists with more than 48,000members in academia, national laboratories and industry.APS has long played an active role in the ederal govern-ment; its members serve in Congress and have held posi-tions such as Science Advisor to the President o the UnitedStates, Director o the CIA, Director o the National ScienceFoundation and Secretary o Energy.This report was overseen by the APS Panel on Public Aairs(POPA). POPA routinely produces reports on timely topicsbeing debated in government so as to inorm the debatewith the perspectives o physicists working in the relevantissue areas.
ABOUT MRS
The Materials Research Society (MRS) is an international or-ganization o nearly 16,000 materials researchers rom aca-demia, industry, and government, and a recognized leaderin promoting the advancement o interdisciplinary materi-als research to improve the quality o lie. MRS membersare engaged and enthusiastic proessionals hailing romphysics, chemistry, biology, materials science, mathematicsand engineering – the ull spectrum o materials research.Headquartered in Warrendale, Pennsylvania, MRS member-ship now spans over 80 countries, with more than 40% o its members residing outside o the United States. MRSorganizes high-quality scientifc meetings, attracting over13,000 attendees annually and acilitating interactionsamong a wide range o experts rom the cutting edge o the global materials community. MRS is also a recognizedleader in education, outreach and advocacy or scientifcresearch.This policy report was supported by the MRS GovernmentAairs Committee.
REPORT COMMITTEE
Robert Jae, Chair,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Jonathan Price, Co-Chair
, University of Nevada, Reno
Gerbrand Ceder,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Rod Eggert,
Colorado School of Mines
Tom Graedel
, Yale University
Karl Gschneidner,
Iowa State University, Ames Laboratory
Murray Hitzman,
Colorado School of Mines
Frances Houle,
Invisage Technologies, Inc.
Alan Hurd,
Los Alamos National Laboratory
Ron Kelley,
Materials Research Society
Alex King,
Ames Laboratory
Delia Milliron,
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
Brian Skinner,
Yale University
Francis Slakey,
American Physical Society
APS STAFF
Jeanette Russo
A number o chemical elements that were once laboratory curiosities now gure prominently in new
technologies like wind turbines, solar energy collectors, and electric cars. I widely deployed, suchinventions have the capacity to transorm the way we produce, transmit, store, or conserve energy.To meet our energy needs and reduce our dependence on ossil uels, novel energy systems mustbe scaled rom laboratory, to demonstration, to widespread deployment.Energy-related systems are typically materials intensive. As new technologies are widely deployed,
signicant quantities o the elements required to manuacture them will be needed. However, many
o these unamiliar elements are not presently mined, rened, or traded in large quantities, and,as a result, their availability might be constrained by many complex actors. A shortage o these
“energy-critical elements” (ECEs) could signicantly inhibit the adoption o otherwise game-changingenergy technologies. This, in turn, would limit the competitiveness o U.S. industries and the domestic
scientic enterprise and, eventually, diminish the quality o lie in the United States.
ECEs include rare earths, which received much media attention in recent months, but potentially
include more than a dozen other chemical elements. The ECEs share common issues and should beconsidered together in developing policies to promote smooth and rapid deployment o desirabletechnologies.
Several actors can contribute to limiting the domestic availability o an ECE. The element might
simply not be abundant in Earth’s crust or might not be concentrated by geological processes. An
element might only occur in a ew economic deposits worldwide, or production might be dominatedby and, thereore, subject to manipulation by one or more countries. The United States already relies
on other countries or more than 90% o most o the ECEs we identiy. Many ECEs have, up to thispoint, been produced in relatively small quantities as by-products o primary metals rening. Joint
production complicates attempts to ramp up output by a large actor. Because they are relatively
scarce, extraction o ECEs oten involves processing large amounts o material, sometimes in ways thatdo unacceptable environmental damage. Finally, the time required or production and utilization toadapt to uctuations in price and availability o ECEs is long, making planning and investment dicult.
This report surveys these potential constraints on the availability o ECEs and then identies ve
specic areas o potential action by the United States to insure their availability: 1) ederal agencycoordination; 2) inormation collection, analysis, and dissemination; 3) research, development, and
workorce enhancement; 4) ecient use o materials; and, 5) market interventions. Throughout this
report, narratives on particular ECEs are provided to clariy these ve action areas.The report’s specic recommendations, which can be ound in their entirety in Section 4, are sum-marized as ollows:
Coordination
•
The Oce o Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) should create a subcommittee within the
National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) to 1) examine the production and use o energy-
critical elements within the United States and, 2) coordinate the ederal response.
Inormation
•
The U.S. government should gather, analyze, and disseminate inormation on energy-critical ele-
ments across the lie-cycle supply chain, including discovered and potential resources, production,use, trade, disposal, and recycling. The entity undertaking this task should be a “Principal StatisticalAgency” with survey enorcement authority. It should regularly survey emerging energy technolo-
gies and the supply chain or elements throughout the periodic table with the aim o identiyingcritical applications, as well as potential shortalls.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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