Socio-Economic Impact of Staggering School Hours in The North East

Staggering school hours in the North
East
Evaluation of the impact on the wider community and economy
One North East

March 2007
Staggering school hours in the North East
Project No: 128191

March 2007
Newcombe House
45 Notting Hill Gate,
London, W11 3PB
Telephone: 020 7309 7000
Fax: 020 7309 0906
Email : London@cbuchanan.co.uk
Prepared by: Approved by:
____________________________________________ ____________________________________________
Nathalie Gay John Siraut
Status: draft Issue no: 1 Date: 4/8/2011
/opt/scribd/conversion/tmp/scratch6270/55390053.doc
(C) Copyright Colin Buchanan and Partners Limited. All rights reserved.
This report has been prepared for the exclusive use of the commissioning party and unless otherwise agreed in writing by Colin
Buchanan and Partners Limited, no other party may copy, reproduce, distribute, make use of, or rely on the contents of the report.
No liability is accepted by Colin Buchanan and Partners Limited for any use of this report, other than for the purposes for which it
was originally prepared and provided.
Opinions and information provided in this report are on the basis of Colin Buchanan and Partners Limited using due skill, care and
diligence in the preparation of the same and no explicit warranty is provided as to their accuracy. It should be noted and is expressly
stated that no independent verification of any of the documents or information supplied to Colin Buchanan and Partners Limited has
been made
Contents Page
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Methodology 1
1.3 Report structure 1
2 Policy Framework 2
2.1 Introduction 2
2.2 The education system in England 2
2.3 Education policy context 3
2.4 Travel to school 4
2.5 Education in the North East 6
2.6 Conclusion 6
3 Education in Europe 8
3.1 Background 8
3.2 Educational structure 8
3.3 Female labour force statistics 13
3.4 Conclusion 14
4 Literature review findings 16
4.1 Introduction 16
Adaptation of school hours to the changing socio-economic context 18
4.2 Changing the organisation of school times for educational reasons 19
4.3 Homework - In school or out-of school 21
4.4 Childcare, affordability and employment 22
4.5 Crime, anti-social behaviour and security 24
4.6 Travelling in daylight hours 25
4.7 School transport issues 25
4.8 School transport costs 28
4.9 Extended school day in the north east 29
4.10 Other implications of staggering school opening hours 31
5 Conclusions and recommendations 33
5.1 Why stagger school hours 33
5.2 Extended school day 34
5.3 Wider impacts of staggering school hours 34
5.4 Difficulties linked to changing school hours 35
5.5 Recommendations 36
Appendix A- Bibliography 37
General 37
United Kingdom 37
France 38
Switzerland 39
Italy 39
Germany 40
Spain 41
Netherlands 42
United States 42
APPENDIX B – Time agencies 44
Introduction 44
Role And Main Activities 44
Examples 44
Appendix C: Types of school in England 46
Introduction 46
State Schools 46
Mainstream Schools 46
Special Schools 47
Other State-Funded Schools 47
Independent Schools 48
Provision For Children Aged Under Five 48
Tables Page
Table 2.1: Trips to and from School 1999-2001 5

Table 3.1: Comparative labour market statistics 9
Figures Page
Figure 4.1: Socio-economic implications of the organisation of school

time 9
Figure 4.2: Role of extended schools in the community 9
1 Introduction
1.1 Background
1.1.1 Colin Buchanan was commissioned by One North East to undertake a literature
review into the impact of staggering school opening hours on the wider
community and economy.
1.1.2 Staggering school hours refers to changing the start and end times but keeping
overall school opening and teaching hours constant. However, this report also
discusses the wider implications of school hours in general, including out-of-
school-hours childcare facilities and extended school opening hours.
1.2 Methodology
1.2.1 The study is a literature review using resources such as Google Scholar and the
International Bibliography of the Social Sciences. The structure of the literature
search was to identify and record:
 National, regional and local policy on school opening times;
 Provision of school based services outside core school hours;
 In countries where schools tend to finish around midday commentary on
activities undertaken in the afternoon;
 The first round impact of these variations in school hours in terms of
school transport, participation in pre and post school activities, crime/anti-
social behaviour, children’s employment and road safety; and
 The second round impacts in the local community on working hours,
opening times of public services etc.
1.2.2 To capture information from around Europe, the literature review was
undertaken in English, French, German, Italian, Dutch and Spanish by native
speakers in all instances.
1.2.3 This also enabled us to identify particular examples of interest and we therefore
contacted a number of schools, local education authorities and other
stakeholders in localities that have staggered school opening times in recent
years to ascertain what the wider impacts in the community have been.
1.3 Report structure

1.3.1 The remainder of this report sets out:
 The English policy framework in relation to school opening hours (section
2);
 The structure of education in key countries covered by the literature
review (section 3);
 Findings of the Literature review and description of case studies (section
4); and
 Conclusion and recommendations (section 5).
1.3.2 The bibliography for the literature review is included in Appendix A, Appendix B
explains the work and objectives of the “time and mobility” agencies set up in
various countries in Europe and Appendix C provides an explanation of various
types of school to be found in England.
1
2 Policy Framework
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 When considering the issue of staggering school hours in the North East,
account needs to be taken of present national policy on education. School
session times and general school organisation are regulated at the national
level and cannot be quickly and easily modified. However, a number of
initiatives recently adopted by the government allow for more flexibility and
leeway for schools with regards to school governance and enables them to set
up innovative schemes which also include modifying the organisation of school
times.
2.1.2 Moreover, recent developments in the provision of school transport and

changes in travel to school patterns also need to be taken into consideration
when looking at the socio-economic impacts of staggering school hours.
2.2 The education system in England

2.2.1 Information on the education system in England has been taken from the
Eurydice1 website and various government websites2.
Key Governing Bodies

2.2.2 The Department for Educations and Skills (DfES) is responsible for education in
England. Local Education Authorities (LEAs) and school governing bodies,
along with other stakeholders are involved in the policy-making, administration
and day to day running of individual schools.
2.2.3 In terms of roles and responsibilities, the DfES provides strategic orientation,
policies and guidance on education for the country. LEAs were established by
the 1902 Education Act and are responsible for the local administration of state
sector education. At the school level, each institution has a governing body,
which comprises members of the local community, parents, teachers, staff and
representatives of the LEA. Governing bodies of faith schools include
representatives of the relevant faith community.
2.2.4 Governing bodies are required to meet at least once a term and are involved in
many aspects of school life. Their three key roles are to set the strategic
direction of the school, ensure accountability and monitoring and evaluating
school performance. They also approve the school budget, appoint the head
teacher and review progress against the budget, plans and targets.
Organisation of school time

2.2.5 Education in England and Wales is divided into primary, secondary, further and
higher education. School attendance (or alternative home education) is
compulsory for children aged between five and 16. Children are required to
attend school at the start of the term before their fifth birthday but often start
before. Most schools in England and Wales are comprehensive: that is, there is
no selection of pupils at entrance on the basis of ability.
2.2.6 In the case of a community, voluntary controlled or community special school

the LEA determines the dates when the school terms and holidays are to begin
and end; and the governing body determines the times of the school sessions.
1
www.eurydice.org/
2
see, for example, www.dfes.gov.uk, www.teachernet.gov.uk and www.governornet.co.uk
2
The LEAs in Tyne & Wear region generally coordinate their school holiday
dates.
2.2.7 In the case of a foundation, voluntary aided or foundation special school the
governing body determines both the dates and times when the school terms
and holidays are to begin and end, and the times of the school sessions3.
2.2.8 Education (Schools and Further Education) Regulation 10(2) 1981 states that
all schools must meet for no less than 380 half-day sessions a year. Schools
are generally open between 9.00am and 3.30/4.00pm with approximately one
hour for lunch. A break of around 15 minutes may punctuate the morning
and/or afternoon session.
2.2.9 Minimum weekly lesson times (including religious education) are suggested in
DfES Circular 7/90 and WO Circular 43/90. These are 21 hours for pupils aged
five to seven years and 23.5 hours for pupils aged eight to 11 years. These
times are in addition to the daily act of worship, registration and breaks for lunch
and recreation. Most schools provide more hours of lessons than the
suggested minimum.
Changing school session times

2.2.10 The majority of schools are not free to change school session times at will. The
Changing of School Session Times Regulations 1999 Number 2733 sets out the
framework and procedure for changing school opening and end times in
England.
2.2.11 The procedure for changing school session times for community, voluntary
controlled or community special schools is quite long and complex. First of all,
the governing body must consult the LEA, the school head teacher and all
persons employed at the school. It must prepare a written statement justifying
their proposal. The statement must be circulated to all parents of registered
pupils at the school. A meeting must then be arranged to give the opportunity
to all parents, the head teacher and others affected to discuss the proposal. If
the governing body then decides to implement the changes, it must inform the
LEA and parents of the change and date of implementation a minimum of three
months beforehand where the changes affect the start and finish times and six
weeks for other changes (for example, changing times of the midday break).
The new school session times must be implemented at the start of the school
year. More detail on the procedure for changing new session times is available
on the DfES internet site4.
2.2.12 Governors at foundation, voluntary aided and foundation special schools can
change school session times without the need for consultation.
2.2.13 In 2003, a consultation ran on the topic of deregulating school session times.
Following the consultation Ministers decided not to deregulate5. However, the
Power to Innovate provision set out in Chapter 1 of the 2002 Education Act
enables schools to apply to the Secretary of State to implement innovative
proposals which include changing school time sessions and other changes in
relation to school organisation6.
2.3 Education policy context

2.3.1 Over the years there has been a willingness to give more scope to schools in
order to promote innovative schemes. The main changes in the last few years
3
Appendix C provides an explanation of the different types of school
4
www.dfes.gov.uk
5
www.governornet.co.uk
6
www.opsi.gov.uk/ACTS/acts2002/20020032.htm
3
have been the creation of the extended schools programme and the Power to
Innovate initiative.
2.3.2 The Education Act 2002 provided a wide range of provisions including
increased flexibility in the curriculum for 14 -16 year olds, the Power to Innovate
and more flexible school governance.
2.3.3 The Power to Innovate gives the opportunity for schools to test out new
concepts and ideas which would otherwise require a change in education
legislation. The schools have to present their proposal to the Secretary of State
who then decides to grant derogation to the school for a period up to three
years for them to test out their initiative. According to the innovation unit, the
Secretary of State approved Power to Innovate Orders for over 200 schools and
colleges from its inception to September 20067 some of which relate to changes
in school session times. To date eleven schools have used the Act to change
their hours but none are in the North East.
2.3.4 The “Every Child Matters” 2003 agenda proposes to reshape children’s services
and was the driver of the extended schools agenda. The aim of the latter is for
all primary and secondary schools to provide affordable and sustainable
wraparound services essentially childcare provision and other activities for
children from 8am to 6pm throughout the year. The objective is to make these
services available in half of primary schools and a third of secondary schools by
2008 and all schools by 2010
2.3.5 Increasing the provision of free childcare provision for three and four year olds
is also one of the objectives of Every Child Matters8. Other core services include
parenting support and specialist child support services.
2.3.6 Extended school services and activities can either be offered directly by school
staff, and/or in coordination with other schools and by creating partnerships with
other local private or voluntary sector providers.
2.4 Travel to school
The facts
2.4.1 In England, fewer children are walking to school and more are being driven.
According to the latest National Travel Survey9, the percentage of children aged
five to ten walking to school dropped from 62 per cent in 1989-91 to 50 per cent
in 2004. The fall in the percentage of children aged 11 to 16 walking during the
same period was from 48 to 44 per cent. At the same time the percentage of
school trips by car increased by 15 percentage points for five to ten year olds
and by eight percentage points for 11 to 16 year olds. This may be partially
explained by the increase in the average length of journey to school from 2.1 to
2.7 kilometres for younger children and 4.5 to 4.7 kilometres for children
attending secondary school.
2.4.2 Table 2.1 below shows the modal split for the school run by region from 1999 to
2001. Car use in the North East is lower than in the other regions. This is
probably a reflection of the fact that the average distance travelled to primary
school is around half the English average.
7
www.innovation-unit.co.uk/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=41&Itemid=105
8
DfES, Extended schools: access to opportunities and services for all, a prospectus, 2005
9
Department for Transport, National Travel Survey 2005 www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/nugget.asp?
ID=1576&Pos=&ColRank=1&Rank=374
4
Table 2.1: Trips to and from School 1999-2001
Region/Country Age 5 to 16 (percentages) Average Length

(Miles)
Walk Car Bus Other Age 5 Age 11
(including to 10 to 16
school
bus)
England 48 30 18 5 1.4 3
Wales 45 25 28 2 1.1 3
Scotland 57 19 23 1 1.1 2.7
North East 53 22 23 2 0.8 3
North West 43 31 22 3 1.4 2.5
Yorkshire and the 58 25 15 2 1 2.4
Humber
East Midlands 45 27 25 3 1.4 3
West Midlands 56 27 17 - 1.7 2.3
East 44 36 12 8 1.7 3.4
London 50 22 20 8 1.1 3.2
South East 45 37 13 4 1.6 3.2
South West 41 34 18 7 1.9 3.8
Source: Department for Transport, national travel survey
2.4.3 Since the school run takes place at the same time each day and is concurrent
with travel to work trips, it can contribute to congestion at peak times on
weekdays during term time. According to the National Travel Survey 2005, the
school run accounted for one fifth of all traffic in urban areas at 8.50am and just
under a fifth at 8.35am which is the absolute peak traffic time. Congestion
caused by the school run is apparent when looking at the difference in traffic on
the roads during term time and during school holidays. Trafficmaster10 notes
that: “school holidays reduce traffic on our roads by approximately 10 per cent,
from a combination of parents taking holidays and not driving their children to
school”. The impacts can be significant, for example, according to
Trafficmaster, in Newcastle on the A69 east bound; average journey times
during term time are 90 per cent higher than during school holidays11.
School travel plans and Government guidance

2.4.4 Parents have the right to apply to any school regardless of its location although
whether a place is offered depends on the school’s admissions policy and
whether it is oversubscribed. Children are presently entitled to free transport to
school if they: are between five and 16 years old and: attend the nearest
suitable school which is above the statutory walking distance.
2.4.5 The statutory walking distance is: two miles for pupils aged up to eight and
three miles for those aged eight and over. The Education and Inspections Act
2006 changed the definition of “nearest suitable school” enabling children of low
income parents, free travel to a wider range of schools. This is likely to lead to
a marginal increase in distance travelled to school and use of public transport.
The Act also placed a requirement on local authorities to promote more
sustainable travel to schools.
2.4.6 In order to reduce the impact of the school run on traffic, the Department for
Transport (DfT) published in 2003 a good practice guide for travelling to
school12. It promotes walking and cycling schemes, such as “walking buses”
10
a company providing satellite navigation, traffic data and vehicle tracking systems
11
www.trafficmaster.co.uk/shownews.cfm?num=457
12
DfT, DfES, travelling to school, a good practice guide, 2003
5
and “cycle trains”, encourages bus use, car sharing, the implementation of
school travel plans and accessibility planning as well as staggering school
starting and finishing times.
2.4.7 A number of successful schemes such as walking buses, bike trains have
already been put into place. The Act also placed a requirement on local
authorities to promote more sustainable travel to schools. Around 40 per cent
of schools now have travel plans in place13 and an increasing number of local
authorities have rolled out US style Yellow School Buses.
2.5 Education in the North East

2.5.1 In terms of educational attainment, although this has been improving over the
last few years, pupils in the North East have not been performing as well as the
English average and there are higher than average school absence rates
compared to other English schools. The adult population has overall lower
qualifications than average14.
2.5.2 As in other regions, education plays an important role in the North East. In
2001 there were 1,379 schools, with 443,906 pupils, 71 per cent of these were
primary schools, 16 per cent secondary schools, 5 per cent special schools, 4
per cent nursery schools, 3 per cent independent schools and 1 per cent
referral units15. A higher percentage of under five year olds attend nursery
school (85%) compared to England (58%).
2.5.3 The education sector is also a key employer in the North East, accounting for
10 per cent of its total workforce and represents around 3 per cent of the
region’s GVA16. Around 88,000 people are employed in the region’s schools17.
It is therefore likely there are in the order of 200,000 cars on the road in the
region in the morning peak either taking pupils or staff to school with the vast
majority of schools starting at the same time.
2.5.4 However, in terms of travel to school initiatives, the region is quite active in the
development of school travel plans compared to English schools in general.
For example, in 2001, 31 per cent of schools in the North East had implemented
travel plans, compared to 11 and 13 per cent for the North West and Yorkshire
and the Humber respectively18.
2.6 Conclusion
2.6.1 Governing bodies are responsible for determining school session times and for
the majority of schools this can only be changed through the procedures set out
in legislation. This either involves a process of consultation with local
stakeholders or obtaining the approval of the Secretary of State.
2.6.2 Education policy has in recent years continued to promote greater parental
choice both through providing new types of schools such as Academies and by
extending the definition of nearest suitable school in terms of eligibility for free
school transport. This is likely to perpetuate the trend for children to travel
further to school.
2.6.3 Another key strand of education policy is the introduction of the extended
school. By 2010 it is envisaged that all schools will offer activities between 8am
13
Home to School Travel and Transport Draft Guidance DfES
14
ONS, Secondary School Absence Indicator, 2004
15
North East Assembly, North East Regional Education Audit, December 2002.
16
North East Regional Economic Strategy 2006-2016
17
NOMIS Annual Business Inquiry
18
Carins S, Sloman L, Anable J, Kirkbride A and Goodwin P for Department for Transport, The
influence of soft factor interventions on travel demand, chapter 4: school travel plans
6
and 6pm all year round for all children and parents wishing to take up those
services. Pre and post school activities may not necessarily be free and will
tend to be provided by a different set of staff.
2.6.4 Government policy on school hours has almost drifted by default to the DfT from
the DfES. That is pressure by government (to the limited extent that there is
any) to change school hours is driven by the transport agenda and is based on
encouraging schools to facilitate greater use of sustainable transport modes
and to consider staggering school hours from the perspective of reducing travel
congestion and the cost of school transport. There is no evidence that
government and in particular DfES has considered the wider implications of
staggering school start and end times.
2.6.5 The DfES agenda revolves around extended school hours with little discussion
on the impact that this may have on transport issues other than to highlight that
the take up of extended school services will be dependent to some extent on
ensuring adequate provision of transport at different times than in the past. In
addition where services are provided for a number of schools from a single site
there will be the need to provide transport between sites.
7
3 Education in Europe
3.1 Background
3.1.1 In assessing the evidence about the impact of staggered school hours from
other countries it is important to understand key differences in educational
structures, childcare provision and labour force participation.
3.1.2 This section, therefore, sets out the general organisation of the school system in
France, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands and Germany. The Belgian education
system is very similar to the French system and therefore has not been included
in the analysis. The information provided in this section with regards to the
educational structure of the different countries is based on information from the
Eurydice website and the consultants’ personal experience of each country’s
education system.
3.1.3 The US system has not been covered as it varies from State to State although
relevant literature from the US has been included in the report.
3.1.4 In considering the wider effects of changes in school opening hours account
also needs to be taken of the first order impacts on parents and pupils. Around
90 per cent of primary school age children are taken to school by someone19
who in the majority of cases will be their mother. Women in the key working
age group of 17-49 are four times more likely to escort a child to school than
men in the same age group20. Fifty six percent of working age women with
children under five were in employment, 71 per cent of mothers whose
youngest child was aged five to ten are in employment rising to 77 per cent for
those whose youngest child was aged 11 to 1521. Changes in school hours
could therefore have a disproportionate impact on women’s working
arrangements and their employers. This is not so much an issue with
secondary school children with only a minority travelling to school with a parent.
3.1.5 The level of childcare provision and organisation of school hours affects the
labour market, more particularly female labour force participation. Statistics on
the level of childcare provision and the labour market for different countries
have been gathered in order to show the link between female employment rates
and childcare provision.
3.1.6 In summary therefore this section covers:

 Educational structure;
 Organisation of the school week;
 Out-of school hours childcare and after school activities;
 Level of parental choice of schools;
 Travel to school; and
 Overview of female participation in the labour market.
3.2 Educational structure
Organisation of the education system

3.2.1 The organisation of education in most European countries is similar to that in
England: that is, education is divided in four stages: nursery-pre-school,
primary, secondary and higher/further education.
19
Department for Transport, National Travel Survey, 2005:
20
Department for Transport, National Travel Survey, 2005
21
Office of national statistics, Labour force survey, 2005: www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?
id=1655
8
Organisation of the school week
France
3.2.2 In France, children have longer school days than in most European countries
including the UK. School opening times in maternelle (pre-school), primary and
secondary school vary and are determined at communal level and
departmental/regional level respectively. However, for most schools teaching
starts at 8.30am and ends at 4.30pm for primary schools and college (first half
of secondary school) and 8am till 5.30pm depending on class schedules and
options in the lycees (last three years of secondary school).
3.2.3 The school week is usually made up of four full days and half a day either on
Wednesday or Saturday morning. In the past decade, a new system has been
introduced which gives the choice to primary schools to open only four full days
a week and catching up the lost hours by reducing the length of holidays. This
system was introduced following numerous studies which stated that a four day
week was most suited to children’s biological rhythms. The four day week now
covers 27 per cent of all primary school children in France22.
3.2.4 Legislation states that the school week for pre-school and primary school
should not be longer than 26 hours. Total hours per week are more flexible in
secondary school: for college it is between 25 and 28 hours and in the lycee,
school hours vary from 30 to 40 hours per week.
Netherlands
3.2.5 In the Netherlands, the law states that in primair onderwijs (primary school) and
speciaal onderwijs (special needs schools) the length of schooling is 7,520
hours over 8 years. Most schools start at 8.30am or 8.45am and close for lunch
- usually between 11.30am and 1pm. In recent years provisions have been put
in place for children of working parents to stay at school, but this is not (yet) the
norm. It is called "overblijven" and children take their own lunch. At the
moment this costs very little (around 1.50 euros) as it is overseen by
volunteering mothers, there are discussions on employing qualified supervisors
in future, which will mean rising costs. Schools usually resume around 1pm and
finish around 3pm. Variation in school times is common, not only between
schools but between age groups as well: i.e. older children may have longer
school days. Wednesdays are generally half days only for primary schools.
Spain
3.2.6 On average, Spanish children in Primary Education have 810 teaching hours
per year compared with 861 hours in England, while in secondary education the
amount of time spent in schools is 1,050 hours in Spain and 912 hours in
England.
3.2.7 Spanish schools still tend to maintain a long lunch beak, a reflection of the
traditional split working day. This is an area of considerable interest and
dispute as at least part of the industry and retail sectors adapt to the ever-
increasing demand for a continuous working shift.
3.2.8 Children at Primary and Secondary Education attend school every day from
Monday to Friday. Although in some rural areas schools occasionally open on
certain weekends. However, while there are some minor variations school
opening hours, there are two basic models:
22
www.education.gouv.fr
9
 Traditional model. This is from 9am to 1pm then a 2-2½ hour break
recommencing at 3pm until 5pm. This system is widely adopted in
Primary and Secondary Education.
 Continuous model. This is generally from 8.30am to 2.30pm, although it
is only adopted by some Secondary and/or Further Education schools.
Germany
3.2.9 In primary schools, lesson times are laid down from 7.30/8.30am to
11.30am/1.30pm (Monday to Friday or Monday to Saturday). The length of the
school day and week is determined by each of the Länder. The half day school
is the traditional form of teaching in Germany. All day schools only cover 6.8
per cent of all primary school children in the country23.
3.2.10 At secondary level school times vary, but are generally the same as for primary
schools. However, there tends to be a wide range of optional or sometimes
compulsory activities provided in the afternoon at this level.
Italy
3.2.11 The timetable of educational activities in primary schools consists of 27 hours
per week. Generally, lessons are carried out in the morning (either from 8am to
12pm, or from 8.30am to 12.30 pm), for five or six days a week and pupils go
back to school in the afternoon one or twice a week. Some schools also offer
the possibility to attend lessons only in the morning for six days a week.
Secondary schools tend to operate from 8am (or 8.30am) to 4pm (or 4.30pm),
Monday to Friday.
3.2.12 The State organises the broad structure and timetable of schools. However, the
start and finish times are determined by the local councils and the schools, in
accordance with parents’ wishes.
Out-of school childcare and after school activities
France
3.2.13 From the age of three the public schooling system provides all day services
which enable parents to reconcile work with family life. The majority of
maternelle, primary and colleges provide structures and help for parents who
cannot drop off and pick up their children according to teaching hours. For
children in maternelle and primary level, schools generally provide child minding
services from 7am or 7.30am until 6pm. This is called “garderie”. Depending
on communes and schools, these services are either free or require a small
financial contribution from parents depending on salary levels. In Rennes, for
example, parents can drop off their children in most maternelles and primary
schools at quarter to seven and pick them up until 7pm. Although the majority
of children arrive at school ten to five minutes before the start of classes, this
system allows for a gradual arrival of pupils at schools according to parents’
needs and may facilitate traffic movement on streets located close to the
school.
3.2.14 In college, “etude” is provided during the day from 8am till 6pm (varies from one
school to another) when children do not have any classes. Etude is
compulsory: when children do not have any classes arranged or are waiting to
be picked up, they go to a classroom which is supervised by a teacher or
member of staff, where they can get help with their homework. In the lycee
children are able to leave school premises during their free time.
23
www.eurydice.org
10
The Netherlands
3.2.15 Provision of childcare and out-of-school-hours activities is not commonly
available in the Netherlands. Some schools open to children from 8am, others
have private nurseries that run out-of-school-hours sessions, many have
nothing. While other factors are relevant, this lack of childcare does has an
impact on female employment as although the Netherlands has relatively high
female employment rates compared to other EU countries, there is a very high
proportion of women working part-time. Indeed, over half of women in
employment work part-time and over 80 per cent of working mothers with
children under the age of six have part-time jobs24.
3.2.16 Moves to provide childcare during schools’ extended lunch break and before
and after school are discussed in the next section.
Spain
3.2.17 During non-compulsory schooling age, children at Infant Education can attend
Nursery or Infant School to suit their parent’s working situation. These
generally open Monday to Friday between 06.30am and 08.00am and close
around 6pm or 7.30pm, offering breakfast, lunch and mid afternoon snack, as
well as other additional services. Infant Education is mainly private in Spain
although regulated by the local or regional authorities, which may provide
financial support to families with children of this age. Although there are some
public nurseries, in 1999 only 2 per cent of children up to the age of 3 years
actually attended one25. The cost of a child attending nursery school all day
varies between 300 to 500 euros per month. This is considered a too
expensive option for many working parents. Those families where both parents
work the situation has become a real issue during Infant Education, where a
typical employee may spend up to 14 hours away from home26.
3.2.18 Moves to provide childcare during schools’ extended mid day break, changing
the length of the mid day break and before and after school are discussed in the
next section.
Germany
3.2.19 In Germany, pre-school education in the Kindergarten is not part of the state-
organised school system, but is assigned to Child and Youth Welfare. The
Ministries of Education and Cultural Affairs Kultusministerien (Ministry of
education and cultural affairs) of the Länder (Constituent state of the Federal
republic of Germany) do not adopt regulations governing the timetable in the
pre-school sector. A small proportion of children aged 0 to 3 attend pre-school,
which are mostly opened only for half days. Childcare and out-of-hour activities
for children at primary level (where schools finish at lunchtime) are also limited,
which makes it difficult for parents to reconcile work and family responsibilities.
Italy
3.2.20 Development of childcare facilities and out-of hour activities are mostly provided
by parent associations and the commune. Therefore the provision of these
facilities depends very much on the local area and school. Nursery school in
Italy is free, in spite of it not being compulsory. Families pay a small
contribution, from which low income households are exempted, towards
transport and canteen services.
24
OECD, starting strong II: early childhood education care, 2006
25
www.ine.es
26
www.ceapa.es
11
The level of parental choice of school

3.2.21 As in England, most parents in European countries have the choice of schools
they want their children to attend, such as in the Netherlands, Belgium and
Germany.
3.2.22 Unlike the English system, choice of schools in France is limited. Apart from
certain exceptions (private schools, special language schools, schools providing
special courses), children have to go to a school in their local area, which
reduces the impact of car use for the school run. The majority of primary school
children in France live less than one kilometre away from their school.
Travel to school and mode of transport to school

3.2.23 In 1998 around 10 million pupils used organised transport to school in the
European Union. In the majority of member states, this represents 10 to 30 per
cent of all students27. However, the use of the car for the school run has been
on the increase and identified as an issue for a number of countries such as the
UK, Ireland, France and Belgium.
France
3.2.24 Most schools (less so in large cities) provide transport facilities which are
usually subsidised by the region or local authority and which pick up children in
the morning and drop them off close to their home every school day. When this
is not the case, children are entitled to reduced prices on public transport.
There is no recent national data on school travel patterns and these differ
largely depending on the town, city or rural areas.
Netherlands
3.2.25 Most children in primary school tend to be brought to school, by walking, cycling
or car. Older children go more on their own, although this depends on what
area the children live in. Children who live in towns generally walk or cycle on
their own from age seven upwards. Trip length for travelling to school for this
age group is quite short compared to the UK, which makes it easier for walking
and cycling. A survey carried out in 2003 states that over a third of children in
primary school live less than 500 metres from their school and another third less
than one kilometre. Only 15 per cent of children live more than two kilometres
away from school. Traffic congestion is therefore not so much of an issue: only
16 per cent of children in primary school are driven to school, whereas 35 per
cent walk to school accompanied or not and 49 per cent cycle28. In secondary
school most children travel on their own - in rural / suburban areas by walking,
cycling or (when 16) moped, in the cities also by public transport.
Spain
3.2.26 There are no national statistics available on the mode of transport and purpose
of trips in Spain. However, a local study carried out in Barcelona some years
ago revealed that 17 per cent of morning peak traffic was formed by parents on
the school run29.
3.2.27 Just over a third of all schools offer collective transport to and from schools.
This is more common outside the large urban areas.
27
Association nationale pour les transports educatifs de l’enseignement public pour la Commission
Europeenne, La securite des transports scolaires en Europe, 1998
28
Vd Houwen, K, Goossen J, Reisgedrag Kinderen basisschool, 2004
29
www.ine.es
12
Germany
3.2.28 Each of the Länder has its own arrangements as regards the transport of pupils
to and from school. There are certain differences as to who is entitled to use
school transport and the scope of services provided. Only pupils who live a
certain distance away from their school have a right to use school transport.
There are slight differences on this between the various Länder. Two
kilometres is the general minimum distance for which transport is provided for
primary school pupils, whilst from grade 5 onwards (age 11) pupils living up to
three or four kilometres away from school are expected to arrange for their own
transport.
3.3 Female labour force statistics

3.3.1 Table 3.1 summarises key statistics on female labour force participation and
childcare provision in a number of EU countries and the US.
3.3.2 In general, the quality, funding and extent of childcare provision and childcare
facilities are best in France, Belgium, Sweden and other Nordic countries,
compared to the UK, the Netherlands, Spain and Germany. Moreover, the
organisation of the school day in France, for example, (whole day school from
8.30am to 4.30pm) is more adapted to the schedule of working parents.
3.3.3 Female employment is the most likely to be affected by childcare

responsibilities. Indeed, women are twice as likely as men to be involved in
informal childcare and are the ones who will reduce their workload or leave
employment to care for children30. Therefore the level of childcare provision is
an important factor in female participation in the labour force.
3.3.4 For example, France and Belgium (with their high quality childcare provision)
combine relatively high female employment rates and low part-time
employment, compared to other EU countries such as Italy or The Netherlands,
where the number of hours worked by women per week is the lowest and where
the rate of women working part-time is high, particularly for mothers with
children under the age of six (80%).
3.3.5 In an article by Kerstin Jorgens31 comparing the organisation of family time and
flexibility in Germany and France, found that in France the integration of women
in the labour force mainly took place through full time employment, which was
not the case in Germany, were the increase in labour force participation of
women was primarily through part-time employment. According to the author,
due to the lack of childcare provision and out-of-school-hours activities for
children, one of the parents has no choice but to opt for part-time employment
when bringing up young children.
3.3.6 Although it is difficult to discern any clear pattern, numerous studies have been
carried out indicating a link between labour force participation of women and the
percentage of part-time female employment with the extent and price of
childcare provision, provision of support to working mothers and the length and
extent of maternity leave. In Europe, it appears that in countries which provide
public childcare facilities, the presence of young children has less of a negative
impact on female employment than in other countries. Similarly, employment
continuity for mothers is highest in countries where the state provides support
for working parents32.
30
Larsen, work and care and strategies in European families: similarities or national differences?
Social policy and administration, vol 8 n36, 2004
31
Jorgens, K, Vie de famille et flexibilité du temps de travail en Allemagne: le mythe de la
conciliation, revue international enfance, famille, générations, 2006
32
Acta Sociologica, The impact of young children on women’s labour supply: a reassessment of
institutional effects in Europe, 2005
13
3.3.7 In the UK, a recent study has showed that a 25 per cent childcare price subsidy
would increase labour force participation rates of married mothers by three
percentage points33.
3.3.8 However it seems traditional perception of women’s role in the society also
influences female employment rates. According to Simon Duncan and Sarah
Irwin what determines labour force participation does not only depend on the
cost benefit analysis of working versus the cost of childcare, but also depends
on values and what is perceived as morally acceptable34.
3.4 Conclusion
3.4.1 Education systems in Europe vary considerably in terms of the length of the
school day, distance travelled to school and provision of childcare all which
subsequently impact on female participation in the workforce.
3.4.2 Those countries where primary schools either finish at mid day or have a long
mid day break such as in Germany, Spain, Italy and Netherlands tend either to
have lower female participation rates or higher levels of part-time working
amongst women. In France, for example, where extensive pre and post school
hour facilities are available for children 39 per cent of all women are in full time
employment compared to only 17 per cent in the Netherlands where such
childcare is much more limited.35
3.4.3 The provision of out-of school childcare is very location specific and often
dependent on the strength of parent groups.
33
Tarja Viitanen, the cost of childcare and female employment in the UK, 2005
34
Simon Duncan, Sarah Irwin, The social patterning of values and rationalities: mothers ‘choices in
combining caring and employment, social policy and society, 3:4 391-399, 2004
35
That is, percentage of women of working age in the labour force, minus those unemployed, who
are in full time employment.
14
Table 3.2: Comparative labour market statistics
Country Female Total average Female Labour force % female Average Age of legal Rate of access to % pupils in the
unemployme weekly hours of labour participation of part-time contribution entitlement to regulated services fourth year of
nt rates work for women force women with employment towards pre- a free service primary school
(2005) participatio children under 6 school childcare attending a school
n offering childcare
service on school
premises
UK 4.1% 30.3 69% 57% 43% 45% 12.5 hours 0-3y: 20%, aged 32%
free early 3-4 96 %, for
education older children full
provision enrolment
after 3rd
birthday
France 10.9% 32.7 65% 65% 30% 27% for 3 n/a, almost 100% 91%
children under 3 for children 3 and
over
Spain 12.2% 34.7 60% n/a 30% n/a 6 n/a n/a
Germany 11.0% 30 68% 42% 45% 14%, but 3 age 0 to 3, in 78%

contributions Former western
vary widely Germany, there
across Lander are available
places for 2.8% of
children under 3
and in former
eastern Germany
37%. For
Kindergarden,
90% children
Italy 10.1% 33.1 51% 53% 27% aged 0-3, 3 19% for children 69%
depends on under 3, almost
parental 100% for children
income, 3 and over
maximum
capped at 18%
The 5.1% 25 71% 71% 75% (80% of depending on 4 Children 0-3 13%
Netherland women with income, varies years: 22.5 % 2.5-
s children from 3.5% to 4y: 90%. Most
under 6) 100% services are
available part-time
or used part-time
Belgium 9.0% 31.7 59% 74% 42% from 0 to 3 y, 6 0-2.5y: 38%, 2.5- n/a
Flemish 59% of family 6: almost 100%
Community day care, 26%
costs in
subsidised
centre-based
French 9.0% 31.7 59% 68% 42% depends on 6 0-3 y: 18%. n/a
Community income, 3-6 years: 100%.
maximum of
18%
US 5.2% n/a 70% 58% 18% outside school 6 0-3y: 38% n/a
services, 3-5y: 56.5%
parents may 5-6y: 90%
assume all
costs of
childcare
source: eurostat and OECD
15
4 Literature review findings
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 This section reviews the various available literature on school hours with the
aim of identifying the various implications of changing the organisation of school
time. There are numerous ripple effects of staggering school times which affect
pupils, teachers, parents as well as the wider community. Figure 4.1 overleaf
summarises the main impacts of changing the organisation of school time
identified in the literature.
4.1.2 These relate to three main areas, educational issues, transport and wider
community impacts. Educational issues revolve around children’s performance,
attendance and school organisational issues, including out –of-hours activities.
Transport is related to congestion both on the road and public transport and
costs. Wider issues cover factors such as employment and crime.
4.1.3 In undertaking the literature review it became apparent that relatively little
research has been undertaken in this field. The academic literature principally
dealt with the relationship of sleep patterns to school start times. Government
and policy literature concentrated on the possible benefits of staggering school
hours in relation to traffic congestion and costs of school transport. The most
useful literature often dealt with particular schools or localities that were
considering changing school hours and was effectively ex-ante evaluations of
proposals.
4.1.4 The findings of the literature review sets out various changes, initiatives and
studies conducted in a number of countries both to explain what is being done
elsewhere and to determine the outcome and socio-economic impacts of
initiatives in relation to school hours, childcare and school transport.
4.1.5 Finally, it is important to keep in mind that the issues linked to school session
times will differ depending on the stage of education (primary vs secondary) and
the location (urban vs rural). This needs to be taken into account when putting
into place specific measures regarding school session times. For example, the
level of childcare provision and school hours will affect working parents of
children in primary school more than working parents of older children, as older
children tend to be more independent and travel to school on their own.
Similarly, in rural areas transport facilities and funding of travel to school may be
more important than in urban areas because of the lack of public transport
facilities and also as pupils tend to live further away from their local schools.
4.1.6 Staggered school hours have been implemented or suggested in a wide range
of countries for very different reasons. The most common reason is traffic
congestion in locations as varied as Tehran, Dublin, Hyderabad Australia and
the Middle East. However, shortage of schools is also a reason with double
shifts operating in Egypt, Mongolia, Singapore, Chile and Nigeria amongst
others36.
36
McGinn, N. & Borden, A. (1995). Framing Questions, Constructing Answers: Linking Research
with Education Policy for Developing Countries. Boston: Harvard University Press
16
Figure 4.1: Socio-economic implications of the organisation of school time
17
Adaptation of school hours to the changing socio-

economic context
4.1.7 The organisation of the school day especially for primary school age children
has a disproportionate impact on female employment. As the number of
women in the labour force increases so there is greater pressure on schools to
change their hours to adapt to the changing social and economic situation.
4.1.8 Schools have on the whole been conservative about changing the way they
organise teaching time still following the same patterns for generations. With
the increase in female employment and changes in working patterns, schools
have been slow to adapt with parents’ changing lifestyles.
4.1.9 However, in most EU countries, there has recently been a trend to alter school
hours according to parents’ needs and or to provide childcare provision at the
start, middle (for those countries with long mid day breaks) and end of the
school day.
Spain
4.1.10 In Spain, for example, the traditional family model has rapidly changed due to
the relatively recent significant increase in the number of women in the labour
market. Of the 20 million working population in Spain, around 8.2 million are
now women37. As a result, more primary and secondary schools are offering
services to help parents with their working situation, like earlier opening or later
finishing times.
4.1.11 Many discussions have taken place in Spain regarding the best system for
school opening hours between the traditional model (with a siesta in the middle
of the day) and the more standard north European model with a short lunch
break referred to in Spain as the continuous model. Most Spanish schools now
want to change to the continuous model. In order to change school hours,
schools need to obtain the approval of the regional government as well two
thirds of teachers and parents. If the proposal is refused, schools have to wait
two years before starting the process again.
4.1.12 Arguments in favour of the continuous model are:

 students concentrate better in the morning hours than in the hours after
the lunch;
 there are no long breaks which can distract the attention of students,
break time is from 11:30 to 12:00 and after that the subjects are more
relaxed;
 after school hours, students have more time to do their homework;
 when school finishes they can go to home to eat with their families also
the students eat at the same hours during the week and at weekends;
 in rural areas this kind of system is being implemented to offer a wider
range of facilities to students (who often to travel to different schools for
particular lessons or facilities).
4.1.13 In general, families, where both parents are in employment, prefer the
continuous model, because they have no time to pick up the children at siesta
time and cannot eat with them at lunchtime.
4.1.14 However, as schools finish earlier under the continuous model parents want
schools to provide activities after school so children can do their homework or
relax. The problem is that generally parents have to pay for these activities.
The same is true for lunchtime facilities at schools following the traditional
model for children who are unable to go home.
37
www.ine.es
18
4.1.15 Most teachers are in favour of the continuous model because in this way they
have a continued working shift and can use the afternoons for preparing
lessons and for free time. However, the Ceapa (Confederacion Española
Asociaciones de Madres Y Padres de Alumnos - a parents organisation) is
against this model as lunch facilities may disappear. Also the extracurricular
activities are not obligatory; hence many children could spend their afternoons,
for example, watching television. There is already a growing problem of
latchkey children in Spain.
4.1.16 Because of this debate, modification of school hours is not uncommon in Spain.
For example, the Lope de Vega public school in Andalucia modified its schedule
to make it more compatible with parents’ needs. The school opens at 7.30am
and lessons begin at 9am. Lunch facilities are provided from 2 to 4pm and
extra-curriculum activities are organised until 6pm.
4.1.17 San Miguel de Pumarín School in Asturias has decided to change to the
continuous model next year. Around 85 per cent of parents were happy with
changing the current organisation of school hours and three quarters were in
favour of adopting the continuous timetable from 9am to 2pm. The school,
however, decided to provide lunchtime facilities from 2 to 4pm and
extracurricular activities until 6pm and are also thinking of introducing a
breakfast club. However, a financial contribution from parents is needed for
children to benefit from out-of school hours facilities and activities.
4.1.18 Moreover, the Spanish government unveiled in 2006 its 34 billion euros
Strategic Plan for Infancy and Adolescence, where among other objectives it
aims that 33 per cent of children between the ages of 0 to 3 years old should be
able to join public nurseries by 201038.
Netherlands
4.1.19 Similarly, in the Netherlands, a number of primary schools are now open during
lunchtime and provide lunch and supervision for children. Previously children
were expected to go home for lunch.
Germany
4.1.20 In Germany, many Kindergärten are now trying more consciously than before to
adapt their opening times in line with the needs of families and, if necessary,
are organising an early morning or lunchtime service for some children or
groups of children. However, any extension in opening hours is often limited by
the number of staff employed at each establishment and the capacity of its
premises39. Moreover, all the Länder are currently in the process of expanding
their provision of care and supervision for children outside lesson time (e.g.
fixed school opening times from 7.30 am to 1pm or 2pm or until 4 or 5pm).
4.2 Changing the organisation of school times for

educational reasons
4.2.1 A number of studies have been undertaken to understand the schedules that
best suit children’s biological rhythm and learning abilities.
United States
4.2.2 In the United States, many studies have been carried out proving the benefits of
later school starting times for adolescents, notably on school performance and
concentration levels. One study for example examined the impact in seven
comprehensive high schools in the Minneapolis Public School District that
38
www.diariodenoticias.com/ediciones/2006/06/17/sociedad/espana-mundo/d17esp16.624901.php
39
www.eurydice.org
19
shifted the school start time from 7.15am to 8.40am. The results showed an
increase in attendance between 89 and 93 per cent depending on the grade40.
4.2.3 However, a study by Kyla Wahlstrom explains that schools have not changed
their teaching schedules because of the pressure of individuals and groups that
assume that their interests will be negatively affected by later school starting
times41.
4.2.4 The reason for the wide variation in US school starting times is often down to
maximising the utilisation of its specialist yellow school bus fleet that sees
children being picked up from before 6am and schools opening from 7am.
France
4.2.5 In France a number of studies and political initiatives have been carried out in
order to determine the best organisation of school hours in accordance with
children and parents’ needs. One of these new schemes has been the
implementation of the four day week. With the four day week scheme, which is
meant to best accommodate the child’s rhythm for learning and studying42,
communes choose whether primary schools open only four days a week
instead of 4½, but in return have less time off during school holidays. Some
schools arrange for activities on the day of the week where there are no
classes. In many communes very strong parents associations exist, which
organise child minding and activities for children outside school opening times.
4.2.6 A number of parent surveys and studies have taken place on the impact of
changing school times on children and families. In Rennes, for example, the
Sonia Delaunay School has completely rearranged its school hours and holiday
times as an experiment regarding school times which best suit children’s
learning rhythms. Although there has not been any clear proof of improvement
of children’s academic performances, the school is now very popular in the
area.
4.2.7 A survey conducted in Rennes regarding this school shows that around 40 per
cent of families would be affected by a later opening of school time from 8.45am
to 9am, due to their own work schedules. However, a majority of parents
explained they would be happy for schools to finish later in the day, due to
working constraints43. Nonetheless, the school is very popular and parents
have adapted to the new timing schedules.
4.2.8 What mainly comes out-of the four day week experience, however, is that
parents who have adapted to changes are not willing to come back to previous
arrangements. Parents organise their time according to school hours and are
reluctant to change their habits, especially when it leads to a reduction in overall
school times, meaning a complex reorganisation of family time.
40
Wahlstrom, K. (2002). Changing times: Findings from the first longitudinal study of
later high school start times. Center for Applied Research and Educational
Improvement, College of Education and Human Development, University of Minnesota
41
Wahlstrom, K. L. (1999a). The prickly politics of school starting times, Kappan, 80(5), 344–347
42
Pour une approche globale du temps de l'enfant : l'expérimentation des aménagements des
rythmes scolaires DELEVOYE Jean-Paul, LABADIE Francine FRANCE. Ministère de la jeunesse
et des sports Paris;La Documentation française;1998;276 pages
43
Ville de Rennes, JCA développement, étude sur les rythmes de vie et les rythmes scolaires, 2005
20
United Kingdom
4.2.9 A number of initiatives regarding school opening times have taken place in the
UK. For example, the provision of breakfast clubs in a number of schools
around the country not only enables parents to bring their children earlier to
school if needed, but can improve children’s health and concentration levels
during the day in cases where they did not usually have breakfast at home.
This is, for example, what has occurred due to the creation of a breakfast club
at Woolmore Primary school – Tower Hamlets.
4.2.10 Grinling Gibbons Primary School in Lewisham London has restructured the
school day to start and finish earlier. School now begins at 8.30am and ends at
2.30pm with a short lunch break. Optional clubs run by support staff and
volunteers are offered to the pupils from 2.30 to 3.30pm. The intention is that
the children will benefit from a greater breadth in the curriculum as a result of
these enrichment activities, including learning a language and the creative arts.
During the extra hour at the end of the day teachers are able to spend more
time on the planning, preparation and assessment of lessons, as well as
attending staff meetings - ensuring good communication and consistent practice
and discussing new approaches to teaching
4.2.11 Another example is Hadleigh Junior School, Essex which trialled a change in
the times of the school week in 2004. School started 15 minutes earlier each
day, giving three full lessons every morning. Afternoon sessions finished at
3.20 pm every day except Friday when 'formal' school stopped at 2.05 pm. This
arrangement enabled teachers to have more time to plan their lessons and
improve their work/life balance.
4.3 Homework - In school or out-of school

4.3.1 As schools extend their hours and offer pupils homework clubs there has been
a debate not only about the general benefits or otherwise of homework but also
whether it makes a difference as to whether that homework is done at home or
elsewhere.
4.3.2 One of the reasons given for homework is that it gives an opportunity for
parents/carers to become involved in the education process and to see the
range of work their children are doing at school. However, research44 has found
that many parents struggle to assist their children and are surprised by the
complexity of homework given. Research in France45 had similar findings with,
around a third of parents stating they are not able to help enough with their
children’s homework. Children may also not have the right facilities available in
terms of space and resources. Researchers46 have found that children’s
homework suffers, for example, when done in rooms with a television on. Also
parents may not be best placed to understand their children’s learning styles
and try and impose alternative styles that are less successful.
4.3.3 Children who are involved in structured after school activities (whether
academic or not) tend to perform better at school than those who undertake no
such activities. The latter are often children from poorer backgrounds and or
whose parents are not at home when they children finish school.
4.3.4 Given these factors the success or otherwise of at school homework clubs
depends a lot on the background of the children themselves. Children from
44
Many parents lack skills to help with homework – DFES survey reported in Guardian 23 August
2006
45
La Croix/Unapel, l’accompagnement scolaire vu par les parent, 2005
46
Marina M. Pool, Cees M. Koolstra, Tom H. A. van der Voort (2003) The Impact of Background
Radio and Television on High School Students' Homework Performance Journal of Communication
53 (1), 74–87.
21
middle-class families tend not to benefit from such clubs and if it prevents them
from participating in other after school activities then they may be detrimental.
Children from poorer backgrounds, however, can benefit considerably both in
terms of academic achievements but also from a safety and behavioural
perspective. To achieve these benefits the clubs need to be run by people who
can actually assist the children rather than just adults who are acting as “baby-
sitters”47.
4.3.5 However, the evidence on whether homework should be undertaken at home or

school is not conclusive. A major US study48 found that there was a positive
impact on grades for those children who did their homework at home where
there was no impact for those children who did their homework at school.
4.4 Childcare, affordability and employment

4.4.1 The impact of changing the organisation of school hours may positively or
negatively impact on the possibility for parents, particularly mothers to reconcile
work and family life. Changes in school hours could have a disproportionate
impact on women’s working arrangements and their employers.
4.4.2 School session times may be more or less adapted for mothers to take up full
time employment. Organisation of school time may push mothers to switch to
part-time work or give up work temporarily or permanently. Employment
patterns of mothers will also depend on:
 Possibility of flexible working arrangements;
 Childcare provision and whether it is subsidised or not; and
 The family structure.
4.4.3 The provision of free or subsidised basis of childcare provision is particularly

important for socially deprived families and/or single mothers, where mothers
cannot afford to stay out-of work. The cost of childcare is therefore a big
burden for socially deprived families, who do not have family of friends to look
after children before and/or after school.
France
4.4.4 In France, certain cities provide nurseries and childminding services which are
now open 24 hours a day and where parents pay according to their level of
income. This has been put into place by time agencies49 in a number of cities
and towns in the country and funded by the national agency in charge of family
support and other associations such as the women’s association. These
agencies also try and help parents with atypical or variable working hours, for
example, cleaning staff who have to be at work in the early hours of the
morning. A study conducted by the Time Agency of Lyon showed that around a
third of employees have working times that vary from one week to another, a
quarter of the workforce work on Sundays and 48 per cent on Saturdays50.
4.4.5 In other countries such as Italy where school finishes early or where public
childcare services are not as well developed, a number of initiatives from
parents and schools are taking place in order to meet the growing demand for
out-of school hours childcare.
Germany
47
Cosden M, Morrison G, Albanese A L, Macias S (2001) When Homework is not Home Work :
After-Schools Programs for Homework Assistance Educational Psychologist 36(3) 211-221
48
Keith T, Diamond-Hallam C & Fine J (2004) Longitudinal effects of in-school and out of school
homework on high school grades School Psychology Quarterly Vol 19 Issue 3
49
See Appendix B for a fuller description of the role of « time agencies »
50
www.espacedestemps.com/presentation_caue.ppt#4
22
4.4.6 In Germany, given the regionally disparate demographic patterns (with a low
birth rate and limited selective immigration to growth areas), family policies are
seen as a key tool in improving regional economic performance. The federal
government published a report on family policies concentrating on time
management. The report acknowledges that whereas countries such as
Germany and the UK offer relatively high financial incentives to parents, these
are lower in the “family-friendly” Scandinavian countries (and France) where
expenditure on “services” such as after school provision is much greater51.
4.4.7 In the city of Luebeck, Germany, a series of independent parental associations

organise supervision and activities to guarantee child care from at least 07.30
am to 1.30pm (including school holidays) so as to permit a parent to work part-
time.52 The results are:
 In 2002, 80 employees looked after 1,000 children as part of these
associations
 The Luebeck Job Centre calculate that 600 to 700 secondary jobs
depend upon the in-school supervision offered by these associations
4.4.8 Also, school days are relatively short and the majority of schools do not provide
any type of after school activities or childminding services. However, in order to
meet the demand for these services, certain schools have started offering
childcare services after school, although a financial contribution is often
required. Examples include:
 Garching (Munich): Mon-Thurs 12noon – 5pm , including lunch,
homework, sport etc, for 10 to 16 year olds, managed by an arm of social
services with finance from the Land and the town53;
 Ricklingen (Hannover): three days a week, aimed at children from
deprived families, for 10 to 14 year olds, managed and funded by church
organisation through donations54;
 Essen-Ueberruhr: five days a week 1.30-4pm (not in holidays), packed
lunch, homework and sport, for 11 and 12 year olds, managed by the
school, cost €15 per term (with additional costs for some courses)55;
 Maxgymnasium (Muenchen): Mon-Thurs 1.15-5pm, lunch, homework and
other activities, for 11 to 13 year olds, managed by the school56;
 Gundelfingen: Mon-Fri 1-4pm, including cheap lunch, homework and
activities, for 10 to 16 year olds, managed and funded by church
organisation through donations57.
Netherlands
4.4.9 In the Netherlands, only approximately 40 per cent of women are

economically independent, which can partly be attributed to the lack
of adequate childcare provision and school times for young children.
The government is aware of this issue and has developed an
“Emancipation Agenda” for 2006-201058. One of its aims is to
increase the economic independence of women, notably by making
schools responsible for organising and contracting before-school and
after school care for children from the age of four to 12 and involving
51
Bundesministerium fuer Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend (2005) Zukunft: Familie –
Ergebnisse aus dem 7. Familienbericht. Berlin
52
Schleswig-Holsteinischer Landtag Umdruck 15/3501: Interessenvertretung Betreute
Grundschulen e.V., Stellungnahme zum Entschliessungsantrag betr. Schleswig-Holsteinische
Offensive fuer Familien, www.sh-landtag.de/infothek/wahl15/umdrucke/3500/umdruck-15-3501.pdf
53
www.nachmittagsbetreuung.de/
54
www.diakonisches-werk-hannover.de/nachmittag.htm
55
www.gymnasium-essen-ueberruhr.de/index.php?
option=com_content&task=view&id=795&Itemid=329
56
www.maxgym.musin.de/profil/nachmittag/
57
www.kinderheim-st-clara.de/nachmittag.html
58
Dutch Multi-Year Emancipation Policy Plan 2006-2010
23
social partners and municipalities in arrangements to make work life

and private life more compatible.
Italy
4.4.10 Prato is Tuscany’s second largest city and the third largest in Central
Italy. Normal school hours in Prato are from 9am to 1.30pm. In order
to cope with parents’ needs for childcare during out-of school hours,
the Town Council funds free childcare service before and after school
starts, from 7.50am till 6pm. This service is offered by all schools, but
is activated only when 10 per cent or more of the school’s pupils
require the service. Pre-school childcare is free, however, parents
have to pay for after school services.
4.4.11 It appears that the main issue with regards to school hours is mainly the
provision of childcare, activities and services throughout the day for working
parents and the cost of these services. Indeed, the existence of these services
has an impact on labour force participation of women.
United Kingdom
4.4.12 Parents of children under the age of six have the right to ask their
employers for more flexible working hours. Although employers don't
have to agree with the request, they have to show they have
considered it carefully. Children from the age of four get free part-
time places at nurseries - some three year olds also get places.
4.5 Crime, anti-social behaviour and security

4.5.1 Children tend to be both perpetrators and victims of crime in the period after
school finishes to a greater extent than for the community as a whole.
Therefore changing the school session times may therefore affect the time
children come out-of school and hence the period of time when they are out in
the streets when they can commit crimes or be victims of crime.
4.5.2 Many studies in the US have been conducted in relation to juvenile crime
reporting that juvenile crime happens most frequently before and after school
time. However, a recent study underlines that these might be overstated as the
timing of crime depends on the type of crime and violent crimes against young
people are generally committed during school time59.
4.5.3 A study by the Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development says that most
sex between teens takes place after school while parents are at work. Data
show that tenth graders who come home to an empty house are more prone to
risky behaviour than those who don't.60 This same study provides the following
U.S. Justice Department statistics regarding teens who are let out-of school
before parents get home:
 37 percent are more likely to become teen parents;
 49 percent are more likely to use drugs;
 57 percent are more likely to drop out-of school; and
 one in five violent juvenile crimes is committed between 2-6 p.m.
4.5.4 Parents may be reluctant for their children to go to school on their own because
of dangerous roads to cross, passing through neighbourhoods that are or
perceived to be high risk, or bullying on buses. Therefore in order to reduce car
usage for the school run and promote sustainable travel, safety and security
59
Gottfredson, Soule, The timing of property crime, violent crime and substance use
amongst juveniles, journal of research in crime and delinquency, 2005
60
Star Tribune, July 26, 1996
24
need to be enhanced. Safer and organised transport would also provide more
flexibility for working parents it would reduce the apprehension of parents for
their children to go to school on their own, hence reducing car trips to school.
4.6 Travelling in daylight hours

4.6.1 Changing school session times may also lead to children travelling more during
periods of darkness, which could have a negative impact on the security of
children on their way to and from school. There have been long debates on
changing the present time system in the UK of using Greenwich Mean Time
(GMT) in the winter and advancing the clocks by one hour to British Summer
Time (BST) for the rest of the year61. Proposals have frequently been put
forward to advance the time by an hour to GMT+1 in the winter and GMT+2 in
the summer.
4.6.2 A common case put forward against such a change is the safety impact on
school children who would be travelling to school in the dark in the morning.
However, analysis from the experiment done in 1968-71, when such a system
operated, found that while accidents increased in the morning they decreased in
the afternoon by more including for children aged 5-15. The results for the
north of England (ie North East, North West, & Yorkshire & Humber) found a
positive net effect in terms of the numbers killed or seriously injured as a result
of the time change.
4.6.3 The Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents setting out its support for
changes to the present system noted that only 18 per cent of accidents
involving children occur in the morning. So lighter evenings would be beneficial
in reducing the far greater number of accidents to school children in the
evening. However, evidence for Portugal (which is in the same time zone as
the UK and which also experimented with a switch to GMT+1 in the winter and
GMT+2 in the summer between 1992-96) reported problems with children
leaving for school in the dark and disturbances to sleeping habits due to it still
being daylight till gone 10pm.
4.6.4 In terms of staggering school hours it would appear that children travelling later
to school in the morning and returning later in the evening could be beneficial
from a safety perspective if that resulted in them getting home when it is still
light in the winter.
4.7 School transport issues

4.7.1 Changing school session times will have an impact on travel to school journey
patterns. The school run can cause congestion, particularly in urban areas.
Therefore staggering school hours within an area could reduce congestion at
the morning and evening peaks. Staggering school start times may also enable
school bus providers to run several services to different schools in the morning
and evenings. Traffic issues are generally a key driver behind the demand for
staggered school hours.
France
4.7.2 Many initiatives for more sustainable means of transport to school have been
put into place throughout France. For example, many communes have put into
place “walking buses” for primary school children, which consist of parents
voluntarily taking their turn to walk a group of children to school62.
61
House of Commons Library (2007) The Energy Saving (Daylight) Bill Research paper 07/09
62
Targeting, revue de presse sur les plans de deplacements à l’école, 2004
25
4.7.3 Recently there has been an interest in the organisation of time and mobility in
certain cities, especially since the introduction of the 35 hour working day in
2000. In Lyon the greater authority has developed a mission called “espace
des temps” which deals with the implication of work time, opening times of
shops and services as well as childcare services and schools, on mobility. It
has put into place many initiatives dealing with the issue of time constraint and
flexibility in urban areas and its impact on overall mobility. These structures
have also developed in certain cities in Italy and Germany. Appendix B
describes the objective of these “time and mobility” public agencies and the
various schemes they have put into place.
4.7.4 One of the initiatives put in place in Lyon concerns school times. In Neuville-
Sur-Saone, for example, the starting times of different schools in the town have
recently been slightly staggered in order to deal with congestion issues.
Although it is too early to fully assess, the initiative seems to have shown that
staggered school hours can have a positive impact on congestion, but needs to
be accompanied by other measures regarding safety, adapting public transport
timetables and provision to school needs and the promotion of sustainable
modes of transport63.
4.7.5 One of the initiatives put in place in Lyon concerns school times. In Neuville-
Sur-Saone for example, the starting times of different schools in the town have
recently been slightly staggered in order to deal with congestion issues.
Although it is too early to fully assess, the initiative seems to have shown that
staggered school hours by five to ten minutes have had a positive impact on
congestion. However, this measure has been accompanied by other schemes
for improving safety, adapting and coordinating public transport timetables and
provision to school needs, as well as the promotion of sustainable modes of
transport.
4.7.6 Another example is in the fifth arrondissement of Lyon. The fifth

arrondissement has a high concentration of schools in a relatively confined
area. School starting times are also staggered in order to reduce congestion
mostly in front of the schools and on public transport at peak times64.
4.7.7 Feedback from parents has been positive. It appears that modifying school
opening times has not affected parents’ work arrangements. However, it is
important to note that these schemes were only implemented in secondary
schools, where parents are more willing to let their children go to school on their
own using organised transport if they are no longer able to drive them to school.
4.7.8 There are currently two other schemes in progress in the centre of Lyon which
aim to identify the issues linked with congestion created by the school run,
school transport provision and whether staggered school hours could be put
into place.
4.7.9 Consultation with students, parents, school staff, school directors, local
transport providers and the regional education academy is crucial for the
decision process.
4.7.10 First of all the Time agency carries out surveys of parents and students in the
schools of the neighbourhood, to determine whether they have identified
problems and what changes they would like to see happen
4.7.11 If congestion and school transport in general has been identified as a problem,
the time agency then undertakes consultation with the head teachers, the
transport providers and other stakeholders in order to identify a working
solution, and to discuss implementation. Staggered school times are
63
Communaute urbaine du grand lyon, une démarche novatrice pour une mobilite scolaire apaisée
a Neuville sur saone, juin 2006
64
Communauté urbaine du grand Lyon, du nouveau sur la mobilité scolaire
26
determined and agreed by the head teachers, which also need to consider
whether the transport providers will be able to organise their pick up service
according to these modified opening times.
4.7.12 The city of Poitiers in France also has a “time and mobility agency”. In 2001, in
cooperation with the University of Poitiers, they were able to stagger start times
of university courses, the earliest courses starting at 8am and the latest starting
at 8.45am. According to the agency, there was no considerable impact on traffic
on roads, however, it dramatically improved conditions of travel on public buses
during the peak hour. The scheme enabled the reduction of congestion on
buses which benefited not only students but users of buses in general.
4.7.13 The Agency of Poitiers has also tried to put into place other initiatives of the sort
in the city for secondary schools, but has faced opposition from the regional
education academy, which is apparently unwilling to change the way secondary
schools in the region operate.
Italy
4.7.14 In 2002, the City Council of Turin commissioned a survey of schools hours and
the impact that a change in these would have on traffic on the road network and
city mobility more generally. The study specifically looked at three
neighbourhoods65. A total of 172 schools (119 public and 53 private) were
surveyed: nursery (77); primary (57) and 38 middle schools. The survey
showed a great variety in school opening and closing times.
4.7.15 With regard to transport, the study looked at the proposition to change the
opening and closing time of schools in order to disassociate traffic generated by
trips to schools from ordinary traffic and the possibility to organise alternative
transport modes to travel to school other than by private car. Alternative
transport modes investigated include school buses, collective cab services and
‘secure’ routes for pedestrians.
4.7.16 The survey highlighted that only 9 per cent of the schools were willing to change
school opening times in order to reduce congestion. Motivations given for this
choice were organisational and teaching problems as well as the fact that the
current timetable was designed to respond to parents needs in the first place.
United Kingdom
4.7.17 The UK government has been pushing travel plans for schools and other major
employers for a number of years. Around 40 per cent of schools now have
travel plans in place and there are now nine yellow bus pilot schemes in place
in the UK66. The North East of England has been particularly active in
promotion of school travel plans. A study for DfT that evaluated the impacts of
school travel plans found that on average car use could be reduced by eight to
15 per cent67.
4.7.18 Nonetheless, a number of parents will continue to drive their children to school,
as it is part of their journey to work. Research by Bradshaw and Jones68
suggested that around a third of escort journeys were not solely made for the
school run but were part of a linked trip for other purposes.
65
Citta Di Torino, Prima, Dopo, come andare a scuola, 2002
66
Home to School Travel and Transport Draft Guidance DfES
67
Carins S, Sloman L, Anable J, Kirkbride A and Goodwin P for Department for Transport, The
influence of soft factor interventions on travel demand, chapter 4: school travel plans
68
'The Family and the School Run: What would make a real difference', University of Westminster,
2000
27
4.8 School transport costs

4.8.1 Linked with reducing congestion is also the issue of the organisation of school
transport and its cost. The provision of school to home transport is expensive
especially if only one run can be made morning and evening. Given that the
morning school run coincides with the general morning peak and the demise of
work buses to factories there are few other services that the bus fleet can
operate. Hence the desire to increase fleet utilisation by doubling up morning
and afternoon runs by staggering school hours. Even where children use the
standard public transport there is often a desire to reduce general overcrowding
on services.
Germany
4.8.2 The district of Guetersloh in Germany is currently attempting to introduce

staggered school opening hours with the sole aim of reducing the cost of public
transport provision: 620 (27%) of the 2,300 school pupils have school travel
tickets or monthly travelcards at a reduced price. A study showed that 60 of 84
schools began between 7.50am and 8am69.
4.8.3 By staggering school start times, it was calculated that a saving of €350,000 or
27 per cent per annum could be achieved by saving a requirement for 10 peak
time only buses. Alternative methods examined included a series of
disincentives to using public transport, encouraging pupils to use bicycles,
mopeds or even their own cars. The proposals have been agreed in principle
by the council and local transport operators. However, consultation with
individual schools and parents associations is yet to take place once detailed
plans have been drawn up. The final decision on school times remains with the
individual school administrations. Proposals have also been discussed in the
councils of Hildesheim and Heidelberg. However, these ideas are not always
popular with pupils70.
United Kingdom
4.8.4 In rural Staffordshire, a group of 17 schools staggered school start and end
times to provide for the coordination of extended services, activities and the
provision of transport, in order to make the services available to adults and
children all days of the week. School times are staggered especially to make it
easier for buses to link journeys between schools.
4.8.5 Essex County Council has carried out a study on the redesign of school
transport provision in the region, which identified cost savings of £350,000 by
reorganising school transport in two districts. This would require some schools
to stagger starting and ending times by 15 minutes71.
4.8.6 For the moment rationalisation of school transport has been possible only for
two schools where the same transport provider is able to do the school run for
both schools because of different opening and finish times. Nonetheless this
was possible only because one of the schools has chosen to adopt “continental”
times. It appears it has not yet been possible to convince the LEA and schools
to stagger school times in order to create transport cost savings and this mostly
seems because of the reticence of school staff and parents to change current
arrangements.
4.8.7 Another example is in Northern Ireland where neighbouring schools must

stagger their school start and end times in order to share bus services72.
69
Kreis Guetersloh – Abteilung Schule, Bildungsberatung und Sport, Beschlussvorlage:
Schuelerfahrkosten – Kostensenkung durch Schulzeitstaffelung, 11/04/2005
70
see petition at www.realschule-joellenbeck.de/inhalt/Bildgalerien/demo.htm
71
Department for Transport, Travelling to school: an action plan, 2003
72
DETR, increasing bus use for journeys to school, 2001
28
School bus services are important for schools and is a key selling point for
competing schools as bus use by pupils is generally high in Northern Ireland.
With this system, each vehicle is therefore able to serve two or three schools in
the morning and evening peaks. Coordination between schools is essential and
finding a common ground is not always evident. Indeed, schools with the
earliest and latest school start times are not as popular as:
 late afternoon classes are not popular with teachers,
 concentration levels of children reduces as the afternoon advances,
 difficulties for working parents to coordinate their timetables with their
children’s.
United States
4.8.8 As highlighted previously a key reason for the wide range of school starting
times in the US is to enable the more efficient operation of school bus services.
In fact school opening hours are effectively set by the local council’s
transportation department.73
4.8.9 Districts that provided no school bus services started schools later than those
districts where buses operated a single run which in turn had later starting times
than those districts where school buses undertook multiple runs morning and
afternoon.
4.9 Extended school day in the north east

4.9.1 There are a number of examples of the extended school day being
implemented in the North East at both primary and secondary level. For
example, Archibald Primary School serves a relatively deprived area of
Middlesbrough74. The first step in introducing extended hours were morning
and afternoon nursery/playgroup sessions, then a breakfast club for 3–11 year
olds and most recently, a holiday play scheme.
4.9.2 The extended hours programme has successfully seen attendance and
punctuality improve for the core school day and the school was rated
“Outstanding” in its latest Ofsted Report.
4.9.3 In Durham75 at least 134 primary and secondary schools are running extended
services including:
 Out-of-school clubs;
 Study support;
 Health promotion;
 Community sports; and
 Family learning.
4.9.4 Newcastle City Council has adopted a strategy76 with regard to the introduction
of extended school hours which are seen as being a key part of the community.
Around 75 per cent of schools in the city provide some childcare support and
around half offer wider community services (usually to parents).
4.9.5 The figure overleaf shows how the city sees extended schools becoming an
integral part of the wider community.
4.9.6 A key issue with extended schools relates to staffing. Pre and post school
activities are generally not provided by the core teaching staff so additional staff
73
Report of the task force to study high school opening times 1998 Fairfax County Public Schools
74
www.teachernet.gov.uk/CaseStudies/casestudy.cfm?id=59&subcatid=9&catid=4
75
www.teachernet.gov.uk/casestudies/casestudy.cfm?id=392
76
Strategy for improving services for children, young people and families through Extended Schools
in Newcastle March 2006
29
will be employed at the school. A high proportion are likely to be drawn from
the local community but there will be some additional road journeys arising from
the extended school day.
Figure 4.2: Role of extended schools in the community
30
4.10 Other implications of staggering school opening

hours
4.10.1 Organisation of school time will indirectly have an impact on the wider
community with regard to a wide range of issues such as:
 Wider community use of schools and their facilities
 Employment impacts
 Business impacts
4.10.2 Schools are often used after core times for gatherings and activities organised
for the wider community. Changing school times will affect the opportunity for
the wider community to use school buildings and facilities although the majority
of events will be in the evening where there will be no impact.
4.10.3 Changing school times may have knock on effects on other services. In
England shops and services opening times are mostly deregulated and can
change according to demand. In many other EU countries, however, they
remain controlled by legislation although there is a trend towards more flexible
opening times, better adapted to changing demand and lifestyles. In France, for
example, city authorities are working to ensure schools, shops, public services
and businesses stagger hours more to reduce traffic congestion.
4.10.4 Staggering school times may have an impact on businesses. If they are
unwilling or unable to put into place flexible working hours, then they may face
difficulties in retaining and or recruiting staff. Flexible working hours are not
applicable or are more difficult to implement for certain types of businesses and
certain types of work. Moreover, putting in place flexible working arrangements
can have a cost to companies in terms of management and organisation of
work.
4.10.5 The provision of suitable childcare facilities and out-of-hours activities is also an
economic argument for attracting businesses in an area, as it ensures
competitiveness and reduction in absenteeism of staff with children. A
document from the Swiss Conseil D’Etat reports that a number of companies in
the canton of Neufchatel and foreign businesses have been reticent to remain
or move into the area because of the lack in effective childcare structures77. In
certain parts of Switzerland it is companies that have mainly pushed for
improvement of childcare and out-of-school facilities.
4.10.6 There may also be fewer opportunities for children to work if their school finish
times are put back although employers demand for such labour tends to be
more evenings than afternoons.
4.10.7 Changing school session times may have a positive impact on the quality of
children’s learning environment. This in turn may improve overall qualifications
level and opportunities to find employment in later years. There is clear
evidence for the US that starting school later (albeit from very early morning)
feeds directly into improved performance at secondary level.
4.10.8 Finally, the impact of changing school times on crime will also affect the wider
community as a whole. Reducing crime levels will improve the image of an
area and the overall living environment.
4.10.9 In general changing school hours has an impact on activities and services to
children which are provided after school time, such as music and dance
lessons. In Rennes, the vast majority of primary schools have adopted the four
day week. However, in 2005-2006 there have been discussions regarding the
reinstatement of school lessons on Wednesdays. This was particularly badly
77
Rapport du Conseil d’Etat au Grand conseil, horaires scolaires et professionnels, 2004
31
perceived by associations and companies that provide these services to

children. The association of dance teachers of Rennes explained for example
that coming back to the old system would represent a loss of 25 per cent of their
total revenues, and require a complete reorganisation of all their classes.
Staggering school hours may reduce the possibility of children to participate in
extracurricular activities provided by independent associations and teachers,
thereby affecting those businesses.
32
5 Conclusions and recommendations
5.1 Why stagger school hours

5.1.1 The main drivers of staggering school hours (that is changing the start and end
times but keeping total hours the same) are:
 increasing road congestion;
 cost pressures on school transport; and
 child performance issues.
5.1.2 In all three cases the actual hours children are in school tends not to vary and
therefore the wider implications do not change provided working parents are
able to adapt their working hours to fit round the new school hours. This tends
to be easier in the UK with its wide range of part-time jobs and in general
relatively flexible working practices.
5.1.3 However, a significant number of children do have responsibility for escorting

younger siblings to and from school and looking after them after school.
Staggering school hours may make some of these arrangements difficult to
sustain.
Increasing road congestion

5.1.4 This tends to be very localised and is more pronounced in densely populated
urban areas with schools located close together. Schools in such areas have
staggered start times to reduce congestion. However, the impacts are not
always clear cut with examples in Europe showing perhaps a greater impact on
public transport congestion than road congestion. Congestion is sometimes just
spread over a longer period with a slightly less peak of the peak. As schools
tend to stagger over a time period, then unless parents work in a job that
supports flexibility in starting time (i.e. workers can start at any time over a set
period) then this can be very problematic and has caused problems in the
examples in France.
5.1.5 School travel plans may be more effective in reducing congestion associated
with the school run rather than just staggering start times. While both in
combination may have an even greater effect.
5.1.6 It should also be noted that the morning peak traffic period is around 8.30 so
bring forward core school hours may exacerbate congestion in some locations.
Coordination between local authorities may well be needed to ensure any
staggering along key congested corridors that cover more than one local
authority is optimal.
Cost pressures on school transport

5.1.7 This is most notable in the US with its provisions of dedicated school buses but
is also seen in parts of the UK, Italy and Germany. Cost issues and shortages
of staff where there are dedicated bus fleets and to reduce pressure on public
transport where there are not have encouraged local authorities to stagger
school hours to enable buses to operate more than one service morning and
afternoon. This can lead to large variations in school start times in the same
district (e.g. 7.30-9.30 am in the US).
5.1.8 School transport cost pressures in some US districts has also led to the
introduction of four day weeks for schools with shorter holidays. Schools are
staggered in terms of the day off they take.
33
Child performance issues

5.1.9 Research in the US and France has shown links between school times and
children’s’ performance that has led to changes in school hours. In the US the
research has concentrated on the sleep patterns among adolescents and has
led to moves towards starting later (but US schools start as early as 7.15).
While in France, perhaps driven by the long school day, there has been a move
for primary schools to move to a four day week.
5.1.10 The US evidence especially suggests there are limits to the extent that school
hours should be moved earlier in the day for secondary schools.
5.2 Extended school day

5.2.1 The real impacts of changing school hours have, however, come from
extending the school day rather than staggering it. All countries recognise the
connection between employment (especially for women), school hours and
childcare provision.
5.2.2 The Dutch and Spanish school system with long lunch hours where children
were expected to go home is no longer sustainable with the result that schools
now offer childcare provision over the lunch period or have changed their
operating hours. France has for a long time provided wrap around school
based care from early morning to evening and the UK is moving towards the
same system.
5.2.3 Countries/districts that have changed school hours have generally recognised
the need to also provide childcare. So where schools have moved to a four day
week programmes have been put in place to ensure child care provision is
available on the fifth day. Also in the US it was found parents could arrange
childcare more easily for one full day than for a few hours for five days or found
it easier to arrange work for four full days rather than for five shorter days.
5.2.4 In other European countries there are considerable pressures to extend out-of
school provision to enable greater female participation in the workforce
especially in countries where schools finish at lunch time or early afternoon. It
should be noted that extended school hours are delivered through the use of
additional staff which may generate further road trips.
5.3 Wider impacts of staggering school hours

5.3.1 Where the school day remains the same length as before it was staggered the
wider community impacts are not particularly marked. Where school hours are
extended then the key impact is an increase in female participation in the labour
market. Other key wider impacts identified relate to:
 Community use of schools;
 After school activities;
 Employment; and
 Crime.
Community use of school

5.3.2 Some schools are used by the wider community after hours – including gyms,
swimming pools and in the US ice rinks etc. Extending the school day reduces
the time some of these facilities are available both to school clubs and the wider
community. However, adult education services/evening classes tend not to
start till early evening and therefore are generally unaffected by staggered
hours.
34
After school activities

5.3.3 A concern in the US of staggered hours is the impact on sports activities. This
relates to losing daylight hours for training and matches and problems in
arranging matches with other schools that have different staggered hours and
having to travel later in the day during peak periods. Other after school
activities such as music and drama are less affected as they are less dependent
on daylights hours and links with other schools. Although in some of the French
examples later school finishing times resulted in a reduction in the take up of
some after school activities. The half-day of four day week education systems
in some European countries has allowed the development of a number of
commercial operations aimed at providing activities for children during this time.
In the UK these tend to be run at weekends.
Employment
5.3.4 Businesses and Chambers of Commerce did not have any issue with staggered
hours as (in the US) flexible working hours are common and could be readily
managed. Businesses in France in locations where school hours have been
staggered also did not have any major concerns. Although the changes
affected only secondary schools and were only 15 minutes or so earlier or later
than present. In the US there were some reports of school children with after
school jobs being affected due to less time available to do them – although
teenage employment is higher in the US than the UK.
Crime and anti-social behaviour

5.3.5 Crime peaks among school age children in the two hours after school. No
evidence was found that staggered hours leads to any change in crime levels
affecting children.
5.3.6 However, there is an issue with teenage children’s behaviour who are left at
home unsupervised, a common issue when schools finish early. Higher levels
of underage sex, teenage pregnancy, drug abuse and school drops out were
reported in the US. Spain has also seen a rise in the number latchkey children
both as a result of changes in school hours and the increase in the instances of
both parents working.
5.3.7 This is also linked with the absence of affordable childcare. In the US and UK
the use of public libraries by children as somewhere they go after school till they
get picked up by parents is an issue. However, there is no evidence that it is
the staggering of school hours per se that causes the problem.
5.3.8 Concerns were also raised in various countries about children travelling to and
from school in the dark as a result of changing school hours.
5.4 Difficulties linked to changing school hours

5.4.1 There are legal, administrative and personal implications of staggering school
hours. From the different case studies it is apparent that changing school times
involves numerous stakeholders and affects the work and family organisation of
parents, employers, teachers, school staff and children. This makes it
particularly difficult to find a solution that is adequate for all.
5.4.2 Parents’ work and childcare arrangements are usually arranged around school
opening times, therefore changing these may cause problems particularly in
terms of working arrangements.
5.4.3 Staggering school hours may also change the attractiveness of certain schools
for pupils and parents. Northern Ireland’s case has proved that the schools
35
which have the earliest opening times and the latest opening times are not as
popular as other schools which operate more traditional hours.
5.5 Recommendations
5.5.1 In considering staggering school hours in the North East account needs to be
taken as to why the change is being proposed and the implications are fully
understood. Changing school hours also requires consultation to be
undertaken with various stakeholders and needs to be seen in the light of
government’s extended schools policy.
5.5.2 In considering this issue we recommend that One NorthEast:

 Undertakes a visit to Lyon or similar French city to gain a greater
understanding of the work done there to reduce traffic congestion by
altering opening hours of a wide range of organisations including schools;
 Maps the north east’s schools against the strategic road network to
identify schools that are likely to contribute to significant congestion
problems;
 For those schools review any existing travel plans and if none exist
undertake an analysis of children and staff’s origins and mode of
transport used to school, mapping those results against congestion hot
spots;
 For those children who are driven to the schools that have been identified
survey their parents to ascertain whether the school run is part of a linked
trip;
 Surveys all parents who take children to/from school in these areas to
identify working patterns if any, employers and their ability to readily
change working hours;
 In any identified secondary schools survey children to understand any
childcare responsibilities they have and pre and post school hour
activities;
 Surveys key employers identified as employing a significant number of
parents who take children to/from school to ascertain the impact on them
of staggering school hours;
 In considering staggering school hours identify the scale and range of
out-of school services that will need to be provided to ensure working
parents are not disadvantaged and teenage children especially are not
left “wandering the streets” or becoming “latchkey kids”.
 Surveys major employers in the region to ascertain working hours,
reasons for those hours and whether there are any issues with the start
and finish hours of employees of school age children possibly in
cooperation with Workwise.
.
36
Appendix A- Bibliography
General
 Association nationale pour les transports éducatifs de l’enseignement

public pour la Commission Européenne, (1998) La sécurité des
transports scolaires en Europe,
 Cosden M, Morrison G, Albanese A L, & Macias S (2001) When
Homework is not Home Work : After-Schools Programs for Homework
Assistance Educational Psychologist 36(3) 211-221
 Eurostat: (2005) Short distance mobility in Europe,
 Eurydice, organisation of school time in Europe, 2006/4 school year
 Larsen, (2004) Work and care and strategies in European families:
similarities or national differences? Social policy and administration, vol 8
n36,
 McGinn, N. and Borden, A. (1995). Framing Questions, Constructing
Answers: Linking Research with Education Policy for Developing
Countries. Boston: Harvard University Press
 OECD ( 2004) Babies and bosses, reconciling work and family life:
volume 3 New Zealand, Portugal and Switzerland
 OECD (1999) Innovating schools,
 OECD (2002) Babies and bosses, reconciling work and family life:
volume 1 Australia, Denmark and the Netherlands
volume 2 Austria, Ireland and Japan
 OECD (2005) Education policy analysis,
volume 4 Canada, Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom
 OECD (2006) Starting strong II: early childhood education care
 Pool M, Koolstra M, van der Voort T (2003) The Impact of Background
Radio and Television on High School Students' Homework Performance
Journal of Communication 53 (1), 74–87.
 Uunk W, Kalmijn M, Muffels R (2005) The impact of young children on
women’s labour supply: a reassessment of institutional effects in Europe,
Acta Sociologica
 www.eurostat.org
United Kingdom
 Carins S, Sloman L, Anable J, Kirkbride A and Goodwin P (2004), The

influence of soft factor interventions on travel demand, chapter 4: school
travel plans for Department for Transport
 Cummings C, Dyson A, Papps I, Pearson D, Raffo C, Tiplady L, Todd L,
(2006) Evaluation of the full service extended school initiative second
year: Thematic papers for DfES
 Department for Education (1990) Circular No 7/90 Management of the
school day
 Department for Transport (2003), Travelling to school: an action plan,
 Department for Transport (2005 & 2006), National Travel Survey, 2004 &
2005
 DETR (2001) Increasing bus use for journeys to school
 DfES (2004) Every Child Matters: Change for Children in schools
37
 DfES (2005) Extended schools: access to opportunities and services for

all, a prospectus,
 DfES (2005), Every Child Matters: Change for Children in social care
 DfES (2006) Home to School Travel and Transport Draft Guidance to
local authorities
 DfES (2006) Power to innovate: guidance to innovate
 DfT & DfES (2003) Travelling to school, a good practice guide,
 Duncan S & Irwin S (2004) The social patterning of values and
rationalities: mothers ‘choices in combining caring and employment,
Social Policy and Society, 3:4 391-399.
 Eurydice: The Education System in the United Kingdom (England, Wales
and Northern Ireland) - 2004/05
 House of Commons Library (2007) The Energy Saving (Daylight) Bill
Research paper 07/09
 House of Commons Library (2004) The School Transport Bill Research
paper 04/78
 North East Assembly (2002) North East Regional Education Audit,
December 2002.
 One North East (2006) North East Regional Economic Strategy 2006-
2016
 ONS (2004) Secondary School Absence Indicator,
 Statutory Instrument 1999 No. 2733 The changing of school session
times (England) regulation 1999.
 The Children Act 2004
 University of Westminster (2000) The Family and the School Run: What
would make a real difference
 Viitanen, T K (2005) Cost of Childcare and Female Employment in the
UK. Labour, Vol. 19, No. S1, pp. 149-170, December 2005
 www.dfes.gov.uk
 www.everychildmatters.gov.uk/
 www.governornet.co.uk
 www.innovation-unit.co.uk
 www.opsi.gov.uk
 www.teachernet.gov.uk
 www.trafficmaster.co.uk
 www.walktoschool.org.uk/
France
 Communauté Urbaine du Grand Lyon, Du nouveau sur la mobilité

scolaire
 Communauté Urbaine du Grand Lyon, Une démarche novatrice pour une
mobilité scolaire apaisée à Neuville sur Saône, juin 2006
 Communauté Urbaine du Grand Lyon, étude sur la mobilité et les
déplacements scolaires a Neuville sur Saône.
 Ministère de la jeunesse, des sports et de la vie associative Ministère de
la culture et de la communication Ministère de l’éducation nationale, de
l’enseignement supérieur et de la recherché Ministère de l’emploi, du
travail et de la cohésion sociale, les contrats éducatifs locaux en 2003,
octobre 2004
 Montagner Hubert (2003). Rythmes de l’adolescent et le collège. Cahiers
Pédagogiques.
 Olivier Guillot, une analyse du recours aux services de gardes d’enfants,

économie et statistiques, 2002
 Organisation du temps scolaire dans le premier degré : les effets de la
semaine de quatre jours Houchot Alain, Moulin Yves, Vogler Jean
France. Inspection générale de l'éducation nationale; France. Inspection
générale de l'administration de l'éducation nationale Paris; Ministère de la
jeunesse, de l'éducation nationale et de la recherche; 2002;27 pages
 Périer Pierre (2006). Les familles, les élèves et le temps scolaire: Quelles
relations et quels effets? In Association française des administrateurs de
l'éducation, Concordance et discordances des temps de l'éducation,
Caen, 17-19 mars 2006.
 Pour une approche globale du temps de l'enfant : l'expérimentation des
aménagements des rythmes scolaires Delevoye Jean-Paul, Labadie
Francine France. Ministère de la jeunesse et des sports Paris; La
Documentation française;1998;
 Rapport du Conseil d’Etat au Grand conseil, horaires scolaires et
professionnels, 2004
 Rythmes de l'enfant : de l'horloge biologique aux rythmes scolaires
Institut national de la sante et de la recherché médicale; 2001; (Expertise
collective)
 Targeting, revue de presse sur les plans de déplacements à l’école, 2004
 Ville de Rennes, JCA développement, étude sur les rythmes de vie et les
rythmes scolaires, 2005
 www.agglo-poitiers.fr/
 www.education.gouv.fr/
 www.eduscol.education.fr/
 www.espacedestemps.com/presentation_caue.ppt#4
 www.grandlyon.com/
 www.rennes.fr/
Switzerland
 Rapport du Conseil d’Etat au Grand conseil, horaires scolaires et
professionnels, 2004
Italy
 Bolzano I tempi della citta’ www.comune.bolzano.it/context.jsp?

ID_LINK=1107&area=154
 Brescia Progetto Viol www.brescianetwork.it/viola/?
PHPSESSID=a4a2bccdeec5d57921904b71ac366b74
 Citta Di Torino, Prima, Dopo, come andare a scuola, 2002
 Comune di Vinci, Firenze Progetto ‘Aspettando la mamma’
www.comune.vinci.fi.it/script/livello2.php?sez=2&sotsez=6&som=70
 Consorzio tempi della citta’ www.ctc.polimi.it/
 Perugia Misure a sostegno delle flessibilita’ di orario
www.provincia.perugia.it/Focus/Pari-oppor/Donne-e-la/Misure-
di-/Flessibili/index.htm
 Prato Progetto tempi e orari della citta’
www.comune.prato.it/tempi/piano/testo/htm/5.htm
 Torino Torino in tempo
www.comune.torino.it/tempieorari/web/index.php?
pag=sezioni&idSottoarea=26&idNews=195&idArea=1022
Germany
 Armin Fügenschuh (2005): The Integrated Optimization of School

Starting
 Beruf und Familie berufundfamilie-bremen.de/cmain/s_1.html
 Bundesministerium fuer Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend (2005)
Zukunft: Familie – Ergebnisse aus dem 7. Familienbericht. Berlin
 Difu-Berichte Kommunale Zeitpolitik. Fallstudie Hansestadt Bremen.
www.difu.de/publikationen/difu-berichte/4_99/artikel11.shtml
 Difu-Berichte Kommunale Zeitpolitik. Gemeinsame Tagung des
Deutschen Instituts für Urbanistik mit der Hans-Böckler-Stiftung.
www.difu.de/publikationen/difu-berichte/4_97/artikel08.shtml
 Difu-Berichte, Kommunale Zeitpolitik., www.difu.de/publikationen/difu-
berichte/1_97/artikel11.shtml
 Fiedler, Joachim Prof. Dr.-Ing (Hrsg./ 2001): Mobilitaetsmanagement.
Anwendungsbeispiele aus verschiedenen Handlungsfeldern des
Verkehrswesen und Staedtebaus
 Fuegenschuh, Armin (2006): Ideally matched – School starting times and
public transport
 Guetersloh Schuelerfahrtkosten – Kostensenkung durch
Schulzeitstaffelung
 Heitkoetter, Martina (2004): Lokale Zeitpolitik. Aus Projekt Fachlich-
wissenschaftliche Begleitung „Lokale Bedurfnisse fuer Familie“.
Deutsches Jugendinstitut, Muenchen
 Jorgens, K, Vie de famille et flexibilité du temps de travail en Allemagne:
le mythe de la conciliation, revue international enfance, famille,
générations, 2006
 Juergens, Kerstin (2006): Vie de famille et flexibilité du temps de travail
en Allemagne: le mythe de la conciliation. Revue Internationale
Enfances, Familles, Generations. Numéro 4, Printemps
 Jürgens, Kerstin (2003): Die Schimaere der Vereinbarkeit. Familienleben
und flexibilisierte Arbeitszeiten. In: Zeitschrift für Soziologie der Erziehung
und Sozialisation 23 (3/2003), 251-267
 Jürgens, Kerstin (2005): Die neue Unvereinbarkeit? Familienleben und
flexibilisierte Arbeitszeiten. In: Seifert, Hartmut (Hrsg.): Flexible Zeiten in
der Arbeitswelt. Frankfurt am Main: Campus, 169-190.
 Kreis Guetersloh – Abteilung Schule, Bildungsberatung und Sport,
Beschlussvorlage: Schuelerfahrkosten – Kostensenkung durch
Schulzeitstaffelung, 11/04/2005
 Landkreis Mittweida Fortschreibung Nahverkehrsplan (2006)
Planungsgruppe Nord
 Luebeck Schulkindbetreuung sichert Vereinbarkeit von Beruf und Kind
 Occasional Papers Time Structures of the City. Case Study Bremen.
www.difu.de/english/occasional/timestructures/
 Project Bremen 2030 – eine Zeitbewusste Stadt
www.bremen2030.de/de/detail.php?gsid=bremen02.c.730.de
 Schleswig-Holsteinischer Landtag Umdruck 15/3501:
Interessenvertretung Betreute Grundschulen e.V., Stellungnahme zum
Entschliessungsantrag betr. Schleswig-Holsteinische Offensive fuer
Familien, www.sh-landtag.de/infothek/wahl15/umdrucke/3500/umdruck-
15-3501.pdf
 Times and Public Transport, Doktorarbeit, Logos Verlag Berlin, 165
Seiten, Oktober 2005
 URS Nahverkehrsberatung Heidelberg (1996): Standards in der

Schuelerbefoerderung im Odenwaldkreis
 www.beruf-und-familie.de/index.php
 www.diakonisches-werk-hannover.de/nachmittag.htm
 www.difu.de/index.shtml?/publikationen/difu-berichte/4_97/artikel08.shtml
 www.difu.de/publikationen/difu-berichte/1_97/artikel11.shtml
 www.gymnasium-essen-ueberruhr.de/index.php?
option=com_content&task=view&id=795&Itemid=329
 www.kerstin-juergens.de/
 www.kinderheim-st-clara.de/nachmittag.html
 www.koerber-stiftung.de/wettbewerbe/studienpreis/frames/frames.php?
param=www.koerber-
stiftung.de/wettbewerbe/studienpreis/aktuelles/newsletter_41.html
 www.maxgym.musin.de/profil/nachmittag/
 www.nachmittagsbetreuung.de/
Spain
Government organisations
 www.ine.es. Instituto Nacional de Estadística

 www.mec.es. Minsiterio de Educación y Ciencia
Press releases on the internet

 www.20minutos.es/noticia/118375/0/25.000/ninos/guarderia/
 www.apostadigital.com/revistav3/hemeroteca/belen.pdf
 www.consumer.es/web/es/economia_domestica/2005/01/24/115621.php
 www.consumer.es/web/es/economia_domestica/2006/12/21/158377.php
 www.defensor-and.es/informes/ftp/manual_derechos/capitulo-21.htm
 www.diariodenoticias.com/ediciones/2006/06/17/sociedad/espana-
mundo/d17esp16.624901.php
 www.elcomerciodigital.com/20070129/asturias/propone-abrir-colegios-
semana_200701291255.html
 www.stea.es/FEDERACION/curso%200405/noticia%20Heraldo.PDF
 www.stecyl.es/Prensa/040126_ep_Apertura_centros_after-hours.htm
Contacted School Centres

 www.cide.es
 www.cmontserrat.org
 www.educa.madrid.org/cp.conchaespina.madrid
 www.educa.madrid.org/web/cp.ciudaddezaragoz.madrid
 www.educa.madrid.org/web/ies.gregoriomaranon.madrid
 www.iesalamedadeosuna.org
 www.lasallecomtal.org
 www.rcajal.es
 www.xtec.cat/esc-anna-ravell
Other
 www.ceapa.es. Confederación Española de Asociaciones de Padres de
Alumnos
Netherlands
 Dutch Multi-Year Emancipation Policy Plan 2006-2010

 Eurydice, the education system in the Netherlands, 2006
 Vd Houwen, K, Goossen J, Reisgedrag Kinderen basisschool, 2004
 www.emancipatieweb.nl
 www.minocw.nl/documenten/eurydice_2006_en.pdf
 www.traffictest.nl
United States
 Aronson, J., Zimmerman, J. and Carlos, L. (2005). Improving

student achievement by extending school: Is it just a matter of
time?
www.wested.org/online_pubs/timeandlearning/TAL_PV.html
 Brown, C. (2000). Extended learning initiatives: Opportunities
and implementation challenges. Washington, DC: Council of
Chief State School Officers.
 Dam, A. (2004). The 4-day school week. Colorado Department of
Education:
 Fairfax County Public Schools (1998) Report of the task force to
study high school opening times
 Farbman, D. & Kaplan, C. (2005). Time for a change: The
promise of extended-time schools for promoting student
achievement. Boston, MA: Massachusetts 2020.
 Gottfredson, Soule, The timing of property crime, violent crime
and substance use amongst juveniles, journal of research in
crime and delinquency, 2005
 Graham, M. G. (Ed.) (2000). Sleep needs, patterns and
difficulties of adolescents. Washington, DC: Forum on
Adolescence, Board on Children, Youth and Families, National
Research Council, Institute of Medicine.
 Keith T, Diamond-Hallam C & Fine J (2004) Longitudinal effects
of in-school and out-of school homework on high school grades
School Psychology Quarterly Vol 19 Issue 3
 Kyla Wahlstrom, (2002) Changing Times: Findings From the First
Longitudinal Study of Later High School Start Times, NASSP Bulletin Vol.
86 No. 633 December 2002
 O’Brien (2006) Marking Time: What research says about
reorganising school schedules The Center for Public Education
 Tomlinson, J. (2004). Number of instructional days/hours in the
school year. ECS State Notes: Scheduling/Length of School Year.
 Tonn, J. L. (2006). Later high school start times: a reaction to
research. Education Week, 25(28), 5, 17.
 Transportation Research Board (2005): School transportation, securing
the best options,
 Wahlstrom, K. L. (1999a). The prickly politics of school starting times,
Kappan, 80(5), 344–347
 Wahlstrom, K. (2002). Changing times: Findings from the first
longitudinal study of later high school start times. Center for
Applied Research and Educational Improvement, College of
Education and Human Development, University of Minnesota
 Wolfson A & Carskadon M (2005) A Survey of Factors Influencing

High School Start Times NASSP Bulletin Vol. 89 No. 642
 Yarbrough, R. & Gilman, D. A. (2006). 4 days a week. American
School Board Journal, 193, 43–45., National School Boards
Association
APPENDIX B – Time agencies
Introduction
Time agencies were first introduced in the 1980’s in Italy, pushed by Italian women in order
to help conciliate family life and work. In general, rhythms of life have evolved in the past
decades: mobility and distances travelled for daily activities has increased, notably due to
urban sprawl and improvement in transport, the increase in leisure time, the entry of women
into the labour force and changes in the traditional family model. This has led many mayors
and other political actors to think about space and time issues particularly in cities and
towns.
In the 1990s legislation in Italy promoted the creation of time agencies in cities and towns. It
suggested that time strategies, just as spatial strategies should be a direct responsibility of
municipalities. A number of laws at the regional level were also approved, some allowing for
time considerations to be included in development plans, as well as the allocation of financial
resources for undertaking technical and feasibility studies with regards to time issues.
There are now over 200 of these local offices in the country. The development of time
agencies is more recent in France and dates back more or less to the implementation of the
law on the 35 hour working week. These are now very active in a number of cities and
towns, in order to promote policies and initiatives helping to solve issues linked to time and
mobility.
Other European countries such as Sweden and Germany have also developed time
agencies while the activities and agenda of Workwise in the UK will be well known in the
North East.
Role And Main Activities

The role of the time agencies is to identify issues linked to time and mobility, develop
initiatives and persuade a number of different actors on the local scene to participate and in
some instances fund these schemes. Agencies are in permanent contact with residents,
employers, service providers and other institutions.
The activities of time agencies cover a broad range of issues that are often linked to each
other. They are involved in:
 the promotion of local services adapted to the changing needs of local
population such as opening times of public facilities (libraries, the local
council etc), childcare services and cultural institutions;
 the facilitation of mobility in the city and promotion of sustainable
transport;
 flexibility of working arrangements and involvement of companies in time
related issues; and
 organisation of school time.
Examples
Initiatives launched by time agencies in France other than in schools and childcare include:
 Afternoon markets: traditionally, markets in France take place in the
mornings. However, especially with the increase in the labour force
participation of women, less people are able to go to their local market.
Markets in certain areas are now taking place in the afternoon from 4.30
to 7pm so that more people can access them. This also reduces
congestion in the morning peak.
 Longer library, swimming pool opening times and administrative services

 Rethinking shop opening hours, including on weekends
 Rethinking of the use of neighbourhoods in time: development of
“chronobiological maps”.
Appendix C: Types of school in England
Introduction
This appendix sets out a brief guide to the wide range of schools that are found in England
as adapted from the government’s web site www.parentscentre.gov.uk.78
State Schools
State schools do not charge parents to send their children to attend. The majority of pupils
(more than 90 per cent) go to state schools. In most areas, children aged five to ten years
old attend primary schools and move on to secondary schools at 11 years old for education -
up to the age of 16 or beyond. Most state schools are co-educational - with girls and boys as
pupils but a small number provide for either boys or girls.
There are four categories of state-funded mainstream schools:

 Community
 Foundation
 Voluntary controlled
 Voluntary aided
There are two categories of state-funded special schools:
 Community special
 Foundation special
Mainstream Schools
Schools in all the four categories have a lot in common - they are self-managing and do not
charge fees. They work in partnership with other schools and local authorities (LAs), and
receive funding from LAs. Each category also has its own characteristics:
Community schools
The LA employs the school's staff, owns the school's land and buildings and is the
admissions authority. It has primary responsibility for deciding the arrangements for
admitting pupils.
Foundation schools
At foundation schools, the governing body is the employer of the school staff. The governing
body is also the admissions authority - having primary responsibility for determining
arrangements for admitting pupils. The school's land and buildings are either owned by the
governing body or by a charitable foundation.
Voluntary aided schools

The governing body is the employer of the school staff. The governing body is also the
admissions authority, having primary responsibility for determining arrangements for
admitting pupils. The school's land and buildings will normally be owned by a charitable
foundation. The governing body will contribute towards the capital costs of
establishing/maintaining the school buildings.
78
www.parentscentre.gov.uk/educationandlearning/choosingaschool/typesofschool/
Voluntary controlled schools

The LA employs the school's staff. The LA is also the admissions authority, having primary
responsibility for deciding the arrangements for admitting pupils. The school's land and
buildings will normally be owned by a charitable foundation.
Mainstream school specialisation and services

Within the four categories of school, there are further ways in which schools can specialise
to offer additional benefits and services:
Specialist schools
The Specialist Schools Programme is central to the government's goal to increase diversity
and improve standards in secondary education. The programme helps schools to build on
their particular strengths, establish distinctive identities through their chosen specialisms and
achieve their targets to raise standards. Specialist schools have a special focus on their
chosen subject area, but must meet the full National Curriculum requirements and deliver a
broad and balanced education to all pupils.
Extended schools
An extended school is one which provides a range of services and activities, often beyond
the school day, to help meet the needs of its pupils, their families and the wider community.
Across the country many schools are already providing extended services which may be
valuable to parents, such as childcare, adult education, study support, ICT facilities and adult
sports programmes. A few are starting to provide health and social care.
Maintained boarding schools

There are a small number of state boarding schools which only charge for boarding fees -
tuition is free as it is paid for by the government.
Special Schools
These schools are provided by LAs for certain children with special educational needs
(SEN), although the vast majority are educated in ordinary schools.
Other State-Funded Schools
Trust schools
Trust schools are government-funded schools that receive additional support from a
charitable trust such as a local business, community group or educational charity.
Academies And City Technology Colleges

There are two types of independent schools that have been established in various parts of
the country which are publicly funded and do not charge parents fees:
 Academies
 City Technology Colleges (CTCs)
Academies
Academies are publicly funded independent schools that will provide a first-class free
education for local pupils.
City technology colleges

CTCs are independent, all-ability, non-fee-paying schools for pupils aged 11 to 18 years old.
Their purpose is to offer pupils of all abilities in urban areas across England the opportunity
to study successfully towards the world of work. All CTCs offer a wide range of vocational
qualifications post-16 alongside A levels or equivalents.
Independent Schools
There are approximately 2,300 independent schools in England. They are not funded by the
state and obtain most of their finances from fees paid by parents and income from
investment. Just over half of all independent schools have charitable status.
Provision For Children Aged Under Five

The Early Years Development Plan guarantees every four year old a free nursery place.
Children under five years old can attend:
 State nursery schools
 Nursery classes attached to primary schools
 Playgroups in the voluntary sector
 Privately run nurseries
In England and Wales, many primary schools also operate an early admission policy where
they admit children under five years old into reception classes. Nursery provision for three
year olds is funded at the discretion of local authorities. Places for children under three years
old in voluntary or private pre-school settings are paid for largely by parents

Socio-Economic Impact of Staggering School Hours in The North East

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Socio-Economic Impact of Staggering School Hours in The North East

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Staggering school hours in the North

One North East

Project No: 128191

Prepared by: Approved by:

Status: draft Issue no: 1 Date: 4/8/2011

Table 2.1: Trips to and from School 1999-2001 5

Figure 4.1: Socio-economic implications of the organisation of school

1.3 Report structure

2.1.2 Moreover, recent developments in the provision of school transport and

2.2 The education system in England

Key Governing Bodies

Organisation of school time

2.2.6 In the case of a community, voluntary controlled or community special school

Changing school session times

2.3 Education policy context

2.4 Travel to school

Table 2.1: Trips to and from School 1999-2001

Region/Country Age 5 to 16 (percentages) Average Length

School travel plans and Government guidance

2.5 Education in the North East

3.1.6 In summary therefore this section covers:

3.2 Educational structure

Organisation of the education system

Organisation of the school week

Out-of school childcare and after school activities

The level of parental choice of school

Travel to school and mode of transport to school

3.3 Female labour force statistics

3.3.3 Female employment is the most likely to be affected by childcare

Table 3.2: Comparative labour market statistics

Spain 12.2% 34.7 60% n/a 30% n/a 6 n/a n/a

Germany 11.0% 30 68% 42% 45% 14%, but 3 age 0 to 3, in 78%

source: eurostat and OECD

4 Literature review findings

Figure 4.1: Socio-economic implications of the organisation of school time

Adaptation of school hours to the changing socio-

4.1.12 Arguments in favour of the continuous model are:

4.2 Changing the organisation of school times for

4.3 Homework - In school or out-of school

4.3.5 However, the evidence on whether homework should be undertaken at home or

4.4 Childcare, affordability and employment

4.4.3 The provision of free or subsidised basis of childcare provision is particularly

4.4.7 In the city of Luebeck, Germany, a series of independent parental associations

4.4.9 In the Netherlands, only approximately 40 per cent of women are

social partners and municipalities in arrangements to make work life

4.5 Crime, anti-social behaviour and security

4.6 Travelling in daylight hours

4.7 School transport issues

4.7.6 Another example is in the fifth arrondissement of Lyon. The fifth

4.8 School transport costs

4.8.2 The district of Guetersloh in Germany is currently attempting to introduce

4.8.7 Another example is in Northern Ireland where neighbouring schools must

4.9 Extended school day in the north east

Figure 4.2: Role of extended schools in the community

4.10 Other implications of staggering school opening

perceived by associations and companies that provide these services to

5 Conclusions and recommendations

5.1 Why stagger school hours

5.1.3 However, a significant number of children do have responsibility for escorting

Increasing road congestion

Cost pressures on school transport

Child performance issues