Introduction to PL/SQL

Kristian Torp

Department of Computer Science

Aalborg Univeristy
www.cs.aau.dk/ torp
torp@cs.aau.dk

November 30, 2009

daisy.aau.dk

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 1 / 55

Outline

1 Introduction

2 Stored Procedures
An Overview
Data Types
Parameter Parsing
Cursors

3 Packages
Case Study: Table API

4 Summary

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Learning Outcomes

Learning Outcomes
Understand how code can be executed within a DBMS
Be able to design stored procedures in general
Be able to construct and execute stored procedures on Oracle
Knowledge about the pros and cons of stored procedures

Note That
Concepts are fairly DBMS independent
All code examples are Oracle specific

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Prerequisites

SQL
Knowledge about the SQL select statement
Knowledge about SQL modification statements, e.g., insert and delete
Knowledge about transaction management, e.g., commit and rollback
Knowledge about tables, views, and integrity constraints

Procedural Programming Language

Knowledge about another programming language of the C family
Knowledge about data types, e.g., int, long, string, and boolean
Knowledge of control structures, e.g., if, while, for, and case
Knowledge of functions, procedures, parameters, and return values

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Motivation

Purpose
Move processing into the DBMS from client programs (database
applications)

Advantages
Code accessible to all applications
Access from different programming languages
Very efficient for data intensive processing
Process large data set, small result returned
Enhance the security of database applications
Avoid SQL injection attacks
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL_injection

Missing Standard
Unfortunately, the major DBMS vendors each have their own SQL dialect
Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 6 / 55
Overview
SQL extended with control structures
Control structures like if and loop statements
Used for
Stored procedures (and functions)
Package

Triggers

Types a.k.a. classes

In very widely used in the industry
see http://www.tiobe.com/index.php/content/paperinfo/
tpci/index.html
In the SQL standard called SQL/PSM
PSM = Persistent Storage Model

Focus
The focus is here on stored procedures and packages!
Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 7 / 55
Motivation for Stored Procedures

The Big Four Benefits

Abstraction
Increases readability
Implementation hiding
Can change internals without effecting clients
Modular programs
More manageable and easier to understand
Library
Reuse, reuse, and reuse!

Note
This is not different from any other procedural programming language!

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 9 / 55

A Procedure: Hello, World!

c r e a t e o r r e p l a c e procedure h e l l o w o r l d i s
begin
dbms output . p u t l i n e ( ’ H e l l o , World ! ’ ) ;
end ;

Note
It is a procedure, i.e., not a function
It is a begin and end language, not curly brackets: { and }
It uses a built-in library dbms output.put line
The package dbms output has the procedure put line

Uses the dot notation for invoking functions myPackage.myProcedure

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 11 / 55

A Function: Calculating Your BMI
c r e a t e o r r e p l a c e f u n c t i o n bmi ( h e i g h t i n t , w e i g h t f l o a t )
return f l o a t is
begin
i f h e i g h t <= 0 . 3 o r h e i g h t > 3 . 0 then
dbms output . p u t l i n e ( ’ h e i g h t must be i n [ 0 . 3 , 3 . 0 ] meters ’ ) ;
end i f ;
i f w e i g h t <= 0 then
dbms output . p u t l i n e ( ’ w e i g h t must be p o s i t i v e ’ ) ;
e l s i f w e i g h t > 500 then
dbms output . p u t l i n e ( ’No human ’ ’ s w e i g h t i s 500 kg ’ ) ;
end i f ;
r e t u r n weight / height ∗∗2;
end ;

Note
It is a function, i.e., has a return statement
It takes parameters height and weight
It is strongly typed language, i.e., parameters and the return value
Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 12 / 55
Executing Stored Procedures

Log on to your Oracle server

−− t o enable o u t p u t from t h e s e r v e r
SQL> s e t s e r v e r o u t p u t on

−− execute t h e procedure
SQL> execute h e l l o w o r l d ;

−− execute t h e f u n c t i o n
SQL>exec bmi ( 1 . 8 7 , 9 0 ) ;
−− r e s u l t s i n an e r r o r , v a l u e r e t u r n e d by f u n c t i o n must be used !

−− Wrap t h e f u n c t i o n c a l l
SQL>exec dbms output . p u t l i n e ( bmi ( 1 . 8 7 , 9 0 ) ) ;

Note
Output from server is not enabled by default in a session!
Return value of a function cannot be ignored!
Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 13 / 55
Using SQL in Stored Procedures

c r e a t e o r r e p l a c e f u n c t i o n g e t s t a t u s ( s t u d e n t i d number )
r e t u r n varchar2 i s
v s t a t u s varchar2 ( 5 0 ) ;
begin
s e l e c t s t a . dsc
into v status
from s t u d e n t stu , s t a t u s s t a
where s t u . s t a t i d = s t a . s t a t i d
and stu . sid = student id ;
return v status ;
end ;

Note
The declaration of the variable v status
The usage of the into keyword in the select statement
The usage of the parameter student id in the select statement

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 14 / 55

Calling Other Procedures
Callee
c r e a t e o r r e p l a c e procedure p ( s t v a r c h a r 2 ) as
begin
dbms output . p u t l i n e ( s t ) ;
end ;

Caller
c r e a t e o r r e p l a c e procedure c a l l p i s
begin
p ( ’ H e l l o ’ ) ; p ( ’ World ! ’ ) ;
end ;

Note
Can call own and built-in stored procedures
Will use the procedure p instead of dbms output.put line
You are now officially a PL/SQL library builder!!!
Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 15 / 55
Control Structures: A Crash Course I

c r e a t e o r r e p l a c e procedure pb ( v a l boolean ) i s
begin
i f v a l = t r u e then
dbms output . p u t l i n e ( ’ t r u e ’ ) ;
e l s i f v a l = f a l s e then
dbms output . p u t l i n e ( ’ f a l s e ’ ) ;
else
dbms output . p u t l i n e ( ’ n u l l ’ ) ;
end i f ;
end ;

Note
Is this stupid?
Recall three-valued logic the root of all evil!
We will use the procedure pb in the code that follows!

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 16 / 55

Control Structures: A Crash Course II

c r e a t e o r r e p l a c e procedure count 10 i s
i i n t := 1;
begin
w h i l e i < 10 l o o p
dbms output . p u t l i n e ( i ) ;
i := i + 1;
end l o o p ;

Note
What is printed 1 to 9 or 1 to 10?
PL/SQL also has a for statement, very different from C
PL/SQL does not have increment/decrement operators, e.g., i −− or ++j
PL/SQL does not have compound assignments, e.g., i +=7 or j ∗=2

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 17 / 55

Surprises: In General

The code is stored in the DBMS!

{ has been replaced by begin and } by end
SQL and programming logic blends very nicely!
A strong-point of PL/SQL
Procedures are different from functions
The assignment operator is := and not =
The comparison operator is = and not ==
Control structures are quite different from the C world
Three-valued logic will time and again surprise you!
Server output is not enabled by default
Which is a big surprise

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 18 / 55

An Example
c r e a t e o r r e p l a c e procedure u s e b a s i c t y p e s i s
v s t r v a r c h a r 2 ( 3 0 ) : = ’A s t r i n g ’ ;
v i n t i n t : = 2 ∗∗ 65;
c p i c o n s t a n t f l o a t : = 3.14159265358979323846264338327950288419;
v f l o a t f l o a t := v i n t ∗ c p i ;
begin
p( v str ); p( v int ); p( v float );
end ;

Output
A string
36893488147419103232
115904311329233965478,149216911761758199
Note
Forget what you think of data types and size!
Very high precision on all number types in both SQL and PL/SQL
The size of strings must be defined
Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 20 / 55
Overview: Scalar Data Types

Description Type Examples

smallint -100, 0, 100
Integers int/integer -1000, 0, 1000
positive 0, 1, 2, 3
number 10.3
Floats dec/decimal 123.456, 3.4
real 123456.7890
varchar2 Hello, Theta-Join
Strings nvarchar2 Tøger, Dæmon
char World, Noise
Boolean Boolean True, False
Date/time date 2007-09-09
timestamp 2009-09-09 12:34:56
Note
Not all of these data types are available from within SQL!
Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 21 / 55
Quiz: The Decimal Data Type

create or r e p l a c e procedure u s i n g d e c i m a l i s
v dec decimal ( 4 , 2 ) ;
begin
v dec := 12.34;
dbms output . p u t l i n e ( v dec ) ;
v dec := 12.344;
dbms output . p u t l i n e ( v dec ) ;
v dec := 12.347;
dbms output . p u t l i n e ( v dec ) ;
end ;

Questions
Will this compile, note that it is decimal(4,2)?
What will be printed (if it compiles)?
Are you surprised?

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 22 / 55

Overview: Other Data Types

Description Type
Record
Composite Varray
Table
BLOB
Large Objects CLOB
BFILE
REF
Reference Types
REF CURSOR

Note
We will only use records in this lecture.

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 23 / 55

Anchored Data Types: Type

create or replace f u n c t i o n get status anchored (

s t u d e n t i d s t u d e n t . s i d%t y p e )
r e t u r n s t a t u s . dsc%t y p e i s
v s t a t u s s t a t u s . dsc%t y p e ;
begin
s e l e c t s t a . dsc
into v status
from s t u d e n t stu , s t a t u s s t a
where s t u . s t a t i d = s t a . s t a t i d
and stu . sid = student id ;
return v status ;
end ;

Note
The anchored type using the %type
Very convenient of maintenance reasons (avoid “hard-wiring” types)
Widely used, you are encouraged to use it!

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 24 / 55

Anchored Data Types: Rowtype
c r e a t e o r r e p l a c e procedure g e t c o u r s e r o w t y p e (
c o u r s e i d course . c i d%t y p e )
is
v row course%rowtype ;
v tmp v a r c h a r 2 ( 5 0 0 ) ;
begin
select ∗
into v row
from course c
where c . c i d = c o u r s e i d ;
v tmp : = v row . cname | | ’ : ’ | | v row . dsc ;
p ( v tmp ) ;
end ;
Note
The anchored type using the rowtype
Creates a record
The dot notation for access elements of the record
String concatenation is ||
Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 25 / 55
Surprises: Data Type

Strings are a basic type, not an object like in Java or C#

A maximum size must be specified
The sizes of the basic data type are very different from C and Java
Date and time are basic data types!
This is very handy
The anchored types is something new compared to C and Java
Booleans are not a basic data type in SQL but in PL/SQL
This sometimes leads to very annoying problems
Support for composite data type is not very good in PL/SQL
compared to C and Java
LOB objects are plain stupid
But sometimes necessary

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 26 / 55

Overview
create or r e p l a c e procedure p i n ( v a l i n i n t ) i s
v tmp int ;
begin
v tmp := val + 5;
−− v a l : = v a l + 5 ; / ∗ i l l e g a l v a l i s read − o n l y ∗ /
end ;
c r e a t e o r r e p l a c e procedure p i n o u t ( v a l i n o u t i n t ) i s
begin
val := val + 5;
end ;
c r e a t e o r r e p l a c e procedure c a l l p s i s
v in i n t := 10;
v i n o u t i n t := 10;
begin
p in ( v in ) ; p( v in ) ;
p in out ( v in out ) ; p( v in out ) ;
end ;

When execute call ps prints 10 and 15, why?

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 28 / 55
Quiz

c r e a t e o r r e p l a c e procedure p i n o u t ( v a l i n o u t i n t ) i s
begin
val := val + 5;
end ;

c r e a t e o r r e p l a c e procedure c a l l p s i s
v in i n t := 10;
v i n o u t i n t := 10;
begin
p in ( v in ) ; p( v in ) ;
p in out ( v in out ) ; p( v in out ) ;
end ;

Questions
What are the formal parameter(s)?
What are the actual parameter(s)?
Is it call-by-value or call-by-reference?

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 29 / 55

Out Parameters

c r e a t e o r r e p l a c e procedure g e t x y c o o r (
c o o r i d i n i n t , x coor out i n t , y coor out i n t )
is
begin
x c o o r : = round ( c o o r i d / 4 . 2 ) ; −− s t u p i d c a l c u l a t i o n s
y c o o r : = round ( c o o r i d / 7 . 5 ) ;
end ;

Note
in and out parameters can both be used in same procedure
The out parameters are write-only
More than one value is “returned” by the procedure
The calculation is naturally plain stupid
round is the built-in rounding function

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 30 / 55

Parameter Mode

Mode Description
in Formal parameter is read-only
out Formal parameter is write-only
in out Formal parameter is read-write

Note
in is the default parameter mode if the mode is not specified
Stored procedures cannot be overloaded on the parameter signature
There is a nocopy compiler hint for in out parameters

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 31 / 55

What is Wrong Here?

c r e a t e procedure p r o c 1 ( i i n t ) create function func 1 ( i i n t )

is return i n t is
begin begin
−− s n i p c o m p l i c a t e d s t u f f −− s n i p c o m p l i c a t e d s t u f f
return i ; return ’ hello ’ ;
end ; end ;
A B

create function func 2 ( i i n t )

create function func 3 ( i i n t )
return i n t is
return i n t is
begin
begin
−− s n i p c o m p l i c a t e d s t u f f
−− s n i p c o m p l i c a t e d s t u f f
return i ∗2;
p ( ’ h e l l o world ’ ) ;
p ( ’ h e l l o world ’ ) ;
end ;
end ;
C D

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 32 / 55

Additional Comments on Parameters

A default value can be provided for each parameter

Stored procedures cannot be overloaded on the parameter signature
Stored procedures can be called by position or by name
Works like in most programming languages, however different syntax!

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 33 / 55

Overview

Definition
A cursor is a mechanism that ensure a result set can be identified by a
declarative language such as SQL and processed by a procedural
language such as PL/SQL or C#

Solution
Solves the well-known impedance mismatch problem!

Generality
Knowledge about cursors in PL/SQL is directly transferable to many other
programming languages.

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 35 / 55

The Unix ls command
c r e a t e o r r e p l a c e procedure l s i s
cursor c tables i s
s e l e c t ∗ from c a t ;
v t a b le n a m e c a t . table name%t y p e ;
v type c a t . t a b l e t y p e%t y p e ;
begin
open c t a b l e s ;
loop
f e t c h c t a b l e s i n t o v table name , v t y p e ;
e x i t when c t a b l e s%n o t f ou n d ;
p ( v t a b le n a m e ) ;
end l o o p ;
close c tables ;
end ;

Note
The view tab is a table that contains all table names
The cursor is declared, opened, fetched, and closed
Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 36 / 55
Cursor Attributes

Attribute Type Description

notfound Boolean True if a record is fetched unsuccessfully
found Boolean True if a record is fetched successfully
rowcount Integer The number of records fetched from the cursor
isopen Boolean True if cursor is open

Note
There are additional attributes for bulk operations.

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 37 / 55

Quiz: Using rowcount

c r e a t e o r r e p l a c e procedure l s c n t i s
cursor c tables i s
s e l e c t table name from c a t ;
v t a b le n a m e c a t . table name%t y p e ;
begin
open c t a b l e s ;
loop
f e t c h c t a b l e s i n t o v t a b le n a m e ;
e x i t when c t a b l e s%n o t f ou n d ;
p ( c t a b l e s%rowcount | | ’ ’ | | v t a b le n a m e ) ;
end l o o p ;
close c tables ;
end ;

What is printed?

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 38 / 55

Quiz: Using isopen?

c r e a t e o r r e p l a c e procedure l s i s o p e n i s
cursor c tables i s
s e l e c t table name from c a t ;
v t a b le n a m e c a t . table name%t y p e ;
v s t a t u s boolean : = f a l s e ;
begin
v s t a t u s : = c t a b l e s%isopen ; pb ( v s t a t u s );
open c t a b l e s ;
v s t a t u s : = c t a b l e s%isopen ; pb ( v s t a t u s );
loop
f e t c h c t a b l e s i n t o v t a b le n a m e ;
e x i t when c t a b l e s%n o t f ou n d ;
end l o o p ;
v s t a t u s : = c t a b l e s%isopen ; pb ( v s t a t u s );
close c tables ;
v s t a t u s : = c t a b l e s%isopen ; pb ( v s t a t u s );
end ;

What is printed?

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 39 / 55

Introduction

A class like concept

Very good for building libraries
A way to cluster related stored procedures
Has a header and a body (think C-style languages)

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 41 / 55

Introduction

Goal
To build a uniform way to address the data stored in table!

Name Description
exist(<primary key>) Return true if primary key exists
to string(<primary key>) Return string representation of row
print(<primary key>) Convenient way to display a row

Note
Many more methods can be envisioned
Think object-relational mapping (ORM) tools

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 43 / 55

Header File: Course Table

c r e a t e o r r e p l a c e package ccourse i s
f u n c t i o n e x i s t ( c i d course . c i d%t y p e ) r e t u r n boolean ;
f u n c t i o n t o s t r i n g ( c i d course . c i d%t y p e ) r e t u r n s t r i n g ;
procedure p r i n t ( c i d course . c i d%t y p e ) ;
end ;

Note
The header lists all the public stored procedures
The naming convention table name course package name ccourse
The design is influenced by the Object class from Java and C#

Quiz
Why is the method called exist and not exists?

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 44 / 55

Body File: Private Method and Cursor
c r e a t e o r r e p l a c e package body ccourse i s
−− p r i v a t e c o n s t a n t
c e r r o r c i d n u l l c o n s t a n t i n t : = − 20001;
−− a c u r s o r used i n t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
c u r s o r c u r e x i s t ( c v c i d course . c i d%t y p e ) i s
s e l e c t c . c i d , c . cname , c . semester , c . dsc
from course c
where c . c i d = c v c i d ;
−− a p r i v a t e method
procedure c h e c k v a l i d c i d ( c i d course . c i d%t y p e ) i s
begin
i f c i d i s n u l l then
raise application error ( c error cid null ,
’ Course ID i s n u l l ’ ) ;
end i f ;
end ;
Note
The cursor cur exist is declared outside the methods
The method check valid cid is private
Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 45 / 55
Body File: The Exist Method

f u n c t i o n e x i s t ( c i d course . c i d%t y p e ) r e t u r n boolean i s

r e c e x i s t c u r e x i s t%rowtype ;
begin
c h e c k v a l i d c i d ( c i d ) ; −− p r e c o n d i t i o n
open c u r e x i s t ( c i d ) ;
fetch cur exist into rec exist ;
close c u r e x i s t ;
r e t u r n ( r e c e x i s t . cid i s not n u l l ) ;
end ;

Note
Uses the private method check valid cid to check preconditions
Uses the private cursor cur exist
Returns true if a valid primary key is found

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 46 / 55

Body File: The to string and print Methods I

f u n c t i o n t o s t r i n g ( c i d course . c i d%t y p e ) r e t u r n s t r i n g i s
v rv string (512);
r e c e x i s t c u r e x i s t%rowtype ;
begin
c h e c k v a l i d c i d ( c i d ) ; −− p r e c o n d i t i o n
open c u r e x i s t ( c i d ) ;
fetch cur exist into rec exist ;
close c u r e x i s t ;
v r v : = ’ course name : ’ | | r e c e x i s t . cname | | ’ ’ | |
’ course desc : ’ | | r e c e x i s t . dsc ;
return v rv ;
end ;

procedure p r i n t ( c i d course . c i d%t y p e ) i s

begin
c h e c k v a l i d c i d ( c i d ) ; −− p r e c o n d i t i o n
dbms output . p u t l i n e ( t o s t r i n g ( c i d ) ) ;
end ;
end ;

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 47 / 55

Body File: The to string and print Methods II

Note
Uses the private method check valid cid to check preconditions
Uses the private cursor cur exist
print calls to string

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 48 / 55

Exercising the Package

SQL> s e t s e r v e r o u t p u t on
−− execute t h e procedure
SQL> execute ccourse . p r i n t ( 4 ) ;

Note
Similar to executing a stored procedure
Access member by the dot notation

SQL> execute ccourse . p r i n t ( n u l l ) ;

Note
Results in an error “ORA-20001: Course ID is null”

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 49 / 55

Summary: Packages

Can have a public and a private part

Has no protected access modifiers as in Java or C#
Is used to cluster related stored procedures
Cursors, constants, and variables can be shared between methods in
a package
The foundation for building larger libraries in PL/SQL
There is a huge library of built-it packages on Oracle
Has very good exception handling facilities

Comparison to Object-Oriented Languages

No inheritance
Only static methods
No concept of an object

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 50 / 55

Advantages

A complete programming language

You are not missing stuff as you sometimes are in SQL
In wide-spread usage in the industry
Adds to your market value
Very good integration of programming logic and SQL
Impedance mismatch is basically removed
PL/SQL data types are super set of SQL data types

Cursors enable the processing of sets (or bags)

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 52 / 55

Disadvantages

Proprietary programming language

There is a very large number (>1000) of reserved words
Can be hard to come up with a variable name that is not a reserved
word!
Pascal-family language (C-family more well-known)
Which lead to a number of surprises
Object-oriented features are “clumsy”
This has not been covered in this lecture

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 53 / 55

Some Topics Not Covered

Limited about exception handling

Parallel, deterministic, and pipelined options
External stored procedures
Invoker rights vs. definer rights
Calling stored procedures from SQL
Pragmas to stored procedures

There are a Lot of Details

Go and study the manuals and books!

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 54 / 55

Additional Information

www.oracle.com/technology/tech/pl_sql/index.html
PL/SQL’s home
www.psoug.org/library.html A very good and complete wiki with
PL/SQL information
plsql-tutorial.com/ A crash course covering many PL/SQL
features
en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Oracle_Programming/SQL_Cheatsheet
A short overview of PL/SQL
www.java2s.com/Tutorial/Oracle/CatalogOracle.htm Many
good examples, too many commercials

Kristian Torp (Aalborg University) Introduction to PL/SQL November 30, 2009 55 / 55