CLASSIIC

REPRIINT

SIERIIES

COURSE OF PURE

MATHEMATICS

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COURSE
OF

P RE MATHEMATICS

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CA11 RIDGE
LOI\DOX

UNIVERSITY
~lAXAGER

PRESS

C. F. CLAY,
: FETTER

LAXE, E.C. 4

NE~

YORK:

THE

MACM1LLAX

CO.

CAL UTTA MACIIHLLAN AND CO'I LTD. MADRAS , TOR XTO : THE !llACMTLLAN CO. OF CA:"fADA, LTD. TOK '0; MARUZEN·KABUSHIK[·KAISHA

BOM

AY

ALL RIGHTS

RESERVED

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A COURSF.
OF

PURE MA THEMA TI
EY

G. H. IjARDY,
FELLOW SAVILIA~ PROFESSOR OF NEW

M.A.,
COLLEGE

F.R,S.
UNIVERSITY

OF GEOMETRY

IN THE

oi<' OXFORD
LATE FELLOW OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE

THIRD EDITION

Cambridge
at the University Join www.forgottenbooks.org Press to read this book in HIGH-QUALITY

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.Rdftion 1908 Second Edition HIH ']'hird E diiio» HI~l

Pint

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PREFACE TO THE THIRD E ITION

No

extensive changes have been made in this ition, The most important are in §§ 80-82, which I have rewritten in accordance with sllggestions made by 111'S. Pollard.

'l'he earlier editions contained no sabiefacbo account of the gene8is of the circular functions. I have made some attempt to meet this objection in § 158 and Appendix III. A pendix IV is also an add ition. h is curious to note how the character of the criticisms I have had to meet has changed. I was too meticulou and pedantic for my pupils of fifteen years ago: I am altogether t 0 popular for the Trinity scholar of to-day. I need hardly say hat 1 find such criticisms very gratifying, as the best evidence t at the book has to some extent fulfilled the purpose with which it was written. G.B,H.

EXTRACT FROThI THE PREF .. THE SECOND EDITIO

HE principal changes made in this editio are as follows. I have inserted in Chapter I a sketch of edekind's theory of real numbers, and a proof of Weierstrass's th orem concerning points of condensation; in Chapter IVan sec unt of 'limits of" indetermination' and the' general principle of convergence '; in Chapter V a proof of the' Heine-Borel Theorem Heine's theorem concerning uniform continuity, and the fund mental theorem concerning implicit functions; in Chapter VI some additional matter concerning the integration of algebraic I functions j and in Chapter VII a section on differentials. I h e also rewritten in a more general form the sections which dea with the definition of the definite integral. In order to fin space for these insertions I have deleted a good deal of the an lyrical geometry and formal trigonometry contained in Cbapte s II and III of the first edition, These changes have natu ally involved a large number of minor alterations.

G.R.H.
OctobfJr 1914

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EXTRAOT

FRO}'1 THE PREF OE TO THE FIRST EDITION

for the use of first se abilities reach or ibed as •scholarship to other classes of ave considered first. s: I have nowhere ents of engineering ts are not primarily

HIS book has been designed primarily year students at the Universities wh approach something like what is usually des standard', I hope that it may be useful readers, but it is this class whose wants I It is in any case a book for mathematicia made any attempt to meet the needs of stu or indeed any class of students whose intere

mathematical.

I regard the book being really ele plenty of hard examples (mainly at the ends these I have added, wherever space permitt solution. But I have done my best to a anything that involves really difficult ideas. no use of the' principle of convergence': double series, infinite products, are never all no general theorems whatever concerning th operations-I never even define ~

as

icntary. There are of the chapters): to

d, an outline of the aid the inclusion of i or instance, I make niform convergence, ded to: and I prove in version of limit•

'02/

U.'CvY

and

UY $

':l

'0

In the last two

chapters I have occasion once or twice to inte rate a power-series, but I have confined myself to the very sim lest cases and given a, special discussion in each instance. Anyo e who has read this book will be in a position to rend with P ant Dr Bromwich's Infinite Series, where a. full and adequate di cession of all these points win be found.

September 1908

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CONTENTS
CHAPTER
nEAL
SECT,

I
l'AGE

VARIABLES

1-2. 3-7. 8. 9. 10-11.

12. 13-14.

Ratio al numbers.
Relati Algeb The Quadl 'I'he The
Secti

15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Poin cie

'Y

nal numbers umbers ns of magnitude between real numbers -aical operations with real numbers umber '2 atic surds • ontinuum ontinuous real variable ns of the real numbers, Dedekind's Theorem. of condensation, trass'e 'I'heore: n .

3 13

15 17
19

19
23
26

27

29
30

~. iscellaneous Examples
Decimals, 1. Gauss's Theorem, 6, Graphical solution of quadratic sqnationa, 20 Importa'in inequalities, 32. Arithmetical and geometrical means, 32. Sehwnl'z's Inequality, 33. Cubic and other surds, 34. Algebra.iclll n mbers, 36.

31

CHAPTER
}'U~CTIONS OF REAL

JI
VAnT.o\BLES

20.

21. 2,2.
23. 24-25.
\

The i ea of a. function. Tbe -aphical representation

Polar Poly coord inatss .

38 of functions. Coordinates
41 4:l 44

26-'27. 28-29.
30. 31.

mials , Ratio al functions Alge raical functious Tran cendental functions Grap ical solution of equations Func ions of two variables and 6 ntation

47 49 52
li8

their graphical

rcpre·

(HI

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SECT.

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32.

33.

Curves in a pI ne Loci in space Miseellane us Examples Trigonometrital fun tions, 5~. Arithmetical functious, 55. Cylinders, 62. Contour maps, 62 Cones, 63. Surfaces of revolution, 63. Ruled surfaces, 64. Geome rlcal constructicns fo)' irrational numbers, 66. Quadrature of the eire! , 68.

60

61. 65

OHAPTER
34-:38.
39-42. 43.
4-4,

III
09
81
Sol

COMPLEX XUMDEns

Displacements
Complex num ers , Tho quadratic equation with real coefficients Argand's diagram . de Moivre's T corcru . ..i Rational functjons of a complex 'varia-ble Roots of comp ex numbers. Miscellanc
ItS

78
86 88
91::1 101

45. 46. 47-49.

Examples

Properties of Q trian 91. Coaxal circles, 93, Orosa ratios, 96. COD Complex function 8 of a by Euclidean methods,

Is, 90, 101. Equations with complex coefficients, Bilinear and other traosformations, 94, 97, 104. rtiou tha.t four points should be conoyclic, 97. ell. variable, 97. Oonstructio n of regular polygons 1 00. Imaginary points and lines, 103.

CHAPTER
LnrITS OF FUNC

IV
VARIABLI!:

IOXS OF A POSITIVE INTEGRAL

50.
51.

52. 53~,)7. 58-61. 62. 63---68. 69-70. 71. 72

Functions of positive integral varia ble Interpolation Finite and inn ito classes . Properties pOSB sed by a function of tt for large values of n Definition of a limit, and other definitions ,~' O!:lcillating fun tiona General theore a concerning limits Steadily inoro sing or decreasing functions Alternative p of of "Teien,trass's Theorem The limit of • Tbe limit of

106 107 108 109

I1G
121
I I'J"} ~,

]:11

73.
·74. 75.

l+n

I)" .

1;~4 1341'37
'\

76-77. 78.

Some algebrai 1 lemmas The limit of 11 Wz-1). Infinite series

1 ;)'9 139

140 14.3

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IX
PAGE

sscr. 79. 80.

Bl.
B;],

83.:..a4. 85-86. 87-88,

The representation of functions of a co tinuous real variable by means of limits The bounds of a. bounded aggregate The hounds of a bounded function TIle limits of indetcrmina tion of a 001.'1ded fu nc tiou • The general principle of convergence • Limits of complex functions and serie of complex terms. Applicatlons to z" and tho geometries series Miscellaneous Examples Limits of Oscillation of eiu1!O"., 121, 123, 151.

147 149 149 100 15l 15::1 15t) 167

nkxn, :.tx, :.tn, {!{nl),

~~,

(~)

~!I,

136, 139.
Equation
11

Decimals, 143. Ati tbmetic

X,o+l

series, 146. Rarmonl.c!ll

series, 147.

=!(:r, ..), 158. Expo.nsi nit of rational functions,

159. Limit of

menn value, 160.

CHAPTER
LUIlTS OF FUNCTIONS
A!\D DISCONTIXUOUS
a)

V
CONTINUOUS

OF A CONTINUOUS V FUNC 10:o;'S

89-92. 93-9i. 98-99. 100-104. 105-106, 107, 108-109.

Limits as

Limits as x_ a . Continuous functions of a real Properties of conti 11 uous tu nctions, Bound od functions. The oscillatiou of a function in a interval Set"! of intervals on a line, The Hei c-Borel Theorem Continuous functions of several varia IC>i Implicit and inverse functions Miscellaneous Example"! of polynomials nod rat onal functions, 169, 176. Limit of 177. Orders of smullness and greatness, 172. of a Iunetion, )77. Continu tyofMS$andsin:1:,

.'1:_

or x...,.. -

a)

162
165

174 179

185
190 191 19-1

Limits and coutinuitj' Limit of --,171. x-a

sill
a:
X
.:t1ll-a"l

,173.

Inflnity

Olasaifica tion of d iscontioui ties, 178.

CHAPTER
DERIVA'I'IV~S AND

VI
I~TEG ALB

110-112. 113. 114. 115. 1113, 117. 118,

Derivatives General rules for differentiation, Derivatives of complex functions The notation of the differential cslcul !OJ Differentiation of polynomials Differentiation of rational functions •

19?"
203 205 205 207
20D 210.

Differentiation of slgebraical functions

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CONTEXTS
SF.CT.

1W.
120.

J21. 122-124. ]23-126. 127-128.

El9.

130-131. 132-139. 140-144.

145.

146.

Differentiation of transcendental functions. Repeated differentiation General theorems concerning derivatives. Rolle's Theor Maxima and minima' . Tbe Mean Value Theorem . Integration. The logarithmic function Integration of polynomials . Integration of rational functions Integration of algebraical functions. Integration rationalisation. Intezrabion bv narts Integration of transcendental ftlneti~ris -. Areas of plane curves, Lengths of plane curves 1\1 iscellaneous
m

PAOE

212 214 2[7 2]8

226
228 23i!

23:3
236 245

249 251
253

Examples gent
'255. ima

Derivative of x , 201. Dcrivati ves of cos x and sin x, 201. Tnnormal to I> curve, 201, 214. Multiple roots of equations, 203, Rolle's Theorem for polyuomials, 209. Leibniz' Theorem, 215. M. and minim:'.L ot the quotient of two qua-dratio.~, 223, 256. Axes of a c 226, LengthA and areas in polar coordinates, 253. Differentiation determinllnt,254. Extensious of the Mean Value Theorem, 2;58. For of reduction, 259.
and

nic,

of a

ulae

CHAPl'ER VII
!"DDITIONAL TUEORE)[S IN THE DIFFEREXTIAL AXD fNTEGRA L C LCULL'S

Taylor's 'Ibeoreru . Taylor's Series l49, Applications of Taylor-s Theoremto maxima and minima l50. Applicatioua of Taylor's Theorem to the calculation of liml s The contact of plane curves l51. lC,2-154. Differentiation of functions of several variables. Differentials . l55. Definite Integrals. Areas of curves If>G-IGL Alternative proof of Taylor':'! 'I'heorem lG2. Application to the binomial series l63. Integrals of complex functions l64.
147.

l43.

262 266
268 268 270 274

2eO
283 298 299

209
300

Miscellaneous

Examples 2135. rve, ting ier's

ous 301.

Newtoll'S method of upproximation to the roots of equations, Series for cos x and aia x, 267. Binornial series, 2137. Ta.ngent to a e 272, 263, 303. Points of i nflexiou, 272. Curvature, 273, 302. Oscul conics, 274" a02. Differentiation of impJic it function 8, 283, Fou integrals, 290, 29<1. The second mean value theo!:~ml 29fi, Homogen functions, 302. Euler's Theorem, 302. J acobiaue, 303. Sch ws ra' equality for integrals, 306. AplJ[oxim!lte values of definite integrals, Simpson's Rule, 607.

in-

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Xl

CHAPTER
'i'HIt CONVF. GE~CE OF INFINl1'E

VIII
AND INFINITE INTHORAU :r.\oe

SERIES

,eCT. 165-168. 169,

170.

171-174-

Cauchy's and d'Alembert's tests Series of positive terms, 0 convergence Dirioh et's Theorem :Multi lication of series of positive t ei-rus Abel's Tbeorem. Furth r tests of convergence. Maclaurin's

308 313 313 315 319 320 321 335

336

The s ries ~ n-' 175. Cauch 's condcnsation test 176. 177-182, Infini e integrals Series of positive and negative terms. 183. Absol tely convergent series l84.-185. 186-187, Condi ionally convergent series Alter ating series . 188. Abel's and Dirichlet's testa of convergence 189. Series of complex terms 190. 191-194. Powe senes • Multi lioation of series in general 195.

. tegral test

338
340

342 344 345 349

350

},.iscellanaous

Examples

The series 2: n~'r" find allied series, 311. Tm nsfo L" mation of infini te integrals hy bsritutlon and integration by parts, 327, 328, 333. The series ~ Iln cos n9, ~ an sin n9, 338, 343, 344. Altero.tion of the sum of a aeries by rear angement, 341. Logarithmic ~eries, 1348, Biuomial series, 348, 349. 1\ ultipltcatlon of conditionally convergent series, 350, 354. Been rring ser ee, 352. Difference eq ue.tions, 353. Dati nite integrals, 355. Bebwarz's in uality for infinite integrals, 356.

OHAPTER IX
THE: LOGARITIT IlC AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS OF A REAL VARIABLE

198-197. 198. 199-201. 202. 203. 204-206.

207.
208. 209. 210. 211.

Tho The The The Tho Tho The The Tbe

1 garithmic function f notional eq uation satisfied by log [l.' • ehaviour of logx as x tends to infinity I garithmie scale of infinity umber 6

or to zero

357 3GO 3GO

362 363
3G·' 366

onontial function

ncral power aZ. ponential limit I garitbmic limit Com on logarithms Logar tbmic tests of convergence.

3G8 360 369 374

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clasl!'J

and
_. f...-aDltom1.noh.DI1
·1· ,.-----

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm
I II

Boow..:.

we
1t'OC:CS1!.

lor Lh~

:I

of nilt

b~1'S, yi .

t.rnet

f·Wf: c,."'U of the

1 41. 1 1 +. 1"4 42•..•

• 'I'.

Ii

given

- ~-Ule zm n FDlJ'Dllm OOU

I II I

-.~ob.lII1
I

·0/ L
or
(t

or en til <: 2.

~ of L
%1> ;r.

is

';:t'N."1

Arger 'han ai mi fll'l,y n hM

We hll.,"e t
ttl!i

divided

And

such that;

t. member. t line, the leme-nt:lry

%

!1
~

1".11

af R. u:tt!d fJf p ·~~~ick o~d I'J m.ll!wWs:t:S

t/If}n all.

....

l..

1.

t..

t.hat

nnmbCl·~. e I""'Ift of
Then ~

hs.t
I

ppose, for "..-11"" pn~

,I

li.U9

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boou
I I

10 ~ and '2-

[1

That

r t.bau ~; and !.his co embers of L from ttl s1llli la.rly it CiLlmot

'toll '1.1 e in alge bra we denote -Ii i.! not rational. lor no r& 2_ I is the simplest
to t.he. eeuelusion

onal

Ii t !.he preceding ug
.- t.han ~ -

N i!!l any in~ger whi

~=3,
01·, 00 ~

:2, almosb "'"

,\

on e in 1.hc ui!9t.enre of rra u b thlit. ~ .. tiafit'5 equa ig

:sM.1l
sec I I' aU:!

len SI cannot Cu";2 can) ge n t.neRl m-etb~!i, iUldcr 'Do"m

t}.111 I'IJ t !'II)

dtlllbt

1"ImI D

of I!ILI.I':h .m ~Uil.t.ion i:lll ... tt•• clw:d. '-0- ltUel!. of the eqllllt.iom
ft ..

,sol l:!II

"-1n11

1t::::o(

"Win ~brI,

bow, i.tI ~i

reader msy now He lXtay~ if he

such th a. bEl ~t:\l la"W'~ with. 'PI' hew' 1 lJiI! able to ilwid th Ji ions. and lltIly pus.
I

tlflal :I'J L1 mhera

5,6J luw, in w-hien

in Cl'1pMit.6 dir o.ppro:timsl,'ti(llli Wt

.lro

to J'j~then

'~+'2J,i;)

III

bD.... (<l-r ttl ,.qIJt. ~ Uf.I (wrt til'I moe., the,- do DOt i~ n~IUol1j U:na il .i.8
E:umi'lll!!l

umbers in qu ruc.t a :Se&~i.o n in tcri~cd by "th!! j

. Let.

us

DOW

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm
I I I

Boow..:.

v Rl;\ tn.E.~

,L hed no

eless or- to
101"

1i.~io.sJ W"~
&mh!r ~

ember and
Ail
QQ
IIIu..UJ111i.!J

·~>lj,

'~li:l,'
ld I..c! 0 l' loRd Q
(U..

~>- 'r'

j~

d1J ,JOt, {)~jl1 1M t'hl!l ~,Jl

Ul!IViIi!l .Jl tho

a.M al II umbel" o "erse1y. it is

t.iWI TI' hic h t.o be lM

13

(ill !:tl-.rJ'l!rsJl'Ol"~ CI:l 4- p",UiN aUoDal ""'til we have (ore we

franle

F~"'"
OUr

lit.tle. W~
t mc:rely
i
tlmbi:!l'El,

f "iew a

d.~"~,

Il.l rational
w~

id about
1n(!!"Clly

om~
I I

Mv&
6) 7,

-"~ob.DI1

D.E F"Uu 110 lII'!l. cW35U t:tisc Q;m:Z "

A~ 1'~ mllw
'It 11ft.

If t;be tW

The I'$U.dIflI'" .. hoI M! w be 1I.t.t~bet.l to lui p l'1L'1'CI adopt.td. Wa d IItd: ~ lV, 'milM eq 11
'Ll~1

-Df llumbBnl, W.h&t i Qpa.'bJe of ~ t 'Mil. ~ far &III rl Mr EDlobmd It

ICnrju.
I!I:jIIl::b

el.ft.llll, ind

mIlo

iD deto.ill

III. (I( M.a t he.i n G1Mter&l. .a.t

ppe.n tha~
and eero

'eo describe$oj-'

happen

g,9}

IS
n

It

icn.te.
ceed,

:!I

n:!

m:ll.rily how

01. 0'10

I,,"

'k let.t.e I'lU'tnhl!!l"Z. of it! we and upper ina: t!lh letters a. A; b. B j. C j ••• ~ wt, d not~ by (a), (.41 .. real 1'1 um ber
by
&ro

If III fL.tL J3

hm

(i) eve 'Y C!. ifJi ;D, ~ ith (b} an (A) with (B) ~
• alII(! ~I.i~ T.hlll .... r

real n and e
lD •
I'CI~

d.!fIlliloIG

IInI-'bto .....

iillil¥.

i~... Tb.lII:'IM;~ IliAtB

tt.1of iI4'tOf"1 '"1. lid!
IlLlmbt:lr.

Iop:II [)'bjec~

14

~t.Y', u4
''bll=ir

Ylil il tbal.1:II 1.11;1oU)lui411tC1

e zm n FDrJ'Dllm Boou
I I I

_"

f...-aDltom1.noh.DI"1 "I" ,.-----

16

.ma h, but.
IjJ~y

HE",L

not

f {h)-I and (B; 3

be i.TKl.ic&
tI! = fj

his Fi
L..:<: ~
III:

-e wr.ite.

) an

cl-eL'u' tho.~ w h ~ k'lltion.'ll~ :t.h w ir,h the ideM. I:uilit.y ootw which we be

iu

CI.

ru
[Hj

p
011

fui

(~

=fJ,.

..::: I

;:>0 H a

j,

potLI!'I'e
<.2.

~ 11t·1-

<J'l<.,,3

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boou

9,10]
peoeeed to- de ne- tba t~Dli such 85 itilXl:~
(i) AMii. In II n.ad H, wO M'i.ide["

10.

formed by all e.mlll'.il G O.c: A + 1]. jl,inly c

Agai
r,!~

ctU:I

dr;te19 D~ bale g -ei~b

't\lftl, _y '"
fnt:t!it.

., a~ be graa. er thlm cannot. be Ie" th.B.o :t

) +(B - b)~
and we
B....
M l:iUl

:l'imnll

t:b.t. both t.h~ plllit.J1y

00 ~

~Yp3~e.

It~.
~CO(A)md

or (C,t.

.a.t'Ie the ltu1. ~ c:l.tk ........ 0lil +D iI III

;to

tha.'to

001,1,"

P'f'hj~

;deM

(jj)

SK~

(.0.+"') (1+3=3+'" ow
dl!.1i;Klfl

..... PrM. n.
o lBIB FDlJ'Dllm Boou
I II I

:2
-.~ob.DI1
I

1
~ 6..
7,

b....
'M

(COl ~

l~plicaLio ,
numb
8llrlto

Fi

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boou
I II I

10 l~]
ply t.6 all res] nu and melLhad...8 ~e to carty 011

and more in

put1~ularly im

)-

..0).,..
9.
1~

1=lilll~ I •

..rz .fi.
t'OOU

rIll

=3

= 7, ... v3~}IT, ..•.

j ~

v2 aM Ii

(.J21

y
d! the
I:lJIn ~

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boou
I

-.~ob.lII1
I I

:20

Jl;UL V"RUBLES

~-~+r-!"-o..
t.b~ IIIqC-lot· opt - f':>o,. bae ~ tt. r
C)fJ.~y!

~ + 'J.tn + q -0. wbBJ'e P

,~ t.wo q~r..'UCi

.tII.n1t!
ow

1'h-e only kind

irm1;ional

I'm mb6I"B

sugge:rterl by the eome t rica I eonsicienlti(l qu~rl!.t.ie tunb. p ·eo and rni ~":U:~I and t.h irnt.iOWL.l~ 'li'"hich Y be E.I prt:&9Cd in a .uq uare r'lXlta. :lj.UOO as repeaioo

equal to any num or 1.his form, as c.he. hi I1Ixlt: That irn. nal numbers of r.h.e&o k i itTllt:ted by Euclid .., methud!! (i.'_ by potd
'lIf.i th ru ler and co _p.;!4IIes) II :III :plint. th.e. be deferred lor the preseu t·.. Th~ proper!.. mUt~ them apecia 1y intmat.ing ..

It

i$

ensy

1O c.u

lLU .. >t

gwlllt:trkB.lly

aJ

./(1+J2h J ~ + J(! +
Thll q_l.ladratil'J equation 4I.~ II- - a~:>0.. SLlP~ -Lt. (t (: nJ:ioo,nJ. t,(J .. j rltqen, M w.!i can mulUpll 1Q .. I~p1.o o! llwJ:il' dll!lno ....
t..

+ ~+-(I'-O
.NolbiflC

ie l

tba iI!Iq~ tJOCI ...

TOO .JHder ..... m

01.8. _II'

:n!I

II!mbv tb .... tiKI! ~

]IDug\b.I

00

(XIII"""

LCt.

tb

~{ .;eomet.r.lcally t Drat.
lIf.rai&btfww

A mL1.Ch 'r:I:IOnl eli!plll ~~iDg.

U!QUP ~

• Se.I!I Ch. 1I~ :Kil'" P.: 5. 2'l. t 1,01', 1nu. ~ t._o lmd- ttl 2" t.r. .... hll!Jh oS... + ~ .HI 00 ~ 'l'W:U, fll~.. "l'b6 foIl.d .. wil! NIIlII!lIIIbe...I..b ..:I,.tw. I.he e.q1l .... 1.tJn L!i aiiII Lo liau Iwo 4 CClmllln '

....'Ia.t!heiI
IL

Whe II ~ = 1:1~ lh.e fQI il pII4I~lll' Ililict iill

1.0

lJolillll :II"\CI~I

"ill
IJ(IIJ. '1)IL1le

'w *lIiptalll_ iilll tb. Ill. 'b tilL (Id11 0~ :roo t. :For
t(II bM'I!I • hr6

I!qqJ 1

IIIIUI '·111 tio:g.

e zm n FllfZ(l!lm Boou
i
I I

II

-.~ob.lII1
II

b PF .... 9IIjlt iIruJ. rlt.. ~ n J/ I!I:U Q.t' arid Q1 dt'Jt IAfI,.

!:

prDOf l.i!i ,~pJe

V1'I!~

pCl'"NP" O'IIM :BLIJI Imp},. INtI. !M!"t_:u~L.[4J" "' BC' 0'1td .."&. oL\ ftJ'th ~Jl.rli. Be

if

8t'r

]' .$:(! i, poIIi'ln! P t.lu.t. P"Q' 'Pi'ill Mt 1!"Dt.. VCI"i(1 iD.l.t!o tl!

Ldl -t.

nco

P"rtm!! tha"

4. SomlllthlIOR
qUlldt.O.~(;

Two
pl

surds .. IioG mLioos.l m ul

mi'ar.

'l'bUSi

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boou
I I I I

-.~ob.lII1
I I

V A 'RJ

I.B.I.U

The

integral 00 t.he

.M N - pt.
torli of p.

iPJ evidcn Ir

nt. tional,

and

ere re (Ex.

I:w.t

re P ig au mte

, J)

I\nd thon .-e eithet- ( ) JI is divjsib t! I di mib! by at.& (II' (3) M ri d ~ are both d i'\l . Y d. rl"b last. ense m. be lied ou ~ IIi M and N h."8 no mr.n~ fi 'l'his 0 II men t ma.y be app ie to eaeh of Iha fI cto so that M mu t be di villi oCI by some of th by
(,!'t&,
...

w hert

'I

fj,~, - • !!'lIrepoait.i e ntege:~,

Then

divisib or {2}

by -IS

where deno es the p 8lld P't" he p uet of I.he

,I

e of BOrne

~u~.whwh

~nuuy

of the . Hanec AI an nr hypot.hesis.

_(J+ -JD

(h) B and D an

U.

.Bqoblf.!~

0/

t.hat; A i MsD.

(: .J~ + ~f; ~n.Ro\ :ra~i of J(J - .//), unlc. =

u"l~ ...

23
(Jilbu (0) .It
nu.ij

and

B= OJ

(]oJ' (~)

~
IL

~I

P'/~ ~ .J »t
.
\II

1I&./iII

tho ~h"'NI Dqt.KI.tion

11 ~beLioo m~l u tlla.s.a

rln

.J b i.!I L.
""M't:

~ :!iB ;tW.t.i.on 81,.

tlLI tl .t"'".

P+ Q.,Jfh

&ll

.. i. (,'M. 'I'OOt

0' M ~gtI
~"(II)'t,

"" il!li UlD~'her

or

thl:!!oj

,*1 mel

~'C:&Wlt;1n .oJ the!. fmM () (.t.)ll with Mt.iunal ~(!il!!l~lB~ IIl"e hIA: i0 I w.

('~h
bo

11.

I,.

be~~tob~.J(p+ 'Pi'bGl~ ~. II.nd Y

IU'e

:r-.ti

.~mcl~t condltiOOll !.hat. J&}

regate of an resl nu m orUhmeUoal conUr. the ~t.rn.ight; line A of S '2 all the n umbers of t.betnen -tI. The pointa of lhe
to
-01 'With oI;lIIn"II1.'i.e"r:I~•• ,,~

~il~ b

Ii ...,:IIDIJIII

lhl!" ii:tJ.
f(n'
'=Ill'

'-0

"

t-t!I ~ r bAilllM

la.1~
kI ..td.)' til.

mil rCl11il1

zm n FDlJ'Dllm
II

Boow.:.

il.t.lL ]lDe~

"A~IA

contbnlum, t.h
~rithn\etim.t
COn

tJ..u~ aggrega

WI! h,a"e con .

row el~
of reAl nu or q uadr.Jtie Su very speciaJ thes PLlt it; roughly, t.h y eo "Ilrie'y of .otl rnbo wh Cl} Lot. ~ -oon~

Tho ~h~-b.uJd llide JU:!i(IIIl I I"Ig .. Mch :r;i - 'I (OJ' an,. o~'b~ is ... iI=I ... G1bill:r ~ I!n'~ .1millUiy '1-1'1:..;:,&111 rid :Now i~i& ~

{.Ir '"

..

kI

~=:b+f p:rorA of be h!. I:III.SI to III~ 8 And. ~ -:3ta ~+~ -3. ~>!,..-_I +~ And;., iI! 61111 fleg&lI.",. IJnd C. HI:fI~ l eq~ 1;0 ~~

LAnd we mie:bt M'I'I!I it wch tlu" ~ - 3.1: Imrnban. Fill'" if d[... il:l~ b1 ~ - ~ ~ ~ > 8 ;3.TI~ t..ho:roIi

Itl > j lIBt fgund ill irnpoa "too. be o~tij'tt. p", i

~ - 3{+a.o. or :)

81' >

~url.5Q HI!fiC!I tbN'e ill m.tilm ...L PoOr my

'J

we '"
&:r.Id i
U

~(Jrs

(El,.~3),

..-nIl rm. ~tjOMt

t.wj)~

T'b.u.s .rI'I .. 3.t+ 8 L.,1I.

'CI

jJ ~>b+&
'lIppD1M1 i(

Ili~

tto:ot.illl

r- za -<.:J ~
I

poMiMe

-.~ob.DI1
II

1~]

er

oth iIi!Il.l:fIt.; .and tIM! fMm "il.rtoe te.I n~!!l"bet Ji ~h~ no'lll'4 how to .,1"" cubic Lbi .plie!t Kprt:SliQDof

plied (th h tohe o.pplieo.MD t.be eq 1Jtl. "o.g

11 niqtre

mG"1l t

lied

e to the cq uatien WtN ld be

In tlhil; ~.

positive

how.

real

very

!!iI

(iii
nnmbe espliei kinds

list. Irrational 1G) which eannot be nc.t. xh!l.tIsted the di ffereDt cd iD ~ e oontinoum. ~t. UIII ilia dec is eq 1 to A J ~ i.e. to unit-yo It. i~ the eireu rerenee or such II. circle b..aa Dent. Th.ill length is USIIt\! ly been sh n t ( ough tbe proof iii uniAio...1t.) tt-. t. this number '"' i!i not t.he eqnation W' th in gral eoefficienta, such,

QU r

or

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boou
I I

26

"A.!itA :SUS

OIfible to d

the
A

variabJe,

A ~l
In:lltead

not.

nOC-O!EI

might. e

L'ily be J't4l "ned -

~ggrega
aggrt:lga

in slate

i.ntt:gof~ a pOiih

" Ion

'" IS b

num
IJ.'hese

is formed by
~lUdpl8B, 0

eonside
Inlly

decimal

L V&R[An~

6clJ& of " Iife: pcli he week.

tiMS

ber! (or of t.he poaiti"e: rn .

numbeFe. of the r t.iMl~l num ben, i.(r.

Of ftal

L and
(i)

}XI'5GS!ing the foil

ry num er
two
C

or tbe t)1pe eona - e

Clnly 0
(ii)

(iii)

IIlO't

a.'tI.e

ptd.

.'I'Oi.rl..
IIIjl1c~

h~

mlllr.lJ}' 'W1.1'1

.i:

1ft up!.!' In DfilI!"!tlnd'.. bml:lI;n.

II. .. ~l;:It II:EI,

uJod. i:llli~ • 'lZ'hll) prtt!r l.il.i.meil i~ 51 G-U.

'LbON

'0
00 II

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm

'28 au:mClt. OC:CtU·, Fo member ") t.hc nu of L and less Ieither ellIS!. On t

[r

t.a.king only the l' L. e.lld ~ f'otm a two t&:!e& to di!~ It mm.y happen
a must biI!I also 1M

F O"f lee; L. Qnd

ember
t.e&t

11~and

Ii

greater,.y

{J.

thOM, bain and this i8 p1l.i u member of L.

are ra. iotl8.l nUm ($lyin ~ , bekUlg t L~:IIJld

ietion,

me

IH

if

1IO

eont.l'

On t.h!. other
rnem her. In ih i8 by h and B; is 1:.cJ L er to JL H thn.t it i& the

i\ mm. h!.ppen
t.he- se .
II

.or the

to R, it i..8 U-U~
1'b U3 in any

lall.'!. t.

Any BIE'.cl ig

a ra,l number in ntl m bert :&OT.Q.etim III

nl.1m bar.

TtJi:!!

that the COllBidera ~ to .l'lly rurth. f.-om the ratioaal thE! mtion.a.l nDm b

of :11 I'1:!U lLU mber, ~lt might have

l'6a1 numbers woul The diEien~o.n w t.hat the aggrog.o.t.e

of OO..nple1.OfIC&S
com pie by saying thiU ttl
a

lacked,

nguage

lBI B FDlJ'Dllm
I

II

oou

II

_.

foraDltom1.noh.DI1

.-.r-----

IlILI

bri1i b.I.to ~'be

i.

"d tbat ... I h

Dum bers,
Ill. defined

00""

I the pcsiti ve

in .I1l1mher" or

or gemnetry
hieh
W~

•.

",ill

t. beloDg to S. ibis to choose

dOC8

oot. posa-ible.

n.o1- con-

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm
I

Boow..:.
I

REa

r.

VA.91 A

t (Li) k$ true, '1'

gt.h, contiii~ gs 11::1 8 &nd da nO~ coincide be a mem hBr 8 or not. In t ~ t:iI&I!I we Dt or accumul Uon of It. i euy 1.0 e ~f + 3} nUI'8t nMin, not, roe Iv one. b Clf 8. FM"j 'W en 'We M'Y8 de tmintd ..al (E -~. E + )!;U m:Jl.mding t"i t not

s.

this intornl.l n\U:n eon w-f... ;i1.. pni nt., r of S and do Il~t eoind~ i.l;h.e. t 1.b ~ .11.1'8 11m with.· E1 in e place ni tdy. In.t.hH way we can dEl

fl' ,f., E6 ~E + 8).

please, all belo
K('!'11

point of

rn larien of S rna

Tbe u~mples
.. phs; U:.
.I!I

bleh fuflo~ illus

if1~ra,

IJI'

1- If 8 con5i_.ts 1111 tile 111tqtrs.

or

If

!I

ootJl!list.I!J of

Un! .....t.loJllll P(1

Ir .'hoowtt Df i~ Ll:ie. origit'l..

nil

~n~

1~ 1.1.

U !J 00I'I:mta. !:If" t.bt ~t.l'HI l'&U th.e j)fj~J) L'LOO. 1 ~ti"'lI! polcb
Wei.l!l!l"ItI'8.11 • Theorem.

9.

inbs jB of the: IDmit int.fl~Bt he!! of analy:!;[i~; bll to it. is fw th ed in a book t:h '" t.hi&.. III theorem wh' !!ii auily ded u
uiee later.
JIE01tE~'L

S oonttWl:! ~!IMaud in a inU:rf,!al (~ 11). U ir Q pl1i1'U: ()f o..'Um!(laJ~ S.

tI ~

II

int,e; of ~
~ poln&;

Ii D A in&.o P
long! ~

zm n FDlJ'Dllm IBoou I I

II

8~19]
n.6 ni t:t of

8J

a. Til

PJi

3.1$0-

ekmp to ~

,f + 8: to R• so that 'the nbt.ill' an inti! 'ty Df po nts of 8. &n.~1!!1 ion of Sma.y of iIXIUra: eel n(!ide 'IV th ,. Or'" :M of LN pDiot.& l. 1, .... uli!l M.
I

Me

i, 0. pei t ~ ;$ueh that.. h

n.

J • \l"'N. IS.
j ,.

;'I.UI

!XI nd i

It; (I)

f
"

-..11

'VR.IlttI!!
I:I(~

of III

UO!Io

uI Zj

~ IJlI

to bt;i

[n

1
e zm n FDlJ'Dllm
I I

Boow..:.
I

32

!:i

+"'+~"'.~a,
be wt'iu(:o io
•••••• ,_•.•••••• (5U-

••-(ilh
-.,.(~). 11-1 in (I~ or
I~

2:

in (4.).

+nt"' ::'.!lI'la.t wh
'U r;e
llrlm'bma •

u.o

.i

mLl .....tio.a..
(;If

raw.~ n

t.t.e

"PI'

r:M.

nl1llllber..

(1)
I)

"h~ 01» D be fIlL in "Ulilil i..eqI:l.... Hty

tl:..11 V'W"IMe m
i!I;~

-IJ;.

-{dr-- G'} C

t tn i.l1U';t
1111

LI.m

0Jt, :t. t tp tti ti CIIl-&

O. tbl:! io.j.\i:iJ. e zm n FDfZ(I!Im

I I I

Boow..:.
I

10. lekwat
4I'1l lUll

III

t ...D

;II(It.II

i.neq.uli d DlIr:n'i:J

-6L~ ~, ••• ,
too

",enry Lhu.

A..

iclet!til..y

(1

~Hl + a,)

-.

J.

wh~

l4.

JPt

a! ~,4

[1!1~ I..he. t.b COftffi {] t i

d ••pi l

11.
w'honre .A:! 11,

a. D
0lil+11
'I---~:-F--I.H;.,r---:-:,I-'----<+--=-+"-, -

[f>idontlj'
{l +r.

,,+.r. ...p+~ .Ii' ,

"IIrMnl
lit,

Jp +J../'l -

II. Ik.

Me 4~~

FDlJ'Dllm Boou
I I

[.
D

my
"11

... ~r

IIltilll[cMK:.rl of
IJjll. ...

.... r

....

!.JG.)

!8.

,Mot.

,'-0,
l-..Q'.fU'I!I

~ of rot' " (,UQ.I'Jj. l' I

I
)

or Ihe rt:lrtn
be (11110- J)UJ"
_ lli~I4"H

rcq
r

,red,

_I' 011.

'l"lUII\

dl.n
lIJ1I

Hee

I)da:.

e In n FDlJ'Dllm Boou
II

..

3
(

-~,+~ ia impOott!i
1:1;' -

-.t" + ~ + '.i!!J. t.i~ 0Il.1.M.t~ =0.. or- ,. - -

0.

by

III-

IUId
i.J

"I"bG 0111 f

(,.:rI- '2kU(

III tt.amo.l.i M

[f Mit:hllr II. .01" .b 1!11 ~ • ..... bil:h gi.,~ ~= Ii§,!' ~ lI.f'J.II LhI!I mLi~&l I)um~ fif/6. ~, llIq~tion Uu.1. s:., b, .'IId

~ """-d+l!'~ +f ,'1"~t.I!IM
No It,.~ I.baI. j of'

III

. +... + m,. _.,'rM -~~=O;

w. \bll(1. a.,-!&IJ.- .•. - ....... _.L

tb.

il.

.. 1l11J1:h tb."'d

+&J!)-III.+iS,Jt.

or

II,

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm

Boo

II I

3G
Shnilarl

,\.

VAIUAnuS

.7!-

Hcnoe
.. buli!l
A

i& t'ba

~jN.t'J.t.
1I:IIL <+_

;1',

ef §14.
3L •

•351.

.. hctt Ih&

a's MId "'

Z".

We t'hna
01:

jl

I'&,.

equalilID
l;rl""" ~

lVriloll;l ~+$ IILmi

+...+~-0,

0'

t)~~]

eqoaJ.K,n zi - !U (The. 4&1:'+9=0..] e zm n FDfZ(I!Im Boou

I

J'oII:.H.

- I.

thet.! , wll!lfiM ~J/f.UA.. tip. 19O:1}

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm
I I I

Boou
I

II
V A. RIABr..ES

20. The idea. or.. d ClUOD+ Su ppose that ~ an ceutinuous real varia which we may.!!lU PPQ;&C se ted geometrically by es 11.p - %, Bo Q - y fro fixed paints A.~ B~ g tw sln\ight I inC!:.\ A, let u, fiuppo!Ie thB;t,. the l (I the poi nta P::t.n Q in f!:perlldC!nt but eonne.cte y It. re I1tion which we to e:J. ~ed 8$ 8. rel 10 bcLw n s: and !I: ao P and ol: ale kno'f111 Q" ~ also klW~n.
b'

ro

an

fI.l:llm

pIe, of these

.UPPr;,'IISC· tb:::Lt
c:I.&es

"!I

lohE! v Iud

!I ~ h, or ., z, or etennines tha.t,
ation bc:twe~n wul" for 11 ill

in, we migh t. su pp08ll!l

gi en, tlot by means of I'l bu by means of a geom~ de mine Q wbon P 18

iOIl

ctien which

In \hese ci:re"tun!'tt'W~ of fundional dep

hap the most i.mporta

y Ud ()J~; r whi h y ill given

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm Boou

_.

foraDltom1.noh.DI1 ·-·TI----

20]
Ca!IC t.hat t.hella~ par cui ) of the moss impor~lUl," fi

39
c.rru::~ri!:l

llewing exunples wil C'Dt.ial to a. rll netien.

8
.Do

t09- are . But e eonclear t to ~bey

t,j.o.1

i~

sorno relRtion

bm.

hat to

Olny t'&te cormpon.d Lel.y-~ or 'Is or 'to~I!;ILJC:hZl!il~

l.z-

or

.. tho val1JC! d x, Lb..: ron-eapcrulio.; vaJ 1"'i!!lAt.:ioo. m~ tlnl:Mill 'Pi'CIlIkI' be. trLI.C of z is caBed a anu.M.Rl..

rOf

";1:1

ftn),

0. He ,." y. ~I;I
. Thar.'

'1M 'r3o

'="" of J to tbli!l

ir

$ jill

1;0 1II.y,

f\anetiCMl ""lI!Infl)l.~

••.{i),

40

FU:rtC'fIONS 011" It l'O.'{i:ma.tion ~ tbo t.ll;U!I

'" ~\'at!

d~1'" ¥l'u1m' I!~ ,

(t), "'" .flD11'ahllD

fIJI" Depth")!. n.l1lM ~~i ve 'l'alutltl of 1.1 do

Gf

II

.enl

(1
iii-

PM ~ 1.8

nil!. dd:o ftI r a;: OJJ '

ne;-,ti\'IC. 'S'l;Ilumlllj

1.h.a..m sa.;: hOi

&. 81 from i'- 00

"

0l.I

.. ,. ... rfO(lU1 clMlic: 'too & bOO. n(Jril!dfl

Ttl.
;::ern'! r.a

(I

praba.btl ........ , ~

n.)'

f&'ttnW!.e of II!IJIJIDI,,:m,..-r thorn' Um.t." = 19,f1 if 0 ball &t tirtLfl r, btJJ~ ...bicb il1ll,oul,7ddQ~
j

I!I

, pr'l.PQ
~IJ"'_ ~

f~

iJ.

of l.J M' of ..,ISI Qt d!:RJMt for ~ wll.lll!;tjl bal'l.(:te~ltl!c (1).. H ula which U}lf",$!11
~ Jt
III

pal't.iclLw

~Is; cu ar,

!I 00 dli!taned, M tlhl ~~i T i:ll I!I oIW'L e 1.001 pte IJ f B. i r).! n\l. i!.l'. - nn: 1!:IJlJmina ;to I bejng ~ T.IlIe.'I.l'dl'll~
I7W1UJ k!' " il10 N'-

or ~

,.-1

it "",'uW' d!l!lTlli!ld .i! 6I'ld loe. ddM'd for ~ • .,;~ I'd..e. icb

•
j

e I zm 1)IFDlJ'Dllm Boou

-,~ob.DI1 III

41
aJiI.

Czj ilL ,1l1li

fUI" 10

u:~ 6..33

P,h..

1M

tt.gw, J 'It.a1u.tfI 0 f jQ. di1j'~n C 1111.

dll:f1Llod

N j" LRe: tot.IIl t. ft.LaI~

be). The natu ill !ltntecl

Q ~ QY

,.~es..be D jlw t.W() lines

at

prod
5.

We

g the
,z:L

y by

d beln

11'--+---+--

thep09
nt

In

being
Pl

in Fig. 6.
Let

defined

".0 Iae Llr. £: f.o

has (let. UB b. Ta.k1il mplete ~if! e t.be point.
!

. " P mc.y
tli.!lb.

~~
i'ruttf

gethe:r the
zmIn FDlJ'Dllm BoouI I

of r,

1;/ P

42

vallie, (.I: of .t (or '1;&1 C:Ij. b, b b~ ,.) of YI •. points ~P' ~P"~... ). h!1~ gate of all thue poin'" the
lohi!!. all
l ,

ror

""err slmp1e e A.mp~

I!IU

ppal!ie t.hfi.t
0 .... ,•.-.... ,
.h •••••

by

equat.i.
J,,,,

By + G~

(1).

wbje-h ~~= aJl the chor teristics (1), (21 (3) eooy to t &; ~ 8:.vraph Y u a stmi!}M 1~4. iu nil i1 loy ;1iat' 'fi h one or other or t.h of 'his tion \Vh ieh a gi ..en in ~ej(t·boo

wbere

ate

y fi:xed umbera ~. Then !I is.

Gcome
We
l!I.uothm'" made of e

tball u

ary in sueh a W>l.y e tAe 0CtLS 01 ~ p~ ~(%1 y) it il m· !I( ) I~ ~iUUtl}n if ~ ~ 'OCUl, Md Py t.h e loeu. This :sc or t.he te.tml!i 'loC'u
ui r.e generAlj and ms.y be BppUed n u; aDd :J il C&Plble of belDg re ul'l.

0 is tM 9~1"rnllq«4 + C is t.h mo.str gtDlE'ro.l polyno

+ By + \-e any

nu!).

in c an $,m,s a pro[losit.

enee
CI

'A~ g.eu
~I

I~ i5 eq ualt)'"

h ighe.r i!'tJUO.~a!'i: of ~hiftrB

or degree

~.

ea3Y t..o prov of tlRy ldraight li~'

enti n a rew urthn eaamplea or i b,Y eqUIJ, ions, An equation of (c - -1 + (y- H'f =t,
GCrIU"

J n.

t:.lJ,e ItC\LU,li~~

0111l...lM

lJ jpr

.!I!,

We- 11'.1." :t ,n.. ~. - CJA.. Ul

e lin I) FDlJ'Dllm Boo

II

<':II -

.I

1)9]
......

:1'18 OF

ua~ion

... 0 a
nts, a&IIin:ming COT.! ie .&fj~tiODJ

her diseussion eometry.

21. Bte••
R=

of

the If OP

In w lengths of

hlll.'re

datermiued

OM"",sjNP-y.

angJe

thePJ
('I

ve dirsctioe y~

fl, (J hoi 2" (meBSu it. .is e'ljl'iden

!/- ,.elll S,
eM:.9:sin 6':1:: ~

t.ilID 'bBlwee.U r
6

pJa~.~Q;M ..
frnm the (~ g)

0.00,,8,

COI!I

(J rol!pre&eRUi

nera 1 eqI.un.ion cf

pIIIitI

'WI

or '!Its'4I Li ~

l~!lwd!.
ml.l~~kIt. b,J md.D:II iG oIIU:t dell! ~11.11)1111f' b (lDil In.ncb 1:Il,jIJ I. "Uhtu~
Z'lll1Im.a'"

u.~..n~

e Inn FDlJ'Dllm
1111 I

I!oow..:.
I

41
rtpretl,n'tilt1on .
reader a beuet runc.t.ions.
I'l

[u

as.

Futiher

I:iUO • and

wh·

folio etyof

pblcal
"W ill

ive t.he ible types of of thll

wheu a•• aw •••••

a!"

!.he !irnple powt"#'" is 1)f two distl Fi~~ 1'!:!t m =

Then
t

;",1AI

n the

ph

(0. G).

(I, 1), (- II 1). n l.n.Ily be: rOllnd by do

il'n.lu~

ditlo a.l poi ~pee ",aJu

on t. e g1."aph t..a z ~ LhuSi the

give
.If the reader ow ill will be led to ron
form t.he grap like r.hBt. shown he dn.'f.lll a. ell ~pecial pDLIlt.i ",hi to lie: (In lohe pp

• ft.

or

itG e.et1nacs by gi ing ~ valuea and eale to g t.1lt!

J

responding valli flt.d t.hu \hey Ii.e when she inavita

:v~ he

e zmIIn FDlJ'DllmI II!oou

23]
ted pc aU;.on the ClJrve,

nu:t. he more prob!l.

though 1(; will

..
ee, but Fig.9)j

e zm n

DIJ'DIIm

I!oou

y tb8 use of I ter on, that

ins' or

gm

.. tlllM

110WlIU4"M f

t"iZlI!:I 0lil 00lJC~

c!\.en bf

5~l cd in.

'to

m.,.ph or~ SN-+t y- &: - ~.f(lJ -0lil +(II/a)II.

~ t'" f01.I,i b IJlie

e zm n FDfZ(I!Im I!oou I r I

47

wbkh

ooctioo

&.I

(Z!1
by ihe ordiL... r

IlC~

for a. sivu ,.. j'f)l7P. i""_ 1~l~ 0. 2 all dll1:niflll for tb

QD

[u
ILea

or

.II."t~OOtl.

:Cor-

'W

w~h !:IILdi r-;tTn

t[m,.i:I. ~ Qnd tfl reduce

IJ ~ O'r

quotilPRI. I)f 1 r- L ltd.ion,. fIf t'''mli!l/~ifJfi P &00 Q arB

mpijtlll:'lIltion .a.t:I.

Ii!:ly h. the:

iIXIomoi.c:,,"

vr.!!

-n

wh'

iliNla.I 'U~OlI. titJn-n.l 'll!'ll:II:IIMn. U:le \'lMiiiloble ~

• even

m(lp:

1bct usc axareplcs,

Dr

''''''e abnll

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm
I

Boo

JON"S 0'

R:I!!.!t.

am &.Bl..E

49
6.

ithlJ

~ - 1~~~ ~+(l IMIgII.ti~·

~f, ~- (1 ~
fur
1$1-

CLtI

-to n,.

!BCiI!I

Y= If(~ -

{.e - b

tl:ak:'h ib~ gc: ~md

ful'

r=l.1

.Fi.g. 11.

porUu'l el~:!i of I1,umb

ftmcti

26.

C.

J::qJ 1h::
fUM •

n&. im-

ne ti ~ finite
"""" ........ .foI.

0"".

ra t.io lin 1

of roet.

are e:r lieit. .o.lgflbra.irl:R and ~ a.ny ill~ m:dd be nat.i

.n. o
lBIB FDlJ'Dllm I!oou
I I III II

-.~ob.DI1

[11
~!it.iw '!J -- 4%
D~n m . ~c.D"Yeni !It til re

in

W'

h
~

'I:!&ge

k!

funetion who:se tw
The ar will function .;~ differs

".~uod
:5qU!lrt

• t.he

In

the

Iues

or ~

fi.
(i.t, all
\-:ll:ue

pt.ious.

But. 4~ i! und~fi

\·D1u~). it is defia
f{;lf

8-lStil.

all
III

'01

Ueril

nctien :t of ~.
I:IIS

lr

XlII.

~<~<bLt b&.!I two ... 4

. .J{(~ - B)

t~'lJ.
It· ~y
to

tMO
or

ir
or hl!M eq t.loIl. ions m.y

thtu
~h

+R~
\fM:ro
will
ea:.!

.. (1)1

y ~"eriry t

• Rw.•••• ,

:a.ndli

readu
ideNid lSi fonn..

in the

$'

t41:t

of o
lBI B FDfZ(I!Im I I1I

I!oou

II

_.

foraDltm1.noh.DI1

.-.r-----

~G) 2,j1

It .. nm.t. I
algcbTAi~ d iffirulc to p

any m,t
m'"

1M plici'ti

indHd
&

not

proof here.
en wbich

Comal the 1 inee

, It 11M t111'0
]f,.-3 r

t.bo .tOlulion mmpl~

thcvroveru
01
I I I

on ..6.lgebr.t. for t.b I!I PI'OIII!M i.a • ~ we tcntr,n,U, ~~r.t.f til Qr.i1riD1I eq ua.LiQn. ] III

II) FDlJ'DllmI!oou
I

-.~ob.DI1

52
3.

[u

..

Find &lgobr
rtlz+.J(ll

oacb iJf Lbo fw1(!ti.o

ti-.

l'Iu..ctioo bu t.wo 6. .An.u.la-o

&l gtI bmi.otL.I

[H81"8 y-

Ccrn.!Iidcr tb

±z.

tlm

Wo: 'W(;
.....h!:!rli!l

1\1nct.i.cIl u... e

Etilllin.atiug •

"""11

fI

'1. .AJ) ela.mple CMlIut. bE !lZfln!lMled

flLnetio:o , d!lfl:nm b

Urma

But tho proof 'lhAt -of $ i.3 d.i:l!ic 1

arc not r&t.ion.::d! fUl'1et.ion!. nia tIoC!:g4c.i'110 a m iil.nn

U (unction tallNi II

dclined .i

kunia of function
Arno.og 'libese 'We partieu 1L\f]Y into

E. The cUr
t.rigooom~try, SUI them. Will: 'llJ.8.y
with "bell' moss i
• 'T~ .d~:t"u:J i~iIIru
I101PfOII.I!I 0lil rY.

tbAI.

&11)1" !MIl
M$1.I

l:I0- th i..t

e zm In FDlJ'Dllm I!oouI

ar, 2

rtTNCTIO:":-S 0

- .... .c.l

• l+ Dm .. the

"'h ",.hen: B -s,/(,a.1: ~ Md. h/J{c.i +

1M or O».!!, min.

tor.'

iell ~iJ~~·bet. $). s, F(~) ...~.

~ UIA: cu:r"'~ y

thl: grl1.~
d
-i:00I!I:

)J(p + 01]) ~ -lllroaJ.t

l~p+

~1 lI'hen

-l/l2t ....1 "llli:~:RiI: i4

.:1 ...

y--l

:A,~y-l

...

F , 1.

Ft.;. ....

lBIB FlllJ'Dllm I!oou

I

II

-.~ob.lII1
I

AL 8..
(II.

v11. RJ 0\ "81.1:9:

[u

(tOaI"'

(1

~.
I(l,

lj1!J. sit! {IJA'1 YD (l/~', { llin' -,r)II, -.ill! ;t:&in (1 14

, ill:

to&~+
IJ~

!iI';:!1I~.

{If

.aid""red U. ill V&w!

los

ICl1j'ill

W Chilw t ..bowa 1

IC gr&fI

~f!1 • i:o:lin
d tho (!I)'I"bt.

Dr

Z, -000 •

d['CID.

- l:i.~ '"' I, and er riO t:[olJ ~

IJ th

1i.I,

'3.
l ~OMI jt.h p!!rimi fnnat..i
4,

jf f

a.xlnd&i rtmetioo ClIO be

I(O)-.furn bsr oar

Tl:Jall the eqwr.,.

U'$

'l11'1'" Ie;) !
r~

U e,. ..~ ..

or ~.... j~ ~ rut &U -ruues

p 001 ~

otrJJ

~ ...)

'~:i.
•od

~z)
'5!! ~

.tQ( f{x)
'oUI

... 1) i!J
II.

1ElLe... 8.lJd

'b

II.fI

dofi~

lJJb

bl-&iad fuc:cr.f(m be

+"..r-'+ ..+n..-o. ...,•.,.•. ,....,..- ._.,..( J

+-.+p.-o)
iDJMlEl.bM~

RUI.

\'.ABlA8U::S

-,,~ t'be ~Lltl.l.iOJJ (I} 1:'\1 j\:n:u:t:i Iln md lll:e:!I to

to ~CI
1!If1U0)0rI't.,. 01,:1 r an; "r8"lI.e CIt ~, 1M

il:l !lumbar
JIll c:l6i.r:J1II

at MDStau

m tba ~ ~ b,a,\'

Lha~

m U).f"""
DI~ " .. ~

am '!lot rot' -1

:i.MiDi~

of tr&nlct!adentallb

in

II:t J' - ~11l'b.er1! (.r) d~crlaI 1:. i IIbo'llfO j It 'Fig. ie ~ .r1!1:h~·hNid ~C!IiI. balD

,_ s-«:

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm I!oou

III

.56
3~ J)lj (;ttj, [.!i"] z

r~J}· ( . 10 t_)

lfS 0

REJLL V

Fa

{n
(Fi;. l3 d.J c:.

4.

.t-

e.

-(~JfI

~
'I

•
I

+
.(

or - [;t U.

[,J.-cJ. xt-['~l

\. ..11, ~ (r. ...R) 1 rl\ {\

'"

i.

It.

U~n
TIle &~.tI.pb (mIl' far.

....
ca8I;]
@

a.

Llil

I th iIjI;
:cQ
:tI!

I'y pt;JLl'l't.II

..
j

J is oik G:ri td t.ht gropb Q( tlil 'IWrd .. curee, Y&l.1lM

.or ~
""

td

~III

1t~W III 't.i!lhI. en \b.n.1I and prime to ~v.

(6.
~

l0t ""hare.

no

1pt)Qi
~eqll.ll.l

'bJe ro~e:t..io:A.

IF.i

ror

~11

flmc.t.iClD~

Will tI~T'u'b d Lffi::runt. tIL in~01'

]!:n ow 11.

J are\ui Itl"kll::r "rid .]1

(rom

tt

r;.j
IJ.II

.,,! vtt.hlMt IIhoold tt i!l- ~mp~,.. ~.r~ the th!finiiioo Clr a. 'm'b~ ;t p.; koo'll'D , i!II t(Io be "lwIt 'i1te pl_. ~ is,. of tDLlnt,. .. quite to A1 wl:lI!do&!:~ 'IiI'.,.b!lll:',

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm
II I

I!oow..:.

i9]

llJ. 1 -herl il!l r.a.~ ~itII or two ~ or IJ'O.I.atl I.bo lIlytJ it. ilo not. dJ~t.a u.~~bl fOal:i.'t,,1 ...." ill ~nL~ Durn -of po- t.!I.&

1.d.,..

ooBl. 'l"be 1 .md. J''' C1, hI l~ bo

{R,

Lt. Let Y=~ ",,·bet m.tian.al hct.loo 'PI9.

;s"

lfI ir

.:......_. ... .... . : ->.

..... -'1 ...... 'I •

'I

I.

A:;
.. r
'I

4
I •

.. .. r'l -

. r

-...

...... r ..
• ::-

-,

'I

.........
._. .. I

..
+
r
'I •

...

.!:....
..

~I ...

.. r ~

'I.' .....

. ..
I

.... - ..
,

. .. ..-;.: ..
•

,,
I "'_

.'

l'Ir

rl"·

':

Ii.s.

6.

.:I".c::1.

~"w.e.
lirlt, ].r i3:ql.l&l
tijOira

Thu
Q:I

U:m
Iie

'.:D.!:" if (}< z
Il!IfgO

PI,,; ir

to wi"t.h 1.J'Ltm"t.i

1 poin.ta ,.

{for po:!I

or ,be: te.M. ~
e:r&p'b.

Tbe

pIIlio ~

~ht 50
di

Lhlll

ie.Dtatod. pOio'- in

0' JI(Ii:nt.:t.s. f%. 18.

u.e

ifI.

iI: Dal.. roond y

_.

foraDltom1.noh.DI1 ·_·'TII---

DS
30.

or

REAL

[u
II"hdar

u..nmown
form
(0'1:)

=.

expressed

C~ -•....•

--" •. , -,,_.. -... , .(l)~

nre eMY draw.

inte.r~'
~uaLi[)D

i.n

pI.]~ T
0.

{I}.
ie&lly ;1}

I1z:1mpl_ mar be :llCll~;r tbo ppkllll of

.m,1I'

TWill

circle

~hO&(].

amw

inl,.at.UdiOM

it! wit'b

~-

nLJ.!ll btt

of .root&.
,(1,.

......

__

... L_

......_

....

1'..

..... '1"1'"...;. ..........

:30,31 )

'EAL VABU BL.!O!Ii

31.

. 'ine grliphica.tl
r..metions

OZ in .8 to the CI

r a. sing

j,

ezac

of th

rrotO the.
OZ~ a.re

lmgth!.

u posi!.iv
same as
and y 'Ir'lI.ry~ f ai I tlh point; (~~ ~) er I.h relatien b
;II

As

.Aggregate

or
'Where

prco6! of eee pr .A ntdyti.ca Ge:ome

F'

eD lS 8. ~; IIJld utt. ag'ilin Rf.er to

t.. boob (If

on.

lBIB FDlJ'Dllm I!oou

-.~ob.DI1

60

{n

3:!. , = !(tc)
to Clfpn:: t.hls nota ~
+ •••••

tion
(1)

prwe.d e
(or exam

pendente of 9 pon ~ It· !I ,-iJe t.hat t n.ppropriA.te in e case in ieh:J is ex ~ 9i of :z: by me s of & r. m leo, as 'when

sin.t:.. a oo~
\Ve b

+ bsin'~

which it. I~ for e

to be im of %- If

e vel')' often to doe with fu ~ at re at.iL)n~ bt or ineon venien to el':p:r th i form, :y - $ ~ 0 01' ~ Y' - ay ~ (l'Wn N!8S !I 0:11:fJI1t::itly " an Blga. chon
j

c~o~
eMed. Yi~ by t. ftm:nula
more

F+
8il(Lplye It.

.,J(FI- ~ - 20.21 - C);

We
.'IS !l I!I~C

the

S~I'I"'_' A-

m.l"!t

M I"Jl
n (I)
R

inc! udes

eq llat

ial form o a uneti

and !/.
toj(f&rY t.he curv

pe.tLk of "he loeu of the poi r. ~,y) Ilbjocti h 0 r lhe fl1 net.! n 11 defin I(~.o. '!I) =
0) ;;;;;; and th 0,

of

ol:

Joel,!$.

Tn uteful. n.riab!e de,"oid of

et hod

of 't'Cprc!!

.a: and !I rare ot.h rLU1e~ be re~ed a

oikn third
and
W;M te

gegm~t:Q;l :s; ,(t).

S

y=

~cd

to to 8 OOl!"'Up ng ''OJ. ues -or Elu:h pLloi.r of ach '\Iah,l.e~d mes point.
e zm n FDlJ'Dllm OOU
I I I

:3 ~ 33]
( , y).

61 ointa whic:
obt.l!in th

Jf we, ~ et. aU y 10 diftue:nt \Ill fo~1d ~ o« ~ .

pPIPI! fur

over ud O'&l8r in. .It. dirtct rdatiotl be~ een ~ fi d t~t; L'It +1" = al~ being
C 8

EnJn~
d
't

X'D!.

I1.ltk:lll4l .UI!!I 1(II ,)

ODed irtb~Ellj.L..Ia r:J.:!i ~ ~ .GInC Y. T~ lIDluti ~e Uft of :& I.nil ,.. 'I'l::U!I tow ID eq .,btt of i::IICIl ... r.cd pOL

] Thl!l =0. ~ (ZI ,)

t. Tr:B.Cl9
II!!

thlll oC:ur'l1ll!l

3.. 'I'M- curwc f(1;,!1 :pcin'fol IJf In"Winom.ioo

4. {II}

+,)1+~ (.J'j 'i)

j

1-11
~

l\"~t locIi
Z'lll:ru+~

IUt

~.I11L

s= +d.

33. Loci iD IP o fundamentally de am plea are the p

A particle

whieb II.OVes al ~Ijrf«lom. I dire t.i be 'CO rnple tAl y fix d by

Qf C by .. a· g1e c
B.

Qnly
D

(lj11S

CI

dil!luUlOO from a fix fundL\meubll lin.@!

determined
B

pIM.-e, on t.nll!: Ql' h ition un only be 6 fd by

I:J

pcsit.ion i n, e,g. by ke he line n.s lIy i~poill~ ieh moves edam .. ita rdinatea

P ili DIy l:i@lClng'! 'kl th led Q; ,lLt'ju.f'A- Ito

Or

RUt

v ,un A. La.

[11

ma.y -e\l"ide lit. be. ge iI!Imliae :ao unction j (;II. Y) ;If) of t/trH ariab!e (OL· r of ..arW;lh~s). And ns .in § w~ as the: standard of t; e eqn Ian shsll II.grete to ad trG
(or, , • .t) - 0

.at

by huo eqlu1ti0n5

cia. f Ioe~ rtI.El.Y bu reprue ted by t + D = O. A ail IS in • 00 of a. I5Iphel"e d IlL P two eq lIation~ of e: fo
6l'8t

the

be

a.y

or .l:Un!:! t.lU"V'O J(~1

1 (f(~."

=~ ..

ol.a e:nd'aC:1fI OD ble W ~~t & Moo j.wl!e:i tt ill: but..tI. vtt1 bit
1

DI::wLAintd .u!tll
lIi"I!I DaY!).GIn

rq_

tc!~

.. ;Ii, ...

it.tI

:r~icullY' diflll:t~;t1j

lura a...

i" (.a,.

.A.e'

a ll}a"ne CUl""i'll ~ 1!.he CUI"'I.O!I (a) ill

-.~ob.DI1
I I

63
do lb~ rel'"..u
a).
" .jI.

w~ Clbt&i.n
ountoliRd

ic:h !Well 11J.e.pt; tl:u! l:UQQtI cf tho PI tlilll Bl to U!.6

-Dtl.lm

d \hI)

-.ttaota-=.o..

; and let. oil 'be (~bich murt.

iii

I.ba Ie 0D:tI cI

Ilt tb 6 IIIJ.UIllliIrn
r :J; -

or

f(4 rnund

[r

II

ro~ / a:f~,#1) ~ Uld.

:OJ

p;ri.:m't. l.l! ~ &:be RltW". A ~ifI Es. 7 Sho" thai the

~ J in_

JIIWiIIIi1l8

r,"

,bat

-IIIlly

li~

001:1

co....... mutt.

e zm I FDlJ'Dllm I!oou I I

IH:

ti.on o! ~ L' '1[(1 of I"cll~ Ilh;od.

v&h.1;1!I of , tb!:

I'i,

It.

I' .18..:. e zm n
DIJ'DIIm I!oou
I

II

-.~ob.DI1
II

&'h1J-'ol' t.bt!.1,.

'3-1
~.T}
jtlo

Jt f(J!il=/ --/(-4
m.o.ll 'PiiJ

or

a.
4,.

I. SolV(] the

~'-=r:-

1:'Q.'liait.i
1iL~ tIS
rr:JDW

be

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm I I!oou I

-.~ob.lII1
I

00

[It

1tU tb.ei

:II.

is a. posit.lw

....

21'i+3
-'1'1'"

~U

r-ou.eb1y.
that tile

4.

i\f1d ".fI.illl.OJJ or th.9 (Ii) :P-+~n'lR

{3J
(l-eOlIl1:)

eq_ u'"Lio lUll ta.n .!:::::IIhj(l

+~

the ae:.eond dlgrelB

-hl

-J
l)th docrt* wbie~ 6- .Fin tabs Un:1 ~ I 2Ctf .r- +2j~ Allie kI!I If(t 7. Sh of.:¥" 'h«I It 8. If o! 9.
.;C of tlIe .iOGO ucs lj4; lJ(IIH]). 1 ).

I jn

iii

hid:!. tot' t-hm "a.h.l~ d .AD. Ud.t -beu (JI"alA. 7Hp. l~ll.)
&.

+&+0,

t.bat.

;i.l ~

is

ratitln&l
mb r.Q.iI::al

rUild;l!ln

fllfJC:Uon.

or

.:1",

10 net.. rm

. ['l'u-. .s""ICII~

the 11lrm.ula et~

II!'
f)

or tb.

graph of ~bll!l

]+[r]1 ·=.,1:+1-

.~c.~+.)I') (

of t\o!li!I I"&ph of ,he!

1 In Cb.n.pli!r 1 • kngtb equal lo bGS to .n I .,_. r poIIIId 1.):1111 lf the M~i. till;:! 0( ra . 11&1. A II tlllCllSO ceeiI)f.Il; ~ d.&t_lIMHIed b~

~ue'"

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm
I I

III

I!oow.:.

7 I
I

Wrly ob-riQ1,1I!I 'Mot

by
II.nr

1,1110 mn i1'J'.'l,iDnral mlmR-r bowe'l'e1' Wlnl,jit:t:ted' •

1:1

VV

•'{ '(17 +3Jll) U-3JH

n

a(l00

~ ie poi.at. TMIII e.s~tlD the ~l~ l'I:Iat of .. .quar(J. • &iii tw ~ b~~l'I'Mtli ilnd I ~ 1 , Or ,beIII:I t"~ mi.J:m 1IIl,jldlll m..iSltt bo ~ + 100=0~'ettel1, .only m't.~I.'tI Q( Ud. • Starti:nr:l!'Dfll; I). lOI'CIit. ~qtb 'll'e ~C II.M r,:l't,joo~ .II:Il.d tbo (Iirclo
" ~1l.D

coolllnl~~ Lhc lir.D

impillillS n.&t. I" J, (; aA!I m.t.ia 00 i!l. i\n.)' ElIclid~L' oo~lllll(! • del-!lrllJiDM DB. tbe. l.o'tolllnlf!Ct:i 'B ILt. U· t.b tI COCI mci.e:nttI Ilr'fI

(;!::-#+ !f + ig~ +- i!/1+t = OJ.. p1'O'rided

.tI..'Ir+.Dy+C=~

"~ yt

oM:!. ~
- II 1M: irr.a.tiol'i-l.l d:l..mnCftl tl:m:!l ot li:lCIII .r.d -ei:r(;1". .. l!otCI e et. .." d!.G ~
Il!yj

• "''I.rrd,. It. j" B¥1 don Ii 1.OWl:! 'r

l.hoosn
tMII. "0

DIH' IIUrd

(I' '*" li
IkI

CIrL!S ~ nd.

el

DZp1'~Lo

APil

:rI!mallJlIi

EuditNGs

frlttWI
~fln'&,.

!I, aM

tmo 1l~'nI 'I1'iU ~"""1id

the tU®U1fI ~'O'b1etm. o! a", ' 1;\ t.b .... is to F'J:J.1 oJ' LDe 0011 t. mca.&ttl'td bJ -12. It c&1'I btl
Q!M.1 !tLlte Mmbillll.tio~ of 'rat"

or

pro1.le:m is ~ im~iW,

0lI

MIl. i U,1lI fi.m. ~ ~ th"" B- ~uadraJ:.i1.'l eqWl.tioo. &-et -I- ib Cb- [ (Mi'5t-. Em 21).

i!,'

-"~ob.DI1 I I

v J\lU

&.'BLO A f-1f !LlUl d~'PJ

[11

ar

the i.rele. OP
~

Let () 00 th!l

n fl,m;J. A(i-

eItI

or
11,
1D

}; J/ p.o.ru.lll!

IJ

t.c the pl~

hi M

im.lmferalctl of thll!! cil"'dc t dceirn~lL If R ill t.h~ "~tll ml!llQl! 16 le;rw tM..J 11 'P
n

be.

-oon1ill~'t'1Ict.ed

lI."ith

UJt:

tional. ItDgd.:t.

meter QA .n.d

tb..e t4npDt
"t. C. On
~I

~d We ~t
Oll ~ ui.i of

ill

.MIl¥' lha.t the

if: CW' .... t.

P and. QI' Nt

Ti1c~alq the ulJi of )

!.he. 't.A[)gllC:t, \0 t.be

eI zm n FDlJ'Dllm I!oou

oN UDBI!: ItS

[n

orrle~·to s

g,t1tud1l5 of e PQ ) (.Ii) • di ctio~ of tb8 di~p by the Mg~ w hie PQ ma\;:ee with
; (iii) th.e "
hrM.

ify it completely. \Ve uire to k no : he tI spleeement, ... t e Jeng .&

PQ

-de r di$pl4lcrmiSitU' in

plane.

be~.

But; n

of

Of tL

~ d i:llplaccmcllt; ~ uirttnlmts we

e zm n FDlJ'DllmI I!oou

-36] 1m. Eq:uJnl,nc:e

pla.e.men.u 'bJ' D c p, &nd AAd ~. th

Ito is clear that

t.WIJI

and only if, ~ ~ ~.,

The

I"m'QJ"U~

di!llplnce

natural t.o agree that

~ - 1'Jl and

it.

[~-r.

t
E!i

6SeI

oqmLti.alJS, being

eebols -

If -~, t).

tt • [
oil"..} •• , ••• ,._ .,' _••• ' .. --eZ)

here «

i.F.Ii

nny

Rt.l.l nu

Thus (Fig. 9)

OB-- tOA then

t.io.o~ (1) n.noct.ed with disp
eqU&

The

mportant. id

displaeeme

t,9;,

pudtipli:cattM oj d
36.

Additio:Q u-t de~itioo. which

ramon !9~5e nt onM. au s to o two diapli&Ce'ment.s h di$ 1 o .... !uCCCMi ve appli be , c.h o
lBIB FDfZ(I!Im 1

iJJ the

J"C

II

oou

-.~ob.DI1

[m
to P'lJ
&0

be L Bot. tho!!! ~1 of :!!ill~e:ssi"¥e: d' P is to l;ra PJfe.- it fiAt to Q n

:U, if

qQ.

d pm-a1lel
J

,P'{{on
• 't.hcn
W~

sum 0 PQ and ~ as n 1 rmd pan. k 1 too PQ~ 8Jld 0 plett} the -al1~logre."l OA
t.h6

FQ+p

/Q
'-PQ;-LiA+
\
\,

...•

or

-.- ~..... A'.....

.....

...

/"""

\\

..

'

Fi_s. :2CI.

nsider \he O~II(lnc:etil of il!e!i of B a :i,!I. U~@ln t.b + .i')~ i (y+ )~a.m.) these of

detilli t.Lon_

Ie point Qf
01:+ ~ '!J y'. He!1!;l11! y').. .,.. ...... _(3)1 n i.tio of addition of

[.10. y] regaroed
\Yeo

[.z'. y']

[If; + ,,;.

j + [%,

yJ -- [ +.t: Y + .Y]
1

+$'Jy+~ll·[)

s, addit!'(,1 of d~~j d in erdin algebra by th ~ the bvioWlogecrn~tri thro~Sh a chlt,anec PQ, eq n .[)Ugh ~ di.a e eq 11&1 nnd Ii!IU1Ut point Ql as ber.,re.
e zm n FDlJ'Dllm OOU
I I

73

e~ [~

enotfd by [~
long a lion.

dil'~on

OJ

d pa

nd [3:, y] ~eir

ere is no fur
ny

nnmber.

r.'t~1} +
m.~

«, 'Y+y~ +
by tbeeqUA D

[~y]+

~ [~'j!ID .... , ..... ( ~

~he p l1icle whel"€ j me to W' 'l.t [0. 0] - O~ EJELmpl(i) (ii)

(iii}

{L .... )

(y) ~il
8t'"

lili.mll

il equaJilIIl'!i fotlo ju ~h ~ id &'bo~ in tbifl

2.

ir

If .d:Ll'ii!tt

lUI i a tM FQ

III

idli18 Emi tbo ~t.i

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm I!oou

-.~ob.lII1

COl1PLIiJ.
;mo

!tv

[lil IiDd

coll;11~ poi'[]ts in th!;!

at IIll ..,~ aM. :!I~b t
II.

(f}+fl. ,;Jq+l' .

.dC'. =.8 . A (), Com It ill- tridlli!n1. "YI 'PI'herl OIl t.n I;:! ,beQ
• ..! Co

r.U~~
U

ch';,,,,,'O Sbot'l' Lha~

.11.,"

AC.

il'-

II+/J-l

.s

e IzmI n I Df1'D1Im I!oou I

-.~ob.lII1
I

:36~:]7]

mnde

.fl.
ne a:Lte

d11!1p]B.ClMDenb.

S13

pit. 'ID

:II. t.t.sc 6C

uf th~ prod.

wio.n \'IIhieh
iF; mul ~iFIied

Ya

of t.wo t1isp e ham OOD'

number,

Y m@M.in.g Wt.IOI. vor men 18.. Tho en 1 . kin ed is tha~ in W 'M &

fR.f 111~ ~bing, nnd 'We !ilf"e nt. libert.y to def I"l anything 'We 1ke. It 19,h w er, t3.irly clear t t. jf DY of~ueh ~ P ct. it to ~ f Y use, the prod~ t -or wo mmte multo i Ir be a w.. b. tnt.
IiQ

We might

r~rxample e
J

d ue i.t 08 being
'1

[+ in o'hEll' \VOrd we migh t; men t.3 was. W Il101 a)'"3 w t \iii 0 serious 0 ections 't.O defllliti~ WO d be fut.ile.. met.hod 01 e
eJt~E!i
Wj

+ y1;

ineon vi'nie.nt
:a. rea.l Dnm hi:!

DOt.

gi\'e thil

nable dell it n m Lg bt (LPpelU"

[~ J}[ ~i y'] ~ ["1 !",y'].

In rnct.,

't. ill by no m

the produe t [ Y [%'.!IJ. A Il that iF; el n is t.o be f ny use, th i~ pr et

.0 b"iml9:

WMt.·

e zm n FDlJ'Dllm I!oou 1

_.

1 1 . -·1,.-----

foraDltm1.noh.lII1

76
.a. dieplaeemen to

[rn and
.,.."e;

wonls t.h~

[",,~ [.:;1, ]I]

where X and

definil.icn

I".D

U!~

are flJ:net.ion of~. I!IUM :11.5! \0 ngree

YI
WI

nnd (3) Lhnt th

dinributi u. an

definition mu t. obey
!IooIlclativ! 13
131

1.

of ruul

,1-= [,iI(, y1 [ ({~,:.vJ + [ t1)[ tt', 11~ [a:, 31'] [.2: [e, !I] ([d:~, 'l + (~"I y"'n - [.-t, y] (*'
~ y] [~.
[s, y] ([ y'] [%"'t ~D - ({~ yJ[ ,

and

38. 'rile f~ "definition ~ t.c.kc. i, u BI OOf) are t~'o aim I k~· th!1~ if eorrtspoJlding i the order i.n which t. e
or

. ngle~

tho

We gles

wntt n, til n

OB. 00=0
ltiiVI ication
0 Now let

InO

Thi., :iI gguw d d ivision of d splncem .OD.

OA ..

0:0(00

(i1i.
-

[~ ~]. DC- [It'I,jl

0

K~ YI.

e zm nII IIIJ'DIIm I!oou I I I

31 3S]
j

17 that (J£ .. [1 0]. Then

j

Y] - [X, YJ,
Y].

=I

sigu
then

!I

p!ln 9~
tes

in

or D

~) 11- f3
ntly
pa

:51

and 8

pa'~(8

l=
)r=

txr aln (0

l! -91, -t p',

desired .
]

We

ide'

the

not; Altered i we ' tm~

='"1

q.

we

c:hM~

f§37 er'.lt,

78

39. Comp OX wrreapond e. m.an~ ~o'tJ y J in th

of
.'1:",

ment. [.2:] o to a di

nat t'r-ImWm ~.

)1') and

II

W& shall find i Y by ihe Iytn bo

for t e ehoi For the: present t e ROO lUdy f)f wnting [: ). Th Tho reuon
hltJn~.

We [X'OOI!ed ne t to deS rum of eom pleJ: nu belt..

a d isplaeement.

eOJTes~ng_d~ of t~ complex nu to t.he .$um or

Th1U~

if.nd gnly if.:L:' (~+ (~+ In part.iClllDf"

y-y'
i) + (~
!Ii)
-c;j

(~+r) -W1"-(

(y

+Y" ~a+
and thase equatio confusion ir when :E + Oi lind yJ. for 0
j

.;
'Dl be-

t. til t th~e
Lth. c pin n

I h~n~

th.

Positi .... j nteg e

then defined y = y' in (3)j \\'e
:fIrfl: 0

lU
-

(;I;+:VI

(~+
-.~ob.DI1
II

Slii. 39

COMPJ..li.l.

HUM

tltJ of complex by t eo equations ~+yi+(~j

'Wi' I e-A!ily veri fy ttJr- hi

n lim bera: ob
-(~

Ltion

I\lld

t ~gebm

+ y''':)

+ ,~~)

y,')}

+ {z:.~ + ~i}

;;;;;; + yt.) (.'I:

":)1 (~+ y"t}=-{~ + Yi) (~

+ ;.)
$

+ YI) (Z" + Y"~)J~ H~+ tfl)

or t.

8M

eq aatiao:9- bei Dg pl1.\Ct. ooing 'f!q [ult.iIlDB fOI" Lhe

.nd diviBion tJr oomphn: u bra. Th 113 we may de6ne ~ - y1i;

or

number E + tti such t.hat.

(~'+y',) +{E+vi)::;;%

~
;:) is defined i;

t.he

I!Ia

mplex ruunbet

me rn&tLlL

E + qi su.eh + 'll) - % +
~''9

And {:II

(_a.) + y'i)(l

~e- Y17 + (~1f +:vEl i ~.( - Y'l1- ~~

So vi g

+ 'J
..... " .._-. (4). .

+ (E -

·Is if % !Uld y' 3I!'e bot.h e n is nlwayE; ~ible; d~vi ;0

IS

:&ern.

80

-iO.

known

••

to

!SIll

t.ead

l)1iry our

O+yi

ply by L.
Ilt along

=~l.

,~d - i
a&. the upshot of n.umberl
II

:J"

ll]e:lt n mben is U. ¢.y cl!, &~ ~

i a itMlf I!oou

tL o

BIB FDfZ(I!Im T I

-.~ob.DI1