Shaft Alignment Manual

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Shaft Alignment Guide
TR-112449
Final Report, September 1999
EPRI Project Manager

R. Knipschield
EPRI • 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 • PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 • USA
800.313.3774 • 650.855.2121 • askepri@epri.com • www.epri.com
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ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH
INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE
ORGANIZATION(S) BELOW, NOR ANY PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM:
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Rota-Tech, Inc.
ORDERING INFORMATION
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Copyright © 1999 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
CITATIONS
This report was prepared by
Rota-Tech, Inc.
4104 Cindy Lane
Denver, NC 28037
Principal Investigator
J. Campbell
Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center (NMAC)

1300 W.T. Harris Blvd.
Charlotte, NC 28262
This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.
The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner:
Shaft Alignment Guide, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1999. Report TR-112449.
iii
REPORT SUMMARY
Shaft misalignment has long been recognized as a source of problems for machinery, operators,
and owners. Experts agree that correct shaft alignment is one of the most important elements in
improving machinery reliability. In an effort to reduce the frequency of machinery misalignment
and improve machinery reliability, this guide provides users with an understanding of the
concept of proper shaft alignment through a discussion of the fundamentals of alignment. This
guide also provides a limited discussion of machine problems, the impact of misalignment on the
machine, and the consequences of misalignment on machine reliability.
Background
Within a nuclear power station, machinery shaft misalignment is responsible for major
expenditures in the form of labor, machinery parts, and lost generation capacity. In response,
large amounts of time and money are continually invested in state-of-the-art alignment systems,
equipment, and training. Most of the training, however, focuses on operating the new systems
with little or no training on the principles of proper shaft alignment. Consequently, fundamental
problems and causes of misalignment continue to be overlooked, misalignment continues to
occur, and machinery reliability is not improved—even after deployment of these costly systems.
Objective
To provide maintenance personnel with a thorough understanding of the fundamentals of proper
shaft alignment in order to enhance the use of all shaft alignment systems.
Approach
This guide provides users with a tool to assist in decision making for improvement of reliability
associated with rotating machinery, specifically improvements in shaft alignment practices. The
document is geared to the “whys” rather than the “hows” of shaft alignment. With the age of
most nuclear power plants and the training programs in place, the procedure for the actual task of
performing shaft alignments is well documented. The guide could not be written without some
specifics of certain alignment tasks; however, a blend of technical information has been the goal
in the preparation of this document.
Results
The resulting guide provides a thorough discussion of the fundamental causes and effects of
misalignment on machinery and how knowledge of the fundamentals of shaft alignment is
crucial to performing consistent, correct shaft alignment.
v
EPRI Perspective
Within the power station, shaft misalignment is responsible for major expenditures in the form of
lost generation capacity, as well as labor and machinery parts. This guide provides plant
maintenance personnel with fundamental information that will enhance their ability to achieve
proper alignment using any shaft alignment system, thus increasing mean time between failures
(MTBFs) and improving the reliability of all machinery with each alignment.
TR-112449
Keywords
Maintenance
Shaft alignment
Reliability
vi
EPRI Licensed Material
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
EPRI would like to recognize the contributions of the following individuals in the development
and review of this guide:
William Bramlett Oconee Station/Duke Energy Corp.

Deyton Brunson Brunson Instrument Company
Michael Calistrat Michael Calistrat & Associates
Alistair Campbell Bently Nevada Corp.
Pedro Cassanova Ludeca, Inc.
Galen Evans Ludeca, Inc.
Bob Fulbright McGuire Station/Duke Energy Corp.
Jerry Garner Commanche Peak/Texas Utilities Electric Co.
Frank Hale Catawba Station/Duke Energy Corp.
Charlie Jackson Consultant
Darron Jones Commanche Peak/Texas Utilities Electric Co.
Randy Kerr PECO Energy Co.
Jon Mancuso Kop-Flex Couplings
Richard Massey A-Line Mfg.
Larry Pope Commanche Peak/Texas Utilities Electric Co.
Kyle Russell Duke Engineering & Services
Tony Scheetz Commanche Peak/Texas Utilities Electric Co.
Deiter Seidenthal Ludeca, Inc.
Dale Smith Smith Services
Watson Tomlinson Duke Energy Corp.
Randy VanSurDam Oconee Station/Duke Energy Corp.
vii
PREFACE
Shaft misalignment has long been recognized as a source of problems for machinery, operators,
and owners. Within the power station, shaft misalignment is responsible for major expenditures
in the form of labor, machinery parts, and lost generation.
Because experts agree that maintaining correct shaft alignment is essential to improving
machinery reliability, large amounts of time and money are continually invested in state-of-the-
art laser alignment systems, equipment, and training. Unfortunately, this solution is much akin to
the golfer who thinks “If only I could afford expensive clubs—they would make my game
better,” while completely disregarding the fundamentals.
There is no argument that more accurate alignment results can be obtained through the use of
these systems; however, the problems that caused the misalignment often continue to be
overlooked, just as they were before the systems were deployed. In light of this, the objective of
this guide is to provide a thorough explanation of the fundamentals of proper shaft alignment and
to give examples of how this knowledge can improve all shaft alignment practices. Because
misalignment is a function of the behavior of the total machine train and system, this guide also
includes a limited discussion of machine problems, the effects of misalignment, and the
consequences of misalignment on machine reliability.
The premise of this guide is that practicing shaft alignment with a thorough understanding of the
fundamentals can enhance the effectiveness of all shaft alignment systems, resulting in improved
machine reliability.
ix
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................. 1-1
2 FUNDAMENTALS OF A PROPER SHAFT ALIGNMENT ................................................... 2-1

Thorough Understanding of the Fundamentals of Shaft Alignment ..................................... 2-2
Complete Analysis of the Machine From the Ground Up .................................................... 2-3
Thorough Understanding of the Behavior of the Machine As Part of the System ................ 2-3
Thorough Understanding of the Impact of Misalignment on the Machine............................ 2-3
Proper Sequence of Alignment Analysis............................................................................. 2-4
3 EFFECTS OF MISALIGNMENT .......................................................................................... 3-1

Types of Machines Aligned in Nuclear Stations .................................................................. 3-1
Bearings ............................................................................................................................. 3-1
Alignment Tolerances......................................................................................................... 3-6
4 MACHINE FRAME DISTORTION - SOFT FOOT................................................................. 4-1

Soft Foot............................................................................................................................. 4-1
Measuring Soft Foot Index.................................................................................................. 4-2
Distinguishing Types of Soft Foot, Possible Causes, and Proper Correction
Techniques......................................................................................................................... 4-2
Parallel Air Gap.............................................................................................................. 4-3
Bent Foot or Angled Base.............................................................................................. 4-4
Taper Shims to Remove Soft Foot...................................................................................... 4-5
Baseplate and Foundation Irregularities ............................................................................. 4-6
Deterioration .................................................................................................................. 4-6
Machinery Vibration ....................................................................................................... 4-6
Induced Soft Foot and Nozzle Loads.................................................................................. 4-7
Nozzle Loads ..................................................................................................................... 4-9
Jacking Bolts or Taper Pins .............................................................................................. 4-10
Gaps Without Soft Foot .................................................................................................... 4-12
xi
5 MACHINERY POSITION CHANGES................................................................................... 5-1

Infrared Thermography....................................................................................................... 5-7
Alignment and Preloads ..................................................................................................... 5-8
6 SHAFT COUPLINGS AND POWER TRANSMISSION ........................................................ 6-1

Flexible Couplings .............................................................................................................. 6-1
Restoring Forces and Moments.......................................................................................... 6-5
Misalignment ...................................................................................................................... 6-6
Advantages and Disadvantages of Coupling Types............................................................ 6-9
7 VERTICAL MACHINES ....................................................................................................... 7-1

Vertical Machines with Rigid Couplings .............................................................................. 7-1
Vertical Machine Behavior ............................................................................................. 7-1
Causes of Misalignment ..................................................................................................... 7-2
Alignment Procedure (Steps 1–9) .................................................................................. 7-6
Pump Coupling Procedure (Steps A–G) .................................................................... 7-7
Alignment Procedure (continued)................................................................................... 7-8
Conclusions........................................................................................................................ 7-9
8 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 8-1
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1 Reverse Dial Setup ................................................................................................ 1-2

Figure 1-2 Typical Laser Alignment System ............................................................................ 1-2
Figure 2-1 Colinear Alignment................................................................................................. 2-1
Figure 2-2 Offset Misalignment ............................................................................................... 2-1
Figure 2-3 Angular Misalignment............................................................................................. 2-2
Figure 2-4 Offset and Angularity.............................................................................................. 2-2
Figure 3-1 Ball Bearing (Anti-Friction Bearing) ........................................................................ 3-2
Figure 3-2 Laser Alignment System ........................................................................................ 3-4
Figure 3-3 Two Misaligned Shafts Using a Spacer Coupling ................................................... 3-5
Figure 4-1 Parallel Air Gap...................................................................................................... 4-3
Figure 4-2 Bent Foot or Angled Base ...................................................................................... 4-4
Figure 4-3 Step Shim .............................................................................................................. 4-5
Figure 4-4 Pump Base Degradation Resulting From Transmitted Forces................................ 4-7
Figure 4-5 Examples of Induced Soft Foot .............................................................................. 4-8
Figure 4-6 Pump Outboard Replacement Keys ..................................................................... 4-10
Figure 4-7 Key Adjusting Bolts .............................................................................................. 4-11
Figure 5-1 Alignment of Shaft Centerline Heights.................................................................... 5-2
Figure 5-2 Expansion Chart .................................................................................................... 5-3
Figure 5-3 Acculign Bars Measuring Movement of a Steam Generator Feed Pump ................ 5-4
Figure 5-4 Laser Monitoring Movement Between Steam Generator Feed Pump and
Turbine ............................................................................................................................ 5-5
Figure 5-5 Dynalign (Dodd Bars) Being Used to Monitor Alignment Changes ......................... 5-5
Figure 5-6 Precision Sight Level Used for Optical Alignment Checks ...................................... 5-6
Figure 5-7 Jig Transit Used for Measuring Alignment.............................................................. 5-6
Figure 5-8 Scales Used With Jig Transits and Precision Levels .............................................. 5-7
Figure 5-9 Shaft Orbits Acquired From Eddy Current Probes on a Sleeve Bearing
Machine........................................................................................................................... 5-8
Figure 6-1 Gear Coupling........................................................................................................ 6-2
Figure 6-2 Grid Coupling ......................................................................................................... 6-3
Figure 6-3 Diaphragm Coupling .............................................................................................. 6-4
Figure 6-4 Flexible Disk Coupling............................................................................................ 6-5
Figure 6-5 Stub Shaft Replacement ........................................................................................ 6-6
xiii
Figure 6-6 Point of Moment..................................................................................................... 6-7

Figure 6-7 Angular Misalignment............................................................................................. 6-7
Figure 6-8 Angular Misalignment and Offset at P2 .................................................................. 6-8
Figure 6-9 Angular Misalignment and Offset at P1 and P2 ...................................................... 6-8
Figure 7-1 Typical Stuffing Box, Noting Four Points Where Dimensional Runouts and
Concentricities Are To Be Measured ............................................................................... 7-2
Figure 7-2 Typical Discharge Head (Motor Stand)................................................................... 7-3
Figure 7-3 Alignment Fixture Aligning Motor to Stuffing Box.................................................... 7-4
Figure 7-4 Adjustable Coupling Spacer and Nut in a Typical Pump Coupling.......................... 7-5
Figure 7-5 Pump Coupling Indicator Positions......................................................................... 7-6
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3-1 Alignment Tolerances.............................................................................................. 3-6

Table 6-1 Coupling Advantages and Disadvantages ............................................................... 6-9
Table 7-1 TIR Measurements From Installing the Pump Coupling........................................... 7-7
Table 7-2 TIR Measurements From Installing the Pump Coupling........................................... 7-8
Table 7-3 TIR Readings From the Vertical Pump Shaft Alignment Procedure ......................... 7-8
Table 7-4 TIR Readings From the Final Pump Shaft Alignment .............................................. 7-9
xv
1
INTRODUCTION
Simply put, shaft alignment is placing two or more shafts along one axis or centerline. Although
proper shaft alignment that increases machine reliability is much more complex, this simplistic
approach is how alignment is often performed—with total disregard for the fundamental
problems and causes of shaft misalignment.
The widespread use of this approach is shown by the increasing use of laser shaft alignment
systems. Management personnel, acting on input from supervisors, technical personnel, and end
users, often purchase these systems with the erroneous assumption that the laser shaft alignment
system will eliminate their misalignment problems. In fact, it seems that anyone who can align
machines relatively easily or quickly using these systems instead of other methods is now
considered to have achieved total proficiency in performing shaft alignment, which greatly
improves reliability.
In some cases, reliability is improved. This is normal where improper practices were previously
performed with methods that have been used for a number of years. An example would be
someone performing alignment using the rim and face method and not accounting for sag in the
indicator.
In reality, however, this new-found knowledge gives the user and management the ability to
perceive that good alignment has been performed by the fact that the given tolerances are quickly
and sometimes easily reached. The result is that fundamental problems and causes of
misalignment continue to be overlooked, just as they were before these costly systems were
deployed.
The most widely used methods for aligning machines with accuracy are the laser systems and the
reverse dial methods. See the reverse dial method in Figure 1-1 and a typical laser alignment
system in Figure 1-2.
1-1
Introduction
Figure 1-1
Reverse Dial Setup
Figure 1-2
Typical Laser Alignment System
1-2
Introduction
It is easy to understand the widespread use of laser alignment systems for these reasons:
• They are easy to set up.
• They record data accurately (when correct data are input).
• They give fast and accurate alignment corrections.
• They assist in making machinery adjustments to achieve alignment.
But, if the goal of proper shaft alignment is to improve machinery reliability, then the success of
these systems should be measured by whether the mean time between failures (MTBF) increases
with each alignment and, if so, by what percentage as compared to before the implementation of
the system.
Misaligned machines can be divided into two categories:

• Machines with minor alignment problems
• Machines with major alignment problems
Machines with minor alignment problems exhibit satisfactory run time with a long mean time
between failures. These are the machines that, when checked for shaft alignment deviations from
specified targets and tolerances, are fairly close to being aligned from the last time they were
aligned. These are also the machines that do not show signs of stress, that is, the foundation is in
satisfactory condition and has been for some time. Removal of the machine does not reveal
piping strain or loads. The bearing temperatures are within range, and vibration typically remains
within acceptable ranges for long periods of time.
These machines have several advantages. In many cases, the machinery is not far from ambient
temperature. Nozzle loads are small, and soft foot has been corrected if there was a problem. The
foundation and grouting were installed properly, and periodic lubrication is performed at regular
intervals and in a prescribed manner. These machines have a long run time between failures.
The machines with major alignment problems are the ones that, when checked for alignment, are
always far out of specifications when “as found” shaft alignment data are taken. If accurate
records have been kept, the misalignment is always in the same direction perpendicular to the
centerline of the shaft. The offsets and angularities are always somewhat close to the last data
that were taken, if conditions were the same.
These machines typically operate under high load conditions, at elevated temperatures, and with
piping loads. The foundation reveals signs of deterioration, and the mean time between failures is
short. Most of the time used in alignment is spent to put the machine where the correct position
is thought to be. Great energy and expenses are expended to correct the obvious problems, but
the root cause of misalignment is ignored and the cycle continues. These are the machines that
generally have high profits associated with them and the ones that this guide focuses on.
1-3
Introduction
A “failure” is defined as the following:

• “The condition or fact of not achieving the desired end or ends”
• “A cessation of proper functioning or performance”
• “Nonperformance of what is requested or expected”
All of the above definitions can be applied to failure of machinery at a power station. As related
to shaft alignment, a failure can imply a degradation of any of the components or subcomponents
within a machine or piece of equipment. These failures can damage or destroy couplings, rotors,
mechanical seals, or bearings. With proper shaft alignment, machinery reliability is improved,
MTBF is increased, and the cost and quantities of replacement parts are reduced.
The new “buzz word” is mean time between repairs (MTBR), which is essentially a MTBF
because, if a repair is made, in a sense it is still a failure. Only preventive maintenance can be
performed as a repair without a failure. Most maintenance, other than corrective, now being
employed at power stations is either predictive maintenance (PDM) or reliability-centered
maintenance (RCM).
Remember that, in order to have complete and satisfactory alignment, there must also be
satisfactory coupling alignment. The couplings joining two or more shafts are a part of the rotor
systems; however, based on coupling manufacturers’ allowable misalignment, satisfactory
coupling alignment does not mean satisfactory shaft alignment.
1-4
2
FUNDAMENTALS OF A PROPER SHAFT ALIGNMENT
Proper shaft alignment is the aligning of two or more shafts to a “colinear position” at operating
conditions, while ensuring that the shafts are operating with a minimum of forces applied to the
individual shafts and across the coupling. See Figure 2-1 for an example of colinear alignment.
Figure 2-1
Colinear Alignment
How is shaft misalignment defined? There are three types of misalignment conditions:
• Offset - when two shafts are not coincidental to the same axis or centerline (see Figure 2-2)
• Angularity - when one or two shafts move away or toward the centerline as they approach or
distance themselves from one or more machines (see Figure 2-3)
• A combination of the two (see Figure 2-4)
Figure 2-2
Offset Misalignment
2-1
Fundamentals of a Proper Shaft Alignment
Figure 2-3
Angular Misalignment
Figure 2-4
Offset and Angularity
Very seldom is one type of misalignment (offset or angularity) present without the other. Since
this is the case, the term “offset” better illustrates misalignment not on the centerlines. Some
authors prefer the term “parallel” misalignment, but this implies that the offsets are always
parallel to each other. For the purposes of this document, misalignment not on the centerlines is
referred to as “offset misalignment.”
The essential elements for performing proper shaft alignment include:

• Thorough understanding of the fundamentals of shaft alignment
• Complete analysis of the machine from the ground up
• Thorough understanding of the behavior of the machine as part of the system
• Thorough understanding of the impact of misalignment on the machine
Thorough Understanding of the Fundamentals of Shaft Alignment
Although proper training in the fundamentals of alignment is the first step to achieving
satisfactory results, it is by no means the only step. Additional training should include:
• The basic mathematics involved with alignment
• The concept of “soft foot” and all of its variables
• Proper training on the alignment system being used
• A thorough understanding of thermal growth and machine running positions
2-2
• A basic understanding of coupling behavior for the various designs of couplings used
• An understanding how alignment impacts machines of different designs
Complete Analysis of the Machine From the Ground Up
While analysis in this sense does not necessarily mean the use of vibration analysis or infrared
thermography, these and other types of data collection techniques do need to be used to gather
data to analyze machine problems.
Visual inspection plays a very important part in machine analysis as it relates to shaft alignment.
The condition of the baseplate and anchor bolts should be one of the first things inspected when
approaching a machine for alignment or analyzing a problem machine where misalignment is the
suspected cause of problems. Look closely at the condition of the grout under the base of a
machine if this type of base is used.
Look for leaks of water, oil, or other fluids, noting any corrosion to the base that these fluids
might have caused. If the machine train consists of a drive steam turbine, look for leaks around
the gland steam sealing area. If the baseplate and grout are damaged or deteriorating, this will
hinder satisfactory alignment and ensure that the alignment will have to be done again sooner
than expected.
If the coupling is a lubricated coupling, look closely for a pattern of lubricant spraying or leaking
from the coupling. Depending on the type of guard, sometimes machines using a gear-type
coupling can be analyzed for coupling or alignment problems by placing a piece of white cloth or
paper on or under the coupling guard. If a pattern of lubricant is visible, you should suspect a
coupling problem or misalignment.
Testing shaft runout is an essential part of pre-alignment checks. With the widespread use of
laser systems, sometimes shaft and coupling/coupling hub runouts are overlooked. The shafts
should be rotated and all runouts taken before aligning the shafts.
Thorough Understanding of the Behavior of the Machine As Part of the

System
Look closely at the way piping is routed to and from the machine. Visually inspect the piping
support apparatus. Are they adjustable struts, rigid struts, or spring hangers? Getting a feel for
the piping route and what the designer had in mind when calculating piping expansion and the
direction of expansion can be very important. Is the machine being operated as it was intended?
Thorough Understanding of the Impact of Misalignment on the Machine
Stated differently, this also refers to the behavior of the machine. First, determine if the machine
displays symptoms of misalignment. Has a thorough coupling inspection been performed? Has
the vibration data taken on the machine told you that alignment is the most probable cause of the
2-3
machine behavior? Most of the time, misalignment will show up at half speed, but it can also be
seen at full speed. Additionally, misalignment can be seen in the axial direction.
Vibration is not proportional to misalignment. (For more information, see Alignment and
Preloads in Section 5.) Forcing functions acting on a machine with misalignment can improve
vibration levels.
Knowing the history of a machine is vitally important. What maintenance was performed during
the last inspection or rebuild? Was the rotor balanced? Has there been a trend of increased
vibration, or was it a sudden change? Has the machine characteristically been a problem? If so, is
the machine being operated at or near its design limits? Have conditions changed?
Proper Sequence of Alignment Analysis
All of these questions and many more require answers when diagnosing the cause of machinery
problems. A good predictive maintenance program in conjunction with a good root cause
analysis program goes a long way toward resolving alignment and machine problems.
Using the proper sequence in alignment is crucial to ensure that if any problems arise from the
machine after alignment that they are not due to misalignment or improper alignment, or
associated with areas that should have been checked during the alignment process.
2-4
3
EFFECTS OF MISALIGNMENT
Most machines used in the nuclear industry, such as turbines, pumps, fans, compressors and
other equipment, are similar to those used in other applications or other industries. This section
details how shaft misalignment affects these machines and the consequences of these machines
failing for any reason, but especially due to misalignment. Special consideration must be given to
the equipment in the nuclear industry due to the circumstances under which it operates.
Types of Machines Aligned in Nuclear Stations
The machines in a nuclear station can be divided into three categories: power production
systems, safety systems, and support systems. Nuclear power production machines do not differ
greatly from their counterparts in other power stations. They include:
• Feedwater pumps
• Booster pumps
• Condensate pumps
• Heater drain pumps
• Drive turbines
• Electric motors
• Steam turbines/generators
• Safety pumps
• Fans
It is obvious why failure in these machines is costly; lost generation capacity is the single largest
cause of lost income at a power station.
Misalignment can and does affect the support system of machines. This support system consists
of the components of the machine itself and the structure that supports the machine.
Bearings
Bearing failure or degradation is a factor that impairs reliability. Misalignment places forces on
the bearings that reduce the life of the bearing. This can be noted visually when looking at shaft
orbits on sleeve bearing machines. The results of this problem on anti-friction bearing machines
typically require vibration analysis and time for the problem to reveal itself. The loads placed on
3-1
Effects of Misalignment
anti-friction bearings are shown during analysis at some frequency associated with the bearing
design, such as ball pass frequency or inner race frequency. For this to reveal itself, typically
some damage has to occur to the bearing. Over time, the damage will continue to escalate to the
detectable point.
Bearing temperature is a good indication that a problem exists. Unfortunately, direct reading
temperature instrumentation is typically not installed on anti-friction bearing machines unless
they are in a critical application. Even then you are getting only part of the picture because the
probe is usually contacting the outer race, and temperature equalization and heat transfer can
give some misleading information. If the area of concern or damage is directly on the
temperature probe, indications of a problem are easily seen.
Figure 3-1
Ball Bearing (Anti-Friction Bearing)
The bearing in Figure 3-1 is typical of the radial bearings installed in a majority of pumps that
use anti-friction bearings. This bearing and the associated data are for a 6312 bearing.
The amount of clearance in a bearing has a relationship to the amount of misalignment present
and the amount of external preload on the bearing and shaft, which is also impacted as the
misalignment adds a bending moment to the shaft. Depending on the amount of shaft deflection
and the position along the shaft where this deflection occurs, the bearing acts accordingly. Using
the above bearing as an example, if shaft deflection or bowing from misalignment or other
sources results in the deflection occurring close to the bearing, the bearing must flex a certain
amount with the shaft.
The 6312 bearing above, utilizing a C3 fit, has an internal clearance of 23–43 micrometers (µm),
or .0009–.0017 inches. This internal clearance is the total distance through which one bearing
ring can be moved relative to the other. Dividing this clearance in half gives the radial clearance
between the ball and the inner or outer race. This not only includes the radial direction of
clearance, but also the axial direction of clearance. This says that if shaft deflection occurs that
causes the inner race to try to skew within the outer race, then on one side of the bearing, the
3-2
clearance is closed, and diagonally across the bearing, the clearance is closed. This generates
higher temperatures, the ability to lubricate the bearing has been diminished, and wear occurs at
an accelerated rate.
Mechanical seals fail for several reasons that can be associated with misalignment. First, the
bearings begin to fail, and then the shaft is allowed to move in relation to the stationary seal face.
Exactly how this happens depends on the type of misalignment present and the state of the
bearings. Nozzle loads typically affect the stationary seal faces and their concentricity and
perpendicularity to the shaft centerline. Nozzle loads can affect the bearing housing, causing
deflection of the shaft and the rotating portion of the seal. Trying to discover which seal
component is being affected is very difficult. Therefore, when the loads need to be reduced
anyway, removing nozzle loads on the machine is very important and is the best method of
solving the problem without major analysis and time expenditure.
In theory, the hysteresis— the failure of a property to return to its original value once an applied
external force is no longer applied—of the seal component, particularly a pusher or multiple-
spring rotating face, is evident as it tries to maintain contact with the stationary face at a given
machine speed. This contact and flatness are of utmost importance. Seals are lapped flat, using a
measurement of light bands. If seals did not need to be flat to seal, then shaft movement would
be irrelevant. The shaft could bend, move axially a great amount, move radially a great amount,
and the seal still would not leak. But shaft deflection in the range of .00001 of an inch (0.254
micron) is far greater than the light band range to which the seal is lapped. Surface speed
(surface feet per minute or SFPM) is a factor that, when added to the equation, reduces seal life.
This is why smaller shafts at higher speeds can use a seal without leakage better than a machine
with a larger shaft.
Most alignments performed on horizontal machines use some sort of laser system. Figure 3-2
below shows a typical laser alignment tool attached to a shaft.
3-3
Figure 3-2
Laser Alignment System
Methods of measuring misalignment and correcting it are varied. Shaft alignment technology has
progressed over the years, and systems are now very sophisticated. This does not imply that
some of the older methods are inadequate or unacceptable under certain situations.
Some tools commonly used to align shafts are the following:

• Straight edge
• Feeler gage
• Parallel blocks (plain or adjustable)
• Micrometers
• Calipers
• Dial indicators
• Lasers
All of these methods are good, based on the following criteria:

• Tolerances
• Speed of machines
3-4
• Criticality of equipment
• Time involved in completing the job
• The resolution required to achieve satisfactory results
To determine how much time should be spent on shaft alignment in order to achieve satisfactory
results, the following questions must be answered:
• How important is the machine to the overall operations and profit of the plant?
• Has the machine been performing satisfactorily in the past, and are records available to prove
the reliability of the machine?
• Has the machine been thoroughly analyzed to determine what has an effect on misalignment?
• What is the cost of maintenance for the machine?
• Are parts expensive, and is the machine labor intensive?
• Is the machine presently off-line for maintenance?
• Is the repair or alignment on the critical path?
Figure 3-3, showing two misaligned shafts using a spacer coupling, is indicative of the type of
problems encountered in the field.
Figure 3-3
Two Misaligned Shafts Using a Spacer Coupling
NOTE: This diagram is exaggerated for the purposes of illustration.
It is worth noting that the spacer coupling, as shown in Figure 3-3, can have two different angles
at the points of power transmission, as denoted by alpha and beta. The angle theta is the angular
misalignment between shafts; the importance of this cannot be overemphasized. However, the
3-5
coupling angle is just as important because the behavior of the rotors of machines is probably
impacted more by the coupling angle than by the shaft misalignment angle.
Alignment Tolerances
Much of the discussion about shaft alignment centers on alignment tolerances. What is close
enough to achieve the desired results?
Because of the age of most nuclear power plants, the manufacturer’s literature is sometimes
sketchy. Depending on the date of publication, the Operations & Maintenance (O&M) manuals
provide alignment targets or tolerances are based on a zero offset and a zero angularity
alignment. Many O&M manuals state something similar to the following:
“The machine shall be aligned within .002” on the rim (offset), and .001” on the face
(angularity).“
Usually, no information on the length of spacer is included.
The alignment tolerance information in Table 3-1 applies to both vertical and horizontal shafts.
These suggested tolerances are the maximum allowable deviations from desired values (targets),
whether such values are zero or nonzero. Use them in the absence of in-house specifications or
tighter tolerances from the machinery manufacturer. Normally, the columns labeled Excellent
apply to all alignment work. The exception is rough machinery designed to vibrate, such as ball
mills, shaker screens, hammer mills, and so on. For such machinery, the information in the
Acceptable columns can be used.
Table 3-1
Alignment Tolerances
Courtesy of Ludeca, Inc.

Tolerances for Shaft Alignment
Short Couplings Spacer
Shafts
Excellent Acceptable Exc. Accpt.
Offset Angularity Offset Angularity
RPM mils mils per mils per mils mils per mils per mils per mils per
inch 10" inch 10" inch inch
600 5.0 1.0 10.0 9.0 1.5 15.0 1.8 3.0
900 3.0 0.7 7.0 6.0 1.0 10.0 1.2 2.0
1200 2.5 0.5 5.0 4.0 0.8 8.0 0.9 1.5
1800 2.0 0.3 3.0 3.0 0.5 5.0 0.6 1.0
3600 1.0 0.2 2.0 1.5 0.3 3.0 0.3 0.5
7200 0.5 0.1 1.0 1.0 0.2 2.0 0.15 0.25
3-6
4
MACHINE FRAME DISTORTION - SOFT FOOT
Machine frame distortion or casing deflection is a topic that deserves considerable discussion
and is the most overlooked area during the process of shaft alignment. It is also the area that can
pay the highest returns for reliability of machinery when associated with proper shaft alignment.
Frame distortion can be divided into three categories:

• Soft foot
• Baseplate and foundation irregularities
• Induced soft foot and nozzle loads
Soft Foot
Soft foot in the classic sense is the flexing or bending of the frame foot when it is tightened to the
base. Any gap that exists is reduced with this tightening, and forces are applied to the frame or
casing. These forces result in casing deformation and in some interaction between the stationary
and rotating parts of the machine.
In most cases, a complete check for soft foot is not done. The machine to be moved (MTBM) is
usually checked, but the stationary machine is seldom checked for soft foot. This, in turn,
continues to result in problems with the stationary machine. For example, consider the
comparison of turbine-driven feedwater pumps to motor-driven pumps at the power station.
When performing alignment on turbine-driven pumps, typically above 10,000 HP, there is a
tendency to move the pump. In doing so, it quickly becomes evident just how much soft foot is
present due to classic soft foot problems or piping-induced soft foot. When aligning motor-
driven machines and the motor is the MTBM, the machine is seldom checked for soft foot.
Rarely is the machine ever unbolted from the pedestal or base.
This is an area where much progress could be made in improving the reliability of the machines.
Instead, often the distortion due to piping-induced soft foot on the driven machine is mistaken for
other problems. One such problem is the contact of wear rings in overhung horizontal pumps,
such as American National Standards Institute (ANSI) or American Petroleum Institute (API)
pumps. Often radial reaction of the rotor and impeller are blamed for this when it might be due to
distortion, particularly at higher temperatures.
In comparison, on motor-driven machinery, when the motor is the MTBM, there are seldom any
influences present other than the classic soft foot examples. The exception to this is rigid
conduit, which imposes forces on the motor, or on larger motors, the water cooling lines, which
can also induce soft foot due to piping strain.
4-1
Machine Frame Distortion - Soft Foot
Measuring Soft Foot Index
It is common to measure soft foot by mounting an indicator on the machine base so that the stem
is on top of the foot, but this method has numerous drawbacks. Depending on how the foot is
bent, the indicator can under indicate the soft foot or even read zero when there is significant soft
foot. This will leave the machinery installer with the mistaken idea that the bolt and foot are
okay, when, in fact, harmful distortion exists in the machine frame.
The indicator can also indicate soft foot that does not move the shaft centerline and, therefore,
can be ignored. This is usually the case when the shims and feet are very large compared to the
size and the load area of the bolt. If the load area is correctly supported, the rest of the foot can
move a considerable distance vertically without any distortion passed to the machine frame and
bearings. The success of the indicator-on-top-of-the-foot method is highly dependent on machine
geometry. For example, a foot movement of 0.002 inches (0.05 mm) has entirely different
consequences for machines with only 6 inches (15.24 cm) between the feet than for those with
40 inches (101.6 cm) between the feet.
In short, the indicator-on-top-of-the-foot method misses significant soft feet, gives false alarms,
is highly affected by machine size, and is, in general, a poor method of measuring machine frame
distortion. A much more indicative value can be obtained from measurements taken at the shaft.
Because soft foot really means machine frame distortion, any system that purports to measure it
must some how quantify distortion in the machine frame. One simple, yet effective, way to do
this is to determine if the bearings moved when the hold-down bolts were tightened. If the
bearings did not move when the hold-down bolts were tightened, then there was little or no
machine frame distortion and certainly not enough to influence the rotor. On the other hand, if
the bearings did move due to the hold-down bolts being tightened (or loosened), then the frame
is sufficiently distorted to affect the running position and, subsequently, the condition of the
rotor.
For most, if not all, industrial machines, it is geometrically impossible for a single bolt to distort
a machine frame in such a way that both bearings move, resulting in a shaft movement that is
pure parallel displacement. Furthermore, if only one bolt is inspected at a time, any motion in the
nearest bearing will be largely vertical. In fact, purely horizontal movement of a bearing due to
tightening a single base bolt is geometrically impossible. To summarize this:
• Machine frame distortion from tightening (or loosening) a single bolt always induces a
change in the vertical shaft angle.
• Machine frame distortion can be measured by quantifying change in the vertical shaft angle.
Distinguishing Types of Soft Foot, Possible Causes, and Proper

Correction Techniques
Not all soft feet are the same. They are caused by a variety of conditions, some of which might
not even be related to the machine itself. However, as a rule, all soft feet are bad and should be
eliminated. The method of elimination depends upon the source or cause of the soft foot. There is
4-2
no general purpose, one-kind-cures-all soft foot correction. If your soft foot check indicates a
soft foot, fix it. However, be careful to analyze the type and cause of the soft foot before doing
anything. Indiscriminate shimming or trial and error will most often makes things worse.
Although a high-resolution laser system can be used for gauging the amount and effect of the
soft feet, it cannot determine the cause nor the corrective action. The soft foot mode of a high-
resolution laser system senses shaft deflection caused by soft foot, accurately and reliably. These
systems display a soft foot index that is an absolutely reliable indication of machine frame
distortion (soft foot). They do not display the correction for the amount of machine frame
distortion detected.
There is no device yet made that can measure soft foot at the shaft or on top of the foot and
accurately analyze the necessary correction. Shaft-mounted devices, even the best laser systems
with soft foot functions, are not “gap meters,” nor are they “shim meters.” This is a limitation of
all measuring systems that are mounted anywhere except between the bottom of the foot and the
top of the base. In other words, if you are not measuring in the gap under the foot, you are not
measuring the gap under the foot.
Cause and corrective action can be determined by using feeler gages, which are essential for
removing soft foot. Proper feeler gage technique for a single foot is to measure the gap under all
four corners of the same foot. From these four readings, an excellent idea of the shape of the gap
can be developed. The maximum allowable soft foot typically is 0.002 inch (50 µm), although a
real effort should be made to obtain zeros.
Parallel Air Gap
Condition: This is the mental picture most often associated with the word “soft foot.” It is where
three feet sit solid and flat, but one foot does not touch (see Figure 4-1). A feeler gage will find
an equal gap at all four corners of the foot. Contrary to common assumption, this type of soft
foot is quite rare. Note that the foot diagonally opposite will show soft foot, but a smaller
amount. It is impossible to have three parallel air gaps on one four-footed machine. Likewise, it
is impossible to have two air gap feet side by side. They must be diagonally opposite each other.
Soft Foot
Figure 4-1
Parallel Air Gap
4-3
Causes:
• One leg is too short.
• One baseplate mounting pad is not coplanar with the other three.
• Inadequate shims are under one foot.
Correction: Add shims to equal the amount shown on the feeler gage. Do not fall into the often
unproductive trap of attempting to divide the shims with the diagonally opposite foot. The laser
system readings of the four feet indicate relative coplanarity of the feet. This, in accordance with
the feeler gage results, will often show that three of the feet are largely coplanar, and the fourth
foot is clearly the one to be shimmed. If the laser system shows two diagonal soft feet with the
same value and the feeler gage gaps are the same across the diagonal, then shim both feet. With
experience, both diagonally opposed soft feet can sometimes be shimmed according to the
coplanarity of the four feet, but this is not recommended. It is far better to shim one foot and take
the readings again. You will often find that the problem is solved.
Bent Foot or Angled Base
Condition: The bottom of the foot is not coplanar with the base. It has feeler gage readings that
clearly show a slope from one corner of the foot to another. Often, but not always, one corner or
one side of the foot is touching the base, and the foot acts as a lever when bolted down (see
Figure 4-2). Because of this, the bent foot usually induces soft foot in the two opposing feet and
sometimes in the fourth foot as well. This gives the machine the appearance of having three or
four soft feet, but they will all go away when the bent foot is corrected.
Figure 4-2
Bent Foot or Angled Base
Causes:
• Machinery that has been dropped or handled roughly
• Bent or poorly machined baseplates
• Severe angularity misalignment
• Feet that have been welded
• Foundation settling
4-4
Correction: Re-machine the feet, the base, or both; or build a step shim. Step shims are a field-
proven method that is both safe and effective. The idea is to build a set of steps that match the
slope of the foot (see Figure 4-3).
Figure 4-3
Step Shim
The procedure to build a step shim is as follows:
1. Fill any gap that exists under the entire foot so that one corner or edge of the foot is touching
the shim.
2. Measure the largest remaining gap.
3. Divide this gap by 4, 5, or 6 (the number of steps) to obtain the step thickness.
4. Select 4, 5, or 6 shims of the step thickness and insert them one step at a time. Without lifting
the machine, insert them by hand only until they are snug.
Some adapting of the method is required for feet that are bent diagonally or skewed. Each
vertical shim correction to the foot requires the steps to be rebuilt. Do not expect the steps to fit
back in exactly the same way after shimming because vertical angularity corrections affect the
slope of the feet. After the final alignment, trim and discard the excess portion of the step shims,
as shown in Figure 4-3.
Taper Shims to Remove Soft Foot
A shim fabricated with a taper or compound taper can be used in place of step shims. By
mapping or measuring the gap and angles between the base and the subject foot, a shim can be
machined to remove the taper. This provides the advantage of not having gaps or steps associated
4-5
with the step shimming method. However, there are also disadvantages associated with this
method. First, if you are trying to keep the number of shims to a minimum, the taper shim adds
to the total shim thickness being used and must be accounted for on all feet. A minimum shim
thickness of 1/16 inch (1.6 mm) is usually required to fabricate a step shim. Second, the shim
typically requires fabrication from carbon steel in order to be clamped to a magnetic chuck on a
surface grinder.
Baseplate and Foundation Irregularities
Baseplate or pedestal condition and the foundation play an integral part in the ability of machines
to remain in an aligned condition. The baseplate to foundation interface, which is typically grout,
is an area that deserves scrutiny. Because many problems can occur within baseplates and
foundations that affect the operability of the machine, baseplate conditions play an integral role
in shaft alignment.
Deterioration
The baseplate and foundation might be subject to certain environmental conditions that cause
them to become unstable or deteriorate over time. The grout can begin to flake, erode, or
crumble due to the environment to which the foundation is subjected. Deterioration is most often
found in chemical plants, but it can occur in almost any situation. Continuous cleaning with large
quantities of water can also have an adverse effect on the grout and metal portions of baseplates.
Over time, rust and erosion of the grout can weaken the baseplate or foundation. If forces are
present from piping-induced loads, the baseplate reacts to these forces and can move
accordingly. Piping-induced or nozzle loads can cause the grout to crack.
Machinery Vibration
The problems associated with vibration are twofold:

• The first problem deals with the vibration caused by shaft misalignment. Vibration does not
always reveal misalignment. Several factors are involved, such as stiffness of the bearings
and the machine support structure. The external and internal preloads imposed on the
machine can dampen the vibration.
Soft foot, regardless of the type, can cause vibration. This is easily revealed when a soft foot
bolt is loosened and the vibration decreases.
• The second problem involving vibration is in the baseplate and supporting structure.
Baseplate looseness and grout cracking or dusting is evidence of high nozzle loads or high
cycle fatigue. An example of high cycle fatigue would be predominantly high vane passing
frequencies on a centrifugal pump. This high frequency vibration for an extended period of
time begins to fatigue the grout and baseplate. Shaft alignment is hard to maintain or correct
without going to the root cause of the problem.
4-6
The fatigue can manifest itself in the form of broken parts on the machine or even destruction
of the baseplate over time. The grout is usually one of the first areas to show damage
(see Figure 4-4), such as dusting or crumbling under vibratory loads.
Figure 4-4
Pump Base Degradation Resulting From Transmitted Forces
Induced Soft Foot and Nozzle Loads
For the purpose of this guide, nozzle loads are divided into two categories: induced soft foot
which creates nozzle loads in the vertical direction, and nozzle loads for forces and moments in
the horizontal direction.
Condition: A high-resolution laser alignment system shows soft foot, usually two feet on same
side or same end of machine, and a feeler gage finds a gap, usually parallel or nearly parallel. A
secondary symptom is that the foot does not get better (it becomes worse) or another foot
becomes much worse after shimming the gap amount (See Figure 4-5).
4-7
Figure 4-5
Examples of Induced Soft Foot
Causes: External forces on the machine. Coupling strain and pipe strain are the two most
common. If the coupling is difficult to assemble because of misalignment, expect an induced soft
foot until the alignment is improved. Other sources of external forces are:
4-8
• Overhung machines or attachments

• Belt or chain loads
• Gears
• Any overhung or extended shafts
• Hoses
• Flex conduit
• Structural bracing attached to the machine
• Jacking bolts inadvertently left tight
Correction: Remove the source of the force. Note that a high-resolution laser alignment system
makes a good tool for testing for pipe strain during construction. Attach the laser alignment
system and enter soft foot mode before attaching any pipe, but with all base bolts tight. Remove
any soft foot from the machine and leave the laser alignment system set up to read one foot (any
foot). Tighten the bolts on the piping. If the laser alignment system records more than 1.5 mils
(37 µm) movement while the flange bolts are being tightened, the piping is straining the
machine. As further proof, test again for soft foot while the piping is tight, and compare the data
to pre-piped soft foot conditions.
Nozzle Loads
Typically, nozzle loads are on the driven machine, unless the driver is a steam turbine (forces
from the piping are transmitted into the pump casing or other type machines and continue on into
the foundation or baseplate). Remembering that for every action there is a reaction, it is easy to
see why the large forces applied through the piping can destroy a baseplate quickly. As the
baseplate gives up some of its strength, the loads imposed on the machine tend to move the
machine more freely. The result is misalignment and the possibility of catastrophic failure of all
machines in the train. Large, high-energy pumps, such as feedwater pumps, can use keys to limit
movement of the casing. This does not reduce the stresses in the casing or reduce distortion from
nozzle loads or piping strain. It changes only the location where the forces and stresses enter
(and leave) the casing.
The forces and moments in the horizontal aligning direction are a very important area of concern
associated with nozzle loads. These forces tend to move the machine in the horizontal direction
in much the same manner as the induced soft foot moves the machine in the vertical direction. In
most cases, a moment is also associated with these forces.
When trying to align a machine with this problem, moving the machine requires a great deal of
force to bring the machine into alignment. By applying this force against the opposing forces,
casing distortion is added to the problem. As temperatures increase in the machine, the machine
may move in a direction that is not anticipated in relation to the hot alignment analysis
performed.
4-9
Over time, these forces manifest themselves in the form of rubs internal to the machine, pedestal
and baseplate damage, and grout failure. These horizontal forces and moments are best detected
by loosening all hold-down bolts, removing casing keys if they are present on the subject
machine, and loosening on all jacking bolts if they have been tightened in an effort to maintain
alignment. By observing where the machine moves and the forces required to move the pump
back into position, information can be gained about the forces present.
Large pumps, such as feedwater pumps, often use keys to limit movement of the pump and direct
thermal growth in a particular direction. The typical design uses a pin on the coupling end of the
pump and a rectangular key on the thrust end of the pump. The pin on the coupling end provides
for very limited movement in the horizontal and axial direction. The key on the opposite end of
the pump allows for thermal growth in the axial direction and limited movement, usually less
than 5 mils (0.1mm) in the horizontal lateral direction.
When pumps such as these are loosened from the baseplate in an effort to detect lateral forces
and moments about the axis of the nozzles, these keys must be loosened or removed. Many
times, this requires grinding welds that hold the keys or key blocks in place. Figure 4-6 shows
one station’s resolution to achieving horizontal moves and remedying lateral or horizontal forces
and a “twist” in the pump. Figure 4-6 shows the modified key block used with adjustments, to be
made after alignment, and the welded jacking brackets.
Figure 4-6
Pump Outboard Replacement Keys
Jacking Bolts or Taper Pins
Machine frame distortion can also be caused by dowel or taper pins used to limit the movement
of the machine. Jacking bolts are used occasionally in alignment to limit the movement of
machines that move around on the base. Care must be taken to ensure that casing distortion is not
caused by these jacking bolts (see Figure 4-7).
4-10
Figure 4-7
Key Adjusting Bolts
In many instances, the taper pin (or in some cases straight type fitted dowels) is used improperly
to limit the movement of machines. Analysis of the total axial growth of machines should be
performed to determine the fixed end of the machine, and the taper pins should be installed on
that end of the machine. Installing taper pins diagonally from one end of the machine to the other
increases the probability of casing distortion at elevated temperatures. The manufacturer or a
reliable consultant should be consulted if there are questions concerning doweling the feet of a
machine.
4-11
Gaps Without Soft Foot
Condition: Sometimes, a foot that does not show soft foot by high-resolution laser alignment
system readings will have a rather large gap under it when the bolt is loose and no gap when the
bolt is tight. Another version of this same phenomenon is that the laser alignment system
indicates a relatively small soft foot, but the feeler gages find a much larger gap.
Causes:
• The base is moving.
• The foot is bending without bending the machine (weak or flimsy feet).
• The base or machine is cracked, loose, or otherwise defective.
Correction: Even given the absence of soft foot in this condition, most people choose to shim
the gap, although it rarely improves the running condition of the machine. The base or machine
must be repaired or rebuilt to eliminate this condition. Note that this condition often has the side
effect of making vertical alignment corrections very unpredictable or even impossible. If the
machine can be aligned (it responds to vertical corrections) and is not loose or broken, then the
gap can often be ignored. If the tightening and loosening of the foot’s base bolt does not affect
the shaft centerline (no soft foot reading), then the bearings are not being moved or distorted, so
no harm to the rotor, bearings, or coupling occurs.
4-12
5
MACHINERY POSITION CHANGES
The running alignment position of machines is the aligned position of two or more machines
relative to each other at running conditions, which differs from the cold or shutdown aligned
position. Often, machines are misaligned in a shutdown condition in hopes that the alignment
during operation (or under “running conditions”) is within the acceptable tolerances for that
machine. While this is often referred to as “hot alignment,” there are others who define hot
alignment as mounting alignment equipment and capturing data immediately after machines are
taken off line. Although this method is probably better than nothing if certain rules are followed,
it is not very accurate and is about the same as guessing where the alignment of the machines
should be.
There are several methods that provide alignment criteria for machines to be misaligned in the
cold condition and achieve alignment during operation. These methods are listed below in order
of least to most accurate:
• Guess where the machines should be aligned
• Shut down and perform the alignment
• Use the manufacturer’s recommendations
• Monitor the machines from one condition to the other
The manufacturer of a boiler feedwater pump and the manufacturer of a drive turbine tend to
give information based on their respective machines. This information is based on either
monitored or calculated data, and this data is typical for “thermal growth” considerations of the
respective machines. Most often, you will get numbers from the manufacturers that represent
some vertical change in the machines relative to ground or to another machine. Some horizontal
change might also be provided.
More often than not, however, the horizontal misalignment targets are far from being what the
manufacturer of the machines provides or what can be calculated at the power station.
Monitoring alignment changes allows you to determine targets in the horizontal direction.
Horizontal types of misalignment are generally due to piping forces (either static or dynamic)
that prevent the pump from being aligned where desired or move the pump after startup.
Large pumps present problems in this area. Many large pumps have keys or a combination of pin
and key along the bottom of the pump casing. Some pumps even have keys radially projecting
from the sides of the casing to either limit the twist in the pump casing or, in most cases,
deliberately try to make the pump casing “grow” in a particular direction.
5-1
Machinery Position Changes
When targets reveal that a pump must have a given amount of horizontal angularity or horizontal
offset, provisions must be made to modify these keys from their as-built configuration (See
Section 4).
Figure 5-1 is a graphical representation supplied by one pump manufacturer of the calculated
thermal growth of a motor-driven pump with a gear box.
Figure 5-1
Alignment of Shaft Centerline Heights
These alignment targets are calculated based on an expansion chart, as shown in Figure 5-2.
5-2
Figure 5-2
Expansion Chart
Typically, the horizontal changes supplied by the manufacturer are not close to what is
encountered in the field when the machines in question are acting together with the entire
system. Although the vertical changes may occasionally be within the range provided by the
manufacturer, the horizontal changes seldom are.
The terms “hot alignment” and “thermal growth” do not disclose the complete story of running
position alignment. The most accurate terminology is “transient alignment monitoring” because
it best describes what running position alignment is about. You must monitor the alignment
changes under all conditions to establish an understanding of the behavior of the machines.
Capturing alignment changes within all operating parameters gives you an opportunity to explore
these changes.
Machines can be monitored starting with the machine cold (at shutdown) and monitoring the
changes as the machine reaches its operating condition. Monitoring can also be performed
starting with the machine at operating conditions and monitoring to shutdown. Monitoring can
also take place anywhere in between, if certain parameters are to be observed without
determining the full amount of changes of the alignment.
The preferred method is to monitor the machine from operating conditions to shutdown. This
enables you to analyze and implement the alignment data during shutdown and observe the
results on startup. This saves an additional shutdown to align if the opposite method is used.
5-3
There are two concepts involved in monitoring machine movement and arriving at the alignment
targets. For the purpose of clarity and convenience, these methods can be referred to as absolute
and relative monitoring.
Absolute monitoring involves the technique of measuring one machine from a fixed reference
point from the ground, such as a column, wall, or floor. The types of monitoring equipment that
do this include precision sight levels and jig transits, Acculign bars, and Jackson cold water
stands.
The relative alignment methods monitor the changes in alignment between two or more
machines. The equipment used for relative monitoring includes Dynalign or Dodd Bars,
Permalign lasers, and rotating Vernier gages. When absolute measurements are compared
between two or more machines, these measurements can also be referred to as relative.
See Figures 5-3 through 5-8 for pictures of various types of monitoring equipment.
Figure 5-3
Acculign Bars Measuring Movement of a Steam Generator Feed Pump
5-4
Figure 5-4
Laser Monitoring Movement Between Steam Generator Feed Pump and Turbine
Figure 5-5
Dynalign (Dodd Bars) Being Used to Monitor Alignment Changes
5-5
Figure 5-6
Precision Sight Level Used for Optical Alignment Checks
Source: Brunson Instrument Company
Figure 5-7
Jig Transit Used for Measuring Alignment
5-6
Figure 5-8
Scales Used With Jig Transits and Precision Levels
Infrared Thermography
Infrared thermography can play a very important part in analyzing misalignment. Thermography
can detect problems through temperature rises in the couplings or bearings. It cannot distinguish
the amount of misalignment, only the results of misalignment. In many cases, this is just as
important as measuring the amount of misalignment.
Used together, data from both infrared thermography and transient alignment monitoring systems
can be very informative to the technician, as well as to management personnel who may need to
see more evidence of problems in order to allocate resources necessary to resolve the problems.
Past studies involving alignment analysis have determined that some previously held beliefs
about misalignment are not necessarily true, including the following:
• Misalignment is easily detected by high vibration levels.
• Misalignment increases cost of operations due to larger energy consumption.
5-7
Both of these have been used in the past as major selling points for alignment hardware
companies.
Alignment and Preloads
A preload is a directional load or force applied to the rotating shaft. Two categories of preloads
are internal and external. Internal preloads deal with forces generated from within the machine
and go far beyond the scope of this guide.
Only the external type of preload exists for shaft misalignment. There are other types of external
preloads that interact with or impact the structure or casing of the machine, including piping
loads (forces and moments) and soft foot. The immediate effect of a preload due to misalignment
is to force the shaft into one sector of a bearing. A strong indication of preloads, both magnitude
and direction, can be determined with the use of proximity probes (x and y) close to the bearing.
These preload data are in the form of shaft orbits.
The use of bearing metal thermocouples in conjunction with shaft orbits and infrared
thermography can yield excellent results in determining if misalignment exists. This is easily
detected and brought to light in a machine, such as turbine generator train, or a high-energy
pump, such as a feedwater pump. The vibration might be low on one bearing accompanied by a
high temperature, while the adjacent bearing will have a higher vibration and lower bearing
temperature.
The amount of preload can be related directly to the amount of misalignment. Spring-type
couplings, such as a diaphragm coupling, exhibit the least amount of preloads on a bearing and
its supporting structures, while a rigid-type coupling will impose the most preload.
In Figure 5-9, a circle or ellipse, as shown in the first two orbits, is the norm when no
unidirectional loading or preloads are present. As you move across the page, greater preloads are
encountered. The last orbit is where the shaft is located in the bottom of the bearing due to a
large amount of misalignment, and the results can show up as twice the shaft speed. An elevation
in bearing temperatures can also accompany this scenario. Remember, there are other things that
can cause increased vibration. Misalignment occurs perpendicular to the shaft orbit and forces
the orbit to flatten; thus, the sensors perceive this as twice the running speed.
Figure 5-9
Shaft Orbits Acquired From Eddy Current Probes on a Sleeve Bearing Machine
A phase difference of 90 degrees between x and y probes should be theoretically true; however,
two probes can show a phase difference of 180 degrees. A steady-state preload will cause the
shaft to move eccentric to a position within the bearing. This type of orbit is seen most often in
machines with gear-type couplings. These preloads can also unload a bearing, resulting in a
5-8
lower temperature in one bearing and creating an opportunity for an unstable shaft, which may
result in oil whirl.
These external preloads can also be due to the misalignment itself. Piping strain and soft foot
pose another problem with casing deformation. You have a choice of where you want these
forces to enter the pump. They can enter through the piping or through the keys and supporting
structures of the pump casing. These forces can also be transmitted into the structure supporting
the pump, such as the base and grout of the machine (see Figure 4-4).
Smaller machines with anti-friction bearings pose special problems with preloads. Detection
might need to be performed with infrared thermography, as well as vibration analysis, to detect
preloads that have an effect on alignment and reliability of the machines. Machines that use a
gearbox for speed changes will have preloads associated internally with the machine, which act
upon alignment while the machine is in operation.
While piping strain impacts alignment, it also impacts the wear of parts. Piping strain as it relates
to misalignment is often overlooked. This is particularly true in the horizontal direction. What
appears as a minor amount of piping growth to the piping designer can be a major amount to
rotating machinery personnel. Piping growth due to heat can have a severe impact on the
misalignment of machines. Some of this misalignment can be accounted for with transient
alignment monitoring and corrections.
Cold piping strain in the horizontal direction must be accounted for and remedied as stated in the
Induced Loads section. Radial and axial pump keys under the casing do not eliminate these
loads; they just enter the casing from another location. The forces against the keys constrain the
pump, but they add to the loads on the casing just the same. These keys may require modification
from the original installed position.
5-9
6
SHAFT COUPLINGS AND POWER TRANSMISSION
Shaft couplings and power transmission go together with shaft alignment. Shaft alignment is
seldom performed without the opportunity at least to look at the flexible shaft coupling that
connects the machines being aligned. During shaft alignment, machines with lubricated
couplings are generally inspected or preventive maintenance is performed. Dry-type couplings
also require inspection for damage such as fatigue or cracking.
This guide does not attempt to discuss all the details of shaft couplings and how they are
designed, applied, and used. Instead, they are briefly discussed in this section in the areas where
they play an important role in the process of aligning shafts and in the behavior of machines due
to shaft and coupling misalignment.
Flexible Couplings
A flexible coupling transfers or transmits power from one machine to another and makes
accommodation for some shaft misalignment. There are two types of flexible couplings: one
allows for misalignment by sliding, the other by flexing.
Typical couplings that allow for misalignment through sliding are gear-type couplings and
flexible grid-type couplings. The misalignment of two shafts is accommodated during rotation of
the shafts by the sliding of gear meshes (see Figure 6-1) or, in the case of the grid coupling, the
grid to the grooves in the hubs. The grid coupling also has some bending involved, but this is
used for torsional loading.
6-1
Shaft Couplings and Power Transmission
Figure 6-1
Gear Coupling
Courtesy of Falk Corp.
Figure 6-2 shows a grid-type coupling.
6-2
Figure 6-2
Grid Coupling
Courtesy of Falk Corp
Couplings that allow for misalignment due to bending are flexible diaphragm couplings and
flexible disk couplings. The diaphragm coupling can use a single steel diaphragm or a
convoluted diaphragm made up of several layers of thin flexible steel plates. Figure 6-3 shows a
diaphragm coupling.
6-3
Figure 6-3
Diaphragm Coupling
A multiple disk or disk pack coupling is shown in Figure 6-4.
6-4
Figure 6-4
Flexible Disk Coupling
Restoring forces are very important because all couplings resist being misaligned. The coupling
tends to try to run in a straight direction, and this imposes preloads on the shaft, trying to force
the shaft into a particular sector of the bearing.
Restoring Forces and Moments
You should be aware of coupling behavior in misalignment. All couplings resist being
misaligned and try to operate in a non-misaligned condition (hence the term “restoring forces”).
These forces act on the shafts in the form of a moment arm trying to bend the shaft and, in doing
so, adding stresses to the shaft. Misalignment under these conditions can fatigue a shaft (and/or
coupling) and eventually result in failure (see Figure 6-5).
Resistance to being misaligned occurs only under conditions where torque is transmitted and not
in a standstill condition. When machines are borderline aligned and shafts move into a region or
area of misalignment while torque is being transmitted, coupling lockup can occur on gear-type
couplings.
6-5
Figure 6-5
Stub Shaft Replacement
Misalignment
Coupling misalignment differs from shaft misalignment. Coupling alignment or misalignment is

the angle in degrees from the axis of one shaft to the axis of another shaft. The coupling
manufacturer usually provides allowable coupling misalignment in terms of degrees of
misalignment. If the manufacturer gives a number in thousandths of an inch (0.001=25 µm) for
offset, it is the measurement of the distance between flex planes of the coupling times the tangent
of the allowable angle of misalignment.
Taking into consideration the restoring forces of the coupling and the bending moments acting
on the shafts, a rule of thumb can be proposed. If the misaligned shafts are graphed on paper with
the proper scaling and a line is extended from the centerline of one shaft to a point of intersection
on the opposing shaft, this is the point where the moment occurs (see Figure 6-6).
6-6
P1 P2
Figure 6-6
Point of Moment
Figures 6-7, 6-8, and 6-9 illustrate three types of misalignment. These illustrations can be in the
form of vertical or horizontal misalignment. For the purposes of illustration, the angles of shaft
misalignment are constant in all examples. Because couplings are the concern in this section, the
angles will be given in degrees and mils per inch (25 µm) (mrad). A shaft coupling spacer of 12
inches (30.4 cm) is assumed.
The first example (see Figure 6-7) is of a machine to be moved with only angular misalignment
between shafts or across the coupling.
Figure 6-7
Angular Misalignment
6-7
In Figure 6-7, the angle of the shaft (MTBM) is 15 mils per foot (375 µm per 30 cm). The angle
at the coupling flex plane at P1 is 0. The coupling misalignment at P2 is .072 degrees.
P1 P2
Figure 6-8
Angular Misalignment and Offset at P2
Figure 6-8 illustrates an offset at P2 of 15 mils (375 µm) and the same angle (15 mils per foot)
(375 µm per 30 cm) or .072 degrees. The misalignment of the coupling will be .072 degrees at
P1 and 0 degrees at P2.
Note: The actual offset of the shaft (MTBM) at the appropriate measuring point (P1) will be 0.
P1 P2
Figure 6-9
Angular Misalignment and Offset at P1 and P2
6-8
Figure 6-9 shows the same offset and angle to the other side of the shaft. Note how the shaft
(MTBM) crosses the centerline of the stationary machine shaft. The misalignment of the
coupling at P1 is the same .072 degrees. The coupling misalignment at P2 is .143 degrees or
twice the coupling misalignment at P1.
Note: The actual shaft misalignment as measured at P1 would be 30 mils (750 µm). With the
above referenced misalignment, a bending moment would be introduced into the shaft (MTBM)
at approximately 25 inches (62.5 cm) from P1.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Coupling Types
The advantages and disadvantages of various couplings are shown in Table 6-1.
Table 6-1
Coupling Advantages and Disadvantages
Coupling Type Advantages Disadvantages

Gear-type couplings • Transmit more power – have a • Require lubrication - Must be stopped
greater power to weight ratio to lubricated. The exception to this is a
than other coupling types. continuous lube coupling that provides
• Accommodate for axial shaft lubrication with the use of a
movements due to rotor pressurized oil system. If the oil is kept
movement by design, or rotor clean, this can add to the life of a gear
movement due to thermal coupling.
growths. • Coupling lock up – This can occur
under certain operating conditions.
This phenomenon can limit the travel
or movements of shafts in the axial
direction or limit the movement of the
coupling to allow for misalignment.
Disk-type-couplings • Disk pack couplings can • Failure of disks and life is proportional
transmit more power per given to misalignment
size or weight than other types • Corrosion and fretting
of non-lubricated couplings.
• Inspection can be performed
while running.
• Failed disks can be replaced
relatively easily.
Diaphragm-type • Simple design • Limited axial travel
couplings • No lubrication required • Larger diameter
• Will tolerate greater angular • Heat generation due to windage
misalignment
Convoluted diaphragm • Smaller than other diaphragm- • Complicated in design
couplings type couplings • Heavier than other diaphragm-type
• Can accommodate more axial couplings
movement
Grid-type couplings • Torsionally soft • Accommodate small shaft separation
• Very little damping
6-9
Table 6-1 (continued)

Coupling Advantages and Disadvantages
Coupling Type Advantages Disadvantages

Elastomeric-type
couplings
• Tire couplings • Impose small radial forces on • Centrifugal force
bearings due to offset • Thrust loads
misalignment
• Geared rubber • Cost is low • One hub must be moved for
• Requires no bolting installation.
• Spider couplings • Transmit large torque • Accommodate little offset
6-10
7
VERTICAL MACHINES
Vertical Machines with Rigid Couplings
Vertical Machine Behavior
Power plant pumps in services such as heater drain and/or condensate pump applications tend to
pose special problems with shaft alignment. These problems are of consequence in nuclear
power stations due to the use of mechanical seals and the possible premature failure of these
seals. Many of the seal failures are due to improperly aligned shafts in the pumps.
When investigating the root cause of these problems, shaft alignment is typically at the top of the
list. Of major concern, along with the seal failures, is the accelerated wear of the pressure
breakdown device found in most stuffing boxes on this type of pump. This wear may be
attributable to problems with shaft misalignment as wear escalates in the pressure breakdown
area due to misalignment, causing a pressure increase in the stuffing box area and subsequent
seal failures:
• On the surface where the motor adjoins the discharge head
• On the stuffing box mating surface
• On the base mounting plate
• At the last stage bowl joint and surface
Without all of these surfaces being true, coupling alignment is all that can be performed. Shaft
alignment is directly related to the accuracy of these mating surfaces and/or fits. Problems of this
nature might not have been evident in packed pumps, and if leakage did occur, it was not a major
concern.
Note: The discharge head from many manufacturers is supplied with a rabbet fit or registration
for the motor to fit precisely onto for proper alignment. In some cases, this fit does not accurately
align the motor shaft to the pump shaft, and the fit must be machined to achieve proper
alignment.
The adjoining stuffing box and related fits must also be true to the discharge head because this is
the area where alignment data will be taken. Figure 7-1 is a diagram of a typical stuffing box,
noting areas where runouts and concentricities are to be taken.
7-1
Vertical Machines
Figure 7-1
Typical Stuffing Box, Noting Four Points Where Dimensional Runouts and Concentricities
Are To Be Measured
Causes of Misalignment
Parallelism and angularity of shafts are influenced by the amount that the baseplate and
subsequent motor rotor support system are out of level. This support system includes the thrust
bearing and housing, motor frame, and motor stand or discharge head. All of these items play an
important role in misalignment that will eventually manifest itself in component failures, in the
mechanical seal in particular. True shaft alignment cannot be performed on vertical machines
with rigid coupling without alignment of all components that are stacked and/or suspended from
the base (floor).
Figure 7-2 shows a typical discharge head, also called a motor stand. The discharge head and
base mounting are the starting points for all misalignment problems experienced in this type of
pump. Some manufacturers require a baseplate that is level within .002 inches per foot (50 µm
per 30 cm). For example, if the bolt circle is 48 inches (1.2 m), the possible out-of-level is .008
inches (200 µm). This might not sound like much, but using the linear approach of alignment,
with a the suspended pump that is 15 feet (3 m) long, then .030 inch (650 µm) deflection is at the
bottom of the pump. This can cause a moment on the shaft at one of the line bearings, at the
mounting, or at the bolted joint interface.
7-2
Vertical Machines
Before accurate alignment can be performed, the discharge head must have all of its surfaces
parallel to each other. All fits must be concentric. The four surfaces (shown in Figure 7-2) are:
1. The surface where the motor adjoins the discharge head
2. The stuffing box mating surface
3. The base mounting plate surface
4. The last stage bowl joint and surface

1
Figure 7-2
Typical Discharge Head (Motor Stand)
Below is one station’s solution to solving the problems with vertical pump shaft alignment and
maintaining accuracy across the rigid-type coupling. This procedure enhances the ability to
monitor exact shaft alignment.
1. Center the motor shaft in the lower bearing guide. This is accomplished with four shaft
supports that are adjustable and allow for the centering of the shaft in two directions, 90
degrees apart, or in the X and Y axis. A maximum of 15 ft-lb (20 Nm) torque is applied to
ensure that the lower guide bearing is not misplaced or skewed in the bearing fit.
2. Align the motor shaft to the stuffing box bore. For this to be an accurate representation
of alignment, the stuffing box face to discharge head runout must be less than .001 inch
(25 µm), and the stuffing box bore must be true and perpendicular to the face
(see Figure 7-3).
7-3
Vertical Machines
Motor Shaft
Indicator Bracket
Pump Shaft
Stuffing box
Figure 7-3
Alignment Fixture Aligning Motor to Stuffing Box
3. Slide the mechanical seal onto the pump shaft. The seal must not be bolted or installed any
further at this time until the checks are made and the appropriate lift of the shaft is
completed.
The coupling spacer (spool piece) fit to the shafts can create errors when coupling the two
shafts together. Excessive clearances in the coupling fit (if registrations or rabbet fits are used
to assist in aligning couplings) and spacers to prevent unnecessary runouts from being added
into the alignment can be significant problems. Due to the fact that most pumps use an
adjustable coupling spacer and nut to facilitate the lift and proper running position of the
shaft, clearances in this area can cause an accumulation of errors in tolerances of alignment
(see Figure 7-4). Most motor shaft coupling hubs have a fit on the periphery of the coupling
face that acts as a registration or rabbet to ensure that the spacer aligns properly with the
motor hub. This fit must have a small amount of clearance to accommodate the fit of the
spacer.
7-4
Vertical Machines
Driver Half Coupling
Spacer Piece
Adjusting Nut
Pump Half Coupling
Figure 7-4
Adjustable Coupling Spacer and Nut in a Typical Pump Coupling
4. Install the coupling spacer (spool piece) to the motor hub. This is a registration or rabbet fit.
5. Install the pump coupling hub and adjusting nut. The pump coupling hub should be blocked
up slightly to prevent the weight of the hub from resting on the mechanical seal.
6. Install five bolts using 200 ft-lb (271 Nm) of torque. This particular application has 10 bolts
installed and this allows for every other bolt to be in place.
7. Install the dial indicators at points 2, 3, and 4 (see Figure 7-5).
7-5
Vertical Machines
2
3
4
5
Figure 7-5
Pump Coupling Indicator Positions
8. Rotate the motor shaft and the spacer, and record total indicator runout (TIR) at the following
dial indicator positions: 0, 90, 180, 270, and 0 degrees.
Vertical pump shaft alignment involves more than indicating the shafts to each other or to a
reference, such as the stuffing box. A high percentage of seal failures and pump internal wear in
the stuffing box area is directly related to shaft alignment and/or total pump-to-motor alignment.
Several instances have been reported where laser alignment has been performed on this type of
pump. The success of this type of alignment has not been as expected, and it has not gained favor
at many utilities. The method for aligning these pumps to motor shafts has involved swinging or
supporting the pump shaft from the motor shaft with two coupling bolts left loose or with a gap
between the couplings. The face must be measured by some means such as feeler gages or
adjustable parallel blocks. If a laser is used, it must be mounted 90 degrees from the two bolts to
allow for some flexibility in the coupling in an effort to acquire acceptable readings. The pump
shaft must be checked to determine if the shaft is in the center of the stuffing box. This typically
leads to errors (out of tolerance) at either the stuffing box or the coupling.
Alignment Procedure (Steps 1–9)
1. Center the motor shaft using two indicators.
2. Leave one indicator on for indicator #1 TIR.
7-6
Vertical Machines
3. Align the motor shaft to the stuffing box.
4. Slide the mechanical seal onto the shaft.
5. Install the pump half coupling hub and adjusting nut.
Pump Coupling Procedure (Steps A–G)
A. Check the pump rotor total lift and center.
B. Install five bolts in the pump hub and torque to 200 ft-lb (271 Nm).
C. Install indicators #6 and #7. (Note: Indicators #2 and #3 can be used here.)
D. Sweep and record the TIR.

Table 7-1
TIR Measurements From Installing the Pump Coupling
Degrees 0 90 180 270 0
Indicator #1 0 0 0 0 0
E. If #6 is less than .004 inch (100 µm), complete the coupling installation
(all bolts and torque).
F. If the runout is greater than .004 inch (100 µm), rotate the pump hub 180 degrees and
torque the bolts.
G. Sweep and record the TIR.
7-7
Vertical Machines
Table 7-2
TIR Measurements From Installing the Pump Coupling
Degrees 0 90 180 270 0
Indicator #1 N/A
Indicator #4
Indicator #6
Indicator #7
Alignment Procedure (continued)
6. Install the spacer to the motor hub (rabbet fit).
7. Install five bolts; torque them to 200 ft-lb (271 Nm).
8. Install indicators #2, #3, #4, and #5.
9. Sweep and record the TIR.

Table 7-3
TIR Readings From the Vertical Pump Shaft Alignment Procedure
Degrees 0 90 180 270 0
Indicator # 1 0 0 0 0 0
Indicator #5 0 1.5 1 0 0
7-8
Vertical Machines
Table 7-4
TIR Readings From the Final Pump Shaft Alignment
Degrees 0 90 180 270 0
Indicator #1 N/A
Indicator #2
Indicator #3
Indicator #4
Indicator #5
Note: If indicator #4 is less than 0.002 inch (50 µm), continue with the pump coupling
installation. If # 4 is greater than 0.002 inch (50 µm), rotate the coupling spacer 180 degrees,
torque the bolts, and sweep again.
Conclusions
Vertical machine alignment must be approached with precision. The life of the pump and motor
bearings and the mechanical seal (if used) depend on quality alignment. Very few pumps in these
applications have vibration monitoring on the pump. Dependence is placed on vibration
monitoring taking place at the stuffing box or on the motor. The first sign of misalignment is
typically mechanical seal leakage.
7-9
8
REFERENCES
American Petroleum Institute: Centrifugal Pumps for General Refinery Services, API Standard
61, Sixth Edition, January 1981.
Calistrat, Michael M. Flexible Couplings, Their Design, Selection and Use. Caroline Publishing,
1994.
Calistrat, M. M. “Metal Diaphragm Coupling Performance,” presented at the 5th Turbomachinery

Symposium, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX. 1976.
Evans, Galen and Pedro Casanova. The Optalign Training Book, “All About Shaft Alignment.”
Ludeca Inc., 1990.
Jackson, Charles. The Practical Vibration Primer. Gulf Publishing Co. 1979.
Machinery Diagnostics Seminar Handbook. Bently Nevada Corp. 1989.
Mancuso, J. R. “A New Wrinkle to Diaphragm Couplings.” Zurn Industries, Inc., Erie Pa. ASME
paper 77-DET-128.
Piotrowski, John. Shaft Alignment Handbook, 2nd Edition. Marcel Decker, Inc., New York, 1995.
Webb, S. G. and M.M. Calistrat, “Flexible Couplings,” presented at Manufacturing Chemists

Association Second Symposium on Compressor Train Reliability, Dow Center, Houston, TX
(April, 1972).
Wright, John, “Which Shaft Coupling Is Best – Lubricated or Non-Lubricated?” Hydrocarbon

Processing, Koppers Company, Inc., Baltimore, MD, April 1975.
8-1

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6KDIW$OLJQPHQW*XLGH

Final Report, September 1999

EPRI Project Manager

(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I)

(B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER

ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT

This report was prepared by

Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center (NMAC)

This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.

William Bramlett Oconee Station/Duke Energy Corp.

2 FUNDAMENTALS OF A PROPER SHAFT ALIGNMENT ................................................... 2-1

3 EFFECTS OF MISALIGNMENT .......................................................................................... 3-1

4 MACHINE FRAME DISTORTION - SOFT FOOT................................................................. 4-1

5 MACHINERY POSITION CHANGES................................................................................... 5-1

6 SHAFT COUPLINGS AND POWER TRANSMISSION ........................................................ 6-1

7 VERTICAL MACHINES ....................................................................................................... 7-1

8 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 8-1

Figure 1-1 Reverse Dial Setup ................................................................................................ 1-2

Figure 6-6 Point of Moment..................................................................................................... 6-7

Table 3-1 Alignment Tolerances.............................................................................................. 3-6

Misaligned machines can be divided into two categories:

A “failure” is defined as the following:

Fundamentals of a Proper Shaft Alignment

The essential elements for performing proper shaft alignment include:

Thorough Understanding of the Fundamentals of Shaft Alignment

Fundamentals of a Proper Shaft Alignment

Complete Analysis of the Machine From the Ground Up

Thorough Understanding of the Behavior of the Machine As Part of the

Thorough Understanding of the Impact of Misalignment on the Machine

Fundamentals of a Proper Shaft Alignment

Proper Sequence of Alignment Analysis

Types of Machines Aligned in Nuclear Stations

Some tools commonly used to align shafts are the following:

All of these methods are good, based on the following criteria:

NOTE: This diagram is exaggerated for the purposes of illustration.

Usually, no information on the length of spacer is included.

Courtesy of Ludeca, Inc.

Frame distortion can be divided into three categories:

Machine Frame Distortion - Soft Foot

Measuring Soft Foot Index

Distinguishing Types of Soft Foot, Possible Causes, and Proper

Machine Frame Distortion - Soft Foot

Parallel Air Gap

Machine Frame Distortion - Soft Foot

Bent Foot or Angled Base

Machine Frame Distortion - Soft Foot

The procedure to build a step shim is as follows:

2. Measure the largest remaining gap.

Taper Shims to Remove Soft Foot

Machine Frame Distortion - Soft Foot

Baseplate and Foundation Irregularities

The problems associated with vibration are twofold:

Machine Frame Distortion - Soft Foot

Induced Soft Foot and Nozzle Loads

Machine Frame Distortion - Soft Foot

Machine Frame Distortion - Soft Foot

• Overhung machines or attachments

Machine Frame Distortion - Soft Foot

Jacking Bolts or Taper Pins

Machine Frame Distortion - Soft Foot

Machine Frame Distortion - Soft Foot

Gaps Without Soft Foot

Machinery Position Changes