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\  V M K86 Ä4œ ¥8¨  <Ú¯I ICHºPd639Hº66t; PO9:KC63P…9HJ;Æ=CØ <Ú n 6CIù86AP
X   ] ]
Y   V V Ú­Hº< ò n 6AÚº9G9ˆ<H; Ø1Ù KA9F
M ò Ù <H×9 I=A9ÂICHº6®9:KC<(Pd6 Ù ICHTPd6®9:Hs66APÒq3KC6(Hº6 W
9:KC6®ÚJ< n n <qp;Æ=Cؚ; PSI Ù ICHºPd6f9Hs66 W
V F M K86tR(; 6 n Qr; PSIt9…6(H ò ;Æ=I n PB9H; =Ø&F
P
` F M K86?Hº<1<9S; P n Iu(6 n n 68Q0u:R 9:KC6®PB9 ICHT9ÒP…R ò u< n
ô 6ûPAKI n n Pˆ66û9:KC6j9:KC6ûPd69c<(ÚÃR(; 6 n QPm<(Ú?9:KC6APˆ6
0 P 0

; <%HT9 I(=9 ICHºPˆ69Hº66AP; P?9:KC6 n I=CØ N ICØ(6ú<ÚÂ9K86


1 P 1
Ø4ò HJI Ù ò ò ICH­F Ù
ε

 7 I GF< I 7HG
/$*/*?J3 #)H7M3 <=5@<   


 +
 Û
íDþ(I ò Ùn 6 W h6 n <q ; PSI=?; ò Ù <HT9dI=A9 Ù ICHºPd6f9Hs66 ô6
g 66ÌN9 ; ùIC I Hs66( =Ø(9 <1W ; =CØc 9ˆ <c PA4K8 <q u(6û9KI IA9 9 K8>o6šUpÚJI< =n n Q<q3; =Ø  ICHº6 F
 

n
V F ô9KIA6j9 78X I(=»; PfQ(;Æ=t69ˆ9:6(KCH ò6 ; =8I6»=Ø uN R ICØHs6t687 <N Ú HºP: ; ù86»; =8ÚÀ6(Hs6(=C7A6
E

E * E
n
` F g X
\ F g X U.I=Q g X
I ( E )

a E + E  

X F R(M ; 6 K86(Q Hs6tX ; F PpI Ù ICHºPd639Hs66f<(Ú  qp; 9:K§Hº<1<9 I=CQ


I I
n
a I 0
M < I=Ù F Hs<(ù86’9K86O6
N ; ùI n 6(=C7A6AP8UAq,6 N Pˆ6’9K86,ÚÀ< n n <q3; =CØ
I 0 Ùn
Parse
b Leftmost tree

G
/  3 /*. $ 3 I  /    #1
derivation

Rightmost
/ < +-,#)F? / 7HG
/@,*)F? I /:7H? / / 3 7HG 7HG
/ *$ /*?J3 #)H7M3 <=5><=5
Derivation derivation Recursive

I . 3 $ /


inference

 :  "!

 4  .E X ; P ;Æ=ÚJ6(HHº68Qú; =   V P…9ˆ6 Ù P8F 5 N Ù e


_- U$1$1 ($@   !p$%$%@ Ù <(Pd6®9:KC6 n IPB9ÒP…9ˆ6 Ù qOIP®uIPd68Q?<1=?I Ù Hs<1Q N 7:9:; <&=
  b d kPkk  ^
!#"$%&$1-   _E g469    4 u(6÷I q3KC6(Hº6  t  F ô 6?uCHs6CIø N Ù IP
>oUpI=CQ»P N <Pˆ6mq’6 78I=[PAK8<8q X 9ˆ<u6j;Æ= i X
9:KC6 n I=CØ N ICØ(6#Ù<(Ù ÚGI ùICH; Iu n 6 F M K86(=#9:KC6(Hº6Ã; P®I


X b X d kPkPk X ^
Ù ICHºPˆ6®9Hs66®ÚJ<%H  q3; 9K?Hs<4<(9 I=CQ§R(; 6 n Q X F q3KC6(Hº6 X t  t UqÂK86(= U1I=CQ®q3KC6(=
 t  

 t 
ZOV UdErô 6Q(<jI=c; =Q N 7:9:; <1=Ì<(Úp9K86 n 6(=CØ9:KÌ<(Ú
9:KC6(= X t qOIP Ù Hº6Aù(; < N P n R?;Æ=ÚJ6(HHº68Qu6; =Ø0; =  t U;Æ=
9:KC6#;Æ=ÚJ6(Hs6(=C7A6%F IA9 ò <(P…9  P…9…6 Ù PF
hRt9K86 M ^[9K86(Hs6#ICHs6 ICHºPˆ6t9Hº66AP q3; 9KrHs<4<9  t
o'%@A @E  =C6 PB9ˆ6 Ù F M K86(= q,6 ò N P…9tKIù86 N Pˆ68Q0I

Hs<1Q N 7:9:; <1=  X F M K860Q(6AP:;ÆHs68Q Ù ICHºPˆ6Ã9:Hs66; P I=CQSR(; 6 n Q X t F M KC6=p9K8Ù 6ÒÚÀ< n n <q3; =CØ  ; POI Ù ICHºPd6o9Hs66
9:Ù KC6(= ÚJ<%H  q3; 9KÃHs<4<9 I=Q§R(; 6 n Q X W
A
A

X1 X2 ... Xk

w
w1 w2 ... wk

   *
_-
A $$%@t:[1$1­ '  %@
ô 6  n n PAK8<q÷K8<qj9ˆ<t7A<1=8PB9H N 7:9,I n 6AÚs9 ò <(P…9’Q(6(H; ùI e
9 ; <1= Ú­Hs< ò I Ù ICHºPˆ6®9Hs66%F !#"$%&$1-   ÏE g469    4 u(6÷I
>oU,I=CQcP N <(Pd6š9K86(Hs6ú; PÃI ICHTPd6š9Hº66rq3; 9K
Hs<4<9 n Iu(6 n n 68Q ÙÙ I=QtR(; 6 n Q X F M K8Ù 6(= g X ;Æ=  F

íDþ(I 6 $W M =’9K86oØ4HJI ICH%<(Ú1P n ; Q6 G9K86(Hs6O7 n 6CI8H n R


; PfI ò Q(6(ÙHn ; ùIA9:; <&= ò ò 


 < I HI  ZOV UdE ô 6rQ<mI=Ì;Æ=CQ N 7:9 ; <1=0<1=Ã9K86ÌK86; Ø4KA9 <(Ú
M K86(=4U&ÚJ<%H’I(=8R " I=CQ 9K86(Hs6#; PSI#Q(6(H; ùIA9:; <&=



9:KC6 Ù ICHºPˆ6f9Hs66%F
"
"  " !I 3" HI
  o'%@A @E ^6; Ø4KA9f; P V F M K86®9:Hs66 ò N PB9 n <4<1ø n ;Æø 6

<%H¯6þ(I ò Ùn 6%U1P N ÙÙ <Pˆ6tq’6§K(Iù86 I Q6(HJ; ùIA9 ; <1= A







M 8K 6?q’6r78I=07CKC<4<(Pd6 "
 I(=Q - I=CQ
7A<1=A9:;Æ= N 6®9K86 Q(6(H; ùIA9:; <&=#IP

w






 !I8

 H&I8 
/ < 5 I / D;
/*5 7M.    &(  4)53$
  + &

M K(; Pf; PÒqÂKR >  PSICHs6 78I n n 68QÃ7A<1=9…6þ9 e Ú¸Hs66%F


!   

 4  .E ^_6; Ø1KA90; P   V F M K86Ì9:Hs66 ò N PB9 õ<8qq’6#7A<1=P…9H N 7:9 g X u:R§I= ; =%=86(H ; =CQ N 7 e
n <1<1ø n ;Æød6 9 ; <1=ÃuRtPAK8<8qp;Æ=Cا9:K(IA9 

  W g X b X d kkPk X t  t m b  t mGd kPkPk  ^ 




   
g69  ÷] F ô 6#I n Hs6CICQR?ø=8<8q÷9KIA9
A

 b  t mGd kPkPk  ^ 
X1 X2 ... Xk

   ï Iø 6S9K86 M ^m9KIA9




g X b X d kPkPk X $t # b  t  t m b kkPk  ^
w1 w2 ... wk

 G
/*5& 6 &  &   &  G
/*? /
 

    =7MGF/*5)& %6   Á“A–¥¼  t  FÃð,<m=C<9K(; =Ø&U_P:;Æ=C7A6  t X t



  
Ø; ù86AP N P
9   
 
  D7HG
/*5  +  & 365

)   7MGF/   g X b X d kPkPk X t  t m b kPkPk  ^



  sS
íDþ(I 6 g69 Pf7A<1=P…9H 7:9G9K86 n 6AÚº9 ò <PB9ÂQ(6(H; ùI e
9 ; <1= ò ÚJ<ÙH_n 9W K86®9:Hs66 N
Á“A–¥fµ&¼  t   3F hR®9:KC6 M ^c9K86(Hs6#; PSI Q(6(H; ùI e E

9 ; <1= t   " b   " d   kPkk   X t FÂhRt9:KC6 7A<&=A9ˆ6þ e E * E

­Ú Hº66 Hs< 6(HT9R <(ÚrQ(6(H; ùI9:; <1=PÌq,6 78I(= Ù Hs<17A668Q


qp; 9:K Ù Ù
I ( E )

a E + E

I I

g a I 0


X b X d Pk kk X %t # b  t  t m b kPkk  ^  
I 0

5 N Ù%Ù <(Pd6šq’6mKIù86ú;Æ=CQ N 7:9 ; ù86 n Rú7A<1=P…9H N 7:9…68Qú9K86


b

X b X d kPk k X t%# b " b  t m b kPkPk  ^  


n 6AÚs9 ò <(P…9pQ6(HJ; ùIA9 ; <1=

 H
X b X d kPkk X %t # b " d  t m b kPkPk  ^

 

7A<%HHs6AP Ù <1=CQ4; =CØf9ˆ<S9K86 n 6AÚs9 ò <(P…9¯P N uA9Hs66%UI=QÂ9K86
kPkk n 6AÚs9 ò <(P…9pQ6(HJ; ùIA9 ; <1=
X b X d kPkPk X $t # b X t  t m b kPkPk  ^




H 


H 
H  ] H  A]] H  I…]]
    
  
  

7A<%HHs6AP Ù <1=CQ4; =Cا9ˆ<§9:KC6§H; Ø4K ò <(PB9ÒP N u9:Hs66%F


 …  Û

<%H+9K86 Q(6(H; ùI9:; <1=#7A<%HHº6AP <&=CQ;Æ=Cا9ˆ<§9K86®q3KC< 6


9:Hs66 q,6#P…9 ICH×9Sqp; 9:KR

Ù
I=CQ6þ Ù I=CQr9K8n 6 _- S$4­ '  @t  'O$%&@ ($0  \U$1$1 4$%@
ý.HºPB9
jq3; 9K39K86ÂýHTP…9oQ6(HJ; ùIA9 ; <1=tI=CQ®9K86ÂPd687A<1=CQ


 uPd6(HºùIA9 ; <1= W 5 N <(Pd6ª9KIA9   kkPk  g X F





qp; 9K®9K86tPd67A<&=CQÃQ6(HJ; ùIA9 ; <1= W M 8K 6(= X X b X d kPÙkPÙ k X ^ U4qÂK86(Hs6  t g b X dt ^


M <1K8<16ÂøC; Ú=I8Ør7:9ˆIA<9GH 9:X KCt 6t786Iþ = I(u(=86ÂP:6; <1þ= 9:HJIC<7:Ú 9… 68Q®<&Ú­Hs= < òRAF g X u R
n Ù t n









H




 íDþ(I ò Ùn 6 W
 H jI  H U.I=CQ



H 
 


        Û    
          
  


H 
 


H   


ô 6§K(Iù86
H  H 



 



 
 

   

H  H         H
    H I   H
jI  H
A]  
   

H H 
hR <4<1øC;Æ=CØmIA9f9K86r6þ Ù I=P; <1=0<Ú  <1= n RAU
q’6 78n I= 6þ9HJIC7:9
 

H  H  A]%]  
 f

H  H  IB]%]

  I 
 
 4  .E 5 N Ù%Ù <(Pd6 g X ;Æ=   V BP 9ˆ6 Ù P8F
!#"$%&$1-   _E g g469    4 u(6÷I ô H; 9ˆ6f9K86 Q(6(H; ùIA9:; <1=?IAP
>oF+5 N <(Pd6 X UªI=CQ09:K(I9 X ; P IÃP…9:H;Æ=CØ
<(ÚÒ9ˆ6(H ò ;Æ=ÙI Ù n P8F M K86(=rq,6078I=ú;Æ=ÚJ6(Ho9:K(I9 X ; PÃ;Æ=
 b d kPkk  ^  g X


 

9:KC6 n I=CØ N ICØ(6t<ÚªùICHJ; Iu n 6 F M K86üIPû=8<9ˆ68Q<1=»9K86 Ù Hs6ù(; < N PcP n g; Q(6jq,6 78I=
uCHs6CIø X IP X b X d kPkPk X ^ q3K86(Hs6  t X t F N H e 

ZOV UdE ô 6rQ<mI=Ì;Æ=CQ N 7:9 ; <1=0<1=Ã9K86 n 6(=ØC9Kš<(Ú 9:KC6(H ò <%Hs6%U  t g X t 78I= N Pd6#I9 ò <(PB9  P…9…6 Ù PF


9:KC6 Q6(H; ùIA9:; <1= g X F õ<8q q’6mKIù86úI Hs<1Q N 7:9:; <1=    kPkPk  U
I=CQtq,6 ø=8<8q¹uRS9:Ù KC6 M ^Ì9:K(IA9,q’6f78I= b ; =8ÚJ6d H X t 9ˆ^ <


o'%@A @E  =86rPB9ˆ6 Ù F M Ú X 9K86(Hs6 ò N PB9?u(60I u(6§; =t9K86 n I=CØ N ICØ(6 <(Ú  t F
Ù Hs<1Q N 7:9:; <1=  X ; =:pF M KC6Âq’6®78I= ; =ÚJ6(H9KIA9
 

X ; Pf; =t9K86 n I=CØ N ICØ(6 <(Ú F


M K86(Hs6AÚJ<%Hs6pq,6S78I=t; =8ÚÀ6(H X b X d kPkPk X ^ 9ˆ<?u(6®;Æ=39K86
n I=Ø N ICØ(6 <Ú F

 

š- ê1 1 POÖ ¸'1-0-Ã'@ '1 4ûL'1 4'1$%@ M K86 ò 6(Hº6O6þ; P…9…6(=7A6,<Ú4Pd6Aù86(HJI n (¥8ŸœÖ›:“—¸œ ˜%”– ; P,=8<(9
M =t9:KC6 Ø1HJI ò ò ICH
Q%I=CØ6(Hº< N P8U¯; 9 ; PS9K86§6þ; PB9ˆ6(=C7A6?<(ÚOPˆ6Aù86(HJI nÙ ICHºPˆ6
9:Hs66APÒ9KIA9fH N ; =8PfI Ø4HJI ò ò ICH­F
V

`


íDþ(I ò Ùn 6 GW M = 9:KC6®P I ò 6tØ1HÀI ò ò ICH


\


Y  H
X 
k kPk




  I
9:9 ;KC<16 =8P Pd6(=A9ˆ6(=A9:; I n ÚJ<%H ò
p

KIPÂ9q’<Q(6(H; ùI e    !H
W







!I
i   A]



I(=Q V8]   (V
 


 

 


 


M K(; PÂØ4; ù86AP N Pp9q,< Ù ICHºPd6f9Hº66AP W



9:KC6®P…9H; =CØ
H  I KIP3Pˆ6Aù86(HJI n Q(6(H; ùIA9 ; <1=P8UD6%F ØDF



  
H 
 H   H  I
E E
I=CQ
E + E E * E



       I H  I
^ <8q’6Aù86(H­U+9K86;ÆH ICHºPd6?9Hs66AP§ICHº6Ã9:KC6ÃP:I 6%U’I=CQ
E * E E + E
9:KC6®P…9H N 7:9 N Hs6t<(Ú Ù H  I ; P N =I ò u(; Ø N < N P8F ò
(a) (b)
 *  
Â$ _ 1  . E g69  !  4 u(6SI >oF ô 6 ' ,$1-?%Ö  -0ê4 1 PO_.- '&-š-r'%@
P I:R 9:K(I9  ; P “(°  %œ «D¬˜¬– ; P39:KC6(Hº6?; PfI P…9:H;Æ=CØ0;Æ=


g 9KIA9fKIP ò <%Hs6f9:K(I= <1=86 Ù ICHºPd6®9:Hs66%F Ø>ÏN <1; <19¸R Q0ˆ=Cu:6RÃqOK(P IW =C5&Q < ò 69 ; ò 6APÒq’6 78I=ÃHs6 ò <(ù86 I ò u; e
M Úo6Aù86(HºR§P…9HJ;Æ=CØc; =   K(IAP IA9 ò <(P…9f<1=C6 Ù ICHºPˆ6 h+ICQ0=86qoP W,M KC6(Hº6§; P®=8<0I n Ø<%H; 9K ò 9ˆ<rQ(<0; 9
9:Hs66%U  ; P3P I(; Q#9ˆ<u(6 ¬(”“(° œ «&¬˜4¬A– F
íDþ(I ò Ùn 6 W¯M K8639ˆ6(H ò ; =(I n PB9H; =Ø H  H H KIPO9q,< u(ïf; Ø <N Hs6m< N uP ICQû =C> 6:qo P P W 5D< ò 6 g  P0KIù86<1= n RcI ò e
Ù ICHºPˆ6®9Hs66P W ô 6 ICHs6tPB9 N Q(R(; =Ø#9:KC6 Ø1HJI ò ò ICH



 W

W

W

 H W I W !H W <I W A] W (V
 
E E
    

E + E E * E
M K86(Hs6#ICHs6f9q’< Ù Hº<&u n 6 ò P W
I E * E E + E I
V F M K86(Hs6#; Pt=8< Ù Hs687A68Q(6(=C7A6?u(69q’66(= ?I=CQ> 

` F M6(HJK8IA6(9ˆ<%Hs60HºPU®; P?6%=CF <cØ&FfØ4; HsP < N


Ù ;  =ØÌ
<(ÚÒ Pˆ
6
N 6(=C6C7AI6A=AP 9š<(9ˆÚÒ<â< u(Ù 6 e
a I I I I a

a a a a



<%H


3F
ò
!S
(a) (b)
 * 

5&< n N 9:; <&= Wrô 6c;Æ=A9Hs<1Q N 7A6 ò <%Hs60ùICHJ; Iu n 6APUO6CIC7K ô 6  n nn 69  PB9 I=CQÒÚJ<H%ÚIC7:9…<HTP8U ÚJ<H9ˆ6(H ò PUI=Qh

Hs6 Ù Hs6APˆ6(=9 ;Æ=CØp6þ Ù Hs6APˆP:; <1=PÏ<(Ú1P I ò 6 ˆu(; =Q;Æ=CØÒP…9Hº6(=ØC9KF ÚJ<%HO6þ Ù Hº6APˆP; <1=8PF <1=8P:; Q(6(H’9K86§ÚJ< n n <8qp;Æ=CØÌØ4HJI ò e
ò ICH W
V F l  ×“(¤C—˜Ÿ ; PúI=j6þ Ù Hs6AP…Pd<1= 9:K(IA9078I==C<9cu(6 V  H W I W <H W !I W A] W (V
uHº<&ø 6(=šI ICHT9 uRšI=šICQ  IC7A6(=A9 r<%HY?F  N H
ÚIC7:9ˆ<%HºPSICÙHº6 `   W

    


\    W 


X 
 W



I M Q(6(=9 ; ý16(HºP
u l¹Ù ICHs6(=A9K86AP; 68Q§6þ Ù Hº6APˆP; <1=4F õ<8q÷9K86 <1= n R Ù ICHºPˆ6®9Hº66®ÚJ<H H  H H qp; n n u(6


` F l —¥8Ÿ° ; PoI=Â6þ Ù Hs6AP…Pd<1=39KIA9,7I=%=8<9Òu(6®uCHs< e E

ø 6(=§u:R ?F <H¯;Æ=P…9dI=7A6 H I 78I=§u6 uCHs<&ø 6=


uR HV <%H 1H%V F M 9®78I==C<9 u(60uCHs<1ø 6(=Ìu:>R §U

E + T

P; =7A636%F ØDF HV  H \I ; P u:R Ù Hs687A68Q(6(=7A6tH N n 6AP


 

P:I ò 6tIP H%V  H $I UI=Q H $I  H%V ; PpP I ò 6



T T * F

IP H jI8  H%V F


 


F F I

\ F M 8K 6ÌHº6AP…9 ICHº6 ¥ (±Ÿ¥ –ˆ–œ ˜%”– U,;ÖF 6%F9:KC6ARš78I=úu(6


uHº<&ø 6(=§I Ù ICHT9Gqp; 9:K #<H?F
 I I a


! a a
 
ô 8K R§; PÒ9:KC6§=C6q Ø4HJI ò ò ICH N =I ò u; Ø N < N P
M =A9 N ; 9 ; ù86t6þ Ùn I=IA9 ; <1= W
ÚIC7:9…<H ; P06; 9K86(H I=»; Q(6(=A9:; ý16(H®<%H
UpÚJ<%H
Pˆkm< lò 6t6þ Ù Hº6APˆP:; <1=
ÂF T

k M KC6 <1= n R Ù ICHTPd6®9:Hs66®ÚJ<H’ItPˆ


6 N 6(=C7A6 T * F

b 
d  kPkk   # b   T * F

(< ÚÚI87:9ˆ<HTPG; Pª9K863<1=86Ò9KIA9,Ø; ù86AP b d kPkPk  # b . .


.

IP I?9ˆ6(H I=CQ  IP#IÃÚIC7:9ˆ<%H­UªIAP§;Æ=Ã9:KC6 Ù ICHºPˆ6


9:Hs66t<&=t9:ò KC6?=86þ9ÒP n ; Q6%F
  
T

T * F

kml = 6þ Ù Hº6APˆP; <1=Ã; PfItPd


6 N 6(=7A6 F

 b   d  kPkk    # b   
<(Ú¯9…6(H ò P  t F M 9378I= <1= n RÃu(6 Ù ICHºPˆ68Q#q3; 9K
 b   d  kPkPk    # b IPtI=§6þ Ù Hs6APˆP:; <1=rI(=Q   IP
I®9ˆ6(H F ò
! "!

.L $ UJA-ÃD@ t1$1­ ('%  %@#'1 4 -0ê1 D1 PO


M K86®9q’< Ù ICHºPˆ6®9Hº66APpÚJ<%H H  H jH
=Ã>Ï6(=C6(HÀI n W



E E M
E + E E * E k  =C6 Ù ICHTPd6f9Hs66%Uu N 9 ò I(=8R Q(6(H; ùIA9:; <1=8P
ï I=R ¨ ¥ À—° ˜8–— Q(6(H; ùIA9:; <&=Â; ò Ù%n ; 6AP ò I(=8R Ù ICHºPˆ6
9:k Hs66AP8F
I E * E E + E I

ï I=R Ÿœ «&‘—¸°t˜8–8— Q6(HJ; ùIA9 ; <1=p; ò Ù%n ; 6AP ò I=8R Ù I8HºPd6
a I I I I a

a a a a
9:k Hs66AP8F
C3 
/ ?J3 I / 78< 7 < $ /*? 3 #)7M3 <=5 I 0 !#"$%&$1-  _E <%HÂI=R > UOIr9…6(H ;Æ=I
PB9H; =Ø X KIP¯9q’<tQ; P…9 ;Æ=C7:9 Ù ICHºPd6o9Hs6A 6APo; Ú_I=CQfò <1= n R n
(a) (b)

 +    +  (+     +     
; Ú X KIPo9q,<?Q4; P…9 ;Æ=C7:9 6AÚs9 <(P…9GQ(6(H; ùI9:; <1=PÒÚ­Hº< ò
  9:KC6®P…9 ICH×9ÒPˆR ò u(< n F n ò
+   +     +     +     
)53$
 +   +     (+     +     
+    +   
  +     +    
 

 !
 &"$1$1 % -šê1 1 PO
2Ïë$:"úVU:ZO.VU E  ½®”¨ Ä ó  À¦  M Úª9K86t9q’< ICHºPˆ6 l ICHºPÒ ÚJg <%H  ; P ICHsœ 6#”‘I ¥8ŸJ¥8u(”4; —Ø ¨ ÄÌN < “(N ° PF %œ «D¬˜¬– ; Ú “(¨ ¨ Ø4HJI ò e
9:Hs66AP Q; ÿ6(H­Ut9K86AR¹K(Iù86üI¹=C<1Q(6÷I q3K(; 7K÷Ù Q; Ú e ò  ò
ÚJ6(Hº6(=9 Ù Hº<&Q N 7:9:; <1=P8UoP I:R   b  d kPkPk  ^ I=CQ
  b d kPkPk F M K8607A<%HHº6AP Ù <&=CQ;Æ=CØ n 6AÚs9 ò <(P…9 íDþ(I ò Ùn 6 W <1=8P:; Q(6(H 
Q(6(H; ùIA9:; <&=PÒqp; N Pd6 Q(6(H; ùIA9:; <&=Pfu(IPˆ68Q?<&=t9:KC6APˆ6
9q’<ÃQ; ÿ6(Hs6(=A9 Ù n n Hs<1Q N 7:9 ; <1=8PÂI=Q q3; n n 9K N P®u(6 Q; P e D1H  I  K  W  V   &V F i D1H  I K   W   V   V&F 
9 ;Æ=C7:9F
l Ø4HJI ò ò ICH_ÚJ<%H  ; P
 ó  À¦  g69  P <1<1øšIA9ÃK8<8q q,607A<1=8PB9H N 7:9§I ICHºPˆ6
9:Hs66fÚ­Hs< ò I n n 6AÚs9 ò <(P…9ÒQ6(HJ; ùIA9 ; <1=4F M 9GPKC< N n Q0Ù =8<q    W
u(6f7 6CICH9KIA9’9q’<§Q; P…9:; =7:9oQ(6(H; ùI9:; <1=PGØ4; ù86APÂHJ; Pˆ6  H I W HI
9…<?9q,n <rQ; ÿ6(Hs6(=A9 Ù ICHºPˆ6®9Hs66P8F   K
  H
 WK
 WH
  I K WIK

!! !

g69  P n <1<1ø I9 Ù ICHTP;Æ=CØ#9K86tPB9H; =Ø HH&I I K K  F


Hs< 9K(; Pfq,6§Pˆ66#9KIA9S9:KC6(Hº6rICHs6 9q,< n A6 Ús9 ò <(P…9
S S Q(6(H; òùIA9:; <&=P W
  H I  H&HI I  HHI I K   HH&I I K K 
A B C
I=CQ
    

a A b c B d a C d
  H 
 
 
HH   
H&HI  K  
HH&I I K K 
9p78I(=?u(6fPAK8<8q3=t9:K(I9 ¥›:¥8ŸÍÄ 1Ø HÀI ICHÚJ<%H u 6 e
KIù86AP n ; ø 6?9:KC6r<1=86I(u<(ù86%F M K86 ò n ò I =CØ N ICØ(6   ; P
a b c d a D d
M
; =%K86(Hs6(=A9 n R§I ò u(; Ø N < N P8F
b D c

b c

(a) (b)

  S
Z O@8"1\[® % -r':' íDþ(I ò Ùn 6 W g69  PS7A<1=P; Q6(H
lüQ e õ Ù N PKq3Q(<8; 9q3K#=#I I P…N 9d9ˆIC< 7ò øFIA9 I ¯ð l ; PÒ6AP…Pd6(=A9:; I n n R I=   ED XGX W X lD:] V&F g F
qp; 9:K ­Ø4HJI ò ò ICH   ]  ]   V  V   Q F


l lIPpÏÚJ< ð l <8qOÚJ<%P WH    K(IAPG9Hs66fP…9dIA9ˆ6APUI=CQ§< Ù 6(HJIA9…6AP


 =§I®9HJI=P:; 9:; <1= 9:KC6 Ïð l W nn
V F <1=P N ò 6APÂI=?;Æ= Ù N 9ÒPˆR ò u(< n F V F,> N 6APˆPc9:K(I9cR< N ICHs6Hs6CICQ;Æ=CØ X F519dI:R;Æ=
P…9 I9ˆ6 ] UÒI=CQ N PAKÌ9:KC6c; = Ù N 9#PˆR ò u(< n <1=9…<
` F,>¯<46APO9ˆ<?I#=86qüP…9dIA9ˆ6 <HPB9 I:RP3;Æ=S9K86f< n Q F 9K86®P…9 IC7øF Ù
\ FOî_6 Ù%n IC7A6APª9K86Ò9…< Ù <(Ú.9K86pPB9 IC7øSuRfI=R3P…9:H;Æ=CØ ` F,> N 6APˆP?9KIA9?R< N  Hs6j; =ú9K86 ò ; Q%Q n 6ú<(Ú XGX F
Q<46APÂ=8<(9:K; =CØDU < PO9K86ÂP…9dIC7øU<H Ù N PKC6PpI
P…9HJ;Æ=CØ?<&=A9ˆ<§9:KC6®Ù PB9 ICÙ 7ø >¯<§P Ù <&=A9 I(=9…6< N P n Rt9ˆ<?PB9 IA9ˆ6 V F 

\ F_ö< N  Hº6#=C<qÉHs6CICQ; =Ø 9K86#K86CICQ§<(Ú X F < ò e


Ù ICIAHº9d6û7K; 9ÃU 9ˆ<<û99:K8KC6c6’P…9ˆ9d< ICÙ 7ø<UÚ®I9=CK8Qf6mHs6 P…9 I8I(7; ø=ÒF ;Æ=OM PBÚ®9 IA99…K86 6ARV F


Input
Finite
state
control
Accept/reject
ò Ù Ù
M ÚÏ9K86AR#Q(<&=  9 ò IA9d7KUDØ<§9…<ÃP n 66 Ù F
ò
X F M Úf9K86úP…9 IC7Cø[; Pr6 ò Ù 9¸RU3Ø(<j9…<ûP…9dIA9ˆ6 ` I=CQ
Stack
IC77A6 Ù 9F
   ¸Û

DB-Ã'&)Æ) O Z  U

l Ïð l ; PfItPˆ6Aù86(= e 9 N Ù%n 6 W


M K86 ¯ ð l ÚJ<H   IPSI®9HJI(=8P:; 9:; <1=#Q4; ICØ1HÀI ò W 
B   e  e 
q3KC6(Hº6
k
; PfItý=(; 9…6®Pd69p<Ú¯P…9 I9ˆ6AP8U
k B ; PfItý.=(; 9ˆ6 œ ”±1¬%—O“(¨ ±4‘(“¥—·
0 , Z 0 /0 Z 0
1 , Z 0 /1 Z 0

k  ; PfItý.=; 9ˆ6 –8—“(¤• “(¨ ±4‘“ 4¥—·


0 , 0 /0 0
0 , 1 /0 1
0, 0/ ε

k Ò s¬(W ”%
¤C—hœ ˜%B ”· i D Q F    ` 
  ; P,9K86 —Ÿ“(”–AœÆ—¸œ ˜%”
1 , 0 /1 0
1 , 1 /1 1 1, 1/ ε

Start

k  e ; PÒ9K86 –—“8Ÿ­—+–8—“%—¥·
q0 q q2
1
ε, Z 0 / Z 0 ε , Z 0 /Z 0

k I=e Q  ; P 9K86 –—“8Ÿ­—p–­Ä4° ˜%¨ ÚJ<%HÒ9K860PB9 IC7øU


ε, 0 / 0
ε, 1 / 1

k 
; Pp9:KC6®Pd69p<(Ú “(¤¤A¥±&—¸œ ”8«Ã–—“%—¥ –8¦
 : 
íDþ(I ò Ùn 6 W’M K86 ¯ð l  @::'1 %:'1 $%.@ Â$%@¸Ö/%  @
¯ð Ø(<46APSÚ­Hs< 7A<&=ý&Ø N HJIA9 ; <1=#9ˆ<07A<1=ýDØ N HJI e
9l ; <1=tqÂl K86(=#7A<&=P N òò ;Æ=Cؚ; = Ù N 9AF
0 , Z 0 /0 Z 0
1 , Z 0 /1 Z 0
0 , 0 /0 0

M <¹Hs6CIPˆ<&=»Iu(< N 9 Ïð l 7A< ò Ù N 9 IA9:; <1=4Upq,6 N Pd6


0 , 1 /0 1
1 , 0 /1 0 0, 0/ ε
1, 1/ ε
œ ”8–—“(”—“(”(¥˜¬–®(¥ –A¤Ÿœ ±D—œ ˜%”– <(Ú¯9:KC6 ¯ð l F l = M ð
1 , 1 /1 1

Start
q0 q
1
q2 ; PfI®9:H; Ùn 6
 X 
ε, Z 0 / Z 0 ε , Z 0 /Z 0
ε, 0 / 0

q3KC6(Hº6  ; P§9K86ÌP…9 IA9…6%U X 9K86 sH 6 ò I(; =; =CØ»; = Ù N 9U


ε, 1 / 1

  

 
   I=CQ  9:KC6®…P 9 IC7ø®7A<&=A9ˆ6(=A9…PF
!#"%$'&"#(&)"%*+,&!#-.&0/+,&!#-.&0/'&213$+,&40&"%$
&!13$'&!"*+ 5&
6 
78 4 :9; 
=<# >#@?BA. A 6 C9D<   0  g695
B     u?6 I Ïð l F M KC6=
<7B'E 2 F #C9 5 G  X lBhg  g,W e e

 "   J H   s H X  ( _^  X " ( 

H!IKJL MNIOJ0L H%P H HP M M)P H M)P M QKIKJL QKIKH KQ IRM
SUT L T L8IKH)J0L T LVIRMNJL T L8IOIKQH)H T L8IKH%M T LVIRMBH T LVIRICQM)M TVW IKIKJ0J LL T8W IOH T8W IRM ô §6 Q6Aý.=86 ^ g ˆ9 <úu(6 9K86šHº6 &6þ; ù86 e 9:HJI=P; 9:; ù86#7 n < e
TW TW T W TYX
Z TKX P N Hº6 <Ú ^ F
M\[)] 

( q0 , 1111, Z 0 )

íDþ(I ò Ùn 6 W  ?= ; = Ù N 9 VV%VV 9K86 Ï ð l ( q0 , 111, 1Z 0 ) ( q , 1111, Z 0 )


1
( q2 , 1111, Z 0 )

0 , Z 0 /0 Z 0
( q0 , 11, 11Z 0 ) ( q , 111, 1Z 0 ) ( q , 11, Z 0 )
1 , Z 0 /1 Z 0 1 1
0 , 0 /0 0
0 , 1 /0 1
1 , 0 /1 0 0, 0/ ε
1 , 1 /1 1 1, 1/ ε ( q0 , 1, 111Z 0 ) ( q , 11, 11Z 0 ) ( q2 , 11, Z 0 )
1
Start
q0 q q2
1
ε, Z 0 / Z 0 ε , Z 0 /Z 0
ε, 0 / 0 ( q0 , ε , 1111Z 0 ) ( q , 1, 111Z 0 ) ( q , 1, 1 Z 0 )
1 1
ε, 1 / 1

',` ?BA. A 6 C9aA.Fb A.c0,d.


'  G ( q , ε , 1111Z 0 ) ( q , ε , 11 Z 0 ) ( q , ε , Z0 )
1 1 1

( q2 , ε , Z 0 )

M\[)e  
M 8K 6tÚJ< n n <8qp;Æ=CØ Ù Hs< Ù 6(HT9:; 6APtK8< n Q W
!#"$%&$1- 
+E X  B g   g W

V F M Ú.I= M ðcPd6
N 6(=C7A63; P,I n 68Ø%I n 7A< ò Ù N 9dIA9:; <&=oÚJ<%H  n " ^ g  o (  n X "D ^ g  o X D 
I Ïð l U+9:KC6(=šPd<j; P 9:KC6rPˆ6
N 6(=C7A60<1u9dI(;Æ=868Q

uRÌICQQ4; =Ø[I=úICQQ; 9:; <1=(I P…9HJ;Æ=CØ[IA9t9K86š6(=CQ


<ڒ7A< ò Ù <1=C6(=A9f= N ò u(6(H_9n q’<F ZOV UdEM =CQ N 7:9 ; <1=o<1=O9:KC6 n 6(=ØC9KO<Ú49:KC6’Pˆ6
N 6(=C7A6
9…<?9:KC6 n 6AÚs9F
` F M Ú.I= M ðcPd
6 N 6(=C7A63; P,I n 68Ø%I n 7A< ò Ù N 9dIA9:; <&=oÚJ<%H õ<(9…6 W M Ú  Q’q,6?KIù86 Hº<16(H×9¸R V U.I=CQ0; Ú X Q
I ¯ð l UA9K86(=GPd<t; P+9K86oPˆ
6 N 6(=C7A6G<1uA9 I(; =C68Q®uR q’6?KIù86 Ù Hs< Ù 6(HT9¸R ` F Ù
ICQ%Q; =ØI=šICQQ4; 9:; <&=I P…9:H;Æ=CØÌIA939K86šu<9B9…< ò
<ڒ7A< ò Ù <1=C6(=A9f= N ò u(n 6(H_9KHs66%F õ<(9…6 `W,M KC6§Hs6Aù86(HºPˆ6 <(ÚÏ9K86®9:KC6<%Hs6 ò ; PpÚI n Pd6%F
\ F M ÚtI= M ð Pd
6 N 6(=7A6m; P0I n 68ØI n 7A< ò Ù N 9 IA9:; <1= <%H Ù Hs< Ù 6(H×9¸R \ q,6§KIù86
ÚJ<%HSI ¯ð l U,I=CQmPˆ< ò 6š9dI(; n <(Ú39KC6c; = Ù N 9r; P !#"$%&$1-  _E
=C<9¯7A<1=P N 68QDU89:KC6=SHs6 <(ù(; =ØÒ9:K; P+9dI(; Ú­Hº<
I n n M ð  PúHs6ò P N n 90;Æ= I n 68Ø%ò I n 7A< ò Ù N 9dIA9:; <&n =úPd6ò e  n X " ^ g  o X (  n " ^ g  o ( 
N 6(=C7A6%F

@ T@sS

(($1/:'& 4$cêwO _ 4'1)@::' $ ÓBœ Ÿ¥8¤C—¸œ ˜” F


g69a
B   e  e  u(6úI Ïð l F M K86  uPd6(Hºù86S9KIA9O9K86®<&= n RfqoI:Rf9K86 ¯ ð l 78I= 6(=A9ˆ6(H
¨ “(”C«&¬“«4¥ “(¤¤A¥±&—¥8 ˆÄ  ˆÄ  ”“(¨%–—“%—¥ ; P d ; PS; ÚO; 9S; Pf;Æ= PB9 IA9ˆ6  b qp; 9:K§I= 6 ò Ù 9¸RtPB9 IC7øF
  cD X W  e X  e ^ g  Q "   CF 
M K N PG; 9O; P’P N ?7C; 6(=9¯9…<®PAK8<8qj9KIA9O; Ú  e n  e ^ g
íDþ(I 6 WtM KC6 ¯ð l <&=rP n ; Q(6 V %\ IC77A6 Ù 9…P 6þ e  b Q  e 9K86(l= n XGX U&ÚJ<%HÏPˆ< ò 6fq,<%HÀQ X F
IC7:9 n R ò  Ùn  F


ô 6  n n PKC<q uR?; =Q N 7:9:; <1= <1= W n W 9K(I9


g6Y9 ¹u(6S9:KC6 ò IC7K(; =C6%F ô 6 Ù Hº<ù86Â9KIA9    e n " ^g  b Q " n XGX 
  F


ÓBœ Ÿ¥8¤C—¸œ ˜” F g659 n  F M K86(R= n XGX U o'%@A @ECM ÚGn Q’9K86(l= nš; PSI Ù I n ; =Q4Hs< ò 6%F
I=CQ 9:KC6úÚJ< n n <8qp;Æ=CØ ; PI n 68Ø%I  n 7A< ò Ù N 9dIA9:; <&=cPd6 e
 


N 6(=7A6  4  .E 5 N ÙÙ <Pˆ6An ]H b H d kPkk H UAqÂK86(Hs6  ] U


 e XX  e ^ g  e X X  e _^  b X X  e ^g
I=CQ#9K86 M ^ K8< n Q(PpÚJ<%HÏPAK8<%HT9ˆ6(H+P…9HJ;Æ=CØP8F
M K86(H&ICHº6ª9q,< ò <(ù86AP_ÚÀ<H9K86 ¯ð l Ú­Hs< ò M ð  e n " W
    

 b Q  e _^  d Q  e 
T@… T @Û
fï <ù86 VW+M K86OP Ùg <1=9dI=C6< N P  e n " _^  b n " F
õ<8q  n " ^  Q ; ; 6AP39:K(IA9 W W  W " W U
q3K; 7K?; ò b Ùn ; 6AP b " F ò Ù%n

ïf<ù86 `DW g<4< I=CQ N PAK  e JH b H d kPkPk H " ^


 e JH d kPkPk H  JH b Ù " F Ù (($1/'1 4$cêwO , -š/%PO02:'4ë
M =t9:K; PS78IAPd6f9K86(Hs6#; PSI Pˆ
6 N 6(=C7A6 g69a
B   e  e  u(6úI Ïð l F M K86
¨ “(”C«&¬“«4¥ “(¤¤A¥±&—¥8 ˆÄ  ˆÄš¥8°f±D— Ä#–8—“(¤• ; P
 e JH b H d kPkPk H " ^  JH kPkPk H  JH b " ^ kPkPk ^
  cD X W  e X  e ^ g  Q Q F 
 b JH JH b " _^  b Q " F e d
õ<(9…6 W  78I=Ãu(6#I=RtP…9 IA9…6%F
M KNP H b rH  I=Q  N 6AP…9:; <1= W ^_<q[9ˆ< <1Q4; ÚÀRO9KC6 I ;Æ=CQ4Hs< 6 e ¯ð
 e JH d Pk kk H JH b " ^ g  b JH  sH b "  9…<0I877A6 Ù 9fu:R 6 ò Ù 9¸Rtò PB9 IC7ø Ù n ò l
hR M KC6<%Hs6 ò &F ®q’6f78I= Hº6 ò <(ù86 H  F M KC6(Hº6AÚJ<Hº6
 e JH d kPkk H  # b sH b " ^ g  b Q sH b 4 
"
M K86(=4Uªu:R§9K86 ^ M H d kPkPk H  # b o o F M K86(=Rn
H b oo H  ; PSI Ù I n ;Æ=CQ4Hs< ò 6%F


T@  T@ 

_- ,-0/O02.:'4ëà  ÏÖ 4'1)2:' $


#!
"$% & $1
- B    _ E
M Ú     U9: KC 6(
=  ÚÀ<ÏHoð Pd< ò  6 U8ÏP N ð 7l K ô 6§K(Iù86f9ˆ<?PAK8<q9:K(IA9     
F
9:K(IA9     F e e l 
œ ŸJ¥8¤C—¸œ ˜%”¦ g69 X   
F M KC6(=
ZOV UdE g69



i D   F B  i D  F   D  FH
 e X  e ^  g  Q Q
q3 KC6(
Hº6   e i e Q Q  e D  e   e e  e  F U¯e I=C
Qše ÚJ<HoI n n U ÚJ<%H+Pd< ò 6  F sH < ò M KC6<%Hs6 ò &F Y q,6 Ø(69
 

  sHlB D F  §W   sH   JH   e X  e  e ^ g  Q  e 
I=CQš;Æ=§ICQQ; 9 ; <1=  Q    Q  e F 5.; =7A6
q’6?KIù86



ε, X 0 / ε  e X  e  e ^ g  Q  e 
ô 6 7A<&=C7 n N Q(6®9KIA9


Start ε, X 0 / Z 0X 0
ε, X 0 / ε
 e X  e ^  e X  e  e ^g  Q  e ^  Q Q 
  

œ ŸJ¥8¤C—¸œ ˜%”¦ hR?; =8P Ù 687:9 ;Æ=CØ#9K86 Q; ICØ4HJI ò F


p0 q0 PN pf

ε, X 0 / ε

T@ 
ε, X 0 / ε
 
g69  POQ(6AP; Ø1= 
ÚJ<%HDÚJ<H.78IA9:K; =CØ®6(HHs<HTPG;Æ=pP…9:H;Æ=CØP
ò 6CI=A9G9…<u6#; =t9K86 œÖ ÖÓ­¥8¨ –:¥…e Ø4HJI ò ò ICH  Hs< ò 
q,6 78I= 7A<1=8PB9H N 7:9
  Q W  W  W      D    F D   F D   e F    e D  FH
^6(Hs6,6%F ØDF D F I=Qp6%F ØDF D P #P% F,   q3KC6(Hº6
M K86 Q4; ICØ4HJI  Pò   ÚJ<%HG  
 ; P    Q  e ED    e F U
    
   cD    F U
   
    cD  Q F U.I=CQ
  Q  e ED  Q F
e, Z/ ε
i, Z/ZZ

Start
q
M K86 Q4; ICØ4HJI ò ÚJ<%HG  ; P
1<? +>). .   e, Z/ ε


i, Z/ZZ
6 /    0  0  0   0 .  0"0  1 0
GF/*?A/ 
Start ε, X 0/ZX 0 ε, X 0 / ε
. / 0 0  1'6  /   0 
  1 
)5 
p q r
3$ . / 0 0  1 6  / 0 1  

   

       " " "  


  " 
!#"$%&$1-   .E g69     UfÚJ<H Pˆ< ò 6 ô 6§K(Iù86f9ˆ<?PAK8<q9:K(IA9  
   F
Ïð l  
B    e  e  F M K86(= -Ïð l
  U&P N 7Kt9:K(IA9   
F ÓBœ Ÿ¥8¤C—¸œ ˜” F hR?; =P Ù 687:9:; =Ø#9K86 Q; ICØ1HÀI ò F
ZOV UdE g69  ÓBœ Ÿ¥8¤C—¸œ ˜” F g69 X     F M K86(=


i D  e  F B  i D  e F
 e  e  e X  e ^ g  Q "
q3KC6(Hº6
  Q  D    F U
 Q  ÚJ<%H3Pd< ò 6    "  g F .5 ;Æ=C7A6 
pU I=CQ


U ÚÀ<H
D  Q F e  e  i D  e e F e e U&I=CQtÚJ<%H+I n n   
M K86<Hs6 ò DF Y P:I:RP#9:K(I9  e 78I=[u(60P n ; Q N = Q(6(H
H  B i D Q F   
  JH   W   J H  U 9:KC6®P…9 IC7øU4q’6 Ø69
I=CQ ;Æ= ICQQ; 9 ; <1=    UÂI(=Q
  i D e F [W
 Q 
 Q  F  e X  e  e ^  g  Q "  e 
M K86l
78I=#7A< ò Ù N 9ˆ6 W
ε, any/ ε
 e X  e `^   e X  e  e ^  g  Q "  e ^ g  Q Q 
ε, any/ ε
Start ε, X 0 / Z 0X 0 PF
p0 q0 p

ε, any/ ε

  Û SsS
        !               & ! 

l¹n I=CØ N ICØ(6§; P >’; ù86(=  Uq’6o7A<1=P…9H N 7:9ÏI Ïð l :9 K(IA9P; ò N n I9ˆ6AP g F 

«1¥8”(¥8Ÿ“%—¥8 ˆÄš“0Á_ž  ô 6fqÂH; 9ˆ6 n 6AÚs9 e Pˆ6(=9…6(=9 ; I n ÚJ<%H ò PSI P


; ÚOI=CQ?<1= n R?; ÚO; 9Â; P n "
q3KC6(Hº6 ; P 9:KC6 n 6AÚs9 ò <(P…9tùICH; Iu n 6Ì; =š9K86rÚJ<H ò F
“(¤¤A¥±&—¥8 ˆÄÓ#ί™ÏÑ ˆÄÃ¥8°f±&—ÆÄ –—“(¤• <%H,; =8PB9 I=C7A6%U
; ÚOI=CQ?<1= n R?; ÚO; 9Â; P  H      
      
 
“(¤¤A¥±D—¥8 ˆÄš“?ί™ÏÑ dÄ  ”(“(¨%–8—“%—¥ g6A9 n " n " F M K; PG7A<HHº6AP <&=CQPO9ˆ<t9K86@Ïð
ý.HºPB9ÂK(Iù(; =Cا7A<1=8P N ò 68Qln?I=CQrÙ KIù(; =Ø " <&=S9K8l 6



Grammar
PDA by
empty stack
PDA by
final state
PB9 IC7øUI=CQ#9K86(= <&=QÒ; 9 Ù < Ù P I=CQ Ù N PKC6AP F

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` F l HHJI=CØ(6Ò9:K(IA9OI n n u<1Q; 6AP,<Ú n 6(=ØC9K ` <%H ò <%Hs6 kPkPk
7A<&=P; P…9BPÂ<(ڒ<1= n RtùICH; I(u n 6AP8F  ^# f   ^# d
 ^# d   ^# b
 ^# d
 ^
\ Foh¯Hs6CIø[u(<1Q4; 6APš<(Ú n 6(=CØC9K \ <%H ò <%Hs6[;Æ=A9ˆ<»I
78IP 78ICQ(6’<Ú49q,< e ùICH; Iu n 6 e u(<1Q; 68Q Ù Hº<&Q N 7:9:; <1=P8F
Û! Û


      
   
M n n N P…9:HJIA9:; <1= <(Ú¯9K86 6Aÿ687:9Ò<(ÚªP…9ˆ6 Ù \ g69  P P…9dICHT9fq3; 9KÃ9K86šØ4HJI ò ò ICH P…9ˆ6 Ù V I n Hs6CI8Q(R
Q(<1=C6


 W  W
W H W I W !H W !I W ] W V
 W
PH W I W <H W !I W A] W (V
    

 
H W I W <H W <I W A] W (V
A     

H W I W <H W !I W ] W V
B1 C1    
B2 C2     
.
.

<%HÏPB9ˆ6 Ù ` U1q’6§=C668Q#9:KC6§H N n 6AP


.


C k -2

B k-1 Bk
H  
 I 
  ]  V
         
(a)

I=CQ0uR?Hs6 Ùn IC7C; =Cاq’6 Ø(69G9K86 Ø4HJI ò ò ICH


A


A W   W
 WH WI W W  W     W 
   W
 WH WI W W  W  W    
  
 WH WI W W W W
B1 B2 . . . Bk


   H WI W W W W
(b)

  H  
 I 
   ] V
         
Û@ ÛS

<%HÏPB9ˆ6 Ù \ U1q’6§Hs6 Ùn IC7A6




C u R

 b  b  
     

       

    uR
<&=P; Q(6(H’I ò I ÙÙ ;Æ=CØ
 

  d   d  d   
qW B  `

 
  
   
¹ u:R q3KC6(Hº6 B I=Q ICHs6#ý.=(; 9…6rI n Ù K(Iu(69…PF§g69 X 

   f !   f     f  f 
 Bhg U4qÂK86(Hs6 X rH b H d kPkPk H  UI=CQrQ(6Aý.=86



M K86tý.=(I n õ 4Ø HJI ò ò ICHª; P H b H d kPkk H * H b  H d  kkPk  H


I=CQ&U&ÚJ<%H  Bhg U


 b W  d W  f WH WI W W W W
  d W  f WH WI W W W W
  X
    f WH WI W W W W
 H W I W  W W W
5 N 7K§I ò I ÙÙ ;Æ=CØ ; PÂ78I n n 68QrI –¬–8—¸œÆ—­¬%—¸œ ˜” F
 b    d     f 

H  I   ] V
         
ۏ ÛÛ
ô 6®P…9 ICH×9Gq3; 9K#Ø4HJI ò ò ICHºP
  B  4
íDþ(I ò Ùn 6 WC B  ED:] dV&F cD1H JIPF ÚJ<%H  U.I=CQ
] ED1H I W   V&F VF ED1HH JI IPF F       


 
g69 X ÷]&V F M KC6(= X ]  V
ÚJ<%HÏ6CIC7K H# F ô 6®9K86(=#7A<1=P…9H N 7:9
D1H  I  HHfW  V F i D1H  I  mGd W  V&F          
g69  ED:] F.g F M K86(=  ] Pg q3KC6(Hº6
D1H   I   H  Û I  Û kPkPk H  I  W `  ]  t  V F         i 
!#"$%&$1-  _E g69  u6pI g®<ù86H B UI=CQ
IGP N uP…9:; 9 N 9:; <&=UP N 7KG9K(I9 H# ; P,I g.U  H lB F      
M K86(=  ; PSI g.F       N PÌ9:KC6 Hs<1Q N 7:9:; <&=Pú<Ú 
q3; 9KÃ6CIC7K H ;Æ=šÙI n u<1QRHs6 Ù Ùn IC7A68Qrqp; 9:K?PˆR ò e
u< n   F
Û Û

õ<8q÷q’6?KIù86®9…<?PAK8<8q÷9KIA9
k    F M 8K 6(= n 69 X     F M KC6(=S9K86 Ù ICHºPd639Hs66ÂÚJ<%H X
g69 X   F M K86(= &n H H kPkPk H  ; =  _U I=CQ ò N P…9ÂIC%Ø I(; = n <4<1ø n ;Æø 6
&n t  H t U&P N 7Kt9KIA9 X n b b n d d kPkk n  F
l Q(6(H; ùIA9:; <1=t9Hº66§; =  &q3; n nDn <4<&ø n ; ø 6
S

Sa Sa Sa
1 2 n
S

x1 x2 xn

õ<8q Q(6 6:9ˆ6Ã9K860QI(=Ø n ; =ØÌP N u9:Hs66AP8F M K86(=0R< N


Sa
1
Sa
2
Sa
n KIù86®R(; 6 n n Q
     Û kPkPk   
q3KC6(Hº6 H b H d kPkPk H    F§õ<8q X ; PtI n Pˆ<06
N I n
9…< H b H d kPkk H U1q3K; 7K?; Pf;Æ=   F
x1 x2 xn

 G; I / B
)5 C*/*5
/*? )78/    3 5 ) ) 53$
 <? + 7MGF/*?A/ /C/#5F/*? )H78/   
  6 &  G ; I
&   /&)  1

 Û


   
        "    
  
!# "$%&$1-   +E®M KC6 g  P ICHs6? 7 n <(Pd68Q N =Q(6(H
3WÏN =(; <1=4U pW 7A<&=C78IA9…6(=(IA9 ; <1=4U pW 66(=86
7  n <P N Hº6šI=CQ Ù %<(P; 9:; ù6r7 n <(P N Hs6 ?UÏI=%Q%   3n W KC< e
ò < ò <%H Ù K(; P ò F !#"$%&$1-úEAM Ú  ; P U19:KC6(= Pˆ<0;Æ=  F
ZOV UdE  W g69  I=Q  u6 g  P8U n 69 


DCV ` F U.I=CQ


V b  b D` d  d F ZOV UdE 5 N Ù%Ù <(Pd6  ; PÏØ6(=86(HJIA9…68QSu    4 F
M K86(=  b i  d  F <&=P…9:H N 7:9   !  4 U1qÂK86(Hs6
 

,W ^_6(Hs6,q,6Ò7KC<4<(Pd6 EDCVA\` F I=CQ IPou(6AÚJ<%Hs6%F  cD #" W  "   F


M % K86(=  b   d   5K8<8q¹IA9ÂKC< ò 6 uR#;Æ=CQ N 7:9 ; <1=8PÒ<&=f9K86 n 6(=CØC9KPp<(Ú
 

9:KC6 Q(6(H; ùI9:; <1=P®;Æ=  ÚJ<H¯<1=C6 Q4; Hs687:9:; <1= I=CQ0;Æ=


% oW 5 N ÙÙ <Pˆ6  b ; P F+g69  DC&V F.g
V  ÚÀ<HÒ9K86<9K86(HÂQ;ÆHs687:9 ; <1= 9KIA9   8
 b F3õ<q  gb  Fo5.; ò ; n ICH Ù Hs<4<ÚªÚÀ< H §F   F
 

  ,W g469  u6tI g?<ù86(H B UI=CQ I KC< ò < e


ò <%H Ù K; P ò <1b = B F M K86(=§Q(6Aý.=C6 u:R


H  D HF #F
M K86(=   F


Û! Û


!#"$%&$1-  _E M Ú ; P î,UÒI=Q  Hs68Ø N n ICH¸U


9:KC6(=   ¹; P F 
g 69  b cD:]  V  ` t W   V   V F F M K86  b ; P ZOV UdE g69  u(6 IC77A6 Ù 9ˆ68Q0u:R ¯ð l
qp; 9:K#Ø4HJI ò ò ICH 
 B      e  
  
 ] V W ]DV u:R ý.=(I n PB9 IA9ˆ6U.I(=Q n 69®î u(6#IC77A6 Ù 9ˆ68Qšu:Ršð l
  `  W`
 B     
loØ4HJn PdI <DU  ICd H D:] t V  `  W   V   V F ; P q3; 9K ô 6  n n 7A<1=P…9H N 7:9fI Ïð l ÚJ<%H   ¹  I877A<HÀQ; =Ø?9ˆ<
ò ò 9:KC6 Ù ; 7:9 N Hs6
  
 ] W]
  V  ` W V` FA

^<8q’6Aù86(H­U  b   d D:]  V  `  W   &V F q3K; 7Kš; P


state

=8<9 Pd66®9:KC6§KI=CQ< N 9p<&=#7A< N HTPd6 e Ù ICØ(6 F


Input AND Accept/
reject
PDA
state

Stack

Û@ Û sS
!#"$%&$1-  _E g469   b  d u(6 g  PpI=CQÃî
Hs6Ø N n ICH¸F M K86(=
<%H ò I n n RAU&Q6Aý.=86 V F  ÷; P

 
 B       e     



q3KC6(Hº6

` F  ; P®=8<(9f=8687A6APˆP:ICHJ; n R
8   JH  ED 8     sHF 8 D ,W  D    sH  F \ F  b  d ; P®=C<9®=8687A6APˆP ICH; n R


+Hs<(ù86ÃIA9 K8< ò 6ruRrI=š;Æ=CQ N 7:9 ; <1= ^ g U¯u<9K?ÚJ<%HA ZOV UdE


I=CQ§ÚJ<%HG  :9 K(I9 V F ¹; P Hs68Ø N n ICH­U    ; P Hs68Ø N n ICH¸UI=CQ   
  X  e ^ g  Q D ; =  ÒF


; ÚOI=CQ?<1= n R?; Ú ` F M Ú  I n qoI RPÒqoIP U; 9Òq’< N n Q?ÚÀ< n n <q9:K(IA9


    X  e ^ g (     X 8 Q  ) ; = 
 b   d  b i  d
M K86 7 n I(; ò 9K86®ÚJ< n n <8qOP ô KR I n qOI:RPÒq,< N n Q0u(6 F
\ Foõ<9ˆ6o9KIA9 B g ; P UCPd< ; Ú  b w d qOIPOI n qoI:RP
U19:KC6= Pd<§q,< N n Q B g   F


Û … Û Û


 &  ## 
   g69  u6 IC77A6 Ù 9ˆ68QšuR ¯ ð l

   e  e 
Q(g 6A6ý.9 =C6 WqB  # b   g u( c6tD I#X K8l< ò B < g ò W FÒ gX 6 9   F :g UDI=CQ

ô 6 7A<&=P…9:H N 7:9SI?=C6q ¯ ð l


õ<qq’6?KIù86
 B    e Q  e  lD Q FH
 


!#K8< "$%<&$1<- H K(; P  _EF M gK866(9 =  # u(b 6j I ; PS I g.U3 Ig.=CF Q I


ò ò Ù ò  

q3KC6(Hº6
ZOV UdEGM K86 Ùn I= <ÚÏ9K86 Ù Hs<4<Úo; P
 cD  n ,W  
n ®–¬ H# 8 sH
 B F 

 8  Q sH  D 8  HF 8  úW Q H 
B  
   F

Buffer
a h(a)

 8  JI n Q  cD 8  n D ,W  D   JI  sI 
Input h

PDA Accept/ i D Q F  
   F
state reject

5K8<8qâIA9fK8< ò 6§u:R P N ; 9 Iu n 6§; =CQ N 7:9:; <&=Pp9:K(IA9


Stack k 8   e Q X X    e ^ g 8^ g  Q Q Q D D ;Æ=; =  sF ; Ú§I=Q»<&= n R»; Ú


e e 
*
 : Û
      

     

     

        k M = Ù N 9pP:; A6§; P  F
ô 6  n nDn <1<1ø IA9G9:KC6tÚÀ< n n <q3; =CØ W k  ; PO9:KC6 —˜4—“(¨ P:; A6S<Ú9K86t;Æ= Ù N 9 >[<%H¯ð l F
kÏð <  ò  Ù%P n 6þ; 9¸R <(Ú,7A<1=ù86(HT9:; =ØrI ò <1=Ø l  PfI=CQ M K86tÚJ< n n <8qp;Æ=Cاq’<Hø#; =t9:; ò 6 
l
k <1=ù86(HT9:; =ØrI >j9…< õ V F <1=ù86(HT9:; =ØrI >j9…<šI Ïð l P n ; Q(6 `%](\D
k M 6AP…9 ;Æ=CØ   (U&ÚJ<%H’I Ø4; ù86(=  ` F <1=ù86(HT9:; =ØrI ý=I n P…9dIA9ˆ6 ¯ð l
k M 6AP…9 ;Æ=CØ X    U%ÚJ<%HIfØ; ù86= X I=CQtýþC68Q  F 9ˆ<šI …= N n n P…9dIC7ø Ïð l P n ; Q(6 V ii
k ÏHº6Aù(; 6q¹<(Ú N =CQ(687C; Q%Iu n 6 g Ù Hº<&u n 6 ò P \ F <1=ù86(HT9:; =ØrI …= N n n P…9dIC7ø ¯ð l
9ˆ<šI ý=I n P…9 I9ˆ6 Ïð l P n ; Q(6 V i Y

Û Û


    
     & 

<%Hª7A<1=8ù86HT9:; =ØrI ¯ð l 9…<šI >jq’6?K(IAù86


P n ; Q(6 `DV] k õ <qfU`®q3; n n u6
` ÚJ<%H’I n n H N n 6APF
l 9 ò <PB9  f ùICH; Iu n 6AP3<(ÚÏ9K86tÚJ<%H ò    k M <(9dI nDn 6(=ØC9K <(ÚOI n n 9HJI=P:; 9:; <1=8Pf; P3PB9:; n n  F
M Ú  b d kPkPk ^   JH  F Uq’6  n n K(Iù86  
k Hs<1õQ <N qf7:9:U¯; <16CIC=87P Kš9:HJI=P; 9:; <1=Ø(6(=C6HJIA9ˆ6AP§IA9 ò <PB9  d
H N n 6APÂ<(Ú¯9:KC6®ÚJ<%H ò Ù
   ^   H  b  b  kPkPk  ^ # b ^  ^  k ICM Hª<(; 9dPÒI 9n K8P6(; AHs66AÚJ <%IHs6=Qf9: ; ò f
6Ò F 9ˆ< 78I n 7 N n I9ˆ6 9K86SØ4HJI ò e
ò 
k; ÚÀR§h9RfK86 ; =A9¯Hs<1ð Q N 7C9ˆ;< =ØN` P K` IA=89 6q <P…PB9 9 IA9…˜6A”(P¯¥ q’P…6pR 78Iu(= < ò <&Q6(e H
9:HJI=P; 9 ; <1=F l M n n N P…9HÀÙ IA9:; <1= <&=Ãò u n IC7øu(<ICHÀQšò ; =#7 n nIP…Ù P8F
Û! Û
 
    "   
>Ï<1<1Q0=86qoP W
V F < ò Ù N 9:; =Ø   I=CQ  I= QÃ6 n ; ò ; =(I9:;Æ=CØ h+ICQ0=86qoP W
NuPˆ6®6 Pn 6AKCP…<PÒqÂP…= R ò PAK8u<< H×n 9 POR 9 Iø 6APo9:; ò 6  F M K; Poq3; n n í ; ;Æ=IA9:; =ØÌ9K86m= N Iu 6šPˆR u< P?78I= Iø 6
n
P n ; Q6AP `%` i&U `%\` U `%\(XD 9:k KC6§n =Cò 6q Ø4HJI ò ò ICH’KIù8n n6®Pn; 6 ò `  n ò
P n ; Q(6 `\
` F¯5.; A6û<Ú   I=CQ 9K86üHs6A P N n 9 ;Æ=CØØ4HJI ò ò ICH
q3; 9K Ù Hs<1Q N 7:9 ; <1= P  b ; P  d
M K86?u(I8Q=86qOPfICHº6#IAù8<1; QIu n 6 W
P n ; Q(6AP `(XX U `(XY h¯Hs68Iømu<1Q; 6AP?ýHTP…90u(6AÚJ<%Hs6ú6 n ; ò ; =(IA9 ;Æ=CØ»= N n n Iu n 6
\ F l HHJI=CØ;Æ=CØ# 9:K(IA9Su(<&Q; 6PÂ7A<&=P; P…9p<(Úª<1= n RtùICH; e P…R ò u(< n P
Iu n 6APf; P  k <1=ù86(HºP; <&=?;Æ=A9ˆ< õ ; P  d
P n ; Q(6 `(X D
X Foh¯Hs6CIøC; =ا<Úou(<&Q; 6AP®; P  P n ; Q(6 `(X D
Û s@ Û!S

"   
         Hs6CIA9:; <1=§I=CQš;Æ=(; 9 ; I n CIA9 ; <1= <(Ú¯9:KC6 ICHHJI:R§; P 
  ; PG=8<&= e 6 9¸RS; ÚD9K86GP…9 ICH×9ªP…R ò u< n  ; P,Ø6(= e Hs6CIA9:; <1=ÒI=CQS; =; 9:; I n 8IA9:; <&=O<(Ú49:KC6 n ; =øP¯I=Q37< N =9BP
6(HÀIA9:;Æ=CØ&F ò Ù ; P 
l =d
I( ; ù8F 6 ; ò Ùn 6 ò 6(=A9 IA9 ; <1=û<1=  9 Iø 6AP9:; ò 6 ô KC6=?I 7A< N =93Ø(<16APp9…< A6(Hs<DU1q,6§K(IAù86®9ˆ<

 78I=®u637A< ò Ù N 9ˆ68Q ;Æ=Ò9:; ò 6  IP’ÚJ< n n <8qOP W V F ;Æ=CQ4; =CØú9:KC6úKC6CICQúùICH; Iu n 6 U’7KC687ø8;Æ=c; Úf; 9
I n Hº6CICQ(Rj; P R6A
P ÷;Æ=c9:KC6[ICHHÀI:RAU3I=Q ; Ú?=8<9U
N 6 N 6;Æ=CØc; 9 ; P
V Ù 6(H Ù Hs<1Q N 7 9:; <1=F M <(9dI n
Generating? 
Count

` F < n n <q3; =CØ n ; =%øP§ÚÀ<H UoI=Q[Q(687Hs6CIP; =CØc9K86


A ?

7A< N =A9ˆ6(HºPF M Iø 6APÒ9:; ò 6  F


B yes A B c D B 3

C B A 2
M <9 I n 9:; ò 6#; P  F
   Û!Û

     !#    
" & 
M 8K 6 Ø1HÀI ò ò ICH  ; P3ýþC68Q
 
 M = Ù N 9S; P X ]H b H d kPkPk H 
M =86?7C; 6(=A9GqoI:R W ô 6o7A<1=P…9H N 7:9ÏI’9H; I=CØ N n ICH9dIu n 6%UAqÂK86(Hs6  t u A7 <&= e
9dI(;Æ=PSI n n ùICHJ; Iu n 6AP U&P N 7K 9:K(I9
5 N Ù%Ù <(Pd6  ; P õ U%9…6AP…9OP…9HJ;Æ=CØÃ; P X U%q3; 9K W X_W
 F 5.;Æ=C7A6m9:KC6 Ù ICHºPd6m9:Hs66û; P[u(;Æ=ICHºRU39K86(Hs6ûICHº6
 g H t H t m b kPkPk H u
`   V ; =A9ˆ6(H=I n =8<1Q6APF
>Ï6(=C6(HÀIA9ˆ6 “(¨ ¨ u(;Æ=ICHºR ICHTPd6G9Hs66AP,<(Ú  qp; 9K `   V
; =9…6(H=I n =8<&Q(6AP8F Ù
X 15

X 14 X 25

KC687ø ; ÚOI=R Ù ICHºPˆ6®9Hº66 Ø(6(=86(HJIA9ˆ6AP X X 13 X 24 X 35

X 12 X 23 X 34 X 45

X 11 X 22 X 33 X 44 X 55

Û!
a1 a2 a3 a4 a5
 "!

íDþ(I ò Ùn 6 W
M ?< ý n n 9K86f9 Iu n 6fq’6®q’<Hø#Hs<q e u:R e Hº<8qSU N Ù qoICHsQ(P
 K(IP Ù Hº<&Q N 7:9:; <&=P
M K86[ýHTP…9mHº<8q ; Pú7< N 9…68Q÷;Æ=[9:KC6 uIP; P8Up9K86
P N uPd
6 N 6(=93<1=86AP®; = 9:ò KC6#Ù ; =Q N 7:9:; <1=F
 

 W 
 WH
o'%@A @E  t t  cD W H<t ; Pf;Æ=  F
    W I
   WH
 4  .E
ô 6’qp; PK,9ˆ<37A< ò Ù N 9ˆ6  t u UAqÂK(; 7KÒ; Pª; =ÂHs<q     V F {S,A,C}

  t u U; Ú - {S,A,C}

g H!t%H!t  V kPkk H1u U.; Ú


ÚJ<%H+g Pd< ò l6 `   UI=Q  g  pU1q’6?KIù86
- {B} {B}

 H<t+H t m b kPkPk H ^ U.I=CQ  H ^#m b H ^#md kPkPk H1u U; Ú {S,A} {B} {S,C} {S,A}

   t ^ UI=Q    ^ u {B} {A,C} {A,C} {B} {A,C}

b a a b a

Û!   *
M <š7A< ò Ù N 9…6  t u q,6?=C668Q§9ˆ<š7A< ò Ù ICHs6#IA9 ò <PB9
úÙ I(; HºP3<Ú Ù Hs6Aù(; < N P n R§7A< ò Ù N 9…68Q§Pd69BP W

 tt  t  b u       t u # b  u u     
    
    
t t m b t mGd u
IPpP N ØØ6APB9ˆ68Q0u(6 n <q M 8K 6tÚJ< n n <8qp;Æ=CؚICHº6 N =CQ6878; Q%Iu n 6 W
V F M PSI#Ø; ù86(= >  I ò u(; Ø N < N P
` F M PSI#Ø; ù86(= gÌ;Æ=K86(Hs6(=A9 n R§I ò u(; Ø N < N P
\ F M PÒ9K86§; =9…6(HºPd687:9 ; <1= <(Ú¯9q’< g  P36 ò Ù 9¸R
1<? &86    7MGF/*? / )F? / /   1>/*57H?J3 / I    X F l Hs6f9q’< g  Pp9K86®P:I ò 6
7 < BH< +-,; 7 /
1<? /F)FB#G    /5
/ / $ 7 < B<=+-,*)F?A/ )7 + < I 7 
,#)*36? I /    0     1
Y F M PSI#Ø; ù86(= g N =; ù86(HºP:I n
6 N I n 9ˆ< Bhg
 <#7 ). <? 3 I / 1 
   Û!

Û!@

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