SUBMITTED TO:- SUBMITTED BY:-

MR. HARSH KUMAR SUDHAKAR JHA

[LECTURER] ROLL NO:-13

B.TECH BIOTECH(B)
 1040070179

CONTENT

1.INTRODUCTION

2.FIRST FINGERPRINT

3.HISTORY

4.TYPE OF FINGERPRINT

5.MAKING DNA FINGERPRINT

6.TECHNIQUE USED IN FINGERPRINT

7.DNA FINGERPRINT IN HUMAN HEALTH AND SOCIETY

8.BIOLOGICAL EVIDANCE

9.APPLICATION

10.PRECAUTION

11.CONCLUSION

12.GLOSSARY

13..BIBLIOGRAPHY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

THERE ARE MANY PERSONS TO WHOM I OWE THANKS FOR

THEIR HELP,SUPPORT,ADVICE AND SUGGESTIONS DURIND
THE VARIOUS STAGES OF THIS TERM PAPER.ABOVE ALL,I
THAK Mr. HARSH LECTURER OF BIOTECHNOLOGY FROM THE
DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY WHO GUIDED ME FOR
THE ENTIRE PROJECT.LAST BUT NOT THE LEAST I THANK MY
PARENTS WHO PROVIDED THEIR MORAL SUPPORT AND
GUIDED ME THROUGHOUT THIS TERM PAPER.

SUDHAKAR
INTRODUCTION
An unusual outcome of the recombinant DNA technology is the

"DNA fingerprinting" or DNA profiling". DNA fingerprinting is based

on the principle that the genetic makeup of every person is different

from the others but is unique and distinctive to an individual. DNA

ID or genetic fingerprinting is the only definite, positive and

permanent identification method of a person as one’s DNA neither

changes during one’s lifetime nor it can be altered by any method.

Other identification methods like picture ID, social security

numbers (as in USA) and fingerprints/thumb impressions have their

limitations. The photograph may fade or has to be updated

frequently, and fingerprints can smear or can be altered by surgery,

or even difficult to acquire as in case of a baby or a child.

DNA fingerprinting has become an indelible part of society,

helping to prove innocence or guilt in criminal cases,
resolving immigration arguments and clarifying paternity.
Its inventor, Professor Sir Alec Jeffreys, University of
Leicester, looks back at how it began.

With highly automated and sophisticated equipment, the modern-

day DNA fingerprinter can process hundreds of samples a day. Back

in the late 1970s, however, molecular biology was in its infancy and

was just beginning to be applied to human genetics.

 FIRST
FINGERPRINT

Randem repeat
DNA in the human
genome remained
elusive at first, and
the research went
down several blind routes. The answer came from a totally
different project in Professor Jeffreys's lab which was
searching for the human copy of the myoglobin gene, which
produces the oxygen carrying protein in muscle. The group
decided to look for the myoglobin gene first in grey seals
(as seals produce lots of myoglobin, and have high levels
of myoglobin mRNA, which makes it easy to clone a cDNA),
then use the seal gene to isolate its human counterpart.

"The true story of DNA fingerprinting starts at the

headquarters of the British Antarctic Survey in Cambridge,"
says Professor Jeffreys. "I collected a big lump of seal
meat from their lock-up freezer and, to cut a long story
short, we got the seal myoglobin gene, had a look at human
myoglobin gene and there, inside an intron in that gene
was tandem repeat DNA – a minisatellite."

This minisatellite was to prove the key to the rest of the

genome, for while it was not variable itself, its sequence
was similar to the very few minisatellites that had been
described previously. Using the myoglobin minisatellite as
a 'hook', the team could then identify more minisatellites
and to their surprise discovered a core sequence - a piece
of DNA that is similar in many different minisatellites.
"Using the core sequence, we made a probe that should
latch onto lots of these minisatellites at the same time,"
says Professor Jeffreys, "and, to test out the system, we hybridised
the probe to a blot with DNA from several different people."

On a Monday morning in September 1984, the X-ray of the blot was

developed in the Leicester University darkroom. "I took one look,
thought 'what a complicated mess', then suddenly realised we had
patterns," says Professor Jeffreys. "There was a level of individual
specificity that was light years beyond anything that had been seen
before.

The potential of DNA fingerprinting was clear, but could the

technology be improved? Two to three months later, the grubby
mess of the first fingerprint had been refined into clean patterns
where DNA fingerprints, unique to an individual, could be
deciphered clearly.

DNA fingerprinting was ready for prime time.

HISTORY
FATHER OF DNA FINGERPRINTING

Sir Alec first made his world-changing discovery by separating

strands of DNA into different sizes and showing them as bands on a
photograph. What first seemed to him to be ‘a complicated mess’
has now become invaluable for police investigation, ranging from
settling immigration and paternity disputes to solving rape and
murder cases.
Genetic fingerprinting uses a part of our DNA that varies a great
deal between individuals, called ‘microsatellites’. Each DNA
fingerprint is unique, and can be produced from the smallest
samples – a single hair or just a few skin cells.

The UK currently stores DNA information – called ‘profiles’ – from

four million people on a database. Samples are taken from anyone
arrested for a wide range of ‘recordable’ offences, and their DNA
profiles kept and stored, even if the person is not convicted. This
database is then used to compare with samples found at crime
scenes, and has, in many cases, led to successful conviction.

Despite concerns about civil liberties, Sir Alec argues for a national
DNA database that includes not only those that have been arrested,
but everyone, even people visiting the country. He believes that
society has to decide how to balance the rights of the individual
against what he believes to be the greater benefits .

It is interesting to know that fingerprints were first introduced in year 1860 in

India by a British administrator, William Herschel, as a proof of identity to pay
pensions to illiterate ex-soldiers. Later on, English biologist Francis Galton
extensively worked on the classification of the fingerprints for their complete
use in crime investigations and his classic book Fingerprints was published in
1892. A murder case in Argentina was solved in 1892 based on his
classification. This classification system was further changed by Edward Henry
and is still in use all over the world. However, the problem with the fingerprints
is that the two individuals can have the same fingerprints although the chances
are very-very low. There has been, therefore, a need to have a type of ID, which
is conclusive in exclusion. Dr Allec Jeffreys of the UK accomplished this
objective in 1985 by exploiting the individual specific variation (polymorphism)
in the arrangement of bases (building blocks of DNA) in the DNA. This was given
the name of DNA fingerprinting or DNA profiling which has now become a
widely used courtroom tool.
DNA fingerprinting tests in India are mainly carried
out at the Centre for Cellular & Molecular Biology
(CCMB), Hyderabad. The DNA samples to carry
out DNA fingerprinting in case of crimes are
obtained from the trace amount of blood, semen
or vaginal swab, buccal smear, hairs or skin cells.
The DNA is recovered from these cells. The
"chemical scissors" widely known as restriction
enzymes are then used to cut the extremely long
DNA, at specific points, into smaller fragments. Schematic drawing showing DNA fingerprints
(profile) used in a paternity dispute. RFLP
Every one of us has fixed points where the patterns (DNA fragments or bands) of father
(A), mother (B) & two children (C&D) are
restriction enzyme acts, that in turn give rise to shown here. The profile shows that the child C
has inherited one DNA band from each parent
specific pattern of the DNA fragments. These but child D has one band inherited from the
mother and an unrecognised band different
fragments are specific not only in terms of their from the father. A is therefore not the father of

numbers but also in term of their lengths. the child D (see text).

The DNA being a charged molecule is further subjected to electric current in a

jelly like substance (gel electrophoresis) to separate the fragments produced by
restriction enzymes. The number and position of the bands formed on the gel is
the "actual fingerprints" of that DNA sample and is compared with the control
samples taken from the suspects. This determines whether the DNA samples
are from the same person, related people or non-related people. The DNA
pattern so generated is called as Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms
(RFLPs). In very rare instances two individuals might have the same pattern of
fragments when one restriction enzyme is used. This problem is overcome by
using a combination of restriction enzymes.
TYPE OF FINGERPRINTING

The fingerprints that came into use by detectives and police labs during the

1930s, each person has a unique DNA fingerprint (Figure 1). Unlike a

conventional fingerprint that occurs only on the fingertips and can be altered by

surgery, a DNA fingerprint is the same for every cell, tissue, and organ of a

person. It cannot be altered by any known treatment. Consequently, DNA

fingerprinting is rapidly becoming the primary method for identifying and

distinguishing among individual human beings.,

The information contained in DNA is the sequence of letters along the zipper.

For example, the sequence ACGCT represents different information than the

sequence AGTCC in the same way that the word "POST" has a different

meaning from "STOP" or "POTS," even though they use the same letters. The

traits of a human being are the result of information contained in the DNA code.

Living organisms that look different or have different characteristics also have

different DNA sequences. The more different the organisms, the more different
are the DNA sequences. DNA fingerprinting is a very quick way to compare the

DNA sequences of any two living organisms.

MAKING DNA
FINGERPRINTING
DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory
procedure that requires six steps :
1: Isolation of DNA.

DNA must be recovered from the cells or tissues of the body. Only a small

amount of tissue - like blood, hair, or skin - is needed. For example, the amount

of DNA found at the root of one hair is usually sufficient.

2: Cutting, sizing, and sorting.

Special enzymes called restriction enzymes are used to cut the DNA at specific

places. For example, an enzyme called EcoR1, found in bacteria, will cut DNA

only when the sequence GAATTC occurs. The DNA pieces are sorted according

to size by a sieving technique called electrophoresis. The DNA pieces are

passed through a gel made from seaweed agarose (a jelly-like product made

from seaweed). This technique is the biotechnology equivalent of screening

sand through progressively finer mesh screens to determine particle sizes.

3: Transfer of DNA to nylon.

The distribution of DNA pieces is transferred to a nylon sheet by placing the

sheet on the gel and soaking them overnight.

4-5: Probing.

Adding radioactive or colored probes to the nylon sheet produces a pattern

called the DNA fingerprint. Each probe typically sticks in only one or two

specific places on the nylon sheet.

6) DNA fingerprint. The final DNA fingerprint is built by using several probes
(5-10 or more) simultaneously. It resembles the bar codes used by grocery store
scanners.

TECHNIQUE USED IN DNA FINGERPRINTING

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the fundamental building component of all living

cells. Our characteristics, traits and physical features are determined by the
specific arrangement of DNA base-pair sequences in the cell. It is this distinct
arrangement of adenine, guanine, thymine and cytosine (called DNA
nucleotides) that regulates the production of specific proteins and enzymes via
the Central Dogma Theory [1]. In a living system, this DNA arrangement is
uniform throughout the organism, irrespective of the organ. If the DNA from the
hair, organs or any body fluid such as blood, saliva or semen, of a particular
organism were analyzed, the result would be similar profiles from each. It is this
specific 3-D arrangement of DNA that confers upon us our uniqueness in this
world. DNA forms the basic genotype (genetic identity) of an organism, which in
turn determines the phenotype (physical features) of the organism.

Based on the specificity of the genotype of a system, a particular DNA profile

can be ascribed to a particular organism. This profile is as unique as a
fingerprint; it is specific to that individual. In the last century, examination of
DNA sequences have been used to identify and indict suspects in criminal
investigations. Recently, DNA fingerprinting has also been used as a legal tool to
determine parentage. Used in combination with forensic and medical evidence,
DNA fingerprinting has increased the confidence with which criminals are
convicted in court.

This concept of fingerprinting has been increasingly applied in the past few
decades to determine the ancestry of plants, animals and other
microorganisms. Genotypic characterization of plant species and strains is
useful as most plants, though belonging to the same genus and species, may
show considerable variation between strains. A good example of this is the
fraudulent adulteration of Chianti wines with inferior quality grapes 1.This is also
the case with medicinal plants, where the amounts of active chemicals may
vary from plant to plant. Herbal drugs are consumed in most developed nations
in the form of ethno-therapeutics, nutraceuticals, or are used as the primary
source of medicinal compounds or their intermediates. A few plant products
commercially available in Canada are from Echinacea purpurea, Panax ginseng,
Ginko biloba, Hypericum perforatum, and a host of others. Their commercial
value in North America alone spans over $100 million, indicating the volume of
use. The varying drug content of different species of herbal plants has been a
problem in the production of standardized herbal medicines, where a particular
plant from a region can be linked to a specific drug content and thus have a
therapeutic value assigned to it, even though similar plants from another region
may not share the same levels of the drug. Factors such as soil, climate and
adaptability dictate the viability of a particular species and subsequently its
drug content. In such cases, there are observed variations in the genetic
composition of the plant, in addition to varying amounts of the active drug
compound. When used commercially, two factors affect the final drug quality:

(1) The variability with respect to strain-specific drug content;

(2) The potential adulteration of plant drugs with extracts from plants that have
lower drug content.
Such discrepancies are very difficult to detect using conventional methods of
morphology and microscopy. Cinchona bark, from which quinine is obtained, is
one case where the DNA fingerprinting technique could be useful. The bark of
Cinchona grown in the plains contains quinine, which is therapeutically active.
The same species of tree grown on hilltops and slopes looks morphologically
similar but has no active quinine.

In the last two decades, an effective tool to resolve problems in standardization

of herbal drugs was devised. Using chemical fingerprinting, plants can be
demarcated on the basis of their species, strain and geographical origin. Using
chromatographic techniques like High Performance Thin-Layer
Chromatography (HPTLC) and High Performance Liquid Chromatography
(HPLC), a profile of their various chemical constituents is obtained. This is called
chemoprofiling. Chemical constituents are isolated based on their affinities for
particular organic solvents in an increasing order of polarity. They are resolved
using suitable colouring reagents, resulting in characteristic patterns. The
compound specific to that species (sterol, terpenoid, alkaloid, etc.) is
characterized as a chemical marker. The medicinal utility of a particular plant
species is related to the quantity of that marker compound present. Current
editions of herbal pharmacopoeia lay a strong emphasis on the need for
chemoprofiling of crude drugs and their subsequent standardization with
respect to their composition. A recent offshoot of this method is the use of
biomarkers. When using these, the chemical marker compound possesses an
intrinsic biological activity. Biomarkers have gained currency primarily in
European nations and in countries like China and India, which have a long
history of using herbal medicines. The European Scientific Cooperative on
Phytotherapy (ESCOP), has clearly specified the requirement of the
standardization of phyto-pharmaceuticals on the basis of biomarkers that are
unique to that species. Some examples of this are ginsengosides for ginseng
and hypericin for St. John’s wort.

Chemical fingerprinting of plants, though possibly informative, does have some

pitfalls, which preclude its use as an absolute indicator of the chemical
characteristics of plants. In order for a chemical compound to be used as a
marker, it must be unique to a particular species of plant. Not all plants contain
a unique chemical compound. Even if there is a unique marker, it may not be
biologically active. There is a significant overlap of many molecules, especially
phenolics and sterols. The main cause of the failure of chemoprofiling is the
presence of in-process artifacts, which tend to confound the findings of
chemical fingerprinting. Additional techniques are required to profile natural
drugs, particularly when profiling the genotypic differences.

Additional motivation for using DNA fingerprinting on commercial herbal drugs is

the availability of intact genomic DNA from plant samples after they are
processed. Adulterants can be distinguished even in processed samples,
enabling the authentication of the drug [2]. Studies have reported the
genotyping of several medicinal plants, and have made available their DNA
fingerprints. However these results should be taken with a grain of salt as the
plants are often sourced from a variety of locations through the world.

Fingerprinting of DNA is dictated by several factors; sequence or restriction site

data, taxonomic level of study, the level at which the study is being done
(species, genera, etc.), robustness and reproducibility of the method,
effectiveness in terms of cost and time, and availability of DNA.

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

Few techniques in molecular biology have received so much attention and
popular acceptance as PCR. Invented by Kary Mullis in 1983, PCR is a method
used to generate billions of copies of genomic DNA within a very short time.
This amplification is useful in criminal cases where there are miniscule amounts
of DNA available. Today PCR finds application in almost all aspects of
biomedicine. PCR has been used for the detection of many pathogenic
organisms, from bacteria to viruses.
 The Polymerase Chain
Reaction is used to amplify a sample
of DNA.

1. Microsatellites are simple

sequence repeats (SSRs), 1 to 6
nucleotides in length,
which show a high degree of
polymorphism. Specific
microsatellites can be
isolated using hybridized probes
followed by their sequencing. Like
any DNA fragment, SSRs can be detected by specific dyes or by radiolabelling
using gel electrophoresis. The advantage of using SSRs as molecular markers is
the extent of polymorphism shown, which enables the detection of differences
at multiple loci between strains [3].Coupled with chemical and morphological
data, we can identify the plant species or strain of interest. The main advantage
of using SSRs for fingerprinting is that small amounts of DNA are required
compared to the restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP) method.
This is due to the large amounts of SSRs present in any genome. Further,
assays involving SSRs are more robust than random amplified polymorphic DNA
(RAPDs), making them up to seven times more efficient. A drawback to using
SSRs is the need to develop separate SSR primer sets for each species. The
latest research suggests that SSRs will be involved in new methods of detection
of alterations of specific sequences in the DNA.

2. Restriction fragment length polymorphisms are unequal lengths of DNA

fragments obtained by cutting Variable Number of Tandem Repeat (VNTRs)
sequences up to 30 sequences long with restriction enzymes at specific sites.
VNTRs vary between plant species, as do the number and location of restriction
enzyme-recognition sites. On an agarose gel, RFLPs can be visualized using
radiolabeled complementary DNA sequences. There is no need for PCR
amplification of DNA in this method. A routine southern blot experiment is used
instead. Normally, RFLPs are used to identify the origins of a particular plant
species, setting the stage for mapping its evolution. There are some problems
with the RFLP method of DNA fingerprinting. First, the results do not specifically
indicate the chance of a match between two organisms. Secondly, the process
involves a lot of money and labor, which not many laboratories can afford.
Finally, unlike the microsatellites, a few loci in the assay must suffice.

RFLP is one of the DNA fingerprinting techniques that is used to determine

plant strain and purity in nutraceutical and herb production.

3. Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) is a PCR-based derivative

method of RFLP in which sequences are selectively amplified using primers. It is
a reliable and efficient method of detecting molecular markers. DNA is cut with
two restriction enzymes to generate specific sequences, which are then
amplified suitably. The mere addition or deletion of bases at the 3′ end
determines the selectivity and complexity of the amplification 4. By using AFLP,
it is possible to evaluate more loci than with RFLP or RAPD. AFLP is also
capable of determining a large number of polymorphisms. Similar to SSRs,
AFLP-based assays are cost-effective and can be automated.
4. Random amplified polymorphic DNA is one of the most commonly used
primary assays for screening the differences in DNA sequences of two species
of plants. RAPD consists of fishing for the sequence using random amplification.
Here, plant genomic DNA is cut and amplified using short single primers at low
annealing temperatures, resulting in amplification at multiple loci. By running a
2-dimensional electrophoresis gel, it is possible to determine the change in
sequence pattern by superimposing the 2 gels. Once the band of interest is
identified, the gel is cut, and the DNA is isolated and sequenced. Using this
target, DNA from other cultivars can be assessed using other techniques such
as AFLP or SSRs. It is also more cost effective than RFLPs. RAPDs lack
specificity, however, due to low annealing temperatures and easier reaction
conditions.

5. Other Methods include the use of single nucleotide polymorphs (SNPs) DNA
amplification fingerprinting (DAF) and their offshoots. Although these techniques
vary slightly from each other, they operate on the same principle.

DNA FINGERPRINTING IN HUMAN HEALTH AND SOCIETY

Like the fingerprints that came into use by detectives and police
labs during the 1930s, each person has a unique DNA fingerprint.
Unlike a conventional fingerprint that occurs only on the fingertips
and can be altered by surgery, a DNA fingerprint is the same for
every cell, tissue, and organ of a person. It cannot be altered by any
known treatment. Consequently, DNA fingerprinting is rapidly
becoming the primary method for identifying and distinguishing
among individual human beings.

An additional application of DNA fingerprint technology is the

diagnosis of inherited disorders in adults, children, and unborn
babies. The technology is so powerful that, for example, even the
blood-stained clothing of Abraham Lincoln could be analyzed for
evidence of a genetic disorder called Marfan's Syndrome.
BIOLOGICAL EVIDANCE

FBI and police labs around the U.S. have begun to use DNA fingerprints to link

suspects to biological evidence - blood or semen stains, hair, or items of

clothing - found at the scene of a crime. Since 1987, hundreds of cases have

been decided with the assistance of DNA fingerprint evidence.

Another important use of DNA fingerprints in the court

system is to establish paternity in custody and child
support litigation. In these applications, DNA
fingerprints bring an unprecedented, nearly perfect
accuracy to the determinationPersonal Identification
Because every organ or tissue of an individual contains the same DNA

fingerprint, the U.S. armed services have just begun a program to collect DNA

fingerprints from all personnel for use later, in case they are needed to identify

casualties or persons missing in action. The DNA method will be far superior to

the dogtags, dental records, and blood typing strategies currently in use.

APPLICATION

The practical applications of DNA fingerprinting are numerous. DNA fingerprints

are used in pedigree analysis and establishing paternity and maternity. The
patterns are so specific that half of the DNA fragments (RFLPs) will be common
with those of the father and half with those of the mother (see figure). This is
because the person inherits his or her RPLP pattern from his or her parents. It is
interesting to know that a parental RFLP pattern can be reconstructed even if
only the children’s RFLP patterns are available. DNA profiling is nowadays used
by the immigration authorities in establishing family relationship. The technique
has been shown to have a considerable potential in forensics. The RFLP
patterns are also employed in establishing the identity of a homicide victim
either from the DNA found as an evidence or from the body itself.
The genetic fingerprints can be used for personal identification though the
methods such as dental record, social security number or picture ID are still the
methods of choice.

DNA fingerprints can help in diagnosing the inherited disorders like cystic
fibrosis, hemophilia, Huntington’s disease, familial Alzheimer’s, thalassemia,
sickle cell anemia and many others in the prenatal and newborn babies. The
mutation in the particular gene in these genetic disorders changes the RFLP
pattern. The use of DNA fingerprints in prenatal diagnosis can help the parents
to take decision concerning o society as a whole.

the affected fetus. Moreover, the parents can use their own DNA profiles to
understand the risk of having an affected child as well. DNA fingerprinting is so
powerful that even the blood stained clothing from Abraham Lincoln has been
analysed for evidence of genetic disorder called Marfan’s Syndrome. DNA
profiling is not restricted to humans alone. It is also applicable to animals for
livestock breeding and in plants for authentication of seeds and germplasm.

DNA fingerprints are useful in several areas of society. They are

used by professionals in human health and the justice system.

Diagnosis of inherited disorders

DNA fingerprinting is used to diagnose inherited disorders in both

prenatal and newborn babies in hospitals around the world. These
disorders may include cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, Huntington's
disease, familial Alzheimer's, sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, and
many others. Early detection of such disorders enables the medical
staff to prepare themselves and the parents for proper treatment of
the child. In some programs, genetic counselors use DNA fingerprint
information to help prospective parents understand the risk of
having an affected child. In other programs, prospective parents use
DNA fingerprint information in their decisions concerning affected
pregnancies.

Developing cures for inherited disorders

Research programs to locate inherited disorders on the
chromosomes depend on the information contained in DNA
fingerprints. By studying the DNA fingerprints of relatives who have
a history of some particular disorder, or by comparing large groups
of people with and without the disorder, it is possible to identify
DNA patterns associated with the disease in question. This work is
a necessary first step in designing an eventual genetic cure for
these disorders.

Forensic or criminal

FBI and police labs around the U.S. have begun to use DNA
fingerprints to link suspects to biological evidence-blood or semen
stains, hair, or items of clothing-found at the scene of a crime. Since
1987, more than 150 cases have been decided with the assistance
of DNA fingerprint evidence.

Another important use of DNA fingerprints in the court system is to

establish paternity in custody and child support litigation. In these
applications, DNA fingerprints bring an unprecedented, nearly
perfect accuracy to the determination.

PRECAUTION

DNA fingerprinting is highly technical. There are chances of human errors at

various steps during the processing of DNA. Nobody would like to see, because
of these errors, an innocent person going to jail and the guilty person walking
free, or a biological mother deprived of her legal right to custody of her child.
There is a need to have stringent quality control checks in DNA fingerprinting
labs worldwide. Nonetheless, DNA fingerprinting has proved to be a valuable
tool not only in the field of medicine or forensics but also in veterinary and
agriculture.

CONCLUSION

DNA fingerprinting, apart from identifying alterations in the genotypes of plant

species, is also used for the betterment of drug-yield by tissue culturing. DNA of
interest can be stored as germplasm, which is then used for future cultivation.
In addition, germplasm can be used for the conservation of selected plant
species, which are endangered such as Rauwolfia serpentina (Snake Root).
DNA fingerprinting of herbal drugs, though still in its early years, seems to be a
promising tool for the authentication of medicinal plant species and for ensuring
better quality herbs and nutraceuticals.

GLOSSARY

1.> Central Dogma Theory = the fundamental theory of molecular

biology that genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to
proteins.
2.> Nutraceuticals = scientifically designed supplements
derived from plants that have proven medical benefits
3.> Sterol = a group of steroid alcohols derived from plants or
animals
4.> Turpenoid = a turpine with an oxygen-containing group.
5.> Alkaloid = a nitrogen-containing organic compound,
isolated from plants
6.> Ginsengoside = active component of the herbal
supplement ginseng - has cardiotonic effects, acts on the
Central Nervous System..
7.> Hypericin = Active ingredient of St.John’s Wort, an herbal
supplement used to treat depression, AIDS, and cancer.
8. >Phenolic = A compound based on a 6-carbon ring with
alternating single and double bonds
9.> Cultivar = A “cultivated variety” of plants that are different
 from normal plants of their species, which retain their
differences when they reproduce.

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