Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Cars have been available to the mass market for about one hundred years. We
are just now reaching a time where you don’t have to be or know a mechanic to
own a car for more than five years. Computers are new. There has only been a
mass home computer market for around fifteen years. They break and need to
be worked on and they need to be properly maintained if they are expected to
function correctly. Any person can learn how to properly maintain and update
their own computer, thus Inside Your Computer, Computer hardware and
Maintenance for Real People.
WARNING: Whenever you are working inside of your computer, make sure
you ground yourself first. Computer components are sensitive and can be
damaged by static electricity. To ground yourself, touch your computer's
case, power supply, anything metal, or use a static bracelet.
The Big Three
The hard disk is the RAM is the computer’s The Processor, or CPU, is
computer’s long-term short term or working the computer’s “brain”. The
memory. All program and memory. RAM can store Processor does
file data is stored on the data needed by the calculations, orders data,
Hard Disk. A normal PC’s Processor. It can get data and instructs components
Hard Disk has from 2-16GB from the hard drive or from to do things. Processor
(Billion Bytes) of memory the Processor, itself. A speeds are measured in Hz
storage space. normal PC has between 32- (Hertz), a unit of
128MB of RAM. measurement that
The hard disk is made of a measures cycles of
number of a flat rotating discs RAM is a Microchip designed electricity. A newer
covered on one or both sides to store and send data. processor would be rated at
with some magnetic material. 300-500 MHz (million hertz).
RAM can upload or save data
very quickly, but cannot hold The processor is a microchip.
as much information as the
The hard disk can hold a lot hard drive. RAM also needs The speed of a processor is
of information, but cannot electricity to function. When dependent on many things,
upload or save very quickly. you turn off the computer including its rated speed and
RAM is wiped clean. it’s ability to receive
RAM (see right) and the hard information quickly from RAM.
disk work together. When you The Processor gets most of
open a program it loads from its data from RAM. RAM also A graphics or sound card is
the hard disk into RAM. When stores pre-processed data basically a separate
you save a file, it saves on the that the CPU may need at a microprocessor with it’s own
hard disk from RAM. later time. RAM. A graphic card handles
all the computations needed
When your computer is More RAM gives the for 3-D graphics and frees the
making noise, it is usually the processor more data to main processor to do other
hard drive. work with. With small tasks.
amounts of RAM, the
It is cost effective to upgrade processor has access to
your hard drive. less data. When RAM is low Upgrading the processor is
the slower hard drive must usually difficult, with marginal
continually feed data to returns. By the time you need
RAM, slowing the a new processor, you
computer. probably need more hard disk
and RAM space, too, making
Upgrading RAM is a processor upgrade the least
sometimes dramatically upgradeable item.
effective, and makes good
economic sense versus
buying a new computer.
FIRST YOU’VE GOT TO KNOW THIS STUFF…
A bit, a byte. Why does all this computer stuff make me hungry?
Computers communicate in what’s called a binary language. “Bi” means two and
“nary” means number.
Computers basically have only two choices in their language, 0 and 1. In English,
we have our alphabet, twenty-six symbols with which we make up our language.
The only symbols your poor computer has in its language are zero and one. With
these zeros and ones, the computer makes up codes. For example, if you hit the
“A” button on the keyboard the computer registers “00000001”.
Again, a zero or a one is called a BIT. Ready for some more information? Eight
bits equal a byte. Bit and Byte, cute, huh? Munch, munch.
You’ve probably heard of a Megabyte. Mega stands for million, so a megabyte is
a million bytes, or eight million bits. That’s a lot of zeros and ones. Megabyte is
usually abbreviated “MB”. The capital “B” denotes bytes. A small “b” would have
meant bits. MB stands for megabytes, or a million bytes. Mb stands for
Megabits. GB stands for Gigabytes or a billion bytes and KB stands for Kilobytes,
or a thousand bytes. So, what does 56Kb stand for? Fifty-six thousand bits. If you
have a 56K modem, your computer can take in fifty-six thousand zeros and ones
every second.
So again, a bit is a zero or one. A Byte is a collection of eight zeros and ones,
forming a code that stands for one number or letter. By the way, there aren’t
really zeros and ones floating around in the computer. Electric flow represents a
one, and very little electric flow represents a zero. It’s like Morse code.
What is a Motherboard?
If your computer displays the Intel® logo screen during system boot, you can
bypass this screen by pressing the Esc key. This allows the display of the BIOS
code.
Case Removal
Ground your self. Leave the computer plugged in, but make sure it’s off. Check
the manual on how to remove the case. After you removed the case touch the
power supply to get rid of any static electricity.
Touch the computer's power supply once again. Removed the screws holding
down the motherboard. Lift the motherboard carefully out of the case.
Initial Testing
After you have connected every peripheral and cable, turn the computer on. You
should see a new BIOS message. It should be followed with errors. Enter setup
and enter all the data you wrote down from the old motherboard.
Done
When you entered all the data into the BIOS. Exit the setup. Windows should
come up. It may give you an error or New Hardware Found wizard. Follow the
manual.
PC ARCHITECTURE
An architect plans the way a building is made, no? Computer architecture is the
manner in which the components of a computer or computer system are
organized and integrated. Basically, PC architecture is the main parts of the
computer and the way they’re put together.
A computer can be broken into five functional components, quickly outlined
below. In depth explanations will follow for those of you that really want to know it
all.
A PC also makes use of a bus system, which shuttles data back and forth
between the main components
An Input device is any machine that feeds data into a computer. For example, a
keyboard is an input device, whereas a display monitor or a printer is an output
device. Input devices other than the keyboard are sometimes called alternate
input devices. Mice, trackballs, and light pens are all alternate input devices.
Easy, no?
THE PROCESSOR
Microprocessor History
The following table may help you to understand the differences between the
different processors that Intel has introduced over the years. Don’t worry if all the
terms don’t make sense yet. Just use it for an eyeball comparison.
In the above table, the date is the year that the processor was first introduced.
Many processors are re-introduced at higher clock speeds for many years after
the original release date.
Transistors is the number of transistors on the chip. You can see that the
number of transistors on a single chip has risen steadily over the years. A
transistor is an on or off switch. On is a “1”, off is a “0”
Microns is the width, in microns, of the smallest wire on the chip. For
comparison, a human hair is 100 microns thick. As the feature size on the chip
goes down, the number of transistors rises.
Clock speed is the maximum rate that the chip can be sent information. Clock
speed will make more sense in the next section.
MIPS stands for Millions of Instructions Per Second, and is a rough measure of
the performance of a CPU. Modern CPUs can do so many different things that
MIPS ratings lose a lot of their meaning, but you can get a general sense of the
relative power of the CPUs from this column.
From this table you can see that, in general, there is a relationship between clock
speed and MIPS. The maximum clock speed is a function of the manufacturing
process and delays within the chip. There is also a relationship between the
number of transistors and MIPS. For example, the 8088 clocked at 5 MHz but
only executed at 0.33 MIPS (about 1 instruction per 15 clock cycles). Modern
processors can often execute at a rate of 2 instructions per clock cycle. That
improvement is directly related to the number of transistors on the chip and will
make more sense in the next section.
Now that you’ve read all this stuff, go back and look at the table again!
Inside a Microprocessor
There may be very sophisticated things that a microprocessor does, but those
above are its three basic activities.
Performance
Many modern processors have multiple instruction decoders, each with its own
pipeline. This allows multiple instruction streams, which means more than one
instruction can complete during each clock cycle. This technique can be quite
complex to implement, so it takes lots of transistors.
The trend in processor design has been toward full 32-bit processing power with
fast floating point processors built in and pipelined execution with multiple
instruction streams. There has also been a tendency toward special instructions
(like the MMX instructions) that make certain operations particularly efficient.
There has also been the addition of hardware virtual memory support and L1
caching on the processor chip, all of which we will discuss later in this book. Lots
of new terms, no? All you really need to know is that these trends push up the
transistor count, leading to the multi-million transistor powerhouses available
today. Some of these processors can execute about one billion instructions per
second!
2. Now you need to unplug your computer's power cord. Remove the screws
from the case and pull off the cover.
3. Locate the processor. It will usually have a CPU fan over it. Remove the
fan from the CPU.
4. Next you need to remove the old processor. If you a ZIF socket, there will
be a lever on the side. Simply lift it straight up and pull out the CPU. If you
have a LIF socket you will have to use a chip pull, a small tool available at
any computer store. Slowly work each side of the CPU up little by little to
avoid damaging the fragile pins, and you don't want to break them off. If
you do bend the pins, be very careful in straightening them, or they may
break off.
5. Now you can put in the new processor. Make sure you get pin one into pin
one of the socket. It is usually marked with an arrow or dot. If you have a
LIF socket, press it firmly into place, if you have a ZIF socket push the
handle back down and clip it into place.
6. Now you will probably have to set some jumper1 positions, usually CPU
type, bus speed, and multiplier. These should be found in your manual.
7. Replace the case cover and screw the case back together. That's all you
need to do.
The PC receives and sends its data in pathways in the computer called Buses.
Just like you take a bus to get to work, bits take buses to and from the main parts
of the computer. A bus is usually a special wire or system of wires. There are
different types of buses. They can be divided into:
• The system bus, which connects the CPU with RAM. RAM is temporary
memory and will be discussed in depth later on.
• I/O buses (Input / Output buses), which connect the CPU with other
components.
The point is, that the system bus is the central bus. Actually, it connects to the
I/O buses, as you can see in this illustration. It is not completely correct, since
actual computer architecture is much more complex, but it shows the important
point, that the I/O-buses usually derive from the system bus:
The I/O buses move data. They are configured to move data in a serial or parallel
manner. A serial bus moves data one bit at a time (mouse, most modems) and a
parallel bus can send multiple bits at one time. Most buses are serial. They
connect all I/O devices with the CPU and RAM. I/O devices are those
components, which can receive or send data (disk drives, monitor, keyboard,
etc.). In a modern Pentium driven PC, there are three or four different types of
I/O buses:
The four I/O buses will be described later. Here, we will take a closer look at the
PC's fundamental bus, from which the others are branches:
The system bus
The system bus connects the CPU with RAM and maybe a specific kind of high-
speed memory called a cache. The system bus is the central bus. Other buses
branch off from it.
The following three tables show different CPUs and their system buses:
We see, that system bus speed follows the CPU's speed limitation. At the fourth
generation CPU 80486DX2-50 are doubled clock speeds utilized.
CPUs in the 80486 family System bus width System bus speed
80486SX-25 32 bit 25 MHz
80486DX-33 32 bit 33 MHz
66 MHz bus
For a long time all Pentium based computers ran at 60 or 66 MHz on the system
bus, which is 64 bit wide:
CPUs in the System bus width System bus speed
Pentium family
Intel P60 64 bit 60 MHz
Intel P100 64 bit 66 MHz
The speed of the system bus increased dramatically in 1998. Using PC100
SDRAM a speed of 100 MHz is well proven and later the use of special RDRAM
(discussed in the RAM section) will give us much higher speeds.
Processor System bus CPU speed
speed
Intel Pentium 100 MHz 350, 400,
II 450 MHz
100 MHz 250, 300,
AMD K6-2
400 MHz
Intel Pentium 100 MHz 450, 500
Xeon MHz
Intel Pentium 133 MHz 533, 665
III MHz
200 MHz 600, 800
AMD K7
MHz
A motherboard with a 100 MHz bus has to be well constructed with good power
supply and many capacitors.
So, to recap, a bus is basically a pathway in your computer. Most computers still
around today run on an 8bit, 16bit, or 32bit bus. Windows 95 is a 32bit operating
system and runs slow on older 16bit computers.
1. I/O BUS (input output bus) also called Data Bus or Peripheral Bus. To review,
the I / O is the pathway between the motherboard & peripherals in any
expansion slots.
2. CPU BUS Connects CPU and RAM only. It allows for fast info transfer to the
processor
3. USB (Universal Serial Bus 32bit) is the newest (1998) fast bus type. Used for
fax and modem, video and audio, scanners.
4. SCSI bus (small computer system interface) The SCSI bus is the physical
connection between a mandatory special adapter card & SCSI compatible
peripheral devices. A SCSI BUS is very fast and can daisy chain up to 127
peripherals.
Probably not. The CPU and RAM, as well as almost every other part in the
computer is designed to send and receive data at a certain speed. While it is
possible to upgrade a system bus, it is best left up to the experts and provides
marginal returns.
When a computer is first switched on, the motherboard chipset waits until the
voltage is steady. When the power supply indicates that it is steady, power is
given to a set of chips called the CMOS, an abbreviation of complementary metal
oxide semiconductor. Pronounced see-moss, CMOS is a widely used type of
semiconductor. CMOS chips require less power than chips using just one type of
transistor. Personal computers contain a small amount of battery-powered
CMOS memory to hold the date, time, and system setup parameters. When the
computer first turns on, the CMOS chipset is given electricity and starts the
following sequence of events:
2. The computer’s System files load. The system files are the basic files used to
run the computer. DOS files are an example of system files.
3. The operating system (OS) loads. The PC looks for the OS in specific places
in a specific order. First it checks the “A” or floppy disk drive, then the CD
ROM drive, then the hard disk.
Your CMOS Battery
The CMOS battery powers both the PC's internal clock and a CMOS memory
chip that holds all the computer's crucial setup information, such as hard disk
parameters, types of floppy drives, and memory size.
Is your PC clock losing time? That's a warning that its CMOS battery is about to
go. And when it does, you'll have a very hard time accessing your computer until
you change the battery.
There are many different types of CMOS batteries, and their expected life span
varies widely. The lithium batteries installed in PCs for the last year or two should
last five or six years, but batteries in older PCs have average lives of two to three
years. If your system is more than a couple of years old and you haven't yet
tackled the chore of replacing the CMOS battery, do it now--before you run into
problems.
CMOS batteries often die slowly. A dead one usually displays a 'CMOS Read
Error' or 'CMOS Battery Failure' message when you turn on your PC. That
means your system has no idea how to start up because all the crucial
parameters have been lost. Some older PCs make it even harder on you,
displaying a nonspecific error message that can make you think the machine has
a major problem.
Even if you're not changing your CMOS battery right now, back up your PC's
setup information. This is particularly important for systems that are more than
two years old. PCs built in the past couple of years or so should automatically
detect all crucial system parameters when you install a new battery, although
you'll still need to set the date and time manually.
There are two ways to save backup information. One method is to go through
your PC setup screens, write down all the settings, and keep them with your PC's
manuals. The better way is to use a software package such as Norton Utilities
that stores a backup copy of your computer's CMOS settings on a floppy disk.
Turn off your PC, open the case, and take a look around. There are more than
two dozen types of CMOS batteries on the market; they fall into a few basic
categories. A lithium button cell, the most common type for newer systems, is a
thin battery about the size of a quarter that sits on the motherboard. Some
motherboards have a permanently attached, rechargeable NiCd battery, which is
about the width of an AA battery but only one-third its length. Two other battery
types attach by a two-wire cable to a jumper on the motherboard and are located
elsewhere inside the PC--usually with a Velcro fastener. One of these is a small,
rectangular black box; the other is a plastic holder that contains four standard AA
alkaline batteries.
If your PC has an old-style holder with four AA batteries, you should replace it
with a newer-style black box like the Ray-O-Vac 844. If your PC has a
permanently attached NiCd cell that's gone bad, it also likely has a four-pin
connector to which you can attach a standard NiCd battery. In rare situations,
you may have to change a jumper--check your manual.
4. Replace the battery. Remove the old battery (you may first have to remove
some add-in boards or move cables around) and put in the new one. But make
sure you don't just toss out the old cell: All batteries except plain-vanilla AAs may
constitute hazardous waste, so check with your local recycling center.
Put a piece of masking tape inside the case with a note of the date you changed
the battery.
Turn on the PC; you'll get an error message. Get into its setup program and enter
the date and time. As explained above, newer setup programs should
automatically detect hard disk parameters and other crucial information. If yours
doesn't, you'll have to type in the information. If you used a software package to
save the CMOS settings, restore them from the floppy disk.
Inside Your Computer
Computer Hardware and Maintance for Real People
The hard disk is the RAM is the computer’s The Processor, or CPU, is
computer’s long-term short term or working the computer’s “brain”. The
memory. All program and memory. RAM can store Processor does
file data is stored on the data needed by the calculations, orders data,
Hard Disk. A normal PC’s Processor. It can get data and instructs components
Hard Disk has from 2-16GB from the hard drive or from to do things. Processor
(Billion Bytes) of memory the Processor, itself. A speeds are measured in Hz
storage space. normal PC has between 32- (Hertz), a unit of
128MB of RAM. measurement that
The hard disk is made of a measures cycles of
number of a flat rotating discs RAM is a Microchip designed electricity. A newer
covered on one or both sides to store and send data. processor would be rated at
with some magnetic material. 300-500 MHz (million hertz).
RAM can upload or save data
very quickly, but cannot hold The processor is a microchip.
as much information as the
The hard disk can hold a lot hard drive. RAM also needs The speed of a processor is
of information, but cannot electricity to function. When dependent on many things,
upload or save very quickly. you turn off the computer including its rated speed and
RAM is wiped clean. it’s ability to receive
RAM (see right) and the hard information quickly from RAM.
disk work together. When you The Processor gets most of
open a program it loads from its data from RAM. RAM also A graphics or sound card is
the hard disk into RAM. When stores pre-processed data basically a separate
you save a file, it saves on the that the CPU may need at a microprocessor with it’s own
hard disk from RAM. later time. RAM. A graphic card handles
all the computations needed
When your computer is More RAM gives the for 3-D graphics and frees the
making noise, it is usually the processor more data to main processor to do other
hard drive. work with. With small tasks.
amounts of RAM, the
It is cost effective to upgrade processor has access to
your hard drive. less data. When RAM is low Upgrading the processor is
the slower hard drive must usually difficult, with marginal
continually feed data to returns. By the time you need
RAM, slowing the a new processor, you
computer. probably need more hard disk
and RAM space, too, making
Upgrading RAM is a processor upgrade the least
sometimes dramatically upgradeable item.
effective, and makes good
economic sense versus
buying a new computer.
What is RAM?
RAM is short for Random Access Memory. The processor can process data very
quickly, but if it can’t get that data quickly it doesn’t matter how fast it works. The
hard drive can hold lots of information, but its problem is in getting that
information in and out. The hard drive moves slowly. That’s where RAM comes
in. RAM can’t hold as much information as the hard drive, but it can transfer data
very quickly. RAM is considered to be the resources which your computer uses
for all of its computations. It's a temporary work area in which your computer
uses, to do work. RAM is the place where your programs reside while they're
running and where your open files are stored before you hit the "save" command.
If active programs and files take up more room than your RAM has available,
your computer uses empty space on your hard drive to keep track of what's going
on (called "paging to disk"). Hard drives have moving parts, which make them
slower. RAM chips don't, which, in a general sense, is why having lots of RAM
makes your computer run faster.
Memory works like a blackboard that is constantly overwritten with new data. The
amount of memory, or memory size, in a computer determines the number of
programs you can run at once. Memory size also determines how fast your
programs will operate. The data stored in memory is temporary. If you do not
save the data, it will disappear when you turn off the computer.
If while surfing on The Web you notice that your hard drive light is constantly
running or is blinking a good amount of the time, your computer is "going virtual"
as we call it. This means that your machine is trying to run the programs by
reading them off the hard drive then writing back to the hard drive and so forth.
This kind of activity puts a lot of extra wear and tear on your hard drive; hence it
shortens its life. Internet Explorer uses 8 meg of RAM and Windows 95 uses 8
meg of RAM therefore you need a minimum of 16 meg just to be on the Internet.
This does not take into affect the amount of additional RAM your machine maybe
using to load additional programs when your machine "boots up".
More RAM (Random Access Memory) means a bigger work area for your
machine to do its work and less work your hard drive has to do in order to keep
up with your demands. RAM works at the speed of light and is therefor much
faster than trying to access the information using your hard drive. A hard drive
uses mechanics in order to deliver the information you are requesting and it is
therefor slower. It also has to go through more stuff before it is viewed by the
user (you).
The more RAM you put into your machine the better it should run, quicker
response times to your requests and most importantly of all, is the fact that it
saves your hard drive from doing a lot of extra work, making it last longer. Keep
in mind that it is your hard drive which is the device that holds All of the
information you are and have been collecting, ... If that information is considered
to be valuable to you, back it up. Make sure you back it up onto either a tape
backup system, or the other solutions discussed in the storage section of this
book, . . . just get it off the system for safe keeping!
• Software Support: Newer programs require more memory than old ones.
More memory will give you access to programs that you cannot use with a
lesser amount.
or
DIMMs, short for dual in-line memory module, are small circuit boards that hold
memory chips. A SIMM has a 32-bit path to the memory chips whereas a DIMM
has 64-bit path. Because the Pentium processor requires a 64-bit path to
2
Parity checking refers to the use of numbers called parity bits to check that data
has been transmitted accurately. The eight bits (zeros or ones) in a transmitted
byte are added up prior to transmission. If the sum is odd, a 1 is added as the
ninth bit. If the sum is even, the ninth bit is a zero. In post transmission the byte is
again added together and its sum is checked with the parity bit. It the two do not
confirm each other the data is ignored and resent. In this way parity checking is
used to reduce errors.
memory, you need to install SIMMs two at a time. With DIMMs, you can install
memory one DIMM at a time.
A DIMM has 168 contacts and a SIMM has 72, so they're not interchangeable.
Some computers use SIMMs, some use DIMMs, and some let you combine the
two by providing both types of slots.
When people refer to their RAM, they usually mean Dynamic RAM, which is a
type of RAM that only holds its data if it is continuously accessed by special part
called a refresh circuit. Many hundreds of times each second, this circuitry reads
the contents of each memory cell, whether the memory cell is being used at that
time by the computer or not. Due to the way in which the cells are constructed,
the reading action itself refreshes the contents of the memory. If this is not done
regularly, then the DRAM will lose its contents, even if it continues to have power
supplied to it. This refreshing action is why the memory is called dynamic.
All PCs use DRAM for their main system memory, instead of SRAM, even though
DRAMs are slower than SRAMs and require the overhead of the refresh circuitry.
It may seem weird to want to make the computer's memory out of something that
can only hold a value for a fraction of a second. In fact, DRAMs are both more
complicated and slower than SRAMs.
The reason that DRAMs are used is simple: they are much cheaper and take up
much less space, typically 1/4 the silicon area of SRAMs or less. To build a 64
MB core memory from SRAMs would be very expensive. The overhead of the
refresh circuit is tolerated in order to allow the use of large amounts of
inexpensive, compact memory. The refresh circuitry itself is almost never a
problem; many years of using DRAM has caused the design of these circuits to
be all but perfected.
DRAMs are smaller and less expensive than SRAMs because SRAMs are made
from four to six transistors (or more) per bit, DRAMs use only one, plus a
capacitor. The capacitor, when energized, holds an electrical charge if the bit
contains a "1" or no charge if it contains a "0". The transistor is used to read the
contents of the capacitor. The problem with capacitors is that they only hold a
charge for a short period of time, and then it fades away. These capacitors are
tiny, so their charges fade particularly quickly. This is why the refresh circuitry is
needed: to read the contents of every cell and refresh them with a fresh "charge"
before the contents fade away and are lost. Refreshing is done by reading every
"row" in the memory chip one row at a time; the process of reading the contents
of each capacitor re-establishes the charge.
There are many different kinds of specific DRAM technologies and speeds that
they are available in. These have evolved over many years of using DRAM for
system memory, and are discussed in more detail in other sections.
Static RAM is a type of RAM that holds its data without external refresh, for as
long as power is supplied to the circuit. This is contrasted to dynamic RAM
(DRAM), which must be refreshed many times per second in order to hold its
data contents. SRAMs are used for specific applications within the PC, where
their strengths outweigh their weaknesses compared to DRAM:
• Cost: SRAM is, byte for byte, several times more expensive than DRAM.
• Size: SRAMs take up much more space than DRAMs (which is part of why
the cost is higher).
These advantages and disadvantages taken together obviously show that
performance-wise, SRAM is superior to DRAM, and we would use it exclusively if
only we could do so economically. Unfortunately, 32 MB of SRAM would be
prohibitively large and costly, which is why DRAM is used for system memory.
SRAMs are used instead for special kinds of memory called level 1 cache and
level 2 cache memory (discussed below), for which it is perfectly suited; cache
memory needs to be very fast, and not very large.
Conventional DRAM, of the type that has been used in PCs since the original
IBM PC days, is said to be asynchronous. This refers to the fact that the memory
is not synchronized to the system clock, which controls how often the processor
can receive data (discussed in further detail later). With DRAM, a memory
access is begun, and a certain period of time later the memory value appears on
the bus. The signals are not coordinated with the system clock at all.
Asynchronous memory works fine in lower-speed memory bus systems but is not
nearly as suitable for use in high-speed (>66 MHz) memory systems.
Note that there are several different flavors of both asynchronous DRAM and
synchronous DRAM; they are discussed below.
RAM Speed
Most conventional memory referred to as RAM is DRAM or SDRAM. There are
two different ways that these RAM chips are rated for speed. Conventional
asynchronous DRAM chips have a rated speed in nanoseconds (ns, or a billionth
of a second), a speed that represents the minimum access time for doing a read
or write to memory. This includes the entire access cycle.
DRAM chips are usually marked with their speed via a suffix at the end of the
part number. If you look at the chips themselves, you'll see something like "-6" or
"-60". This usually means 60 nanosecond DRAM. The suffix found on SDRAM
chips is often "-12", "-10" or "-07". Note that older memory running at 100 or 120
ns also used "-10" and "-12" sometimes. This memory hasn't been used in years
so there really shouldn't be any confusion between the two types.
SDRAM, which is quicker than DRAM because of its ability to perform multiple
requests for memory at the same time, is fast becoming the standard in today’s
personal computers. Its speed is rated in a slightly different way. In addition to
being referred to using a nanosecond speed rating, SDRAMs are also often rated
in terms of their maximum cycles or jobs per second, in MHz. This is really the
same thing as a “ns” rating, just expressed in a different way: for example, an
SDRAM module with a 10ns rating would be called instead a "100 MHz SDRAM".
100 MHz is 100 million cycles per second, which is the reciprocal of 10ns, one-
hundred-millionth of a second per cycle. This MHz number is not the same as
saying that the SDRAM with that rating is designed for a system of that speed. A
100 MHz SDRAM may not function in a 100 MHz system bus PC.
The Cache
Types of RAM
SDRAM [Synchronous Dynamic RAM] (The main type of memory in use today)
Can operate at motherboard bus clocks of over 100MHz
Can synchronize to the system clock
Typical speeds 6ns, 7ns, 10ns, and 12ns
Fastest access speed in CPU cycles being 5-1-1-1
Upgrading RAM
RAM modules and the slots where they're inserted are both made of plastic. Get
a little too rough inserting a module and you're liable to break it. Even worse, if
you break the slots they go into, you may wind up taking a trip to the computer
shop to have a new motherboard installed (a worst-case scenario, to be sure).
Just use firm pressure--don't force.
First, you need to determine what type of RAM your computer currently has and
how much. For machines running Windows 95 or 98, click on the Start button,
scroll up to Settings, click on Control Panel, double click on System and click on
the Performance tab. You should see a listing for memory, which will show the
current amount of RAM. Your user manual will have all of this info if you have it
handy. If not, call the manufacturer or try digging around on its web site. Be sure
you don't need to do any special tricks to get access to the RAM. Get the
manufacturer's instructions for dismantling the computer's case, and consult the
documentation that comes with the RAM modules, if any.
There are many different types of RAM, including EDO, fast page, and SDRAM.
Each type has its own merits, but it's best to stick with what's already installed to
avoid compatibility problems.
While some manufacturers recommend keeping the computer plugged in while
you work on it to keep it grounded, we don't recommend this route. For safety's
sake, you don't want to be digging around in an electrical appliance that's
plugged in, whether it's a toaster or a computer. Also, your computer is most
likely connected to other things that are plugged in, such as a printer, a monitor,
and so on. Unplug everything and disconnect all of the cables that are attached
to your computer. If you're afraid you might not be able to make sense of that
jumble of cables later on, take a few minutes and label everything using masking
tape and a magic marker.
Always handle RAM modules (and other similar components) by their edges so
you're holding plastic. Avoid touching the metal contacts, keep yourself
grounded, and you won't have any problems.
If you're installing a DIMM, you'll need to put it in the slot directly adjacent to the
other module or modules. A pair of SIMMs go in the next two available slots. With
SIMMs, be sure to install the inside one first or you won't be able to get them
both in.
If you're installing a SIMM, hold the RAM module so it's at a 45-degree angle to
the motherboard and lined up correctly with the slot (aimed down from the
module in front). Push it slowly but firmly into the slot while angling it up until it's
perpendicular to the motherboard and its edge is parallel to the existing modules.
You're basically rotating it into place by starting at an angle, which is the key to
getting it to seat properly. You should feel it snap into place. If it doesn't, check to
make sure you have everything lined up correctly and try again. If your slots have
clips, sometimes they'll close during a failed attempt to install a module and will
need to be reopened on your second attempt. It does take some pressure to get
them installed properly.
If you're installing a DIMM, the procedure is the same, except that, rather than
starting at an angle and rotating the module into place, you need to push it
straight in--perpendicular to the motherboard. Some manufacturers recommend
different methods of installing DIMMs. If your computer's manufacturer
recommends a different method, it's best to do it that way.
What is ROM?
ROM is a type of memory chip that does not lose information, even when the
power is turned off. Once data is programmed into the ROM chip, its contents
cannot be altered. ROM is a type of memory that normally can only be read, as
opposed to RAM which can be both read and written. For example, ROM BIOS
chips are used to store information for starting up your computer. ROM chips are
also used to store programs for hand-held computers and nifty devices such as
digital watches or.
There are two main reasons that read-only memory is used for certain functions
within the PC:
• Permanence: The values stored in ROM are always there, whether the
power is on or not. A ROM can be removed from the PC, stored for an
indefinite period of time, and then replaced, and the data it contains will still
be there. For this reason, it is called non-volatile storage. A hard disk is
also non-volatile, for the same reason, but regular RAM is not.
• Security: The fact that ROM cannot easily be modified provides a measure
of security against accidental (or malicious) changes to its contents. You
are not going to find viruses infecting true ROMs, for example; it's just not
possible. (It's technically possible with erasable EPROMs, though in
practice never seen.)
While the whole point of a ROM is supposed to be that the contents cannot be
changed, there are times when being able to change the contents of a ROM can
be very useful. There are several ROM variants that can be changed under
certain circumstances; these can be thought of as "mostly read-only memory"
The following are the different types of ROMs with a description of their relative
modifiability:
• ROM: A regular ROM is constructed from hard-wired logic, encoded in the
silicon itself, much the way that a processor is. It is designed to perform a
specific function and cannot be changed. This is inflexible and so regular
ROMs are only used generally for programs that are static (not changing
often) and mass-produced. This product is analogous to a commercial
software CD-ROM that you purchase in a store.
Note: One thing that sometimes confuses people is that since RAM is the
"opposite" of ROM (since RAM is read-write and ROM is read-only), and since
RAM stands for "random access memory", they think that ROM is not random
access. This is not true; any location can be read from ROM in any order, so it is
random access as well, just not writeable. RAM gets its name because earlier
read-write memories were sequential, and did not allow random access.
Inside Your Computer
Computer Hardware and Maintance for Real People
The hard disk is the RAM is the computer’s The Processor, or CPU, is
computer’s long-term short term or working the computer’s “brain”. The
memory. All program and memory. RAM can store Processor does
file data is stored on the data needed by the calculations, orders data,
Hard Disk. A normal PC’s Processor. It can get data and instructs components
Hard Disk has from 2-16GB from the Hard drive or from to do things. Processor
(Billion Bytes) of memory the Processor, itself. A speeds are measured in Hz
storage space. normal PC has between 32- (Hertz), a unit of
128MB of RAM. measurement that
The hard disk is made of a measures cycles of
number of a flat rotating discs RAM is a Microchip designed electricity. A newer
covered on one or both sides to store and send data. processor would be rated at
with some magnetic material. 300-500 MHz (million hertz).
RAM can upload or save data
very quickly, but cannot hold The processor is a microchip.
as much information as the
The hard disk can hold a lot hard drive. RAM also needs The speed of a processor is
of information, but cannot electricity to function. When dependent on many things,
upload or save very quickly. you turn off the computer including its rated speed and
RAM is wiped clean. it’s ability to receive
RAM (see right) and the hard information quickly from RAM.
disk work together. When you The Processor gets most of
open a program it loads from its data from RAM. RAM also A graphics or sound card is
the hard disk into RAM. When stores pre-processed data basically a separate
you save a file, it saves on the that the CPU may need at a microprocessor with it’s own
hard disk from RAM. later time. RAM. A graphic card handles
all the computations needed
When your computer is More RAM gives the for 3-D graphics and frees the
making noise, it is usually the processor more data to main processor to do other
hard drive. work with. With small tasks.
amounts of RAM, the
It is cost effective to upgrade processor has access to
your hard drive. less data. When RAM is low Upgrading the processor is
the slower hard drive must usually difficult, with marginal
continually feed data to returns. By the time you need
RAM, slowing the a new processor, you
computer. probably need more hard disk
and RAM space, too, making
Upgrading RAM is a processor upgrade the least
sometimes dramatically upgradeable item.
effective, and makes good
economic sense versus
buying a new computer.
The Hard Drive
The hard drive is the primary device that a computer uses to store information.
Most computers come with one hard drive, called drive C, located inside the
computer case. Nearly every desktop computer and server in use today contains
one or more hard disk drives. Every mainframe and supercomputer is normally
connected to hundreds of them. You can even find VCR-type devices and
camcorders that use hard disks instead of tape. These billions of hard disks do
one thing well - they store changing digital information in a relatively permanent
form. They give computers the ability to remember things when the power goes
out.
The hard disk can have a huge impact on the performance of your PC: The fact
is that the rotating magnetic media of the hard disk is one of the severest
performance bottlenecks, causing second-long delays while fat programs spin off
the disk and into RAM. Whereas disk access times are measured in milliseconds,
system RAM performance is counted in nanoseconds. Understanding hard disk
operation - and optimizing - can eliminate teeth-grinding delays.
Hard disks have been around since they were invented in the 1950s. They
started as large disks up to 20 inches in diameter holding just a few megabytes.
They were originally called "fixed disks" or "Winchesters" (a code name used for
a popular IBM product). They later became known as "hard disks" to distinguish
them from "floppy disks". Hard disks have a hard platter that holds the magnetic
medium, as opposed to the flexible plastic film found in tapes and floppies.
At the simplest level, a hard disk is not that different from a cassette tape. Both
hard disks and cassette tapes use the same magnetic recording techniques
described in the HSW article entitled How Tape Recorders Work. Both hard disks
and cassette tapes also share the major benefits of magnetic storage - the
magnetic medium can be easily erased and rewritten, and it will "remember" the
magnetic flux patterns stored onto the medium for many years.
Let's look at the big differences between the cassette tapes and hard disks so
you can see how they differ:
• The magnetic recording material on a cassette tape is coated onto a thin
plastic strip. In a hard disk, the magnetic recording material is layered onto
a high-precision aluminum or glass disk. The hard disk platter is then
polished to mirror smoothness.
• With a tape, you have to fast-forward or reverse through the tape to get to
any particular point on the tape. This can take several minutes with a long
tape. On a hard disk you can move to any point on the surface of the disk
almost instantly.
• In a cassette tape deck, the read/write head touches the tape directly. In a
hard disk the read/write head "flies" over the disk, never actually touching
it.
• The tape in a cassette tape deck moves over the head at about 2 inches
(about 1 cm) per second. A hard disk platter can spin underneath its head
at speeds up to 3,000 inches per second (about 150 MPH or 225 KPH)!
• The information on a hard disk is stored in extremely small magnetic
domains compared to a cassette tapes. The size of these domains is made
possible by the precision of the platter and the speed of the media.
•
Because of these differences, a modern hard disk is able to store an amazing
amount of information in a small space. A hard disk can also access any of its
information in a fraction of a second.
A typical desktop machine will have a hard disk with a capacity of between 2 and
8 gigabytes. Data is stored onto the disk in the form of files. A file is simply a
named collection of bytes. The bytes might be the ASCII codes for the characters
of a text file, or they could be the instructions of a software application for the
computer to execute, or they could be the records of a database, or they could
be the pixel colors for a GIF image. No matter what it contains, however, a file is
simply a string of bytes. When a program running on the computer requests a
file, the hard disk retrieves its bytes and sends them to the CPU one at a time.
There are two ways to measure the performance of a hard disk:
• The data rate - the number of bytes per second that the drive can deliver to
the CPU. Rates between 5 and 40 megabytes per second are common.
• The seek time - the amount of time it takes between the time that the CPU
requests a file and the first byte of the file starts being sent to the CPU.
Times between 10 and 20 milliseconds are common.
The other important parameter is the capacity of the drive - the number of bytes it
can hold.
The best way to understand how a hard disk works is to take a look inside. [Note
that opening a hard disk ruins it, so this is not something to try at home unless
you have a defunct drive.]
It is a sealed aluminum box with controller electronics attached to one side. The
electronics control the read/write mechanism and the motor that spins the
platters. The electronics also assemble the magnetic domains on the drive into
bytes (reading) and turn bytes into magnetic domains (writing). The electronics
are all contained on a small board that detaches from the rest of the drive:
Underneath the board are the connections for the motor that spins the platters,
as well as a highly filtered vent hole that lets internal and external air pressures
equalize.
Removing the cover from the drive reveals an extremely simple but very precise
interior
• The platters, which typically spin at 3,600 or 7,200 RPM when the drive is
operating. These platters are manufactured to amazing tolerances and are
mirror smooth.
• The arm that holds the read/write heads. This arm is controlled by the
mechanism in the upper-left corner, and is able to move the heads from the
hub to the edge of the drive. The arm and its movement mechanism are
extremely light and fast. The arm on a typical hard disk drive can move
from hub to edge and back up to 50 times per second - it is an amazing
thing to watch!
In order to increase the amount of information the drive can store, most hard
disks have multiple platters. This drive has three platters and six read-write
heads. The mechanism that moves the arms on a hard disk has to be incredibly
fast and precise. It can be constructed using a high-speed linear motor.
Data is stored on the surface of a platter in sectors and tracks. Tracks are
concentric circles, which sectors are pie-
shaped wedges on a track, like this:
Depending upon the drive you've purchased, you may have to select whether to
install it as a master or slave before you actually hook up the drive in your
system. Some newer drives will automatically choose master or slave status
based on how they are connected. So check the installation guide for your new
drive.
The master/slave setting allows you to have two drives attached to the same
controller. The first drive attached to the data cable (covered in the next step) will
usually be the master and the second drive attached to that cable would be the
slave. Most drives come set to be the master by default. So if you are replacing a
single existing drive, or if you are connecting the new drive to a second
controller, you won't need to make any changes.
If you are adding the drive to a controller to which you have already attached the
existing drive, you will want to set your new drive as the slave. Usually, this
involves changing a jumper. To start, turn your drive over and look at the printing
on the circuit board to locate the pin settings for the master/slave jumper. To
change the jumper position from master to slave, remove it from the master
position pins and place it over the slave position pins. The illustration below
shows the master/slave jumper on a Western Digital drive. Refer to your owner's
manual for the specific details for the drive you have purchased.
Disk Compression
Do not - under any circumstances, for whatever reason, use disk compression!
Compressing your hard drive means squeezing down data and programs sizes
artificially using software. It makes a 500MB drive "pretend" to have 1000MB of
space by compressing the files when not in use and de-compressing (or inflating)
the files when you need them. While compression can be used selectively to
archive single files or selective programs, compressing the entire drive is a
bargain with the devil. Compression’s hidden damage is the physical wear-and-
tear it causes on the hard drive parts. The components of a compressed hard
drive have to do double-duty (squeezing or inflating) files which otherwise could
be "read or written" to the hard drive in half the time. The hard drive’s
"‘read/write" arm is therefore constantly moving around, and its springs and
bearings are doing more work than intended in a shorter amount of time. If you
need extra storage space, pay for it. Buy another hard drive or get the upgrade in
the first place. Otherwise, with disk compression, you will really pay for it when
the drive fails.
Backing up the files on your computer may save you a ton of headaches if you
ever mistakenly wipe your hard drive. Unfortunately, many people don't take the
time to do so. If you've ever accidentally reformatted your drive, you can
understand the frustration of losing all your important documents, pictures, notes,
and programs.
There are two primary methods for doing a backup: online and on-site backups.
Determining what to save will play an important factor in this decision - specific
files or your entire hard-drive.
One way to back-up your system is to install another hard disk on your computer,
in addition to buying a disk mirroring or imaging system. These systems allow
you to clone your existing hard drive to the one that will become your backup. A
typical disk-imaging program costs between $60 and $100. Two standard backup
systems are Arco Computer Products' DupliDisk (www.arcoide.com) and Norton
Ghost 2000 Personal Edition (www.symantec.com).
Zip Disks
If you want to back-up just your data files, you can think about buying a Zip Drive.
These drives use special disks that can store up to 100MB (Megabytes) of data.
An external Zip Drive will usually run you about $130. The disks themselves
usually cost around $15, and can be written over as many times as you need.
CD Recorder
Internet Back-Up
You can also backup computer files utilizing the Internet. Numerous online
companies offer space for storing important data. For around $100 a year, you
can store up to 100MB of data. Two of these online backup companies include
@Backup (www.atbackup.com) and Intel's Answer Express Support Suite
(www.intel.com).
There are even a couple of sites that offer free Internet Storage. Of course, you
have to see their banner advertising and you get much less storage, about 25
Megabytes, but it is an alternative nonetheless. One such site is iDrive.com
(www.idrive.com).
Dust is a major problem for the hard drive. If there is a buildup around the drive, it
can act as insulation, causing the drive to overheat and behave erratically.
Blowing out the inside of the computer using a can of compressed air once a
year can help to avoid this (make sure you don't spray it upside-down, though;
this will release coolant and cause potential problems).
Excessive vibration to the drive is also not a good thing. Don't position the
computer where it will receive a constant external vibration to it, and make sure it
is mounted properly.
Sometimes the bearings will fail and start to grind against each other, making
your standard grinding noise. If this seems to be the case, make a backup of any
important data and check into either having it fixed or purchasing a new one.
Scandisk
scandisk checks your hard drive for efforts drive for errors. If your computer is
running very slow you may want to run scandisk. Scandisk check for three things:
2. Cross Referenced Files: The computer thinks two files are in the same place
on the disk.
3. Bad Dates and File Names: Unorthodox date types and file Names
To run Scandisk, click the "Start" button Click on "Programs" Click on
"Accessories" Click on "System Tools". Click on "Scandisk" Pick the drive
(C:).Click on "Start"
After the standard scandisk is done, it will ask you if you want to perform a
thorough surface scan. You should run a surface scan on a semi-regular basis
because it will tell you if your hard drive is preparing to fail in the not too distant
future. A few bad spots (up to ten) is considered normal by most hard drive
manufacturers, the key here is "Is the problem growing and if so, how fast?" If
you find a bad spot or two on a surface scan, after it gets done, run it again when
it finishes. Does it find more?, run it again. If it finds more, or it finds 15 or twenty,
stop. You should back up your data and buy a new hard drive NOW! If you run it
a second time and it does not find anything, it is time to start watching carefully.
Run a surface scan every day and watch to see if it finds anymore. If you run it
everyday for a week or so and no more spots are found, begin running the
surface scan at least once a week. Watch for new spots. This should give you an
idea of how fast you will need a new hard drive. Make sure you keep your data
backed up.
Disk Defrag
When files are deleted an empty space is left on the drive. During future saves,
Windows will break up files and save them in these spaces, causing the disk to
spin further to re-load these broken up files. Hence the computer becomes
slower. Defrag reorganizes all the files, and puts them back in order.
You should always run Scandisk before you run Disk Defrag. To use Disk Defrag
double click “My Computer”, then Right Click the “C” drive. Choose “Properties”
from the drop down menu, then Tools. Click “Defragment Now”.
The following chart should help you to perform maintenance on your drive
Activity and Procedure Recommended Minimum
What it Frequency Frequency
Does
Scandisk - scans 1. Double-click on the My Once a day - Standard scan Once a month -
any disk (floppy or Computer icon located (scans only file allocation for Standard scan
hard) for errors in on the desktop errors)
file allocation or 2. Right-click on the drive Once every three
physical defects icon that you want to Once every two weeks - months - Thorough
scan Thorough scan (In the scan
Scandisk dialog box, be
3. Click on Properties sure that Thorough is Always after a
4. Click on the Tools tab checked in the Type of Test system lockup
5. Click on "Check Now…" area). that requires a
in the Error-checking cold or warm
status area Note: A Thorough scan will boot, or a reset.
take a long time, so you
6. Be sure the drive you might do this just before
want to scan is lunch break or over night.
highlighted; that the box Use a Thorough scan every
next to "Automatically fix time you scan a floppy.
errors" is checked.
7. Click Start
8. Click on Close to finish
Defrag - re- 1. Double-click on the My Once every two weeks Once every two
locates Computer icon located Note: Defragmenting a hard weeks
fragmented files on the desktop drive can take a long time. You should
on the hard drive You might want to start a complete a
to place all the 2. Right-click on the drive defrag just before lunch. Scandisk before
allocation units for icon that you want to you defrag
a file adjacent to scan .
one another. 3. Click on Properties
Improves access 4. Click on the Tools tab
time. Not typically
necessary on 5. Click on "Defragment
floppies. now…" in the
Defragmentation status
area
6. If the drive you want to
defrag isn’t the one listed
at the top of the dialog
box, click Select Drive…
and choose the drive to
defrag.
7. Click Start
8. Click on Close to finish.
Inside Your Computer
Computer Hardware and Maintance for Real People
Ready?
MODEMS
Line speed effects your total Internet experience. It’s all about waiting, folks. The
faster your line speed, the less time you wait for web pages and data to load.
Searches happen faster and the Internet provides a less frustrating experience.
Business that use the Internet to transfer large files are most effected by line
speed, but as the Internet moves into different aspects of our lives, line speed will
become more important to everyone. When we all watch TV over the Internet—
it’ll happen—our line speed will have to be fast enough to carry the massive
amount of data needed to provide us with moving pictures and sound. At Learn
iT! we employ high-speed DSL lines (discussed below). However, most of the
sites featured in Necessary Internet are easily viewed on a lower speed home
modem.
What does “56Kb” mean, and what does my modem do, anyway?
To answer this question, you must know a little bit into how computers work. As
discussed in the part 1 of this class, computers communicate in what’s called a
binary language. “Bi” means two and “nary” means number. To review,
computers basically have only two choices in their language, 0 and 1. In English,
we have our alphabet, twenty-six symbols with which we make up our language.
The only symbols your poor computer has in its language are zero and one. With
these zeros and ones, the computer makes up codes. For example, if you hit the
“A” button on the keyboard the computer registers “00000001”.
Aside from taking in a bunch of bits, what does your modem do? A standard
modem helps your computer communicate over regular phone lines. Standard
Internet traffic shares phone lines with people talking. An analog signal is a signal
that travels in a wave, like a sound wave or a light wave. The voice bandwidth
carries an analog signal. Your modem translates your computer’s digital signal
into an analog signal so the information can be sent over a standard line. The
modem also interprets incoming analog signals and converts them into digital
signals your computer can use.
Microsoft, public servants that they are, have a website that will measure your
download speed for free. It’s located at:
http://computingcentral.msn.com/topics/bandwidth/speedtest500.asp
So, you're tired of waiting hours for graphics to load through your old 28.8-kbps
modem. Who isn't? Limited bandwidth is a sad fact of life for most people who
don't have access to cable or DSL service.
But while you're waiting for technology to come to your hometown, you can help
yourself by upgrading to a 56-kbps modem. It will speed things up, and it won't
cost a mint. Best of all, a new modem is one of the easiest peripherals to install.
The only major decision you need to make is whether to get an internal or
external modem. Internal modems generally cost less than external modems,
and they take up less desk space. External modems are easier to install and to
detach and take with you.
Now you're ready to install your new modem. If your modem and computer are
USB compatible (USB and other ports are discussed later in this section), simply
plug the USB cable into the USB port on the back of your system (the port should
be labeled; if not, check the manual), and then attach the phone line to the
modem's jack.
Now start up your system. If your modem is Plug and Play (most new ones are),
Windows will tell you that it has detected new hardware and proceed to locate
and install the appropriate drivers. Unless your modem is brand new, Windows
95 or 98 may have the drivers for it already. If Windows doesn't have the correct
drivers, it will prompt you to install the floppy disk or CD-ROM that came with
your new modem.
The hottest new thing is DSL. A DSL Internet line uses a different bandwidth on
the phone line you already have. Instead of sharing space with the analog voice
waves a DSL modem sends digital signals over a different part or bandwidth of
the same phone line. This means that home users can use the Internet and talk
on the phone at the same time with only one line! On top of that, a DSL line is
always on. Never again will the evil modem screech of death invade your home.
Most home DSL users can sign on at 384Kb, almost seven times as fast as with
a 56K modem. The first time you look through twenty websites in the time it used
take you to log on, you’ll know something is different. DSL Internet service is
more expensive for most users.
For home users DSL usually runs about fifty dollars a month, including Internet
service. The cost can be offset, though. Considering that many people have two
phone lines, one for the Internet and one for voice, when you take into account
that a DSL line can eliminate the need for an extra phone line, most people can
spend as little as ten dollars more a month and get Internet service seven times
faster!
Do the Math:
Normal Service: $20/mo (phone line) + $20 (extra phone line) + $20.00 (Internet
service) = $60/mo
There is a catch, of course. You normally have to buy a special DSL modem and
a network card ($100-200). Some companies offer a free modem and installation
with a service commitment, though.
DSL links:
www.pacbell.com/products/business/fastrak/dsl
www.flashcom.com
Yes. A DSL modem is usually made of an external modem (a box that sits
outside your computer) and a network card (NIC Card). Ask your DSL provider
which kind you need before you buy it (there are different kinds), but basically the
line goes from the wall, into the modem, out of the modem and into your
computer. The phone company may still need to come out to slightly modify your
wall jack.
Cable Modems
You can also receive high-speed Internet access from your cable TV network.
Cable modems are devices that allow high-speed access to the Internet via a
cable television network. While similar in some respects to a traditional analog
modem, a cable modem is significantly more powerful, capable of delivering data
approximately 500 times faster. With speeds of up to 36 Mbps, cable modems
can download data in seconds that might take days with a standard dial-up
connection. Because it works with your existing TV cable, it doesn't tie up a
telephone line.
Cable modems usually run about $40/mo, including Internet service. Sadly, cable
service is not yet available in San Francisco, but is available in other bay area
locations.
The T-carrier system, or line, was introduced by the Bell System in the U.S. in
the 1960s, was the first successful system that supported digitized voice
transmission. The original transmission rate (1.544 Mbps) in the T-1 line is in
common use today in Internet service provider connections to the Internet.
Another level, the T-3 line, providing 44.736 Mbps, is also commonly used by
ISPs. Another frequently installed service is a fractional T-1 line, which is the
rental of some portion of the 24 channels in a T-1 line, with the other channels
going unused.
The T-carrier system is entirely digital. The system uses four wires and provides
full-duplex capability (two wires for receiving and two for sending at the same
time). (The four wires were originally a pair of twisted-pair copper wires, but can
now also include coaxial cable, optical fiber, digital microwave, and other media.
A number are possible.
A port is a plug. There are different types of ports to go along with the different
types of buses that plug into them. You will find ports in the back of your
computer and on the inside. They look like vacant plugs. Earlier (in part 1) we
discussed the different bus types that shuttle information along. You will mostly
be concerned with port types when buying peripherals like a scanner or a printer.
If you buy a type your computer doesn’t support you will either be out of luck or
end up buying all kinds of new equipment needed to allow you to use your new
toy. Different ports are sometimes better to use than others. For example, a USB
port will work a scanner faster than a parallel port. Read the box before you buy
something to find out what kind of port it uses.
Serial Ports
The first method of connection is the serial port, which provides up to 115-
kilobits/second-transfer rate, and requires a separate port for each device.
Parallel Ports
The second method is the parallel port, which allows transfers of about 200
kilobytes/second, or about 20 times faster than a serial port. The parallel port
also only supports one device per port, although clever switching techniques can
partially alleviate that problem.
SCSI PORTS
USB Ports
More importantly, a single USB port can be split into several more USB ports via
a USB hub. Although you can purchase a USB hub as an independent device,
it's also possible to build USB hubs into keyboards, monitors and other devices.
The USB connector itself is a small trapezoidal locking connector which can't be
inserted upside-down. Since the USB port also provides electrical power, some
devices won't require additional power adapters or cables.
Expansion Slots
Plug and play is the computers ability to add new features to a computer and
immediately use them. Plug and Play eliminates complicated installation
procedures. Macintosh equipment has always been plug and play, windows does
the same thing now.
Refresh Rate
The electron beam sweeps across the monitor at an extremely high rate. The
number of horizontal sweeps that the monitor can make in a second is called the
horizontal refresh rate, and is typically measured in the range of 30000 to 70000
sweeps/second for a high performance monitor. In scientific jargon, a single cycle
or sweep is referred to as "1 Hertz", and the abbreviation for Hertz is Hz. Hence,
the horizontal refresh rate in this case might range from 30 kHz to 70 kHz. A
single vertical sweep, during which the entire monitor is re-drawn, occurs
approximately 60-90 times per second. Hence, the entire screen is refreshed at a
rate of 60 Hz to 90 Hz. This is simply referred to as the "refresh rate", and it's one
of the most important numbers associated with the performance of your monitor.
To appear clear and flicker free, a monitor must operate with a refresh rate of at
least 60 Hz. Studies have shown that many people are sensitive to refresh rates
well above 60 Hz, and that they will suffer eye strain and fatigue if the refresh
rate is below about 70 Hz. Therefore, the computer industry has standardized on
a refresh rate of 75 Hz.
Resolution
Another important factor in choosing a monitor is resolution.
A monitor image is made up of "pixels", or picture elements.
Pixels are either illuminated or not; the pattern they show is
what makes up the image:
Dot Pitch
The first is "dot pitch", usually given as a fraction of a millimeter. Dot pitch is the
distance between the red, blue, and green dots on your screen. Typical dot
pitches for high performance monitors range from 0.22 mm to 0.26 mm. This dot
pitch is the theoretical maximum resolution of the monitor, expressed as the
distance between the holes in the shadow mask or aperture grill. Effective dot
pitch is also a function of the sharpness of the electron guns and the quality and
spacing of the phosphors. In general, monitors with smaller dot pitch -- closer
spacing of the mask holes -- will produce sharper text and graphics. The second
way to express the resolution is the number of horizontal pixels and the number
of vertical pixels. This is expressed as a product of the form "1024x768". The first
is the number of pixels across the screen, and the second the number of pixels
up and down. This practical value indicates how much apparent desktop space
will be available to your operating system and applications.
The resolution can get very high, but as it does, the electron guns have to sweep
over the screen more. As a result, the refresh rate is actually an inverse function
of the resolution. Here's a table of the resolutions vs. the refresh rate for a
popular monitor, the NEC M700:
640x480 120 Hz
800x600 110 Hz
832x624 110 Hz
1024x768 86 Hz
1152x870 75 Hz
1280x1024 65 Hz
As you can see, the maximum refresh rate drops dramatically as the resolution
increases. Following the 75 Hz rule, we see that the highest usable resolution for
this monitor is 1152x870, and that 1280x1024 has a low refresh rate that would
only be acceptable for specialized uses, not everyday desktop use. Whether a
monitor can support extremely high resolutions and high refresh rates is a
function of the electronics in the monitor. The ability to display extremely high
resolutions at an acceptable refresh rate will be a substantial cost premium, so
you shouldn't purchase a monitor capable of much higher resolutions than you
plan to use.
Monitor Size
The final (and most obvious) feature of a monitor is the physical size of the
picture tube. Standard tube sizes for consumer-grade computer monitors are 14",
15", 17", 19", and 21", measured diagonally. However, the viewable size of the
monitor is usually slightly smaller, because the extreme edges of the tube are not
usable for screen display due to distortion. The viewable image size should
always be listed along with the tube size. You can convert the diagonal measure
to horizontal & vertical dimensions using the 3:4:5 triangle rule:
vertical measure/3 = horizontal measure/4 = diagonal measure/5
The retail price of the monitor will correspond most directly to the tube size. The
larger the monitor, the clearer the picture will be at whatever resolution you
choose to use. And in many cases, the very high resolutions are only usable on
larger monitors. Regardless of the quality of a small monitor, it will never be able
to show a clear picture at resolutions like 1024x768 and 1280x1024. That means
you'll have to run at a lower resolution with the corresponding sacrifice in desktop
space for windows & applications.
Choosing a monitor, then, will involve balancing the following factors:
• Maximum usable resolution @ 75 Hz refresh rate
• Viewable screen size
• Other value-added features
• Subjective image quality, and
• Price
We have already discussed the first two elements in this list. Other value-added
features might include built-in speakers, sophisticated front-panel adjustments, or
special power-saving or low-radiation features. Subjective image quality can only
be judged one way: by looking at a monitor in operation at a high resolution.
I can't emphasize that last point enough. To be satisfied with a monitor, you need
to see that model in operation first; purchasing a monitor sight unseen is just a
gamble. Look at the monitors in use by your friends, co-workers, and at the
computer store. Here are some things to look for when making a subjective
analysis of a monitor:
• Sharpness of individual pixels,
• Clarity of black text against a white background,
• Clean straight lines along the edges of the display,
• Uniform color without blotches,
• Highly adjustable brightness and contrast
If you purchase a monitor which doesn't meet your expectations, don't hesitate to
return it for a replacement. CRTs are very difficult to manufacture, and there is
substantial variation in the quality of the finished product, particularly as the tubes
get larger. Unfortunately, quality control is not as good as it could be, and monitor
manufacturers may occasionally try to "pull a fast one" by packaging a marginal
unit for retail sale. Don't be dismayed, just keep trying until you find a monitor you
like.
Remember that you've got to live with and look at your monitor for as long as you
own it. If you purchase a small, substandard display, all of your time in front the
computer will be correspondingly substandard. But a large, bright and sharp
display with high usable resolution will serve you for many years, and will not
lose value like a bargain unit. The monitor is the single most important
component in your computer system, and it is important to arm yourself with
research and information before buying.
A flat screen monitor uses a LCD display. This is the same type of display used
in most digital wristwatches. LCD screens use less power and are much lighter
and thinner than the screens used for desktop computers. All laptops use LCD
displays and you can buy them for home too.
LCDs, on the other hand are less intrusive and clearer. Compare a 15-inch deep,
30-pound CRT against a panel that's less than 7 inches deep (including the
base) and weighs 12 or 13 pounds, and it’s easy to see the advantages of LCDs.
They don't have a CRT's geometric, convergence, or focus problems, and their
clarity makes it easier to view higher resolutions at smaller screen sizes. For
example, even 14.5-inch LCD panels display 1,024x768 well; 15-inch monitors
generally aren't usable above 800x600.
Also, the latest LCDs are all digital, unlike CRTs. This means that graphics cards
with digital outputs don't have to convert the graphics information into analog
form as they would with a typical monitor. Theoretically, this makes for more
accurate color information and pixel placement. In contrast, LCDs that plug into
standard analog VGA ports actually have to perform a second conversion back to
digital (because LCD panels are digital devices), which can result in distracting
artifacts. Now that the industry's Digital Display Working Group has finally settled
on a standard and more graphics cards will be shipping with digital options, it will
be easier to choose an all-digital solution.
SCANNERS
Resolution
A good flatbed scanner is hard to pass up these days. In fact, don’t buy any other
kind. With plenty of speed, solid image quality, and plummeting prices, scanners
that were out of reach a few years ago are now a regular sight on desktops
everywhere. You can do just about anything with many flatbed scanners: scan
documents, photographs, and even slides and negatives if your flatbed has a
transparency attachment.
Flatbed scanner prices start at around $100 and can skyrocket into the
thousands-of-dollars range. What accounts for the difference? More expensive
scanners tend to have a higher optical density than their less pricey counterparts,
which make them better suited to scan transparencies for high-end graphics use.
Digital Cameras
Digital cameras are only a few years old and are just now beginning to make
serious inroads into photography. They have yet to be fully accepted by some
photographers. However, despite some current limitations, digital cameras are
the wave of the future and it's only a matter of time before most photographs are
taken with these kinds of cameras rather than traditional film-based cameras.
Photographers who don't accept digital cameras generally base their arguments
on the fact that the images are not as good as film-based cameras. This is true,
yet these same photographers most likely use 35 mm SLR cameras that are not
as good as 8 x 10 view cameras. And if they do use 8 x 10 cameras, they don't
use the even better mammoth glass plate view cameras used by Jackson and
Muybridge after the Civil War. If they really wanted quality, they'd be using mules
to carry their equipment. So much for their argument being based on the quality
of the image.
Price
$50 - $2,500. 80% of the cameras are between $200 and $900, with a median
price of $450.
Flash Type
The flash makes a burst of light for shooting inside or in low-light conditions. The
type(s) of flash available vary from camera to camera. The flashes built into most
digital cameras have limited range and adjustability (on average, these flashes
do not work well beyond 10 feet), in comparison to external flash options, which
can provide a much more powerful and versatile flash. Keep in mind that a
camera with a "Hot Shoe" or "Flash Sync," will often come with the standard built-
in flash as well. See glossary for definitions of the types of flash listed below.
Options: No Flash, Off/On/Auto, Red-Eye Reduction, Hot Shoe, Flash Sync.
Resolution
The resolution of a digital camera refers to the sharpness of its pictures. The
higher the resolution - the better the picture. Resolution is expressed in pixels,
and refers to the "true" (i.e. non-interpolated) resolution of the camera.
Range:
(640 x 480) Minimum Computer Resolution
(1024 x 768) Film Resolution of 3"x5" print
(1280 x 960) Film Resolution of 4"x6" print
(1600 x 1200) Film Resolution of 8"x10" print
(1920 x 1600) Very High Resolution
Rapid-Fire Shots
Rapid-Fire is also known as Burst Mode or Continuous Shooting Mode. This
feature allows you to take multiple rapid-fire shots with one touch of the exposure
button. Typical range Range: 1 - 64 shots.
Optical Zoom
An optical zoom magnifies the image using a real multi-focal length lens (a digital
zoom only enlarges the center 50%). Magnification level is measured in degrees,
such as "2X" or "3X." A "2X" optical zoom, for example, means that if the
camera's minimum focal length is 50mm, then it has the ability to take pictures up
to 100mm. More than 50% of digital cameras on the market today do not have an
optical zoom.
Range: 0 (No optical zoom) - 14X.
Ease of Download
This refers to how the camera downloads its pictures to your computer or printer.
Some digital cameras offer more than one means of downloading your images.
Options:
Via 3.5" Floppy Disk - With this feature, the camera stores its images on the
same floppy disks that you use in your PC or Macintosh. Taking the floppy out of
the camera and putting it into your computer, and copying them onto the
computer effectively transfers the images.
Via Infrared - Infrared transmission uses invisible light to transfer pictures to your
computer or printer. Also known as "IrDA," this technology allows one to
download images without using cables or wires, but is also extremely slow.
Via Parallel Cable - A parallel cable transfers images faster than a serial
connection, as it is able to send multiple bits of information at the same time (i.e.
"in parallel").
Via SCSI Cable - SCSI is a form of image transfer involving a high-speed bus
cable system, used only with Macintosh computers and high-end PCs.
Via Serial Cable - The most standard type of serial cable is identified as a "RS-
232" interconnector. This method is relatively slow, in comparison to a USB cable
connection, but still quite common.
Via USB Cable - A USB (short for universal serial bus) cable transports images
from your digital camera via a connection that is much faster than a serial or
parallel cable. It is important to note however, that this type of connection can
only be used with the newer Pentium computers, and won't work on PC's with
slow/older processors.
Camera Size
Camera Size is a proxy for categorizing the varying dimensions and weights of
digital cameras.