Fundamentals of Metal

Forming
 Manansala, Jeremy

Forming Processes

Forming processes tend to be complex systems

consisting independent variables, dependent
variables, and independent-dependent
interrelations.
 Manansala, Jeremy

Independent Variables

Independent variables are those aspects of the

process over which the engineer has direct
control, and they are generally selected or
specified when setting up the process.
 Manansala, Jeremy

Independent Variables

Starting material
the engineer is often free to specify the chemistry and
condition. These may also be chosen for ease in
fabrication or they may be restricted by the final properties
desired for the product.

Starting geometry of the workpiece

this may be dictated by previous processing or it
may be selected by the engineer from a variety of
available shapes. Economics often influence this
decision.
 Manansala, Jeremy

Independent Variables

Tool or die geometry

this are has many aspects such as the diameter of a
rolling mill roll, the die angle in wire drawing and the
cavity details when forging. Since tooling will produce
and control the metal flow, success or failure of a
process often depends on tool geometry.
 Manansala, Jeremy

Independent Variables

Lubrication
since lubricants also acts as coolants, thermal barriers,
corrosion inhibitors, and parting compounds, their
selection is an aspect of great importance. Specification
includes type of lubricant amount to be applied and the
method of application.
 Manansala, Jeremy

Independent Variables
Starting temperature
many material properties vary greatly with temperature,
so its selection and control may well dictate the success
or failure of an operation.
 
Speed of operation
since speed can directly influence the lubricant
effectiveness, the forces required for deformation and
the time available for heat transfer. It is obvious that its
selection would be significant in a forming operation.
 Manansala, Jeremy

Independent Variables

Amount of deformation
while some processes control this variable through die
design, others, such as rolling permits its selection at
the discretion of the engineer.
 Manansala, Jeremy

Dependent Variables

Force or power requirements

engineers cannot directly specify the force or power;
they can only specify the independent variables and
then experience the consequences of the selection.
The ability to predict the forces or powers however is
extremely important for only by having this knowledge
will the engineer be able to specify or select the
equipment for the process.
 Manansala, Jeremy

Dependent Variables

Material properties of the product

the customer is not interested in the starting properties
but is concerned with our ability to produce the desired
final shape with the desired final properties

Exit temperature
engineering properties can be altered by both the
mechanical and thermal history of the material thus
it is important to know and control the temperature of the
material throughout the process
 Manansala, Jeremy

Dependent Variables

Surface finish and precision

both are characteristics of the resultant product that
are dependent on the specific details of the process.

Nature of the material flow

since properties depend on deformation history,
control here is vital the customer is satisfied only if the
desired geometric shape is produced with the right
set of companion properties and without surface or
internal defects.
 Manansala, Jeremy

Independent-Dependent Interrelations

Experience
this requires long time exposure to the process and is
generally limited to the specific materials, equipment
and products encountered in the realm of past contact.

Experiment
while possibly the least likely in error direct experiment
is both time consuming and costly.
 Manansala, Jeremy

Independent-Dependent Interrelations

Process modeling
here one approaches the problem with a high speed
computer and one or more mathematical models of the
process numerical values are provided for the various
independent variables and the models are used to
compute predictions for the dependent variables
 Fajardo, Jeptah Dane

Temperature Concerns

In general, an increase in temperature brings out a

decrease in strength, an increase in ductility, and a
decrease in the rate of strain hardening – all effects
that would tend to promote ease of deformation.
 Fajardo, Jeptah Dane

Hot Working

 In
Theaddition,
Elevated
plastic the elevatedbring
temperatures
deformation temperatures
of metals
aboutabove promote
a decrease
their in the
diffusion that can
recrystallization
yield strength aremove
of temperature;
metal and or reduce
an chemical
it isincrease
importantin ductility.
to note,
inhomogeneities;
however,
At that the pores
the temperatures canworking,
be welded
recrystallization
of hot shut or varies
temperature
recrystallization
reduced in the
greatly with
eliminates size during
different
effects ofthe deformation;
materials
strain hardening, andsothe
there is
metallurgical
no significant structure
increase can often
in yield be altered
strength through
or hardness,
recrystallization
or correspondingtodecrease
improve the final properties.
in ductility.
 Fajardo, Jeptah Dane

Hot Working

Structure and Property Modification by

Hot Working…

When metals solidify, particularly in the large sections

that are typical cast strands, coarse structures tend to
form with a certain amount of chemical segregation.
The size of the grains is usually not uniform, and
undesirable grain shapes can be quite common, such
as the columnar grains. Small gas cavities or
shrinkage porosity can also form during solidification.
 Fajardo, Jeptah Dane

Hot Working

Temperature Variations…

 The success or failure of a hot deformation

process often depends on the ability to control the
temperatures with the workpiece.
 To minimize problems, it is desirable to keep the
workpiece temperatures as uniform as possible.
 Fajardo, Jeptah Dane

Cold Working

 The process is usually performed at room

 Plastic deformation
temperature, of metals
but mildly below
elevated the
temperatures
recrystallization temperature
may be used to provide increased ductility and
reduced strength
 Fajardo, Jeptah Dane

Cold Working

ADVANTAGES…
 No heating is required  Better surface finish is
obtained
 Strength, fatigue and  Products possess better
wear properties are
reproducibility and
improved through strain
interchangeability
hardening
 Directional properties can
 Superior dimensional
be imparted
control is achieved, so
little, if any, secondary  Contamination problems
machining is required are minimized
 Fajardo, Jeptah Dane

Cold Working

DISADVANTAGES…
 Heavier and more
 Higher forces are required
powerful equipment is
to initiate and complete
required
the deformation
 Metal surfaces must be
 Less ductility is available clean and scale-free

 Intermediate anneals may  Imparted directional

be required to compensate properties may be
for the loss of ductility that detrimental
accompanies strain  Undesirable residual
hardening stresses may be produced
 Fajardo, Jeptah Dane

Cold Working

PREPARING METALS FOR COLD

WORKING…

 The success or failure of a cold-working operation

depends on the quality of the starting material.

 To obtain a good surface finish and maintain

dimensional precision, the starting material must be
clean and free of oxide or scale that might cause
abrasion and damage to the dies or rolls.
 Fajardo, Jeptah Dane

Warm Working

Compared
The warm regime
to hot
coldforming,
generally
working,the itrequires
offers
lower the
temperatures
less
advantages
energy
Deformation
Tools
of
thanlast
hotlonger,
reduced
warm produced
working
loads
working forproduce
while
due
on attotemperatures
the they
the
tooling
lessmust
andexert
decreased
scaling intermediate
25 to in
equipment,
and
energy
to
60%hothigher
heatingand
increased cold
decarburization,forces,
thematerialworking
workpiece,
and there
ductility,
enable is less
energy and thermal
production
saved
a possible shock
through
of
and thermal
reduction
products
higher precision
with fatigue.
in thebetter
number
anddimensional
the ofpossible
annealsprecision
elimination
due to aandof
reduction
smoother
postforming in
surfaces.
the
heatamount
treatments.
of strain hardening.
Cold-working Processes
 Ocfemia, Cathrine Joy

Cold-working Processes

 Squeezing
Major Cold-Working Operations…
 Bending
 Shearing
 Drawing
 Presses
 Ocfemia, Cathrine Joy

Squeezing Processes

Classifications of Squeezing Processes…

Cold Forging Staking
Rolling
Sizing

Swaging Burnishing
Coining

Extrusion Hubbing
Peening

Riveting
Thread Rolling
 Ocfemia, Cathrine Joy

Squeezing Processes

ROLLING
process used in sheets, strips, bars, and rods to obtain
products that have smooth surfaces and accurate
dimensions; most cold-rolling is performed on four-high
or cluster-type rolling mills
 Ocfemia, Cathrine Joy

Squeezing Processes

SWAGING
process that reduces/increases the diameter,
tapers, rods or points round bars or tubes by
external hammering
 Ocfemia, Cathrine Joy

Squeezing Processes

COLD FORGING
process in which slugs of material are squeezed
into shaped die cavities to produce finished parts
of precise shape and size.
 Ocfemia, Cathrine Joy

Squeezing Processes

EXTRUSION
process which is commonly
used to make collapsible tubes
such as toothpaste tubes, cans
usually using soft materials
such as aluminum, lead, tin.
Usually a small shot of solid
material is placed in the die
and is impacted by a ram,
which causes cold flow in the
material.
 Ocfemia, Cathrine Joy

Squeezing Processes

SIZING
process of squeezing all or selected areas of forgings,
ductile castings, or powder metallurgy products to
achieve a desired thickness or precision
 Ocfemia, Cathrine Joy

Squeezing Processes

RIVETING

process where a head is formed on the shrank end of a

fastener to permanently join sheets or plates of material;
 Ocfemia, Cathrine Joy

Squeezing Processes

STAKING
process of permanently
joining parts together when
one part protrudes through a
hole in the other; a shaped
punch is driven into the end
of the protruding piece where
a deformation is formed
causing a radial expansion,
mechanically locking the two
pieces together
 Ocfemia, Cathrine Joy

Squeezing Processes

COINING
process where metal while it is confined in a closed set of
dies; used to produce coins, medals, and other
products where exact size and fine details are required,
and thickness varies about a well-defined average
 Ocfemia, Cathrine Joy

Squeezing Processes

PEENING
process where the surface of the metal is
blasted by shot pellets; the mechanical working
of surfaces by repeated blows of impelled shot
or a round-nose tool
 Ocfemia, Cathrine Joy

Squeezing Processes

BURNISHING
process by which a
smooth hard tools is
rubbed on the metal
surface and flattens the
high spots by applying
compressive force and
plastically flowing the
material
 Ocfemia, Cathrine Joy

Squeezing Processes

HUBBING
process to used to form recessed cavities in
various types of female tooling dies. This is
often used to make plastic extrusion dies in an
economical manner
 Ocfemia, Cathrine Joy

Squeezing Processes

THREAD ROLLING

process is used for making

external threads; in this process, a die, which is a
hardened tool with the thread profile, is pressed on to
a rotating workpiece
 Glassl, Gerlli

Bending
- the plastic deformation of metals about a linear axis with little or
no change in the surface area
- the purpose of bending is to form sheet metal along a straight line

parts manufactured by bending

outside: stretched
inside: compressed

center of the sheet -metal is thinned somewhat at the

bend
- where the material cannot compensate by the sideways
contraction of the free edges
 Glassl, Gerlli

Bending

The bending operation can be considered as a system

with six components:

Product/Workpiece
Equipment/Tool
Deformation zone
Interface
Environment
Die
 Glassl, Gerlli

Bending
Springback - the elastic recovery of the
material after unloading of the tools

To compensate with the

unbending action of the
springback, the metal
should be slightly overbent.
 Glassl, Gerlli

Bending

Wiping Die Bending

Rotary Bending

Double Die Bending

 Glassl, Gerlli

Bending

Classifications of Bending Processes…

Angle
Straightening
Roll Forming
Draw and Compression
Seaming
Flanging
Roll
 Glassl, Gerlli

Bending

Angle Bending

Bar folder
 Glassl, Gerlli

Bending

Press Brake Bending rubber

 Glassl, Gerlli

Bending
Roll Bending
 bending where plates, sheets and rolled shapes can be
bent to a desired curvature
Roll bending toll can bend plate up to 6 inches thick

Drawing and Compression
Drawing Bending
- workpiece is clamped
against a bending form and
the entire assemble rotates to
draw the workpiece across a
stationary tool
Glassl, Gerlli
Bending
Compression Bending
- the bending form remains
stationary and the pressure
tool moves along the
workpiece
 Glassl, Gerlli

Bending
Roll Forming
- involves the progressive bending of metal strip as
it passes through a series of forming rolls
 Any material that can be bent can be roll- formed
 Glassl, Gerlli

Bending
Seaming
- bending operation that can be used to join the
ends of sheet metal to form containers such as
cans, pails and drums
 Glassl, Gerlli

Bending
Flanging
-the process of rolling on sheet metal in essentially
the same manner as seaming
 Glassl, Gerlli

Bending
 also known as flattening
Straightening  opposite of bending
 Glassl, Gerlli

Bending
Roll- straightening/ Roll Leveling
-subjects the material to a series of reverse
bends
-metal is bent back and forth

Stretcher Leveling
-sheets are gripped mechanically
 Glassl, Gerlli

Shearing
Aluminum
Brass - the mechanical cutting of materials without
Bronze the information of chips or the use of burning
Mild steel or melting
Stainless steel
for straight cutting blades: shearing
for curved blades: blanking, piercing, notching, trimming
 Glassl, Gerlli

Shearing

Classifications of Shearing Processes…

Slitting Piercing

Blanking
Notching
Trimming
Shaving

Cutoff Dinking
 Glassl, Gerlli

Shearing
Slitting
- shearing process used to cut rolls of
sheet metal into several rolls of narrower
width

used to cut a wide coil of metal

into a number of narrower coils
as the main coil is moved through
the slitter.
 Glassl, Gerlli

Shearing

Blanking

during which a
metal workpiece
is removed from
the primary metal
strip or sheet
when it is
punched.
punch-out:
workpiece
remaining strip:
 Glassl, Gerlli

Shearing

Piercing

punch-out: scrap
remaining strip: workpiece
 Glassl, Gerlli

Shearing

Lancing- forms either a line cut

(slit) or an actual hole

Perforating- piercing a large

number of closely spaced
holes
 Glassl, Gerlli

Shearing
Notching
-same as piercing
- edge of the strip or black forms part of the punch-out
perimeter Nibbling- produces a series
of overlapping slits/notches
 Glassl, Gerlli

Shearing
Shaving

- finishing operation in
which a small amount of
metal is sheared away
from the edge of an
already blanked part

- can be used to
produce a smoother edge
 Glassl, Gerlli

Shearing

Trimming
 Glassl, Gerlli

Shearing

Cutoff

- punch and die operation

used to separate a
stamping or other product
from a strip or stock
 Glassl, Gerlli

Shearing

Dinking

-used to blank shapes from low-strength

materials such as rubber, fiber and cloth
 Ligon, Jennilyn

Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming

COLD DRAWING
• for sheet metal, it refers to the forming of parts where plastic form
occurs over a curved axis
• for wire, rod, or tubing, it refers to the process of reducing the cross
section of the material by pulling it through a die
 A. Rod, Bar and Tube Drawing
Rod or bar drawing
If the product cannot be
bent or coiled
conveniently, straight-pull
Rod draw benches are
employed on finite-length
stock
Die
 Ligon, Jennilyn

Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming

Tube Drawing
• can be used to produce high quality tubing where the product requires
the smooth surfaces, thin walls, accurate dimension and added strength.

Die
Die

Mandrel Tube Floating

plug

Die
 Ligon, Jennilyn

Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming

B. Wire Drawing
• involves smaller diameter material

Carbide die
Starting stock
in coil form
Steel casing
Lubrication box Draw
Die block Back relief

Land
Direction
of travel
Back radius
Approach angle
Entrance angle
 Ligon, Jennilyn

Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming

C. Spinning
• a cold-forming operation in which a rotating disk of sheet metal is
shaped over a male form or mandrel
Form attached to the
Headstock spindle

Follower held in
tailstock

Original blank of
Final shape sheet metal
Steps in
spinning
 Ligon, Jennilyn

Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming

D. Shear Forming
Shear Forming or Flow Turning
• modification of the spinning process in which each
element of the blank maintains its distance from the
axis of rotation
• forms cones, hemisphere and similar shapes
 Ligon, Jennilyn

Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming

Feed Roller
Feed
Finished
tc will var with th epart
angle of the
particuilar region
tc according to to the
relationship:
α tc = tb sinα

Blank Blank

Mandrel tb

Direct Process Reverse Process

 Ligon, Jennilyn

Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming

E. Stretch Forming (Stretch-wrap forming)

• a sheet of metal is gripped by two or more sets of
jaws that stretch it and wrap it up around a single form
block
 Ligon, Jennilyn

Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming

F. Sheet Metal Drawing
Shell Drawing
• earliest use was the manufacture of artillery shells and cartridge cases
Shallow Drawing
• the process considered when the depth of the product is less than its
diameter
Deep Drawing
• the process considered when the depth is greater than its diameter
Shrink Forming Stretch Forming
•The circumference decreases • the diameter and the
d1 diameter is reduced
as the blank circumference increases, with a
from d1 to the cup wall diameter corresposponding decrease in
d’1 since the volume of material thickness that can be the cause
must d’1remain constant, the of subsequent service failures
decrease in circumferential such as premature failure in
d2
dimension must be corrosive environment
compensated by an increase in
another dimension, such as
thickness
d’2
 Ligon, Jennilyn

Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming

F. Forming with rubber Tooling or Fluid Pressure
Guerin Process
• based on the phenomenon that rubber of the proper consistency, when
totally confined, acts as a fluid and transmits pressure uniformly in all
directions

Rubber Ram
Forming Block Blank

High-pressure Flexible-die Process (Hydroforming or Flexiforming)

• the rubber pad is replaced by a flexible rubber diaphram backed by
controlled hydraulic pressures
 Ligon, Jennilyn

Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming

G. Drawing on a Drop Hammer
• when small quantities of shallow-drawn parts are required, they can often be
made most economically through the use of Low-melting point metal dies and
a drop hammer
• dies can be directly cast eliminating the expense of machining operations,
and when no longer needed, can be cast into other shapes

Wood
shims

(a) Work (b) (c)

Die
 Ligon, Jennilyn

Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming

H. High-Energy-Rate Forming
• process of forming metals through the application of
large amounts of energy in a very short time interval
1. Ironing> process of 2. Embossing> presswork
thinning the walls of a process in which raised
drawn cylinderby passing lettering or other designs
it between a punch and are impressed in sheet
die whose separation is materials
less than the original wall
thickness
 Ligon, Jennilyn

Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming

Tube Embossing
Punch Die

Die
work

3. Supeplastic Sheet Foerming> makes possible the economical

production of large, complex-shaped products with compound
curves
>major limitation is low forming rate that is required to
maintain superplastic behavior
 Ligon, Jennilyn

Drawing and Sheet Metal Forming

I. Designs and aid for shet Metal Forming
Strain analysis, Forming limit diagram
•Quick and economical way of evaluating the severity of deformation in a
formed part
•Major and minor strain=positive
140
>deformation is stretching
120 >sheet metal decrease in
100 thickness
Major •Major strain=positive;
strain 80
(percent)
minor strain=negative
60 >deformation is drawing
40 >thickness may increase,
20 decrease or stay depending on
0 the magnitudes of the 2 strain
60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80
Minor strain (percent)
 Ligon, Jennilyn

Presses
A. Classification of Presses Manually operated Presses
Mechanical Drive Hydraulic Presses
• provides faster • produce motion
Crank>used for mostaspiercing
a resultand
of •Generally used for very
Kick presses
motion and more blanking operationsand and
piston movement, longer for
or Single-slide
light work such as
positive control of drawing
variable-length strokrs can be shearing small sheets
Multiple slide
displacement programmed
Eccentric or cam within the
drives> Used
limitations
when only aofshort
the cylinder
ram stroke is
required
Knuckle-joint drive> provides a
very high mechanical advantage
along with fast action
Toggle mechanism> Used
principally in drawing presses to
actuate the blank holder
Screw-type drives> offer great
mechanical advantage coupled witj
action that resembles drop hammer
Screw presses> popular in forging
industry
 Ligon, Jennilyn

Presses
B. Types of Press Frame

> Imposes limitations on the size and type of work that can be accomodated,
How that work is fed and unloaded, and the overall stiffness of the machine

Arch Gap Straight Sided

• seldom used today • frames are in the shape • have frames that consist
except with screw drives of letter C of a crown, 2 uprights, a
for coining operations •Most verastile and base or bed , and one or
commonly preffered more moving slide
presses
•Provide unobstructive
access to the dies from 3
directions and permit large
workpiece to be fed into
the press
 Ligon, Jennilyn

Presses

C. Press Feeding Device

>increases productivity
>operators safety is an advantage

 When continuous strip is used it can be fed automatically by double-roll feeds mounted on the side of the press