Building Material Industry Profile

With the advent of modern civilization and development of scientific knowledge, there has been
an upsurge in demand for developing newer materials for novel applications. In fact, with the
technological leaps in recent times, focus has been on developing the materials required to
perform in stringent conditions - high temperature & pressure, highly corrosive environment,
higher strength but without much weight implications etc. which the conventional materials
failed to service. This ushered in 'engineered material', devising material properties catering to
the application needs. And the innovation was not limited to developing materials with novel
properties alone but it also addressed the method of manufacturing - improved processing
techniques, effective use of energy while processing and more importantly with the least
environmental impact. Advanced materials with combination of properties for specific end uses
became a reality.

Over the last thirty years composite materials, plastics, and ceramics have been the dominant
emerging materials. The volume and number of applications of composite materials has grown
steadily, penetrating and conquering new markets relentlessly. Modern composite materials
constitute a significant proportion of the engineered materials market ranging from everyday
products to sophisticated niche applications.

Today high performance fibre reinforced plastics (FRP) are starting to challenge those ubiquitous
materials such as steel & aluminium in everyday applications as diverse as automobile bodies
and civil infrastructure. It would be naive to suggest that FRP will dislodge those materials from
their dominant roles. However, continuous advances in the manufacturing technologies and
performance of FRP have intensified the competition in a growing range of applications leading
to significant growth in its market acceptance. For any given application and industry sector, the
final choice is often a competitive outcome of alternative solutions, including advances in
alternative materials such as aluminium alloys and metal-composite hybrids. Each type of
composite brings its own performance characteristics that are typically suited for specific
applications.

Increasingly enabled by the introduction of newer polymer resin matrix materials and high
performance reinforcement fibres of glass, carbon and aramid, the penetration of these advanced
material forms has witnessed a steady expansion in usage. The increased consumption has
reduced the product cost. High performance FRP can now be found in such diverse applications
as composite armouring designed to resist explosive impacts, fuel cylinders for natural gas
vehicles, windmill blades, industrial drive shafts, support beams of highway bridges and even
paper making rollers. An examination of the diversity of some of these newer applications and
the socio-commercial considerations that underpin their introduction gives an instructive insight
into the future place of high performance FRP.

The development of a composite component involves both material and structural design. Unlike
conventional materials, the properties of the composite material can be varied considering the
end application. Properties (stiffness, thermal expansion etc.) can be varied continuously over a
broad range of values by suitable selection of resin, fibre, their ratio, additives etc.
Commonly used polymer matrix composites comprise a thermosetting resin matrix in
combination with a fibrous reinforcement. Some advanced thermoplastic resins are also used,
whilst some composites employ mineral filler reinforcements, either alone or in combination
with fibrous types. Cellular reinforcements (foams and honeycombs) are also used to impart
stiffness in conjunction with ultra lightweight. Whilst the use of composites will be a clear
choice in many instances, material selection in others will depend on factors such as working
lifetime requirements, number of items to be produced (run length), complexity of product shape,
possible savings in assembly costs and on the experience & skills of the designer in tapping the
optimum potential of composites.

Lightweight corrosion resistant materials such as FRP could provide an important contribution to
the safe, economical development of resources. The need for new markets has spurred renewed
efforts in reducing the cost of both raw materials and manufacturing processes, making
composites more competitive to use in civil infrastructure applications. The mechanical
properties of composite laminates are listed in Table-I.

Indian efforts centre around developing cost effective building materials as well as for catering to
the housing needs of urban & rural poor. In this context, certain developments concerning glass
fibre reinforced polymer composites, natural fibre composites, industrial waste based composites
have assumed importance. The key restricting factors in the application of composites are initial
costs due to raw materials and also inefficient conventional moulding processes.

Various key product applications being developed in the building & construction industry are
prefabricated, portable & modular buildings, exterior cladding panels, interior decorations,
furniture, bridges and architecture mouldings. Various proven composite products being used in
the housing sector are bathtubs & basins, drainage channels, manhole covers, pits, farm
buildings, doors, door frames & windows, cabinets, housing modular, sheeting roof and flat,
structural members, portable toilets, ponds & fountains, water storage tanks etc.

Composites for Structural Applications

Composites have long been used in the construction industry. Applications range from non-
structural gratings and claddings to full structural systems for industrial supports, buildings, long
span roof structures, tanks, bridge components and complete bridge systems. Their benefits of
corrosion resistance and light weight have proven attractive in many low stress applications.
Composites present immense opportunities to play increasing role as an alternate material to
replace timber, steel, aluminium and concrete in buildings.

Road Bridges
Bridges account for a major sector of the construction industry and have attracted strong interest
for the utilization of high performance FRP. FRP has been found quite suitable for repair,
seismic retrofitting and upgrading of concrete bridges as a way to extend the service life of
existing structures. FRP is also being considered as an economic solution for new bridge
structures. Design approaches and manufacturing efficiencies developed for road bridge
applications will benefit their introduction into a broader range of civil construction fields.
Decks for both pedestrian and vehicle bridges across waterways, railways and roadways are now
a commercial reality in both North America and Europe, with some pedestrian bridges being
built entirely from composites. Because of the superior durability of composite, only cosmetic
maintenance requirements are expected for at least 50 years. The composite bridge decks are
quite suitable for replacing conventional/old bridge decks having super structure intact. The
replacement can be carried out in a short time with minimal disturbance to the traffic.

Pultruded Profiles
Among a wide array of composite products, pultruded profiles such as gratings, ladders, cable
trays, solid rods & other sections are used in many structural application with Class I flame
retardancy. Pultrusion is the most cost-effective method for the production of fibre-reinforced
composite structural profiles. It brings high performance composites down to commercial
applications such as lightweight corrosion-free structures, electrical non-conductive systems,
offshore platforms and many other innovative new products. Pultruded sections are well-
established alternative to steel, wood and aluminium in developed countries and are fast catching
up in other parts of the world. Structural sections have ready markets in oil exploration rigs,
chemical industries etc. The amount of energy required to fabricate FRP composite materials for
structural applications with respect to conventional materials such as steel & aluminium is lower
and would work for its economic advantage in the end. The pultruded products are already being
recognized as commodity in the international market for construction.

In pursuit of developing advanced performance materials for building & construction, railways,
automobiles, bio-medical etc., the Advanced Composites Programme was launched by
Technology Information, Forecasting & Assessment Council (TIFAC), an autonomous
organization under the Department of Science & Technology (DST), Govt. of India. Under a
project of the aforesaid programme, FRP Pultruded profiles (industrial gratings, solid rods for
electrical insulation, cable-trays, ladders etc.) with excellent surface finish and flame retardancy
as per international standards have been developed by M/s. Sucro Filters Pvt. Ltd., Pune. The
profiles developed have met all the desired properties. Table II lists the mechanical/ chemical
properties of FRP pultruded sections vs. other structural materials. Table III lists out the
characteristics of the pultruded products.

Repair, Retrofit & Rebars

Composite plates are successfully used to repair masonry beams, columns, buildings and other
structures damaged/weakened by impact, earthquake or subsidence and can usually be adhered in
place by hand without the need for heavy lifting equipment. Such repairs can be carried out
much more rapidly than traditional techniques.Composite reinforcing bars may be used to
replace steel in conventional reinforced concrete in order to prevent "concrete cancer" problems
resulting from internal corrosion of the reinforcement. The use of composite rebars is justified
where the nature of the construction would render possible future repairs inaccessible or
otherwise unduly costly.

Composites as Building Material

The composite is an ideal material for the manufacture of prefabricated, portable and modular
buildings as well as for exterior cladding panels, which can simulate masonry or stone. The
translucent roof sheeting is now supplied in a variety of colours and profiles to suit both
commercial and domestic building needs. In interior applications, composites are used in the
manufacture of shower enclosures and trays, baths, sinks, troughs and spas. Cast composite
products are widely used for the production of vanity units, bench tops and basins. Realistic
simulation of marble in various colours, onyx and granite can now be achieved with cast
composites using resin, filler and proper processing technology. The availability of highly fire
resistant phenolic composites opens up the opportunity for new, safer and cost effective building
techniques.

This area holds priority for the induction of composites in place of conventional materials being
used in doors & windows, paneling, furniture and other interiors. Components made of
composite materials find extensive applications in shuttering supports, special architectural
structures imparting aesthetic appearance, large signages etc. with the advantages like longer life,
low maintenance, ease in workability, fire retardancy etc. The key restricting factors in the
application of composites are initial costs due to raw materials and also inefficient conventional
moulding processes. Industry & design experts are of the view that with the adoption of
advanced technologies and some extent of standardization, these problems could be easily taken
care of.

FRP Doors & Door Frames

With the scarcity of wood for building products, the alternative, which merits attention is to
promote the manufacturing of low cost FRP building materials to meet the demands of the
housing & building sectors. The doors made of FRP skins, sandwiched with core materials such
as rigid polyurethane foam, expanded polystyrene, paper honeycomb, jute/coir felt etc. can have
potential usage in residential buildings, offices, schools, hospitals, laboratories etc. As structural
sandwich construction has attained broad acceptance & usage for primary load bearing
structures, the FRP doors can be manufactured in various sizes & designs using this technology.

The principal fabrication technique employed is contact moulding or hand lay-up process. The
front & back sheets of the doors are fabricated separately. Wooden inserts are placed between
two sheets for various fittings. The PU foam is sandwiched between the sheets by in-situ
foaming process followed by painting & polishing to meet aesthetic requirement. Proper usage of
additives imparts fire retardant properties to the doors. In addition, usage of composite material
for the doors makes them totally water & termite resistant. FRP doors are much cheaper than the
wooden ones. The FRP doorframes can also be fabricated by contact moulding.

The FRP doors & doorframes have been designed & developed using the aforesaid technology
by the RV-TIFAC Composite Design Centre (CDC), Bangalore under the Advanced Composites
Programme. The FRP doors developed by CDC conform to BIS specifications (IS:4020). After
successful field trials and users’ feedback, the technology for FRP door has been transferred to
over 50 entrepreneurs for commercial exploitation.

The rapid expansion of the use of sandwich construction in many fields has yielded a more
precise knowledge of design methods, test procedures & manufacturing techniques of cost-
effective composite products. A low-density core made of honeycomb or foam materials
provides a structural performance with minimum weight. Other considerations such as sound
insulation, heat resistance, vibration-damping etc. dictate the particular choice of material used
as core material.

Ceiling Panel
The fibre glass veil facing used while moulding the panels for suspended ceilings increases panel
stiffness and resists puncturing. Due to their easy printability, the veil imparts good panel
aesthetics. The suspended ceilings are used to cover up electrical wiring, ducting, piping and
fittings. The veil with an optimum porosity contributes to improved acoustical quality of the
working or living space.

FRP Modular Toilet Units for Indian Railways

FRP Modular Toilet Units for Railway Coaches were developed under a project of the Advanced
Composites Programme in partnership with Hindustan Fibreglass Works, Vadodara with design
and technology support from IIT-Bombay. The Industrial Design Centre of IIT-B helped in
design drawing, fabrication of modular toilets with improved aesthetics & ergonomics. IIT-B
also extended support in terms of structural design of FRP toilets, reinforcement lay-up, mould
design & fabrication, selection of suitable raw materials, testing & mechanical characterization
and quality assurance norms for fabrication. Three types of FRP toilet units were developed as
per the space availability in ICF coaches.

The FRP toilet unit consists of four parts : the flooring trough, one L-shaped side-wall, one C-
shaped side-wall & roof. These parts are fastened by self-tightening screws. The FRP toilet is
light in weight, corrosion resistant, fire retardant, has longer life with easy maintainability. Due
to its modular design, the whole toilet unit can be installed inside the coach in a short timeframe.
The following features were provided in the toilet .

     FRP sandwich door with rigid PUF core, lipped with pultruded FRP frame on all four
sides of the door
     Special PVC sheet with improved anti-skid and anti-abrasion properties for the
flooring
     Concealed type Ki-tech flexible conduits with aluminium core encased within two
HDPE layers

FRP toilet units are now fully operational in passenger coaches of Indian Railways. The
performance of four nos. FRP toilets, which were fitted to an AC-II tier coach of Mumbai
Rajdhani Express in October 2001, has been extremely satisfactory. Based on the initial field
trials, FRP toilets have been inducted by the Indian Railways for many important trains on
regular basis. The project bagged the Certificate of Merit under the National Award for
Excellence in Consultancy Services–2001 by DSIR, Govt. of India.

Natural Fibre Composites as Building Materials

Natural fibres, as a substitute for glass fibres in composite components, have gained interest in
the last decade, especially in the housing sector. Fibres like flax, hemp or jute are cheap, have
better stiffness per unit weight and have a lower impact on the environment. Structural
applications are rare since existing production techniques are not applicable and availability of
semi-finished materials with constant quality is still a problem.
The moderate mechanical properties of natural fibres prevent them from being used in high-
performance applications (e.g. where carbon reinforced composites would be utilized), but for
many reasons they can compete with glass fibres. Advantages and disadvantages determine the
choice. Low specific weight, which results in a higher specific strength and stiffness than glass is
a benefit especially in parts designed for bending stiffness.

Natural fibre composites (NFC) can be used as a substitute for timber as well as for a number of
other applications. It can be moulded into sheets, boards, gratings, pallets, frames, structural
sections and many other shapes. They can be used as a substitute for wood, metal or masonry for
partitions, false ceilings, facades, barricades, fences, railings, flooring, roofing, wall tiles etc. It
can also be used in pre-fabricated housing, cubicles, kiosks, awnings, sheds/shelters. Natural
fibres due to their adequate tensile strength and good specific modulus enjoy the right potential
for usage in composites thus ensuring a value-added application avenue. The maximum tensile,
impact and flexural strengths for natural fibre composites reported so far are 104.0 MN/m2 (jute-
epoxy), 22.0 kJ/m2 (jute-polyester) and 64.0 MN/m2 (banana-polyester) respectively.

Although the tensile strength and Young’s modulus of natural fibre like jute are lower than those
of glass fibres, the specific modulus of jute fibre is superior to that of glass and on a modulus per
cost basis, jute is far superior. The specific strength per unit cost of jute, too, approaches that of
glass. The need for using jute fibres in place of the traditional glass fibre partly or fully as
reinforcing agents in composites stems from its lower specific gravity (1.29) and higher specific
modulus (40 GPa) of jute compared with those of glass (2.5 & 30 GPa respectively). Apart from
much lower cost and renewable nature of jute, much lower energy requirement for the
production of jute (only 2% of that for glass) makes it attractive as a reinforcing fibre in
composites. Table IV gives the properties of a few natural fibre.  

   Tensile strength strongly depends on type of fibre, being a bundle or a single filament

Jute-Coir Composites
Jute-coir composites provide an economic alternative to wood for the construction industry. It
involves the production of coir-ply boards with oriented jute as face veneer and coir plus waste
rubber wood inside. A very thin layer of jute fibres impregnated with phenolic resin is used as
the face veneer for improved aesthetics and to give a wood like finish.
 
The orientation & uniformity of jute fibre improve with carding and this also helps in better
penetration of resin into the fibre. The coir fibre contains 45.84% lignin as against 39% in
teakwood. Therefore, it is more resistant than teakwood against rotting under wet and dry
conditions and has better tensile strength. The composite boards namely, coir-ply boards (jute +
rubber wood + coir) as plywood substitute and natural fibre reinforced boards (jute + coir) as
MDF substitute can be used in place of wood or MDF boards for partitioning, false ceiling,
surface paneling, roofing, furniture, cupboards, wardrobes etc. These boards have been employed
as doors & door frames as an alternate to conventional material like wood, steel etc.

Bamboo Composite Boards & Laminates

Bamboo is one of the fastest renewable plant with a maturity cycle of 3-4 years, thus making it a
highly attractive natural resource compared to forest hardwoods. Bamboo offers good potential
for processing it into composites as a wood substitute. Bamboo laminates could replace timber in
many applications such as furniture, doors & windows and their frames, partitions, wardrobes,
cabinets, flooring etc.

Bamboo laminates are made from slivers milled out from the bamboo culm. After primary
processing comprising cross cutting, splitting and 2-side planing, the slivers are treated for starch
removal and prevention of termite/borer attack. The slivers are then subjected to hot air drying
followed by 4-side planing for attaining uniform thickness. These slivers are coated with glue on
the surface and are arranged systematically. They are subjected to a curing in a hot press (6’X4’
2-day light) at temp. ~ 70 0C using steam & pressure ~ 17 Kg/cm2. The pressed laminate
(panels/tiles) is then put through trimming, sanding & grooving machines to give a pre-finish
shape. The flow chart & intermediate quality control parameters for manufacturing bamboo
composites are enclosed.

The project on production of bamboo composites & laminates is based on the following
premises.

 Value-added products from Bamboo

 Cost-effective compared to good solid wood sections for furniture
 Diversification from traditional plywood to bamboo based products
 Complete range of bamboo composite laminates for furniture, flooring tiles, boards, door
& window frames to replace the use of timber for domestic as well as international
market
 Expected Benefits
 Bamboo composite based flooring tiles, boards (used for partitions, cupboards, racks,
door & window panels) and blocks (used for furniture, rails & styles for doors &
windows etc.) as wood substitute would help develop & promote high value-added
products from bamboo
 Bamboo composite laminates with a low-temperature curing resin system for reduced
energy requirement
 Promotion of eco-friendly use of bamboo while building a sustainable infrastructure for
plant multiplication, propagation and cultivation
 Boosting the usage of bamboo based products in India towards generating good
employment & income opportunities at rural level

Towards an effective bamboo utilization and exploring the value-addition potential, the project
on development of bamboo composite laminates was launched by the Advanced Composites
Programme of TIFAC in partnership with M/s. Emmbee Forest Products Pvt. Ltd., Manabari
with technology support from the Department of Polymer Science & Technology, University of
Calcutta. The project aimed at developing value-added products from bamboo with an innovative
resin system for reduced processing energy requirement. Bamboo based products such as
flooring tiles, laminate boards, blocks (for door & window frames, rails & styles, furniture etc.)
as wood substitute are being developed under the project.

For preventing bamboo composites from any deterioration by moisture absorption and imparting
long-term storage life, a water based acrylic pre-coat has been developed. This pre-coat would
prevent any fungal attack during transit for the reconstituted wood sections for furniture. Further,
a UV cured melamine acrylate system as the finishing coat has also been developed for flooring
tiles made of bamboo composites. A water based PU resin system has also been tried for final
finish of the flooring tiles.

Various stages of bamboo processing starting from cross-cutting, parallel splitting, knot removal,
two-side planning, anti-fungal treatment, drying, four-side planning, glue application and hot
pressing were fine tuned. Products such as flooring tiles, furniture sections, reconstituted wood,
air locked sections, mat boards etc. have been developed under the project.

Composite Materials towards Re-building & Rehabilitation

In the wake of disastrous damages by the earthquake in Gujarat, the Advanced Composites
Programme has contributed to the national efforts of re-building and rehabilitation. Under the
TIFAC Rehab Project for Kachchh, the following initiatives were taken up for the quake affected
people.

    392 low-cost semi-permanent shelters (20’x12’) made of natural fibre composite materials
such as jute-coir composite boards and rice husk particle boards with bamboo mat face veneer
etc. were supported on MS angles & channels. For improved aesthetics and also to augment the
thermal insulation, natural fibre composite board roofing of the shelters was covered with
terracotta tiles.

In order to cater to the shelters, 128 community toilet blocks (4’x4’) made of modular FRP
section for walls & roof were constructed.Fifteen shops (12’x8’) were constructed in the
township along with a Post Office in the township, which has commenced its services. In
addition to the semi-permanent residential shelters constructed at Bhuj, 25 school blocks-cum-
community centres (24’x 20’) were also constructed at various locations in Kachchh.

The TIFAC Rehab Project was a model initiative of technology demonstration with novel
building materials with the delivery in the quickest possible time addressing the crucial need for
post-disaster relief.

Composite Building Materials – Technology Demonstration

For augmenting the reception block of Technology Bhavan campus in Delhi, the Advanced
Composites Programme took initiatives by building a 3000 sq. ft. temporary structure for post
office, CR section, technology demonstration-cum -display area and additional office space
towards showcasing composite building materials. The array of products developed under the
programme such as jute-coir boards, FRP doors, bamboo composite flooring tiles & rice husk
particle boards for false ceiling were used in the construction of the shelter towards technology
demonstration. Jute-coir composite boards, made of coir felt & waste rubber-wood as inside
veneers and oriented jute as face veneer is a unique value-added application for agro-wastes and
positioned as an effective wood substitute building material. While the shelter structure was
fabricated out of standard steel sections, jute-coir boards were used for double-wall construction
ensuring excellent thermal insulation. They were also used for roofing overlaid with terracotta
tiles. Elegant looking bamboo composite tiles were used for the flooring. The door shutters made
of sandwich panels of glass fibre reinforced polyester resin, have good aesthetic appeal with
adequate mechanical strength and water resistance.

Conclusion
The most important feature governing the choice of material & form of construction for any
component is its structural integrity. Whereas high specific strength and lightweight were often
the dominant criteria to be achieved, particularly for aerospace applications, there is today an
increasing emphasis on other criteria such as environmental durability, embedded energy, fire
resistance.

Innovative thermoset and natural fibre composite products would go a long way in developing
new application areas thus enhancing its market reach. India with an excellent knowledge-base in
various resins, catalysts & curing systems coupled with an adequate availability of various raw
materials can certainly carve out a niche in the upcoming technology of composite fabrication.
Value-added novel applications of natural fibre composites would also ensure international
market for cheaper substitutes. The products when locally manufactured would actually become
cost competitive for other wood substitutes.

The Advanced Composites programme has improved the laboratory-industry linkages towards
application development & commercialization by launching 30 projects across the country. The
programme has been quite instrumental in bridging the knowledge gaps and bringing together
the industries & the users for technology development, transfer & subsequent commercialization.

Building material is any material which is used for a construction purpose. Many naturally
occurring substances, such as clay, sand, wood and rocks, even twigs and leaves have been used
to construct buildings. Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-made products are in
use, some more and some less synthetic. The manufacture of building materials is an established
industry in many countries and the use of these materials is typically segmented into specific
specialty trades, such as carpentry, plumbing, roofing and insulation work. They provide the
make-up of habitats and structures including homes.

Fabric

The tent used to be the home of choice among nomadic groups the world over. Two well known
types include the conical teepee and the circular yurt. It has been revived as a major construction
technique with the development of tensile architecture and synthetic fabrics. Modern buildings
can be made of flexible material such as fabric membranes, and supported by a system of steel
cables, rigid framework or internal (air pressure.)

Mud and clay

The amount of each material used leads to different styles of buildings. The deciding factor is
usually connected with the quality of the soil being used. Larger amounts of clay usually mean
using the cob/adobe style, while low clay soil is usually associated with sod building. The other
main ingredients include more or less sand/gravel and straw/grasses. Rammed earth is both an
old and newer take on creating walls, once made by compacting clay soils between planks by
hand, now forms and mechanical pneumatic compressors are used.

Soil and especially clay is good thermal mass; it is very good at keeping temperatures at a
constant level. Homes built with earth tend to be naturally cool in the summer heat and warm in
cold weather. Clay holds heat or cold, releasing it over a period of time like stone. Earthen walls
change temperature slowly, so artificially raising or lowering the temperature can use more
resources than in say a wood built house, but the heat/coolness stays longer.

Peoples building with mostly dirt and clay, such as cob, sod, and adobe, resulted in homes that
have been built for centuries in western and northern Europe as well as the rest of the world, and
continue to be built, though on a smaller scale. Some of these buildings have remained habitable
for hundreds of years.

Rock
Mont Saint Michel

Rock structures have existed for as long as history can recall. It is the longest lasting building
material available, and is usually readily available. There are many types of rock throughout the
world all with differing attributes that make them better or worse for particular uses. Rock is a
very dense material so it gives a lot of protection too, its main draw-back as a material is its
weight and awkwardness. Its energy density is also considered a big draw-back, as stone is hard
to keep warm without using large amounts of heating resources.

Dry-stone walls have been built for as long as humans have put one stone on top of another.
Eventually different forms of mortar were used to hold the stones together, cement being the
most commonplace now.

The granite-strewn uplands of Dartmoor National Park, United Kingdom, for example, provided
ample resources for early settlers. Circular huts were constructed from loose granite rocks
throughout the Neolithic and early Bronze Age, and the remains of an estimated 5,000 can still
be seen today. Granite continued to be used throughout the Medieval period (see Dartmoor
longhouse) and into modern times. Slate is another stone type, commonly used as roofing
material in the United Kingdom and other parts of the world where it is found.

Mostly stone buildings can be seen in most major cities, some civilizations built entirely with
stone such as the Pyramids in Egypt, the Aztec pyramids and the remains of the Inca civilization.

Thatch

Thatch is one of the oldest of building materials known; grass is a good insulator and easily
harvested. Many African tribes have lived in homes made completely of grasses year round. In
Europe, thatch roofs on homes were once prevalent but the material fell out of favor as
industrialization and improved transport increased the availability of other materials. Today,
though, the practice is undergoing a revival. In the Netherlands, for instance, many new
buildings have thatched roofs with special ridge tiles on top.

Brush

Toda tribe hut

Brush structures are built entirely from plant parts and are generally found in tropical and sub-
tropical areas, such as rainforests, where very large leaves can be used in the building. Native
Americanes for resting and living in, too. These are built mostly with branches, twigs and leaves,
and bark, similar to a beaver's lodge. These were variously named wikiups, lean-tos, and so
forth.

Ice

Ice was used by the Inuit for igloos, but has also been used for ice hotels as a tourist attraction in
northern areas that might not otherwise see many winter tourists.

Concrete

Falkirk Wheel

Concrete is a composite building material made from the combination of aggregate and a binder
such as cement. The most common form of concrete is Portland cement concrete, which consists
of mineral aggregate (generally gravel and sand), portland cement and water. After mixing, the
cement hydrates and eventually hardens into a stone-like material. When used in the generic
sense, this is the material referred to by the term concrete.

For a concrete construction of any size, as concrete has a rather low tensile strength, it is
generally strengthened using steel rods or bars (known as rebars). This strengthened concrete is
then referred to as reinforced concrete. In order to minimize any air bubbles, that would weaken
the structure, a vibrator is used to eliminate any air that has been entrained when the liquid
concrete mix is poured around the ironwork. Concrete has been the predominant building
material in this modern age due to its longevity, formability, and ease of transport. Recent
advancements, such as Insulating concrete forms, combine the concrete forming and other
construction steps (installation of insulation). All materials must be taken in required proportions
as described in standards.

Metal
MIT Stata Center

Metal is used as structural framework for larger buildings such as skyscrapers, or as an external
surface covering. There are many types of metals used for building. Steel is a metal alloy whose
major component is iron, and is the usual choice for metal structural building materials. It is
strong, flexible, and if refined well and/or treated lasts a long time. Corrosion is metal's prime
enemy when it comes to longevity.

The lower density and better corrosion resistance of aluminum alloys and tin sometimes
overcome their greater cost. Brass was more common in the past, but is usually restricted to
specific uses or specialty items today.

Metal figures quite prominently in prefabricated structures such as the Quonset hut, and can be
seen used in most cosmopolitan cities. It requires a great deal of human labor to produce metal,
especially in the large amounts needed for the building industries.

Other metals used include titanium, chrome, gold, silver. Titanium can be used for structural
purposes, but it is much more expensive than steel. Chrome, gold, and silver are used as
decoration, because these materials are expensive and lack structural qualities such as tensile
strength or hardness.

Glass
British Museum Great Court

Glassmaking is considered an art form as well as an industrial process or material.

Clear windows have been used since the invention of glass to cover small openings in a building.
They provided humans with the ability to both let light into rooms while at the same time
keeping inclement weather outside. Glass is generally made from mixtures of sand and silicates,
in a very hot fire stove called a kiln and is very brittle. Very often additives are added to the
mixture when making to produce glass with shades of colors or various characteristics (such as
bullet proof glass, or light emittance).

The use of glass in architectural buildings has become very popular in the modern culture. Glass
"curtain walls" can be used to cover the entire facade of a building, or it can be used to span over
a wide roof structure in a "space frame". These uses though require some sort of frame to hold
sections of glass together, as glass by itself is too brittle and would require an overly large kiln to
be used to span such large areas by itself.

Plastic

Plastic pipes penetrating a concrete floor in a Canadian high rise apartment building
The term plastics covers a range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic condensation or
polymerization products that can be molded or extruded into objects or films or fibers. Their
name is derived from the fact that in their semi-liquid state they are malleable, or have the
property of plasticity. Plastics vary immensely in heat tolerance, hardness, and resiliency.
Combined with this adaptability, the general uniformity of composition and lightness of plastics
ensures their use in almost all industrial applications today.

Foam

Foamed plastic sheet to be used as backing for firestop mortar at CIBC bank in Toronto.

More recently synthetic polystyrene or polyurethane foam has been used in combination with
structural materials, such as concrete. It is light weight, easily shaped and an excellent insulator.
It is usually used as part of a structural insulated panel where the foam is sandwiched between
wood or cement or insulated concrete forms where concrete is sandwiched between two layers of
foam.

Cement composites

Cement bonded composites are made of hydrated cement paste that binds wood or alike particles
or fibers to make pre-cast building components. Various fibrous materials including paper and
fiberglass have been used as binders.

Wood and natural fibers are composed of various soluble organic compounds like carbohydrates,
glycosides and phenolics. These compounds are known to retard cement setting. Therefore,
before using a wood in making cement boned composites, its compatibility with cement is
assessed.
Wood-cement compatibility is the ratio of a parameter related to the property of a wood-cement
composite to that of a neat cement paste. The compatibility is often expressed as a percentage
value. To determine wood-cement compatibility, methods based on different properties are used,
such as, hydration characteristics, strength, interfacial bond and morphology. Various methods
are used by researchers such as the measurement of hydration characteristics of a cement-
aggregate mix, the comparison of the mechanical properties of cement-aggregate mixes and the
visual assessment of micro structural properties of the wood-cement mixes. It has been found
that the hydration test by measuring the change in hydration temperature with time is the most
convenient method. Recently, Karade all have reviewed these methods of compatibility
assessment and suggested a method based on the ‘maturity concept i.e. taking in consideration
both time and temperature of cement hydration reaction.

Modern industry

Modern building is a multibillion dollar industry, and the production and harvesting of raw
materials for building purposes is on a world wide scale. Often being a primary governmental
and trade keypoint between nations. Environmental concerns are also becoming a major world
topic concerning the availability and sustainability of certain materials, and the extraction of such
large quantities needed for the human habitat.

Building products

In the market place the term building products often refers to the ready-made particles/sections,
made from various materials, that are fitted in architectural hardware and decorative hardware
parts of a building. The list of building products exclusively exclude the building materials,
which are used to construct the building architecture and supporting fixtures like windows,
doors, cabinets, etc. Building products do not make any part rather they support and make them
working in a modular fashion.