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Name: Martin Meany

Number: 0885223

Course: English & History

Module Code: HI4082 Europe: Society and Governance (1914-1990)

Course Lecturer: Prof. Anthony McElligott

Tutor: Julia Balla

Date Submitted: 25 March 2011

Title: World War II: The People’s War?

Word Count: 3, 006

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World War II has become known to many historians as ‘The People’s War’ not

only to ‘signify the mass participation of the population in the war effort, but also

the hope that war would have radicalising effects on British [and European]

society’.1. With regard to World War II, both can be regarded as accurate from a

modern day perspective; however at the time it must be considered just how many

of the ‘people’ thought they would gain from fighting a war. It was a war won by

not only soldiers but also those on the home-front and particularly women of the

era. It also grew to be the catalyst behind civil rights movements throughout the

twentieth century, a stepping stone for equal rights regardless of race, gender or

religion. The importance of the men and women of the home-front will be

investigated, and in conclusion, will be evaluated to what level of importance they

are categorised. ‘The People’s War’, also gives the impression of rapturous glee

amongst all that it affected, while in truth is had cost many millions of lives. The

aim of this essay is to uncover the achievements of World War II, not for

governments, but, as the term inherently suggests for the people, both in the

military and on the home front. The second aim within the conclusion of this essay

is to determine the necessity war played in gaining equality, and rather could these

have occurred without the Second World War. Finally and perhaps most significant

is the cost at which they were attained within Europe, and how this weighs against

the results.

World War II was heralded great change, none more so than in the British

Military. When compared to 1939, it was said ‘the changes that have been made in

the British Army [in the four years since 1939 were] very great. It [was] difficult to

remember how backward [the] army was in 1939. 2 Following World War I, men

returned home from war unemployed and often suffering from posttraumatic stress

syndrome. This was seen first-hand in Ireland, as the men were sent to join the

heavy handed Black and Tans. This was a ‘solution’ to unemployment and the Irish

1
Jeremy A. Crang, The British Army and the People’s War 1939-1945, (Manchester, 2000), p. 2.
2
Crang, The British Army, p. 139.
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problem at the time. In 1939, the British army began to concentrate on the welfare

of its soldiers. By 1940, 700 Local Army Welfare Officers were in place. 3 The role

was to work with local governments to allow access to amenities, recreation areas

and live entertainment, which have all become common place in the military to

keep moral high. Soldiers were being viewed more as people with needs rather than

expendable assets.

The people are the women of Europe who did not have equal rights, and

were treated as second class citizens until the war, when necessity ‘upgraded’ them

to work in factories in some countries, and reduced them to no other role other than

housewife in others. A key factor is also the importance of the war in such

achievements. While different races and religions, specifically the Jewish, were

deeply affected by the Second World War, women were often in a situation where

they had a choice to volunteer or not. Men rarely did, leaving their homeland to

fight in the war, leaving factories and stations unmanned, requiring men and

women who were unable to join the army, to fill vacated positions. Every country

involved had the people joining the war effort in some part. The desire to join the

war effort, either at home or abroad, didn’t necessarily stem from a sense of

national pride.4 Following the Nazi bombing of Guernica, Spain, on April 26 1937,

video of the devastation was played in throughout British cinemas. The public were

now fearful that such a fate could lie ahead for Britain. Aerial warfare was still

relatively new, yet the public, following Guernica, understood the overwhelming

power war from above would bring. Air power was to move from its novelty

position of World War I to a force to be reckoned with. 5

Mustard Gas from air raids was the greatest fear amongst the public, as

was portrayed further in cinemas as before. 6 This was coupled by first person

3
Idem, p. 91.
4
Bryan Wolfe, Put that Light Out!: Britain’s Homefront, Video, DD Home Entertainment, (Britain
2000).
5
Richard J. Overy, The Air War: 1939-1945, (Virginia, 2005), ch. 3.
6
Wolfe, Put that Light Out! (Britain, 2000).
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accounts of the chemical weapons utilisation in World War I. The British People

now rallied to fight for their nation, but not had a rifle to hand. Within Britain,

‘home-front occupations’ became common place, such as; anti-aircraft stations, air

raid warning stations, casualty services and the well-known Home Guard. The

Home Guard earned the nickname of ‘Dad’s Army’, owed to many of its members

being unable to join the army due to age constraints 7. This is a prime example of

people who wanted to fight for the war effort, with numbers surmounting one and a

half million. It must be considered however, that the British Government knew that

by showing such fear instilling films and newsreels, they would provoke a reaction

from the public to act, and volunteer for service on the home-front.

This was in no way unique to Britain however, as fierce patriotism was

seen in Russia, with every man, woman and child standing to fight the Nazi

invasion. The French resistance epitomises the term ‘The People’s War’. Following

the French-German armistice, signed on 22 June 1940, Charles de Gaulle travelled

to Britain to meet with Winston Churchill. De Gaulle opposed to the armistice and

stated that Free France would continue to resist the Nazi occupation forces within

France. This was an act of rebellion against the legitimate government of France,

forcing more than physical resistance to the Nazi occupying forces. 8 France was

split, as life continued to be relatively typical, however Nazi brutality united the

Vichy regime’s attempts to ensure submission from the French people increasingly

grew.9 De Gaulle not only resented the Nazi and Vichy brutalisation, but to his

military mind, defeat was unacceptable.10 The exact number of members the French

resistance had at its disposal; however what cannot be refuted is the outstanding

role they played during the course of the war. The structure of the resistance was

simply small groups of armed men and women. Their actions largely limited to

7
Kenneth Macksey, Beda Fomm: The Classic Victory , (New York, 1971), p. 35.
8
Eric Howsbawn, The Age of Extremes: the short twentieth century, 1914-1991, (Albacus, 1995), p.
145.
9
Bruce Marshall, The White Rabbit: The Secret Agent the Gestapo Could Not Crack, (London,
1952), p. 44.
10
Brian Crozier, De Gaulle: The Warrior, (Bristol, 1973), p. 247.
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guerrilla warfare above ground, but had influential links underground. This

involved reproducing newspapers, posters and newsletters to counteract Nazi

propaganda tactics. The resistance’s most notable actions were assisting the Allied

forces to advance across France following the 6 June Normandy invasion in 1944,

through planned acts of sabotage and gathering intelligence.

With regard to the dedication to the members of the resistance, Hobsbawm

highlights the specific case of a young member by the name of Spartaco, who

wrote to his mother, ‘I myself chose my fate … I die as the light of victory is

already beginning to shine … I shall be shot very shortly with twenty three other

comrades…Once again I say goodbye. Courage!’. 11 It is apparent the members of

the French Resistance believed it was not only their duty to fight for their country,

but to die for their country, in the hope their deaths would not be in vain.

It is important to emphasise the resistance comprised of male and female

members. It was not only men who joined the cause in World War II. In Britain,

excluding the ‘Dad’s Army’ soldiers, in the majority unavailable for the

conventional army due to age constraints, the ‘home-front occupations’ employed

volunteers from many distinctions. The war brought a certain necessity for ethical

change, and heralded a new era for women. This of course is subject to the country

in question.

The conclusion of World War I saw all British women’s armed forces

disbanded. The government were aware their heavy losses on the Western Front in

1916 had now left them in a weakened state, leading to the formation of the

Women’s Auxiliary Air Corps (WAAC) in January 1917. Women were asked to

volunteer for positions such as clerks, telephonists, waitresses, clerks and gas mask

instructors.12 Members of the WAAC were still subject to restrictions which

11
P. Malvezzi and G. Pirelli (eds), Lettere di Condannati a morte della Resistenza europea, (Turin,
1954) p. 306.
12
John Simkin, Women’s Auxiliary Air Corps, (1999),
http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/Wwaac.htm
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displayed they were far from equal with members of the male armed forces,

including uniform restrictions and fitness regimes which differed greatly from the

male forces. The British government’s separatism of women and their use of media

came into light during World War I and should be considered when recollecting the

bombing of Guernica. In April 1918, nine WAAC members were killed while on

duty in France. The media proclaimed this was another example of German

atrocities. However, Helen Gwynne-Vaughan, the WAAC’s Chief Overseas

Controller, believed this was more an act of propaganda on the government’s

behalf and the German forces, under the rules of war, were entitled to engage the

WAAC.13 This is an important note with regard to the ‘People’s War’, as the

British Governments agenda becomes apparent and also women begin to me more

involved and more public about their beliefs.

With the Second World War looming, the WAAC, disbanded in 1921, was

to become the roots for the Auxiliary Territory Service (ATS) in 1938, focusing on

duties such aviation mechanics, anti-aircraft stations and as cooks, clerks and

storekeepers.14 In April 1939 the Women’s Royal Navy Service (WRNS) formed

servicing almost every naval battalion both at home and abroad; their primary

functions that of communication and deciphering. Although these women were

performing vital tasks for their country, they received only two-thirds the wage that

of men. At the time, this was acceptable, and to have women in such a workforce,

benefitted the state and would also prove to be a stepping stone to women’s rights

throughout the century.

As a nation growing tired of fascism, female war efforts seen in Italy

escalated. Such efforts are regarded as similar to those of France, the long lasting

effect was Italy’s to sing. The situation in Italy differs from efforts seen in Britain

13
Idem.
14
Women volunteers with Auxiliary Territorial Service receive aviation training, Video, Critical Past
(Britain, 1939) http://www.criticalpast.com/video/65675053190_Auxiliary-Territorial-
Service_women-entering-hangar_The-Gordon- Dove_autogyro-taking-off; Crang, The British army
and the People’s War 1939-1945, p. 2.
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and France, due to the disappearing of the gender disparity. Almost two million

women are believed to have volunteered their services and unlike the men, faced

with a choice between fighting a war they did not believe in or a life as a partisan,

the women could have done nothing but chose to volunteer. 15 Also there was little

or no age or class distinction and women from all geographical areas were

represented. The roles were again gender sensitive, with the minority of women

acting within the armed forces. Many donned roles such as couriers, helping

deserters or Jews, and producing anti-fascist literature. 16 During a speech of the

First National Conference of Communist Women, Palmiro Togliatti stated that the

Resistance was a foothold for Italian women in history. 17 What this in fact was a

sign of changing times ahead for women in Europe, a time for equal rights as these

women could not be expected to return to their role before the war after their

efforts to quash fascism.

Germany had seen the female role return to the ‘traditional’, a position in

the home, that of the mother. Following 1918, German women had risen to enter

parliaments of the Reich, with support of all parties except the Nazi Party. 18 Nazi

policy, on many topics, is the primary doubt behind ‘The People’s War’ title being

apt. The Nazi party took a firm stance on female emancipation, one of absolute

opposition, viewing women as inferior beings to give birth to children and take

care of the home.19 Through the early course of the war, Germany has suffered

heavy losses of life, just over nine million souls and felt action to increase lowered

birth rates was paramount.20 This paved the way for the Lebensborn programme.

15
Detlev J. Peukert, ‘Der Deutsche Arbeiterwiderstand 1933-1945’ in Politik und Zeitgeschichte:
Beilage zur Wochen-Zeitung das Parlament, B (1979) pp 22-29/79; Peukert, Inside Nazi Germany.
Conformity and Opposition in Everyday Life, (London 1989); Tim Kirk & Prof. Anthony McElligott,
Opposing Fascism: Community, Authority and Resistance in Europe, (New York, 1999), p. 180.
16
Kirk & McElligott, Opposing Fascism, p. 181.
17
Kirk & McElligott, Opposing Fascism, p. 182.
18
Eleanor S. Riemer & John C. Fout (eds.), European Women: A Documentary History (New York,
1980), p. 111.
19
Richard J. Evans, ‘German women and the Triumph of Hitler’ in The Journal of Modern History,
48 (1976), p. 123.
20
Rűdiger Overmans, Deutsche militärische Verluste im Zweiten Weltkrieg, (Oldenbourg, 2000), pp
335-6.
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Lebensborn initiated the breeding of children from Shutzstaffel (SS)

members, who in Hitler’s eyes, were genetically perfect and German women who
21
suited certain criteria. On April 27 1933, shortly following Hitler’s rise to

power, a decree was issued stating:

Management is to see to it that all married women employees ask for their

discharge. If they do not comply voluntarily, the employer is free to dismiss them

upon ascertaining that they are economically protected some other way. 22

Due to the Lebensborn programme, women also gained respect to a certain degree,

respective to the number of children they gave mothered. By August 1939, three

million German mothers had become decorated in, what became known as,

Kaninchenorden (Order of the Rabbit). This decoration commanded the Hitler

salute from party youth organisations.23 While the sexist ideals were less that

appropriate, it highlights the position women held in Nazi German society. The

Lebensborn programme went one tragic step further. Children were kidnapped

from Eastern European countries and brought to Germany for Germanisation.

These children were in fact judged before being kidnapped on their suitability for

the Aryan Race. The inhumanity is emphasised as Inge Viermetz, wife of Gregor

Ebner (SS Oberfueher and Chief of the Main Health Department of Lebensborn),

explains ‘the only took the most beautiful children … it was the fashion you

know’.24 Such ruthlessness displayed the true character of the Nazi machine. The

true cost of ‘The People’s War’ was to become known.

‘The People’s War’ suggests that the people benefitted from the said war.

This may be true in the long term for women’s rights, but consider the cost this

came at. Nazi Germany, as seen from the Lebensborn programme, desired the

Aryan Race. This paved the way for the Holocaust. On 20 January 1942, 15 Nazi

leaders met at Wannsee, Berlin. Their aim was to discuss the ‘Jewish problem’.
21
Marc Hillel & Clarissa Henry, Of Pure Blood (New York, 1975), p. 36.
22
Riemer & Fout (eds.), European Women, p. 112.
23
Hillel & Henry, Of Pure Blood, p. 36.
24
Idem. p. 20.
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The plan, according to Heydrich involved ‘Europe [being] combed of Jews from

east to west’.25 The minutes from the meeting speak of the Jewish people as a

substandard race, and had approximate numbers of how many resided in each

country. The Holocaust is the man’s darkest hour, as two thirds of the nine million

Jewish people living residing in Europe were slaughtered. Not because they were

fighting against Nazi Germany or because they had wronged them, but because of

their faith. This is only the number of Jewish people that were killed at the hands of

Hitler. The Jewish people suffered in concentration camps, to a degree no member

of mankind should ever suffer. Although exact conditions are unknown due to the

Nazi’s burning of documents from the death camps, the ruthlessness of the

language used in the Wannsee Conference is supported by the Nazi’s

Staatssekretäre. Their true cold bloodedness seen just as emphatically as the

Wannsee Conference, held eight months earlier, is seen as they discuss the

necessity to starve Russian people should they wish to claim victory. 26

The home front forces, the men and women representing the majority of

the ‘people’ were not as important to the job as the job was to the people. While

home security was a high priority, the virtually unskilled work forces and military

should have had very little success. In truth, the mobilisation of the public was

primarily a propaganda move by the British government. While certain jobs, such

as the medical teams, fire brigades and air raid sirens were essential, training

people to teach in gas mask usage was to keep idle hands busy, as the gas attacks

never came, or even looked as if they may. The economy reeling, and

unemployment high, the people were used in such operations to carry out, still

relatively important, tasks to keep moral of the country high. Where the term, ‘The

People’s War’ gains most reputability is where the achievements for the people

were gained. Women’s rights movements in Britain, Italy and France now had a

25
The Wannsee Conference, 20 Jan. 1942 (The Avalon Project,
http://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/wannsee.asp).
26
Alex J. Kay, ‘Germany’s Staatssekretäre, Mass Starvation and the Meeting of 2 May 1941’ in
Journal of Contemporary History, 20, (2006), pp 685-6.
 Meany 10

great foothold. The nations both people and governments had realised that the

female nationals were of great significance. Although ‘the people’ were the

greatest victims of the war through civilian casualties and the holocaust, this

investigation has not provided any direct link that the people of World War II

gained their rewards through any unavoidable events, as appeasement with Hitler

failed, forcing the war to begin. Hitler had always wanted a war, most likely to

cover up such events as Lebensborn and the Holocaust by distracting attention

directly away from Germany. And should war not have happened, it is clear that

the people, specifically the female populations of Britain, France and Italy would

have taken a longer time to gain the freedom and equalities they sought.

Regardless, the term, ‘The People’s War’, signifies two ideas mentioned in the

introduction. Due the vast loss of life, World War II should not be looked upon as a

success from any point of view.

Bibliography

Crang, Jeremy A, The British Army and the People’s War 1939-1945, (Manchester, 2000).

Crozier, Brian, De Gaulle: The Warrior, (Bristol, 1973).

Evans, Richard J, ‘German women and the Triumph of Hitler’ in The Journal of Modern History, 48
(1976), p. 123.

Hillel, Marc & Henry, Clarissa, Of Pure Blood (New York, 1975).
 Meany 11

Hobsbawm, Eric, The Age of Extremes: the short twentieth century, 1914-1991, (Albacus, 1995).

Kirk, Tim, & McElligott, Prof. Anthony, Opposing Fascism: Community, Authority and Resistance in
Europe, (New York, 1999).

Overmans, Rűdiger, Deutsche militärische Verluste im Zweiten Weltkrieg, (Oldenbourg, 2000).

Overy, Richard J, The Air War: 1939-1945, (Virginia, 2005).

Macksey, Kenneth, Beda Fomm: The Classic Victory, (New York, 1971).

Malvezzi, P & Pirelli, G (eds.), Lettere di Condannati a morte della Resistenza europea, (Turin,
1954).

Marshall, Bruce, The White Rabbit: The Secret Agent the Gestapo Could Not Crack, (London, 1952).

Peukert, Detlev J, ‘Der Deutsche Arbeiterwiderstand 1933-1945’ in Politik und Zeitgeschichte:

Beilage zur Wochen-Zeitung das Parlament, B (1979), pp 22-29/79.

Peukert, Detlev J, Inside Nazi Germany. Conformity and Opposition in Everyday Life, (London
1989).

Riemer, Eleanor S & Fout, John C (eds.), European Women: A Documentary History (New York,
1980).

Simkin, John, Women’s Auxiliary Air Corps, (1999).

Video

Bryan Wolfe, Put that Light Out!: Britain’s Homefront, Video, DD Home Entertainment, (Britain
2000).

Women volunteers with Auxiliary Territorial Service receive aviation training, Video, Critical Past
(Britain, 1939).