COMPLEX ANALYSISInternational Series in Pure and Appiled Mathematics COMPLEX ANALYSIS [> ‘An Introduction to the Theory of Analytic ©. Springer ond EI. Spann, Gantalting Eto Functions of One Complex Variable nf Cagle Arle Third Edition ‘Benen Ory’ Adveecd Mathonatal Moho or Sine ad Boe BusksAdvaned Calero, ‘Bua nd oat Crap nd Noborks (Cheap Tntouetion to Apprniaaten They (Chae: Tongans Peal Deena go (Caddngn and Linen: Tasry of Ofnay Dest Equations (Cie ond de Bor Ehentary Nueva nls An Algiie Appoack eedation to Partin Deen Egos tt Bounty Value Prtlone Gam ond Sa Elena of Onoary Dieta Rgatns ening Naver Metboas fr Sette st iors “kta: “atotaion to Nera Ale esc: “Tha Nur Trae x Single Nene Byoticn ‘Kaine, Fl and 4 Tons Material Sane Try Metra Togley Av Irfan with Arpt a Topol Groupe Meat Iaractio St They Mew: ‘moans of se Alga al Matix Thory Meare and Dei lontaryTuery nod Appin of Nemec Anny ‘Por Mats Tey ao iste Manone ‘Pig nd Rar: Appl Mathai or Baxter and Physi ation nd tinea“ Pint Coxe Nomen ales Harvard University Nee ger nda" Didealial Bane with Appa Fain" of Mathers! Als ‘Sap: Intadatio o Abra Alesina ‘Simmons DaflrrtilEqne ir Apia ad Hero! Nee ‘Bina Ietodocon o Topo ed Modern he ‘Smde"Nontasr Deetsdaetint) 20-0} Toems (COMPLEX ANALYSIS opr 2% 8 Aran, oe igh er (Spee td by Meteo a eA ihe nome ‘ruil oe Unind Sr Anan” No pat of pbition fey bmp tered nt eee te ae a | famer by ny neung seria ecusapotorpyig retin oF | ‘Sewin itbest he or ie perm of pba. 3617 193031 mRBORE w69876549210 ‘Bist arto Maken 4 by Mowsiyps Compan Compa, Ie. ‘Bi its rot Car apr a ees Wage ‘Seon pervs doo Cent tery of Congr Catabgng i Pbetion Dt ny, La Vaan, aa ‘Soap wn (rain a pa a ppl mama) ‘da de Thole feo 1. Tie, ussite sess resoContents :R1 COMPLEX NUMBERS. ‘The Algebra of Complex Numbers a see sues ©31 Be Rayon 83 ‘Be Temes Faneone (CHAPTER 3 ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS AS MAPPINGS 1 Hlemantary Point Set Topology La nd Bement 4 Elementary Conformal Mappings £2 Bhawan sone CHAPTER 4 COMPLEX INTEGRATION 1 Pandamental Theorems see seeg6 #829 geese s 2 Gaucky’s Integral Formats 21 ‘The der of Point ith Reet tos Clan Cave 22 The lata formal 23h Devan 3 Locat Properties of Analytical Functions LL Remorle Ssguaiton‘Tayl’s Tower 32 Hew unl Pelt 3. The Lea Being SE ‘The Marines Pie 4 The Generel Form of Cauchy's Theorem 41 Chain sn Crees {2 Shute Conaocity Hata 44. The Ganal Stace of Cash’ Toren 1b Prot of Cah Tans Gk Sekar orem 65 ‘Thetedodio Procite (GHAPTER 5 SERIES AND PRODUCT DEVELOPMENTS Power Serie Expansions Li Weiewa/s There 12 Thotoylr tare 13 The Lawest Bam E Pertol Fractions and Factorization 18 Entire Functions 31 en'e Fomala 22 Hadasacte Tiron 4 The Riemann Zeta Function 44 Bee Product Dread 42 Exteninn off) the Whole Plae {3 Teun! SA The Rf te em Potion 5 Normal Familes 51 Reuiztiny 22. Normality and Compastoms 53 Amite aero 4 ai of Adie Fonctione Ef The Chmial Debiuen CHAPTER 6 CONFORMAL MAPPING, DIRICHLET'S PROBLEM 1 The Riemann Mapping Theorem 2 Conformal Mapping of Polyzons 32 Te ScnreChrael Poole 25, Manga on Racange 24 ‘The Tange Punta of Sebwars 3A Cloner Look at Harmonie Functions 21, hnetiny with the Mensvaue Property 4 The Dirichlet Problem 1 Sabhermane Foaesons $3 San of ashi Proto 5 Ganenicat Mappings of Multiply Connected Regions 55 Grats Funan 53 Parad Sie apo ESSE E BGHEE 8 SHUE EER SEE CHAPTER 7 ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS 1 Simply Periodic Funetions 1 Renan by pment 12 Reouer Serdopent 13 Rane Pate Oe 2 Doubly Peridic Functions 21 The Rel Modae 22 Unimofaae Trantonmason, 25 The Carol Dare TA Cen Proprio of pe Feaeiane 3. The Weierstran Thoory 1 The Ween pitaton aa 34 The Matalr uncon) 3 The Contra Bopp by NO) ‘CHAPTER 8 GLOBAL ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS. 1 Analytic Continuation. LL The Weletraee They 13 Gemnaed Scere 13 Senn and Ronan rte 14 Rial Cnimenton rg Are Howat Car 1 The Blosdeemy Thraecn 17 BrmeosPose Aigobraie Functions BL The Relat of Two Plone 23 Dedatn and Proprio Alpe Feneting 23. bavi othe Catal Pot Fleard’s Theorem AL Lacenary Vad Linoar Diferentia! Equations 4 Onin Poa 3 S888 9 2288 8 EEEEL EEE RE SSE SESERERE 8 BBE:Preface Comples Analpeis ha surely rinsed is pase mn standard emootary text on functions of one complex vsiable. The by never ‘lee owed fora si ein, party Benue of change i erent maths imateal terminnlogy, partly bree of difernae in nwt repre ‘nd sins, ‘There ene no rade Sanoatins in the new ition, The ator ail batioves strongly ine azote wproch oes, and fe his reson the inwoduetry chapter are vistsly unchanged.” Ta s few placoy Ahroughout the book, i wan dauale 20 aif ertin ponte Wat ex eran ha own t have besa a soiree of poouble miubdeanding or aie: Migrate sad mioor error thar have came to By etention have been corte. Otbervis, the ain diferies betwees the sooad end Uhr elton canbe arsed an fellows 1. Notas and tormiaology have bosn modersaed, bt it didnot essary to ange thew many igen a 12. Ta Chapler 2s biel wetsn one chang of length wa area under fenformal mapping hes beer de. 'To come degree ths nine on he ie aliconained exposition fort foros the redo to fa ack on jan fr the daikon snd mnpalation of double intgra The age i nr. "5 In Chapter turin ead simpler prot of the ger form of theres. Te due to A. F. Beardn, who bas kindy parma to reproiue ii Tt complementa bt doo rt rpla le 6H! prot, as bown staid and improved. “4A sort soton onthe Risa seta fonction Bae besn inl‘Thin alwayy fessnntsstudonts, sed ths proof of the funational sation ‘katate the woe of rasdues in alow trv stuation than the mare tomptaion of deft style, '. Large pert of Chapter § have bien completly rewstten, The asin purpve wast introds the rade tho terminology a gens and sheaves while emphasising all the lial conopta Tt ques without ‘saying nt nothing goed the bento of tea! theory would have teen compatible withthe eleientry nature of Uv bok, ‘6 Tho author hav sucoueflly ronsted the temptation to include ‘mann surfaces ab onedimemional complor manos Th book ‘ould se mvc of ie wefan went bovnd ie urpose of ing ‘oor thas a ntti to the bo mths ad ele epee ‘unction thor inthe plane Tis my ploaart ty to thank the saany who havo help me by tinting oot nprins, weeknewes atl erst in the weond dition Tm pacticly grate to my calearae Lyon Loci who Kindly We so char cident reac toa reent cous led en my book ane V. Aiiers COMPLEX ANALYSIS| | | 1 COMPLEX NUMBERS RA OF COMPLEX NUMBERS 1s fundies thot real aud complex numbers obey the rae ‘usc lave of arthmetia We begin our study of exon fan tion theory by strssing snd izplereatng thin sao. 14, Arithmetic Operations. From slemectary sgcbra. the ‘wader is aoquiziod withthe imaginary wl with the property #51 1 the imaglanry unit i combined with vo real Bam bess 6, by he procomen of dition snd mltpietion, we bias complez number +18. and are tho real snd fnaginary port of the eomplex number. “Ifa ~ 0, tn umber le said o be purely imaginary if = 0 it ofcourse nal. Zaro'8 ‘he only sumber whieh i al onoo ral and purely Inagiary ‘Two complex numbers are equal if aud only if they have the sae real pare and the ame imaginary pt. Aditi and ulipioation do not lead out fro Ue oytame of couples nailer Amin tthe wry saa ‘titheti apply complex aumbers we Sad idod OD HFG = GEDTETD ood CaF A+ im m (er — 85) + Head +how thet (e+ 4/(1-+ 1) faa complex suber, provided that + GE. Hf the quotient i denoted by = iy, wo cut have ete FD +A. By 2) this condition ean be writen tis = (oe = Wy Filer +, and we obtain the two equations erer poeew. “This aystem of simoltanoous linear equations has the unique solution wate whe ayaa oo ee for we koww that 71+ #8 nt oro, We have dh he ret atime tab yor — at a eas pe te (Once the existence of the quotients bon prov, ta value ean be found in'a simpler way. If mimersor aad denominator are mulled swith yi, wo nd st once per ates Wee Lor + 8) 4 ln — at) Pee complex umber 7 Oe given by Ann soci eae th reciprocal of coms 438 o3ee ‘Wo note that # has ony four posible values: 2,3) —b, —& They ‘ovreepond to values of mick ited by lave the rears 0 1, 2a. exercises 4. Pind he vals of atota-o arm, ake ( 2 Ife ety (¢ any ra), fed the rel ad itnaginay pats of 1 ie Sop re 2 Show that (ean a (egy ts mctatercn 1.2. Square Roots. Wo shall now show thal the square root of ‘simpler number ean b found exlitiy. If the given sumberioue + i, ‘wear looking fr a umber 2-4 ip suk that tian ‘This i equivalent to the ram of equations : Baye o rd rom thee equations we obtain Cae em tay te -Hense we rust have .. see ver, er the square rot is pxlive or sere, Together withthe Git equte © wend it ver niet Vat FB. ‘hat thet quantities are postive or sro regailee the sigs "Tho equations (5) i, a gael ne oye van fz we Bat thie value cannot be combined abit, for We second in ot camoquence af). We net therfore be careful sand ye that their product has the ga off. The eda to the Vari 2 (IEEE 4g ot YEED that 8H 0. Pero = Othevalieeare + Vile 2 0,44 =a ‘ot atecasicillWa <0. Iti undetod tat ll square rot of postive numbers ae taken withthe ponte dis : "We have fund fat the auare oe of any complex muner exe acd has tne opponite rset hoy slnde only fa 8 = 0. They Sera = 0,2 2 Dand pur imaginary #8 = 0,— 50. in oor ‘Tord excep ar ee only ponte nubs have real quae bts ard tly near autbers have pray imagiuary eqeare roots Bes buth eure rola re ger cope, ie ot pole to cansnguih betwess Spore aod ange oar ot ols combiez Miner We cra of cone dng bora the opp sad lower ein (©) bt thin disinclined wo hl te vided. "Tho ‘Srvc ay is to eet bot equare ool in nymmaee maar Exenenses, 41 Compute vi v= VT, 2 Find the four wake of YT. 1% Compate Yi and V7 4 Solve dh quadratic equntion FEO t Met Hino. av, 4. Justiaton. Sof oar area ops ns haba Conse eca. Weber sot ened seater ‘Grentnnh in oquton = Ohara sea he st Sethe ene ne gn eling arcs propio he etaner uae a oe aol ‘by Rm tho first place, Ris « field. ‘This ‘inet aion st pation tr See itn ng eae ‘cmt scree ie Th abe 0 fe ‘icone under addon and mulpaton, expetveye-10 =, Sere era Merny tn ate rain et = is alouy non, aod to egnon ot Gvion fr =a wlalon winery ee ‘Omhornhy enstay reign een andthe reno mince sad Guo at igo" cre fll ne Spl dmai’ of = Olan ely We = orb =O 11 at de a wing on ety in hath the shove suman e' soa ry du nat ‘Stvo suhtoestdic eres orale ota te owe ‘These propertot aro common to al fda, Ta adiition, ie Sld has a ode relation <8 (or 8 > a) Thin tot nally defo ators ‘2f the et of pose real numbers: a < Bil wed oly f Bee ‘The wt Min charnterized by the following properties: (1) insets pos tive number; (if «7 O ithe @or ~a i omtive; (3) thn nm andthe Brodact of tre poitive umbere are pois From thom colton sor By virtue of the order ration the sons 1, 1-41, 141.4 1, eal diferent. Heaea contain he atural aus sd wee ‘eld must contain the ebfeld formed by al rasonal mambo Final, Raatnies the folowing compltonen maon: vey ines ing sad bosaded sequence of real number haga limit Tet Se su < --* Other evista natural number nemith that A= ee as efor as > ‘Oar dicunion ofthe realaunber sytem is incomplete nsach as re have no proved the existence and uniquenea (op a iomorpian) of ssumber canbe introdeed sould not falta fl ie gap by cosedng ny textbook in which a fll wiomatiotreatinent of se mess roe, ‘Tho equation 2° + 1 = O has no solution in By fora + t's sways Positive. “Suppose now thats fel F eau be found which contain Roo subfld, and in which the equation 2*++ 1 = Ocan be volved. Denote» solution by & Then a8+1— (e+ A(e 0, ood the munson 241 = Oha esctly two rots in F,4and =i. Lot Cb the rime of consisting of al ements which cau be expresbd inthe fora a #18 rth ral a and. This rpreentation i unique, for w-+iB =e 4 oF sie iG 5 Ebbets ‘The eubwet Cina bell of FL In fat, exept fr teva verifies hich tha onde ised to cary ut thei erally What mon shows Sec... What ia mor the siraoture of Cit indepenteatot F Fert i nother Geld contuiniag Wanda rot ofthe equations +1 20, 1 A nor ees tn Ele neice rep wih pe Sar rnc re te acy wus oe See causa{he corepoading eubset Cin frmed by all clemente = +78. Thare x ‘seaplane eorespondease betwen C and C'whish smociaten a + 42 ‘ind-a £8, and Ue correspondence in weidencly « Sld lnomorpan, Wie thus damonstrntod that Cand © are mere. ‘We now define tho feld of epee numbers to bo the eubfeld Cof aa site given F. We have jon acen thatthe bole of F make no ‘erence, at we have not yet show tha ther exits ld F with he ‘equredproperls.- Tn order to give our definition 1 meaing i ei {exhibit a eld F which ootain K (ora mild iomocphic with B) fd in which the equation 2°} T= O has a oot, ‘Thar are many ways in which woh afield can be cooatrusted. ‘The simplex and moe dirst method ste following: Coser all expressions Of thoform + 8 wher a fae ral numbers whl the sgnt + and are Dre eymbols (1+ dost nt indate adaiio, und é aaa a lament of 8 fe). "These express ary clementa af» Sld Fin which aditon snd snaliplction ae defined by (1) and (2) (obuerve the two dileent ran ‘ng of the ign +). The element ofthe partial form « + 3 re soca to countute neubaldinmorphic vo Hy und the clement 0 +s estes Whe equation 2*-+1 = 0; we obtain in fact (Fil) ~ (+). ‘Te field F ao thas the required propetos; iorover itis ential with the coreponding ebflaC, for wo can write a+ = +O) +8040), ‘The existance ofthe conepen-maaber Geld it now proved, and we ean gp bck to tho cimplr notation w +48 wise th + indent addition in © td is root ofthe equation t+ 1 = 0, EXERCISES (fran with tasted ia agen) 14 Show that tho wetom ofall matric of tha special frma (>) ‘ambined by matrix aden and sntee soliton, usmle to See wt conpen nase 22 Show that tbe comple-numbor system can be thoaght ofan he Seid of all polyzomiale with real coefidenta malo the inrducblo polynomial 2+ 14. Conjugation, Abvolute Value. A complex number can be ‘denoted ether ty angle otter roprecnting ax cment of to fold Go in tho form a 449 with ral @ and B. Other etendard notations ae fae big,t = E+ byw =u +H, and when wed in this connection i eee ty mit ang tgeaiosne, teeta impr ne vegeta Jn deriving the rules for consplex addition and multipliatioe we used coy ee See actos sentese goen se show that his indeed wo.” "Theirnaormaon which replace on < iP iethe cenupae of AN meri elif aad by «9 in called complesconjeation, ued 448, ‘The conjugata of aie donot by xo he lad naar pct aero the compo nba isonugnn By eno the sons ke mh fo dnp wih tho eof spurie tes ee Imaginary pac. It iv mor convient, thou to make fie we ES though, > make fee of oth to, lig{undaenial poparty of conjugation isthe on ey refered TH mans Baek ‘The sarretpondng property for quotiots is consequence: i a = b then a2 = 6, and hence (67) = Sf More grosrly el Blaha 4 stand for sey rational operation applied othe compl nubs 8 HRB} = Rahs... ‘Asan aplication, soasider the equation co het TE ert ef thie equi tm teetano. Fm ros ofthe equation ery arc he sein narra he ne ee Sd reba nies ths Se ‘i ol scientn ocr un ef se Tis rote oat hPa awaye pave ee Tap iroquar pot incalled tho madulut or abo alas cf the oraor ae ‘Tho larmiology and notation se ffied by iti danoted by jo‘he fet thatthe modu of eal nomber cones with it numerical ‘lon take withthe postive sige. ‘We repent the deaition an = a, shor o| 2 0, and observe that a= fl, For the abla val of « Product we obtain [abt = 0b 35 = aba = oa = lor, and hence (ob = fl inca both are & 0. In word: ‘The whale nl of producti equal lo he product of the ebulute ale of the Jor. eis lear that this property extend to arbitrary fate prodaets: lane + a = fol lod* > + J “in cute /, ©, ata H/b) ~ 0 ad hee we have ale oer lé\ bt “Tofu rte asta suinntersinge. Wefind ea b+ B= ob bb 4 ® [obo [at + [op + 2 Re ok. "The cmonponding formate for the diferncs it |e= OF fa + Jo — 2 Rea, ‘and by addition wo obtein the Sent ® e+ 00+ lo a = 2a + EXERCISES 1 Verily by calculation thatthe values of fore ~ 2+ jy and e~ 2 ~ ip ae conjugate. "a ind th abolote vals of HHS He ANG +) and 2 Pre tat ay lezdlen sir = Ler = Whatcom beat = = 1 {ad hs etn ato Ue een an fr ‘one compler unknown has exsly ane solution, and ample that tehition Thee acm ain em em or Surg, 15. Inequalities, Wo sball now prove come inportant aequalies hich lb of enstant use. Tele parhape well to pont out tat there ‘no order elton inthe complete apm nd bebe liege test be betwee el nae "rom te denon of th allt value we deer dhe onan =o Bee sll ee jal 3 Ima Jl ‘The equality Ro a= jo olde i and ony fain rel and & 16) &appliod to Q), we obtala le +0P 5 Gal + Oe sod bene ao) eto) sia +b ‘This in called Us trionleinguaity for reasons which will onere Inter, By indesion it ean be extended to arileary sus Odes tals lol tla tt lob hassel of ram i mote othe am of he ae sete of te tome Teter wl ut prac fh tine) th ass tnd weal Sd i ow ptt in hry eps . ort ote ory Te deme lcm of eat (1). 1 10) te guy tes if and niyo 0 (Soon took tlt st 2s ral und pont. “IC 0 thn condone brite {orm Bi/0)& 0, and tia bene qos oa/0 0” Taibo pncave we provid fllows: Suppose that equality Bola in (1); then aa oof = ad len be) Slo bal lado es bl + fat + Joh ace [os +a = fi + on at if 2 #0 we conchae that /as 2 0. Bat the aumbering of ch tte i arbitrary thin the rao of any to onset tar must be postive. Suppone conversely that this condition flied. Ascing that Owe obtain a ie w(t eB) wie ah no pth in fat i 1). oe ni hr of Eamnsege wuorreineae Tave-b 4m hn ol — Hel lo — Bi. sar mie B= Hk ha ein cn lectot os tede = wi(s fe 0 lal — Bi ‘OF course the same eimate ean be applied t a + ¥- ‘A peal eat of (10) 6 th inoguality 43) (oF lal +0) wick expres thet the seofue value of compler number fat moat ‘ual fo the eum of th abolule valine ofthe rel sal inmeinary pa "Many otharinequalitie whow poo! lee immedi ar la off ‘quent ose. Foremoe le Cauchy equality when Rate tha leds bos adhd ath =F Lace) gbi === EI 1% in hore notation, an |, Jats Sard vee to al wd a a aber cnnt ke fd ince puso bee toe tge ay QO PONE tN denote an rhirary complex ume, We atin 0 Fanate- Siar ong armas Sa ‘This expremion i & O forall. We ean chowe fet denominator sold vai sr ating to pore, The Sh tay bt dey Ti oa ‘corn (15) nal ne poi tang 9 we ak ae ‘simplifications, eae aoe See meres —— 41 Provo that Hol <1 and oh 0. 4 When does at + be = 0 opment ane? Toma W8#® Se equation of an oie, Ryperbols, parabola complex Provo tha the diagonals of »parlllograus Lint etch ther and (hat the dagooas of «shorn are ‘4 Prove analytically thatthe midpoira of prall chor dle 1 on diameter perpandiels to Une choi, ead 0% that arco that pau Uhrough o and 1/8 intermct the ‘ede Ta ga 224, The Spherical Representation. For many purposes it isuseful to ‘tend the ayiom Caf complex numbers iy [ntoduston of «aymbel = to reprsoat laity. Tt connacion with th Baitenugebor it etab- linked by stting 0+ oe == a= for ll fit ¢, and ban etae for al 6 0, ising b— ©. It in impoeible, however, to define ‘2 © and without voting the laws of sritimets. By special convection we shall evertekeas write a/0 = for are and /at = 0 fob =, Ta the plane there i no rom fora point corresponding to, bub wo ano eouneintoducn an “iden! punt which we call the point aunty. ‘The points In the pine togstber with the point st efally form the atendd complez pane. We agree that every srsght Eap sll pase {hough the point at indnity. By coats, no haf place ehall contain (he ea pint. Tis deal vo ntredaoe a gpometee modal in which al pointe of ‘he extended plane havea concrete representative. ‘To this end wo com fldee the tit ephere 8 whowe equation in threodimensonal apace is S14 ab-bal ~ 1 With every pont on 8 caret (0,1), wo can same ‘les complex nunber atin, C) anne ‘nd thie carepondenc eave toons. Indu ro (24) we obtain site its Gea =a ation oo afigh tropa ie on vie ae "The correapndance canbe completa by Teing the pont at infinity correspond to (001), and wo can this rgard tho epre na repre- ‘entation of the extended ple or of the extended number satan. We note that the heap 24 < 0 corwenponds tothe dik < Yad ce emigre su > Oto toute > 1. Infusion tory the apbere Slater tot he onan per ee 1 She complex pate dete with the (e.2)-plane with th Aeimlspacraping thal dinar man, ‘he transformation Q) tas on 8 Spl geomet Wal 4 — 2+ tywo can verify that Sacer ca sod this means that the pointe (29,0) evz2), and (00) ae in steuight Ine. Hence tho coerspondeace i otatalprojetion fm the ‘mer (00.1) as shown in Pig. Te called w seeograps retin, ‘The context will make it clear winter the stemograpiispejton © ‘regarded ass mapping fom $ to te exter comple Pane, er vce ero 1 the epherital ropresatation thee iano tmp intrprdetion of suddition sed ligation. Tt adyantago lis in the fact at le pei ‘infty i no longer distinguished. T's eometially evident that the wemograpic projet texas forms evry straight Ie in tho »plae into eile on 8 whieh poses {through te pole (00,1), and the eanvers it lo tras. Mere yenerlly, say crcleon theaphure corresponds oa cele or stright in thor plane, To prove tis we olzerve that circle on the sphere lw ia 2 as ait acetate = og where We can wut tat el-tof Fe = tod 0 S04 <1 In terms of aed # thi oquation takes the fra ee +2 ~ ale ~ 2) + ase = 1) = axe 41) Goo = ae F) — tase ~ Day Faro = or ays a hin the equation of cig, and for ay = ay it reproente ‘right Ine. Convermly, the equation of auy cre or stig line MEDS ae ra 6a Berea pejecan be written inthis form. “The corespodene is conequatly ane Tie ery 10 calle the distance ds) between tho storographic projections of # and 7. If the polate on the spe are danoted by Gaznan, 2h20, we have fst = 4+ Go 20+ Gn Ho Meal oe a. rot (5) and (8) we btn ler hort euputaton satan + sa GENE 40 - G9 —2) +h meer ee oa ty — ae =a Hoe + 09 — ae = ee Tt BL DY ‘arm ne nd tat a en had de) = Tees Ford» © the coed format to) 4. Show thats end ¥sorempond to damatesally opp poln' on ‘the Riemann sphere if and only ita = 1 2A cle ast vertices onthe phar and ite cge paral othe ccordaato sna Find the starogrphie projections of the vertices. 1 Bare peoblrs for a rgular tetrahedron in grerel poston. 4 Tet 2,2 denote thn sereographe projection of, and let 9 be the north pole, Show tht the triangles NZ" and Neer ila, aed ‘se this to derive 8), 1 Find tha rine af thao fone af the eel in the plane whoteceler nw and eacin 2 COMPLEX FUNCTIONS A.awraopuerion ro THE coNcErT OF ANALYTIC FUNCTION ‘The thenry of fusions of « complex variable ime a exteding ‘aleuis tothe coupler domain.” Both diferentatiog wad into- ‘ration sere new depth and gnficanes; tthe mune ime the ‘ange of applcaity beotmes radially reset. Indeed, only the anal o holomorphic function canbe Fen diferontiated ‘nd intogatod. "They ar the oly true “Tuntions” inthe eenso ‘of the Freuch “Lvtrie des fonctions” or the German "eunktinentheor "Nevertheloy,we shal we the term “uneton” int modern meaning. ‘Therefore, when stepping up to complex numbers we ‘have to coer four diferent Kade of funtiona: real fonetione tn real viable real function of » comple variable, complex functioa of «real viable, ad complex funtion of complex ‘arable. “Ada practi matte ene that the lear wod © [iSTalmaysdenove comics variates nay te aiensem compte, Iunction of 9 compler variable we ste the solatien » = f0)-4 ‘Tho notation y ~ (2) willbe wod in «neutral manner wit the understanding hat undy ean be either mar complet.” When ‘we mast to indole thaw variable i defaitaly retried to real ‘alten, wo shall urullydenot it byt By thon romania we Molar tere all at th tan or he feo a) ur arleed tn enisn, "Hew navn udu ad ‘solo pao ns eon uaeont win to cancel hn oar convention whereby anotations = 2 +i ‘atomically impinthat = nad y are rea! ‘TW nesontal thatthe law by which a funciona defn be formalatad a clear end unambiguous torms-_Ta oer word, all fonctions out be sell dafned ad consnquently, ust furtar olen, single sued 1 nt neem that 2 funetion be defined forall value of the Independent variable, For the moment we shall daibernaly undere ‘eapharis the role of point st thoey."Thaefore we make rcrly Informal agreement that every fenction be dafsed on an open se, by ‘hich we mean that if) i dened, then) ke dad fr all rat Slently clos too. ‘The forma eatmeat of point st topology i deered ‘all the next chapter, 14. Limite end Continulty. ‘The following base deiition will be opi: Deinition 1. ‘The umsin [() i aa ohne the Limit A tends 9, 0 tin fa) = 4, ond only ifthe flowing ier "For mery => 0 there eins numer 3> 0 withthe property thal Wie) — AI for ll veer of much that |e — ol < Bond 2 ‘Tie dfniton makes decisive ume of the abate value. Since the rnotan of abolato valu has a reaning for complex as well at fo ral tumblers wo ou wm the xe dain egardlearof whether the variable ‘Fad tho Fanetion fa) nr eal or cote "dan alerntive simpler notation we sometimes wile: 2) + A for {Thar are some faniiar variant of the dfsiton which corespond ‘the case where or A sift, nthe realex we ean dings ‘ben the mite += and ~ =, bain the comple sam Ur only ‘om tau Haut. We trust th rade to formulate cerect Souatons ‘Weover all the poubiies "The wel-knewa rome coneecning tho Kimi of x mem, rode, aod ‘quotient coating to holdin the vomplor cure. Indeed, the pools ‘depend only on th properties ofthe sbenato valve expose by Iobh = fol) and Ja 0} lal + ow Wdboeting meats teeta eee Condition (1) i evidently equlvlen to eo tig Fe) = rom (1) and @) we obtain lim Re ff) = Re A o iim te (¢) = tm 4 ‘Convery, () is consrvene of). ___ Tie Foon fa) ia id to be continent et if and only if Tim s@) = fle. A connaous fencon, wtboat fart quilfeaon, ene which ia onions a al pote war iti defined. "Thosun fs) + 2) no be prod ya of wo coatiouafone tins a cutiauos hn Quel fo) ded td eaninacu if and nly i gl) 0. 1) consneouy vo ae Re fe, Im J, ta et ‘The erative wfanaon ade apt init can bo onside regs of wheter wei ar a ot comes Tbe ‘ermal dtaiton a © Fo «tm 12210, ‘he uma rls fr forming he desvatve of mm, a pooh oF & ‘tient are al vad Th doa oft compuaienceon te toed by the chan rl, “There io overtclnfndarenldiferoe betwen aca of 3 foal td's conor independent vara. "To ata vr pn, ke ‘o) bo a rel facion of w comple artlewhow ert exis 1a Then 0) ion oe sd re Torin telnio oo qaices fain —f0) AVA vende to sro rough real values, On the other side Tint of the quotient fat — 10 > * fs uch purty imaginary. Therefore (0) must be mre, ‘Thon & fanetion af «complex vale thar has the derivative sev, r derivative doe aot ee‘Tho cas of comple funetion oral variable can be reduced othe eal cae. we writ 2) = 2¢) 4+ 0) we Bd Indeed 10 = 40490, tnd the existence of 7) ia equivalent to the simultaneous existence of (9 sad ¥(). Tho comps notation has neverthle certain formal ‘Advantage whic it woud be rim to vo up “Tn coatras, the easton af the derivative of sousplex function of» comples viable na farreashing comme forthe aructurl proper tie ofthe funtion. ‘The investigation o thee conmuence x n- ‘tal thre in compler fonction thery. 13, Anolytie Functions, Tho cas of analyte fection ie farmed by the complex functions of «complex variable which poman derivaive twhorver the funtion is daiad. The torm homer phic function to eacd ‘ith idrtieal teasing. For th purpose of this prelininary lavetign ‘Hon the meade may think primary of functions which are dened in the ‘whole pana. ‘The mum andthe produ of two analyte functions are again alte. ‘The same ru of the quotient J)/¢() of two anaye funtion, pro- vided that (2) does uot vanish.” the gon cave ie necemy 10 ‘tude the points at which 9) = 0. Stnety peaking, this very tyel= ‘lca wil Uhusnot be incladed in or onsderstione, Bt it wil be lar ‘hat th rsa resin valid exsept for obvious mediestions "The detistion of the derivative ean bo rowan inthe fra 10) = bg EEN =I, ‘Aa fit consequence 2) is ‘ontinvout Indeed, from S64 = Ja) = b Ue+h) 1a) /h we bain f+ 8) = $0) = 0-f) = 0. Ie we write £6) = uf) + (4) It follows, morsver, at wi) and (2) se both coatinunus, ‘The limit of tho diferenoe quotient zust bo the mame rgardaa of the way in which A appreschea soo. If we shone Peal Yala for by then the imaginary party is kept constant and the desivlive becomes ‘spatial dviativ with reepet to =. We have this ey oe fon fn aie Sina, Xf we subette puny imaginary vale for we obtain £0) = ppl = 10) 1 folowe that fe) must aisty tho parti! diferentia equaon ® god ‘ch ron th lout le wm o a ‘Those ase the Conchy-Riomanw diferential equations which must be ‘iid bythe real ad imaginary part of aay aalyis feosiont salto ima tat the exiatenes ofthe our paral dette (6) pled by the existence of (2). Using (0) wn ena wit dows four formally diferent exprenians fr f(); the simple fe) = or the quantity 7) we have, for istane, cat = (3) 4 (22) — (28) 4. (2) = Sede _ ta wor = (B)+(5) ~ GY +) - 85 - ‘he Int exprenion show that [7 io the Jacobian of wand with reapect toad y, ‘We abl prove later thatthe deivative of an analytic usetion is tat analy." By tha fact wa wil ave eontnuows pia dere, {ives ofall rer and a partir tho mined derivatives al bea ‘ng ts information we ota from () ee a Bao i, meh +B+B-0 ‘A function » which stice Leplan's equation Su = 0 ined to bo Aarmonis. ‘The rel and imaginary part ofan anal fneicn ae ths harmonic. f two harmonic funcloay wand mlsy te Cuucky. ‘iemann ogutions (2, shan» mid tol the emule hare foe {Asani Cay (E1857 a Mbt Rime 94-80) ea ‘the Kener of coho they “Samemay vik ended Ob, ‘tempeh Do ast spe Coy ee ee eeAy tril ly pa venta (Sv mth ee ayaa ot te wo tein van con vse ive ares fckan ‘Ths te pend wale condos plcty sicher tpt on brs fn ih tw Tin te ncn 4 dni by apart cas Ma Ti ens sage ty td rar pre oe lea teu nop a sls te con And pet Senter proved cia ner om ay Sioa at woo wre Me hy HD) =a) BABA ae Het hy ti) en = Bah ese ender lo aye iy hn A hin Sie ar G ad ects Sork ta ae ie mata 40)= wea) indy) we eae hy wn on fe cn fevnsay 19 = (2 46%)aro tein 0d hence ph ih) $0) ey joe Recs) atte Me conclude that J) is analyte. ‘ftp i) ke enim freer patil rin hic ety th Couchy Romana differential equation, en 0) = we) + Senay with cntineon drei [om comer). ‘The conjugate of sarwoniefantion ean be found by integrin, ‘odin impo cases the computation can be made exit Fo pee eos in Sinan os eat og eat ae ee snail fuseton with the Teel part — i hance +, ‘Thr ten fral pnt wih hot onietia Si the ne fenton iho iat range a as Pee Tot pm ny pee ent Cran lyf rea aston Tang theorems eae eral. Toning Pee re eer orm re oe eee keel eg ttn of a hg nl ae Feet ei Geng a aa a ie Oi tara ed rs te yw 14,9 BnS-B) ZC, ‘hw eens barn omen tion Bnet w on cpr eae ae a a aie aw an le yong wit ean aaa wih 2 td oy odoe 0 Orne ea ‘eS ant peers melo ae tenet ere mer tered tutte tras enn a opp a at ga fe TES ew ngayon Se tn MAE Brice msl yen dn «vy sea vo shih oe eng ia oa agente mand Fel 0 om prs eee ee ts at cai ai ae on Fre amy, ae snc eS Sr dicate Wid esac eee is ar rs) ~ fle +) + Je = an 1s reasonable to expect that tian «formal identity, and Shon it Boda bree when = and y re complex. If we matin = apy Saya ‘weobtane we 4/20) = st) +70), ‘ieee (6) i only deter’ upto parely imaginary conan, we may ‘wll sasume that 0) real, which mpi 0) = w(0)0) Ts fast Hon. J) can thun bo computed by sane of the fol $0) = 2uls/2 2/29) ~ w009) ‘A pet rnginry comatant ean be ded wil. ‘In ths form the method is dtitaly ited to factions wz whieh oe ee eese rains in ad , fr the fnstion mas have x reaing fr coe Bex tals of in argent "Sule oy that Lc a Be rcadd to te etal am and thal » complete jtieton ca be ren wxencises 1 (wand J) eau onto, how that gf) 8 lo saat 7 Vety Cauchy Rcmana's equations fr th functions # and 2 & Find the moet general bacon ply f the form a Le kay Danesh on ad he = ym Meeove th aia ‘detertnined except for the order of the factors. ge ‘eractly Raf thew cine thet soncnon valu i ell re of oh ade.” Wend tha tho sun of te rds of etre og Pelroomial i ual tots degra. More pty if exch sve ‘Sumy tines nts dr indain a plyemiatl depts hess ‘Po order ofa now ca lo be detain by coniernton of the svconnive derivative of 4) for #= a Suppor that's hoa of deh "Th weet ile PC) = oP) with PAG) 2 Bee tesco darason gills Pla) = Pla) 2s pes) a ee ove) 0 Ta other words, the ondr ofa wx onan ode ths {et sonvanishing derivative. A seo of onder Ii lll nage boo ‘i choractertnd bythe soadidons Pla) = 0, Pa) a8 ‘A an appiinin we shall prove ths fllocng re, kaows ea tere ‘Theorems 1. If al roe of polynomial Ps) ti in hl slang, hen ll ‘108 ofthe derivative P(e nthe sae hl pane From (6) ne obiain Pot ® Format tee ‘Seppote thatthe bl le Hx datnd us he part oft pate where Im (t= 0)/6 <0 (oe Chop, 1,800.25). Ih ae tin H ante et wo have thn Tm = mF — m8 > 0, % ‘Bt the imaginary are of rcgrocal numba have opposite. ‘Tharfor, wader the sume watimption, abe — aa)" <).Tt thi te forall Ewe conte frow (9) that mth - Sim and somoquently P') + 0 na dtarper formation tho theorca alls ut tha the erat conver Dotreon that contains the seros of PG) aio contains the eros of PU),14, Rational Functions, We tun to the eas of rational funtion P09, 0) r= 28, Gren athe quotient of tro polyuoniala We ssoune, snd this ewa- fi that PG) and QG) have no common factors snd benoe uo aomsaoe tron, la) wil be given the vale» at the ser of 2). It must ‘herefore be considered a fetion with vain ix tho extended plan, tod er oh ite comtnuous. Tho tro of) ar elle poles of RO), on aqul to the order of tho corre ore, oe eins cay when.) 10. Hoyer, sain entin deed by ‘St ane mente! G0, hste vane pe he cdr etch po Baig trad by Ins Ge) har mail {Soni be nerd tt eean (1) ia oot appa i died im Cir iy i th eis tte a (og vr cnn pea" We ny Sine Me) mth RG) Soy bts eon wad pot Orin he re = Serr pak sc. iv' terre perl ender the anton H/a, ech we can news on onal anton He) and mt Rim) = RQ) TE RQ) = 0 or, she order ofthe sero oe polo at i defined ta the order of tho seo of pole of His) at tho ogi. "With the eatation eubow t= + bast RO) ig be sro obeain ast out ss ae BAO = BE where the power 2° belong either tothe munerstor or to the deaom ‘belor. According, if w > n R(e) basa sro of onder m —w at if ‘cin the point at» inn pole fender ~ mand ifm = | R() = ibe 20, We oan sow om total ubaro sand pli xan plan The canoes he nba af so ely ha Segal on weir othe somber m sad mT mb Plas thee, Thissomon sober fro and pli eld ie sot 2h anal fare Teinan cont ncn RG) ~ abs th sume ea 2), tod eoseqtly he seo" Tue ro of BO) ae te ‘te sation MG) ~ a and tn rte ar coated es wary tne a tae ‘nk fh ero natn ws tate th feewng a 4 rea ontion RU) of rd harp aed pt, ond ery suit 20) ~ hn ely 9 rt Aton ae re na ration 8 = Sth with ab — 87 0. Sach fats o Kner ronferatng, wil be Stil tt a Chap. 3. “Forth one wy sete ery tt the ean = Se) he nly oer ad Bd nda tome eee ‘ao tnnormains an 8 nvr o ech ther ‘he me acorn «fa ced oral ran Ui nero Tatar b's edt at ease ‘ane On = ey rational fanton na pretation by partial raion, a rier oda tha rereastton yo saan ie Sat as pte So, We cary ot ton dvson oP) by QU) nll Unda oe ‘eonindr ant lta othe decane tc ran the fo a Re) = 0) + 09 sphere GL) lea plynomit without sonatant form, and Hl) init a =, ‘The demos of Ga) isthe oder of tn pole xt = aad the polynomial OG) ‘a called the single port of Rs) at =. at the dstinet finite poles of a) be dened by Bu Ba «+B ‘The fnetion (0; +) en retinal function of with pleat f= ©. By use ofthe descmpoxton (12) we ean waite 2(441)-00 +m, = He) =cribs ae ot ae wey 0(-4y) +a) ton 6g) pilin ih nt ead er ptf 6) 5 oan (2, in ao (Consider now the expression So(2 09) me) - 0 ~ $a(;4,) “sas aoa fusion wich est heer pl nn Bs Bu wt Touuodne Mts yr at he etre oes itive tans H(t ni nd ee By loteveat =, Therefore (5) han withr aay fite ples nora pole a =. ‘A raioal fonction without polos must reduce tow consent, wad if this constant i absorbed in Ge) we obtain a ny =00+ Sales) “This representation wl known frm th calm whore sr techoial device in iategration theory. However, inom with the introduction of comples numbers that it becomes completely euecefl EXERCISES, 4. Use the matiod of tho tat to dovelop * 1 a ™ ogy 1a parti action, Hitt 2H Qin polynomial with distinct rots ay yy and Pie polynomial of dagee 0 ‘here exist ann auch that oy ~ AY < «form me Aeucnce with s Sie ‘Only in rare case ona the convergence Be proved by exhibieg the init, ‘eit i extromaly important to make se of s method that permite pat ‘ofthe existance ofa linit even wha ft ansot be Getereend exp ‘The tet that serves thi purpose bears nate of Cay. Asequence wil b called fundamen, oF « Cauchy sweet salen the flame Sng condition given any + > 0 there exit an me auth that fx = ag] <6 ‘whenever m= nya m & na The ee ene ‘A equence i ern of and only se Cauchy squnee ‘The neceanlty iv mediate If y+ A we caa find ne suc that la, — Al <0/2 for mz me. For mn & my it follows by the teangle ‘nequalty that fa — ou 3 fan = Allon A} ‘The muficienay a cloaly eoaneted withthe defeitonot rea nue ‘er, snd one way it which rel ausber ean be ineeduted is fndeod to ‘ostulat the milena of Cauchy's condition. However, ne with ote Bry the poperty that every bounded manolooe sequence areal ma Som hae mits ys,1 opin tho peat of the nunborsen, «on ‘The ques ial? andecresing; hence it has «linit Ay which i Sito or equal to += ‘The number yf kpowa ae th eal upper Bou or eupromuon (La) op) ofthe mambers on indeed, i the lust uuaber wih is & all ‘Construct in the mime way the Inst upper bound Ay of the sequice {oly obtained from the original nquenoe hy deleting 2, + i Wiser that (44) ss noninereasing equenc, nod we dena its mt by A. Tt may belo, sor — Tn any cam we wele Ae timmy a {ie ney to characterize the limes peor by it propertiag, TEA is ‘oive and e> O there ete any coc that Ay < A ead I follows (ak on S dy CA e for mem In the oppmitn direction, eS Ae foe mB my then Ay, 2A —«, which imposable. In ‘ther words, ther are arbliraly lnrge for which «> A— «If ‘A= fe thre are aritraniy large au snd A = aif and only if a, {ere se. Tolan thre cannot be mare than ne monte A with hws properties "re lies inferior an bs dsinedin the eae manner with negualiee revered. Tes qulte daa that the limes inferior aod Tine spetor wil ‘oral and only ithe sequence converges to» fie Kini or diverge to-+a orto =. ‘The notations are frequently sinplied vo Hk and “The reader sould prove the following relations re Han BH ou A) 5 Him mT lia, + EA 3 Hin (a +0.) 3 lina + Bi Now we rebum to the auicency of Cauchy's codition. From loa — oc] Ce we obttin lac < lanl efor Z ms ad it fellow that A> lin a, and a = lim a. nr both Este, Ue x A choose « spd determine »comrenponng ne By defaiion of @ and A there existe Shon Cote and an ae >A — © with maz tet follows that Bs eh tee a) + (a= 0) < dq contrary tothe choice ote “Henos« = A, andthe sequence converse. 28 Seri ver sie applation of Casey's condition pra Srl cr to fi aT Sm tat fo 8 fe ~ oral pol acing {ht my be iss Curactin fthe meee a} ts et 2 star ver) Unde a cdi far Catly nas {hl Hee convene al ipa oaergece ‘a ns svt forme int un a) wake tae Aone with this were ia the equance oft partial mans sw artont be “These mid conveg fan ony th compending segue it areas stn eit eee on “Appin to aos Cac’ coreg et yk he flowing cenit: The sie (1) sont 284 only evey v0 se fries an auth dat “tenn tts aug| Oe tong 10.8 tee ee mh Tat Ye) “fe fr n Sng bat a lowe oped oo ieee ioe ccr instanon, ite rue that ta (iedene for al, but inorder lo have [+ 1/n)e ~ x] = fl/n-< «for m me ‘ts necewary thal no > [l/« Sch an my exit for ovary fxs, bat the roqirement exanot be mee smltaneouiy fr all = ‘Wo my i thie itusion thatthe sequance converge poate, but sot nity. In postive formulation’ The warn [fsG)) comegee ‘esfrmly 102) on the a Bo to ery +> O tare exis om my rch ta Use) — fl < efor lin & ne and al xin B. "The moet important consequence of uniform convergence is the following: ‘The Kind fection of « orl comeren seen of continue Sonaine i tat entinuoue, ‘Suppos tha the funetons /() are continuous and tod waiformly to fi) on the mt Tor any +> 0 wenre sie to find an nrc tht Wels) = fa) O wich thu a) — aed < «9 for al Zin Bwith 241 <8 Undor tho same eonion on = ols that UG) ~ fed} & Ula) — KN + IAG) — flea + Iles) = fecal < ‘and weave proved shu ia cotinvous at nthe theory of anys fenetions we sal find wiform convergence ‘et oe portant. than pointwise coovengeaoe. However, i mtt ‘esi wll be found that tbe convergence is uniflora oxy on a art of {ho set on which tho functions ae originally dated. ‘Cauchy's necessary and euffclent condition has « counterpart for uniform convergence. We assert: ‘he mequnce (faa) conerges wifey on if and oly if to ery 1 > Other arnt an ngewe that (a) ~ J] < efor aims & meena Pink. ‘Th moony ie agnin tevin. or the mifirnnay ee rr that ‘he imi fancion fa) exna by tho ordinary form of Catchy’ test. Tn ‘he inequality a2) ~ JG) < we ean Koop me fzed and let m ton to 5. Tefalows thats) ~ {|S form Z mynod all zn Hence (he convergence i uniforms, Yor praia! we the flowing text ic tho moet applicable: If a sequence of fantions {fz} it eotretion of «converge sequense of sant fe}, Une the sequen {f(2) uniformly convergent. The Iayptbeas mane thst (fale) Joa i lana on B, ad the come luon follows immediately by Cauehy’s condition, {nthe cam of saris this erro, na ocnembat weaker orm, bere tiny spl. Westy that a ners with variable tere Si) +H) 4 He asthe meron with pout terms eta tat for & majrant if x trac thas (| Me, for sone cotta 3 aud forall scion large; converely, te fre seriois« minarand of the ‘cond. In these circumstances we have Wad Soa) Ho fall SS Ma anes boos nih ‘Therefor ifthe majorant conver the minora convergswnioraly ‘This condition is aquest rforradto athe Woicetras 8 tai has ‘he lighs weakness tht it applies oly to series which ar ln abenutely anvorget, ‘The general peiariple of contention be more complied, Dt ha wider ange of aplenty. exercises 4. Prove that « convergent requece bounded, 2 in sy = A, prove that Blotat twee 44 Show that tho sun of x sbvolatly converpint een does not change i he tem are renrangn 4 Discus completly the sonvergenee and wniform coavergence of the sequence [I ‘Dine the uniform convergence of th rit fis Sar for real vale of 2 GM Dm tuk, Veo beet «<> ace convergent series, provethat UV = ws (ust us) + (uta + ute + ma) [rovided that atleast oe ofthe sono abelutlycamvergont (ie aay if both sere are aboltaly convergent. ‘Tr 29 arraigthe poo to ‘sooomlelly that the abyoute coavergenon of the rocnd ser not ated)2-4, Pomer Series. pose tering of Uo form a cob ae baths hate ‘where the ceeficente a, and the variable ae eomples. A ite more ‘enorlly wo may coir erie Fae - aa srhich are power sro with epee othe centr but the diferenc iso ‘Hight that ee neal not do so fe a formal mater ‘As ea aloes trivial example wo consider Uso gmat ree bette bet whoa parilmumat oan be written in the form Debs bart Since s+. for} <1 and [| & 1 for |e 2 1 wo coneado thatthe ‘moi oie converges to 1/(1 ~ 2) for [el < 1 everges fr [= tor out that the behavior f the geome sais is pial Indeed, shall nd tht every power series converge ingide cle nd diver outude the samo crcl, except that It may happen that the erin converges only for s~ 0, oe Bat i converges fr all van of 5 ‘More prily, we shall prove the flowing theorem due to Abe: ‘Theorem 2. For ery power sree (17) the exits a number R, 0S HS, call the radi of contergece, wih De felling proper: ("The series converges abu for eury 2 wih ff B the era of the wre are unbarddond te serie it RITE ee ert aie yee St ad ee eee tare omer ‘The cir ol = in exo sheer of conergence nothing i cated shout the coneegeees onthe dle.” Wes show that ta asin n {he theorem are tro if incon ecordig to the for as) 17m = lin exp fh ‘Thin in known 28 Hadamerd format forthe radius of corvergence. Ife] < Ewe an od ps0 that < p < R.Then yp > 1/8, and ty the dafnitionofiues superior thee existe an nomic the! © Uy lal <1/prforn & ne Tefllows that aw < (l/s) forhrge mth ‘the power reres (7) la envengetgeotse aries m8 aoc, ‘and i consequeatly convergent.” ‘To prove the uniform etrergeee for Bs 9 <2 we choom ag with» Ie wo cove po Ut R

1/p, [ad > Ion. This Ince > (eo) for tity many a, aad the tre ar abounded. ‘he derived series nou has the ane eds of nave, ecanae i 1. Prof: Set Yn = 1-4 3. "Then 6 > 0, and by ase ofthe binomial theoren'n = (ht A)* > 1"+4 Ge — 18, Tha vee 2% <3/m and bones =O, or fe < Rw shall write sf for-nwtnin share Ho warbant ss baer Biy = Fat ‘and azo : 10 = Bons — tc We have to show that) = fi) Conaider the deity ty $f — p99 = (80: ir we ae tha #8 i al << Thal ar ‘rewritten aa ae 7 Saertene eaten,and we conti thas ch ate) ~ fle < of for 92m ‘hoon nd nme me By th defo drial we ce fd

Iaubjeot to {he stated reteieson ‘The pono who approach calculus exchavey from the pint of view of real nuns wil ot expect any reatonship between the exponent Funetin and tho wigonometis functions coe and daz Tndeod, the functions ate to be derived from completely diferent soures sad with diferent purposes in ind. Hewil note, no doubt a sient between the Taylor developreataat thee funetions and if wilig to weimaginay trrumcata howl beable derive Euler's formulae" = co x + in? ‘normal identity. But it tok tho going of « Gauss o aaly Fall, Spee ‘With the preparation given in the preoding son it wil be ry to Aesine e062 and i efor comple ad to drive the relations betweon ‘hes funtion. At tho me fim ie esa deine the logarithm ae to “ngerse faction of co exponential, the logarithrs esd in tara othe ‘conect definition ofthe angument of «complex norber, aad hence to the songeonetrie definition of angle 4.1, The Eeponential. We izay begin by debving the exprnetiol ‘inatn ue the tion othe dient equation roy ft) = 10) ‘th tho ill vale (0) = 1, We ove it hy onting JQ) = orb ast tae FO) = orb dae Eee ‘2 isto be aiid, wo must have ey.) = ny andthe iia eondion ves go = 1. TC follows by indution that a= If ‘The solution is denoted by © or exp » dopending oc purely typo- ‘aphid conderations We mont show of cote the he wre ay enti tat ate: sorrento win the we la, or 7a (on by the {tiem commence of the dilerential equation that « sii the itn here @ eee, Indeed, we find that Dle es) = e+ bo (—e%) =O. Hee fce-thanconteat. ‘Tho valuoet the constant found by eiting¢ = 0, We conclade that +e = e; and (22) fllona for ser ea Fe, Remark, We le sd the fast that) coat (i eentialy| sro.” This erally if fio detnd inthe whol plane. Beriff = wt ud dhe eal weno cf the there ‘shows that fis constant on overy borin and every verti ie. ‘As particular cae of the sion theorem == 1 Thi ews hate inverse. For ral =the satin dvelopment (2) shows that > Lor > 0, and snsee and evarevecprocan AU tang cat tasine ae ata For ral they ralue to the familar Taylor developments of cos x aad tin z, wilh the sgaifcant florence that we have how redened the functions without we of geometry. ‘rom (2) we obtain ferthar Ble’ formule em coet tian el the entity cut ef int 2. 1 follows ewe that Deme= sins, ‘The addition fornlen Dine = cane, 08 (a4 8) ~ con a x65 ~ sin sind fin @ 49) = con ain b +n acon ae direct cansequenoat of (2) and th ation theorem for the exponen: {al faneion, "The ether trigonoratve factions tame, cot 420, cose « ao of ‘sscondary importance. "Thay are daGred a taraa of eos ad ain #in the customary munaer. We fad for instance anes epee ‘Ober tat al the tiganoreteic functions are rational functions of exeneisrs 4 Find the vals of inf, co i an (1+ 9. 2 Thehyperboli one aod ne aredfiond by coshe ~ (+ 9/2, sigh # = (¢ “1e7)/2.. Expres thor rough ein nt, Dative tho ‘Aion formal and formulas for ork saith 2e '& Us tho addition formulas fo separate oo (2+ pin (e+) a real aad maginry pats 12 Show that loud = ty ote = iy Ste «Hoh +o wa etm ekty 4 ate ~ hy = ents = thy — on) 38. The Periodicity. Waa that has the pared if f+ ©) = $6) focal, ‘Thos paiod of eeliten ev = eyeret = 1. Tullows that © = with real 6; we prefer to sy that w sw period of #2 We vhal ‘how that thee are periods nd that they ar all integral ultipes of» postive eed ue ‘OF the many ways to prove the existence af «period ne choos the following: From Dain y ~ cory ST aod nin 0 = Owe cbuinsn-y 0, either by integration or by us ofthe mean-value theorem. I the same way Dovey =~ siny > —y and eae0 = I givereosy > 1 1/2, which in tara east sin y > y ~ 2/6 und ally to om y <1 — H/2 + y/24. "This inegualty shows dba aoa /3 <0, and Uereore there is's ye between O'and V3 with cosy. = 0.» Beotne cmtye tnt ys = and Beno om we have din yo = 1, that ie Weta shown that dys iba prod. “Achualy it tthe smallest prdtive period. "To ts, take 0 < y << ye Then in y > wll ~ 9/0) > 2/2 > 0, which shown that cosy © lieilly derensing, eenuse sn yi positive aod eos + int y= Lit follows that sin ye sticty increasing and henoe win < ta je = 1. "The doable inequality 0 < sie y < I guarantees that e¥pmsithor £1 nor “££ Thorfore or 1, nd Ay ie indo the salle pasitivo pei, We denote i by ox (Consider nom an rbitewry period ‘Thace exits an inter ouch at nor Sw < (-t Dae It wer not eguel 40 ray thn we — toy ‘wold bo poitivepaiod < wy” Bingo that not pole every period ‘ut be a integral site of ‘The smal pit peved of # indent y 2. In the urn of tho poo! we bave shown that 1, ‘These equations demontrae the intimate relationship betveo th nm- bem ands ‘When ynereaneom0 2, the pete = e eseeeathe unit tle "Tin the pontive ana uxtely from 1 over ito Lan back ove fo 1. Bor every ith jul ~ There ie one ad aay cu y from tho ‘alpen interval 0 & p < Brauch that w = a All ths lows realy from the eatablisd fact that con y i silly deereasng Sa he “ast quadrant,” that i, between O and /2 rom an slgsbraie paint of ew tho mapping w = et etalishes » Aemomorphien betwean, Use additive group of fal nusbers and the ‘multiplicative group of echplex numbers with abachite value 1. Tho Tenet of the bometcarpin. i the.malgronp formed hy al Satogel hip SRS: Shows etal ealsMe commuex anavais 34, The Logarithm, Togebor with the exponential function we ust aso sty its inves fneton, the lparidm. By definition, 2 = lg wi 1 rot of the equation = uw Plat ofa since os always 90, de ‘umber O has no loganto, Wor w Othe equation er ~ 0 ogre: Tent to en ent An we ‘The et equation has unique slations = lg oth reat lperithe of| the positive number fol, ‘Th Higchand member ofthe noord aqui (24) isn complex tumiur of sbolute valve 1."‘Therofore, se we have just ‘en, it bas one aod aly ene solutioniatheinterval y'<2r- Ine Son, itis alo satisied by ally that ifr from thi nation by an intagral nulipleof ar. Wee that wry eompler number ahr than Oh xialy ‘ny opriths which fe rom eck eer by alte of x. "Theimapnary part oflog ws called the orgumont of, arg, 2d lis aterpreted gomesialy ax the oie, moseared in reins, betwen ‘thepositiverea xine te half ine from through the pointe. Accord Ingo this deiton heargament has infty any raven mach ier 1 multiples of 2 ac og = Tog el + fag. With a change of notation if | ~ rand arg = then = re, This tation in convenient that te tad constaaly, even when the expo. ‘eat funtion i not etherwie involved ‘By convention te logavthe of» postive mumber shall ways mess ‘he ra! logait,ualos the contrary ted. The ayn where ‘and bar artray oompler nurnber onan forth condition a> 0, a ‘ways interpreted a an equivalent of exp (bloga). Tain resticted to postive simbens logo ahall be rel and Phase singe value. Othervie fogas the eomplx logavithn, and bat in geocral initly any waen smb derby factor = "Thee wil be anng va and oly 6 ‘an integer, ad then? canbelsterpreted usa power feore EDis ational wunbr wth he redod form 7/4, hen o hw nally value and ean be epeoented ax Yer ‘The addition theorsm of the exponcotialfncton dary implies {og 2) = og 2 +g se (en) = area bare, but nly in the sons that both sides represent the same insite we of complex manbers. Ewe waxt to compare avalon theft wish alse fn tho ight, then we ean merely assert that they ier by saline of ‘Bei (or2e).” (Compare withthe remarks in Chap. 1, Se: 21) Finally we dist tho inverse esi whith i obtainn! by solving he egussian worleten aw ‘This iva quadrstio equation ine withthe rots eowe ver snd consequently Fav cone = —tlog (+ VeF=D, ‘Wo can ala write the vals inthe frm wom w= flog (e+ Ver=T), for w+ VaP=T ond w= VeT=T ace reciprocal nunbers. The Snfitely many values of ae ew redect the evennen aad preity et fou Tho iors sie ie most ually defined by tis worth emphasising that isthe theory of complex salyicfanc- ont all elementary transondental fusetions ean thi bs exprened through aod its iver og. Ta other words there i cer only one elementary transcendental function, exercises 4 For reap, show Ut every reainr inthe sie fr cosy and ‘an yan the me sign us the eding fer (his generalizes te Inegual ‘ee ed in the perodity proof, Sex. 33) 2, Provo, for inatane, that 3 Oand any y esi pet BG) tall eS with keg) <8 calledthe boll with contr y drat I ho refered toa tho gh tod of. The geanal definition of meighborhood i a flows Definition 1, A tN C8 called eneighurhnd of y 48 if i cotene tal Biya) nother words» neighborhood of y is et which contin ll points uiectly ar to 3, We tee the soion of naighburbood to define open at Definition 2. A wi inepe fi ina neghborhod of och of lone “Tho dainition x ntarpreted to mean Ut the empty et is open (he ‘onion i fla bonne Uh et a elem). 'The fellowig is 0 Fnediate conasqunce ofthe bane inedaliy ery tli a ope Iason, i = « B(yA), then = 8 — diya) > 0, The tingle ix ‘equality shows that Bisa”) C Bly), or diza) <8 givos diag) <0 + lye) = 8 Henge BOGS) 9 8 eighboruod of 2, a nee « Was «oy point in By) we onslade thet ty) bux open set. For grentr e- [hae «ball mommies referred to at wz open Bal to dag i from the oad bal formed by all « 8 with da) a th complx plane By) san gpm dit with enter 2 and end consi ofall complex nombers + which mtity Ue etre inequity [bed < & Weave just proved cht itn open wl and the resdat ‘org interpre the poo in oounee tenn Tae emplemeat ef tn open seb mid to be coed In any mateo pao the empty tt andthe whole space are at the came te open bd ‘Sod and tere nay be ober ate with Uv are propel ‘The allowing proper of epen and clams mle ace fondamental ‘The iteration of fate rer of epen sei pen. he unm of any ntion of open ae opr ‘he nen of rte member of ted st ln The terction of ny election of lve wt in cle. ‘The proofs are an obvious that they ceo left the reader. Tt soul be nad thal thelr fro statement follow fom the Sit tro by ‘we ofthe De Morgan laws “There ae many teraain eomeon nage which aro directly rated to tho idea ef open ata A completa Ist would be more confseg tha Delf ad we shall Hint gurls to Ue following: ine, lmae, oundary xterin (@) The interior ofa ot X ithe argent open set contidin X. It xin fort may be characte the union ofall open sta CX. Tt ‘an alo be deseribed ns the ot ofall points of which X isa eborhoad. We denote iby Tat X. (G) The elonare of X ethernet toned at which csinine X, oF ‘he intermetion ofall elon sete DX. A pat belongs tothe clos of Xifand oul if al te neighborhood intersect X.‘The dow funaly “enoted by X-, infrequently by Cl X- () Te Boundary of X i tho slawaro mis the interic, A point ‘belongs to the boundary if and ony ial te nighborhoads insect both Kad ~X, Notaion: dX or 0X. (i) The extvioe of ie the interior of ~X. i ala the comple mont ofthe sara, As eich it ean te denoted by 2" Otmerve shat Tat X CX CX" and that Xe open if Ime X ~ X, dowedif X= X. ‘Ano, XC ¥ implies ne C Int, X- CY. For ‘uldad convenicnce we thal ao introduce the notions of iaed point tnd accmulotin pon We soy Vast 2 €X i a clad pout of Xi 2 ‘us neighborhood ‘wioee intersection with X reduces to the point ‘An secomltion pont iam plat of X- whieh i not a lad pit. Tip oleae thas 2's an sceumuatin point of Xi and erly if every ‘eighborhood of» eoutainsinnitly many polne from X- 4.115 ie = metric space with dntanoe fenton dz), show that 8 with the dstene funtion Hg) = azg)/1 “+ dag) i ako © metic ace. ‘The latter space bounded inthe see tht al cintanece ie Under zed bound” 2 Suppose that there are given two distaner funetions dey) and (za) on tho me apace S."Thay are oud obo equivalent ifshey deter ‘mine the eae open mt: Show that d and d re equivalent if to every 11> 0 thro existe x §> Omuch that dg) < 3 implies die) < oad iow soma Verily that teenediion fat ia roe nein Siow by eet application of the defiion tha the eure af kos a2 Ieitometimestypographialy dimple to write X’for~X. With ‘hin notation, how is related to 27 ‘Show that X—™~" © X—™~ © Aetna to be dinzete if its polos are ilated. Show that 1 droto et in Ror Cb coonteba "7 Show thas the accumulation pointe of any st form «eloped st AnGienaeeaighe alll13. Connsctedness. IC in any nontmpty ase! of «meri ace $ ‘ee may consider B a miro space i ie own sight with he same de {Gace Tuneion dz) a8 all of 5. Neighborhoods and ope sets on ‘te delloed aa on any metro epee, but en open sto» ned not be open tren regarded ease! of To avid coufuon aeighteroods and ‘pen son are often refered to a lasvenighboriueds and really ‘open ela Asn example, if we rrard the cowed interval 0 = 108 ‘tuhepae of, then tho remiceed ntrvelO = = < I isvelaiely open, Dat not open in R.Hlnocorth, when we sey that subset B has oe ‘pec taplogal property, we shall lvays ean tht ie ha his prop ‘ery anambepace, and nibxpace topcgy ical the ratve topology. Intuitively epaking,w opoce i conned if Tt consis of a ingle plate. Ths is meatingews ules wo define the statement in terme of ‘earns ‘The ein Way i oie begalive characterisation: 8 isnt Councad i there exits aperition 8 = AUB tdo opened and B. ‘isunderstood that 4 and Bare djing and nonempty. ‘The connected ‘nw ofa space i ten used in the flowing manner: Suppose that we sce ‘te to contrat two complementary open mela and B of 8; Sis ‘onnesied, wee may conclude tha either A or B in empty ‘A abet Binsaid tobe connestad if tn connected inthe rl ‘ve topology. Ne the nk of Being pedantic we repent Deinition 8. A sabe of «metric nace is connected if it cont be repre- ‘led the ton oft ota ltl pe sad ons of eke om 11 Ba open, beet of Xi atively open i and only if ii open Sint, i in clowsd,reatvely lowed meane the nme at closed. We a theefore slat: A open wt coved if conned be dacompesed ila fe open myo ced canner eet be decomponed ae ond sela” Ags, nen ofthe rel i allowed lo empty ‘rival examples of connected seta wre the empty set and ony set ‘that cont of « gl pat Tin tho enw ofthe ren ine i ie posse to mame al connected ot ‘The most important rani inal the whole ine x convecta and tie indeed ono ofthe fundsmetil properion of the rea-number sytem. “An fered io defined hy an inequality of one of the four type: acech e2 cover Band bore is connected. ono of thar mst fil to tnost B. Sappee, for intanen, that bo pola of Fleet the et of & ‘Thon woud bea lower bond, Sn pautrdition withthe fet that a isthe (pte lower bound. ‘The oppowite smuption would Lac to tile ‘entailing, and we once that € must belong te Ts lows that {us open, led, or semiloned Interval with the end pte a arab he usa =~ an =m are to be hele 1 Th eran of sinew oe ay a Chap. 2.2In the cour of the pret we have introduced the notonn of ereaent Tower bound and leat upper bound. If the et is domed andi he bounds are fit, thy met belong to test, whieh eam they ae eae the ‘minimum and the maxi. In order to be euce thatthe bounds are {nite wo mnt know that th ae e not empty ad that theve i some finite lower bound tod some nite upper bound. In otber word, the at ‘ost Je In afte Interval; ech tb ld to be Bound. We ave rove, ‘Theorem 2. Any clonal and downed sanempy tof rea numbers hae (¢mininum ond « marin, ‘The structure of conecid mt inthe plan sot nearly so sinple ae {a the case of the line, bat the following charscterzaoa of open tote secede contains exoatally al the information we sal need ‘Taearem 3. A nonempty upon tn he plane i comncd if end only amy oof pote cn be oie polyp hich Ke he ‘The notin of cing polygon iw simple that we ned not giv forma dation, ‘We prove ft that the condition ianecomary. Let. Ab anopencan- ruced sey and choom a pot a 4, We dene by Ay the subset of A hose pots ea be joined to @ by polygons in A, god by A tho eubsak ‘hos plate eanet be wo joinad." Lat ox prove shat A and Ay are Doth pen. Fr if oy Ay hor eas a neighborhood le — a < eeontaed iA. All pint inthis ocighborood ean bo joined toa: by in ex {aca ad fom thee toa ty a polygoa. Hoace the whole nighborood lw contlna in Ay and Aye open. Sooondly, if ¢ Ay lk fe — ap < bea cighborhood contained in A. Tr pont in thi eighborbod could bs joined 10 apa polrmn, then could be jn to th point by sine ‘ment, and foun there lo @ "Thi ia contrary tothe definition of Ay ‘el we conse that dy is cpon Since A was connected iter As of ‘Avra be empty. Bat Ay contain the pect a; henoe Axis empty, ad ‘al pints can Be joined to a Finally, any two pints n Aen be ln lay way of oad yo have proved thatthe condition in necsry. "or fate us woremark vt it is oven pablo joi ny two pat boy a polyasn whoos sides are paral o the eoordinata unre. ‘Phe proof indemame. Ti rdor to prove the sullceney we aagoms that A har «represents: tion A'= 4s1U Avast union af two delat open ma Choom ar Ay ‘a4 Ay and euppow thet these poate can be jlned by « polygon fo A ‘One ofthe sido ofthe polygon must then join pint in Aso pint in ‘an for this eas tia mullet to conde the eas wero dor re joinud by wine eget. Thin giant sa pramee repre, tion 2 = a1 (y=) whoco {ran through the iteral OS 1 5 1 ‘The nubs of the interval O < £ <1 whieh ooreespond te oats in Ay and As, repectivey, ace evidently open, disjoint, and monvok. Thie ‘oniradicts the connectedass of the invrval, and heve proved that tho condition ofthe theorem is mufiiet. "The theorem govealzs cui to Rand Cr Definition 4. A romenply amacle opr ti called rein. By Theorem 3 the whole plan, an open dak |e ~ ol Oy = ala 1/2, Te AUB connected? 1s Lav Bte thevetof pointe (29) eRtsuch tha 2 Land either ye0 or y= I/m for mome geaitve intger s. What are the com- Ponents of £7 Are they all dosed? "Are they relatively ope?» Verify That i ot lly connected ‘Prove Unt the componente ofa hosed stare closed (om x.) 7 Atel ineid tobe dient points ave inated. Show that 8 ieela ot n mparaa mete space i ovate 1.4, Compactness, ‘The notions of enavergmt saguences tnd Cauchy sequences are obvicunly meaningfl in nny metre space aed, we would any that O such that dlzeq) > Be for ifnitely rmanyn. Dolermiven such thatd(2ug.) 2e."Thendizag) 2 deng) ~ denzd S'etor al m 2 ma It lellons thatthe waeightorhood fig) eontaine ly finely may’ x (ote: oatans 2 only or fnitely mary 9) Consider now the cllactin ofall pon Ste U which contain only finitely many 2, IF (2s) not convorgen, i folons by the proved reawoning thet this ellction it an Open covering of Therefore Te ‘oust contin a Bate subcovering, feed by Ui,» - Ux. But thats ‘Surly impossible, for dace esch U, contain bay Gitely many 2. it ‘would follow tht the given sequence site ‘Secenlly, x som wel i necearly bounded (« metro mcr is ‘ounded if al dstanos ie under wfsite bound). To sce thi, choose 8 ott 2y and consider al als B29) Thy form en open over of X, od Uf i compact it eontant © Site tboowering; io other words HC Begs UU Bene), which means the sume 2s XC Beas) vith = tna (ta). For any aye it follows tht de) Used + ded < 2rd we have proved that in Dosaded. “But boundedsow tal we ean prove. Tt convenient to define & stronger property eal bl branded: Desinition 7. A ot Xe tty runded for ery ¢ > 0, X oan be conned by fly many bal of radia ‘This is certainly true of any sompact set, For tha elton ofall, bala of radios « open covering, nad the comptes implies that swe cat lect fitely many thet cover X. We obmrve hat «cotlly Tounded et oemvly bounded, for X C Blsye) U- “Blame, then any two poaia of X have @-detance <2e mas a(zz)- (Ihe ‘receding pro! that any compact sti bounded bosoms rund) Wa have seedy proved ove part of the following theres ‘Theorems 6 A sot ia compact if ond only i tbs comple and tly towne “To prove the otor par, asume tt the metric pace Sie connate ‘od totally bounded." Suppose that there exits an open sowing whieh ee not contain any fine sboovering, Writs ¢, = 2", We koow ‘that 8 ean be coves by finitely soany Blase.” Teach had Fite ahcoverg, the me wou be tue of S; hinge hare ex « Bizye) ‘Thich doer not adit 8 Brite subeovarig Beeanoe Bie) Heit {otally bounded we ean find su 24 « Bley) seh that Blzye,) has no nite subcovering} Te it clear bow to contin the constuction: ws isin a aquenee x withthe property that Bes) law be Bae sb tovering and zap; « Bizu). ‘Tha wend proporty imple dtzn) < en ad hetendltatoy) me Tein ele that 24} converges tov Theorem 1. A mai space i compact if and nly ery infil tepurcr he ia ptt. “hi thor in ural fered toate Baton Weert thre “The arial formulation wan tat evry boarded sense ef oak somber basa couvergentpbmequens[eume abe reo a Irnportan theorem prosaly Bono ofthe rol plage the tery of slg fontons "The tpt af he proof ina repeton of an utr argument. vist nd pit ef ha egies eh eas al asaya (adoeitd version om nes phi) Tha we oii pots he opens oot ony Enel many z would os, {open covering” Tn sh compat ean we cold atte bower ing sod it wold foo tha the sgn te. The previous ewe ‘ed this rnoning wat to prow tats cmepach sate compet” We ‘Showed in emence that evry soguence ha «mt play sad tho we ‘nerve that a Cauchy meen wih et pol i mca oe ergent orate economy of theash it wal share bomber 0 Dre Te 7 or Thorn bl wo pe eae te Iprtaen of ttl bound scat apo TMsenaeste proves rene Tu ellis th the awe mops ikea cnc In, we sod ou thats Caan wane with an pont mtb convert Ropu vo at tern aly bended Ths thas et ao ‘3 Och the poe eat be ore iy Billy many cog. fod” "We onatrrt sangunce safely eaay, and wc, yy suhave bua alsied we coon ty ao that i da te flee) i 7- U may) Tn alvayy pole ete tee herkods do wat cover he whole space Bat i ar at [oe] 20 race. abseqens, for disnss) > «for allm aod n. We eonclae ‘hat the Balto Westra property imple teal boundedean Tn ‘iw of Theorem @ that wha we had So prove ‘ho reader should rect on tho fact tht we bare exhibit tree ‘hacacertations of compactness whose lgialequialees ito at all {iva Tediould be clear that resulta thi Lind to partealatly alae ‘efor che purpase of pasenting profes conciely a pie exehetses 2 Give an alternate proof of th fact that every bounded wequene of corer nubershas a souvergesmbsequence or intansby tbe ae lines infer). 2. Show thatthe Heine Borel property canal be exresnd inthe {allowing manver: very ellectie of steed ats with an wept iter tion contains a five sbeoleton with empty tnanection tem ls compacta to prov that «cose boule of el naz 4 IBD BD BD ++ - ins decroming sequen of nonempty ompact els, thn the intersections et empty (Castors Iomina), ‘Stow by oxample that this need note tro if he ata ae ney alone 4 Let be tho et of all wszuence =~ lo) of vol tates woh {hatolyathitenumberofthezsarem 0. Delnedeng)= as erat 1s the enste complete? Show that the Smughborhoos ue oot iiay ounded 15. Continuous Functions. We sal consider functions which are ‘efined on a melee space Sued have value in another merce ace S, and we write f:8— 5. Naturally, we shall be naiely concerned with Foal oF complescvaied function ooeasoaaliy the leer a alowed ‘o fake valves inthe exldod simpienplae, ndiary ditanee bee replaced by ditanes onthe eran apes ‘The mace Sin the domain of the fanction, We ao of cure fro Spader functions whowe dora x only a mbox of 8 ia wich are te oman regarded oa abeosce. In moat enter eiwace Soke Se te sstncion: a funedoa on 8 and ita trcon to a mast ee coe bol EX CS tho ato all vais) for 8 ‘scl the imap of X under f, and it denoted by JX). The feat imavel XX) of XC consist of alls « Seah thal fs)eX” Oboes ‘that NER) CX ad HY) DK ‘The dfitton fx continuous uneton needs pesticly 20 modiSom- Gon: continuous ai if to every «> 0 there ea 8> 0 auch th dea) <4 imple € UG0.(0)) 0, thar exits «14 > 0 mech tet @'(ferftey) © for a airs (su) with dicen) < ‘The emphasis ion tho fot that 8 ir nt Mowe to depend oy ‘Theveem 10. On a compact cary continues function i wry ‘The roo is typeof th way th Heine Borel property ean be ui ‘Suppo that fiscontinaow ons compe et. Forevery re theres ‘bal iy) each thet Je fy) < 2 for € By) ees py depend fy. Onider the covering of X by the smaller als Biy/2) There xa faite waboovering: XC BQun/2) U == U Blgain/D). as 8 ‘othe mnlle ofthe numbers /2,..y a/2, ad supose thet da) < & Therein wy with dy) < gu) avd obisin syd < ml 3.5 Be Henen FSla) fan) 0. Logis the simples: coum iso conser two ars as diferent as ‘0m a they te given by diferent equations, regardes of whether ote ‘eastion may arse rom the other by s change of parameter. Ta follow Ing this cours, a ye wilt simporiant o show hat ertainpropertos of sco are nvasiant under n change of parameter. Vor instance the iil fd erminl pot ofa ate remain the mame alter a ehaage of parameter. Ifshe dasvative £() = 20) + 91 exits nd 6 0, the are has ss tongent whore diction is determined by arg 2(). We shall sa that {he are is diforenbe if <1) site nd soutinaous (ho tom com Uinuoaay dieretinle i too unwieily);i a adtion,¢() 94 Othe are aside replar. An are cose diferente or peu ear 1 de snce conditions bad excep form Site wane of alos fa Use pointe) ell tl be coxtauoas with lef and right dervaties which re egal to the lef se right Limi of#() and inthe cea ofa piecewise regular ae, #0. "The difeensablor regular cheacter of re isinesiant unde the lange of paraieter = yf) provided that) 2 eoalinuoes an, for Seaulaity, 70, Wheo thin tthe ets, we tpak of « diferentable oF regular change of parser. "he are pl ora ordan ori) = et) only fos ta rin ened ce if the ead pots esincide: ofa) = 26). For cloud bares shift ofthe partsclar i dened a foo: 1 the ogi equte Noniee~ a(), 4 1-3 8 we chooa pont from the interval (8) and ‘dt « new cow carve whowe equation a = 2) for te 2¢ 8 and pen tlt—B} e)ford 2113 t+ 8 ~ a. The purpose of tho silt ito {ets of the ditngsehed portion of te lita polnt. Tho correct ‘efits ofa diferentiale or oglu slowed eurve and ofa einpl doe fee (or Jorden cure) re obvi. "The oppo er of 2 = 20), « 2 Pin the ares = #(—0, =8 5 t= a. Oppo res are somolimes denoted by 7 and —2, sometimes by y end 773 depending on the connection A constant function 20) tne spond eure. “Aeetle C,orgally defined at loo |e ~ ol — ‘4 cled curve with the equation # = a +ret,0 1's 2e. We will ‘iv this standard parnnietiation whenever «irl le introduced. "This convention save from wriiag down Di eatin each time it "esd and init st inportan perp, ise se defi ‘le odstingih tstmeen Cand C2 ‘fan 14, dnl anc Reon, When vce ave 10) = my fE8 fe et compl ad ton tnd na ex pln is {toro uodereod thas A ned bat tea nena Nosch'tha sch hea. Ths wane oe eene a ee ee ites mace peg nee Chace psa mt sk i'ry tor ans functions be defined on open sets. eee Wee ral a fh fan Definition 10 completed fncton J), dnd om en open set ‘ide ane Uf ho 8 ane ch pine gn Senrtins on mye mer easy ht 2) mpl cay sed mm hmore ie simp oat ep ok is past fh dato nore oe sl vil pain oa al fae fo) wie ‘tru eons Oo thc i's daa bl he se oy ‘tan it das om tana wha est Chere Sa? ‘a int al be a ion a hres CP Wes pe ‘int fo ad if) be anny in the an rete lft tintin mary to teen tose es Te parte, se th eompuan of pope at sr ope bes os at paral coser othe ce vete 0 eum at a) a Tor rae eit ft Inge i dino ated he tion eosemant te Dts 1 Deniion 4 fain neni on ebay ind S16 Geraint CR ge eae p ot oe waning ‘Tho ltt defiton in merely an agreement to we a conrpiont ter ‘ology This i cave in which the set © nea wx be eaply men tinned, for te spite oie o nally rameter aoa totais A. ‘Another isiaoe ia whic the mention ot ean be eupyremol isthe lrwe: “Tet () be analyte at vx” Te menu tat» freon /() ie ‘lined wed bak diate in note unmpeniodopen sighed teAlthough our desinisonregute ll analytic fentions to be single ‘rabod it x pale ta covalder such ralpheraled Farcioon me ¥/% log sor ace oof, provid that Uy are rested tow dette region ‘in whichis possible to lect sngle-ralued and nzalte branch ofthe funetion "Por instance, we may choos: for @ the complement of the negate real axie 20; this wets indeed open and connected. In 0 coe and ‘aly ef the values of Ve bs «positive ral pst. With thin choice {© = 474 becomes a engl-valund faction in; lt ux prove thas ‘outiuoa Choose to points, ne0 aed denote the eoreaponding alto by wn = ae ety = e+ dy ith ty n> OF Th lev a= et — l= fos — of toed snd for td us Fan > a Hone ing cal 0d it flows that w ~ 2 ia continuous at, Ones the continuity is tetablited the analyse follows by derivation ofthe inverse function E wt deed, with the notations ted in ealeulss Ae~+0 implies ‘he 0. Therefore, snd we obtain vith the aun branch of Vz To the at of fogs we eau the sine region ,obtsned by ext ing the negative ral ain and define the prepa branch ofthe logan, Dy th condition lm logs) 0, consider the std in the wplane whieh ia dazed by the Tneguabes ww 2 6 fl =f sd bounded, and for minty mal ‘ous function jo ~ en] hao consequetly a miximum p or A (Paoore 8, {Cocollary). This isimar is postive, for A dow nt ental axy pint woh as Zet. Choos 8 = min (je), and ase that bona miei ‘Then oy cant ef, for this would make fr — sai el aan" Bebra Sg de armer ease we would ok lem — e9| Ben — om > "and in the latter ease fem — en) a ew om dem > 8, eat eae Jn te dik fr] < and we uve proved faction of = Pr te on ae ee ha ae eriative exist and eal e- The lity many valir of ate cs ae the same aa the esas of floc e-+ Ve"). Tn Wis eae meron sto the sear Mehul ines § —Ly'= Oude bye O Shel ene eal sud Din, we can deine Y= mie shine VI — > sain she it exarpe and then IatVE= a Matos + ¢ Yat “T omer nal si 2 Ve= Te recone beer elo ‘ys both this hapens ny wens eso ned Bere of ter BamineS erantad eas hee in ten th se ad the rl is en Su riley alin ch upper al pee Wea ieee misaitsbnebbg + VED wine tpl pee ode: In ths wy wr otal ange vlad eps fioe ate con = fog (+ VFI) ‘in whose desivative iy See La iy ta an oa fh pd ‘Ao sai fonction nde Rees Soe i te oA SR ea aie INE reece{ho flloming theorems wo sal i sme simple onions whieh have this ‘oonsequonce: ‘Theorem 11. An analytic facion in a rgion 2 who derivatis wan- aes nally mos rebe to naan. The oe is rue oer Ue reat part, he smaginary part, the modus the argue fe conta ‘The vanisting of the derivative impli thnt 4/8, 94/9, 2/2, (n/ay ae all ero. Te fellows that wand are constant on any Hin 8 ‘oct in D which io paral o ne of thn ecordnate axon In Soe. 1.3 we ‘marked, i eoneetion with Theorem 8 hat any Uwe pois in w region ‘an be joined within the region by «polygon whe ses are parle fo We ares. We wonclude tht us constant, Tt worv ie constant, eae riRao, sad hoot 0) must be constant, Tw! 1s constant, we obtain uy ym waa Ca a wm eR Rae no “Thus equations permit the contusion du/@z ~ do/8s = 0 wales th determinant «8-0 vusshes. But fw 2 = O aba sing point it omstanly tro ad J vanishes dota. Tenc @) isin any came constant. Tiel, arg (2) la constant, we can so u = be with consent & (nln vt Kenteally ano). But a — bo ie the vel pert of (++ HB, tnd ee conelude npn that f mane rede 19 «conta. [Note tht for ths thorem it exootal tha «ren. at, ‘we can only aster thet) ie eostant on each component of 2 Givo precio dataiion of « ingle valued branch of VT-F# + Vim 2 ine autable region, and prove that iti analyte 2 Same problem for log log 4 Suppose tat) sual and eco the cousin te — 1 <1inerogion Show that either Hef) > Oo Re fe) < 0 Shovgh- ota. Sony that wn ae wt he etn {G0 518.0 cone ton ren fy hd kt fo) be tae a cotneos i Ton th ein w =a) 0) Seles a tein he ple wth may eae he napa “onier te am of an) nhch agin (9 oxina, ‘find that wl cs Ss eared by o wt0 = F600. We wil iavagte he messing of his oon a 8 plats = #4) wihsg Oana) oO ie Keough wo 0, ene bang a 1 = 69, an retin aden ® EW) = wo) + sre). hie alaton arith the sae beeen the deed angst to» Ah 4 00d 07 aw egal wang FG). ts oe dep of ‘he carve.” Fo hs runn eaves tvouh wih we enon tech eli tw oped oa Srv witht conten agen Norcve tr carver hich oon snags sexe aged See as ‘rg ime tin ia el i ow Dapry the mapping by wf) mid be enfant ea pes with Fo) 6 0. coera a Arid rope of he mapping rv hy consstion of modulus |f'(z)|. We have nt ee se ls Le) ro, 24 this means dat any amall Ke segment with ane ond point ati ‘in thelmit contracted or expanded i the rai [Peg Tnother were {ho linear change af ele at ey efleted by the traneformation w = fe, ibindepondent ofthe dretion” In general this change of wale Will rary from pint to point ‘Gonvorey aoa that bath Kind of cotermatity tegen the existence of F(a). Tels haw obvioe that each Kind wil parnely Imply the same rat, atleast under adatonal rogulty nemo "To'be more pri, let ut tase that Use partial deiatives 8/2 sad 2/0 are continous Under thio sondisen tho derivative of ‘(0 = Feo) canbe expres in the form v0 - Lew + Ly er tn pat ci abn Un ro 14 abo rewritien a wo =A(L- Dew oh ( eg) 70 Uf angle are proerved, arg (w/a) seus be independent of exe). Toe expramion ray 2 4 1 ® 1-8) (Fo aust therfore have content argues. As are #4) in allowed to ‘ary, the point repre ty (8) dancibes a cre baying the radios 4/22) + 10f/0p). Te argument canst be constant on thio cele “tlos te rad vanishes, aud hence we rust have af my ‘bch isthe oompler form of the Cauchy. eations, ‘Que salar, the condition thatthe Shang seal shall be the sone i al drestonstnphes thst he expression (8) har m onatant ‘wodukn, Oa ete tho modulus i oonstont only if tho radius ven inter orf eh seater Hie at tho origin. Inthe fist eu we obtain (8, snd in the ond eae 2-6 ae 85 ‘The Inet equation expres the fat that J is eeabtc. A mapping by the sonjuale of an analytic function with « nonvanithing derivative in maid to bo inaty conformal. Tt evidently posers the ste bat rover the see of anion the mapping of by se =f) is apologien, thon tho invarse Fane sion # = f(s) esha analytic. This follows easy 1) 0, for then ‘the devative of the Inverse funtion ust equal to 1)" tho pint PS). We shal prov llor tat") can ever ati ia the eas (fs lopoogeal mapping by on aly fneton. "The knowledge that f(y) #0 wliet conde thatthe map. ping i topcogieat i r etend tow nllentiy small neighborhood af {b._ This folowaby the theorem on implicit functions known from the cal- alas, forthe dacs of he fnetonn «~ u(z, = oy) een polnt rio and henae 0. Later weal prea’ «ipl proof of Cis Important there. Bat evenif/(2) #0 hzoughout the region 9, wo cannot wats that the aapping ofthe whole rgio ie aeonmarly topoloied. To Muataia Zz hat may happen we refer to Fig. 4. Here the mapping of the oul 34, Daly evr io regions 2 and Dy are oe to ono, bu the images overlap, tis ela to think ofthe image ofthe whole rion ae a tranparet i which partly ‘cover itl ‘Thins Uo simple and frat en wed by Kieran ne he intodvoed the generalized regions now known as Ronan rtfues 24. Length and drea. Wohave found that under» confernal mapping {2 tho length ofa instore ne eegment st to point re mulipiad by the factor i). Because tho distortion isthe sane in all dzetons, ‘nfnitesina arin wll ealy be malpied by IG) ‘et ws pat thi on 2 igoous bask” We kicw fos kul tha che Jongsh ofa fifereciable are withthe equation» = (= 0) + 400, OSES b gvenby to) = [VOOR a = J viol a. "Thema rv determined by = wi) = fo) withthe derivative WO = FOE, Teslenath i thos ur) = [roel 1s clomary owe te hr lations a sen) = fy, 99 fri Obata in ml line alae negation ‘with respoct to are length is replaced by [de]. iwi wap ot a ha thew 40) ~ {faracan be ovaited ano double Riomann intigral If fa) = wey) + ‘iC ina bijective diferente rapping, then by the rl for changing interaton varias the aren of he nage BP = J) given by 6) = {faoy~ nate But if $6) i» conformal mapping of an open act containing By Yen vise ~ ages = [Pa] * by virtue ofthe Oncehy Riemann equations, and swe obtain 0 009 = ff ver aea ‘i oa) hve grat spin te pr ces ta uly oes ee <= (al analyte fonctions the ra-order rational functions haye the simplest _napping properties, for thay dese mappings af Us extended plane onta [af whiah are atthe same time sonformal and topological. Th inet ‘tansermatons have aloo vary remackablegrometro prepara snd for ‘ha reson thelr importancs goer far beyond acting spi exalt! ‘anformal mappings ‘The reader will do wel to pay partiela attention {e thie geomet ape, fort wll equ his with ple but very vale Bie tcohniquan 3.1. The Linear Group. We have sleealy ranarkal ia Chap, 2, Ses 1.4 Wate lier fecal roafomation a wth of ber 0 hasan inverse ase ata = 80) = ‘The wpcil vanes S(=) = o/e and &(—d/e) = oan be introduced either by conveation or ae Umit for #> = ands» —d/e. With the Jester interpretations becomes obvious that Sa toplomel mapping of Ue extended plane ont tl, tho toplogy being defined by distances on {Be Riemann splere, Yor near tausformations we shall mull replae the notation Si) by 6, The repromlation (7) i ald ta be normaleed i a — te = 1, is leas that every linear teansfrmnton bas two aormaied represen: {ations obtsned trom oa other by changing the rin ofthe so conta ‘A convenient: way to exprom a linear traneformatin le by om of homogencons cnordiualenIfwe writes = y/o = wiftrme Bod that wns we ant ly i wee tae, ()-€ JQ) ieenuuupueseenvasemlc lace! Pepper pelrieerepeiy Pope at ered distinguish bette tho mates that correpoad te 8, Byki immediate ‘that 58; bnlongn to thematic product J) fb) (os ben GG )-Gate AU Saar tundra fra sro. Teal esc toe i= aad hao ay tata ey ott tanta tl ieee arenes ii" Turners One cot oer ns tnd en gop ne ancora ee nein wate smapone erga wc ey el rh team ny nunc pes nest Uist teeny y-ie eatin ene SiG), on aera open matno oreo ee "eda make So Fn of hema elatn, xtr pawn tia kp nos ang seed tiene 1 die yon G6 HG Thofint otha, w = 6 «scale pert ration The mend, ses fy aration fi] “1 ad's bt enfraon ES For iar opin 0 wea t= cd os =e tart eprom oats tananos bee Systane id tenatreaion = oe ans Fee Owe ean wate ett tenet Shi stati jie cdo Pe anban aapfon is compows ay « traadaton, an inverion, »rolataa, and a homo thate transformation folowed by ancther trandason. IC © = 0, the Snverson fall ost and the let trainin not needed 11 Prove tht ube rection 2+ Zia ao Hinartranufrmation. ai wet? Pee Sod Tis, Ps and Ty Pe. 1 Prove that the most gnerl transformation which ave the origin fixed and preeree all distance is cthor a orstion oF «rotation flowed ‘oy rfl inthe real exis 't Show that aay Hosa transformation which transforms the rel sin into ite can be writen with real colon, Te Ten rhy 8.4, The Cross Ratio. Given thre ditnch points ty ty £4 in. the ferlcnded plate, thie existe a Haenetrazafarmation § which arin thom into, 0, in this onder. If none of te points =, 8 willbe ven by ® Bee ayes or 0 the tranaormaton redscas to respectively LT were another near towefrmation wth the same property, then ST-!"woild lave 1,0, invariant, Dist ealewation show hat {is ie tooo enly Tor ths entity tsformation, end we would havo B= 7. Wecunchud tht 8 Unigualy determined Deinition 12, The eet ri (ay) it the image of wnder the linea eanafrmation hich care out nob, , = ‘The defniton is meenngfl only if nenas ae dict, A conron- Won yale ea be htedued ae won ao any thee of tho podsta are snc, bat thie unimportant. ‘The cos rato in invariant under Haear tranaormatons. a mote precise formulation ‘Theater 12. If 2m nz ae dic pene in the ected plane and? any Kinar tonqormation, then (Pe, Ten Ta, Te) = nave. ‘The prof is immetiat, fori Se = (sensnt), then ST" carrns Tey Tr, Tas into 1,0, =,” By deBsiton we have beaoe (Pen Pea Toned = STAT a) = 82, = (aura): ‘With tho hotp of thie property me can imately write down the linear temtsformation which erie thee given plate 2 yf 10 BS ‘sib positions ww ws. ‘The crrespoadence oe ade be ven by (opmsasan) = (easnee In gover i of ours nocesary tose thin oration with mmpect to Theorem 1. The oe rato.) 5 elf and ely i he ‘points Tie on a circle oF om a atraight line aera ‘This in evident hy elementary pomety, for wo obtain wes anaes) ag EE = ag ‘ad if the pints Me om tale thie ditereue of angi ther 0 or 4, ‘ependng onthe rate loeaton, Por au analytic prof sv now ony show tt tho image of th el ssi under any Hneat transformation is either a ee or «straight line Indeed, Te = (nen2) in real on the image of tho to ai under the ‘randofmation Tard nowhere te, “The values of we 7 fr real = wainty the equation The = TR ‘Bepitly this eoadiion i ofthe forms ath anh etd eed By com multiphiaton we obtain 2 elo + (ad chp + 8 — dopo 4-83 — 0, Hg = of = 2 tin the equation a ig i ar der hi co cannot also vanih, Tat ot 0 wo ea ition te coatint aiid he seit nd complete gue imple com point we Soule e+ Sal" (Esa ish the eqston est “ine it ie dar st wo thud wt, oe ery ne troy ng er sc sr eA fare ten nef at ath comet ces Cr te Ean ere ecg? etl age oom he nod Shania to ride est “The ellorng wan net oye Then 12 al 18 "Theorem 14, A Kincr wonsferalionearice circ incre 4 Find tho ivartaueormation which area 0, —finto by —1,0, 12 rpren the ere ratio correpoaing tothe 24 permutations of four ponte a tere of = (ented 21 the conscive veces 2, 24 2 0f a quadatra eon & del, prow tha Lea sd Lae— al fee ele fae ad sad interpre the rest goometetely AShow taal say four dict points can be cari by & Har teaneormation o positions 1,1, ky hy whore the valubof depends on the points. How many salusions ary thr, ad ow are they rated? 3.8. Symmetry. ‘The pata sand # are rymmtric wih respect ta the real aula A Iter tunformation with ra ofients eases the real ‘into ital nod # into points which azo again symm, More (Stara, ia none tnwtorsiaton 7 arrose real a uo ole C, we shal ay thatthe pts = Ty and w* = TP are eymmeric lh rerpet This nn auton between wand © which dow not ‘depend cn 7. Vor if is uotiur ransformation which earn the real ‘into, thon 8-17 ina eel raneformaton, and hence Ste = STs and S-to*/= 3°°72 we alo conjognte Syninstry cau Hous be dened in the folowing teres {Ties wil tw ere aly when dang with near fara, Definition 18. The pointe and» are sid to be pmmatris with repost oth ctl C though 2 to ¥f and only futur ™ (RFD. ‘Tho points on C, and only thee, are ginedsc to tmslves. The ‘mapping wich caries # into 3° ba one-o-ouecorreapacdence aad in call rofecton with respect to C. ‘Two reoctioas wil erdeatly reat fn linear tranforination Wevish investi the romstresignitearcefsymaetey. Sup owe dew that C iv staph ie. Then we ena cate y= > and the fondo for symmetry brome 0) ‘Trking solute vals wo obtain *— 2 = Je — sl, Hire cx can be ‘any file point On C, and we coache that © aad’ 2* a equine ‘rot all puis on C. yO} we have further od bene + an * are in diferent half planes determined by C:} We cove to ihe reade o prove hat Ci the banding oval fa gaat Ieiween sand : ‘Conde sw tho cae of frit cide of cote @ sd radius Syetematic uw ofthe invariance ofthe com alo slows w te conde sallow aa = ‘Thi equation showa that the symmeti point of ris — ROME) + a or that wand etuty the rlain ay (tae a—m ‘Tho product let ~ oe ~ lof tho dates to the oanta ie hence Further, the ratio @* — 0)/@~ 6) ie poi, whish mona that sand 2 ariluaed onthe sme lf lin rom e."Tbar ie empl geometie struation forthe manic pont of # (Fg. $2). Wo ote that the ‘rometrie pont of ls =. 1 Una bine an ce i a a earity, near tsesfommations proservesymmnstey. IfC,or Cris the real sas the principle flows thom the deftion of eyminsizy Ta the ‘seucral cae the ancrtin folows by uso a intermediate treaforation ‘which carsee Cy into the ral aie, ‘There are two maya in which the principle of ayrumatzy can be wed If Shoimagorof rand C under a crtan Kear transformation are Keown, thea the ponsple allows to fnd the image of. On tho other hand, Af the imap of # ad s* are Known, wo eoacls that tho image of C sit be tlie of symmetry of thea imagen. While kit not enough {e devermioe tho inags of C, the information we gain is novertheles aden "Tho priusiple of eymmatry ia puto practical us in the problem of| finding the iene tranormationa which eury a ie C into ee ‘We can always determine the transformation by requsig that creo points 2, en 2400 go over into Ure pints sw, wy on Che trae formation is thea (wan) = (eanena). But the teaaformation ie ‘Sev termined Ife perio thet tpi so € tall sermon ‘point won Cand Unt m point sme on C bal be cava ito pola ‘ornot on C We know then that af (the symmetric pont of 2 wilh repect to C) moat comerpond to wf (Ui eymmetsi point of ws with Teper! to C2. Hener the trnformation wil be tained from the ‘elation (eousnse) = (easna). mxercises 1 Prove that every nuletion cares ile nt cas. 2 Reto: the imaginary axis tho line 2 = y, and nw ice fol = In the ie [e = 2] = 1 '& Cary out the refections inthe preceding erin by goomeiic countrastion ‘Find th lina tensfrmation whch orien the ree = into |e] = 1 the point ~2 into che igi, and the eign int 4 Find the cet general nea tensforetion ofthe ele fol — into al. { Suppows that «nour tranormation estes one pir of meen ‘rls ints another pai fconsentie ele," Prove tha he ttn of the ‘i mot be th sae 1% Finda linear teaeformation which care = tad — 4] = {nto concentric area. Whats the rao of Un ait 4 Sarma proba for |e = 1 and'z = 2 3.4. Orlented Circles. esau Ss) in analyte and sta) = state son eekno the mapping w = 8() ie colormal for * —d/ and «, It fllows that ‘alr fintrwcting cits ar rapped on circle tha include the me Angle. "Tn addition, the sense ofan angle preted. From a iat tive point of view tis menns that right and left are prtorve, bet ore rie formulation is deiable ‘Aa rientaton of w cielo C is determined by an endoed triple of ‘points yay on C.- Wich repect to this orientation point + not on C Sn wid (0 Tato the ight of Cit Im Gaygua) > O and the lito U in im (yn) <0 (hin sheck with every te bent (61,) — 9 Wiceetil to show that ther azo only two diferent erittations, By, ‘hin we mean that th distinction betwoen lft and nightie aaa forall ‘wipls, we the meaning ay be revere. Sine the rsa ra fat i uiclent to consider Ue cam whore in th el ax "Thee c+ ora can be written with real coeficiants, and «simple ealcution gives Gane = In Gavsiad = Bete, ‘We moogtne that he danvon tatu gh od he he mse {he datortn bts the ppt ander Dal pene” Wish wah epende hesig ofSbe Senenak db,A Tioear ruafortion 8 cartes te ointed cia C into cee whic we onent through the tiple Sr, Se, Sse. From the ineainoe of ‘he cose a it fll hat th left an right of C wil bo mapped onthe Tn aa right ofthe age dle 1 two eles are tangent to each other, their orientations can be compared, Tndood wo can use itear tranefortion whch thon ei ‘mison point to =. ‘The vrs bone pra eight ines ad we know how te compare the diction of eral lane "nthe guamsteie epresatation th orientation», yr ean be indi cated by au arrow which points from 2. overt 40 4.” Wich the ual ‘hoe ofthe coordinate rst lft and ight wil ave Une exslomary rmeoning wth respect to this wow. ‘Wien the fie plane considered a part of tha extended plas, the point al inGaily is diagushed, We om therefore define aa abwrte Podtveoreatation ofall nite cles by the requirement that should lot the right ofthe onntedeirlon The points fo th let ar eid to {erm the fide ofthe eres Use pst to the right form ite one EXERCISES 2 If 2n ace points on atl, how that n,n 26804 254 2, etermine the rane cncatation if eed only if Cxanznts) > 0. ‘2 Prove thet «tangent 10 nico ia perpendivalar to tho radius ‘ough the point contact Gn thiconaotion «tangent shond be defined ‘sn eraght line with oniy one poin in sommon with the ic), ‘Verify tht the inde of the cine [el = Bi formed by all points «with r= ol < "The angle botreen two orienta eicer t« point of aterection i ‘efit asthe ange between the tangentsat that pin, equpped with ie ‘ane eriataion. Prove by analytic rewoning, rather than geometric Inspection, thst the angle at the two poles of intersection are oppoute trench other. 9.5. Famine of Cictens A goat del ca Lede Uma ie vin [cation of lamar andormatons by the intedastion of eran fails Of cirle which may be thought of ae ordiaate Une ia azeular feordiaate system (Consider «Hear transformation of the fran war tee re # so cometponis to we = Oand # = blow = 22. Tollows that the sent User rough tho origin of the ample aeeimagee of he iris through and. On the other hand, the concn rts about ‘the orga | = p,corzeapnd to crea with the equavon ese dpe pi Sou ovr ea Bee ym a ty eaten serena se Mage get sieht maccme a etie ‘which wo shall list a few: Etre - 1 Rett cence ‘with the exception of the limit pointe. eee Preece alae PEE Seci tte saci whet ge in Stree {ie aeaeemwrsemmawencia wo gear sib cobbfe, when the Cy re Tne through the oi Cccle, Sine the properties are invariant under linear texssormtions, ‘hay snort ont to hold inthe general cu ita tranformation e = Te carves bint the fem an be written is ee ay is dew thet tenner the cies C; nod Cr into eirdee Cj and (Cw the linit points a. "The dation a parieslry simple ia” = a, =. Then a, bare as ob Sandpoint of, and itis eonenient to represent «and Tein the ane plane. Under thee cirnitanc the whole azelar net will the mapped upon laell. The value of F serve to Went the image Cirle Cj and Cy Tadeo, with approprntoorentatons Cs fore the itege tog rth it nage Cy, aad the quotient of the eoontant aloe Te ee ~ Bf on Cand Cais ‘Thespecal casein which al Cy orall Csr mapped upon thrones ‘azo parlictarly imortnt.'We bxve C=C, forall Cy if b> 0G ec the irl ae afl the samo, but the oreatation is reversed) “Ta teneformadon it tbe sald to be hyperin. When incrooes the ine Ts, +0) by wl ow slang the arte Cy tonardb. The con- Fidertion of ths Sow providea u very dear picture of a hyperbolic “eanstormation "The cam C= Cy ocure when bj = 1. Translormations with this property are called elite, When arg F varie, the pinta Ts move tloog the eres Cs, ‘The corresponding dow cevusten about @ and fe diferent diretions, “The grr linear tanaorsation with two Be polnsic the product of ehyperbale and an lpi trsnslormation wich the sme fed point "Toe fined pots of a linear transformation ae found hy easing the eon pre a Set In genera thi ina quadratic equation ith two soon; if-7 = 0 one of {Se eed point "Tt tay happen, however, tat the rote coincide ‘Alinoarteaforetion with xinciing fixed points is nh tobe parol ‘The condition for thie in (e = 3) = 4. the contin (12) i found o have two dni! root wand bythe tusnaformition ean be wile i tho form ‘We can shen use the Steiner sre detersnad by a, 3 discon Uso nature of the arnformation. Tt is importast to noi, however, that the method is by no means rented to this case. We can write any linear tansformation in th form (12) with airy 3 Band to tho ‘oo crcl pte to grt adranage. For he discussion of parsbolio transformations ti desirable to intro eal another typeof cretlar et. Consider the trsaformation rt ate 1 ia evident hat steht Roos i the weplane corpond to eles ‘hough a; morover, paral ine correepod to muta angen ele. Im partial, i — u + i the nee 4 ~ coaetant aid + = conan corerpond to to familon of mutuly tangent crs which inert ‘right angln (Fig. 34). This configuration ean be cousred an Segenerne mt of Seine celen Tt determina by the point a0d ‘the tangent to ove ofthe fails of czle. We shall root the imager of the nue» = contant by Cy, tho azele of the other family Hy Cr ‘Gest the line #= fase eretponda to the tangent ofthe elon 1 draon i ive by arg1 ie lear that th cron C, and C, are eared into tho cine Of and 6 determined by «aod w/.We suppoas now that 2 = «i the only Sod point. Then w ~ a aod we can write an ate [iy this transformation th configuration consisting of the eles Cy aad Cis mapped upon ite. Tn (18) « mulipeaiv fator i abtety, sad we ean ence suppor that eis rel. Then every Cris mapped upon ‘tll and the prabote transformation can be coiered aa ow along (he cree Cy, ‘A Tinea transformation that ia aaither byperboie,eliptie, nor parabolic in aid to be lzodomsi Exercises 1 Pind tho fixed pointe ofthe linear tanformations ae ‘nany of thes teansformations clip, hyparboi, or pasbale? "2 Suppom that the eoeiients of the trnaforstion att Sard re normalised by of — be ~ 1. Show that 5 i elliptic i and only if <2catd <2, punbolcitatd~ 42, bypecbale ey de 2 oe 2% Stow that a near senormabon which estsion = = for sone integer nis nosey epi. ‘4 IESishypeebobie or focdromic, how thas S convargs to fas in am the ae for all, except when soins with the other Sed point. (Tn nit the trace, te other the repaint fied pin. ‘What happens whan n —» 0? What happens in the parable cast) (© Find all los whieh azo orthognnal to |e = 1 and je = th 4, - mma 1. Inanobviouswny, which w hall nt ty to make poss, fsily of ranwormations depends on acertnin user ef el peramoles, Hay ‘any rea paratetary are tere inthe fal of alliner raformationg? How any inthe fonibes of hyperbole, tipi, parstoeteaseforma ‘onet™ How many linear transformation leave a given eae Covers? | ELEMENTARY CONFORMAL MAPPINGS ‘The conformal wapbing sasocated with an analytic faction affords an O mat ave the form ical ia Pig. 37. siary if we follow the change of aw wha tact Use ne x'= 24> 0, we dnt he image eurve mua havea oop (Pig. 38). Tt ft of Dees.rae hon ‘The mapping by w = ee very inple, Thotnesz = seandy = ye ‘20 mapped ost cries about tho org and rays of constant argine ‘Any otersrsight Ine in che sane is mapped a lopathnie mia ‘The mapping sone to onein any recon wish does contain we plats ‘whose dfeence io» sulple sf Sek Tn prtelar, © boro ap By sugle may be ‘reoter than crite complmest. "Ft end pot ofthe aren are and, so begin withthe preliminary meapinge. = (¢ = a)/(¢~ 1) which rar Dec te given region into an angular setae. By an appropriate ower fe ne this scores be mapped onto bal plane tbe ce are tangs to each othor a the pot the tnnsformns- tion #1 ~1/(e 2) wil map the region between them onto » pall tirp, and « sutaie exponential transforsaton maps the sri onte 8 bal plane [A Wide more generally, the mame method apples to creninr ti ‘angle with bro right sagen. Tn fect ifthe third angle has the vortex rand if th sides from amet again ab, the near trnnformation Ste a/Ge 0) inmpa the ange outs cveuar sector. By means tere this ect can be fnnfermad ete bal eee; the aif le ‘Sawedeeshaped opon which i tra ean be mapped on x hal pane Tr thie conaneton we sal teat expel special ene which ocears frequently. Lat be reuied to map the complement of ine axgment fonte te fase or outside of cine. The region i « wedge with the [tne Br; without oe of generality wo may assume tht hee point of hecognent a 1 The preinianry rwndorraton wetl T spe tho wedge on te full gle obtsaed by exchaon of the negnive real atin Nort we dee neva sa he square root whine real gt i postive sed obtain © map onto ‘he righ hall plane.” The nal ranformation aad Fy nape te lf plane ota fl < "Himinetion ofthe lteriadinte yviabls Inds othe erreepondenoe jen i sie) verve ‘eof mgt gy rad etn Mehuroryeenueyecb sl Heap ashes ‘we oblai w apping onto fo| > 1. aft 0 Sel yt ig) nes = oat s-He+ Dons role Sune Wor ro e= sod etinination of | oo) = an Hence the agro dle oh = » <1 a lips wits the mal poh sud the minor axis ¢~ The ihe e — a. The image of adie al © Seen ts hyper "The le (1) ad ts hype (1) a8 confocal ‘Th errerpondent i sald in Fi 2 sent th ttt 16) we st ne noo it of lementery conforma meppigs the mapping o the oie of a lier xt rin btwn te ranch of peta na rear eg des ot, however, allow oe 10 tap the nade oft elipe of ‘inside of a hyperbolic branch. are ee enna ‘Aes calles via example we sala the mapping dein Lys ebipalyeonia eae? Hout + oe + Thea rr rman # = 5, ~ a6, alow ts to geile the ada orm, ae rene Maggy = He + fin Aaa edsd by cbyiour normalizatons wo can rede the polynemia othe form (en ot de. Tho coefcient form choeen w to make the daivaive Yani for = 1 ‘Making us of the tasafrmation (16) wo introduce an auiiary ‘waiable define by 1 ereh (Our cubic polynomial takze then the smploform aul wore ‘We mitt och eterno anf ba hy re cgroeal ss Yd th mice aie fw. Tn orto cain a alge fw may pom the cation 0) on the ik fl <1 oo that epmetrin are prseeved. (Lindel) 7. Map the outside of th elias (e/2)* + (2) = Vota [el <1 ‘wth preservation of synametsiee ‘Map the part ofthe «plane to theo the right-hand branch of ‘the Bypebola "yt = ons al plane. (Lindel) ‘Hint: Consider ‘on one se tho mappiog of the spp hal of the region by w — on the other side the mapplog of « quant by warns 42. Blamentary Rlemann Surfaces. The iualiatoe of fnation ‘by mean ofthe eoxeepouing mapping incompletely clear only hen ‘the imapplng je one to one. thin not the ent, wo can sll give out agian the neceanry eipport by the latedudton of generbed regious in hich diaduet pointe ay have the same cordon. Tn cerder to do this it is neceory to pose tat points which ooompy the ‘ame place can be ditngushed by our characterinen, or iataoe ng or s color. Pinta with the sumo tag are eoasdered too it the me shot layer, “Thi hen Ieads to the notion of « Bienanm surface tie note ‘ntantion to give, thin connection, «vgorou detnition of tis nation. ‘For our purpoes it ucient to nie Riemann eufaea aa prey eseripive manwer. Wo ae free to domo ne ong as we ie thes rely {or purposes of stration, and never i loge proc, "The splot Riomaan suraca i connected ith the mapring by & power w= whee n>'T lan Integer We know iat hee & ‘One-to-one corromondance between each anglo = 1)@r/a) < arg ¢ ¥i/on ely, faction which it anafyic in the whale plane. IC is negative, but 1, the eame ‘Reul elda forall closed curve which do not past zoogh for inthe ‘complementary region ofthe point «tho indtnit nog il analytic ‘od snglo-ralted For x ='—1, (U1) doesnot alwaye tld. Consider ‘irl with the center a reprenmted by the equation # = ot ee, Ost s 2 Weobun jee [Psa ae‘Theron abows that ie impoaibie to dine s singewaled Branch of log (— e) fam noses py < f — ol < pp On th oer band if the lows curve +i contxned ia half plane which doot not contin, the Intogel vies, for in such » hall ple » singo-valvod sud anlyto ‘branch of og (a) esa be deed. wxeneises 4 Compute fox ‘where 7 the dicted ine segment frm Oto Compule Sanr3e Inet pats hein wo wah ek by et aac, seb hig = 4-48) (4 Zo ta corpus for the postive ems of the zl, “4 Compute 2a Tacs t= tet ‘ Sappos that) i amlptic on x cloud curve 7G. i analyte in aregion that contain). Show Ua [Tere ae in pony imaginary. (The continsity of) in taken for granted.) ‘Ame tht) ana aed aster eal Ue) — 1 forevery coma curve in. (Th contin often for eraste.) TIP) ia polynomial and C dannts the ies ~ a) =H, what Sabet [Po att Annan: ~ 2k 1 esrb ast of crounstauces under which the mle [parte =o ln ewsingl ad rc 1.4, Cauchy's Theorem for a Rectangle Theee are wera forme of (Cauchy's Uorern, bat thy dir ix th topological rater tan in theit analytical content. Tis maura to begin with a eae ia hich the topo Tope cosieration ae trivial. ‘We conser, mpoccally, a rectangle 2 defined by incawalition 52 Shes ya Tteperintercanbecomidered simple clad ‘curve consisting four line mente whose dretion we choos m0 tt Tes wo tho ate th rected segment. Tho onder ofthe erie inh (20), Go Oi (od. We refer to this coved carve cathe boundary ‘cure or elon af Band we denote by ORY “Weenphivae tint Rinchomn ana cows pint mt ad, hen, int ‘region Inthe theorem that follows we consider fsclon which in toalytis onthe rectngl We recall to tha reeder tat ach fun ‘on by dtniton dined and nati in an open et wich conta ‘The following sa preininry veron of Couch’ hore: ere 2. 1/e fontion J) ond an fafedie wo “Tho profi barsdon the method of hisston. Let ws introduce the rotation Mi) = ff ae ‘hich wo wil lao ue for acy rectangle contained inthe grea one. TE Fi divided into four congruent rectangles 0, RO, B10, we fad hat 3) A = nC) + RE) + CR + HE, for the intgrals over tho comsaoe ido eaoa each other, ti impor- ‘nt to notn hat thie fet can be ver expily and owe not als iit we of geometee inti, Neverthlow,«reforawe Wo Fig. #2 6 ‘ela 1 7hsig tana ene, and wal pay. Nett eter ‘cova Onn the any Bans pt (Chap. (2a ae}o= Woe los ho et Bonin of tae i followsfrom (15) that 4, must ety tho eondiion ee] = ae Wo denote this rectangle by 2; if several R have thin property, the hain shal be mn soozding to some definite rule. ‘Tas prea ent be ponte indefinitely, and we obtain seqvence of rested ectanglon B,D BaD == Dy >" *» with he property POR] = Hed] lest one ofthe retangia 0, = 1,2,3, sod hanes ry chal = 49C) ‘The rctanglen Re converge to pot in ho sow that, wil ‘be contained in w preeibed neighborhood |e 2] < hsm aa ye futeleaty large. Tit of al we choot 8 oo smal that 0) is deed ‘and azayticin|2 — 2% < 8 Sesodly, > Om given, we ean choo tee that [) —f69 _ pan] ce (fa) — 0%) — Ge — ef e)] < ole = a) <4 We me tn sie oth edn ud tht Mit cntdastla poor et "Werle nw he chron tt fy =0 Int ‘Thos wii peal caot of our theorem have aleady Been proved in See. LL. Werrcall hat the proof depended onthe fet At Und # aro the derivative of snd 2/2, reapetively. [Hy viele of theo eqstion we are able to wite MRD =f UO) He") ~ @ ~ 2a, snd i ollows by (15) that a6) Was « ae Tr the lant ater e ~ 34] bat mont equal to Ue length oy of the ingot of fy. I Za denser th length of the perimeter of Ray the Intagral hence S aul But fda Leare the coreeding quantities for the original rectangle Rin lar that dy = 2-8 and f= 2 By (16) wehave bance heal sara, and comparison with (4) yes (eC) ab ‘inc eis aritary, we en only have a(R) ~ 0 an the orem is proved “This benutifl proof, which could hardly be simple, x cn to B. Gouret who dscovored that the eksieal Aypothotn fo continaois £6) irredondant At the same tne the pro! por than the str ‘profs inasmuch a neither on double integration oro drei tion xnder the integral ig “Tho hypothee in Theorem 2 oan be eskened comiderbiy. We shall prove at oace the flowing stremgertheorrn wish wil nd ery importan! se, ‘Theocemn 8. Lat (2) be analytic on test Robina from arcane R yang fie mer of erie pointe Su i te ha info ~ 00) = 0 Juloee=o ein uticint to conidr the cas of «single excepts point fr cvidntly can be divide into anal retanglee wich contain stort forall, hs‘Theoret all but the rectangle yin to cater. the coreqponding ‘stone (12) ae added, wo obtain, ater excelatons, on Ianlte ff 1 ¢> Owe an shoo the eta Reel Ut ols pa on a By (17) we hve thas Vout] = 0 fe {ewe amine an we may, Ut Ry sa egare of enter lmentary et rustes sow that Suga <® [atl <5 sn «bier he Ceoren fowe ‘ovburve tat te bypotbesoh nrem it til uid 0) say od bund on 1.5. Cauchy's Theorem in a Dish, Tha not true that the intgea ‘an analytic {auction over» closad curr is always er. dead, we have found hat fe when C is ces about «In onder to make rare thet the Intgeal Tanishes, iis uacewary to mike % mesial assumption concerning the ‘ogon in which i) snow tobe analytic nd Yo which the curve is reeticted. "We ae ot yet ins padtion to formlala thin oun, ad {or this reason wo mast react attention tom very seca eats ‘what fllows we sume that ia sa open die [ef

[ome 0) ~ fsiog oh +6 dare =, ‘When «deserts a cle eure, log ~ retain value and ang (¢ ~ 0) increas or decreas by 8 multiple fe. Thn would am ‘imply the lems, Dut more earfal thought showe that Us Yeas it of nave unlow we dsc ag (= ~ a) t's ue wey. ‘Theses proofiscomputationl, Ifthe aon fine = 20, 2.513 A let us contder the fetion Ko = [ff 1nd sinus hla itera nf 1 7o wae rlenever 2) is continuous. From thie equation it flows that the 0.on 7, and that thee ae points, sey with Imo, <0, Im 25> 0. Those points may be ebacen 2 that there aro other plat fon the ine eget fate tax and from tony Let 7s andy be the arc of from sto (exhuing the end iat Let be the load curv that eons ofthe ine eegment from 010 followed hy. andthe somant fom 2100, alto be consracted in the ame way with sin the pace of, Then ns ~ sy = 7 oF = “The postive real axis intersects bth rv and (why?) Choow the ‘notation otha he introation #farteat oth Mgt ie wth 7s (Fi. 45). Prove the flloing {) mousy) ~ 0, brace nla) = O for 7 (0) alee) = nleys) = for anall 2 > 0 (Lemme 2); (© the fre inerction 2 of tha poetiv real ais Wik yas 0 15 (8 loge mt owe nis) wet rt (© thee exist segment ofthe postive real xi with one endpoint on 7 te other on yy and no other pais on 7. ‘The pata» belmeen the abd point satis) ny) = oF 12.2. The Integral Formula. Uj) bo analytic nen open dk Conse a clen curve yn & and x punta whish doe aot Be 08. ‘We apply Caushy/e theorem to the feton 7) 10 =F), ‘This function ie analytic for « «Por = a inno defied, but it satis tho condition lim F(0\s ~ 6) = lim (fe) ~ 0) = 0 ‘hich e the conlion of Thaorem &. We sted that [22 awa "This equation canbe writen inthe forme Hede = Ho | oH sd wo obverve that the integral inthe vigh-band meter i by defi tilon Rett). We bave that proved ‘Theorem 6. Suppoe that f(t) is anatic én an open sink, and ey ea camdeurve im. Fer ony point etl on 9 en iva = 8, [10 cee) ino te 1 this satemeat we have suppreed the requiem thao be © ‘Point in "We have dave so in view ofthe obvious iterpeetaton of ‘he formula (2) for he eae tht aie notin A Tedd, this ease va) and the integral it the gh-hand rember ae both soa tis clos that Theorem 6 reainn valid for auy region to which ‘Theorem Sean be applied. "The presence of exceptional pole ff r= sited, provided none of them cinides with a ‘The moet common appoint o he cam where ny ave then a J) = sf es, We nd thin we interpreta representation formula. Inde it permit ue 4 compute fe) ns won as the value of J) on are ven, together ith the fet tha J) ie analysis 3. Tn 2) we tay ota dill vals provid that the order of wit rrpet to = retain equal (01. We sna thus est a a variable, and ie conveiut to ean ‘he notation and rewrite (i) in Ue form o naif1 his foro eh italy ere Coch fre formate.” We cat eemerabee thal is it valid aly ben n(ye) — 1 ad {hat we have proved it oly whea fe) iv analytic in sda. exercises 4% Compute [te we 2 Compute Jatt , idsPFT bby decomposition ofthe integrand in partial fretionn. % Compute J ld wh rem under te conditional» p. Hint minke we of th equations 2 = pPand la =~ E 123, Higher Derieatives, ‘Toe repreentaion formula 2) gives ox wo ea toa forthe std ofthe lel propertics of salts Fonction. ie Dartieala we aan now sow that an anaitie action has doctatives of SM ondry, which ae then al aralyie. "We comida fonction 4) whiths analytic in an artery region 8. ‘To a point @e0 we determines bacighberhood & contained in, and in Arn dle © about a. ‘Theorem 6 ean be applied to f(o) in A Since Go) ne have nC) = tor apie of ©. ern = tre obi by 22) oe 10) = 3, [ 08. Provided Sat te tera can be dierottad under the sigs of sntegetion we ind o 10 = Bf (2% io | Cy 0 = fee 1 the diferensntons ca be jstied, we shall have proved She existence ofall derivatives at the pots ide of C._ Since every Print in O ee Ine of some such sel, the exttenon wil be proved in the whole rogon "At Gh wame Sime we lall have cbiined conesient repre. ‘entation ormila for the derivatives. Tor the justifoation we oul tbr refer to careapoding theorem ia the ral eae or we could prove georal theoren sooarning has ate: gale whos ilegrand depends analyticaly on a parecer. Actually, tre ahall prove only the following luna which tall ve need tn the ‘rosa case! mma 3 Suppo th ef) i cnet om he a9. Then the con Palo) = [CO ‘onal in each of the raion deerénod by, and dein in FQ) = Fan. ‘We prove fet that F(a continous, Lat se be a pnt aot on , and choose the nxighborhood |e ay <3 ¥ that it dow not most 7, By reiting = to the smaller rxghtorhood Je ~ n <8/2 we attain hot a> H/Pforall tex. From Fa = Find = = fg AO zi ‘we obtain ab ance (Ps) ~ Fos <= 3 fa, sd hn nga prove the contin of 6) ae ron ts past te nnn, ytd tothe fino) ~ 29, econ that Girne euetat 2 = Pad. a eae a tend to thelimit Fa) 2+ Hanon proved that F(0) = Fld). “The general one i proved by iaduell.” Suppone we have slown that PLO) = (IPL). From the entity P)— Paed) + exatirma - Leta] + 6-9 Leancn code thas #0) tinned, by he indo Sow elo (Gn the etm tends ry fr 2p al es oe on of oan int aghond of "Row, die vty tyrant btn tm gone ih stm eno ii rh by tS adaon types ee Theo ft iS Ss tend tr hones by wa ot hv aay pvt ad Motions Poe Se Mo) snd pala ie at non 9 at ned er dade (2) al neers geben ror tt nhac fe Ae leo dan wit an aan rota yom “oe cn en mg tne dk ct renee ft Knows Mio oy ad Wee Saeki 17 0) nd oii gin an 8 = Of ey 8 fai “i gets hye ely dine 1., hn 1) nib ine on en #0)" We now nor at So) ath a ti [mcd cat go onder he ano els om 2 fet hs nag onan spr acs ain pr mala of pl tint ee 2 ‘Let the radius of © be r, and assume that (/(@)| 3 Mon C. If we apply Gp eines woos atone 0) Le 5 Ant. Pr Liouvll’s theorem we ned only the case x = 1. ‘The hypothesis ‘moans chat {{@)] Af om all cislen Hance we can Mt r tend to =, snd (25) lends to /(@) = 0 forall a We condude that Uh funeton Is Tiowvile’s theorem lends to an almost iil proof ofthe fandomentat thasrom of igre Suppor that (3) is» plyomialof ogee > 0. TE a) were over sro, the fonetion 1/42) woald be analyte nthe whole lane. Wo know thst Pa) = for 2+ =, and Wereore1/P() tds to sero, Thi implies bounded (tho solute valve ie contiauous om the Rian ephare ands thor x faite rome), and by Llowll’s theorem 1/P() would be sonst, Since thin ix not w, the equallon PG) = O mat havea rot. “Phe inequality (25) known ae Cauchy’ ima, shows above sl that the moc derivatives of an analyte fandtion canaot te bizar; ther mut alvaye ott 6m nd an ron that 2) is filed In order to rake the bet oof the iq te mpertnt that + be judisiosdy chosen, the object being to minimise the fnaion MO, ‘whore 7) 8th marimar of if om [fa = 7 4 Compute Lee fedmandn fem aida a 2 Prov that fnton hihi atten th wil plane and suis eli U9) Pt foetal me ‘reduces to « polynomial. fee 5) ray ad Uf) oro Bd npr ound iofoolnnenek 11/3 nnn <1 m0] 1/1 ~ fds eit of (0) tne Catt nay il el ‘Show that ho merase develo annotation at a point ean sever sat 909] > ni” Forse she hare of Decne tnd SA epee frm of Lemme 3 rea follow: Tet tbe een yb osname anton oath aries when slinsin a mgoo fad e325 Sapyee fart es) [Enis cea tae of 0 or any boo ae re [eee ania xand eo reo ba Tepes mms shane Cun tat = ff a Fiasco deta hin ron fol sd ae Lerama 3a prove (2). [feo0a) “alg. oon4 LOCAL PROPERTIES OF ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS We have srendy proved thet an analytic fonction has deriatives of AV orders In thi section wo mill maks «loser stay of the Toad ‘ropertion Te wil include a clawifontion of the tlaed angular af eae funtion. 4.1, Removable Singularities. Taylot's Theorem, In Thoorem 3 tre inteoduod a weaker conden which cold be ecetituted for ena [pest a fitite number of points without aecting to ond es We toed moreover, in Theorem 5, that Cauchy's theorem ina ceulr disk Femnins tree under these weaker condNionn ‘Ths wa a seat point {ou derivation of Cauchys integral formal, for we wore required to ‘ply Const thorem toa funsion ofthe frm 2) — fC) /Ce ~ 2). “Final, was pinout that Cauchy's integral formal remains Tn the promnce of Gite mumber of exceptional pins, ll ele Fying the fundamental condition af Thuorem 8, provided that none of thom concdue with o, "Tht remarks more nortan irony wa ‘onthe mutase.” Indes, Cushy’ free provides us with 0 res {ation off) tough an integral which in Sts dependence on © ha the tue charater ab Uh exceptional points as everywhere ele. It follows ‘thatthe exeptional pinta are ack only by Ick of information, and not by thet ntente mare, Polat with hn eharnlar are calla remorele ‘hgslrta, Wo sul prove the allowing presse there ‘Theoret 7. Suppose Bat 2) i only nth ropion Fetal by ming © point fom a vein A neceary ond mficientcndiion ‘hal hare exe a ana faction én wih coincides wth J) Se ‘hat ne ~ af) = Phe ended fart in uniquely determined. ‘The necaty and the uniquanes ar trivial since the exeaded fuse- tus! be coanuous gt a 'To prove the wufceney wo daw a cc (Cobwut asta € unde oide spotted in Caushy orca {aa nd we ean wt jar sle foe yin of. he int in Shand member row ont tion of ong sn of "Com ‘Soy ae rneln wichoqa to ors aed th a Soe 1 prod eo aaleeae Joya Toa fore = ainalgteta Iisa to dette ‘by fle) and the value (27) by f(a). foaeaee We nn iron te fnton rg == main th pr of Casco. Ie a ld for # = a, bat ‘Fates the sonion Kp = Pa) = 0 Tht oF) tee to ai 0 thre oie a angi orion wih i Seva oF) tr ad eal o 1 fore a Tat Sot ftncon by hi Repatig te proven dain sna fe on wh ota Ui) = ad fo fo ew fe) ‘The recursive eoheme by Which J) ie deli ca bo writen in the form $0) = 10) + - oH) Hao) +6 —ahe $30) = foal) +6 — 0.6) From them equations which are willy valid ao for # = @-we obtain I) =f) + = OY.) 4 (2 = aPGle) tesla) +6 ohio. Diferentitingm tron and ting « = ae id F°(@) = na). ‘Tia determines th coticete f(a}, and we obi form ie dtr ti fle, ain the hiowing ‘Thoocem 8. If Je onal a rpin , conan Tiers only ing 6 pone 0) 19-19 Quo Leined mo wel isi rt nite opr wich woready nar" wer hea den ELCs hihi teow ul fot dy oe era rope 9 TO) titted by tetas at 20 ares et Rreton oeinoga . ‘Using the same circle C as beforo we have first dey = f StL ailePoe or ft) aia he eco obtain rom). Thar will to one main tere ootainng /). ‘The remaluig tom wo, exept for constant factory of the form a ohe=ae=w Ft deal oestainideat.RyLenmas weave ale) = Fat toathar to) = Ola 1. Henrtbe cpa rf roc arr o 1) B hig ly Pence vl ea ge eee ae tases om fo =s400-o Ue pia ea ola Sry Menten he malate eat perm ees item Spas oine Meats wl a fore <2 By) wer te ae voi rity But (fe al/R0P-+0 for m+ @, snse le— 6) 0, there situation, since) iontinuous f(s) Din ancighbore ood of a and == «is the only zero of 2) tn thie neetborioed. Ta ‘other words the zeros of analytic faction which daos hot vanish ‘dntieally are ‘lated. Thi property san also be frmulaied as ‘uniqueoem hone: IF) and 9) are analyte ta 9, ond if fi) ~ of) em a wt which has an occualaion point in than fl 8 sdetclly ‘quel to 2). ‘Too contusion flloms by conideration ef the diference $0) =o Patticla inane ofthis rent which deserve to be quot are the following: IF) i idenealy neo ins eubreion of & en Kt eat ‘ally se in and the sume is true i (@) vite on na are Which oes not rede ow pint, Wo canal aay tha a abate feta uniguely determina by it value on ays with a accumulation point in the region of analy. "Ths dow not maa thet ws koow of ty ‘ray in which tbe vakes f the Function can Be computed ‘We consider now a funetion fo) which a anny ia tighborhod ‘of, except perhaps a at In othr words) shall be engi ‘A rogon 0-< le al <4. The point a i ealled wn fcled snpuarily ef So). Wo have ered trote the tae um samevale nga Since wean then define f(a) a» thet f(4) bosons analy in te di lea <3, it nada no further consideration F ‘Wig fe) =e, the pot i id to be ple of), and wo cet flo) "9. There extant Arch that f@) 4 Ofer < |e ol <¥. In this region the function 4) = 1/fl) ie defied and sna, Bit he cingular of 0) at removable, and g() haw an analytic exten il aing moran does, i teety al be mo ia te tem a sp onoh Mealy, the zero at (chs fle nde, and we ean write) = (2 ~ a) with) #0. ‘The number his the erdr of tho poe, and) bas the raprommtation Jo) = Ge ~ a0) whe Jus) = 1/9) analytic ad dierent from ero in'sorghborhod of Tho nator ofa pole i thus execty the {ame a nth eae of rutlonal Poneto. “Afton f() wich analytic In region 0, exept fr pole, ead abe meromorphic in More precody, to every 26 ther shall exit ‘ aighorbood [e~ ol < 5, cootned is 0, guch tha eter fo) waa Jyteln the whole eihborbood, ores 2) inanalytieforO < [x — al <2, ad the inlted sigulnity i pole. Oberve tha the ples ofa mero. Imorpbie funtion are ited by deft. The qantent f()/9) of ‘two analyte functions in Os @ meromorphic fenction in, providad ‘at pe) wnt Sdentialy zero. The only poole per ao tho soos of 4), bot x cemmon sero off) and g() can alo boa removable sing Insty If thie nthe eae, the vale of the quotient must be determined ‘y continuity. More eacaly, the um, the predas, and the quotont ‘of two meromorphic foreios ae meromorphic. The eae ofan det ‘aly vanishing Genomintor mst be exeloded, anise we wah to can ‘der the content = us a meromrpie function. "Por a mar detailed dicuadon of olaind snglaies, me consider ‘he eonations (1) Lim |r = [44] = 0, @) lime ~ afl =, for roa Yalu of «IF (1) bode foro coin tea old fo larger. ‘hd Renee for om nego m. Thon (¢~ a) hata reaovable eng Tasty and yatahes fore = a, Either () ie Sentoally aero, iwhich cue (1) hoki forall, or @— af) hat nero of finite oer hs ‘he liter eam flloma at once that (1) olds forall «> A= — wile @) holds forall « h and (2) for a < The dsc twa that tere aze thee poner @) comida (2) olds fora Told fora > Aad 2 for ‘Cage (is uninteresting ‘order of fe) ata. Its postive in cao of pol, negative in cae of = ‘ro, and sro if) analyte but Ow. The remarkable thine ‘hat the onder i aways am integur; shore is uo single-vahied snalyte foneion whieh tends to O a = ke a frnctional power off ~ a. "in the ea » pol of Order het we apply Thscrem 30th analytic function fale). We obtain development of the form = 0) = e+ Bae hare of) is analy sts 3 eat ea. For sx we ean divide by (e— gt $l = Bears + B,, vy the aig ‘5 eotal guarty fo) att ttounded sed come arty ce to tera Ata chaste {fhe compel behavior of fae inte neighbor ‘ia agli, we prove the Soloing dase! teas oh Mee Theorem 9. An aly fein enya ‘ale ry brad fo al anny ems be snton wo is pe 345 0nch tat [0 l> Vina nephbonooh ere eee a i260 Re #20 ohn ta ee me wt ¢ nol eB a otal iy of) hoe Ine thai be Sh a a al em {0 ome 8 > 0. Soe in nt cm i oP] = 0 mold tow Sia in ka) = 0, a wo tb a ani sag 1, cxdietn prov be her tino etd singly apie alo oto ‘lye na neghborind [> Hof =" Soe je) nao ake uel st ah iid inglariy, and by cones i he ae i, pol, Gr eemutalsnglaty as the singuasity of o() = 0/0) at #~ 0. I the nape © son 42) hae alts or hash that in Ff) sly see ant Infaity, and for pole the singlar prt a is plyaona in 2. a « ig 3 til eingulesity, tho fineton har te oper expres ‘Theorem 9 in every nighborood of lsty, ed exenciexs 4 1640) and gs) have tho algebraic onder haa bat = 6 show ath het pte ea ae SUMERUER OD secon menepee gee12 Show that function which is analytic fn the whole plane and bas ‘ poneaetil singularity at = reduce o pelos 1 Show that fhe fuctonse aa sand oats ove emia singuaritig| 7 Stow that any funetion which is meromorphic in Une extended lane ia rates 'S Prove thst sa bolstd singularity of) is removable as soon se tither Re l@) or Im 7) ls bound above or below. Hin: Apply = Trational near trouformatio, & Show tha an slated dgulrty of) eannot be poe of exp) ‘ina: and! cannot have oman pe (why?) New apply There 5.3. The Local Mapping. We bogin with the prof of genera for ‘aula which enable to determine the number of mero of an selsic function. Wo aro conidering s funetion fl) which i aonlstie and not Sdentelly soo a snopes die A. Let > bos elnod evo i auth that) Don y. or the sake of stplty we stppos Bint that /0) Jha aly finite umber of seo in 2 and we grentdte then {yty. where cach eois opted ab many ios site ode indie "By repeated appiatonsof Theorem or rather't consequence (30), it is loa thas we can write fo) = (aye 29) =" ee) ‘where of) i analytic and » 0 in 8.” Forming sh losithmic derivative eobiain ra 2, 1) mt eh for and patil on. finn gs) On, Catchy’ here youu L ano. er elias hin on) So A) myad Fnlnad = laa = gh | LM de ‘Thiel roe if /)awinfitly many sor in A. Tet een has ‘yb contained is consents dik a” maler than A. Wales () it ‘Geaticaliy aero, m ease which mus obviuly be exeided, it as oly finite number f zoree in a.‘This a an obvious conaquence of the Belnao-Welrtrae theorem, for if hare were fit eany 2708 {ey woud have an aeculason pint i the case of A, aud this Jmponbl, "We can now apply (SI) to the dik a. The wees ouaide of 8 any nly) = O and honen do ot catebato to the mu in (1). ‘We have tha proved ‘Theorem 10, Le be the ras of 9 fact fe) whi ka anni in 4: ik and does not eanhsdontealy, ache bing ent at any tins ts order inten” For ery ld curse i Bhi doen ase ough ee @ Jaen 1 pre mali ‘ohare the ar ha only oie number of kerma x0. ‘The funtion w ~ 2) mapa y onto low cure Pin the wo plane, sed we bud ge 28 LS- [ge "Th formule (2) bas thon tho following interpretation: cy 80) = Yn. ‘The simplest and raat useful appliton isto the cae where ‘own beforehand that eack n(ys) mut be either Oot te Tae (22) ‘ills fora for the lla! mumber of sees econed by 9. ‘This in ‘vidal the cam whe yf cre Let be an arbitrary complex valu, nd apply Thaonta 10 to fe) — The aero of f() ~ a are the roots of th auaion Jo) = onde ‘denote them by (2). In the plac of (22) we obain te fre Yatraten = gh f (38) take th form Ma) = Bnirat. {ain een tamara that 0) 4 « ‘fend aria te ms pon deere by Tw toe tht 42a) = nr), and bance we bave ako Stra) = F(a) ‘hey ia cil, it follows that J) taken the values a and 8 squally many {ime nao . Th folowing thorn 9 lacs immediate conasgonne of ta rel ‘Thearezm Ue Suppo that J) ie analytic at f(y) = Wy ond Se) ~ we has osteo ode bse “If «> Ose enfiinty smal, ie za creeping b> 0 rch tha for ll a tha wl 1 the lal correspondence can sl be demribd in very pre co emanate se tah at eo a Poe rarer ert lie ei Era sae = ee eto elie cs atas mate cast SoS ae sienna Sige omar nin Enresamran senda See Smee ven CT a bape ese Teg w croremenwmnce opie Tc aecnaar carmen = anagrams eaters 44, The Macimum Principia. Corollary 1 of Theorem 1 has very Import antral aanegteoc Known othe marion pinto foraie functions, ecnate of ls simple and cept formulation i a ‘he ofthe mon neal general eores isthe theory af fuetions. AS 8 ‘le ll proofs bred or the mas precple are very stnightforward, fd preference in quite justly given to proof of thie Kind ‘Theorem 12. (The mesimusn principle) 1f fe) ie onalytic ond mom anette then aa ie fl) ha no nazi i. ‘The proof is ear. If wy = fos any vale taken in, there exes «s selgtorhaod le ~ wi] + conned ie the Image of Ta this eihbovood there are points of modulus > fo an hese (fe) wot ‘he maxima a I) Tne pote formalationceutilly the mane theorem can be sata fn the for: ‘Tcorem 13 1) fe) i diva ond continuous on a clued Bound at B ‘red analyicon te trio of on hr mina of Ye) om Bis vee one land of B Since Bis compact, [hae © maximam on #. Suppose that i it sumumsd nef ieon the boundary, thee is thing to prove. Itz team interior poin, then [fe alo Use main of [fl fn a disk less < deantaned in B, Ba thin inno pone usc Je) inconetast {2 the component of th itenor of mash contain 2. Tt fllone By eatin fiat [7] in eq to He mama on Use whole boundary of ‘hat emmponent. This budary i not empty and it a eoaalpd inthe Tondary of B That the maior i any abeumed ot » boundary oi "The masmnum prinsiple can uaa be proved analytically, a 9 con quence of Cauchy's integra formula th fomola (22) Ye epcialived {tho ese where ie srl of aontr ay and ras r, we ean write Potechre d= Wedd on yan abla Tor # = 25 o oy 2. poo a “Thin formula shows thas the valu ofan analytic faction nthe oster fa crcl is oqo to the sismeto mean of its vas on the cil, tube tothe condition that he elsed dik ~ contained in he nego of anal. row (2) we derive the inequality a val a ena Suppo tht fe) nere main. Tien mewn he = [wad i tweety he for esnge a ef ald ict, by contig, on oly we Dut then te Pas we at Ife re wld be syn tan amd (2 ru ad {5 conten fe < Than ant eat eu ‘a [feo] on al mofitay ccs free rset tone hes Deighorhot feu Ie flown sly that) asl ree o's coe Sit "This ewoning prvi a ind poo in matin pd Hes Wo hav svn rns to he fn ol bean ttre that {he maxim poncp ie emmqenc fete’ proper of ‘he apping by an atte etn ‘ater ow th ca of fmt) which ann te open ot Hl < nod continua on teed ako Wh sta that [Obi = on Hl = en 0) show that = fled g ea (se = Fed] $= 8 and isco mse) y 4 In Bx 1 and 2, rove that equality imple that 0 it none transformation, ‘t Derive corepanding inoqoaBtios i f()mape fol <1 ito the ‘upper al plane "Prove hy wi of Schwar'slemina that every oneloan ooformal tapping of » dik onto apother (or half plane) lagivenbyalincar teatatmeation St Try isa pecewisn diferentiable arc contain in| < 1 the ntgral Gaetan. Se in aed the nanmactztontmgth (oe hyporini gth) of. Show that any fonetion fl) with [3] <1 for fo < maps every 9 onan se with smaller of egual boveusidean length ‘Deduce that « nea sensformation of th unit disk onto iblf p= ‘sees boneusidean lengths and chock the rst by explieteoxpuration, Prove that Ue are of wnallest noneuctienn length hat jis wo sven points inthe uit dak ina cenlr ar which orthogonal othe wit Sr (fake te of near tstaoriation that caries oot endpoint to the origin, the other tow point on the postive ral wie) ‘The short: noneasidean Irogth led tbe eneucean dance betwen the ood pons. Derive a frmul fer the noneudideanditance Dotween 2 and 4 Anan: 1 PS 1 PSS I 1 biog “k How should noneuetidean length in the upper al phos be dened? 0. Cover tho woo pase ‘rth net of aguas of side < 3/4/32. Weare fee to shcona te net raat eostap plato Alor atthe enter auare. ‘The boundarycurve of @ is dnoted by 89; wo assume expllly thatthe aquaces Q tre cavod and thas the interior of @ ee to the left of the direst Se egenente which make up 9 ‘Comer now the eyo 9) re See, wher the sum ranges overall quar Q inthe net which have « point in common with 4 (Fig. 4). Bomune i nla im qn ado ‘no of thom agar, i eidest that yy) 1. Perthermor, i dar that 7 doce aot most B. Bat if the eanoalations are eased ou ‘Seqully car that doesnot pet A. Ind any ode which meet 4 isn commen sido of two mguares inlided nthe ni (39), an te drwetcns are opp the ide doen not appear in the reduced ‘aprenion of. Hence is contained in 0, and our thorem i proved ‘Wie remark now that Cauchy's theorem i ertiny not valid Tor regions which ae ot simply coanected. In fact if tare w eye 7a 8 och that le) » Oforsome wound of then 1/2 2 while its ntagral Se 43. Homology. ‘Tho charscerizston of simp counetity by The em Hglos Outs property that comonon to all eel i» spy ‘connected ran, but which eel nan aitrary rin ope so may foray not have. ‘This propre plays an important rleftoplogy snd {heretre atu special name = Being) £0. Definition 2. A yc imam open a is sid ob Rr to 20 eh rege 0 ya) = O for ll porta th component of Incorbols we write ~ 0 (mod 0). Whan it ler to what open st wo aro rufa, @ noe not be mentioned.” The motion 9x 7, ‘all be equivalent to, ny ~-0. Homlogios canbe dd ead ou tested, eed ~ 0 (md 6) impos» ~ 0 (and for ll 3 ‘Again, our trainlogy dow st quite agree wth sisedord ‘oe ‘twas Emil Artin who dicoverod that the characterization of homology by vanishing winding numbers Us i procly with what eoded for the geaeral versa of Cavah's thao, ‘Thin idan as Ted to 4 rmarhable simpleton of eater proafe 44, The General Statement of Cauchy's Theoren. ‘Ths dabniive farm of Cchy's theorem is now very ont torte, Theorem 1) eatin on © [weno ‘or ry ph hha i 2 In ie ain, we ae ning ay wah a) Aoi ir eer ladon ota anion aly tof he {ef 9) with atin then hls ral mate i oat i Ten tne hve flora coy Corollary 1. If fl) ie ani in simply conned rein, ben 40) lia fort ees in. Before proving th theorem, me make an chervaion which ot up ‘withthe conilretootn evn 3" As pied ou Ut sochiction,‘he vay f (4) fo ll heed carve yin areca that the ine Integral of fds independnt ofthe path, or that saa exact ier: ‘tial. Hy Thsoren there ia then slag valed analy metion Fe) teh that Pg) ~ 2) (he peometc term “singe-waied” i ted for Ciaphassoaly). a © simply eomected region every analyte funeion ‘Ste a derivative "A partial applction of thi fst. cours very requ; Corollary 2 Hf) te enalyic and 0 na simply coma ragion 2, era 1 ue eal ea rd gf) nd Ts fat we know that there exists an analyte anetion P() in soc that P(G) = 70/fe). The funeton fee han the derivative stro sand is therefore « constant. Choong a point mp «and one of th in finaly many value log (2), we Gnd Uae erireasnaitd = #6), sod ecusoguently ws can wet lo f) = Fl) ~ Fed + log fed. To Aetiae fe} we mnrly write in tho form exp ((/n) log) 45. Proof of Cauchy's Theorem. We besa wth » cotton thst pvllee the one tn the proof of Theor 14. Aarim fiet thet in founded, bus othecwise abitery. Given 4 > 0, we eover th pane By ret of squares of side 8 nd we denote by Qp je, the ewe aun in the net which ar contained in 0; beens i bounded the sot J Bate, snd if J is eticently wali stot empty. ‘The onion of the squares i$ ¢J, consis of led ropins whne ornted boundaries make up the ae ne Die. Gas, sam frets which asdf exe Sor We aot y & he mera tbe ten Ge 210) “ty ba eyl ich Bigoa oa nth we eon 32 snl hat yest nC ont ete bmg ‘hat let on hich soot 9p ‘Treica pt ee which aon Te Spot to randy ine ent tn nd tae dest me Sins omelets plat vntuned nh flor tat np) = aig = 8. In peur iy = 8 ora pein ton Te 17h pat ive sun by A.D hy ie i Sayre now Unt fea fo. Eis in the tern of Oy (0) His 0 teks ‘ed banoe w Koa i 10 = Silt Sins both edo ars cootinowsfenetions fs, thi ation wil hol for alse, a8 comers we bn oo [ioe Leiba S) = ‘hinted of tral leg toes fone bets ‘inti rng aus nape sy rareorder of integration can be reverted. In othr words J eahfOA)e~ fy (Gohet)me (On the rit tha inside intgeal is ny) = 0. Hence Ue integral 42) i no, aad we have proved the theorem for bouede 2 ‘ft wabounded, we replace it Dy fn intersection of with di lel ¢ Rwbichislrgeencugh ta contaiay. Any point aia th complement oF ke ithe in the emplement of orl outside the dik. Tn iter tase nny) ~ 20 that y ~ 0 (rod). ‘The pol i applicable ot, fed we Sele that the tone i aid for arbiteey ‘46, Locally Enact Diferentiats. difornil pdt + dy ssid to ‘ely oxoct nt next i mre neighborbood of each pint in Ris wt itu tone Qs. Tp. 14) a this so if and ony if “ fretemno for ally = aR where ie rstangle contained in @. This conto i csrtaioly flied if pdr + ge) = J) de with / stays in and by ‘Toco 15, (4) is thon tus for way eyle + ~ 0 (ad pe cece see [retea-o ee ‘Thove doesnot soem tbe any deck way of wodiying the proo of “Theorem 15a thet would over thie more general statin. We shall Ahersore end up by prewating two diereat proofs of Oates genom theorem Asin the esbiereditione of thn bok, ne sll follow Artis ‘roof of Theeean 16." ‘The searat oroof of Ceudh’sthoran hss bee Included besase oft pei! appea or the pro! of haart 10 me sow Seat that y ean be replaced by poly o wih honntal and vere don mach Eat every lay exact {itera tas the senegal over o acres. ‘Thia property impos in partiniar, nla) = ala) foe a n the emplerent of and hate 2. Teil thes be wut to prove the tlworem for polygons with ‘ee pall to tbe wes ‘We eustect oan a0 pgrosimatlon of. Let th danse fom 0 the camploment of @ bo ity i given by 2 = a, the function x0 i ‘aformiy continuous onthe clad intoral fb) We datraine > O40 ‘ha [260 — 2G] < p for |e — | < dam divide [ito sbintervas of Iungth < 5." ‘The ereeponiogsubaron 7 of ve the oerty at ‘uch i octal in adn of ran which Kir enaey in The end Doin of aus be jlned within that tisk by m pngon # oniting of ‘2 Bocaonal and a verted repent. Sino the diferent i each the dak, [yrertear [pert ee au, we obtain [ire tea [pert aes adie dei, ‘To continue tho proof we artnd all wpments that ake up to Infinite ne (Fg 4-1)."Thay divide the plans nt are Seta rectangle 2, nod some unbounded regina fj which may be sega ur inte retaagh ‘Chaco a point oom the interteof ach Ry td frm the yee “ ove nt a wher tho sum ranges overall ite rctanglo; the oes nf) “oll dateinod, for no eles on ». Inthe diesron. that follows me hal lo make we of points chaca fro the iaterioe of ich 1s low that nG@Ran) = TICK = 4 and OUR x 6 sat, ‘MaR) 0 fr aj With thin in mind ie follows fn, (44). Meat) ~ Mesa) tad n(eas) ~ 0. Its alo true that mea) = 0, forthe intern of belongt to the usboundel region determined by « ‘Weare that shown that n(e ~ eya) = Oforalla = ayand a ~ 6 From this property of — eu wo wis to conclu tht ew etc vith ¢ up to sngment Us een! sguint ach othr. Let ea be the omanon sil of tno adjaout retanges Ry; we chow the oriertation torthat lito the le of en Suppeze tat the raed expression of 1 eveontane theme Then te ejelos ~ eg 23%, doce 08 ‘ont vy adi follows that aad oy rs have the ane Index with rept (ots eye. On the otor nd, thes indices are —e and 0, rmepectvey we consade that ¢ = 0. The seme reasoning appli if ‘ry the common wd of «fie rectangle Read an insite rectangle ‘Ths every aide of faite rectangle cee with coeficient seo ite ~ 29 proving that « = Toney om We prove now that all the Be whowecorempondingcueficent nn) ' dferat from sero az ntucly contained in. Suppose that point « in the cond roctanglaR, were oot in. Then n(va) = O beease e ~ 0 (feed a} On the other hand the lne nent bere & a dee not Interest «, sad hence nfea) = ao) = 0. We eonlude by the local ‘cractoew tink the integral of pds “+ gy over any AR, which wane ‘Sfetvey in (45) sre. Coosoquaty, [retew =o sd Thora 16 i proved. ‘47. Muttiply Connected Regions. A region which s wot simply cou ‘ood i led multiply connocto More procily, © is aid to have ‘the Gite connectivity w ifthe comploment of 0 has exactly m components ‘on infite connectivity If the complement har infinsly many com Tenenic. Inn lm precka but wore sugestive aneuses. a regon of ‘connectivity n wie by punching Boles inthe Riemann ape the case of Site connect, lt Ay, Ay «+» a be the come ponente ofthe complement of and’ assume thet inlongs to A. IP ‘yl an arbeary eye in wo ean provo, jst asin Thoorem 1, that ‘a in conaast when o yk over any one ofthe compunents A, and that (ya) = Oia dy. “Moreover, duplating the construction weed in ‘he prof ofthe sume theorem we can fad eyes y, = == ym ty fich that nye) = 1 for a A, ned a(qe) = forall ober point ou de of er «vo oe 7 0 te be tn sonata fw or cA" We fad that aay pot outdo 0 a te dot noe moh repectiothecydey = nem "=" —eerer net wr, rem teen to bt Tray eye thus honnlogat to a Inna conti ofthe eydoa ete ons tou, Thninewconbinetion Sige ieee fe ‘Pwo ieeat tombinton re homoge to thot pele tne ‘irene wold be sles wmbinton whch te bongs 9 So Bar de ea rama hee oe ete the pit in ac aot be hones tose ‘unos all the cj vanish, i i Tn iw ofthe cumstances a= ges arid te frm shot tana fr tn ron Tw ie nk hee ‘es et bran omnstay herein en agen wey ee that cre Lomsngy baat hart se taba of SW od that evry seen wh Bite bolo bs has fle ter, ‘the numberof as eran oe kan thn nem By Theres 1 ve bu, foray hal econ 1) in [stem ef sterol see teal fae ‘The munbes raf ge depend only on the function, and not on 7. ‘They are caled maul of pevadisty of the diteential fae, or, with leas asmireey, the perads of ‘th dette integral. We have found thatthe integral 0) over a2 lei ear combination ofthe periods wth intger a oooicent, sd Qhe integral along sa are fom 2 to ris detrained 3p to adiive ‘multiples of the periods. ‘The vanishing ofthe periods isa uecomary fd muse! condition forthe exstonoe cf « sgle-ruedindealte Tn onder osteo lt ue eonlder che extremly spleen of sant dein by ry <[l-< ry Tho complement has the componena [a reand [el & fy; we include ihe deqooartseasesr; = Oandre~ =. ‘The anual is doably conzectad, nnd » homology base foroed by amy srl el = rtu <1 Ouch thatthe duly exmneted region O.¢ le al < hineoatanod a) Draw a cede Gynt of ra “~ a, the uation b ighlly more omplcted. Wo must then expand by Taylor's theorem im the frm emer tele — a) + HiaNe— a) Dividing by (2a) me find thet the rsh of €/(¢ — a)? ab r= ive. Romark, In propetations of Ceushy's thaorem, the itegal formula ‘ind the residue theorem whch fellow more clasal ly, there tention of homology, otis the noon of index used exp. Toten, the curve to which the theorems are epi in mpm to form th ‘omplete boundary of rabregion off, aoe the ovieatation is ebecen 39 ‘hat the ecbregion ise tothe nt of In riporoun toa considerable ffs peat on proving thst thee intutve notions have predse ‘meaning. "The main objection to this proedure i the tecaty to allot ‘imo ae attention to rather daicate guations Which we peripheral in ‘omparton wi the main rus "Wilh the general plat view tat we have adopted itil poi, ‘and indeed gute easy, tilt thecal re All hatin ede it to accept the follwing dition: Definition 4A eye i nid to Bound he repon fad only m8) edefinad ond equal to for ll pointe ae Qandil undeed o ua lo ‘aro fr al ponte net in 0. Tea hound and ontaa rge ion thant 4 clear that is homologous to ser with repeat to "The falling tements are thorcoretevialconsoquenes of Thorens 15 ad I WS yrds ond fe) fe analytic on theo + thes [youn me ea nar 10 = SOE peatnen1.) i nt 9+ exe ori nari in en yf forde= SMe core the eum rang ee singularities a0. ‘We observe that a ayle y which bounds @ must contaln tho ast Aeoreie boundary f &.Tadoed, fy Hew on the boundary of then very neighborhood of. eontaine points fram 0 and poinia notin fmach neighborhood were fre from point of, 2) Would be defied nd comstan! inthe neighborhood. ‘This cortedi‘e the dentin, snd henon every neighborhood of % mut inet y snce 7 6 eoed, 2 ust Toon "Tho converse ofthe poseding sttetant eno tan, fra plat ony nay wal have »neighborwood which dow not meet Normally, eae swould ty to choose 50 sti Masti! withthe Boundary af 3, bat {or Cauchy's theorem and relied considerations this naamption i nob seeded. 4.2. The Argument Principle, Cauchy's intgral forma can bo eo0- Sider as special ease ofthe raidue theorem. Indeed, th function ‘Sloe ~ 2} bas a snp pole at + ~ 0 with tho reidue fe), and when ‘Be apply G7), tho integral fora resus. ‘Another application ofthe residue theorem ocured in the poof ot ‘Thecrem 10 which served te deers the number of sroe ofan analytic function, For a aero of der he can write fs) = afte), with $M) #0, aod oblaa f"@) = Me — AG) + (@— GG). Conor ‘aunty F/$) = WY ~ a) + 0)/R(e, ad we we taf Was 8 Simple pole wilh the’ reac A.” In the forma (8) this ride secounte for by « comesponding repelitin of terms. ‘We ean now gracralee Theorem 10 to the eu of meromorphie fanetin._ fff pe of oer h we Gnd by tie asmeexleulatn a8 above, with ~b replacing by tht f/f has the reidae —h. ‘The follon- {ng theorem eu ‘Theorem Wh. 17) ia meromorphic in withthe zero and Opler ben a [GQ a= Ynowd Jno {or xery eget x which in homelopous to rain and doc at poe tah fy of the ras pole "in understood that maltipe sews ond poles hav be repented a ‘many tsnen as their order indicate; the wars in (48) ar fit ‘Thooren 18 is usally referred to a the argument principle ‘The ‘mame ofr tothe interpettion ofthe l-hadenerber a (8) ae a0) ‘whore Fis the ie cycle of AFT Te iw dink bic doesnot co {ain the ergin, then m(70) ~ 0. This abnervaton is tne besa for Une following crliary, known a8 Rowe's threms Corollary. Let be homologous to sora in @ and mach thal wr) in either © or 4 for any points nt omy. Suppor ht) ond () are ana in 9 and satiny th inepuality LY) — 9@| < Ue] on x. Thom J) and fe) ave he same mumer ef een oclaed y ‘The acsumpion implies that fle) and (2) are saree 9. More- over, hey sity the equality 8 on The vl of Fe) = 2/0) th canta nt Spat aoe ela Wa Tauren Wb ae Fis wetar tural) seine aa 1p etna ash ewe he foie Senate st fad tin seni oo 2 a RE UGE es haope ea ete ie 10) = Paso) 42009) srs Pott yoni ef een — 1, Fae a iaty dome 2 ity gg tes pre is ngaiy ROS WW" hn deans meni ee ee es ‘Si umount dni yop eo Sailemain Fag howe 8 cas 6 geld nh floing met 1 i test ihe denM) a er dc 8 sn rian “190A eon a 4) ae [OG = Ymca) — Y ner ‘Tis npr fr te stay of tho nvr fnton, With {he notations of Theorem It we know thatthe oquaion f() =e, We 0. he soon aa Ye Xs and Yaw meenly large, this restange contains al the pote te upper half ase. Under the hypothesis e() is bounded. lene ‘he integral over the right vertical side i, except for u evmtaat factor, ea tha fotcg fice ‘The Jot integral can be evaluat expliily and it found t9 be <1 “lneo the integral over the right verti side it lew fhan a conan times 1/%y and s oresponding rel nfo for the Ie vera! ide, The integral ower the upper oraoatal ide ix eviectly Tew han ©106 + X9/¥ multiplied with s coumant. Hor fined 2 Xe tne to 0ue ¥ > =, and me meade hae We ee [oto den 8S tearin oie te odo hat ¢) = 8 Tsien re br a aly hat 2 ae pole i mal ie teste neal hoe et fre om tga ay wl ne ma Rs ke tm th hae dale ee Das dogepdeel 2a nar eee 1 GS at smog ea eae i, Sem hemo td at beer wea path wh aie he tab awn swe esa a me fn 1) ent es ee tal Reese 2 to Bere] < A(t)ser Ts der tha we aoe th eat gilt [7 mores an] Y na mine + 48} co the it cll ta Conky priate of hata PEE ung iene i hae teagan he hand ‘tec thal cello th rao 20 hn bec nce he is Fopehal el the perv sousidaipng he pe hal lane the gece eh eal ws ln perf Moe dem tot na le ot Ye dl Hypa rth ans innate ype Tata hepa the ml mr be Spl andar Bele we pen fo Sass Soon ot rang he ela ragoary pact no ober thatthe repr. {SE sonal i ia by the fc hat the nego To he {aGenry pt te bot ecm to tah the pesca vale, and ne the int ia even witty ot heen sis 2 can bo We remark that ino contining xfactor coe #0 acted th ave teceigu, Teed, thea fctar san bo ween STUSIS‘Uthitadon ot er en mend ina the coreavonding {Rugracan bo roced tte form (0) by mchangs Of rare: [2 Rlowm ae = 3 J 2(2) eras 4. The nr atopy final a th form [i entree rere the exponent in rel and muy bo suppomd tein the interval O.<« <1 For convergrove R() must have n sor fat ena der Oro st © aod at mod aszple pole athe orga ‘Tho vow featare isthe fact tat BC) i aot singlovalued, This, however, ie Just the ciremstance which inake it pone to find the Integral bo Oo «. ‘The simplest prooedae ito ear wth the substation z= which teansforene the integral into af nya For the funtion 2 we may chose the abc wham angina ee Uetneen re atd toys el dlasd cad athe ree cht by oating he ag imap a 9a ey SRetmpte inate ae ea apy ic ean eee fen 2G Wo ow snd cue wang ov oe, loge atv nd mentions ad te sec es une Fino rey lag ad on eyo ig CN a Soest cary te show tat intra over in ws onde enc th rede chores yt acca ene [oe eten de = [5 ce (amenntn a However, (=0 = at and he nage equ em f> ee ae, Shae the fcr nent 0, we aly ea dtr he alse wi oar gS “he evaluate deternsoaon of th iden RC ‘he upper haif place, ‘Those are the same at the rides of 2) in the ‘ah plan Fer praca! arc ny bo proelose tet a Fania ebaston sadness asa oR) oe ee fae down in Fig tle We hae then team as onto et ‘Semen btwn Oa Tis mc once oe {er dom not cats ate hyp ae oder Se pial ne“ Sse So15, As do example we compute he se ina [fvesinoan. ‘Consider the function 1 — = —2iet sn. Prom the representation Pope Devon te 2s), we fn chat thi fanetion irl tod nop only fort = ar, 0. In tbe region obtained by oniting ‘how hall How the principal Beaoch of log CL~ ot) i Benes single ‘Valued and atalyic.” We apply Cauchy's theorem tothe rectangle whoo» erties ar Opry r+ iY, and s¥s however, the pints O td have to be voided, und we do this by flowing all crear quadrant of reins 8. ‘Bacau ofthe prt Un integral over the vertin iden cael sesineteoch at Tho integral over Ub upper horzata ie tad to (O'as T+ =. Viva, tha itera over the quadrants can also be een to approush vero as 8-0. Tedeed, since the imaginary part of the Jogerthm i boued we nord only concer the ral part. Hom te fact that [= o/e| 2 fra +O wo ae that Jog [L — eben nite The lg & and coo # log ?—=0 the integers the qa eat the ‘orga wil tea to sev "The eame proof apps ear the vertex, snd wo obtain [06 (Bier sin 2) de = 0 ve chcoselogo ~ é, tho icanginary prt Hex batmeen Oana. ‘Ther- inorder to obtain the pracipe branch with an imaginary part tnd x, we mnt chose log (i) = —i/2. "The equation ‘an tow be written inthe form vhat- (Dot frosiacae (3) sod we find reg. exercises 4 Flo the pola and rsd ofthe folowing function: 1 © oie @ oats, 1 sar gp Om postive ote) 2 Show that in Sec. 5.3, Psample 5, th integral may be extend overs righbangld ical triangle.” Sugmeted by mst) ‘& Bralute the folowing integrals by the meld of rate: @ sel>h 0) [otter Hie tae be 0 Laariates® fl iSpy era, PF aera @ yee [abet ags a, © [lim 42980 cm, (iy nein by at) ae Lathe mee ns ae t= tour thine oie intra atin Fcumes maton cn mmatinis be ted to endat mee ings hemo ten, how at 76) sete for ja] <1 aod if It} <1, then fee eee 10 La Remack. ‘This i knows ax Bargman's kent formal. ‘To prove it ‘pone the are integral in pola cowdinatey ther traf the ode Jntegral to win intgral which can be eral by ace& WARMOMIe FUNCTIONS. ‘Thorenlandrginarypartsof an analtiefunetion ae conjugate harsonie fusetion. Therefor al theors on analyte fonctions rao User fn parol conjugate harmenie function However, harmoue fonctions ito portant in thet own right, and thor tesenent in aot alas ‘Sop by the ws of complex ethode Thais pariary trae when the conjure hrmonie function isnot single-valued, ‘We aazinble in tht section ome fis aboot harsonic functions that are intinately connected with Cauchy's corre ‘The moe diate ‘reper of harnale function are postponed to later chapter. 6.1, Definition and Basie Propertin, A real-ralus function w() oF ica) dened and sngevalied fsa egon malt be harmon ia ‘or 6 polotal function fi contiouous togatber with ite partial crave ofthe faa bro onder and natin Lala ouaton ao, We sll ase later that the rqslsity conditions can be wesksoed, but ‘hin in point of rdatvey nor importance. "The sum of fo harmonic funstiens ands constant moliple of a tarnonie fonction arp aga hari; hindus tothe ene charter ‘ef Loplo's equation, ‘The splat rmoniefusetion ae the Kacee ‘inctoaras 4 Op. Inyelar comiaatea (0) eqonin (4 tekeetbeform 7) 4% F2(2) fteon Tso a og trons ln sd ha ny Mone Peet ee Sayama teal tei 8s enema cial perenne oat a wo ou oo $= 5% eye in nul, for writing U = 2% ¥ = — Se have 0 ose a Boy wy ay, y ej” Titan on be me et = 6 ‘Thi shoal be med the et al ay pai ‘barmonic to analytie functions. fea rn por dient om saan (tae a) 4e(— Marea) 1s exprnion he el ut teeta wae hey Avan cmc hie eo ten Mees ay Maen Mey Lecanto inate sen Ba ey a nd ell iu te conjugal ferential of di. We bao by (8) om Slam d+ 5 Mi By Cauchy thorn itrgra f yan ab ie hid homolog oso in On the ci han, te age ef Se orat friars lng llega Tefolowby (9 hat ey [item f= Mees Stay 0 {oral ity which ae homolog tse “hentai ncaa wich at be ‘lt uomentins yn aa arr th the tocon {Sato ote abgt etetlacd Spas essen fe 400 we on wee al bo yy =e a somal’ Feit othe rit of tba tng fee recta 92S aya nh Bisewe= de fan's orp. the pion Sha Bens Maine 4s dma davai of rh hand nr dre wih apet oe are Wo eta“ n/t) aol eas oe-miten inthe form wo [Filed = ‘This ia th clases! notation. ta mln aieantage hat 24/2 ‘actully representa a az of change fa hn diertion perpendiealr 0 For itane, ify inthe cir ot =r, dees ih priive seas, 2u/an oan be zepaced by the paral deivative 2u/2r. Te has the de ‘vantage thet (60) snot exprewed as an ordinary Hne Integral, But 28 fn intgeal with respect vo are length. Por thie reason the clic notation Toa sata! in connection with homology theory, aod we ‘refer tae the notation i, Tn s ply connected resion tho intgral of *d vats over al cycles, sade hab sngl-valoed eonjugte funtion » whieh iy deter tine up ton aditive constant. Tn the aliply connected eam the ‘onjugate function ha pride Sutte~ [Sai corresponding to the eyes io a homology basi "There isan important geeraliaion of (58) hich deal with pair of baumone Fanti, If and wre barons kn we ean that © [vsttu— asta =0 {or eve eyele + which ia homologous to aero in O. According to ‘Theorem 18, Soe, 48 tia alas to prove (6) for ~ 32, where ssrectange contained i To, un and have sngl-vloed conjugate fetid we can write ty — wy My un dey nde, = tn dy 8 dup ~ Bu ere dug) ian exact florea, and wis + epay i the imagiory patet (os fonds + dn. "The Inst diferent canbe written in the fren FuJade where Py() snd {oar sean o8 Tho inogral of Fide vanishes by Cauchy’ theorem, and wo dove therfore the integral fits mapiary part. We ‘contin tet (0) hal for = 2, and we bave proved: “Thor 9.17 and oe heron in ein, en © [stim sti 20 for exery ey which se Nemolgou os in. or m= 1, ue = w the formula redoes to (68). Tn tho clasoal notation (80) would be writen we [(oSt-n3) mine 62, The Meancsalue Property. tus apply Theown 10 with te log and neq ow ono sharma Fete hom te pale dO << odor we tke theesle Cs Cy tere Cs celeb =r

wa) uniformly fr lel = R, tnd we conse thet (6) rewain vali. ‘We all formulate the rxtx» theorem: “Theorem 22. Supp that we) i harmonic for | < continua for bisR Then oo for allo) e* « Cy proving (08) we may soppse that UH) = G, for thin no the cece we neotonly replace U by U~ Ula). Given t > @ we can fa Cr ‘nd Ca uch tht nan interior point of Crand [U(O] < Vlarete Co Vader this ondition [U0] <+/2 for all 6, and hence [Pasel < 4/2 for ail <1.” On the other hand; ice Ui continoour and values> 1 o shere existe 9 3 such Uhat [Poo < o2 for Je eh <8 Te fellows that [P| [P| + [Pe < © a som a8 |< and fo ~ eX ‘< dy which prety what we ha o prove "Thor ie an ntareting geomet interpretation of Poieons ferme, ‘le duet Schwers.” Gea a fd aide the unit esl we dteing or each” the pols e*whicinmich that nod eae in atelght Tine (Hg 415). Tei lene geometrically, or by spl clelation, that. wo 1 at = Jet she a But the rt ( = 2)/(e"* 2) a nage, so wo must have et = anew =o, We regan ata function of # wd differentiate, Sino sn coust obtain wu cman ward and, on taking bent vals, @) 45 -|&- 14 flows hy (6) a 7) shat ait ae Bape sd bene Pua 2 [rumen = 2 [vena In ther words, to ad Po(), place each valve of UC by the value at the poet opposite wos, and tak tho average over te csc. een eee 2 reve peofeap ou represents s barmonic faretion in tho uppee half plane widh boundary values U(0 at point of continaty (Pon's integral forthe al lee) ‘2, Prove tatu funtion which is harmonic and boon inthe upper hal pian, continuous on the real aa an be repreated mt» Poon integral 1). oer The pint at pro aed ety, ecm iodo oy cals ad isin pace Pe Kody oud tetwapey ematinue peat ae Be ge 1 thes of eae ed Tr a wr Niaitmabischey monies keyee tate wiser. Shor tat renin saw aed a money Wnlcios we Freie Tne uae has Us apa rina 40) = 0, 06-0) = 1, Show at P4G)~ Lee» kde YoO un 2-+0, Go. raz brary up and te a ft sn 1 If and Cs aresonplsenta:y soon ont int = sn6y U =m Pod Pld) epi nd how tat er) eas te tng fe rapes to Geto yh sgh ie tah ed the nd punt of ‘Show thatthe thewvale frmuls (2) cemine valid for wali bain 0,00 1, snl tn fc to ompae foe sn va 4.3179 meng tbo wot plate and Ro) — 0 when 2+ ou rho ths ex omate Ho Uo) 7 yo) nae miro and + Ref 0 inn # =n, tf) ee" nerdy te iad Tt how thy tnt Canhy’ nel , ries Taf Cah’ tga oral ik = ff efile» Ofte od emg le Sass*% 1116) is harwoni for < [| < pad imu) = 0 rove tw sry he orm a) = he ho sna fd gi barton tn = Tit: Choos gv (61). Thon show that wo inthe ral pat of a scalyte funtion f(s) and use th proceing exerts to conlude tht tbo ‘Sogulsity at On remorse 6.5, The Reflection Principle. An dlomentary sept ofthe apnmary principle, reo principle, has bos dscusd already in connention ith Hoear transformations (Chap, 2, Sec. 8). There ave masy more teal variant iat formulated by H.-A Schwara, ‘he principle of refletion it hnsed on th obeereaion tha: fw) ‘sharon funtion, shen wf) isikewise armors, ad if() a analy {etinetion thos J} ido analytic. More preity i ua isharmoaie and J) senite In 8 region thea u() is harmon and JG) analyte we factions ofa theron 0 obtain hy eeting nt real; ha la, ee if and only if ¢0. The pools of thts atatements contin ‘tivial verideations Consider the case of a symeetelo repin: O° = Bocesie 0 ‘onnested it must intersect the ral aie long alt one open inter ‘Amume now that (ie aualte in and real on at leat one interval of ‘herealsxSinoe fe) ~ J) i analytic and ania oman interval ruet be ientelly tre, and we eonetude that fe) = 7@) ia With the notation f = u + ie we have thus u(2) = u(9, 1) = —¥) "Thea coortan, bat teacher weak ronal for wo are staring that f(t already known to be snaytiim all of Let us denote the Inteeetion of withthe upper half plane by, andthe intrweton of swith the ral ace hy. Suppow tha) deBned on "Us, anaytc {nd}, continuous and el one. Under thew condoms wo waat to show ‘thet 7) ithe resection to O* ofa function which is analyte in all of ‘mod sstisen tho aymmety condition f@) = f@)- In eter words par. (four theorem sata that J) hasan only contin to ‘ven i this formulation the aasumplons are loo stone. Tadod, the main things thatthe imaginary part (3) vanishes on ad nothing stallneed to be oruned shoot the rel part. Tn the dente sateen of th refltion prinpte the ouphasis shoud therefore be on harmoale fiwetions. ‘Thcorem 24,. Let 0 be te part in the sper Bal lone of a apnmtric rion yaad ek be he pst of teva ant nO." Supe Tht) 1 ‘rlinuous in O° Ue, Rarmande Sx and ee ono. Than © has Bar ‘moni extraion to which water he yer sein 22) =H). nthe same eitation, ithe imaginary parof an analtcfeton i) in ‘2, then fo) hasan nal eteaion which sation) = TE. or the prof wo conteut the function ¥() which aaa to (0) int, Cons, und ogual t ~r3) inthe ritror imag of We have to show that Vix harmenie ons. For pnt aye cond « Sak with eter % contained in 6, aad let Py denoto the Poon itagrsl with ‘espe o this dik formed with the boundary values ¥. Tho erence ¥— Prieharmonisin the upper haf ft disk racine oa tae hal iri by Theorem 23, aod ln on Uh damater eatsn F tena to aero by definition and Py vasnhes by obvious oymanetry. "Te atm ak anime principle plas that = Py in th sper bal dik, sad the ‘aime proof can be repeated forthe lower half. We sone that ¥ ie ‘armonic in the whole disk and in parila at. or the remaining pat ofthe thee, let us agxin consider dak with center oe. We have already ontendd tothe le dst, ead ‘as s conjugate oemonie funtion un the ive dak ich Ye may Normalize 9 ata = Re fl) in the upper half Comair Tels) = tle) — wt real diaeler it in cle that s/o = 0 and alo at 9 [follows that th sualytefoaction at7/8s — ¢3U%/0y vibes on she teal ati, td hece heateally. Therefore Uy is stan, and hie forsant i evideatly sero. We have proved that a) ~ mi). ‘The construction can be repent for acitary dak” Tt is cess thatthe we coincide in overlapping disk. ‘The dainiion en be exiended ‘wall of sed the theres follows ‘The thoorem bas ebvious generalizations ‘The domain 9 can be taken tobe nymmetic with rempect toa ale sather that with respect (0 « einaeht fine and whan strata Cit may bm nerve thet fo) ‘spprosches another circle ©.“ Under such condos) hava aalyie continuation which mape eymunetrie ponte with respect to puto wym- on fue _ gat atte tag wxencress 4 If 0 is analytic in the whole plane and ral on te sea aia, rely inmginary oa the imaginary asi, show tat fs) sold 2 Show that every function which analy inseynmetso region ‘cam bo writen in the Frnt s+ #y where fu fr ore meng fn Odsme commuex anatvas 5 SERIES AND OE yi) saat and ie = b= bw PRODUCT DEVELOPMENTS tha fi LL cn frm of) in tr fw), f teghinteoneal0' a0) Ro lry > Opava = hy win'9 StS A Reo eve the eat tongs to an aye Mee Sf Btdeee tic dow ttt wheaniad} ‘Very gmeral theorems have their natural pace in tbe theory of suai function butt musts be Kept la mind ths the whole ‘eory originated from a dire to beable to manipulate expt ‘uals exprenions. Such expranions take the farm of inile ‘eres, init products, and otha lite. Ia this chapter ne eal partly with the ral that gover mic lini party wilh Tog (/oiom Ged. Moet we have then “2hfet! } m that fe) ~ a] <_ Te fellows that tho converence Saustform ia say lowed disk el 3 7 < 2,0 Lise) tend to the Tait funtion (uniformly on every compact sab- st of the reion Ts fact on a compect at hae w maximum 7 < 1 {tnd the set in thon contained in the elowod da er. This i the frie situation. Wo dal nd ast wo can frnuenlly prove uniform ferrvergens on every compact subset of; on Ube other hand, this it the ‘afta eodion Inte Ieorem ak we aze going t prove acarrm Supe hat) ios ne rj Bo ete Tito ral cri ei) ne gon wo ‘Sep mpi ut Thn fy ona 2 Miron Seren PO ey Se nb “he zap flow cy by wn of Moras con (coup a2) ES eal 2 ton a ak stn i cranny ora ptr Cn Sera ay eee oF ete [isoarno 11m the po fm ovr a — Te di ect dad neha fasting Srna ta ttn {orm > mg by Cauchy's theorem fen> maby ‘theorem. Beetuse af the uniform convergence [10a bm [100000 24 by Mors cn i flor ttf) maya = al Consequently) ia sant in the whele region. “Analterantive and more explicit profiel om the integra formal ee wie Cin he ide =o = rnd ~ el O such hat fe) ie dened end 00 for O.< [e— nf Sr. To particular, [a] tas positive mina on the cre |x ~ ad =v, which we dente by C. follows tha 1/J() converges uniforely to 1/f@) on C. Since it ins teve that 2G) >), uforaly on C, we moy conclude that A 1 ef fi wa Lo) # ~ ale teint eft ae fry gi he aie fet wnetgaea Gh Dna fC The alone Seed aesndy fo 0 by te sae ntetaon of IRQ Basse mu wtouy he hore lows Ung Telos harem spi fo x anh fog (+, prove that tinQit2y ne nitormly om all soup ste ‘2 Show dat the wren so- Se couverges for Ro «> 1, and repremat ite devivtive in eerie frm. Prove that 20) ea ‘and hat tho Ine sie ropremnte an analytic fancio for Re # > 0. 4 As geerlnnion of Theorem 2, prove that if thy J.) have at ‘moet rosin, then) iselther ently eer ora at net m rere. Prove dat dr fl 54 obo ia se sn a rane he edo 1.8 The Tapa Sere. Woshow tha rr anal ection can ‘eeriopedia govern grants Tis an amet mes crsteos of thse Taye devlopmet gen in Ch See 3, Tinow &, logier ih the somepndiny eseiog te Ioan cm,” Asoig ts hanno) scape seen ‘G containing 2, we can write ee 10) = 1004 Umea fae ~ at l= fog Ay ‘tn the lat formula i any ctl |e ~ ss] = peu that the cloned dik lel $ pincontained fa M0 denotes the maximum of (| on 0, we obtain ot ence the inate tote — ngety gM = a Monte anny = Mea ‘We conclude thatthe reminder term tend wiformly to soo in every Aik [r~ 2 5+ 1, dhe funtion (++ 2) and alles derirativn would be bounded ia | <1.” Ualee 1s 8 postive integer, one of the derivative wil bea negaive poe af 142, and hence unbounded. ”Thus the radius of eouvergenco is pe- ely exept ithe eral cae in wh te noi! eon 12 * polyoomial. To res depen ol eee lena scent nv now sly sid by Senden eke Fun le ovonea eeereers we dla by inten wotmene S48 £4 ‘where the braze is wiqualy determined as a TP wun ff for any path side the unit ile, For Justiaton we can ether rely ‘ot uniform convergence or wpoly Thoees 1. The radio convergence ‘cannot be greter than ato he daived sero and bebe tis exaely 1 V/A 2 in the branch with « poctive vel pact, we have 1 yg hS yy Loo y rsp tet et bate for i] <1, and through intgration wo obtain Le 32 1ea-bet Faas tracert arcing 2+ ‘The eros ropresnte the principe branch of ars sn «with real past Daten =/2 and #/2 ‘or combinations of elementary funetions it is moty not posible to Sind general la fo the oof Ta order to find the fst few svoficente we neod not, bowover, ealulato the roccsivedeivaliven, ‘There ae smpltechnies which saw et compat, witha reawnable ‘npeunt of labor, alt cutis that wo te HEaly to ne ‘Teisconverent to felroduce he notation [or ay unr which ie analytic und hw sor af at lent order at the origin; bw preiely, {e+ denotes a faction which ‘eontaine the fataren” Wilts notation ‘ny function which ls analyte x the org cae waitin in te fore $0) = ahah o> hoe tien, bore the coakients are mniquly determined and equal t the Taylor pafsient of 2) Ths, in order to Bad the frst sotient ofthe ‘Taplr expansion, it woilat fo dtarnine © pljoomial Pl) nochha 0) — ale) has nero of lear onder n+ 1 atthe orci. The ‘dag of P(e) doe 20 matter iis tran in ony eu thatthe covfiients ‘of ry m Sh, aro tho Toylor cotta of 4). ‘or inntanes, mippow that $i) = oe bas boo! + Wb bet Ot ‘With an abbreviated notation we write JO) =P HEM Hh) = QLD 4 EL Te le then sear that (Dot) = Fao) Que) + [and the eooleints ofthe tama of degree nin PQ, ae tho Taylor coeficents ofthe pe ‘et fla). Esplcly ne obi Fe) = oa + ad + ods + EOD tebe os babbe + {In deriving thi expansion we ha aot even mentioned the quontion of convergence, but ene the devslopmeat ie identical with the Taylor derelopment of 0) i follows by Theorem 3 that therein of con- ‘ergenen eat lout al to Ube salar af thera of convergence of ‘he even sre) nd gl). the pectcal computation of PQs itt ‘of cour not aeczory to daterine the rms of dages higher than "In the aan oft quaint 0/6) the mame meld ean bo api, provided tat (0) ~ oO. Dy tm of ordicary long division, cou Enos unl the remainder contains the factor 2, we ean dotarnine & pokyeomial Re atch that Py ~ Qul + 0. Then f~ Bag = [e" od tinea 9(0) 0 we find tat 9 ~ Ret le The eoeiicenta of age the Taylor coticlents of f)/9@). ‘They enn be determined trpisily in determinant form, but the exprowiant are too completed to be of coma al. "isa importact that we know how to frm she development af =| composite fonction fg). Ta this coe if lie developed around 2m {he expansion off) mus bo in powers of w ~ g(a). To spf, at ‘ws ume that 2, = O and g(0) = 0.” We ca dhe me Me) = tonto baer and gle) = be tbat tooo bath os. Uaing Ute mame nota: {logan before we write f(a) = Pa) + (x aa gf) = QA) + swith QQ) =O” Subeitting w= ga) we have to baure tat PQ. LeD = PAOD) + (0) tant +h: sud a ny epee fe en . Sia) = Pao) Ue ele Ta nda eS tela meen FQ) por s SLES rte ee nein dan nt (un an may ropa ah PO) anaes beking tr ha tach of he ce anion £40) hk Dace Wer tn sal at “tae Sis af he ne fe a ney eae 6'(O) * 0; henoo we aswume that on ce REprerenererer ithe. #0. Ourpinn int denn oll Frese) a eh toa cake tenn 9 ana witli mannan ™ Rc) th rectuines hag tien ST OT and oe Hae determines the coefficients of ge). reece ceataa Tmorket prove to tet of «plo Ps we prose incon Cal ena lo Pe) ne I ae ee Ponty, ied oa PQ) = Pal) hate SR Lt hago 41004 . 2 Pine) TR hae ee, the at mt hint to tera rane pipe fons tert (ud wares oie eee or sala preemie seat ase aan toad ie aoa Te ene sed ae oA pee eee nae wr wetness 24H tunew eB 4S he dvlpnt eine poe ee woth een sed sts hepa a hat Hh ape ‘priate remainders we obtain bere Ue Tene wth (e ef tte) Leet tone tier eet wet fe eden Leste it ? TOA Sete tet bet tel at Set we ot,‘Thus the development of ta begun with th terme oats tuner et ergot exeroises 44. Develop 1/(L-+ 2) in pomen of # — 6, «being rol number Vind tho gooerlcafivent an fora ~ 1 sedate te sino form, 2 ‘The Lagendr poiyomiala are deiod atthe counts Pa) in the development (12a P14 Pile + Pal + ind Ps Po Py and Ps 2 Develop log (in s/s) n powers of «up to the tm ot ‘Wnt is tho ootcient of 2 nthe Taplor developreat of tan 3? © The Fibooscel nusbere ave defi hy ee = 0,61 tees Show that thee are ‘Tor coeficane a «rational funtion and deter ‘mine a asd expreaton fort 1A. The Laurent Sertet. A secon of the form ® det bee bet ee thet 2m be considered an oinnry power sre in the yaviablo I/s. It vl therefore couverse ouside of mmo irln [= R, exept fo the xeon ous Ks he convergence nua i every reson [ol © 2 Rand henco the sree represents an analytic funtion inthe region [el Te the sie (1) in combined with an ordinary power sre, ‘wo goto more genual sx ofthe forte e Bae. 1 will be terme convergont only i the part consisting of nocnegative towers and mogtive powers ar bparstely convergent. Since the fst ‘ett converge dik [| < Ryaba the wend mes region el > Bi there i common rpm of eoneeastee only if < By a seats an analyse funtion a thn anno By < bl < Re ‘Convery, we may start oman analyte fanetio () whos agin of dabiiion oataine ne annulus Ry < kl < Hy oF more geocaly an sanulus R, <|2—o] < By We all ebow that uch » funtion can ‘sways be developed in ganeral power mre of the forme Ko = F ate ‘Tho poof is extremely simple. Al we have to shows that 4) sa bo writen a a sum fi) + 6) where fl) i anal ar [eal and {oie analyte for |s~ of > witha removable dagulty at © Under these circunstances (2) ean bo developed in zoncetive powers ‘of — 6, andj) canbe developed in sonnegnive poner of 1/6 a) "To find the reprecetation fl) = fe) +448) deine fi) by Ly tow Hod [ fom for le ~ ol << Ra and fe) by Ly Koa H0~ ae EAD for, M sepoasivedy. Moreover, by Cauchy's Intagal theorem fs) = fu) + Ne) “The Taylor development fi) in fi ~ 3 ae @ 1 order fo find the development off) we perform tho transformation Pe att sa /e. Thin trader Into [r= 1/r with egativeexenttion, and obtain“Thi formula shows thet we eas write 50) FS ste or Te i aeemated inesrctant se et exercises 4 Prove tht the Laarent development unique, 2 Let Db doubly connected region whose cmplement consis of the componente, Hy. Prove that every analy function fein ns be written inthe form (0) +f) where fi) it analytic outa of By ‘ad (0) inaalytie ouside of. (Ta preie proof rejires a construc tion tke to one in Chsp. 4 See 4.3) {The exreaion vi My Cay 'senlled tho Schoarsan devs off. UJ ha a multiple aro or poe fod the lesalng term i the Lasrnt development of fe). Anew If $i) mole 20h o en Ufa = — me 1 Show that the Laurent devalopmect of — 1)-¥ at the origin i ofthe fom stom ge ‘where the numbers Bare knows as Us Bernoulli number, Celeuate Bu Bey me 2 5th Bea ps) pret the Teplor devntopment ofan un th : reat of ot 2 termina the ervool bere. 2 PARTIAL FRACTIONS AND FACTORIZATION A rato fncin ha to sandr roprontationy, ne by pata {rated tether by fsoraion of he mera 2a ae sit. The pret mcion i Geol to Saat Speen ‘Stary moonorhi fen, 2.1. Partial Fractions. If the fasion fia meromorphic i 8 region 8 there correnponds to each pole bw siagulr part off) consning of the par ofthe Laurent devsopment which contains the mgatie posers ‘of 2 ~ by ib reduces to x polynomial P,(i/~ b)). Te empl to subtract al sngule pert in order to obtain a epresentaton ® s0= Snes) +0 wir 0} would be analyte Q. However, the oun on the right-hand side isn general innit, and thre la no gusrants thatthe seewe el sonverg Nevertbesy there aze aay eae in which the sree Soa ‘verge, nnd what is mow, it ie Frequently poasble to dhtermine 7) ceapleily fom general consderasenn In sch cece the reall ie top ‘ewanding; we obtain ainle expan which lialy tet wry ela 1f the ris (8 does ot converge, the method seeds be todo. 18a lear tht nothing eat otf we tabtzct om any Ge neta 2,6) from each singer prt P. By judicious choice of hs fnolonsp. ‘ho seis YP. ~ p,) ean be fade convergent, Is even pombe to take the 9) 0 be polynomials, ‘We shall not prove tke tow general theorem o this fect, In the ‘se where 0 is the whole plane we thal, however, prove thal every ‘meromorphic function has x dovelopment in partial fraetns and, sr ‘oer, that the sngulr pacts canbe described arsiarly. "The theors ‘nd its greraiation to acbitary regons are du to Mista Laer ‘Theorem 4 Lal {| bea sence of comple meter within by = «, nd et Plt) polynomial without constant term. Then ert ore fects tehch ore meromerphi in the whole plone wih pole fe pons nd he in enelr pars Pleo). "Marne, be met meromorphic function of thi kind can be wrilien tn the form. a © mo-3["(ey) < 200] +00,here the) re ably coven oly ad) anti in tho ‘Wile ple "WE my sappoe that nob sera The fnetion PVC ~)) Ia sly for f= land can nar be expanded in» Tar sre boat {Bo erg We eho frp) apt rem of nvr edie, an, ‘wi the tom of degre‘ “he iene Pe pcan be cima by Sel th eps erenn forthe emaindr gee a Chap. Se. The maxima of Por) [2s dens by By we ota, 1 al © r{24) ~ ve] s au(Zef for ate) a4. Ry thin timate ti ear Uk the mero in thn Fibra mer af) can be nae silty scnvengat nthe lo ane exept tte pal by choosing them milety Tag Fo i ane we remo lrg hat 28 A>, dhe etnate (0) wl ow {hat tho gral ters ic aajred by 2 forall ely are Morgner sho eatete lie ieraly vm ay coed die e.My vo thatthe eonvernente atl wiers n that sk provid we oni {he terms with hp = Rey Welorsrat theorem the rmaning meron ‘eprstaanyse fnctin Ry a fio Ua the fll Sere snrsorph Inthe whl plane. with the sgl parta aif ~B). The rest of the Chor i va ‘hs fest example we soder the Inet nt we, which Yan Abou yle ab te ns =n lintel The slr rasta he rig 1/2 and vine sin? n) ~ i the og pat at = Ife a), "Then eae a Lee in converge! for wt en by competion withthe amir sre Live tei unormly convergent on any compact et after omni of the terme whic become infinite on that. Fo his razon wo ean wita ® ata Sotto srtere (2) fanatic in the whole plane. We contend that gi Hntiay sr. "Topove thi we observ thatthe funtion +¥/sint xr ned the series (1) ce beh pavoie withthe period 1. Tharfoe the fonction g) hss the ‘te period. Fors = 2-+ sy we have (Chap. 2, Se. 82, Bx. 4) inet = cnt ay ~ ot nt fd bene w/t tenduiformy oO a> 2, Buti in ear to ‘me that the fonclon G) taste ate property Tad the sot foes in allo for pl 2 ym aod the or gos a ore ts {tated hy taki the inn tah arm We contady sta) eg nifomly fo for >=. Thin is safle! wo afer tee he waded n'a period sip 0 = 51, aad Becnus af the peel It} vil anda fn the wl plan By Lewes heros 9) ‘mt reduce tow ena, and sins the Ung the rons wey ‘ain We hve thus proved se eniy o rom thiamin etsy ot be baie yak. Tinka meer thd fer an te ante Hgh.ae deat of “ifm. Te mm th th pr ere ar ed parti man he Tr wri Sa rom al hetero withn = Awi happens let ‘subtract the constant terms, for the series : LEs+8)- Lets in comparable with $1/nt aed bance coavereal, ‘Te convergence it uniform on every compact st, provided that we omit the trms whieh ‘bcome infinite,” or this rnsot termite difereatiaion i ermine, sod we abla ° rateabe 3 ‘except for an additive constant. If the tare cormeeponding ts mand > braststed tether, (0) ean be wie i the oguvalat forms ay ri dudy ‘With this way of writing it becomes evident that both menbere of the ‘uation are ed functions of and fr thi rena the ntegetion com. ‘ant et vanish.” The equtione (0) aod” (LI) ate thw corey —s ‘at ts now revere the prnendqn oad A to-cenlualg fh gnslogrona hich evidenty repromts a meromorpli faeton. Tt very natural {o separate tho od nd even terns wl wete ay By comparinon with (1) we fad that the init ie sw ss seed 1 Compasiog sofia in the Laurent developmen of ot ta oreo a um pata estoy Sad he alan jy ie hs feet ae et an = ‘in cloned form. a show tha lewis loft = bbe den “e What i the value of ae th HS ce el - By ow La- dhe (Soe Be. 1.3, Be 4 forthe dition of Bs) 2.2 Infinite Products, An nfrite product of comes numbers ay poms fhe ‘sovntnted by tekng the limit ofthe partial produsts Ps = pups» + py. {Wis ad 1 converge tothe value P = lim rif this iit cxata nod So (ferent from ser, There are good reasons for excldingthe vaso. Fo on hing if th vat P= 0 were pera, any iSite roe vith oe factor 0 would converge, and the eonvergtace world not doped 0 the whole sequence of factors. On the eter hand, is cera coms rection thio eoovetion is too radial. In fact, we wih to erpres @ {ancion sa wx infiite prodact, and this raat be posse even ifthe ‘eaction har seen. Fer this ruson we make the following egeetent ‘Tho infite product (14) is mid to converge Mend ouly f Mma 2 Site umber ofthe fnciors are sero, and ifthe partial prduct fcr by the nonvanishing (ator tend Wo nite Tinie which Ww aiferent fess ‘Ia convergent product the gurl facta p leds this cae by writing ps = Pa/P ony tho tro factors being omitted. In view of this fact it preferable 9 wet all nfnite proc iat orm, ay hate (© that. 0 inn nosy sondion foc converenac Uno facta iss, it nonraral ocompare the produc (1) with the infiteseree aw imate Since te oy are complex wo must agro on # defnite branch of the eesti nd we decide to choose the principal branch heath tr, Denein the parual sume of (16) by Se Then Pe =e aad Sood i follows that P, tends to the Tinit P =e which 0. tn oiber trois the converges of (6) aut onion fr Ue ea erp 8) In onder 9 PeoP a0.Beesase P/P 1 iti clan that Lo (Pa/P)~00 for w—» , "There cents on integer A uth that Log (P/F) = By ~ Log Ph hye, We pas to the difornees to obtain Gays = Aaaet = Tog (Pay/P) = Tog (P./P) — Vor, (1a) and hee (basa he = Aa (Poul) — Ark(PLP) ~ Arg (L + on) By denition, (Arg (+e) and we now tbat Ang (Psy?) — ng (PaP) 0. Ror legs this incon ‘pattie with the prviows equation sme uy = he Heck llately ‘ual ae itager andi flows vn Eg(P/P) = 8. — Log P+ Baad that + Tog Phd, Wo have proved: ‘Pheoceen 5. The nf produ Il (+45) wih 1+ a #0 conse ancy with the were Sg (+ a) hone Ure repent he sales of the principal branch ofthe lparitn. ‘The question of sonvergenes of «product ean ths bo redueed tothe more fae qottion coeraing the sonvergenes of rin, Tt oan be Further reo ly observing that the wren (10) converge abmlately at ‘the ane time ne the simpler soca Z|. "Thi is an immedi conse ‘qr of the fact that tig 9D oy, 1 cither the series (46) or as converges, we have 640, and for 8 given « > Othe double inogulty (= lad < lls + 6a < + vel bold fra auleanly large x. Te follows immediately Ut the two Peele ae ft siultanoualy abolwely convergent. ‘Am ininitepredast ie maid tobe abssutaly eonvergea fwd only i the corresponding series (10) convergosbsfutly. "With Chie ermi- nology we can stats oar real inthe following tere: Theorem & A necaary ond auficen condition for te awa com eres of te prot (8 + 0) th comer of th erie $a Jn the lao thoeean tho empbasis ison absolute convergence, By ‘ee cample icant stom that he converge ff it fuflient nor neseeary for the converguoe of the pret ff (+ a). It is clear what to understand by a uniformly coversen infinite seh ir miler it et pre le S ae ee See Saaeere aed Ahram ores eerie nae finan ere Secor emacs nee pare Soccernet Tgaweeceas ae, Somes Tanooee ates exenciss 2 Biawinen EC-a)-3 2 Prove that for Rta M6 pnp neh flog fa) se Spt or ae eee Ee a HQ” noe (3 ‘and we obtain eal the ctinaie mr ‘Suppose now thatthe sures eo sre, tn at), Sr Be Ste ter oe ta ot ohn” Ses" tin’ ke a ae Eo haetle ulti caer Pa spied Gees mate i are Peursem sf eee iSite tg as a st bat rnd bet Seow by atom sd REE Sieh oes ok tata hn ganers nen 1 Fes nm tt thar pr Sacra Se gt ets ra SES Ne ae 0 Hye re (1g) aed om ans (8) -) where th produc taken ep ol 0, th moe cain prs, ond 1) Son ene fnctons HOE oe,"Thin theorem ean to Weintetras Te has the folowing important cawclay: Corollary. Bry fiction which ie meromorphic im he whale plone io he guint of tor ene factions 1 fact if FG) in meromorphic in the whole pine, we cam find wa tro funtion with tho polos of FG) for rros. Tho product F(@g@) is then an enti faction J), and wo obtain Fe) = $0)/0 “The eprecentation (3) become considerably more iteresting its postibato chow all tho ay equal to each our. "The preceding proat than sown tht the product e converges and represents an entise function provided that the sos 5, 0.00 0) conver fx Ei/eht <=. Anne that his the emul intpe for whieh thie series converges; ube exprion 2) isthe called the canna! prt ‘stodated withthe sequrace fa}, and h ie he your of the easouical product. ‘Whenever posible wows the caroneal produc nthe epesentation (Qn, which ie Ohroby ueiquely determined Tin this repeseataton (6(2) rede to w patrol the fotion 6) nad ob of ite ge, ‘nd the ges of) is by defiton equal othe degre ofthis polynomial ‘or to the gamut ofthe canonical product, whichover isthe larger. For Instance, an entre funeton of genus ois of the forma cfi(s 2) swith 24/ly] < 2. The canoneal representation of entre raneion (of genus I er of the fore, 1B, tha to may provided Una comii(s- Ze Rf mE = sr tor oi-2) wih 21a < «000 ‘st applation we coer to produ sepaataten of. ‘The seton are the integers ¢ = in. Since Zi/m divergs aad ZLjot cvsven, we mot ale k= adobe s eps ceca semen“ a order o determin ge) wo frm, thie deiratives 0 1 rr teem 8) ‘he logathoiedorivaties on bath Levo+ 3, er the rrr cy So ily atc vapor on Couper hh do nt enian tin ate 2 hea Zs jovne tem Gwe snes a 7 at IS adamkyevese m ) See To thin reorentaon the fator canexponding to and —n can be racked toper, and we bain the pl fom 5 1 follows from (25) that ine ean entre function of aus 1. oo semen exercises 4 Suppo that ans o sed that the Ay reacts cmplen ‘umbors ‘how tht thr existent ico f0) sie eats Sa = he ‘nt at 9) be 8 escton wi snp ot a hoy Show tak converges for mma chive of the numbers ‘2 rove thet ertocemnil(ssent nD te tern of SS pa eT cyte fase TIPS haar term an deems oe 1 yaa th mo ee cai 424, The Gamma Function. ‘The function win rz has all he integers {or aoros snd eth smplest fonction with thi property. Weel now Intsodice functions which have only the postive or only the negative Integers for seron ‘Th simplest fortin with, for estancy, the negasive integers for seri he correepondingeazouiealprodoct. co) a -TH(1 +3) 1 in evident that G(—2) han then the postive ntagers fr zeom and by compari with the produes representation (23) of in ez we find st once eo) sa0yat—2) ecauso ofthe maneer in whieh la) hasbeen constructed itis bound tohayo cher ingle properties Weabuerve tha G(s ~ 1) has the sae ‘ton a G(), and aad sere atthe orga. It is thersfore eae ‘hat we ean write Ge — 1) = 00), where 1) nan cnlize function. In ordar to determine 9() we ake the Toute Jonvatives on both ades. This gives the equation ‘The lat ever hte num I, nd hence equoton (27) reducento 7a) =. Tasin acon kh edt ed bate ne te poets eh sul seen me kee ie Anon = duo akin ce eee wes aia ‘Reale a Lay dein, Tags = tw ha 1 = a0) = eat, ‘and henee sat or fi(ieten ore the nth parcial peotct ean be writen in the form, GE Dest bet36, sd we obiain rain (1 Sree oes) Se lia Mec ele iS nang cay amd re Te ~ 1) = T@)/(e = 1), oF eee ee Pe +n = sre) ‘This i fond to De & more ul lation, aed for ths son it hax bcornecuromary to inplement the rertristed sack ofelewextary fume ions by itelusion of T(e) under th name of Ele’ pam fencion, (ur dtinion a th xl epromntaton oe re Ti (gre sd he fora (tan he fom oo T@rd -2) = 57 We olmere al 1) ia» meroarpie freon with pea = = 71, = 2, but swithout zeros. ni Wehuie 7) tn by e utionaeuton we int = 2 W131 a1" aang ee ta De Theta scan ann odds perrnanove in sacal Peas) evontde ne) = Ve ‘Other proper ae ott eal found by conser the seconda For insane, tipi shat T) Te-+ 4) end 72) have te me pen fe hy uf (1) we Ged indood that io) a(t) - Lote Lever -[ Latut Jaeeenl-* Laon (Fo By Integration we obtain Pere +9) = res, wher the constants @ and have ott Be determined, Subttig TOTES SY ee male um ofthe known veer) = Ve, 70) = By FO Sag) Wp Van FD = hand oe edt he rans dete bloes, oth dege—lore Tefal tht a= 22 and b= pgs +00 the fa et than Verte) = Tae + ich is row a Tage’ dpa fol exencists 4 Prove the formula of Gums oot ney = wee (2)r(E8) (=) sn 1Q)-7 0) | Whal ace the roddaes of 1) atthe pen = = 2.5. Stirling's Formate. In most soaaections where te P function «be apple, i sof wsno importance to have sore ifortion on {ho behavior of 1) for very lags walneal = Fortunately, tiple to canta) with grt precsion and very lil eflert ty mezan of 8 asic formola’ which goos under the samo of Stl's fora ‘There are many pools ofthis forma. We shoo to derive hy uo ‘he residue exculus following maialy the prewatation of Linde in he lasses bok onthe exlclase eis. This very simpland above ‘lls very intrusive proof iaszush ait gives wn oppotaaly tose ‘osides in leas trivial eae than previously. ‘The starting pool isthe frmula CB) for Ube soond deivative of tog 1), and our immediate tank eo expres ho pata aun ty 1 1 Bt art Gea team sm convenient tne integral, To this eed we need funtion with the residues 1/(¢ +») atthe itera pointe +; god shoe cotet, ern ‘He inthe vatiale while «eters only sa patameter, whi in the fret ‘art ofthe derivation willbe hep an xed values = + with > 0 We apply the reaidue formula othe rectange whose Verte eda le on f= Oand f= nt and with hovscntal iden 'Y, with the Intention of keting fest Y and then tand to =, "This eoatour, which ‘me denote by K; passe through the pole at but we know tet the {formule resaion valid provided that we take the principal value ofthe Integral and incade one alt of th Teidve atthe orien Hones we obtain «© pe ty fe 00) dt = -2+ See (On the horizontal ides of th rectangle cot of tends unrny to:ké for ¥—> «Sige the factor 1/(¢ + £) tendo aeo, the scraponding integrals have the Knit wero. We are aow kit with two integrals aves {ante vertical en. On each He = +, cot of le bounded snd ‘becnut ofthe perodsty the bound is independent cfm. Se itagral ‘over the line ¢ = m+ } i thus len than a constant cs Lee‘Thin integral can be evant, for onthe line of integration Femstins, and we obtain by rides ty et a 2 iD tat! Cramer FTE ‘hein for n> than, rally, th pnt ale of tho tara ve the iia in from ne ip > nb wren then 1p ieee - es Heater wea]- ~ Lohr eat “The in ba tobe revered a we btn the forme 4 (Me) Ay pe dee ey (RG) = at L other eta Iisa to ite coth 1 sod observe thet the intgrlobtxned from the tar 1 hus the value 1/2 ‘We ean tos rewrite (2) the form 4(P@) ty ty pe ae. cm a(n) tan tS gta ‘where the integra ie xow very strongly convergent. ors reuicted to the right half plane thi formula. cn be ntgratd. We fod a re) Lp oy Tact 3- [ote where log the pezcpal branch snd Ce a integration soatant. ‘The Tmeegason ef teint fre nls wns enn, | Wo have tse treat th integral is ($4) can be diflentated under the sgn of iain (Ucn te fatal 8 ve ely when stead to ay compact toe 2 > "We wish t integrate (3) onoe more. This would obviously into- dace af tan (/s) in the integral, aod although sngle-valoed branch ‘ould be defined we prefer to nv the tae of mulipleraved unetons ‘That epost weit transform he ntegral i (84 by puta integrr on. Weobtsin atti tea Lt wf Behe om hr the pat eof eoune eal, Now wo can integra with ree ora oan are 0) wer zs “Nigeet ft cscs Dest fat hee © anew iatoation const nd for onesie C= 1 bat team eel hy". To forse moans that ter ess he ig A plane, peraued noe ef og TC) wow vice gee > (he Fhchsod member ofthe eaten. iy rope thee af © te ‘bain the Brasco lg) whith rafal eremaien determine the contanteC nad. ‘To hitend wo muet ft okay the behavior of the integral in (3) which we denot by eo Term {tin practiallyevidet that J(@)— 0 for 2+ provided that + keepe ‘say from tho imaginary axis. Suoppoe for iat that ie reece to the haf plane 2 > 0. Breaking the integral into two par we write so fis Conte 1h the Ga otra ot 21 & Pe = ae ad ce Ws sf fF lone ‘Tx tho second integral |y* + 2*| = |z — sul «le + in| > ole, and we find Wied hermit Se settestisgcrph ena ane Sree ater ee on Raat tly chmnaon puree Befoe techie tect Se See SaasCHO CHEF OREN HED oo mC + Cet +H) bogs + JG), era to = =(e4)oe(144) 440-2040 “Letting ¢— wwe ind that @ ‘Next we apply (85) 0 the eqution TTL ~ 2) = 4/sin x, choot ngs} 4iye Woobtain ae ma Fin ~ iyboe G — i) +5G + +54 - + ivlon tyler ata +709 uation in which the logarithm ae ta have thee prinlpal value, inne far proved only upto nconsant mail of xi. But fory = Othe ‘ection in comet af tande Bees (35) detrei the real val of log TQ); ence it bods for lly. Ae y—» > we known that J(3 + 4) sd JG 4) tend 0 0." Devoping the lopli fa a Taglar see ‘we fd dst fg — oi + og — 9) = er ba +0) Bi hi in the righirkand member log coh ay = ry ~ lg 2+ (a) swish 2() sad oy) tending to 0. Those considerations ysl the value (Cre flog =. We have thus proved Sting’ formals in the frm Gog FG) = Plog de = 2+ f= Hoge + JE) or equivalently os) Pe) Verio withthe epromnation (6 of the remain valid in the righ half plas, ‘We know thot J() tendo (oO when +> = in'a ball plane x 2 e > 0, nthe expresso for J() we ex develop the integrand in ower of Ve and obtain to +n with sate Sears Iscan te pov or fesens by nen of eds) that he stint C. ate cenoaed wi the Baoan Be ee a) oh OC ae ‘Thus the development of J(e) ake the form (ay si = By = eho +(e gpa vn ‘he rade i wand mot cont thie with Laat opt {he antn 10 Ht Seer epueod a a doer Let decent utenee ese ee {ie om (a) wa Sse Wht We cay ee ih the cpm oe todo Oat oe Cee a ee Fob 0) Toe rt darn (ot ap deepen ery rae ie nie copes bu tr tad sta nana i te oe ee a Sng or ca ad Fe & Tos Lewsa whenever the integral conver, that is Wo say for x > 0. Until che ‘ectiy an been proved, It the intapal in (12) be densiod by Feo Integrating by parts we fied a once thet PotD - [ermer Loran, ace F) els th tae fea uo a 1) ad we Sd at Poy) = Fat Dies. iether won Aah eve ih tepid ‘hse, a 2 ‘ed the nh poe aongh the aap pease ce coir hl sce are ea 9/8) tema ne avs oe snap nn esap gsi in leben ‘wo bavecy (4a): =ols Lower, snd lnuce F() in bounded inthe sirip. Next, me use Stings formula {e find lower bound of 1}] for large g- From (87 we obain Jog P| = Hoge ~ 5 + Ge ~ Blog sh — vere + Re JOA. ‘Only the term ~y args becomes negatively nite, being comparadie to ety/S: Thus [F7F) dee not grow ouch ere reply than #0, or ax arbitrary funtion tir wosld not sulle to conelode ta the function must be eotatant, but frm fonetion of peried 1 itis more tha foough. Tn fact, (clear hat 7 canbe expremed as» singlo-valued mcion of the vacable | to every Yao of > 0 there core ‘pond intel ay vals of which fer by apltips off, and ths lage value of F/E. ‘The function has listed singuaetos a ¢ = 0 Saif = 2, and oor esate shows tht [P/F grows af otk [ft fer F-r0 aod If? for fo, We flows that beth singularities are eimovabl sod benceF/P must reduce to a constant. Finally, the fc} ‘hat FU) = 8) = 1 show dha FO) = 1) exeneists 4 Prove the development (A). 2 Foereals > Oprove that 19) = VB meet with < 6) <1 ‘efor (42) permite ws to evaluate the probity integral [lorena feta = i ave. ‘oe tie remit together wth Cae Warm to compute the Prema phen [fswerd, [onenes. Aer: Bath ae equal V7 ENTIRE FUNETIONS In ce, 2.3 we have lr considered the reprtation of ent fae tioan se infaite produ, and, in special casey, at exnosical produc In thin wesion we nudy the connetion butwoen the product repent ‘on and the rte of growth of the function. Buch quedions were fr Iventgned by Hadanard who applied th reals vo is odebestad proof ofthe Prine Number Theorem. Spuce dos not pert u ined thie ‘pplestion, but the base importane of Hadamard’ fatoiaation thee em wil be ult eldest, 3.1. Jensen's Formule, 1) jean susyts function, then log Lie cmon hela he ce off ‘Thecn ff) aml ad fre from sere ia Sm a oe 4005 = 3 tom oe a8, ‘and og 0 oa be expressed by Poisons formula. ‘The euntion (43) romain vl if () bao eros on th cle | =p. "The inp pro! ls by diving J) with ona factor 2 — se fr each oro,” is auliieat to ehow that ove 3 oie ese [meio ‘us nagrieventy independent of ya obo ash tht [Pvc —etar-0, a hii cone the forma fogs 2és = rg? prove in Chap, Bo 3 Chap ee. 4, 8 ‘Welln nei wa onc (i me of 08 saunter Ce Dee tne mena, rec lige aon being repeated and aasune first hat + ~ Oinat ware Tea the fanction Py 0) TS infree rom seroein the dak and |F()|— [fone = p. Cantequently vrecblain le rol = [me teniae sod batting te eal 7,Smee) a fon veenia "Thin koown at Jenn’ formula, te iiprtanc fin in the fst that le elaea the modulus fon 8 cic to the modal ofthe sean. TE) = 0, Uae formola is somewhat more compealed. Waiting 40) ~ ce} -* wo apply (44) Wo fl) 9/2? ae find that the ethan ‘member mus be replaced By Tog ++ Alo» ‘There ie simlar generalization of Poiwon's formula. All that eaded isto apy she ordinary Polen foraulacolog RG). We obtain I do Lae 4) tog fl = (69) wait trate ent = revided that fc) 70. Bguaion (45) i eequntly refered to asthe Poistedensen fers. ‘Strity speaking the prot it valid aly ff ¢ Dona = p. But (8) stows iat the integral onthe ight ew eostinaousTunetion ofp, and from thereitineary to infer thats tegra a (48) skew continuous Te the general cave (45) oan therefore be derived By letingpwppecuch 8 init "Th Jenson ad Poison Jena formulas haveimpartantsppeatons| inthe thory of entre fantons. 2.4, Hadamard’s Theorem. Let) bea entire faeton, and denote ita seon yt forthe sake of simplicity we wil ane that 0)». We recall thatthe genus of an eae function (Seo, 2.) 6 the eas Integer hich tha (0) ean be rprenented inthe form 4) fee ug -2) hero) ea payne dee hl hare a a prea “Dena by AN) the mons of (am fel = 7. Th or ofthe centre Function f() deine by = phen Me ee eae According ta thie defiiton the sleet narber mach that a Mase" for ny given «> One mon atria miclotly large Tt BU 6d he oder alot lata, ste by We lowing ‘Theorem 8 The gnu end the order of am entire function ety he double noquaty W ENE b+ Ae ‘Aarne that J) of ite genus A "The expoenti fasten (48 nuit obviously of erder Sh and thon of prod anak Send the order of both aca. Hene fuente the ‘onl produit of deh + 1. "The aarp fe rani roduc imple Ya! < thn ithe ment! hypothe We denote the eaoseal product hy Fad wit th individ ectra wt Bis/0) ware Fis) = = senting ian ‘ith the understanding that Be) ~ 1 — a We will how that (48) Jog (Ha(u)| S (2h + Hult ue ih 2, and we hav prove, fro of all, that Yas" converges. It 6 fr this proof that Jensen's {orala i eae. “Lt denote by 19) the numberof srs swith jal Sp. Ta nder te Sodan upper bound for vip) wo apply (44) with Bp inthe place of p sand emit tho terme log lac) with sh p- Wo fod 2) Ha) log? sak tog foe] €0 — tog (0) In vi of) follow tht iy rl Oar vey «> 0 ‘We amame now that the fro a ae ordered atconding to eben valves: eos glofse ss Then ie dese that ‘se certain mon we mt ve, faite, 8 ola) 1. Tein imajorant of tho sein hich therefore represents an analytic nation of in tho haf plane Roa > Iorotee Ly x. 3; the notations = o + iis traiional in his contest) ‘The fonction £6) is known as Rienona'e fction. Tt plays 8 central ols in the application of nplox analfis to number theory 1e would leads too far astray to develop evn afew of Sse appliestions ‘in Us bok, but we eam and wil acquit the render wth some of the ‘ore elmentary properties of the Pfaastin, ss i an i: ‘4. The Product Development. ‘The numbertheoretic propartes of 19) ar inset in the flowing connection between the Minetion and th arcing quence of em py Py ss Po ‘Theorem 9. Fore = Ree > 1, os) eH oR). According fo Toren 6 the inte pron converge unl for 6B e4> Lit the sane ttre of te seron Bipot — F pce. Since the Inter obtained by omitting tere of Fw, ity uniform conver ince fr # & wy inabvius, “Under the assumption > 1 wen toate that rent 29 = Der Dam = De toe re hap 0 iotge. Byte sae owen ot = rad 69 = Does mere hie toe m ruse trough all ntgien that are aither divisible by 2 tary 8. More generally so 290 39-0 =D ‘he num of the Fight being eve al integers tht conta wu of he rime factors 2,3, «x. Th st tar in the uni nd the net spy ‘Therefore, the io of llth ters except thet nde to ae as N=, nd we cold tht tim 30 TL = pe = 1 ‘This proven the eon, We hare taken for grated tat there ate initely many pe, Actualy, the rewoning ean be wo to prove tinct. Far ipy were the Inegst pri, (57) wold beeene Hod 290 39 pe ‘nd it woud follow that fas 2 Bite Hol whan ¢ 1. Tia conten,iets the divorgenes of 4.2, Ertnson of (tothe Whole Pane, Relat ro [lene foe ¢> 1 (640 26,42), Onrpg by he nog ban wong = [Tem es, sd umn wh net od to oo soon = [0 eau ¢> 1 the ner inte convert oth ds nti jeter the intorehange of sotgretin and suraatin. We reall thet £2" unambiguoaly Sefned axe", Figure £1 shore two iit pth, Cand Co both begining and riding near the postive real atin For the moment we are intersted ‘rly in Cy tr peecan ape b ielevant, ar long aa the rat of the thee about the orig ne 2e Theorem 10. Pare > 1, ra 9 fae o io ~ O59 [Pte tubers (= te dfn om the complement ofthe ponte real ais a (ern ith 4 < Tr log (2) <= ‘Tho inlowral is obviously convergent. By Caves theorem ite value does nt depend onthe shape of me lang ak dos ot eolon any ‘multiples of 2." Tn partite ate ie Tet rte fo sero Te endl seen dat he integral over the le and to wo with rT the limi w are left with tinea bak afr slong the piv alexa (he preg =a on tren 2a) eigen inten ey [ee = Bain (e — DesKonie. Bonu sin (¢ — Ije = —sin op and TOIT — 9) = w/e ar on. 24, (20), th nition (3. ‘The tportane ofthe formate (0) en nthe a ha he ight “nae ‘dei defied and meromorphic fo all valun of othe frou ean be ‘tied to extend) 10 meremorpe function inthe whale plane. Te Indead quite obvious hat tho intogral in (5) ia an enti Teton of hile TU = 4) iv eeromorphie with pote at ¢ = 1y2nsBeeaue (0) ‘already knowa tobe analyte fr > 1, th pole th intgarem 2 ‘aust canes! agit ares ofthe integral’ At's = 1, ~ TU ~ 1) has 6 mpe ple with tho rue 1, ax man for intance by Se, (9). "On ‘he other band, 1 ani lew ty rats 0 £6) has the rsd 1. We formulate the eeu an conalay. Corollary. The [func con be etnded le & meromorphic functi in |e rokle ane howe nly plea ample pel ft =] whe rene 1 The values F(—n) a te negative intogers sad sro canbe erated ‘subiy. Heel hn expanuae (See 1 4) BeeEeRSreeeeraeeeeae ot Ba gs w ytd Boom dpe Fun) a -cm at Blnoe £m) oqo (=) times the gone of in (0), sodne a ted off the flowing vals: FO) = =1/2, $(—2m) ~ 0, sad Hom 41) = (“1)"Ba/2m for poate intagara m. ‘The pints —2m toe ealled the frit srr f tho fonction. 43, The Functional Equation. a the half plane ¢ > 1 the f.fonetion ven expltly bythe serics (55), and it i therefore abject to the fotimate OD] 2 He). -Remann rogaine thet there im rater snple Felaionip botmeen 5) and — ne Asa comequenes, one has god Central ofthe behavior of th unetion ab i the al lave # < 0 ‘We sll repdoce one of the standard pools Of the functional equation, 88 cosa ale ‘Theorem 1. oo 10) = Pen ra — on — 9. For the proof we make we ofthe path C, So Fig, $15 we aware hat ‘the square part on cn the lines ¢ =n +f Ie and = 20 + De. ‘The eyle C2 — C has winding number one abot tho points 204 with me nso rm, Ab thor poste the fanetm (-2)™/(@ ~ 1) ba simple Doles wilh neue (Fame follows that 0) BL Sa Eten + me) =2 Lomita We divide Cinta Cz + Cf whore! isthe parton the ayuare and Of the part cts the aqua. tis ea to eo tha |¢ — 1] is bound Tebow on C2 by a Sed postive constant, independent om while (=)! bounded by rulipleof wr. The length of Cz i of the ecdr of m forrome constant A. If < 0, tho integral over will hun tend to aero ‘Sir, snd tho came i of our roy of tho saga over CZ. There Then the fnegral over C.-C wil tend to the intgral over “C, snd by ‘Theorems 10 the Infehand ide Uf (2) tends to 10/41 — ner the same condition on ¢ the seven J me# converge to face =| sae {01 — ond ein tiga dt (2 eames 9 Th eae ofthe ie less ely the stn Wt) he Aidy pve tr alls with <0 Bl two warmers th beeen omenpy open nt a iH ae irae ‘There are equivalent forms ofthe fueonal ation. Roxie, It wou the dentity TPCT = «) ~ #/in (6) nies oe 10 = 0 =e onto ‘Te coma of Toe 1 a alo be expe in the wing frm: Covelary, The fens 16) = Wt reer) Seine ond min) ~~ 9) 1 eve that 6) i etry, for the fst 1 — lta th ps ot), nd tho ple of T(/2) eanel seat the tivial seme ut (0). By ‘wf (6) tho assertion fe) = EU — a feta to sereaniy = never (5) ra shih ie thea YH) 1 "The rouer kao dlely vey allowing Jriterte = Daf crane Beret wef Se] Norns [Ute= bee ae S50 te thins pove fore > 1, bu he integral om the ht overs for 5, the cely will hrf ems vl fo > Oden, {oh exhibit the ole at¢~ I th ride le 2 #0) sedan erate of he form beni s w+ Ae the ali for le with A independent of tN. By choosing N IDoge nt fo fn, weft aa [0 bod by a const mes [ret Theres cor doo tees Ue rd be The Zorn of Ue Zeta Panction, 1 ftw ta he prt Schacpscas 0 hn ts tr rtd half ane » > 2. Wi {tlre te tn! eto pis tt the el at th tips © owe te tir once inthe wor nil moe POL sod tal sp Oe «gt Te en Rien ot He ae tae bem jove ar dowel eta ‘es ht Mie calusey 4. lea ates Gama pve iit o en opus sande 6, so a ys srrethas oe thr ote sr on he rie Be! olen) ‘be the nusrber of necos with 0 1. 7. For the informs tint eedar ne ae wht pt a win = Ewe, ~ 2+ 00m, 1 Por ty rman Leib 88, 5 NORMAL FAMILIES ‘In Chap. 3, See. we havo already foiled the reser withthe Sew ‘of regarding function aa a pont in apace, Tn pincipl there that ‘Bo diference between ast of pints sad et of funeton, In oder Lo anae a clear ditnction we sll novrthelom prefer o eak of familar of functions, and omally wo arsume Ut wll factions in fy are ‘efned on the me mt, ‘Wo ace primarily intereaolin frien of analytic uttins, defined in Ged region. Important exanpler ae the fale of bounded szalti functions, of fetons which do at ‘ake Un sao value Uc, ‘ie. The aim isto study convergence properties within auch fanlen 5.4. Equicontinuity. Although suai functions ate our main cox- ‘ir, ite expodient to choose ore general mating point I arasoat hat our bac theorems aro valid, and equaly easy to prove, oe fanion ‘of funtion with vals i any metic ope ‘Ass bute assumption we sal et § dente a fsiy of fnetona f ‘desed ins fxed region 0 of the complex plans, and wih valey it etre spce 8, At in Chap 3, Se. the dite net fv 8 wl be deaoted by ‘We ate interested in the convergence of sequences] formed by funetions i There i no particular ceasoa Yo expect aseuence {.} to be convergent; on the contrary, itis perp mare Hkly that we at into the oppite extreme of « equines that doo hot paseenh Sale convergent tobrequance. Ia many etuntoos the later roastty i 2 revious daadvaatage, and the purpose of the consdeatans that flow {so find condition whieh rule ox this kind vf behavior Tet us review the definition of eontnutyofwfenction J with values in emetic space, By dentin, fi contour at yf overy ¢> 0 there exists 8 60 suk that de f(ed)<« as sooa etl < 8 We reall that is md to bo unforaly continuous if we ean chose Independent of «Bot in the eu of family of funeSona thre swovher relevant lind of unforelty, namely, whether we can cho 8 independent off. We chooso to rue hot, aad ate Uns le to the follwing dtrition: Definition 1, The functions in family are sai ob gunna on et ECO ond only i foreach «> O, tre extn a8 > 0 mach tat 90) 0d) < ech = a < Band aye 8, imliorenaly for Pinetions J 68. mere a wih hi ein cat patina ity‘tse uniformly continuous on. ‘We mturn tow to the question of convergent subsequences, Our cond definition eves to characterize famibag witha regular bohovion: Definition 2. A family i aid ob norman if every quence Us) of Fonction «conn aeabuaqurcs which conereu ofr oY Compete of "This detnition doar not roquir Ue lini funetlns of the onvergeat subsequoeces to be mann of 8. 52, Normality and Compactnen ‘The rete canet fatto havo atin the sone sataity tess, arnt aad he Bazao- Weir Sera propery (Chap. 5, Theorem ).‘Tomakeit mor than waranty ‘enon to dein » ditanee onthe epee of fcetins on wth Yanan in, ud convergence with repost otis diane notion should mesa prevy she tare s rfre converges om compact te orth purpone wend fat of alan xh of yma nee ing mene of ompuct sia By CR. By this we mean thal every ‘eae of Sab sand a The conan Bein many way Tobe ope, lo Boi fal intra at rune om te ong and at lace 217m the boundary Sa Tis dear tht cask Jan bounded snd. dom, henoe compe by compact et Ce bounded and ab pontve dance rom 20; Aherlre contain i a Be “Lang be ny tro factions on @ with vale in. We sa Acces dntanc fa) sobre thse ft, nt to be confaed th {hedtnan dato) betwen tar aun "To dow we Sa replace Phy the dite neti ate) wen = 5 hich ano sais the tango nequality nd has the adeantageof being ounced (Chap. 3 S31). Nest we mt alia) = sup dal) which may be describ asthe dst btwoea andy on Ba Fialy, wre apie on te deiiton oo 0» Sse Tei val to varity that of) it and steal the onions for diane fenotion (Chap. 8, 80.12). ‘The distance (fg) bas the propery we wore looking for. Suppose ‘rot hat fu fn the sense ofthe paieanot. or large + we hove then o{fef) <« and consequently, by (0), ef) < 2%. Bat thi aplog ‘that f.— uiformly on Ry, ft with respec: to the Sti, bu ene ko with respeet othe mci. Since every eompact is cata’ in ‘sn Bi follows thatthe eonvergooa is wiform on Convery, supp Ut fx eontergen uniformly to fon every com- Peet wh, Then fn) — Oforevery hand beese these 23,0 2 fn convergent xajerank wit terme independent of wi follows rly (sin Weeratras’'s 1 tert) tht ful) +0. We have shown that conveegane with report tote distance» squivalent to canvegene en compact wets, 80 far we dd not aman § to be completa, but tty flows sly tha te pce ofall Fete vith values in i complete nea ete space with ta dance » Tr be mid with ome justiaation thatthe metho we have ato- ded is aritacy and artes However, from what wy have proved ie follows thatthe open sls ae independent of the colo involved in ‘he consirastion. In othe words, the opeloy ha a ints meaning, ‘allral t the neds of the theory of welytio factions, ‘We now recall the Boleaoo-Weicratran theory acconting to which ‘metric epace it compact if and ony if every Infite mquenee ag 8 fonvergent mbsequence (Chap. 3 Thoorem 7). Tho theo i arplod to the m8, equiped with th ditance pad we condhde that Fi ‘compact if and oaly i in normal, and ifthe limit fetus are therm selves in § On the othor hand, if ie orm, ois (cose Br ‘Therefore we obtain the flowing charnetariantion of worl fais ‘Theorem 12. A family B ie normal fend only if se cane 3 wih rape tothe dance fenton (U8) compe Wine eutamary to say tha ie relay compart fi compact, "Ths, normal and relatively compact filo te the ne ‘Weshal ow relat tho nation of normal filet ota bounded, 1 Bs normal than 5 omapoct, und seetding to Chap 8, Tas 9, Bis ttally bounded andw is eomequatly ace the fotacte on p81), ‘By defo, thio means that every « > O there xs te umber of fuanetionn ff eB euch tht every fe 8 anion fff > © fr eome fi Convery, it" totaly bounded, so be. IFS knows to be ‘Gampleta, then Binal come, end hance compact. Is other words, WS te eomplete, theo Bio nrinal and only i th votlly boueded ‘Th following thse serves to rst the conn of fol bua xin tec of the orignal ore nS rather than in arn the wslary ke. catia eeeTHacorem 12. The fm i teal bande fan only if to ery compat AaB C tend ery ¢ > 0 is poeta find fev fo Bch at ery Let ssn AG) < 6 08 B for we U1 Bitty oud he fb a fo Ais) © etree, By (6) hainpianigf) ee oa Dy < Pe CPt x tera, wean this ke 4) ays Ch Brand hesane ashen twos )) Tn grone Unt he ion “Poprore the lccny wo shows hn that 2H < e/2. By arump- snared fons sfsuint ey otro te egeaies SUG) 5 ait) © sidan Bog sor i i) Pa oe Feit Riny nhs) en (6) webtn HSI) < bls/2hd $24 Dh PEIN rhe a procily what we want to prove, 5.3. Arsela's Theorems. Wo shall now sny th relationship between Defnition | and etalon ‘The commotion established y a fous Aid extremely tefl corns Known ax Aree here (or the Azar ‘veal theorem) “Theorem 4, A fenily 8 of continous funciona wth saan ina marie spe fs normal i th opie of te compiles plane if nd ony if GB ie ouintinuras on ery compact wl BC; (B) Jor any #00 the alan J), FB ef compact eae of 8. Wo give two proof of tho necendty of). Amuro thes fe norma sand determine fu =) fu ss im Theor 13. Tooaun each of thee Fanetios fe uniformly eontnsous on 2 we can nd a 8 >-0 wach that AEfieh fled) feouena opti and fein That fe elo Tie aca fea) Sloan, Rese F weompect wean cans (Rhowructes af fe} aod ef] wish couvers tw cmumon Bit "€, Sd because fis normal ere exe sbogaeace of fo) wich cor ‘erp unformly on Ey ite caur tat we ay sonal is woh zen ove he ane bars ne Thoini fnin t ( iStnraentrounoe Meranda nea tre fa) mm ia) fC atm) ea sal Owe choose 4 > Ouch that, fr s4'« Baad fe, = ec implies d() J) < ef Because 3 orpact, i on be covered by ‘fits numberof /2-aighberhvs Wa eet = poate ech ot Above ‘usighbortoods, ‘Thee exile an is nach that j> tipi Aja f(G0) Olt Bbo the snallar of PHA and o/AMo Uh fe ~ a < Bane bai] Oy auch tat 6) deer © neinome mopping of onl he dick fa <1. ‘The uniquooee i easly proved, fori fans aro two saa fanctons then ffs] defies & one-to-one mapping of jo] < Tem ital. We eae tunformation & (Ohap. 4 0, 80) > Oinply Siu) = wi Danes f= fa “an analyse function 9) i in id to be anil if fe) = oe) ‘only forts = sin ther wor, if tho soaping by gi oe to ove the ‘German word sic, wich Incks an adequate translation, i also in onan uz). Por the ositenc proof we consider the family formed ty all uations g with the ellowingpropertos() 9 ie analyte and un valentin 2 19, (gfe) = Onn ge) > 0.” We contend {hat fs Uh faeton in ‘The proof will cost of thre paris: (1) its shown that cho family 5 ‘ot empty, 2 here exit an f with maszal derivate; 8) hia asthe ‘esr proportion "To prove that @ i ob empty we note that thor eit, by asamp tion, a pinto. = no in Since 1s imply connect ts poebla to dae singo-veloed branch of 2 ain; dena ity MG). This fanetion doen not take the ame value twee, Hor does i tke opposite values,” ‘TheimageofQunder the mapeng heaverss dink lv — Me}

plore eh and in parole 2h(29| 2 pean now be ‘erie hat the ane, 2 Weed, Me), Me) — Mead 0) = aS wt hy ead Ilngeto the family 8. Indeed, because isobaied from the unvaeat fanclon b by tmann of linear iranaocraton, i aif univalen. Morever, avis) = 0 med gle) = G/B) OLIN? > 0. Flay, ‘he entinate a) = ed ates. 40M} BSF] ~ we -|ats ~ nara «ME howe that lf) Sn {Aino ran fom nic the mapa hres be aia ta ord ary WF Oe Su nt ae ean or ede 45 vst perio i agin could be init ‘Thee law neues of fancies 4° See oo a By cn 5 Thence ae ce at et Sete ttm nl hn ee fan an ep Tera na te sd Fe) = B (hin wove that Bcf) Uhh can ae eg ‘rath ll at in ds rm St Tn the first place fis not a constant, for f'(e9) = a pineal unrated A) a as Seals Gie ago ied Sy eae oat BoE Ey een (han gun may cae de seer poet mt, Bufo) 7e) fa a oar Teal me) pb enc ad wer rd tata" MA esareny roms ahaa seve! <1. weston rte ele ee ia act Sr pes Sia i o ro = fF {Bel it tant avin simpy comet rin 100. I of=) » 0 in Owe can define Ttegration "one and Vola) = exp Glog p(e)).) paces *eore, Fleck ht Pi iabt td ht 1, Te romain it we oa o 0) = GI. FO) = Peay O- PG) 1 FF) which vasiahes and hana pov : TRA erste atv ate Tart ue we, ee) = Pg a eda 00 = Dl = Led “Tina «nintendo ~ Fe spt ad wo a ht) ee a cat ftte i may eta pr ck Ua or compan yiktn 09 5 Fa Th nao lay for th eas Geek gh Sore ree caged crime Y= ‘berefro & consnqumnes of Sehwars’s emma, velseele Percy olga part by ha Welnow now al any daly emoastnd ogi tec egSelly ono a dak (forthe whole plane very simple meapring ean be ‘anacucted) andhenes any twoaimply ennectd epors are topologically ‘qatvnlent. exercises ana and is yma ith ep tote el ai, prove ho nije tnt an th rey rnin = 0). br US imi GvecroqmningcontannitGingmneti dept so he ptt 1.2, Boundary Bohaslr. We ace mesing that) dae com {etaa mamag ea neva Ol oxtesnotber fogs Woe happens ven «apse thw Sunday? Tre re ce the boundary Tavira fetal wih peat pion Fer aon ad Ae Jordan gon then job end om teplopelmappiag of {is cnr of Geni he cour cf Untotaatly, evans ot ‘uc do nt pot wo ie ros hin imgriaatiorem (he Fro woul ope onde unt of prepare) ‘int we an ad al prove ho wey oe Ghorem of pry ‘a "2 ek saat re en ee That sappreme ta boundary of Tce ar mee We mm ‘sider sence} of tan ot we may consider an are a0, SSPE LSet alc woiwa West my thet he qn or ths ars eno te tuner the punts 3) wl tinal ‘Shorty pel tino werd sre al te 28 {Sadan peor emoh shat ssa form moo ac that teeta te 1 nt ko otras ih ped im an open cove oft flstat any soma! HECalm covered ty Bite mumbor of few dat.” If wo conde to Gaby to ho mn ei dt tract K-" Convery, i npn the egal condtoe, or i 'ma(ort> t).. But then fl) (or fa()] is ot in Although the theorem is tepoiogia, inthe eppeatine to outa ‘mappings tia io peste intrest to as. 13. Use of the Reflection Princip. Stcongerstatnents become oatbeifmehave more information, Weare matlyintereed ia sanpy ‘vanectd regions and may theefoe assume that ote of te eons lak. With the eae aottion nein Se. 1} et @) die a conor ‘apringof the regia onto the uit disk with the uormehnion fap =O (Ghe normalization by the decvative i ieelevan). We shall doe ‘dione information by se of the reoton, pease (Chap 2, ‘Theorem 20). Tet ws sarume tht the boundary of 2 contains segment 7 of « strsight in Boeuune rotations are uneaportan, we suay smell ppt hat es a tho ral ait ihe the interval <2 iientona. or the poof ws consider « dik around 24 which eral at the haf di © doesnot contain the pists with fle) = 0. ‘Then jae» Yao snge-vaed branch athe al tan id art ed TES Mppmocte the etn, for we Kaow by Poe 2h [0 eases eae lw iy te sehen pipe St og 1) ha 28 iijueerenionotie robin Trl /6, ad omexqenty Jo) ean at so Teecrenson to owlopg dks mt sido ZQEes fans ohh wanagte on Ut ‘We aote further that (2) * O0n-, Indeed, f*(24) « 0 would imply cia Jed et nie veh, nich coe to nbs tha ‘nets be apo ata ht fom an ai wth n 2 2 icky apnea the ape al ia we ia Blog I/l/dy — —8 ang f/de <0 on rma ae f moves constenly i he ane diet, Ti rovee {hele mapas na om Tere be petal to eon ih fn bundy are ens cele’ Wi cbvins etn he tare wa ee or Sin brodary are Taney dren Amar compe ft of of ava SncTonaninterrl a ) ite proper te) ees in pera od sate im ot rhs res Tio tte mpi fcetion i) ~ 0, nd me ae ce tht i Sen ints pita ott ng, tl Sie har ans xeon fom in ep et TarcTa" Wren eto wekaow thr a Sa) 0. Tare {ore has an septs iver ¢-"in a nlghorkod fo), snd it follows by compostion tht 2) i analytic in Ut orighberbood ‘Theorem 4.1 the toundary of © contains a fe onesie! onal are +4 thn the mayping Senction koran analy eens to 99, ond Yio ‘mopped on an oe of he were ‘We trust the reer to make che let statement tore posse and to completa the prot 2 CONFORMAL MAPPING OF POLYGONS. ‘When diss polygoa, the mapping problem has an stot explication, Indeed, we shall nd tha the mapping function cam be expe tr ‘formule in which only certain paramere have val Ua depend on the specif shape of the polygon 43.1. The Bohasior at an Angle. Wo sssume that & + » bounded ‘imply connected raion whow boundory iba ane polrmmal ine wthe ‘ut mltersctions ‘Let the conmentive varces be sr mein ostive cysts order (we et 2s = 2) The ane nt in gir by the ‘alae of arg (2-1 ~ 8)/(ans~ 2) between O and De. Weal denote Itty au 0 0 We know by Theorem 5 tat the mapping function £4) etn be extended by contiouity to any do ofthe polygnn {tha 20 the oper Tine wegmert bolmeen to cotmeutive yerew), and that cach dee ‘mapped ina one-to-one way onto wn are ofthe ua czla. We with to shove thet them are are disjoint ad leave no gap batween thers, “To swe this we onder drelar nator S; which ith intercon of 0 with w euzcaly soll dik about sy A singlevaled branch of P= @— a)! mapa 8, onto w half dick SLA lable branch Of s+ fm bee its value in 0) and we may sousider the fuselion 9) = fle +f) in Sy Te follow by Theorem 2 that [AD —=1 a8 F ‘pprosches the diameter. The redeoson principle applin and we co ‘hide that g(f) nen enalyie continnation to the wie dak. Tn articlas,thin impli Cet f() haa a init n= et ant» ad we Sind thatthe area tha correspond tothe wee mowting at wo nde ‘have common end point. Sino arg f() svat ineream strc te boundary in postive dzetnn, the aren do aot ovelay eel notin 8 seighborhood of we. If we take into nooo that f mse te boundary: = i C) new we nome | it sel nt ale ser rsync in ‘Stated homer map to he ded ty the Sei olin tl ete eps anaes Spaeane eo 2:2. The Sehuars-Christefel Formula. The formula we se looking for veers not ta the faction , bat toile averse fueton, which we ll devote by P. “Theorem 5. The uncon # = Fe) which map ol < 1 conformally oto pele wth one aun 1) oreo the form © eof fie-wemse takers fu = 1 — 0a Be are ponte om he unica C, "are come ‘ples enaant Bocas ts Farction g(t) = fla + 7) considered a he Ist parm sveph of 2 ie analyto atthe orig i aa & Taylor develpent Jat ry mt For er a: 0, for otierwise the image ofthe half disk 5; could not be ‘ontaned inthe unit dk ‘hereore the seis ean be inverted, and bestng © = +1) we obtain pe 3 nee oe vith yo, the development beng vad ia 8 selghborbond of wx We ‘hit to th power anand find, i trina the overs faceon Pr Fw) — n= @ — wre) ‘where Gis analytio and » Onesr wy. It follows by difentistion that F(o)(e — wis aalyie aad = Ost wy, a therelore te product 0 He) = FT (o —ay 1s ulti and» On the lowed nit dik, ‘We cai thas 1) iin ctl fet constant. Fer this purpose ‘we examine its argument when t= e* lea ou the ait elo betwesn so. eh and anys ete” We know that arg P(e) equal the angle between the tanguat to the unit cele at of and the tangent tle Imago at Fle with an abbreviled.solaion we expres thin by arg” = arg dP — ang de. “Bot arg dP is constant bees Fdeveribor ‘sriraight lin und arg = 8-2/2. ‘The factor ~ yan bowtie teh = 2:0 Win (0 — 9), and hens ie angus 9/2 pls ‘our (cis als evidet geometrically). Whan we ad the argue mens of all factory oe the yghtchand side of (4) we find that ary Ce) Siler by a constant from —0-+ (564) 0/2 = 0. ‘Thur we conclude that arg (0 is contant between wy and wy, and sine tis coatinuos 5s mast be constant en the whole unit asa ‘The masini principle Permits us to coda that arg (e) = Tm log H(o) i ena nds to unit ol, aad wo in conoaueniy 164). ‘We have now preved that Poo ~cf e—mr nd formule () fallow by inegetion, ‘We vemask that non nde of the unit i permite we to place tte ofthe pals wy for fmlae, tytn ao in breed potions. “For n = 3'we se that the mapping function leponde only ‘on the ages, except for teva variable iansorsatons Bi eflete the ‘ck that tinagles with the sae anges are silat, Yor m > 3 the remsining coolants wa... yw, or tele arguments ae alla the avery parameters ofthe problem. Tei onlyin rare cae tat they cat be determined eter thn by numerical eompotation, two give arity values tothe 6 tn qua eay to verity that = ‘uoion ofthe form 3) apatite on «cloned peta oe, Go N= eayDut usually we are unable to tall whether it will intersoct itsor vot. 163 does 20 ib eat dial to how that P(e), os given by (), yilds * onete-one mapping onto the onde ofthe polygoaa! Hoe (ihe recite ‘roo! makes te ofthe engumentprinelpe). Formula (8) is known as the Schuaer-Cheiafl frmsla, Auother version af the amo foranula serves to map tb upper i! plane on the Tnade of « polygoa. The mapping funtion, from Tm > 0 to 0, ean tow be writer in Ue form Bao $e o reac file where tho are real. ‘Th las exponent dows not appear explicit in the formula, but iis determined by Bs = 2— Bit" + Bus), wad [le tho othar exponent itis abject tothe ondition —1 < gu <1. Tt then flows thas the tera (8) converges fore ~ and the point st ‘2 will corespond to a vertex with angle aur, an = I'= Bo. TB = 0 the verter ie ely spparot, and the pagan reduces to one with = — 1 ‘den exer 11 Bhow that tho Ayn 8) may be allowed to become = 1a tha guomet interpretation? ‘2 Tt vertax ofthe polygon i llomed tobe at =, what modifeation lows the fora undergo? Tin fincontxt Bs = 1, wha the polygon. Iker ' Show that the mapping of» disk onto spall rip, o ont a ‘eal esip wth tro right angle, can be obtalzed az apecal cues of the Sehware Christel formal “¢ Dexve formula (5), iter dretiy or with the help of (8. Show thet What Fe) = [0 = yd sma fo < 1 ote the ats of eg polygon wih aden ' Detesio »confral maori of the eng al pan 0 the neon = fenebint > by Umino) 21) 114, Mapping om a Recomgln. Inca ina ncaa we ay dios Fg LESTE t,o warring fenton wal toe be sraty 20° brates which isan eli nora, Tobe unaabiguous we deci shat the valor of Vw, Vio", and va ~>p shall hota the fw quadesle For 8 ‘etailed study of the mapping, et follow Pw) ae tnet the veal ‘nis When ein ral enc of the square oot itr postive o purely iagianry with » postive imaginary pat (eave for the pint were Use fquaco root is). AsO phe ta pti) ln «hana ‘nth eeu a Sa SSCs est al att eh wean ae wy no mcs ago ans mt xen ni ape Doge Vea 40d to show by the change of lotegation variable f= (p —¥)/(1 — {Ss te tal unto (hear hort tooo Cauchy's theorem yields " : oa a Lugem=a-* for tn itr over + smi ik radon Bead 0 # a8 + ‘he railing of Ural pr pes th aly te rset a "tm the chine wna pw en w= <# 0, mort obey the maximum principle, Indood, if ¥ had 9 maxsnam the rule of the calla would yield 3V/20" 5°, 17/29" 0, and hence AV’ Oat that poin. On the other aad, AV = bu e+e > 0 ‘The contradiction shows thatthe maximum prntple obtain, We ean {hes concade that u~ e+ er — 29" 5 ein the dk [P~ ay Letting «tend to nero we Sind v, andthe oppnteinogliy ean proved in the amo way. Hench wis harmesies! 4.2. Harnack’s Principle, We eal that Poison’ fornia (Chap. 4, ‘See, 6.3) permits ust expron harmonisforeion trough i value ot ‘cirde, "To. our promt neode we write ta the for » w- Ef aap one ter ~ F< pandwisamind wb armen ls »rharmnio for fe]

0, vabharmoni. Yor the neces, show that < Othe an valun over scree woud bea decreasing fonetion ofthe radius, “& Prove that » ebarmonie fometion remainaaubharroni i the Independent varabo i subjected toa cufornal mapping. "& Formulate and prove a theorem othe alone vat uform Heit ‘of watbartonie funetonn i wibrmonie ef) upper semicontinuous on the open a0 sow thet th a imum on sey compact wot BC 2 ‘42, Solution of Dirichlet Problem. ‘he Sento a sabbaronic foncons forthe study of Dirchle’sprodiem wan 0. Parton. is meebo i chwotesed by estrone greraty, anc tia competaly Sooty "Wooster bounded regia andareabvaied fection) defied omit boundary lr dai, boundary points wll be denoted by {To begin wit, J) teed even be ontnuoun, bu fr the make of stmity we mwoe tht ite Hound, YE] 32 With euch {we {teocate aharmone Faction w() ode by single procam which ‘ill dtaled below onion and if sates certain ld “nitions the comeponding faneon ww lve the Diehl pba for with ch boundary vues : "Wo dae the can 8) of functions» withthe flowing proper () sis abharwoni a3; © Wine) 3/0) forall er. ‘The prsi moaning of) i thi: gen «> 0 and s point fe there 2 nhbobood 8 of Fad Ha) CY) +a SVG. The ‘lee 87 inno emo for cota al constants S —AL. We soe Lemma 1. The function defined ot le) = Lub, of) fr # € BD) it arn fo 8. nthe Sst place, ouch in § Ming, Tala ina snp enough conse eng mini inl bt er ining we {explain this point in wome deta. Hora given « > 0 et at of pelota +0 for which o@) & MC -+ «The points +n the complement ‘~E are of three kinds: (1) points inthe exterior of 9, (2 points on r, (@) points in with e@) M__ Hence His vo for every 4 andi llr tht 6 Min Consider «dk & whowe closures contned i atl pints 4 ‘Thoreeastan aoquene of fanetions xe BC) eas that fim tl) ~ wed. Sot Va max (ven... Then the Ve form « rondecensiog sequmte of fanetions ia B(). We construct F equal to. ous of and equi to tho Polo intl of Vin A. By property (2) oft recoding wetion the V7 are atl in 8(), ‘They form a tondeceasng ‘equate, and tho inequity nd) 5 Vie) Vela) © we) shows that ‘im Vile) = ae By arnaek’s principle the maquecey {V con- ‘ergs to hurmoni limit fontion 7 in A which ation U aw and Toa = we. Suppose now that wo tart the aan proce fom enotur poate Wo aden. ¢8() that lim wx) = wa), but thi tna, before eo. ‘ding with the constuction, wo replace, by = max bas). Sete hag Wm ane (0y - b) wo oat the ‘uence (74) with thea ofthe Poison integral sed are ed oa harmon it function Us whch staion Uz Us fu and Ute) = ale). Tt fellows Wat U — tr, hw the mason sero at sp Tharefore Os etialy ‘qual to Uy, aad we have proved that u(e) = Uta) fr ariinry sve ‘fllows that is harmon in any dak & and, comeueny inl 2 ‘We will now investigate the eamstances under which u sles the Dizichlet problem for continuous - We aote it tha the Dil problem dose aot alwave have n mfinn War intency if the ‘unctred dik 0 0, We ao il aang that in bounded and (0) 2 ‘Detormine a naighborbood a of Zo wih that (tt) ~ |< «for fea. Tag ~ A \a the fuetion ue) hava postive minimum wy We ‘order th boundary val ofthe harmonie Fonction a =160-+04¢ 2 oF = 160 For fea we have WG) 2 f(r) + #> Jl), and for ¢ out of & we ‘Diaia WG) 2M +e > JG). By the masinam princple any faneion F€BC) mart beoce albfy fo) <0). Te follons that ws) 5 17) sad consequently Inequality we st out to prove Fo the weond inequality we need only show tht the function Vo = 160 += “2.ar 9 lnin BO). For Fea we have VO) G0 ~ « 1. Tho ‘component ofthe complement are devoted by By Pu.» y Band ‘retake 210 be the unbounded component. Without iw of generality ‘ro ean and will mime that 0H adore o pa for i ie lar that 1 print component i a removable cngulaty of any mapiag function, ta onsequenty the rappings eran Ue evo if thi lated bouncy pti added to the region. ‘Thecomplement of £,bacimply oosestedregont. By Riomana's theorem, 7 can be mapped conformally onto the dine [el < 1; under {his mpping & i tmanormed indo a ten region, and the images of By Hey are the bounded components of i complement. Tor the i ot seein: ee te th eon a etre te reine: in pevisler, Fehon the wtf 21 Tonsil m1, {rad in the postive Grrtion, wil be deaoted by Cand is elled the ‘one contour ofthe new region. ‘Consdos now the complement of E, with repet to the extended plane. ‘Thin again ply eonneete region, and we map cont the ‘uli of the uniter with = eoresponding to tell. The image of C, ‘Ba cnetad domed analy crve wih ne contin to denote by Cua {mrvv op allthe ether ntations. Ta adtion we dete the ne ome low Ci 0 be the cit Geele In the new plane, raved inthe nagaive rection hs poe an vent ype unt we elu ith gin ‘ooundd yan oer anourCotndn = Vimar cocoue NE (Pi 69, stmpertact onto ta tenses le neal Lose sihiy pt inthepasocane ay emul, Torna ste tgs wer Cb 2 ary, the gt ntegzal a ~1 fo oy << 130 0 for [od > Ie Th Snkgras over Cy, 1 <<, vanish forall w with {esl es. Supp now tha the van asta take by) ise {husk att mad be mapped onto an open ret, we ean choose | al For tia we th exprestion (08) mont bo postive. But that i» pomible nly it < ol <0 The hy > O an, by continaty, OS Ns ‘From ere on the proof cull be sampled by means of « purely topolopea! argument. Tit mare Insroetve, however, and i fact ‘Soon, to douw the onchxon from the argument pric. Whee {here ae spe poles onthe boundary, the etdne tearm continues to Told provided the! the costou integral epoed by its Caney pec pal veloc, snd provided that he mm of reidues intros ane hall of {he rsdn on she boundary. Inthe presen situation the semod cose ‘yeti mesat thats valn taken te boundary i oounte with half Tis maltplity. ‘The computation of te principal vulons eats to isculty. Ud = e% we ind tat ; Pidd 1 PO fa Fa) = wy” Bho Fe) for by demeatary geometry (or direet computation) 1 ag (PC) — 9) ~ dog PO Consequently, the principal values i (5) are} for k = 1, 0 for 2 Egan, “pork =m Woconclae tam tat each vahison the dele = Yorn = 2s ‘taken ove al, hat ato ay one on Ue boundary: this proves hat Giand Cs ae mappnd is onetoone manaer and thet @< hs < hy Cin.” Next 1 < [el <2 follows tat wy etek ibe once {a the interior, te on Ue boundary, or one the Boundary with the Iukipeity 2" On each contour Cy «Cans a aagle-valund branch arg Ps) can be deed, and tho vas of malic 2 eorespond Uo {tative tania and msima of ang Phere is at Sas. one ras {num sod ene mismo, aa Der caot be more or dee PU) would ‘usr nore thu twice through the eae alu Partheriaoe be ier. ‘hor betwen the masimm ond the minimum mut be <2x, which ‘Shows tat each contour sapped onto proper arc Fall, the ce ‘ich correspon o diferent contours must be djl. an Chap. 83th Cay pital vse an nde it hn sche res it rh te ye ct DEE uC pdtal rte ty eae of a tsi soa ope veh fannie intr he gue he wand pom ote re reales my and eve ins epoca ote Etiy efomal warn fe ne een ei Pe te canonical mapping uniqulyHeterninad 7 ain “oie om th fat hat sh yen 1) ha ‘he ape of» canal region af coecivity n dpeadaon 3m — rel contact. In fat, th poston sods ofeach si cs cad by hm nantr atl n— 6; hisef e ein e ue sional parte, bt aaother ‘ a ihe ‘ameter us be inoue qa.h Pio icy Chat (wo cretar annul ar conformally sgtivalens and ool te ealin of Uni rai are eu ee 2 Prove that ag = a. Min: Apply Theorem 21, Chap. 4. 52. Creen's Punction. Wo spi ssn a 0 rep fie ‘Stee a natu te pecinay card ee le Permantle ‘we can tao tat Oe bended Uy saeco Br seein te an n= I vile ones pst ays wien Deh pale n 2 wth {he boy vat nt fa Theis dete yO) ae {8 ml rat ted be con gt ego nate Oren funcin wihpeatn Whes hn pens ‘ic ivemphada nied yesh "The Gren oe ri xp an vain on the boundary. Toe nh feo eg oad Latur yh reper) ebqndy drei follows that gis idenaly equal tog. two rons are conformally equivalent, then the Green'tunetions| with corresponding poles ae equal st points which conrspnd to each other. ‘To bo more expt, lets = () deine «o0e-to-oe conformal Imspping of « region {fin the page onto a repon 2 ithe plone, Chooses point tee and denote by gl) the Crees fontion of ith pole se = elf.” Tein calmed cht g(t.) the Grom’ fe ‘Hon of . To begin with iff tala to a beauty pint th st) ppconabes the boundary of 0 and Meee Hatavalapezer._ Axo tho behave af we know that (dies fom log iG) — eG) by « baronie foneion of ef), and hence by» bar ‘honk faction off. Bot the dilerence log (7) ~ a} ~ og — fl {sali harmonic, andi follows tht (7) bas the desired behavior ste Welave proved tht the Greco's function i fnarian! under cou- Seca ain ow of hi vais tha paiiory ‘onformal mapping oan be performed x: Tn the cam of «simply connentl ron ther is a simple consetion ‘eevee Gre fin ad Ken apn en, or he nit dee fl <1 the Gren’ fneton with respect co the origin is er- ‘dently —og ful. Therefor if = f() mnpe 2 onto the uit dk with ‘es aoing nt the erga, we fad by the invariance thas oe20 = log CConvermly if 30) in owe, the mapping function ean be determined. "The Gren uncon bas aa mportactayanstry property. Given to poiate 24 2:6, we write for short g(a) = go, stn) = oe BY ‘Theorem 2, Chap. 4, thediferentalg, py — od fs trally exact. ‘he exon bain hy nating the pina and =i from © Tes ad race emall ices about», and, decibd inthe postive seas, the (ysleC ~~ eishorologousto soo (asbeore,C = Cyt" +00) ‘hace gad gs veizh on C, we conclude that Logntin— nti =0 ‘gis — ale = 86 ear Introducing 6, = snd fod forties = [04 06, ~ fos — 2 + peter te — 2. san i tg en Seabee te te i Sint wrcity tiecws ated nnmntoaea Saas te tipemran eames Seal aplanntvo ietgtowrsaatoes Sco, SiThend ats ad ose oles) = ote). ‘Reeaus ofthis apmametry property the Greens function (ea) i a ‘onic alm in the tooand variable. " [Tho coujugnn fuetion of g(a), denotad by Meo is of cours ‘uliplevalved Tt hat above all the period aloag tall cela ¢ bout se” In edition, it hae the peiods Pals) ~ faa = fy (62) ty Temuma8. The period Pt equals the harmonic monaren) mltipied bye. ‘The proof ia another application of Theorem 21, Chap. 4. We npr the fact that the integral of wy "dp —g "dan over O—¢ must ‘atch, ‘The integral over C reduces to Pilg) and by the sane computer Hon ahve the integral over cequal raed). Henon Ped = Bead) 5.5, Parallel Site Reglons. iti more eplisity thas before, ot un re as) W620) = Ole20 — log — a ithe ~ 214 idee. Welnow thst O(a) ingymmeti od hanaoeie ‘n ench vrisble; as funeton oft has the boundary vlvoniog fa Consider te ditezence quotient Qh) = (Olea +h) = Gleady/h ‘where we choose real and 30 small that 4h oval ia Thy f Barmonic funtion of « with boundary valves Gog cs — A] — Jog if ~ s/h As’ h+0 thewe boundary vals tend watery to 8/42 log & — al = Re /(f~ 29) Tt flows by the rinsing ‘mum principle that Qu) tends to its Lait (@/aes}0l09 uniformly, ‘ot ony on sompc wt, bat on all of @. If we inside the touadacy ‘alu, we have thus uniform convergence on the claret whic fs compact set The conhaion is tha (/8x).Gg2) strc ao fection of and that it hn the boundary wales “He if ad. Iter ‘ompare with (1) it follows tha (2) (0/3tdgtea) is hurmonia for nt continaoudy seco onthe boundary, and difersfrom Re te 8) ‘bya harmonie fone, ‘The conjugate diferent of 4) haa ettain periods Aa long the soatours C.. But it is eaay to consret a near eoxbinaton oft) sand the harmonic mearures a} whowe conjugate diferetil fen oat Pri “Tadeed wif ert ot hewn at he property Boe Dau + haan Desa Ay (Ems =a), Je know already that this inhomograsous system of equating always thas a-tetuton. “We haves eetablabed the exten of funcdon(2) which is singl-valvod and analytic in , exept for szple pole ‘with th resdao I ty and whoa real part i constant on each coutour Biy thew roqirements 2) is uniquely determined up to an ative conan. ‘By diferetiaton with respect to 4 we conclude cute sary that 4G) = —(/opdpte) vaitbes on the boundary and has the se legality ar Im 1/(~). If stable lncar combination of her ‘monic eure is aed, the conjugate funtion becomes inge-valud. Hence thro oie a ingl-raluod analyte action (2) with tho siclar part 1/(e~ 2) whose imaginary prt i contant of pach cantor ‘The functions 9() and fe) oad ta simple eanoieal mappings ‘Theorem IL, The mappinge ermine by p(t) and #2} ore one fo one and he image of D0 region owe complet con of nor Arion mans, reapcinty (ig a, ‘The proot is quite anlar to that of Thoorem 10, ‘This tau the xpresion ‘ aces ‘epmeats the umber of xeroe ofp) ~ minus the number of poles. ‘Buti i egy to me that (17) vanishes for all wy, including boundary values. Tn the latter eae the principal value ist be formed, bat if tts be takan om Cy the imaginary pare of” dep) vara alg Cand thee is no diffolty whstowver Blaze there exactly ane pole ‘we onside that p() takes every value once ithe flee of , twice 0 the boundary, or ance or the boundary withthe aulphcty 2. The ‘est ofthe proof in an ext duplication af the eater remosing The roof remnne valid fr g(} without cage. ‘Paral sit region ay be thought ofa xnonial regions, ut thay a abt al sonformaliy inequivalent even if erected thatthe pol 20° "thoull correspond to aa. "For Insane, the mappings by la) o o ee nel at js sd ye) lend to veri at opin which are diferent, but confor mally equivalent. “It is only for mapyings with the tame rsd ot f+ Ut the as mappings ar uniquely determined, exoopt fc a parle ‘anda. exercises 4, Prove that g(r) i sealtnonaty continuous in both yvisbles, fore ze. Tint: Apply the maxinwm-aiainum peneipia o Glee) 2 Show that tho fonetion H(@ 008 + ip in a) mage © onto a region bounded by ntned ai, 8 Using x2, show that p + g mape ie sone tone nmnncronto ‘region Bounded by eonver contours Comment: (@ A slowed carve ie eid tobe convor it ntesecls evny erlght line at st ie, (To prove tht th image of Cy ander p+ conver wo need only show that for every w the fusetion Rr (p+ ge take 0 vale more than trice on Ca But Ho (p+ gh fers fous Re (geome +p) only lym consant, and the dered eaeshrion follows by the properties ofthe mapping faneton in Bx. 2 Gi) Pally, the argument principle cam be wad to shew thatthe ‘image ofthe contours Cy have winding cme 0 with remeet to al values of» + o. ‘This imple, in parler, that the eonver curves le utd of ech other7 ~=(ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS a simety 1¢ FUNCTIONS. ‘A Gunetion J) in id tobe pera with period w 90 it fet 9) =$) for alle. For intanc, has the pid ran sin # and on Ihave the period 2r.‘To be more previ, we are interested only i nulytc oF meromorphic fantone ft), and they sal be ‘onadered ina region which a mapped utes the toe, Intion sae fain period so ae alategral multiples na Thre may. be other periods ax wel ut forthe pret we fous our aa Sion cacusively othe periods nu” From thi pinto riew wo ‘Gall cll) a imply periodic faction with periods. Ta por tial it rlovant whether wi tela ovale af another eid LE. Representation by Exjwentiate, ‘The simple function ‘ith petod isthe exponantal =, Tu infarc fact ‘hat any funetion with pried ean be expe internat Durtala function, Tat 9 be « region with the property that #1 implies sof we and + — wed We dotne in the fplane to be the‘Suppose tht) i meromorphio in and has the peiod «Ten here ext unig funtion Fin wach that o Sea) = Pee, Indeed, to determine FG) we wote = erie unique up tou a tive multiple of, and this mltple dacs ot infueno tho valve f(). Teimoviert that Fu sceromorphie, Converly i is marimrphic in 1, then (1) defines w neromorphi function J with pede 1.8, The Fonrlr Deslopments, Assos tht eptans an annals fo fl'crnim bids Fhe pola isola Fn Eanes Selo : r= 5 en aad we obtain $0 = Sewn, ‘Tita the complex Fourier developient of 0, valid in te poral tip that crrspoads to the given anal ‘Th elit (Chap. 8 Se. 18) are given by fa POR sr cra, sdb ehaage of vara hin becomes en} LP jaye mend ore ais an arbitrary pot in the paral etep, an ube integration is slong any path from ata -+ whieh romaine wid the atepe—1EJ(2) iW aaalytie inthe whole plane, the sae Pounce development valid coreywlere. 113, Functions of Pinta Order. Whee 0s tho whole plane F() bas {lated snguartis a f= Oandf ~ =. If oth hao singular are inowentah, that i either removable Sagulnities or pole, then ‘ional faction, We my in thle ese that fas faite order, ql order fF ‘We recall that rational function saames overy comples vale, including, th sane pomber of Umos, provided that we abeere tho ‘anal mulapicy conven. We btn « lar rel for simply pero functions of finite order we ngres not to datngush twee 2 sod ++, Hor convenant terminology, lel ur my Unt #4 ne ia ‘qulvalent to nf sof ord m wo fad tha every empl value ¢# FQ) and F(~) it sumed atm aegulalet points, wth doe count ‘fulton We cbnere further that fa) + FOO) whea lin /a) = ~ © and f() ~ F(o) whan Im (/a)-> 2. If wo ee wiling ‘re that the valuoe are alan “aoumed” (with propor mllpiay), ‘we can maintain that all complex vals are aausted crac m times or acothor interpretation we nay consider the period ep, died by 01g Im (fe) 0, GD —}< Re +34, (GU) F181, Uy) Ror BOM bl = 1. The rato te wrialy deriva {by Bea conns and there 8 choice of ee our er ws caverponding tone Prosf, I we sleet oy and oy a8 in tho proof of Theorem, then | bo lo Shay ad fn Jon — a Tn tarts of "show onde ors are equivalent o r| = 1 sad (Re of im <0 me replace (ey) by (oni thit makes Im > Owitbout changing he condtion fon Ra 7. If Berm 4 we replace the basin by (oyn+ on), and Ir) = 1, Rey <0 we replace it by (aye). After thew minor chabace 1 tho eonditons ares. Geometrically, the conditions () 4 Ge) man that tho point rH a ‘the pat ofthe samples paw sows ia ge ?-2. Tia bounded by the cele | = 1 aad the vertical nas Ro r=, Bat only pat of the ‘boundary is nctnded. Altbough the et st pen i infra toa the fimdonenal repion of the sie OUD, ‘Wo have son that the mast genorl change of basse by 8 wi: smodelartestformation. TF the new ratio + we ebain wee © vege Wiha — te = 1. Single computation gee lm ® tat a src the ig i th ne that fo — be ‘uppoe that both rand are in the fundamental region, We sal ow it they sust thea be equal Our fst ceca dati the ‘upper sga tha yal in 7), and hea a — be = 1. Bao, booane + Sand 7” pay symm ron, we are fre to nanane tat In? = tm 1. then fllons from (2) tht ert | 1. Been nd dao integers, there are very fe possibile for hs ine to bold ‘Ons rush peusilty ia wo have e™= Oy = tL, ‘The reli a ~ te = Lredaosto ad ~ 1, td because end dae toga etter a =~ 1 org = d-~ 1. Baustion( brermes =r std by soo (8) follows thas |= [Rey — Rev] <1. Therefore, aud bent Bisa integer, b = O andy = 7 ‘sume now that ¢ 0. The eontion jr + el 1/e pion lel = I, fori fel were 22, the pot + woold be at a dstance rn the real asiy which b obviously ipods, she aro pot in the find ‘meatal gia bing itanes V5/2.” Thu di 1, and lance st Fig, 72 shows tht this con door ony if d = O-or d'= 4 The insaity r+ 1] 1 ie never fle, for the pont ot inthe al region, ced jr I Lenly when y — e°". Inthe Iter ‘ease rsh =, end It fllows from (that Ime = Im rand hens, by the hap ofthe fundamental region,” ~ ‘here zemaias cal the enw d= 0. Jf = 1. ‘Th aon Ie 1 gether with (i) shows that = 1. Trom be =~ it flows thas Wem “Landy = te~ r= dat. Hence Re(e tv ~ ayaa ‘by this poe only for = 0, in whieh eave = Ie. There then contrediction with Gi) tales = 7 = ‘We tive proved thit + ie uqus. The eaneneal bas (oie) ean sbnays be replaced by ( "There ae ober bass with the ear + ‘and only rina fied point of unimadaartramormetio (0). This Ibappea only for» = sandr = ete fer se fed pont of —3/s, ‘he aero ie -f D/e and ot —1/o¢ 1). "Thaw are oo tkipe ‘oie ler fo i te hoor,rata vane. 24, Canal Properties of Elite Puetians. 1s he liwig (6) Tai Site's neti tnt eh ab tah te ‘ods a ih ayo) apron Woshal st cms Ua the SOAS Ghana aarti tat comp al the Tle nile oy Sat cgi y= od 3, i te dicen oc idongyo Met = oe hn aee Te fenton take tin mine vata congo pot snd may tun be ‘pric sus func on tbe capo deh mec wa 19 ‘Bib hin prpery te ont neo tos prngetP wit wrong aay atone ton or, by clang po is Tenndy we ay orate nhc dt y ely oe an iS'Fy aud thn fins tte by hao Pe Te ‘haiStatateeat and welne ein ere ta, forte, Shas mp in bodayof ‘Phoocean 8. An allipic fonction witha ple ao coant 116) hana pol todd on the om of Py nce in te wie ane hy Lo ir (hap. 8, Be 23) a rahos aint “Sonn the aha uo soulton pint thr oly Etaty nay pia Wha we apa fe peta ip anion Sr Til mcf mately ment pee" Mlio we ome ihe onan ‘Treorem 4 Phe sum ofthe rene of en elite fancionis re ‘We may chow « 0 tht nove ofthe pol fll ou the boundary of ‘Pe, Af the boundary 3Ps is taced inthe positive seme, the ou of the ‘sides atthe pole in P, quale a btioge Benue fas prids us the integral vanishes, for the itera over ‘opposite sides of the paralloea cane! wgaina each ote ‘Ass consequence of the theorem there doesnot crit an elipic function with sna simple ple ‘Tico §. A nonce eiic ancton ha ely many plea it ‘The poles and see off are simple polo of f/f, wBch i tlt an lipicfunetion. ‘Tho mulls ae’ the zeduoe of [/, counted postive fr sees and negative for plone theorem now faiowe fem ‘Theor 4 fe br aay constant, f(@) ~ cha the same poles 18 fe. Therefore, sl values ae assumed equally many tines, ‘The wunberofncongrat vos of the equations J@) ef ealed the onde f the epic Fanetion. ‘Taeoreen 6 The roe ay «<5 ag and pole, be of om lic famction satiny aye bag byt +B ed Be pore marae ee ® a he Roe ee yee ee ee Pelee repre eeneatry vinnpiil tal Teh, a Shed aon ase sod plein P Consider the idee froma toa + cod hom at ot toarhen-ton ‘The comeepording part af the iniegral maybe writen Bal = Lo) RG a ~ 8 [GG ae ‘Bzoept for the actor —y the vight-band member represmate the winding ‘umber around the org af tha ese trv ‘detibed by (0) when §‘ses fromatoe +o Itinconmquenty sn integer. Tho same apie {0 the other pair ofepposie siden. Thrfore Ue val of (8) ofthe fox nist, and th hoor s proved, 2. THE WEIERSTRASS THEORY ‘The simples eliptie funetions ae of onder 2, and sch functions have sith «double poe with residue so, orto simple poles with oppose FesidvesWechall flow theslaacal example of Weternteey who hose ‘funtion with s double pole a the waring pinto m aysemate try 4.1, The Weterstrase P-function. We may ss well lace the pol the origin, sad ence maltpention with oastast factor i loniy Irvelvant, wo may eure that the angular part n=. 1 finellpic end ‘ie only this agar a dhe igi sod ite ongroent pint, eany to we that f must bean even funtion Indeed, fi) ~ f(s) Bas the sme periods and wo wingulaesy. ‘Thorofore it mus eduos to cna, {ted on siting + = uy we conelide thatthe constant i ato. ‘8 conta eam be added at wil, and we ean therefore choose the constant term inthe Laurent development sbout the ain to be sero. ‘With this additional normaisason @) i uniqusly detrmaod, and rationally denoted by special typographical symbol pla). The Laurent development asthe frm P= et ett ont So far al this hyposttiea, for wehave aot ot shown the exstnos| ofan elipi function with ths development. We aball flow tho unl ‘rocedare in much cases, nacly to postulate the exitece and derive aa plist expan. ‘The ete i to develop i partial fractions bythe ‘method in Chap. 5, Se. 2 Osram inv prove she formula © 0-443 (gty-4) where the sue ranges aver all = sy + many exept 0. Observe that Ge 9) is tho singular part a and had we hove subtracted «in ‘erder o prodace convor:nan. ‘Ouest tk i o vary hat the sree converge. 1 [ol > 2, sy, am imundinte ent given ieee le=or al ‘Theretor the eres (8) converges, uniformly on every eomate et, peo vided that Doee oh” he iinet em Hesai / , hewte n8> 0 sh int fon ed ed fer ares a) on seuss aly ites thee are pie Ga) wth In + ol = Zbrsirferce. “The es sep so peove that the iht-hand Sie (% ha pad and ws Diret varicaion Ue rlaively eumboreome. Tonad we ‘rite, temporary, ao 2 2 ea ro~-B- JS eta- kets ‘The lt sum is obviouly doubly pac. Therefore fle +) — Je) sad f+ 0) ~ fa) ar constants. Borate fc) jn even (a oe tom (00), it ufioos ochowse 2 = —y/2 ands = ~y/ to soothe that the fonsints ao zero. Weare than proved thas ho the wero prods, Is folloms now that P(e) ~ fina constat, and by th form f the evelopment atthe origin the cootent in zo. We heve thereby ‘proved the exience of 4), and sls that it ea be rpremnted By as vevies (0). For convenient rfeeace we dimplay the Iniportant fora =F, Xe 4.4, The Functions {() and of). Because 9(0) has sro ries it in the derivative of sngle-valued Function. Ie ss reditionl to denote ‘he antderivative of 9) by —t0), aed Yo narmalize 9 ia i no, By toe of () wo are ke tothe explo expeeion HUG a cctataahiia an ro cc) oy‘The convergence iscbviou for par frm the term /s obtain he new series by integration fom 0 ox along any path Ut does ao par rough the pales Te i clear chat £3) sutnfon conditions Fe +19) = He) + m6 Heb) = 0) ey whore ys andy are cnstanla. "They're come scod with wy wy bya very cape lion, To derive it we choo any (ft O and obwarve that etd, by the residue heave. The intogral omy to evaluat by ang the ‘oatribuloas fro opposite sider of the parleogai, and we obtain the equation ee en = Bes, own at Legendre ration "The integration cau be eased one step frthor provided Ut wes 4 exponential to eininae the rulipleravedarme at 18 ely we ‘an very directly that the product 03) sto) eT] (1S) etee ‘converges and ropromnte an entire function which estision Hablete) = 1 "The fouls 15) as eanotisl product repreentation of). How doveete) change when replced by e+ wor F xt Prom eto) 4, eee) ~ ee) TY ‘follows at once that ele $a) = Coie vith constant Cy. ‘To determine th constant we observe thas (2) is an ‘dd fanetion, netting 2 = —uy/2 the valu of Cyeaa be delaras, Ad wo id that (2) enti ay ete a) = —efadentonn Set a) = moleneran, ‘exercises 2 Show that any evn ‘expres inthe ore oF POLO) — com) Ch to=ee emo jptic fonction with periods a ea bo provided that Oi oethee aan nor «pole. What is th fora: if she function ether vathes Or become nite atthe org? ‘2 Show that any elie funton with period uy oven be writen aa CH= ca comty int Uo 8) ad Theorem 44, The DigerentatBywation. By woof foro (2 ay to ‘nthe Lt epson oF) bra he rg aa dir ‘il he yi the omapondng enon of Ph. Wo iene fs cage poatatae aa snd when wo un over lps we cian ‘where we have writen CObaarve that the corespoding sun of odd pomers of th periods are toro a wan tobe expected eins Fn an od funeon, Beets v= =") wha ater w= + $e ~ Dome 3a the fllowing computation we write down only the sgnsant ‘terme, sine ita under thatthe omit tei are of hight ender? 00) = Bs scan 4 1 2-24 66 0s Por $2 aay"The lat three line yield Pe — 490)" + e0G,9.) = 1400, + “er th nt-band side ea doubly periodic notion, and the right-hand ride as no poles. We may therefore conclude that 9" = 490" = 009) ~ HO seaionny omy = 80, = Ms a oc bea a Per = 0-980 “is ina tore femal oan feo = fb Ee geet Taare tom which shows Ut 9(2) is the invert of an elliptic integral, More ‘eouretaly, this connection is expend by the ely 8 geting eT vr hint tna ttn ap Pap es Siemans aren ton ee mimewenan narra c eae Foe re ne ten ati tenn sats ty ene Sn Sey (EReISES ‘The Weirtcss functions satay numero identities which ar best eal: with nan exes ection. They canbe proved ier by compar Ing two alliptefaetions withthe eamo eos and poles (hen efuccoos a involved), of by comparing elipti fnetione with the aun gular bart when ‘oly @x sad. eforeionn are inwntva) Ta tlleing ‘quence of formulas obo arunged hat we eed ta reset thin method aly one, * as) 0) - peo = ~ 85, (Vos (1) to show thatthe righthand member in 9 period fenction of «Fd the multipicative eoactast by comparing the Latent fievelpmenta) ele +) 7 wo, tet) Fo = Pw (Potows trom (16) by taking logarithmic deivative! =te- 0 +1e+ 9) ~ 249. Ott ari si + B= Be. (inn mid vain of 12) rine fre ton a eet =P 4} (B=BE. (Dierentition of 15) oa to a formula which eontsina PC). can be slminsted by (15) which gives @” = OB" ~ don Symseetrian- tion yields (9). Observe hat thea algebra aditionteocem,fot 1) and 9) can be cxnesed algebraically through Pt) and Ple)) von -1(B8) — a9, & Prove 9) = out 2. Prove that eo eat Pets) Pt 34, The Modular Function NG). The diferatiat equation (15) eas loo bo writen 2) PL = ABE) — 22H) ~ a1 — 00, shee uy ue tho rots ofthe polynomial dt — gx ~ gu "To od the valrs of iy we termine th 30s 1 ()e_Th symmetry and periodicity of PG) imply Plas 2) ~ POO). Hence (a ~ 2) = —P) rom which lt Slow that Pei) ~ 0. Sine lacy Ga/2) = 0, a also @'C(ox + 0/2) = 0. The nts w/2, o/2 sod (or + o9)/2 are tually inoongret modi the period ‘Therefor they are presely the thru aro of which nol rd 8, aed Alte sree ae ple. When we sompare wi (2) flow thet we an em) B® ' mo. 2 OW, = Ro se Blea to i. sieciateae: aeamaaaa16 follows, moreover nd thie very important that hee rote are at date, Todeed,s) mmartn each valve with sultipby 2, ed {Tio of them wert exual that rave would be ssmuned four tos in ‘coatadition with th fant et @ is of order 2 Te we ube & = soy, aed oy + 09/2 th dition (2) of p() iti eam a oven that the o ae bomogencous of ord —2 in (or Gin ther wot, the periods sre mulupled by then the a are ‘aliplied by €3)- We eonlods that the quantity ey « depends tly on the rato + = oy/ay at indicated by our station. Ite (git clea fom (0) that Xin the qotint of two weal Felis in Beppe tall plane Kany 0. Bez er ert io aetually analyte rather than meromarphie; because ey 4H i never equal 0 0, aad Because e, eit never equal t 1 "We chal stacy the dependence on in greater detail 1 ho periods sre eubjcted to the ustmodalar wansformaton fr enthn a deen tee, then, rt fate atin do ot ange Therefore by king Soy, The olser cana mes be permed. Let une wat astaly Reppert (2) at w/t = wf and fhm ft SPE 1 food) snd =e 0 od). Unde his conn the Gorn huge, a wha howe hat oc a (0 e (EE)=r we (2 )=(L Yom ‘The tandormatons which eliy the cogrinee ration i 0) form a ebgoup tthe le oup (See 22), Haown th con- tro aoup meh Eaa OH) rt that 46) a nde sero. hits prea, when an analytic eonorbic ‘Selon var: wo 8 ou of tier afro nea itn autor funtion Moro mel, «function which aoe trerphe wi repel to's ebgroup ofthe modular up i ald = IRodhlr fanction (or a ite aaa fret. "We ell hve to dire the bbavar of NG) wer « modular season at dots berg 10 ha congrats mgr. Te caer teint conte mts grt not 20 (5 !)ant(® 3) Treaty rar gpeas beng ma he nt case we obtain wf2 = (og 0/2 and a/2 = a/; this oan hat ep sed esareinterchangn, while remains fed, and ence en aver ino Go al/le)— 0) =NOA— D. Tn tho second owe wf/2 = on) f/2 = 1/20 tated earinterchanged and Agoee over isto —. Sean fransformatons ater + lands+ —1/e. We fod tht Noateoe the functional equations om wendy a/ 35. The Conformal Mepping by Nc). For convene we shall heweforth ov tho ormalntion oy = 1, oy = 7. With thie choice of psiode we obtain fons () and (1) oe wo 3 [eater eres] Jee eal seh ni lly ep eaten Pane ae ope aan ere trian)” ite ae Segue ean So ean ee anenmemecs se tees (1 2) a the eongrenee hooey sk 28 hare Gee ee eee ae ae ae eee eee eae Se gees ge ee= te anda the convergence ni- ‘he mre are ron converge ot or Icom an nr ar compari too femiorins 510 "The nits can sow be ton termi, and wo find hn 5 ~ m+ 0, geste fone tem n= Bee LO i 2 ‘form with pet tothe real prt of 18 flows frter by tsroed equnion G5) Unt 2¢)-a4 hea approschat © slong te NS Ve ond ono or poe of inertaton, ace the oder to which 2) vies taper witha (2) te lading bra inet (and = 1. The mum of eos or my Net for kmr—+ 2. Tn Big 73 tho rogion 0 is Boonded by the imaginary axis, he Line or = and the dice jr jf'= $ The transformation +} 1 mage ‘he imaginary sue on Har = Land — 1/rmape Rey — Lonfe~ i= ‘Since 4) areal onthe imaginry xi it ellowe by vue ofthe ations (25) that iia ral on the whale boundary off.” Furthermore, Xe) =a + tend to Oat 24) > © ws tends tins ‘We apply the arrumoct priacile to determine the numberof tre 2) takes nonreal ylos yi Cut off the corners of by meaae of « ‘orisootl ine segment Im = tanditsimager under the unsaforaions Zr and 1— i (eee images are elon tangent ta the rel a) For sufiienty Inge titi ear chat 6) m wa the portions that have ‘bun ent of." ‘The cele near y= 1 it mopped by AG) 00 « cure A= NO — Ie) 1 = IAG); wheres = et ay OS 5 thin vow of (28) thins approsiately a lange semicirleia Uwe appr bat plana Tele now evident thatthe ie a the eontou ofthe tunes ron has ‘winding aumber 1 about we iim wy >, and windiog uumir Of {Im vy <0. Asa remit 46) takes every vloe inthe eper hel pane ‘exacly once in 0, and vale in the lower half place Thin i slant ‘int to guaranie tha! AG) ie monotone on the boundary of Todead, iit were not, the derieaive X() would vanish a «boundary point, and ‘8 woud be impossible fr w full wemirvlar might of that Bound ‘ry pot to be app into the upper al plane, ‘Taearem 7. The madular function Ne) afte & metowne confermat ‘mapping ofthe egion ono the upper hl plane. The mapping sends continue othe brundary én uch a ay at + = O, 1, correspond te we By rection the gion OY thsi yeniotso to 9 with expect to the imaginary ais soap onto tho lower half plane, an thor hoch rg (orithe corepond to the win plane, wept for the pte O ad We call alo prove: ‘Theorem 8, Bhory point inthe upper hal plane ie eqn wer be omgrunceexhroup md 2 ecety one pot in OME, Woreferto Fig 7-4. ‘Tho reader i shed to very thatthe raion 8 lemappecon the shaded rons inthe gure by means th nas tran formations, I/r,r = L/L = 2G ~ D/nsa/ 1) which we chal denote by Si, Bu... Sy. The razon ofthe vee tanformations S01, 6) we fa order GC 9G dG VE DED sre ttn nsmms casera repartee setae Soeeare ee Raeaie preeees Ea“Together the 12 images of Band W cove the set O1U 0 (dosuos should te taken with rect tothe open half pane). ety be any poist in the upper bal plese, The wi AU can be ‘deal withthe slote ofthe shaded region in Fig. 74. Therefore, srcording to Theorem 2 tee exile » modular teanformation $ eh {hat elena SU" Suppose drs that Sr iain Z We know thatthe tater of 8 i eomgrntmod 2 to tho matric of wn 5. T follows that le matrix of 7 = 8 in songrocns to the Hentty matrix; in other ‘word, T belong othe eongranoe mibgroup. Since Sr lis in we know. Turther that Ty = B48) les in OU (The sume renpaog apis i ‘Bred! Thus there alwaya Tein OU, anda tive eomideraion ‘hows that it ean be shen in DUG "Phe iguanse flows realy fom the fact that the Sy a8 wal ss the Sere mutually incogrocat, Wo sal nave tt the reader to work fot the detail Exercise, Show tht the function adnate 10mg ray is automorphic with respect tothe full modular group. Where don it fae the rnesD and J, and with what mullet” Show th ae Show als that. J) maps the rion in Fig, 7 nto half lane rie Pandan ron § GLOBAL ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS Inthe ring bat wo har sr tht fn mt sl died td ee tno th eof cons Sa ane # ich se nt tly mined by at als ‘Sonn, «spl tt wn eed fe Saw tte ore teimsar aslo ran eeceand Whe nae ‘heel fringed ary ds an oust he fcr a 0k shy fhe ope sth nome fe tk tot te gore" tha er ed fr «tmp sea, ‘Soars cress ae aches 11. The Weierstrass Theory, Weiztcm, in cont to Riemann, iar mre retail wate old we hy ‘aalytie factions ttm te enc of power ser For Weir bese Didi block nat a ree tr aaa Pe tatoo tae Dee ‘ith pastive radi of convergence r(P). Sus a nis e determine by ‘complex number the cede of the power atin segue [anf of ‘omples elena, The radi of convergence ia given by Hadar formule r(P)-*= fi a," Ian eat equement that) > 0, for only then des the power seis deine an alti functio i) in the soe ae eae JalGiven pit 5 «D, the fame 6) hs » Taylor developmen 0 2'1) iat ovng nk wh rn AP a tort) fs bc ry elage "The new mre deer ‘Scab aD hi el 1) St oni nai." Taper, ine a atl anes in'B de fr thy ar sl nt ntti DA Det Ds mt Crease a, the we fat an esi ot 8 tin ie pnp th matron so Titres enbsepenadan aero ino In hy rar ee wotvetnomeeys woreion pow atin Pt), Pao Fle i), obelisk nadir snc cnteoin of he pod Ge. Te othe wor Pe convent anton fi he de Dy then feeDesaedjenfesinDei De. Usher folie Bate fe Se Stoica tact In De Ds 0" De fr Derwh fen fos kta kp, hee ko ert st KoTyvin DPD Wi rocely th phy tha len beyond the foi feo he sm tango one ae th orm other ex pwc acc Pa Pa .- Pas oreo say iat ‘P's an anny cmination of Pe” Wiketn ciers the tei’ all owe arn Pe) tt amb btm rm Pas ty ayer ennai a pve sno il be called nels cam in eof Warr “Te property nt verse tow an anal eontitin of sector tetas eaecn elton An arly ran oe Sow of Won tog ut see mn pet oh ‘inion, sd theft mo Pe in digs gion ‘Tike clan "hed shat wo poner ora whieh beg {oi ome opine cs fern ro he sa eon 112, Gorma and Sheaves, The Weert hoor bas tly historical Into, forthe atton to pvrer sre and thir dma of convergence more of indrane thin sbep. Te should, neverdbelaw, be recogtaed {nt he Men uf Weeedews milly tis fins edertading f ‘mulipe-raluedsee in the they of complex eonlytisfonetions ‘We hal cutie amore dzetepproach whith is ror in ine with the ema sphtaned dba that dominio tho reeet theory of analy fuesions of several complex varables. Bocause wf the limited wope of thisbook we have to be entant o oerow sone of the tnminalgy and we itt simplify rome prot ‘An analyte fuetion f dein in a rgion@ wll constitute a function denen, Henated by (sud lta! analy fonction will appear a2 & ‘allestion of function elements which are rat to each oer ina p= sero manner, ‘Two faoetion elements (0) sad J) are mld to be rc anatic continuation ofeach othe if 0 710, i nonempty ane fi) = Jae) ANN More mpeciealy, sf) ik aled a direct analyte continuation of Gi) to the regan "There ned not exist any dive analytic to {imnaion to My but thre tae, es unigunly termine. Por ropes ha 0) sad (90) sre wo direct says eoatimanions a? Ue) en i= 97380104 ol brea Oy in conned ths imple fs~ gthrogh ‘out th, Wo aoe that ify C0, then the det analyte continuo of Gus ad. ‘As in te case af power sin we consider chai Ui), Jad, Unie ich that 0) and ruta) ars ict act cotntions ob sath other, and we way that ULf2) ivan analytic minsatn of Ga, ‘This des an aquivalene elton, and te elslnce canes ee ale tl enolic nets. As & typographical deviee the glial salle {xeton determined by the fameton slement (72) wil be denoted by bold type, f° Wor more lst terminclogy (72) i lined or Iranch ff. While termine fwnigiy, the converse 9 Tal tues ray have several ranehon over the sume 2 1s cute obvious that lol annyte feta ca be ati wth ‘walt fasion inthe cease of Weir, and we have gned algo ‘thing in generality. ‘Thee, however, m more fri pint of ioe Instead of pis (0) we shal eonsidne pire (0) mbere fm it a0 nati at thas oma, fs doteed nt analytic some oe se a emaainnz. "Dwo pairs Vat) and Gat) sll be equals icod oly f= fanod f= fri some neihborbonl off, "The endion for a auivaono® ration are obvoly fullled. ‘The eqivlenr clames att ‘alld goms, or more specify germs of analytic tionn ach gan ‘Astermips unique the srojcon of the germ aed we se the nated 1 innate x germ with projoction fA fusion element ves te ‘em f for each £0; converly, every & i determined by wine) ‘Th ao wl of osm recogni that the yn fob ere ‘ith the correnonngeoovorgent power cries Ple ~ 1), and wear back bet we lated.” However, hy intwusing th notion of goon we have clad an onetil property of convergent jer ecg manly tho fet ‘that tro power sero withthe ame eater ar ential i end nly if thy Yepresent the same funtion in sone mighiorbeed of the ater, Te ‘ursit of tie iden it tomes clo that wr could equly wll ena ferns of eter dame of funetins fr lata, gen of entaacun fe. reve sp Ih an aerm of analyte function, we are neverUsess going to take 9 sihtly nove geval pint of view et bean opon tm the complex plana, ‘The sto all germs f sith fe D incaleds shen over Dr we shall denote iby ® or Gy. I we tre dealing with yrs of analy Tusctions, Sy is ale the af of erm (of ena forclione wer D. There 0 projection map x: > D which rape fon Fora Seed ¢ ¢ D she inverse image +") ie ello the stale over {its denoted by "Th mt @ sintering eoaine i carrie & trol! wructse: one topological snd one algebra. Fist, & ean be taco ino n topolgial pace, which enables us to pea of continue napping. Sond there fm obvious algebras structaze on each tlk fo is let Wht we oan fet mocks a Porth make of simplicity we shal ix our sttetion on ‘he editiveatoctore. Inferno thir strurtre each sal ean absian soon. ‘Wear ready for a fy general dinition. Definition 1. A shayf wer D ie a pelea apace @ and a mapping + D eh the follwing properties (The mepping + 122 lca homeonorphion; thir call mean tat toch 8¢& haa pen neighbor mach tal 8) Hae ad th vition x00 ia lameomerphion () Foreosh « D th walle ¥G) = & han he rate of an betion sree. {l) Th group eperation re cmtnuous in he epslepy of B. Aculy, D canbe au abitrary tpolgia space, but we hal think ‘ef D ae an open ot in te complex plan Als the sructre of un abel tin group can be replaced by othe lgbrae stractares, "We shall rw vey that cho aa © of gare of analytic futons sotinfoe the ondiions in Deaton 1. or this parpiae we muse Sn Introd tapaogy on & Te awkward and untassry, to take © a tele epson. rend, we nv merely spell tho aubsets of & which are {be the open acts im the topology. Uur charucerasnon of ope sts ‘Sal be a foie: A ot VC w open if for every 9¢ ther eit {eneton elamens sch that (1) on) = foe (2 0 determines the fem t a fy G) all he germ fy detomnined by (0) axe in V. The Feuer wil ave no diet ering hat the conditions of Chap. 3, Det ‘Sere atid. With and (a ovr Ibe the set ofall the germs determin by Gi). Owing tour definition of open eet, i quite obvious hal & itn open sighberhood of a and that the mapping =: >i Dome ‘pore, Ths cnditin (of Ue efi ed Condition (i) nes 90 proof. Condition (ii) alo cary, but i important to uidertund what i evolved. Addition acd mbtacion ‘ake sense only fr germs om the sme stalk; it uelrt to eneder ‘subteuction. “Conider two pore tae with a(a) = ale), = fe Lat them. be determined by faetion elents (72) and (gf) wild fe « for tho sae of sinplkity we hase chown the ate for bath fmetion flementa, If «5 ith (9) = w(¢) = Ghee ¢~¢ le the gore, eterminod by Y—s, 0) at. When rages ove Qs ~¥ ranges over a ighbothood of te ~ a; marovae (ef) — x0) — a(). The pr Jecion tps establish homeomorphisms betwoan fy Aa Af aad QI ie ‘horsore clear that we can sinks oo a1 a eatin ‘ay prseibod neighborhood of sy ~ ry thereby proving the eotlnty. 1S tne pee. pn iceoe topes seice sat series aint! Serceemanmametic ns Ena ards tear en sigs tases ceanee drei So cu tyieees ater, 4 roe cers ewe, 2 Heri beeen yeaecess Sei phkeaietaal iat gre eee road oh Rice ag a naveoge pone homme aracerrnnatctmnstate seas ere aoa Heit camera" aecertoe sexo extiownbrays exis and PCT) he nt eity, From now on the ‘ero cction wil be denoted by 0, HEU is const and wf EUS), then either» and ¥ ae ential, or the images (0) sad 40) mo dnjoit. Indeed, te ala wip 9 = 0 tad op = 0 aebth pen ‘We have eared ou this dicuion in tome dtl to sho how the ontltea work. Tho pal cae ofthe she! of germs of lie fone loo rather tiv for in that enon F(U,e) en be Interred ae the additive group of analytic ('nglevelind”) functions oo Eo The tee “pe eta anton dee neatertions over the whois compler plane. The eomponents of © rpardd as ‘topologiea! nes, ean te identified with the pubal analyte fpetions ‘To nr this It my ¢ © be gurm deteminad by tho funtion cleat (el ad et (f) be m det analti continuation of (4); we remind the reer thet sed ar aumed to be eonmeted. Beenave fo ™ Je jn a6 Oy the ata dy any of perme determined by these two fetion ements inereet a aoocorphi images of the set nds re fonnsted, and the sane iv eoaaqentiy trae of tir union, Ay U If fotos that all he funetion element that are obtainable from (2) by a cham of eve sale eoatinuations give rise gyms contained in te sampoownt © of On the clher hand, lt & Bethe wet of oem in ©y which can be determined yan analytic entiation (i) of Ga) 1 rodiy sec that &¢ ands comport in are both open. Henoe 1 = ey, and we sel that By comin precy ofall the germs belonging to» gla! analyte function neta ofthis Menten, 1 tone mete to regard 86 the domain of tho gh! wali anetin, whi we shall pow dole by & ita valor at f being noehing but the comsant term inthe power erie evened with tat ganm. With this aterzetation Sy rood to {he Riemann surface aff. Wen indeed quite sinise to the lementary TRiemarm surfaces which wee ify eiied in Chap. 3, Se. 4.3, end it terven he wane pores, arely Uo make fcnge-valued. One ean picture {Se ae Bing seen out is lyers over tho plane, andthe sheet that is Sat cre warts to cll tary are imsgos of etinn Tabou be noe That wore not yet cing the Leach points, how role wl be invent ‘ad ater Tor rete laity, lt the Riemann aurfacs of lob analy fn tion fb noted by Gf, Given two glabalfnetions xed, there ay cuit wrapping aff) = Gx) such that (2) x2 8 = x and @) Pisa Keel homesmoryisn. In thowe cisumtaoees > 8's sngle-valued fencton on Sf) sally, the notations eamplied sad ono agree to oie intend of g + Tn this way all the derivatives 40% are Timed on the Romane sifu nf All rls feos Bae ato ‘natal defined on every Sx), abd fg. redefined on G0), in overy polynomial Gay «> "There i 9 olan plaspte known asthe pemanece of fentimal retatoa Seppo Ut eetain Canton lesen (8) (0, an be outinued salytialy whenever (0) ea bo continued, diet or {Brough asain of ‘inst "eoatnaationsAawume mormver_ cht GUgh,-..) = Don. “Then the mune ration ols forall analyte ot- inition fet that may be expeed ty OU) — 01a pare [calc germ aon polyol deren aqui GGA.) tan the iba function f sting the me equation 1.4, Analytic Continuation long Arco. Lela ~+ Co arin ‘he complex pane. Consider a lobe! seat function fw ts Riemann surface 0, defined, as before, to ben eemaponeat of the she! © of all ‘gent of enaotie fonctions An ave: [oD] —> 0) neat be an Analyte contisustion af € along ir =F = 1 hen HO peta on 10 forall C4 [a8 Naturally, by the dation of re, 50) sabe coe ‘tinuous on [a3] fa the tpg of B48). Tn woother termine, lao called tng of» w O10). Continuation slog ax are coresond tthe lative oton of | contououly changing. germ. The extence af x cortiniaton it tot suaranted, bot the folowing important uniquenes there » vai ‘Theorem 1. Tue anaitic continuations 9y an 7s of yeh analyic: Suction lang he rae are are ier enti, 70) 92 940) for al ‘he pot i eily. Donan «i oa msrp the image 7 Feet ena port of th nr son os ng ‘By vir ofthis thaorem a onination i iq determined by itn ina vale he gem); tel gr ote fn fb may Seve emer Ons ial ard war the right fo spank of he anti cotaaaton fem tat em, (Gate sunt ee enemucaeerecnan Way ‘well poe hat f dt wot ve cotinnaen slog , oF ‘hn contin xt for sane nl gemy but tt for Law investigate the exe fan intial gar ich ona be cote Song 1 Hte> aise hse to they ml ways ads stivation i the io gem alg the sare fy ht oeroads terra ln inde is dterined by ha fonction eae, tas {evilly th ofthe sabre tonto phe let type baad ‘talloch ins number + with «" eS "= * and comenponding eoced ‘rves + ch thatthe continuation of te nal gar along des at led back the same germ. Bar bof Ube form extaec! where ibn welldctenioed polymon leading from 0 to the lower Iefehas emer of RO" and Ty dnotan the permetar of RY; mansves, ex bea bare of en, ‘Arn r= the rectangles converge to pint Pa and the poles frm, inthe int a are ending at There oft a continuation GF the intial gor along op3 i lensinatee with 9 gorm detrmined by © facet element (2) Over the Sage of Py unde he rpping Gs). or suticienty larg m the mage of T, wel Be ents nh, td the ‘germ obtain x the terminal pant ofo willbeiong to the function element G8). When thins the owe the elomeat (0) can booed to constret ‘"ceainaition abing = which Tends back to the iil germ This tenteudte the property iy which x wn chow. aad we have prove thatthe cotinutin long ees withthe inital germ "The menadomy Shen fig, aero all, hat my gba analyte funetion nhich ean be continued along al arc in » ply connate ‘econ determiner one sngl-yaloed enalyte fosstion for enc shaso of the iil branch, Thi fact eat aun be expressed Uy suylog tht © “Riaiean surface (witha branch points) overs ply canned region ‘must ct ofa sage chet. Wo ean Turter daw the consequenes alrndy announced, that & resion whote honetony esp reduon co tha ait cement. mos: nicer ‘arly be simply eonmeted. For eppowe that Oi multiply connected. ‘Then ther exit abounded comsponeat By of the complamant of Gand it sede we koow tht log (¢~ 2) is uot sloglo-vaucl in @ By che ‘anodromy theorem i flows that the Lomotogy soup of @ cannot recuse to th unt elment ‘Thins the Ist ep toward proving the equialence ofthe flowing thee cburactrastios of simply connote regis (1 ity br novied if ta complereat is comnertod; (2) is simpy connected if ie hhomeomorphie with «dik; (3) 0 eirply connected ft fedamontal group reducer uo the unit element. eee ee a cee ear reendants rtm ot ede as See eee Frei brta ped Coen eee ee es 0) = 1 — wel) + wr 1, st) = on + a, eee Scie icae one ot eee: ee eee ea eg ale See eee cee ete a Hedman oe ke ie ST tin wie pee er te Pep ary peep aetna enrmine eiceaare e hy ra , Sicunee Teta reas peat eh a Tea ca weal pe te eae cee icra reece ant th ete Te rah cutes meet pce cose eye! SORA ts, Rem ert ee oe olka ten Re ie flay Stag weds ha fe Ait comers are cay seatpost sec cvs cca pb Piers tel eo Seb ete een one Serta cin ee Pei ey ‘Ther inthe full clrle. Conmauenty, evry slosed curv hemotopis Toe pomer af @. ip bate weaion, we ober that Coie homotopic to only itim = 8, ‘This seen by the fot that [etme tet, hile ifthe curve were homotopic to 1 the rtgral would have to vanish, ‘From our relia we conclude tht he fundamental grosp af tho pune- ‘red disk isizmsorphie to the oddto royp of tater. Rvdently, wa ssbiteary annulus has the same fundamental group, ‘We comer now a global ancltie fmetion€ which can be eontinaed song ll eres inthe panetured disk 0 < fe] < p. We chor an iil fg tt 25 = + and eontinue it along all curves C%. Exhor the oon {lngaton never resarm to tho nal ger, o there ext small postive Indep hoch that C™ leads back to where we rartd. In the later exe, elm = hot qwithm an integer and sq 0 ll germs (8) wit I~ e) <#ebtanal by suteingin(®) asinglevalud seek fe 4)" dined ina neh bod off.» The reine topaogia spmen wil be mau inte seme thst evry pin, insding tho brush poi hae w ncigborkoad which ishonseomarpis tox di, Ine Weert ieory iti customary to easier the totality ofa over ses developmicat including the fratonal one that are cal fle by analyte coxtination from & single on, and otal in enaic empwation analytes Geb) 2 ALOEMRALe FUNCTIONS ‘An equation of the form P(ws) = 0, where Pt piymoial in two ‘uvnbls has foreach» ite amber of elution (3), =, wa). ‘We wich to show that thee rote oan be oterreted a values of 8 soba analyte funtion (2) which inthe calla a aera faction, Convery, is global scaly fnetion i given, we want tobe ele to tall wheter it dos or doe not esi a polynomial equation. 2.1, The Resultant of Tuo Polynomials. A polynomial (wz) i two variables is seduce if Ft casnot be expreand tthe prt of two. polynomial navn f which i soatans, "awe pelynomiao Pond @ ore ‘elt prime i they have no ooranonfaetar exept fer cote ‘The following thoorem is lgebsle Ia charanar. Becatos ofS fundamental importance forthe teary of alesis Funeione we will nevertheless produce it proof, Theorem 8. 1/Po) and Qo) ee rlatialy prime polynomials there are only a ie numberof vals for which the equations Pez) ~ 0 ‘and se) = O have common re ‘We moppore that P and @ aro ordered sscoding 1 dereuing powers of w and mt Qa) = Bsr sk == + gC) where Bl) at Meat cally nro. IEP individ by Q, th division nlgritim ye «guoaent fd reminder which are polynomicle in w and rational function in ‘We se up a Fucldean algorithm of the fore P= ot 2 = ou + Ra “ fat = lls cas = tes + Re bee the Q, and 2 ae polynomials iw and = while the ae poly- nomise in # used ta clear the fractions. ‘The dagrese nw ofthe Re ro decreasing, and Ris» polynomial in alae. If f(a) weve deaiely ser, the unique factorinntion theo ipo, bythe la ton ia (4), ‘hat Roa would be dvi by any ireduebl factor of R- which sof poritive degre in w. "The sano ressoaing shows, rap by sap that all ‘he well a Qand P would be vse by the ave feta Tha ‘centary tothe assumption for Rs bof pontive degee in and tr ‘heneore have a irda factor which contains we Soppore now that Pleats) = 0 sad Olona) = 0. Sabaitating ‘thes values in (6) wo obtsin (et) = 0,» Resfwyn) = O and finally R.(o) = 0. “But nee By not identically er, thee we aly 8 finite nuzber of 2 which myths conton, andthe thee follows, "The polyacmial (0) i ealed the revlon of P and @. More pre: nly, if we wish the Teutant to be usiguely determined, we shuld gui thatthe exponents in () ae ofthe lomet degree pete. We ‘re not eo intersted inthe roultant atin tho statement 0 Theorem 8. ‘The theorem wil be applied to aa reducible payor PG) un en patil derivative Po) with epost tow. "Then polynomial te lee Lively ripe as ron as Phas poative degre ia wand th relat of P tad Pin caled the dicriminand of P The seen ofthe Cees ‘8 the vals 1y for wish the eauation Prin) =O han mine me ‘We nota, sally, thatthe rnltant (2) of aay two relay fe ‘polynomials P ad Q ean be writen inthe form R= pP + o@ whore and ae plyaowials. This follows ininediaely fom (4) 2.2, Dainicon and Properties of Algobrale Functions. We beg ty formulating a preindefrtion: Detiniton 3. A global anattic fnaion £ i cllod am apron on i ol ie faction eementa (i) way vlan POS) a) = in,ohare Pa) iso polynomial which doe ct vith ential Because of the permaneace of functona relations i eflent to secure that ote fuscton clement anesthe equation PU) ‘The othere wil then automata sats the sae rlsen. Morcover, ‘may be assumed thet P(e) ia a iredable polynomial. Suppom eed that PCa) has the factonnaion P = PiPy Pein iobuctln factor For auy Sized point 26 one of the exuaions PAUt02) = 0 rust hold. If we conlder 4 Sequence of diferent pinta 2, €0 which {ead to a initia 2, then ove of the relations P,((w)s.) oust bold ately often. Tt follows that this partir vlaion Pfs) = Oe tnd Hdentically in 8 and, consequeatly, by all tbe fanetin elements ff. Wo aro thus fea to replace P by Pr z Rin ul cay owe that the reducible polyoomial P determined by sn algebra fonetion i unique up tos constant factae. Tis an em {ial diferent edule polynomial, we can dolaraine tho reutant HG) = pP + QI PUG) = 0 and QU) 8) = 0 forall £69) we ‘would obtain M2) = 0 in coatary tothe fat that BX) i not Kent tally sero. We note that P omant reduce to 4 polynoala of # slave Ei contains oxy wit mat bof the form wo ~ a, eed te felon f reduc ta the ceatant ‘We prove net that there exes an algebra uneion eoreepondling ‘to any inedube polyooial P(w2) of positive degree iow. Suppow at Poop) = eladur ashen + + ta 1 mn sther ne of she pokromial enor xr of the dis saat of P, the eauaton P(g) ~ O has exactly dati’ roots wy tn Sev ste Under ti condition the flowing i tre: Lemma L. Thee exide on open dak A, conlaining and» function dle ‘ments Gus Only» «+ + Un) th tae proprtier pel ee oaerotpe seamay ante nae rere od koe Ane 1 eis replaced by s, the integrals become well-fed continuous func= ‘ions of in a uelghorbood of 2 Sinoe they ean only ake iteger vale, thare exist wneigiburood each that 1 / Paws) aa hee =| {orl ze. This mesos that tbe oquation P(e) ~ 0 as actly ou oot in the dak fe ~ | — 0 for 1, (6) i map by 27> i fellows that all terms exept he fiw tod so tro. ‘Thit 8 contradiction, and we may eondode tha ‘s) hot rac an algsbrae pole at infin. ‘To mu up, we have proved shat an algpbais faction bas at most ‘igbrae ngalatien nthe extended pane. Wo wl now prove 8 coo {rere of thin slaiement. Th onder to obtain converte fix ewenil 10 ‘sidan sorption which implies at there ace only fie umber of branches ato given pnt Tet be global analytic function. or each ¢ we wou the x inlece om puncraed dink 3 entre a och that al germs otf whieh fo dened at point yam be cotiocd song all nes 2 wd show ‘Tnbresebrseor at. ‘Tho sorption eal be atid elo for c= =, invwich cae & inthe exterior of cle. Moreover for ono i must ‘be mune that the munberof diferent gem a ui it, ‘Since the extended plane oan be covered by a finite aurber of disks 1, the eater inlode i fllows that ely ite numberof pint ex Tetfstivedagaloita; we daote these pints by cILiey trove thot the nunber of onan at any pont = cy la eoastant, Por every feck pola has a oeighbortd kn which all gra of xe sigl-valued {Ted can be contiowedIroughost the aeghboriood. I folows thatthe et of aia with exslly'» gor open (ex bo faite cr init). ‘ince the extaaded plane minus Ue pinta eis conseind, ely one of thes ote ooempey. Hanes b constant, by amumtin it exnnot bernie, and fe eannot be aro snc in Ut case Fwould be a eat ‘lion of function cements. "Tobratchen at any point # cmay now be denoted anf) == ‘fe eeept that the ordering emai indeterminate. We form now tht ‘mentary symmeti functions ofthe i) tha is toany the coaienta ofthe polyno! = hlante = Ho) «++ Ce £000. “ha et wl eed fenton ed ovo nao Srp la ha “seen‘swe know that each i) may grow towne infty at mot ke nega tive power of [2 ol. “The mmo is beac tebe of the elementary sn mete funciona, Wo conelade thatthe iolated singlaiiy,inclding the ane a infinity, are wt moet poles, and contmquenty the elementery ‘symmetric fonctions are rational nein sf thee sraron devonh- ‘ori denoted ty au), we End that all branche) mon satily & polynomial equation BE + ae! ae) = 0, dit is proved that Fs algpbric. ito eny to settle the point which wasleftopen nS 22. Sup- pote that the funtion elomeat (0) aaier the equntion PU) = 0 hice P it ieredcile and of degre m ke. ‘Then the soresponding loa analyte function f hae ony algebra singalariin and ite Duma of branches Atcording wo what we havent own f will any ‘polynomial equation wee dire fo ua othe ramber ef ranches, Th wil hence aatity an iedasble oqunion whose degree i not higher. But th only freduriblogeation vt ean stiey i P(e) = 0, wa is ‘ogre isn ‘Therefore tho mamber of Daschee neatly, ad wo ave shown shat ll ations of Pl) = 0 ae brass of the une analyte funation. Te remains only t lt the rote: ‘Theorem 4. An analytic faction i om algera ction fit has a fe amber of bronchen end of mow algraic sigur, Bey alpiraie Junction = Ma) stron on sreducle equation Pua) = 0, nique up 1 const fac, ond wery cwch equation determines a arreponding ‘lero ncn ei {tia ako customary 4 may that aniedcible equation Pea) = 0 deines aa aerate cure.” The theory of algebraic carve ins hghly ‘developed branch of alge and function tory. We have been soto ‘evel only the mont elementary pasta the feson theoreti spect. wexancise ‘Determine the postion aad nature ofthe sogulstonof ho slanbrie fonction dined by w! ~ Su + 22" = 0, 2 PIcARD’s THEOREM Tm this section we sall prove the exlebrated theorem of Pier, which ‘ere that a8 nl fusetion ote a nest ote ile vale. We shal ‘rove tes an application f the monodromy theorem (So. 1, wring the rwodalssfenoion Xe) (Chap. 7, Bebe sad 23) in ah venti ay ‘This is Pica own proot. Many eter proofs have ber given which ‘are more clemeatary ie that chey need lms preperation, but note in at easiatg an the original rot. 3.1, Lacunary Values. A complex number as asi to bea lewnary ‘sae of faetion 6) if 73) m8 inthe region where fn cated, Yor inate, Osa lncary vale of inthe whale plas, ‘Thoucean § Pear). An ents fection with more dan on fae let sary vale race conto, We rrall that an entire fonction) i on which i analy in the whole plane. If a und bar distinct tite values and ff) i dient frou db for alls, we ae ried to how that fe le conan. Consider fi) = (le) ~ 0) = 2). This fonction is enire and 0 snd 1. Tfr is octant ff. Thraore tno retistion to eames {roma the begining thet = 0, = 1 ‘We hal dein a global analy fonction whase funtion elements (a) share th fllowtag property: Im MG) > 0, and Nh) — J) for 100, Tere 26) isthe dul funtion defined in Chap 7, See, 8. 1 willbe showa thas hean be cotinue slong all path. asthe plane ia simply conaceted it wil follow by the monodromy Ahroeay atk fn an entire funeam AG). "Boeuuge A) har all Re values i, the ‘upper half plane, eis hounded. By Liouville thoten:hsnuet reduce 10's constant, nad wm doef) ~ XAG) ‘By Theorem of Chap. 7 Wane exit point rin the wper bal plane such that Xn) = JO). Because Xo) 70, by the sae Corer, thee ‘isa aloalinveraof 9, sine ins aeghtorbood dv ol 0) end devoted bby A, charcteraed by the condone X0s'(w)) =n Ayand 25") = re ‘By continuity hero ie a neghbobod yf the origin wish J) «Bo so wo ean therefore dete a) = As") in So We hal let he the ddobal snaytio funtion obtained by ooatisting the fuzeion element {0.09 in al ponibi wags. ‘Wie hnve to abow thatthe element (0) ean bo eontinned long al pathy sod that Kn remain postive. If tha were not wo, we ould fd a ‘ish 70) wih that hon be continued sod nh ena live upto any 1'< whl thee beaot be aml ap ta fy oF ve LAC] tend fg We oan elon alae thn ae relane with No) — fod) aed lal iver A with EHO) = na etined in mughtrhood 3s of fly@)] Let 0, be a ueghborioed af ‘in which i) « 2 and choee ty < 90 et 0) €or € Fal ‘We know that 4) has the sae Fate ft) abr = Ml] ad = AUbOND. Hence, by Theares 8 of Chap. 7, thee txts modular ‘rsaalomstion in th congrusne eubgroup med 2 sch that SINFirtaD) = Ho) We now define hin Osby hie) = Sx") Tes evident that 4) len continuation of hap tot, whch staland(()) ~ fe) and Linh > ‘We eoneiad that h ean indesd be contnne along wl ps, and a we ave pated out, Pear'echerem follows at once ‘We have cari out the proof in sch paitaking detail in an effort to convince the render thatthe monodromy theorem pays ax cecal & role the proof sa the medal metic, LINEAR, ENTIAL EQUATIONS "The thoory of eobal analyte functions maken it pombe to say, with ‘great dpe of ganealiy, the ecrple sitions of ndinary diferent ‘ogoations Of all deren‘ equations the linear ones ae he senply ‘Sb aay the moet pera, A liner equation of order mls the for 0) SE + aoe +a caf +acie =a) shore the conficints ae) and the right-hand member H() are single “aloe mune fupetins. Tarde to simplify the teste we rect ar attantion t th cas wbare thew Sanetioan are defined in the whole ‘oo; thoy wre thus asuned to be ete factions, A elon of @) la ‘Boba tale uation € which matte the entity o oe retary ‘We have alesdy romain that this isa easiogfol oquation and ‘at tis flfled season ara function eleent (fof Fenian te core ‘sponding equnion wit freplaced Uy J." A fonction arent with tis ropety wil bo ead «Leal sellin. "Ta ronder who fnliae with Ue rel ea wil emoct the equation (© to have nlinonly independent saatonn "The in mom fara eal ‘elutions are concerned, but wo rust be prepared to Sed tht difereot local wootions eaa be tlemanta of the sume global analyte fern. Tnotier words inthe complex eae pat ofthe probam So nd ont ‘what extent the oe! selutons are slyteenatnnations ofeach other. "Th equation (8) 8 hmaponoue if a) ienealy sere, Thi ‘he mow important eas ef the only on wo wl teas, Furtber- more, we ca ative the the eoalients af) have no cemmon seus infact if ts were scomuon zero we cold did ll oficens bre te ‘nd the solutions would remain esate. Asn matter oft eae ‘iling to consider meromorphic coetBcients we nay dvi () bye) {com the beginning. Convery, sn oqustion with meromorphic coe! Sicha is given, cach cootient ean be writen ase quotient of bo entre fencing; efter multiphicaon with the comes dooominsor we cota sn equivalest equation with entre cufienta. It i this Ilerant ‘whether we door do nt allow the cognate to have poles Ta the cae m = 1 the equation () han the exp eolsion ao Se, ‘The only problem is sho to detamine the miltip-vaied charter of the Sater, x question which has already bean treated, On th ator Ihand, the case n= 2 is found to have all the charters features of ‘he goveral enc. Pr this reamn we find i icant to deal with hose: sensous liner diferent! equations of the second order 4.1. Ordinary Points, A poate elle un ordinary pont fr tne ‘itera equation ao) Ge ae! + axohw = 0 tnd only He) #0. ‘Te central then toe prove i che wing ‘Theorem 6 ft is erinary point Jor the spuntion 0, there ete 1 local elution i, 25 €0, with arin dered vl fes) = brand SG) = by. The germ (2) aig determined. ‘We prefer to write (10)in the fora a w= pon! + aie ince 7) = ~Ai/eu a2) = —ay/ee “the semmpton sens thay) sod (te enalytic in a nughborhood of ay; for sonrenence we ony kos, 0. Let aa 20) = mek pet pet Oa abned tae ‘be the Taylor developments of 7) end 4) In onder to solve (11) we um the welled of indeterminate ceef- ‘ciate. "tthe thorem is tr, she selaton ‘© =f) soa have 8 ‘Taplor development ‘oragenct ag “om = nc ae03) {= deb bebo bbe hase coficiente satiny the conditions 2a = bape + ba = Diape + ips + Date + ba, nls = Db. = Diet (Blt + Pe seb beat tha an ‘This sendy proves the woiguenest. Al that remains ta prove ie that the equations (14) lad tom power ois (15) with « postive radius of convergence. It will Ux fellow by pormivable operons of tra wie Aiferentiation, moltipication, and rexrangement that (12) ia seuton ‘of the equation with deed itil valee off and ‘Siar the sros (12) have positive radi of corenrgnee thee ent ky the Cauchy ineguaies,constante Me and ro > O euch tat nl s Mest ae led 5 Mew Tn over to show tha (18) hs ikewin& positive radu of convergence, ielweulicent wo prove similar inequaliee a) ba sates for amiable choice of A aa "The natural denis ta prove (10) by induction on n. In thet place (16) mas hod fo 9 = O'aad m = 1 this ead to the preliminary cone ions Ul M, [Mfr whisk are sated for euleenyIrge AL fd euicinty inal 7. Aseumo (10) tobe vald forall abscripa the (8) esa of te ropa 1Index Abel. Ht 38 ‘Abe's init toremy, 41—42 ‘Abe's power stis theorem. shea Absolute convergence, 35 ‘Absobte value 6-8 ‘Accestory parameter, 237 ‘Accumulation point, $3 ‘dition theorem 43,277 ‘Ative group, 298 Algebraic eure, 306 ‘Algebrae fonction, 300306 ‘Alacbrae singular. 293 “Amplitude, 13 “Analy are, 234 ‘Analytic continuation, 172,284 Analytic function ee Function, ‘analtc) Analytic geometry, 17 ‘Angle, 14 46,88 ‘Apollonius, 33, Ate. 67=69 snalytc, 234| ‘Siereniable, 68 Sorina, 68 Ace opposite. 68 Feet, 104165 regulr, 68 simple, 68 ‘Are fengih 75, 104 ‘Area, 75-76 1.46 incl, 152~ 154 i ‘ArzelarAscol theorem, 222-203 ‘Assocatve lw. 4 Asymptotic development, 208 ‘Automorphic fneton, 270 ‘Axis imaginary, 12 Bal, 32 closed, $2 Bares, 250, Beardon, A. Bergman, S161 Bernoulli J. 186,205 Bed: F.W. 31d, Han,iective, definition, 65 ioral equation, 1516 Bolzano-Weierstas theorem, 62 Boundary, 53 eta, 252 Bounded st, 56 ‘ounded variation, 105 Branch, 288 Branch poet, 98,299 Calls of resis, 148161 ‘Canonical asi, 268269 ‘Canonical mapping. 251~ 261 ‘Canonical product, 193197 Canonical region, 252 Cantor, 63,223 Carathondory, 24 Cauchy. A 25m, 148 ‘Cauchy principal vale, 158 Cauely sequence, 33 (Cauchy's estimate, 122 ‘Cauchy's neal, 10 ‘Cavehys integral fort, Mia 123 CCanchy'sinewal theorem, 109123, 13718 Chain, 37-138 ‘Change of parameter, 68 revere, 68 Crt of convergence. 38 Closst curve, 68 Clowed se 82 Closure, 32 ‘Commnative Lae 4 ‘Compaciess, $963 ‘Complement, 50 ‘Couples fonction, 21—47 ‘Complex integration, 101—134 Component 37 ‘Conformal eglvaenee, 251 Conform mapping. 67-99, 229-261 Congrucace subgroup, 278 Conjugate diferent, 163 ‘Conjugate harmonic Finetion, 23-25 Conjugate number, 6—8 Conmected set 8458 Connectivity. 146— 148 ‘Connell, E101 ‘Continous fuscuon, 23,6366 tniformly, 65 Conte, 109 ‘ner, 252 ‘wer, 282 ‘Contrtetion. 35 ‘Convergence: absolute, 33 circle of 38 ‘ior, 35-37 ‘Convergent sequence, 33 ‘Cota! pont, 304—306 (Cross rato, 78-80 Curve, 6 “Jordan, 68 level #8 point, 68 i, 293 oye, 7-138 etait integral. 101 de Moive's forma, 15 De Morgaa law, 51 Dense st 58 Derivative, 23-24 Differensuble are, 68 Diller equation, 275—277, Son 01 Dirichlet problem, 248251 Discrete set 58,265 Discriminant, 301 Distance #1 ‘oneuciiean, 136 Sheil, 20 Distributive law, 4 Domain, 63 Doubly periodic fonction, 265 lement, 50 lips, 95 Eliptic function, 265281 Epic itera, 239 Elite modula faction, 278 lipse trnstormation, 86 Empty set 50 Entire function, 193, 206212 Equiconaiity. 219220 Essential singularity, 129 Euler, U4, 44 19 act diferent 107 Exponential fnetion, 4247 Exterior, 53 Fibonacci numbers, 184 Fld. ¢ Fixed point, 86 Fourier development, 264 Fraction. parti 31, 187-190 Fresnel tes, 206 ‘lgelnai, 300 — 308 analytic, 2478, etm of, 285 ‘tal, 283 ~ 321 comples, 21— a8 ‘conjugate harmonic, 25-26 ‘continuo, 25, 6366 oie, 193, 206212 ‘exponential, 42-47 ‘emma, 196205, Function ‘Green's, 252, 256-259 Inumonk, 25,162 -174, pied hnlomoepbi, 21.24 bypergeomesre, 315-321 itera 113 regular, 127 semicontiouous, 247 slngl-valued, 22 is, 212-2i8 ‘Punetion element, 284 Functional, 169 Functional equation, 216217 Functional telation, 288 Fundamental group. 294 Fundamental region, 899,282 Fundamental sequence, 34 Fundamental theoremat astra, 2h, 12 Gamma funeton, 198-206 Gauss, KF, 200 Genus, 196 Geometric veres, 38 ‘Gorm, 284 Global anal function, 283-324 Gourst, E11 Greatest lower bound ig), 55 Green's functon, 257259, Hadamard, J, 206 ‘Hadamarsformala, 9 Hadamari's theorem, :05—212 Hadamard’ thee-crethoorem, 166 “Harmonic funtion, 25,162 174, ‘Dat ~244 4 Hamack’s inequality, Harnoct rncilel 20 0440. diane sceHeine-Borel property. 60 Holomorphic unctio, 21 Homotogous, definition, 141 Homology tusis. 147 Homomorphisa. 45 Homothetic transformation, 77 Homoxopy, 291 —300 Hurwitz A. 178, 225~226 Hyperbole. 95-97 Hyperbolic transformation, 86 Hypergsometrie deren oqu- ion, 315—321 -Hyporgcometric function, 317 Lagrange's 9 ae, 63.73, Index of pict 114118, Indl equation, 312 Indireesy conformal mapping, 76 In 95 Infinite product, 191, Init. 18 3 Iniective, definition, 65 Iegr, 101108 Imegrl domain. 4 Intersection, $0 Into, definition, 63 verse function, 65 were image, 63 wolutory transformation, 7 reducible polynomial, 300 Tsolted point, $3 isolated singularity, 124 Isomorpaism. 5 Jacobi K. G3. 241 Jacobian, 25,74 Senses formula, 207 208 Sonden are, 68 Sordan curve, 68 Jordan curve theorem, 118 Kernel 45, 161 Kobe, P 230 [acunary value, 307 [Capange's ident, Laplace's equation, 25,162 splcia, 248 [arent series, 184186 (east upper bound lub) 34 Bs Legendre polyaomia, 184 [Legendre relation, 278 emg, 75,104 evel curve, #9 ies inferior im ini, 34 ims superior Gin sup i). 3 imi 22-24 oat pat 62 inde, ©, 97,208 ine itera, 101 — 108 Liner eiferetal equation, 106-321 Linea group, 1578 ear traneorsation 76-89 {Coal mapping, 130133 cal soiton, 30% {ocaly bounded family, 225 Locally connected set 38 Cocally exact ferent 14a 196 Loprithm, 46—48 Coxedromie transformation, 88 ca’ theorem, 297 Me test, 37 Major, 77 Marina: conformal, 73-75, 29-261 ‘contious, 646 focal, 130-135 schlich, 230 Sle, 260 {opoogical, 6 ‘nivaent, 230 Mary, F226 Maxim, 56 Maximum principle, 133137, 166 Mean-valve propery, 165-166 2220) Meromorphic faction, 128 Metric space, 51 Minimum 56 Minorant. 37 Mitag-Lemer. G. 187 ‘Modula funtion, 278 Modula group, 267 Modal 147,268 Modus, 7 Monodromy theorem, 295-297 Morem's theorem, 122 Multiply connected region, 16— 14 Natural toundary. 291 Newhbomood, #2 ‘Noncuclidean distance, 136 Normal derivative, 163 Normal fail, 219=227 One to one dfiton, 65, Onto, denon, 65 ‘Open covering, 38 ‘Open set 52 Onder, slgebnac, 128 ‘fa branch po, 98 ot etire function, 208 fa pole, 30, 128 Df atonal aneton, 32 ‘of zero. 29, 127 ‘Order elation, 5 Orienaon, #3 Osgood, WF, 2300 {@onction, 272-277 Parabola, 99 arable transformation, 86 Parallel ransaton, 31 Parameter, 68 ‘change of, 68 arta traction, 31,157 190 Peri, 45-46, 263 Perron, 0.,245, 248 46 Picard’ theorem, 306308 Piecewise diferente are, 68 Plane ‘omplen, 12 tented, 18 Plonkett RL, 101 Poin, 12, $0 ‘sociation, 33 ‘ranch 98, 299 Sued, 85 Isolatad, 53 ondary, 309 Point curve, 68 Poisson formula, 166~ 168 Poisson Jensen formu, 208 Pole. 30,127 ‘algebra, 299 Polygon. 37 conformal mapping f.235—241 Polynomial, 26-29, sce taalPorc, P 10m Power series, 3842 Principal branch, 71 Probability integral, 206 Projection of germ. 285 Ratios function, 30-33 Real umber 1 Real prt Rectangle, mapping on, ‘2241 Rectifble ar 104105, ‘Retection principal, 172174 Region, 57 owed, 57 ‘termined by 9. 116 Regular are, 68 Regular fneton, 127 ‘Regular singular point, 311—313 Retativly prime, 300 Removatle sngilariy, 124126 Residue, 18-161 Rese theovem, 147—151 Resultant, 301 Riomana, B.. 258 Riera mapping theorem, 79-235 Riemann sphere, 19 Ricmane surfce.97—99, M9235 Riemann zeta fUnetion, 212-218 Rovehes theorem, 153 Schteh fneton, 230, Schwarz, HA. 135 Tema of, 133 theorem proved by, 169 SchwaacChrstofi formal, 26238 Scowarz tingle function. 241 Sehwarzian derivative, 86 ‘Section, 257-288 ivrgen, 33 funiamentl, 33 set, 50 bounded, $6 closed, 52 ‘compact, 59-63 Sonnected, $458 ‘dscrete, $8, 268 empty. 50 totaly bounded. 61 ‘heat, 286 Sheet, 97 ‘Simply connect region, 139-148 Singevalued tution, 22 Singer path, 289 ‘Sinpiar point, 288,317 Solution, 308 ‘Space "complete, 58 Hasdort 67 metric, 51-58 Separable, 33 topological, 67-68 Savare root. 3 Stalk, 286 Stereograpi projection. 19 Stings formals, 201-206 Stolz angle, 41 Straight in, 17 Subcovering, 39 ‘Subharmoni function, 248-248 Sun. 35 Sutjective, defntion, 65 Symbolic derivative, 27 Symmetry. 80-85 ‘Symmety prinine, 82,172 Tangent, 69 ‘Taylor series, 179184 “Taplor’s theorem, 125 “Topological mapping. 65 ‘Topolsical property. 65 ‘Totally bounded set, 61 ‘Trane finetion, 253, Tange inequality, 241 Teigonometne factions, 43—44 Usiform continuity, 66 Uniform convergence, 35—37 Unitorizing variable, 300 Unimodolartrnstormation, 366-267 Union, 30 Uni curve, 295 ‘Univaent fonction, 230, Vector 22 Vector addition, 12 Wolersrass, K.63, 129,283 284 Weiertrace M text "7 Weierstrass @unetion, 272277 Welerstrass's theo 175-179. Whybur, GT, 1Oln Winding number, 1118 Zero,29, 127