Professional Documents
Culture Documents
STAFF DEVELOPMENT
SERIES
Dr. M.P.Chhaya
ii
Dear Reader,
For the comforts of the reader, light classical instrumental music is introduced while you
are reading (of course, it is optional). By clicking on the “Music” folder and then clicking
twice on the music file, you can start the music and adjust the volume as you desire.
This CD can be read on Microsoft Word 98 / 2000 on Normal view and for getting /
retrieving the figures, it may be read on Print view.
REQUEST
You are morally obliged not to copy
this CD for any other institution but
for the use of your own staff
development.
iii
Book 1
EFFECTIVE TEACHER
EFFECTIVE CLASSROOM
Dr. M.P.CHHAYA
iv
Preface
Table of Contents
Preface ………………………………………………………………………………………………………iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................VI
..........................................................................................................................................................................1
CHAPTER 1....................................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................................1
What is method?.......................................................................................................................................2
What factors determine one’s methods in teaching?...............................................................................3
Five Key Behaviours Contributing To Effective Teaching.......................................................................4
Some Helping Behaviours Related To Effective Teaching.......................................................................4
Some important teacher effectiveness indicators:....................................................................................5
..........................................................................................................................................................................6
CHAPTER 2....................................................................................................................................................6
CHAPTER 3..................................................................................................................................................10
CHAPTER 4..................................................................................................................................................19
CHAPTER 5..................................................................................................................................................27
vii
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Can you imagine a technician repairing a machine with only one tool? Obviously
not, he needs and must utilise different tools in different situations. Similarly, teachers
need to vary their teaching strategies in different classroom situations, but a vast majority
competently utilise only a few and many times only one. As with the single-tool
technician, this severely limits the teachers’ overall effectiveness. When a teacher relies
upon a single approach (such as a drill or lecture) as a learning strategy, students’
boredom can easily create learning and/or discipline problems. A lack of methodological
fluidity usually indicates a lack of knowledge of students’ needs, interests, and individual
optimum learning conditions. Therefore, it is a near mandate that teachers be competent
to the utilisation of a number of teaching strategies.
There are at least four valid reasons for a teacher being proficiently prepared in a
wide assortment of strategies.
1. Different pupils learn best in different ways at different times.
2. Some subject matter is best served by use of a particular strategy or
combination of strategies.
3. Diverse objectives call for diverse approaches to meet those objectives.
4. Environmental factors (money, supplies, facilities, time, etc.) often dictate
which strategies will be most effective.
The mastery of instructional strategies is only one dimension of the skills,
attitudes, and knowledge needed by the competent teacher. For examples, no amount of
strategies can make up for lack of knowledge in subject matter. The converse is also true.
The greater the teacher’s knowledge of the subject, the more freedom he has to apply a
variety of instructional approaches. The teacher should also have a basic understanding of
philosophies of education, learning theory, and human development to act as a guide in
the proper application of each strategy. The teacher must answer such questions as: What
is a student? What are his needs, wants, and interests? Any teaching strategy, which is
inconsistent with the student’s desire for peer acceptance and approval, is likely to meet
with strong resistance. Even the most careful planning cannot produce beneficial results
2
unless the student personally feels the need for learning. This requires consideration of
the associated problem of providing adequately for individual differences. It is a rare
student who will create a disturbance (internally, if not externally) when class
expectations are too high or too low for his capabilities.
After practice with a given strategy has provided confidence in its utilisation in
the classroom, a number of strategies should be combined and blended into new creative
patterns by the teacher. The knowledge, accuracy, and rapidity with which a teacher can
apply strategies to a particular learning situation are some of the differences between the
teacher as a technician and the teacher as a professional. Both stages are necessary, but
one is a rung on the ladder to becoming the other. Too often as teachers we tend to use
that strategy which gives us a feeling of security. Consequently there is a hesitancy to
employ more appropriate methods. By understanding how different strategies can best be
utilised, we can better benefit the student and ourselves.
If sub-strategies are properly used they can often enhance and extend the
effectiveness of the strategy employed. For example: Interest centres/subject centres
could include appropriate film strips, tape recordings, and films; drill is enhanced by
charts of content or activities to be performed; and lectures are more meaningful if main
points or key ideas are displayed by means of overhead projections or use of the
chalkboard. Strategies and sub-strategies are not content in themselves, but are, rather,
catalytic agents causing a reaction but not becoming a part of the result. A more graphic
analogy is as follows:
You can offer individuals raw potatoes (knowledge) for eating (learning) but many would
not eat. A pressure cooker (strategy) prepares the potatoes more properly for
consumption and increases the chances of them being eaten. Putting the potatoes on a
table with a colourful table setting (sub-strategy) improves the chances for consumption
even more.
What is method?
Method refers to the formal structure of the sequence of acts commonly denoted
by instruction. The term covers both the strategy and tactics of teaching and involves the
choice of what is to be taught, and the order in which it is to be taught. Method is a
systematic way of doing things under the guidance of certain previously established
principles. The manner in which method in teaching is followed varies with the subjects
presented, the teachers who teach, and the children who learn.
In reality there seem to be only two generalised methods of teaching; namely, the
inductive method and the deductive method. The specific methods by which these two
schemes are carried out are also called techniques, strategies, procedures, devices and the
like at times.
The inductive method: The inductive method is the real method of discovery. It
moves from objects or several keynote examples to the development of ideas. There are
many decided merits of the inductive method of teaching, among which the following are
of the most importance. 1) Children who gain knowledge in this way have been able to
retain it for longer periods of time. 2) It increases the perspective powers of the pupil
since he is encouraged to be more self-reliant upon his thinking. 3) The conclusions made
for the most part are formed first in the mind of the pupil with the teacher becoming a
checkpoint for inaccuracies and wrong perceptions.
The main disadvantages of the inductive method stem from the fact that not all
subjects can be taught inductively. For example, some of the abstract ideas in arithmetic
cannot be effectively presented through inductive procedures. Moreover, induction is a
slow process and requires many materials some of it may be most expensive. There are
3
Teachers like the learners they serve, are unique personalities. It makes sense for
them to take advantage of their own special interests, skills, and competencies as they
4
plan for instruction. Individual strengths of teachers can be utilised most effectively when
a logical framework is employed to organise the instructional skills selected for a specific
programme. Such a framework can suggest how instructional skills might best be
organised to promote a logical, systematic instructional programme for learners.
As a framework to guide teacher’ instructional practices, a model of instruction is
proposed here that relates actions of teachers to achievement of learners. According to
this model, major emphases are placed not specifically on what teachers do, but on what
learners derive from instruction.
This model of instruction rests on a clear formulation of the teaching process.
Teaching can be thought of as a series of events requiring decisions made by the teachers.
Logically, these decisions can be organised into separate categories. These decision
categories have been grouped under five general headings. Collectively, these five
headings comprise all of the basic instructional skills. These skills are:
• Skill one: specifying performance objective
• Skill two: diagnosing learners
• Skill three: selecting instructional strategies
• Skill four: interacting with learners
• Skill five: evaluating the effectiveness of instruction
Each of these five instructional skills can be thought of as an element in a
comprehensive model of instruction. This model provides a useful framework for
teachers as they plan for classroom instruction.
This model encourages the development of individual teaching styles.
Individualised styles are encouraged because evaluation of instruction is based on
learner’s achievement of the performance objectives. Given this criterion, teachers are
free to choose procedures from their own repertoires that they believe will result in high
levels of learner achievement.
Teacher responsibility is well served by this model. This responsibility comes not
in teachers’ rigid adherence to a set of “ideal role behaviours” but rather in adapting
instructional practices, as necessary, to help learners achieve performance objectives that
have been selected.
key behaviours in your classroom. Let’s consider some additional behaviours that can be
thought of as catalytic or helping behaviours for performing the five key behaviours.
Research findings for helping behaviours, although promising, are not as strong
and consistent as those that identified the five key behaviours. There is general agreement
on the importance of these helping behaviours, but the research has not been so
accommodating as to identify explicitly how these behaviours should be used. Nor has it
linked these behaviours to student achievement as strongly as the key five. This is why it
is suspected that helping behaviours need to be employed in the context of other
behaviours to be effective, making them catalysts rather than agents unto themselves.
These catalytic behaviours include:
1. Using student ideas and contributions
2. Structuring
3. Questioning
4. Probing
5. Teacher affect
Chapter 2
Planning and designing instruction are opposite sides of the same coin. Planning
is a mental process--the visualising that takes place before teaching. During the planning
process, we may try to match the needs of the learner with specific content for our
particular context. Designing is the process of putting our mental plans into a blue print.
When we design instruction, we note specific elements of our planning. Developing a
blueprint for teaching provides a focus for instruction and promotes systematic and
efficient planning. When you plan for instruction, you must consider the context of your
teaching, the content you intend to teach, and the learners who will be taught. You must
also consider yourself. You must modify your design as you gain teaching experience.
Your context concerns must include elements within and outside your classroom.
Consider noise levels, potential behaviour problems, and movement that affect your
teaching and teaching of those near by. Note other schedules such as library period,
lunch break, and recess, which may follow or precede your instruction. Remember, too,
that there are often administrative pressures imposed on your design process. You may
be required to submit teaching plans to administrators, to use a particular format, or to
follow a particular schedule.
7
Content is a major focus for most teachers when designing instruction. In addition
to curriculum guides, textbooks, and teacher manuals, teachers’ individual interests and
areas of expertise become important sources of content.
• What kind of learning activities have they experienced? What kind of life
experiences? Travel experience? Activities outside of school?
• Do these learners work well in-groups? Do they know how to work in-
groups?
• What strategies/activities are developmentally appropriate for these
learners (e.g. young children require need manipulative for understanding
math concepts)?
• Can these learners work independently?
• Have the learners shown interest in the topics? What is their motivation
level?
• Is the content relevant to their lives?
• What are the needs of the learners?
Teachers describe the ability level of their students as the most important
consideration when designing instruction. You will need to be sensitive to the social
interactions of your learners and the pattern of the class participation, which could affect
many of the teaching strategies and learning activities you might plan.
Consider yourself
In a research study, teachers reported that planning relieved anxiety and
uncertainty for them, and that they felt mentally and physically better prepared for
teaching. You need to ask yourself; “How can my planning help my readiness for
teaching?” Or may you need a detailed instructional design to build confidence.
If you are a person who plans in great detail for a trip, and is most comfortable
with details written down, you will probably use a similar format to design your teaching.
If you are a person who plans with a major item and who processes details in your head,
you will probably design your teaching with a similar focus. Stop and consider how you
plan for the other things you do, so that you consider yourself before designing
instruction.
8
Once you have considered the context and content of your teaching, the learners
to be taught, and yourself, think about the basic parts or elements of design that you will
need for your teaching.
Goals
Educational goals provide overall direction for teaching and learning in broad
terms. On a universal level, a goal may be: All students will develop a love of learning.
On a district level, a goal may be: Students will become problem solvers. On a class
level, a goal may be: Students become successful in math computation or will become
literary critics. Notice the broad, general quality of the outcomes, and the need for the
long-range development.
Objectives
Educational objectives specify the learning outcomes in measurable or observable
terms. To develop objectives, you must analyse your goals into behaviours that indicate
that students are reaching the goal. You must also specify the minimum level of
performance necessary for each student that would indicate that the objective and part of
the goal are being reached. To be specific, an objective for the goal of math computation
might be: Students will add 10 sets of 3-digit numbers and get 80 percent of them correct.
Objectives for the goal of literary critics could be: Students identify the main characters,
plot and setting of five literary selections, or students describe the literary strategies used
by authors to build suspense, create a setting, and divert attention.
Materials
This is a broad category of tools, equipment, and resources, including anything
used by you or your learner in the teaching and the learning process. Materials can be
simply pencils and pens, paper and textbooks, or more involved audio-visual stimuli such
as films and transparencies. Including materials in your design for teaching contributes to
your preparedness.
Feedback
All of us need feedback that recognises our work, our efforts, our progress and so
on. You may provide feedback to students through individual comments on their papers
or through verbal responses to their discussions. Students may provide feedback to each
other through peer critiques, checking each other’s work, and reading to each other.
9
Assessment
This is the means of determining whether students have met the objectives. You
can assess as an ongoing process all through the lesson, as well as at the end of the
lesson. You may also use assessment at the beginning of the lesson to see what students
already know, before you teach. Short-term assessment includes questions, quizzes, and
observations of student work. Long-term assessment includes exams, projects, and
research papers. Assessment provides information that will be useful for your next lesson
design.
Goals, objectives, teaching and learning strategies, materials, feedback, and
assessment are threads that run through the most widely used design models. Other
models of instruction elaborate from the universal framework.
Finally, it is encouraging to personalise whatever design format you use to meet
your needs and priorities, to incorporate your beliefs, and to be efficient. You might
begin with a model, and as you gain experience personalise it.
10
Chapter 3
Individualised Learning
student without penalising those students who need to maintain a slower pace
accomplishes the minimal requirements.
When coupled with other strategies such as interest centres, student research, and
independent laboratory experiences, a programme in individualised learning is a
challenge to the student and boon to the busy teacher.
Advantages
• Each student moves at his own pace through a level of subject matter utilising a
teaching/learning strategy that is selected to promote optimal progress.
• Students are not penalised for being out of school for illness or family matters. Upon
return each student returns to the point where he was temporarily halted.
• Students are not in false competition with peers. They are only in competition with
themselves.
• Retention of learning is improved over non-individualised instruction.
• The teacher has more opportunity to pinpoint and assist individual student problems.
• Students learn to take more responsibility for their own instructional activities.
• Students have the opportunity to see their personal progress as it occurs and tend to
extend their knowledge rather than stopping at minimal accomplishment.
Disadvantages
• Time and effort must be expended in developing materials and matching strategies to
a given student.
• Pre-assessment of student academic status takes time and special skill.
• Students must be trained to handle individualised learning strategies—a time
consuming activity.
• Record keeping can be lengthy and involved.
• In the beginning, individualised learning takes more teacher-monitoring time.
12
Behavioural modification
Advantages
• The effects of behaviour modification have been scientifically demonstrated in
classroom situations.
• It is based upon tested principles of learning rather than theory.
• Since behaviour modification is concerned with observable, measurable behaviour,
both the student and teacher are aware of the amount of progress being made.
• It is applicable to cognitive, affective and psychomotor learning.
• This approach leads to co-operation between the teacher, school and the mental health
professional.
• Since the emphasis is upon success, a positive atmosphere prevails.
• The academic behaviours specified can be individualised very easily.
Disadvantages
• Not all behaviours to be learned can be measured.
• Behaviour modification tends to limitation where long term retention is desirable.
• A change in the student may not be based on desired learning but upon the rewards
attached.
• Care must be taken not to reward undesirable behaviours.
13
• Some techniques within the behaviour modification strategy are extremely timed
consuming.
14
Contracting
Contracting is a device in which a student and teacher write together exactly what
is to be accomplished, in what period of time, and for what grade. The objectives are
clearly specified, the work objectives outlined, and both teacher and student sign the
written agreement (contract). Two copies are prepared so that the teacher and pupil can
keep each one for reference and records. The contract itself is a written set of varied
learning situations. Some are common to the entire class while others are individualised
to meet the needs of the individual student.
The contracting strategy is a stepping-stone into the individualised learning
processes. The level of acceptable achievement must be based on more than the general
expectation of the class. Consideration must include the maturity of the students’
previous experiences in contracting; the ability to carryout tasks on an individual bases
and yet be challenging to both the teacher and the student.
Contracting is not a strategy that once assigned; the teacher is free from all daily
planning and teaching. Quite the contrary, it requires the teacher to constantly monitor
progress through individual conferences, assist students in finding the needed resources
and regular record keeping of attendance, progress and testing.
The contract can be an elaborate document or a simple written statement of
agreement between the student and the teacher. The important part of the strategy is in
giving the opportunity to students to learn while doing a project that the students have
selected with teacher approval. It is a chance for the student to experience success and
failure, yet have the opportunity to try again without the feeling of complete failure.
Advantages
• The emphasis is on learning and success rather than testing and failure.
• Students have a self-controlled opportunity for independence in their learning
activities.
• Cheating and duty shirking are reduced.
• Communication is optimised as student and teacher must meet in regular individual
conferences.
• The learning objectives are clear to everyone.
• Students have choices, exercise decision making abilities, and learn to organise and
manage time.
Disadvantages
• It is more work for the teacher than the straight “lecture method”.
• More record monitoring is necessary to insure the students are keeping up with their
schedules and are not having difficulties.
• The contract requires both in-school and out-of-school resources, which may be
difficult to locate.
• Not all students are mature enough to fulfil the contract responsibilities and self-
motivation required for this strategy.
• ‘Quantity’ may tend to replace ‘Quality’ as criteria.
15
Independent study
Advantages
• Individual students can work in an area of need, for example, brighter students can
extend their learning while slower students can focus on an area of deficiency.
• Students are more motivated when they are studying something they have selected
and in which they have a special interest.
• Individual students assume more responsibility for learning and the presenting of
their projects or reports assist the slower students to gain new insights into the study
topic.
• Students gain insights into ‘how’ to learn.
• Independent study fosters self-learning skills and attitudes.
Disadvantages
• There is usually a lack of flexible schedules necessary to permit students and teachers
to do true independent study.
• A shortage of related materials or other resources necessary to carry out the study
may restrict independent work.
• The lack of research skills on the part of student and the teacher may hinder
completion of the project strategy.
• The teacher must maintain a constant check of student progress where independent
study programmes are in operation.
• Large amounts of time may be needed by the teacher to help each student to
individualise a programme.
• Evaluation is more difficult.
16
Learning packets
Learning packets are sets of self-contained learning materials assembled for the
purpose of teaching a single concept or idea. They are generally structured for individual
use and are most effectively used in schools with flexible curricula, although they are not
limited to these settings.
The unit packet consists of a series of sequential learning activities leading to the
achievement of desired outcomes by the learners. Components of the learning packets
may include teacher directions, student instructions, pre-test, major and sub-concepts,
behavioural objectives, assorted strategies and content, student self-assessment, post-test,
research activities, independent resources and study materials.
The learning packet is designed to help students achieve at their own best learning
rate. The teacher is a resource person available to offer assistance as the student pursues
the learning content of the instructional package.
Because the unit is designed for individual use, a series of units may be developed
on a single topic area. Each may be of increasing difficulty requiring the learner to device
new skills, techniques and greater knowledge.
Encouragement and positive reinforcement are important to the success of this
strategy. Take the time to work through the unit prior to classroom use to be sure it is
complete and accurate. Plan well in advance to see that all necessary materials and
resources are available. Follow the directions for teachers within the learning packets.
Establish a definite time period for the completion of the unit of learning. Relate the
learning packet to the curriculum. Do not allow it to become isolated from learning goals.
Advantages
• Students are able to pursue special interest areas yet work within the confines of the
total curriculum.
• Learning takes place in a sequential order.
• Materials in learning packets can be developed for all levels of learning.
• Any discipline can be the subject of learning packet.
• Learning packets may be exchanged both within the school and with other schools.
• The learning packet is well planned from start to finish.
• Using the pre-test and post-test, the teacher is able to immediately evaluate the
amount of learning that has taken place.
• Teachers are placed in the role of facilitators of learning rather than directors of
learning.
Disadvantages
• Unit packets are time consuming to develop.
• The learning packet requires an abundance of resource materials in order to complete
the total project.
• Students may tend get bored with lengthy learning units.
• Students may not have the maturity to work independently.
17
Advantages
• Programmed learning saves the teacher a considerable amount of time.
• The time saved can be applied to individuals or groups as either remedial or higher
intellectual learning.
• It is effective for remedial teaching, drill and practice, as well as enrichment.
• The learner is actively responding at all times to the programme.
• The student progresses at his own rate and level of achievement.
• The success and reinforcement provides motivation to the learner.
• Students can study on their own and that too effectively.
• The student, through immediate feedback, is aware of the degree of progress being
made.
Disadvantage
• Good programmes are hard to identify.
• Writing programmes is a very difficult process which causes teachers generally rely
on commercial programmes.
• Programmed instruction is very applicable to affective or psychomotor learning.
• The cost of the materials can be prohibitive.
18
Student tutorial
The student tutorial approach utilises pupils as monitors (tutors) who first learn
from a teacher and then teach small groups or individual fellow students (tutees).
Traditionally the approach has been concerned only with the learning of the tutees.
However, the approach also offers a unique learning experience for the student tutors and
should be considered as a vital portion of the approach.
The use of students tutoring other students has proven to be a valuable tool for
teachers in a countless number of situations. It enables the teacher to provide additional
instruction to those pupils having difficulty while continuing to maintain an ongoing
programme with other students in the classroom.
It may be considered a form of behavioural modification due to the selection
process used to designate tutors and tutees. The good student is rewarded by being
assigned or appointed as a tutor. The tutee is rewarded by being selected for additional
assistance on the basis of need, acceptable behaviour, and a proven desire to additional
help.
Other sub-strategies can play an important part in the student tutorial programme. They
may have only a minor role when used by the tutors but nevertheless are valid points to
consider. Discussion, demonstration, drill, questioning and problem solving are a few of
the strategies that enter into the student tutorial method. The mere fact that a peer is
aiding the slow student may make the difference to the success or failure of the tutee in
gaining knowledge and assurance that he can do acceptable schoolwork, which will
enable him to be a part of the total classroom activities.
Advantages
• The tutor learns more since teaching is an excellent learning situation.
• Since the tutor is nearer the age, skill and achievement level of the tutee than is the
teacher, the tutor can better understand the tutee’s problems.
• The student tutorial system spreads the talents and knowledge of the teacher.
• The use of tutors assures all students of individual attention.
• The student tutorial approach provides an economic use of time.
• The tutor can develop responsible behaviour as well as gain leadership experience.
• The student tutorial provides a challenging learning experience for the faster students
in class.
• Advanced students can many times be paired up with remedial students and aid in
eliminating troublesome ‘learning gaps’.
Disadvantages
• Since tutors and tutees are classmates, tutees often resent being taught by their peers.
• The tutor is not a teacher and is very limited in instructional skills.
• Since the tutor usually lacks the teacher’s depth of knowledge, the use of tutors may
lead to memorisation transmission only.
• The use of student tutors removes the teacher from the actual instruction of most of
the students.
• The only feedback the teacher receives is through the tutor and may be distorted.
• Since the teacher is not present in all the tutorial sessions, behaviour problems are apt
to arise.
19
Chapter 4
Case study
The case study strategy (or case method) is a teaching approach, which requires
the student to participate actively in problem situations, which may be hypothetical or
real. He receives a case, a report containing pertinent data, analyses the data, evaluates
the nature of the problem, decides upon applicable principles, and finally recommends a
solution or a course of action.
The case study method is another approach to individualising the learning
situation. Through the use of hypothetical or real situations, the student has the
opportunity to use problem-solving approaches that are meaningful and understandable.
It requires the student to collect the data, analyse it and make suggestions or
recommendations for decision-making. The project may be simple in the beginning and
lead to the more complex as the student gains experiences to these learning processes.
Using the case study strategy can, if properly directed, assist in the solving of
school or community problems. The community sees the student working on topics that
are of wide interest in the community and thus have greater respect for the educational
programmes at the local school. It further provides an opportunity to narrow the generous
gap.
It is not a strategy to be used indiscriminately. It requires careful planning,
specific objectives, clearly specified guidelines and a precise means of evaluation. The
teacher can and must expect to be available for individual assistance and ensure that
materials, equipment and resources are readily available to the students.
Cases should be explicitly and unambiguously written. They should fit the level
of the students in terms of maturity and problem solving skills. Students should be
presented with similar cases prior to permitting the students to select their own cases. A
check must be made to insure that materials and resources dealing with the case are
available. Periodically check on students to insure they are progressing in a desirable
20
Community resources
Basically, community resources include any activity outside the school, which has
educational use. The teacher can use people, places and things found in the community to
facilitate learning. The resource, although located outside the school building, may be
brought to the school or the class may go to the site to carry out a planned activity. Often
an elder citizen of the community can enhance the study of history or biology, art, folk
dancing and literature.
Normally a community resource is considered to be to be something away from
the school to visit, but in many instances it means bringing a person or exhibit to the
school. It is a tool that can provide new learning experiences to the class and assist the
teacher in making lessons more meaningful with lasting effects.
Community resources, like all other teaching strategies, require advance consideration,
study and preparation before it can become a meaningful tool. Begin early to note places
of interest that will enhance the lesson. Make notes regarding the cost, time to tour or
complete the activity. Note down the names of key individuals for contacts and
scheduling. Be knowledgeable of the procedures and requirements within the school for
making use of community resources. Have the objectives for using the resource firmly in
mind to make the lesson meaningful.
Advantages
• The use of community resources can bring the school and community closer together.
• It facilitates more practical learning and better retention of learning.
• Interaction between the school and community enables the student to develop a
broader understanding of the community.
• The use of the community resources adds excitement to the subject, thus increasing
motivation for learning.
• Community resources are applicable to all types of learning: cognitive, affective and
psychomotor.
• Students can develop social skills.
• Students can assist in the selection of community resources as a decision making
experience.
• These activities are inexpensive and within the budget of most schools.
Disadvantages
• Specific community resources, which are available, are sometime difficult to locate
and schedule.
• Teachers have to obtain prior administrative and parental approval.
• People used as community resources often do not know how to transfer their
knowledge and information to students.
• Field trips are often over looked due to factors such as student safety, control,
expense and teacher liability.
• Since the teacher is dependent on agents of the community, last minute cancellations
often occur leaving the teacher stranded.
22
Your regular classroom may not be the best area available to you for a particular
activity on study. You and the class must move outside the confines of that room to the
school grounds, the immediate community, or some other reachable place, and do your
investigations at this site. This extra-class session is known as a field trip, and is a most
valuable activity to consider for your programme. The field study is a trip arranged by the
school and undertaken for educational purposes, in which students go to places where the
materials of instruction may be observed and studied directly to their functional settings.
A sub-strategy of the community resources strategy, field studies are generally
made to points of instructional interest such as factories, public utilities, museums,
libraries, art galleries, or government institutions. One of the longstanding major
criticisms of education has been its sponsorship of cloistered, unrealistic learning of
irrelevant facts. Field study is a means of overcoming this criticism in part. It provides
opportunity for students to see the ‘real world’ in action, and, thereby, widens their
attitudinal, social, and academic horizons.
Careful planning and pre-visitation to the site by the teacher is essential if the
experience is to be useful and valuable to students. Students should receive some definite
‘coaching’ in observation skills and an outline of objectives and purposes prior to the
field trip. Follow up activities including discussion, writing short essays, drawing
pictures, or model making will ensure that retention of the objectives is accomplished.
Field study, properly carried out, is a major source of enrichment for learners.
Make sure the field trip is of educational value in that it relates directly to what is
being taught in the classroom. Plan the trip by visiting the site and talking with the
people. Prepare the by relating the trip to what is being studied and what they might
observe. At the site provide for adequate supervision. Upon return to the classroom,
review and summarise what was learned at the field trip. Develop a means of evaluation
for pupils as well as the place visited in order to assist in planning future trips.
Advantages
• Field studies provide the student with interesting, first hand experiences.
• A common experience is provided for students, which can serve as a basis for other
learning activities.
• Students become more aware of their environment.
• Field studies can add greatly to school-community relationships.
• What is learned should have great impact due to the multi-sensory nature of the
experience.
• Field studies extend classroom learning through reality.
Disadvantages
• Discipline can easily become a problem.
• Administrative procedures to organise field trips are often so complicated that they
discourage taking them.
• Transportation arrangements are often difficulty or costly.
• When a teacher has students for only one period a day, it is difficult to make
arrangements in order to prevent conflicts with other classes.
23
Advantages
• Interest centres provide for individualised learning within constraints of subject
matter requirements.
• Interest centres allow students to devote more time to the subjects, which are
personally interesting.
• The teacher is free to move about from centre to centre assisting students,
• Students have the opportunity to bring their own materials with which to work.
• Resource people in each interest area can be brought in easily to work with a small
group of students.
• Students are more responsible for their own learning activities.
Disadvantages
• The need for varied materials to each centre may be a constraint.
• A great deal of preparation of environment, materials, and students is required.
• Record keeping of student achievement is difficult.
• Students may be lacking in self-motivation, especially if they have not had prior
independent work.
• The teacher needs a good command of all subject matter.
24
Project
Advantages
• The project approach covers all levels of the cognitive and affective domains.
• Pupils can be involved in planning the project that increases interest and motivation.
• Emphasis is placed upon doing by the student.
• The project method develops student responsibility and initiative.
• The student develops greater understanding of ‘how’ to learn.
Disadvantages
• Projects are very time consuming.
• Students, due to academic immaturity, often make many errors.
• Often the materials and resources needed to do an effective project are not available.
• Students often get sidetracked or go off on a tangent.
• Helpful teacher feedback usually is not possible until it is too late.
25
Problem solving
The name problem solving is assigned to learning approaches built upon the
scientific method of inquiry. These approaches are built upon John Dewey’s five steps of
general problem solving. These steps are: (1) defining the problem, (2) formulating
tentative hypotheses, (3) collecting, evaluating, organising and interpreting data, (4)
reaching conclusions, and (5) testing these conclusions.
For example, a social studies class might become concerned about what will
happen to the dictatorship when a dictator dies? The class members discuss various
alternatives and then finally state their hypothesis: When a dictator dies, the dictatorship
ends. Next, they would select, evaluate, organise and interpret data. They would study
dictators throughout history and what happened to the dictatorship upon the death of the
dictator. The data could either support or deny the hypothesis. Next a conclusion would
be reached regarding what happens to the dictatorship when the dictator dies. The degree
to which the hypothesis is supported or denied by the evidence determines the
conclusion.
Expose the student to a number of similar problems. The problems presented must
fit the maturation and skill levels of the student. Assist pupils in defining and delimiting
the problem to be studied. Check for sufficient resources and materials to be available for
student use. Provide direction and guidance when necessary, taking care not to overdo it.
Problem solving moves the mind to some of its highest cognitive functions:
analysing, generalising, and synthesising. This alone justifies it as one of the most
valuable of all strategies. An added benefit in utilising this strategy is that students
become adept at digging up information and cross checking its validity with other
resources.
Advantages
• Because the student has been actively involved, comprehension and retention should
be of longer duration.
• Problem solving provides the student with a model to apply to problem that may be
faced in the future.
• Problem solving involves cognitive and affective learning.
• Problem solving develops responsibility in the learner.
• Interest in learning and motivation are increased with the use of problem solving.
• Students learn how to think independently in reaching conclusions.
• Problem solving provides the opportunity for students to learn from failure without
severe hardships.
Disadvantages
• Materials and resources needed for problem solving often are not available to the
students.
• Problem solving is time consuming.
• Students are often too immature to really recognise problem of social significance.
• Evaluation of learning is difficult.
26
Student research
Advantages
• Student research lets the student understand how a researcher in a particular field
works.
• Research by students prepares the students to direct their own learning in the future
when faced with a new problem.
• Research can provide motivation as the student actively seeks answers.
• In using research, students must make judgements, reach conclusions, and report the
findings.
• By conducting research, student not only learns content but also develops various
research skills, and a sense of responsibility.
Disadvantages
• Research can be very time consuming.
• Research may require more materials and equipment than are available.
• Students, although initially motivated, may lose interest if the research leads up blind
alleys (topic too difficult, boring, or the lengthy).
• Due to immaturity or limited subject matter comprehension, students may often have
difficulty judging the importance of data acquired through research.
27
Chapter 5
Observation
Advantages
• Through observation much can be learned concerning student physiological problems
(hearing, vision, speech, co-ordination, bodily defects, etc.) and needs (diet
supplements, hygiene care, clothing, etc.).
• Observation yields a great deal of information about the learner’s socio-emotional
development.
• Observation provides immediate information and feedback; where as, testing or
diagnostics lesson the effect of problem-attention due to the time-delay. Many
potential learning problems can be eliminated by prompt action ultimately saving a
great deal of energy and discomfort on the part of both teacher and student.
• Keen observations eliminate many discipline problems before they occur.
• As the teacher becomes increasingly aware of the effects of various strategies in
different situations (and alters teaching approaches on the basis of that information)
he becomes a constantly self-improving professional always seeking a better way.
Disadvantages
• It is difficult to become a sharp observer. It requires determined practise of separating
oneself into two people—a person ‘teaching’ (demonstrating, lecturing, utilising AV
material, passing out papers, etc.) and a person ‘observing’ (alert to physiological,
socio-emotional, learning, and behavioural aspects).
• There is a tendency to ‘play favourites’, and observe only children who are pleasing
to watch.
• There is a tendency to watch for only negative occurrences, there by falling to notice
accentuate positive traits being exhibited.
• The inclination is to be solely on the alert for particular and thus fail to sense the total
classroom atmosphere.
29
Demonstration
Demonstration is the process wherein one person does something in the presence
of others in order to show them how to do it or to illustrate a principle. Demonstration
utilises both auditory and visual means of communication.
One of the greatest benefits of demonstration is showing how something is
accomplished properly or expertly. Naturally, then, the demonstration should be properly
prepared to ensure that this goal is achieved. A good demonstration inspires, poor one
defeats. Demonstration is especially useful in the arts, music, science, mathematics, and
athletics. It is commonly used in conjunction with a short explanatory lecture.
Spend the necessary time to plan and develop the needed materials for the
demonstration. Practice or rehearse the demonstration in its entirety with an eye on time
limitations. When it is time to put on the demonstration make sure all materials are at
hand. Make sure seating arrangements are such that the audience can see and hear. Utilise
questions during the demonstration to provide feedback. At the conclusion of the
demonstration, conduct a brief review of the steps involved or a short summary of what
has happened. If feasible, have a student or two to replicate the demonstration.
Advantages
• Demonstration adds to learning by giving students the opportunity to see and hear
what is actually happening.
• Demonstration can be used to illustrate ideas, principles and concepts for which
words are inadequate.
• Good demonstrations hold the learner’s attention.
• Demonstrations can be financially economical since only the demonstrator needs
materials.
• Good demonstrations set performance standards.
• Demonstration is especially beneficial in the areas of skills.
• Demonstration is an excellent technique for utilising community resource persons,
which in tern is good for public relations.
Disadvantages
• Demonstration requires much planning and preparation by the demonstrator.
• A demonstration can be ineffective if the demonstrator only ‘shows and tells’ without
feedback.
• If the audio portion of the demonstration does not fit the visual portion it can confuse
the student.
• Demonstration can lead to imitation without understanding.
• Demonstration is difficult to use with affective and higher level cognitive learning.
30
Discussion
Advantages
• Discussion techniques get at attitude development. By engaging in meaningful
discussion with fellow students, a given student finds his own values and beliefs
challenged. Such a finding can lead to a significant attitudinal change on the part of
the student.
• It develops ‘discussion’ skills.
• It aids the student in the development of a positive self-concept.
• Discussion has a positive effect upon the mental activity of the student.
• Careful observation of the behaviour of students in-group activities provide the
teacher with much information related to the social, psychological, emotional, and
skill development of the student.
Disadvantages
• Discussion activities are usually more time consuming than more direct approaches.
• Discussion often break down, lag, or become a rambling, and meaningless.
• In discussion, some students may never participate while a few may tend to dominate.
• It is possible that a topic will be such that the students get carried away.
• Teachers often become frustrated because discussion may fail to lead to a conclusion.
• There is a problem of evaluating the student.
32
Lecture
Advantages
• The lecture is most useful in introducing a new topic of study or presenting certain
back ground material that students need for preparation of further study.
• Lecture permits a large audience to receive quick and useful information.
• Lecture provides students with an organised perspective of the content to be
considered.
• Lecture provides practice for the students in learning to develop note-taking skills.
Disadvantages
• Lengthy or overly frequent lectures can easily lead to boredom.
• The lecture has difficulty in assessing impact on the audience and whether needs and
interests are being met.
• Individuals in the group are not permitted to ask questions, thus eliminating the
feedback leading to miscommunication.
33
Questioning
Classification of questions
There are six levels of questions. The following table shows the lower to higher
levels of students’ thinking skills. Questions must be adjusted to suit the needs of the
students. It is found that different levels of questions are effective, depending upon the
learner and the content of the lesson. Certain lessons require more recall, whereas other
lessons require more thought.
LEVEL Predict
painting?
THINKING
How can we help the poor?
Evaluation Judge Do you believe in capital
Choose punishment?
Which soft drink is best?
Advantages
• Correctly asked questions serves the following purposes:
a) Stimulate analytical thought.
b) Diagnose student difficulties.
c) Determine progress toward specific goals.
d) Motivate students.
e) Clarify and expand concepts.
f) Encourage new appreciation and attitudes.
g) Give specific direction to thinking.
h) Relate cause to effect.
i) Encourage student self-evaluation.
j) Encourage the application of concepts.
• Questions may be organised to serve the purpose of measuring learning on the levels
of information, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis or evaluation.
• Questions can serve as a means of feedback for the teacher in understanding an
individual student and/or the whole class.
• Questions are sometimes used as a control device and students are more apt to pay
attention to what is going on in class.
Disadvantages
• Questioning is a slower process in dealing with information than the lecture.
• It is difficult to design certain types of questions to measure analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation rather than to measure factual learning.
• Students feel encouraged memorising, neglecting higher levels of learning.
• Several incorrectly answered questions often prompt teachers to feel more time
should be spent lecturing than questioning.
37
Role-playing
Design the situations and roles in sufficient detail in advance. Define roles in
terms of the situation. The actors should be given a short time to get their thoughts
together. The class members who are to observe should take notes and be instructed to
what to look for. Upon completion of the activity evaluation of the students’ performance
should take place. Certain portions of the activity may be improved with re-enactment.
An atmosphere of freedom and security must exist in the classroom.
Advantages
• In role-playing the student expressing feelings and attitudes.
• This method provides the student with the opportunity to ‘feel’ the situation rather
than merely intellectualise about it.
• The student is activated.
• Students are being prepared for actual situations to be faced.
• How students fit into their role gives an indication of their knowledge of the situation.
• Role-playing can develop social skills.
• Affective learning can be taught and/or effectively evaluated.
• A system of communication based on action rather than words is used.
Disadvantages
• Students sometimes emphasise performance over the intended lesson.
• Role-playing is time consuming.
38
Simulation gaming
17. The situation should be repeatable in its original form so that follow-up
can be provided.
Advantages
• Simulation is appealing, motivates intense effort, and increasing learning.
• Success or failure is rapidly and readily recognisable.
• Vividness, meaning, and potential for greater retention are added.
• Simulation has demonstrated its power to generate deep emotional involvement.
• Learning to act by acting, learning to make decision by making decisions, and
learning to solve problem by solving problems are developed.
• Simulation is particularly effective with under-motivated children.
• Simulation allows for manipulation by simplifying the complexity of what the game
represents.
• Simulation can be used for the acquisition of information, improvement of new
processes, and identification of alternatives is decision making.
• Games lengthen the attention span and develop persistent application to work.
• Pupils learn to cope with unpredictable circumstances.
• Games illustrate vividly the relationship between decision making and its
consequences.
• The need for constant communication between players teaches social integration.
• Games are effective in teaching values and attitudes.
• The cost and time necessary for involvement in the real world are reduced.
Disadvantages
• At best, simulation is very artificial and over simplified.
• Games place too much emphasis on competition.
• Models are too rigid and narrow in their applicability.
• Simulation takes too long to get to the heart of a lesson.
• Teachers employing simulation may be looked upon as allowing too much freedom
and disorder.
• Games cannot be readily adapted to the peculiar needs of an individual or a particular
class.
• Simulation cannot be a substitute for real, direct experience.
• Students who have minor role lose interest.
• A complex model confuses; if it is simple, it bores.
41
Team teaching
Advantages
• Team teaching capitalises upon the special competencies, talents and interests of each
teacher.
• Joint planning, teaching and evaluation by the team members stimulate the
professional growth of the teachers involved.
• Students may be grouped on an educational basis rather than on administrative basis.
• Students will be exposed to several teachers with different background and
approaches, thus providing an enrichment experience,
• The use of small group and individualised study provides for individual student
needs.
• Large group presentations make possible more efficient use of time and resources.
• The use of large groups, small groups, and individual study conducted by various
team members provides more interesting and less monotonous routines in the area of
traditional strategies.
• Teachers have more time for planning, preparation and follow up.
• Team teaching may be used for all or a part of the students’ day.
Disadvantages
• Team teaching calls for special physical facilities to provide for large group-small
group arrangements, which many buildings do not have.
42
• The cost per student of team teaching is often higher than more traditional
approaches.
• Team teaching is attractive and seems simple, but its actual application is more
complex for administrators as well as teachers.
• Specialisation on the part of the teachers may be carried to the point that the student
loses sight of the whole subject or teaching/learning goals.
• Team-teaching may in actually be meetings the needs of the teachers rather than those
of the students.
• The scheduling of the large groups, small groups, and individual study is often
extremely complicated and difficult to communicate without misunderstanding.
43
Chapter 6
Discovery
Discovery should be used only when you have enough subject matter mastery to handle
unexpected ‘discoveries’. The depth of information to be handled and the time needed for
the discovery must be gauged in terms of the student’s skill level and maturation. Setting
up the problem and the conditions for the discovery requires detailed and thorough
planning. Be certain that proper materials and raw data are available. Be open to problem
as they arise and be willing to learn along with the students.
Advantages
• Since the student actively discovered the information and knowledge, retention will
be increased.
• Discovery helps the student learn how to learn, thus equipping the student to handle
new problematic situations.
• The rewards inherent in discovering something provide the student with intrinsic
motivation.
• The student develops interest in what is being studied.
• Students develop the skills and attitudes essential for self-directed learning.
• Discovery operates at the higher levels of the cognitive domain.
• The pupil is provided with numerous opportunities to draw inferences from data by
logical thinking, either inductive or deductive.
Disadvantages
• Permitting students to discover their own knowledge is very time consuming.
• Most of the present textbooks and materials available to the teacher are written for
exposition rather than discovery.
• The student often gets bogged down or loses direction before the problem is solved.
• Some students just seem unable to make intended discovery.
45
Drill
Although there are many sub-types, drill is a teaching technique intended to bring
about automatic accuracy and speed of performance in any subject. The aim of drill is the
fixation of correct information or skill through repetition. Some use the term drill only for
the mental ideas and practice for motor activity. However, since both are built on
repetition – doing it over and over – drill and practice are used synonymously.
The function of drill is solely to create automatic response to specific stimuli. If
you were effectively drilled in multiplication and some one came up behind you and said
quickly, ‘what’s 9x9?’ Your response should be ‘81’ instantly without thinking about it.
Football drills in throwing an effective block are designed to teach the player to do it
automatically. It is a practice closely paralleled by programming a computer. The teacher
should remember that this is the only purpose of drill. It has nothing to do with elevating
mental functioning or making better citizens. Overused drill is a sure-fire method of
dulling cognitive abilities and prompting discipline problems. It means the percentage of
class time spent on drill exercises should be minimal.
Use drill only when automatic speed and accuracy, or performance learning is the
objective. Make sure students see the purpose of the drill or practice. Use games and
contests to add interest to drill. Make sure students are practising with correct information
or processes. Over-practice produces boredom and fatigue. Provide the opportunity for
students to apply that which is mastered through drill.
Advantages
• Drill is especially applicable to psychomotor and low level cognitive learning.
• In skill development, repetitious practice is essential to build competence and
technique mastery.
• Students can build their own association of information through drill.
• It can be a means of creating motivation in student tutorial situation.
Disadvantage
• Drill can become boring and monotonous.
• Information acquired through drill will not be retained long without use.
• Overuse of drill can lead students to believe in memorisation as an end.
• Drill can reduce learning to a purely mechanical act.
46
Interview
Advantage
• Interviews encourage students to plan and think in a systematic fashion.
• This is an excellent method for collecting data from individuals and groups.
• It is especially useful in collection of information related to community attitudes
regarding their personal opinion.
• Through the use of this strategy, information can be collected quickly regarding an
issue or a problem.
• Interviewing helps develop rapport between the school and the community.
• It can be used as an individual or total class project.
• It helps bring the pupil face-to-face with community realities.
Disadvantages
• The teacher must spend a substantial amount of time helping students develop
questioning techniques.
• Interviewing requires a co-ordinated effort of all involved, which often disrupts
school or administrative routines.
• Students tend to take sides as an issue rather than remain neutral.
• The data is often difficult to interpret and report.
• The class may not be of sufficient maturity to face the obligations required in
performing interviews.
• Interviews tend to elicit personal opinions and may not be factual.
47
Laboratory
Advantages
• Students can capitalise on their own interests.
• The teacher is free to offer individual assistance and instruction to those students
needing special attention.
• The activity may be carried out by individual students or in small groups.
• Laboratory is basically a problem-solving technique of short duration.
• This strategy helps students to learn, to generalise and to apply generalisation in new
situations.
• As a learning activity, it reinforces the discovery and inquiry approaches to learning.
• Laboratory simulates actual scientific experiments including the formation of
hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, recording and reporting the findings.
• It is an excellent motivational strategy.
Disadvantages
• The approved projects must fit the abilities of the student.
• The maturity of the students may be insufficient to pursue long range goals
established.
• Individual student may lack the motivation to work alone.
• Some students may develop a poor estimate of self-esteem if they experience slow
progress or failure.
• The laboratory strategy may cause the teacher to supervise individuals at the
exclusion of the group.
• Costs may exceed the benefits.
• Unless well organised, it can become wasted time and effort on the part of all
concerned.
• Learning may become mechanical and passive.
• This method is difficult to apply to all curricula.
• It is difficult to develop projects so that all students have equally challenging
activities and experiences.
48
49
Socratic
The Socratic Method is a process of discussion led by the teacher to induce the
learner to question the validity of his reasoning or to reach a sound conclusion. The
strategy derives its name from the approach used by Socrates as he assumed the role of
intellectual midwife.
The Socratic approach was built upon the assumption that the knowledge was
within the student and proper questioning and commentary could cause this knowledge to
surface. Socrates, as teacher, attempted to follow the student’s argument wherever it led.
The key to Socratic approach is that the teacher’s comments and questions must unable
the students to discover meaning for themselves.
In a typical classroom situation, the teacher would use the Socratic approach
when the situation arises. It would be necessary for a student to make a statement, which
could be further pursued. The teacher would then enter into a dialogue with the student,
following the argument until the student had thoroughly questioned the answer and
gained some insight into the logic used or the attitudes and beliefs held.
The Socratic strategy enables the teacher to aid the student in examining his own
beliefs, values, attitudes and their logic or inconsistency. It is a difficult strategy to master
and requires a friendly ‘let’s-look-at-this’ relationship. If this atmosphere is not present,
the teacher’s questioning will be viewed as picky and critical by the students, that
negating the purpose of the strategy. Begin by using the Socratic approach on a limited
basis, preferably on attitudinal statements of students. Assure students that you are
attempting only to get them to re-think their ideas and that you are not criticising them.
Be ready to shift gears if the attempt to use the Socratic approach bogs down.
However, do continue to develop skill in using the approach, which can only be done by
attempting to use it. When evaluating learning, give students the opportunity to show the
logic of their viewpoints, and give credit accordingly. Start with simple logic and
gradually build to the complex.
Advantages
• The Socratic approach can be used in dealing with higher level cognitive and
effective learning.
• This method gets the student to think about what is said so he can really examine an
issue in depth.
• The degree of involvement on the part of the teacher can motivate the student.
• Students are challenged in utilising this technique properly.
Disadvantages
• It is extremely difficult to formulate the kind of question used in the Socratic
approach.
• Due to the spontaneous nature of the Socratic approach, it is threatening to the
traditional role.
• Students often feel threatened when a teacher challenges their ideas.
• While the teacher is in dialogue with one student, the other students in the class may
lose interest.
• It is difficult to evaluate a student’s learning.
50
Chapter 7
Creative thinking
• Discourage self-criticism.
• Avoid telling everything. Allow children to think and express freely and find facts
for themselves wherever possible.
• Do not encourage rote learning or memorisation of facts by children.
You may explore your creativity through the following activities (these are only
suggestive):
• Try new ways of teaching the same unit.
• Give various types of challenging assignments to your students.
• Try different ways of evaluating students.
• Suggest and involve yourself in various improvement programmes.
53
Co-operative learning
Inquiry
Modelling
Students learn a great deal through observing and modelling others. Modelling is a
showing technique where you present or demonstrate information. Your students can help
you, too, since many times peers can be very effective in helping other students to learn.
In modelling, you do not just tell students information, as in a lecture, you also show
them.
• Use posters, transparencies, chalkboard, illustrations and real objects. These objects
will help to make the information visual and tactile to appeal to a variety of senses
and learning modalities.
• Provide several examples and tell how to arrive at the solutions. Point out the
important steps and elements necessary to complete an assignment. Label and
describe each aspect of an assignment and what components make an exceptional
example.
• Show expectations by doing them. Model group projects and individual tasks with
some of your students. Let class observe while you and selected students show what
is expected and what is needed to complete instructional tasks.
56
Decision-making
Decision-making, like problem solving, is a real life skill and students must be
taught the techniques involved in the decision making process. Students in the learning
process need to have the opportunity to make good choices from several alternatives.
Approaches should incorporate strategies for students to make decisions related to their
learning. Whenever possible, teachers should allow students to be involved in making
decisions. Students must be taught how to make a decision before we expect them to
become proficient in this particular skill.
• Define the decision making process. In order for students to make a decision, they
must identify the choices, identify alternatives, think about the consequences, and
make a decision based on reasons.
• Identify possible alternatives. Without alternatives, there is no need of a decision.
Help students think of possible alternatives involved in decisions.
• Identify problems for each alternative. When analysing and thinking about the
alternatives, students need to think about the possible outcome of each particular
alternative.
57
• Make the decision. After alternatives and thoughtful analysis of outcomes has been
discussed, students should make decisions. These decisions are based on the
likelihood of the outcomes of the choice that meets their needs and desires.
Implement a plan of action. Allow students the opportunity to organise ways to develop
an action plan that will support their decision.
58
Homework/Assignment
Brainstorming
Summary
Each lesson or a discrete part of a lesson should end with an activity, which leaves
the student in possession of a clear, well-phrased statement of exactly what was learned
during that time segment. Summaries will generally include a recapitulation of the aim of
the lesson in terms of the extent to which it has been achieved.
Effective summaries help develop an awareness of the essential unity and purpose
of what was done; they tie up the package in order to maximise the impact of each
learning experience. The creative dynamic summary can make cosmos out of chaos. The
purpose of any particular summary depends upon the learning activity that it is intended
to complete.
Another function of the summary is to help students synthesise these ideas and
formulate some statements or generalisation about them. It may also help to set the stage
for further investigations, research or discussion.
A summary is in order at any point in the lesson where a phase of a learning
interaction comes to a logical end. All summaries, medial or final, require careful
planning to insure effective integration of the different aspects of that teaching-learning
interaction. The part of your planning for the summary segment of a lesson should be
devoted to the preparation of a working chalkboard outline – a valuable summary
instrument. Use the summary as a springboard for the next work.
61
Audio-visual aids
All learning is multi-sensory in nature and each of your senses – hearing, sight,
touch, smell and taste – plays a role in formulating your reactions to any stimulus. Each
adds another dimension and makes a unique contribution to the learning process. There
are times, when such direct experiences are not feasible. Then you must turn to one or
more of a variety of materials, equipment, and techniques designed to act as worthwhile
but vicarious experiences for your students. Most of these substitutes involve sight and
hearing more than the other senses; thus the term, audio-visual aids.
Audio-visual aids are devices, which permit a more effective use of a multi-
sensory approach to learning than just words can provide. There are many different types
of materials.
Overhead projector
The overhead projector projects a written or graphic image on a screen or wall.
You can use it to display a study outline for your classroom or to list student ideas. Its
uses are not limited to any specific area and it is easily transportable. It uses a sheet or a
roll of transparent film. You can prepare a sheet ahead of time by using a copy machine
or writing with a transparency pen, or used commercially prepared materials. You may
also write on the transparency while teaching but it takes time and skill. An advantage of
using the overhead projector is that it allows you to face the students while teaching and
still you can display your writing.
Using it effectively
Some guidelines are:
• Keep your image simple and readable; too much information is
distracting.
• Turn the projector off when not in use; the noise and light are distracting.
• Use a good quality pen for making sheets, black for most writing and
colour for interest only.
• Check the seating of students for clear vision of the image.
• Use a piece of white cardboard to cover all the points or items except the
one you are discussing.
Unusual uses
Teachers can make use of this stimulus for numerous activities:
• Children take turns making shadow figures on the screen and the rest of
the class guesses the figure.
• You can create suspense or a surprise. For example, to begin a unit of
profit in an economics class, a large rupee is drawn to fill the transparency and
flashed on the screen.
• You can provide memory practice by projecting a list of words for a short
time and then students write all the words they can remember.
• You can share a small number of materials or materials too small to be
seen by many students, by projecting it to the whole class.
62
The overhead projector with transparencies offers stimuli to use with lecturing,
discussion, questioning, and with other stimuli, useful for previewing, recording, posing
questions, demonstrating and organising.
Slide projector
This machine projects pictures with intense images and you can keep the room
lights on. An additional advantage comes with your use of pictures of real people, places,
and happenings. Slides can be taken by you, your students, parents, or purchased from
commercial producers.
Using it effectively
• Check the placement ahead of time; images are more effective when they are right
side up.
• Accompany the images with description and questions.
• Check the vision of students seated in different locations around the classroom.
Simple projectors are lightweight, accessible, and fairly simple to use. You can
have students handle the projection task and free yourself to lead a discussion to
accompany the visual.
Another advantage of using this stimulus comes with taking the slides. You and
your students will gain insights and appreciation while you photograph your subjects.
63
Television
There are two compelling reasons for consideration of the use of this stimulus.
The first is that television is available in most schools and with a wide selection of quality
educational programming. The second is that your classroom use of television can model
some good viewing habits for students.
Using effectively
• Discuss with students before and after viewing a television programme (information,
impressions, bias, hidden messages, and so on).
• Check volume and image for students in different locations.
• Eliminate distractions.
• Watch the programme with students (rather than work at your desk on some task).
• Co-ordinate other learning activities with the programme.
Using television to vary your instruction requires that you have a schedule and
become familiar with various networks. Many programmes are simply more lectures so
look for a demonstration or a drama.
We can best use our energy to make it work for our teaching.
64
Using effectively
• Check volume for different location of the room.
• Keep electrical cords flush with floor or wall so that you and your students do not
trip.
• Have the intended starting point positioned on the tape or record ahead of time.
Both of these have appeal for students and can support learner motivation.
Technology has simplified the use of equipment and has advanced the quality of
programmes.
Using effectively
• Check volume and image for students in different location.
• Eliminate distractions.
• Use them interactively. It means that your students must do more than listen and
watch. They must respond to the tape or film, and you can make that happen with
questions, advance organisers, and discussions.
Chalkboards
Chalkboards are everywhere and they come in all sizes, shapes, and several
colours. They do not need a bulb or an electrical outlet, and they say what you want them
to say. You can prepare them ahead of time, or use them as you teach.
Using effectively
• Keep your words large enough, dark or white enough, and clear enough to be seen in
location around the classroom.
• Avoid filling the board with so much writing that students get confused.
• Protect the writing surface with proper cleaning and the appropriate writing materials.
Chalkboards offer generous amounts of space on which to write and are often
located in several sides of the classroom. You can move around as you teach.
We have also seen teachers use a block of chalkboard space for a Thought for the
day, a riddle, news, a coded message, etc. A daily or class schedule on the chalkboard is
useful to you and your students. Reminders, directions, assignments and due dates, and
announcements are all appropriate for chalkboard display. When you combine
chalkboards with other stimuli, your teaching will be varied and will capture student
attention.
67
Bulletin boards
Bulletin boards come in different sizes and shapes. You hear teachers complain if
they do not have one, and you hear teachers complain if they do. Like chalkboards,
bulletin boards offer ease of use and accessibility.
Using effectively
• Concern yourself with what your bulletin board says and does, rather than just how it
looks.
• Keep the display up to date that is, connected to the theme of study, times of year, and
so on.
• Involve students in planning and producing displays.
We want to emphasise the first guide line with a reminder that we are talking
about varying the stimuli in teaching. We experience aesthetically arranged displays that
are just the part of the wall, never referred to in teaching, never discussed by students,
and not connected to curriculum. The intent of these stimuli is to contribute to teaching.
The second guideline won’t be a worry if your bulletin board is connected to your
curriculum, and following the third guideline will help you keep your bulletin boards up
to date.
With student involvement, bulletin boards can change from being a responsibility
for you to an exciting way to vary the stimuli.
68
Computers
Tutorial
One of the first applications of computers to education was a tutorial programme
that used simulations. Tutorial programmes can involve drill and practice or simulation,
making what is really combination programmes – tutorial-drill-and-practice or tutorial-
simulation combinations.
Simulation
This is also true for simulation programmes. While simulations can be used
simply to provide examples to reinforce memorisation, most simulations involve the
learner in problem solving. Students have the opportunity to live out roles and find
solutions to often-complex problems.
Chapter 8
Contrary to common belief, slow learners in the regular classroom are neither rare
nor unique. The student commonly called a slow learner is one who cannot learn at an
average rate from the instructional resources, texts, workbooks, and learning materials
that are designed for the majority of students in the classroom. These students need
special instructional pacing, frequent feedback, corrective instruction, and/or modified
materials, all administered under conditions sufficiently flexible for learning to occur.
Slow learners are usually taught in one of two possible instructional
arrangements: 1) a class composed mostly of average students, in which case up to 20%
may be slow learners, or 2) a class specially designed for slow learners. Whether you
meet slow learners in a regular class or special class, you will immediately feel the
challenge of meeting their learning needs. Their most obvious characteristic is a limited
attention span compared to more able students. To keep these students actively engaged
in the learning process requires more than the usual variation in presentation methods
(direct, indirect), classroom climate (co-operative, competitive), and instructional
materials (films, workbooks, co-operative games, simulations). If this variation is not part
of your lesson, these students may well create their own variety in ways that disrupt your
teaching.
Other immediately noticeable characteristics of slow learners are their
deficiencies in basic skills (reading, writing, and mathematics), their difficulty in
comprehending abstract ideas, and most disconcerting, their sometimes unsystematic and
careless work habits.
Compensatory teaching
Compensatory teaching is an instructional approach that alters the presentation of
content to circumvent a student’s fundamental weakness or deficiency. Compensatory
teaching recognises content, transmits through alternate modalities (pictures versus
71
words), and supplements it with additional learning resources and activities (learning
centres and simulations, group discussions and co-operative learning). This may involve
modifying an instructional technique by including a visual representation of content, by
using more flexible instructional presentations (films, pictures, illustrations), or by
shifting to alternate instructional formats (self-paced texts, simulations, experience-
oriented workbooks).
Remedial teaching
This is an alternate approach for the regular classroom teacher in instructing the
slow learner. Remedial teaching is the use of activities, techniques and practices to
eliminate weaknesses or deficiencies that the slow learner is known to have. For example
deficiencies in basic math skills are reduced or eliminated by re-teaching the content that
was not learned earlier. The instructional environment does not change, as in the
compensatory approach. Conventional instructional techniques such as drill and practice
might be employed.
Develop lessons around students’ interests, needs, and experiences. This helps
address the short attention spans of slow learners. Also, these students should be made to
feel that some of the instruction has been designed with their specific interests or
experiences in mind. Oral or written autobiographies at the beginning of the year, or
simple inventories in which students indicate their hobbies, jobs, and unusual trips or
experiences can provide the structure for the lesson plans, special projects, or extra-credit
assignments in the year.
Incorporate audio and visual materials. One common characteristic among slow
learners is that they often learn better by seeing and hearing than by reading. This should
be no surprise, because performance in basic skill areas, including reading usually is
below grade level among slow learners. Incorporating films, videotapes, and audio into
lessons helps accommodate the instruction to the strategies learning modalities among
72
slow learners. Emphasising concrete and visual forms of content also helps compensate
for the general difficulty slow learners have in grasping abstract ideas and concepts.
Develop your own worksheets and exercises. Textbooks and workbooks, when
written for the average student often exceed the functioning level of the slow learner and
sometimes become more of a hindrance than an aid. When textbook materials are too
difficult, or are too different from topics that capture your students’ interests, develop
your own. Sometimes only some changes in worksheets and exercises are needed to adapt
the vocabulary or difficulty level to the ability of your slow learners. Also, using
textbooks and exercises intended for a lower grade could ease the burden of creating
materials that are unavailable at your grade level.
Provide peer tutors for students needing remediation. Peer tutoring can be an
effective ally to your teaching objectives, especially when tutors are assigned so that
everyone being tutored also has responsibility for being a tutor. The learner needing help
is not singled out and has a stake in making the idea work, because his or her pride is on
the line, both as a learner and as a tutor.
Encourage oral expression instead of written reports. For slow learners, many
writing assignments go un-attempted or are begun only half-heartedly because these
learners recognise that their written product will not meet even minimal writing
standards. A carefully organised taped response to an assignment might be considered.
This has the advantage of avoiding spelling, syntax, and writing errors.
When testing provide study aids. Study aids are advances organisers that alert
students to the most important problems, content, or issues. They also eliminate irrelevant
details that slow learners often laboriously study in the belief that they are important. The
slow learner usually is unable to weigh the relative importance of competing instructional
stimuli unless explicitly told or shown what is important and what is not. Example: test
questions or a list of topics from which questions may be chosen help focus student
effort.
Innovative learning skills. You can increase learning skills by teaching note-
taking, outlining, and listening. These skills are acquired through observation by higher
ability students, but they must be specifically taught to slow learners.
Unless your slow learners are actively engaged in the learning process through
interesting concrete visual stimuli, there will be little contact emotionally and
intellectually with the content you are presenting. This contact can be attained most easily
when you vary your instructional material often and organise it into bits small enough to
ensure moderate-to-high rates of success.
gifted remains an important objective of virtually of every school and, therefore, you
should be aware of the learning needs of this special learner.
The following are some of the most important behavioural ingredients from which
a definition of gifted is likely to be composed:
• Intelligence.
Foremost among the characteristics of giftedness is general intelligence. An IQ score
of about 130 or higher generally makes one eligible for gifted instruction. However,
in practice, because giftedness almost always is defined in conjunction with at least
several other behaviours, admission to gifted programmes and classes usually far less
restrictive. It is not uncommon to accept scores below 130 as eligible for gifted
instruction. Sometimes IQ is not considered at all in determining giftedness, in which
case the learner must exhibit unusual ability on one or more other areas.
• Achievement.
Among other behaviours frequently used to determine giftedness is the learner’s
achievement, usually in the areas for which gifted instruction is being considered.
Achievement is measured by yearly-standardised test, which cover areas such as
math, social sciences, reading comprehension, vocabulary, and science. A cut off
percentile of 90 means that a learner is eligible for gifted instruction if his or her score
on the appropriate sub-scale of a standardised achievement test is higher than the
score of 90% of all those who took the test.
• Creativity.
In addition to intelligence and achievement, indices of creativity often are considered
in selecting gifted learners. Inclusion of this behavioural dimension has broadened the
definition of this type of learner to include both the gifted and the talented. The
significance of this addition is that not all gifted learners are talented, nor are all
talented learners are gifted. The phrase gifted and talented, which is widely used, can
mean talented but not gifted, gifted but not talented, mostly talented with some
giftedness, mostly gifted with some talent, or both gifted and talented.
Because creative behaviours generally are considered in selecting gifted students, this
type of learner more appropriately might be called gifted and/or talented. Some
observable signs of creativity in a learner include:
Applying abstract principles of the solution of the problems
Being curious and inquisitive
Giving uncommon or unusual responses
Showing imagination
Posing original solutions to problems
Discriminating between major and minor events
Seeing relationships among dissimilar objects.
• Task persistence
Behaviours teachers look for in determining task persistence include:
Ability to devise organised approaches to learning
Ability to concentrate on detail
Self-imposed high standards
Persistence in achieving personal goals
Willing to evaluate own performance, and capable of doing so
74
Sense of responsibilities
High level of energy, particularly in academic tasks.
Include real-life problems that require problem solving. Let your gifted students
become actual investigators in solving world-dilemmas in your content area. This will
force them to place newly acquired knowledge and understandings in a practical
perspective and to increase the problem solving challenge. Ask them pointed questions
that do not have really available answers.
Pose challenging problems. Perhaps more than any other learners, the gifted both
are capable of and enjoy the freedom to independently explore issues and ideas that
concern them. Give them this opportunity by posing a challenging problem and
organising data (e.g. references, materials, and documents) that they must screen for
relevance. Focus the problem so the learner must make key decisions about what is
important for a solution.
In testing, draw out knowledge and understanding. Use tests and questions that
make the student go beyond knowing and remembering facts. Asking your gifted students
to explain, analyse, compare, contrast, hypothesise, infer, adopt, justify, judge, prove,
criticise, and dispute are means of indicating that more than a verbally fluent response is
required. Asking your students to explain the reason behind their answers, to put together
the known facts into something new, and to judge the outcome of their own inquiry are
useful means of separating ‘slick’ responses from meaningful answers.
Bilingual education refers to a mix of introduction in two languages. This means teaching
skills and words in English as well as in another language, which may be any regional
language. The primary goal of bilingual education is not to teach English as a second
language, but to teach concepts, knowledge, and skills, through the regional language the
75
learners knows the best and then to reinforce this information through the second
language (English), in which the learner is less proficient.
Use direct instruction. Most bilingual learners learn best from, and are most
accustomed to, the direct presentation of instructional material. For example, the “look
and say” approach to reading is more effective than the phonetic approach during the
initial stages of reading instruction. Especially for those lacking almost any proficiency in
English, repetition of material (particularly drill and practice) generally is superior to
more conceptual presentations that emphasise perspective, justification, and rationale.
understanding the culture of students you are teaching, even if you have little
understanding of their language. They appreciate the co-operation of group achievement
more than the competitive aspects of individual achievement. The merits that group work,
sharing of assignments, and working as a team potentially are useful instructional
strategies for these students. This in turn suggests the value of co-operative classroom
climate.
Know your learners’ language ability and achievement levels. From school
records, find out for each learner:
Dominant language in the receptive mode (i.e. listening, reading).
Dominant language in the expressive mode (i.e. talking, writing).
Proficiency level in the dominant language.
Past achievement levels in the area relevant to your instruction.
Chapter 9
Effective teaching
Teaching is an effective task a teacher does in the classroom. How efficiently one
teaches, determines, to a great extent, the success of students at schooling and to some
extent their success in life.
Teaching constitutes activities deliberately planned and performed. The effective
teacher employs five key behaviours: lesson clarity, instructional variety, task
orientation, engagement in learning, and student success.
1. To be clear in the classroom, the effective teacher:
Informs learners of the objective.
Provides learners with advance organisers.
Checks for task-relevant prior learning and re-teaches if necessary.
Gives directions slowly and distinctly.
Knows the ability level of learners and teaches to those levels.
Uses examples, illustrations, and demonstrations to explain and clarify
text and workbook content.
Provides a review or summary at the end of each lesson.
Shows enthusiasm.
Varies mode of presentation.
Mixes rewards and reinforces.
Uses student ideas.
Varies types of questions and probes.
Defects in teaching
• Most of the time, in the classroom, is devoted to teacher’s talk and students get very
little opportunity to express themselves.
• Teachers spend more time in giving information and less on clarifying ideas and still
less time on giving explanations.
• A very low percentage of teacher’s time in the classroom is used for making
encouraging remarks.
• Most of the teachers are not systematic in planning and carrying out instruction.
• Less than 10% of time of teacher’s talk is devoted to teacher’s questioning.
• During classroom interaction teachers tend to promote mostly wrote learning
requiring memory level thinking.
79
Chapter 10
There are many changes occurring daily in our classroom and in the practice of
teaching. Today’s classroom is a far cry from that of only ten years ago, and this rate of
change is unlikely to subside soon.
Microcomputers, competency testing, curriculum reforms, and heterogeneous
classrooms are but few of the factors changing the face of our schools and creating
special challenges for our teachers. The effective teacher is the one who sometimes sees
himself in his students.
Therefore, a teacher is just like an actor who has to play many roles. Some of the
important roles are:
The modern teacher is a helping teacher. Basically teaching is a relationship. The
teacher is either helping pupils or the pupils are helping him to do a worthwhile
activity. Some of the time for teaching is dedicated toward instructing children in
ways to better help each other.
Ideally, the teacher is able to see his pupils as co-workers on some problems, as
one who can maintain rapport with his students, who understands how a pupil feels,
and who knows when it is time to be sympathetic with a pupil. The ideal helping
relationship is one in which the pupil finds it difficult to determine whether he was
directed or guided into a learning situation; he simply finds himself busily engaging
in a situation and enjoying its offerings.
In the classroom where there is much “share and tell”, “give and take”, “think and
do”, --balanced off with an equitable amount of “work and play”, then there is more
likely to be found the ideal, healthy environment for learning.
• The teacher should be an actor. All educators must recognise that education is an
internal process. If the children are shown the “sense” of subject matter, they usually
will show interest in it. An interested pupil cares little about the time or effort that is
needed to learn if the desire is there. To ensure interest and to literally captivate his
pupils, the teacher should present the subject matter through such means as
dramatisation, sensationalisation, or emotionalisation, and the like if ideas are to
become mobile and challenging to the learner.
• The teacher should be a selector of methods. Far too often teachers teach as they
have been taught. Though this can result in effective teaching procedures it seems
more likely that such practice will propagate boring and repetitive classroom work.
The teacher who consistently follows such a practice surrenders, in a sense, an
important professional prerogative, that of studying the uniqueness of the class and
making judgements as to how class members may best learn. The role of the teacher
is obvious; in planning for every lesson or unit of work due thought should be given
to selecting procedures, which seem most conducive to the sought learning.
83
• The teacher should be a researcher. Teachers in the present day are encouraged and
supported in conducting classroom research. The study of the most effective
procedures is one of the most fruitful areas for such research. In science, for example,
the teacher of middle classes children might study the effectiveness of two
approaches using two classes. If two classes are not available two major topics could
be taught using different approaches but using only one class. The teacher who
consistently uses and believes in the assign-study-recite-test procedure may be moved
toward a variety of approaches if he carefully compares the results of this procedure
with another combination such as lecture-demonstration-discussion-application
procedure.
An obvious professional task of the teacher, the selection of method is one that
should be undertaken on the basis of a continuing study of the classroom situation. As
a minimum, a consideration of the children in the class, and the evaluative results of
previous teaching should enter into such study.
Was the time spent on this work commensurate with the value of the
sought learning?
Were the concepts of the lesson presented only in a verbal abstract setting?
Did any devices, aids, drawings, etc., used contribute to learning? Which
one did and which one did not?
Did the children have ample opportunity to apply major concepts they
learned?
If I taught this same lesson tomorrow for the first time how would I alter
my procedures?
Were there parts of the lesson or uses of aids that were an obvious waste
of time?
Is it possible to accomplish this same teaching with less time and effort?
Did I vary the procedure in this or other lessons significantly from the
procedure I typically use?
different things. The teacher should strive for greater congruency between what he
personifies overtly and what he believes internally. To put it another way, what one
wishes to “get across” during the learning episodes is often hindered by non-verbal
expressions made by the teacher, -knowingly or unknowingly.
The right for every child to learn is the goal set for the 21 st century. To meet this goal
schools must offer a range of learning options commensurate with the unknown range of
pupil talents. The learning environment, likewise, must nurture those talents.
Media will become more important than ever in the curriculum of the future.
Planetariums, fully equipped videotape machines, complete photographic studios,
computers, and the like will increase curriculum change immensely.
Therefore, the functions of the teacher in future will be:
• A human relations expert—a facilitator of learning.
On the basis of vast knowledge of child growth and development plus his
professional expertise in using group processes and other psychological means as yet
undeveloped, he will guide children in their interactions. The teacher of the future will
more likely query, not of himself but of his pupils. “What do you want from school?
What do you want to learn? What are you curious about? What problems in society
concern you? How do you want to change yourself? How will you know when you have
made your life better?” If a teacher can obtain answers to the questions he can then safely
ask himself, “Now that I know what he is eager to learn, where can I best help him go to
find the resources—the people, the experiences, the learning facilities, the textbooks as
well as the wisdom and knowledge in myself—which will help him learn in ways that
will provide relevant answers to the things that concern him? It means that they acquire
the role of facilitator more than teacher does.
• A diagnostician.
The teacher will be a new type of diagnostician, again using tools of
measurement, which are now in their infancy. Obviously the teacher will be a director of
learning—but in the setting of complete individualisation of a pupil’s personalised
instructional programme. The implementation of a personalised programme of instruction
will spring from selected findings derived from diagnostic information.
With present diagnostic procedures it sometime takes months to find out the
pupil’s problems and to plan accordingly. This will not be the case in future. What now
takes months to accomplish will be completed in a matter of minutes. It will be a
common thing to find children locating their own problems of academic origin by feeding
information into computers to determine the progress made on a problem up to a given
point. The machine being programmed to sort out common errors and to indicate the
steps necessary to remedy one’s work.
technicians can develop and co-ordinate the learning programmes, --films, lectures,
demonstrations, television, etc., but it will be teachers who decide what the programmes
should be. Of significance, too, the teacher will serve as the link between programmes
and pupils, and he will guide the child to that sequence of programmes, which best meets
his assessed needs.
REFERENCES
Realities.
McDonald, Blanche and Nelson. Methods that Teach.
Merrill, M David and Robert Tennyson. Teaching Concepts.
Miller and Vinocur. How to Ask Classroom Questions.
Ornstein. Questioning.
Rebrova and Svetlova. The Problem Solving Approach.
Renaud, Stolovitch. Simulation gaming.
Ross and Killey. The Effect of Questioning on Retention.
Sanders, Norris M. Classroom Questions. What kinds?
Schmuck, Richard, Chesler, Ronald. Problem Solving to Improve
Classroom Learning.
Shaftel, Fannie. Role-Playing.
Shulmanand Keislar. Learning by Discovery: A Critical Approach.
Skinner. Teaching Machine.
Slavin. Cooperative Learning.
Strasser, Ben B. Components in Teaching Strategy.
Suchman, Richard. Developing Inquiry.
Suppes, Patrick. Computer Based Instruction.
Taylor, John and Rex Walford. Simulation in the Classroom.
Taylor. Developing your own Simulation for Teaching.
Titus. The Uses of the Lecture.
Torrence. Encouraging Creativity in the classroom.
Weimer. Educational Technology.
Weinberger. Perspectives in Individualised Learning.
Whittrock. Handbook of Research on Teaching.
Whooley. Improving College and University Teaching.
Williams. What TeachingMethods When?
Zuckerman, David, Horn, Robert. The Guide to Simulation Games
for Education and Training.