PORJECT REPORT

ON
“SHAP DATA MONITORING
SYSTEM”

Submitted in the partial fulfilment for award of degree

of
Bachelor of Technology in ELECTRONICS AND COMM.
Brach of
MAHARISHI DAYANAND UNIVERSITY, ROHTAK

During academic session 2007-2011

Under the guidance of

Mrs. Sachi mittal

Submitted by:

SANDEEP KUMAR (7EC 143-L)

HEMA (7EC 135-L)

ASHWANI SINGLA (7EC 146-L)

POONAM VERMA (7EC 140-L)

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

“SUCCESS IS NOURISHED UNDER THE KIND COMBINATION OF

PERFECT GUIDANCE, CARE AND BLESSING”

We, SANDEEP KUMAR (7EC 143-L), HEMA (7EC 135-L),

ASHWANI SINGLA (7EC 146-L) and POONAM VERMA (7EC 140-
L) are thankful to Mr. S.V.A.V. Prasad, Dean of academic
affair, LIMAT, Mr. K.C. Mathur, Head of deppt. ECE, LIMAT for
the kind support that they extended to us for making this
project.

We owe a sincere thank to our project guide Mrs. Sachi

Mittal and our Project Co-ordinator Mrs. Pragati. We are also
thankful to Mr. Ramnarayan and Mr. Prajapati for their co-
operation, kindness and general help extended to us during
the completion of this work.

With due respect,

SANDEEP KUMAR (7EC 143-L)

HEMA (7EC 135-L)

ASHWANI SINGLA (7EC 146-L)

POONAM VERMA (7EC 140-L)

 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

3. BLOCK DIAGRAM

4. EXPLANATION OF BLOCK DIAGRAM

5. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND THEIR SPECIFICATION

5.1. POWER SUPPLY

5.2. PROCESSOR CIRCUIT

5.3. LCD

5.4. RFID

6. DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS

6.1. PIC MICRO-CONTROLLER

6.2. SENSOR

6.2.1.1.TEMPRATURE SENSOR

6.2.1.2.GAS SENSOR

6.2.1.3.RFID

6.2.1.4.HUMIDITY SENSOR

6.3. MAX 232

6.4. GSM MODEM

6.5. ANCILLARY COMPONENTS

6.5.1.1.RELAY

6.5.1.2.TRANSISTOR
 6.5.1.3.RESISTANCE

6.5.1.4.DIODES

6.5.1.5.CAPACITORS

6.5.1.6.LED

6.5.1.7.TRANSFORMER

6.5.1.8.VOLTAGE REGULATOR

6.5.1.9.DB9 CONNECTOR

7. METHODOLOGY/FABRICATION METHOD/PROCESSES

8. SOFTWARE

8.1. MPLAB IDE 8.50

8.2. HYPER TERMINAL

9. WORKING OF THE PROJECT

10. APPENDIX

10.1. ADVANTAGE

10.2. APPLICATION

10.3. BIBLIOGRAPHY
 INTRODUCTION
As the world is becoming advance towards betterment, whether it is in
terms of science and technology or in any other aspect, the more it is
required to maintain the authentication of data or to prevent the data
from manipulation.

SHAP Data Monitoring System provides us all these facilities along

with an additional provision of monitoring data from a centralised
location or even from any part of the world with the help of technology
named GSM.

In order to achieve this aim, the system comprises of four functional

unit namely sensors, microcontroller, GSM and display section.

The primary unit of this system is the sensor section which includes
different types of sensor required to observe various parameter as per
the application required. For suppose in an industry numerous
parameter of machinery can be sensed and monitored using this
system. Or in school and colleges this system can be employed for
maintaining the authentication of datasheet.

Also keeping an account on the entry and exit of the employee or

even employer and the duration for which they were present in the
firm is enabled with the help of RFID sensor.
For monitoring database onto the display section, the processing of
the data is done with the help of PIC16F microcontroller. Here in this
project an 8 bit 40 pin microcontroller chip operating at 4MHz is used
which has an inbuilt EEPROM data memory of 256X8 bytes, 8KX14
words Flash memory. It also has an inbuilt A/D converter which
eliminates the additional interfacing of A/D converter as compare to
other controllers.

For making the database more clean and clear for the person
observing or monitoring it, the different display device that can be
employed as per the requirement in this system are LCD, desktop,
laptop, mobile phone, etc. For enabling the data to be monitored from
any part of the world as and when required, a system called GSM is
used which is globally accepted standard for digital cellular
communication.
BLOCK DIAGRAM
 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

SHAP Data Monitoring System basically consists of four functional

units namely:

• Sensor Section

• Micro controller Section

• GSM Modem

• Display Unit

The parameters to be monitored are sensed by the primary unit

of the system i.e. the sensor unit which basically senses the

respective non-physical quantity and produces an output which

is electrical in nature. Temperature, humidity, leakage of gases,

fuel level, entry and exit of pedestrian, etc are the different types

of parameter that can be sensed of monitoring via their

respective sensor.

The output of the sensor section is applied to the microcontroller

section for its further processing. The programming required for

displaying database or any information regarding these sensed

parameters is done by this section.

The additional feature of monitoring these records from a

centralised location or even from any part of the world, the next

section is employed in our system. This is the GSM Module

section which basically performs the function of transferring data

to a distant location.

The final section of this system is the display section which

caters the purpose of providing proper understandibility of the

database to the person monitoring the data. Different kind of

display unit that can be employed in this system as per the

application are personal computer, LCD display or a mobile

phone.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
AND
THEIR DESCRIPTIONS
 POWER SUPPLY
The +5 volt supply is useful for both analog and digital circuits. DTL, TTL, and CMOS
ICs will all operate nicely from a +5 volt supply. In addition, the +5 volt supply is useful
for circuits that use both analog and digital signals in various ways.

The +5 volt power supply is based on the commercial 7805 voltage regulator IC. This IC
contains all the circuitry needed to accept any input voltage from 8 to 18 volts and
produce a steady +5 volt output, accurate to within 5% (0.25 volt). It also contains current-
limiting circuitry and thermal overload protection, so that the IC won't be damaged in case
of excessive load current; it will reduce its output voltage instead.

The 1000µf capacitor serves as a "reservoir" which maintains a reasonable input voltage
to the 7805 throughout the entire cycle of the ac line voltage. The two rectifier diodes
keep recharging the reservoir capacitor on alternate half-cycles of the line voltage, and the
capacitor is quite capable of sustaining any reasonable load in between charging pulses.

The 10µf and .01µf capacitors serve to help keep the power supply output voltage
constant when load conditions change. The electrolytic capacitor smoothes out any long-
term or low frequency variations. However, at high frequencies this capacitor is not very
efficient. Therefore, the .01µf is included to bypass high-frequency changes, such as
digital IC switching effects, to ground. The LED and its series resistor serve as a pilot
light to indicate when the power supply is on. I like to use a miniature LED here, so it will
serve that function without being obtrusive or distracting while I'm performing an
experiment. I also use this LED to tell me when the reservoir capacitor is completely
discharged after power is turned off.
PROCESSOR CIRCUIT
 LCD
Pin Description
Most LCDs with 1 controller has 14 Pins and LCDs with 2 controller has 16 Pins (two
pins are extra in both for back-light LED connections). Pin description is shown in the
table below.

Figure(xxi)

Table(i)
Pin No. Name Description
Pin no. 1 VSS Power supply (GND)
Pin no. 2 VCC Power supply (+5V)
Pin no. 3 VEE Contrast adjust
0 = Instruction input
Pin no. 4 RS
1 = Data input
0 = Write to LCD
module
Pin no. 5 R/W
1 = Read from LCD
module
Pin no. 6 EN Enable signal
Pin no. 7 D0 Data bus line 0 (LSB)
Pin no. 8 D1 Data bus line 1
Pin no. 9 D2 Data bus line 2
Pin no. 10 D3 Data bus line 3
Pin no. 11 D4 Data bus line 4
Pin no. 12 D5 Data bus line 5
Pin no. 13 D6 Data bus line 6
Pin no. 14 D7 Data bus line 7 (MSB)
RFID
DESCRIPTION

OF

COMPONENTS
 PIC MICRO-CONTROLLER

When we have to learn about a new computer we have to familiarize

about the machine capability we are using, and we can do it by
studying the internal hardware design (devices architecture), and also
to know about the size, number and the size of the registers.

A microcontroller is a single chip that contains the processor (the

CPU), non-volatile memory for the program (ROM or flash), volatile
memory for input and output (RAM), a clock and an I/O control unit.
Also called a "computer on a chip," billions of microcontroller units
(MCUs) are embedded each year in a myriad of products from toys to
appliances to automobiles. For example, a single vehicle can use 70
or more microcontrollers.
ARCHITECTURE OF PIC MICRO-
CONTROLLER
 SENSORS
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
GAS SENSOR
This operating principle applies to all TGS8xx, TGS2xxx and TGS3xxx
series sensors.

Fig. 1 shows basic gas sensor structure of TGS26xx series sensors

as an example. The gas sensor is composed of sensing element,
sensor base and sensor cap. The sensing element contains sensing
material and heater to heat up sensing element (eg. 400•). Depending
on the target gas, the sensing element will utilize different materials
such as Tin dioxide (SnO2), Tungsten oxide (WO3), etc.

When a metal oxide crystal such as SnO2 is heated at a certain high

temperature in air, oxygen is adsorbed on the crystal surface with a
negative charge. Then donor electrons in the crystal surface are
transferred
to the adsorbed oxygen, resulting in leaving positive charges in a
space charge layer. Thus, surface potential is formed to serve as a
potential barrier against electron flow (Figure 2). Inside the sensor,
electric current flows through the conjunction parts (grain boundary) of
SnO2 micro
crystals. At grain boundaries, adsorbed oxygen forms a potential
barrier which prevents carriers from moving freely. The electrical
resistance of the sensor is attributed to this potential barrier.

In the presence of a deoxidizing gas, the surface density of the

negatively charged oxyge decreases, so the barrier height in the grain
boundary is reduced (Figures 3 and 4). The reduced barrier height
decreases sensor resistance.
The relationship between sensor resistance and the concentration of
deoxidizing gas can be expressed by the following equation over a
certain range of gas concentration:
Rs = A[C] -α where: Rs = electrical resistance of the sensor
A = constant [C] = gas concentration
α = slope of Rs curve

Due to the logarithmic relationship between sensor resistance and gas

concentration, semiconductor type sensors have an advantage of high
sensitivity to gas even at low gas concentration.

The excellent stability and performance of the semiconductor type

sensor provides maintenance-free, long lived, and low cost gas
detection.

Figaro provides various sensors which have different sensitivity

characteristics by selecting the most suitable combinations of sensing
material, temperature and activity of sensor materials.
HUMIDITY SENSOR
RFID:
WORKING PRINCIPLE

Radio frequency identification, or RFID, is a generic term for

technologies that use radio waves to automatically identify people or
objects. There are several methods of identification, but the most
common is to store a serial number that identifies a person or object,
and perhaps other information, on a microchip that is attached to an
antenna (the chip and the antenna together are called an RFID
transponder or an RFID tag). The antenna enables the chip to
transmit the identification information to a reader. The reader
converts the radio waves reflected back from the RFID tag into digital
information that can then be passed on to computers that can make
use of it.
Radio frequency identification (RFID) systems are made up of readers
and tags—tiny microchips or integrated circuits with an antenna
attached and embedded into labels.
The antenna enables the chip to transmit the label’s
identification information to a reader. When the reader is prompted,
the tag broadcasts the information onto its chip. The reader converts
the radio waves reflected back from an RFID tag into digital
information that can then be passed on to computers or computer
mainframes. There the information is collected, sorted, and converted
into relevant data that can be used to measure future demand. There
is effectively no upper limit on what an RFID tag can store (although
more memory requires more power). Tags can be either active or
passive.
Radio tags can be applied on everything from car tires to
hospital patients. Unlike traditional bar-codes, RFID chips give every
tagged object a unique identification code. Companies will soon use
RFID to track the billions of objects transported around the world
every year in planes, trucks and ships, through ports and warehouses,
on to store shelves, and into homes and offices. Accurate tracking will
save hundreds of billions of dollars a year by improving the channels
of distribution and reducing labor costs, inventory, and theft. Radio
Frequency Identification (RFID) is a system that transmits the identity
of any object or person (in the form of a unique serial number)
wirelessly using radio waves.
 It is recognized under a category of automated identification
technologies that includes bar coding and intelligent sensors that can
be used for different applications.
Bar codes, optical character readers, and biometric technologies like
retinal scans are some of the automated identification technologies
that reduce the time and labor needed to input and manage data
manually, thereby improving operations and data accuracy. The basic
components of RFID technology are the tags and readers that collect,
integrate, store, and report the information collected.

The demanding environment of security requires innovative and

flexible solutions for secure student identification and security. RFID
provides a complete solution for real-time identification and monitoring
of students in the facility. Based on RFID (Radio Frequency
Identification), location technologies, and standards-based
architectures, the solution provides a tangible answer to the needs of
the management to ensure the student safety and security.
 MAX 232 LEVEL CONVERTOR

Usually all the digial ICs works on TTL or CMOS voltage levels which cannot be used to
communicate over RS-232 protocol. So a voltage or level converter is needed which can
convert TTL to RS232 and RS232 to TTL voltage levels.
The most commonly used RS-232 level converter is MAX232.

This IC includes charge pump which can generate RS232 voltage levels (-10V and +10V)
from 5V power supply. It also includes two receiver and two transmitters and is capable
of full-duplex UART/USART communication.
MAX232 Interfacing with Microcontrollers
To communicate over UART or USART, we just need three basic signals which are
namely, RXD (receive), TXD (transmit), GND (common ground). So to interface
MAX232 with any microcontroller (AVR, ARM, 8051, PIC etc..) we just need the basic
signals. A simple schematic diagram of connections between a microcontroller and
MAX232 is shown below.
 GSM MODEM

GSM Network
The Switching System
The switching system (SS) is responsible for performing call processing and
subscriber-related functions. The switching system includes the following
functional units:

•home location register (HLR)—The HLR is a database used for storage and
management of subscriptions. The HLR is considered the most important
database, as it stores permanent data about subscribers, including a subscriber's
service profile, location information, and activity status. When an individual buys
a subscription from one of the PCS operators, he or she is registered in the HLR of
that operator.

•mobile services switching center (MSC)—The MSC performs the telephony

switching functions of the system. It controls calls to and from other telephone
and data systems. It also performs such functions as toll ticketing, network
interfacing, common channel signaling, and others.

•visitor location register (VLR)—The VLR is a database that contains temporary

information about subscribers that is needed by the MSC in order to service
visiting subscribers. The VLR is always integrated with the MSC. When a mobile
station roams into a new MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC will request
data about the mobile station from the HLR. Later, if the mobile station makes a
call, the VLR will have the information needed for call setup without having to
interrogate the HLR each time.

•authentication center (AUC)—A unit called the AUC provides authentication and
encryption parameters that verify the user's identity and ensure the confidentiality
of each call. The AUC protects network operators from different types of fraud
found in today's cellular world.

•equipment identity register (EIR)—The EIR is a database that contains

information about the identity of mobile equipment that prevents calls from
stolen, unauthorized, or defective mobile stations. The AUC and EIR are
implemented as stand-alone nodes or as a combined AUC/EIR node.

The Base Station System (BSS)

All radio-related functions are performed in the BSS, which consists of base
station controllers (BSCs) and the base transceiver stations (BTSs).
• BSC—The BSC provides all the control functions and physical links between the
MSC and BTS. It is a high-capacity switch that provides functions such as handover, cell
configuration data, and control of radio frequency (RF) power levels in base
transceiver stations. A number of BSCs are served by an MSC.

• BTS—The BTS handles the radio interface to the mobile station. The BTS is the
radio equipment (transceivers and antennas) needed to service each cell in the
network. A group of BTSs are controlled by a BSC.

The Operation and Support System

The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all equipment in the
switching system and to the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the operation
and support system (OSS). The OSS is the functional entity from which the network
operator monitors and controls the system. The purpose of OSS is to offer the customer
cost-effective support for centralized, regional, and local operational and maintenance
activities that are required for a GSM network. An important function of OSS is to
provide a network overview and support the maintenance activities of different
operation and maintenance organizations.

Additional Functional Elements

Other functional elements shown in Figure 2 are as follows:

• message center (MXE)—The MXE is a node that provides integrated

voice, fax, and data messaging. Specifically, the MXE handles short message
service, cell broadcast, voice mail, fax mail, email, and notification.

• mobile service node (MSN)—The MSN is the node that handles the
mobile intelligent network (IN) services.

• gateway mobile services switching center (GMSC)—A gateway is a

node used to interconnect two networks. The gateway is often implemented in an
MSC. The MSC is then referred to as the GMSC.

• GSM interworking unit (GIWU)—The GIWU consists of both hardware

and software that provides an interface to various networks for data communications.
Through the GIWU, users can alternate between speech and data during the same
call. The GIWU hardware equipment is physically located at the MSC/VLR.
4. GSM Network Areas
The GSM network is made up of geographic areas. As shown in Figure 3, these areas
include cells, location areas (LAs), MSC/VLR service areas, and public land mobile
network (PLMN) areas.

ROM SERVICE AREA i1 operator's network)

mscriqui SERVICE AREA (area covered by /

MSC)
LOCATION AREA (1 MSC consists of Us)

CELL Oro covered by 1 BTS)

Figure 3. Network Areas

The cell is the area given radio coverage by one base transceiver station. The GSM
network identifies each cell via the cell global identity (CGI) number assigned to each
cell. The location area is a group of cells. It is the area in which the subscriber is
paged. Each LA is served by one or more base station controllers, yet only by a
single MSC (see Figure 4). Each LA is assigned a location area identity (LAI) number.

An MSC/VLR service area represents the part of the GSM network that is covered by
one MSC and which is reachable, as it is registered in the VLR of the MSC (see Figure 5).

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 Figure 5. MSC/VLR Service Areas

GSM Specifications
Before looking at the GSM specifications, it is important
to understand the following basic terms:

• bandwidth—the range of a channel's limits; the

broader the bandwidth, the faster data can be sent
• bits per second (bps)—a single on-off pulse of data;
eight bits are equivalent to one byte
• frequency—the number of cycles per unit of time;
frequency is measured in hertz (Hz)
• kilo (k)—kilo is the designation for 1,000; the
abbreviation kbps represents 1,000 bits per second
• megahertz (MHz)-1,000,000 hertz (cycles
per second)
• milliseconds (ms)—one-thousandth of a
second
• watt (W)—a measure of power of a transmitter
Specifications for different personal communication services
(PCS) systems vary among the different PCS networks.
Listed below is a description of the specifications and
characteristics for GSM.
• frequency band—The frequency range specified for
GSM is 1,85o to 1,990 MHz (mobile station to base
station).
• duplex distance—The duplex distance is 8o MHz.
Duplex distance is the distance between the uplink and
downlink frequencies. A channel has two frequencies, 8o
MHz apart.
• channel separation—The separation between
adjacent carrier frequencies. In GSM, this is 200 kHz.
• modulation—Modulation is the process of
sending a signal by changing the characteristics of
a carrier frequency. This is done in GSM via
Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK).
• transmission rate—GSM is a digital system with an
over-the-air bit rate of 270 kbps.
• access method—GSM utilizes the time division
multiple access (TDMA) concept. TDMA is a technique in
which several different calls may share the same carrier.
Each call is assigned a particular time slot.
• speech coder—GSM uses linear predictive coding
(LPC). The purpose of LPC is to reduce the bit rate.
The LPC provides parameters for a filter that
mimics the vocal tract. The signal passes through
this filter, leaving behind a residual signal. Speech is
encoded at 13 kbps.

GSM Modem works on AT commands as follows:

 AT-Command set
The following section describes the AT-Command set. The commands
can be tried out by connecting a GSM modem to one of the PC’s COM
ports. Type in the test-command, adding CR + LF (Carriage return +
Line feed = \r\n) before executing. Table gives an overview of the
implemented AT-Commands in this application. The use of the
commands is described in the later sections.

AT-Command set overview

Command Description
Check if serial interface and GSM
AT modem is working.
Turn echo off, less traffic on serial
ATE0 line.
AT+CNMI Display of new incoming SMS.
AT+CPMS Selection of SMS memory.
SMS string format, how they are
AT+CMGF compressed.
Read new message from a given
AT+CMGR memory location.
AT+CMGS Send message to a given recipient.
AT+CMGD Delete message.
 ANCILLARY COMPONENTS
RELAY
Relay is a common, simple application of
electromagnetism. It uses an electromagnet made from an
iron rod wound with hundreds of fine copper wire. When
electricity is applied to the wire, the rod becomes
magnetic. A movable contact arm above the rod is then
pulled toward the rod until it closes a switch contact. When
the electricity is removed, a small spring pulls the contract
arm away from the rod until it closes a second switch
contact. By means of relay, a current circuit can be broken
or closed in one circuit as a result of a current in another
circuit.

Relays can have several poles and contacts. The types

of contacts could be normally open and normally closed.
One closure of the relay can turn on the same normally
open contacts; can turn off the other normally closed
contacts.

Relay requires a current through their coils, for which

a voltage is applied. This voltage for a relay can be D.C.
low voltages upto 24V or could be 240V a.c.
A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under control of
another electrical circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated
by an electromagnet to open or close one or many sets of contacts. It
was invented by Joseph Henry in 1835. Because a relay is able to
control an output circuit of higher power than the input circuit, it can
be considered, in a broad sense, to be a form of electrical amplifier.
These contacts can be either Normally Open (NO), Normally
Closed (NC), or change-over contacts.

• Normally-open contacts connect the circuit when

the relay is activated; the circuit is disconnected
when the relay is inactive. It is also called Form A
contact or "make" contact. Form A contact is ideal
for applications that require to switch a high-
current power source from a remote device.
 • Normally-closed contacts disconnect the circuit
when the relay is activated; the circuit is
connected when the relay is inactive. It is also
called Form B contact or "break" contact. Form B
contact is ideal for applications that require the
circuit to remain closed until the relay is activated.
• Change-over contacts control two circuits: one
normally-open contact and one normally-closed
contact with a common terminal. It is also called
Form C contact.

Operation

When a current flows through the coil, the resulting

magnetic field attracts an armature that is
mechanically linked to a moving contact. The
movement either makes or breaks a connection with a
fixed contact. When the current to the coil is switched
off, the armature is returned by a force that is half as
strong as the magnetic force to its relaxed position.
Usually this is a spring, but gravity is also used
commonly in industrial motor starters. Relays are
manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage
application, this is to reduce noise. In a high voltage or
high current application, this is to reduce arcing.
If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently
installed across the coil, to dissipate the energy from
the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which
would otherwise generate a spike of voltage and might
cause damage to circuit components. If the coil is
designed to be energized with AC, a small copper ring
can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This
"shading ring" creates a small out-of-phase current,
which increases the minimum pull on the armature
during the AC cycle. [1]
By analogy with the functions of the original
electromagnetic device, a solid-state relay is made with
a thyristor or other solid-state switching device. To
achieve electrical isolation, a light-emitting diode (LED)
is used with a photo transistor.

TRANSISTOR
The name is transistor derived from ‘transfer
resistors’ indicating a solid state Semiconductor device.
In addition to conductor and insulators, there is a third
class of material that exhibits proportion of both. Under
some conditions, it acts as an insulator, and under
other conditions it’s a conductor. This phenomenon is
called Semi-conducting and allows a variable control
over electron flow. So, the transistor is semi conductor
device used in electronics for amplitude. Transistor has
three terminals, one is the collector, one is the base
and other is the emitter, (each lead must be connected
in the circuit correctly and only then the transistor will
function). Electrons are emitted via one terminal and
collected on another terminal, while the third terminal
acts as a control element. Each transistor has a number
marked on its body. Every number has its own
specifications.
There are mainly two types of transistor (i) NPN &
(ii) PNP
NPN Transistors:
When a positive voltage is applied to the base, the
transistor begins to conduct by allowing current to flow
through the collector to emitter circuit. The relatively
small current flowing through the base circuit causes a
much greater current to pass through the emitter /
collector circuit. The phenomenon is called current
gain and it is measure in beta.
PNP Transistor:
It also does exactly same thing as above except
that it has a negative voltage on its collector and a
positive voltage on its emitter.

Transistor is a combination of semi-conductor

elements allowing a controlled current flow.
Germanium and Silicon is the two semi-conductor
elements used for making it. There are two types of
transistors such as POINT CONTACT and JUNCTION
TRANSISTORS. Point contact construction is defective
so is now out of use. Junction triode transistors are in
many respects analogous to triode electron tube.
A junction transistor can function as an amplifier or
oscillator as can a triode tube, but has the additional
advantage of long life, small size, ruggedness and
absence of cathode heating power.
Junction transistors are of two types which can be
obtained while manufacturing.
The two types are: -
1) PNP TYPE: This is formed by joining a layer of P
type of germanium to an N-P Junction

P N P

2) NPN TYPE: This is formed by joining a layer of N

type germanium to a P-N Junction.

N P N

Both types are shown in

figure, with their symbols for representation. The centre
section is called the base, one of the outside sections-
the emitter and the other outside section-the collector.
The direction of the arrowhead gives the direction of
the conventional current with the forward bias on the
emitter. The conventional flow is opposite in direction
to the electron flow.

OPERATION OF PNP TRANSISTOR:-

A PNP transistor is made by sand witching two PN
germanium or silicon diodes, placed back to back. The
centre of N-type portion is extremely thin in
comparison to P region. The P region of the left is
connected to the positive terminal and N-region to the
negative terminal i.e. PN is biased in the forward
direction while P region of right is biased negatively i.e.
in the reverse direction as shown in Fig. The P region in
the forward biased circuit is called the emitter and P
region on the right, biased negatively is called collector.
The centre is called base.

The majority carriers (holes) of P region (known as

emitter) move to N region as they are repelled by the
positive terminal of battery while the electrons of N
region are attracted by the positive terminal. The holes
overcome the barrier and cross the emitter junction
into N region. As the width of base region is extremely
thin, two to five percent of holes recombine with the
free electrons of N-region which result in a small base
current while the remaining holes (95% to 98%) reach
the collector junction. The collector is biased negatively
and the negative collector voltage aids in sweeping the
hole into collector region.
 Hence we can say that when the emitter is forward
biased and collector is negatively biased, a substantial
current flows in both the circuits. Since a small emitter
voltage of about 0.1 to 0.5 volts permits the flow of an
appreciable emitter current the input power is very
small. The collector voltage can be as high as 45 volts.

RESISTOR:

A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronic

component which implements electrical resistance as a
circuit element. When a voltage V is applied across the
terminals of a resistor, a current I will flow through the
resistor in direct proportion to that voltage. This
constant of proportionality is called conductance, G.
The reciprocal of the conductance is known as the
resistance R, since, with a given voltage V, a larger
value of R further "resists" the flow of current I as given
by Ohm's law:

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks

and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most
electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made
of various compounds and films, as well as resistance
wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as
nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within
integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can
also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.

The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by

its resistance: common commercial resistors are
manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of
magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an
electronic design, the required precision of the
resistance may require attention to the manufacturing
tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its
specific application. The temperature coefficient of the
resistance may also be of concern in some precision
applications. Practical resistors are also specified as
having a maximum power rating which must exceed
the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a
particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power
electronics applications. Resistors with higher power
ratings are physically larger and may require heat
sinking. In a high voltage circuit, attention must
sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working
voltage of the resistor.
The series inductance of a practical resistor causes its
behavior to depart from ohms law; this specification
can be important in some high-frequency applications
for smaller values of resistance. In a low-noise amplifier
or pre-amp the noise characteristics of a resistor may
be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise,
and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on
the technology used in manufacturing the resistor.
They are not normally specified individually for a
particular family of resistors manufactured using a
particular technology. A family of discrete resistors is
also characterized according to its form factor, that is,
the size of the device and position of its leads (or
terminals) which is relevant in the practical
manufacturing of circuits using them.

CAPACITORS
It is an electronic component whose function is to
accumulate charges and then release it.

To understand the concept of capacitance,

consider a pair of metal plates which all are placed near
to each other without
touching. If a battery is
connected to these
plates the positive pole to one and the negative pole to
the other, electrons from the battery will be attracted
from the plate connected to the positive terminal of the
battery. If the battery is then disconnected, one plate
will be left with an excess of electrons, the other with a
shortage, and a potential or voltage difference will
exists between them. These plates will be acting as
capacitors. Capacitors are of two types: - (1) fixed
type like ceramic, polyester, electrolytic capacitors-
these names refer to the material they are made of
aluminium foil. (2) Variable type like gang condenser
in radio or trimmer. In fixed type capacitors, it has two
leads and its value is written over its body and variable
type has three leads. Unit of measurement of a
capacitor is farad denoted by the symbol F. It is a very
big unit of capacitance. Small unit capacitor are pico-
farad denoted by pf (Ipf=1/1000,000,000,000 f) Above
all, in case of electrolytic capacitors, it's two terminal
are marked as (-) and (+) so check it while using
capacitors in the circuit in right direction. Mistake can
destroy the capacitor or entire circuit in operational.

LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light
source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many
devices and are increasingly used for other lighting.
Introduced as a practical electronic component in 1962,
early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern
versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet and
infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

Symbol:
When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched
on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes
within the device, releasing energy in the form of
photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and
the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of
the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the
semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than
1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be
used to shape its radiation pattern.[3] LEDs present
many advantages over incandescent light sources
including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime,
improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching,
and greater durability and reliability. LEDs powerful
enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and
require more precise current and heat management
than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable
output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as
diverse as replacements for aviation lighting,
automotive lighting (particularly brake lamps, turn
signals and indicators) as well as in traffic signals. The
compact size, the possibility of narrow bandwidth,
switching speed, and extreme reliability of LEDs has
allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be
developed, while their high switching rates are also
useful in advanced communications technology.
Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units
of many commercial products including televisions,
DVD players, and other domestic appliances.
TRANSFORMER
PRINCIPLE:
Two coils are wound over a Core such that they are
magnetically coupled. The two coils are known as the
primary and secondary windings.
In a Transformer, an iron core is used. The
coupling between the coils is source of making a path
for the magnetic flux to link both the coils. A core as in
fig.2 is used and the coils are wound on the limbs of the
core. Because of high permeability of iron, the flux path
for the flux is only in the iron and hence the flux links
both windings. Hence there is very little ‘leakage flux’.
This term leakage flux denotes the part of the flux,
which does not link both the coils, i.e., when coupling is
not perfect. In the high frequency transformers, ferrite
core is used. The transformers may be step-up, step-
down, frequency matching, sound output, amplifier
driver etc. The basic principles of all the transformers
are same.
MINIATURE TRANSFORMER CONVENTIONAL
POWER
TRANSFORMER

VOLTAGE REGULATOR
A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator
designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage
level. A voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-
forward" design or may include negative feedback
control loops. It may use an electromechanical
mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on
the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC
or DC voltages.

Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such

as computer power supplies where they stabilize the
DC voltages used by the processor and other elements.
In automobile alternators and central power station
generator plants, voltage regulators control the output
of the plant. In an electric power distribution system,
voltage regulators may be installed at a substation or
along distribution lines so that all customers receive
steady voltage independent of how much power is
drawn from the line.

DB9 CONECTOR
The DB9 (originally DE-9) connector is an analog 9-pin
plug of the D-Subminiature connector family (D-Sub or
Sub-D).
The DB9 connector is mainly used for serial
connections, allowing for the asynchronous
transmission of data as provided for by standard RS-
232 (RS-232C).

Note that there are DB9-DB25 adapters for easily

converting a DB9 plug into a DB25, and vice versa.
Pin
Name
number
1 CD - Carrier Detect
2 RXD - Receive Data
3 TXD - Transmit Data
DTR - Data Terminal
4
Ready
5 GND - Signal Ground
6 DSR - Data Set Ready
RTS - Request To
7
Send
8 CTS - Clear To Send
9 RI - Ring Indicator
10 Shield
METHODOLOGY/FABRICATION
METHOD/PROCESSES

INTRODUCTION--
Making a Printed Circuit Board is the first step towards
building electronic equipment by any electronic
industry. A number of methods are available for making
P.C.B., the simplest method is of drawing pattern on a
copper clad board with acid resistant (etchants) ink or
paint or simple nail polish on a copper clad board and
do the etching process for dissolving the rest of copper
pattern in acid liquid.

MATERIAL REQUIRED

The apparatus needs for making a P.C.B. is :-

* Copper Clad Sheet

 * Nail Polish or Paint

* Ferric Chloride Powder. (Fecl)

* Plastic Tray

* Tap Water etc.

PROCEDURE

The first and foremost in the process is to clean all dirt

from copper sheet with say spirit or trichloro ethylene
to remove traces grease or oil etc. and then wash the
board under running tap water. Dry the surface with
forced warm air or just leave the board to dry naturally
for some time. Making of the P.C.B. drawing involves
some preliminary consideration such as thickness of
lines/ holes according to the components. Now draw
the sketch of P.C.B. design (tracks, rows, square) as per
circuit diagram with the help of nail polish or enamel
paint or any other acid resistant liquid. Dry the point
surface in open air, when it is completely dried, the
marked holes in P.C.B. may be drilled using 1Mm drill
bits. In case there is any shorting of lines due to spilling
of paint, these may be removed by scraping with a
blade or a knife, after the paint has dried.

After drying, 22-30 grams of ferric chloride in 75 ml

of water may be heated to about 60 degree and poured
over the P.C.B. , placed with its copper side upwards in
a plastic tray of about 15*20 cm. Stirring the solution
helps speedy etching. The dissolution of unwanted
copper would take about 45 minutes. If etching takes
longer, the solution may be heated again and the
process repeated. The paint on the pattern can be
removed P.C.B. may then be washed and dried. Put a
coat of varnish to retain the shine. Your P.C.B. is ready.

REACTION

Fecl3 + Cu ----- CuCl3 + Fe

Fecl3 + 3H2O --------- Fe (OH)3 + 3HCL

PRECAUTION

1. Add Ferric Chloride (Fecl3) carefully, without any

splashing. Fecl3 is irritating to the skin and will
stain the clothes.

2. Place the board in solution with copper side up.

3. Try not to breathe the vapours. Stir the solution by
giving see-saw motion to the dish and solution in it.

4. Occasionally warm if the solution over a heater-not

to boiling. After some time the unshaded parts
change their colour continue to etch. Gradually the
base material will become visible. Etch for two
minutes more to get a neat pattern.

5. Don't throw away the remaining Fecl3 solution. It

can be used again for next Printed Circuit Board
P.C.B.

USES

Printed Circuit Board are used for housing components

to make a circuit for compactness, simplicity of
servicing and case of interconnection. Thus we can
define the P.C.B. as : Prinked Circuit Boards is actually a
sheet of bakelite (an insulating material) on the one
side of which copper patterns are made with holes and
from another side, leads of electronic components are
inserted in the proper holes and soldered to the copper
points on the back. Thus leads of electronic
components terminals are joined to make electronic
circuit.

In the boards copper cladding is done by pasting thin

copper foil on the boards during curing. The copper on
the board is about 2 mm thick and weights an ounce
per square foot.

The process of making a Printed Circuit for any

application has the following steps (opted
professionally):

* Preparing the layout of the track.

* Transferring this layout photographically M the

copper.

* Removing the copper in places which are not

needed, by the process of etching (chemical
process)

* Drilling holes for components mounting.

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

Printed circuit boards are used for housing components
to make a circuit, for comactness, simplicity of
servicing and ease of interconnection. Single sided,
double sided and double sided with plated-through-hold
(PYH) types of p.c boards are common today.
 Boards are of two types of material (1) phenolic
paper based material (2) Glass epoxy material. Both
materials are available as laminate sheets with copper
cladding.

Printed circuit boards have a copper cladding on

one or both sides. In both boards, pasting thin copper
foil on the board during curing does this. Boards are
prepared in sizes of 1 to 5 metre wide and upto 2
metres long. The thickness of the boards is 1.42 to
1.8mm. The copper on the boards is about 0.2 thick
and weighs and ounce per square foot.
 SOFTWARE

MPLAB IDE 8.50

MPLAB IDE is a software program that runs on a PC to
develop applications for Microchip microcontrollers. It is
called an Integrated Development Environment, or IDE,
because it provides a single integrated "environment" to
develop code for embedded microcontrollers.
HYPER TERMINAL

HyperTerminal is an application you can use in order to

connect your computer to other remote systems. These
systems include other computers, bulletin board
systems, servers, Telnet sites, and online services.
However, you would need a modem, an Ethernet
connection, or a null modem cable before you can use
HyperTerminal.

Within HyperTerminal’s user interface, you will find

menus, buttons, icons, and messages. All these
elements and controls work together so as to provide
convenience for the user, especially for accessing the
necessary features and performing various tasks. This
application is a useful tool, particularly for testing if
your modem is working well and in verifying if you have
a stable connection with other sites.

In order to check if your modem’s settings are

configured correctly or if your modem is connected
properly, you can send a set of commands through
HyperTerminal and view the results given. Other
functions of HyperTerminal would include the recording
of data being sent to and from the service of the
computer you are connected to. Through this
information, you will be able to determine the stability
of your connections.

Main window:
This is the wire used to connect PC with circuitry. The wire is known as port wire.
 WORKING OF THE PROJECT
SHAP Data monitoring system is basically a system that
provides us the provision of monitoring or recording the
database regarding various parameters of machinery in
an industry. The inputs to the system are sensed by the
number of sensors employed in our system. The
functions of the various sensors are as follows:
1. RFID: is used for maintaining the track records of
the entry and exit of employees as well as of the
employers in the firm. It also provide us the
information regarding the duration for which the
person was physically present in the firm. Thus
there is no chance of fake attendance.
2. Temperature Sensor: Temperature is a very
important parameter in industries like printing
press, IC fabrication etc. where a precise control on
the Temperature is to be maintained. With the help
of this system, we are able to keep a constant
watch on the Temperature of a machine.
3. Level Sensors: Now days, fuel thefting is becoming
one of the major obstacle in an industry. So by
observing the level of the fuel constantly, we can
detect if any of such activity is happening in the
firm.
 4. Gas Sensors: is employed to inform the concerned
person about leaking of gas.
These sensors output is fed to PIC 16F 877A at its
part A which is been provided with an inbuilt A/D
convertor as the output produced by the sensors are
analog in nature except the RFID sensor. Since the
RFID provides output in the form of serial bits, it is
fed to the USART receiver pin of the microcontroller
chip.
With the help of the programming done in the micro
controller, we are able to inform the concerned
person about the mischief.
The output of the microcontroller is then fed to MAX
232 which basically is the level convertor incorporated
to provide compatibility between microcontroller chip
and proceeding devices used in the system. The
additional feature introduced in this project is fulfilled
with the help of GSM Modem. It provides with the
facility of monitoring this database from a centralized
location via a PC as well as from any part of the world
using a mobile phone.MAX 232’s output is connected to
the GSM Module via DB9 Connector.
 APPENDIX
ADVANTAGE
 APPLICATION
• In industries for monitoring different parameters of a
machine.
• For maintaining the track records of the employee as
well as the employer in the firm.
• For maintaining the authenticity of confidential
database in educational institute.
• For keeping medical records of patient in hospitals.
• For attendance purposes in school and colleges.
• Anti fuel thefting system.
• Home automation.
• Vehicle security system.
• Door open and closing alerts.
• Air conditioning status.
• Weather monitoring system.
• Water irrigation for farmers.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
BOOKS:
 PIC Microcontroller- Mazidi
 Electronic Device and Circuit- S K Sahdev
 Data communication- Tomasi
 Mobile Communication- Rappaport

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