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1.

SUBSTATION EQUIPMENT AND THEIR FUNCTIONS


Substations
INTRODUCTION:
In Power System network, in order to transmit and distribute the generated power, it is
necessary to install “SUBSTATIONS” at strategic points to work at required voltage level since
“HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION” is resorted to. The Sub stations are classified as “GRID” of
“RADIAL” Substations. The Grid station is installed in Grid network to reduce the voltage level
from 230KV to 110 KV. The radial Station within Distribution net work to reduce the voltage from
110 KV to 11KV (or 22KV).
In essence the substation provides
(a) Transfer of voltage level
(b) Transmission of the required Power and
(c) Adjustment of voltage variations caused by the system voltage regulation.
110/11KV SUB STATION : CLASSIFICATION OF EQUIPMENTS
Sl.
Classification Equipments Purpose
No
1. Functional a) Bus Bar To carry Power feeding
b) Transformers To transmit Power from one voltage to
other
c) Earthing System
To ensure effective grounding for safety &
Protective operation.
2. Isolation & a) Isolation Isolate feeding equipments from source of
Control supply (Potential )
Breaking the Current (Power flow) for
b) Breakers normal maintenance; and for isolation of
faulty section)

3. Protection from a) Earth Mast To prevent damage to equipment from


internal direct stroke of lightning.
disturbances b) Surge Diverter Protecting the transformer from the impact
of surges.
c) ROD GAP Back up Protection for Surge Diverters.

4. Protection & a) Potential Transformer Metering (Voltage and Energy)


Metering (PT)
b) Current Transformer Metering (Current & Energy) Protection
(CT)
c) Relays For sensing the fault and give command to
breakers to isolate the faulty circuit.
For i) Indication of Status
ii) Annunciation of the fault
iii) Operation of breaker for isolation of
faulty circuit.
5. A.C.System for a) Station Transformer To feed L.T-3Ph. 400V Supply for
LT 3phase, 400V 11KV/400V. i) Auxiliaries of breakers & Transformers.
supply ii) Yard & Control room lighting
iii) Supply to battery charge

b) A.C.Panel Control of A.C.Supply

6. Housing a) Yard & Structures To house equipments with required


horizontal and vertical clearances.
b) Control room To house indoor equipments like
D.C.System, D.C. & A.C.panels etc.,

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LAYOUT OF SUBSTATION
!A single line diagram called the Schematic layout of Sub-Station should
be available, showing the arrangement of the above equipments.

!A typical layout of a 230 / 110KV Grid station and that a 110/11KV Radial
station are shown in Fig. 1 & 2 below.

!Based on this single line diagram detailed Electrical layout, drawn to


scale showing the Plan and Elevation of the Sub Station arrangement is
prepared.

!A civil layout for the lands acquired for the installation of the substation
will also be prepared, wherein the Electrical layout will be incorporated in
the specified location, showing, Road, control room, Quarters and other
civil amenities.

!In this detailed Electrical layout, the required clearances, Height of


structures, space occupied by equipments etc., will be clearly marked so
that the Erection Engineer will carryout erection works and installation of
equipments accordingly.

Fig. 110 KV/11KV Major Substation Layout

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230/110KV Substation(Main and Transfer Scheme)

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FUNCTIONAL EQUIPMENTS

BUS BARS
The Purpose of bus bar is to receive the Power and feed to the concerned equipments.
Types : Strung Bus & Rigid Bus

Strung Bus : The Conductor (ACSR) Strung between the two ends of Sub Station
through Disc. insulators and Gripper sets.

Rigid Bus : Aluminium tubes erected and Pedestal insulators over pedestal support
structure.

Points:
"!The Main Bus will be of strung bus and the feeding arrangement to equipments
will be Rigid bus.
"!The insulators should be cleaned and checked for any breakage, cracks and to
be replaced.
"!Since the bus bars are heavy current carrying parts, tightness of the clamps to
be checked to avoid glow.
"!The Pedestal Insulators may be Polycone insulator (or) 33 KV rated Foot type
insulators conceded.

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POWER TRANSFORMER
This is the Main Equipment of Substation.
#!The Purpose of Transformer is Transmission of Power from one voltage
level to the other required voltage level, with negligible losses.
#!Reduction to the required voltage level.
#!The drop in voltage in the system is compensated by tappings.

INTERNAL ACCESSORIES:
The transformer mainly comprises of Magnetic core and windings wounded for
the 3 phase. Each phase will have a Primary and Secondary winding, wound according
to the voltage for which it is put into use. The core and winding Units are placed in a
Main tank and filled with Transformer oil.
• The transformer oil is for insulation and cooling purpose.
• The leads from the winding are brought out through the bushings for
external system connections.
• The three phase windings on Primary will be connected in DELTA & the
Secondary in Star as shown below:

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Delta Star
Three separate windings The three windings of the transformer may be connected in star as
of each phase will be shown below:
connected in the form of In this type of connections, between two lines two phase windings
Delta as below: are connected. The advantage is that we get a neutral point ‘N’,
Here, each phase Since the phase voltage is less than the one voltage, the level of
winding gets the line insulation required for winding is less when compared to Delta
voltage (HT or EHT) connection (where phase and line voltages are same)
directly and there is no R -N, Y -N, B -N are called phase voltage (V phase)
neutral. R -Y, Y -B, B -R are called line voltages (V line)
V Line = √3 Vph
Power (in watts) = 3 x Vph X Jph X cos φ
(or) √3 x V Line x I Line x cosφ
(Note: Cos φ is power factor)

Details of Transformer

1) Voltage Rating :110 KV/11 KV

2) Current Rating :52.5/525A


3) Capacity :10 MVA
4) Tapings :-3 To + 9% @ 1.5%
5) % Impedance :10%
6) Vector group :41 Dy11
EXTERNAL ACCESSORIES:

1) Main tank with valve & cooling


arrangement, 2) Bushings with C.Ts.
3) Conservator 4) Tap switch 5) Air release
Plug 6) equalizer pipe 7) Explosive vent
8) Temperature indicators 9) Breather 10) Buchholz relay

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MAINTENANCE OF POWER TRANSFORMERS

Item of Inspection or Maintenance Period between Inspection or Maintenance


1. Checking for unusual noise Daily each shift

2.Checking oil level in the conservator and Daily each shift


bushings

3. Checking or leakages of water into cooler Daily each shift

4. Clearing of bushings Weekly or at every opportunity during


prearranged shut -downs.

5. a)Inspection and cleaning or breather. Monthly or earlier if necessary

b) Reconditioning or replacement of Monthly or earlier if gel has turned pink


silica gel .
c) RenewaI or Calcium Chloride Monthly or earlier if necessary

6. Examination of relief diaphragms to ensure Monthly


that they are not cracked or broken

7. Checking up or temperature and water flow . Monthly


alarm for correct operation
Monthly or at every opportunity
8. Ensuring that oil comes out when the air release valve is opened on the top cover during
of the transformer pre-arranged shut downs

9. Measuring insulation resistance of windings Monthly

10. Testing of oil from tank and conservator


for dielectric strength on all transformers Quarterly
of capacity over 1000 KVA

11. -do - for Trs. of 1000 KVA and below Half yearly before and after wet season
.
12. Checking up gap settings on bushings Half yearly.
of transformer

13. Pressure testing, of oil coolers Half yearly.

14. Testing of transformer oil for acidity Yearly

15. Testing of oil in oil filled bushing of .


dielectric strength and acidity Yearly

The following periodical maintenance are recommended for Power Transformers:


Annual inspection and maintenance of power transformer should be carried out thoroughly.
The following should be checked.
!Operation of Buchholz relay by pumping air.
!Oil level in the conservator tank using a dip stick.
!Check for any cracks is the foundation.
!Tightening of all loose bolts and nuts.
!Measuring rod gap.
!Release of air tank and bushings.
!Polarisation index valve test with power operated meggar.
!Checking the stop block in the rail.
!Check relief diaphragm.
!Check cooling water and drain piping for leaks.
!Clear Bushings

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!Calibrate temperature indicators and check up operation if temperature alarms and trips.
!Lubricate all moving parts in on load taps change mechanism.
!Check and tighten all connections.
!Check the resistance of the transformer windings.
!Recording Insulation values of winding by meggering with 1000 Volts Power
megger, after removing neutral Earth connection – HV to Earth, LV to Earth and
HV to L.V. and check the continuity of winding.
!Oil sample testing : Dielectric strength, Ac content of oil is to be tested. In
addition , the other tests conducted are a) Resistivity b) Interfacial tension
!c) tan delta e) Dissolved gas analysis (DGA)

EARTHING SYSTEM:
The Solidly grounded system ensures speedy & accurate sensitive of fault and
isolate the faulty section.
"!Neutral of Transformer secondary is grounded
"!All other metallic parts associated with Electrical equipments should
be grounded.
"!Surge divertor should be grounded.
"!Double Earthings should be ensured for each grounding
"!All the groundings should be interconnected.
The Earthing system comprises of
1) Earth conductor,
2) Earth connection,
3) Earth Pipe,
4) Earth pit and
5) Earth interconnection.
This scheme of grounding is shown below:

EARTH INTER CONNECTION:


In order to interlink all the individual Earth Electrodes, it is in practice to lay an
earth Mat under the ground level of Substation yard.
The Earth Electrodes, in Earth pit are connected to this Earth Mat, running
nearby under the Ground, so that the combined Earthing system is formed.

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The Earth Mat is shown below:

MAINTENANCE OF EARTHING SYSTEM


!The soil in Earth pit should be kept
packed homogeneously.
!The soil in Earth pit should be kept
WET by pouring water.
!Earth Connections are checked for
tightness.
!Earth pipe to be maintained in tact
without corrosion.
!For improving the Earthing system
value, impurities like Charcoal,
Railway cinder, Ash, Copper sulphate,
Salt etc., may be dissolved and spread
uniformly in Earth pit through Water
filling.
!Earth Resistance value to be
measured and effectiveness checked,
by using Earth Megger.
The values are 1) Individual Electrode : < 25 ohms. This should be tested by
removing all connection from Electrode.
2) Combined Resistance: < 1 ohm. This should be linked by providing all Earth
connection.

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ISOLATION & CONTROL OF EQUIPMENTS:
a) ISOLATORS: These are Potential Isolating Switches to isolate the equipments
from the source. This should not be used for current breaking.
In Sub-station , only “Double break” (or Center rotating type as it
is called) switches are used.

TYPES OF DOUBLE BREAK SWITCHES:

a) Isolator with Arcing horns: Used before transformer to break magnetizing current.
b) Isolator without Arcing horns: Used in other places of Sub-station

POINTS:
!Tandem Operation for simultaneous operation for the three phases should be
ensured.
!The contact pressure should be adequate to withstand load current. This is
ensured by spring & tempered contact leaves. Contact pressure will be > 0.25
Kg. per ampere of normal current rating.
!The Operation should be free by proper lubrication and by treating the fixed and
moving contacts with Petroleum Jelly.
!The close/open should be done from Ground level. The operating Rod should be
earthed safely.
!The isolator may be hand operated (or) it can be motor operated using A.C.
Motor with reduction gear & cam arrangement with limit switches, to stop the
motor at the end of closing/opening without overshoot.
!The Motor operated mechanism will also have the de-linking arrangement to de-
link motor & gear mechanism and perform the hand operation in case A C Supply
fails.
b) BREAKERS:
The main purpose is:
"!To break the load current or fault current
"!It should be capable of quenching the arc quickly & effectively arising
due to interruption of heavy current.
"!The rating of the breaker should be well above the FAULT LEVEL of
the substation, so that the breaker is capable of breaking the

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maximum fault current due to 3phase FAULT that may occur near.
The rating is defined in MVA and is called as “RUPTURING
CAPACITY”
"!The time of opening should be fast. Modern breakers are as fast as
to open in 2 cycles (ie) in 0.06 secs.
TYPES OF BREAKERS:
The breakers are classified according to the Medium by which arc is quenched.

a) OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER ( OCB) : Oil is used for quenching as well as for
insulation since metal tank is used.

b) MINIMUM OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER ( MOCB) : Oil of small quantity is used for
arc quenching only.

c) VACUUM CIRCUIT BREAKER ( VCB) : Arc extinguished in VACUUM

d) GAS CIRCUIT BREAKER (GCB) : SF6 gas is used as the


medium for quenching arc.

Ratings
Type :12PVE 20
Rated System Voltage :11Kv
Highest system Voltage :12KV
Rated Frequency :50HZ
No. of Poles :3
No. of Breaks per pole :1
Rated Normal Current :400/800/1250A
Rated Symmetrical breaking :20KA
Peak Making Capacity :50KA p
Rated Short Time Current for
3 Sec :20KA
DC Component :50%
Rated Power Frequency
withstand voltage for 1 min :28/35KV
Rated Impulse Withstand
voltage at 1.2/50micro sec .:75KVp
Motor Voltage :110/220v AC/DC
Coil Voltage :24/30/110/220v DC
Power required by Trip and
Close coils :400w
Opening Time :60ms
Total Break Time :80ms
Make time :100ms
Mechanism :Motor charged,
Spring tripping
Rated Operating Sequence :0-0.3”- CO – 3’-CO
Applicable Standards :IS 2516-1920&
IEC 56-1987

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"!
Rated Breaking Capacity: It is the current (rms) that a breaker is capable of breaking at
a given recovery voltage and under specified condition i.e. PF,RRRV
"!
Rated Making Capacity: The peak value of current including D.C. component during
the first cycle of current wave after the closure of circuit breaker is known as making
capacity
"!Rated Short-time Capacity: It is the period for which the circuit breaker is capable to
carry fault current while remaining closed.
"!Rated Normal Current Rating: It is the rms value of current which the circuit breaker is
capable of carrying continuously at its rated frequency under specified conditions with
temperature rise of various parts within specified limits.
"!Relay Time: The time elapses between the instant of fault & the closure of trip circuit.
"!Circuit Breaker Time: The time elapses between the closure of trip circuit & the final arc
extinction
"!Total Break Time:It is the summation of Opening Time and Arcing time.
"!Opening Time: The time interval lapses from the energisation of trip coil to the instant of
contact separation.
"!Arcing time: The time from separation of contact to the extinction of arc is called the
arcing time
"!Fault Clearing time: The time elapsed between the instance of the occurrence of a fault
and the instant of final arc extinction in the circuit breaker i.e
F.C.T.=Relay time + Circuit breaker time(Total Break time)
"!Rated Voltage: The rated voltage of a circuit breaker corresponds to the higher system
voltage for which the circuit breaker intended.
"!RRRV: It is the rate of rise of re-striking voltage and is abbreviated by RRRV KV/mic.sec)

"!First pole to Clear Factor: RMS voltage b/w healthy phase &faulty phase
--------------------------------------------------------------- =1.2 to 1.5
Phase to neutral voltage with fault removed
"!Duty cycle: The duty cycle denotes the sequence of opening and closing operations
which the circuit breaker can perform under specified conditions

OPERATING MECHANISM:
The Breaker has two operation :CLOSE / OPEN
The OPEN operation is also called : “TRIP”
These 2 operation are speedily performed by using operating mechanisms of the
following kind:
a) Spring actuated : Use of spring & leavers this can be operated by hand (or) AC Motor
b) Hydraulic actuated : Using hydraulic fluid like “AERO- shell oil”
c) Pneumatic Actuated : using air comprised system

Any type of mechanism can be employed to any type of breaker.

Details of maintenance procedure:


1)Stationary contact: Visually inspect, when contact space is found uneven, remove it and
polish with sand paper. then measure the dimension of stationary contact. When the wear
becomes 3 mm or over replace the contact with a new one. Apply thin coat of HITSLUBE 280
Grease to the contact.

2)Moving contact: When it is degraded by large current interruption remove it and polish with
sand paper. Apply three coat of HIT ALUBE 280 Grease to the contact.

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3) Arcing contact: When the surface is found- uneven, polish the surface with a smooth out file.
Measure the dimension of arcing contact, when the amount of wear becomes 2 mm or over,
replace the contact with a new one. Apply thin coat of HIT ALUBE 280 grease to the contact.

4)Insulation nozzle and insulation cover: The nozzle and cover can be removed together with
the moving contact. Use wiper to clean up the interior and exterior. Measure the inner diameter
of the nozzle. and cover. When the dimensions are enlarged by 1 mm or more, replace it with a
new one. “

5)Absorbent: Remove the conductor and take out the absorbent case. Replace the absorbent
with a new one. Exchange it quickly just before vacuum drying. Don’t expose it to the open air.

6Operating cylinder : Remove the cylinder cover. Inspect gaskets. Apply grease to he operating
piston guide, main valve guide, main valve rod, pilot valve and operating piston.

7)Operating cylinder: Remove the oil plug and oil. Then supply new oil to the position of oil
plug. When drained oil is found contaminate, disassemble and check the oil dash pot.

8) Operating mechanism: Check Pins, Links, Levers, operating rod and split pins check nuts
and lock plates for possible looseness. Apply Hit lube 280 grease to pins.

9) Closing Link Mechanism: Clean up and apply thin coat of HIT ALUBE 280 grease to the
hook, pins and roller. Check the state of hook arrangement under both closed and open position.

10) Electro-magnetic valve: When the lever is pressed with fingers, the hook is disengaged.
Clean up and apply a turbine oil to the hook. Check nuts and bolts for looseness. Check the split
pins.

11) Airing valve: Contact a hose to the discharge part and use a measuring cylinder to measure
the discharge amount under water. The measured valve should be 300 to 700 Cg/min at the air
celled to 15 Kgs. cm.

12) Auxiliary switch: Check the contacts; check terminal for tightening. Apply a thin coat of
grease to the pin.

13) Pressure gauge: Clean up and calibrate.

14)Pressure switch :Setting pressure rise or reduce according to whether the


adjusting screw is turned clockwise or counter clock wise. Check the operating
pressure.

15)Trip-free contractor: If contacts are considerably uneven, repair them using a smooth
out file or sand paper.

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QUARTERLY “CARE”

Q.1. External Cleaning of Insulator Prior to monsoon and as & when Shutdown is
available or deposits are too thick. Dust / Dirt to
be removed.
Q.2. Switch cubicle cleaning Open the switch cubicle & Remove webs/ dust.
Q.3 Check wiring connection in Check wiring connection Tightly secured. Check
switch cubicle healthiness of relay, Contactors, Etc.
Q.4. Compressor Check & Compare the Running Time.
Q.5. Compressed Air Plant Maintenance to be carried out as per instruction
manual check for any leakage, check oil leakage,
check for alarm, non Return valve to be opened &
Cleaned, Verify motor thermal overload is
working or not.
Q.6. Pressure switch in switch Check by reducing the pressure up to requisite
cubicle value. The Switch should enter into blocking zone
at specified pressure.
Q.7. Verification of SF6 Alarm Healthiness of alarm can be verified by shorting
electrical circuit, not by draining SF6 Gas.

Trouble shooting chart for SF6 circuit Breaker


Type of
Possible Cause Recommended corrective Measures
Condition
A. Gas i) If alarm, had come a) Make up the gas pressure with the help of gas
Alarm after a very long time refilling device & temperature correction chart
and leakage not heavy. Absolute pressure Gauge Pressure
7.0 Bar at 200C 6.0 Bar at 200C
7.3 Bar at 200C 6.3. Bar at 300C
7.6 Bar at 200C 6.6 Bar at 400C
b) If felt necessary then plan the shutdown for
searching the leakage and attending leakage thereof
ii) If alarm comes on ii) CHECK :-
frequently and the leak 1) Electrical Circuit
2) Gas pipe Braze Joints
rate is high :
3) Gas pipe Couplings.
4) Insulator joints.
5) Lip seal Assembly.

Procedure for Checks :


$! Check Healthiness of leak detector
$! The joints to be covered with bags for at least 2 Hrs.
$! The insert the probe of leak detector inside bag & check.
$! If required, replace/ repair the leak joints / gaskets.

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Type of Possible Cause Recommended
condition corrective Measures
B.Circuit $! No or Low control voltage. CHECK & CORRECT :
$! Close impulse blocked.
Beaker Does $! Positions of Switch
$! Control Circuit interrupted.
$! Control Voltage
not Operate at $! Magnet ventil plunger sticky.
$! Pressure Switch Contacts.
$! Aux. Switch element.
Impulse to $! Density Monitor Contacts.
$! Density Monitor Cable.
$! Magnet Ventil piston.
close. $! Tripping Plunger Solenoid in
lifted position.
C)Circuit $! No or Low control voltage. CHECK & CORRECT :
$! Opening impulse blocked.
Breaker does $! Positions of Switch
$! Control circuit interrupted.
$! Control Voltage
not operate at $! Aux. Switch element.
$! Pressure Switch contacts.
$! Density Monitor cable.
impulse to $! Density Monitor Contacts.
$! Magnet ventil plunger
$! Magnet ventil piston.
open. stickly.

D) Circuit $!Short Circuit or fault in CHECK & CORRECT :


connecting with control Circuit.
Beaker $! Circuit diagram for voltage
Control lest insulation.
Operates $!Check Plunger.
$! Insulation of Coils.
Without
impulse.
E) Circuit $!Faulty anti-pumping relay. CHECK & CORRECT :-
Breaker $! Control Circuit.
$! Anti – pumping relay.
Hunting
F) Contact $! Overheating. $! Clean & Lubricate contact
$! Warn arcing contacts large surface in stipulated manner.
Erosion.
No.of operations Reassemble and check
(Refer Manual) resistance.
$! Refer instruction manual for
the no. of operations versus
fault current. For further
guidance please contact
nearest ABB office.
G) Single Pole $! Electrical of Mechanical $! Locate Faulty pole. Check
Fault in operating Device. Driving Mechanism. As well as
operation (pole
Magnetic ventiles.
Discrepancy). $! Check Electrical Circuit.

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TROUBLE SHOOTING CHART FOR COMPRESSOR
Type of condition Possible Cause Recommended corrective
Measures
A) Compressor Leakage in $! Replace / Repair leaky
joints.
Frequently runs or runs $! Pipe Line Joints.
$! Audible leakage in
for A longer duration.
Circuit Breaker.
B) Compressor Fails to $! Non return valve. $! Replace Non return valve or
$! Not Working. springs of Non Return valve
start or motor gets
or clean and refill.
overloaded.
C) Oil Contamination in $! Dirty Oil/ Oil Level low. $! Change Oil, Fill correct
$! Cylinder and Grade of oil up to maximum
pressurized air system.
intercalating dirty. level in the oil level indicator.
$! Blow with compressed air or
clean Manually.
$! Open, Clean & Refill after
checking.
D) Oil contamination in $! Choked air filter. $! Clean the air filter.
$! Oil level high. $! Drain oil to Correct level.
pressurized air system.
$! Oil viscosity too low. $! Change to recommended
Breather valve not grade.
working. $! Open, clean & refit after
$! Piston rings stuck in checking
grooves or broken. $! Remove piston and loosen
$! Piston to cylinder ring.
clearance excessive. $! Replace if broken. Check all
related parts for wear before
fitting.
E) Water or rust $! Faulty breather $! Check & Replace the
Breather valve if necessary.
formation in crank
Housing
F) Unusual water in $! Inadequate air filter $! Increase frequency of
maintenance. cleaning.
Cylinder Piston and
$! Incorrect grade of oil. $! Change to correct grade of
Rings. oil as given in recommended
lubricant chart.
G) Compressor knocking $! Loose Compressor fan $! Adjust or replace if
fly wheel, elongated
$! Worn out piston, $! Open and re-tighten.
cylinder, crank, shaft & $! Open, clean & refit after
connecting rod careful check.
bearings. $! Replace after checking the
related components.
H) Pressure build–up $! Loose belts. $! Adjust or replace if
$! Leaky joints in pressure elongated
time excessive.
lines. $! Open and re-tighten.
$! Defective seating of inlet $! Open, Clean & Refit after
& delivery valve plats careful check.
$! Replace after checking the
related components.

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I) Excessive Belt wean. $! Incorrect motor and $! Check, adjust using a
compressor pulley straight edge or string
alignment. across the diameter of
both the pulleys.
$! Check belt adjustments.
J) Oil leak through $! Breather valve not $! Open clean and refit
working. breather.
Breather
$! Piston ring stuck in $! Loosen the piston rings
grooves. if broken change the
$! Piston to cylinder rings as a set.
clearance $! Check and change.
excessive.

PROTECTION FROM EXTERNAL DISTURBANCES:


Protection from Direct Stroke of lightning.
To protect all the equipments from the
direct Stroh of lighting earth mast is used.
"!Earth mast is a metal spike wit sharp end
"!Height of mast is so chosen that all
equipments comes under the protective
zone, defined as 450 cone with top of
Spike as the APEX of the cone.
"!Effectively grounded to permit the lightning discharge.
PROTECTION FROM SURGES:
The surges are very high peak voltage under very high
frequency. This will travel on the line of come to the sub-

station of meet the Transformer winding.& shatter


it therefore the surges are to be prevented from entering
the Transformer.
“SURGE DIVERTORS” are employed before or
after the transformer.

Points:
!Thyrite discs are non-linear resistance &
will conduct on high voltage and high
frequency, but will act as an insulator for
power frequency voltages.

!For BIL value of peak voltage 900 KV for a

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110/11KV Transformer, surge Divertor will be selected to conduct surges
greater than 400 KV peak (1.2 x 50 micro wave)

!Leakage current monitor & surge counter will be installed on the base of
surge ground.

!As a backup protection, in case surge divertor fails, ROD Gaps are
installed on bushing of Transformer on 110KV side with a gap setting of
635 mm (25”),
PROTECTION & METERING EQUIPMENTS:

In a

Name plate of CT:


600/1A 30VA 5P15
EA-2003 aims at rationalization of Electricity Tariff
600/1A----------Primary and Secondary Current
30VA -----------Burden
5P --------------Percentage Error
15----------------Accuracy Limit Factor
a) Potential Transformer
"!The Secondary rating of PT is 110volts
"!11 KV / 110 VOLT is shown,
"!In Radial stations, P.T. used for metering only
"!P.T. will have only a small burden (in VA) to
feed metercoil
"!Neutral will be floated in Py & Sy.

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b) Current Transformer
%! Each Breaker is associated with a set of C.Ts for Protection & meters
%! Secondary Current:
for Protection : 1 amp
for Metering : 5 amps
%! Separate
secondaries
will be
available for
protection of
metering.
%! C.T. Ratios
of say 600,
300,

150/1Ampere or 5 Ampere will be available for usage. It is defined as :


Ratio available :
Ratio set at :
%! C.T. will also have a small burden (say 30 VA) to connect meter or
Relay loads.
%! C.T. Secondary should never be open – circuited.

c) RELAYS:
3 O/L and 1 O/L Relay Scheme for Transformers and Breakers
and Differential Relay for Transformer only
"!C.T. Ratio selection - % Current setting in relay & time lever setting in relay
"!E/L Ralay – 40%

- 19 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


D) METERING:
Rating of meters used – 110 V, 5Ampere
Deviations of usage from this Current rating (or)Meter dial, will result in adoption
of Multiplying factor.
1. Voltmeter - 110VOLT Meter Directly Dialed for 11KV to measure 110
voltage, as fed by 11KV/110V P.T.
2. Ammeter - 5 meter dialed for 300A , connected to adopt
300/5 A C.T. If connects to 600/5 A C.T. then MF=2
3. Energy - Meter is 110V – 5A connected to 11KV/110V
P.T. of with C.T. of 300/5A, Then energy in
11KV system will be Reading x 6000 units.

E) D.C. SYSTEM :
1. The D.C. system provides reliable DC Source to operate the protection system in
Case of FAULT.
2. 30Volt (15 cells) of 64 AH will be used.

Points:
"!2 Sets of 30V battery will be used, one set for control of feeders and the other
set for protection of feeders.
"! At Normal condition charger will supply small DC loads & feed charging current
to Battery Heavy trip coil currents supplies by battery.
"!The battery should be kept on wooden stand over insulated pedestal.

Maintenance
1. The cell voltage should be around 2 VOLTS & Specific gravity of Electrolyte
1200/270c
2. Battery should be on trickle charge continually. If drained due to continuous
tripping it should be put on quick charge & brought to the level.
3. To be tested daily for leakage is detected & for catering of load.

- 20 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


4. If positive or negative leakage is detected, the faulty section to be isolated &
rectified.
5. Battery room should be free of dust ,fire etc & properly ventilated.

PROTECTIVE SCHEME:
a) FEEDER PROTECTION :
The Protective scheme consists of
"!Sensing by C-Ts and feeding to relays
"!Activation of relay and closing relay contacts
"!Feeding D.C. Source to the Trip coil of Breaker
"!Breaker tripping & isolating the faulty sections

each breaker should be associated with this protective scheme, to control the section
to which it is meant for.

SCHEME DESCRIPTION:

Breaker is in closed condition feeding a 11KV feeder. If any fault occurs on the
feeder, the breaker should trip. Cutting off supply to the feeder.
The sequence is as follows:
• Fault occurs on the feeder & heavy current flows thro the circuit
• The C-T Senses the fault current & high secondary current flows through the
Relay coil.
• The relay contact closes & D.C circuit is closed.
• With breaker kept on Auxiliary Contacts 4-4’& 3-3’ are N/c & hence D-C + Ve &
- Ve juice is supplied to the trip coil
• Trip coil energized & the plunger is moved up & trigger the trip latch.

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•The Breaker is tripped of Aux Switch moves of the contacts 4-4‘& 3-3’ are now
N/o & hence the trip coil current is cut off.
• Since faulty section is isolated, the current in secondary is zero & hence relay
moves back to its normal position, breaking the relay contact.
TRANSFORMER PROTECTION:
The transformers are controlled by group control breaker on 110 KV side &
independent L.V. breakers on 11KV side. If a fault occurs on transformers there
breakers should be tripped.
The fault on the transformer is identified by:
a) over current relay,
b) Differential Relay,
c) Bucholtz relay of,
d) Winding temp relay &,
e) P.R.V. Relay

Closing of these contacts by actuation of relay in case of fault initiates the


trip circuit of the controlling breaker thro’ a common relay called “MASTER RELAY”

L.T.A.C. SUPPLY SYSTEM


A Station transformer of 100KV 11KV/400V as connected to the 11KV
Bus. provide A-C supply (Alternative supply) either fed from another substation (or) from
a generator will be provided for emergency.
The LT A-C supply / Alternative supply is fed to the A-C panel in control
room from which it is supplied to the following requirements with power control
arrangements.

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"!To A.C motors of breaker mechanism, Air compressor systems,
"!To cooling fans of pump motors of power transformer& OLTC operating
systems,
"!To battery charger
"!Yard lighting and control room lighting
OPERATIONAL FEATURES OF SUB STATION
i)POWER HANDLING:
!The power requirement of the 11KV feeders feeding into distribution network is
met by the Power Transformer Capacity adequate transformers will be erected
(Max 3 Nos) with 10, 16 or 25MVA capacities as per requirement.
!If the capacities are not adequate due to load growth and if enhancement of
capacity is also not possible , additional substation in load center will be erected.
!The feeding of loads are monitored by substation attendants as well as
monitoring by temperature indicators installed in the transformer (Oil and
Winding) . Adequate measures has to be taken if oil alarm comes by shedding
some unimportant loads.
!Capacitor banks will also be erected in SS in order to improve power factor to
unity, so that increased M.W. loading can be resorted to.
2) TAP OPERATION
%! Since the sub section in the sending end of power to the load
pockets, it is necessary to maintain constant voltage at the
secondary, irrespective of voltage received on HV side. This is
done by providing On Load Tap Changer.
%! A diagram of tapping coil arrangement with Main primary coil with
preselector AND Selector contacts and also its On load
operational features sequence are shown in the two figures
enclosed.
DECISION OF CLEARANCES
The Decision for electrical clearances depend upon the following factors
a) Out door or Indoor b) Attended or unattended
c) Insulating medium e) Rigid or flexible buses
Taking into the above factors, the required spacings & clearances are
arrived at based on
i) System Reliability consideration
ii) Safety to personnel consideration
The spacings and clearances requested for a sub station are

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"!PHASE TO EARTH CLEARANCE
"!PHASE TO PHASE CLEARANCE
"!GROUND CLEARANCE
"!SECTIONAL CLEARANCE
"!BAY WIDTH TO HOUSE EQUPMENTS OR FEEDER TAKE –OFF
The Decision made as such is shown in a sample
diagram as below.

STANDARD CLEARANCES ADOPTED IN PRACTICE


a)Min clearance for outdoor equipments rigid conductors in air for an attended station
(– “in mm”)
SL. VOLTAGE PH-PH PH- GROUND SPACING FOR ISOLATORS
EARTH CLEAR W/O A-H WITH A/H
1. 230 KV 3350 1675 5485 3350 3960

2. 110 KV 1675 1000 4570 2135 3050

3. 66 KV 1220 750 4570 1525 2135

4. 33 KV 915 610 3660 765 1220

5. 22 KV 610 460 3660 765 1070

6. 11 KV 460 305 3660 610 915

7. 0.4 KV 380 305 - - -

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b) SECTIONAL CLEARANCES in “MM”

1. 230 KV - 4270 MM
2. 110 KV - 3350 MM
3. 66 KV - 3050 MM
4. 33 KV & 22 KV - 2740 MM
5. 11 KV - 2590 MM

c) BAY WIDTH “IN METRES”


1. 230 KV - 12.2
2. 110 KV - 9.5
3. 66 KV - 7.0
4. 33 KV - 4.5
5. 22 KV - 3.8
6. 11 KV - 3.5
d) CLEARANCES FOR INDOOR SS

SL. VOLTAGE PH – PH PH – EARTH

1. 33 KV 360 220

2. 22 KV 240 140

3. 11 KV 180 115

CONCLUSION
The sub station forms part & parcel of the power of the power system net
work. The essential equipments installed in a sub station, with the operation and control
features are explained in detail which will provide practical utility information

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2. CIRCUIT BREAKERS
1. INTRODUCTION :
In low voltage circuits, a switch is used for 7. LOW RESISTANT OR CURRENT ZERO
opening and closing and a fuse is used for over cur- INTERRUPTION:
rent protection. For high voltage circuits (say from The arc gets extinguished at natural current
11KV upwards) isolation of the circuit is done by zero of the alternating current wave and is prevented
circuit breakers for switching and protection. from restriking again by rapid building of dielectric
A circuit breaker is a current interrupting device. strength.
2. NEED FOR A CIRCUIT BREAKERS: OPERATING MECHANISM OF CIRCUIT
At abnormal conditions such as faults and BREAKERS :
short circuits the currents are high and they should Circuit breakers have two working positions
be interrupted automatically with in a short time. The open and close. During the closing operation the
fault currents can damage the equipment and the circuit breaker contacts close against the following
installations, if allowed to flow for a longer duration. opposing forces. Electromagnetic forces between
In order to avoid such a situation, protective relaying contacts, Action of operating spring, Intertia of mov-
associated with switching device is provided in the able sub assembly, Opposing forces due to medium
power system. The protective relays will sense the & Friction.
faults and break the circuits by means of circuit (a) Electromagnetic forces between contacts:-
breakers. When the contacts touch during closing op-
3. CIRCUIT BREAKER’S COMPONENTS: erations electromagnetic forces appear, their
In general a circuit breaker comprises of magnitude being proportional to square of the
1. A set of fixed and moving contacts. current and opposing to the direction of closing
2. An operating mechanism for making/breaking While closing, on existing short circuit, these
of the contacts. forces are large.
3. An arc extinguishing chamber with medium (b) Action of operating spring:- If the moving con-
to extinguish the areinside. tacts are opened by spring pressure, while
closing these springs oppose the closure.
4. ARC FORMATION:
An arc is formed while the high quantity or (c) Inertia of movable sub assembly:- The mov-
current are separated due to fault conditions.The able parts are contacts, their holders tension
formation of an arc is caused by a column of ionized rods operating links of operting mechanism
gas having molecules which have lost one or more etc. The mass of these sub- assemblies are
electrons.The electrons are attracted towards the quite large and their inertia tries to oppose
anode, with a high velocity and on the way detach rapid acceleration.
more electrons by impact. (d) Opposing forces due to medium:- The movable
sub assembly has to move in dielectric
5. AN ARC:
medium which is compressed air, gas oil at
The electric arc is a self sustained discharge
high pressure and density.
of electricity between electrodes in gas, or vapour
which has a voltage drop at cathodes of the order of (e) Friction :- Static and dynamic.
minimum ionizing potential of gas or vapour. While closing the contact, closure should be
The initation of an arc happens because of fast, sure without hesitation, with adequate contact
the following process. pressure at the end of contact travel. If these
Field Emission. conditions are not satisfied, contact welding can
Thermal Emission. result.
Thermal Ionization. During the opening operation, the closed
6. ARC EXTINCTION: contacts are separted as early as possible. The
Various techniques are used to extinguish opening should be fast, in order to reduce circuit
the arc in the circuit breaker. Mode of arc breaker opening time . The opening time between
extinction are the instant of receiving trip signal and final contact
a) HIGH RESISTANCE INTERRUPTION separation is of the order of 0.030 second (i.e) 1.5
This is done by increasing the resistance of cycles.
the arc. Opposing forces during opening operation are
By increasing the length of the arc, voltage Electromagnetic forces due to contact grip, Frictions,
across the arc is increased till it is more than sys- Opposing forces due to quenching medium & Inertia
tem voltage across the contacts.The current is of movable parts.
reduced to a value insufficient to maintain it.Then
(a) Electromagnetic forces due to contact grip :-
the arc gets extinguished.
The current transfer from fixed contacts to

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movable contacts and then grip oppose the nism is now ready to carry out the opening/ tripping
movement of moving contacts. During the short operation. The closing springs charging is possible
circuit condition, the electromagnetic forces by closing the limit switch of the motor or manually.
tends to increase the grip of the contacts To open/ trip the circuit braker disengage the
assembly. The forces of contact grip increases opening hook/latch by means of control handle or of
in proportion to the square of current. trip coil.
(b) Frictions:- The various operating links, bearing In closing operation the mechanism force will
surfaces, mating surfaces between fixed and be transmitted to the main shaft assembly through
movable parts etc. offer static friction. the ratio linkages and in turn bell crank connected
(c) Opposing forces due to quenching medium:- in main shaft will push the contact spring, insulated
The quenching medium (compressed air, di- drive rods and moving portion of interrupter upto the
electric oil, SF6 Gas) may offer substantial point of contact touching. After the contact touch
opposing forces to the movement. the main shaft moves continuously towards the end
(d) Inertia of movable parts:- Energy in the oper- of the stoke, further compressing the contact springs,
ating mechanism is utilized in accelerating upto the level to give enough contact pressure.
the movable sub assemblies to the required During the closing movement the opening spring
speed. together until the point of contact separation is
Types of Mechanism:- The operating mecha- reached, after which the drive is maintained by the
nism in Circuit breakers are either dependable or opening spring along the full stoke.
stored energy type. Dependent operating mechanism TROUBLE SHOOTING MECHANISM :- The circuit
depend on continuity of power supply manual forces breakers are set for life at the factory to the appro-
during closing. priate setting instructions and should not be
The stored energy type are called independant distrubed unnecessarily. Before gaining access to
operating mechanism as they are independent of Circuit breaker ensure that the instructions given by
continuity of power supply or skill of the operator. In the manufacturer the contact wear, the snatch gap
such mechanism the energy required for closing is setting decreases and length of contact pressure
stored in a charged springs or in compressed air - setting increases in closed position. The contact
hydraulic oil. pressure spring give sufficient pressure for full 3mm
They can be classified as wear of the vacuum interrupter contacts.
1. Spring opened, spring closed mechanism
Mechanism in over travel setting
2. Solenoid closed, spring opened
Where it becomes necessary to read just any
3. Hydraulic mechanism of the settings originally made in the factory due to
4. Pneumatic mechanism etc., distrubance or wear close the Circuit Breaker, ad-
Spring Operating Mechanism of CB:- The just nuts at the bottom of the spring post until latch
closing springs charged by rotating the cam which just moves fully under latch pin, check contact pres-
is linked to a system of ratchet gears. The rotation sure spring length, snatch gap and hold open spring
is carried out manually by a handle or through an length. Reset wherever necessary.
electric motor. The cam developing on roller com- Trip Closing coil setting:- Trip coil setting: Loosen
presses the closing springs. At the end of the stoke trip coil assembly fixing screws adjust gap setting
the loading cam frees itself from the roller. The mo- between trip pin and trip coil plunger link to the speci-
tor stops through limit switch. The closing spring fied limit say 2 - to 2.2mm lock off using locktite
held by a latch / hook. 241.
To close the Circuit Breaker, release the latch/ Closing Coil Setting :- Adjust the gap between re-
hook using either the control handle or the closing lease roller and electrical release closing coil plunger
coil supplied by the station battery with a load of to 2 to 2.5mm by adjusting release assembly within
atleast 300 VA through the dragging latch/ hook, its mounting and lock off using lock tite 241.
the closing springs transmit their stored energy to
the lever and its shaft. The latter, acting on lever, Other settings to be checked :-
closes the Circuit Breaker and loads the opening 1. Dashpot setting
springs at the same time. The position of circuit 2. Push button Trip ( Pre travel setting)
breakers closed and opening springs loaded is en- 3. Closing release Electrical
sured by another latch/hook. The control mecha- 4. Interlock setting.

- 27 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


Fault Cause Remedy

Spring will not charge Motor has wrong or no Measure voltage on the
Operating voltage motor motor leads
running continuously.

Motor shaft broken, motor


gear damage. Change motor

The latch for the tripping


device does not functions Check Mechanism

Disconnection in the wires Check by measuring


Voltage

Closing of breakers Closing coil does pull Measure the voltage adjust
does not take place coil adjustment screw
although there is spring Checking closing springs.
charged indication.

Breaker closes and open The toggle joint of the


again (Dummy) mechanism are incorr
-ectly adjusted. Adjusts toggle joint.

Main circuit is wrong Find fault & adjust

Wrongly adjusted clearance


of opening magnets armature Adjust

Could not keep spare Over travel of toggle linkage Adjust.


Charge.

Breaker does not Trip Trip coil does not function Measure the voltage Ad
just coil grip adjustment.

Main contact closed Discontinuity in operating


even breaker in open link from linkage assembly Check operating linkage.
position.

Breaker continuously Anti pumping relay wrong Change relay.


opens and closes.

Breaker will not close Micro switch arm wrongly Find fault and adjust.
Completely adjusted under voltage
relay released.

Pneumatic Operating Mechanism of Circuit Breaker:- Pneumatic operating mechanism consists of pis-
ton, air cylinder, control valve, tripping and closing, coil, latch, trigger etc.
Opening:- When the trip coil is energized the space of pilot valve is filled with compressed air and the
charging valve moves to right. The space in the operating cyclinder is filled with compressed air and the
operating piston is driven to the left. The operating rod connected to the operating piston is pulled in the
opening direction to drive the puffer cylinder in SF6 breaker at the high speed, through the insulated operating
rod in the supporting insulator.
Simultaneous with the opening operation the cam rotates and causes the electromagnet valve to return
to its original position. As a result compressed air in the space of the pilot valve is exhausted into atmosphere
and the charging valve is reset to the original position. As the open state is retained by the link mechanism
attached to the end of the operating piston.

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Closing :- When the closing coil is energized, the arc nature is made to rotate causing the hook to be dis-
engaged. Thus the sector line rotates to release the roller and the operating piston is driven to the closing
direction by the force of the closing spring, upon completion of closing, the link mechanism is held in a state
to be ready for the subsequent opening operation.

Fault Cause Remedy


Compressor frequently runs Leakage in pipe line Replace / Repin
or runs for a long duration joints and andible leak Leak joints
compressor fails to start or in circuit breaker Non
motor gets overloaded return valve not working Replace non return valve or
springs of non return valve
or clean and refill.
Coil continuation in pressurized Dirty oil / oil level born Change oil upto
air system choked air filter, oil level level. Clean air filter check
high, breather valve Replace piston, ring
faulty, piston rings assembly.
stuck in groove
Compressor knocking Loose ran fly wheel worn Examine fly wheel key way
out piston cylinder cylinder overhaul compressor unit.
crankshaft connecting
rod.
Pressure build up time Loose belt, leaky joints Adjust belt retighter Replace
excessive worn out piston rings after checking related com
ponents
Excessive belt wear Incorrect motor compres Adjust alignment Adjust belt
sor pulley alignment.
Incorrect belt tension.

Pnemo Hydraulic Operating Mechanism:- The main feature of this type is the closure and holding of the
breaker provided by oil pressure. The tripping of the circuit breaker is provided by short travel compression
springs provided in jack casing whose permanent energy is available at all times.
The energy required to close the breaker is stored in two accumulators, one main and one back up.
Each accumulator consists of a cylinder, a piston and pressurized Nitrogen. The energy for actuating the
closing mechanism of the beaker is transmitted hydraulically to the rotating jack through the oil medium from
the Nitrogen gas stored in the accumulators by partial expansion of the gas.
The aeroshell oil is maintained at high pressure in the accumulators (300 to 350 KSCM). The pressure
built by motor driven hydraulic pump in the accumulators. The Jack piston can be moved with high pressure by
opening of hydraulic valves and letting in the hydraulic oil form the accumulator into the cylinder. This move-
ment is utilized to operate the links so as to close the Circuit breaker contacts.

During opening the high pressure oil acts on upper area of piston and opening stroke is obtained.

Performance of the breaker tested with the following readings.


1. Pre inflated pressure / Tripping pressure Kg / CM2
2. Time taken by the pump motor to build up working pressure Sees
3. Pump motor stopping pressure Kg / Cm2
4. Steady working pressure Kg/ cm2
5. Pressure at which the low pressure lamp goes off kg/ cm2
6. Pump motor starting pressure Kg / cm2
7. Pressure at which the low pressure lamp comes on Kg/ cm2
8. Pressure observed after one closing Kg/ cm2
9. Dip in Pressure on closing the breaker Kg/ CM2
10. Time taken by the pump motor to build up this dip in pressure Secs.
Operating Mechanisms
Types of Operating Mechanism
1) Spring operated Mechanism
2) Compressed air Mechanism.
3) Hydraulic operating Mechanism.
4) Solenioid Closing Mechanism

- 29 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


1. SPRING OPERATED MECHANISMS. trip latch.Be sure there is a good connection from
General description the panel to the ground wire.Clean and lubricate all
The operating mechanism consists, in principle, of bushings and bearings with oil or grease which will
a battery of springs, which are charged by a motor not freeze in winter.
(by hand cranking also) with gears and a control Clean the ground surfaces of all latches.Dirt
mechanism for carrying and opening operations. or corrosion here will increase latch resistance and
Maintenance impede tripping. If the metal surface is uneven, pol-
a) General: ish with crocus cloth or fine emery but be careful not
Work on operating mechanism should be to alter the angle of the latch. Then coat the surface
carried out only when the springs are in discharged with a thin film of graphite or gun grease.
condition and the circuit breaker in open Using the manual control lever, operate the
position.Clean the operating mechanism whenever electric mechanism slowly to see that all parts move
required and, if possible, twice in ayear. Pay special freely.Do this first with the solenoid connected to
attention to the auxiliary switch contacts and the the life rod linkage, then with it disconnected. The
terminal blocks for any possible loose contacts trip -free latch should reset as the mechanism passes
etc.The operating mechanism is to be lubricated with the trip-free position.Check travel of the trip plunger
recommended lubricants.The brand of inbricants, pe- making sure it is long enough to give positive
riodicity of lubrication and the parts that are to be tripping.Compare electrical and mechanical over
lubricated are to be followed as per the maintenance travel against values given in the manufacturer’s
manual of the circuit breaker. Check I.R. value of the instructions.
motor and circuits once in a year. g) Locking pins and plate:
(b) Dash pots: Check that all pins, locking plates, check nuts
Inspect aligment and adjustment of all dash etc.,are in place and are properly tightened.
pots, bumpers, and shock absorbers. Be sure dash- h) Interlocks:
pots and shock absorbers have the proper amount Check all interlocks for proper action.
of suitable fluid and are free from binding.Dashpots, i) Junction boxes:
bypasses,and air valves should be free and adjusted Examine all junction and conduit boxes for moisture.
so that they check mechanism movement before If it is present,retape connections with rubber and
the opening stroke is complete and allow it come to friction tape and apply a good coat of lacquer. To
its proper position without undue impact.Stops must provide good ventilation,1|4’’ holes may be drilled in
be adjusted to provide the contect over travel when the bottom of wo or more junction boxes selected to
closing. give a natural circulation of air.Conduit covers should
c) Springs: be replaced carefully, installing new gasket if needed.
Inspect all springs -bumper buffer, closing j) Cabinet heaters:
tail, accelerating and balance- for breakage, proper Inspect heaters in the mechanism cabinet for loose
size and ‘ set ‘ replacing any with a permanent loss connections, damaged insulation, or overheating.
of tension or compression. See that all springstops Turn the power on to see that they are operating
are securely fastened and fubricated. Check for lost correctly. Rust may indicate that they are not
or missing springs. working.Heaters should be on at all times to minimise
d)Slow motion check : condensation.
See that all links and levers move freely. k) Operating counter:
Operate the mechanism slowly by hand to see that Check the operations counter to make sure it is
all parts move freely and no undue friction is operating correctly,that the numbers are in plain
noticeable.Observe mechanism during several clos- view,and that the linkage is properly adjusted.At the
ing and tripping operations to see that everything is beginning, and end of the inspection, record the
in working order. counter reading in the station log book and on the
e) Latch: test sheet.
Check all pins, bearings and latches for bind- l) Painting and partitions of cabinet:
ing and misalignment. Check latch carefully to see Clean and paint the inside of the mechanism
that it is not getting worn so as to unlatch from vibra- housing.Excessive rust here may indicate that air
tion or struck and fail to trip. vents are blocked, that new vents are blocked, that
f) Electical Operating Mechanism: new vents or heaters are needed. On some old type
The first step in checking the electric oper- breakers,a 1|4 ‘’hole may be drilled in the web on
ating mechanism is to measure insulation resistance the bell crank housing to let water out.
of the control cable, trip coil, and closing coil with a 2. COMPRESSED AIR MECHANISM
500 V instument .Clean the DPST control switch (i) General Description:
and apply a little white Vaseline or oxide inhibiting With suitable air compressed air is stored in air
grease to the control and hinge ends.Be sure that reserviour.This compressed air as utilised to oper-
trip solenoid has a little free travel before striking ate the circuit breaker. A centralised air compressor
the trip lever and a little over travel after engaging the which feeds compressed dry air for a maximam of

- 30 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


about six breakers is installed in a few places.In (d) Fuses :
certain other places unit compressed air plants are Examine fuses on solenoid circuit.
provided for each breaker. (e) Current :
ii) Maintenance of compressor: Check closing solenoid current.
Daily:
a. Clean the compressor throughly. iii) Trip coil plunger :
b. Check the oil level in the crank case.Replenish a) Observe operation during electrical tripping.
with the correct grade of oil if required. Check that full energetic snappy action of the
c. Check compressor belt tension. plunger is obtained.
d. Drain water from the air receiver. b) Check plunger for any stickiness.
Every 125 hours of Operation c) Check that the plunger has sufficient travel to
(a) Dismantle the suction filter and rinse in petrol assure an adequate impact that will positively
or kerosine. release the breaker latch.
(b) After thorogh drying,reassemble on the com- iv) I.R. Value :
pressor. Check resistance and insulation resistance
Every 500 Hours of Operation of coil.
(a)The breaker valve should be v) Fuses :
dismantled,cleaned and checked for perfect Examine fuses on trip circuit.
seating of the valve. vi) Control Relay or contacter :
(b) Examine the lubricating oil in the sump-drain a) Mechanical movement
the oil if necessary and renew. Check mechanical parts for free movements.
(c) Dismantle the delivery unloader valve. All the b.) Arc Chutes :
parts are to be throughly cleaned and renew Clean arc chutes.
the worn-out parts. c) Contacts :
(d) Dismantle the solenoid valve.Examine the Examine contacts and renew where necessary.
plunger, guide and ‘O’ ring.Renew the spares d) Fuses :
if required. Examine fuses on control circuit.
3. HYDRAULIC OPERATING MECHANISM
(f) General Description: SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKER
Hydraulic drives are of high pressure,as high Maintenance
as 300 kgs |cm2.The hydraulic system generally SF6 circuit breaker require very little main-
consists of the drive cylinder,main value, accmulater tenance. Involved are those parts which are subject
and control unit. The operating force is produced by to wear and ageing. The paint finish and degree of
differential piston whose,smaller surface area is un- contamination of insulators should also be checked.
der constant hydraulic pressure.The larger surface Major Inspections Involving examination of
is pressurised for closing and depressurised for trip- Interruptor and electro hydraulic or pneumatic oper-
ping. ated mechanisms require thorough knowledge of the
ii)Maintenance: maintenance instructions of the manufacturer and
(a) Make a visual leakage check of the hydraulic stocking of tools and spares. It is desirable that
system daily.Tighten or replace the oil seal manufacturer is associated with such works.
wherever neccessary. Inspection and Maintenance medium volt-
(b) Check the oil level and its condition every 3 age SF6 Circuit breakers during Operation
months.Fill in new and correct grade and
a. General
filtered oil if required.
All the inspection and mainterance service
4. SOLENOID CLOSING MECHANISM
must be performed with the circuit-breaker open, the
(i) General Description:
closing springs unloaded and the main and auxiliary
The closing energy is obtained from the electro me-
electrical circuits disconnected. Failure to observe
chanical force due to heavy current in the
these rules could cause serious accidents for the
solenoid.Tripping spring is generally compressed
operator.
during closing operation.This kind of mechanism is
During normal operations the circuit breakers
relatively simple in construction.
require very little maintenance.
(ii) Maintenance:
-The frequency of Inspection and maintenace ser-
(a) Voltage drop up to solenoid:
vice is tied, on the other hand to the severity of the
Check operating voltage at the solenoid terminals
operations. which in turn varies according to several
with full operating current flowing to see that it is
elements such as:
adequate for correct operation.
-Frequency of movements .
(b)I.R Value:
-value of interrupted current.
Check resistance and Insulation resistance of the
-power factor
solenoid coil.
-installation environment.
(c) Plunger Movement :
Check plunger for stickness in guides.
- 31 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.
Conditions that may make more frequent maintenance necessary are :
1) Humidity at high ambient temperature.
2) Corrosive atmosphere
3) Excessive dust and dirt.
4) Frequent, heavy operation
5) Frequent interruptions for breakdowns
6) Plant-long in continual operation without the benefit of even limited inspection or maintenance.
7) Information obtainable from the history of previous inspections.
These elements are so variable that it is not possible to give precise indications. In any case, the
following rules are recommended.
- equip the circuit breakers with movement-counters
- circuit breakers that made only rare movements remain closed for long periods must be actuated from
time to time to prevent the tendency to grip causing slower opening and closing speeds;
-at least once during the first year of operation inspect the circuit-breaker
and eliminate dust from the insulating parts. clean and lubricate the contact parts and the elements that
transmit the pole shoe movement.
- Later, based on information obtained during the fifth year of operation, increase the interval of time
between inspections, if warranted;
- If the installation position makes it possible, visual inspection of the circuit - breaker is advisable from
outside during operation according to the program shown in Table 1 and a series of inspections according to
the program shown in Table -2.

b. Visual inspection program :


To maintain the circuit breaker in good repair, it is recommended to follow the following chart :
Table - 1 Inspection program for SF6 circuit breaker.

Inspections Trouble found Remedy

Operating mechanism Damage or loss of parts Replace damaged or lost parts


Accumulated dirt Clean off dirt

Movement - counter Does not correctly Inspect, repair or replace


indicate the operation movement - counter
of the device.

Medium - Voltage Excessive accumulation Clean the insulating parts


Portion of dust and dirt removing the dust with a dry rag.

C. Inspection Program :
To assure the satisfactory operation of the circuit - breaker it is advisable to inspect it periodically
according to the following program :-

Table 2 - Inspection program

Inspected Part Prescribed Inspections Remedies


and Troubles
Insulating resistance on pole Check standard values; Insulation drops
(With megger) between main terminals noticeable due to
and 2000 M (2500v) mass accumulated dust.
between main terminals clean with a dry cloth
and mass with breaker restored.
open 2000 M ( 2500v)

Gas pressure in each Check for standard value Restore to standard


pole (check required in of 2.4. kg / sq.cm at 200C value with procedures
case of pressure switch or value recommended outlined in
Intervention) by manufacturer. manufacturer’s
instructions.

- 32 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


Main circuits Lack of contact on parts Restore contact using the
of wiring . procedures outlined in
manufacturer’s .
instructions.
Breaker circuits and are Bad contact between the Contact manufacturers .
contacts wiring and the terminals

Controls Dirt deposits, loose Remove dirt. Tighten


screws or nuts, damage screws and nuts and
or pIaces missing Dry replace damaged parts.
open/close test 5 times Find nature of troubles,
repair.
d. Circuit-breaker life: When mounting a new pole on the circuit -
The life of the circuIt -breaker depends mainly breaker assembly, the above operations must be per-
on the degree of decomposition of the SF6 gas, on formed in reverse order. The electrical life of the
the wear and tear on contacts due to operation and circuit breaker depends on the devices used and is
on the mechanical life of the operating mechanism. linked to wear on the arcing contacts, while the SF6
c. Gas decomposition gas is not significantly altered following power - outs.
An indirect indication can be obtained by The example of cumulative breaking current
measuring the Insulation resistance with Megger at shown below corresponds to what has been verified
2500V between the terminals of the pole acceptable in direct laboratory breaker tests without recondi-
value 2000 M according Table 2. tioning and to the requirements of the ENELDY 1501
d. Wearing of contacts and breaker parts: specifications:
The state of wear of the contacts can be 4, breaks at 12.5KA +
detected in an indirect way by determining at What 12 breaks at 7.5 KA +
point the arcing contacts (fixed and moving) come 322 breaks at 3.7KA +
in touch while the breaker is closing. 252 breaks at 1.2 KA
For this operation the circuit - breaker must The cycle described above corresponds
be closed very slowly, according to the following pro- approximately to 50 times the full break power, based
cedure. on statistics for circuit-breaks in medium - voltage
Applicable for a particular make of circult- distribution plants in operation for at least 20 years.
breaker. (Refer to manufacturers instructions in re- At the end of this test cycle, the device still
spect of other makes) represents a considerable reserve of electrical life,
- With the circuit - breaker open and off line, based on the wear to live parts.
insert a tester between the terminals of the pole to G. Mechanical life of the operating mechanism.
be checked. See the indications in the instructions book-
-Slowly rotate the external lever of the poles lets. An inspection with lubrication every 5000 op-
in a clockwise direction until contact is indicated by erations, or every 3 months, is recommended.
the tester, and note distance ‘a’ in this Position. Recommendations for use of SF6 gas in
On a pole with new contacts, dimension “a” Medium - Voltage Equipment.
is about 8.5mm for 12-.24 KV breakers and about a. Protective measures and their purpose
13mm for 36 KV breakers (for a particular make of In areas where equipment using sulphur
Circuit-breaker). hexafluoride as a means of arc-quenching is installed,
With maximum acceptable pole contact wear, special written instructions should be displayed for
dimension “a” becomes about 22mm. personnel that could be exposed to sulphur hexafluo-
Pole reconditioning is therefore required for ride (SF6) and its by-products of decomposition when
greater values. operating the equipment.
In this event, it is advisable to have the other b. Preliminary considerations
poles reconditioned as well. Since special precau- Sulphur hexafluoride, in its pure state, is an
tions must be taken during reconditioning (absence odourless, colourless, non-toxic gas with a density
of moisture Inside the pole and a suitable level of about five times that of the air. For this reason, though
cleanliness of the Internal parts of the pole) manu- it produces no specific physiological effects, it could
facturers must be consulted. cause effects typical of oxygen shortage.
To replace the pole, first disconnect the Due to the effect of the electric arc, a small
main lines connected to the pole terminals and the quantity of SF6 contained in the pole casing (a few
sheathed auxiliary cables of the pressure switches % max) decomposes leaving both gaseous and pow-
and for the 500C Circuit -breaker version, the ther- dery by-products with an acidic reaction and thus
mostat probe. then remove the safety ring between potentially aggressive. In a circuit breaker these
the shaft and the external pole lever, remove the 4 decomposition products, which as we said are quan-
screws holding the pole to the base and pull out the titatively insignificant, normally remain closed inside
pole.
- 33 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.
the sealed equipment and absorbed by special fil- approximate and should be suitably altered to suit
ters: the operating service conditions.
The probabillty of contact with decomposed The inspection and servicing jobs have been
SF6 is extremely low as pertains to these events. divided into three groups “.
c. Gas leaks -Routine check to be made every 5 years:
There is no risk for persons since the quan- These checks contain jobs only to be done at earth
tities of SF6 are modest and decomposed even less. potential. Draining of SF6 is not necessary.
d. Opening the casing for maintenance -Minor inspection after 1500 operations or
Considering the long electrical life of the SF6 10 years of service; in the case where in breaker
equipment, the event is extremely improbable. operates more than 1000 times a year, inspection
For MV Circuit breakers it in any case advis- should be carried out after a maximum 3000 opera-
able to replace the breaker elements, since the tions.
operation is simple and rather infrequent. -Major inspection.
This maintenance service is really only prob- After 3000 operations or 20 years of service. in the
able for HV circuit breakers. case of breaker operating more than 1000 times a
e. Breakage of the casing year, inspection should be carried out after a maxium
Considering the pressures used and the dimension- 6000 operations.
ing of the casing, this should be regarded as a highly The life of the contacts normally matches the
improbable accidental event. life expectancy of the breaker.
Protective Measures and Procedures If the breaker performs the short circuit inter-
In order to prevent the modest risks connected ruptions before the inspection becomes due. it is
with the use of SF6 in electrical equipment, It is necessary to check the contacts in accordance with
advisable to comply with the following precautions the inspection schedule and also after 3000 inter-
and instructions: ruptions of normal rated current. Cricuit-breakers that
a. Make sure there is sufficient natural air exchange made only rare movements and remain cIosed for
in the areas in which the equipment is installed. long periods must be actuated from time to time to
b. In the event the casings are accidentally broken, prevent the tendency to grip causing slower opening
the presence of decomposed gas is perceptible even and closing speeds.
In extremely small quantities (1-3 ppm) because of Precautions to be taken
its pungent. unpleasant odour, and the following pro- Before starting work on breaker Carry out the
cedure should be instituted. following:
-thoroughly ventilate the area and, in the case of -Isolate the breaker on both the sides.
Installation in a protective or armoured cabinet,make -connect the breaker terminal to earth
sure there is efficient air exchange; open the cabi- -disconnect the auxIliary supply
net only after the characteristic odour of decomposed -reduce the oil pressure of electro hydraulic mecha-
SF6 is no longer Perceptible; nism to zero by opening the pressure relief valve. If
-Wear protective rubber or plastic gloves and remove spring operated unload the closing spring.
and powder that has escaped from the equipment -transfer the SF6 to the maintenance unit and vent
using throw away rags; the breaker.If no maintenance unit is available allow
-Personal hygiene is important after these opera- the SF6 to escape.
tions. Thorough washing with soap and lukewarm -Comply with all local safety regulations.
water is a sufficient precaution to aviod irritation of
the skin and eyes. General Instructions for maintenance
c. If the pole casings are opened for maintenance, it All the specl pins. lock washers, spring wash-
is advisable to follow the above Instructions after re- ers of bolted joints should be replaced with new ones
covering the gas. when they are opened for maintenance.
All the gaskets, O -rings and rubber washers
Maintenance of EHV SF6 Circuit breakers
should also be replaced with new ones during reas-
Circuit-breakers require very little mainte-
sembly.
nance. Involved are those parts which are subjected
All the breaker parts dismantled for mainte-
to wear and aging. The paint finish and degree of
nance should be covered and, protected against in-
contamination of insulators should also be checked.
gress of dirt and moisture while reassembly is in
The following are the factors which govern the main-
progress. Small quantities of mettalic fluoride pow-
tenance of the breaker:
der forms because of arc interruption of SF6 gas.
- Number of short circuit interruptions
This metallic powder when in dry state is insulating
- Switching frequency and service conditions
and harmless. However the powder is hygroscopic
- Number of years of service
and in the presence of water vapour the dust forms a
Maintenance and inspection should be car-
paste which is conductive as such this metallic fluo-
ried out in accordance with the inspection sched-
ride powder should be cleaned with the help of a
ule. The servicing intervals indicated below are only
clean non fluffy cloth or a vacuum cleaner, as soon

- 34 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


as the interrupter is opened for inspection and servicing to prevent the formation of conductive paste which is
very difficult to remove. The cloth once used should be thrown into dust bin separate cloth should be used for
each interrupter. During cleaning of the metallic fluoride gloves should be worn. Care is advised when working
near the auxillary switches, and the piston rods of operating mechanism since any damage may cause leakage.
For decaring and degreasing agents and special compounds to be applied during maintenance.

INSPECTION SCHEDULE
Routine Inspection
Minor Inspection
Major Inspection

1.1. General Checks


1.2 Note the number of Make - and - break operations
and any particular occurrences.
1.3 Check SF6 filling

2. Draw out the SF6

3. POLE COLUMNS

3.1 Open all interrupter units and make a visual check of


the contact system and the blast cylinder
3.2 Check the sliding faces of the crosshead and the cou
pling pins and bearings for signs of wear.
3.3 Examine and clean the operating rod.
3.4 Replace filters

4.0 AUXILIARY SWITCH :


Sparingly oil the bearings, examine and grease the
coupling linkage.

5. Fill in the SF 6

6.0 ELECTROHYDRAULIC OPERATING MECHANISM


6.1 Carry out test operations.
6.2 Make a visual leakage check of the hydraulic system.
6.3 Check the oil level and its condition.
6.4 Drain the oil and clean both the oil tank and the intake
filter.

- 35 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


Routine Inspection
Minor Inspection
Major Inspection

6.5 Examine the accumulator, the main valve and the


operating cylinders
6.6 Fill in new oil
6.7 Check the priming pressure of nitrogen
6.8 Raise the oil pressure in the accumulator to the nominal level.
Measure the current input of the motor at this pressure.
6.9 Carry out test operations
6.10 Operate the breaker at reduced operating voltage
6.11 Check the operating pressure of the safety valve
6.12 Check the inner sealing of the hydraulic system

7.0 Check the operating values of the SF6 density monitor


and oil pressure monitors.
8.0 Check the breaker pressure gauge for SF6 and
pressurised oil
9.0 Check the space heaters
10. Check the anti-pumping feature
11. Check all fully assembled breakers for SF6 leaks
12.1 Check that the external connecting leads are seated firmly.
12.2 Tighten the internal terminals
13.0 Check the paint finish and touch up where necessary.

Vacuum Circuit Breaker (VCBs)


Inspection Schedule
Once a year, a general inspection should be carried out and if necessary the insulating parts should be
cleaned with rag. More frequent checks may be necessary if the breakers are installed in a dust laden
atmosphere.
Breaker operating mechanism
The operating mechanism should be oiled and lubricated every 10 years or after 10,000 operations
whichever is earlier.
Vacuum interrupters
Replacing the interrupter is an exception. They may have to be replaced after 30,000 mechanical
operations or when contacts have eroded by maximum amount and white ‘dot’ marked (or coloured mark on
burn off indicator in some makes) on moving contact stem of the vacuum interrupter is not visible in breaker
closed condition. Use of contact burn off calipers is recommended in certain makes. For guide the following
number of operations are given for life of interrupters of certain makes. Manufacturer’s instructions on paticular
makes may be used.

For a 36KV, 1250A, 25 KA - VCB For a 12KV - 630A - 16KA - VCB

25 KA - 50 Normal load - 20,000


16 KA - 90 2.5 KA - 3,000
12.5KA - 225 8.0 KA - 400
1250 A - 20000 16 KA - 100
Normal Current - 30000

- 36 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


Important
Before starting any work on breaker isolate, Check of Vacuum
short circuit and earth. Disconnect the auxiliary sup- In respect of preservation of the vacuum, the
ply, open and close the breaker by hand until both vacuum interrupters feature high reliability. Conse-
closing and tripping springs are discharged. quently, checking the vacuum is not included in the
Inspections and repairs should be carried mainenance schedule. Checking is advised only in
out by qualified fitters who are familiar with switchgear the following cases:-
of this type with due reference to operating instruc- 1. When it is suspected that the interrupter
tion. was damaged externally during transport or installa-
Only those lubricants, grease and corrosion tion and
protection agents recommended by the manufac- 2. After the switchgear has been installed
turer shall be used. twenty years. Some manufacturers specify a routine
Contact resistance maintenance check around once in 4 years, by one
Check the contact resistance across the of the following methods:
top and bottom pole supports after closing the a) By mechanically pulling down the moving con-
vacuum interrupter through quick release of closing tact stem of the interrupter. If it moves freely it would
spring. The contact resistance should be around 15 indicate that the interrupter is full of air and hence
to 20 micro ohms. This test is recommended as a lost vacuum.
bench mark while installing the new interrupter. Ex- b) H.V. test- The high voltage test may be under-
perience has shown that a degree of spread can be taken according to manufacturer’s instructions.
obtained in contact resistance measurements when
the circuit breakers is closed, but these do not have Warning
the same degree of significance as in other types of 1. On conclusion of this H.V. test bear in
circuit breakers. The results show that there is a mind that the section of the vacuum interrupter may
tendency for the resistance to decrease as the have been capacitively charged. Establish an earth
switch is used. Any increase in the resistance fig- before touching it.
ure does not indicate contact erosion as in most 2. Do not exceed the test voltage ratings
breakers and the fact that the contacts are in vacuum because inadmissible high X-ray intensities could
precludes the forms of deterioration which would take arise particularly at high d.c.voltages.
place in other media.

Inspection Schedule of VCBs

Six months after commissioning and there General inspection; check tightening of
after once a year bolts. Clean insulating parts with non-
fluffy cloth. Check the mechanism stroke
settings. More frequent inspection may
be necessary if the breakers are installed
on a dust laden atmosphers.

Every 10 years or 10,000 operations Lubricate operating mechanism with


approved lubricants. Ensure the coil
fixing screws are fully tight and locked by
lock - tight fluid.

After 30,000 mechanical operations or Replace vacuum interrupter as per manufac


when contacts have eroded a maximum turer’s instructions.
amount

Note:
It may be necesary in certain cases to equip the VCBs with surge absorbers to take care of current
chopping effects.

- 37 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


Check point for periodical inspection of VCBs

Sl.No Check point Check Item Check Method Criteria What to do Remarks

1. Entire circuit Tightness of By tightening There should Retighten


Breaker bolts and them with not be any fast the loose
nuts screw driver ener loosely tigh fastners
and spanners tened properly

Dust and Visual check The breaker should Clean by


foreign matter be clean and there compressed
should be no foreign air flow. Also
matter. wipe the
accessible
components
with a clean dry
cloth.
Deformation, Visual check There should be no Remove cause
excessive wear excessive wear or and replace parts.
and damage. damage or deforma
-tion.
Lost or missing Visual check There should be no Reinstate the
Parts missing parts missing parts to
normal condition.

2. Spring Dust and for Visual check There should be no Remove it by


operated mech eign matter dust or foreign mat- compressed air.
anism. ter accumulated on
mechanism.

Smooth Manual Operation should be Apply proper


operation operation smooth grease to these
points.
1. Lubrication Visual check All these points shall
of bearing and feel be well lubricated and
pin rotating smoothly.
2. Lubrication
of bearing
blocks.
3. Lubrication
of breaker shaft
ends
4. Lubriation of
closing latch
roller bearing.

3. Vacuum Contact wear Visual check for Wipe length should If it is less than
Interrupter Measurement be 3+ 0.5mm with 1.0mm, replace
the breaker closed. the vacuum inter
rupter.
Vacuum Replace the vacuum
Pressure interrupter when
Vacuum pressure is
not sufficient.

4. Auxiliary Terminals Tighten by There should be Retighten


switches screwdriver no loose connections

Case and Visual check There should be no Replace if damaged


contacts damage and
deformation.
- 38 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.
- 39 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.
3. BATTERY AND ITS MAINTENANCE

I.Introduction:
Lead acid storage battery is an electro chemical source of current (voltaic cell) that
possesses the capacity of- accumulating and storing energy and supplying it as electrical energy.
A battery consists of a set of cells, each set is capable of giving electricity at 2 V per cell. Each
cell is having electrodes in the form of plates with terminals brought outside as positive and
negative. They are immersed in an electrolyte consisting sulphuric acid diluted with distilled
water.
2.Principle of operation :
Electrolyte consists of water molecule and sulphuric acid molecule. The atoms of water
molecule combine with the ions of a molecule of sulphuric acid. This leads to polar molecules of
water callusing separation of molecules of sulphuric acid into positive hydrogen ions negative
acid radical ions.
H2 SO4 ------- 2H + SO4

As a result of this electrolytic dissociation, ions are formed in an electrolyte. Since the
sum of charge carried by negative acid radical ions is equal to the sum of charge carried by
positive hydrogen ions, the solution remains electrically neutral.
Prior to discharge of any lead acid cell its condition is such that the active material of the
negative plate will consist of spongy lead and that of positive will consist of lead peroxide.
As a result of interaction of electrolyte with the atoms of lead of negative plate, some of
the lead atoms become ionized and two charge positive ions of lead pass over into the electrolytic
solution. This leaves the surface of the negative plate charged, with two electrons by each atom
of lead that passes into solution. Therefore, negative plate becomes charged negatively in
relation to electrolyte, similarly, the positive plate is charged with four charge positive ions of lead.
When the plates are connected by means of some conductor, the cell begins to
discharge. The electrons on the negative plate passing into conductor and forcing free electrons
in the conductor matter into the positive plate. the positive ii) ns of the positive plate attract the
free negative ions of the conductor. There is a flow of electrons from negative plate to positive
plate and thus there is a flow of current from positive plate to negative plate.
Each atom of lead of negative plate gives up two electrons. these two electrons pass into
positive plate where they combine with the four charge ion of lead (Pb++) to become two charge
ion of lead (Pb++). These two charge ion of lead enters into electrolyte reacts with two charge

negative ion of acid radical (SO 4--) and from a molecule of lead sulphate. This lead sulphate is
deposited in the form of small crystal on the positive plate. At the same time water is formed near
the positive plate. the process is expressed a below:

- 40 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai - 7


PbO2 + 4H+ + SO4-- + 2e - → PbSO4 + 2H2

At the negative plate, as soon as the electrons move away from the negative plate a two
charge, positive ion of lead which is near the negative plate combines with the two charge
negative ion or an acid radical to form a molecule of lead sulphate. This is deposited in the
negative plate.
Pb++ + SO4-- - 2e- → PbSO4

Thus carry two molecules of sulphuric acid, one molecule of lead peroxide and one atom
of lead will produce on discharge, one molecule of lead sulphate on each plate and two
molecules of water at the positive plate. the substance formed have a smaller reserve energy and
hence formation of substances with lower energy level releases energy. Thus chemical energy is
converted into electrical energy.
During charging positive terminal of the source of electrical energy connected to positive
plate of the cell and negative terminal with the negative plate. when negative source of electrical
supply sends a current through the cell, electrons are moved out from positive terminal, the
positive plate due to difference of electrons, the lead sulphate will undergo oxidation to lead
peroxide as below:
PbSO4 + 2H20 -2e- → 4H++ + PbO2 + S04-

Simultaneously two electrons will move into negative plate and an atom of lead is formed
as below: PbSO4 -2e- → Pb + SO4-

The hydrogen ions of positive plate combine with sulphate radical and from molecules of
sulphuric acid. Hence during charging the specific gravity of electrolyte increases and during
discharge the specific gravity decreases.
After all the lead sulphate is converted into lead peroxide and lead, it is called that the cell
is fully charged. If the charging is continued, the electrical energy supplied to the cell will then be
spent to dissociate the water into hydrogen and oxygen.
2H+ + 2e- → 2Η
O--- 2e - → O
The dissociation of water is noticed by an abundant evolution of gas at both plates. This
gassing or bubbling is a sign of completeness of charge. The above will explain the principle of
operation of an lead

3.Components of lead Acid cell :

a) Container: Jars of lead acid cells are made of ebonite moulded plastic, ceramics,
glass and wood lined with lead sheet. Main criteria is that the container should be acid
proof. Normally ebonite is made out of rubber 60% and sulphur 40%. Enough space
will be left at the bottom for active material to fall down prevent it from touching the
plates.

- 41 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai - 7


b) Cover: Cover will be made out of ebonite with three or four holes in it to take out
positive and negative terminal. Vent for gassing and for pouring acid or distilled water
to make up level and vent for fixing acid level indicators.

Electrolyte:

Battery grade sulphuric acid at specific gravity 1200 is used. Battery grade sulphuric acid
should have a purity of 99.94 percent at specific gravity of 1830 Kg/m3. Electrolyte of 1200 is
prepared by having distilled water in a glass jar and pouring acid in small quantities stirring the
electrolyte continuously. As heat will be generated during mixing, mixing should be done slowly,
Water should not be mixed with acid.
Distilled water used for preparation of electrolyte should have a pH value of 6.6.
Chemically pure water will have a pH value of 7 and when it is less it is acidic and when it is more
it is basic. distilled water prepared from DM water plant or distilled water plant alone be used (or
batteries. It should be kept in a clean container with stoppers and handled in clean vessels kept
separately for this purpose.
Separators:
To prevent buckling of plates, positive and negative plates are held together tightly.
Separators are provided in between both plates. Separators should have insulating property
porous enough to allow gas bubbles to pass through and inactive to acid and lead. Separators
are made out of wood, hard rubber, glass fibre, micro porous plastic materials, perforated vinyl
plastics and perforated allotted ebonite. Separators will be micro porous and also will have slot to
permit gases to travel to the top of the plates. Bi-plast separators made out of vinyl chloride has
been found to have sufficient mechanical strength, very high chemical stability and good electrical
property. Perforated ebonite is also used as spaces along with other separators to enable large
volume of acid to have access to plates. ‘
Felted glass fibre separators are used to prevent positive active materials from getting
dislodged from plates. Positive plates are normally wrapped in glass fibre cloth and other type of
separators are placed on sides. This prevents shedding of positive materials and hence
enhances the life of the battery.
Positive plates:
Positive plates are made out of lead antimony alloy. They are moulded as grills with
packet for holding active materials. Grills are moulded in steel form box with molten alloy at a
temperature of 400 - 450C. The grills are filled with active materials prepared of lead powder and
litharge. Expanders such as lamp black, oak flour, barium sulphate, cotton lines are added to
avoid possibility of shrinkage and hardening. The plates are jointed together into a group by
connecting the top of the plate by a bar and lug is taken out for terminal connections.
After assembly, the positive plates are given treatment forn1ing and they become dark
chocolate brown in color.

- 42 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai - 7


Negative plates:
Negative plates are also made in the same way but they will be lighter in design and will
be filled up with sponge lead. Even lead plates are used as negative plates. Groups of negative
plates are held together by a bar and terminal similar to positive is taken out.
Positive and negative plates are held together closely to minimize the internal resistance
of the” cell. Positive and negative cells are interleaved with separators and spacers in between to
prevent shorting of the battery. Further tight packing prevents buckling of the plates.
Charging of batteries:
Batteries are received in dry state. Battery when received is checked for any cracks in the
container, damages to terminals, covers etc. The inside of the battery is cleaned well and
removed, for dust by blowing air through a blower at slow rate. The cells are assembled as
suggested by the supplier. Positive terminals of the next cell is connected to the negative of the
cell and thus entire terminals arc connected. Before connecting the terminals are cleaned with
sand paper or smooth file to remove the oxide coating. Then thin coating of Vaseline or petroleum
jelly is applied and connectors are put and bolted together.
Then acid of approved specific gravity pored in slowly in all the cells. The cells are
allowed to absorb the acid for 12 to 24 hours. At the end of 24 hours charging is commenced.
Before charging, the charge should be checked. The D.C. voltage of the charger should
be that of battery. The charger is switched on after putting correct size of fuses. Positive and
negative of the charger should be identified. If wires are connected to the terminals and positive
and negative leads are put in water and kept at a short distance, say 50 mm active bubbling will
occur, in positive and dull bubbling will be occur in negative.
Positive and negative can be identified by connecting it to a moving coil voltmeter, if the
polarity’ is wrong, the meter will kick reverse.
Another way is to take a big potato and cut it into half. Insert the positive and negative
leads 50 mm apart. When supply is switched on, the potato around positive terminal will charge
brown due to the action of released hydrogen from the water in the potato with the carbohydrates
of the potato. No such thing will occur in negative.
After identifying the terminal, the positive of the charger is connected to positive of the
battery and negative terminal of the charger to negative terminal of the battery.
Charging should be done strictly as per the instructions of the supplier. The charger may
be switched on and charged at the current specified by the supplier. Battery log book is opened
and hourly readings of charging voltage, current are recorded. Every four hours voltage and
specific gravity of the cells are noted. As there will be effective gassing in the cells, all the plugs of
the cells should be removed to avoid development of pressure inside the cell. Fans in the battery
room should be kept operating continuously. This is very important during the last phases of
charging. The temperature of the electrolyte of the cells should be noted every hour and it should

- 43 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai - 7


not exceed 40°C because of danger of plate buckling. If is reaches, the charging should be
stopped and cells are allowed to cool and then started.
While nearing the completion of charge it is necessary to examine all the batteries and
make sure that gassing begin simultaneously in all the cells and with the same intensity. Density
of the electrolyte will rise slowly initially but rapidly at the end. When the battery is fully charge,
the specific gravity would have reached 1200 to 1240 and cell voltage to 2.4 volts. When all the
cells have reached this level it is allowed to continue for four hours then charging stopped.
Charging should 15e done continuously without break unless for extraneous reason.
When charging with M.G. set a reverse power relay should be provided to prevent
running of the generator as motor or when A.C. supply fails or voltage goes down.
After completion of charging, the cells should be cleaned well with cloth soaked in
distilled water to remove all the acid particles settled on the cover and sides of the cells.
Then first discharge is commenced by connecting the battery through a switch fuse,
ammeter to a resistance box of micrometer or water rheostat or a battery of bulbs or carbon
lamps. Discharge is adjusted according to the capacity of battery. Voltage, current, cell voltage,
specific gravity are measured every 15 Mts. when the cells are reaching 1.8 volts and specific
gravity 1700 to 1800. At this, stage discharging is stopped.
The level of the electrolyte is adjusted by adding distilled water or acid according to the
specific gravity of the acid in the cell to bring the level of the electrolyte to the same level and also
specific gravity to same value.
Then second charging is commenced in the same way as was done earlier and the
battery is brought to full charge.
Thus the battery is charged four times and discharged three times. During initial charging
all the parts of the plates may not get full chemical reaction due to bubbling, un-equal acid
specific gravity at various places, impurities in plates etc. To provide the plates uniform chemical
transformation charging and discharging are repeated.
Thus after three operation all parts of the cells would have received equal chemical
reaction and buckling and shedding of plates will be minimum at a later stage.
Trickle charging:
A battery already in fully charged condition is maintained without deterioration by trickle
charging. due to impurities in plates and surface leakage, the battery will be draining slowly and
up to make up that, battery is charged at I mA per amp. hour of the battery. Also the charger will
meet the continuous load of the battery. This will maintain the battery at fully charged condition.
Quarterly quick charging:
Once in every quarter, the battery should be a given quick charge at the rate specified by
the manufacture till all the cells pass well and the cell voltage comes to 2.4 V to 2.6 V and kept at
that level four to five hours.

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Battery room:
Battery room should be well ventilated with good illumination and situated in such a
location that no fumes can come into contact with any electrical plant. A cut out should be
provided near the battery terminal to protect the battery from short circuit etc.
Battery room should be provided with two number exhaust fans to exhaust fumes
outside. Second one will act as stand by as acid fumes will affect the windings of exhaust fan and
get repaired often.
!"2 Nos. Hydrometer,
!"2 Nos. thermometers,
!"cell testing voltmeter,
!"inspection lamp,
!" rubber gloves,
!"rubber apron
should be provided in the battery room.
Cadmium test strip or rod should be provided in each battery room. This electrode is a
round cadmium rod about 6 mm in diameter that is soldered to a copper rod. The end of the
electrode is placed in a PVC tube provided with holes for the access of electrolyte. PVC tube will
also prevent electrode coming in direct contact with plates. Before use cadmium electrode should
be immersed in electrolyte with a density of 1200 to 1250.
To measure the potential of the positive plates the cadmium electrode, connected to one
of the terminals of the voltmeter is immersed in electrolyte, the other terminal of the v6ltmeter is
being connect to the terminal pest of the positive plates of the cell. The potential of the positive
electrode will be around 2.20 volts. The potential of the negative electrode is measured similarly
and will be around 0.2V. The sum will give the total potential of the cell.

INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE OF BATTERIES

Battery should be inspected daily in open type cell with Glass container the following
points to be observed.

1. Color and Touch of Plates :


Positive chocolate brown Negative – Bluish gray.
Positive smooth greasy feels, negative smooth feel
Neither should be harsh nor metallic under brand now.
2. Condition of plates such as crack, distortion, accumulation etc.
3. Outside of the cell container should always be kept class and dry.
4. Condition of the separator and container.
5. The level of the electrolyte should be maintained to the correct level. The cell should
be topped up with distilled water only and while doing so, it is preferable to introduce
water at a bottom of the cell by a rubber syringe so that it mat get well mixed. But the
waste deposits settled at the bottom of the cell should not be disturbed.
6. The electrolyte should fully cover top edges of the plates otherwise the active
materials of negative plate will oxidize intensively and sharp reduction in useful life of
the battery

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7. Color of cell deposits and clearance between deposit and bottom edge of the plate to
be observed. The deposit should be brown and not white.
8. Inter cell connections should be tight and should be without corrosion at points.
Joints should be coated with a thin layer of Vaseline or white petroleum jelly to
prevent corrosion. It is preferable to use lead strips for interconnecting the cell.
9. Correct voltage should be maintained by adjusting the trickle charger output. The
voltage should be within 2.15 V to 2.3 V. The discharge should not be continued
beyond the cell voltage of 1.85 V.
10. The specific Gravity is to be maintained at 1200 at 60 F. It should not be taken below
1185. Proper temperature correction is to be made to get correct value. Hydrometer
of reputed make should be used to measure the specific gravity
11. If the battery is overcharged at results in unequal expansion of positive plate known
as buckling and shedding of active material. Continuous under charging causes
sulphation of plates (i.e.) Insoluble while lead sulphate is formed. If sulphation
occurs, battery has to be put on charge till its specific gravity rises to normal.
Repeated charging will be required to be given to non-metallic the battery.
12. Battery Room :
` (a) Should be well ventilated with good illumination and situated in such a
location that no fumes can come into contact with any(electrical plates)
(b) A output should be provided near the battery terminal to protect the battery from the
short circuit
(c) Naked flame should be taken into battery room.
(d) Should be provide with exhaust fans to exhaust acid vapor etc. outside.
(e) All wood work, and metal work, and walls should be coated with sold proof paint.
(f) Direct Sunlight should not fall on the cells. The battery room should be clean and dry
without dust.
(g) Insulators of Glass or porcelain are inserted between the stand and battery to prevent
Leakage of current. Beside there should be insulator between stand and flooring
(h) 2 Nos. Hydrometer, 2 Nos. thermometers, cell testing Voltmeter. Rubber gloves,
Rubber apron, inspection Lamp should be provided in the battery room.

TROUBLE SHOOTINGS
Hydration :
This is the action of water on lead plates. If a battery is exhausted to a point, where the
electrolyte is practically water and charging is not given at once (or) if the plates are not entirely
immersed in the electrolyte continuously. Hydration will set up as a white creamy substance
spreading regularly over the plates. As soon as charging is given acid liberated from the plate
attack the lead hydrate forming lead hydrate forming lead sulphate in a condition difficult to
recover even by prolonged charging.
Stratification:
In this case a layer of strong acid lies at the bottom of the cell for lack of circulation. It
causes the hydrometer reading to be misleading. It tends to irregular working of the plates. It
could be overcome by circulation either thorough stirring up with a paddle or blowing up with an
air pump.

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Impure Meter :
Contamination of electrolyte by adding impure water is a common trouble. If the water
contains lime this will crystalline some of the acid and reduce the specific gravity with a
characteristic formation of lime crystal. If the water contains chlorine the positive plate will have
depreciation. If the water contains iron this local action resulting in self discharging of the plate
even when not doing useful work.
Reversed Cell:
Because of this the cell capacity falls lower and lower until its voltage falls to zero early
on discharge for the reminder of the discharge it is recurring as charge in the wrong direction.
The current in amperes discharging from the rest of the battery. For example if a battery be
discharging at 20 Amps. And one cell falls to Zero Volts, the cell will be charged for the rest of the
discharge at 20 Amps in the wrong direction.
Reversed Battery :
It is due to shear mistake or bad luck. It is to say if the negative instead of positive
terminal of the battery is connected with the negative of the charger. Another possibility is the
wrong coupling of row forming the complete battery. In most cases, the plates are ruined or initial
charge of the battery is commenced and the fault discovered within 12 hours, than the plates may
be recovered. If for a longer duration of charge, say, 50 hours, the positive plates will be
depreciated and negative plates be wrecked. Buckling due to continuous overcharging and
sulphation due to continuous under charging with also take place.

Weak Cells:
Weak Cells should be immediately examined for any possible short circuit or metallic
contact between positive and negative plates. Short circuit should be removed and the cell
should then be given special additional charge by taking it out of circuit and putting back again
after recharging. Continuous presence of a weak cell in battery may sometime cause the
individual cell to reverse its polarity. Rectification of weak cells in time is therefore important.
The replacement of a weak cell or any maintenance of the station battery requiring disconnection
of the cell should always maintenance of the station battery requiring disconnection of the cell
should always be done by availing a total shutdown or suitable bypass clip on connection to short
circuit the cell should be established before attempting to cutout the cell.

PROBLEMS IN BATTERIES

Problems in batteries could be classified under the following categories :


A. Positive :
Buckling
Sulphating
Disintegrating
Corroding
Breaking up

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B. Negative :
Paste blowing
Premature gassing
Paste shedding
Paste sulphating
Paste contracting
Reverse polarity
Hydration
C. Positives and Negatives
Sulphation
Hydration
Bad Color
Sluggishness through
(a) insufficient work. (b) insufficient charge
Local action
D. Electrolyte :
Lower specific gravity
Stratification
Irregular specific gravity
Impure Water
Discoloration
E. Connections :
End or regulating Cells
End cell lower in voltage than the remainder
Inadequate Insulation
Internal short circuits
Weak Cells
Reversed Cells
Reversed Batteries

ANNEXURE – I
Schedule of Maintenance – Lead Acid Batteries

Sl.No. Item of Maintenance Work Periodicity


01. Earth fault indicating device – check reading of D.C. Every Shift
Voltage
02. Pilot Cell Voltage specific gravity and temperature of Every Shift
electrolyte
03. Battery cell voltages, specific gravity and temperature Weekly
of electrolyte and cadmium test results
04. Equalizer Charger Quarterly or when the specific
gravity falls by40 points
whichever is earlier
05. Inspection testing of battery, relays, check up of Annual
instruments
06. Checking control cables for continuity and insulation Quarterly
resistance

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ANNEXURE – II
Schedule of Maintenance Motor Generators
Sl.No. Item of Maintenance Work Periodicity
01. Feel ball and roller bearing housing for evidence of Weekly
vibration and listen for any unusual noise
02. Examination and cleaning of commutator surface Monthly
checking of brushes in holders for fit and free play and
examination of brush faces for chipped toes
03. Check coupling and other drive details. See if belt Monthly
runs steadily and close to motor edge of pulley, clean
inside of chain housing
.04. Field Rheostat Movement I.R. value of winding Yearly
cleaning of surface and ventilation passages
thoroughly
04. Inspection of rotors and checking of air gap Yearly

MAINTENANCE OF BATTERIES
MONTH Whether Monthly / Weekly* Reason for Whether Reason
Maintenance done (Yes / No) Slippage overhaul done for
as per Slippage
W1 W2 W3 W4 Schedule (Yes
/ No)
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
January
February
March

* Weekly for Lead Acid Batteries Monthly for Ni-fe Cells

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4. PROTECTION OF SUB STATION EQUIPMENTS

1. Over current relays c) Inverse definate minimum time relay:


Introduction: The current time characteristic of this type
Short circuits in system or equipments use of relay is given in fig.4. the time of operation is less
increase of currents. The shorted or faulty portion when the current increases and after a cetain value
has to be isolated as quickly as possible. The over the time is constant, the characteristic could be di-
current relay which picks up with the Time depen- vided into 3 parts. The first portion takes care of
dent over current relays are used for primary protec- pick up, the second portion inverse characteristic
tion of distribution feeders, rotating electrical ma- and the third definite minimum time. This is achieved
chinery and transformers, also back up protection by means of induction type disc relays which inher-
for highvoltage transmission lines. ently provides this inverse characteristic. These type
of relays are largely used for both over current and
Protection requirements : Earth fault protection. Induction disc type extremely
For the protection of radial feeders and trans- inverse and very inversed relays are also available
formers no directional over current relays are used. for use at specific locations.
For the protection of ring mains and grid feeders
directional features are included for selectivity. The Fig.5 gives the internal connection of a in-
above relays have to operate for short circuits in verse relay. In these relays there is feasibility to
its own section and provide back up protection to select the plug settings and time settings for wide
the next section. Fig., gives a radial System with ranges. The plug settings for selecting the pick up
source at ‘A’ the relays at station A,B,C & D have to current of the relay. The time multiplier setting is in
be set suitably such that only faulty section has to the form of an adjustable back stop by which the
be isolated. In case if it is not cleared due to some gap between the back stop and moving contact fixed
reason, the adjacent section should be cleared. For in the disc is adjusted.
a fault beyond station ‘D’ only relay at station ‘D’
should act and clear the fault. This selectivity be- Method of connection:
tween two stations or more is called gradation or The relays are connected to C. Ts. as shown
discrimination. in Fig.6. Separate relays are used for phase fault
and earth fault protection. Separate earth fault re-
Types of relays: lays are required because they can be adjusted to
a) Attracted armature type: provide faster and more sensitive protection for ground
This will pick up instaneously when the value faults than phase faults as earth faults are more fre-
of current increase the set value. With the help of quent. Relays used for various equipment in TNEB
these relays and pick up value adjusted at various are as follows.
sections, the gradation could be made and are called I. Transformers : H.T.2 O/L & 1 E/L L.T.3 O/L .
current gradation relays, there is difficulty in action 2. Auto transformers : H. T.3 O/L L.T.3 O/L
these relays. If there is a fault between BC near B 3. Radial feeders : 2 O/ L & 1 E/L or 3 O/ L & 1 E/L
the relay at section A may also pick up as there will 4. Grid feeders and ring main : Directional 2 O/L &
be no difference in the fault current. Further the mag- 1 E/L
nitude of the fault current cannot be accurately de- Settings:
termined because of its dependent on fault MVA. For over current relays current taps are se-
Hence these relays are used only at locations where lected to allow maximum current safety. The time
the time lag is not desirable. (Fig.2) settings are such that the fault in the section pro-
tected clear fast with back up protection to adjacent
b) Definite minimum time relays: lines or equipments. For this a time difference of
This is a combination of attracted amature about 0.5 sec. is required between the two adjacent
current relay and a time delay relay the currtent sections to allow for the following:
relay is set to pick up for the minimum fault MVA
and on its pick up this energises a timer which is a) Fault interrupting time of the circuit breaker:
set for a definite time delay for isolation. With this This is about 0.25 sec. The relay will be in
definite delay at various sections as shown in Fig.3 pick up condition with the breaker clears the fault.
gradation could be made between two sections. A b) Over shoot or travel:
time delay of 0.5 sec. has to be allowed between The relay overshoot occurs due to contin-
two sections for selectivity (discrimination). Due to ued movement of relay elements even after the ac-
this the fault close to source is cleared with longer tuating force is removed. This occurs due to the in-
time delay. Hence this is also generally not preferred ertia of moving parts on the time allowable is about
except under special conditions. 0.1 sec.

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c) Errors: currents not balanced due to C. T. ratio mismatch
All measuring devices such as C. T. and relays and tap changing.These mismatches met cause
are subjected to some errors. To allow for this unbalance and the relay may act. There will be in
an additional factor of safety margin is allowed with rush of magnetising current during charging and due
a time of about 0.2 sec. to presence of 2nd harmonics, the relay may act.
Thc design of over all scheme must take into ac-
For earth fault relays sensitive settings could count of the above aspects. For this purpose a bi-
be set as the earth fault relay measures only the ased harmonic restraint differential relays as shown
residual current which is independent of load in Fig.8 are used for transformer protection.
currents, the earth fault relay is unaffected by load
currents. This permissible low setting on earth fault Biased differential relay:
relays are very useful as the fault current could be The circuit for a biased differential relay is
limited in magnitude by various methods. Normally shown in Fig.8. The biased winding provides restraint
for reutral grounds system of TNEB 40% settings force under which fault condition so that any unbal-
are invariably adopted. The time gradation is similar anced current may not cause the operation of the
to over current relays. relay. During internal faults the whole of the second-
ary current will pass through the relay operating cir-
Directional over current and Earth fault relays: cuit. From Fig.8c it is seen that the current required
When there is feeding at both ends such as to operate the relay increases with increase in spill
in grid feeders and ring main stations, directional O/ current during through fault. For internal fault the re-
L & E/L relays have to be used. For this purpose lay operates at the point where both curve crosses.
additional directional feature is included which is
controlled by both current and voltage. Harmonic restraint:
When transformers are energised there will
Differential Protection be inrush of large magnetising current. There will be
Introduction: presence of harmonic components, mostly of 2nd
Differential relays are current relays in which harmonic. Due to this the differential relay may pick
the magnitude of current and vector difference be- up. To block tripping, the 2nd harmonics have to be
tween current entering and leaving are compared and filtered out.
is used for operation of relay. The differential relays Points to be considered when applying dif-
are employed where fast clearance of faults (instan- ferential protection in 3 phase transformers:
taneous) are required. These relays are used for pro-
tection of a) The C. T. secondary connections must be ar-
1. Generators ranged such that any phase shift due to the
2. Generator -transformers vector group of the main transformer is
3. Transformers compensated.
4. Transmission lines by Pilot wires b) The C.T. ratios must be chosen to suit the
5. Bus bar protection main transformer ratio.
c) The setting currents should be well above the
Principle of operation: anticipated spill current during external fault
The differential protection operate on current conditions.
balance principle. Referring to Fig.7 the current Diagram currents should be well above the
incoming and outgoing is balanced and there is no anticipated are given in Fig.9. The internal diagram
circulation of current through the relay for fault out- of a biased, harmonic restrained relay is given in
side. For a fault inside, the current circulate in the Fig.10.
relay and relay operates. However this scheme will
be affected by magnetising current, and through fault

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+
Trip

A.C. A.C.

INTERNAL CONNECTION OF O./ L RELAY

3 O./ L. & 1 E./ L.


3 O./ L. RELAY CONNECTIONS. RELAY CONNECTIONS.

- 52 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


Fig .5 C. 2/OL and 1 E.L. Relay
connection.

Fig 7.B. Current balance Scheme.

Fig 8. Biased Differential Relay


Relay Operating Current

Relay Operating Current

ired
Current
Available

qu
t Re
ur ren
n gC
rati
Ope
to Operate
Required
Current

t
ren
Cur
S pill

Primary Current
Primary Current

T - Transformer B - Biased Winding O - operating Coil

- 53 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


60 / 1 A
110 / 11 KV 10
MVA, 600 / .577 A

Auto Transformer

- 54 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


FIG . 5a. Permissive inter trip over reaching scheme.

FIG . 5b. Acceleration scheme.

FIG . 5c. Blocking scheme.


- 55 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.
Z1 - Zone I Contact
Z2 - Zone II Contact
Z3 - Zone III Contact & Starter
2T - Zone II Timer
3 T - Zone III Timer
TR - Tripping Relay
RR - Receive Relay
S - Signaling send circuit
2R - Reverse looking impedence
relay
STL - Short Time lag relay.

Fig : 5, Transfer Trip Scheme (Under Reaching)

Fig :5 Permissible inter Trip (under Reaching Scheme.)

- 56 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


Distance Protection drop in the line and therefore the voltage to current
General: ratio at the relaying point for such a fault would be
In the past when the systems were small and IF ZF
where radial feeders were adequate, instanta- IF = ZF
neous over current and earth fault relays were evolved. Type of distance relay and their application:
As the system grew complicated IDMT Relays were The distance relays are classified accord-
developed to provide better discrimination than the ing to their polar characteristic, the number of in-
instantaneous relays. Later they were made direc- puts they have and the method by which compari-
tional to give still better discrimination. The above son made. The common type compare two input
relays except directional were single quantity. Cur- quantities in either magnitude or phase to obtain char-
rent or voltage operated are provided reasonably acteristics which are either straight line or circles
sufficient discrimination. At times for short periods, when plotted on an R-X diagram.
the transmission lines have to be overloadcd due to
system disturbance or to meet short peaks. Hence Impedance Relay:
relays to discriminate between over loads and faults The characteristic of an impedance relay if
were investigated and a relay where both current and plotted on a R-X diagram would be a circle within the
voltage are used to measure the impedence of the origin as the centre and radius equal to the setting
line. This is the beginning of the distance relays. impedance Z. Fig.2a such a relay being non-direc-
tional would operate not only for faults in the pro-
Requirement of protective schemes: tected section but also for faults behind the relaying
The protective scheme should be fast enough for point. It is therefore necessary to add a directional
the following reasons, element to this impedance relay to so that the relay
a) The shorter the time a fault is allowed to persist would operate for faults in the protected scction only.
the more load can be transferred in a power
system without loss of synchronism. The torque equation for the dire ctional ele-
b) Elcctrical apparatus may be damaged if they ment is T = KIVI cos (θ -0) when θ = phase angle
are allowed to carry fault current for long period, between V & I.
c) A persistent fault will lower the voltage resulting Q = Max torque angle of the relay.
in drawing and over loading of industrial drives,
One method of protecting a circuit is to ar- Reactance relay:
range the relay to compare the currents entering and A reactance relay measures component of imped-
Ieaving such as differential protection (unit ance Z sin θ and would operate for a constant value
protection). With the help of pilot wires this can be of X. The operting characteristic of such a relay would
achieved in case of transmission line also, but is be a straight line parallel to x -axis fig.3. It could be
limited by the distance and cost involved and also seen that the reactance relay is also non-directional
reliability of pilot wires. Due to the above reasons and hence a directional relay is used with a reac-
and also practical limitation of time graded over cur- tance relay.
rent system, the distance relays were developed.
MHO Relay:
Principle of operation: This is most commonly used relay as a di-
A distance relay compares the local current rectional relay. The relay is designed such that it
with the local voltage at the relaying point, the local operates for a constant value of component Z namely
current providing the operating torque and the local Z
voltage providing the restraining torque. So at bal- cos (θ -Q)
ance point two torques are equal, The characteristic of such a relay is a circle
K1 I2 = K2V2 or V K3 = Z passing through the origin, the diameter circle is
I the setting impedance
In other words the relay is at the verge of Z/Cos (θ-Q) fig. 3a.
operating for a constant value of V / I which is an
impedance Z. Since the impedance is proportional Starting relay:
to distance of the fault from the relaying point. This Distance relay need a starting relay to sense
is also a measure of the distance to the fault, the the fault and pass on this information the measuring
relay is called “distance relay” . element. There are either over current or under im-
pedance relays.
A simple example of how the current and
voltage compensation is made is given in fig.1 us- Over current starting :
ing balanced beam relay, The relay is connected at Over current starting relays generally of in-
position R and normally receives secondary current stantaneous type normally set above 1.2 times the
proportional to load current and secondary voltage full load current. For successful operation, the power
proportional to system voltage. During fault condi- system minimum fault current for a fault at 3rd zone
tion, the relay measures VF which is equal to IF ZF reach of the distance relay must not be less than

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1.5 times the setting of the over current starters. Out of step blocking:
During power swing conditions, the load
Under Impedance starting : Impedance may fail to the reach of the starting relay
There are either plain impedance or MHO type which may cause tripping. This has to be blocked.
impedance relay. These relay should be sensitive An out of step block relay or power swing relay is
enough to detect faults occurring beyond third zone also a MHO relay with an offset characteristic com-
under minimum generation condition. pletely cnclosing the MHO starting relays. It oper-
ates on the principle of rate of change of impedance
The starting relay in addition to sensing the presented to the relay, the rate of change of imped-
existence of fault thc type of fault should also per- ance is considerably slower than under fault condi-
form the following: tion. This relay when it picks up will allow the trip-
a). Apply correct quantities to the mea suring ele- ping for a period of say 80 milli seconds. If within
ment. this period the impedance as seen by the fault de-
b). Select the correct phase for the tripping com- tectors falls with their reach, indicating a fault the
mand. trip circuit is kept prepared for tripping. Otherwise
c). Change the distance step according to the the trip circuit is disconnected after 80 milli sec-
distance of fault from the relay location. onds so that the tripping is not possible.
d) Act as a back -up to the measuring element.
Carrier Inter trip schemers:
Zone of protection: It could be seen that in the distance scheme,
To ensure correct co-ordination between the faults at the end zones are cleared with a time
distance relay in a power system it is customary to delay of about 0.4 sec. In case of long lines say of
choose a relay impedance setting of 80% of pro- about 100 KM the faults in 40 KM are cleared with
tected line for the 1st zone. This is to provide a mar- time delay. To minimise the damage to equipments
gin against possible over reach which may be caused it is necessary that faults are cleared as fast as
by transients C.T.P.T. and line parameter errors. possible further it may be necessary to reclose the
The II zone covers the whole Iine plus 50% of the circuit as quickly as possible to keep the system
shortest Iine. The III zone is set to cover 25% of the standard for successful reclosing the breakers at
largest 3rd line. The II & III zones are time delayed both ends should open simultaneously. For this car-
depending upon the system requirements fig. 4. rier aided inter trip schemes are provided along with
distance schemes. Some of the carrier inter trip
Theoretically four fault detectors and 18 scheme are given in Fig. 5a, 5b, 5c, 5d & 5e.
measuring units are required for providing three time
distance step for the 10 varieties of phase to phase Protection of power transformer
and phase to ground faults. Because of the cost Introduction :
and panel space, their number is reduced by using Protective gear is applied to transformers
each measuring unit for more than one purpose. to detect internal faults and the conditions likely to
cause them. Transformer faults are generally caused
a) There can be only one distance measurement by the failure of insulating materials weakened by
unit directional in itself for all kinds of fault, impurities, over heating, or mechanical damage re-
the correct parameter being feed by the start- sulting from repeated external short circuits. The risk
ing relay. The tripping time of such relays will of short circuits between phases is very small, but
be more due to the time delay involved in there is an almost equal risk of inter turn fault is
switching the auxiliary relays to feed the closed to a line terminal. Transformers are generally
measuring quantities to the measuring protected externally to approximately 80 per cent of
elements. their specificd insulation level, and failure of this ex-
b) There can be several distance measuring ele- ternal protection can allow steep fronted voltage
ments six relays, eighteen measurements no surges, which may create high stress between parts
change is made in the input quantities in the in the winding, to enter the transformer; less severe
1 or any subsequent steps for such a system. stress occurs some way down a star connected
The system however very expensive and is winding where the incident wave coincides with that
recommended for EHV lines only. portion of the wave reflected from the neutral point.
Although the surge condition is more likely to
The number of relays through six is generally initiate a fault between parts of the winding, then an
used can be reduced to four, three are connected for earth fault, the follow through power frequency current
all faults involving to ground and one relay for phase may eventually cause a fault to earth.
to phase faults not involving ground by choosing
appropriate measurement. Faults in on load tap changing equip ment
can be between tappings of the transformer winding
between phases and to earth.

- 58 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


2. Over heating protection: The action of a fault with in a transformer tank
Overheating is due to exccssive loading, failure is to break down the oil into gaseous products, the
of the cooling system of core faults e.g. short gas passes along the pipe line from the transform-
circuited laminations persistent over heating causes ers tank to the oil conservator. The severity of the
premature deterioration of the insulation and there fault governs to the rate of gassification; for instance,
by shortens the life of the transtormer. incipient and low current faults produce a stream, of
Overheating is detected by measuring the oil gas bubbles which flow towards the conservator,
temperature the thermometers may be of the whereas a severe short-circuit causes a sudden
hydraulic type (mercury-in-steel) vapour pressure, surge of oil followed by the exhausting of the gas-
or liquid-expansion patterns using a Bourden (tupe eous products. This action is used to operate the
indicator), or of the electrical-resistance type. They Buchholz relay.
are arranged to record the highest oil temperature of The most common form of the relay is shown
winding hot spots. To take advantage of the short in figure 2. A chamber containing two floats, each
time over load capacity of transformer the carrying a merury switch is mounted in the inclined
themometers are designed with a thermal time-con- pipe line between the transformer tank and the oil
stant similar to that of the windings. Figure 1 shows conservator. Gas rising to the conservator lodges in
a Bourden, the gauge with its bulb in an oil filled the upper part of the relay vessel, and when a given
packet at the top of the transformer tank. quantity has collected the upper float will have fallen
sufficiently to operate the mercury switch to give an
With indicators for hot spot temperature
alarm. The reason for an alarm rather than tripping
measurement, a heater, energised from a phase
is two fold; firstly, the condition on giving rise to slow
etc., is also mounted in the pocket. The thermom-
generation of gas do not generally call for immedi-
eter thus measures top oil temperature plus an in-
ate disconnection of the transformer, and secondly,
crement proportional to the load. By design this in-
the release of trapped air also operate the upper float.
crement is arranged to be the same as the differ-
False alarm from the later cause are most likely when
ence between top oil temperature and that of the
the transformer is first loaded after filling or refilling
winding hot spot. The indicator is generally fitted with
with oil, an oil surge, indicating a severe fault, de-
mercury switches to give an alarm at say 90°C and
flects the lower float and the mercury switch con-
to trip the circuit breaker if the temperature rises,
nected there to trips the transformer circuit breaker.
any another, 15°C.
The Bucholz device is the only method of de-
Over heating protection is usually fitted to, tecting certain types of fault It is particularly useful
medium and large size transformers. to detect incipient winding faults, failure of lamina-
3. Buchholz relay: tions and core bolt insulation, and inter turn
Buchholz can be used on transformers fitted with shorts to other forms of protection.
conservators. The speed of operation of the relay on surge
obviously varies according to the severity of the fault.
Transformer temperature indicator For a fault some distance down the winding it my
below (0.5 sec), but for terminal faults it may be as
high as speed of differential protection.
Evidently faults in the connecting Ieads ex-
ternal to the transformer and in tap change compart-
ments and the like which do not communicate with
the main tank are not covered by the Buchholz re-
lay,
Where transformers are not fitted with a con-
servator the Buchholz relay is in appIication.
Hermitically sealed transformers are common
in the United states. The American practice is to fit
these with hydraulic relays which respond to the rate
of change of pressure in the gas cushion above the
1. Bourden take indicating instrument oil.
2. Alarm 4. Faults In the Auxiliary units:
3. Trip Faults are classified under two ideas.
4. Capillary tube a) faults in the auxiliary equipments.
5. Oil filled pocket b) Faults in transformer windings and
6. Thermometer bulb, connections.
7. Heats. Transformer oil Level :
8. Main Tank Low oil level is dangerous condition. Alarm
9. CT around one phase conductor is provided by float switch. The magnetic oil level
10. Mercury switches gauge is used for this purpose.

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Oil pumps, forced air fans : nection is not possible to protect the whole winding
Alarms are provided for their failures. because the fault current tends to zero the nearer
the fault is to the neutral point. The P.O.C. of 10
Flow indications : percent leaves 10 percent of the winding unprotected,
Alarms are also provided for the failure of oil the lower the P .O.C. there greater is the portion of
flow, water flow indicated by flow meters. the winding protected, but it must not be so low that
operation by the unbalanced capacitance current of
5. Earth Faults : the circuit occurs within the protected zone on the
Current distribution for earth faults with vari- incidence of an earth fault elsewhere in the system.
ous tansformers varies with the type of connection. For earth faults on a solidly earthed star winding a
The fault current varies from a minimum to a maxi- P.O.C. of 50 per cent of full load is generally ad-
mum depending upon the location of fault in the equate.
winding from neutral end. Therefore the phase con-
nected over current relays do not provide adequate 6. Over current relays:
earth fault protection. If the system is solidly earthed Although phase connected over current relays
some transformer differential protective equipment’s do not adequately protect transformers against earth
adequately covered the majority of faults, but in gen- faults they are suitable for phase faults protection,
eral separate earth fault protection is necessary. provided that thc relatively low speed of operation
can be tolerated and that they discriminate correctly
a) Frame leakage protection : with other relays.
Earth faults with in the transformer or tap Differential protection is generally uneconomi-
changer tank may be detected by a frame leakage cal for power transformers below about 5 MVA. For
scheme. In British practice this protection is only transformers above % MVA, if differential protection
used to indicate a faulted unit in a bank of paralleled is used as a main protection, over current protection
transformer. The transformer tank is lightly insulated is used in addition, as a back up for sustained
from the earh. The metal-frame work is earthed with through faults.
a primary of a e.t. in between as shown in figure -3. For small transformers, over current protec-
The concrete foundation of the tranformer and tion may be provided simply by means of a fuse on
the cable boxes are slightly insulated from the earth, H. V. side.
the resistance to earth being about 12 to 20 ohms. The connections for over current protection is
In the event of an through the primary of the c.t. shown in figure t.
while so it is sensed by the earth fault relay.
Principles of frame - leakage protection of
transformer

b) Restricted Earth fault protection :


Restricted earth fault protection is sensitive
only to earth faults with in the zone bounded by the
C.Ts. A C.T. is fitted in each connection to the pro-
tected winding, and the C.T. secondary windings are
connected in parall to relay. Fig.4 shows restricted
earth fault protection of star and delta windings. If
there is no neutral earth connection with in the pro- Three over current relay Fig.5.
tected zone, the neutral C.T. is omitted as in figure
While selecting the over current protection of
(4b). The outputs of the C.Ts. is proportional to the
transformer the following aspects need consideration:
sum of the zero sequence currents in the line and
a) Magnetising current in rush: IDMT relays are not
neutral earth connection if the latter is within the
affected by the current in rush as they have
protected zone. For internal faults this sum is equal
enough time lag. Instantaneous over current re-
to twice the total fault current but for external faults
lays should be high set to avoid mal operation.
zero sequence currents are either absent or sum to
b) The fault current in primary and secondary side
zero in the line and neutral earth connections.
of the power transfonners are different for phase
faults. Lower value should be selected for set-
c) Methods of treating three phase four wire sys-
ting of over current relays.
tem. Figure : Restricted earth fault protection. or
c) Primary full load current should be considered
sum to zero in the line and neutral earth connec-
while setting the over current relay.
tions.
d) The setting of IDMT over current relay is gener-
ally 125 percent of transformer rating to take care
The primary operating current (P .O.C.) re-
of normal over loads. Enough time delay should
quired is governed by the method of system earthing
be provided as per the application.
and the transformer connection. With a star con-

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A
B A
C B
C

Relay Earthing Transformer


Relay
a) Neutral point earthed within protected Zone.

Relay
Relay
a) Neutral point not earthed within protected Zone.

Relay

c) Method of treating three phase four wire system,


Figure. restricted earth fault protection or sum to zero in the line and
Neutral earth Connections.

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e) The setting of instantaneous over current relay it is not possible to connect the relay coil to the
on primary side should be more than asymmetri- equipotential points, this difficulty is overcome by
cal value of fault current for three phase fault, on connecting adjustable resistors in series with the
the secondary side of transfonner. This setting pilot wires. They are adjusted on site to obtain equi-
is generally adequate to take care of magnetising potential points.
current in rush.
2. C.T. Ratio errors during short - circuits :
7. Differential Protection :- The current transformer may have almost
It is also called as Biased Differential pro- equal ratio at normal currents. But during short cir-
tection or Merz price protection. cuit conditions, the primary currents are unduly large.
The ratio errors of C.Ts on either side differ during
a). Principle of Differential Protection : these conditions due to :
It is that which responds to the vector differ- i) Inherent difference in C.T. characteristics
ence between two or more similar electrical quanti- arising out of difference in magnetic circuit,
ties. In transformer protection, the current transform- saturation condition etc.,
ers are provided at each end say H.V. and L.V. bush- ii) Unequal d.c. components in the short circuit
ings. When there is no fault in the windings and for currents.
through faults, the differential current I1 - I2is zero
vide fig.6 i.e. when there is no internal fault, the 3. Saturation of C.T. magnetic circuits during
current entering is equal in phase and magnitude to short circuit condition:
current leaving the winding. The C.Ts. are of such a Due to these causes the relay may lose its
ratio that during the normal conditions for external stability for through faults.
faults leaving the winding. The C.Ts are of such a To over come this difficulty, the percentage
ratio that during the normal conditions for external Differential Relay, or Biased Differential Relay is
faults (through faults) the secondary currents of C.Ts used. It is essentially a current balance type differ-
are equal. These currents say I1 and I2 circulate in ential relay with additional restraining coil. The cur-
the pilot wires. The polarity connections are such rent flowing in the restraining coil is proportional to
that the currents I1 and I2 are in the same direction in (I1 +I2 )/2 and this restraining current prevents the
pilot wires during normal conditions or external faults. operation during external faults. Bccause with the
Relay operating coil is connected at the middle of rise in current, the restraining torque increases and
pilot wires. I1-I2 arising out of difference in C.T. ratio is not enough
to cause relay operation.

4. Magnetizing current inrush in transformer


while switching in :
When the tranformer is connected to sup-
ply a large (6 to 10 times full load) current in rush
takes place. This certainly causes operation of dif-
ferential relay though there is no fault in the
(Normal Conditions and Trough fault) transfonner. To avoid this difficulty, ‘Harmonic, Re-
straint’ is provided for the differential relay. This re-
Fig.6 Principle of differential relay price protection of lay filters the harmonic component from the Inrush
transformer. current and feeds it to the restraining coil. The
magnetising current contains a large content of sev-
During normal conditions and external fault
eral harmonics. This harmonic content is used for
the protection system is balanced and the C.Ts. ra-
obtaining restraining torque during short switching
tios are such that secondary currents are equal.
in of transformer.
These currents circulate in pilot Wires. Differential
Tap changing causes change in transforma-
Current I1 - I2 which flows through the relay coil is
tion ratio of a transformer thereby the C.T. ratios do
zero.
not match with the new settings, resulting in current
I1- I2 = c (normal conditions or external fault)
in pilot wires even during healthy conditions. This
This balance is disturbed for internal faults aspect is taken care of by biased differential relay.
when fault occurs in the protected Zone, the differ- 5. Biased or percentage Differential relay :
ential current I1 -I2 flows through the relay operating a) Description:
coil and the relay operates if the operating is more The reason for using this modification of dif-
than the restraining torque. ferential relay is to overcome the trouble arising out
b) Difficulties in differential relays in Generator of differences in C.T. ratios for high values of exter-
and Transformer protection. nal short circuit currents. The percentage differen-
1. Difference in pilot wire lengths : tial relay has an additional restraining coil connected
The current transformers and machine to be in the pilot wire as shown in figure 7.
protected are located at different sites and normally
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Protected Zone

Ampere Turns
(I1 + I2) n
2
I1 I2

I1 I2

Restraining coil at biased coil


Fig.7 percentage differential relay

In this relay the operating coil is connected with respect to load currents on H.V. side are dis-
to the mid point of the restraining coil. The total num- placed in phase with respect to load currents of cor-
ber of ampere turns in the restraining coil becomes responding phase on L.V. side.
the sum of ampere turns in its two halves I1N/2 +I2 The power transformers are ground according to the
N/2 in N turns. For external faults both I1 and I2 in- phase displacement, e.g.
crease thereby the restraining torque increases Group I : Star, Star phase displacement = 0°
which prevents the mal-operations. Group 2 : Star, -Star, phase displacement = 180°
The operating characteristic of such a relay Group 3 : Delta -Star, Phase displacement = Minus 30°,
is given in Fig.8. The ratio of differential operating Group 4 : Delta -Star, Phase displacement = Plus 30°
current to average restraining current is fixed
In thc circulating current differential protection,
percentage. Hence the relay is called ‘Percentage
the phase displacement in line currents on two sides
Differential Relay’.
introduces phase difference in secondary currents
The Relay is also called “Biased Differential
of C.Ts. on two sides.
Relay” because the restraining coil is also called a
Biased coil as it provides an additional Flux. The C.T. connections should be such that the
resultant current fed into the pilot wires from either
sides are displaced in phase by an equal to the phase
Relay operates
in this Region

shift between the primary and secondary currents


operating current

Chore to get this arrangement, the following rules are fol-


Differential

lowed :
I1 - I2

1. Secondary C.Ts. Connection in delta side of


Relay does
power transformer are connected in Star, with
not operate
effect of in this Region
such arrangements, the phase displacement
spring Average between currents gets cancelled with the
I1 - I2 resticing phase displacement due to Star/Delta
2 current connections of C.T. Secondaries and the
Fig.8 Operating characteristics of percentage current fed to pilot wires from both sides are
differential relay or biased differential relay. in phase during normal conditions.
The percentage or biased differential relay 2. The neutrals of C.T.Star and Power transformer
has a rising pick up characteristic. As the magni- star connections are grounded.
tude of through current increases, the restraining
current increases. C.T.Ratios:
Current ratios of C.Ts. on each side will be
6. C.T. connections for differential relays: different depending upon line currents of power trans-
I) In both the cases three current transform- former and connections of C.T. ratios. The currents
ers (C, Ts.) are required at each side of the pro- fed into pilot wires from each end should be the same
tected transformer. The connection of C. T. second- for normal conditions. Suppose this current is 1 Amp.,
aries are such that during normal conditions and for then secondary current of delta connected C.T. will
external faults, no current should flow through the be 1/3 = 0.577 amps and Star connected C.T. will
relay operating coil. have 1 Amp.
There is an inherent phase displacement
between vectors representing the voltages inducted The Star - Star transformers come under
in high voltage winding and low voltage windings and group 1 or group - 2, having phase displacement of
having same marking Ietter and corresponding neu- 00 or 1800 respestively. The C.T. secondaries on
tral points in case of star delta transformers. Hence both sides are connected in delta.

- 63 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


5. OPERATING INSTRUCTION FOR RADIAL SUBSTATION

Operating instruction are the guidelines for the substation operators. The main objective
of the operating instruction is to give a definite direction to the operator to act in a quick and
methodical way by following the sequence and correct procedure under the following
circumstances.

a) In case of a planed operation such as issue of line clear on lines and availing of
shutdown on equipments etc.,

b) In case of emergent circumstances such as breakdown of lines and failure of


equipments in order to isolate the faulty section of lines or equipments
immediately and to restore early supply with minimum interruption. Since during
these operations the operator become nervous and acts with tension.

i) It relieves the operator from tension and if he follows the sequences of


operation, wavering of mind is avoided.
ii) It avoids mal-operation thereby safe guard the equipment from failure
damage.
iii) It reduces interruption of supply.
iv) It gives coordination among various persons involved in the same
substation and the nearby substations. This purpose could be achieved
only if the instructions are elaborate, giving each and every information
to be known to the operator. The important points to be covered in the
instructions are

a) Geographical location of substation, the area fed by that


substation.
b) Sources of supply to the substation i.e. Normal feeding and the
alternate feeding.
c) Details of equipment’s in service showing their loading capacity
and their limitations. The CT/PT ratios available and set at etc.
Any other facility such as on load tap changer etc.
d) Isolating arrangements. Their locking and interlocking
arrangements. Earth switches etc.
e) Sequence of operation, paralleling arrangements.

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f) Protections available, connected, annunciation I indications
provided in case each relay operation and resulting methods.
g) Outgoing feeders, the size of conductors, their current carrying
capacity, Breaker capacity, CT ratio available and adopted
sectionalizing switches connected to that feeder with their
location numbers. Single phasing, and paralleling arrangements
available.
h) Complete layout of the substation showing the incoming and
outgoing feeders, Power Transformers CTs / PTs connected
breakers and Lightning arresters.
i) Circuit diagram of AC / DC circuits and its alternate feeding
arrangements.
j) Fire fighting equipments available and their location.
k) Method of issue of line clear and its cancellation and
normalization of feeders and equipments
J) Important loads, essential loads, continuous process industries,
Important VIP areas, offices, hospitals fed by the feeders should
also be made available.
m) As a “Do’s and Do nots”.
n) Brief responsibility of the operator.

The above details give a complete picture of the substation to the operator and basic
knowledge about the equipments and their type of operation, protections provided.

Even though the operating instructions are general guide lines, in case of emergencies it
may need some minor deviations considering safety aspects and the operator has to make own
judgment For example when a 11 K. V ‘feeder trips the normal operating instruction are

A. 11 KV feeder Trips with Bell / alarm and relay indication

1) Accept the alarm.


2) Note down the relay indication.
3) Go to the yard verify whether there is any untoward happening.
4) After confirming that every thing is normal, reset the flag indication.
5) Charge the feeder again.
6) If stood OK, crack the ammeter switch and confirm all the three phases are loaded
equally or as before.

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During the above coarse of operations if some body phones up from outside stating that
some conductor had snapped in. that feeder. Are we to follow the sequence of operation as per
the operating instruction and to charge the feeder again or not to charge the feeder? If we charge
the feeder simply following the operating instruction word by word it may end in a brutal killing.
Hence in such junctions the operator must apply his mind and come to a later judgment and
should not charge the feeder. He should inform the concerned area engineer of the above
incident and ask him to verify the correctness of information. He must also make note of the
information received and his judgment and the action taken by him in log Book and appraise his
Asst. Exe. Engineer of the portion immediately and get his ratification for the duration.

It has been a convention to classify the post of the operator as a nonsensitive post. But
the actual position is it is the most sensitive post. The operator has to be vigilant all the eight
hours and he should be sensitive to the change of humming noise of the transforD1er, another
vibration arcing noise, fluctuations in voltages, sudden changes in load pattern etc. There are
cases, the sensitiveness of the operator has made him to sense the arcing inside the breaker and
he had taken a bold decision and switched off the breaker be fore it lead failure. Sometimes the
breaker would have tripped without much noise but the alarm would not have come. Had the
operator been sensitive he would have identified the tripping by noise in the yard and sudden
change in the reading. Since the operators are to be sensitive throughout his shift.

Before going into actual operation let us see certain Dos and Do not’s.

DOS

1) Before take over the shift check the condition of all equipments in service and make
entry in the log of the conditions.
2) Verify whether any L.C. is pending. If so verify the points of isolation, Earthing etc find
also the availability of keys of the Isolators.
3) Crack the Ammeter crack switch at the time of taking over, after each tripping, after
each charging of the breaker and also after each fluctuation.
4) Watch the hourly reading of the ammeter voltmeter check the loading in all the three
phases each’ time. Record the reason if there is any abnormal changes.
5) Watch for any abnormal noise, fluctuation arcing inside the equipment and Bus bar
clamps, Bushing clamps. Isolators by going round the yard every hour and after every
operation.
6) Check the Battery condition every shift and charging current every hour.

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7) During night, switch off the yard lights and watch for hot spot or arcing.
8) When the transformer percentage impedances are not equal, the sharing of loading
will not be equal while they are connected in parallel. In that case the proportionate
loading should be watching.
9) L.C. should be issued only if the local loading conditions are permissible for the issue
of LC even though it was approved well in advance.

10) L.C. should be issued only to the person for whom it is approved for the work for which
it is approved.
11) Instruction for opening and closing of Isolators should be given to the switch Board
operator one after another, only after completion of each operation and physical
verifications.
12) Equipment or line separation from supply should be physically verified before issue of
line clear.
13) Opening of Isolator in all the three limbs should be physically verified.
14) Equipment or line should be earthed only after proper discharging.
15) Each operation should be recorded in the log book in sequence without omission and
ambiguity.
16) Protection relay flag indication should be watched every hour and any abnormal
indications should be Quoted in the log book and intimated to concerned AE/MRT,
AE/maintenance.
17) Tripping of feeders and issue of LC should be recorded in Red Ink along with indications
and observation.
18) When ever main supply fails trip .all the radial feeder breakers and contact the
operator at the feeding and substation or LD center for ascertaining the reason and
for further normalizing of the load.
19) While charging the transformers alone without toad reduce the tap position to avoid
high voltage in the station.
20) After issue of L.C, keep the key in LC key board and the L.C.key board should be
locked and kept under the custody of operator only.
21) In case of issue of L.C. or returning of LC through phone (ascertain) the correct person
by cross checking.
1) The person in the other end should be recalled by the operator after closing
the phone.
2) The nearby person should be asked to talk and identify the person,
3) Name of work proposed and carried out and the approval number or LC
number should be asked.

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22) Before charging the equipment, the proper removing of Earthing, isolation of men and
materials to the safe distance and suitability for energisation should be checked by
the operator in person.
23) All the Tripping messages and breakdown should be informed to the concerned
jurisdiction staff by the operator and to AEE in charge of SS without delay for
arranging verification.
24) After Isolation “Men on Line” “Do not switch on” Boards shall be fixed at each and
every point of isolation in such a way that the Board cannot be removed unless the
lock is opened. After isolation and discharging green flags and “Safe for work” Boards
shall be put ‘on the equipment.
25) Operator should be conversant with the AC fuses, DC fuses of each equipments and
the current point of isolation.
26) Operation should be conversant with the protection arrangements connected to each
equipment and their purpose and method of resetting.
27) Operator should be conversant with the location of fire fighting equipments and the
mode of operation of these equipments in case of fire.
28) Operator should be conversant with loading of each Power Transformer and feeders
so that when one transformer trip, he can adjust the load to that of other transformer. “
29) The feeders should be energised only through breakers.
30) While issue of LC always open the incoming side isolator first and then the outgoing
side isolator.
Do Nots :

1) Do not fail’ the sequence of operation mentioned in the operating instruction.


2) Do not charge the feeder through the isolator.
3) Do not open the Isolators on load.
4) Do not fail to check the current in all the three phases after every charging or Tripping
of breaker to confirm correct closing or opening of contacts.
5) Don’t fail to crack the Ammeter while taking hourly reading.
6) Do not depend on your subordinate for physical verification wherever required.
7) Do not give instruction for more than one operation at a time even though it is a time
consuming process.
8) Do not issue LC without physically verifying that the equipment or line has been
taken off form both main and auxiliary supply.
9) Do not cancel the LC without physical verification that the earthing has been removed
and men and material have been removed to a safe distance.

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10) Do not fail to confirm that the supply has been switched off in the feeder or equipment
before it is discharged and earthed.
11) Do not Trip anyone LV breaker of the Power Transformers when the Transformers are
loaded above 50 and are in parallel.
12) Do not depend on single auxiliary equipment (i.e.) relays etc. since there are chance
for their failure.
13) Do not charge the transformer if both the HV & LV breakers tripped due to actuation of
differential relay, Buchholz relay.
14) Do not fail to put back AC & DC fuses before charging the feeder.
15) Do not use water or foam on electrical fire.
16) Do not reset the flag indication immediately after accepting the alarm and it should be
reset only before charging the breaker after confirming their entry in the log book.

Now, let us see the operating sequence of a 110 KV radial substation for the
following emergency operation.

1) Fluctuation of Buckholz relay.


2) 110 KV Bus fault.
3) 11 KV feeder fault

and for the following planned shutdowns.


1) 110 KV G.C. LC without interruption
2) Power Transformer LC
3) 11 KV Feeder

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a) Due to failure of station Only lights & fans will switch off in the control room
and in the yard. But three will be Power
Transformer humming noise. There won’t be any
alarm.

b) Due to Tripping of L.V Breakers In this case O/L Relay indication and LV Breaker
Trip alarm and Lamp indication will come.
Besides there will be no supply. If GC did not trip there
will be Power Transformer Humming noise.

c) Due to Tripping Both GC + i) This may happen due to O/L & E/L in that case
LV Breaker O/L or E/L relay flag along with Breaker Trip alarm
and Lamp indication will come. As the GC has also
tripped there will not be any Power Transformer

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Humming Noise. Besides there will be no station
supply.

ii) This may trip due to master relay which will act
under the following condition.
i) Buckholz bottom Relay actuation or .
ii) differential Relay actuation or
iii) Winding Temperature Trip Relay
actuation
iv) Pressure Relief valve actuation. In these
cases the alarm will be a separate Bell or
Hooter the flag will appear in the
corresponding relay trip lamp will appear
in the GC and LV breaker along with alarm.
There will be no station supply

d) Due to tripping of 110 KV Feeder In this case no indications mentioned in’


above three cases will appear. The only
indication will be no humming noise and no
station supply. If thcrc was 110 KV line PT
indication it will vanish. In this case there
will be no alarm or relay flag except if no
relay is available.

e) Due to 110 KV Load shedding as above

Hence whenever there was supply failure the operator has to identify the cause of failure
from the above indication. The normalisation is as below.

a) In case of station supply failure:

He has to check the H.G. fuse and L. T. fuses of the transformer and arrange to renew
the same. If H.G. fuse did not stand station transformer may be faulty. If LT Fuse did not stand
cable or feeder fault is to be rectified,

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b) In case of Tripping of L. V. breaker

1) Accept alarm.
2) Note down Relay Indication
3) Go to the yard. Investigate for any external damage or towards in the LV breaker
11 KV Bus and 11 KV feeder Breaker 11 KV LAS etc.
If there is any untoward inform the concerned for rectification. If there is any
untoward in any section of feeders of L. V. isolate the corresponding section.
4) Hand trip all the feeder breakers.
5) Reset the relay.
6) Charge the L. V. breaker one by one check the station Bus voltage on all the
three phase. Confirm there is no fluctuation.
7) Charge the feeder breakers one by one crack the ammeter of the feeders for
normal loading.
8) Verify the loading in the power transformer in all the three phases if there is
fluctuation, check cause of fluctuation from the feeder ammeters trip the
concerned feeder.

c) Due to tripping of both GC & LV breakers

i) Due to O/L or E/L relay:

1. Accept the alarm


2. Note down the flag indication in all feeders.
3. Go to the yard. Investigate for any external damage in the feeder breaker 11 KV Bus PT
& LAS, LV breakers. Power Transformers and GC breaker. If there is outwards isolate
that defect wise area. Inform the concerned.
4. Hand Trip all the feeder breakers.
5. Reset the relay indication.
6. Charge the G.C. breaker, watch the Humming Noise in the Transformer.
7. If the Humming Noise is normal charge the L. V. Breakers one by one and note down the
Bus Voltages In all the three phases.
8. If the 11 KV bus supply is okay charge the 11 KV feeders one by one. Crack the ammeter
crack switch in each feeder and verify for equal loading or for any fluctuation verify the
loading in the three phases of the power transformer also.
9. While charging the G.C. breaker as mentioned in item (6) above, if the G.C. breaker trips
there may be fault in the zone between G .C. breaker and L. V. breaker including the

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transformers. Had there been any fault inside the transformer the concerned power
transformer relays and master relay would have been acted.
10. Accept the alarm / Hooter/
11. Note down the flag indication. If there was actuation of Power Transformer Relay
&master relay either the differential relay flag or bucholz relay flag or the winding
Temperature relay flag or PRY relay flag would have come along with master relay trip.
12. Go to the yard and verify whether there is physical failure between the GC and LV
breaker zone. In case of transformer fault verify whether there is Gas collection in
i. the Buckholz Relay abnormal temperature or spurt out oil through pressure relief
valve or failure diaphragm etc.
13. If there is transformer fault isolate the transformer by opening the incoming and outgoing
LV side isolator of the particular transformer. If there is no fault in the transformer or any
other external fault is not visible open the incoming side isolator of all the power
transformer.
14. Reset the relay indication.
15. Charge the G.C. breaker alone and verify all the three phases are closed.
16. Close the incoming side isolator of individual power transformer one by one.
Verify both transformer are having normal humming noise.
During this operation if the G.C. breaker trips again while closing anyone of the
incoming side isolator of the power transformer again. Accept alarm. Isolate
the particular for further detailed examination verify if there gas collection or
external damage in that particular transformer or any other portion in that area.
Reset the flag indication charge the G.C. breaker with the other transformer
alone verify whether Humming noise is as usual.
17. Now charge the L. V. breaker and verify for equal bus voltage in the 11 KV Bus.
18. In case both the transformers are healthy then put on the 11 KV feeder loads
one by me. If one transformer only is healthy, charge the 11 KV feeders such
that total load is with in one transformer capacity.
19. Some times for the 11 KV feeder Fault the relay flag would have come and the
breaker would have tripped. This would have caused tripping of GC & LV. This
would have come to knowledge while noting down the relay indication in (2)
above. Such feeder should be identified at the time of Hand tripping in item (4).
These breakers may not be able to trip for mechanical reason. They should be
test charged before putting them in service.
ii) Tripping of both GC & L V breakers due to actuation of master relay and buckholz
relay or differential relay or winding temperature high relay or pressure relief valve
actuation.

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1) Accept the alarm.
2) Note down the flag indications. (In case of buckholz the alarm could not
silenced until the DC fuse is removed.
3) Go to the yard. Investigate for external damages or spurt out of oil or fire etc. If
there is fire take immediate action to putout the fire by using foam before it
spreads to the nearby transformer give fire alarm or siren so that others could
come for assistance if necessary to inform’ fire service. If no fire or external
damage verify whether there is Gas collection in the Buchholz relay. In case of
winding temperature high form and the cooling oil pumps would not have worked
or would have tripped. Note down there things.
4) Isolate the transformer in which the defect is suspected by opening the incoming
and outgoing isolator. Remove the DC fuse for the above transformer.
5) Hand Trip all the 11 KV feeder breakers.
6) Reset the master relay alone, leaving the relay flags of defective transformer
as it is
7) Charge the G.C. breaker with the Healthy Transformer alone watch the Humming
Noise for health sound verify the 11 KV Bus voltage in all the three phases.
8) Charge the 11 KV feeders one by one such that total load is with in one trans
former capacity.
9) Inform the AEE/ AE maintenance immediately above the suspected transformer
fault for arranging testing of the defective transformer.
10) Sometimes if there is furious actuation of buchholz, differential relay, the same
should be got confirmed from MRF and the transformer should be put in service
only after their clearance.

d) Tripping of 110 KV feeder fault/load shedding

1) In this case there will be no indication except the stoppage of supply, humming
noise in the power Transformer. Also watch to P. T. lamp if any provided in 110
KV line.
2) Contact the feeding end substation and ascertain the cause of failure of
supply if it is fault tripping inform him about the condition of your substation.
Because the feeder would have tripped for the fault in the station also. If no fault
confirm the same to the feeding end operator. In case of fault tripping he will
ask all the radial S:S. operator to isolate there loads. Then hand trip all the
feeders & G.C. In case of Load shedding, the operator at feeding end will give

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the duration of load shedding. Now also hand trip all the feeder loads and wait
for the receipt of main supply.
3) Again contact the feeding end S.S. operator whether the feeder has been
charged OK and whether you can normalise your SS loads. On receipt of
confirmation first charge the G.C. breaker, then L. V. breakers one by one and
then the 11 KV feeders.
Sometimes the supply would have failed during peak hours when the Power
Transformer is kept at maximum tap. In that case when the main supply is
resumed, there will be high voltage in the substation before switching on 11
KV feeder loads. then high voltage may cause actuation of differential relay or
relay components. Hence the tap should brought to normal tap and the voltage
can be increased after putting the load by operating the OLTC.
4) If the operator in the feeding end says that 110 KV feeder did not stand and
ask for operation of the 110 KV isolator no (2).
5) confirm that the feeder is dead.
6) Open the isolator no. 2 confirm to the operator at feeding end ask him to charge
the feeder up to your substation.
7) If it stood OK, normalize your substation as before.
8) At that time of charging of 110 KV feeder as in operation 6 above, if your notice
any 110 KV Bus fault inform the same side operator about the fault. Inform
AEE/AE maintenance for rectification.
9) If there is 110 KV Bus fault or LAS fault after the G.C. breaker it will be recalled
while’ charging the G.C. breakers.

10) Incase of 11 KV Bus fault or .11 KV Las failure it will be revealed while charging
the anyone of the LV breaker.

e) Tripping of 11 KV Feeder on fault :

1) Accept alarm.
2) Note down Relay Indication.
3) Go to the yard verify for any visible failure and whether all the three limbs have
opened.
4) If there is no outwards. Reset the flag indication.
5) Charge the feeder breaker. If stood okay crack the Ammeter and watch all the
three phases are loaded.’

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6) Also go to the yard again verify there is no abnormal noise and all the three
lamps are in closed position.
7) Incase if the feeder trip again on fault after the operation in 5. repeat the
operation I to 6.
8) If the feeder breaker trips second time also, isolate the breaker by opening the
incoming and outgoing side isolators. Test charge the breaker alone. If it stood
okay, Trip the breaker, close the isolators. For all the above operation the time
war operation shall vary substation to substation depending upon the yard and
equipment location. Hence the time should fixed based on achieved experience,
wait for about 10 minutes for receipt of any information from the field about any
fault in the line. In case of Rural feeder we can wait for 20 minutes also.
9) Give third charge if it trips again, declare the feeder faulty. Inform the concerned
field officers of patrol of the feeder and attending the fault and to give a
confirmation report. Till then keep the AC & DC fuses kept removed.
10) On receipt of. field confirmation report about attending of fault or no fault put
AC & DC fuses. Reset the flag indication charge the breaker. If it stood okay
repeat operation. Crank the ammeter and verify that the feeders are loaded in
all the three phases and go to the yard verify physically all the three limbs are
closed and no abnormal sound is heard.
11) If all the three phases are not loaded there may be jumper opening or improper
closing of breaker. Contact the nearby consumers over phone and ask them to
check they receive supply in all the three phases. If the nearby consumer
receive three phase the line upto that area will be okay. Inform the field people
to check their area for opening of jumpers. Even if the nearby consumer says
he did not get supply in all the three phases, it may be due to impartial closing
of isolator or breaker which would been identified on physical verification
immediately after charging.
12) In such case of breaker or isolator defective inside the SS. Hand trip the feeder
immediately and inform AE/Maint for attending to the defect.

On all these cases the observation by the operator will be of prime importance
and save the failure or accident and helps to resume supply early.

So far we have seen the operator sequences for emergency operators now we will take
up a planned operation i.e. issue of L.C. Any planned shutdown should programmed will in
advance and should be got approved by the competent person. In case of interruption of supply it
should be informed to the concerned area section officers and their concurrence should be

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obtained well informed through Radio and Newspapers. Important and essential service
consumers should be informed.

All the L.C. shutdown approval are issued for a particular work to the particular staff and
for particular period it is always issued with a condition that the LC/shutdown could be availed
only if the local loading condition permits. So the duty of the operator is to verify the shutdown
has been approved and the individual is authorised person and it can be issued on that day and
the condition of Back feeding mentioned in the shutdown approval could be arranged on that day
or whether the interrupts could be permitted. He should also get the concurrence of the AEE in-
charge of the substation before issue of L.C. informing of the approval and station local condition.

L.C. on line can be issued on phone if the authorised person first contact the operator in
advance and fix the time and give the phone number from which he will contact. As soon as he
comes on phone again and request for LC he should ask to close the phone. The operator should
call him to confirm the phone location and the person correctly.

L.C. on 110 KV G.C. breaker without interruption

1) Verify the L.C, approval and confirm the field staff are ready to take up the work.
2) Close the 110 KV G.C. breaker bye pass switch No.5 keep the key of the isolator in
the LC, board. Now we are closing the 110 KV Isolator on load. As this is only a
parallel switch it will not give any arcing. Verify the load in the G.C. breaker is reduced
by 50 in all the three phases. If the isolator did not close properly the loading may
differ. In that case open the Isolator again and close correctly.
3) Hand trip the G.C. breaker. Now once again crack the ammeter crack switch and
verify there is no load through the breaker in all the three limbs. In case of partial opening
of any one phase can be identified from this.
4) Remove the Interlock key from the G.C. breaker and put on the incoming side isolator
and open the incoming side isolator No.2 and lock it verify all the three knifes are
opened.
5) Open the outgoing side isolator No.4 and lock it verify all the three knifes are opened
properly keep the keys in the LC Board. Now the equipments have been isolated from
supply.
6) Use the discharge rod and discharge first all the three phase of outgoing side.
7) Provide the earth rod on both incoming and outgoing sides of the breaker so that they
are fixed to the earth effectively.
8) Remove AC & DC fuses for the breaker.

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9) Guard the area of work by tying of rope and fixing of flag. Put on LC board on the
breaker panel.
10) Now issue line clear in the printed numbered LC book. Fill up correctly the name of the
equipment which is safe for working, the portion of the breakers and isolators; Their
number and whether they are locked whether the equipment has been discharged
and earthed whether additional earthing is to be done by the receiver of LC etc. should
be mentioned and should be signed by the issuing officer and receiver with date and
time.
11) This should be recorded in the log book in red ink. On completion of work, the receiver
should give a certificate that the works have been completed. He has removed the
earthing provided by him at site, and the men and materials have also been removed
and also the equipment is safe for energising. On receipt of the certificate duly signed
the operator has to go to the yard and verify physically. Whether the earthing, men’ and
materials has been removed and confirm whether the equjpment is safe for energisation.
Then only he has to cancel the L.C. has been issued to some other person, he has to
wait for return of the L.C. by all. After cancellation of all the L.C. permit. the operator
should start his sequence of operation for normalisation.

1) Remove the earth rods provided on both the incoming and outgoing side and
guarding rope the caution board are all removed.
2) Confirm whether the breaker is fit for energisation.
3) Put the AC & DC fuses and idle charge the breaker alone by local close trip switch.”
4) Close the incoming and outgoing side isolators now the breaker has been charged
upto the contacts on both side, Watch for any abnormal Hissing sound. If any Hissing
sound is heard immediately open the isolators.
5) Put on the interlock switch.
6) Close the breaker from the control room. Crack the ammeter and verify all the three
phases are loaded.
7) Go to the yard watch for any abnormality. Confirm every thing is normal.
8) Open the bye pass switch isolator No.5 see all the three knifes have opened clearly.
Now we are opening the isolator on1oad. In this case since it is in parallel no arcing
will occur. Now the load in the G.C. breaker would have doubled confirm the same in
all three-phases.

The said operations cover the L.C. on G.C. breaker without interruption. If there is no
bye pass switch then there will be a total shutdown. In that the sequence of operation will change.

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1) Contact the concerned S.S. and confirm the quantum local they can permit as back
feeding.
2) Hand trip the 11 KV feeder breakers, L:C. breakers & GC breakers on by me.
3) Open the 11. KV bus side isolator of L. V. breaker-and 1.10 KV transformer isolators.
4) Close the isolator in the 11 KV line for availing back feeding.
5) Charge the 11 KV feeder of the concerned feeder and energise the 11 KV bus from
the nearby S.S supply.
6) Now station supply IS resumed. Also charge any other feeder to which back feeding is
to be extended.
7) In other feeders which are kept hand tripped, the incoming outgoing isolator has to
be opened.
8) Now open the incoming and outgoing isolators after removing the breaker interlock. “
9) Discharge and earth the G.C. breaker on both sides, guard the area, put on
L.C. board and issue LC as mentioned above.

After issue of L.C. inform the operator of the substation back feeding this station
of the local availed by him and to maintain the supply.

After returning of the L.C. the sequence of normalisation are

1) Verify whether the men and materials are removed and the equipment is safe
for energisation.
2) Put’ on AC & DC fuses. Check the local closing and tripping operation.
3) Remove the earthrods,
4) Close the incoming and outgoing isolators. Put on the breaker interlock switch.
5) Verify the 110 KV main supply is available and inform the feeding end operator
about the normalisation operation.
6) Charge the G.C breaker check the 110 KV bus isolator on all the three phases.
7) Close the 110 KV side isolator and transformers one by one confirm the
transformers are healthy.
8) Remove the back feeding by Tripping all the 11 KV feeder breaker and opening
the back feeding isolator.
9) Confirm there is no supply in the 11 KV Bus.
10) Close the L. V. breaker Isolators to the 11 KV Bus close the L. V. breaker one
by one and the 11 KV Bus is energised along with station transformer.
11) Watch the station voltage and 11 KV Bus voltage in all the three phases.

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12) Normalise the feeder breakers one by one and check for loading in all the three
phases of 11 KV and L.V breakers.

L.C. on Power Transformer and L.V. breaker

1) Verify the approval of L.C. and confirm that L.C. can be given on that day
depending up on local condition.
2) As the local is to be limited with in one transformer capacity confirm the local in
the S.S. If the loads are more than one transformer capacity certain loads are
to be shed confirm whether the concurrence is obtained for shedding of these
feeders.
3) Hand trip the 11 KV feeders which are to be shed to contain the load.
4) After reduction of the load Hand Trip the L.V breaker of the Power Transformer.
5) Open the incoming and outgoing side isolators 6 & 7.
6) Remove the AC & DC fuses of the power Tr.1 see that the cooling fans are
stopped.
7) Discharge and earth the transformer on both sIides of the transformer and the
L.V breaker. Put on the caution board and garden the area.
8) Issue the line clear in the proper form mention that the nearby transformer is
alive and safe distance is to be maintained while working on dead equipments.

Normalisation

1) After returning of the L.C. verify for the removal of men and material and the
whether the transformer is safe for energisation.
2) Remove the earthing.
3) Put on AC & DC fuses. Don’t forget to put the buckholz & differential relay
fuses.
4) Close the 11 KV isolator no.6 watch for healthy Humming Noise.
5) Close the 11 KV LV side isolator No.7.
6) Close the L. V. breaker and watch for loading in all the three phases. There will
be reducing in load on the Power Tr.1I verify the sharing are correct in all the ,
three phases.
7) Normalise other 11 KV feeders.
8) Go round the transformer yard verify for healthiness of the Power Transformer
humming noise, loading etc.

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L.C. on 11 KV Feeders / Lines

Verify for the L.C. approval and concurrence from the field. As the work spot in case of
line L.C. will be far away the operator could not physically verify the work place before
normalisation. Hence he has to take into confidence of the receiver of L.C. for normalisation
hence it is a must that the individual who availed the L.C. should come in person and return the
LC giving due certificate.

Sometime it may happen that there may not be sufficient time to come to the S.S. for
returning the L.C. In such case LC may be permitted to return over phone. It should be intimated
in advance. In that case the operator has to take all necessary precaution to confirm the L.C. is
returned by the correct individual only. For this he may ask the near by person to identify the
phone number, the persons available there and the L.C. number, works done, removing of men
and materials etc.

The sequence of operations are verify whether back feeding has to arranged for the
loads fed by the feeder or breaker.

If no back feeding is necessary inform the concerned area office that L.C. is going to be
issued and there will be interruption.

I) Hand Trip the 11 KV breaker of that feeder. Crack the ammeter and confirm that
there is no load in all the phases.
2) Open the incoming side isolator first and then the outgoing side isolator and
lock them. Put the key in the LC Board.
3) Discharge both sides and put earth on both side if the L.C..is to be issued on
breaker or in case of line L.C. discharge and earth the line. While discharging
one rod only used for discharging the three phases and for early three rods
should be provided tightly and connected earth.
4) Put on the caution board.
5) Issue LC with instruction to provide discharging and earthing at site since
there may be induction due to neighboring line or lightning.

On return of LC get a certificate whether the earthing has been remove. All men materials
have be cleared to a safe distance and the line is fit for energisation. In case of more than one
L.C. await for receipt of cancellation of all L.C.

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I) Remove the earth rod printed on the line/equipment & caution board.
2) Close the incoming side isolator of the breaker and put 011 the A/C DC fuses.
3) Test charge the breaker if OK hand trip the breaker again.
4) Close the isolator oil the outgoing side of the breaker.

5) Close the breaker verify all the three phases are loaded and there is no
fluctuation.
6) Go round the breaker and verify whether there is any abnormality in the breaker
and power transformers.

Some exceptional cases. It may require for the person who has availed the L.C. to go on
other personal urgent works. In such cases second L.C. has to be issued to another person for
the same work that has been asked relieve the individual. Then the original LC has to be returned
by the individual and cancel. At no circumstances the L.C. can be transformed.

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6. EARTHING PRACTICES IN SUBSTATION

INTRODUCTION
Nothing is quite common or abundantly available throughout world in
the Earthing soil. Most of us think earth as some thing to be used for planting
or to be excavated for a building foundation. Yet, it also has an electrical
property-conductivity that is put to practical use every day in individual plants
and Electrical utilities.
Broadly speaking earth resistance is the resistance of the soil to the
passage of electrical current. Actually earth is a poor conductor compared with
normal conductor like copper. But if the area of path for the current is large
enough, the resistance can be quite low and earth can be a conductor.

Earthing is foremost important for the safety of human beings, Animals,


Consumer Property and utilities equipment. In this article, the importance of
Earthing requirement of good Earthing, the factors which influence the property
of the diverting medium earth, condition monitoring of earth and method to
improve the earth conditions are discussed in depth.

OBJECTIVE OF EARTHING
Prime Objective of Earthing is to provide a Zero potential surface in and
around and under the area where the electrical equipment is installed or
erected.

To achieve this objective the non-current carrying parts of the electrical


equipment is connected to the general mass of the earth which prevents the
appearance of dangerous voltage on the enclosures and helps to provide safety
to working staff and public.

REQUIREMENT OF GOOD
EARTHING
a) Good earth should have low
resistance

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b) It should stabilize circuit potential with respect to ground and limit overall
potential rise.
c) It should protect men material from injury or damage due to over voltage.
d) It should provide low impedance path to fault currents to ensure prompt
and consistent operation of protective relays, Surge arrester etc.,
e) It should keep maximum potential gradient along the surface of the sub-
station within safe limits during ground fault.

FACTORS INFLUENCE THE CONDITIION OF EARTH


The following factors in the earth should be maintained within the limit
irrespective of seasons so that the earth should fulfill the above requirements.

FACTORS
a. Kind of Soil – Soil resistivity
b. Moisture Content
c. Salt Content
d. Condition of Electrode
e. Temperature Co-efficient

CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHING
Earthing can be classified into the following categories based on the
purpose for which the part of the equipment connected to the general mass of
earth.
a. System Earthing
b. Equipment Earthing
c. Reference Earthing
d. Discharge Earthing

SYSTEM EARTHING
Earthing associated with current carrying parts of the equipment is
called system Earthing. The system security, reliability, performance, voltage
stabilization, all relied only on the system Earthing.
Eg. Earthing Neutral of Transformer, Surge arrester Earthing

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System Earthing Methods :
a. Solid Earthing b. Resistance Earthing
c. Reactance Earthing d. d. Thro’ Grounding Transformer

EQUIPMENT EARTHING
Earthing associated with non-current carrying parts of Electrical
Equipment are called as Equipment Earthing. Safety of operator, consumer,
safety of their property are mainly based on Equipment Earthing.
Eg. Body of the Transformer, Body of Motor.

FACTORS THAT CHANGE THE REQUIREMENT OF EARTH ELECTRODE


a. If a plant or electrical facility can expand in system or new plants
continue to be build larger and larger, such change creates different
routes in the electrode.
What was formerly a suitable low earth resistance can become obsolete
standard.
More number of metallic pipes which were buried underground become
less and less dependable as effective low resistance ground connection.
Most of the location, the water table gradually falling. In a year or two
area end up with dry earth of high resistance.
These factors emphasize the importance of a continuous, periodic
program of earth resistance testing.

EARTHING PRACTICES
Transmission lines:
i) E.H. T. lines: For 110 KV lines one aerial earth wire through the
towers and for 230 KV lines and two earth wires are run. As per I.S. code, the
aerial ground wire is to be connected to earth at least in 4 towers in every mile
(1.6 Kms.)

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ii) H. T. Lines: These towers (each) are earthed through earth pipes.
The earth rods are driven at the base of the tower if the earth resistance is less
than 15 Ohms. If it is not possible, two rods are driven within} a distance of 200
feet, wherein again the resistance is not to exceed 25 Ohms.
iii) L.T. lines: All stay wires arc provided with guy shackles at a height
not less than 3 meters from the ground. The cross arms arc also earthed at
specified intervals.
Major sub-stations :
Earthing of equipment’s in the major sub-stations is taken much care.
The various Earthing are discussed in the paras to come.
Power transformers:
i) The transformer body or tank is directly connected to earth grid. In
addition, there should be direct connection from the tank to the earth side of
the lightning arresters.
Ii) The transformer track rail should be earthed separately.
iii) The neutral bushing is earthed by a separate connection to the earth
grid. clearer to the tank sell and collars.

Potential and current transformers:


The bases of the CTs and Pts. are to be earthed. All bolted cover plates of
the bushing are also to be connected the earth grid.

Lightning arresters :
The bases of the L.As. are to be earthed with conductors as short and
straight as Possible (for reducing impedance). The earth side of the L.As. are to
be connected directly frolJ1 the equipment to be protected. Each L.A. should
have individual earth rods, which are in turn connected to earth grid.

Circuit breakers:
the supporting structures, C.T. chambers, P.T. tanks, Cable glands etc.,
are to be connected to earth.

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Other equipment’s:
All equipment’s, structures, and metallic frames of switches and isolators
are to be earthed separately.

Fences:
Providing separate earth or connecting to the station earth depends upon
the distance of the fence the station earth. If the distance is within feet, an
inter-connection made to the station earth. If not, the metallic fences are
earthed by means of earth rods spaced at not more than 200 feet. The gates
and support pans may be earthed through an earth rod. The cable wires
passing under “metallic fence are to be buried below at a depth of 2’6 or are to
be enclosed in a insulating pipe (P. V.C or asbestos cement) for a distance of not
less than 5 feet on each side of the fence.

Ground wires :
The ground wires over the station arc connected to the station earth. In
order that the station earth potentials during fault condition5 arc not applied to
transmission line ground wires and towers, all ground wires coming to the
stations shall be broken . It an insulated on the fir5t tower external to station
by means of strain disc. insulators.

NATURE OF AN EARTH ELECTRODE


Resistance to current through an earth element has following three
components.
a. Resistance of the earth electrode itself and connection to it.
b. Contact resistance between the electrode and soil adjacent to it.
c. Resistance of the surrounding earth.

TYPE OF ELECTRODES
b. Rod Type / Pipe Type of Electrode
c. Flat / Strip Electrode
d. Plate Electrode

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Rod Type / Pipe Type of Electrode
Substation :
i) 40 mm twin rod with 10 mtr. length.
ii) 100 mm /150 mm Cast Iron Pipe with 3 mtr. length.
Distribution :
i) 40 mm inner dia 2.9 mm thick 3 mtr. length G I Pipe.

Resistance = R = 100 log e 4L ohms


2! L d

Where = Soil Resistivity in ohm – metres


L = Length of Pipe / Rod in metres
d = diameter of Pipe / Rod in metres
a. Flat / Strip Electrode
Flat or Strip electrode should be buried at a depth of not less then 0.5
mtr.

Resistance = R = 100 log e 2L2 ohms


2!L wt

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Where = Soil Resistivity in ohm – metres
L = Length of Flat/Strip in metres
w = Length of Flat/Strip in metres
t = thickness of Flat/Strip in metres
The resistance of Flat / Strip decreases appreciably with increase in its length.
Plate Electrode
In Power Stations & Very Big Substation which are having high fault
level plate type of electrode are used.
Plate Size
1200 x 1200 x 12.5 mm.
600 x 600 x 9.40 mm

Resistance = R = ! ohms
4/A

Where = Soil Resistivity in ohm – metres

A = Area of both sides of plate in m2.

Earthing conductor :

The metal parts of equipment’s arc connected to the low resistance


electrodes by the ‘earth conductors of suitable size as annexed in Annexure III.
The basic observations to be taken into account are:

i) Bare Aluminum conductor should not be buried in the soil.


ii) The copper strip to be used depends on the size of the bolts
used. If the size of the bolts are greater than 1” dia, strip width to
be selected is not to be less than 2”.
iii) The conductor should carry fault current at least for 1/2
second and the area of cross section in sq. inches is given by the
fault current- 15,000.

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Joints:
While laying earth conductors joints are to be minimized and they are to

be well-brazed or closely welded. The 1/2" dia. galvanized steel bolts at 11/211
centre are also used for joints.

Earth resistance:
The fault current is to be cleared as quickly as possible and this is done
by having the earth resistance low. The standard values of earth resistance to
be maintained at various sub-stations are given in Annexure IV.
Earth grid:
Bonding all metal parts of the system to be earthed, the earth conductor
and the earth electrodes put all together form and Earth Grid.
General considerations:
i) All earth connections are to be made visible as far as possible.
ii) The earth leads should not be set in concrete.
iii) No series connections are to be made for earths.
iii) Preferably, the Earthing conductors should not be run-in metal
conduits.

MONITORING THE CONDITION OF EARTH


For monitoring the healthiness of earth, the condition monitoring
equipment used is “EARTH MEGGER”.
Specification :

Rated Voltage : 30 to 250V


Range of Resistance : The preferred effective ranges of the
meters shall be chosen from
those given below
1)0 to 3 ohms and its multiplies of 10
2)0 to10 ohms and its multiplies of 10
Two types :
a). Four terminal Earth Megger which is exclusive used for Soil
Resistivity Measurement. This can be converted as three terminal
by connecting P1 & C1 together.
b). Three terminal Earth Megger.

- 90 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


Marking
(i) For 3 Terminal Meter (ii) For 4 Terminal Meter
Current Terminal – C or H Current Terminal C1, C2
Potential Terminal – P or U Potential Terminal P1, P2
Earth Terminal – E
CHECKING AND TESTING
The Earthing systems are to be inspected regularly. Regular checking or
joints and broken connections, if any and rectifying the same will prove to be of
immense help in maintenance of earth grid and equipment’s. The condition of
the electrodes, joints are also to be checked. If the electrodes are’ corroded
immediate steps for replacement are to be taken.
The earth resistance is to be measured periodically as in Annexure V.
The megger, or testers are used for this purpose.
Maintenance of low earth resistance:
As discussed earlier, low earth resistance Path is a must for clearing the
fault current instantaneously. For achieving -low earth values, the following
ways are followed:
i) A number of electrodes are connected in parallel thereby providing a
low resistance.
ii )The ground surrounding the electrodes is treated with common salt
which reduces the resistance by 80%. Calcium chloride and magnesium
sulphate may also be used. In general practice in T.N.B.B. charcoal and
common alt are used for obtaining low resistance value.

STANDARD MEGGER VALUE


Combined Earth Value should not exceed
Individual Value within 10 ohm
a. for Major Sub Station 1 Ohm
b. for Minor Sub Station 2 Ohm
c. Power House 0.5 Ohm

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METHODS TO IMPROVE SOIL RESISTIVITY
The following are the methods to lowering the earth resistance.
Using Bendonite Powder
a. Lengthen the earth electrode in the earth
b. Use multiple rods
c. Treat the Soil- Using Bendonite Powder
Using Fly Ash
Using Safe Earth Electrode(SSE)
Using Erico GEM

EARTH MAT DESIGN


Earthing System in a Sub Station comprises of Earth Mat or Grid, Earth
Electrode, Earthing Conductor and Earth Connectors.

EARTH MAT OR GRID


Primary requirement of Earthing is to have a low earth resistance.
Substation involves many Earthings thro’ individual Electrodes, which will have
fairly high resistance. But if these individual electrodes are inter linked inside
the soil, it increases the area in contact with soil and creates number of parallel
paths. Hence the value of the earth resistance in the inter linked state which is
called combined earth value which will be much lower than the individual
value.
The inter link is made thro flat or rod conductor which is called as Earth
Mat or Grid. It keeps the surface of substation equipment as nearly as absolute
earth potential as possible.
To achieve the primary requirement of Earthing system, the Earth Mat
should be design properly by considering the safe limit of Step Potential, Touch
Potential and Transfer Potential.
STEP POTENTIAL - which is the potential difference available between the legs
while standing on the ground.

TOUCH POTENTIAL - which is the potential difference between the leg


and the hand touching the equipment in operation.

- 92 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


The factors which influence the Earth Mat design are

a. Magnitude of Fault Current


b. Duration of Fault
c. Soil Resistivity
d. Resistivitiy of Surface Material
e. Shock Duration
f. Material of Earth Mat Conductor
g. Earthing Mat Geometry

The Scope is to calculate the following


i. Size of Earth Grid Conductor
ii. Safe Step and Touch Potential
iii. Mesh Potential (Emesh)
iv. Grid configuration for Safe Operation
v. Number of Electrodes required
DATA NEEDED
a. Soil Resistivity
b. Resistivity of Crushed Rock
c. Crushed Rock Surface Layer Thickness
d. Switch Yard overall Dimensions
e. Earth Fault Level
f. Duration consider for earth fault.

I. CALCULATION OF SIZE OF EARTH GRID


CONDUCTOR
Conductor Area A= I
Tcap x 10 –4 x ln Ko + Tm
tc – r x Pv Ko + Ta
Simplified formula for Steel Grid Conductor
Area A = I x /t
K

- 93 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


Where A = area of earth conductor in mm2.
I = short circuit current in KA.
t = duration of short circuit current in seconds.
K factor = 80 for steel.
If mat is made of Flat then
A = Area of Flat

Give allowance of 35 % for corrosion


If it is a conductor
A = !r2
r = /A/!

STANDARD FLATS
i) 10 x 6 iv) 40 x 6 vii) 60 x 6
ii) 20 x 6 v) 50 x 6 viii) 65 x 10
iii) 30 x 6 vi) 50 x 8 ix) 75 x 10

ROD
40 mm Mild Steel Rod

The Mesh Potential always less than the permissible touch & step
potential. Then only the design is considered as safe.

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Annexure 2
Earth Electrodes
Stations Plate Electrodes Pine electrodes

a) Larger Power Stations G.I. Plates of 120 x 120 cm and i)G.I. Pipes of 152mm
and Major sub- stations 12.5 mm thick diax3.048mts. long
and not less than
12.5. thick.
ii) In case of G .1. or steel
pipes, not smaller than 38
mm internal diameter.
b) Small sub-stations 60 x 60cm G.!. plates of9.4 mm G.I. pipes of 50.8 min
thick internal
diameter and 3.058
mts., long.

Annexure 3
Earth conductors

a) Main and subsidiary connection : Cross Section not less than 161sq.
cm;{Copper)
b) Branch connections : Cross section not less than 64.5 sq. cm.

Periodicity of measuring earth resistance


a)Major Sub-stations Power Stations ..Monthly
b)Distribution Transformers ..Bi-annual

V. CONCLUSION
The various practices and standards are to be followed in respect of
providing Earthing in our systems. If proper Earthing is not done, there is every
likelihood of equipment getting damaged and also have to be personnel -public
and staff. Hence due attention is to be given in providing and maintaining of
earth grid properly and in good condition.

- 95 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


7. LOAD DISPATCH AND FLOW MANAGEMENT
Introduction
Electricity cannot be stored and has to be generated at the time of need. The load is not fixed.
It will vary in random from time to time. To oversee the timely varying demand and set the generation
so as to meet it with optimum utilization and economic operation of the system a centrally controlled
station is required, This centrally controlled station is called as load dispatch centre for effective &
economic load dispatch and flow management.
Loads can be classified as below.

1. Industrial HT &: LT.


2. Agriculture.
3. Domestic
4. Commercial HT & L T
5. Public Lighting
6. Traction etc.,

Load Forecasting:

The load in the grid will vary from time to time. To arrange for the generation from various
resources tile load at a time has to be forecast so that the load and the generation can be matched.
Load forecasting has to be done taking into account the following points.
• Type of the day-on Sundays load will be minimum and on Fridays load will
be maximum.
• Sunrise / Sun set timings.
When the sun sets earlier the lighting load on the grid will be earlier and vice
versa.
• Temperature and humidity deviation:
At high temperature during summer the consumers will draw more power to
meet their requirement
• Any known shutdown of EHT consumers.
• Agricultural load requirements /
During Winter the agricultural load will be low and during Summer
Agricultural load will be at its maximum.
• Comparing the load in the previous week I month I year with suitable tolerance
for load growth.

By using the above guidelines the load that will be incident in the grid is forecast to meet the
morning and lighting peak’ hours of a day.
Once the load incident on the grid for that day is determined, it is the duty of the engineers of
load dispatch centre to prepare a generation schedule for the period in question as to bow they are
going to meet out the load by utilizing the various generating stations in the state and the state’s share
from the central generating stations.
Generation Scheduling:

a. Hourly load.
b. Spinning reserve to be maintained.
c. Incremental cost of generation of various units.
d. Hydro station characteristics: cascading / conventional.
e. Network limitations.
f. Capacity of other system to buy or sell.
g. Maintenance outage plan of generating stations and transmission lines.

- 96 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


Generation stations in the GRID:

Hydel
Thermal
Nuclear
Diesel
Gas
Windmill (Non -conventional)

To match the generation with the load and for load flow management the load dispatch centre
is essentially required and that becomes the backbone of the grid system. The load dispatch centre
perform the following functions.

1. It matches the load with the generation.


2. Reliability of supply.
3. Regulation of voltage and frequency.
4. Economic operation.
5. System maintenance scheduling.

Grid System:

A high voltage line in between a sending station and a receiving station is called a
transmission line. The A.C. transmission system may be of radial, ring or inter connected. When the
supply is fed from one end of the source then it is called radial system. In this system if a breakdown
occurs the consumers connected to this system will be affected till the breakdown is rectified. .When
all the generating stations are interconnected from which the supply is given to all the loads is known
as interconnected system. Interconnected system in a state forms the grid of that state. If the-
Interconnected system is connected with the interconnected systems of the nearby states this forms
the regional grid.
India has the following five regional grids

1. Northern region: comprising Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir,


Punjab, Rajasthan, UP, Delhi and Chandigarh. .
2. Western region: Gujarat, MP, Maharastra, Goa, Daman and diu, Dadar Nagar,
Haweli.
3. Eastern region: Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal.
4. Southern region: AP, Kamatka, Tamilnadu, Kerala & Pondicherry.
5. North Eastern region: Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Nagland,
Tirupura.and Mizoram. .

Techno economic benefit§ of the integrated operation:

I. Reduction of generating capacity due to diversity of loads.


2. Reduction in standby capacity.
3. Increase in size of generating unit.
4. Optimization of Hydro and thermal generation.
5. Better system reliability and security.
6. Better frequency stability.
7. Load fluctuations compensates one another better
8. Mutual Assistance during emergencies.

Problems encountered in Regional Grid Operation:

1. Low frequency operation.


2. Over-drawls from central stations particularly at low frequencies.
3. Not backing down during high frequency.
4. Inadequate reactive power compensation.
5. Inadequate system reserve.
6. SLDC’S & RLDC’S not adequately equipped.
7. Lack of appropriate interregional tariffs.
8. Communication bottlenecks.
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Nowadays HVDC transmission is vastly catching up due to the following advantages.

1. Only active power is transmitted.


2. Independent of A.C. system frequencies.
3. Fast Control.
4. No increase in short circuit currents.

Facilities to tie the regional grids which are operating at different frequencies -through HVDC
back to back Inter regional links are available in which one regional system is converted to D.C. and
then inverted to A.C. system at the same location to match the other region grid so as to tie both the
regional grids.
Power system reliability includes the following aspects

• Reliability of supply
• Regulation of voltage.
• Regulation of frequency.

Reliability supply is achieved through :

a. Improved power system protection.


b. System interconnection.
c. Larger capacity in generation and transmission lines.
d. More reliable equipments

Regulation of Voltage :

Effects of low voltage and low frequency

a. It will effect the consumers apparatus adversely.


b. Industrial output reduced.
c. Performance of electrical equipments will be poor.

Hence the voltage and frequency are to be maintained with in the specified security limits.

General Guide lines for Voltage Control

• It is not desirable to transmit the reactive power, It should be locally


compensated.
• Voltage is affected by both active and reactive power.
• Generators, synchronous condensers should have sufficient reactive
margins under normal conditions.
• Generating stations should generate maximum VAR without affecting active.
generation and generators should absorb reactive power during off peak hour
and when the voltage is high.
• Generation of Var can be achieved by idle charging of EHV lines.

Over - Voltage Control :

• Request power plants to increase VAR absorption with respect. to capability


curve.
• Avoid injection of V AR beyond 103% of voltage.
• Switching on bus, line and tertiary reactors.
• Switching off capacitors.
• Operating OL TC.
• Operate Hydro generators as synchronous motor.
• Switching of dial EHT lines.

- 98 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


Low-Voltage Control :

• Request the near by power plants to increase the V AR generation.


• Avoid absorption of V AR below 97% of voltage.
• Switch off local bus, line and tertiary reactors.
• Switch on capacitor banks.
• Changing transformer tap positions.
• Connect synchronous condensers for VAR generation.
• Charge radial EHT feeders.
• Shed low power factor loads.

Frequency Control :

Frequency Control is achieved by matching the load with generation. Here the load
forecasting and generating scheduling plays a vital role. As per IE rule the variation in frequency upto
3% is allowed. If the frequency goes out of the range either low or high, frequency control is done as
detailed below.
High Frequency Control :

• Pumped storage plants can be utilized to contain high frequency.


• The constituents of the grid may be asked to draw their allocated share of
power.
• Under drawing constituents may shut down their machines to have the
scheduled drawl.
• Backing down of generation in thermal station.
• The output of the hydel machines may be reduced to reduce the frequency.

Under Frequency Control

• Increase the active generation in all generating stations.


• The constituents of the grid may be asked to restrict their drawl as per schedule
• Local Shedding to be carried out to improve the frequency.

Load Shedding :

• Manual load shedding


• Automatic load shedding

Manual Load Shedding:

To match the generation with load if the load is more, each sub-station operators are called
upon to reduce the load so as to improve the frequency. At the same time, to aviod long and frequent
interruptions to an area a roaster of all feeders in all the sub-stations can be prepared and load
shedding can be done in rotation among these feeders to improve the frequency.
Automatic Load Shedding :
Manual load shedding will not be more effective at the time of sudden increase of load or
sudden loss of generation. To meet this situation Automatic load shedding is being resorted.
For Automatic load shedding a set of feeders are set to trip at a certain under frequency so as
to have the grid from under frequency conditions.
To meet a sudden huge loss of generation and resultant collapse of the grid an islanding
scheme have been devised.

- 99 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


UF System Protection in TNEB

To get separated from southern grid during disturbance the following inter-state feeders are
tripped with Reverse Power Flow (RPF) and under frequency relay combination.

1. 400 Kv Sriperumpudur - Cuddappah will trip at 100 MW (Export to Cuddappah)


when frequency is less than or equal to 48Hz with time delay of 0.5 sec.
2. 440 Kv Salem- Bangalore will trip at 300,MW (Expert to Bangalore) when
frequency is less than of equal to 48 Hz with time delay of 1.0 sec. ‘
When these 400 KV feeders gets tripped TNEB with Kerala become separated from Andhra
and Kamataka.
If the frequency is not improving due to generation and load mismatch load release through
under frequency relays set at 47:8Hz / Instantaneous obtained. Selected 110Kv feeders would trip on
under frequency relay to effect a load relief of 650 MW.
Apart from this certain other feeders set at 47.60 / lost. are tripped to effect additional 150 Mw
load relief before islanding occurs.
On further decline of frequency persisting sub-islanding scheme to get the following block
islands will be effected.
I. ETPS (combined with B.B. -GTPS) block - 47.6 Hz / 0.75 sec
2. GMR Vasavi Diesel Generation block - 47.6 Hz I 0.75 sec
3. NCTPS (combined with TCPL generation block) - 47.6 Hz / 2 sec
4. Neyveli Thermal Power station block - 47.6 Hz / 2 sec
5. Mettur Thermal Power Station block - 47.6 Hz / 2 sec
6. TTPS Hydro block - 47.6 Hz / 2 sec

During under frequency conditions (in below 47.6 Hz / 2 sec) islanding will take place and the
grid, will be separated into blocks as specified above and the block subjected to generation loss or
bulk addition of load will only be collapsed and the rest will be’safe and thus this system prevents the
total system failure.
Kinds of grid disturbance :

• Tamilnadu & Kerala separated from the southern grid. (Southern Block f separation).
• Total system black out (Entire system will be collapsed)
• Partial system block out (Particular point on of the grid gets collapsed)
• System split-up (Each block gets separated with out failure.
• Brownout (Voltage collapsed).

Causes for Islanding:

• Sudden loss of generation due to tripping of machines.


• Unexpected addition of heavy load.
• Due to tripping of some important feeders resulting in random flow of power resulting
in system instability.
• Sudden over-drawl of power against the allocated share by the constituents of the
grid.
• More imbalances between generation and load.

As soon as islanding has occurred the frequency is maintained in each block within the limits
either by manual load shedding during under frequency conditions or by charging of the feeders
tripped on under frequency for load relief during high frequency condition. Power supply from the
nearby block is extended to the affected block to synchronize their machines. The loads of the
.islanded block are given supply In steps based on the generation achieved in that block. Nearby
blocks are get tied matching the frequency of both the blocks. -

- 100 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


8. SAFETY IN SUB - STATION

Prevention of damages to equipment’s and So, after getting proper approval, line clear is
men working on them due to any accidents is an to be issued to the requested party. But the issuer
essential aspect in any establishment. Prevention and receiver should be aware/ have full knowledge
of accident which is an unforeseen one is more es- about the SS equipment’s control room panel de-
sential aspect of any establishment/ organisation. tails etc.,

As accidents occur mainly due to unsafety The line clear issuing person should clearly
execution, action and circumstances, these acci- record the following:
dents can be avoided by adopting safety precau- a. Which breaker have been tripped.
tions, implementing safety producedures and follow-
ing saftety rules. b. Which A.B switches were opened.

General safety methods: c. Where earthing was done.

1. While execution of any work, that part of equip- d. What is the safer place / Line to carry on the
ment or line is to be isolated from the supply. execution work.

2. Using discharge rods, charging, current if any Safety arrangements in control room:
is to be discharged. 1. Key Board should be in open condition so that
3. Using Earth rods, all phases/ conducting path the keys could be taken out quickly during
are to be property earthed by securing good any urgency.
earthing. Line clear keyboard should be in locked up
4. When even opening an AB switch or closing condition to prevent other persons from using
AB switch is also advisable and preferable to the keys inside, before the cancellation of the
wear rubber gloves. Line clear permit.

5. Use of belt rope is another safety method to The keys should be placed in the key board
be adopted to work on elevated places. in an orderly manner according to their
numbers. Otherwise, the required lock could
Safety methods to be adopted in Sub - Station: not be opened in time and the possibility of
If any work is to be attended to any line, first opening a wrong lock may happen.
and foremost item of work is to get proper approval 2. Rubber mat should be provided on the floor in
from the competent controlling authority for execution front of the panel board.
of the work specifying the date, time, duration, place
of work, affected parties etc., 3. The following details should be clearly
displayed in the control room
For Grid feeders and Stations, the authorized
officer for issue of approval is S.E. Approved operating instruction for all
(L.D.Centre),Chennai. For 110KV, 66KV radial feed- equipment’s Break down instructions.
ers superintending Engineer / Distribution is the ap- Operating instructions including for the emer-
proving authority. Similarly for 33 KV Divisional En- gency operations to be carried out in the event
gineer in charge of distribution is the approving au- of operation of buck holz relay. Differential
thority. relay. Differential relay, Group control trip, total
Above details with the list of authorisied offic- supply failure and grid failure. The operator
ers is enclosed herewith (enclosure I). should be fully conversant with the above
instruction and he must be able to act quickly
Without obtaining proper approval from the and effectively.
competent authority, no L.C. should be issued nor
availed by anybody. If the above procedure is not 4. The Board containing D.C. cable layout. A
followed, it is nothing but a suicidal. Further it also cable layout panel wiring diagram and earthing
amounts to murder of others. layout should be displayed in the control room.
This is necessary to attend the faults
immediately after their occurence.
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5. D.C.Earth leakage test system should be Safety adopted for transformers:
available.
1. Transformers are to be maintained periodically
6. There should not be any defective power plugs, as per schedule. Switches on HV side and
switches and bulb holders in the control room LV side are to be isolated after releasing the
wiring. load tripping the breakers.
7. One artificial respirator should be available in 2. Kiosks and OCB: All the Live parts of the Kiosk
ready condition. should have H.T. insulation tape. To be
protected by wiremesh. It should be vermin
8. Stools made of insulating material should be
proof. Keys are to be kept with inter lock.
used for operating high tension communica-
Whenever to open the door of the kiosk, kiosk
tion equipment’s (Telephones).
should be tripped link should be opened by
9. Adequate number of rubber gloves, belt ropes, the interlock key. The opening of the links
discharge rods, and earth rods in good are to be verified physiclly. After doing all the
condition should be available in the control above precautions, the tank should be lowered
room. down. Proper care is to be taken and it should
Battery room: be kept in mind that supply is available at the
roofing.
1. Battery room should be in locked up condition.
“Naked flame is prohibited inside of the battery Oil leak should be arrested. Back feeding is
room” and “Smoking prohibited” warnings should avoided.
be kept written on the battery room door. Cotton waste should not be used for cleaning
2. One exhaust fan should be functioning. purpose.

3. Accurate D.C. cell testing volt meters, hydrom- AB switches:


eters and thermometers should be available in Handle of the AB Switch is to be earthed
the battery room. properly. Blades should be kept at opening posi-
4. Pilot cell voltage, specific gravity and tempera- tion. It should not be closed automatically, proper
ture should be taken every week. maintenance is to be done for this.

5. The specific gravity should not be maintained AB switch blades are to be opened fully.
below 1195 at 15.60C and below 1183 at 32.200C AB switches are to be kept locked on both condi-
allowed. The battery should not be allowed to tions.
discharge below 1160. AB switches are to be opened only after
6. Cell voltage should be maintained between 1.95V tripping the breakers.
to 2.05V. The battery should not be allowed to Lightning arresters:
discharge below 1.85V.
Lightning arresters are used to bypass the
7. Battery should be allowed neither to overcharge sudden lightning surges and thereby to protect the
nor to undercharge. It should not also be kept equipment’s.
idle.
Only after proper discharging is done on light-
8. Electrolyte level must be checked in every shift. ning is done on lightning arresters, it should be
It must be ensured that the level is 10mm above attempted to attend to maintenance.
the top of the plates.
Fencing is to be provided around lightning
9. Weak cells should be rectified then and there. arresters. Door arrangements with lock is to be
10. While taking specific gravity readings, care must provided. Separate earth connections are to be pro-
be taken not to allow the acid to come in con- vided for lightning arresters.
tact with the eyes.

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5. Current transformers: 9. Fire fighting equipment’s:-
Current transformer secondary side is to be These equipment’s are to be kept on good
short circuited during maintenance and testing. and working condition. Proper schedule of mainte-
Before doing any testing, the current transformers nance is to be done for keeping them in good condi-
are to be discharged. tions. These equipment’s should be kept at an eas-
ily accessible place so as to use them immediately
6. Potential transformers:
under emergency.
Potential transformers primary side is to be
Dry sand heaps are to be available wherever
earthed during maintenance and testing. Second-
necessary. Empty buckets are to be provided.
ary side is to be earthed at only one place. When-
ever giving connection, or removing meters on the 10. S.S. Yard:
secondary side of the potential transformer, the fuses
1. S.S. Yard should be provided with fencing.
are to be removed and renewed.
2. Unauthorised persons should not enter into the
7. Capacitors and H.T. Coupling capacitor:
yard.
Capacitors should be provided inside fencing.
3. Cable ducts are to be provided with slabs.
Before attempting to do any work, proper discharg-
ing is to be done. Then only it should be attempted 4. Best illumination is to be provided for the yard.
for maintenance work. Proper earthing should be 5. A warning board with a display that “Umbrella
provided during the execution of the work. stick, dogs should not be brought inside the yard”
After completion of the work, earthing is to be is to be provided at the entrance of the yard.
removed. 6. A separate room is to-be provided for keeping
8. Earth pits: the empty drums. At the entrance of the room
“No smoking” Board is to be provided.
Sub-Station earth connections should be
properly maintained so that the earth resistance is General:
minimum. Water should be poured in the earth pits 1. The territory of the work spot which was de
daily. clared safety to work is to be clearly identified
Earth connections, must be capable of pro- by tying a rope. Inside this boundary is to be
tecting the persons working in the electrical further identified by hanging a green flag.
equipment’s and protect in the equipment’s during 2. Wherever necessary caution boards like “Men
heavy fault current. on working” Don’t switch on “Safe work” etc.,
Earth resistance should not exceed the fol- are to be provided.
lowing limits. 3. If any unauthorised, unskilled staff happen to go
Grid Stations: 1 ohm near the equipment’s he can do so with the as-
sistance and under the vigil of an experienced,
Other sub-stations - 2 ohm
authorised staff.
Distribution transformers 5 ohm.
4. Conversation is strictly prohibited while execu-
There must be a clearance of 5 feet, between tion of any work. It should be totally avoided
the sub-station fence and the electrical equipment’s especially when work is being carried out on any
/ live points. The fence should be earthed at every bus bars and kiosk.
200 feet, separately. Generally the fence earthing
5. Placing the materials, tools and plants and men
should not be linked with the sub-station earthing.
are to be at a safety clearance from the live parts.
But if the clearance is less than 5ft. feet fence earthing
must be linked with the sub-station earthing. The 6. T & Ps like spanners etc are to be lifted and
iron gates in the sub-station fence should also be brought down only by means of ropes and not
earthed separately. by throwing and catching.

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7. Study and safe ladder with steps at convenient Conclusion:
intervals is to be used. To avoid slippage of the
In each and every sub-station, action should be
ladder, necessary precaution is to be taken at
taken for adopting safety precautions, so as to
the bottom of the ladder by providing empty gun-
avoid accidents. Each and every staff should be
nies.
well educated about the safety rules, precau-
8. Lifting of any ladder or rod: (Earth) are to be done tions and methods. If everybody is aware of the
only horizontally. Vertical lifting may cause dam- safety procedures, rules, etc., accidents can be
ages by interrupting with the safe clearances. eliminated in sub-stations. Copy of Memo
No.EPC/A3/T & P/ Genl. dt.12.12.77 from the
9. The bus and line links are to be kept opened
Chief Engineer/ Distribution/ 157 Anna Salai,
while doing work on OCB & OMCB.
Madras -2 Addressed to Superintending Engi-
10. Summing up, 100% care should be taken in neer, Electricity System. GCC North, Central and
adopting and implementing safety rules and pre- South, Transmission, Rural Electrification and
cautions. Line Loss and copy to the Chief Engineer Gen-
eral Operation) Thermal Tuticorin Thermal Power
Project.

-104- T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


9. ABB “CARE”
A) STORAGE “ CARE”

(I) CIRCUIT BREAKER GETS DELIVERED IN FOLLOWING MANNER:


S.No. ITEMS INSTRUCTION
1. POLES OUTDOOR
WELL COVERED
ABOVE HFL
2. ACCESSORIES (DENSITY MONITOR
CABLE ETC)., INDOOR
3. TERMINAL CONNECTOR INDOOR
4. STRUCTURE OUTDOOR
5. DRIVE INDOOR
6. SWITCH CUBICLE OUTDOOR
ON HORIZONRAL
LEVELLED
PLATFORM
7. COPPER PIPES INDOOR
8. CABLES INDOOR
9. COMPRESSOR RECEIVER OUTDOOR
10. DOUBLE ARC CHAMBER OUTDOOR
11. GRADING CAPACITOR OUTDOOR
12. RESISTOR STACK OUTDOOR

REMARK : IT IS VERY IMPORTANT TO NOTE THAT EQUIPMENT AS


INDICATED ABOVE ARE TO BE STORED INDOOR ONLY. THIS IS TO PREVENT
DAMAGES DUE TO INGESS OF DUST, RAIN WATER, ETC. UNTIL
INSTALLATION OUTSIDE.

- 105 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai


GUIDE LINES FOR PACKING ADVICE
TYPE OF QTY STRU
CABLE DOUBLE
SR. BREAKER & SWITCH COMP/ TERMINAL PIPE LINE OF GRADING RESISTOR ACCESS CTUR
POLES DRIVE 19 ETU ARC
NO. VOLTAGE CUBICLE RECEIVER CONNECTOR PNEUMATIC SFG. CAPACITOR STACK ORIES E STE/
CORE CHAM
RATING GAS CB
1 ELF SF 2-1
3.5
(1) 72.5 KV / 3 1 1 A.B.1 6 LOT LOT N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. 1 SET
KG
145 KV
2 ELF SF 2-1 COVER
7.8
(1) 72.5 KV / 3 ED IN 1 A, B 1 6 LOT LOT N.A. N.A. N.A. 1 1SET
KG.
145 KV POLE
3. ELF SL 1-1 /
ELF SL 2-1 8.0
3 3 1 A,B 1 6 LOT LOT N.A. N.A. N.A. 1 1SET
72.5 KV / KG
145 KV
4. ELF SL 4-1 8.0
A,B,C 3 3 1 1 6 LOT LOT N.A. N.A. N.A. 1 1 SET
245 KV K.G.
5. ELF SL 4-1
7.0
(1 POLE) 1 1 1 1 2 LOT LOT N.A. N.A. N.A. 1 1 SET
K.G.
245 KV)
6. ELF SL 4-1
14.0
(2 POLE) A,B 2 2 1 1 4 LOT LOT N.A. N.A. N.A. 1 1 SET
K.G.
245 KV)
7. ELF SL 4-2 21.6
3 3 1 1 6 LOT LOT A,B.C, 3 N.A. N.A. 1 1SET
245 KV KG.
8. ELF SL 6-2 3 3 1 A,B, 1 6 LOT LOT 30.0K A,B,C 3 A,B,C, 6 6 1 1SET

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420 KV G.
9. EL (V) FSL 45.0
3 3 1 A,B, 1 6 LOT LOT A,B,C 3. A,B,C, 6 6 1 1SET
6-2 420 KV K.G.
PACKING
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
BOX NO.
OUT OU
DOOR
IN OUT T IN OUT
STORAGE GUIDANCE COVERE IN DOOR IN IN OUT OUT
IN DOOR IN DOOR OUT DOOR
D ABOVE
DOOR DOOR DOOR DOOR DO DOOR DOOR DOOR DOOR
RFL OR

1) UNLOADING PRECAUTIONS
i) No impact unloading to be done
ii) Proper equipment like bundle rope, lifting hooks adequate capacity crane.

HFL = HIGHEST FLOOD LEVEL


AB = SEPARATELY PACKED IN 2 BOXES
ABC = SEPARATELY PACKED IN 3 BOXES
ABC * = SEPARATELY PACKED IN 3 BOXES, EACH BOX COMAINING CORONA RINE
*6&7 = CABLE 19 CORE REQUIRED LENGTH IS SUPPLIED BASED ON CONTRACT GA DRAWING ALSO RETER PACKING ADVICE
*8 = QTY OR GAS REQUIRED QUANTITY OF SF6 GAS IS SUPPLIED IN THE CYLINDER ALSO REFER PACKING ADVICE.

- 107 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai


Approximate Weight With Packing Case
Pole Arc Chamber Accessor Drive Switch
ies Cubicle
72.5 & 1300 Kg 3 Poles In 1 Covered In Pole 100kg 250kg 350kg
145kv Box With Arc
Chamber
245 kv 100kg WITH Arc Covered in pole 100 KG 250 Kg 350Kg
Chamber
420 Kv 1400 KG 1550 KG Arc chamber 100 KG 250 KG 350 KG
150 KG capacitor 450
KG resistor stack

B) INSTALLATION “CARE”
1. PRELIMINARY WORK TO BE ORGANISED PRIOR TO INSTALLATION
REQUIRED DOCUMENTS :
INSTRUCTION MANUAL
GENERALARRANGEMENT DRAWING
SCHEMATIC DRAWING ARRANGE THE FOLLOWING MATERIAL
VERIFY ALL THE MATERIALS AS PER PACKING LIST.
LIFTING DEVICE (HOIST, SLING MANILA ROPE)
D’S FIXED SPANNER SET.
2 NOS 32-36 MM 42-46 MM.
TORQUE WRENCH 10-32 NM 3KGM. - 15KGM.
TRICHLORETHYLINE.
STARCH LESS & FIBER LESS CLOTH (MUL -MUL)
WIRE BRUSH
ADHESIVE LUBRICANT
LOCTITE 241
MOLYKOTE GREASE - (321-R)

2. AIR SYSTEMS :
A). CLEAN THE PIPE LINES AS INDICATED IN SEQUENCE USE “PULL THROUGH”
CLEAN WITH
WATER JET
BLOW COMPRESSED AIR
INSPECT FOR FOREIGN PARTICLES.

B) ERMETTO CONNECTIONS
USE RIGHT ANGLE CUTTING WITH PIPE CUTTER.
CLEAN, APPLY OIL &THEN TIGHTEN.
OPEN THE JOINT AND INSPECT FOR FORMATION OF GROOVE IN THE PIPE.
FORMATION OF GROOVE INDICATES THAT THE JOINT IS PROPER.

C). ALL PIPE JOINTS MUST BE “CLAMPED”


D) ENSURE NO RUBBING BETWEEN PULL ROD AND CHANNEL. FOR
SPECIFICATIONS OF GAP REFER DRAWINGS (FOR GANG OPERATED BREAKERS
72.5/ 145KV)

- 108 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai


3) GAS SYTSTEM & FILLING

A) Verify the Presence of SF6 Gas By once pressing pin of coupling and listen the
sound.
B) Do not permit moisture while assembly is made.
C) Unless alarm is connected do not connect gas pipe lines.
D) Use two spanner while connecting or disconnecting gas pipe lines.
E) Temperature correction to be incorporated while making up of SF6 gas in the
Breaker by referring pressure temperature chart in the instruction manual .

i.e. ABSOLUTE PRESSURE GAUGE PRESSURE


7.0 bar at 20’C 6.0 bar at 20’C
7.3 bar at 20’C 6.3 bar at 30’C and
7.6 bar at 20’C 6.6 at 40’C

f) Approx, Gas weight per circuit Breaker.


Type : 72.5 KV 145KV 245KV 420KV(Without Resistor) 420 (With resistor)
Weight : 3.5 KG 7.8 KG 21.8KG 30.00KG 45.0 KG
G). All pipe joints must be “Clamped”
4) Pole column :
Crane capacity 420KV 245KV 145KV
Max. Weight / Pole 3 Ton 2 Ton 1.5 Ton
Height / Pole 13 Metres 10 Metres 8 Metres
(Height of Crane Hook)
A) Matching SR Nos. of Poles with SR Nos of Breaker and Drive.
B) While lifting pole column protect gas Coupling from damage.
C) Not to insert washer in between “POLE COLUMN & STRUCTURE” for leveling.
D) Density monitor fixing Refer instruction manual.
E) Fixing of Driving Mechanism it Should be in Trip Condition for 245 / 400KV Breakers.
For more details refer instruction manual.

C) COMMISSIONING “CARE”
A) Check SF6 Leakage with “detector”
(Joints must be covered with polythene bag for at least 2 Hours).
Insert the probe of leak detector inside polythene bag & Check the Leakage.
B) Ensure SF6 Gas going into all 3 phases. Can be achieved by first filling in central
pole to normal pressure. Then connect inter-pipe and observe pressure dropping to
Half. Rise the pressure once again to normal. Connect Remaining inter-pipe and
Observe Pressure Dropping to 2/3. During this period verify density monitor contacts
refer (D) finally make up the pressure to the normal pressure.

- 109 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai


C) Check operation of closing interlock while filling air pressure in 245/ 420 KV Breakers.
D) Ensure that 245KV and 420 KV Breakers have their own close blocking devices.
They should never be interchanged.
E) Verify density monitor : Verify contacts & alarm for Refill, While reducing the gas
pressure level. (Refer OPERATING & instruction Manual).
F) Verify Breaker timings
CLOSE R Y B
OPEN
CO
G) “Never By pass” gas density monitor contactor as well as air pressure switch
contacts.
H) Apply very thin layer of Grease on Tip of the Density Monitor Plug. Then insert the
plug inside the socket. Listen Carefully for A ‘Click’ Sound, to confirm full insertion.
I) Check All electrical interlocks are incorporated in the circuit.
J) Flush air pipes several Times.

D) DAILY “CARE”

Drain the condensate during early Morning Hours. Draining Should Continue All
compressor starts.

Record the time in minutes from start of compressor until it stops.

E) QUARTERLY “CARE”

Q.1. External Cleaning of Prior to monsoon and as & when Shutdown


Insulator is available or deposits are too thick. Dust /
Dirt to be removed.
Q.2. Switch cubicle cleaning Open the switch cubicle & Remove webs/
dust.
Q.3 Check wiring connection in Check wiring connection Tightly secured.
switch cubicle Check healthiness of relay, Contactors, Etc.
Q.4. Compressor Check & Compare the Running Time.
Q.5. Compressed Air Plant Maintenance to be carried out as per
instruction manual check for any leakage,
check oil leakage, check for alarm, non
Return valve to be opened & Cleaned, Verify
motor thermal overload is working or not.
Q.6. Pressure switch in switch Check by reducing the pressure up to
cubicle requisite value. The Switch should enter into
blocking zone at specified pressure.
Q.7. Verification of SF6 Alarm Healthiness of alarm can be verified by
shorting electrical circuit, not by draining SF6
Gas.

- 110 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai


T1) Trouble shooting chart for SF6 circuit Breaker
Type of
Possible Cause Recommended corrective Measures
Condition
A. Gas i) If alarm, had come after a very a) Make up the gas pressure with the help of
Alarm long time and leakage not heavy. gas refilling device & temperature correction
chart Absolute pressure Gauge Pressure
7.0 Bar at 200C 6.0 Bar at 200C
7.3 Bar at 200C 6.3. Bar at 300C
7.6 Bar at 200C 6.6 Bar at 400C
b) If felt necessary then plan the shutdown for
searching the leakage and attending leakage
thereof
ii) If alarm comes on frequently ii) CHECK :-
and the leak rate is high : 1) Electrical Circuit
2) Gas pipe Braze Joints
3) Gas pipe Couplings.
4) Insulator joints.
5) Lip seal Assembly.

Procedure for Checks :


! Check Healthiness of leak detector
! The joints to be covered with bags for at least 2 Hrs.
! The insert the probe of leak detector inside bag & check.
! If required, replace/ repair the leak joints / gaskets.

This trouble shooting charts are for handy guidelines, do not Hesitate to contact us for any
further clarifications details at the nearest ABB office (Addresses given on the back-cover
page)

Type of condition Possible Cause Recommended corrective Measures


B. Circuit Beaker ! No or Low control voltage. CHECK & CORRECT :
Does not Operate ! Close impulse blocked. ! Positions of Switch
at Impulse to ! Control Circuit interrupted. ! Control Voltage
close. ! Magnet ventil plunger sticky. ! Pressure Switch Contacts.
! Aux. Switch element. ! Density Monitor Contacts.
! Density Monitor Cable. ! Magnet Ventil piston.
! Tripping Plunger Solenoid in lifted
position.

- 111 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai


C) Circuit ! No or Low control voltage. CHECK & CORRECT :
Breaker does not ! Opening impulse blocked. ! Positions of Switch
operate at ! Control circuit interrupted. ! Control Voltage
impulse to open. ! Aux. Switch element. ! Pressure Switch contacts.
! Density Monitor cable. ! Density Monitor Contacts.
! Magnet ventil plunger stickly. ! Magnet ventil piston.

D) Circuit Beaker ! Short Circuit or fault in connecting CHECK & CORRECT :


Operates Without with control Circuit. ! Circuit diagram for voltage Control
impulse. ! Check Plunger. lest insulation.
! Insulation of Coils.
E) Circuit Breaker ! Faulty anti-pumping relay. CHECK & CORRECT :-
Hunting ! Control Circuit.
! Anti – pumping relay.
F) Contact ! Overheating. ! Clean & Lubricate contact surface
Erosion. ! Warn arcing contacts large No.of in stipulated manner. Reassemble
operations (Refer Manual) and check resistance.
! Refer instruction manual for the no.
of operations versus fault current.
For further guidance please
contact nearest ABB office.
G) Single Pole ! Electrical of Mechanical Fault in ! Locate Faulty pole. Check Driving
operation (pole operating Device. Mechanism. As well as Magnetic
Discrepancy). ventiles.
! Check Electrical Circuit.

TROUBLE SHOOTING CHART FOR COMPRESSOR


Type of condition Possible Cause Recommended corrective Measures
A) Compressor Leakage in ! Replace / Repair leaky joints.
Frequently runs or runs ! Pipe Line Joints.
for A longer duration. ! Audible leakage in Circuit
Breaker.
B) Compressor Fails to ! Non return valve. ! Replace Non return valve or
start or motor gets ! Not Working. springs of Non Return valve or
overloaded. clean and refill.
C) Oil Contamination in ! Dirty Oil/ Oil Level low. ! Change Oil, Fill correct Grade of oil
pressurized air system. ! Cylinder and intercollertins up to maximum level in the oil level
dirty. indicator.

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! Blow with compressed air or clean
Manually.
! Open, Clean & Refill after
checking.
D) Oil contamination in ! Choked air filter. ! Clean the air filter.
pressurized air system. ! Oil level high. ! Drain oil to Correct level.
! Oil viscosity too low. ! Change to recommended grade.
Breather valve not working. ! Open, clean & refit after checking
! Piston rings stuck in grooves ! Remove piston and loosen ring.
or broken. ! Replace if broken. Check all
! Piston to cylinder clearance related parts for wear before fitting.
excessive.
E) Water or rust ! Faulty breather ! Check & Replace the Breather
formation in crank valve if necessary.
Housing
F) Unusual water in ! Inadequate air filter ! Increase frequency of cleaning.
Cylinder Piston and maintenance. ! Change to correct grade of oil as
Rings. ! Incorrect grade of oil. given in recommended lubricant
chart.
G) Compressor ! Loose Compressor fan fly ! Adjust or replace if elongated
knocking wheel, ! Open and re-tighten.
! Worn out piston, cylinder, ! Open, clean & refit after careful
crank, shaft & connecting rod check.
bearings. ! Replace after checking the related
components.
H) Pressure build –up ! Loose belts. ! Adjust or replace if elongated
time excessive. ! Leaky joints in pressure ! Open and re-tighten.
lines. ! Open, Clean & Refit after careful
! Defective seating of inlet & check.
delivery valve plats ! Replace after checking the related
components.
I) Excessive Belt wean. ! Incorrect motor and ! Check, adjust using a straight edge
compressor pulley or string across the diameter of
alignment. both the pulleys.
! Check belt adjustments.
J) Oil leak through ! Breather valve not working. ! Open clean and refit breather.
Breather ! Piston ring stuck in grooves. ! Loosen the piston rings if broken
! Piston to cylinder clearance change the rings as a set.
excessive. ! Check and change.

- 113 - T & SS Training Institute, Madurai


10. PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENT OF CURRENT AND
POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS
Er. M.VARADARAJAN B.E.,
CE/ Retd
In Electrical Power system, when a fault ratio error Phase displacement Composite error
occurs it should be isolated with minimum time de- at rated at rated primary at rated accuracy
lay and without affecting other portions of the net- Primary current current limited primary Current.
work. The above task of selective disconnection of 1) 5 P ± 1% +60 minutes 5%
the faulted line or equipment can be achieved only 2) 10 P ± 3% 10%
when careful choice of the following equipments and 3) 15 P ± 5% 15%
detailed analysis of condition of the system are made.
1. Current Transformer Before commissioning, the adequacy of the
2. Potential Transformer. C.T. burden shold be carefully worked out. If the CT
3. Circuit Breaker gets saturated due to heavy fault current, the relay
4. Relay operating time will increase considerably. If it is found
5. Station Battery that the CT gets saturated, the following suggestion
6. Control Cable can be considered to avoid Saturation.
7. Station Earthing. 1) Increase CT Ratio
Wrong choice of any of the equipments may 2) Disconnect the instantaneous on LV side to
result in delayed clearance or no clearance of the reduce the fault current so that each
fault at all. transformer will feed certain number of feeders
1. CURRENT TRANSFORMERS in a Sub-station.
The performance requirement can be classi-
3) Avoid parallelling of transformer on LV side to
fied under three broad categories, based on applica-
reduce the fault current so that each trans-
tion.
former will feed certain number of feeders in a
(A) Over current protection for HV feeders like
Sub-station.
11KV, 22KV, 33KV and 66 KV feeders, transform-
ers. 4) Disconnect the instantaneous element in the
(B) Protection of EHV feeders like 110KV earth fault relay element.
230KV and 400 KV. 5) Change the CT.
(C) Differential protection of Bus bar,
Tansformer lines etc., B. CT FOR EHV FEEDERS PROTECTION
In the IDMT relay for 11 KV, 22KV & 33KV
(A) OVER CURRENT PROTECTION feeders the minimum operating time will be above
The requirment for ‘A’ is normally met by 100ms. The D.C. Transient normally associated with
Indian Standard Specification IS :2705 Part III, and fault current for 11, 22 and 33 KV system will die
that for ‘C’ IS : 2705 Part IV. For application ‘B’ is down within 20ms. But in 230 and 400 KV system
2705 Part VI are insisted. The salient features of the maximum relay operating time is 40 m.s. and
each specification is disussed. typical relay operating time is about 20 to 30 m.s.
A) The following are the major requirements. only. The duration of D.C. transient depend upon the
1. Burden time constant of the system from generating source
2. Accuracy Class to the point of fault. For 230 KV system it may vary
3. Rated Accuracy Limit factor. from 16ms to 100 ms. For 400 KV system it may
1) Burden vary from 40m.s. to 100 m.s. The D.C. transient will
The impedance of the secondary circuit be reduced to less than 2% of its full value after the
expressed in Ohms and Power factor. The burden is duration of 4 times of its time constant. The pres-
usually expressed in volt ampere absorbed at a ence of DC transient in the primary fault current will
specified power factor and at the rated secondary saturate the current transwformer. In order to avoid
current. The importance of the secondary circut is the saturation, the current transformer has to be over
normally the vectorial addition of burden of relay, dimensioned. The CT has to be over dimensioned to
cable leads and any meters connected in series. (1+ X/ R) times the steady state condition.
Power factor is normally 0.8 Normal available bur- The CT requirement for EHV feeder protec-
dens are 15 and 39 V.A. tion is given as follows:-
2) Accuracy Class : 1. Knee point voltage
Standard accuracy class are 5P, 10P and 2. Secondary resistance
15P and their details of error are as noted below :
3. Accuracy class.
The sinusoidal voltage at rated frequency
applied to the secondary terminals of the transformer,
-114- T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.
all other windings being open circuted, which when 3. RATED ACCURACY LIMITED FACTOR.
increased by 10%, causes the exciting current to The value of the accuracy limit factor for which
increase by 50%. the accuracy requirements of this specification are
The general formula for the CT Knee point most at rated burden. The standard accuracy limit
voltage for EHV feeder protection is : factors are 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30.
Vk=(X/ R +1) Lf (RCT+RL+RR)
Where Vk = knee point voltage
X/ R = Reactance to resistance ratio from source to
point of fault.
If = Primary fault current as expressed in terms
of secondary value i.e. Primary fault current
divided by CT transformation ratio.
RCT = CT secondary resistance
RL = Resistance of the cable lead from CT to relay
400-200/1 Amp. 15 (or 30) VA, 5p15. It means
RR = Resistance of the relay
that when primary current of 200 Amps flow, the
In Tamilnadu Electricity Board, for 230 KV secondary current will be 1 amp and can feed a
system the following are the specifications. burden of 15 ohms (30). When the primary current
reaches, 15 times the rated value, the CT can still
CT ratio : 1200 -600/ 1A, normally adopted 600/1
feed the burden of 15(30) Ohms and the composite
Accuracy Class 5P20/ Vk = 1200 Volts
error will not exced 5 percent in the transformation.
Burden = 50VA
CT Secondary resistance : 6 Ohms. Practically in TamilNadu Electricity Board it
is normal practice to provide two (three) over current
In static relay the resistive burden is about 1 IDMT relays each with instantaneous element as
Ohm only. The lead burden seldom exceeds 1 Ohm. shown in the diagram. The burden of the IDMT relay
The fault current is about 600/1 CT ratio, If = 10 at 100% plug setting is 3 V.A. For one amp rated
Amps. relay it is equal to 3 Ohms. For over current relay
Hence 1200 = (X/R+1) (10) (6+1+1) the normal practice is to adopt 100% and for earth
X/R = (1200 / 80) -1 15-1=14 fault relay 40% plug setting.
In 230 KV system the X/R will vary from 5 to For O/L element the burden is 3 Ohms (Z)
30. It will be less than 10 in most of the locations for E/L elements it is Z=3
away from the generating station. Here the satura-
(0.4)2 Z=3
tion can be saved by increasing the CT ratio to 1200.
Further in actual fault condition there is always the Z=3/0.16 = 18.7 Ohms. App.
resistance of the Arc. This may vary from 1 to 5 The burden of instantaneous element is 5VA
Ohms depending on the fault current. Addition of or 5 ohms. Hence the total burden in series for an
the Arc resistance will reduce the X/R ratio. Further, earth fault will be
the knee point voltage is always in excess of 1200V. Z O/L ins + Z O/L IDMT + Z EL IDMT
Therefore correct peromance of the relay is always
= 5+3+5 +18.7 = 13.7 ohms.
assured under transient condition also.
Composite error : The current practice in TamilNadu Electricity
Under steady condition, the RMS value of the Board is to use CT of 30 VA.This will develop 450V
difference, initegrated over one cycle between at its output i.e. 30 x 15 =450. The impedance (Z)
a) instantaneous value of the primary current and and current can vary so that the product should not
b) The product of the rated transformation ratio exceed 450V. In a sub-station where 3 Nos, 110KV/
and the instantaneous value of the secondary 22KV, 10 MVA transformers with 10% impedance
current. each are provided, the fault MVA will be 300 when
(This includes the effects of phase difference infinite bus is assumed on HV side, Under actual
of any turn correction and distortion of wave condition the fault MVA will be about 2/3 of this value
form). i.e. 200 MVA. The fault current on LV side will be
about 5,200 Amps. When 300/1 Amp CT is used,
This is generally expressed as a percentage
CT secondary current will be 17.3 Amp. Apparently
of the RMS value of the expression given below.
it may look that with 31.7 Ohms burden, CT will not
Composite Error = 100 / IP 1/T (Knis-ip)2dt
develop sufficient voltage to drive this current (31.7 x
IP = Primary current
17.3 = 548.4v). But in the case of IDMT relay, as
T = Duration of the cycle in second .
current increases, core in the relay saturates and
K = Rated transformation ratio.
the relay burden will reduce to 40% of its value at 10
Is = Instantaneous value of the
times the current setting. So the O/L and E./L bur-
secondary current
den (3+18.7) = 12.7 ohms will be reduced to 8.68
Ip = Instantaneous value of the primary
ohms and the total burden will be 18.68 ohms The
current.

-115- T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


CT will have to develop 16.68 x 17.3 = 323.16V If in this case a resistance of 140 ohms is
only. The relay will act correctly . introduced, the current is reduced to 0.5 Amps and
the operation of relay is prevented. Further CT III will
Since the feeder IV will be carrying the total
have to develop 2x70 = 140 volts. For differential pro-
current of feeder to III, there is a possiblity that un-
tection a separate accuracy class is introduced in
der D.C. transient condition, the CT in this feeder
the Indian Standard as ‘PS’ class IS : 2705 part IV.
will get saturated. Assuming that the CT is fully satu-
In this class the following details are specified.
rated and there is no secondary current circulating
1) Knee point voltage Vk
in feeder IV, then the total current circulation in the
2) CT secondary resistancce Rct
circuit due to feeder I to III will develop a voltage due
3) Excitation current at a certain point of Vk
to secondary resistance as given below :-
This should be very minimum.
In Tamil Nadu Electricity Board for 230 KV
C) CT Requirement for High Impedance Differential
system for the bus bar protection the following stan-
Relays
dards are specified.
In this relaying scheme the current entering
1) CT ratio : 1200 / 1A
the bus is compared with the current leaving the bus.
2) Vk above 1000V
In case of fault in the bus, the flow of the current is
3) Rct = 6 ohms
always towards the bus and the relay operates (A).
4) Excitation current below 30 mill Amps at Rk/2
In case of fault outside the bus (B) the current enter-
The above specification will ensure current
ing the bus is equal to the current leaving the bus.
operation of relay under most severe fault condition.
Hence the relay does not operate. But this is an
ideal condition which is not normally met in actual
2. POTENTAL TRANSFORMERS
condition. For this application, ratio error should be
A. For potential transformers two standards are
very minium i.e. the excitation current should be low.
specified :
For purpose of analysis figure B is redrawn with two
1) Metering
feeders only.
2) Protection
(i) When CT is not saturated :
1) Metering : IS: 3156 Part II
Class Percentage Voltage Phase
displacement
(Ratio error) Minutes
0.1 ± 0.1 ±5
0.2 ± 0.2 ± 10
0.5 ± 0.5 ± 20
1 ±1 ± 40
3 ±3 ..
The performance of PT shall be with in this
range from 80% to 120% rated voltage with burden
between 25 and 100% at 0.8 power factor lagging.
ii) When CT is Saturated :
2) Protection : IS : 3156 Part III.
Class Percentage Voltage Phase
displacement
Percentage In Minutes
3 ±3 ± 120
5 ±5 ± 300

The performance of the PT shall be within


this range at any voltage from 5 to 120% of rated
voltage with burden between 25 percentage and 100
When the CT is not saturated, the voltage
percentage at 0.8 P.F lagging.
across the relay terminal -AB is Zero. But when CT
IV is fully saturated, the voltage is I (Rct +RL). When
Under fault condition the primary voltage
Rct =6 ohm, RL =1ohm, If I=10 Amp, Voltage accross
actually goes down. Only true transformation of pri-
AB 70V. The impedance of the relay is approximately
mary voltage is required under reduced voltage level.
1 ohm. The operating current of the relay is usually
Hence no over-dimensioning is required. Because
less than 1 Amp. The 70 V will drive a heavy current
of this, single core is used both for metering and
through the relay and the relay will operate which
protection. With the introduction of static relay, the
should not occur for a fault out side the bus. In order
load due’ to protective relay is 1 VA, where as the
to avoid the operation of relay resistance of suitable
total burden due to many meters will be as high as
value is introduced in the relay circuit.

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15 to 20 VA. Hence, normally only one core is specified which is expected to meet the specifation both for
metering and protection.
The following precaution should be taken In selection of PT for protection purpose
Three Nos. single PTs or a PT with a five limbed core should be used. Three limbed core should not be
used for protection purpose. In three limbed PT both positive and negative sequence voltages will be correctly
transformed, but there is no path for zero sequence flux and it will not be correctly transformed.
There are two types of PTs available, viz
(A) Electromagnetic and
(B) Capacitive voltage transformers.

(A) Electromagnetic PT: Electromagnetic PT is just This problem is solved by the following methods:
like any other transformer. Only difference is the large 1) The duration of the sub-harmonic voltage can
transformation ratio such as 1000 or 2000. be considerably reduced by loading the PT
to its full burden.
(B) Capacitive voltage Transformer:
2) The relay measurement is inherantly delayed
It is actually a capaccitance voltage divider
by half to 1 cycle duration.
with, auxilary transformer. The transformation ratio
of auxilary VT is 11KV/ 3/110/3 irrespective of pri- 3) In the relay, the PT voltage is filtered by a
mary voltage divider suitably adjusted. filter, tuned to power frequency. This filter is
automatically introduced when the voltage falls
Performance-wise there is no problem with
below 15% of the rated voltage.
electromagnetic PT. But the cost of electromagnetic
PT is higher than CVT at 230 KV level and very much So, a careful choice of relaying scheme should
higher at 400 KV level. So it is normal practice to be made when CVT is used.
use CVT at 230 KV and higher voltage level. Further connection of any auxilary PT should
From the examination of figure B, it can be be avoided out-side CVT circuit as it may lead to
seen that the CVT is a series resonance circuit. series resonance.
During fault condition when the high voltage point is In Tamil Nadu Electricity Board, 0.5 class with
grounded, the charge in the condenser discharges 500 VA burden is specified for the Bust VT for pro-
and a sub-harmonic resonance frequency voltage is tection and metering.
induced in the secondary of CVT. This voltage be-
comes predominant when the primary voltage falls The details given above are an over-all view of
bellow 10% of this rated value. As per I.S, this volt- the performance requirement of current and poten-
age should decay to less than 10% of the peak value tial transformers. Since generating capacity, trans-
before the short circuit, within one cycle of the power mission lines and transformer capacity are increas-
frequency. For 50 Hz system this time is 20 m.s. ing day by day. It is the primary duty of the protection
With fast acting relay, this subharmonic voltage will Engineer to review the entire protection system
introduce two problems. periodially and make modification if required to
improve the performance.
1) Wrong directional response REFERENCE
2) Error in measurement of impedance in case 1) IS 2705 part I to IV specification for current
of distance protection Transformers.
2) IS 3156 part I to IV specification for voltage
Transformers.
3) Protective Relays Application Guide by GSC
Measurements.

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11. SEQUENTIAL QUESTIONS

FOR OPERATION OF 110/11KV SUB STATION


Er.H.KAILASARAMAN, M.E., MIE.,
Executive Engineer/TNEB (Retd.)

I. OPERATION INSTRUCTIONS AND OPERATION :

01. What is an operating Instruction?

02. What are the advantages of operation Instructions?

03. Is operation responsible for any happening in the Sub Station?

04. Describe the operational stability to be exercised by the duty operator

05. How a new operator is to be acquainted with the operation of Sub Station?
(PARELLEL AND REVERSE PARALLEL SHIFTS)

II LOG BOOK AND LOG SHEET :

06. Define “ Log Book” and “Log Sheet”

07. What are the events to be recorded in Log Book?

08. Are operational events to be recorded then and there (or) after completing the
specified sequence of operations

09. What are the Parameters recorded in Log sheet

III. LAYOUT UNDERSTANDING :

10. How will you understand the Layout of SS defining the “feeding
arrangements, controlled isolation arrangement, Power and voltage transfer
using transformer, Protective arrangement” etc.

11. Which are all the areas in a sub station, where operations have to be carried out.

12. Classify the operations to be performed for which the operating instruction should
be available

13. What is the operational equipment to control and isolate the area

14. What is the sequenced procedures to cut off loads and isolate the area
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15. Why the isolators are called potential isolators?

16. What are the two types of isolators employed in Sub Station and define their usage
in its specific location.

17. What do you mean by “Inter Lock” and define its benefits

18. What are the statistical practical information to be available for the specific
operations areas, defined in 11

IV. CONTROLLING BREAKERS :

19. What are the types of breakers employed in SS based on various are quenching
mediums

20. What are the types of operating mechanisms employed for the operation of the
above breakers

21. How a closing spring of a “spring and lever operated mechanism” is sequenced for
its loading for a subsequent closing operation – Is spring loading by motor
operation comes with lamp indication in your panel”.

22. How will you release the load of spring while giving line clear

23. How a pneumatic (AIR) operated mechanism is sequenced for operation with Air
pressure in its reservoir and define cut off/cut in pressure

24. Are you conversant with these cut off/cut in pressures relating to the breakers of
pneumatic mechanism, in your SS

25. Are you watching the’ compressor Run’ indication lamps, such breakers in your
control panel

26. What do you infer, if the compressor is continuously running

27. Are you competent to take remedial operation measures, if such exigency arises.

28. Is there any protective arrangement to trip the breaker automatically, if Air
becomes low (or) is the breaker opening operation is locked automatically.

29. In such “Air Lockout” cases, what will you do to isolate the breaker from service.

30. What do you mean by “condensate” in the Air reservoir and measures taken by the
operator to release the same.?

31. Is it necessary to release the air in the reservoir before giving a line clear for the
breaker?
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32. In case of SF6 Gas medium breaker, Are you conversant with working pressures
of SF6 gas, exhibited with colour indication (Green, Yellow, Red)

33. Will you trip the breaker with load if SF6 pressure is becoming low beyond the
working limit.?

34. In such “gas lock out case” how will you isolate the breaker from the system.

35. Are you conversant with the operation of all the breaker i.e. ‘close’ and “open” by
(a) locally mechanically
(b) locally electrically
(c) by remote electrically
(d) tripping thro’ relays

36. What do you understand by


(a) Normal current carrying capacity of breaker
(b) Rupturing capacity of breakers (MVA (or) Amps)

37. What do you know about “ Fault level” of the Sub Station and how it signifies
with the employment of controlling breakers?

V. PROTECTIVES SYSTEMS & SCHEMES ;

38. What is the protective scheme available for 11KV feeders and for 110KV feeders
at sending end ?

39. What are the protective schemes for the power transformer

40. What do you mean about “ back up protection”

41. Define the back up protection for 11KV feeders, Transformers.

42. What are all the equipments and elements available for protection in association
with each controlling breaker?

43. Is potential Transformer (P.T.) associated with protection in the radial sub station?

44. What do you know about “Flag indication” of Relay?

45. Is operation conversant with the significance of flag indication and how to reset it?

46. If a tripping thro’ Relay occurs, when do the operator reset this Flag i.e. “before or
after normalizing”?

47. Why the flags are to be reset before normalizing?

48. What is meant by “Master Relay” and where it is employed?

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49. Will there be a “Master Relay” from each transformer (or) for the whole
transformer bank?

50. What will happen, if healthy Transformer is normalized without resetting the Flag
indication of Master Relay?.

51. What are the possible, conditions, when Master Relay Flag could not be reset?

52. What the operator should do to enable for resetting the Master Relay in such
conditions?

53. What is the importance of “Annunciation legend” each controlling area, in the
annunciation panel.?

54. Are you conversant with the available annunciation for each controlling area?

55. What is the significance of “Accept and cancel” the indication in the annunciation
WINDOW?

VI. D.C. SYSTEM AND A.C. SYSTEM :

56. What is the importance of the D.C. System

57. What are the components of a D.C. System

58. What are the probable trouble shooting in the D.C. system and quick remedial
measures the operation should take on such exigencies?.

59. Why should the operate be conversant with location of D.C. fuses in the panel of
controlling areas.

60. Describe the use of A.C. supply system in the various operational areas of SS and
strum its importance

61. Is the operation conversant with measures for availing alternate A.C. supply in
case of exigencies.

62. Why it is important that the operator should know the location of A.C. fuses in the
control panel

63. What the operation should practise for familiarizing such location of D.C. fuses
and A.C. fuses.

VII. SHIFT TAKE OVER :

64. What are all the items to be checked while taking over shift duties

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VIII. NORMAL OPERATION :

65. What do you mean by normal operating condition

66. What are all the observations and checks to be exercised by the operator for
the normal condition of operation

67. Is the operator conversant with the statistical information about the
operational area as defined in (X-18)

68. Is the operator able to perform the “ON Low Tap Changer” operation by (i)
Remote (ii) Electrically at site (iii) Mechanically at Site.

69. What is meant by Master/Follower control for trip operation

70. Why the transformer should not be set at different taps

71. What is the procedure change the tap if Master/Follower control is not employed?

72. Can the tap be changed for raising the voltage level at the tail end of the feeders

73. What is the significance of tap 9A, 9B & 9C in tap changing?

74. Is the operation familiar with any specific condition imposed for parallel operation
of types due to unequal % impedance.

IX SHUT DOWN/LINE CLEAR OPERATION :

75. What do you mean by shut down operation?

76. What do you mean by Line Clear?

77. What the sequence of procedure to be carried out by the operator for shut down
L.C. work?

78. What are the sequence of procedure for normalizing after completion of shut down
and L.C. work?

79. What is L.C. key board and why it should be kept under lock and key?

80. Is the operation to perform the operation, discharge and earthing personally with
the assistance of SS Shift (or) can it be entrusted to others?

81. What are all the items (T&P and consumables) that can be maintained with the
custody of operator?

82. What is the significance of keeping discharge rod and earth rods in operaor’s
custody ?

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83. Who is the issuer and L.C. in sub station and what is his responsibility ?

84. Who is the receiver of L.C. and what is his responsibility ?

85. Why AE/maintenance of sub station issue L.C. ?

86. Who are authorized personnel for issue and receipt of line clear

87. What is the necessity for placing and a ladder in SS equipment under L.C.

88. What are other safety measures to be adopted during L.C. works

89. Do you know that the operator is officially responsible for issue of L.C. in the
entire 11KV feeders

90. Do you also know that be can limit issue of L.C. upto the first series suited of the
11KV feeder the AE/Distribution to avail L.C. of their own, since he is also
incharge of the supply on that feeder

91. Whether AE/Distribution can avail L.C. on 11KV feeders of his jurisdiction (or)
avail back feeding without informing to the operation

92. Whether the operator should be properly informed AE/Distribution to record all
operation performed in the 11KV feeders

93. What are the types of L.C. and the role of the operator and care to be exercised by
him in such L.C.

94. Define L.C. permit form and describe the procedures for issue and return of L.C.
thro’ this form

X. BLINK :

95. What is meant by blink and how it serves for minimizing the interruption

96. What is normal duration of blink

97. What is return of blink

98. If duration of blink is extended, what the operator is to do

99. Whether the responsibility can be fixed on the personnel who obtained the blink, if
the duration is unnecessarily extended

100. Is the blink can be considered as L.C.

101. What are all the other safety aspects of the blink

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102. List out operating sequence for availing the shutdown in the operational areas
defined in (X) 11

XI. TRIPPING AND BREAK DOWN :

103. Define sequence of instruction for tripping/declaring break down of a 11KV feeder

104. What are the sequence of operation, if L.V. breakers trips as a back up protection.

105. How will you distinguish a tripping of L.V. and G.C. breaker for a transformer
failure or for a through fault.

106. Define sequence of operation if


(a) Temporary alarm of Transformer
(b) MOG alarm of Transformer
(c) Buchholz Relay top float of Transformer

107. What are the operating sequence if “Master Relay” act (Buchholz Relay bottom
and other transformer protective Relays)

108. If power transformer failure is observed, can be test charge the transformer

109. What the operator should do if main supply fails due to load shedding

110. What the operator should do if main supply fails due to tripping of 110KV feeder

111. Can G.C. be tripped directly with load for any emergency.

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12. LINE CLEAR
1. All works on electric al equipments, switchgear, and auxiliary equipments shall be
covered by proper line clears issued by the operators.

2. Line clears shall be issued by the Operators on duty to authorized persons only. A
statement of the powers of J.E‘s and S.O.’ s and subordinate staff in respect of the issue
and respect of the issue and receipt of line clears is given below:-

-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x—x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x—x-
Grade of Employee Powers to issue and receive line clear Special authorities
(Electrical) by virtue of the post held action by Divisional
Engineer
( Electrical).
(1) (2) (3)
-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x-x—x-x-x-x-x-x-x-
1. (a) Junior Engineers All lines and equipments up to Not necessary.
S.O. I Grade upto 230 K.V
With at least
One year experience.

(b) Junior All lines and equipments upto Special authorisation


Engineers & 110 K.V. for 230 K.V.
s.o. S-I Grade and
special-Grade Foremen

2. Section officer II Grade Lines and equipments Lines and equipments


rated 66.K.V. and below. Rated 110. K.V.

NOTE:- (i) Line clears on Lines or equipments should be issued only by the
persons who are in direct charge of the lines or equipments concerned.

(ii) Switch board operators/ attendants in independent charge of station, will be


treated on par with L.I. but are authorized to only issue and cancel line clears.
(iii) Construction Staff will rank on par with their counterparts in the maintenance
branch and will be authorized to only receive and return line clears.
(iv) When a Wireman has to function as lineman or lineman operator, he should
be authorized by name by the Divisional Electrical Engineer on the recommendations of
Assistant Engineer ( Electrical).
(v) In small stations where Assistant wireman functions as Wireman for normal
duties, authorization should be by the Divisional Electrical Engineer.
(vi) Helpers should not be treated as authorized persons and should work under
the guidance of higher category-officials except selected men in isolated stations who
may be authorized by name, when necessary, by Divisional – Electrical Engineer on the
recommendations of Assistant Engineer, Electrical.

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1. The person applying for line clear should satisfy himself that the equipment on
which line clear is being issued for his work is properly and completely isolated on all
sides and it is safe for work.
2. Two numbers key boards should be maintained in all substations, one to keep the
keys of all the equipments/ line in service, and the other for accommodating the keys of
equipments/line out on line clear. The two key boards should be kept under lock and key
by the operator on duty.
3. Only one switch operation shall be done at a time by the Assistant operator taking
that particular single key only from the operator and after each individual operation the
key shall be returned to the operator. The Assistant operators, on receiving the keys from
the operator, shall check that the correct key has been handed over to him for the
operation involved. A number of keys pertaining to a series of switch operations either
for issue of line clear or resumption of normal service should not be handed over to the
Assistant operator, by the operator by only one key shall be given at a time for a
particular switch operation, although this may entail a larger time for completing the
series of operations. This is with a view to avoid non-sequential operations thereby
resulting in wrong operations or omission of certain switch operations.
4. The Operator shall verify the isolation of the equipment by checking the
semaphore indication wherever possible as and when the switchgear keys are returned to
him. The keys of the equipments on the line clear shall be kept in the separate “ Line
clear key board” and handed over to relieving operator at the end of the shift.
5. Key of an equipment or switchgear which is the point of isolation for a particular
equipment on line clear shall not on any account be given to any person including the
person taking line clear, till the line clear is returned.
6. After isolation, “ Men on line—Do not switch on “ board shall be fixed at each
and every point of isolation in such a way that the board cannot be removed unless the
lock is opened. After isolation and discharging green flags and “Safe for work” boards
shall be put on the equipment conspicuously.
7.. When the operations for the isolation of the equipments are over, the operator
shall issue line clear to the person who requisitioned for the same in the standard line
clear form.
8. The line clear shall be returned only by the person who took the line clear. If it is
necessary to transfer a line clear in the course of the maintenance work to some other
person, it shall be done by return of the line clear by the person, it shall be done by return
of the line clear by the person who first took the L.C. and then the Operator should issue
a fresh L.C. to the other person.
9. Before returning the L.C. the person who took the L.C. shall see that the
equipment is clear of all materials and earth and is in normal condition ready for service.
10. After the return of the L.C. the Assistant Operator should check that the
equipment is clear of men, material, and earth and report the same to the Operator. The
operator shall then cancel the L.C. and give the proper key to the Assistant Operator for
closing the concerned switches, etc., one at a time, the Assistant operator also should see
that the operations are carried out only in respect of the equipment which was on line
clear and has been released for service, now. Then the equipment should be serviced.

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13. VOLTAGE VARIATION IN POWER TRANSFORMERS

1: GENERAL
Rapid growth of industries and 1.2: ON - LOAD TAP CHANGER:
distribution network has resulted in voltage Tap changing ON-LOAD has become nec-
variation in electrical systems. For the essary
healthiness of the electrical equipments and * To maintain a constant secondary voltage
their performance it is very much essen- with a varible primary voltage.
tial to maintain the system voltage within the * To control the secondary voltage with a
prescribed limits. Voltage of the system can variable primary voltage.
be varied by changing the transformation * To control the flow of reactive KVA between
ratio of the transformer, by adding in or cut- two Generation - systems or to adjust reac-
ting out turns of primary or secondary wind- tive KVA branches of loop circuits.
ings. Basically, Tap Chan ging equipment * To control the division of power between
can be divided into: branches of loop-circuits by shifting the
a. OFF-CIRCUIT Tap Changer. phase angle position of the output voltage
b. ON-LOAD Tap Changer. of a transformer.
Now-a-days, almost all large power
1.1: OFF-CIRCUIT TAP CHANGER: transformers are fitted with OLTC and with
The cheapest method of changing the the introduction of OLTC, the operating effi-
turns ratio of a transformer is by using OFF- ciency of the electrical system has consid-
CIRCUIT Tap-Changer. As the name im- erably improved. The principle of on-load
plies, it is essential to de-energise the trans- tap changing was developed in late 1920s
former while changing the tap. An OFF-CIR- and requires a mechanism which will need
CUIT Tap-Changer mainly consists of the following two conditions.
the following three parts [Fig.1.1] :
a. Operating handle, projecting outside the * The load current should not be interrupted
transformer. during a tap change.
b. Fixed contacts with connecting ter minals, * No section of winding should get short cir-
arranged in circular form. cuited during a tap change.
c. Insulated shaft with moving contacts.
The various circuit arrangements All forms of ON-LOAD Tap chan ging
using OFF-CIRCUIT Tap-Changer are circuit, thus, needed to be provided with an
a. Linear impedance to prevent short circuiting of tap-
b. Single bridging ping section of the winding during Tap
c. Double bridging Changing operation. The impedances can
d. Series parallel be either a resistor or centre tapped reac-
e. Star-delta.. tor.
To prevent unauthorized operation of The tap changer can therefore be
an OFF-CIRCUIT Tap changer, a me- classified in general as:
chanical lock is usually provided. Some-
times, to prevent inadvertent operation, an a. Reactor type.
electromagnetic latching device or a micro b. Resistor type.
switch is provided to open the circuit breaker
and thereby to de-energise the transformer, 1.2.1: REACTOR TRANSITION TYPE
while operating the handle and well before OLTC:
the movement of contacts on tap switch. The simplest form of reactor switch-
ing is shown in figure [1.2.1]. There is only a
single winding on the transformer and a

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switch is connected to each tapping posi- 1.2.2: RESISTOR TRANSITION TYPE
tion. Alternate switches are connected to- OLTC:
gether to form two separate groups con- Resistor Transition has consid
nected to the outer terminals of a separate erable advantage of longer contact life, due
midpoint reactor. The winding of the reactor to relatively short arcing time associated
is rated for continuous operation. with unity Power factor switching. With the
introduction of high speed resistor transition
The sequence of changing of taps is tap changing, it is possible to break the arc
shown in the table on the diagram. In the first at first current zero. High-speed resistor
position switch S1 is closed and the circuit type tap changers have now almost com-
is completed through half of the reactor pletely superseded the reactor type in many
winding. To change taps by one position, parts of the world, since it is easier and more
switch S2 is closed in addition to S1. The economical to use resistors mounted in the
reactor then bridges a winding section be- tap changer and the tran sformer tank need
tween two taps giving mid-voltage position. only be designed to accommodate the
For the next tap changing, the switch S1 is transformer core and windings.
opened keeping S2 closed, so that the cir-
cuit is then via the second tapping on the In general, high speed diverter resis-
transformer winding. This particular type of tor tap-changers fall into two categories.
tap- changer necessitated a relatively large They are:
number of current brea king switches which a. Single-compartment type -which carry out
produced a bulky unit and consequently a selection and switching on the same con-
large volume of oil was involved. tacts.
b. Double-compartment type -which have
A modified type of reactor tap separate tap selectors and separate
changer is shown in Figure 12.5. This ar- divertor (switching) switch.
rangement uses two separate selectors and
two diverter switches. The selectors and 1.2.2.1: SINGLE COMPARTMENT TYPE
diverter switches are mechanically inter- OLTC:
locked and the sequence of operation is as The single compartment type employs a ro-
follows. A tap change from position 1 to 2 is tary form of selector switch with:
brought about by opening diverter switch a. Single -transition resistor (or)
No.2, moving selector switch No.2 from tap b. Double -transition resistor
connection 11 to tapping conne ction 10 and Figure [1.2.2.1 a] illustrates the
then closing diverter switch. A tap change switching sequence in moving from one tap
from position 2 to 3 initiates a similar se- to the next tap, employing single transition
quence, utilizing selector and diverter resistor. The switching cycle is known as
switches No.3 in place of switch No.2. ASYMMETRICAL PENNENT CYCLE. Tap
changers with single transition resistor are
The use of centre tapped reactor as suitable for power flow in one direction only
Transition-impedance was more popular in and not suitable for power flow in the re-
earlier designs, in spite of the inevitable verse direction.
shorter contact life. One of the main ad- Figure [1.2.2.1 b] illustrates the
vantages of reactor transition is that twice switching sequence in moving from one tap
as many active working positions as that of to the next tap employing double transition
the number of tappings in the transformer resistor. The switching cycle is known as
could be obtained. This can be an advan- FLAG CYCLE. Tap changers with double
tage where large number of tapping posi- transition resistor are suitable for bi-direc-
tions is required. Reactor transition type tional power flow.
OLTCs are at present manufactured and
used only in USA.
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Two designs are available in single-compart- the Step voltage between taps 4 and 5 pass
ment type on-load tap-changers. through these resistors. The load current
gets divided through each of the resistors
In one design the electrical contacts, to each of the tappings. A 1, then opens and
transition resistors and mechanical gear interrupts the circulating current and the load
arrangement are housed in a pressure tight current is transferred to tap 5, passing
insulation cylinder which is housed along through resistor R2. Finally M closes and
with the transformer in the same tank. Mo- takes the load current and completes the
tor drive for manual/electrical operation is tap change. This sequence of tap change,
mounted on the tank outside. in most of the designs, takes place within
40 to 80 milli-seconds.
In the other design, electrical con-
tacts, transition resistors and Geneva gears For a tap change in the opposite di-
are housed in a steel tank, which in turn is rection, the sequence is reversed. For suc-
mounted on the side of transformer tank. cessive tap changes in the same direction,
The connection between transformer tap- the movement of tap Selector to the next tap
ping leads and tap-changer is through ter- takes place first. However, for the first re-
minal board of epoxy resin moulding. This versal, the tap selector does not move. This
terminal-board is mounted either on trans- feature is obtained by using a ‘Lost motion
former tank of tap-changer housing, de- coupling’ in the mechanical drive of tap -
pending on the design and it also acts as a selector.
barrier to separate the insulating oil of trans-
former and tap-changer. When the tapping range is large, it
is advantageous to halve the length of the
Single compartment tap changers for tapping winding and introduce a reverse or
currents upto 600 A and 66 KV voltage class change-over selector switch. In fig.
are available at present. [1.2.2.2b], the tapped portion of the winding
is shown divided into 8 sections and a fur-
1.2.2.2: DOUBLE COMPARTMENT ther untapped portion equal to 8 tapped
TYPE OLTC: sections.
On larger transformers, the ON-
LOAD tap changing is more usually ar- In fig. [1.2.2.2c], the tapped section
ranged with separate tap-selectors and of the winding itself is reversed to get double
divertor-switches. The tap-selectors are steps.
generally arranged in a circular form. The
divertor-switches have contacts, operating 1.3: TAPCHANGER SELECTION
in rapid sequence, with usually four sep arate While selecting a tap-changer for a
‘make & break’ units. particular transformer, following points are
to be taken into consideration.
Figure [1.2.2.2a] shows a typical se- -Voltage class of the transformer- winding
lector and switching arrangement on the and its rating.
neutral end of the Star connected winding -Percentage voltage-variation required.
with 16 steps & 17 positions of a transformer. -Maximum through current.
In the diagram the OL TC is shown con- -Step voltage between adjacent taps.
nected to tap-4. While changing from tap 4 -The switching capacity (maximum through
to tap 5, M1 is opened first and the load current, step voltage).
current gets transferred through transition -Insulation level to ground and between vari-
resistor R1 to A 1. Then A2 closes and two ous tappings.
resistors R 1 and R2 are in series across -Number of steps and basic connection
taps 4 and 5. A circulating current due to (linear, reversing or coarse-fine).

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-Temporary overloads.
-Short-circuit strength required.
-Number of operations required (any spe-
cial duty).

1.4: LATEST TRENDS IN TAPCHAN


GER DESIGN
At present tap-changers are avail-
able for the highest insulation level of 1475
kVp impulse and 630 KV power frequency
voltages. Efforts are being made to develop
tap-changers suitable for still higher insula-
tion level class. Further efforts are being
made for developing tap-changers smaller
in size and having high reliability and per-
formance. The use of vacuum switches in
the diverter switch of tap-changer is being
tried to increase its performance. Also, thy-
ristor-controlled tap-changer will be avail-
able in future for very special applications,
where excessively high number of opera-
tions is required.

Voltage Variation by Tap Changing

Fig. 12.4. On Load Tap Changing by Reaction Transition .

-130- T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.


Linear Coarse fine Reversing
Fig : 1:2:2:2A Fig : 1:2:2:2B Fig : 1:2:2:2C

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Divertor Switch
unit

TAP selector

Double Compartment type


Onload Tap Changer Unit

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14. SF6 CIRCUIT BREAKERS AND MAINTENANCE

I. Introduction

The primary functions of a circuit breaker are interrupting short circuit


current, carrying normal currents, switching ON and OFF normal loads, and
providing necessary insulating between live parts and earthed parts. The
maintenance problems involved with bulk oil circuit breakers were immense.
Minimum Oil technology had replaced bulk oil technology during 1950’s. Similarly
the air -blast technology was developed for obtaining higher performance
characteristics. However, the air -blast breakers are quite expensive, and their
operation and maintenance cumbersome. Hence and need was felt during
1960’s for reduced maintenance.
SF6 was first obtained from Fluorine and Sulphur in 1900 by M/s.

H.MOSSAN and PLEBEAU. Behavior of SF6 in Electrical field was studied by

M/s. H.G. PQLLOCK and P.S. COOPER in 4936 known for over two decades,
perfection on commercial exploitation was attained during 1960’s. This
development made it possible for SF6 gas at low pressure to be used in BIN

circuit breakers for insulating and are’ quenching purposes, Some of the
outstanding properties of SF 6 gas which make its use ideal in EHV circuit.
breakers are:

1. Inertness
2. Non-toxicity
3. Electro negative nature
4. High dielectric strength
5. Unique are quenching property
6. Chemical and thermal stability
7. Good Thermal conductivity
8. Non corrosiveness
9. Non-Flammability

The combined electrical, physical, chemical and thermal properties of SF6


offer the following outstanding features when used in power circuit breaker.
1. Safety
2. Size reduction

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3. Weight reduction
4. Simplified design
5. High degree of reliability
6. Switching of capacitive currents without restrike
7. Very tow noise level
8. Easy for handling
9. Easy for installation
10. Maintenance free service

2. Properties of Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6 )

a) Physical properties:

SF6 is a colorless, odorless and non-flammable gas. The fluorine

atoms are placed at the corners of a regular octa-hedran with the sulphur atom
centrally placed at a distance of 1.58 angstrom units. The bonds are
predominantly covalent and the dissociation equation is

SF6 -- SF5 + F __________

The decomposition potential is 15.7 ev. SF6 gas is a very heavy gas and

its density is approximately 5.5 times that of air. It is highly stable. It is more
compressible than air and follows the law of perfect gases.
b)Electrical properties:
The di-electric strength of SF6 gas is 3 times that of air at

atmospheric pressure and is only marginally reduced by the presence of air as


impurity. The dielectric strength increases with increasing pressure. At a
pressure of three bars, the dielectric strength becomes equal to that transformer
oil. The size and electro negative nature molecule explain this strength. The
molecule provides a large electron collision diameter. This results in capture of
electrons preventing them from attaining sufficient energy to create additional
.current carrying particles. SF6moiecuie also has the ability to store energy in the
vibrational and electronic’ levels of the molecule there by forming stable ions of
low mobility.

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The dielectric strength of SF6 remains unaltered over a wide range of

frequencies. since SF6 has no dipole moment, the dielectric constant does not

vary with frequency. AT 27.30c and atmospheric pressure the dielectric constant

is 1.00191 and loss angle is 2 x 10-7.


The dielectric properties of SF6 remain unchanged even at low

temperatures. Unlike solid insulation materials an electrical breakdown in SF 6


gas does not result in permanent deterioration of its properties. Break down in all
filled equipment may result in enormous increased of pressure due to gas
formation but such hazards do not exist in the case of SF6 filled equipment.

c)Arc quenching properties:


The ability to quench arc is unique to SF 6. This results in the high

dielectric strength of the gas and the very rapid recovery of dielectric strength
after arcing occurs. SF6 is approximately 100 times more effective in this respect

than air under similar conditions. The low arc-time constant and its capacity to
absorb free electrons due to electro negative nature makes it an excellent
medium for arc interruption. The complex molecular motion of SF6 enables it to

absorb electric energy and form stable negative ions. Its tendency to form
negative ion around current zero results in the fast disappearance of electrons
liberated during arcing. Unlike oil, arcing in SF6 will produce no carbon deposits

or carbon tracking.
The electro-negative property of SF6 may be due to several factors,

including its large collision diameter. If stray electron electric field can be
absorbed before they attain sufficient energy to create additional current carrying
particles though collision, the breakdown can be slowed or even stopped. The
large collision diameter of SF6 molecule assists in capturing these electrons.

energy can be stored in the vibration levels of the SF6 atom, forming stable

negative ions of low mobility. Thus the gas is electronegative in nature and
shows .great electron binding capacity. Hence SF6 gas displays splendid arc-

extinguishing performance .

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The arc time constant is directly proportional to the radius of arc makes it
possible to have large number of breakings at full capacity of the breaker. The
characteristic curve of the arc is such that the extinction power b low. In a typical
case where the extinction power was of the order of 20 KW for an SF6 breaker,

the corresponding value of an air blast breaker was in hundreds of KW.


Some ion formation process with SF6 are :

Resonance capture : SF6 + e - (SF6) - SF5- + F

Positive ion formation : SF6 + e - (SF6+) + 2e -SF5- + F + 2e-

Excitation & dissociation : SF6 + e - (SF6-) + e -SF5- + F + e

Positive & negative ion formation: SF + e - (SF6-) + e -SF5 + F -+ e

d) Heat Transfer characteristics:


SF6 has excellent heat transfer characteristic, an important criterion for

gaseous dielectric in power applications. The higher molecular weight together


with low gaseous viscosity of SF6 enables it to transfer heat by convention more

effectively than the common gases. The co-efficient of heat transfer of SF6 is

approximately 2.5 tip1es that of air under the same conditions. Hence when the
breaker is energized, the temperature rise small.

e)Wide temperature range :

SF6 in the gaseous state follows the ideal gas laws fairly closely.

Consequently the pressure change is only moderate for a considerable change in


temperature. The low sublimation points of SF6 assures greater dielectric

strength even at low temperature the liquification temperature is —270C at a


pressure of 12 Kg / sq. cm. Hence no heater is necessary.

f)Toxity :
SF6 is a non-toxic gas and produces no poisonous effect on human body.

But the decomposition products produced by the discharge (SF4, SF2, S2, F2

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etc.) are harmful. These products are minimized by controlling of moisture in the
interrupter and by absorbing the decomposition products by synthetic zeolite.
g)Chemical and Thermal Stability:
SF6 gas is inert and it is one of the least reactive substance known under

normal operating conditions. It may be heated in quartz to 5000C without under


going any decomposition. SF6 does not react with water, acids and alkalis. Tests

conducted have shown practically no corrosion for various metals exposed


to SF6

h) Various constants :

Some of the outstanding properties of SF6 which makes it ideal for high
voltage power applications are:

Molecular weight .. 146.05


Sublimation point at 1 atm .. 63.9°C
Density of gas at 21.19 C at 1 atm .. 6.139
Viscosity liquid at 13.52°C .. 0.305
Gas at 31.16°C .. 0.0157
Critical temperature etc. .. 318.80
Critical pressure bars .. 37.772
Critical volume cu.metre / g .. 1.356
Dielectric strength reI N2 = al at 50 Hs -1.2 Mhs.. 2.3 -2.5
Dielectric constant at 25°C 1atm .. 1.002049 ‘
Thermal conductivity at 30°C, Cal / Sec. -on °C .. 3.36 x 10-5

3. Breakdown phenomenon in SF6 :

Breakdown in gases takes place when the free electrons gain sufficient
kinetic energy Under the influence of an electric field and collide with neutral gas
molecules liberating electrons from their outer shells. A chain reaction like this
results in an electron avalanche. In the case of electro-negative gases like SF6

this mechanism is slightly modified. The free electrons get attached to molecules
forming negative ions. SF6 + e Z SF6 -e. This negative ions are too massive to

produce collisional ionization. This attachment represents an effective way of


removing electrons which would have otherwise contributed to an electron

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avalanche. This particular behaviors gives rise to very high dielectric strength for
electronegative gases.
The breakdown voltage of an electro-negative gas in a uniform field is a
simple function of the product of pressure and spacing. the breakdown
characteristics in non-uniform fields will be different because ionization may be
main aimed locally due to the presence of regions of high stress. This is the
corona effect. This may be due to surface roughness, sharp comers, floating
conducting or semi-conducting particles. In SF6 equipments special care is taken

to ensure that such sharp points do not exist in the breaker so that a fairly
uniform field distribution can be achieved.
4. Principles of interruption with SF6 :
Techniques employed for interruption with SF6 can be classified into two :
a) Double pressure system.
b) Single pressure system.

The latter can be further classified as double flow fixed nozzle and single
flow series piston breakers.

a)Double pressure system:

The functions of insulation and


interruption are performed in separate
chambers. SF6 at a pressure of 14

Kg/sq. cm. is stored in a high pressure


chamber. This is used for quenching the
are SF6 at low pressure (2.5 to 3.5

Kg/sq. cm.) provides the insulation.


When the contacts separate under fault,
gas at high pressure is forced into the
arcing region and then it follows in to the
low pressure region. The gas thus
exhausted in to the low pressure region
is compressed again and returned to the

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high pressure reservoir. The arcing takes place between the arcing tip and arcing
ring thus relieving the contact area from the stresses of arc. A filter with actual
alumna is kept at the intake of the compressor so that all the decomposition
products of gas can be absorbed before re-circulating in to the system. A
thermostatically controlled heating system will be provided in the high pressure
reservoir to prevent condensation of gas at low temperature.
b) Single pressure system :

In this case SF6 at low pressure (3 to 6.5 Kg/sq.cm.) provides the

insulation and the energy for interruption. The breaker chamber consists of the
fixed and moving contacts, and the piston arrangement in the puffer type fixed
contact. As the moving contact separates under fault, the piston moves forward
with high speed. This compresses the SF 6 inside the hallow fixed contact and
forces the gas into the arc resulting in quenching. The force with which the gas
could be blast depends on the design of the piston arrangement and the energy
of the control mechanism.
A further improvement is the Magnetic puffer type breakers where the
operating force on the moving contact rod is increased, by magnetic repulsive
force. The short circuit current is passed through a set of coils fixed on the
support of the moving contact fed. A secondary short circuit ring is positioned
and magnetically coupled with primary winding. This ring acts as piston as well.
This interaction between the. two fields produces a repulsive force and it pushes
the moving contact rod forward. The addition of this simple magnetic drive
mechanism improves the interrupting capabilities of the breaker.
The single pressure system has an inherent advantage of simplicity in
construction. It needs no additional compressor as required in double pressure
system. The manufacturing cost of puffer type equipment is lower.

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5. Construction:

The arc extinguishing system employs a synchronized double flow single


pressure puffer type design. This leads to a simple construction.

The SF 6 circuit breaker mainly comprises of the following:


1. Breaker poles it.
2. Base tube and mechanism box
3. Control unit
4. Air compressor electro-hydraulic operating mechanism

1.Movable Cylinder(Puffer cylinder) 2.Moving


Contact
3.Fixed Contct 4.Insulating Nozzle
5.Fixed Piston 6.Gas Trapped in before
compression
7.Compressed gas between 1 & 5
8.The arc-being extinguished by puffer action

Fig:Single Pressure
Puffer Type

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5.1.Breaker Pole:

The primary functions of a circuit breaker are carried out of breaker pole.
The breaker pole consists of interrupter unit and support insulator.

The interrupter unit consists of fixed contact tube, guide tube, moving

contact tube, puffer or blast cylinder and piston. The fixed contact tube is
connected to the top terminal via. Contact support.

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The guide tube is fastened to the lower terminal. The other ends of the
fixed contact tube and guide tube which are subjected to arcing during the arc
interruption are provided with arc quenching nozzles. the nozzles are made up of
graphite materials which keeps the contact wear to minimum. The moving
contact tube consists of spring loaded finger contacts arranged in the form of a
ring. The front end of the moving contact tube is provided with an arc resistance
insulating ring and arcing ring of high arc resistant materials
The blast cylinder which is made up of high arc resistant insulating
material and the moving contact tube are rigidly coupled to each other and
connected to the operating rod in the supporting insulator. The blast piston
which is made up of aluminum is fastened to the lower terminal pad. The fixed
contact tube, guide tube, moving contact tube, blast cylinder and blast piston are
“all housed inside a porcelain ,insulator. When the circuit breaker is in close
position current flows from top terminal to bottom terminal through contact
support, fixed contact tube, moving contact tube and guide tube.
The support insulator apart from supporting the interrupter unit provide
insulation between live parts and earthed parts. It houses the operating rod
(insulated), one end of which is connected to the interrupter unit and the other
end is connected to the mechanism.
5.2. Base Tube mechanism box:
The base tube which supports the breaker pole and the mechanism box
acts as a local air reservoirs. The mechanism box enclosed electromagnetic
valve, closing coil, trip coil and operating cylinder. Lower mechanism case
encloses the complete lever system to transmit the operation force from the
mechanism box to the breaker pole.
5.3.Control Unit :
This accommodates the gas pressure switches, gas density detector, gas
pressure gauge, air pressure gauge, air valve heater, auxiliary relays, terminal
blocks, etc. for electrical and pneumatic control and monitoring of the breaker.
The control devices of the air and SF6 gas systems are common for 3 poles of

the breaker.

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5.4. Compress
Since the operating energy requirement is greater the MOCBS either air
compressor or electro-hydraulic operating mechanism is used.
6. The principle of Arc extinction:
When the circuit breaker is in closed position the moving contact assembly
bridges the fixed contact tube and the guide tube. When an opening operation is
initiated, the blast cylinder moves towards the stationary blast piston so that the
SF6 gas in the blast cylinder is compressed to a pressure required to quench the

arc. The gas compressed during the above process is released only when the
contacts are separated with moving contact assembly acting as a slide valve. At
the instant of contact separation, arc strikes between the front end of the arc
quenching nozzle of the fixed contact tube and the arcing ring of the moving
contact tube. The compressed gas in the blast cylinder is released in the break
radically as the contacts are separated. As the moving contact assembly moves
further, the arc between the front end of the fixed contact nozzle and the arcing
ring of the moving contact is transferred from the arcing ring of the moving
contacts of nozzle of the guide tube , by gas jet and its own electrodynamics
forces. the arc is further elongated by the gas flow axially into the nozzles and
safety extinguished. While the arc is being interrupted, the blast cylinder which is
made up of arc resistant insulating material enclosed the arc quenching
assembly, there by protecting the porcelain insulator from arcing effects. After arc
extinction, the moving contact assembly and blast is free of any parts of the
chamber which may have a bridging effect or influence the electric field
distributor.
7. Operation principles:
7.1. Opening operation:
When the trip coil is energized, the space of pilot valve is filled with
compressed air and the charging valve moves to right. The space in the
operating cylinder is filled with compressed air from the air received and the
operating piston is rapidly driven to the left. the operating rod connected to the
operating piston is pulled in the opening direction to drive the puffer cylinder at

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the high speed through the insulated operating rod in the supporting insulator.
the SF6 gas in the puffer cylinder is compressed and the SF6 gas blast

extinguishes the arc generated between the moving and stationary contacts.
Simultaneous with the opening operation, the cam rotates and causes the
electromagnet valve to return to its original position. As a result, compressed air
in the space of pilot valve is exhausted into atmosphere and the charging valve is
reset to the original piston. As the open state is retained by the link mechanism
attached to the end of the operating piston.
7.2. Closing operation:
When the closing coil is energized, the arc nature is made to rotate
causing the hook to be disengaged. Thus the sector line rotates to release the
roller and the operating piston is driven in the closing direction by the force of the
closing spring, upon completion of closing, the link mechanism is held in a state
to be ready for the subsequent opening operation.
8. Caution :
When operating the breaker observes the following:
I)Keep correct SF6 gas pressure and operating air pressure as specified.

2)Operate the stop valves properly.


3)Do not allow ingress of moisture and dust into the SF6 gas supplying point.

4)Do not pump the gas piping and air piping with any object.
5)Do not damage the gasket and seal face on the leakage tight joint in the gas
and air system.
6)When opening the circuit breaker by the manual handle. ‘
a) confirm that the main circuit is not energized.
b) Be sure to turn off the control power supply.
c) Confirm that compressed air in receivers is released.
d) Confirm that manual operating rod and handle are removed
before changing the receiver with compressed air.
7)Do not operate any part other than the manual operating handle before filling
SF6 gas at the rated pressure. Do not fill compressed air before filling SF6 gas.

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8)When checking interior parts of interrupter, blow air into the system for
sufficiently long time and confirm that sufficient supply of air is available
before starting any work.

9.Gas Leak Detection:

If the gas leaks through any point, this can result in reduction of pressure
and consequent loss of insulation properties Gas Leak detection is done with the
help of a halogen torch type detector. The detector works on the principle that
SF6 absorbs a certain number of electron when passed through an atmosphere

where free electrons flow. The free electrons are generated with in the sector by
a small radio active source in the presence of a carrier gas. these electrons are
collected at the detector anode and give a small base line current which is
amplified. When the probe of the detector is kept near the joints of the SF6 filled

equipment and if SF6 leaks out there will be variation in amplified valve of current

due to electron absorption by SF6. The variation can be directly calibrated to

indicate the magnitude of the leak.

9.2. Detention of presence of conducting particles:


This is done by conducting a dielectric test when the test voltage is
applied there will be an internal corona if metallic particle or sharp comers are
present. The presence of internal discharges is located with the help of an
ultrasonic detector which is very sensitive in detecting noise due to internal
corona. The sector translates the ultrasonic vibrations into audible frequencies
and directly indicates the intensity of sound in decibels. The probe is pressed
firmly against the grounded enclosure tube while the conductor is energized at
varying AC I DC voltage. If the noise disappears at low voltage, appears at some
intermediate voltage and the intensity continues to increase, it is certain that the
noise is due to internal corona. It has also been observed that in some cases the

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small sharp potty branched in areas of high dielectric stress get burnt or the
particles driven to low stress areas. The effect of conducting particles on the
break down strength of SF6 is more serious for power frequency voltage test

than for impulses voltage.

10. Performance of SF6 Breaker:

SF6 gas circuit breaker combines the advantageous features minimum oil
and air blast breakers and exhibits a number of additional advantages over both.

1) It is possible to have large number of breaking operations near full breaking


capacity with out any undue wear.
2) Because of the fast recovery of dielectric strength across the parting
contacts during interruption.
a) These breakers are restrict free while switching of capacitive currents.
b) These breakers are incentive to short time faults and are capable of
breaking at every high values of RRRV and
c) These breakers are suitable for multi-short re closing with out any
reduction in breaking capacity
3) There is no necessity to change any parts in the breaking chamber even
after a period often years of service in the actual system. This means that
there are practically no problem of maintenance for SF6 breakers.
4) The operation is noiseless since the gas is used in a closed circuit. There
will be no discharge of arc products into atmosphere.

5) Puffer type breakers are autonomous and independent because no


auxiliary equipment is required.
6) Fire hazards are eliminated.

11. Maintenance:

SF6 circuit breaker requires very little maintenance involved are those

parts which are subject to wear and aging. The degree of contamination of
insulators should also be checked. The following are the factors which govern the
maintenance of the breakers.
i)No. of short circuit interruptions.
ii)Switching frequency and service conditions.
iii)No. of years of service.

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Maintenance and Inspection should be carried out in accordance with the
inspection schedule. This schedule have been divided into 3 group. (i) Patrolling
or routine inspection (ii) Ordinary or minor inspection (iii) Detail or Major
inspection. The intervals between maintenance schedule for BHEL and TELK
make SF6 gas circuit breakers are given below:
BHEL Make
Sl.No. Item Period Remarks

1. Routine check Every five years Draining of SF6 if

necessary
2. Minor inspection After 1 500 operation or 10 year —
3. Major inspection After 3000 operation or 20 year Draining of SF 6 if
necessary

11.1.General Instructions for maintenance :


All the split pins, lock washers, spring washers of bolted joints should be
replaced with new ones when they are opened for maintenance.
All the gaskets, a-rings and rubber washers should also be replaced with
new ones during reassembly.
All the breakers parts dismantled for maintenance should be covered and
protected against ingress, if dirt and moisture while reassembly is in progress.
Small quantities of metallic fluoride power forms because of arc
interruption in SF6 gas. This metallic powder when in dry state is insulating and

harmless. However the powder is hygroscopic and in the presence of water


vapor the dust forms a paste which is conductive. This metallic fluoride powder
should be cleaned with the help of a clean non-fluffy cloth as soon as the
interrupter is opened for inspection and surviving to prevent the formation of
conductive paste which is very difficult to remove. The cloth once used should be
thrown into dust bin. During cleaning of the metallic fluoride gloves should be
worn.

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For cleaning and degreasing, the materials as recommended should be
applied during maintenance.
11.2. Patrolling Inspection:
1. Gas pressure: Read the pressure and convert it to 20°C Record the gas
pressure, temperature and convert gas pressure. If gas leak is detected,
supply SF6 Gas before the gas pressure drops to the lock out pressure.

2. Air pressure: Check whether or not the pressure gauge indicate the
specified value
Check whether or not any leakage noise audible around the sealed
piping joints.
3. Operation counter: Check and Record the number of operation.
4. Space heater: When humidity is high or temperature is low, turn on the
heater for the mechanism box and control unit.
5. Others: Check for sings of abnormal noises and contamination of
insulators.
11.3. Ordinary inspection:
This has to be carried out in the de-energized condition without
discharging gas. Perform an operation test to check the minimum operating
pressure before starting the inspection cautions (a) Turn off the power surfaces
of control circuit to the circuit breaker. (b) Exhaust the compressed air thoroughly
from the circuit breaker.
1. Gas leak - Check on the gas system of interrupter unit, gas piping and
control unit using a gas leak detector.
2. Mechanism:
a) Electromagnetic valve: Check the hook clean up the hook by applying a

thin coat of HITALBE 2800.


b) Operating cylinder: Apply HITALUBE 289 grease to the piston rod
c) Main valve rod: Retighten nuts.
d) Oil dash pot : Check the oil level. Transformer oil level should be as
high as the plug level.

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3. Control unit :
a) Airing valve: Measure the discharge air of300 to 700 C/C Min. which is
satisfactory.
b) Auxiliary switch: Check positive contact and each part for normal
tightening.
c) Air pressure gauge: Calibrate the pressure gauge.
d) Pressure switch: Check the local pressure and release pressure.
e) Trip-free contactor : Check the contacts. When roughened, correct with
smooth out file or sand paper.
4. Air piping: Retighten the union nuts and bolts.
5. Porcelain insulator: Wipe the insulator surface by wet cloth when
excessively dirty, apply insulator cleaner the surface. Measure the
insulation resistance, which should not be less than 100M under dry
condition.
6. Operating system: Confirm that the stroke of hinge piece in the operating
cylinder is 102 mm ± 2mm.
7. Other: Check terminals for looseness and tighten them if necessary clean
up box interior and paint rusty parts.
8. Checking: After filling the system with compressed air, confirm that all the
stop valve in the air system are kept open.
9. Testing: Conduct operation test. Measure the insulation resistance of
control circuit.
11.4. Detailed inspection:
The following diagram shows the detail inspection procedure for Insulation
resistance measurement.
Operation Test
Close G.C.B.
Exhaust air from air receiver

Collect SF6 gas in the interrupt unit

Open GCB by manual operating handle

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Check the GCB as per the maintenance procedure

Check control unit and mechanism box Check interruption

Filling with air Evacuation Fill with SF6 gas.

Air leak check Gas leak check.

11.5. Details of maintenance procedure:

1)Stationary contact: Visually inspect, when contact space is found uneven,


remove it and polish with sand paper. then measure the dimension of stationary
contact. When the wear becomes 3 mm or over replace the contact with a new
one. Apply thin coat of HITSLUBE 280 Grease to the contact.

2)Moving contact: When it is degraded by large current interruption remove it


and polish with sand paper. Apply three coat of HIT ALUBE 280 Grease to the
contact.

3) Arcing contact: When the surface is found- uneven, polish the surface with a
smooth out file. Measure the dimension of arcing contact, when the amount of
wear becomes 2 mm or over, replace the contact with a new one. Apply thin coat
of HIT ALUBE 280 grease to the contact.

4) Insulation nozzle and insulation cover: The nozzle and cover can be
removed together with the moving contact. Use wiper to clean up the interior and
exterior. Measure the inner diameter of the nozzle. and cover. When the
dimensions are enlarged by 1 mm or more, replace it with a new one. “

5) Absorbent: Remove the conductor and take out the absorbent case. Replace
the absorbent with a new one. Exchange it quickly just before vacuum drying.
Don’t expose it to the open air.

6) Operating cylinder : Remove the cylinder cover. Inspect gaskets. Apply


grease to he operating piston guide, main valve guide, main valve rod, pilot valve
and operating piston.

7) Operating cylinder: Remove the oil plug and oil. Then supply new oil to the
position of oil plug. When drained oil is found contaminate, disassemble and
check the oil dash pot.

8) Operating mechanism: Check Pins, Links, Levers, operating rod and split
pins check nuts and lock plates for possible looseness. Apply Hit lube 280
grease to pins.

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9) Closing Link Mechanism: Clean up and apply thin coat of HIT ALUBE 280
grease to the hook, pins and roller. Check the state of hook arrangement under
both closed and open position.

10) Electro-magnetic valve: When the lever is pressed with fingers, the hook is
disengaged. Clean up and apply a turbine oil to the hook. Check nuts and bolts
for looseness. Check the split pins.

11) Airing valve: Contact a hose to the discharge part and use a measuring
cylinder to measure the discharge amount under water. The measured valve
should be 300 to 700 Cg/min at the air celled to 15 Kgs. cm.

12) Auxiliary switch: Check the contacts; check terminal for tightening. Apply a
thin coat of grease to the pin.

13) Pressure gauge: Clean up and calibrate.

14) Pressure switch :Setting pressure rise or reduce according to whether the
adjusting screw is turned clockwise or counter clock wise. Check the operating
pressure.

15) Trip-free contractor: If contacts are considerably uneven, repair them using
a smooth out file or sand paper.

16) Ratings of various circuit breakers SF6 : SF6 gas circuit breakers are
manufactured in India by M/s.BHEL in collaboration with Siemens of West
Germany, MIs. TELK in collaboration with Hitachi of Japan andM/s. Alind in
collaboration with DELLE ALSTHOM of France. The ratings of these SF6
breakers are given below:

BHEL TELK ALIND

1. Rated voltage KV 123 -420 245 132 -220


2. Rated current KV 1200 -4000 2000 2000
3. Rated breaking current KA 25 -63 31.5 22 -31.5
4. Breaking Time Ms 40 -65 40 40
5. No. of breaks 1 or 2 1 1 or 2
6. Breaker weight Kg 2100 -7700 4500 3000 -5000
7. Inspection after 8 -10 yrs. 6 years 10 years

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15. SURGE ARRESTERS AND INSULATION CO-ORDINATION

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I.Introduction:

Electrical systems by nature involve two forms of protection over current and over voltage
since over current protection of electrical equipment’s are well known to all, it is not elaborated
here. Over voltage protection on the other hand, remains a relatively new subject to many
engineers. Both types of protection equally necessary for safe system operation.
The importance of over voltage protection for a power system can not be over
emphasized. Major equipment failures, expensive repairs, personnel safety and plant down time
are certain consequences of inadequate protection from voltage surges.
Surge arresters are designed to limit dangerous system over voltages. Whether lighting-
or System- produced-to safe values when they occur on power systems. An arresters is a voltage
limiting device. The functions are to discharge energy associated with a system over voltage
condition, limit and interruption the power fellow current that follows the transient current through
the arresters and return to an insulating state prepared for the next over voltage occurrence.
In performing its voltage limiting function, certain protective characteristics of the arrester
must be coordinated with the prevailing insulation levels on the system being protected. Insulation

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is a basic factor that must be considered in the application of arresters on a system. Insulation co-
ordination is only a small part of the over all subject of arrester application. Several other factors
must also be considered by the engineer when selecting surge protection. The location of the
arresters, the inter-connection of ground leads, the insulation level of the protected equipment
and the rating of the surge arresters are important in protecting equipment from harmful over
voltage.
II.Surge Arrester operation:

The basic operation of a surge arrester is single. In its noffi1al state, an arrester must act
as an insulator. When a high voltage surge occurs. The arrester must cease to be an insulator
and must turn into a short to-ground-in million thus of a second. The operation of the most widely
used type of surge arresters the value, type of arrester is dealt with. Other
types of arresters, such as expulsion arresters and line Oxide arresters
(Gapless arresters) are either on the decline or too new for a general
discussion at this time. The active elements of a valve type arrester are the
spark gap and the valve block. these are housed in a porcelain shell for
atmospheric protection and external insulation.
The gap assembly consists of a number of in-
series air gaps with sufficient dielectric strength to
withstand the highest power frequency on the system.
During severe over voltage conditions, the gap must
always, breakdown at a voltage level some what below
the insulation withstand voltage level of the equipment it
is protecting, other wise equipment damage and or plant
down time will result. the gap therefore serves as the
switch which turns on the arrester. the voltage level at
which the arrester goes from the passive (insulating) to the active (conducting) state, is called the
spark over voltage.
The valve block controls what happens after the arrester has been turned on. If only a
gap is used, once a surge has been diverted to ground, a dead short circuit exists between line
and ground and the 50 hertz-system energy tries to flow to ground causing a fuse, re-closer or
breaker to operate to interrupt the system fault current.
The valve element does exactly as its name implies. It conducts when surge current is
flowing and it ceases to conduct when 50 Hz line current begins to flow. the valve block is able to
do this because It is made of a non-linear resistance material, silicon carbide. The valve block
offers a very high resistance to 50 Hz current while displaying a low resistance to surge current.
In addition, it also consumes the surge energy passes through it.

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Spark over and discharge voltage are the two protective characteristics of an arrester
which are used in calculating margins of protection when studying insulation co-ordination. These
protective characteristics are published by arrester manufacturers.
III. Arrester Classification :

There are three classifications of surge arresters used for over voltage protection in a
system.

1.Distribution Type:

The arresters are generally used in distribution system for equipment protection.
Standards distribution arresters are used for protecting oil. Insulated distribution transformers,
these arresters are also used as line entrance arresters, for 11KV and 22KV lines. They are the
lowest in cost.
2.Intermediate Type :

These units cost approximately two or three times as much as equivalent distribution
units. For this, the arrester offers lower maximum spark over and discharge voltage
characteristics that afford a greater margin of protection plus the capability of discharging large
surge levels. These arresters also have a pressure relief system to safely vent internal pressure if
the unit falls before the porcelains shell has a chance to rupture. These arresters are used for the
L.V. protection of Power transformers in sub-transmission sub-station i.e.110/33/22/11KV and
66/22/11KV sub-station.
3.Station Type:

These arresters offer the best protective characteristics and the highest thermal capability
but they cost about twice as much as equivalent intermediate units. Like intermediate arresters,
station arresters have a pressure-relief system to safely vent internal pressure if the unit fails
before a porcelain shell has a chance to rupture. These arresters are generally used in 230KV,
110KV and 66KV systems.
4.Basic insulation level:

Basic Impulse Insulation Level (BIL) is the voltage level that equipment insulation is
capable of withstanding without sustaining damage. The voltage withstand of insulation is
function of time. Inorder to establish volt-time impulse insulation levels of transformers standard
impulse tests standard voltage withstand tests are conducted on selected units as type test.
Transformers are subjected to impulse voltage tests (at rated BIL) and a chopped wave test (15%
above BIL). A steep front - of wave test (65% above BIL) is also performed on some units. A
curve plotted through these three points defines the minimum insulation withstand curve for

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insulation co-ordination (Fig.3) The true withstand level for the transformer lies above the plotted
curve.
5. Surge arrester application:
With an understanding of how an arrester performs its functions and a knowledge of
equipment insulation, we can now move into the application area and consider the several factors
that comprise surge arrester application as it relates to over voltage protection of transformers,
The selection of surge arresters merit are carefully considered. Various factors have to be taken
into account in order to arrive at a reliable and at the same time economical means of protection.
The important points are:
i)Selection of rated voltage.
ii)Selection according to the standards, codes, recommendations for insulation
coordination.

i)Arrester rating :

The voltage rating of an arrester is defined as the highest 50 Hz voltage at which the
arrester is designed to operate and reseal effectively after a surge has passed. Because of the
system grounding and connection, this, voltage is typically higher than the phase to ground
voltage / on the healthy phases will increase temporarily and it depends upon the earthing factor
or the system. The selection of an arrester voltage rating for station depends upon grounding
system connection and system voltage rating.
Also the voltage impressed across an arrester during a surge discharge is directly
proportional to the arrester voltage rating that is, a 10,000 Amps surge produces a higher
discharge voltage if it is flowed through a 10KV arrester than it does flowed through a 9KV
arrester generally it is desirable from the stand point of equipment protection to select the lowest
voltage rating for the application.
ii)Arrester location:

Surge arresters should always be located as close as possible to the terminals of the
equipment protected. In the case of transformer protection, mounting the arresters directly on the
transformer is the best of insurance. An appreciable distance between the surge arrester, and the
protected equipment reduces protection, afforded by the arresters and also increases the voltage
impressed upon the transformer at time of surge discharge. Also because of the extra travel
distance between the equipment and its arrester, surge wave could rise above the equipment
damage point before the arrester comes to its rescue.
n addition, the arrester connecting leads should be kept as short as possible because of
their voltage contribution to discharge the voltage. During current flow to ground through an
arrester, the interconnecting leads provide a voltage contribution because of current passing
through an impedance. Depending on surge magnitude, rate of rise type of conductor, a typical
value of voltage contribution to discharge voltage by interconnecting leads is i.e. 1.6 KV / foot.

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In practice, the protection range is given by the following simple formula.
L = U - Ua x V Where
2XS

L = Protection range of arrester in meters


(measured along the line)

U = Impulse withstand voltage of protected equipment in KV.


(BIL of equipment)

Ua = Spark over voltage of an arrester in K. V. (Peak) of the system.


During earth fault conditions, the voltage
V = Velocity of wave progression with
V line = 300 meters /micro sec.
V cable = 150 meters /micro sec.

S = Steepness of incoming wave front in KV / sec.

(The protection range of an arrester increases with the difference between the impulse
voltage IV’ and the spark over voltage Va. Therefore, an arrester with protective level tends to
extend the protective range)

Example: In a 230 KV Over Head line system

U = BIL of power transformer -900 KV crest


U = Impulse spark over of arrester -550 KV crest
V line 300 / micro seconds; S = 1000 KV / micro sec.

@ L = U-Ua (1000-550)
------- v = ---------------- X 300 = 52.5m
2 XS (2 X 1000)

The electrical circuit length between the surge arresters and the transformer bushing
technical should not exceed the limits given below: T.N.E.B. practice —(Thumb rule)

Rated system voltage Maximum distance between surge arresters and


transformer bushing terminal inclusive of lead
length

KV Meters Feet
230 60.0 200
110 36.57 110
60 24.38 80

iii)Interconnection of Grounds:

It is essential that the arrester ground terminal be interconnected with the transformer
tank and secondary neutral to provide reliable surge protection for the transformers.
Iv)Insulation coordination: .
Now let us consider the selection of an arrester according to standards, codes or
recommendations for insulation coordination. Calculating the margin of protection is the major
part of an. insulation co-ordination study. Insulation coordination is the process of comparing the

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impulse strength of insulation with the voltage that can occur across the arrester for the severity
of surge discharge for which the protection is desired. For a transformer, this means a
comparison of the volt-time insulation withstand curve with the impulse and switching surge spark
over and discharge voltage curve of the arrester.

After determining the rated voltage of an arrester, the protective level has to be carefully
selected. For complete protection of the equipment, the “protective level” viz. the level to which
the over voltages are omitted by the arrester, must be lower than the withstand level by a factor of
at least 1.2 for lightning surges and 15 for switching surges. The value thus selected must be
checked against that given in I.S.S. or the technical details furnished by the arrester
manufactures.
To arrive at the discharge voltage of an arrester for these calculations discharge voltage
for a 10,000 Amps. surge is normally used. The following formula define these two margins of
protection calculations:

CWW -FOW SO BIL -DV + IX)


MP1 = CWW x 100% MP2 = BIL x 100%
Where

CWW = Chopped -waved withstand voltage of transformer winding = 1.15 BIL


FOW SO = Front of wave spark over of surge arrester in KV (Crest)
BIL = Basic Impulse Insulation level of the transformer.
DV = Discharge voltage of the arrester at 10 KA surge.
IX = Voltage contribution of connecting leads at the rate of 1.6 KV / ft.
MP = Margin of Protection

Insulation co-ordination in an important aspect to be considered when surge protective is


to be afforded to transformers with reduced BILS

The table below gives the Rod gap setting adopted for various voltages: Gap settings:
Gap settings in MM (inches)

System voltage Gap on Transformer Gap on terminal Tower Gap on next three
Bushing approach towers

230 1143 (45) 1118 (44) 1118 (44)


110 635(25) 597(23.5) 622(24.5)
66 394 (15.5) 330 (13) 356 (14)

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vi Protection against direct strokes:

i) Protection against direct strokes can be handled by shielding the station equipment’s by
the provision of either

a) Mast or rods or
b) a net work of overhead ground wires in such a way that equipment’s and
switches of all lie in the protected zone.

ii) The protected zone for a rod mast is generally assumed as a cone with a base radius
equal to the height of the rod or mast above ground.
iii) For small sub-stations it may be sufficient to run one or GI wires across the station
from adjacent line towers. Extra wires may be run from the tower to the structure and
over the station.
iv) The grounds of the station shield should be solidly tied to the station ground bus to
prevent difference of surge potential between the shield and other g-rounded parts of
the Station.
.

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16. FIRE SAFETY AND FIRE FIGHTING
I. GENERAL :
1. In India alone about 15,000 people die in Fire and tinuous cooling of the surrounding areas. In this
blast. More than Rs.180 crores are being paid as manner, convection, conduction and radiation are
compensation and about 1.5% production is lost in taken care and heat transfer can be prevented and
fire.
fire can be kept under control.
2.The fire can exist in two different stages. The ini-
The combustible materials when in hard
tial stage i.e. incipient stage of fire and the later state
solid form cannot easily catch fire. But when it is
i.e. blaze stage of fire. If the small fire is not con-
thin, weak and in filamentary nature it can immedi-
trolled in the initial stage it goes to the uncontrol-
ately catch fire. For materials in dust form, even a
lable stage i.e. Blaze stage fire.
small spark or arc can cause fire with blast. The
Detection will be done by the people avail-
records in offices kept for years together would have
able at the spot with the help of good given detec-
lost strength, decoloured, mutilated and decom-
tors like eyes, nose, ears and skin and warning will
posed which will be susceptable for easy catching
be given with the help of mouth but the third stage
of fire. If windows and doors are kept opened entry
immediate attack is very important and it can be
of air will aggrevate even a small fire.
done only by training and skills in fire fighting. Once
Important phone numbers should be
the fire goes beyond the stage of control, then only
painted on wall above the phone unit for immediate
fire brigade can control the fire. We can only assist
reference during emergency.
the fire brigade in bringing down the fire under con-
Adequate means of escape from fire must
trol.
be provided for all personnel in a works, factory or
In order to carry out the various jobs involved
office building, and the following four requirements
in fire fighting cycle there must be a group of trained
should be satisfied:
people available in the form of Fire Squad.
1. No one should need to go towards the fire in
Basic reason for any fire accident is igno-
order to escape.
rance and even if people have knowledge about fire,
2. All escape routes should be as short as
they neglect it i.e. negligence. 60% of the fire acci-
possible, of adequate capacity, and should
dents are caused, in fact, due to electrical faults i.e.
lead to open air at ground level, either direct or
due to usage of substandard materials, nonstand-
by way of a fire resisting enclosure.
ard wiring, improper maintenance, loose connection,
3. Protected parts of escape routes should not
over loading and keeping combustible materials un-
be exposed at any point to penetration by
der neath main switches or very close to equipments
smoke or fire.
emenating heat.
4. Escape routes should be clearly marked with
The Fire spreads from one place to another
arrows at every corner and intersection.
place beause of the heat transfer. There are three
By observing the following pre-cautions
different principles of heat transfer.
and safty rules we could prevent fire accident to a
Convection - Heated smoke and air
very great extent.
particles travelling upwards.
i) DO NOT THROW LIGHTED CIGARATTE -
Conduction - Transfer of heat through Solid
BUTTS indiscriminately . Throw them at the ap-
Particles.
propriate places and ensure that the buring end is
Radiation - Transfer of heat through air particles.
put out effectively.
For keeping fire under control at the time of
ii) DO NOT SMOKE CIGARATTES IN YOUR SEAT
emergency all the above three principles can be used
in the midst of files. No objection to smoke at a
in the combined away. When a particular depart-
secluded place.
ment is on fire and when the fire is in blaze stage
iii) DO NOT ACCUMULATE UNWANTED waste
the adjacent areas can be saved by closing all the
materials, such as waste paper, waste cloth etc.
possible doors and windows, removing the flammable
They may be disopsed off then and there in the
materials from the adjacent areas and also by con-
bins provided for.
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T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.
iv) DO NOT LIGHT A MATCH IN YOUR SEAT CARE- 7. If electricity is involved, switch off thesupply
LESSLY : When it is necessary let it be done with and confirm it.
required precention. 8. The liquid type extinguishers should not be
v) DO NOT USE NAKED WIRES for tapping power used unless the electricty is cut off.
from the sockets. When two ends of cables are to 9. All persons in that area or floor should be
be connected inevitably, use proper insulation tape. evicted safely without panic.
vi) DO NOT OVERLOAD the switches and sockets 10. Sraircases or steps away from fire should
(Viz) do not use 3 way sockets from one single out- be used.
let due to excessive current, the cable/wires slowly III. FIRE TRIANGLE
gets heated up and is likely to cause fire quite after Fire is a chemical reaction called COMBUSTION
some time. (usually oxidation resulting in the release of heat
vii)DO NOT TAKE flammable materials like Kero- and light)
sene, Petrol near the electrical machinery, as inno- To initiate and maintain this chemical reaction,
cent sparks coming out are likely to cause ignition or in other words for an out break of fire to occur and
of the kerosene or petrol. continue, the following are essential:
viii) DO NOT HANDLE crackers in the office. a. Fuel - i.e. a combustible substance ei-
ix) DO MAKE SURE that you switch-off the fan, light ther solid, liquid or gas.
and any other installation near you when you leave b. Oxygen - usually air which contains, approx
the office. 20% oxygen.
II. ON SEEING FIRE: c. Heat - Required Heat. It varies from ma-
terial to material
The familiar fire triangle depicts the situation.

1. Cry “Fire”, “Fire” thus giving an alarm to all.


2. Panic should not be created, as it is more
dangerous than fire.
3or4. If fire fighting equipments are available, they Fire prevention is nothing but avioding the com-
bination or mixing of three elements i.e. fuel, oxy-
can be used to extinguish fire without
gen and heat.
panic.
3or4. Nearby combustible materials should be IV. METHODS OF FIRE EXTINGUISHING
removed as to prevent spreading of fire. Based on the fire triangle there are different
methods of fire extinguishing
5. Fire service may be informed, if necessary.
6. When fire service personnels arrive, the job STARVATION - REMOVAL OF FUEL
should be left to them without causing
hinderance. BLANKETING / SMOTHERING - REMOVAL OF
OXYGEN

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T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.
COOLING - REMOVAL OF HEAT.

Fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the above three elements like fuel, oxygen or heat.
Starvation - Removal of Fuel
This is a method in which the surrounding materials are
removed from the seat of fire and making the fire to starve.
Without supply of fuel the fire will be starved and
extinguished.

Blanketing / Smothering - Removal of Oxygen.


In this method in which the oxygen supply to the fire
areas will be cut off. Naturally the fire will be off because
of lack of oxygen. It is not necessary to prevent the total
oxgen supply to the fuel area. This action can be achieved
by using cotton blankets, plywood sheets or corrugated
boxes over the fuel. Even closing the doors and windows
will also serve the same purpose of cutting off the oxygen
supply to the affected area. There are different
exitinguishing medias through which the removal of
oxygen can be achieved.

Cooling - Removal of Heat.


Water is normally used for cooling the fire because it has
the greatest heat absorbing properties. Water is the best
fire fighting media for solid fires like wood, leaves, cotton
and charcoal. Since water is the best conductor of elec-
tricity it should not be used in electrical equipments.
Water density is more than the density of other burning
liquid fuels, hence in direct form it should not be used for
any liquid fuels.

V. Fire Extinguishers :
Fire Bucket wiht round bottom for holding water or sand.
Chemical fire Extinguishers :
Sl. Type of Contents of Max. Pressure Where Where
No. Extinguisher Container Range Developed to use not
Inner Outer Inside

1. Soda Acid Sulphuric Sodium 7M 7kg/Sq.cm. A B,C,D,E


Acid bi -
Carbonate
(Solution)

2. Foam Aluminium -do- 7M 3.5 Kg/ B.A. C,D,E


Sulphate Sq.c.m
Solution

3. Dry CO2 -do- 3M 25Kg/ B,C,D,E -


Chemical Catridge (Power) Sq.c.m.
Power

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T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.
4. CO2 ------- CO2 Very 53Kg/ B,C,E -
Close Sq.c.m

5. Halon ------ Halon - do - -------- A,B,C,E ----

VI. Classification of Fire:

S. Class of Combustible Suitable Method Suitable


No Fire materials way to Extinguisher
extinguish

1.“A” (Solid Fire) Paper, wood 1. Seperation Starvation 1. Fire bucket with
Cloths,Rubber 2. Water Cooling sand or water
3. Dry sand or Blanketing 2. Soda Acid
powder 3. Dry Powder

2.“B” (Oil Fire) Combustible 1. Foam Blanketing 1. Foam


Liquid petrol 2. Dry powder or 2. DCP
Grease sand 3. CO2
3. CO2

3.“C” (Gas) Gas 1. Spread powder Blenkrting 1. DCP


sand 2. Fire bucket sand

4.“D” (Iron) Magnesium/ - do- - do - -do-


Potassium etc.

5.“E” Electricity 1. Powder - do- - do-


involved 2. CO2
3. Halon gas.

VII. METHOD OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS OPERATION

METHOD OF OPERATION

1. Remove the pluger guard


2. Turn extinguisher upside down and drive the
plunger striking knob with a sharp blow on the floor.
3. Hold in upside down position
4. Direct the jet to the base of fire
Effective jet length in Meters: 8 - 10
Discharge time in Seconds : 70 - 75

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T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.
METHOD OF OPERATION

1.Lift the “T” handle


2.Turn to right hand side
3.Shake well
4.Hold upside down and direct the jet to the
base of fire.
Effective jet length in Meters:7 - 8
Discharge time in Seconds :90

Fire Extinguisher - Form 9 Litres I.S.S. 933/ 1976

METHOD OF OPERATION
1. Uncoil the rubber hose
2.Open the wheel value
3.Gently lower the engine untili
the handle rests on the ground.
4.Direct the discharge jet to the
base of fire.
Effective jet length in Meters: 10
Discharge time in Seconds : 90 - 120

Foam Trolley 45 Litre Capacity

METHOD OF OPERATION
1. Uncoil the rubber hose
2. Open the wheel value
3. Gently lower the engine untili the handle
rests on the ground.
4. Allow the pressure in the gauge to build
up to 5.5Kg/Cms2.
5. Open the hand control nozzle & Direct the
jet to the fire

Effective jet length in Meters: 15


Discharge time in Seconds : 120 - 210

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T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.
METHOD OF OPERATION
1.Keep Extinguisher upright and remove safety clip
2.Hold nozzle in hand, strike the Knob
3.Direct jet towards the near edge of fire with a rapid
sweeping motion.
4.Drive the fire towards the far edge until the flames
are extinguished

Effective jet length in Meters: 3 - 4


Discharge time in Seconds : 12 - 15

Fire extinguisher - D.C.P. 5KG. Capacity


I.S.S.2171
METHOD OF OPERATION

1.Remove the safety pin & uncoil the rubber


hose.
2.Open CO2 cylinder wheel valve.
3.Direct jet near edge of the fire with rapid
sweeping. Drive the fire towards the far
edge until flames are extinguished.
For 22.5Kg. Capacity :
Effective jet length in Meters: 5 - 6
Discharge time in Seconds : 40 - 60
For 70Kg. Capacity :
(With on/off spray - type applicator)
Effective jet length in Meters: 6.5 to 8
Discharge time in Seconds : 75 to 90

DRY CHEMICAL POWER (TROLLEY MOUNTED)


EXTINGUISHERS : 22.5Kg + 70Kg CAPACITIES

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T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.
METHOD OF OPERATION

Carry Extinguisher close to the fire


1.Remove Safety pin.
2.Hold the handle firmly
3.Turn wheel valve in Anti clock wise Direction.
4.Direct the discharge to the base of fire.

Discharge time in Seconds : 16

FIRE EXTINGUISHER : CO2 - 3-2 k.g.


I.S.S. 2878

METHOD OF OPERATION

1.Move the extinguisher close to the fire.


2.Uncoil the Discharge hose assembly.
3.Remove the safety pin.
4.Turn wheel valve in anticlock wise direction
5.Direct Discharge to the base of fire.

Discharge time in Seconds : 20 - 35

Fire Extinguisher Co2 9.K.g Capacity

METHOD OF OPERATION

1.Move the extinguisher close to the fire.


2.Uncoil the Discharge hose assembly.
3.Remove the safety pin.
4.Turn wheel valve in anticlock wise direction
5.Direct Discharge to the base of fire.

Discharge time in Seconds : 40 - 60

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T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.
METHOD OF OPERATION

1.Remove the locking pin

2.Keep the discharge nozzle in position


approach to the fire as close as possible

3.Press the squeeze grip valve and direct


jet to the base of fire. The discharge can
be controlled by pressing and releasing Grip.

METHOD OF OPERATION :

1.Tilt the extinguisher and ensure there is no


blockage in the nozzle.
2.Remove the safety clip, keep your body
and face away and strike the knob hard.
3.Hold the extinguisher and direct the jet to
the base of the fire.

Effective jet length : 30 feet


Discharge time in Seconds : 60

Portable : 9 ltrs
Trolley type : 45 Itrs and 150 Itrs.

Water Co2 9 Ltrs. IS 940

SODA ACID TYPE :

NOTE :- The Bureau of Indian Standards has withdrawn ISI Mark for Soda Acid model because of the
operational risks involved during the usage of extinguisher and has advised to replace it with water CO2 Fire
Extinguishers.

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T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.
METHOD OF OPERATION:

1. Hold the hose near the branch pipe in one


of your hands.
2. Remove the safety clip and strike
the knob hard by Keeping the face and
body away.
3. Hold the extinguisher and direct the
jet to the base of the fire.

Effective jet length in : 30 feet


Discharge time in Seconds : 60
Portable type : 9 Itrs

Mechanical Foam 9 Ites. IS 10204 Trolley type : 45 Itrs and 150 Itrs
‘AFFF’ (Aqueous film forming Foam) Solution is mixed in water

CHEMICAL FOAM EXTINGUISHER

Note : The Bureau of indian Standards has withdrawn ISI mark for this model because of the operational risks
involved during the usage of the extinguisher and has advised to replace it with Mechanical Foam Fire Extin-
guishers.
.

METHOD OF OPERATION:

1. To operate the extinguisher remove the


locking pin.
2. Hold the discharge hose firmly and press
the squeeze type valve.
3. The powder is released through the dis
charge hose and will spread out.
4. While operating direct the powder to the
base of the flame and move the jet from
side to side in sweeping motion.

(Mono Ammoniom Phoophat Powder and Nirtrogen sab


66

ABC Powder stored pressure type IS : 13849

The Stored Pressure ABC Powder type fire extinguishers are multipurpose type suitable for flmmable
liquids, gases and for fires in electrical equipments.

It is available in capacities like 1Kg, 2Kg, and 5 Kg.

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T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.
VIII. GENERAL PRECAUTIONS :

1. The lids of all extinguishers should be checked for tightness. If two or more threads are exposed out
the cylinder should not be used. The high pressure developed in the cylinder could be withstood only
if the lid is completly screwed on to the body. Otherwise the lid would come out as a blast and cause
serious injury to the operator.
2. All extinguisher should be used in the direction of the wind.
3. There are three pin holes on the periphyery of the lid. When there is any block in the cylinder nozzle
or hose the contents will not come out while using. Then the cylinder lid may be unscrewed very
slowly. When the holes come up, the pressurised gases will come out thro’ these holes. Only after
the gas completely goes out, the lid can be fully opened. On no account we should think that there is
no pressure inside the cyclinder, if contents do not come out during usage.
4. Whenever newly filled, the gas catridge and Co2 cylinder should be checked for its correct weight.

IX. MAINTENANCE OF EXTINGUISHER :

a. Monthly - cleaning and checking for nozzle block and lid tightness.
b. Quarterly - open the lid. check for free movement of plunger. Clean the outside of the inner container.
c. In foam type the solution should be poured seperately in utensils and stirred. Few drops may be taken
out sepertely and mixed together for checking proper formation of white coloured foam.
d. Once in 6 months - The gas catridge should be ckecked for weight. If there is more than 10% loss in
weignt of gas, the cylinder may be used in Fire mock drill and then refilled.
e. One in two years- The cylinder should be ckecked for pressure test. Soda Acid and Foam type should
withstand pressure of 17.5Kg/Sq.cm for 2.5 minutes and carbondioxide cylinder should withstand
pressure of 210 Kg/Sq.cm, for 2.5 minutes.
f. Once in two years 50% of stock of Soda Acid and foam type extinguishers, DCP once in 3 years and
Co2 once in 5 years should be used during demonstration / Fire mock drill.

- 169 -
T & SS Training Institute, Madurai.

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