A Grammar of Modern Indo-European

A GRAMMAR OF
MODERN
INDO-EUROPEAN
Third Edition
Part I. Language and Culture
Part II. Phonology & Morphology
Part III. Syntax
Texts & Dictionary

Part IV.
Etymology
Carlos Quiles Fernando López-Menchero

Version 5.00 (April 2011)
© 2011 by Carlos Quiles
© 2011 by Fernando López-Menchero
INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION

Avda. Sta. María de la Cabeza, 3, E-LL, Badajoz 06001, Spain.
Badajoz – Leg. Dep. BA-145-0 (2006) | Sevilla – Leg. Dep. SE -4405-2007 U.E.
ISBN-13: 978-1461022138 | ISBN-10: 1461022134
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Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS...............................................................................3
PREFACE..................................................................................................9
GUIDE TO THE READER .................................................................................................. 13

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... 15
CONSIDERATIONS OF METHOD....................................................................................... 16
The Three-Dorsal Theory ....................................................................................... 18
The Loss of Laryngeals...........................................................................................26
CONVENTIONS USED IN THIS BOOK................................................................................ 33
Writing System ....................................................................................................... 35
Modern Indo-European .........................................................................................42
1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................49
1.1. THE INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE FAMILY ...............................................................49

1.2. TRADITIONAL VIEWS ............................................................................................... 51
1.3. THE THEORY OF THE THREE STAGES ....................................................................... 53
1.4. THE PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN URHEIMAT ............................................................... 59
1.5. OTHER ARCHAEOLINGUISTIC THEORIES ..................................................................69
1.6. RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER LANGUAGES .................................................................... 71
1.7. INDO-EUROPEAN DIALECTS ..................................................................................... 73
Schleicher‟s Fable: From PIE to Modern English ................................................. 73
1.7.1. Northern Indo-European dialects ................................................................ 76
1.7.2. Southern Indo-European Dialects.............................................................. 109
11.7.3. Anatolian Languages ................................................................................ 128
2. PHONOLOGY.....................................................................................135
2.1. CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS .................................................................................. 135

2.2. PRONUNCIATION .................................................................................................. 138
2.3. SYLLABLES ............................................................................................................141
2.4. PROSODY .............................................................................................................. 144
2.5. ACCENT ................................................................................................................ 145
2.6. VOWEL CHANGE ................................................................................................... 147
2.7. CONSONANT CHANGE ........................................................................................... 150
A GRAMMAR OF MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN
3. WORDS AND THEIR FORMS.............................................................153
3.1. THE PARTS OF SPEECH .......................................................................................... 153

3.2. INFLECTION.......................................................................................................... 154
3.3. ROOT AND STEM ................................................................................................... 155
3.4. GENDER ............................................................................................................... 158
3.5. NUMBER ...............................................................................................................161
4. NOUNS..............................................................................................163
4.1. DECLENSION OF NOUNS ........................................................................................ 163

4.2. FIRST DECLENSION .............................................................................................. 168
4.2.1. First Declension Paradigm......................................................................... 168
4.2.2. First Declension in Examples..................................................................... 169
4.2.3. The Plural in the First Declension ............................................................. 170
4.3. SECOND DECLENSION ............................................................................................ 171
4.3.1. Second Declension Paradigm ...................................................................... 171
4.3.2. Second Declension in Examples ................................................................. 172
4.5.3. The Plural in the Second Declension .......................................................... 173
4.4. THIRD DECLENSION ............................................................................................. 174
4.4.1. Third Declension Paradigm ....................................................................... 174
4.4.2. In i, u ........................................................................................................... 175
4.4.3. In Diphthong ...............................................................................................177
4.4.4. The Plural in the Third and Fourth Declension ........................................ 178
4.5. FOURTH DECLENSION........................................................................................... 179
4.5.1. Fourth Declension Paradigm ..................................................................... 179
4.5.2. In Occlusive, m, l......................................................................................... 181
4.5.3. In r, n, s ....................................................................................................... 182
4.5.4. The Plural in the Fourth Declension .......................................................... 183
4.6. VARIABLE NOUNS ................................................................................................. 184
4.7. INFLECTION TYPES ............................................................................................... 184
Excursus: Nominal Accent-Ablaut Patterns ....................................................... 186
4.8. NUMBER DEVELOPMENTS: THE DUAL................................................................... 190
5. ADJECTIVES......................................................................................191
5.1. INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES ...................................................................................191

5.2. THE MOTION .........................................................................................................191
4
Table of Contents
5.3. ADJECTIVE SPECIALISATION .................................................................................. 194

5.4. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES ................................................................................ 195
5.5. NUMERALS ........................................................................................................... 197
5.5.1. Classification of Numerals.......................................................................... 197
5.5.2. Cardinals and Ordinals .............................................................................. 198
5.5.3. Declension of Cardinals and Ordinals ....................................................... 201
5.5.4. Distributives............................................................................................... 204
5.5.5. Numeral Adverbs ....................................................................................... 204
5.5.6. Multiplicatives ........................................................................................... 205
6. PRONOUNS......................................................................................207
6.1. ABOUT THE PRONOUNS .........................................................................................207

6.2. PERSONAL PRONOUNS ..........................................................................................207
6.3. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS ........................................................................................ 209
6.4. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS ........................................................................................ 210
6.5. ANAPHORIC PRONOUNS ........................................................................................ 210
6.6. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS .................................................................................211
6.7. INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS ........................................................ 213
6.7.1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 213
6.7.2. Compounds ................................................................................................. 215
6.7.3. Correlatives................................................................................................. 216
6.8. RELATIVE PRONOUNS ........................................................................................... 217
6.9. OTHER PRONOUNS ............................................................................................... 218
7. VERBS...............................................................................................219
7.1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 219

7.1.1. Voice, Mood, Tense, Person, Number ......................................................... 219
7.1.2. Voice............................................................................................................ 220
7.1.3. Moods ..........................................................................................................222
7.1.4. Aspect...........................................................................................................222
7.1.5. Tenses of the Finite Verb .............................................................................223
7.2. FORMS OF THE VERB .............................................................................................224
7.2.1. The Verbal Stems ........................................................................................224
7.2.2. Verb-Endings .............................................................................................. 225
7.2.3. The Thematic Vowel .................................................................................. 230
5
7.3. THE CONJUGATIONS ............................................................................................. 231

7.4. THE FOUR STEMS ................................................................................................. 236
7.4.1. Tense-Stems and Verb Derivation ............................................................. 236
7.4.2. The Present Stem ........................................................................................ 237
7.4.3. The Aorist Stem...........................................................................................249
7.4.4. The Perfect Stem ......................................................................................... 252
7.5. MOOD STEMS ....................................................................................................... 253
7.7. NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS .............................................................................. 257
7.8. CONJUGATED EXAMPLES ......................................................................................262
7.8.1. Thematic Verbs ...........................................................................................262
7.8.2. Athematic Inflection ................................................................................... 267
7.8.3. Common PIE Stems .................................................................................... 271
7.9. VERBAL COMPOSITION .......................................................................................... 273
7.10. THE VERBAL ACCENT .......................................................................................... 273
8. PARTICLES........................................................................................275
8.1. PARTICLES ............................................................................................................ 275

8.2. ADVERBS .............................................................................................................. 277
8.3. DERIVATION OF ADVERBS ..................................................................................... 277
8.4. PREPOSITIONS ...................................................................................................... 279
8.5. CONJUNCTIONS ................................................................................................... 282
8.6. INTERJECTIONS ................................................................................................... 284
9. MORPHOSYNTAX.............................................................................287
9.1. VERBAL MORPHOSYNTAX ...................................................................................... 287

9.1.1. Person .......................................................................................................... 287
9.1.2. Tense-Aspect and Mood.............................................................................. 287
9.1.3. Voice ............................................................................................................ 291
9.2. NOMINAL MORPHOSYNTAX...................................................................................292
9.2.1. Nominative..................................................................................................292
9.2.3. Vocative ...................................................................................................... 293
9.2.4. Accusative ................................................................................................... 293
9.2.5. Instrumental ...............................................................................................294
9.2.6. Dative .......................................................................................................... 295
9.2.7. Ablative .......................................................................................................296
6
Table of Contents
9.2.8. Genitive ....................................................................................................... 297

9.2.9. Locative....................................................................................................... 297
9.2.10. Case Forms: Adverbial Elements............................................................ 298
10. SENTENCE SYNTAX........................................................................301
10.1. THE SENTENCE ................................................................................................... 301

10.1.1. Kinds of Sentences .................................................................................... 302
10.1.2. Nominal Sentence .................................................................................... 304
10.1.3. Verbal Sentence ........................................................................................ 306
10.2. SENTENCE MODIFIERS ....................................................................................... 308
10.2.1. Intonation Patterns .................................................................................. 308
10.2.2. Sentence Delimiting Particles .................................................................. 310
10.3. VERBAL MODIFIERS .............................................................................................311
10.3.1. Declarative Sentences ................................................................................311
10.3.2. Interrogative Sentences ........................................................................... 312
10.3.3. Negative Sentences ................................................................................... 315
10.4. NOMINAL MODIFIERS ......................................................................................... 317
10.4.1. Adjective and Genitive Constructions ...................................................... 317
10.4.2. Compounds ............................................................................................... 318
10.4.3. Determiners in Nominal Phrases.............................................................324
10.4.4. Apposition ................................................................................................. 325
10.5. MODIFIED FORMS OF PIE SIMPLE SENTENCES ..................................................... 327
10.5.1. Coordination ............................................................................................. 327
10.5.2. Complementation .....................................................................................329
10.5.3. Subordinate Clauses .................................................................................332
10.6. SYNTACTIC CATEGORIES..................................................................................... 338
10.6.1. Particles as Syntactic Means of Expression ............................................ 338
10.6.2. Marked Order in Sentences ...................................................................... 341
10.6.3. Topicalisation with Reference to Emphasis ............................................342
10.6.4. Wackernagel‟s Law and the placement of clitics .................................... 345
10.7. PHRASE AND SENTENCE PROSODY ...................................................................... 348
10.8. POETRY ..............................................................................................................349
10.9. NAMES OF PERSONS ............................................................................................ 352
7
APPENDIX I: INDO-EUROPEAN IN USE...............................................357
I.1. KOMTLOQJOM (CONVERSATION) ............................................................................ 357

I.2. HORATJOSJO KANMṆ (HORATII CARMINVM)......................................................... 360
I.3. THE NEW TESTAMENT IN INDO-EUROPEAN ........................................................... 362
I.3.1. Pater Nos (Lord‟s Prayer) ........................................................................... 362
I.3.2. Slwēje Marijā (Hail Mary) ......................................................................... 363
I.3.2. Kréddhēmi (Nicene Creed) ......................................................................... 363
I.3.3. Noudós Sūnús (Parable of the Prodigal Son) ............................................366
I.3.4. Newos Bheidhos (New Testament) – Jōhanēs, 1, 1-14............................... 370
I.4. THE RIGVEDA IN INDO-EUROPEAN ........................................................................ 372
APPENDIX II: LATE INDO-EUROPEAN LEXICON.................................373
FORMAL ASPECTS ........................................................................................................ 373

II.1. ENGLISH – LATE INDO-EUROPEAN ....................................................................... 375
II.2. LATE INDO-EUROPEAN – ENGLISH ...................................................................... 413
II.3. ETYMOLOGY FROM DESCENDANT LANGUAGES ..................................................... 491
APPENDIX III: IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS...................................................765
III.1. ROOT NOUNS...................................................................................................... 765

III.2. INDEFINITE, DEMONSTRATIVE, AND PERSONAL PRONOUNS ................................. 770
III.2.1. Indefinite Pronouns .................................................................................. 770
III.2.2. Demonstrative Pronouns ..........................................................................771
III.2.3. Personal Pronouns ....................................................................................771
III.3. WORD FORMATION: COMMON PIE LENGTHENINGS AND SUFFIXES ..................... 775
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING..........................................783
ONLINE RESOURCES .................................................................................................... 786

Wikipedia .............................................................................................................. 787
Images and maps .................................................................................................788
BIOGRAPHY……………………………………………….…………………………………789
8
PREFACE
In this newer edition of our Grammar, we follow the first intention of this work,
trying not to include personal opinions, but a collection of the latest, most reasoned
academic papers on the latest reconstructible PIE, providing everything that might
be useful for the teaching and learning of Indo-European as a living language.
With that aim in mind, and with our compromise to follow the scientific method,
we have revised the whole text in search for out-dated material and unexplained
forms, as well as inconsistencies in reconstructions or conventions. We have also
restricted the amount of marginal choices in favour of the general agreement, so that
we could offer a clear, sober, and commonly agreed manual to learn Indo-European.
The approach featured in this book for more than half a decade already is similar to
the one followed in Gamkrelidze–Ivanov (1994-1995), and especially to that followed
by Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998). Both returned to (and revised) the
‗Brugmannian‘ Indo-European, the historical result of the development of certain
isoglosses, both phonetic (loss of laryngeals, with the development of brief and long
vowel system) and morphological (polythematic system in noun and verb,
innovations in their inflection).
Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998) distinguished between Late Indo-

European and its parent-language Indo-Hittite – laryngeal, without distinction in
vowel length, monothematic system. We developed that trend further, focussing on a
post-Late Indo-European period, in search for a more certain, post-laryngeal IE, to
avoid the merged laryngeal puzzle of the ‗disintegrating Indo-European‘ of Bomhard
(1984), and the conventional notation of a schwa indogermanicum (kept in
Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza), most suitable for a description of a complex period of
phonetic change – which is possibly behind the flight of all other available modern
works on PIE to the highly theoretical (but in all other respects clear and
straightforward) PIH phonology. Morphology and syntax remain thus nearest to the
older IE languages attested, always compared to Anatolian material, but avoiding the
temporal inconsistencies that are found throughout the diachronic reconstructions in
other, current manuals.
We try to fill the void that Gamkrelidze–Ivanov and Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza

left by following works (Lehmann 1972, Rix 1986, etc.) that already differentiated
PIH from Late Indo-European, trying to ―see the three-stage theory to the bitter end.
Once established the existence of the three-staged IE, a lot must still be done. We
have to define the detail, and we must explain the reason for the evolution, which
formal elements does PIE deal with, and how they are ascribed to the new functions
and categories. These developments shall influence the history of individual
languages, which will have to be rewritten. Not only in the field of morphology, but
also in phonetics and syntax‖ (Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza 1995-1998).
Apart from a trustable reconstruction of the direct ancestors of the older IE

languages (North-West Indo-European, Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian), this
work ‗corrupts‘ the natural language – like any classical language grammar – with
the intention to show a living language, and the need to establish some minimal
writing conventions to embellish the phonetic notation. The question ‗why not learn
Indo-European as a living language?‘ arises from the same moment on when
reconstruction is focussed on a (scientifically) conservative approach – an ultimate
consequence of the three-stage-theory, and the search for more certain
reconstructions –, yielding a reliable language system. A language system free from
the need for theoretical artifices, or personal opinions on ‗original‘ forms, that try to
fill unending phonetic, morphological and syntactical uncertainties of the current
diachronic PIE reconstruction.
As the learned reader might have already inferred, the question of ―natural‖ vs.
―artificial‖ is not easily answered concerning ancient languages. Ancient Greek
phonetics, for example, is known through internal as well as external reconstruction,
and the actual state of the art is largely based on the body of evidence discussed
extensively by linguists and philologists of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries,
with lots of questions unsolved. Furthermore, Ancient Greek is not one language; in
fact, there are many dialects, each with different periods, and different
representations of their sounds, all of which account for what we know with the
unitary name Ancient Greek. Another example is Sanskrit, retained as different
historical linguistic stages and dialects through oral tradition. Its first writings and
grammatical rules were laid down centuries after it had ceased to be spoken, and
centuries earlier before it became the classical Indian language. Latin is indeed not
10
Preface
different from the above examples, being systematised in the so-called classical
period, while a real, dialectally and temporarily variable Vulgar Latin was used by the
different peoples who lived in the Roman Empire, making e.g. some questions over
the proper pronunciation still debated today.
The interest in the study and use of Indo-European as a living language today is
equivalent to the interest in the study and use of these ancient languages as learned
languages in the the Byzantine Empire, India and Mediaeval Europe, respectively.
With regard to certainty in reconstruction, Late Indo-European early dialects are not
less natural than these classical languages were in the past. Even modern languages,
like English, are to a great extent learned languages, in which social trends and
linguistic artifices are constantly dividing between formal and colloquial, educated
and uneducated, often simply good or bad usage of the language.
About the question of ‗dead‘ vs. ‗living‘ languages, heated debate is e.g. held on the
characterisation of Sanskrit, which is not as other dead languages, being spoken,
written and read today in India. The notion of the death of a language remains thus
in an unclear realm between academia and public opinion.
I prefer to copy Michael Coulson‘s words from the preface of a great introductory
work on Sanskrit (from the Teach Yourself® series), referring originally to the way
Indians used Sanskrit as a learned (and dead) language, far beyond the rules that
grammarians had imposed. I think this text should also be valid if we substituted
‗Sanskrit‘ for ‗Indo-European‘; the ‗rules‘ of ‗Sanskrit grammarians‘ for the
‗reconstruction‘ of ‗IE scholars‘; and the ‗renowned Sanskrit writers‘ for the ‗potential
future IE writers‘:
«By [the time Kālidāsa, a writer fl. ca. the fifth century AD, lived] Sanskrit was not a
mother tongue, but a language to be studied and consciously mastered. This
transformation had come about through a gradual process, the beginnings of which are
no doubt earlier than Pāṇini [ancient Indian Sanskrit grammarian, fl. fourth century
BC] himself. (…) Kālidāsa learnt his Sanskrit from the rules of a grammarian living
some 700 years before his time. Such a situation may well strike the Western reader as
paradoxical. Our nearest parallel is in the position of Latin in Medieval Europe. There
is, however, an important difference. Few would deny Cicero or Vergil a greater
importance in Latin literature than any mediaeval author. Conversely, few Sanskritists
would deny that the centre of gravity in Sanskrit literature lies somewhere in the first
millennium AD, for all that its authors were writing in a so-called ‗dead-language‘.
11
On this point it may be useful to make a twofold distinction – between a living and a
dead language, and between a natural and a learned one. A language is natural when it
is acquired and used instinctively; it is living when people choose to converse and
formulate ideas in it in preference to any other. To the modern Western scholar
Sanskrit is a dead as well as a learned language. To Kālidāsa or Śaṅkara [ninth century
Indian philosopher from a Dravidian-speaking region] it was a learned language but a
living one. (The term ‗learned is not entirely satisfactory, but the term ‗artificial‘, which
is the obvious complementary of ‗natural‘, is normally reserved for application to totally
constructed languages such as Esperanto.)
(…) Living languages, whether natural or learned, change and develop. But when a
learned language such as literary English is closely tied to, and constantly revitalized by,
a natural idiom, its opportunities for independent growth are limited. Sanskrit provides
a fascinating example of a language developing in complete freedom from such
constraints as an instrument of intellectual and artistic expression. To say that Classical
Sanskrit was written in conformity with Pāṇini‘s rules is true, but in one sense entirely
misleading. Pāṇini would have been astounded by the way in which Bāṇā or Bhavabhūti
or Abhinavagupta handled the language. It is precisely the fact that Sanskrit writers
insisted on using Sanskrit as a living and not as a dead language that has often troubled
Western scholars. W. D. Whitney, a great but startlingly arrogant American Sanskritist
of the nineteenth century, says of the Classical language: ‗Of linguistic history there is
next to nothing in it all; but only a history of style, and this for the most part showing a
gradual depravation, an increase of artificiality and an intensification of certain more
undesirable features of the language – such as the use of passive constructions and of
participles instead of verbs, and the substitution of compounds for sentences.‘ Why
such a use of passives, participles and compounds should be undesirable, let alone
depraved, is left rather vague, and while there have been considerable advances in
linguistic science in the past fifty years there seems to have been nothing which helps to
clarify or justify these strictures. Indeed, Whitney‘s words would not be worth
resurrecting if strong echoes of them did not still survive in some quarters.
Acceptance of Pāṇini‘s rules implied a final stabilization of the phonology of Sanskrit,

and also (at least in the negative sense that no form could be used which was not
sanctioned by him) of its morphology. But Pāṇini did not fix syntax. To do so explicitly
and incontrovertibly would be difficult in any language, given several ways of
expressing the same idea and various other ways of expressing closely similar ideas.»
Badajoz, April 2011
12
Preface
GUIDE TO THE READER
A. ABBREVIATIONS
abl.: ablative NP: noun phrase

acc.: accusative NWIE: North-West Indo-European
act.: active O: object
adj.: adjective Obj.: object
adv.: adverb O.Av.: Old Avestan
Alb.: Albanian O.C.S.: Old Church Slavic
Arm.: Armenian O.E.: Old English
aor.: aorist O.Ind.: Old Indian
aux.: auxiliary O.Ir.: Old Irish
Av: Avestan O.H.G.: Old High German
BSl.: Balto-Slavic O.Hitt.: Old Hittite
CA: Common Anatolian O.Lat.: Archaic Latin
Cel.: Celtic O.Lith.: Old Lithuanin
cf.: confer ‗compare, contrast‘ O.N.: Old Norse
Cz.: Czech O.Pers.: Old Persian
dat.: dative O.Pruss.: Old Prussian
Du.: Dutch O.Russ.: Old Russian
e.g.: exempli gratia ‗for example‘ opt.: optative
Eng.: English Osc.: Oscan
esp.: especially OSV: object-subject-verb order
f.: feminine OV: object-verb order
fem.: feminine perf.: perfect
gen.: genitive PAn: Proto-Anatolian
Gaul.: Gaulish PGmc.: Pre-Proto-Germanic
Gk.: Greek PII: Proto-Indo-Iranian
Gmc.: Proto-Germanic PGk: Proto-Greek
Goth.: Gothic Phryg: Phrygian
Hitt.: Hittite PIE: Proto-Indo-European
Hom.: Homeric PIH: Proto-Indo-Hittite
IE: Indo-European pl.: plural
IED: Late Indo-European dialects pres.: present
imp.: imperative pron.: pronoun
imperf.: imperfect Ptc.: particle
Ind.-Ira.: Indo-Iranian Russ.: Russian
ins.: instrumental sg.: singular
int.: interrogative Skt.: Sanskrit
Ita.: Italic Sla.: Slavic
Lat.: Latin SOV: subject-object-verb order
LIE: Late Indo-European subj.: subjunctive
Lith.: Lithuanian SVO: subject-verb-object order
Ltv.: Latvian Toch.: Tocharian
loc.: locative Umb.: Umbrian
Luw./Luv.: Luvian Ved.: Vedic
13
Lyc.: Lycian v.i.: vide infra ‗see below‘

m.: masculine VO: verb-object order
masc.: masculine voc.: vocative
M.H.G.: Middle High German VP: verb phrase
mid.: middle-passive voice v.s.: vide supra ‗see above‘
MIE: Modern Indo-European VSO: verb-subject-object order
Myc.: Mycenaean 1st: first person
n.: neuter 2nd: second person
neu.: neuter 3rd: third person
nom.: nominative
B. SYMBOLS
* denotes a reconstructed form, not preserved in any written documents

** denotes a reconstructed form through internal reconstruction
< ―comes from‖ or ―is derived from‖
→ ―turns into‖ or ―becomes‖
- indicates morpheme boundary, or separates off that part of a word that
the reader should focus on
() encloses part of a word that is not relevant to the discussion, or that is an
optional part
∅ ―zero desinence‖ or ―zero-grade‖
˟ denotes a wrong formation
C. SPELLING CONVENTIONS
All linguistic forms are written in italics. The only exceptions are reconstructed IED
forms, that are given in boldface; and in italics if morphemes or dialectal forms
(from PII, PGk, or from East or West European). We use a non-phonetic writing for
IEDs, following the conventions in Writing System (see below).
When representing word schemes:
C = consonant V = vowel
R = resonant (r, l, m, n) = long vowel
T = dental I = i, u
K = occlusive ° = epenthetic or auxiliary vowel
J = glide (j, w) (conventionally, the symbol ° under the vocalic

resonants is placed before it in these cases)
H = any laryngeal or
merged laryngeal # = syllabic limit
Citation: parenthetical referencing of author-date is used for frequently cited books

(referenced in the Bibliography), and author-title for articles and other books.
14
Preface
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I owe special and personal gratitude to my best friend and now fiancée Mayte,
whose many lovely qualities do not include knowledge of or an interest in historical
linguistics. But without her this never would have been written.
I have been extremely fortunate to benefit from Fernando López-Menchero‘s
interest and from his innumerable contributions, revisions, and corrections. Without
his deep knowledge of Ancient Greek and Latin, as well as his interest in the most
recent research in IE studies, this grammar would have been unthinkable.
I have received the invaluable support of many colleagues and friends from the
University of Extremadura (UEx), since we began publishing this book half a decade
ago. The University has been crucial to this enterprise: first in 2005 when Prof.
Antonio Muñoz PhD, Vice-Dean of the Faculty of Library Science, expert in Business
Information, as well as other signatories – doctors in Economics and English
Philology –, supported this language revival project before the competition
committee and afterwards; in 2006, when representatives of the Dean‘s office, of the
Regional Government of Extremadura, and of the Mayor‘s office of Caceres,
recognised our work awarding our project a prize in the ―Entrepreneurship
Competition in Imagination Society‖, organizing and subsidizing a business trip to
Barcelona‘s most innovative projects; and in 2007, when we received the
unconditional support of the Department of Classical Antiquity of the UEx.
Over the years I have also received feed-back from informed end-users, as well as
from friends and members of the Indo-European Language Association, who were in
the best position to judge such matters as the intelligibility and consistency of the
whole. I am also indebted to Manuel Romero from Imcrea Diseño Editorial, for his
help with the design and editorial management of the first printed edition.
The influence of the work of many recent scholars is evident on these pages. Those
who are most often cited include (in alphabetical order): D.Q. Adams, F.R. Adrados
David Anthony, R.S.P. Beekes, Emile Benveniste, Alberto Bernabé, Thomas Burrow,
George Cardona, James Clackson, B.W. Fortson, Matthias Fritz, T.V. Gamkrelidze,
Marija Gimbutas, Eric Hamp, V.V. Ivanov, Jay Jasanoff, Paul Kiparsky, Alwin
Kloekhorst, F.H.H. Kortlandt, Jerzy Kuryłowicz, W.P. Lehmann, J.P. Mallory,
Manfred Mayrhofer, Wolfgang Meid, Michael Meier-Brügger, Torsten Meissner,
Craig Melchert, Julia Mendoza, Anna Morpurgo Davies, Norbert Oettinger, Edgar
Polomé, C.J. Ruijgh, Paolo Ramat, Donald Ringe, Helmut Rix, A.L. Sihler, Sergei
Starostin, J.L. Szemerényi, Francisco Villar, Calvert Watkins, M.L. West.
15
CONSIDERATIONS OF METHOD
This work is intended for language learners, and is not conceived as a defence of
personal research. Excerpts of texts from many different sources have been copied
literally, especially regarding controversial or untreated aspects. We feel that,
whereas the field of Indo-European studies is indeed mature, and knowledge is out
there to be grasped, we lack a comprehensive summary of the available consensual
theories, scattered over innumerable specialised personal books and articles.
We must begin this work by clearly exposing our intended working method in
selecting and summing up the current available theories: it is basically, as it is
commonly accepted today for PIE reconstruction, the comparative method, with the
help of internal reconstruction.
NOTE. Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998): ―We think (…) that a linguist should

follow, to establish relations among languages, linguistic methods. If then the results are
coincident, or compatible, or might be perfected with those obtained by archaeologists, so
much the better. But a mixed method creates all types of chain mistakes and arbitrary results.
We have seen that many times. And a purely archaeological method like the one supported
lately by Renfrew 1987 or, in certain moments, the same Gimbutas 1985, clashes with the
results of Linguistics.
The method has to rely on [the comparative method and internal reconstruction]. We have
already expressed our mistrust in the results based on typological comparisons with remote
languages (glottalic theory, ergative, etc.). Now they are more frequent in books like
Gamkelidze-Ivanov 1994-1995.
And fundamentally lexical comparisons should not be the first argument in comparisons,
either. We do not doubt their interest in certain moments, e.g. to illuminate the history of
Germanic in relation with Finnish. And they could have interest in different comparisons:
with Uralo-Altaic languages, Semitic, Caucasic, Summerian, etc.‖
The guidelines that should be followed, as summarised by Beekes (1995):
1. ―See what information is generated by internal reconstruction.

2. Collect all material that is relevant to the problem.
3. Try to look at the problem in the widest possible contact, thus in relation to
everything else that may be connected with it. (…)
4. Assume that corresponding forms, that is to say, forms whose meaning
(probably) and whose structures (probably) seem to be alike, all derive from
one common ancestor.
16
Preface
5. The question of how deviant forms should be evaluated is a difficult one to

answer. When such a form can be seen as an innovation within a particular
language (or group of languages), the solution is that the form in question is
young and as such cannot be important for the reconstruction of the original
form. Whenever a deviant form resists explanation it becomes necessary to
consider the possibility that the very form in question may be one that
preserves the original. (…)
6. For every solution the assumed (new) sound-laws must be phonetically
probable, and the analogies must be plausible.
7. The reconstructed system must be probable (typological probability). If one
should reconstruct a system which is found nowhere else in any of the known
languages, there will always be, to say the least, reasons for doubt. On the other
hand, every language is unique, and there is thus always the possibility that
something entirely unknown must be reconstructed.‖
There are two main aspects of the comparative method as is usually applied that
strikes the ‗pure scientific‘ reader, though, always obsessed with adopting a
conservative approach to research, in the sense of security or reliability. We shall
take words from Claude Bernard‘s major discourse on scientific method, An
Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine (1865), to illustrate our point:
1. Authority vs. Observation. It is through observation that science is carried

forward — not through uncritically accepting the authority of academic or scholastic
sources. Observable reality is our only authority. ―When we meet a fact which
contradicts a prevailing theory, we must accept the fact and abandon the theory, even
when the theory is supported by great names and generally accepted‖.
NOTE. Authority is certainly a commonly used, strong and generally sound basis to keep
working on comparative grammar, though, because it this is a field based on ‗pyramidal‘
reasoning and not experimental research. But authority should be questioned whenever it is
needed. Authority – be it the view of the majority, or the opinion of a renowned linguist or
linguistic school – do not mean anything, and ideas are not to be respected because of who
supports (or supported) them.
2. Verification and Disproof. ―Theories are only hypotheses, verified by more or

less numerous facts. Those verified by the most facts are the best, but even then they
are never final, never to be absolutely believed‖. What is rationally true is the only
authority.
17
On hypothesis testing in science, decisions are usually made using a statistical null-
hypothesis test approach. Regarding linguistics and its comparative method,
sometimes authority is placed as null hypothesis or H0 (as in many non-experimental
sciences), while counter-arguments must take the H1 position, and are therefore at
disadvantage against the authority view.
If two theories show a strong argument against the basic H0 (―nothing

demonstrated‖), and are therefore accepted as alternative explanations for an
observed fact, then the most reasonable one must be selected as the new H0, on the
grounds of the lex parsimoniae (or the so-called Ockham‟s razor), whereby H0
should be the competing hypothesis that makes the fewest new assumptions, when
the hypotheses are equal in other respects (e.g. both sufficiently explain available
data in the first place).
NOTE. The principle is often incorrectly summarised as ―the simplest explanation is most
likely the correct one‖. This summary is misleading, however, since the principle is actually
focussed on shifting the burden of proof in discussions. That is, the Razor is a principle that
suggests we should tend towards simpler theories until we can trade some simplicity for
increased explanatory power. Contrary to the popular summary, the simplest available theory
is sometimes a less accurate explanation. Philosophers also add that the exact meaning of
―simplest‖ can be nuanced in the first place.
As an example of the applicability of the scientific method, we will take two difficult
aspects of PIE reconstructions: the series of velars and the loss of laryngeals.
The problem with these particular reconstructions might be summarised by the

words found in Clackson (2007): ―It is often a fault of Indo-Europeanists to over-
reconstruct, and to explain every development of the daughter languages through
reconstruction of a richer system in the parent language.‖
THE THREE-DORSAL THEORY
PIE phonetic reconstruction is tied to the past: acceptance of three series of velars
in PIE is still widespread today. We followed the reconstruction of ‗palatovelars‘,
according to general authority and convention, but we have changed minds since the
first edition of this grammar.
Direct comparison in early IE studies, informed by the centum-satem isogloss,

yielded the reconstruction of three rows of dorsal consonants in Late Indo-European
by Bezzenberger (Die indogermanischer Gutturalreihen, 1890), a theory which
18
Preface
became classic after Brugmann included it in the 2nd Edition of his Grundriss. It was
based on vocabulary comparison: so e.g. from PIE *kmtóm ‗hundred‘, there are so-
called satem (cf. O.Ind. śatám, Av. satəm, Lith. šimtas, O.C.S. sto) and centum
languages (cf. Gk. -katón, Lat. centum, Goth. hund, O.Ir. cet).
The palatovelars *kj, *gj, and *gjh were supposedly [k]- or [g]-like sounds which
underwent a characteristic phonetic change in the satemised languages – three
original ―velar rows‖ had then become two in all Indo-European dialects attested.
After that original belief, then, the centum group of languages merged the
palatovelars *kj, *gj, and *gjh with the plain velars *k, *g, and *gh, while the satem
group of languages merged the labiovelars *kw, *gw, and *gwh with the plain velars
*k,*g, and *gh.
The reasoning for reconstructing three series was very simple: an easy and
straightforward solution for the parent PIE language must be that it had all three
rows found in the proto-languages, which would have merged into two rows
depending on their dialectal (centum vs. satem) situation – even if no single IE
dialect shows three series of velars. Also, for a long time this division was identified
with an old dialectal division within IE, especially because both groups appeared not
to overlap geographically: the centum branches were to the west of satem languages.
Such an initial answer should be considered unsound today, at least as a starting-
point to obtain a better explanation for this ‗phonological puzzle‘ (Bernabé).
Many Indo-Europeanists still keep a distinction of three distinct series of velars for
Late Indo-European (and also for Indo-Hittite), although research tend to show that
the palatovelar series were a late phonetic development of certain satem dialects,
later extended to others. This belief was originally formulated by Antoine Meillet (De
quelques difficulties de la théorie des gutturals indoeuropéennes, 1893), and has
been followed by linguists like Hirt (Zur Lösung der Gutturalfrage im
Indogermanischen, 1899; Indogermanische Grammatik, BD III, Das Nomen 1927),
Lehmann (Proto-Indo-European Phonology, 1952), Georgiev (Introduzione allo
studio delle lingue indoeuropee, 1966), Bernabé (―Aportaciones al studio fonológico
de las guturales indoeuropeas”, Em. 39, 1971), Steensland (Die Distribution der
urindogermanischen sogenannten Guttrale, 1973), Miller (“Pure velars and palatals
in Indo-European: a rejoinder to Magnusson”, Linguistics 178, 1976), Allen (“The
PIE velar series: Neogrammarian and other solutions in the light of attested
19
parallels”, TPhS, 1978), Kortlandt (“H2 and oH2”, LPosn, 1980), Shields (“A new
look at the centum/satem Isogloss”, KZ 95, 1981), etc.
NOTE. There is a general trend to reconstruct labiovelars and plain velars, so that the
hypothesis of two series of velars is usually identified with this theory. Among those who
support two series of velars there is, however, a minority who consider the labiovelars a
secondary development from the pure velars, and reconstruct only velars and palatovelars
(Kuryłowicz), already criticised by Bernabé, Steensland, Miller and Allen. Still less acceptance
had the proposal to reconstruct only a labiovelar and a palatal series (Magnusson).
Arguments in favour of only two series of velars include:
1. In most circumstances palatovelars appear to be allophones resulting from the

neutralisation of the other two series in particular phonetic circumstances. Their
dialectal articulation was probably constrained, either to an especial phonetic
environment (as Romance evolution of Latin k before e and i), either to the analogy
of alternating phonetic forms.
NOTE. However, it is difficult to pinpoint exactly what the circumstances of the allophony
are, although it is generally accepted that neutralisation occurred after s and u, and often
before r or a; also apparently before m and n in some Baltic dialects. The original allophonic
distinction was disturbed when the labiovelars were merged with the plain velars. This
produced a new phonemic distinction between palatal and plain velars, with an unpredictable
alternation between palatal and plain in related forms of some roots (those from original plain
velars) but not others (those from original labiovelars). Subsequent analogical processes
generalised either the plain or palatal consonant in all forms of a particular root. Those roots
where the plain consonant was generalised are those traditionally reconstructed as having
plain velars in the parent language, in contrast to palatovelars.
2. The reconstructed palatovelars and plain velars appear mostly in complementary

distributions, what supports their explanation as allophones of the same phonemes.
Meillet (Introduction à l‟étude comparative des langues indo-européennes, 1903)
established the contexts in which there are only velars: before a, r, and after s, u;
while Georgiev (1966) clarified that the palatalisation of velars had been produced
before e, i, j, and before liquid or nasal or w + e, i, offering statistical data supporting
his conclusions. The presence of palatalised velar before o is then produced because
of analogy with roots in which (due to the ablaut) the velar phoneme is found before
e and o, so the alternation *kje/*ko would be levelled as *kje/*kjo.
20
Preface
3. There is residual evidence of various sorts in satem languages of a former

distinction between velar and labiovelar consonants:
 In Sanskrit and Balto-Slavic, in some environments, resonants become iR

after plain velars but uR after labiovelars.
 In Armenian, some linguists assert that kw is distinguishable from k before
front vowels.
 In Albanian, some linguists assert that kw and gw are distinguishable from k
and g before front vowels.
NOTE. This evidence shows that the labiovelar series was distinct from the plain velar series
in LIE, and could not have been a secondary development in the centum languages. However,
it says nothing about the palatovelar vs. plain velar series. When this debate initially arose, the
concept of a phoneme and its historical emergence was not clearly understood, however, and
as a result it was often claimed (and sometimes is still claimed) that evidence of three-way
velar distinction in the history of a particular IE language indicates that this distinction must
be reconstructed for the parent language. This is theoretically unsound, as it overlooks the
possibility of a secondary origin for a distinction.
4. The palatovelar hypothesis would support an evolution kj → k of centum dialects,

i.e. a move of palatovelars to back consonants, what is clearly against the general
tendency of velars to move forward its articulation and palatalise in these
environments. A trend of this kind is unparallelled and therefore typologically a
priori unlikely (although not impossible), and needs that other assumptions be
made.
5. The plain velar series is statistically rarer than the other two in a PIE lexicon
reconstructed with three series; it appears in words entirely absent from affixes, and
most of them are of a phonetic shape that could have inhibited palatalisation.
NOTE. Common examples are:
o *yug-óm ‗yoke‘: Hitt. iukan, Gk. zdugón, Skt. yugá-, Lat. iugum, O.C.S. igo, Goth. juk.
o *ghosti- ‗guest, stranger‘: Lat. hostis, Goth. gasts, O.C.S. gostĭ.
―The paradigm of the word for ‗yoke‘ could have shown a palatalizing environment only in
the vocative *yug-e, which is unlikely ever to have been in common usage, and the word for
‗stranger‘ ghosti- only ever appears with the vocalism o‖. (Clackson 2007).
21
6. Alternations between plain velars and palatals are common in a number of roots
across different satem languages, where the same root appears with a palatal in some
languages but a plain velar in others.
NOTE. This is consistent with the analogical generalisation of one or another consonant in
an originally alternating paradigm, but difficult to explain otherwise:
o *ak-/ok- ‗sharp‘, cf. Lith. akúotas, O.C.S. ostrŭ, O.Ind. asrís, Arm. aseln, but Lith. asrùs.
o *akmon- ‗stone‘, cf. Lith. akmuõ, O.C.S. kamy, O.Ind. áśma, but Lith. âsmens.
o *keu- ‗shine‘, cf. Lith. kiáune, Russ. kuna, O.Ind. svas, Arm. sukh.
o *bhleg- ‗shine‘, cf. O.Ind. bhárgas, Lith. balgans, O.C.S. blagŭ, but Ltv. blâzt.
o *gherdh- ‗enclose‘, O.Ind. gṛhá, Av. gərəda, Lith. gardas, O.C.S. gradu, Lith. zardas, Ltv.
zârdas.
o *swekros ‗father-in-law‘, cf. O.Sla. svekry, O.Ind. śvaśru.
o *peku- ‗stock animal‘; cf. O.Lith. pẽkus, Skt. paśu-, Av. pasu-.
o *kleus- ‗hear‘; cf. Skt. śrus, O.C.S. slušatĭ, Lith. kláusiu.
A rather weak argument in favour of palatovelars rejecting these finds is found in Clackson
(2007): ―Such forms could be taken to reflect the fact that Baltic is geographically peripheral
to the satem languages and consequently did not participate in the palatalization to the same
degree as other languages‖.
7. There are different pairs of satemised and non-satemised velars found within the
same language.
NOTE. The old argument proposed by Brugmann (and later copied by many dictionaries)
about ―centum loans‖ is not tenable today. For more on this, see Szemerény (1978, review
from Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza 1995-1998), Mayrhofer (“Das Guttrualproblem un das
indogermanische Wort für Hase”, Studien zu indogermanische Grundsprache, 1952),
Bernabé (1971). Examples include:
o *selg- ‗throw‘, cf. O.Ind. sṛjáti, sargas
o *kau/keu- ‗shout‘, cf. Lith. kaukti, O.C.S. kujati, Russ. sova (as Gk. kauax); O.Ind. kauti,
suka-.
o *kleu- ‗hear‘, Lith. klausýti, slove, O.C.S. slovo; O.Ind. karnas, sruti, srósati, śrnóti,
sravas.
o *leuk-, O.Ind. rokás, ruśant-.
22
Preface
8. The number and periods of satemisation trends reconstructed for the different
branches are not coincident.
NOTE. So for example Old Indian shows two stages,
o PIE *k → O.Ind. s
o PIE *kwe, *kwi → O.Ind. ke, ki; PIE *ske, *ski > O.Ind. c (cf. cim, candra, etc.)
In Slavic, three stages are found,
o PIE *k→s
o PIE *kwe, *kwi→č (čto, čelobek)
o PIE *kwoi→*koi→*ke gives ts (as Sla. tsená)
9. In most attested languages which present aspirates as a result of the so-called

palatovelars, the palatalisation of other phonemes is also attested (e.g. palatalisation
of labiovelars before e, i), what may indicate that there is an old trend to palatalise all
possible sounds, of which the palatalisation of velars is the oldest attested result.
NOTE. It is generally believed that satemisation could have started as a late dialectal ‗wave‘,
which eventually affected almost all PIE dialectal groups. The origin is probably to be found in
velars followed by e, i, even though alternating forms like *gen/gon caused natural analogycal
corrections within each dialect, which obscures still more the original situation. Thus, non-
satemised forms in so-called satem languages would be non-satemised remains of the original
situation, just as Spanish has feliz and not ˟heliz, or fácil and not ˟hácil, or French facile and
nature, and not ˟fêle or ˟nûre as one should expect from its phonetic evolution.
10. The existence of satem languages like Armenian in the Balkans, a centum
territory, and the presence of Tocharian, a centum dialect, in Central Asia, being
probably a northern IE dialect.
NOTE. The traditional explanation of a three-way dorsal split requires that all centum
languages share a common innovation that eliminated the palatovelar series, due to the a
priori unlikely move of palatovelars to back consonants (see above). Unlike for the satem
languages, however, there is no evidence of any areal connection among the centum
languages, and in fact there is evidence against such a connection – the centum languages are
geographically noncontiguous. Furthermore, if such an areal innovation happened, we would
expect to see some dialect differences in its implementation (cf. the above differences between
Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian), and residual evidence of a distinct palatalised series. In fact,
however, neither type of evidence exists, suggesting that there was never a palatovelar series
in the centum languages. (Evidence does exist for a distinct labiovelar series in the satem
languages, though; see above.)
23
11. A system of two gutturals, velars and labiovelars, is a linguistic anomaly, isolated
in the IE occlusive subsystem – there are no parallel oppositions bw-b, pw-p, tw-t, dw-
d, etc. Only one feature, their pronunciation with an accompanying rounding of the
lips, helps distinguish them from each other. Such a system has been attested in
some older IE languages. A system of three gutturals – palatovelars, velars and
labiovelars –, with a threefold distinction isolated in the occlusive system, is still less
likely.
NOTE. In the two-dorsal system, labiovelars turn velars before -u, and there are some
neutralisation positions which help identify labiovelars and velars; also, in some contexts (e.g.
before -i, -e) velars tend to move forward its articulation and eventually palatalise. Both trends
led eventually to centum and satem dialectalisation.
Those who support the model of the threefold distinction in PIE cite evidence from
Albanian (Pedersen) and Armenian (Pisani), that they seem to treat plain velars
differently from the labiovelars in at least some circumstances, as well as the fact that
Luwian could have had distinct reflexes of all three series.
NOTE 1. It is disputed whether Albanian shows remains of two or three series (cf. Ölberg
“Zwei oder drei Gutturaldreihen? Vom Albanischen aus gesehen” Scritti…Bonfante 1976;
Kortlandt 1980; Pänzer “Ist das Französische eine Satem-Sprache? Zu den Palatalisierung im
Ur-Indogermanischen und in den indogermanischen Einzelsprachen”, Festschrift für J.
Hübschmidt, 1982), although the fact that only the worst and one of the most recently attested
(and neither isolated nor remote) IE dialect could be the only one to show some remains of the
oldest phonetic system is indeed very unlikely. Clackson (2007), supporting the three series:
―Albanian and Armenian are sometimes brought forward as examples of the maintenance of
three separate dorsal series. However, Albanian and Armenian are both satem languages, and,
since the *kj series has been palatalised in both, the existence of three separate series need not
disprove the two-dorsal theory for PIE; they might merely show a failure to merge the
unpalatalised velars with the original labio-velars.‖
NOTE 2. Supporters of the palatovelars cite evidence from Luwian, an Anatolian language,
which supposedly shows a three-way velar distinction *kj→z (probably [ts]); *k→k; *kw→ku
(probably [kw]), as defended by Melchert (―Reflexes of *h3 in Anatolian”, Sprache 38 1987).
So, the strongest argument in favour of the traditional three-way system is that the the
distinction supposedly derived from Luwian findings must be reconstructed for the parent
language. However, the underlying evidence ―hinges upon especially difficult or vague or
otherwise dubious etymologies‖ (see Sihler 1995); and, even if those findings are supported by
other evidence in the future, it is obvious that Luwian might also have been in contact with
24
Preface
satemisation trends of other Late IE dialects, that it might have developed its own
satemisation trend, or that maybe the whole system was remade within the Anatolian branch.
Clackson (2007), supporting the three series, states: ―This is strong independent evidence for
three separate dorsal series, but the number of examples in support of the change is small, and
we still have a far from perfect understanding of many aspects of Anatolian historical
phonology.‖
Also, one of the most difficult problems which subsists in the interpretation of the
satemisation as a phonetic wave is that, even though in most cases the variation *kj/k
may be attributed either to a phonetic environment or to the analogy of alternating
apophonic forms, there are some cases in which neither one nor the other may be
applied, i.e. it is possible to find words with velars in the same environments as
words with palatals.
NOTE. Compare for example *okjtō(u), eight, which presents k before an occlusive in a form
which shows no change (to suppose a syncope of an older *okjitō, as does Szemerényi, is an
explanation ad hoc). Other examples in which the palatalisation cannot be explained by the
next phoneme nor by analogy are *swekru- ‗husband‘s mother‘, *akmōn ‗stone‘, *peku ‗cattle‘,
which are among those not shared by all satem languages. Such unexplained exceptions,
however, are not sufficient to consider the existence of a third row of ‗later palatalised‘ velars
(see Bernabé 1971; Cheng & Wang “Sound change: actuation and implementation”, Lg. 51,
1975), although there are still scholars who come back to the support of the hypothesis of
three velars. So e.g. Tischler 1990 (reviewed in Meier-Brügger 2003): ―The centum-satem
isogloss is not to be equated with a division of Indo-European, but rather represents simply
one isogloss among many…examples of ‗centum-like aspects‘ in satem languages and of
‗satem-like aspects‘ in centum languages that may be evaluated as relics of the original three-
part plosive system, which otherwise was reduced every-where to a two-part system.‖
Newer trends to support the old assumptions include e.g. Huld (1997, reviewed in Clackson
2007), in which the old palatal *kj is reconstructed as a true velar, and *k as a uvular stop, so
that the problem of the a priori unlikely and unparallelled merger of palatal with velar in
centum languages is theoretically solved.
As it is clear from the development of the dorsal reconstruction, the theory that
made the fewest assumptions was that an original Proto-Indo-European had two
series of velars. These facts should have therefore shifted the burden of proof, already
by the time Meillet (1893) rejected the proposal of three series; but the authority of
Neogrammarians and well-established works of the last century, as well as traditional
conventions, probably weighted (and still weight) more than reasons.
25
NOTE. More than half century ago we had already a similar opinion on the most reasonable
reconstruction, that still today is not followed, as American Sanskritist Burrow (1955) shows:
―The difficulty that arises from postulating a third series in the parent language, is that no
more than two series (…) are found in any of the existing languages. In view of this it is
exceedingly doubtful whether three distinct series existed in Indo-European. The assumption
of the third series has been a convenience for the theoreticians, but it is unlikely to correspond
to historical fact. Furthermore, on examination, this assumption does not turn out to be as
convenient as would be wished. While it accounts in a way for correspondences like the above
which otherwise would appear irregular, it still leaves over a considerable number of forms in
the satem-languages which do not fit into the framework (…) Examples of this kind are
particularly common in the Balto-Slavonic languages (…). Clearly a theory which leaves
almost as many irregularities as it clears away is not very soundly established, and since these
cases have to be explained as examples of dialect mixture in early Indo-European, it would
appear simplest to apply the same theory to the rest. The case for this is particularly strong
when we remember that when false etymologies are removed, when allowance is made for
suffix alternation, and when the possibility of loss of labialization in the vicinity of the vowel u
is considered (e.g. kravíṣ-, ugrá-), not many examples remain for the foundation of the
theory.‖
Of course, we cannot (and we will probably never) actually know if there were two
or three series of velars in LIE, or PIH, and because of that the comparative method
should be preferred over gut intuition, historical authority, or convention, obstacles
to the progress in a dynamic field like IE studies.
As Adrados (2005) puts it with bitterness: ―Indo-Europeanists keep working on a unitary

and flat PIE, that of Brugmann‘s reconstruction. A reconstruction prior to the decipherment of
Hittite and the study of Anatolian! This is but other proof of the terrible conservatism that has
seized the scientific discipline that is or must be Indo-European linguistics: it moves forward
in the study of individual languages, but the general theory is paralised‖.
THE LOSS OF LARYNGEALS
Today, the reconstruction of consonantal sounds to explain what was reconstructed

before as uncertain vocalic schwa indogermanicum or schwa primum is firmly
accepted in IE studies in general, and there is a general agreement on where
laryngeals should be reconstructed. Even the number and quality of those laryngeals
is today a field of common agreement, although alternative number of laryngeals and
proposals for their actual phonemic value do actually exist.
26
Preface
However, as Clackson (2007) sums up: ―Particularly puzzling is the paradox that
laryngeals are lost nearly everywhere, in ways that are strikingly similar, yet
apparently unique to each language branch. We can of course assume some common
developments already within PIE, such as the effect of the laryngeals *h2 and *h3 to
change a neighbouring *e to *a or *o, but the actual loss of laryngeals must be
assumed to have taken place separately after the break-up of the parent language (…)
it would have seemed a plausible assumption that the retention of *h2, and possibly
also *h1 and *h3, is an archaism of Anatolian, and the loss of the laryngeals was made
in common by the other languages.‖
In the vocalic inventory of current Late Indo-European reconstruction, the

following evolution paradigm is widespread, following Beekes (1995), Meier-Brügger
(2003) and Ringe (2005):
PIH pre-LIE post-LIE NWIE PGk PII PIH pre-LIE post-LIE NWIE PGk PII
*iHC *iHC *ī ī ī ī *Hi *Hi *i i i i
*uHC *uHC *ū ū ū ū *Hu *Hu *u u u u
*oH *oH *ō ō ō ā *Ho *Ho *o o o a
*eh1 *eH *ē ē ē ā *h1e *He *e e e a
*eh2 *aH *ā ā ā ā *h2e *Ha *a a a a
*eh3 *oH *ō ō ō ā *h3e *Ho *o o o a
PIH *Ch1C *Ch2C *Ch3C *h1C- *h2C- *h3C- *VHV *CRHC

pre-LIE *h1° *h2° *h3° *H(H°) *H(H°)*H(H°) *VHV *R°H
post-LIE *ə *ə *ə - - - *VʔV *(°)R°H
NWIE a a a - - - (°)Rə ʔ
PGk e a o e a o R
PII i i i - - - V(ʔ)V (R)Vʔ
NOTE 1. A differentiation between early or pre-LIE and late or post-LIE has to be made. An
auxiliary vowel was firstly inserted in the evolution PIH → pre-LIE in a certain position,
known because it is found in all dialects alike: *Ch1C → *Ch1°C, *Ch2C → *Ch2°C, *Ch3C →
*Ch3°C. By post-LIE we assume a period of a Northern-Southern dialectal division and
Southern dialectal split, in which the whole community remains still in contact, allowing the
spread of innovations like a generalised vocalisation of the auxiliary vowel (during the first
migrations in the Kurgan framework, the assumed end of the LIE community). During that
27
period, the evolution pre-LIE → post-LIE would have been as follows: *Ch1°C →
*Ch1əC→*CHəC→*CəC. That evolution reached IEDs differently: whereas in South-West IE
(Greek, Armenian, Phrygian, Ancient Macedonian) the pre-LIE laryngeal probably colourised
the vocalic output from *Ch1əC as in the general scheme (into e, a, o), in NWIE and PII the
late LIE the *ə from *CəC was assimilated to another vowel: generally to a in NWIE, and to i
in PII. Word-initially, only South-West IE dialects appear to have had an output *H°→ *Hə→
e, a, o, while the other dialects lost them *H→ ∅.
NOTE 2. The following developments should also be added:

- In South-West IE there are no cases of known *Hj- → *Vj-. It has been assumed that this
group produced in Greek a z.
- It seems that some evidence of word-initial laryngeals comes from Indo-Iranian, where
some compound words show lengthening of the final vowel before a root presumed to have
had an initial laryngeal.
- The *-ih2 group in auslaut had an alternative form *-j°h2, LIE *-ī/-jə, which could produce
IED -ī, -ja (alternating forms are found even within the same dialect).
- Apparently a reflect of consonantal laryngeals is found between nonhigh vowels as
hiatuses (or glottal stops) in the oldest Indo-Iranian languages – Vedic Sanskrit and Old
Avestan, as well as in Homeric Greek (Lindeman Introduction to the „Laryngeal Theory‟,
1987). For a discussion on its remains in Proto-Germanic, see Connolly (“„Grammatischer
Wechsel‟ and the laryngeal theory”, IF 85 1980).
- Contentious is also the so-called Osthoff‟s Law (which affected all IE branches but for
Tocharian and Indo-Iranian), which possibly shows a general trend of post-LIE date.
- When *H is in a post-plosive, prevocalic position, the consonantal nature of the laryngeal
values is further shown *CHVC → *ChVC; that is more frequent in PII, cf. *plth2ú- → Ved.
prthú-; it appears also in the perfect endings, cf. Gk. oistha.
- The group *CRHC is explained differently for the individual dialects without a general
paradigm; so e.g. Beekes (1995) or Meier-Brügger (2003) distinguish the different dialectal
outputs as: Tocharian (*rHC→*r°HC), Germanic (*rH→*r) and to some extent Balto-Slavic
(distinction by accentuation), Italo-Celtic (*rH→*r°H), while in Greek the laryngeal
determined the vowel: e.g. *rh1→*r°h1→*reH.
There are multiple examples which do not fit in any dialectal scheme, though; changes of
outputs from PIH reconstructed forms with resonants are found even within the same
dialects. The explanation in Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998) is probably nearer
to the actual situation, in going back to the pronunciation of the common (pre-LIE) group:
―the different solutions in this case depend solely on two factors: a) if there are one or two
auxiliary vowels to facilitate the pronunciation of this group; b) the place where they
28
Preface
appear.‖ So e.g. a group *CRHC could be pronounced in LIE with one vowel (*CR°HC or
*C°RHC) or with two (*C°R°HC, *C°RH°C, or *CR°H°C). That solution accounts for all
LIE variants found in the different branches, and within them.
- The laryngeal of *RHC- in anlaut was vocalised in most languages, while the resonant was
consonantal (*RHC- became *RVC-).
- In the group *CRHV, a vowel generally appears before the resonant and the laryngeal
disappears; that vowel is usually coincident with the vocalic output that a resonant alone
would usually give in the different dialects, so it can be assumed that generally
*CRHV→C(V)RV, although exceptions can indeed be found. A common example of parallel
treatment within the same dialect is Greek pros/paros < *pros/p°ros.
- Accounting for some irregularities in the outcome of laryngeals (especially with *-h2, but
not limited to it) is the so-called ―Saussure effect‖, whereby LIE dialects do not show an
usual reflection of the inherited sequences #HRo- and -oRHC-. According to Nussbaum
(Sound law and analogy: papers in honor of Robert S.P. Beekes on the occasion of his
60th birthday, Alexander Lubotsky, 1997), this effect ―reflects something that happened, or
failed to happen, already in the proto-language‖.
Hence, for the moment, we could assume that a South-East and a South-West IE dialects
were already separated, but still closely related through a common (Northern) IE core,
because the loss (or, more exactly, the vocalic evolution) of laryngeals of Northern IE did in
fact reach Graeco-Aryan dialects similarly and in a complementary distribution. That is
supported by modern linguistic Northern-Southern separation model (v.i. §§1.3, 1.4, 1.7): ―(…)
today it is thought that most innovations of Greek took place outside Greece; no doubt, within
the Indo-Greek group, but in a moment in which certain eastern isoglosses didn‘t reach it.‖
Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998).
Apart from those fictions or artifices that help linguists keep on with their work on
individual dialects from a secure starting point (conventional PIH phonetics), there
is no reason to doubt that the most (scientifically) conservative starting point for PIE
evolution is that LIE had lost most laryngeals but for one merged *H – of the
―Disintegrating Indo-European‖ of Bomhard (Toward Proto-Nostratic: A New
Approach to the Comparison of Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Afroasiatic, 1984)
– into the known timeline and groupings, and that a late post-LIE vocalisation of
interconsonantal *H into *Hə and later *ə did eventually substitute the original
forms, albeit at a different pace, arriving probably somehow late and incompletely to
the earliest dialects to split up, which completed independently the laryngeal loss.
29
Some individual finds seem to support a different treatment of laryngeals in certain

dialects and environments, though.
NOTE. Examples are the contentious Cogwill‟s Law (―such shortening is fairly common
cross-linguistically, and the IE examples may have each arisen independently‖, Fortson
2004), or other peculiar sound changes recently found in Latin and Balto-Slavic, all of them
attested in late IE dialects that had already undergone different vocalic evolutions.
Meier-Brügger (2003) mentions 3 non-Anatolian testimonies of laryngeals:
1) Indo-Iranian: ―the Vedic phrase devyètu, i.e. devì etu – σ is best understandable if we
suppose that dev ‗goddess‘ still contained the laryngeal form *dewíH (with *-iH<*-ih2)
at the time of the formulation fo the verse in question. In the phase *-íH it was possible
for the laryngeal simply to disappear before a vowel‖. Other common example used is
*wrkiH. It is not justified, though, that it must represent a sort of unwritten laryngeal,
and not an effect of it, i.e. a laryngeal hiatus or glottal stop, from older two-word sandhis
that behave as a single compound word, see §2.4.3. Interesting is also that they are in fact
from words alternating in pre-LIE *-iH/*-j°H (or post-LIE *-ī/*-jə) which according to
Fortson (2004) reflect different syllabification in Indo-Iranian vs. Greek and Tocharian,
whilst ―[t]he source of the difference is not fully understood‖. In line with this problem is
that the expected case of *-aH stems is missing, what makes it less likely that Indo-
Iranian examples come from a common hypothetic PII stage in which a word-final *-H
had not still disappeared, and more likely that it was a frozen remain (probably of a
glottal stop) in certain formal expressions. In fact, it has long been recognised that the
treatment of word-final laryngeals shows a strong tendency to disappear (so e.g. in
Hittite), and most of the time it appears associated with morphological elements
(Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza 1995-1998). They should then be considered – like the
hiatuses or glottal stops found in Hom. Gk. and Germanic compositions – probable
ancient reminiscences of a frozen formal language.
2) The sandhi variant in *-aH is found, according to Meier-Brügger (2003) and Ringe
(2006), in Greek and Old Church Slavonic. In both ―clear traces are missing that would
confirm a PIE ablaut with full grade *-eh2- and zero grade *-h2- (…) That is why it
appears as if the differentiation between the nominative and vocative singular in this case
could be traced to sandhi-influenced double forms that were common at a time when the
stems were still composed of *-ah2, and the contraction *-ah2- >*-ā- had not yet
occurred‖. Szemerény (1999) among others already rejected it: ―The shortening of the
original IE ending -ā to -ă is regular, as the voc., if used at the beginning of a sentence or
alone, was accented on the first syllable but was otherwise enclitic and unaccented; a
30
Preface
derivation from -ah with the assumption of a prevocalic sandhi variant in -a fails
therefore to explain the shortening.‖
3) The latest example given by Meier-Brügger is found in the unstable *CRHC model (see
above), which is explained with PIE *gnh1-tó- ‗created, born‘: so in Vedic jātá- < PII
ģātó- < *ģaHtó- < *gjnh1tó-, which would mean that the laryngeal merged after the
evolution LIE *n → PII a. The other irregular dialectal reconstructions shown are easily
explained following the model of epenthetic vowel plus merged laryngeal (or glottal
stop?) in *gnəh1tó-; cf. for the same intermediate grade PGk gnētó- (< post-LIE
*gneHtó-), pre-NWIE g(°)naʔtó- (<post-LIE *gnəHtó-) into Ita., Cel. *gnātó-, PGmc.
*kunʔda-, Bal.-Sla. *ginətó-. Such dialectal late loss of the merged laryngeal *H (or
glottal stop) is therefore limited to the groups including a sonorant, and the finds support
a vocalisation of LIE *n m → PII a earlier than the loss of laryngeal (or glottal stop) in
that environment. That same glottal stop is possibly behind the other examples in Meier-
Brügger: O.Av. va.ata-< PII waʔata-, or Ved. *ca-kar-ʔa (the ʔ still preserved in the
period of the activity of Brugmann‘s law), or Ved. náus < *naʔus.
In Lubotsky (1997) different outputs are proposed for *CRH groups before certain vowels:
―It is clear that the ―short‖ reflexes are due to laryngeal loss in an unaccented position, but the
chronology of this loss is not easy to determine. If the laryngeal loss had already occurred in
PIIr., we have to assume that PIIr. *CruV subsequently yielded CurvV in Sanskrit. The major
problem we face is that the evidence for the phonetically regular outcome of *CriV and *CruV
in Indo-Iranian is meager and partly conflicting.‖ Again, the conflict is solved assuming a late
loss of the laryngeal; however, the attestation of remains of glottal stops, coupled with the
auxiliary vowel solution of Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998) solves the irregularities
without making new assumptions and dialectal sound laws that in turn need their own further
exceptions.
Kortlandt seems to derive the loss of laryngeals from Early Slavic (see below §1.7.1.I.D), a
sister language of West and East Baltic languages, according to his view. Also, on Italo-Celtic
(2007): ―If my view is correct, the loss of the laryngeals after a vocalic resonant is posterior to
the shortening of pretonic long vowels in Italic and Celtic. The specific development of the
vocalic liquids, which is posterior to the common shortening of pretonic long vowels, which is
in its turn posterior to the development of ē, ā, ō from short vowel plus laryngeal, supports
the hypothesis of Italo-Celtic linguistic unity.‖ Hence the problematic environments with
sonorants are explained with a quite late laryngeal loss precisely in those groups.
The most probable assumption then, if some of those peculiar developments are
remnants of previous laryngeals, as it seems, is that the final evolution of the merged
*H was coincident with LIE disintegration, and might have reached its end in the
31
different early prehistoric communities, while still in contact with each other (in
order to allow for the spread of the common trends); the irregular vocalic changes
would have then arisen from unstable syllables (mainly those which included a
resonant), alternating even within the same branches, and even in the same phonetic
environments without laryngeals (v.i. §2.3).
While there are reasons to support a late evolution of the pre-LIE merged laryngeal,
there seems to be no strong argument for the survival of LIE merged *H into the later
periods of NWIE, PGk or PII dialects, still less into later proto-languages (as
Germanic, Slavic, Indo-Aryan, etc.). However, for some linguists, the complete loss of
the LIE laryngeal (or even laryngeals) must have happened independently in each
dialectal branch attested; so e.g. Meier-Brügger (2003): ―As a rule, the laryngeals
were disposed of only after the Proto-Indo-European era‖; Clackson (2007): ―But the
current picture of laryngeal reconstruction necessitates repeated loss of laryngeals in
each language branch‖.
NOTE. The question is then brought by Clackson into the Maltese and Modern Hebrew
examples, languages isolated from Semitic into an Indo-European environment for centuries.
That is indeed a possible explanation: that all IE branches, after having split up from the LIE
common language, would have become independently isolated, and then kept in close contact
with (or, following the Maltese example, surrounded by) non-IE languages without laryngeals.
Then, every change in all branches could be explained by way of diachronic and irregular
developments of vowel quality. In Clackson‘s words: ―(…) the comparative method does not
rely on absolute regularity, and the PIE laryngeals may provide an example of where
reconstruction is possible without the assumption of rigid sound-laws.‖
Even accepting that typologically both models of (a common, post-LIE vs. an

independent, dialectal) laryngeal loss were equally likely, given that all languages had
lost the merged laryngeal before being attested, all with similar outputs, and that
even the final evolution (laryngeal hiatuses or glottal stops) must have been shared
in an early period – since they are found only in frozen remains in old and distant
dialects –, an early IED loss of laryngeals fits into a coherent timeline within the
known dialectal evolution. With that a priori assumption, we limit the need for
unending ad hoc ‗sound-laws‘ for each dialectal difference involving a sonorant,
which would in turn need their own exceptions. Therefore, we dispense with
unnecessary hypotheses, offering the most conservative approach to the problem.
32
Preface
CONVENTIONS USED IN THIS BOOK
1. We try to keep a consistent nomenclature throughout the book, when referring to

the different reconstructible stages of Proto-Indo-European (PIE). From Pre-PIH,
highly hypothetical stage, only reconstructible through internal reconstruction, to the
most conservative reconstruction of early LIE dialects (IEDs). We do so by using the
following schema of frequent terms and dates:
5000
- 1 Indo-Hittite (PIH) or Middle PIE
3000
BC P
I
4000 E Late Indo-European (LIE) or Late PIE Proto-
- 2 Anato-
2500 lian
BC Northern dialects (N.LIE) Southern dialects (S.LIE) (PAn)
2900 I
- 3
2100 E NWIE S-E IE PGk Proto-I.-I. (PII) CA
BC D
2300
- Pre- Pre- Pre- Mello-
4 Pre- Indo- Anat.
1500 Ita.- Bal.- Toch. Gk. Iran.
Ger. Aryan lang.
BC Cel. Sla.
NOTE. This is just a simplified summary to understand the following sections. The full
actual nomenclature and archaeological dates are discussed in detail in §§1.3, 1.4, and 1.7.
The dates include an archaeological terminus post quem, and a linguistic terminus ante
quem. In such a huge time span we could differentiate between language periods. However,
these (linguistic and archaeological) limits are usually difficult to define, and their
differentiation hardly necessary in this grammar. Similarly, the terms Hittite, Sanskrit,
Ancient Greek, Latin, etc. (as well as modern languages) might refer in the broadest sense to a
time span of over 1,000 years in each case, and they are still considered a single language; a
selection is made of the prestigious dialect and age for each one, though, as it is done in this
grammar, where the prestigious language is Late Indo-European, while phonetics remains
nearer to the middle-late period of IEDs, whose post-laryngeal output is more certain.
2. The above graphic is intended to show stemmatic, as well as synchronic levels.

The reconstruction of North-West Indo-European is based on secondary materials: it
is a level 3 proto-language, reconstructed on the basis of level 5 proto-languages (of
ca. 1000 BC), i.e. primary Proto-Celtic, Proto-Italic, secondary Proto-Balto-Slavic
33
(through Proto-Slavic and Proto-Baltic) and secondary Pre-Proto-Germanic (through

internal reconstruction), see §1.7.1.
NOTE. Coeval level 3 dialects Proto-Greek (from level 5 Mycenaean and level 6 Ancient
Greek primary materials) and Proto-Indo-Iranian (from level 5 Old Indian and level 6 Iranian
materials) could be considered reconstructions based on primary as well as secondary
materials. All of them, as well as data from other dialects (Tocharian A and B, Armenian,
Albanian), conform the secondary and tertiary materials used to reconstruct a level 2 Late
Indo-European. Proto-Anatolian is a level 2 internal reconstruction from level 3 Common
Anatolian, in turn from level 4 and level 5 primary materials on Anatolian dialects. Both Late
Indo-European and Proto-Anatolian help reconstruct a parent language, Indo-Hittite, which
is then a level 1 language.
Each reconstructed parent level is, indeed, more uncertain and inconsistent than the
previous one, because the older a material is (even primary texts directly attested), the more
uncertain the reconstructed language. And more so because all parent reconstructions are in
turn helpful to refine and improve the reconstruction of daughter and sister proto-languages.
With that scheme in mind, it is logical to consider more consistent and certain the
reconstruction of IEDs, these in turn more than LIE, and this more than PIH.
3. Palatovelars are neither reconstructed for Late Indo-European, nor

(consequently) for Indo-Hittite. While not still a settled question (v.s. Considerations
of Method), we assume that the satem trend began as an areal dialectal development
in South-East Indo-European, and spread later (and incompletely) through contact
zones – e.g. into Pre-Balto-Slavic.
NOTE. Because West and Central European (Italo-Celtic and Germanic) and Proto-Greek
were not affected by that early satemisation trend –although Latin, Greek and Celtic actually
show late independent ‗satemisations‘ –, the reconstruction of centum NWIE and PGk, and
satem PII (the aim of this book) should be an agreed solution, no matter what the different
personal or scholarly positions on LIE and PIH might be.
4. We assume an almost fully vocalic – i.e. post-laryngeal – nature of IEDs since the
end of the LIE community (assumed to have happened before ca. 2500 BC, according
to archaeological dates), although not a settled question either (v.s. Considerations
of Method). Whether LIE lost the merged laryngeal *H sooner or later, etymological
roots which include laryngeals will be labelled PIH and follow today‘s general three-
laryngeal convention, while some common LIE vocabulary will be shown either with
pre-LIE merged *H or post-LIE vocalic output *ə (which was assimilated to NWIE a,
PII i), or with the reconstructed post-LIE glottal stop *ʔ.
34
Preface
NOTE. In this grammar we will show the reconstructed phonetics of a post-LIE period,
focussing on NWIE vocalism, while keeping a vocabulary section with a Late Indo-European
reconstruction, respecting NWIE/PII dialectal differences; not included are the different
vocalic outputs of South-West IE, from word-initial and interconsonantal laryngeals.
WRITING SYSTEM
This table contains common Proto-Indo-European phonemes and their proposed

regular corresponding letters in alphabets and Brahmic alphasyllabaries.
CONSONANTS AND CONSONANTAL SOUNDS
Phoneme Greek Latin Perso-Arab Armenian Cyrillic Nāgarī
[p] Ππ Pp ‫ﭘ ـﭙـ ـپ‬ Պպ Пп ऩ

[b] Ββ Bb ‫بـ ـبـ ـب‬ Բբ Бб फ
[bh] Βε βε Bh bh ‫بھـ ـبھـ ـبھ‬ Բհ բհ Бх бх ब
[t] Ση Tt ‫تـ ـتـ ـت‬ Տտ Тт त
[th] Θζ Th th ‫تھـ ـتھـ ـتھ‬ Թթ Тх тх थ
[d] Γδ Dd ‫ﺩ ـد ـد‬ Դդ Дд द
[dh] Γε δε Dh dh ‫ﺩھـ ـدھـ ـدھ‬ Դհ դհ Дх дх ध
[k] Κθ Kk ‫كـ ـكـ ـک‬ Կկ Кк क
[kh] Υρ Kh kh ‫كھـ ـكھـ ـكھ‬ Քք Кх кх ख
[g] Γγ Gg ‫گـ ـگـ ـگ‬ Գգ Гг ग
[gh] Γε γε Gh gh ‫گھـ ـگھـ ـگھ‬ Գհ գհ Гх гх घ
[kw] Ϙϙ Qq ‫ق ـقـ ـق‬ Խխ Къ къ क़
[gw] Ϟϟ Cc ‫غـ ـغـ ـغ‬ Ղղ Гъ гъ ग़
[gwh] Ϟε ϟε Ch ch ‫غھـ ـغھـ ـغھ‬ Ղհ ղհ Гъх гъх ग़ह
[h] Ηε Hh ‫ھـ ـھـ ـھ‬ Հհ Хх ह
[ʔ] ‟ ‟ ‫ء‬ ‟ ‟ ॰
[j] Jϳ Jj ‫ۑـ ـۑـ ـۑ‬ Յյ Йй म

[w] Ϝϝ Ww ‫ۋ ـۋ ـۋ‬ Ււ Вв व
[r] Ρξ Rr ‫ـر ـر ﺭ‬ Ռռ Рр य
[l] Λι Ll ‫لـ ـلـ ـل‬ Լլ Лл र
[m] Μκ Mm ‫مـ ــمــ ـم‬ Մմ Мм भ
[n] Νλ Nn ‫نــ ـنـ ـن‬ Նն Нн न
[s] ΢ζο Ss ‫سـ ـسـ ـس‬ Սս Сс स
35
Sounds found in Proto-Greek only

[ph] Φθ Ph ph ‫ﭘھ ـﭙھـ ـپھ‬ Փփ Пх пх प
[kwh] Ϙε ϙε Qh qh ‫قھ ـقھـ ـقھ‬ Խհ խհ Чх чх क़ह
[ts] Σζ ηζ Ts ts ‫تسـ ـتسـ ـتس‬ Ծծ Цц तस
[ z] Γδ δδ Dz dz ‫ﺩز ـﺩز ـدز‬ Ձձ Дз дз दष
Sounds found in Proto-Indo-Iranian only
[tɕ] Σϻ ηϻ Ķķ ‫تژ ـتژ ـتژ‬ Չչ Чч तश
[ ʑ] Γϻ δϻ Ģģ ‫ﺩژ ـدژ ـدژ‬ Ցց Дщ дщ दष
[ ʑh] Γϻε δϻε Ģh ģh ‫ـﺩژھـ ـدژھ‬ Ցհ ցհ Дщ дщ दषह
[tʃ] Σþ ηþ Ḳḳ ‫ﺩژﭼھـ ـﭻ‬
‫ﭼـ ـ‬ Ճճ Тш тш च
[ ʒ] Γþ δþ Ġġ ‫ﺟـ ـﺟـ ـﺞ‬ Ջջ Дж дж ज
[ ʒh] Γþε δþε Ġh ġh ‫ﺟھـ ـﺟھـ ـﺟھ‬ Ջհ ջհ Джх джх झ
[ʃ] Ϸþ Šš ‫ﺶ ـﺶ ـﺶ‬ Շշ Шш श
VOWELS AND VOCALIC ALLOPHONES
Phoneme Greek Latin Perso-Arab Armenian Cyrillic Nāgarī
[a] Αα Aa ‫ا ـا ـا‬ Աա Аа अ
[e] Δε Ee ‫ێـ ـێـ ـێ‬ Էէ Ee ए
[o] Ον Oo ‫ۆ ـۆ ـۆ‬ Օօ Оо ओ
[ ] Ᾱᾱ Āā ٔ‫ٔا ـأ ـا‬ Ա՟ ա՟ Āā आ
[ ] ε ē ‫ـێ‬
ٔ ‫ێٔـ ـێٔـ‬ Է՟ է՟ ē ऐ
[ ] Ōō Ōō ‫ـۆ‬
ٔ ‫ـۆ‬
ٔ ‫ٔۆ‬ Օ՟ օ՟ Ōō औ
[i] Ιη Ii ‫يـ ـيـ ی‬ Իի Ии इ

[ ] Ῑῑ Īī ‫ی‬
ٔ ‫ٔيـ ـ ٔيـ‬ Ի՟ ի՟ Ӣӣ ई
[u] Τπ Uu ‫و ـو ـو‬ Ոո Уу उ
[ ] Ῡῡ Ūū ‫ٔو ـ ٔو ـ ٔو‬ Ո՟ ո՟ Ӯӯ ऊ
[r] Ρξ Ṛṛ ‫ﺭ ـر ـر‬ Ռՙ ռՙ Рр ऋ
[l] Λι Ḷḷ ‫لـ ـلـ ـل‬ Լՙ լՙ Лл ऌ
[m] Μκ Ṃṃ ‫مـ ــمــ ـم‬ Մՙ մՙ Мм अं
[n] Νλ Ṇṇ ‫نــ ـنـ ـن‬ Նՙ նՙ Мм अः
36
Preface
This proposal is purely conventional, and it takes into account values such as
availability, simplicity (one letter for each sound), transliteration, tradition.
NOTE. We have followed this order of objectives in non-Brahmic scripts:
 Availability: especially of letters in common Latin and Cyrillic keyboards and

typography, since they account for most of the current Northern IE world.
 Simplicity: each sound is represented with one letter (or letter plus diacritics). Digraphs
used only when necessary: aspirated consonants are represented with the consonant
plus the letter for [h], unless there is an independent character for that aspirated
consonant.
 Equivalence of letters: a character in one alphabet should be transliterated and read

directly in any other to allow an automatic change from the main alphabets into the
others without human intervention. The lack of adequate characters to represent PIE
phonetics (resonants, semivowels, long vowels) in alphabets conditions the final result.
 Tradition: the historic or modern sound of the letters is to be retained when possible.
Writing systems of the Indo-European World.

(2011, modified from Mirzali Zazaoğlu 2008)
The names of the consonants in Indo-European following the Latin pattern would
be – B, be (pronounced bay); Bh, bhe (bhay); C, ce (gway); Ch, che (gwhay); D, de
(day); Dh, dhe (dhay); G, ge (gay); Gh, ghe (ghay); H, ha; K, ka; L, el; M, em; N,
en; P, pe; Q, qa (kwa); R, er; S, es; T, te; W, wa.
In Aryan, the letters are named with their sound followed by a, as in Sanskrit – ba,
bha, ca, cha, da, dha, ga, gha, and so on.
37
An acute accent (´) is written over the vowel in the accented syllable, except when
accent is on the second to last syllable (or paenultima) and in monosyllabic words.
NOTE. Since all non-clitic words of more than one syllable would be marked with one
accent, as we have seen, a more elegant convention is not to write all accents always. The
second to last syllable seems to be the most frequent accented syllable, so we can spare
unnecessary diacritics if the accent is understood in that position, unless marked in other
syllable.
Long vowels are marked with a macron ( ¯ ), and vocalic allophones of resonants
are marked with a dot below it ( ̣ ). Accented long vowels and resonants are
represented with special characters that include their diacritics plus an acute accent.
NOTE. It is recommended to write all diacritics if possible, although not necessary. The
possibility of omitting the diacritical marks arises from the lack of appropriate fonts in
traditional typography, or difficulty typing those marks in common international keyboards.
Therefore, alternative writings include pater/patḗr, m. father, nmrtos/ṇmṛtós, m.
immortal, kmtom/kṃtóm, hundred, etc. Such a defective representation of accents and
long vowels is common even today in Latin and Greek texts, as well as in most modern
languages, which lack a proper representation for sounds. That does not usually hinder an
advanced reader from read a text properly.
1. The Modern Greek alphabet lacks letters to represent PIE phonetics properly.
Therefore, the Ancient Greek letters and values assigned to them are used instead.
NOTE. The consonant cluster [kh] was in Ancient Greece written as X (Chi) in eastern Greek,
and Ξ (Xi) in western Greek dialects. In the end, X was standardised as [kh] ([x] in modern
Greek), while Ξ represented [ks]. In the Greek alphabet used for IE, X represents [kh], while Ξ
represents [kwh], necessary for the representation of a Proto-Greek voiceless aspirate. As in
Ancient Greek, Φ stands for [ph], and Θ for [th].
The Greek alphabet lacks a proper representation for long vowels, so they are all marked (as
in the other alphabets) with diacritics. Η is used to represent the sound [h], as it was
originally used in most Ancient Greek dialects; it is also used to mark (voiced) aspirated
phonemes. Ē represents [eː] and Ō stands for [oː] in the Greek alphabet for IE. For more on
the problem of historical Eta and its representation in the Modern Greek alphabet, see
<http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/unicode/unicode_aitch.html>.
While not a practical solution (in relation to the available Modern Greek keyboards), we
keep a traditional Ancient Greek script, assuming that it will enjoy the transliteration of texts
mainly written in Latin or Cyrillic letters; so e.g. Archaic koppa Ϙ stood for [k] before back
vowels (e.g. Ϙόρηλζος, Korinthos), hence its IE value [kw]. Archaic digamma Ϝ represented
38
Preface
[w], a sound lost already in Classical Greek. Additions to the IE alphabet are new letter koppa
Ϟ for [gw], based on the alternative Unicode shapes of the archaic koppa, and the ‗more
traditional‘ inverted iota ℩ for [j], preferred over Latin yot – although the lack of capital letter
for inverted iota makes the use of (at least) a capital J necessary to distinguish [j] from [i]. See
<http://www.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/unicode/yot.html>.
2. The Latin alphabet used to write Indo-European is similar to the English, which
is in turn borrowed from the Late Latin abecedarium. Because of the role of this
alphabet as model for other ones, simplicity and availability of the characters is
preferred over tradition and exactitude.
NOTE. The Latin alphabet was borrowed in very early times from the Greek alphabet and
did not at first contain the letter G. The letters Y and Z were introduced still later, about 50
BC. The Latin character C originally meant [g], a value always retained in the abbreviations C.
(for Gaius) and Cn. (for Gnaeus). That was probably due to Etruscan influence, which copied
it from Greek Γ, Gamma, just as later Cyrillic Г, Ge. In early Latin script C came also to be
used for [k], and K disappeared except before in a few words, as Kal. (Kalendae), Karthago.
Thus there was no distinction in writing between the sounds [g] and [k]. This defect was later
remedied by forming (from C, the original [g]-letter) a new character G. In Modern Indo-
European, unambiguous K stands for [k], and G for [g], so C is left without value, being used
(taking its oldest value [g]) to represent the labiovelar [gw].
V originally denoted the vowel sound [u] (Eng. oo), and F stood for the sound of consonant
[w] (from Gk. ϝ, called digamma). When F acquired the value of our [f], V came to be used for
consonant [w] as well as for the vowel [u]. The Latin [w] semivowel developed into Romance
[v]; therefore V no longer adequately represented [u] or [w], and the Latin alphabet had to
develop alternative letters. The Germanic [w] phoneme was therefore written as VV (a
doubled V or U) by the seventh or eighth century by the earliest writers of Old English and Old
High German. During the late Middle Ages, two forms of V developed, which were both used
for its ancestor U and modern V. The pointed form V was written at the beginning of a word,
while a rounded form U was used in the middle or end, regardless of sound. The more recent
letters U and Germanic W probably represent the consonantal sounds [u] and [w]
respectively more unambiguously than Latin V.
The letter I stood for the vowel [i], and was also used in Latin (as in Modern Greek) for its
consonant sound [j]. J was originally developed as a swash character to end some Roman
numerals in place of I; both I and J represented [i], [iː], and [j]. In IE, J represents the
semivowel [j], an old Latin value current in most Germanic and Slavic languages. Y is used to
represent the vowel [y] in foreign words. That [j] value is retained in English J only in foreign
words, as Hallelujah or Jehovah. Because Romance languages developed new sounds (from
39
former [j] and [ɡ]) that came to be represented as I and J, English J (from French J), as well as
Spanish, Portuguese or Italian J have sound values quite different from [j]. The romanisation
of the sound [j] from different writing systems (like Devanagari) as Y – which originally
represented in Latin script the Greek vowel [y] – is due to its modern value in English and
French, and has spread a common representation of [j] as Y in Indo-European studies, while J
is used to represent other sounds.
A different use of the Latin alphabet to represent PIE, following the Classical Latin tradition,
is available at <http://verger1.narod.ru/lang1.htm>.
3. The Perso-Arabic script has been adapted to the needs of a fully differentiated
PIE alphabet, following Persian, Urdu and Kurdish examples.
NOTE. The Perso-Arabic script is a writing system that is originally based on the Arabic
alphabet. Originally used exclusively for the Arabic language, the Arabic script was modified
to match the Persian language, adding four letters: ‫[ پ‬p], ‫[ چ‬tʃ], ‫[ ژ‬ʒ], and ‫[ گ‬ɡ]. Many
languages which use the Perso-Arabic script add other letters. Besides the Persian alphabet
itself, the Perso-Arabic script has been applied to the Urdu or Kurdish Soraní alphabet.
Unlike the standard Arabic alphabet, which is an abjad (each symbol represents a
consonant, the vowels being more or less defective), the IE perso-arabic script is a true
alphabet, in which vowels are mandatory, making the script easy to read.
Among the most difficult decisions is the use of letters to represent vowels – as in modern
alphabets like Kurdish or Berber – instead of diacritics – as in the traditional Arabic or Urdu
scripts. Following tradition, hamza (originally a glottal stop) should probably be placed on the
short vowels and resonants, instead of the long ones (especially above ‗alif), but automatic
equivalence with the other alphabets make the opposite selection more practical.
Because waw ‫ و‬and yodh ‫ ي‬could represent short and long vowels u and i, and consonantal
w and j, a conventional selection of current variants has been made: Arabic letter Ve,
sometimes used to represent the sound [v] when transliterating foreign words in Arabic, and
also used in writing languages with that sound (like Kurdish) is an obvious selection for
consonantal [w] because of its availability. The three-dotted yodh becomes then a consequent
selection for consonantal yodh. Hamza distinguishes then the long vowel from the short ones,
which is represented with the original symbols.
4. Armenian characters, similarly to Greek, need to be adapted to a language with a

different series of short and long vowels and aspirated phonemes.
NOTE. Because of that, a tentative selection is made, which needs not be final – as with any
other script. Because Armenian lacks a proper character for [u], and because it has not
different characters to represent long vowels other than [eː] or [oː], the more practical choice
40
Preface
is to imitate the other alphabets to allow for equivalence. The characters that represent short
vowels also represent different sounds; as, Ե for [ɛ] and word initially [jɛ], and Ո for [o] and
word initially [vo], so a less ambiguous choice would be Է for [e] and Օ for [o]. Hence the
letter Ո historically used to write [o] and [u] (in digraphs) stands for [u].
The conventional selection of one-character representation of aspirated voiceless consonants

follows Armenian tradition and equivalence with Greek, a closely related language, as we have
already seen; i.e. Proto-Greek is probably the nearest branch to the one Pre-Armenian actually
belonged to, and it is therefore practical to retain equivalence between both scripts.
Armenian diacritics (like the abbreviation mark proposed for long vowels) are defined as
‗modifier letters‘, not as ‗combining diacritical marks‘ in Unicode, so they do not combine as
true superscript. Some fonts do combine them, as Everson Mono Ա՟ ա՟ Է՟ է՟ Օ՟ օ՟ Ի՟ ի՟ Ո՟ ո՟.
6. The Cyrillic script is used following its modern trends, taking on account that
Russian is the model for most modern keyboards and available typography.
NOTE. Non-Russian characters have been avoided, and we have followed the principle of
one letter for each sound: While Й is commonly used to represent [j], Cyrillic scripts usually
lack a character to represent consonantal [w], given that usually [v] (written В) replaces it.
While У is generally used in Cyrillic for foreign words, a ‗one character, one sound‘ policy
requires the use of a character complementary to Й, which is logically found in В – a sound
lacking in Indo-European.
In Slavistic transcription jer Ъ and front jer Ь were used to denote Proto-Slavic extra-short
sounds [ŭ] and [ĭ] respectively (e.g. slověnьskъ adj. ‗slavonic‘). Today they are used with other
values in the different languages that still use them, but the need for traditional ‗labial‘ [ w] and
‗palatal‘ [j] signs available in most Cyrillic keyboards made them the most logical selection to
mark a change of value in the characters representing stops.
7. The Brahmic or Indic scripts are a family of abugida (alphabetic-syllabary)

writing systems, historically used within their communities – from Pakistan to
Indochina – to represent Sanskrit, whose phonology is similar to the parent PIE
language. Devanāgarī has come to be the most commonly used Brahmic script to
represent Sanskrit, hence our proposal of its character values for the rest of them.
NOTE. The characters and accents are generally used following their traditional phonetic
value. Exceptions are the lack of vocalic characters to properly represent [m ] and [n]. Hence
anusvara अं, which represents [ṃ], is used to represent [m]. Also, visarga अः, which stands for
[ḥ] (allophonic with word-final r and s) is proposed for [n].
41
Automatic transliteration between many Brahmic scripts is usually possible, and

highly available within scripts used in India.
NOTE. That happens e.g. with the InScript keyboard: because all Brahmic scripts share the
same order, any person who knows InScript typing in one script can type in any other Indic
script using dictation even without knowledge of that script.
However, due to the lack of characters in western alphabets to represent resonants

and long vowels, diacritics are used. These diacritics are not commonly available (but
for the Arabic hamza), and therefore if they are not written, transliteration into
Brahmic scripts becomes defective. That problem does not exist in the other direction
i.e. from Brahmic scripts into the other alphabets.
MODERN INDO-EUROPEAN
1. Modern Indo-European (MIE) is therefore a set of conventions or ‗rules‘ applied

to systematise the reconstructed North-West Indo-European dialect of Late Indo-
European – see below §§ 1.3, 1.7.1. Such conventions refer to its writing system,
morphology and syntax, and are conceived to facilitate the transition of the
reconstructed language into a learned and living one.
2. Because proto-languages were spoken by prehistoric societies, no genuine sample

texts are available, and thus comparative linguistics is not in the position to
reconstruct exactly how the language was, but more or less certain approximations,
whose statistical confidence decrease as we get further back in time. The
hypothesised language will then be always somewhat controversial.
NOTE 1. Mallory–Adams (2007): ―How real are our reconstructions? This question has
divided linguists on philosophical grounds. There are those who argue that we are not really
engaged in ‗reconstructing‘ a past language but rather creating abstract formulas that describe
the systematic relationship between sounds in the daughter languages. Others argue that our
reconstructions are vague approximations of the proto-language; they can never be exact
because the proto-language itself should have had different dialects (yet we reconstruct only
single proto-forms) and our reconstructions are not set to any specific time. Finally, there are
those who have expressed some statistical confidence in the method of reconstruction. Robert
Hall, for example, claimed that when examining a test control case, reconstructing proto-
Romance from the Romance languages (and obviously knowing beforehand what its ancestor,
Latin, looked like), he could reconstruct the phonology at 95% confidence, and the grammar
at 80%. Obviously, with the much greater time depth of Proto-Indo-European, we might well
wonder how much our confidence is likely to decrease. Most historical linguists today would
42
Preface
probably argue that reconstruction results in approximations. A time traveller, armed with
this book and seeking to make him- or herself understood would probably engender frequent
moments of puzzlement, not a little laughter, but occasional instances of lucidity.‖
On the same question, Fortson (2004): ―How complete is our picture of PIE? We know there
are gaps in our knowledge that come not only from the inevitable loss and replacement of a
percentage of words and grammatical forms over time, but also from the nature of our
preserved texts. Both the representative genres and external features such as writing systems
impose limits on what we can ascertain about the linguistic systems of both PIE and the
ancient IE languages (…)
In spite of all the scholarly disagreements that enliven the pages of technical books and
journals, all specialists would concur that enormous progress has been made since the earliest
pioneering work in this field, with consensus having been reached on many substantial issues.
The Proto-Indo-Europeans lived before the dawn of recorded human history, and it is a
testament to the power of the comparative method that we know as much about them as we
do.‖
NOTE 2. The Hebrew language revival is comparable to our proposal of speaking Indo-
European as a living language. We have already said that ‗living‘ and ‗dead‘, ‗natural‘ and
‗learned‘, are not easily applicable to ancient or classical languages. It is important to note
that, even though there is a general belief that Modern Hebrew and Ancient Hebrew are the
same languages, among Israeli scholars there have been calls for the ―Modern Hebrew‖
language to be called ―Israeli Hebrew‖ or just ―Israeli‖, due to the strong divergences that exist
– and further develop with its use – between the modern language spoken in Israel and its
theoretical basis, the Ancient Hebrew from the Tanakh. The old language system, with its
temporary and dialectal variations spanned over previous centuries of oral tradition, was
compiled probably between 450-200 BC, i.e when the language was already being substituted
by Aramaic. On that interesting question, Prof. Ghil‘ad Zuckermann considers that ―Israelis
are brainwashed to believe they speak the same language as the prophet Isaiah, a purely
Semitic language, but this is false. It‘s time we acknowledge that Israeli is very different from
the Hebrew of the past‖. He points out to the abiding influence of modern Indo-European
dialects – especially Yiddish, Russian and Polish –, in vocabulary, syntax and phonetics, as
imported by Israel‘s founders.
3. Features of Late Indo-European that are common to IEDs (North-West Indo-

European, Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian), like most of the nominal and verbal
inflection, morphology, and syntax, make it possible for LIE to be proposed as
Dachsprache for the living languages.
43
NOTE 1. Because North-West Indo-European had other sister dialects that were spoken by
coeval prehistoric communities, languages like Modern Hellenic (a revived Proto-Greek) and
Modern Aryan (a revived Proto-Indo-Iranian) can also be used in the regions where their
surviving dialects are currently spoken. These proto-languages are not more different from
North-West Indo-European than are today English from Dutch, Czech from Slovenian,
Spanish from Italian. They might also serve as linguae francae for closely related languages or
neighbouring regions; especially interesting would be to have a uniting Aryan language for
today‘s religiously divided South and West Asia.
NOTE 2. The terms Ausbausprache-Abstandsprache-Dachsprache were coined by Heinz

Kloss (1967), and they are designed to capture the idea that there are two separate and largely
independent sets of criteria and arguments for calling a variety an independent ―language‖
rather than a ―dialect‖: the one based on its social functions, and the other based on its
objective structural properties. A variety is called an ausbau language if it is used
autonomously with respect to other related languages.
Dachsprache means a language form that serves as standard language for different dialects,
even though these dialects may be so different that mutual intelligibility is not possible on the
basilectal level between all dialects, particularly those separated by significant geographical
distance. So e.g. the Rumantsch Grischun developed as such a Dachsprache for a number of
quite different Romansh language forms spoken in parts of Switzerland; or the Euskara
Batua, ―Standard Basque‖, and the Southern Quechua literary standard, both developed as
standard languages for dialect continua that had historically been thought of as discrete
languages with many dialects and no ―official" dialect. Standard German and standard Italian
to some extent function (or functioned) in the same way. Perhaps the most widely used
Dachsprache is Modern Standard Arabic, which links together the speakers of many different,
often mutually unintelligible Arabic dialects.
The standard Indo-European looked for in this grammar takes Late Indo-European
reconstruction as the wide Dachsprache necessary to encompass (i.e. to serve as linguistic
umbrella for) the modern usage of IEDs, whose – phonetic, morphological, syntactical –
peculiarities are also respected.
4. Modern Indo-European words to complete the lexicon of North-West Indo-

European, in case that no common vocabulary is found in Late Indo-European, are to
be loan-translated from present-day Northwestern IE languages. Common loan
words from sister dialects can also be loan-translated or borrowed as loan words.
NOTE. Even though the vocabulary reconstructible for IEDs is indeed wider than the
common Proto-Indo-European lexicon, a remark of Mallory–Adams (2007) regarding
44
Preface
reconstructible PIE words is interesting, in that it shows another difficulty of trying to speak a
common LIE or PIH:
―To what extent does the reconstructed vocabulary mirror the scope of the original PIE
language? The first thing we should dismiss is the notion that the language (any language)
spoken in later prehistory was somehow primitive and restricted with respect to vocabulary.
Counting how many words a language has is not an easy task because linguists (and
dictionaries) are inconsistent in their definition or arrangement of data. If one were simply to
count the headwords of those dictionaries that have been produced to deal with nonliterate
languages in Oceania, for example, the order of magnitude is somewhere on the order of
15,000–20,000 ‗words‘. The actual lexical units are greater because a single form might have
a variety of different meanings, each of which a speaker must come to learn, e.g. the English
verb take can mean ‗to seize‘, ‗to capture‘, ‗to kill‘, ‗to win in a game‘, ‗to draw a breath‘,
‗imbibe a drink‘, ‗to accept‘, ‗to accommodate‘ to name just a few of the standard dictionary
meanings. Hence, we might expect that a language spoken c. 4000 BC would behave very
much like one spoken today and have a vocabulary on the order of 30,000–50,000 lexical
units. If we apply fairly strict procedures to distinguishing PIE lexical items to the roots and
words listed in Mallory and Adams‘s Encyclopedia or Calvert Watkins‘s The American
Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots (1985) we have less than 1,500 items. The range
of meanings associated with a single lexeme is simply unknown although we occasionally get a
hint, e.g. *bher- indicates both ‗carry (a load)‘ and ‗bear (a child)‘. So the PIE vocabulary that
we reconstruct may well provide the basis for a much larger lexicon given the variety of
derivational features in PIE.‖
Examples of loan translations from modern NWIE languages are e.g. from Latin aquaeduct
(Lat. aquaeductus → MIE aqāsduktos) or universe (Lat. uniuersus<*oin(i)-uors-o-<*oino-
wṛt-to- → MIE oinowṛstós ‗turned into one‘); from English, like software (from Gmc.
samþu-, warō → MIE somtúworā); from French, like ambassador (from Cel. amb(i)actos →
MIE ambhíagtos ‗public servant‘); or chamber (from O.Lat. camera, from PGk. kamárā,
„vault‟ → MIE kamarā); from Russian, like bolshevik (MIE belijówikos); etc.
Loan words from sister IE dialects can be either loan-translated or directly taken as loan-
words; as e.g. ‗photo‘, which should be taken directly as loan-word o-stem pháwotos, from
Gk phawots, gen. phawotós, as Gk. θῶο (<θάϝνο), θσηόο, in compound phawotogṛphjā,
photography, derived from IE root bhā-, shine, which could be loan-translated as MIE
˟bháwots, from ˟bhawotogṛbhjā, but without having a meaning for extended bha-wes-,
still less for bha-wot-, in North-West Indo-European or even Proto-Indo-European, as it is
only found in Ancient Greek dialects. Or MIE skhol , from Lat. schola, taken from Gk. ζτοιή
(<PGk. skhol ) ‗spare time, leisure, tranquility‘, borrowed from Greek with the meaning
‗school‘, which was in O.Gk. ζρνιεῖνλ (scholeíon), translated as PGk. skholehjom <*-esjo-m,
45
from IE root segh-, which could also be loan-translated as MIE ˟sghol or even more purely
(and artificially) ˟sgholesjom, none of them being Proto-Indo-European or common Indo-
European terms. Examples from Indo-Iranian include wasāḳáranas, bazaar, from O.Ira.
vahacarana ‗sale-traffic, bazaar‘, which could also be translated as proper MIE
˟wesāqólenos, from PIE roots wes- and qel-; or ḳatúrangam, chess, from Skt.
caturaŋgam (which entered Europe from Pers. shatranj) a bahuvrihi compound, meaning
‗having four limbs or parts‘, which in epic poetry often means ‗army‘, possibly shortened from
ḳaturangabalam, Skt. caturaŋgabalam, lit. ‗four-member force‘, ‗an army comprising of
four parts‘, could be loan-translated as MIE ˟qaturangom and ˟qaturangobelom, from
roots qetur-, ang- and bel-.
Loan words and loan translations might also coexist in specialised terms; as, from
*h1rudhrós, red, PGk eruthrós, in loan eruthrókutos, erythrocyte, proper MIE rudhrós,
in rudhr (ésenos) kētjā, red (blood) cell; cf. also MIE mūs, musós, mouse, muscle, PGk
mūs, muhós, in loan muhokutos, myocyte, for muskosjo kētjā, muscle cell.
1.8.5. The name of the Modern Indo-European is eurōpājóm, or eurōpāj

dṇghwā, European language, from adj. eurōpājós, m. European, in turn from the
Greek noun Eurōpā.
NOTE. Gk. Eurōpā is from unknown origin, even though it was linked with Homer‘s epithet
for Zeus euruopā, from *hurú-oqeh2 ‗far-seeing, broad‘, or *h1urú-woqeh2 ‗far-sounding‘
(Heath, 2005). Latinate adj. europaeus, which was borrowed by most European languages,
comes from Gk. adj. eurōpaíos, in turn from PGk eurōpai-jós < PIE *eurōpeh2-jós → MIE
eurōpā-jós. For the evolution PIH *-eh2jo- → PGk *-aijo-, cf. adjective formation in Gk.
agor -agoraíos, Ruigh (1967).
In the old IE languages, those which had an independent name for languages used the
neuter. Compare Gk. n.pl. ἗ιιεληθά (hellēniká), Skt. n.sg. संस्कृ तम् (saṃskṛtam), O.H.G.
diutisc, O.Prus. prūsiskan, etc.; cf. also in Tacitus Lat. uōcābulum latīnum. In most IE
languages, the language is also referred to as ‗language‘ defined by an adjective, whose gender
follows the general rule of concordance; cf. Skt. saṃskṛtā vāk ‗refined speech‘, Gk. ειιεληθή
γιώζζα, Lat. latīna lingua, O.H.G. diutiska sprāhha (Ger. Deutsche Sprache), O.Prus.
prūsiskai bilā, O.C.S. словѣньскыи ѩзыкъ (slověnĭskyi językŭ), etc.
Common scholar terms would include sindhueurōpājóm, Indo-European,

prāmosindhueurōpājóm, Proto-Indo-European, ópitjom sindhueurōpājóm, Modern
Indo-European,etc.
46
PART I
LANGUAGE &
CULTURE
Collection of texts and images adapted and organised by Carlos Quiles, with
contributions by Fernando López-Menchero
1. Introduction
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. THE INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE FAMILY
1.1.1. The Indo-

European languages
are a family of
several hundred
modern languages
and dialects,
including most of
the major languages
of Europe, as well as
many in Asia.
Countries with a majority (dark colour) and minority or
Contemporary official status (light) of Indo-European language speakers.
(2011, modified from Brianski 2007)
languages in this
family include English, German, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Hindustani (i.e., Hindi
and Urdu among other modern dialects), Persian and Russian. It is the largest family
of languages in the world today, being spoken by approximately half the world‘s
population as mother tongue. Furthermore, the majority of the other half speaks at
least one of them as second language.
1.1.2. Romans didn‘t perceive similarities between Latin and Celtic dialects, but they
found obvious correspondences with Greek. After grammarian Sextus Pompeius
Festus:
“Suppum antiqui dicebant, quem nunc supinum dicimus ex Graeco, videlicet pro
adspiratione ponentes <s> litteram, ut idem ὕλας dicunt, et nos silvas; item ἕξ sex, et ἑπτά
septem”
Such findings are not striking, though, as Rome was believed to have been
originally funded by Trojan hero Aeneas and, consequently, Latin was derived from
Old Greek.
1.1.3. Florentine merchant Filippo Sassetti travelled to the Indian subcontinent, and
was among the first European observers to study the ancient Indian language,
Sanskrit. Writing in 1585, he noted some word similarities between Sanskrit and
Italian, e.g. deva/dio ‗God‘, sarpa/serpe ‗snake‘, sapta/sette ‗seven‘, ashta/otto
49
‗eight‘, nava/nove ‗nine‘. This observation is today credited to have foreshadowed the
later discovery of the Indo-European language family.
1.1.4. The first proposal of the possibility of a common origin for some of these
languages came from Dutch linguist and scholar Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn in
1647. He discovered the similarities among Indo-European languages, and supposed
the existence of a primitive common language which he called ‗Scythian‘. He
included in his hypothesis Dutch, Greek, Latin, Persian, and German, adding later
Slavic, Celtic and Baltic languages. He excluded languages such as Hebrew from his
hypothesis. However, the suggestions of van Boxhorn did not become widely known
and did not stimulate further research.
1.1.5. On 1686, German linguist Andreas Jäger published De Lingua Vetustissima

Europae, where he identified an remote language, possibly spreading from the
Caucasus, from which Latin, Greek, Slavic, ‗Scythian‘ (i.e. Persian) and Celtic (or
‗Celto-Germanic‘) were derived, namely Scytho-Celtic.
1.1.6. The hypothesis re-appeared in 1786 when Sir William Jones first lectured on
similarities between four of the oldest languages known in his time: Latin, Greek,
Sanskrit and Persian:
“The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure;

more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin , and more exquisitely
refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the
roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced
by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them al l three,
without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps,
no longer exists: there is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for
supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended with a very different
idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit; and the old Persian might be added
to the same family”
1.1.7. Danish Scholar Rasmus Rask was the first to point out the connection
between Old Norwegian and Gothic on the one hand, and Lithuanian, Slavonic,
Greek and Latin on the other. Systematic comparison of these and other old
languages conducted by the young German linguist Franz Bopp supported the theory,
and his Comparative Grammar, appearing between 1833 and 1852, counts as the
starting-point of Indo-European studies as an academic discipline.
NOTE. The term Indo-European itself now current in English literature, was coined in 1813
by the British scholar Sir Thomas Young, although at that time there was no consensus as to
50
1. Introduction
the naming of the recently discovered language family. Among the names suggested were
indo-germanique (C. Malte-Brun, 1810), Indoeuropean (Th. Young, 1813), japetisk (Rasmus
C. Rask, 1815), indisch-teutsch (F. Schmitthenner, 1826), sanskritisch (Wilhelm von
Humboldt, 1827), indokeltisch (A. F. Pott, 1840), arioeuropeo (G. I. Ascoli, 1854), Aryan (F.
M. Müller, 1861), aryaque (H. Chavée, 1867), etc.
In English, Indo-German was used by J. C. Prichard in 1826 although he preferred Indo-

European. In French, use of indo-européen was established by A. Pictet (1836). In German
literature, Indo-Europäisch was used by Franz Bopp since 1835. The term Indo-Germanisch
had already been introduced by Julius von Klapproth in 1823, intending to include the
northernmost and the southernmost of the family‘s branches, as it was as an abbreviation of
the full listing of involved languages that had been common in earlier literature; that opened
the doors to ensuing fruitless discussions whether it should not be Indo-Celtic, or even
Tocharo-Celtic.
1.2. TRADITIONAL VIEWS
1.2.1. In the beginnings of the Indo-European studies using the comparative

method, Indo-European was reconstructed as a unitary proto-language. For Rask,
Bopp and other linguists, it was a search for the Indo-European. Such a language was
supposedly spoken in a certain region between Europe and Asia and at one point in
time.
1.2.2. The Stammbaumtheorie or Genealogical Tree theory states that languages

split up in other languages, each of them in turn split up in others, and so on, like the
branches of a tree. For example, a well-known out-dated theory about Indo-
European is that, within the PIE language, two main groups of dialects known as
centum and satem were formed, a model represented by a clean break-up from the
parent language.
NOTE. The centum and satem isogloss is one of the oldest known phonological differences
of IE languages, and is still used by many to classify PIE in two main dialectal groups –
postulating the existence of proto-Centum and proto-Satem languages –, according to their
pronunciation of PIE *(d)kmtóm, hundred, disregarding their relevant morphological and
syntactical differences, and usually implicitly accepting a common PIE series of palatovelars.
Tree diagrams remain the most used model for understanding the Indo-European
language reconstruction, since it was proposed by A. Schleicher (Compendium,
1866). The problem with its simplicity is that ―the branching of the different groups is
portrayed as a series of clean breaks with no connection between branches after they
51
have split, as if each dialectal group marched away from the rest. Such sharp splits
are possible, but assuming that all splits within Proto-Indo-European were like this is
not very plausible, and any linguist surveying the current Indo-European languages
would note dialectal variations running through some but not all areas, often linking
adjacent groups who may belong to different languages‖ (Mallory–Adams, 2007).
1.2.3. The Wellentheorie or Waves Theory, of J. Schmidt, states that one language is
created from another by the spread of innovations, the way water waves spread when
a stone hits the water surface. The lines that define the extension of the innovations
are called isoglosses. The convergence of different isoglosses over a common territory
signals the existence of a new language or dialect. Where isoglosses from different
languages coincide, transition zones are formed.
NOTE. After Mallory and Adams (2007), ―their criteria of inclusion, why we are looking at
any particular one, and not another one, are no more solid than those that define family trees.
The key element here is what linguistic features actually help determine for us whether two
languages are more related or less related to one another.‖
1.2.4. Because of the difficulties found in the modelling of Proto-Indo-European

branches and daughter languages into the traditional, unitary ‗Diverging Tree‘
framework, i.e. a uniform Proto-Indo-European language with its branches, a new
model called ‗Converging Association of Languages‘ was proposed, in which
languages that are in contact (not necessarily related to each other) exchange
linguistic elements and rules, thus developing and acquiring from each other. Most
linguists have rejected it as an implausible explanation of the irregularities found in
the old, static concept of PIE.
NOTE. Among the prominent advocates is N.S. Trubetzkoy (Urheimat, 1939): ―The term
‗language family‘ does not presuppose the common descent of a quantity of languages from a
single original language. We consider a ‗language family‘ a group of languages, in which a
considerable quantity of lexical and morphological elements exhibit regular equivalences (…)
it is not necessary for one to suppose common descent, since such regularity may also
originate through borrowings between neighboring unrelated languages (…) It is just as
conceivable that the ancestors of the Indo-European language branches were originally
different from each other, but though constant contact, mutual influence, and borrowings,
approached each other, without however ever becoming identical to one another‖ (Meier-
Brügger, 2003).
52
1. Introduction
Agreeing with Neumann (1996), Meier-Brügger (2003) rejects that association of languages
in the Proto-Indo-European case by stating: ―that the various Indo-European languages have
developed from a prior unified language is certain. Questionable is, however, the concrete
‗how‘ of this process of differentiation‖, and that this ―thesis of a ‗converging association of
languages‘ may immediately be dismissed, given that all Indo-European languages are based
upon the same Proto-Indo-European flexion morphology. As H. Rix makes clear, it is precisely
this morphological congruence that speaks against the language association model, and for
the diverging tree model.‖
1.3. THE THEORY OF THE THREE STAGES
1.3.1. Even the first Indo-Europeanists had noted in their works the possibility of
reconstructing older stages of the ‗Brugmannian‘ Proto-Indo-European.
NOTE. The development of this theory of three linguistic stages can be traced back to the
very origins of Indo-European studies, firstly as a diffused idea of a non-static PIE language,
and later widely accepted as a dynamic dialectal evolution, already in the twentieth century,
after the decipherment of the Anatolian scripts. Most linguists accept that Proto-Indo-
European must be the product of a long historical development, as any ‗common language‘ is
being formed gradually, and proto-languages (like languages) have stages, as described by
Lehmann (Introducción a la lingüística histórica, Spa. transl. 1961). On this question, H. Rix
(Modussystem, 1986) asserts ―[w]hereby comparative reconstruction is based upon a group of
similar forms in a number of languages, internal reconstruction takes its point of departure
from irregularities or inhomogeneities of the system of a single language (…) The fundamental
supposition of language-internal reconstruction is that such an irregularity or inhomogeneity
in the grammar of a language is the result of a diachronic process, in which an older pattern,
or homogeneity is eclipsed, but not fully suppressed‖. According to Meier-Brügger (2003),
―Rix works back from Late Proto-Indo-European Phase B (reconstructible Proto-Indo-
European) using deducible information about an Early Proto-Indo-European Phase A, and
gathers in his work related evidence on the Proto-Indo-European verbal system‖. On that
question, see also the ―Late Indo-European‖ differentiation in Gamkrelidze–Ivanov (1994-
1995), Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998); a nomenclature also widespread today stems
from G.E. Dunkel‘s Early, Middle, Late Indo-European: Doing it My Way (1997); etc.
1.3.2. Today, a widespread Three-Stage theory divides PIE internal language

evolution into three main historic layers or stages, including a description of
branches and languages either as clean breaks from a common source (e.g. PAn and
LIE from Indo-Hittite) or from intermediate dialect continua (e.g. Germanic and
53
Balto-Slavic from North-West IE), or classifying similarities into continued linguistic

contact (e.g. between Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian):
1) Pre-Proto-Indo-European (Pre-PIE), more properly following the current

nomenclature Pre-Indo-Hittite (Pre-PIH), also Early PIE, is the hypothetical
ancestor of Indo-Hittite, and probably the oldest stage of the language that
comparative grammar could help reconstruct using internal reconstruction. There
is, however, no common position as to how it was like or when and where it was
spoken.
2) The second stage corresponds to a time before the separation of Proto-

Anatolian from the common linguistic community where it should have coexisted
(as a Pre-Anatolian dialect) with Pre-LIE. That stage of the language is today
commonly called Indo-Hittite (PIH), and also Middle PIE, but often simply Proto-
Indo-European; it is identified with early kurgan cultures in the Kurgan
Hypothesis.
NOTE. On the place of Anatolian among IE languages, the question is whether it separated
first as a language branch from PIE, and to what extent was it thus spared developments
common to the remaining Proto-Indo-European language group. There is growing consensus
in favour of its early split from Indo-European (Heading, among others, ‗Indo-Hittite‘); see N.
Oettinger (‗Indo-Hittite‟ – Hypothesen und Wortbildung 1986), A. Lehrman (Indo-Hittite
Revisited, 1996), H. Craig Melchert (The Dialectal Position of Anatolian within IE in IE
Subgrouping, 1998), etc.
For Kortlandt (The Spread of The Indo-Europeans, JIES 18, 1990): ―Since the beginnings of
the Yamnaya, Globular Amphora, Corded Ware, and Afanasievo cultures can all be dated
between 3600 and 3000 BC, I am inclined to date Proto-Indo-European to the middle of the
fourth millennium, and to recognize Proto-Indo-Hittite as a language which may have been
spoken a millennium earlier.‖
For Ringe (2006), ―[i]nterestingly, there is by now a general consensus among Indo-
Europeanists that the Anatolian subfamily is, in effect, one half of the IE family, all the other
subgroups together forming the other half.‖
On the Anatolian question and its implications on nomenclature, West (2007) states that
―[t]here is growing consensus that the Anatolian branch, represented by Hittite and related
languages of Asia Minor, was the first to diverge from common Indo-European, which
continued to evolve for some time after the split before breaking up further. This raises a
problem of nomenclature. It means that with the decipherment of Hittite the ‗Indo-European‘
previously reconstructed acquired a brother in the shape of proto-Anatolian, and the
54
1. Introduction
archetype of the family had to be put back a stage. E. H. Sturtevant coined a new term ‗Indo-
Hittite‘ (…) The great majority of linguists, however, use ‗Indo-European‘ to include
Anatolian, and have done, naturally enough, ever since Hittite was recognized to be ‗an Indo-
European language‘. They will no doubt continue to do so.‖
3) The common immediate ancestor of most of the reconstructed IE proto-

languages is approximately the same static „Brugmannian‟ PIE searched for since
the start of Indo-European studies, before Hittite was deciphered. It is usually
called Late Indo-European (LIE) or Late PIE, generally dated some time ca. 3500-
2500 BC using linguistic or archaeological models, or both.
NOTE. According to Mallory–Adams (2007): ―Generally, we find some form of triangulation

based on the earliest attested Indo-European languages, i.e. Hittite, Mycenaean Greek, and
Indo-Aryan, each of these positioned somewhere between c. 2000 and 1500 BC. Given the
kind of changes linguists know to have occurred in the attested histories of Greek or Indo-
Aryan, etc., the linguist compares the difference wrought by such changes with the degree of
difference between the earliest attested Hittite, Mycenaean Greek, and Sanskrit and
reconstructed Proto-Indo-European. The order of magnitude for these estimates (or
guesstimates) tends to be something on the order of 1,500-2,000 years. In other words,
employing some form of gut intuition (based on experience which is often grounded on the
known separation of the Romance or Germanic languages), linguists tend to put Proto-Indo-
European sometime around 3000 BC plus or minus a millennium (…) the earliest we are
going to be able to set Proto-Indo-European is about the fifth millennium BC if we want it to
reflect the archaeological reality of Eurasia. We have already seen that individual Indo-
European groups are attested by c. 2000 BC. One might then place a notional date of c. 4500-
2500 BC on Proto-Indo-European. The linguist will note that the presumed dates for the
existence of Proto-Indo-European arrived at by this method are congruent with those
established by linguists‘ ‗informed estimation‘. The two dating techniques, linguistic and
archeological, are at least independent and congruent with one another.‖
Likewise, in Meier-Brügger (2003), about a common Proto-Indo-European: ―No precise

statement concerning the exact time period of the Proto-Indo-European linguistic community
is possible. One may only state that the ancient Indo-European languages that we know,
which date from the 2nd millennium BC, already exhibit characteristics of their respective
linguistic groups in their earliest occurrences, thus allowing one to presume the existence of a
separate and long pre-history (…) The period of 5000-3000 BC is suggested as a possible
timeframe of a Proto-Indo-European language.‖
However, on the early historic and prehistoric finds, and the assumption of linguistic
communities linked with archaeological cultures, Hänsel (Die Indogermanen und das Pferd,
55
B. Hänsel, S. Zimmer (eds.), 1994) states that ―[l]inguistic development may be described in
steps that, although logically comprehensible, are not precisely analyzable without a
timescale. The archaeologist pursues certain areas of cultural development, the logic of which
(if one exists) remains a mystery to him, or is only accessible in a few aspects of its complex
causality. On the other hand, he is provided with concrete ideas with regard to time, as vague
as these may be, and works with a concept of culture that the Indo-European linguist cannot
attain. For the archaeologist, culture is understood in the sense of a sociological definition (…)
The archaeological concept of culture is composed of so many components, that by its very
nature its contours must remain blurred. But languages are quite different. Of course there are
connections; no one can imagine cultural connections without any possibility of verbal
communication. But it is too much to ask that archaeologists equate their concept of culture,
which is open and incorporates references on various levels, to the single dimension of
linguistic community. Archaeology and linguistics are so fundamentally different that, while
points of agreement may be expected, parallels and congruency may not. The advantage of
linguistic research is its ability to precisely distinguish between individual languages and the
regularity of developments. The strength of archaeology is its precision in developing
timelines. What one can do, the other cannot. They could complement each other beautifully,
if only there were enough commonality.‖
1.3.3. Another division has to be made, so that the dialectal evolution is properly
understood. Late Indo-European had at least two main inner dialectal branches, the
Southern or Graeco-Aryan (S.LIE) and the Northern (N.LIE) ones.
It seems that speakers of Southern or Graeco-Aryan dialects spread in different

directions with the first LIE migrations (ca. 3000-2500 BC in the Kurgan
framework), forming at least a South-East (including Pre-Indo-Iranian) and a South-
West (including Pre-Greek) group. Meanwhile, speakers of Northern dialects
migrated to the North-West (see below), but for speakers of a North-East IE branch
(from which Pre-Tocharian developed), who migrated to Asia.
NOTE. Beekes (1995), from an archaeological point of view, on the Yamnaya culture: ―This is
one of the largest pre-historic complexes in Europe, and scholars have been able to distinguish
between different regions within it. It is dated from 3600-2200 B.C. In this culture, the use of
copper for the making of various implements is more common. From about 3000 B.C. we
begin to find evidence for the presence in this culture of two- and four-wheeled wagons (…)
There seems to be no doubt that the Yamnaya culture represents the last phase of an Indo-
European linguistic unity, although there were probably already significant dialectal
differences within it.‖
56
1. Introduction
Fortson (2004) similarly suggests: ―in the period 3100-2900 BC came a clear and dramatic
infusion of Yamna cultural practice, including burials, into eastern Hungary and along the
lower Danube. With this we seem able to witness the beginnings of the Indo-Europeanization
of Europe. By this point, the members of the Yamna culture had spread out over a very large
area and their speech had surely become dialecticaly strongly differentiated.‖
Meier-Brügger (2003): ―Within the group of IE languages, some individual languages are
more closely associated with one another owing to morphological or lexical similarities. The
cause for this, as a rule, is a prehistoric geographic proximity (perhaps even constituting single
linguistic community) or a common preliminary linguistic phase, a middle mother-language
phase, which would however then be posterior to the period of the mother language.‖
About Tocharian, Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998): ―even if archaic in some

respects (its centum character, subjunctive, etc.) it shares common features with Balto-Slavic,
among other languages: they must be old isoglosses, shared before it separated and migrated
to the East. It is, therefore, [a N.LIE] language. It shows great innovations, too, something
normal in a language that evolved isolated.‖
On the Southern (Graeco-Aryan or Indo-Greek) LIE dialect, see Tovar (Krahes

alteuropäische Hydronymie und die west-indogermanischen Sprachen, 1977; Actas del II
Coloquio sobre lenguas y culturas prerromanas de la Península Ibérica, Salamanca, 1979),
Gamkrelidze–Ivanov (1993-1994), Clackson (The Linguistic Relationship Between Armenian
and Greek, 1994), Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998), etc. In Mallory–Adams (2007):
―Many have argued that Greek, Armenian, and Indo-Iranian share a number of innovations
that suggest that there should have been some form of linguistic continuum between their
predecessors.‖
On the Graeco-Aryan community, West (2007) proposes the latest terminus ante quem for
its split: ―We shall see shortly that Graeco-Aryan must already have been differentiated from
[LIE] by 2500. We have to allow several centuries for the development of [LIE] after its split
from proto-Anatolian and before its further division. (…) The first speakers of Greek – or
rather of the language that was to develop into Greek; I will call them mello-Greeks – arrived
in Greece, on the most widely accepted view, at the beginning of Early Helladic III, that is,
around 2300. They came by way of Epirus, probably from somewhere north of the Danube.
Recent writers have derived them from Romania or eastern Hungary. (…) we must clearly go
back at least to the middle of the millennium for the postulated Graeco-Aryan linguistic unity
or community.‖
1.3.4. The so-called North-West Indo-European is considered by some to have

formed an early linguistic community already separated from other Northern dialects
(which included Pre-Tocharian) before or during the LIE dialectal split, and is
57
generally assumed to have been a later IE dialect continuum between different

communities in Northern Europe during the centuries on either side of 2500 BC,
with a development usually linked to the expansion of the Corded Ware culture.
NOTE. A dialect continuum, or dialect area, was defined by Leonard Bloomfield as a range
of dialects spoken across some geographical area that differ only slightly between
neighbouring areas, but as one travels in any direction, these differences accumulate such that
speakers from opposite ends of the continuum are no longer mutually intelligible. Examples of
dialect continua included (now blurred with national languages and administrative borders)
the North-Germanic, German, East Slavic, South Slavic, Northern Italian, South French, or
West Iberian languages, among others.
A Sprachbund, also known as a linguistic area, convergence area, diffusion area or language
crossroads – is a group of languages that have become similar in some way because of
geographical proximity and language contact. They may be genetically unrelated, or only
distantly related. That was probably the case with Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian, v.i. §1.7.
North-West IE was therefore a language or group of closely related dialects that

emerged from a parent (N.LIE) dialect, in close contact for centuries, which allowed
them to share linguistic developments.
NOTE. On the so-called ―Nort-West Indo-European‖ dialect continuum, see Tovar (1977,
1979), Eric Hamp (“The Indo-European Horse” in T. Markey and J.Greppin (eds.) When
Worlds Collide: Indo-Europeans and Pre-Indo-Europeans, 1990), N. Oettinger
Grundsätzliche überlegungen zum Nordwest-Indogermanischen (1997), and Zum
nordwestindogermanischen Lexikon (1999); M. E. Huld Indo-Europeanization of Northern
Europe (1996); Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998); etc.
Regarding the dating of European proto-languages (of ca. 1500-500 BC) to the same time as
Proto-Greek or Proto-Indo-Iranian (of ca. 2500-2000), obviating the time span between
them, we might remember Kortlandt‘s (1990) description of what ―seems to be a general
tendency to date proto-languages farther back in time than is warranted by the linguistic
evidence. When we reconstruct Proto-Romance, we arrive at a linguistic stage which is
approximately two centuries later than the language of Caesar and Cicero (cf. Agard 1984: 47-
60 for the phonological differences). When we start from the extralinguistic evidence and
identify the origins of Romance with the beginnings of Rome, we arrive at the eighth century
BC, which is almost a millennium too early. The point is that we must identify the formation
of Romance with the imperfect learning of Latin by a large number of people during the
expansion of the Roman empire.‖
58
1. Introduction
1.3.4. Apart from the shared phonology and vocabulary, North-Western dialects
show other common features, as a trend to reduce the noun inflection system, shared
innovations in the verbal system (merge of imperfect, aorist and perfect in a single
preterite, although some preterite-presents are found) the -r endings of the middle
or middle-passive voice, a common evolution of laryngeals, etc.
The southern IEDs, which spread in different directions and evolved without
forming a continuum, show therefore a differentiated phonology and vocabulary, but
common older developments like the augment in é-, middle desinences in -i,
athematic verbal inflection, pluperfect and perfect forms, and aspectual
differentiation between the types *bhére/o- and *tudé/o-.
1.4. THE PROTO-INDO-EUROPEAN URHEIMAT
The search for the Urheimat or ‗Homeland‘ of the prehistoric Proto-Indo-

Europeans has developed as an archaeological quest along with the linguistic
research looking for the reconstruction of the proto-language.
NOTE. Mallory (Journal of Indo-European Studies 1, 1973): ―While many have maintained
that the search for the PIE homeland is a waste of intellectual effort, or beyond the
competence of the methodologies involved, the many scholars who have tackled the problem
have ably evinced why they considered it important. The location of the homeland and the
description of how the Indo-European languages spread is central to any explanation of how
Europe became European. In a larger sense it is a search for the origins of western
civilization.‖
According to A. Scherer‘s Die Urheimat der Indogermanen (1968), summing up

the views of various authors from the years 1892-1963, still followed by mainstream
Indo-European studies today, ―[b]ased upon the localization of later languages such
as Greek, Anatolian, and Indo-Iranian, a swathe of land in southern Russia north of
the Black Sea is often proposed as the native area of the speakers of Proto-Indo-
European‖.
1.4.1. HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS
In Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998), a summary of main linguistic facts is

made, supported by archaeological finds:
―It is communis opinio today that the languages of Europe have developed in situ in
our continent; although indeed, because of the migrations, they have remained
59
sometimes dislocated, and also extended and fragmented (…) Remember the recent
date of the ‗crystallisation‘ of European languages. ‗Old European‘ [=North-West IE],
from which they derive, is an already evolved language, with opposition
masculine/feminine, and must be located in time ca. 2000 BC or before. Also, one
must take into account the following data: the existence of Tocharian, related to
[Northern LIE], but far away to the East, in the Chinese Turkestan; the presence of
[Southern LIE] languages to the South of the Carpathian Mountains, no doubt
already in the third millennium (the ancestors of Thracian, Iranian, Greek speakers);
differentiation of Hittite and Luwian, within the Anatolian group, already ca. 2000
BC, in the documents of Kültepe, what means that Common Anatolian must be much
older.
NOTE. Without taking on account archaeological theories, linguistic data reveals

that:
a) [Northern LIE], located in Europe and in the Chinese Turkestan, must come
from an intermediate zone, with expansion into both directions.
b) [Southern LIE], which occupied the space between Greece and the north-west
of India, communicating both peninsulas through the languages of the Balkans,
Ukraine and Northern Caucasus, the Turkestan and Iran, must also come from
some intermediate location. Being a different linguistic group, it cannot come
from Europe or the Russian Steppe, where Ural-Altaic languages existed.
c) Both groups have been in contact secondarily, taking on account the different
‗recent‘ isoglosses in the contact zone.
d) The more archaic Anatolian must have been isolated from the more evolved IE;
and that in some region with easy communication with Anatolia.
(…) Only the Steppe North of the Caucasus, the Volga river and beyond can
combine all possibilities mentioned: there are pathways that go down into Anatolia
and Iran through the Caucasus, through the East of the Caspian Sea, the Gorgan
plains, and they can migrate from there to the Chinese Turkestan, or to Europe,
where two ways exist: to the North and to the South of the Carpathian mountains.
These linguistic data, presented in a diagram, are supported by strong

archaeological arguments: they have been defended by Gimbutas 1985 against
Gamkrelidze–Ivanov (1994-1995) (…). This diagram proposes three stages. In the
first one, [PIH] became isolated, and from it Anatolian emerged, being first relegated
60
1. Introduction
to the North of the Caucasus, and then crossing into the South: Common Anatolian
must be located there. Note that there is no significant temporal difference with the
other groups; it happens also that the first IE wave into Europe was older. It is
somewhere to the North of the people that later went to Anatolia that happened the
great revolution that developed [LIE], the ‗common language‘.
Stage 1
PIH
Anat.
Stage 2
Northern horde Tocharian
West IE Bal.-Sla. N.LIE
Gk.-Thrac. Arm. Ind.-Ira. S.LIE
Southern Horde
Stage 3
Northern Horde
Germanic Bal.-Sla.
Northern
Cel. Ita. Indo-Iranian Southern

Thr.
Arm. I.-I.
Gk.
Southern Horde
Diagram of the expansion and relationships of IE languages . Adapted from

Adrados (1979).
The following stages refer to that common language. The first is the one that saw
both [N.LIE] (to the North) and [S.LIE] (to the South), the former being fragmented
in two groups, one that headed West and one that migrated to the East. That is a
proof that somewhere in the European Russia a common language [N.LIE] emerged;
to the South, in Ukraine or in the Turkestan [S.LIE].
The second stage continues the movements of both branches, that launched waves
to the South, but that were in contact in some moments, arising isoglosses that unite
61
certain languages of the [Southern IE] group (first Greek, later Iranian, etc.) with
those of the rearguard of [Northern IE] (especially Baltic and Slavic, also Italic and
Germanic)‖.
NOTE. The assumption of three independent series of velars (v.s. Considerations of

Method), has logical consequences when trying to arrange a consistent chronological and
dialectal evolution from the point of view of historical linguistics. That is necessarily so
because phonological change is generally assumed to be easier than morphological evolution
for any given language. As a consequence, while morphological change is an agreed way to
pinpoint different ancient groups, and lexical equivalences to derive late close contacts and
culture (using them we could find agreement in grouping e.g. Balto-Slavic, Italo-Celtic, and
Germanic between both groups, as well as an older Graeco-Aryan dialects), phonetics is often
used – whether explicitly or not – as key to the groupings and chronology of the final split up
of Late Indo-European, which is at the core of the actual archaeological quest today.
If we assume that the satem languages were show the most natural trend of leniting palatals
from an ‗original‘ system of three series of velars; if we assume that the other, centum
languages, had undergone a trend of (unlikely and unparallelled) depalatalisation of the
palatovelars; then the picture of the dialectal split must be different, because centum
languages must be more closely related to each other in ancient times (due to the improbable
happening of depalatalisation in more than one branch independently). That is the scheme
followed in some manuals on IE linguistics or archaeology if three series are reconstructed or
accepted, as it is commonly the case.
From that point of view, Italic, Celtic and Tocharian must be grouped together, while the
satem core can be found in Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian. This contradicts the finds on
different Northern and Graeco-Aryan dialects, though. As already stated, the Glottalic theory
might support that dialectal scheme, by assuming a neater explanation of the natural
evolution of glottalic, voiced and voiceless stops, different from the depalatalisation proposal.
However, the glottalic theory is today mostly rejected (see below §1.5). Huld‘s (1997)
explanation of the three series could also support this scheme (see above).
1.4.2. ARCHAEOLOGY
The Kurgan hypothesis was introduced by Marija Gimbutas (The Prehistory of

Eastern Europe, Part 1, 1956) in order to combine archaeology with linguistics in
locating the origins of the Proto-Indo-Europeans. She named the set of cultures in
question ―Kurgan‖ after their distinctive burial mounds and traced their diffusion
into Eastern and Northern Europe.
62
1. Introduction
NOTE. People were buried with their legs flexed, a position which remained typical for
peoples identified with Indo-European speakers for a long time. The burials were covered with
a mound, a kurgan (Turkish loanword in Russian for ‗tumulus‘).
According to her hypothesis, PIE speakers were probably a nomadic tribe of the
Pontic-Caspian steppe that expanded in successive stages of the Kurgan culture and
three successive ―waves‖ of expansion during the third millennium BC:
 Kurgan I, Dnieper/Volga region, earlier half of the fourth millennium BC.

Apparently evolving from cultures of the Volga basin, subgroups include the
Samara and Seroglazovo cultures.
 Kurgan II–III, latter half of the fourth millennium BC. Includes the Sredny Stog
culture and the Maykop culture of the northern Caucasus. Stone circles, early
two-wheeled chariots, anthropomorphic stone stelae of deities.
 Kurgan IV or Pit Grave culture, first half of the third millennium BC,
encompassing the entire steppe region from the Ural to Romania.
Hypothetical Urheimat (Homeland) of the first PIE speakers, from 4500 BC

onwards. The Yamna (Pit Grave) culture lasted from ca. 3600 till 2200 BC. In
this time the first wagons appeared. (PD)
63
There were proposed to be three successive ―waves‖ of expansion:
o Wave 1, predating Kurgan I, expansion from the lower Volga to the Dnieper,
leading to coexistence of Kurgan I and the Cucuteni culture. Repercussions of
the migrations extend as far as the Balkans and along the Danube to the Vinča
and Lengyel cultures in Hungary.
o Wave 2, mid fourth millennium BC, originating in the Maykop culture and
resulting in advances of kurganised hybrid cultures into northern Europe
around 3000 BC – Globular Amphora culture, Baden culture, and ultimately
Corded Ware culture.
o Wave 3, 3000-2800 BC, expansion of the Pit Grave culture beyond the steppes;
appearance of characteristic pit graves as far as the areas of modern Romania,
Bulgaria and eastern Hungary.
The ‗kurganised‘ Globular Amphora culture in Europe is proposed as a ‗secondary

Urheimat‘ of PIE, the culture separating into the Bell-Beaker culture and Corded
Ware culture around 2300 BC. This ultimately resulted in the European IE families
of Italic, Celtic and Germanic languages, and other, partly extinct, language groups of
the Balkans and central Europe, possibly including the proto-Mycenaean invasion of
Greece.
1.4.3. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
Glottochronology tries to compare lexical, morphological or phonological traits in

order to develop more trustable timelines and dialectal groupings. It hasn‘t attracted
much reliability among linguists, though, in relation with the comparative method,
on which the whole IE reconstruction is still based.
NOTE. Most of these glottochronological works are highly controversial, partly owing to
issues of accuracy, partly to the question of whether its very basis is sound. Two serious
arguments that make this method mostly invalid today are the proof that Swadesh formulae
would not work on all available material, and that language change arises from socio-
historical events which are of course unforeseeable and, therefore, incomputable.
A variation of traditional glottochronology is phylogenic reconstruction; in

biological systematics, phylogeny is a graph intended to represent genetic
relationships between biological taxa. Linguists try to transfer these biological
models to obtain ―subgroupings” of one or the other branch of a language family.
64
1. Introduction
NOTE. Clackson (2007) describes a recent phylogenetic study, by Atkinson et al. (“From
Words to Dates: Water into Wine, Mathemagic or Phylogenetic Inference?”, Transactions of
the Philological Society 103, 2005): ―The New Zealand team use models which were originally
designed to build phylogenies based on DNA and other genetic information, which do not
assume a constant rate of change. Instead, their model accepts that the rate of change varies,
but it constrains the variation within limits that coincide with attested linguistic sub-groups.
For example, it is known that the Romance languages all derive from Latin, and we know that
Latin was spoken 2,000 years ago. The rates of lexical change in the Romance family can
therefore be calculated in absolute terms. These different possible rates of change are then
projected back into prehistory, and the age of the parent can be ascertained within a range of
dates depending on the highest and lowest rates of change attested in the daughter languages.
More recently (Atkinson et al. 2005), they have used data based not just on lexical characters,
but on morphological and phonological information as well.‖
Their results show a late separation of the Northwestern IE languages, with a last core of
Romance-Germanic, earlier Celto-Romano-Germanic, and earlier Celto-Romano-Germano-
Balto-Slavic. Previous to that date, Graeco-Armenian would have separated earlier than Indo-
Iranian, while Tocharian would have been the earliest to split up from LIE, still within the
Kurgan framework, although quite early (ca. 4000-3000 BC). Before that, the Anatolian
branch is found to have split quite earlier than the dates usually assumed in linguistics and
archaeology (ca. 7000-6000 BC).
Holm proposed to apply a Separation-Level Recovery system to PIE. This is made (Holm,
2008) by using the data on the new Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben, 2nd ed. (Rix et al.
2001), considered a ―more modern and linguistic reliable database‖ than the data traditionally
used from Pokorny IEW. The results show a similar grouping to those of Atkinson et al.
(2005), differentiating between North-West IE (Italo-Celtic, Germanic, Balto-Slavic), and
Graeco-Aryan (Graeco-Armenian, Indo-Iranian) groups. However, Anatolian is deemed to
have separated quite late compared to linguistic dates, being considered then just another LIE
dialect, therefore rejecting the concept of Indo-Hittite altogether. Some of Holm‘s studies are
available at <http://hjholm.de/>.
The most recent quantitative studies then apparently show similar results in the
phylogenetic groupings of recent languages, i.e. Late Indo-European dialects, excluding
Tocharian. Their dates remain, at best, just approximations for the separation of late and well
attested languages, though, while the dating (and even grouping) of ancient languages like
Anatolian or Tocharian with modern evolution patterns remains at best questionable.
65
1.4.4. ARCHAEOGENETICS
Cavalli-Sforza and
Alberto Piazza argue
that Renfrew (v.i.
§1.5) and Gimbutas
reinforce rather
than contradict each
other, stating that
―genetically
speaking, peoples of
the Kurgan steppe
descended at least in Distribution of haplotypes R1b (light colour) for Eurasiatic
Paleolithic and R1a (dark colour) for Yamna expansion;
part from people of black represents other haplogroups. (2009, modified from
the Middle Eastern Dbachmann 2007)
Neolithic who immigrated there from Turkey‖.
NOTE. The genetic record cannot yield any direct information as to the language spoken by
these groups. The current interpretation of genetic data suggests a strong genetic continuity in
Europe; specifically, studies of mtDNA by Bryan Sykes show that about 80% of the genetic
stock of Europeans originated in the Paleolithic.
Distribution of haplogroup R1a (2011, modified from Crates 2009)

66
1. Introduction
Spencer Wells suggests that the origin, distribution and age of the R1a1 haplotype
points to an ancient migration, possibly corresponding to the spread by the Kurgan
people in their expansion across the Eurasian steppe around 3000 BC, stating that
―there is nothing to contradict this model, although the genetic patterns do not
provide clear support either‖.
NOTE. R1a1 is most prevalent in Poland, Russia, and Ukraine, and is also observed in
Pakistan, India and central Asia. R1a1 is largely confined east of the Vistula gene barrier and
drops considerably to the west. The spread of Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup R1a1 has been
associated with the spread of the Indo-European languages too. The mutations that
characterise haplogroup R1a occurred ~10,000 years bp. Haplogroup R1a1, whose lineage is
thought to have originated in the Eurasian Steppes north of the Black and Caspian Seas, is
therefore associated with the Kurgan culture, as well as with the postglacial Ahrensburg
culture which has been suggested to have spread the gene originally.
The present-day population of R1b haplotype, with extremely high peaks in

Western Europe and measured up to the eastern confines of Central Asia, are
believed to be the descendants of a refugium in the Iberian peninsula at the Last
Glacial Maximum, where the haplogroup may have achieved genetic homogeneity. As
conditions eased with the Allerød Oscillation in about 12000 BC, descendants of this
group migrated and eventually recolonised all of Western Europe, leading to the
dominant position of R1b in variant degrees from Iberia to Scandinavia, so evident in
haplogroup maps. (2011, modified
from Cadenas
NOTE. High 2008)
concentrations of
Mesolithic or late
Paleolithic YDNA
haplogroups of
types R1b (typically
well above 35%) and
I (up to 25%), are
thought to derive
ultimately of the
robust Eurasiatic
Cro Magnoid homo sapiens of the Aurignacian culture, and the subsequent gracile
leptodolichomorphous people of the Gravettian culture that entered Europe from the Middle
East 20,000 to 25,000 years ago, respectively.
67
1.4.5. THE KURGAN HYPOTHESIS AND THE THREE-STAGE THEORY
ARCHAEOLOGY (Kurgan Hypothesis) LINGUISTICS (Three-Stage Theory)
ca. 4500-4000 BC. Sredny Stog, Dnieper-Donets Proto-Indo-Hittite?

and Sarama cultures, domestication of the horse.
ca. 4000-3500 BC. The Yamna culture, the Pre-LIE and Pre-PAn dialects evolve in
kurgan builders, emerges in the steppe, and the different communities but presumably still in
Maykop culture in northern Caucasus. contact within the same territory.
ca. 3500-3000 BC. Yamna culture at its peak: Proto-Anatolian becomes isolated (either to the
stone idols, two-wheeled proto-chariots, animal south of the Caucasus or in the Balkans), and
husbandry, permanent settlements and hillforts, has no more contacts with the linguistic
subsisting on agriculture and fishing, along innovations of the common Late Indo-
rivers. Contact of the Yamna culture with late European language.
Neolithic Europe cultures results in kurganised Late Indo-European evolves in turn into
Globular Amphora and Baden cultures. Maykop dialects, at least a Southern or Graeco-Aryan
culture shows earliest evidence of the beginning and a Northern one.
Bronze Age; bronze weapons and artifacts
introduced.
ca. 3000-2500 BC. The Yamna culture extends Dialectal communities begin to migrate,
over the entire Pontic steppe. The Corded Ware remaining still in loose contact, enabling the
culture extends from the Rhine to the Volga, spread of the last common phonetic and
corresponding to the latest stage of IE unity. morphological innovations, and loan words.
Different cultures disintegrate, still in loose PAn, spoken in Asia Minor, evolves into
contact, enabling the spread of technology. Common Anatolian.
ca. 2500-2000 BC. The Bronze Age reaches The breakup of the southern IE dialects is
Central Europe with the Beaker culture of complete. Proto-Greek spoken in the Balkans;
Northern Indo-Europeans. Indo-Iranians settle Proto-Indo-Iranian in Central Asia; North-
north of the Caspian in the Sintashta-Petrovka West Indo-European in Northern Europe;
and later the Andronovo culture. Common Anatolian dialects in Anatolia.
ca. 2000-1500 BC. The chariot is invented, Indo-Iranian splits up in two main dialects,
leading to the split and rapid spread of Iranians Indo-Aryan and Iranian. European proto-
and other peoples from the Andronovo culture dialects like Pre-Germanic, Pre-Celtic, Pre-
and the Bactria-Margiana Complex over much of Italic, and Pre-Balto-Slavic differentiate from
Central Asia, Northern India, Iran and Eastern each other. Anatolian languages like Hittite
Anatolia. Greek Darg Ages and flourishing of the and Luwian are written down; Indo-Iranian
Hittite Empire. Pre-Celtic Unetice culture. attested through Mitanni; a Greek dialect,
Mycenaean, is already spoken.
ca. 1500-1000 BC. The Nordic Bronze Age sees Celtic, Italic, Germanic, Baltic and Slavic are
the rise of the Germanic Urnfield and the Celtic already different proto-languages, developing
Hallstatt cultures in Central Europe, introducing in turn different dialects. Iranian and other
the Iron Age. Italic peoples move to the Italian related southern dialects expand through
Peninsula. Rigveda composed. Decline of Hittite military conquest, and Indo-Aryan spreads in
Kingdoms and the Mycenaean civilisation. the form of its sacred language, Sanskrit.
ca. 1000-500 BC. Northern Europe enters the Celtic dialects spread over western Europe,
Pre-Roman Iron Age. Early Indo-European German dialects to the south of Jutland. Italic
Kingdoms and Empires in Eurasia. In Europe, languages in the Italian Peninsula. Greek and
Classical Antiquity begins with the flourishing of Old Italic alphabets appear. Late Anatolian
the Greek peoples. Foundation of Rome. dialects. Cimmerian, Scythian and Sarmatian
in Asia, Palaeo-Balkan languages in the
Balkans.
68
1. Introduction
1.5. OTHER ARCHAEOLINGUISTIC THEORIES
1.5.1. The most known new alternative theory concerning PIE is the Glottalic theory.
It assumes that Proto-Indo-European was pronounced more or less like Armenian,
i.e. instead of PIE *p, *b, *bh, the pronunciation would have been *p‟, *p, *b, and the
same with the other two voiceless-voiced-voiced aspirated series of consonants
usually reconstructed. The IE Urheimat would have been then located in the
surroundings of Anatolia, especially near Lake Urmia, in northern Iran, hence the
archaism of Anatolian dialects and the glottalics found in Armenian.
NOTE. Those linguistic and archaeological findings are supported by Gamkredlize-Ivanov

(―The early history of Indo-European languages‖, Scientific American, 1990) where early
Indo-European vocabulary deemed ―of southern regions‖ is examined, and similarities with
Semitic and Kartvelian languages are also brought to light.
This theory is generally rejected; Beekes (1995) for all: ―But this theory is in fact very
improbable. The presumed loan-words are difficult to evaluate, because in order to do so the
Semitic words and those of other languages would also have to be evaluated. The names of
trees are notoriously unreliable as evidence. The words for panther, lion and elephant are
probably incorrectly reconstructed as PIE words.‖
1.5.2. Alternative theories include:
I. The European Homeland thesis maintains that the common origin of the IE
languages lies in Europe. These hypotheses are often driven by archeological
theories. A. Häusler (Die Indoeuropäisierung Griechenlands, Slovenska Archeológia
29, 1981; etc.) continues to defend the hypothesis that places Indo-European origins
in Europe, stating that all the known differentiation emerged in the continuum from
the Rhin to the Urals.
NOTE. It has been traditionally located in 1) Lithuania and the surrounding areas, by R.G.
Latham (1851) and Th. Poesche (Die Arier. Ein Beitrag zur historischen Anthropologie,
1878); 2) Scandinavia, by K.Penka (Origines ariacae, 1883); 3) Central Europe, by G.
Kossinna (―Die Indogermanische Frage archäologisch beantwortet‖, Zeitschrift für
Ethnologie, 34, 1902), P.Giles (The Aryans, 1922), and by linguist/archaeologist G. Childe
(The Aryans. A Study of Indo-European Origins, 1926).
a. The Paleolithic Continuity theory posits that the advent of IE languages should
be linked to the arrival of Homo sapiens in Europe and Asia from Africa in the Upper
Paleolithic. The PCT proposes a continued presence of Pre-IE and non-IE peoples
69
and languages in Europe from Paleolithic times, allowing for minor invasions and
infiltrations of local scope, mainly during the last three millennia.
NOTE. There are some research papers concerning the PCT available at
<http://www.continuitas.com/>. Also, the PCT could in turn be connected with Frederik
Kortlandt‘s Indo-Uralic and Altaic studies <http://kortlandt.nl/publications/>.
On the temporal relationship question, Mallory–Adams (2007): ―Although there are still
those who propose solutions dating back to the Palaeolithic, these cannot be reconciled with
the cultural vocabulary of the Indo-European languages. The later vocabulary of Proto-Indo-
European hinges on such items as wheeled vehicles, the plough, wool, which are attested in
Proto-Indo-European, including Anatolian. It is unlikely then that words for these items
entered the Proto-Indo-European lexicon prior to about 4000 BC.‖
b. A new theory put forward by Colin Renfrew relates IE expansion to the Neolithic
revolution, causing the peacefully spreading of an older pre-IE language into Europe
from Asia Minor from around 7000 BC, with the advance of farming. It proposes that
the dispersal (discontinuity) of Proto-Indo-Europeans originated in Neolithic
Anatolia.
NOTE. Reacting to criticism, Renfrew by 1999 revised his proposal to the effect of taking a
pronounced Indo-Hittite position. Renfrew‘s revised views place only Pre-Proto-Indo-
European in seventh millennium Anatolia, proposing as the homeland of Proto-Indo-
European proper the Balkans around 5000 BC, explicitly identified as the ―Old European
culture‖ proposed by Gimbutas.
Mallory–Adams (2007): ―(…) in both the nineteenth century and then again in the later
twentieth century, it was proposed that Indo-European expansions were associated with the
spread of agriculture. The underlying assumption here is that only the expansion of a new
more productive economy and attendant population expansion can explain the widespread
expansion of a language family the size of the Indo-European. This theory is most closely
associated with a model that derives the Indo-Europeans from Anatolia about the seventh
millennium BC from whence they spread into south-eastern Europe and then across Europe in
a Neolithic ‗wave of advance‘.
(…) Although the difference between the Wave of Advance and Kurgan theories is quite
marked, they both share the same explanation for the expansion of the Indo-Iranians in Asia
(and there are no fundamental differences in either of their difficulties in explaining the
Tocharians), i.e. the expansion of mobile pastoralists eastwards and then southwards into Iran
and India. Moreover, there is recognition by supporters of the Neolithic theory that the ‗wave
of advance‘ did not reach the peripheries of Europe (central and western Mediterranean,
70
1. Introduction
Atlantic and northern Europe) but that these regions adopted agriculture from their
neighbours rather than being replaced by them‖.
Talking about these new hypotheses, Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998) discuss the

relevance that is given to each new personal archaeological ‗revolutionary‘ theory: ―[The
hypothesis of Colin Renfrew (1987)] is based on ideas about the diffusion of agriculture from
Asia to Europe in [the fifth millennium Neolithic Asia Minor], diffusion that would be united
to that of Indo-Europeans; it doesn‘t pay attention at all to linguistic data. The [hypothesis of
Gamkrelidze–Ivanov (1980, etc.)], which places the Homeland in the contact zone between
Caucasian and Semitic peoples, south of the Caucasus, is based on real or supposed lexical
loans; it disregards morphological data altogether, too. Criticism of these ideas – to which
people have paid too much attention – are found, among others, in Meid (1989), Villar (1991),
etc.‖
II. Another hypothesis, contrary to the European ones, also mainly driven today by
nationalistic or religious views, traces back the origin of PIE to Vedic Sanskrit,
postulating that this is very pure, and that the origin of common Proto-Indo-
European can thus be traced back to the Indus Valley Civilisation of ca. 3000 BC.
NOTE. Pan-Sanskritism was common among early Indo-Europeanists, as Schlegel, Young,

A. Pictet (Les origines indoeuropéens, 1877) or Schmidt (who preferred Babylonia), but are
now mainly supported by those who consider Sanskrit almost equal to Late Proto-Indo-
European. For more on this, see S. Misra (The Aryan Problem: A Linguistic Approach, 1992),
Elst (Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate, 1999), followed up by S.G. Talageri (The
Rigveda: A Historical Analysis, 2000), both part of ―Indigenous Indo-Aryan‖ viewpoint by
N. Kazanas, the ―Out of India‖ theory, with a framework dating back to the times of the Indus
Valley Civilisation.
1.6. RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER LANGUAGES
1.6.1. Many higher-level relationships between PIE and other language families
have been proposed, but these speculative connections are highly controversial.
Perhaps the most widely accepted proposal is of an Indo-Uralic family, encompassing
PIE and Proto-Uralic, a language from which Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian, Saami
and a number of other languages belong. The evidence usually cited in favour of this
is the proximity of the proposed Urheimaten for both of them, the typological
similarity between the two languages, and a number of apparent shared morphemes.
NOTE. Other proposals, further back in time (and correspondingly less accepted), model
PIE as a branch of Indo-Uralic with a Caucasian substratum; link PIE and Uralic with Altaic
71
and certain other families in Asia, such as Korean, Japanese, Chukotko-Kamchatkan and
Eskimo-Aleut (representative proposals are Greenberg‘s Eurasiatic and its proposed parent-
language Nostratic); etc.
1.6.2. Indo-Uralic or Uralo-Indo-European is therefore a hypothetical language

family consisting of Indo-European and Uralic (i.e. Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic).
Most linguists still consider this theory speculative and its evidence insufficient to
conclusively prove genetic affiliation.
NOTE. The problem with lexical evidence is to weed out words due to borrowing, because
Uralic languages have been in contact with Indo-European languages for millennia, and
consequently borrowed many words from them.
Björn Collinder, author of the path-breaking Comparative Grammar of the Uralic

Languages (1960), a standard work in the field of Uralic studies, argued for the
kinship of Uralic and Indo-European (1934, 1954, 1965).
The most extensive attempt to establish sound correspondences between Indo-

European and Uralic to date is that of the late Slovenian linguist Bojan Čop. It was
published as a series of articles in various academic journals from 1970 to 1989 under
the collective title Indouralica. The topics to be covered by each article were sketched
out at the beginning of ―Indouralica II‖. Of the projected 18 articles only 11 appeared.
These articles have not been collected into a single volume and thereby remain
difficult to access.
Dutch linguist Frederik Kortlandt supports a model of Indo-Uralic in which its

speakers lived north of the Caspian Sea, and Proto-Indo-Europeans began as a group
that branched off westward from there to come into geographic proximity with the
Northwest Caucasian languages, absorbing a Northwest Caucasian lexical blending
before moving farther westward to a region north of the Black Sea where their
language settled into canonical Proto-Indo-European.
1.6.3. The most common arguments in favour of a relationship between PIH and
Uralic are based on seemingly common elements of morphology, such as:
Meaning PIE Proto-Uralic

‗I, me‘ *me ‗me‘ (Acc.), *mene ‗my‘ (Gen.) *mun, *mina ‗I‘
‗you‘ (sg) *tu (Nom.), *twe (Acc.), *tewe ‗your‘ (Gen.) *tun, *tina
1st P. singular *-m *-m
1st P. plural *-me *-me
72
1. Introduction
2nd P. singular *-s (active), *-tHa (perfect) *-t
2nd P. plural *-te *-te
Demonstrative *so ‗this, he/she‘ (animate nom) *ša (3rd person singular)
Interr. pron. (An.) *kwi- ‗who?, what?‘; *kwo- ‗who?, what?‘ *ken ‗who?‘, *ku-, ‗who?‘
Relative pronoun *jo- *-ja (nomen agentis)
Accusative *-m *-m
Ablative/partitive *-od *-ta
Nom./Acc. plural *-es (Nom. pl.), *-m-s (Acc. pl.) *-t
Oblique plural *-i (pronomin. pl., cf. *we-i- ‗we‘, *to-i- ‗those‘) *-i
Dual *-H₁ *-k
Stative *-s- (aorist); *-es-, *-t (stative substantive) *-ta
Negative particle *nei, *ne *ei- [negative verb] , *ne
‗to give‘ *deh3- *toHe-
‗to wet‘,‘water‘ *wed- ‗to wet‘, *wodr- ‗water‘ *weti ‗water‘
‗water‖ *mesg- ‗dip under water, dive‘ *muśke- ‗wash‘
‗to assign‘, *nem- ‗to assign, to allot‘, *h1nomn- ‗name‘ *nimi ‗name‘
‗name‘
‗metal‘ *h2weseh2- ‗gold‘ *waśke ‗some metal‘
‗trade‘ *mei- ‗exchange‘ *miHe- ‗give, sell‘
‗fish‘ *(s)kwalo- ‗large fish‘ *kala ‗fish‘
‗sister-in-law‘ *galou- ‗husband's sister‘ *kälɜ ‗sister-in-law‘
‗much‘ *polu- ‗much‘ *paljɜ ‗thick, much‘
1.7. INDO-EUROPEAN DIALECTS
SCHLEICHER‘S FABLE: FROM PIE TO MODERN ENGLISH
The so-called Schleicher's fable is a poem composed in PIE, published by August

Schleicher in 1868, originally named ―The Sheep and the Horses‖. It is written here
in the different reconstructible IE dialects for comparison.
NOTE. Only the versions inLate Indo-European early dialects are supposed to use correct
dialectal forms and vocabulary. The other examples – in PIH and late European proto-
languages – are mainly phonetic examples following the Late Indo-European morphological
and syntactical model.
73
A hypothetical PIH version (ca. 3500 BC?): h3owis h1ekwōskwe. • H3owis, kwesjo wlh1neh2 ne
h1est, • h1ekwoms spekét, • h1oinom gwrh3úm woghom wéghontm, • h1oinomkwe megeh2m
bhorom, • h1oinomkwe dhh1ghmonm h1oh1ku bhérontm. • H3owis nu h1ékwobhos weukwét: •
“Krd h2éghnutoi h1moí, • h1ekwoms h2égontm wih1róm wídntei”. • H1ekwōs tu weukwónt:
“Klu, h3owi! • krd h2éghnutoi nsméi wídntbhos: • h2ner, potis, h3owjom-r wlh1neh2m • swebhei
gwhermom westrom kwrneuti”. • H3owjom-kwe wlhneh2 ne h1esti. • Tod kékluwos h3owis
h2egrom bhugét.
CA (PAn), 2500 BC NWIE (N.LIE), ca. 2500 BC

Howis ekwōskwu. Owis ekwōskwe.
Howis, kwosjo ulhneh ne est, Owis, kwosjo wlnā ne est,
ekwons spekét, ekwons spekét,
oikom gwurrúm wogom wégontm, oinom gwrawúm woghom wéghontm,
oikomkwu megehm borom, oinomkwe megām bhorom,
oikomkwu dgomonm oku bérontm. oinomkwe dhghomonm ōkú bhérontm.
Howis nu ékwobos wūkwét: Owis nu ékwobhos weukwét:
“Krdi xégnutor moi, “Krdi ághnutor moi,
ekwons xégontm wiróm wídntę”. ekwons ágontm wīróm widntei”.
Ekwōs tu wūkwónt: “Klu, howi! Ekwōs tu weukwónt: “Klnéu, owi!
krdi hegnutor nsmę wídntbos: krdi ághnutor nsméi widntbhos:
hnḗr, potis, howjom-r ulhnehm neros, potis, owjom ar wlnām
swebę gwermom wéstrom kwrnūdi”. sebhei gwhormom westrom kwrneuti”.
Howjomkwu ulhneh ne esti. Owjomkwe wlnā ne esti.
Tod kékluwos howis hegrom bugét. Tod kékluwos owis agrom bhugét.
Proto-Aryan (S.LIE), ca. 2500 BC Proto-Greek (S.LIE), ca. 2500 BC

Awis aķwāsḳa. Owis ekwoikwe.
Awis, kasja wrnā na āst, Ówis, kwohjo wlānā ne ēst,
aķwans spaķát, ekwons spekét,
aikam gurúm waģham wáģhantm, oiwom kwarúm wokhom wekhontm,
aikamḳa maģham bharam, oiwomkwe megām phorom,
aikamḳa dhģhámanm āķu bharantm. oiwomkwe khthómonm ōku phérontm.
Awis nu áķwabhjas áwaukat: Ówis nu ékwophos éweukwet:
“Ķrdi ághnutai mai, “Krdi ákhnutoi moi,
aķwans aģantam wīrám wídntai”. ekwons ágontm wīróm wídntei”.
Áķwās tu áwawkant: “Ķrnudhí avi! Ékwoi tu éweukwont: “Klnuthi, owi!
ķrd ághnutai nsmái wídntbhjas: krdi ágnutoi nsméi wídntphos:
n r, patis, awjam ar wrnām anḗr, potis, owjom ar wlānām
swabhi gharmam wastram krnauti”. sephei kwhermom westrom kwrneuti”.
Awjamḳa wrnā na asti. Owjom-kwe wlānā ne esti.
Tat ķáķruwas awis aģram ábhugat. Tot kékluwos owis agrom éphuget.
74
1. Introduction
Proto-Celtic (ca. 1000 BC) Proto-Italic (ca. 1000 BC)

Owis ekwoikwe. Owis ekwoikwe.
Owis, kwosjo wlanā ne est, Owis, kwosjo wlānā ne est,
ekwōs spekét, ekwōs spekét,
oinom barúm woxom wéxontam, oinom grāwúm woxom wéxontem,
oinomkwe megam borom, oinomkwe megam φorom,
oinomkwe dxonjom āku berontam. oinomkwe xomonem ōku φerontem.
Owis nu ékwobos weukwét: Owis nu ékwoφos weukwét:
“Kridi áxnutor mai, “Kordi áxnutor mei,
ekwōs ágontom wīróm wídanti”. ekwōs ágontom wīróm wídentei”.
Ekwoi tu wewkwónt: “Kalnéu, owi! Ekwoi tu wewkwónt: “Kalnéu, owi!
kridi áxnutor ansméi wídantbos: kordi axnutor ensméi wídentφos:
neros, φotis, owjom ar wlanām neros, potis, owjom ar wlānām
sebi gwormom westrom kwarneuti”. seφei ghormom westrom kworneuti”.
Owjomkwe wlanā ne esti. Owjomkwe wlānā ne esti.
Tod kéklowos owis agrom bugét. Tud kékluwos owis agrom φugít.
Pre-Proto-Germanic (ca. 1000 BC) Proto-Balto-Slavic (ca. 1000 BC)

Awiz exwazxwe. Awis eḳwōskje.
Awiz, hwas wulnō ne est, Awis, kasja wilnā ne est,
exwanz spexét, eḳwas speḳét,
ainan karún wagan wéganðun, ainan grun waġan wéġantun,
ainanxwe mekon baran, ainanke megan baran,
ainanxwe gúmanan āxu béranðun. ainanke ġmanan ōku bérantun
Awiz nu éxwamaz weuxwéð: Awis nu eḳwamas wjaukjét:
“Hurti ágnuðai mei, “Ḳirdi ágnutei mei,
exwanz ákanðun werán wítanðī”. ekwans ágantun wirán wíduntei”.
Exwaz tu wewxwant: “Hulnéu, awi! Eḳwōs tu wjaukunt: “Kludí, awi!
hurti áknuðai unsmí wítunðmaz: ḳirdi ágnutei insméi wídūntmas:
neraz, faþiz, awjan ar wulnōn neras, patis, awjam ar wilnān
sibī warman wesþran hwurneuþi”. sebi gormom westran kjirnjautĭ”.
Awjanxwe wulnō ne isti. Áwjamkje wilnā ne esti.
Þat héxluwaz awiz akran bukéþ. Ta kjekluwas awis agram bugít.
Translation: « The Sheep and the Horses. • A sheep that had no wool • saw horses, • one
pulling a heavy wagon, • one carrying a big load, • and one carrying a man quickly. • The
sheep said to the horses: • “My heart pains me, • seeing a man driving horses”. • The horses
said: “Listen, sheep, • our hearts pain us when we see this: • a man, the master, makes the
wool of the sheep • into a warm garment for himself. • And the sheep has no wool”. • Having
heard this, the sheep fled into the plain. »
75
1.7.1. NORTHERN INDO-EUROPEAN DIALECTS
I. NORTH-WEST INDO-EUROPEAN
1. North-West Indo-European was probably spoken in Europe in the centuries on

either side of ca. 2500 BC, including Pre-Celtic, Pre-Italic, Pre-Germanic, Pre-Baltic,
and Pre-Slavic, among other ancestors of IE languages attested in Europe. Its
original common location is usually traced back to ―some place to the East of the
Rhine, to the North of the Alps and the Carpathian Mountains, to the South of
Scandinavia and to the East of the Eastern European Lowlands or Russian Plain, not
beyond Moscow‖ (Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza 1995-1998).
Generalized distribution of all Corded Ware variants (ca. 3200 -2300), with
adjacent third millennium cultures. Mallory–Adams (1997). The Globular
Amphora culture (ca. 3400-2800) overlaps with the early territory of the Corded
Ware culture (ca. 3200-2800 BC), which later expanded to east and west. (2011,
modified from Dbachmann 2005).
2. The Corded Ware (also Battle Axe or Single Grave) complex of cultures,
traditionally represents for many scholars the arrival of the first speakers of Northern
LIE in central Europe, coming from the Yamna culture. The complex dates from
about 3200-2300 BC. The Globular Amphorae culture may be slightly earlier, but the
relationship between these cultures remains unclear.
NOTE. From a linguistic-archaeological point of view, Beekes (1995): ―The combined use of
the horse and the ox-drawn wagon made the Indo-Europeans exceptionally mobile. It is
76
1. Introduction
therefore not surprising that they were able to migrate over such a very large area after having
first taken possession of the steppes (…). It has long been assumed that the Corded Ware
culture (from 3300 to 2300 B.C., in German the ‗Schnurkeramiker‘ of which the Battle Axe
culture, the Single Grave Folk, the East Baltic and the Fatyanovo culture on the upper reaches
of the Volga are all variants) from the middle Dniepr region and the upper Volga as far as
Scandinavia and Holland, was developed by an Indo-European people. They would seem to
have been nomads, their society was warlike, and they introduced both the horse and wagon.
We find them in Holland as early as 3000 B.C., where they are clearly immigrants, and it is
here that the earliest wheels of western Europe have been found. There is a problem in the fact
that this culture is very early indeed when compared to the Yamnaya culture (3600-2200 B.C.,
although the Yamnaya may be still older), but the central problem is the origin of Corded
Ware. The Globular Amphorae culture (‗Kugelamphoren‘ in German) preceded that of the
Corded Ware (as of 3500 B.C.) in roughly the same area, though it extended in a more
southerly direction and reached as far as the middle Dniepr and the Dniestr. The relation
between this culture and the Corded Ware culture is not clear, but it does seem probable that
there was a relationship of some kind.‖
Mallory–Adams (2007): ―Many of the language groups of Europe, i.e. Celtic, Germanic,
Baltic, and Slavic, may possibly be traced back to the Corded Ware horizon of northern,
central, and eastern Europe that flourished c. 3200-2300 BC. Some would say that the Iron
Age cultures of Italy might also be derived from this cultural tradition. For this reason the
Corded Ware culture is frequently discussed as a prime candidate for early Indo-European.‖
Anthony (2007) gives a detailed account of archaeological events: ―The Corded Ware
horizon spread across most of northern Europe, from Ukraine to Belgium, after 3000 BCE,
with the initial rapid spread happening mainly between 2900 and 2700 BCE. The defining
traits of the Corded Ware horizon were a pastoral, mobile economy that resulted in the near
disappearance of settlement sites (much like Yamnaya in the steppes), the almost universal
adoption of funeral rituals involving single graves under mounds (like Yamnaya), the diffusion
of stone hammer-axes probably derived from Polish TRB [=Funnelbeaker] styles, and the
spread of a drinking culture linked to particular kinds of cord-decorated cups and beakers,
many of which had local stylistic prototypes in variants of TRB ceramics. The material culture
of the Corded Ware horizon was mostly native to northern Europe, but the underlying
behaviors were very similar to those of the Yamnaya horizon, the broad adoption of a herding
economy based on mobility (using oxdrawn wagons and horses), and a corresponding rise in
the ritual prestige and value oflivestock. The economy and political structure of the Corded
Ware horizon certainly was influenced by what had emerged earlier in the steppes(…).
The Yamnaya and Corded Ware horizons bordered each other in the hills between Lvov and
Ivano-Frankovsk, Ukraine, in the upper Dniester piedmont around 2800-2600 BCE (see
77
figure). At that time early Corded Ware cemeteries were confined to the uppermost
headwaters of the Dniester west of Lvov, the same territory that had earlier been occupied by
the late TRB communities infiltrated by late Tripolye groups. If Corded Ware societies in this
region evolved from local late TRB origins, as many believe, they might already have spoken
an Indo-European language. Between 2700 and 2600 BCE Corded Ware and late Yamnaya
herders met each other on the upper Dniester over cups of mead or beer. This meeting was
another opportunity for language shift (…). The wide-ranging pattern of interaction that the
Corded Ware horizon inaugurated across northern Europe provided an optimal medium for
language spread. Late Proto-Indo-European languages penetrated the eastern end of this
medium, either through the incorporation of Indo-European dialects in the TRB base
population before the Corded Ware horizon evolved, or through Corded Ware-Yamnaya
contacts later, or both. Indo-European speech probably was emulated because the chiefs who
spoke it had larger herds of cattle and sheep and more horses than could be raised in northern
Europe, and they had a politico-religious culture already adapted to territorial expansion.‖
3. The Corded Ware horizon spans over centuries. Most linguists agree that
Northern LIE dialects shared a common origin within the original Yamnaya territory
(ca. 3500-2500 BC), and that North-West Indo-European was a close linguistic
community, already separated from Pre-Tocharian, during the time of the first
Corded Ware migrations (ca. 2900-2500 BC, in the Kurgan framework). After that
shared linguistic community, their speakers migrated to the east and west, spreading
over a huge territory, which turned into a European continuum of different IE
dialects in close contact.
4. The general internal linguistic division proposed for North-West Indo-European

includes a West European group, with Pre-Italic and Pre-Celtic, and an East
European group, comprising Pre-Baltic and Pre-Slavic. Pre-Germanic is usually
assumed to have belonged to the West European core, and to have had contacts with
East European later in time, into a loose Balto-Slavo-Germanic community.
NOTE 1. Those who divide between Italo-Celto-Germanic and Balto-Slavic include e.g.:
Burrow (1955): ―The Western group of Indo-European languages consisting of Italic, Celtic
and Germanic, is distinguished by certain common features in grammar and vocabulary,
which indicate a fairly close mutual connection in prehistoric times. These ties are particularly
close in the case of Italic and Celtic, even though they are not sufficient to justify the theory of
common Italo-Celtic.‖
Kortlandt (1990): ―If the speakers of the other satem languages can be assigned to the
Yamnaya horizon and the western Indo-Europeans to the Corded Ware horizon, it is attractive
78
1. Introduction
to assign the ancestors of the Balts and the Slavs to the Middle Dnieper culture [an eastern
extension of the Corded Ware culture, of northern Ukraine and Belarus, see below Indo-
Iranian].‖
Beekes (1995): ―Probably the Corded Ware people were the predecessors of the Germanic,
Celtic and Italic peoples, and, perhaps, of the Balto-Slavic peoples as well.‖
Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998): ―We think, to sum up, that a language more or

less common, between Celtic and Germanic, is plausible. And that in equally gradual terms,
but with a unity, if not complete, at least approximate, we should think the same for Baltic and
Slavic. Even though it is a theory that has awoken polemic discussions, with Meillet and Senn
as main representatives of the separation idea, Stang and Scherer of the unity; cf. Untermann
1957, Birnbaum 1975 (…) still more dubious is in relation with Illyrian, Venetic, etc. And
models of more unitary ‗common languages‘, like Indo-Iranian (…).‖
Those who divide between Italo-Celtic and Balto-Slavo-Germanic:
Gamkrelidze–Ivanov (1993-1994), departing from an Anatolian homeland: ―Especially

intense contacts at level 5 can be found between the Balto-Slavic-Germanic and Italic-Celtic
dialect areas. A long list of cognates can be adduced with lexical isoglosses reflecting close
historical interaction between these areas (see Meillet 1922) (…) New arrivals joined earlier
settlers to form an intermediate homeland shared by the tribes which later moved on to the
more western zones of Europe. This intermediate settlement area thus became a zone of
contacts and secondary rapprochements of dialects which had partially differentiated before
this. This is where the common lexical and semantic innovations were able to arise. (…) The
out-migration of the dialects from this secondary area - a secondary, or intermediate, proto-
homeland - to central and western Europe laid the foundation for the gradual rise of the
individual Italic, Celtic, Illyrian, Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic languages.‖
Mallory–Adams (2007), who suppose an early separation of all European dialects

independently from the parent language: ―A major group presumably created or maintained
by contact is labelled the North-West group and comprises Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic (as
one chain whose elements may have been in closer contact with one another), and additionally
Italic and Celtic. (…) The evidence suggests that this spread occurred at some time before
there were marked divisions between these languages so that these words appear to have been
‗inherited‘ from an early period‖; also, ―[t]here are so many of these words that are confined
within these five language groups (Celtic, Italic, Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic) that most
linguists would regard cognates found exclusively between any two or among all of these
groups as specifically North-West Indo-European and not demonstrably Proto-Indo-
European. To accept a series of cognates as reflections of a PIE word requires that the
evidence come from further afield than a series of contiguous language groups in Europe‖;
79
and, ―[t]he North-West European languages (Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, Celtic, Italic) shared a
series of common loanwords (probably created among themselves as well as derived from
some non-Indo-European source) at some period.‖
This late continuum of closely related Northwestern IE languages has been linked
to the Old European (Alteuropäisch) of Krahe (Unsere ältesten Flußnamen, 1964;
Die Struktur der alteuropäischen Hydronymie, 1964), the language of the oldest
reconstructed stratum of European hydronymy in Central and Western Europe.
NOTE. This ―Old European‖ is not to be confused with the term as used by Marija Gimbutas,
who applies it to Neolithic Europe. The character of these river names is Pre-Germanic and
Pre-Celtic, and dated by Krahe to ca. 2000 BC, although according to the recent
archaeological and linguistic studies, it should probably be deemed slightly earlier. Old
European river names are found in the Baltic and southern Scandinavia, in Central Europe,
France, the British Isles, and the Iberian and Italian peninsulas. This area is associated with
the spread of the later Western Indo-European dialects, the Celtic, Italic, Germanic, Baltic,
Slavic, and Illyrian branches. Notably exempt are the Balkans and Greece. Krahe locates the
geographical nucleus of this area as stretching from the Baltic across Western Poland and
Germany to the Swiss plateau and the upper Danube north of the Alps, while he considers the
Old European river names of southern France, Italy and Spain to be later imports, replacing
―Aegean-Pelasgian‖ and Iberian substrates, corresponding to Italic, Celtic and Illyrian
invasions from about 1300 BC.
Tovar (1977, 1979) combines the split of the Graeco-Aryan group with the development of an
‗Old European‘ language in Europe, which evolved into the historical languages attested.
Adrados (Arquelogía y diferenciación del indoeuropeo, Em. 47, 1979) assume, as we have
seen, a North-West Indo-European or Old European language (of ca. 2000 BC or earlier,
according to Krahe‘s account). In his view, the western core (Italo-Celto-Germanic) is still a
unitary dialect in the late dialect continuum, while the eastern core (Pre-Balto-Slavic) is
another, closely related dialect. This grouping has been supported by the latest phylogenetic
studies (Atkinson et al. 2005, Holm 2008, v.s.). According to that view, the late North-West
Indo-European community would have been similar e.g. to the German or to the North-
Germanic dialect continua: a West European core (equivalent to the German and
Scandinavian cores), plus a more different East European or Pre-Balto-Slavic territory
(equivalent to Dutch, and to Icelandic, respectively).
About the identification of the North-West European dialect continuum with the ―Old
European‖ concept, Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998): ―The IE languages of Europe
are all derived from [Late Indo-European]; most of them are [Northern dialects], Greek (and
Thracian, we think) are [Southern] dialects. The first ones ―crystallised‖ late, ca. 1000 BC or
80
1. Introduction
even later. But there are marks of earlier IE languages in Europe. Then a hypothesis results,
whereby an ancient IE language could have existed in Europe, previous to Baltic, Slavic,
Germanic, Latin, etc., a [Late Indo-European], or maybe an [Indo-Hittite] dialect.
This was put forward by the theory defended by Krahe (1964a, 1964b, among many
writings), in which the European hydronymy, because of its roots and suffixes, bears witness
to the existence of a European language previous to the differentiated languages (Germanic,
Celtic, etc.), which would have been born from it in a later date. This is the so-called ―Old
European‖ (Alteuropäisch). We would have here a new intermediate language. For a defence
of its presence in [the Iberian] Peninsula, cf. de Hoz 1963.
We lack otherwise data to decide the dialectal classification of this hypothetical language
(the existence of a distinct feminine speaks in favour of a [LIE dialect]). Some names have
been proposed: Drava, Dravos; Druna, Dravina, Dravonus; Dravan-, Dravantia, Druantia;
Druta, Drutus. Or, to put other example, Sava, Savos; Savina; Savara, Savira; Savintia;
Savistas. In cases like these, the roots are clearly IE, the suffixes too. The thesis that it is an IE
language previous to the known ones seems correct, if we take into account the huge time
span between the arrival of Indo-Europeans to Europe (in the fourth millennium BC) until the
―crystallisation‖ of European languages, much more recent (…)
Therefore, the proposal of Schmid [(Alteuropäisch und Indogermanisch, 1968)], that the
―Old European‖ of Krahe is simply IE, cannot be accepted. Apart from the arguments of Tovar
in different publications, especially in Tovar 1979 and 1977, we have to add that in our view
this IE knew the opposition masc./fem. -os/-a (-yə), i.e. it [derived from LIE]. We have to add
Tovar‘s corrections: we shouldn‘t think about a unitary language, impossible without political
and administrative unity, but about a series of dialects more or less evolved which clearly
shared certain isoglosses. (…)
Indeed, all these discoveries, that took place in the 1950s and later, remain valid today, if we
place them within the history of [Late Indo-European]. We still have to broaden its base by
setting ―Old European‖ (or more exactly its dialects) to the side of some IE languages whose
existence we trace back to Europe in a previous date to the formation of the big linguistic
groups that we know. They have left their marks not only in hydronymy (and toponymy and
onomastics in general), but also in the vocabulary of the later languages, and even in
languages that arrived to the historical age but are too badly attested; and, in any case, they
aren‘t Celtic, nor Illyran, nor Venetic, nor any other historical dialect, but independent and –
we believe – older languages.
The investigation of ―Old European‖ began precisely with the study of some toponymies and
personal names spread all over Europe, previously considered ―Ligurian‖ (by H. d‘Arbois de
Jubainville and C. Jullian) or ―Illyrian‖ (by J. Pokorny), with which those linguistic groups –
81
in turn badly known – were given an excessive extension, based only on some lexical
coincidences. Today those hypotheses are abandoned, but the concept of ―Old European‖ is
not always enough. It is commonly spoken about ―Pre-Celtic‖ languages, because in territories
occupied by Celts toponyms and ethnic names have non-Celtic phonetics: especially with
initial p (Parisii, Pictones, Pelendones, Palantia); there are also, in the Latin of those regions,
loans of the same kind (so Paramus in Hispania).
In [the Iberian] Peninsula, more specifically, it has been proposed that peoples like the
Cantabri, Astures, Pellendones, Carpetani and Vettones were possibly of Pre-Celtic language
(cf. Tovar 1949:12). More closed is the discussion around Lusitanian (…)‖ (see below).
5. Linguists have pointed out ancient language contacts of Italic with Celtic; Celtic
with Germanic; Germanic with Balto-Slavic. Southern dialectal isoglosses affect
Balto-Slavic and Tocharian, and only partially Germanic and Latin.
NOTE. According to Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998): ―One has to distinguish, in

this huge geographical space, different locations. We have already talked about the situation of
Germans to the West, and by their side, Celtic, Latin and Italic speakers; Balts and Slavs to the
East, the former to the North of the later. See, among others, works by Bonfante (1983, 1984),
about the old location of Baltic and Slavic-speaking communities. Isoglosses of different
chronology let us partially reconstruct the language history. Note that the output obtained
with phonetics and morphology match up essentially those of Porzig, who worked with lexica.‖
Celtic too shares isoglosses with Southern dialects, according to Meier-Brügger (2003):
―Celtic contacts with eastern Indo-Europe are ancient. Compare the case, among others, of
relative pronouns, which in Celtic, contrarily to the Italic *kwo-/*kwi-, is represented by *Hio-,
a characteristic that it shares with Greek, Phrygian, Indo-Iranian and Slavic.‖
Against the inclusion of Pre-Latin IE within West Indo-European, there are some
archaeological and linguistic theories (Szemerényi, Colin Renfrew; v.s. for J.P. Mallory);
Polomé (“The Dialectal Position of Germanic within West-Indo-European”, Proc. of the 13th
Int. Congress of Linguists, Tokyo, 1983) and Schmidt (1984, reviewed in Adrados–Bernabé–
Mendoza, 1995-1998) argued that innovations common to Celtic and Germanic came from a
time when Latin peoples had already migrated to the Italian peninsula, i.e. later than those
common to Celtic, Latin and Germanic.
On the unity of Proto-Italic and Proto-Latin, Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998):

―dubious is the old unity scheme, no doubt only partial, between Latin and Osco-Umbrian,
which has been rejected by famous Italian linguists, relating every coincidence to recent
contacts. I am not so sure about that, as the common innovations are big; cf. Beeler 1966, who
doesn‘t however dispel the doubts. Obviously, according to the decision taken, there are
different historical consequences. If one thinks that both linguistic groups come from the
82
1. Introduction
North, through the Alps (cf. Tovar 1950), from the end of the 2nd millennium, a previous unity
can be proposed. But authors like Devoto (1962) or Szemerényi (1962) made Latin peoples
come from the East, through Apulia.‖ There has been a continued archaeological and
(especially) linguistic support by mainstream IE studies to the derivation of Italic (and Latin)
from a West Indo-European core, even after critics to the old Italo-Celtic concept (C. Watkins
Italo-Celtic Revisited, 1963, K.H. Schmidt Latein und Keltisch, 1986); see Porzig (Die
Gliederung des indogermanischen Sprachgebiets, 1954), Dressler (“Über die Reknostruktion
der idg. Syntax”, KZ 85, 1971), Tovar (1970), Pisani (Indogermanisch und Europa, 1974),
Bonfante (―Il celtibèrico, il cèltico e l‘indoeuropeo‖ in RALinc., ser. VIII 1983; “La protopatria
degli Slavi”, in Accademia Polaca delle Scienze, Conferenze 89, 1984), Adrados–Bernabé–
Mendoza (1995-1998), etc.; on the archaeological question, see Ghirshman (L‟Iran et la
migration des indo-aryens et des iraniens, 1977), Thomas (“Archaeological Evidence for the
Migrations of the Indo-Europeans”, in Polomé (ed.) 1984), Gimbutas (“Primary and
Secondary homeland of the Indo-Europeans”, JIES 13, 1985), etc.
On Meillet‘s Italo-Celtic, it appears today that the idea is rejected by a majority of scholars,
on the grounds of shared isoglosses which do not conform a community (cf. e.g. Watkins
1966). However, some common elections do reflect that both linguistic domains could in
ancient times penetrate each other (Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza 1995-1998). Recent
publications (Gamkrelidze–Ivanov 1994-1995, Kortlandt 2007, etc.), as well as quantitative
studies (see above §1.4.3) classify Italic and Celtic within the same branch, although
sometimes as a West group including a late Italo-Germanic or Celto-Germanic subgroup.
NOTE 3. Today, the contacts between Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian are usually classified as
from a late ‗areal‘ contact or Sprachbund, or some sort of late North-West–East continuum
(so e.g. in Kortlandt 1990, Mallory 1989, Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza 1995-1998, West 2007,
Anthony 2007); e.g. Mallory–Adams (2007): ―The Indo-Iranian and Balto-Slavic languages
share both satemisation and the ruki-rule and may have developed as some form of west–east
(or northwest–south-east) continuum with certain features running through them‖ (see below
Indo-Iranian).
6. The Germanic homeland is usually traced back to the Nordic Late Neolithic in
Scandinavia, still in contact with the Italo-Celtic homeland in Central Europe (Proto-
Únětice?); the Late Corded Ware groups to the east probably represent the Balto-
Slavic homeland. Beekes (1995), Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998), etc.
83
Eurasian cultures in 2000 BC, after the disintegration of IEDs.
Haywood et al. The Cassell Atlas of World History. (1997) (2011, modified from Briangotts 2009)
84
1. Introduction
A. GERMANIC
The largest Germanic

languages are English
and German, with ca.
340 and some 120
million native
speakers, respectively.
Other significant
languages include Low
Germanic dialects (like
Dutch) and the Germanic languages as first language of the
majority (dark colour) or official language of the
Scandinavian languages. country (light colour). (2011, modified from Shardz -
Hayden 2010)
Their common
ancestor is Proto-Germanic, probably still spoken in the mid-1st millennium B.C. in
Iron Age Northern Europe, since its separation from an earlier Pre-Proto-Germanic,
a Northern Indo-European dialect dated ca. 1500-500 BC. The succession of
archaeological horizons suggests that before their language differentiated into the
individual Germanic branches the Proto-Germanic speakers lived in southern
Scandinavia and along the coast from the Netherlands in the west to the Vistula in
the east around 750 BC. Early Germanic dialects enter history with the Germanic
peoples who settled in northern Europe along the borders of the Roman Empire from
the second century AD.
NOTE. A few surviving inscriptions in a runic script from Scandinavia dated to ca. 200 are
thought to represent a later stage of Proto-Norse; according to Bernard Comrie, it represents a
Late Common Germanic which followed the ―Proto-Germanic‖ stage. Several historical
linguists have pointed towards the apparent material and social continuity connecting the
cultures of the Nordic Bronze Age (1800-500 BC) and the Pre-Roman Iron Age (500 BC - AD
1) as having implications in regard to the stability and later development of the Germanic
language group. Lehmann (1977) writes: ―Possibly the most important conclusion based on
archeological evidence with relevance for linguistic purposes is the assumption of ‗one huge
cultural area‘ which was undisturbed for approximately a thousand years, roughly from 1500-
500 BC Such a conclusion in a stable culture permits inferences concerning linguistic stability,
which are important for an interpretation of the Germanic linguistic data.‖
85
The earliest evidence of the Germanic branch is recorded from names in the first
century by Tacitus, and in a single instance in the second century BC, on the Negau
helmet. From roughly the second century AD, some speakers of early Germanic
dialects developed the Elder Futhark. Early runic inscriptions are also largely limited
to personal names, and difficult to interpret. The Gothic language was written in the
Gothic alphabet developed by Bishop Ulfilas for his translation of the Bible in the
fourth century. Later, Christian priests and monks who spoke and read Latin in
addition to their native Germanic tongue began writing the Germanic languages with
slightly modified Latin letters, but in Scandinavia, runic alphabets remained in
common use throughout the Viking Age.
The so-called Grimm‘s law is a set of statements describing the inherited North-
West Indo-European
stops as they
developed in Pre-
Proto-Germanic. As it Negau helmet. It reads (from right to left):

is presently ///
harikastiteiva\\\ip, ―Harigast the priest‖. (PD, n.d.)
formulated, Grimm‘s
Law consists of three parts, which must be thought of as three consecutive phases in
the sense of a chain shift:
 Voiceless stops change to PGmc. voiceless fricatives: p→*f, t→*θ, k→*x,

kw→*xw.
 Voiced stops become PGmc. voiceless stops: b→*p, d→*t, g→*k, gw→*kw.
 Voiced aspirated stops lose their aspiration and change into plain voiced
stops: bh→*b, dh→*d, gh→*g, gwh→*gw,*g,*w.
Verner‘s Law addresses a category of exceptions, stating that unvoiced fricatives are
voiced when preceded by an unaccented syllable: PGmc. *s→*z, *f→*v, *θ→*ð; as,
NWIE bhratēr → PGmc. *brōþēr ‗brother‘, but NWIE mātḗr → PGmc. *mōðēr
‗mother‘.
NOTE 1. W. P. Lehmann (1961) considered that Jacob Grimm‘s ―First Germanic Sound
Shift‖, or Grimm‘s Law and Verner's Law, which pertained mainly to consonants and were
considered for a good many decades to have generated Proto-Germanic, were Pre-Proto-
Germanic, and that the ―upper boundary‖ was the fixing of the accent, or stress, on the root
syllable of a word, typically the first. Proto-Indo-European had featured a moveable pitch
86
1. Introduction
accent comprising ―an alternation of high and low tones‖ as well as stress of position
determined by a set of rules based on the lengths of the word's syllables.
The fixation of the stress led to sound changes in unstressed syllables. For Lehmann, the
―lower boundary‖ was the dropping of final -a or -e in unstressed syllables; for example, PIE
woid-á >, Goth. wait, ―knows‖ (the > and < signs in linguistics indicate a genetic descent).
Antonsen (1965) agreed with Lehmann about the upper boundary but later found runic
evidence that the -a was not dropped: Gmc. ékwakraz ... wraita ‗I wakraz ... wrote (this)‘. He
says: ―We must therefore search for a new lower boundary for Proto-Germanic‖.
NOTE 2. Sometimes the shift produced

allophones (consonants that were
pronounced differently) depending on the
context of the original. With regard to
original PIE k and kw, Trask (2000) says
that the resulting PGmc. *x and *xw were
reduced to *h and *hw in word-initial
position. Consonants were lengthened or
prolonged under some circumstances,
appearing in some daughter languages as
geminated graphemes. Kraehenmann
(2003) states that Proto-Germanic
already had long consonants, but they
contrasted with short ones only word- Nordic Bronze Age culture (ca. 1200 BC),
medially. Moreover, they were not very Harper Atlas of World History (1993, PD)
frequent and occurred only intervocally almost exclusively after short vowels. The phonemes
*b, *d, *g and *gw, says Ringe (2006) were stops in some environments and fricatives in
others.
Effects of the aforementioned sound laws include the following examples:
 p→f: pods, foot, cf. PGmc. fōts; cf. Goth. fōtus, O.N. fōtr, O.E. fōt, O.H.G. fuoz.
 t→þ,ð: tritjós, third, cf. PGmc. þriðjaz; cf. Goth. þridja, O.N. þriðe, O.E. þridda,
O.H.G. dritto.
 k→x,h: kwon, dog, cf. PGmc. xunðaz; cf. Goth. hunds, O.N. hundr, O.E. hund,
O.H.G. hunt.
 kw→xw,hw: kwos, what, who, cf. Gmc. hwoz; cf. Goth. hwas, O.N. hverr, O.S. hwe,
O.E. hwā, O.Fris. hwa, O.H.G. hwër.
87
 b→p: werbō, throw, cf. Gmc. werpō; cf. Goth. wairpan, O.S. werpan, O.N.
verpa, O.E. weorpan, M.L.G., Du. werpen, Ger. werfen.
 d→t: dekm, ten, cf. Gmc. tehun; cf. Goth. taihun, O.S. tehan, O.N. tiu, O.Fris.
tian, O.Du. ten, O.H.G. zehan.
 g→k: gelu, ice, cf. Gmc. kaldaz; cf. Goth. kalds, O.N. kaldr, O.E. cald, O.H.G.
kalt.
 gw→kw: gwīwós, alive, cf. Gmc. kwi(k)waz; cf. Goth. kwius, O.N. kvikr, O.E. cwic,
O.H.G. quec.
 bh→b: bhrātēr, brother, cf. Gmc. brōþēr; cf. Goth. bróþar, O.N. brōþir, O.E.
brōþor, O.H.G. bruoder.
 dh→d: dhworis, door, cf. Gmc. duriz; cf. Goth. daúr, O.N. dyrr, O.E duru,
O.H.G. turi.
 gh→g: ghansis, goose, cf. Gmc. gansiz; cf. Goth gansus, O.N. gās, O.E. gōs,
O.H.G. gans.
 gwh→gw/g/w: gwhormos, warm, cf. Gmc. warmaz; cf. O.N. varmr, O.E.
wearm, O.H.G. warm. For gwhondos, fight, cf. Gmc. gandaz; cf. Goth. gunþs,
O.N. gandr, O.E. gūþ, O.H.G. gund.
Putzger, Historischer Atlas (1954) (Dbachmann 2005)
88
1. Introduction
A known exception is that the voiceless stops did not become fricatives if they were
preceded by PIE s., i.e. sp, st, sk, skw. Similarly, PIE t did not become a fricative if it
was preceded by p, k, or kw. This is sometimes treated separately under the
Germanic spirant law.
NWIE vowels: a,o→*a; ā,ō→*ō. PGmc. had then short *i, *u, *e, *a, and long *ī, *ū,
*ē, *ō, *ǣ?
NOTE 1. Similar mergers happened in the Slavic languages, but in the opposite direction. At
the time of the merge, the vowels probably were [ɒ] and [ɒ:] before their timbres
differentiated into maybe [ɑ] and [ɓ:].
NOTE 2. PGmc. *ǣ and *ē are also transcribed as *ē1 and *ē2; *ē2 is uncertain as a phoneme,
and only reconstructed from a small number of words; it is posited by the comparative
method because whereas all probable instances of inherited NWIE ē (PGmc. *ē1) are
distributed in Gothic as ē and the other Germanic languages as ā, all the Germanic languages
agree on some occasions of ē (e.g. PGmc. *hē2r → Goth.,O.E.,O.N. hēr, ―here‖). Krahe treats
*ē2 (secondary *ē) as identical with *ī. It probably continues NWIE ei or ēi, and it may have
been in the process of transition from a diphthong to a long simple vowel in the Proto-
Germanic period. Gothic makes no orthographic and therefore presumably no phonetic
distinction between *ē1 and *ē2. The existence of two Proto-Germanic [e:]-like phonemes is
supported by the existence of two e-like Elder Futhark runes, Ehwaz and Eihwaz.
B. LATIN
The Romance or
Romanic (also Neolatin)
languages comprise all
languages that
descended from Latin,
the language of the
Roman Empire.
Romance languages
have some 800 million
Regions where Romance languages are spoken as native speakers
official languages (dark), by sizeable minorities or
official status (lighter) (2011 modified from PD)
worldwide, mainly in the
Americas, Europe, and Africa, as well as in many smaller regions scattered through
the world. The largest languages are Spanish and Portuguese, with about 400 and
89
200 million mother tongue speakers respectively, most of them outside Europe.
Within Europe, French (with 80 million) and Italian (70 million) are the largest ones.
All Romance languages descend from Vulgar Latin, the language of soldiers, settlers,
and slaves of the Roman Empire, which was substantially different from the Classical
Latin of the Roman literati. Between 200 BC and AD 100, the expansion of the
Empire, coupled with administrative and educational policies of Rome, made Vulgar
Latin the dominant native language over a wide area spanning from the Iberian
Peninsula to the Western coast of the Black Sea. During the Empire‘s decadence and
after its collapse and fragmentation in the fifth century, Vulgar Latin evolved
independently within each local area, and eventually diverged into dozens of distinct
languages. The oversea empires established by Spain, Portugal and France after the
fifteenth century then spread Romance to the other continents — to such an extent
that about two thirds of all Romance
speakers are now outside Europe.
Latin is usually classified, along

with Faliscan, as an Italic dialect. The
Italic speakers were not native to
Italy, but migrated into the Italian
Peninsula in the course of the second
millennium BC, and were apparently
related to the Celtic tribes that
roamed over a large part of Western
Europe at the time.
Archaeologically, the Apennine

culture of inhumations enters the
Italian Peninsula from ca. 1350 BC,
east to west; the Iron Age reaches Based on The Harper Atlas of World
History 1987 (Zymos 2007)
Italy from ca. 1100 BC, with the
Villanovan culture (with the practice of cremation), intruding north to south. The
later Osco-Umbrian, Veneti and Lepontii peoples, as well as the Latino-Faliscans,
have been associated with this culture. The first settlement on the Palatine hill dates
to ca. 750 BC, settlements on the Quirinal to 720 BC, both related to the founding of
Rome. As Rome extended its political dominion over Italy, Latin became dominant
90
1. Introduction
over the other Italic languages, which ceased to be spoken perhaps sometime in the
first c. AD.
Italic is usually
divided into:
 Sabellic, including:
o Oscan, spoken
in south-central
Italy.
o Umbrian
group:
 Umbrian.
 Volscian.
 Aequian.
 Marsian.
 South
Picene.
 Latino-Faliscan,
including:
o Faliscan,
spoken in the
area around
Ethnic groups within the Italian peninsula, ca. 600-500
Falerii Veteres, BC. In central Italy, Italic languages, (2011, modified
from Ewan ar Born)
north of the city
of Rome.
o Latin, spoken in west-central Italy. The Roman conquests eventually spread
it throughout the Roman Empire and beyond.
The ancient Venetic language, as revealed by its inscriptions (including complete

sentences), was also closely related to the Italic languages and is sometimes even
classified as Italic. However, since it also shares similarities with other Western Indo-
European branches (particularly Germanic), some linguists prefer to consider it an
independent IE language.
Phonetic changes from NWIE to Latin include: bh→f/b, dh→f/b, gh→h/f, gw→w/g,
kw→kw/k, p→p/kw.
91
The Italic languages are first attested in writing from Umbrian and Faliscan
inscriptions dating to the seventh century BC. The alphabets used are based on the
Old Italic alphabet, which is itself based on
the Greek alphabet. The Italic languages
themselves show minor influence from the
Etruscan and somewhat more from the
Ancient Greek languages.
Oscan had much in common with Latin,

though there are also some differences,
and many common word-groups in Latin
were represented by different forms; as,
Lat. uolo, uelle, uolui, and other such
forms from PIE wel-, will, were
represented by words derived from gher-,
desire, cf. Osc. herest ‗he wants, desires‘ as
opposed to Lat. uult (id.). Lat. locus ‗place‘
was absent and represented by Osc.
slaagid.
In phonology, Oscan also shows a

different evolution, as NWIE kw→ Osc. p The Duenos (O.Lat. duenus, Lat.
buenus) Inscription in Old Latin,
instead of Lat. kw (cf. Osc. pis, Lat. quis); sixth century BC. Illustration from
Hermes (1881, PD)
NWIE gw → Osc. b instead of Latin w;
NWIE medial bh, dh → Osc. f, in contrast to Lat. b or d (cf. Osc. mefiai, Lat. mediae);
etc.
NOTE. A specimen of Faliscan appears written round the edge of a picture on a patera: foied
vino pipafo, cra carefo, which in Old Latin would have been hodie vinom bibabo, cras carebo,
translated as ‗today I will drink wine; tomorrow I won't have any‘ (R. S. Conway, Italic
Dialects). Among other distinctive features, it shows the retention of medial f which in Latin
became b, and evolution of NWIE gh→f (fo-, contrast Lat. ho-).
Hence the reconstructed changes of North-West Indo-European into Proto-Italic:
 Voiced labiovelars unround or lenite: gw→*g/*w, gwh→*gh.

 Voiced aspirates become first unvoiced, then fricativise: bh→*ph→*ɸ→*f;
dh→*th→*θ; gh→*kh→*x.
92
1. Introduction
NOTE. About intervocalic gh → Ita. *x, linguists (see Joseph & Wallace 1991) generally
propose that it evolves as Faliscan g or k, while in Latin it becomes glottal h, without a change
of manner of articulation. Picard (1993) rejects that proposal citing abstract phonetic
principles, which Chela-Flores (1999) argues citing examples of Spanish phonology.
 NWIE s → Ita. *θ before r (cf. Ita. kereθrom, Lat. cerebrum); unchanged

elsewhere.
Up to 8 cases are found; apart from the 6 cases of Classic Latin (i.e. N-V-A-G-D-
Ab), there was a locative (cf. Lat. proxumae viciniae, domī, carthagini; Osc. aasai,
Lat. ‗in ārā‟, etc.) and an instrumental (cf. Columna Rostrata Lat. pugnandod,
marid, naualid, etc; Osc. cadeis amnud, Lat. ‗inimicitiae causae‟; Osc. preiuatud,
Lat. ‗prīuātō‟, etc.). For originally differentiated genitives and datives, compare
genitive (Lapis Satricanus:) Popliosio Valesiosio (the type in -ī is also very old,
Segomaros -i), and dative (Praeneste Fibula:) numasioi, (Lucius Cornelius Scipio
Epitaph:) quoiei.
C. CELTIC
The Celtic languages

are the languages
descended from Proto-
Celtic, or Common
Celtic.
During the first

millennium BC,
especially between 400-
100 BC they were spoken
across Europe, from the
southwest of the Iberian
Diachronic distribution of Celtic-speaking peoples:
maximal expansion (ca. 200 BC) and modern Celtic - Peninsula and the North
speaking territories. (2011, modified from Dbachmann
Sea, up the Rhine and
2010)
down the Danube to the
Black Sea and the Upper Balkan Peninsula, and into Asia Minor (Galatia). Today,
Celtic languages are now limited to a few enclaves in the British Isles and on the
peninsula of Brittany in France.
93
The distinction of Celtic into different sub-families probably occurred about 1000
BC. The early Celts are commonly associated with the archaeological Urnfield
culture, the La Tène culture, and the Hallstatt culture.
Some scholars distinguish Continental and Insular Celtic, arguing that the
differences between the Goidelic and Brythonic languages arose after these split off
from the Continental Celtic languages. Other scholars distinguish P-Celtic from Q-
Celtic, putting most of the Continental Celtic languages in the former group – except
for Celtiberian, which is Q-Celtic.
NOTE. There are two competing schemata of categorisation. One scheme, argued for by
Schmidt (1988) among others, links Gaulish with Brythonic in a P-Celtic node, leaving
Goidelic as Q-Celtic. The difference between P and Q languages is the treatment of NWIE kw,
which became *p in the P-Celtic languages but *k in Goidelic. An example is the Cel. verbal
root kwrin- ‗to buy‘, which became Welsh pryn-, but O.Ir. cren-.
The other scheme links Goidelic and Brythonic together as an Insular Celtic branch, while
Gaulish and Celtiberian are referred to as Continental Celtic. According to this theory, the ‗P-
Celtic‘ sound change of kw to p occurred independently or regionally. The proponents of the
Insular Celtic hypothesis point to other shared innovations among Insular Celtic languages,
including
inflected
prepositions,
VSO word order,
and the lenition
of intervocalic m
to β, a nasalised
voiced bilabial
fricative (an
extremely rare
sound), etc.
There is,
however, no
assumption that
the Continental Hallstatt core territory (ca. 800 BC) and its influence (ca. 500
Celtic languages BC); La Tène culture (ca. 450) and its influence (ca. 50 BC).
Major Celtic tribes are labelled. (Mod. from Dbachmann 2008)
descend from a
94
1. Introduction
common ―Proto-Continental Celtic‖ ancestor. Rather, the Insular/Continental schemata

usually consider Celtiberian the first branch to split from Proto-Celtic, and the remaining
group would later have split into Gaulish and Insular Celtic.
Known NWIE evolutions into Proto-Celtic include:
 Consonants: p →*ɸ→*h→∅ in initial and intervocalic positions. Cel. *ɸs→xs,

*ɸt→xt
NOTE. LIE p was lost in

Proto-Celtic, apparently going
through the stages ɸ (perhaps
in Lus. porcos) and h (perhaps
attested by the toponym
Hercynia if this is of Celtic
origin) before being lost
completely word-initially and
between vowels. NWIE sp-
became Old Irish s and
Brythonic f; while Schrijver
(1995) argues there was an Gaulish iscription ϹΕΓΟΜΑΡΟϹ ΟΥΙΛΛΟΝΕΟϹ
intermediate stage *sɸ- (in ΤΟΟΥΤΙΟΥϹ ΝΑΜΑΥϹΑΤΙϹ ΕΙωΡΟΥ ΒΗΛΗϹΑΜΙ
ϹΟϹΙΝ ΝΕΜΗΤΟΝ "Segomaros, son of Uillū, citizen
which ɸ remained an (toutious) of Namausos, dedicated this sanctuary to
independent phoneme until Belesama" (Fabrice Philibert-Caillat 2004)
after Proto-Insular Celtic had diverged into Goidelic and Brythonic), McCone (1996) finds it
more economical to believe that sp- remained unchanged in PC, that is, the change p to *ɸ
did not happen when s preceded.
 Aspirated: dh→d, bh→b, gh→x, gwh→gw; but gw→b.

 Vowels: ō → ā, ū (in final syllable); ē→ī; NWIE u-w → Cel. o-w.
 Diphthongs: āi→ai, ēi→ei, ōi→oi; āu→au, ēu,ōu→ou.
 Resonants: l→la, li (before stops); r → ar, ri (before stops); m → am; n → an.
Italo-Celtic refers to the hypothesis that Italic and Celtic dialects are descended
from a common ancestor, Proto-Italo-Celtic, at a stage post-dating Late Indo-
European. Since both Proto-Celtic and Proto-Italic date to the early Iron Age (say,
the centuries on either side of 1000 BC), a probable time frame for the assumed
period of language contact would be the late Bronze Age, the early to mid-second
95
millennium BC. Such grouping was proposed by Meillet (1890), and has been
recently supported by Kortlandt (2007), among others (see above).
NOTE. One argument for Italo-Celtic was the thematic genitive in I (e.g. dominus, domini).
Both in Italic (Popliosio Valesiosio, Lapis Satricanus) and in Celtic (Lepontic, Celtiberian -o),
however, traces of PIE genitive -osjo have been discovered, so that the spread of the i-genitive
could have occurred in the two groups independently, or by areal diffusion. The community of
-ī in Italic and Celtic may be then attributable to late contact, rather than to an original unity.
The i-Genitive has been compared to the so-called Cvi formation in Sanskrit, but that too is
probably a comparatively late development.
Other arguments include that both Celtic and Italic have collapsed the PIE Aorist and
Perfect into a single past tense, and the ā-subjunctive, because both Italic and Celtic have a
subjunctive descended from an earlier optative in -ā-. Such an optative is not known from
other languages, but the suffix occurs in Balto-Slavic and Tocharian past tense formations,
and possibly in Hitt. -ahh-.
D. SLAVIC
The Slavic or Slavonic

languages have speakers
in most of Eastern Europe,
in much of the Balkans, in
parts of Central Europe,
and in the northern part of
Asia. The largest
languages are Russian and
Polish, with 165 and some
World map of countries with a majority Slavic 47 million speakers,

speakers (dark colour), and a significant minority respectively. The oldest
(light) of more than 10%. (Therexbanner 2010)
Slavic literary language
was Old Church Slavonic, which later evolved into Church Slavonic.
There is much debate on whether Pre-Slavic branched off directly from a Northern
LIE dialect, or it passed through a common Proto-Balto-Slavic stage, which would
have necessarily split apart before 1000 BC in its two main sub-branches.
96
1. Introduction
The original homeland of the speakers of Proto-Slavic remains controversial too.

The most ancient recognisably Slavic hydronyms are to be found in northern and
western Ukraine and southern Belarus. It has also been noted that Proto-Slavic
seemingly lacked a maritime
vocabulary.
The Proto-Slavic language

secession from a common
Proto-Balto-Slavic is
estimated on archaeological
and glottochronological
criteria to have occurred
between 1500-1000 BC (see
below Baltic). Common
Slavic is usually
reconstructible to around AD
Based on information and maps from Mallory–
600. Adams (1997). (Slovenski Volk 2009)
By the seventh century, Common Slavic had broken apart into large dialectal zones.
Linguistic differentiation received impetus from the dispersion of the Slavic peoples
over a large territory – which in Central Europe exceeded the current extent of
Slavic-speaking territories. Written documents of the ninth, tenth and eleventh
centuries already show some local linguistic features.
NOTE. For example the Freising monuments show a language which contains some
phonetic and lexical elements peculiar to Slovenian dialects (e.g. rhotacism, the word
krilatec).
In the second half of the ninth century, the dialect spoken north of Thessaloniki
became the basis for the first written Slavic language, created by the brothers Cyril
and Methodius who translated portions of the Bible and other church books. The
language they recorded is known as Old Church Slavonic. Old Church Slavonic is not
identical to Proto-Slavic, having been recorded at least two centuries after the
breakup of Proto-Slavic, and it shows features that clearly distinguish it from Proto-
Slavic. However, it is still reasonably close, and the mutual intelligibility between Old
Church Slavonic and other Slavic dialects of those days was proved by Cyril‘s and
Methodius‘ mission to Great Moravia and Pannonia. There, their early South Slavic
97
dialect used for the translations was clearly understandable to the local population
which spoke an early West Slavic dialect.
As part of the preparation for the mission, the Glagolitic alphabet was created in
862 and the most important prayers and liturgical books, including the Aprakos
Evangeliar – a Gospel Book lectionary containing only feast-day and Sunday readings
–, the Psalter, and Acts of the Apostles, were translated. The language and the
alphabet were taught at the Great Moravian Academy (O.C.S. Veľkomoravské
učilište) and were used for government and religious documents and books. In 885,
the use of the O.C.S. in Great Moravia was prohibited by the Pope in favour of Latin.
Students of the two apostles, who were expelled from Great Moravia in 886, brought
the Glagolitic alphabet and the Old Church Slavonic language to the Bulgarian
Empire, where it was taught and Cyrillic alphabet developed in the Preslav Literary
School.
Vowel changes from Late Indo-

European to Proto-Slavic:
 LIE *ī, *ei → Sla. *i1; LIE *i →*i →

Sla. *ь; LIE *u → *u → Sla. *ъ;
LIE ū → Sla. *y.
 LIE *e → Sla. *e; LIE *ē → Sla.
*ě1;
 LIE *en, *em → Sla. *ę; LIE *an,
*on; *am, *om →*an; *am → Sla.
* ǫ.
 LIE *a, *o → *a → Sla. *o; LIE *ā,
*ō → *ā → Sla. *a; LIE *ai, *oi →
*ai → Sla. *ě2. Reduced *ai
(*ăi/*ui) → Sla. *i2; LIE *au,*ou
→ *au → Sla. *u.
NOTE. Apart from these simplified Page from Codex Zographensis (10 th -
11 th c. AD) in Old Church Slavonic. (PD)
equivalences, other patterns appear (see
Kortlandt‘s article <http://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art066e.pdf>, From Proto-Indo-
European to Slavic):
98
1. Introduction
o The vowels *i2, *ě2 developed later than *i1, *ě1. In Late Proto-Slavic there were no
differences in pronunciation between *i1 and i2 as well as between *ě1 and *ě2. They had
caused, however, different changes of preceding velars, see below.
o Late Proto-Slavic yers *ь, *ъ < earlier *i, *u developed also from reduced LIE *e, *o
respectively. The reduction was probably a morphologic process rather than phonetic.
o We can observe similar reduction of *ā into *ū (and finally *y) in some endings,
especially in closed syllables.
o The development of the Sla. *i2 was also a morphologic phenomenon, originating only in
some endings.
o Another source of the Proto-Slavic *y is *ō in Germanic loanwords – the borrowings
took place when Proto-Slavic no longer had *ō in native words, as LIE *ō had already
changed into *ā.
o LIE *ə disappeared without traces when in a non-initial syllable.
o LIE *eu probably developed into *jau in Early Proto-Slavic (or during the Balto-Slavic
epoch), and eventually into Proto-Slavic *ju.
o According to some authors, LIE long diphthongs *ēi, *āi, *ōi, *ēu, *āu, *ōu had twofold
development in Early Proto-Slavic, namely they shortened in endings into simple *ei, *ai,
*oi, *eu, *au, *ou but they lost their second element elsewhere and changed into *ē, *ā, *ō
with further development like above.
After Barford (A history of Eastern Europe: crisis and change, 2007).

(Slovenski Volk (2009)
99
Other vocalic changes from Proto-Slavic include *jo, *jъ, *jy changed into *je, *jь, *ji; *o, *ъ,
*y also changed into *e, *ь, *i after *c, *ʒ, *s‟ which developed as the result of the 3rd
palatalisation; *e, *ě changed into *o, *a after *č, *ǯ, *š, *ž in some contexts or words; a similar
change of *ě into *a after *j seems to have occurred in Proto-Slavic but next it can have been
modified by analogy.
On the origin of Proto-Slavic consonants, the following relationships are found:
 LIE *p → Sla. *p; LIE *b, *bh → Sla. *b.

 LIE *t → Sla. *t; LIE *d, *dh → Sla. *d.
 LIE *k, *kw → Sla. k (palatalised *kj → Sla. s); LIE *g, *gh, *gw, *gwh → Sla. *g
(palatalised *gj, *gjh → Sla. *z)
 LIE *s → Sla. *s; before a voiced consonant LIE *z → Sla. *z; before a vowel
when after *r, *u, *k, *i, probably also after *l → Sla. *x.
 LIE word-final *m → Sla. *n (<BSl. *n).
 LIE *m → Sla. *im, *um; LIE *n → Sla. *in, *un; LIE *l → Sla. *il, *ul; LIE r →
Sla. *ir, *ur.
 LIE *w → Sla. *v (<BSl. *w); LIE *j → Sla. *j.
In some words the Proto-Slavic *x developed from LIE phonemes like *ks, *sk.
E. BALTIC
The Baltic languages were spoken in areas extending east and southeast of the
Baltic Sea in Northern Europe.
The language group is often divided into two sub-groups: Western Baltic,
containing only extinct languages as Prussian or Galindan, and Eastern Baltic,
containing extinct as well as the two living languages in the group, Lithuanian and
Latvian. While related, Lithuanian and Latvian differ substantially from each other
and are not mutually intelligible.
The oldest Baltic linguistic record is the Elbinger lexicon of the beginning of the
fourteenth century. It contains 802 Old Prussian equivalents of Old Middle German
words. The oldest Baltic text is Old Prussian as well; it comes from the middle of the
fourteenth century and includes only eleven words. The first Old Lithuanian and Old
Latvian texts come from the sixteenth century and appear already in book form, and
were translations of a catechism and the Lord‘s Prayer.
100
1. Introduction
Adapted
from
Gimbutas
(The
Balts,
1963).
(Map
Master
2007)
Baltic and Slavic share so many similarities that many linguists, following the lead
of such notable Indo-Europeanists as August Schleicher and Oswald Szemerényi,
take these to indicate that the two groups separated from a common ancestor, the
Proto-Balto-Slavic language, dated ca. 1500-500 BC, depending on the different
guesstimates.
NOTE 1. About Balto-Slavic guesstimates, ―Classical glottochronology‖ conducted by Czech

Slavist M. Čejka in 1974 dates the Balto-Slavic split to -910±340 BC, Sergei Starostin in 1994
dates it to 1210 BC, and ―recalibrated glottochronology‖ conducted by Novotná & Blažek dates
it to 1400-1340 BC. This agrees well with Trziniec-Komarov culture, localised from Silesia to
Central Ukraine and dated to the period 1500-1200 BC.
NOTE 2. Until Meillet‘s Dialectes indo-européens of 1908, Balto-Slavic unity was

undisputed among linguists – as he notes at the beginning of the Le Balto-Slave chapter,
―L‟unité linguistique balto-slave est l‟une de celles que personne ne conteste‖. Meillet‘s
critique of Balto-Slavic confined itself to the seven characteristics listed by Karl Brugmann in
101
1903, attempting to show that no single one of these is sufficient to prove genetic unity.
Szemerényi in his 1957 re-examination of Meillet‘s results concludes that the Balts and Slavs
did, in fact, share a ―period of common language and life‖, and were probably separated due
to the incursion of Germanic tribes along the Vistula and the Dnieper roughly at the beginning
of the Common Era.
A new theory was proposed in the 1960s by V. Ivanov and V. Toporov: that the
Balto-Slavic proto-language split from the start into West Baltic, East Baltic and
Proto-Slavic. In their framework, Proto-Slavic is a peripheral and innovative Balto-
Slavic dialect which suddenly expanded, due to a conjunction of historical
circumstances. Onomastic evidence shows that Baltic languages were once spoken in
much wider territory than the one they cover today, and were later replaced by Slavic.
Linguistic area of Balto-Slavic areas, Ramat (1993). (Slovenski Volk 2009)
NOTE. The most important of these common Balto-Slavic isoglosses are:
o Winter‘s law: lengthening of a short vowel before a voiced plosive, usually in a closed
syllable.
o Identical reflexes of LIE syllabic resonants, usually developing i and u before them.
Kuryłowicz thought that *uR reflexes arose after LIE velars, and also notable is also older
102
1. Introduction
opinion of J.Endzelīns and *R. Trautmann according to whom *uR reflexes are the result
of zero-grade of morphemes that had LIE *o → PBSl. *a in normal-grade. Matasović
(2008) proposes following internal rules after LIE *r → BSl. *ər: 1) *ə→*i in a final
syllable; 2) *ə→*u after velars and before nasals; 3) *ə→*i otherwise.
o Hirt‘s law: retraction of LIE accent to the preceding syllable closed by a laryngeal.
o Rise of the Balto-Slavic acute before LIE laryngeals in a closed syllable.
o Replacement of LIE genitive singular of thematic nouns with ablative.
o Formation of past tense in *-ē (cf. Lith. pret. dãvė, ―he gave‖, O.C.S. imperfect bě, ―he
was‖)
o Generalisation of the LIE neuter to- stem to the nominative singular of masculine and
feminine demonstratives instead of LIE so- pronoun, so, sā, tod → BSl. *tos, *tā, *tod.
o Formation of definite adjectives with a construction of adjective and relative pronoun; cf.
Lith. geràsis, ―the good‖, vs. gẽras, ―good‖; O.C.S dobrъjь, ―the good‖, vs. dobrъ, ―good‖.
Common Balto-Slavic innovations include several other prominent, but non-exclusive

isoglosses, such as the satemisation, Ruki, change of LIE *o → BSl. *a (shared with Germanic,
Indo-Iranian and Anatolian) and the loss of labialisation in LIE labiovelars (shared with Indo-
Iranian, Armenian and Tocharian). Among Balto-Slavic archaisms notable is the retention of
traces of an older LIE pitch accent. ‗Ruki‘ is the term for a sound law which is followed
especially in BSl. and Aryan dialects. The name of the term comes from the sounds which
cause the phonetic change, i.e. LIE *s → š / r, u, k, i (it associates with a Slavic word which
means „hands‟ or „arms‟). A sibilant *s is retracted to *ʃ after *i, *u,* r, and after velars (i.e. *k
which may have developed from earlier *k, *g, *gh). Due to the character of the retraction, it
was probably an apical sibilant (as in Spanish), rather than the dorsal of English. The first
phase (*s → *š) seems to be universal, the later retroflexion (in Sanskrit and probably in Proto-
Slavic as well) is due to levelling of the sibilant system, and so is the third phase - the
retraction to velar *x in Slavic and also in some Middle Indian languages, with parallels in e.g.
Spanish. This rule was first formulated for IE by Holger Pedersen.
Baltic and Slavic show a remarkable amount of correspondence in vocabulary too; there are
at least 100 words exclusive to BSl., either being a common innovation or sharing the same
semantic development from a PIE root; as, BSl. *lēipā, ―tilia‖ → Lith. líepa, O.Prus. līpa, Ltv.
liẽpa; Sla. *lipa; BSl. *rankā, ―hand‖ → Lith. rankà, O.Prus. rānkan, Ltv. rùoka; Sla. *rǭkà
(cf. O.C.S. rǫka). BSl. *galwā, ―head‖ → Lith. galvà, O.Prus. galwo, Ltv. galva; Sla. *golvà (cf.
O.C.S. glava).
103
F. FRAGMENTARY DIALECTS
MESSAPIAN
Messapian (also known as Messapic) is an extinct language of south-eastern Italy,

once spoken in the regions of Apulia and Calabria. It was spoken by the three
Iapygian tribes of the region: the Messapians, the Daunii and the Peucetii. The
language, a centum dialect, has been preserved in about 260 inscriptions dating from
the sixth to the first century BC. It became extinct after the Roman Empire
conquered the region and assimilated the inhabitants.
Some have proposed that Messapian was an Illyrian language. The Illyrian
languages were spoken mainly on the other side of the Adriatic Sea. The link between
Messapian and Illyrian is based mostly on personal names found on tomb
inscriptions and on classical references, since hardly any traces of the Illyrian
language are left.
NOTE. Some phonetic characteristics of the language may be regarded as quite certain:
o PIE short *o→a, as in the last syllable of the genitive kalatoras.
o PIE final *m→n, as in aran.
o PIE *nj→nn, as in the Messapian praenomen Dazohonnes vs. the Illyrian praenomen
Dazonius; the Messapian genitive Dazohonnihi vs. Illyrian genitive Dasonii, etc.
o PIE *tj→tth, as in the Messapian praenomen Dazetthes vs. Illyrian Dazetius; the
Messapian genitive Dazetthihi vs. the Illyrian genitive Dazetii; from a Dazet- stem
common in Illyrian and Messapian.
o PIE *sj→ss, as in Messapian Vallasso for Vallasio, a derivative from the shorter name
Valla.
o The loss of final *-d, as in tepise, and probably of final *-t, as in -des, perhaps meaning
‗set‘, from PIE *dhe- ‗set, put‘.
o The change of voiced aspirates in Proto-Indo-European to plain voiced consonants: PIE

*dh→d, as in Messapian anda (< PIE *en-dha- < PIE *en- ‗in‘, compare Gk. entha); and
PIE *bh→b, as in Messapian beran (< PIE *bher- ‗to bear‘).
o PIE *au→ā before (at least some) consonants: Bāsta, from Bausta.
o The form penkaheh – which Torp very probably identifies with the Oscan stem pompaio
– a derivative of the Proto-Indo-European numeral *penkwe ‗five‘.
o If this last identification be correct it would show, that in Messapian (just as in Venetic
and Ligurian) the original labiovelars (*kw,*gw, *gwh) were retained as gutturals and not
104
1. Introduction
converted into labials. The change of o to a is interesting, being associated with the
northern branches of Indo-European such as Gothic, Albanian and Lithuanian, and not
appearing in any other southern dialect hitherto known. The Greek Aphrodite appears in
the form Aprodita (Dat. Sg., fem.).
o The use of double consonants which has been already pointed out in the Messapian
inscriptions has been very acutely connected by Deecke with the tradition that the same
practice was introduced at Rome by the poet Ennius who came from the Messapian town
Rudiae (Festus, p. 293 M).
VENETIC
Venetic was spoken in the Veneto region of Italy, between the Po River delta and
the southern fringe of the Alps. It was a centum language.
The language is attested by over 300 short inscriptions dating between the sixth
century BC and first century AD. Its speakers are identified with the ancient people
called Veneti by the Romans and Enetoi by the Greek. The inscriptions use a variety
of the Northern Italic alphabet, similar to the Old Italic alphabet. It became extinct
around the first century when the local inhabitants were assimilated into the Roman
sphere.
NOTE. The exact relationship of Venetic to other Indo-European languages is still being
investigated, but the majority of scholars agree that Venetic, aside from Liburnian, was closest
to the Italic languages. Venetic may also have been related to the Illyrian languages, though
the theory that Illyrian and Venetic were closely related is debated by current scholarship.
Interesting parallels with Germanic have also been noted, especially in pronominal forms:
Ven. ego ‗I‘, acc. mego ‗me‘; Goth. ik, acc. mik; but cf. Lat. ego, acc. me.
Ven. sselboisselboi ‗to oneself‘; O.H.G. selb selbo; but cf. Lat. sibi ipsi.
Venetic had about six or even seven noun cases and four conjugations (similar to Latin).
About 60 words are known, but some were borrowed from Latin (liber.tos. < libertus) or
Etruscan. Many of them show a clear Indo-European origin, such as Ven. vhraterei (< PIE
*bhreh2terei) ‗to the brother‘.
In Venetic, PIE stops *bh→f, *dh→f, *gh→h, in word-initial position (as in Latin and Osco-
Umbrian), but to *bh→b, *dh→d, *gh→g, in word-internal intervocalic position, as in Latin. For
Venetic, at least the developments of *bh and *dh are clearly attested. Faliscan and Osco-
Umbrian preserve internal *bh→f,* dh→f, *gh→h.
There are also indications of the developments of PIE initial *gw→w-, PIE *kw→kv and PIE
initial *gwh→f in Venetic, all of which are parallel to Latin, as well as the regressive assimilation
105
of PIE sequence *p...kw... → kw...kw... (e.g. *penkwe → *kwenkwe, “five”, *perkwu → *kwerkwu,
“oak”), a feature also found in Italic and Celtic (Lejeune 1974).
LIGURIAN
The Ligurian language was spoken in pre-Roman times and into the Roman era by
an ancient people of north-western Italy and south-eastern France known as the
Ligures. Very little is known about this language (mainly place names and personal
names remain) which is generally believed to have been Indo-European; it appears to
have adopted significantly from other IE languages, primarily Celtic (Gaulish) and
Latin.
Strabo states “As for the Alps... Many tribes (éthnê) occupy these mountains, all
Celtic (Keltikà) except the Ligurians; but while these Ligurians belong to a different
people (hetero-ethneis), still they are similar to the Celts in their modes of life
(bíois).”
LIBURNIAN
The Liburnian language is an extinct language spoken by the ancient Liburnians in

the region of Liburnia (south of the Istrian peninsula) in classical times. It is usually
classified as a centum language. It appears to have been on the same Indo-European
branch as the Venetic language; indeed, the Liburnian tongue may well have been a
Venetic dialect.
NOTE. No writings in Liburnian are known, though. The grouping of Liburnian with Venetic
is based on the Liburnian onomastics. In particular, Liburnian anthroponyms show strong
Venetic affinities, with many common or similar names and a number of common roots, such
as Vols-, Volt-, and Host- (<PIE *ghos-ti- ‗stranger, guest, host‘). Liburnian and Venetic names
also share suffixes in common, such as -icus and -ocus.
These features set Liburnian and Venetic apart from the Illyrian onomastic province, though
this does not preclude the possibility that Venetic-Liburnian and Illyrian may have been
closely related, belonging to the same Indo-European branch. In fact, a number of linguists
argue that this is the case, based on similar phonetic features and names in common between
Venetic-Liburnian on the one hand and Illyrian on the other.
Liburnia was conquered by the Romans in 35 BC, and its language was eventually
replaced by Latin, undergoing language death probably very early in the Common
Era.
106
1. Introduction
LUSITANIAN
Lusitanian or Lusatian (so named after the Lusitani or Lusitanians) was a

Paleohispanic IE language known by only five inscriptions and numerous toponyms
and theonyms. The language was spoken before the Roman conquest of Lusitania, in
the territory inhabited by Lusitanian tribes, from Douro to the Tagus River in the
western area of the Iberian Peninsula, where they were established already before the
sixth century BC.
Their language is usually considered a Pre-Celtic (possibly stemming from a

common Italo-Celtic) IE dialect, and it is sometimes associated with the language of
the Vettones and with the linguistic substratum of the Gallaeci and Astures, based on
archaeological findings and descriptions of ancient historians.
(2011, modified from
Alcides Pinto 2010)
NOTE. The affiliation of the Lusitanian language within a Pre-Celtic IE group is supported
by Tovar, Schmidt, Gorrochategui, among others, while Untermann e.g. considers it a Celtic
language.The theory that it was a Celtic language is largely based upon the historical fact that
the only Indo-European tribes that are known to have existed in Hispania at that time were
Celtic tribes. The apparent Celtic character of most of the lexicon —anthroponyms and
107
toponyms — may also support a Celtic affiliation. There is a substantial problem in the Celtic
theory, though: the preservation of PIE initial *p-, as in Lusitanian pater ‗father‘, or porcom
‗pig‘. The Celtic languages had lost that initial PIE *p- in their evolution; compare Lat. pater,
Gaul. ater, and Lat. porcum, O.Ir. orc. However, that does not necessarily preclude the
possibility of Lusitanian being Celtic, because of the theoretical evolution of LIE initial *p → *ɸ
→ *h → Cel. ∅, so it might have been an early Proto-Celtic (or Italo-Celtic) dialect that split off
before the loss of *p-, or when *p- had become *ɸ- (before shifting to *h- and then being lost);
the letter p of the Latin alphabet could have been used to represent either sound.
F. Villar and R. Pedrero relate Lusitanian with the Italic languages. The theory is based on
parallels in the names of deities, as Lat. Consus, Lus. Cossue, Lat. Seia, Lus. Segia, or
Marrucinian Iovia, Lus. Iovea(i), etc. and other lexical items, as Umb. gomia, Lus. comaiam,
with some other grammatical elements.
II. NORTHERN INDO-EUROPEAN IN ASIA: TOCHARIAN
Tocharian or Tokharian is one of the most obscure branches of the Northern

dialects. The name of the language is taken from people known to the Greek
historians (Ptolemy VI, 11, 6) as the Tocharians (Greek Σόραξνη, Tókharoi).
NOTE. These are sometimes identified with the Yuezhi and the Kushans, while the term
Tokharistan usually refers to first millennium Bactria. A Turkic text refers to the Turfanian
language (Tocharian A) as twqry. F. W. K. Müller has associated this with the name of the
Bactrian Tokharoi. In Tocharian, the language is referred to as arish-käna and the Tocharians
as arya.
Tocharian consisted of two languages; Tocharian A (Turfanian, Arsi, or East

Tocharian) and Tocharian B (Kuchean or West Tocharian). These languages were
spoken roughly from the sixth to ninth centuries; before they became extinct, their
speakers were absorbed into the expanding Uyghur tribes. Both languages were once
spoken in the Tarim Basin in Central Asia, now the Xinjiang Autonomous Region of
China.
NOTE. Properly speaking, based on the tentative interpretation of twqry as related to

Tokharoi, only Tocharian A may be referred to as Tocharian, while Tocharian B could be
called Kuchean (its native name may have been kuśiññe), but since their grammars are usually
treated together in scholarly works, the terms A and B have proven useful.
Tocharian is documented in manuscript fragments, mostly from the eighth century

(with a few earlier ones) that were written on palm leaves, wooden tablets and
Chinese paper, preserved by the extremely dry climate of the Tarim Basin. Samples of
108
1. Introduction
the language have been discovered at sites in Kucha and Karasahr, including many
mural inscriptions.
Tocharian A and B were not intercomprehensible. The common Proto-Tocharian

language must have preceded the attested languages by several centuries, probably
dating to the first millennium BC.
1.7.2. SOUTHERN INDO-EUROPEAN DIALECTS
I. GREEK
Ancient Greek dialects by 400 BC after R.D. Woodard (2004). (2009, modified
from Fut. Perf. 2008)
1. Greek has a documented history of 3500 years. Today, Modern Greek is spoken
by 15 million people.
2. The major dialect groups of the Ancient Greek period can be assumed to have
developed not later than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions, and their first
appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the eighth century BC.
109
3. Mycenaean is the most ancient attested form of the Greek branch, spoken on
mainland Greece and on Crete between 1600-1100 BC, before the Dorian invasion. It
is preserved in inscriptions in Linear B, a script invented on Crete before the
fourteenth century BC. Most instances of these inscriptions are on clay tablets found
in Knossos and in Pylos. The language is named after Mycenae, the first of the
palaces to be excavated.
NOTE. The tablets remained long undeciphered, and every conceivable language was
suggested for them, until Michael Ventris deciphered the script in 1952 and proved the
language to be an early form of Greek. The texts on the tablets are mostly lists and inventories.
No prose narrative survives, much less myth or poetry. Still, much may be glimpsed from
these records about the people who produced them, and about the Mycenaean period at the
eve of the so-called Greek Dark Ages.
5. Unlike later varieties of Greek, Mycenaean probably had seven grammatical

cases, the nominative, the genitive, the accusative, the dative, the instrumental, the
locative, and the vocative.
The instrumental and the

locative however gradually
fell out of use.
NOTE. For the locative in *-
ei, compare di-da-ka-re,
‗didaskalei‟, e-pi-ko-e,
‗Epikóhei‘, etc (in Greek there
are syntactic compounds like
puloi-genēs, ‗born in Pylos‟);
also, for remains of an ablative
case in *-ōd, compare (months‘ Mycenaean tablet (MY Oe 106) inscripted in linear
B coming from the House of the Oil Merchant (ca.
names) ka-ra-e-ri-jo-me-no,
1250 BC). The tablet registers an amount of wool
wo-de-wi-jo-me-no, etc. which is to be dyed. National Archaeological
Museum of Athens. (Marsyas 2005)
6. Proto-Greek (the so-
called Proto-Hellenic, or Pre-Greek in Sihler 1995) was a Southern LIE dialect,
spoken in the late third millennium BC, roughly at the same time as North-West
Indo-European and Proto-Indo-Iranian, most probably in the Balkans.
NOTE. According to Anthony (2007): ―Greek shared traits with Armenian and Phrygian,
both of which probably descended from languages spoken in southeastern Europe before 1200
110
1. Introduction
BCE, so Greek shared a common background with some southeastern European languages
that might have evolved from the speech of the Yamnaya immigrants in Bulgaria‖. Proponents
of a Proto-Greek homeland in Bulgaria or Romania are found in Sergent (1995), J. Makkay
(Atti e memorie del Secondo Congresso Internazionale di Micenologia, 1996; Origins of the
Proto-Greeks and Proto-Anatolians from a Common Perspective, 2003).
7. Proto-Greek (Pre-Greek or Proto-Hellenic) has been posited as a probable

ancestor of Phrygian, and a possible ancestor of Thracian, Dacian, and Ancient
Macedonian. Armenian has traditionally been regarded as derived from it through
Phrygian, although this is disputed today.
NOTE. The Graeco-Armenian hypothesis proposed a close relationship to the Greek

language – putting both in the larger context of the Paleo-Balkan Sprachbund – notably
including Phrygian, which is widely accepted particularly close to Greek –, consistent with
Herodotus‘ recording of the Armenians as descending from colonists of the Phrygians. That
traditional linguistic theory, proposed by Pedersen (1924), proposed a close relationship
between both original communities, Greek and Armenian, departing from a common
language. That vision, accepted for a long time, was rejected by Clackson (1994) in The
linguistic relationship between Armenian and Greek, which, while supporting the Graeco-
Aryan community, argues that there are not more coincidences between Armenian and Greek
than those found in the comparison between any other IE language pair; shared isoglosses
would therefore stem from contiguity within the common S.LIE community. Those findings
are supported by Kortlandt in Armeniaca (2003), in which he proposes an old Central IE
continuum Daco-Albanian / Graeco-Phrygian / Thraco-Armenian. Adrados (1998), considers
an older Southern continuum Graeco-[Daco-]Thraco-Phrygian / Armenian / Indo-Iranian.
Olteanu (2009) proposes a Graeco-Daco-Thracian language.
8. The unity of Proto-Greek probably ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek
peninsula around 2300 BC.
NOTE. About the archaeological quest, Anthony (2007): ―The people who imported Greek or
Proto-Greek to Greece might have moved several times, perhaps by sea, from the western
Pontic steppes to southeastern Europe to western Anatolia to Greece, making their trail hard
to find. The EHII/III transition about 2400-2200 BCE has long been seen as a time of radical
change in Greece when new people might have arrived (…)‖.
In West‘s (2007) words, ―The first speakers of Greek – or rather of the language that was to
develop into Greek; I will call them mello-Greeks – arrived in Greece, on the most widely
accepted view, at the beginning of Early Helladic III, that is, around 2300. They came by way
of Epirus, probably from somewhere north of the Danube‖.
111
9. The primary sound changes from PIE to Proto-Greek include:
 Aspiration of PIE intervocalic *s → PGk h.
NOTE. The loss of PIE prevocalic *s- was not completed entirely, famously evidenced by the
loss of prevocalic *s was not completed entirely, famously evidenced by PGk
sūs (also hūs, pig, from PIE *suh₁-); sun ‗with‘, sometimes considered contaminated with
PIE *kom (cf. Latin cum) to Homeric / Old Attic ksun, is possibly a consequence of Gk. psi-
substrate (Villar).
 De-voicing of PIE voiced aspirates: *bh→ph, *dh→th, *gh→kh, *gwh→kwh.

 Dissimilation of aspirates (Grassmann‘s law), possibly post-Mycenaean.
 PIE word-initial *j- (not *Hj-) is strengthened to PGk dj- (later Gk. δ-).
 In the first stage of palatalisation (Sihler 1995), PIE *dj- was possibly palatalised
into PGk dz(j)- , while PIE *tj-, *dhj- probably became PGk ts(j)-.
 Vocalisation of laryngeals between vowels and initially before consonants, i.e.
*h1→e, *h2→a, *h3→o; as, from PIE *h2nēr ‗man‘, PGk. anḗr.
NOTE. That development is common to Greek, Phrygian and Armenian; cf. Gk. anḗr,
Phrygian anar, and Armenian ayr (from earlier *anir). In other branches, laryngeals did not
vocalise in this position and eventually disappeared. The evolution of Proto-Greek should be
considered with the background of an early Palaeo-Balkan Sprachbund that makes it difficult
to delineate exact boundaries between individual languages. Phrygian and Armenian also
share other phonological and morphological peculiarities of Greek.
 The sequence CRHC evolves generally as follows: *CRh1C → PGk CRēC; PIE
*CRh2C → PGk CRāC; PIE *CRh3C → PGk CRōC.
 The sequence PIE *CRHV becomes generally PGk CaRV.
NOTE. It has also been proposed by Sihler (2000) that PIE *Vkw→ukw; cf. PIE *nokwts
„night‟ → PGk nukwts → Gk. nuks/nuxt-; cf. also *kwekwlos ‗wheel‘ → PGk kwukwlos → Gk.
kuklos; etc. This is related to Cowgill's law, raising *o to u between a resonant and a labial.
10. Later sound changes from Proto-Greek into mello-Greek (or from Pre-Greek
into Proto-Greek after Sihler 1995), from which Mycenaean was derived, include:
o The second stage of palatalisation, which affected all consonants, including the
restored tsj and dzj sequences (Sihler 1995).
o Loss of final stop consonants; final m→n.
o Syllabic m→am, and n→an, before resonants; otherwise both were nasalised
m/n→ã→a.
112
1. Introduction
o Loss of s in consonant clusters, with supplementary lengthening, e.g. esmi→ēmi.

o Creation of secondary s from clusters, ntja→nsa. Assibilation ti→si only in
southern dialects.
o Mycenaean i-vocalism and replacement of double-consonant -kw- for -kwkw-.
NOTE. On the problematic case of common Greek ἵππνο (hippos), horse, derived from PIE
and PGk ekwos, Meier-Brügger (2003): ―the i-vocalism of which is best understood as an
inheritance from the Mycenaean period. At that time, e in a particular phonetic situation must
have been pronounced in a more closed manner, cf. di-pa i.e. dipas neuter ‗lidded container
fror drinking‘ vs. the later δέξαο (since Homer): Risch (1981), O. Panagl (1989). That the i-
form extended to the entire Greek region may be explained in that the word, very central
during Mycenaean rule of the entire region (second millennium BC), spread and suppressed
the e-form that had certainly been present at one time. On the -pp-: The original double-
consonance -kuwas likely replaced by -kwkw- in the pre-Mycenaean period, and again, in turn
by -pp- after the disappearance of the labiovelars. Suggestions of an ancient -kwkw- are already
given by the Mycenaean form as i-qo (a possible *i-ko-wo does not appear) and the noted
double-consonance in alphabetic Greek. The aspiration of the word at the beginning remains a
riddle.‖
Other features
common to the
earliest Greek dialects
include:
 Late
satemisation
trend, evidenced
Main dialectal distribution in territories with Greek -
by the post- speaking majorities (ca. 15th c.): Koiné, Pontic and
Mycenaean Cappadocian Greek. The language distribution in Anatolia
remained almost unchanged until the expulsion of Greeks
change of (1914-1923) from Turkey. (2011, modified from Ivanchay,
Infocan 2008)
labiovelars into
dentals before e; as, kwe → te ‗and‘.
 PIE dative, instrumental and locative were syncretised into a single dative.
 Dialectal nominative plural in -oi, -ai (shared with Latin) fully replaces LIE
common *-ōs, *-ās.
 The superlative -tatos (<PIE *-tṃo-) becomes productive.
113
 The peculiar oblique stem gunaik- ‗women‘, attested from the Thebes tablets is
probably Proto-Greek; it appears, at least as gunai- also in Armenian.
 The pronouns houtos, ekeinos and autos are created. Use of ho, hā, ton as
articles is post-Mycenaean.
 The first person middle verbal desinences -mai, -mān replace -ai, -a. The third
singular pherei is an analogical innovation, replacing the expected PIE *bhéreti,
i.e. Dor. *phereti, Ion. *pheresi.
 The future tense is created, including a future passive, as well as an aorist
passive.
 The suffix -ka- is attached to some perfects and aorists.
 Infinitives in -ehen, -enai and -men are also common to Greek dialects.
II. ARMENIAN
The earliest testimony of the

Armenian language dates to the fifth
century AD, the Bible translation of
Mesrob Mashtots. The earlier
history of the language is unclear
and the subject of much speculation.
It is clear that Armenian is an Indo-
European language, but its
development is opaque.
NOTE. Proto-Armenian sound-laws

are varied and eccentric, such as IE
*dw- yielding Arm. k-, and in many
cases still uncertain. In fact, that
phonetic development is usually seen as
*dw- to erk-, based on PIE numeral
*dwo- ‗two‘, a reconstruction Kortlandt
(Armeniaca 2003) dismisses, exposing Armenian manuscript, ca. 5 th -6 th c. AD (PD)

alternative etymologies for the usual
examples.
PIE voiceless stops are aspirated in Proto-Armenian.
114
1. Introduction
NOTE. That circumstance gave rise to the Glottalic theory, which postulates that this
aspiration may have been sub-phonematic already in Proto-Indo-European. In certain
contexts, these aspirated stops are further reduced to w, h or ∅ in Armenian – so e.g. PIE
*p‟ots, into Arm. otn, Gk. pous ‗foot‘; PIE *t‟reis, Arm. erek‟, Gk. treis ‗three‘.
Armenia today (darkest colour), Armenian majorities (dark) and greatest extent
of the Kingdom of Armenia (light). Territory of the 6 Armenian Vilaye ts in the
Ottoman Empire (dotted line), and areas with significant Armenian population
prior to the Armenian Genocide (stripes). Ivaşca Flavius (2010).
III. INDO-IRANIAN
The Indo-Iranian or Aryan language group consists of two main language

subgroups, Indo-Aryan and Iranian. Nuristani has been suggested as a third one,
while Dardic is usually classified within Indo-Aryan.
The contemporary Indo-Iranian languages form the second largest sub-branch of

Late Indo-European (after North-West Indo-European), with more than one billion
speakers in total, stretching from Europe (Romani) and the Caucasus (Ossetian) to
East India (Bengali and Assamese). The largest in terms of native speakers are
Hindustani (Hindi and Urdu, ca. 540 million), Bengali (ca. 200 million), Punjabi (ca.
100 million), Marathi and Persian (ca. 70 million each), Gujarati (ca. 45 million),
Pashto (40 million), Oriya (ca. 30 million), Kurdish and Sindhi (ca. 20 million each).
While the archaeological identification of Pre-Proto-Indo-Iranians and Proto-Indo-

Iranians remains unsolved, it is believed that ca. 2500 BC a distinct Proto-Indo-
115
Iranian language must have been spoken in the eastern part of the previous Yamna
territory.
NOTE. Parpola (The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European, 1999) suggests the
following identifications:
Date range Archaeological culture Suggested by Parpola

Late Catacomb and Poltavka
2800-2000 BC LIE to Proto-Indo-Iranian.
cultures
2000-1800 BC Srubna and Abashevo cultures Proto-Iranian
2000-1800 BC Petrovka-Sintashta Proto-Indo-Aryan
“Proto-Dasa” Indo-Aryans establishing
themselves in the existing BMAC
1900-1700 BC BMAC
settlements, defeated by “Proto-Rigvedic”
Indo-Aryans around 1700
1900-1400 BC Cemetery H Indian Dasa
Indo-Aryan, including “Proto–Sauma-
1800-1000 BC Alakul-Fedorovo
Aryan” practicing the Soma cult
1700-1400 BC early Swat culture Proto-Rigvedic = Proto-Dardic
“Proto–Sauma-Dasa”, assimilation of
1700-1500 BC late BMAC
Proto-Dasa and Proto–Sauma-Aryan
Mitanni-Aryan (offshoot of “Proto-Sauma-
1500-1000 BC Early West Iranian Grey Ware
Dasa”)
late Swat culture and Punjab,
1400-800 BC late Rigvedic
Painted Grey Ware
1400-1100 BC Yaz II-III, Seistan Proto-Avestan
Gurgan Buff Ware, Late West
1100-1000 BC Proto-Persian, Proto-Median
Iranian Buff Ware
1000-400 BC Iron Age cultures of Xinjang Proto-Saka
It is generally believed that early Indo-Iranian contacts with the easternmost part of
North-West IE (Pre-Balto-Slavic) accounts for their shared linguistic features, such
as satemisation and Ruki sound law. Assuming – as it is commonly done – that both
phonetic trends were late developments after the LIE community, an early North-
West–South-East Sprachbund or dialect continuum must have taken place before
the Proto-Indo-Iranian migration to the East.
NOTE. From a linguistic point of view, Burrow (1955): ―(…) in the case of Sanskrit
migrations at a comparatively late date took it to the extreme East of the Indo-European
domain. Before this period its ancestor, primitive Indo-Iranian must have held a fairly central
position, being directly in contact with the other dialects of the satem-group, and having to the
East of it that form of Indo-European which eventually turned into the dialects A and B of
Chinese Turkestan. Its position can further be determined by the especially close relations
which are found to exist between it and Balto-Slavonic. Since the Balts and the Slavs are not
likely to have moved far from the positions in which they are to be found in their earliest
116
1. Introduction
recorded history, the original location of Indo-Iranian towards the South-East of this area
becomes highly probable.‖
As we have seen Kortlandt‘s (1990) interpretation of linguistic contacts according to

Mallory‘s (1989) account of archaeological events (v.s. §1.7.1. North-West Indo-European): ―If
the speakers of the other satem languages can be assigned to the Yamnaya horizon and the
western Indo-Europeans to the Corded Ware horizon, it is attractive to assign the ancestors of
the Balts and the Slavs to the Middle Dnieper culture‖, an identification also made by Anthony
(2007).
Archaeological cultures associated with late Indo-Iranian migrations. The early

phases of the Andronovo culture have often been seen to offer a “staging area”
for Indo-Iranian movements. The BMAC offers the Central Asian cultural “filter”
through which some argue the Indo-Iranians must have passed southwards to
such sites as Mehrgarh and Sibri. Mallory–Adams (1997) (Dbachmann 2005)
Similarly, Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998), about the dialectal situation of Slavic

(from a linguistic point of view): ―To a layer of archaisms, shared or not with other languages
(…) Slavic added different innovations, some common to Baltic. Some of them are shared with
Germanic, as the oblique cases in -m and feminine participle; others with Indo-Iranian, so
satemisation, Ruki sound law (more present in Slavic than in Baltic) (…) Most probably, those
common characteristics come from a recent time, from secondary contacts between [N.LIE]
(whose rearguard was formed by Balto-Slavs) and [S.LIE] (in a time when Greeks were not in
contact anymore, they had already migrated to Greece).
117
Because Proto-Indo-Aryan is assumed to have been spoken ca. 2000-1500 BC

(preceding Vedic cultures), historical linguists broadly estimate that the continuum
of Indo-Iranian languages had to diverge ca. 2200-2000 BC, if not earlier. The Aryan
expansion before the Indo-Iranian split – for which the terminus ante quem is 2000
BC (cf. Mallory 1989) –, implies centuries of previous Pre-Indo-Aryan and Pre-
Iranian differentiation. This time is commonly identified with the early bearers of the
Andronovo culture (Sintashta-Petrovka-Arkaim, in Southern Urals, 2200-1600 BC),
who spread over an area of the Eurasian steppe that borders the Ural River on the
west, the Tian Shan on the east – where the Indo-Iranians took over the area
occupied by the earlier Afanasevo culture –, and Transoxiana and the Hindu Kush on
the south.
Current distribution of Indo-Aryan languages, A Historical Atlas of South

Asia (1992) (Dbachmann 2008)
118
1. Introduction
A Two-wave model of Indo-Iranian expansion has been proposed (Burrow 1973,

Parpola 1999), strongly associated with the chariot. Indo-Aryans left linguistic
remains in a Hittite horse-training manual written by one ―Kikkuli the Mitannian‖.
Other evidence is found in references to the names of Mitanni rulers and the gods
they swore by in treaties; these remains are found in the archives of the Mitanni‘s
neighbours, and the time period for this is about 1500 BC.
NOTE. The standard model for the entry of the Indo-European languages into South Asia is
that the First Wave went over the Hindu Kush, either into the headwaters of the Indus and
later the Ganges. The earliest stratum of Vedic Sanskrit, preserved only in the Rigveda, is
assigned to roughly 1500 BC. From the Indus, the Indo-Aryan languages spread from ca. 1500
BC to ca. 500 BC, over the northern and central parts of the subcontinent, sparing the extreme
south. The Indo-Aryans in these areas established several powerful kingdoms and
principalities in the region, from eastern Afghanistan to the doorstep of Bengal.
Current distribution of Iranian dialects. Dbachmann(2006)
The Second Wave is interpreted as the Iranian wave. The Iranians would take over all of
Central Asia, Iran, and for a considerable period, dominate the European steppe (the modern
Ukraine) and intrude north into Russia and west into central and Eastern Europe well into
historic times and as late as the Common Era. The first Iranians to reach the Black Sea may
have been the Cimmerians in the eighth century BC, although their linguistic affiliation is
uncertain. They were followed by the Scythians, who are considered a western branch of the
Central Asian Sakas, and the Sarmatian tribes.
119
The main changes separating Proto-Indo-Iranian from Late Indo-European include

(according to Burrow 1955 and Fortson 2004):
 Early satemisation trend: The satem shift, consisting of two sets of related
changes:
o Palatalisation of LIE velars: *k → ɕ, *g→ ʑ, *gh→ ʑ h; as, *kmtóm → ķatám,
*gónu → ģānu, *ghéimn → ģhima-.
o Merge of LIE labiovelars with plain velars: *kw→k , *gw→g, *gwh→gh; as, *kʷo-
→ ka-, *gwou- → gau-, *gwhormó- → gharmá-.
 These plain velars, when before a front vowel (pre-PII *i or *e) or the glide *j,
were then palatalised to affricates: *k→ ʃ, *g→ ʒ, *gh→ ʒh; as, *kwe → ḳa-,
*gwīwós → ġīwás, *gwhénti → ġhanti.
NOTE. This palatalisation is often called the Law of Palatals. It must have happened before
the merge of PIE *e, *o, with *a. An illustrative example is found in weak perfect stem *kwe-
kwr- ‗did‘ → pre-PII *ke-kr- → *ḳe-kr- → PII *ḳa-kr- (Ved. cakr-, Av. and O.Pers. caxr-).
 Before a dental occlusive, ḳ → š, ġ → ž; ġʰ→ž, with aspiration of the occlusive;

as, *oķtṓ→ ašt , *mrģt- → mṛžd-, *uģʰtó- → uždʰá-.
 The sequence *ķs was simplified to šš; as, *aks- → ášš-.
 Assimilation of LIE vowels *e, *o → a; *ē, *ō → ā.
 Interconsonantal and word-final LIE *H→ PII i, cf. *ph2tḗr → PII pit r, *-
medʰH →*-madhi.
 LIE *m *n merge with a; as, *kmtóm → ķatám, *mntó- → matá-.
 Bartholomae‘s law: an aspirate immediately followed by a voiceless consonant
becomes voiced stop + voiced aspirate. In addition, *dh+t → dzdh; as, *ubhto- →
ubdha-, *urdhto- → urdzdha-, *augh-tá- → augdhá-.
 The Ruki rule: *s is retracted to š when immediately following *r *r *u *k or *i.
Its allophone *z likewise becomes ž; as, *wers- → warš-, *prsto → pṛšta-,
*geus- → ģauš-, *kʷsep- → kšap-, *wis- → wiš-, *nisdo- → nižda-.
 Brugmann‘s law: *o in an open syllable lengthens to ō; *deh₃tór-m → Pre-PII
*deh₃tṓr-m* → dātāram.
 Resonants are generally stable in PII, but for the confusion *l/*r, which in the
oldest Rigveda and in Avestan gives a trend LIE *l → PII ṛ, as well as *l→r; as,
*wĺkʷos → wḷkas / wṛkas.
120
1. Introduction
A synoptic table of Indo-Iranian phonetic system:
Coronals Affricates Gutturals

Labials Velars
dental/ post- alveolo- post-
alveolar alveolar palatal alveolar
Voiceless p t ķ ḳ k ʔ
Plosive Aspirated th kh
Voiced b d ģ ġ g
Aspirated bh dh ģh ġh gh
Nasals m n
Fricatives Voiceless s š h
Voiced (z) (ž)
Liquids l r
Approximant w j
IV. PALAEO-BALKAN LANGUAGES
A. PHRYGIAN
The Phrygian
language was
spoken by the
Phrygians, a people
that settled in Asia
Minor during the
Bronze Age. It
survived probably
into the sixth
century AD, when
it was replaced by
Phrygian Kingdom ca. 800-700 BC, from “Atlas of the Bible
Greek. Lands” (1959) (2011 from PD)
Ancient historians and myths sometimes did associate Phrygian with Thracian and
maybe even Armenian, on grounds of classical sources. Herodotus recorded the
Macedonian account that Phrygians migrated into Asia Minor from Thrace, and
121
stated that the Armenians were colonists of the Phrygians, still considered the same
in the time of Xerxes I. The earliest mention of Phrygian in Greek sources, in the
Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, depicts it as different from Trojan: in the hymn,
Aphrodite, disguising herself as a mortal to seduce the Trojan prince Anchises, tells
him:
―Otreus of famous name is my father, if so be you have heard of him, and he reigns
over all Phrygia rich in fortresses. But I know your speech well beside my own, for
a Trojan nurse brought me up at home‖. Of Trojan, unfortunately, nothing is known.
Phrygian is attested by two corpora, one, Palaeo-Phrygian, from around 800 BC

and later, and another after a period of several centuries, Neo-Phrygian, from around
the beginning of the Common Era. The Palaeo-Phrygian corpus is further divided
geographically into inscriptions of Midas-city, Gordion, Central, Bithynia, Pteria,
Tyana, Daskyleion, Bayindir, and ―various‖. The Mysian inscriptions show a
language classified as a separate Phrygian dialect, written in an alphabet with an
additional letter, the ―Mysian s‖. We can reconstruct some words with the help of
some inscriptions written with a script similar to the Greek one.
Its structure, what can be recovered from it, was typically LIE, with at least three
nominal cases, three gender classes and two grammatical numbers, while the verbs
were conjugated for tense, voice, mood, person and number.
Phrygian seems to exhibit an augment, like Greek and Armenian, as in Phryg.

eberet, probably corresponding to PIE *é-bher-e-t (cf. Gk. epheret).
A sizable body of Phrygian words is theoretically known; however, the meaning and
etymologies and even correct forms of many Phrygian words (mostly extracted from
inscriptions) are still being debated.
Phrygian words with possible PIE origin and Graeco-Armenian cognates include:
 Phryg. bekos „bread‟, from PIE *bheh3g-; cf. Gk. phōgō ‗to roast‘.
 Phryg. bedu „water‟, from PIE *wed-; cf. Arm. get ‗river‘.
 Phryg. anar ‗husband, man‘, PIE *h2ner- ‗man‘; cf. Gk. aner- ‗man, husband‘.
 Phryg. belte ‗swamp‘, from PIE root *bhel- ‗to gleam‘; cf. Gk. baltos ‗swamp‘.
 Phryg. brater ‗brother‘, from PIE *bhreh2ter-; cf. Gk. phrāter-.
 Phryg. ad-daket ‗does, causes‘, from PIE stem *dhē-k-; cf. Gk. ethēka.
 Phryg. germe ‗warm‘, from PIE *gwher-mo-; cf. Gk. thermos.
122
1. Introduction
 Phryg. gdan ‗earth‘, from PIE *dhghom-; cf. Gk. khthōn.

NOTE. For more information on similarities between Greek and Phrygian, see Neumann
(Phrygisch und Griechisch, 1988).
B. ILLYRIAN
The Illyrian languages are a group of Indo-European languages that were spoken in
the western part of the Balkans in former times by ethnic groups identified as
Illyrians: Delmatae, Pannoni, Illyrioi, Autariates, Taulanti.
The main source of authoritative information about the Illyrian language consists of
a handful of Illyrian words cited in classical sources, and numerous examples of
Illyrian anthroponyms, ethnonyms, toponyms and hydronyms. Some sound-changes
and other language features are deduced from what remains of the Illyrian
languages, but because no writings in Illyrian are known, there is not sufficient
evidence to clarify its place within the Indo-European language family aside from its
probable centum nature.
Roman provinces in the Balkans, Droysens Historischem Handatlas (1886)
123
NOTE. A grouping of Illyrian with the Messapian language has been proposed for about a
century, but remains an unproven hypothesis. The theory is based on classical sources,
archaeology, as well as onomastic considerations. Messapian material culture bears a number
of similarities to Illyrian material culture. Some Messapian anthroponyms have close Illyrian
equivalents. A relation to the Venetic language and Liburnian language, once spoken in
northeastern Italy and Liburnia respectively, is also proposed.
B. THRACIAN
Excluding Dacian, whose status as a Thracian language is disputed, Thracian was

spoken in what is now southern Bulgaria, parts of Serbia, the Republic of Macedonia,
Northern Greece – especially prior to Ancient Macedonian expansion –, throughout
Thrace (including European Turkey) and in parts of Bithynia (North-Western
Anatolia). Most of the Thracians were eventually Hellenised (in the province of
Thrace) or Romanised (in Moesia, Dacia, etc.), with the last remnants surviving in
remote areas until the fifth century AD.
NOTE. As an extinct language with only a few short inscriptions attributed to it, there is little
known about the Thracian language, but a number of features are agreed upon. A number of
probable Thracian words are found in inscriptions – most of them written with Greek script –
on buildings, coins, and other artifacts. Some Greek lexical elements may derive from
Thracian, such as balios ‗dappled‘ (< PIE *bhel- ‗to shine‘, Pokorny also cites Illyrian as
possible source), bounos ‗hill, mound‘, etc.
C. DACIAN
The Dacian language was spoken by the ancient people of Dacia. It is often
considered to have been either a northern variant of the Thracian language, or closely
related to it.
There are almost no written documents in Dacian. It used to be one of the major
languages of South-Eastern Europe, stretching from what is now Eastern Hungary to
the Black Sea shore. Based on archaeological findings, the origins of the Dacian
culture are believed to be in Moldavia, being identified as an evolution of the Iron
Age Basarabi culture.
It is unclear exactly when the Dacian language became extinct, or even whether it
has a living descendant. The initial Roman conquest of part of Dacia did not put an
end to the language, as free Dacian tribes such as the Carpi may have continued to
124
1. Introduction
speak Dacian in Moldavia and adjacent regions as late as the sixth or seventh century
AD, still capable of leaving some influences in the forming of Slavic languages.
E. PAIONIAN
The Paionian language is the poorly attested language of the ancient Paionians,
whose kingdom once stretched north of Macedon into Dardania and in earlier times
into southwestern Thrace.
Classical sources usually considered the Paionians distinct from Thracians or

Illyrians, comprising their own ethnicity and language. Athenaeus seemingly
connected the Paionian tongue to the Mysian language, itself barely attested. If
correct, this could mean that Paionian was an Anatolian language. On the other
hand, the Paionians were sometimes regarded as descendants of Phrygians, which
may put Paionian on the same linguistic branch as the Phrygian language.
NOTE. Modern linguists are uncertain on the classification of Paionian, due to the extreme
scarcity of materials we have on this language. However, it seems that Paionian was an
independent IE dialect. It shows a/o distinction and does not appear to have undergone
satemisation. The Indo-European voiced aspirates became plain voiced consonants, i.e. *bh→b,
*dh→d, *gh→g, *gwh→gw; as in Illyrian, Thracian, Macedonian and Phrygian (but unlike Greek).
F. ANCIENT MACEDONIAN
The Ancient Macedonian language was the tongue of the Ancient Macedonians. It
was spoken in Macedon during the first millennium BC. Marginalised from the fifth
century BC, it was gradually replaced by the common Greek dialect of the Hellenistic
Era. It was probably spoken predominantly in the inland regions away from the
coast. It is as yet undetermined whether the language was a dialect of Greek, a sibling
language to Greek, or an Indo-European language which is a close cousin to Greek
and also related to Thracian and Phrygian.
Knowledge of the language is very limited, because there are no surviving texts that
are indisputably written in the language. However, a body of authentic Macedonian
words has been assembled from ancient sources, mainly from coin inscriptions, and
from the fifth century lexicon of Hesychius of Alexandria, amounting to about 150
words and 200 proper names. Most of these are confidently identifiable as Greek, but
some of them are not easily reconciled with standard Greek phonology. The 6,000
surviving Macedonian inscriptions are in the Greek Attic dialect.
125
NOTE. Suggested phylogenetic classifications of Macedonian include: An Indo-European

language which is a close cousin to Greek and also related to Thracian and Phrygian
languages, suggested by A. Meillet (1913) and I. I. Russu (1938), or part of a Sprachbund
encompassing Thracian, Illyrian and Greek (Kretschmer 1896, E. Schwyzer 1959). An
―Illyrian‖ dialect mixed with Greek, suggested by K. O. Müller (1825) and by G. Bonfante
(1987). Various explicitly ―Greek‖ scenarios: A Greek dialect, part of the North-Western
(Locrian, Aetolian, Phocidian, Epirote) variants of Doric Greek, suggested amongst others by
N.G.L. Hammond (1989) Olivier Masson (1996) and Michael Meier-Brügger (2003). A
northern Greek dialect, related to Aeolic Greek and Thessalian, suggested among others by
A.Fick (1874) and O.Hoffmann (1906). A Greek dialect with a non-Indo-European substratal
influence, suggested by M. Sakellariou (1983). A sibling language of Greek within Indo-
European, Macedonian and Greek forming two subbranches of a Greco-Macedonian subgroup
within Indo-European (sometimes called ―Hellenic‖), suggested by Joseph (2001) and others.
The Pella katadesmos is a katadesmos (a curse, or magic spell) inscribed on a lead

scroll, probably dating to 380-350 BC. It was found in Pella in 1986 (PD)
The Pella curse tablet, a text written in a distinct Doric Greek idiom, found in Pella
in 1986, dated to between mid to early fourth century BC, has been forwarded as an
argument that the Ancient Macedonian language was a dialect of North-Western
Greek. Before the discovery it was proposed that the Macedonian dialect was an early
form of Greek, spoken alongside Doric proper at that time.
NOTE. Olivier Masson thinks that ―in contrast with earlier views which made of it an Aeolic
dialect (O.Hoffmann compared Thessalian) we must by now think of a link with North-West
Greek (Locrian, Aetolian, Phocidian, Epirote). This view is supported by the recent discovery
at Pella of a curse tablet which may well be the first ‗Macedonian‘ text attested (...); the text
includes an adverb ―opoka‖ which is not Thessalian‖. Also, James L. O‘Neil states that the
―curse tablet from Pella shows word forms which are clearly Doric, but a different form of
Doric from any of the west Greek dialects of areas adjoining Macedon. Three other, very brief,
fourth century inscriptions are also indubitably Doric. These show that a Doric dialect was
spoken in Macedon, as we would expect from the West Greek forms of Greek names found in
Macedon. And yet later Macedonian inscriptions are in Koine avoiding both Doric forms and
the Macedonian voicing of consonants. The native Macedonian dialect had become unsuitable
for written documents.‖
126
1. Introduction
From the few words that survive, a notable sound-law may be ascertained, that PIE
voiced aspirates *dh, *bh, *gh, appear as δ (=d[h]), β (=b[h]), γ (=g[h]), in contrast to
Greek dialects, which unvoiced them to ζ (=th), θ (=ph), τ (=kh).
NOTE. Since these languages are all known via the Greek alphabet, which has no signs for
voiced aspirates, it is unclear whether de-aspiration had really taken place, or whether the
supposed voiced stops β, δ, γ were just picked as the closest matches to express voiced
aspirates PIE *bh, *dh, *gh. As to Macedonian β, δ, γ = Greek θ, ζ, τ, Claude Brixhe (1996)
suggests that it may have been a later development: The letters may already have designated
not voiced stops, i.e. [b, d, g], but voiced fricatives, i.e. [β, δ, γ], due to a voicing of the
voiceless fricatives [θ, ζ, x] (= Classical Attic [ph, th, kh]). Brian Joseph (2001) sums up that
―The slender evidence is open to different interpretations, so that no definitive answer is really
possible‖, but cautions that ―most likely, Ancient Macedonian was not simply an Ancient
Greek dialect on a par with Attic or Aeolic‖. In this sense, some authors also call it a ―deviant
Greek dialect‖.
 PIE *dhenh2- ‗to leave‘, → A.Mac. δαλόο (δanós) ‗death‘; cf. Attic ζάλαηνο (thánatos). PIE
*h2aidh- → A.Mac. ἄδξαηα (aδraia) ‗bright weather‘, Attic αἰζξία (aithría).
 PIE *bhasko- → A.Mac. βάζθηνη (βáskioi) ‗fasces‘. Compare also for A.Mac. ἀϐξνῦηεο
(aβroûtes) or ἀϐξνῦϝεο (aβroûwes), Attic ὀθξῦο (ophrûs) ‗eyebrows‘; for Mac. Βεξελίθε
(Βere-níkē), Attic Φεξελίθε (Phere-níkē) ‗bearing victory‘.
o According to Herodotus (ca. 440 BC), the Macedonians claimed that the Phryges were
called Brygoi (<PIE *bhrugo-) before migrating from Thrace to Anatolia ca. 1200 BC.
o In Aristophanes‘ The Birds, the form θεϐιήππξηο (keβlē-pyris) ‗red-cap (bird)‘, shows a
voiced stop instead of a standard Greek unvoiced aspirate, i.e. Macedonian θεϐ(α)ιή
(keβalē) vs. Greek θεθαιή (kephalē) ‗head‘.
 If A.Mac. γνηάλ (γotán) ‗pig‘, is related to PIE *gwou- ‗cow‘, this would indicate that the
labiovelars were either intact (hence *gwotán), or merged with the velars, unlike the usual
Gk. βνῦο (boûs). Such deviations, however, are not unknown within Greek dialects;
compare Dor. γιεπ- (glep-) for common Gk. βιεπ- (blep-), as well as Dor. γιάρσλ (gláchōn)
and Ion. γιήρσλ (glēchōn) for Gk. βιήρσλ (blēchōn).
 Examples suggest that voiced velar stops were devoiced, especially word-initially: PIE
*genu- → A.Mac. θάλαδνη (kánadoi) ‗jaws‘; PIE *gombh- → A.Mac. θόκϐνπο (kómbous)
‗molars‘.
o Compared to Greek words, there is A.Mac. ἀξθόλ (arkón) vs. Attic ἀξγόο (argós); the
Macedonian toponym Akesamenai, from the Pierian name Akesamenos – if Akesa- is
127
cognate to Greek agassomai, agamai ‗to astonish‘; cf. also the Thracian name
Agassamenos.
V. ALBANIAN
Albanian is spoken by over

8 million people primarily
(Megistias 2010)
in Albania, Kosovo, and the
Former Yugoslav Republic
of Macedonia, but also by
smaller numbers of ethnic
Albanians in other parts of
the Balkans, along the
eastern coast of Italy and in
Sicily. It has no living close
relatives among the modern
IE languages. There is no
consensus over its origin
and dialectal classification.
References to the
existence of Albanian
survive from the fourteenth century AD, but without recording any specific words.
The oldest surviving documents written in Albanian are the Formula e Pagëzimit
(Baptismal formula), Unte paghesont premenit Atit et birit et spertit senit ‗I baptise
thee in the name of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Spirit‘, recorded by Pal
Engjelli, Bishop of Durres in 1462 in the Gheg dialect, and some New Testament
verses from that period.
11.7.3. ANATOLIAN LANGUAGES
The Anatolian branch is generally considered the earliest to split off from the Proto-
Indo-European language, from a stage referred to as Proto-Indo-Hittite (PIH).
Typically a date ca. 4500-3500 BC is assumed for the separation.
NOTE. A long period of time is necessary for Proto-Anatolian to develop into Common
Anatolian. Craig Melchert and Alexander Lehrman agreed that a separation date of about
4000 BCE between Proto-Anatolian and the Proto-Indo-Hittite language community seems
128
1. Introduction
reasonable. The millennium or so around 4000 BC, say 4500 to 3500 BC, constitutes the
latest window within which Proto-Anatolian is likely to have separated.
Within a Kurgan framework, there are two possibilities of how early Anatolian speakers
could have reached Anatolia: from the north via the Caucasus, and from the west, via the
Balkans. The archaeological identification of Anatolian speakers remains highly speculative,
as it depends on the broad guesstimates that historical linguistics is able to offer.
Nevertheless, the Balkans route appears to be somewhat more likely for archaeologists; so e.g.
Mallory (1989) and Steiner (1990).
Map of the Hittite Empire at its greatest extent under Suppiluliuma I (ca.1350-
1322 BC) and Mursili II (ca. 1321–1295 BC). (Javier Fernandez-Vina 2010).
Attested dialects of the Anatolian branch are:
 Hittite (nesili), attested from ca. 1800 BC to 1100 BC, official language of the
Hittite Empire.
 Luwian (luwili), close relative of Hittite spoken in Arzawa, to the southwest of the
core Hittite area.
 Palaic, spoken in north-central Anatolia, extinct around the thirteenth century BC,
known only fragmentarily from quoted prayers in Hittite texts.
129
 Lycian, spoken in Lycia in the Iron Age, most likely a descendant of Luwian,
became extinct ca. the first century BC. A fragmentary language, it is also a likely
candidate for the language spoken by Trojans.
 Lydian, spoken in Lydia, extinct ca. the first century BC, fragmentary, possibly
from the same dialect group as Hittite.
 Carian, spoken in Caria, fragmentarily attested from graffiti by Carian
mercenaries in Egypt from ca. the seventh century BC, extinct ca. the thirteenth
century BC.
 Pisidian and Sidetic (Pamphylian), fragmentary.
 Milyan, known from a single inscription.
Anatolia was heavily Hellenised following the conquests of Alexander the Great,
and it is generally thought that by the first century BC the native languages of the
area were extinct.
Hittite proper is known from cuneiform tablets and inscriptions erected by the
Hittite kings and written in an adapted form of Old Assyrian cuneiform orthography.
Owing to the predominantly syllabic nature of the script, it is difficult to ascertain the
precise phonetic qualities of some Hittite sounds.
The Hittite language has traditionally been stratified – partly on linguistic and
partly on paleographic grounds – into Old Hittite, Middle Hittite and New or Neo-
Hittite, corresponding to the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms of the Hittite Empire,
ca. 1750-1500 BC, 1500-1430 BC and 1430-1180 BC, respectively.
Luwian was spoken by

population groups in Arzawa,
to the west or southwest of
the core Hittite area. In the
oldest texts, e.g. the Hittite
Code, the Luwian-speaking
areas including Arzawa and
Kizzuwatna were called
Luwia. From this homeland,
Clay tablet in Hittite cuneiform containing the
Luwian speakersgradually correpondance between the Luwian King of
spread through Anatolia and Arzawa and the Pharaoh of Egypt. (PD)
130
1. Introduction
became a contributing factor to the downfall, after ca. 1180 BC, of the Hittite Empire,
where it was already widely spoken. Luwian was also the language spoken in the Neo-
Hittite states of Syria, such as Milid and Carchemish, as well as in the central
Anatolian kingdom of Tabal that flourished around 900 BC. Luwian has been
preserved in two
forms, named
after the writing
systems used:
Cuneiform
Luwian and
Hieroglyphic
Luwian.
For the most

part, the
immediate
ancestor of the
known
Luwian language spreading, second to first millennium BC
Anatolian (Hendrik Tammen 2006)
languages, Common Anatolian (a late Proto-Anatolian dialect spoken ca. 3000-2000

BC) has been reconstructed on the basis of Hittite. However, the usage of Hittite
cuneiform writing system limits the enterprise of understanding and reconstructing
Anatolian phonology, partly due to the deficiency of the adopted Akkadian cuneiform
syllabary to represent Hittite sounds, and partly due to the Hittite scribal practices.
NOTE. This especially pertains to what appears to be confusion of voiceless and voiced
dental stops, where signs -dV- and -tV- are employed interchangeably different attestations of
the same word. Furthermore, in the syllables of the structure VC only the signs with voiceless
stops are generally used. Distribution of spellings with single and geminated consonants in the
oldest extant monuments indicates that the reflexes of PIE voiceless stops were spelled as
double consonants and the reflexes of Proto-Indo-European voiced stops as single
consonants.
Known changes from Indo-Hittite into Common Anatolian include:

 Voiced aspirates merged with voiced stops: *dh→*d, *bh→*b, *gh→*g.
131
 Voiceless stops become voiced after accented long vowel or diphthong: PIH *wēk-
→ CA *wēg- (cf. Hitt. wēk- „ask for‟); PIH *dheh1ti „putting‟ → CA *dǣdi (cf. Luw.
taac- „votive offering‟).
 Conditioned allophone PIH *tj- → CA *tsj-, as Hittite still shows.
 PIH *h1 is lost in CA, but for *eh1→*ǣ, appearing as Hitt., Pal. ē, Luw., Lyc., Lyd. ā;
word-initial *h2→*x, non-initial *h2→*h; *h3→*h.
NOTE 1. Melchert proposes that CA *x (voiceless fricative) is lenited to *h (voiced fricative)

under the same conditions as voiceless stops. Also, word-initial *h3 is assumed by some
scholars to have been already lost in CA.
NOTE 2. There is an important assimilation of laryngeals within CA: a sequence *-VRHV-

becomes -VRRV-; cf. PIH *sperh1V- → Hitt. isparr- ‗kick flat‘; PIH *sun-h3-V- → Hitt. sunna-
„fill‟, Pal. sunnuttil- „outpouring‟; etc.
 PIH resonants are generally stable in CA. Only word-initial *r has been
eliminated. Word-initial *je- shows a trend to become CA *e-, but the trend is not
complete in CA, as Hittite shows.
 Diphthong evolved as PIH *ei → CA * ; PIH *eu → CA *ū. PIE *oi, *ai, *ou, *au,
appear also in CA.
NOTE. Common Anatolian preserves PIE vowel system basically intact. Some cite the
merger of PIH *o and (a controversial) *a as a Common Anatolian innovation, but according
to Melchert that merger was secondary shared innovation in Hittite, Palaic and Luwian, but
not in Lycian. Also, the lengthening of accented short vowels in open syllables cannot be of
Common Anatolian, and neither can lengthening in accented closed syllables.
 The CA nominal system shows an productive declension in *-i, *-u, considered an

archaic feature retained from PIH.
 There are only two grammatical genders, animate and inanimate; this has usually
been interpreted as the original system in PIH.
 Hittite verbs are inflected according to two general verbal classes, the mi- and the
hi-conjugation. They had two voices (active and mediopassive), two moods
(indicative and imperative), and two tenses (present and past), two infinitive
forms, one verbal substantive, a supine, and a participle.
132
PART II
PHONOLOGY &
MORPHOLOGY
By Carlos Quiles & Fernando López-Menchero

2. Phonology
2. PHONOLOGY
2.1. CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS
2.1.1. The vowels are short [a], [e], [i], [o], [u], written a, e, i, o, u, and long [ ,
[ ], [ ], [ ], [ ], written ā, ē, ī, ō, ū, respectively. The other sounds are consonants.
The Indo-European diphthongs proper are [ei], [oi], [ai], written ei, oi, ai, and
[eu], [ou], [au], written eu, ou, au. Both vowel sounds are heard, one following the
other in the same syllable.
NOTE. For the so-called long diphthongs [ i], i], [ i], written ēi, ōi, āi, and [ u], u],
[ u], written ēu, ōu, āu, which remained only in Indo-Iranian, Greek and partly in Baltic
languages, Schulze (1885) interpreted a regular correspondence of the type āi/ā/ī, which
came respectively from the full grade of the long diphthong, the full grade before consonant
(where the second element was lost), and the zero-grade (a contraction of schwa with the
semivowel). Martinet (1953) proposed that laryngeals were behind those long diphthongs.
In any case, in the languages in which they are retained, long diphthongs have not a longer
duration than normal diphthongs; phonologically they are equivalent, as Vedic and Greek
metric shows. Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998): ―[t]he difference, therefore, is not
the duration of the group, but the relative duration of their components; in other words, e.g.
ei and ēi have the same phonological duration (they are long, as opposed to a brief vowel), but
in ei both elements have approximately the same duration, whereas in ēi the duration of i is
perceptibly shorter than e. Because of that, the name ‗long first-element diphthongs‘ is more
appropriate to refer to these phonemes.‖ Cf. Allen (“Long and short diphthongs‖, in Morpurgo
Davies and Meid (eds.), 1976) for an analysis of these diphthongs.
Strictly speaking, phoneticians do not consider the so-called rising diphthongs, [je],
[jo], [ja], [j ], [j ], [j ], nor [we], [wo], [wa], [w ], [w ], [w ], as diphthongs
proper, but rather sequences of glide and vowel.
The formations usually called triphthongs are [jei], [joi], [jai], [jeu], [jou], [jau], as
well as [wei], [woi], [wai], [weu], [wou], [wau]; and none can be strictly named
triphthong, since they are formed by a consonantal sound [j] or [w] followed by a
diphthong. The rest of possible formations are made up of a diphthong and a vowel.
NOTE. Whilst most Indo-Europeanists differentiate between sequences of approximant and
vowel (rising diphthongs) from true falling diphthongs in their transcriptions, i.e. writing [je]
(from [i]+[e]) but [ei] or [ei] (from [e]+[i]), some use a different approach, considering all of
135
them combinations of vowel plus glide or glide plus vowel, i.e. writing [je] and [ej], or [ie] and
[ei].
2.1.2. Consonants are either voiced (sonant) or voiceless (surd). Voiced consonants
are pronounced with vocal cords vibration, as opposed to voiceless consonants,
where the vocal cords are relaxed.
a. The voiced consonants are [b], [d], [g], [gw], [l], [r] and [ɾ], [m], [n], [z], [j], [w].
b. The voiceless consonants are [p], [t], [k], [kw], [s].
c. The digraphs bh [bh], dh [dh], gh [gh] and ch [gwh] represent the Indo-European
voiced aspirates proper whereas th [th], kh [kh], represent voiceless aspirates.
NOTE. Although written as digraphs, each aspirate is considered a single consonant, not a
combination of ‗consonant plus aspiration‘. The same is valid for labiovelars.
d. The resonants [r], [l], [m], [n], and the semivowels [j] and [w], can function both
as consonants and vowels, i.e. they can serve as syllabic border or centre.
NOTE. There is a clear difference between the vocalic allophones of the semivowels and
those of the resonants, though: the first, [i] and [u], are very stable as syllabic centre, whereas
the resonants ([r], [l], [m], [n]) aren‘t, as they cannot be pronounced more open. Because of
that, more dialectal differences are found in their evolution.
2.1.3. The mutes are classified as follows:
voiceless voiced aspirated

labials p b bh
dentals t d dh
velars k g gh
labiovelars kw gw gwh
Labialised velars or Labiovelars q [kw], c [gw], ch [gwh], are pronounced like [k], [g],
[gh] respectively, but with rounded lips.
NOTE 1. Labiovelar stops are neutralised adjacent w, u or ū; as in Gk. bou-kólos ‗cowherd‘,

from *gwou-kolos, dissimilated from *gwou-kwolos (which would have given Gk. *bou-pólos),
cf. Gk. ai-pólos ‗goatherd‘<*ai(g)-kwolos (Fortson 2004). This is related to the question of the
actual existence of the groups [kw], [gw], and [ghw], different from (and similar or identical in
their dialectal outputs to) labialised [kw], [gw], and [gwh]. A distinction between both is often
found, though; as, kwōn, dog, ekwos, horse, ghwer-, wild, kweidos, white, kwet-, cook
(cf. O.Ind. kwathati), tekw-, run, etc. For a defence of such unified forms, see e.g. Halla-aho
<http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/hum/slavi/vk/halla-aho/problems.pdf>.
136
2. Phonology
NOTE 2. German Neogrammarians reconstructed a fourth series of phonemes, the voiceless

aspirates *ph, *th, *kh, to explain some irregularities in the outputs of the voiceless row. Most
Indo-Europeanists reject this fourth independent row of phonemes, and findings of Indo-
Iranian, Armenian and Greek have been explained as 1) expressive in origin, 2) contact of a
voiceless with a laryngeal phoneme, and 3) effect of a prior s. For support of the fourth row,
see e.g. Szemerényi (1985).
2.1.4. The so-called liquids are l, which represents the alveolar lateral approximant
[l], and r, pronounced in PIE and (at least occasionally) in most modern IE
languages as alveolar trill [r], today often allophonic with an alveolar tap [ɾ],
particularly in unstressed positions. These sounds are voiced.
NOTE. Cf. Ban‘czerowski (“indoeuropäisches r und l”, LPosn. 12/13, 1968).
2.1.5. The nasals are labial [m], written m, and dental [n], written n. These are
voiced. The velar nasal [ŋ] – as ng in English sing – could have existed in IE as
allophone of [n] before velars.
NOTE. Erhart (Studien zur indoeuropäischen Morphologie, 1970) reconstructs three nasals,
*N, *M1 and *M2, this one a fricative seminasal with which he explains the results of
alternating m and w in some suffixes and roots; as, -ment-/-went-, men-/wen-, etc. He left
unexplained, though, under which conditions they would have changed.
2.1.6. The fricatives are voiceless [s] and voiced [z], with z being usually the output
of s before voiced consonants.
NOTE. [z] was already heard in Late Indo-European, as a different pronunciation

(allophone) of [s] before voiced stops, as can be clearly seen in LIE nisdos [nizdos] nest,
which comes from PIE roots ni-, down, and zero-grade -sd- of sed-, sit.
2.1.7. The semivowels are usually written j, and w. These are voiced.
NOTE. Some authors make a distinction between consonantal [j], [w], and vocalic [i], [u].
Actually, however, both appear as CIC and VJV, and never as CJC or VIV (and the same is
valid for resonants and their vocalic allophones).
2.1.8. Gemination appears in phonemes whose duration is long enough to be

perceived – their implosion and explosion, both audible – as distributed in two
syllables. They existed in LIE: in stops, as appās, attās (and tātā), dad, pappājō,
eat, or kakkājō, shit; in nasals, as annā, ammā (and mammā), mother, mum; in
liquids, as bōullā, buble; and in the sibilant, as kussō, kiss.
137
NOTE. They appear mostly in words of expressive origin, children vocabulary,

onomatopoeia, etc., which makes it more likely that PIE inherited gemination mainly as an
expressive resource, different from its central phonological system; a resource that was
retained for a long time by most IE languages as a recurrent possibility.
2.1.10. A synoptic table of the Indo-European phonetic system:

Labials Coronals Palatal Velars Labiovelars Gutturals
Voiceless p t k kw ʔ
Plosive
Aspirated th kh
Voiced b d g gw
Aspirated bh dh gh gwh
Nasals m n
Fricatives Voiceless s h
Voiced (z)
Liquids l, r
Approximant w j
NOTE. The glottal stop ʔ is the remain of the unified Late Indo-European laryngeal *H (v.s.
The Loss of Laryngeals). Its effect was usually a lengthening of the preceding vowel, although
remains might be found in some ancient lexica and frozen expressions, especially
accompanying sonorants. It is not usually written in this book, though; cf. gṇa’tó-, written
with a late West IE output gnātó- for practical reasons; see §5.5.2 for writing conventions in
numerals. Examples of its actual pronunciation are found today in Germanic; cf. American
Eng. cat [khæʔ(t)], BBC Eng. button [ ɐʔn], Ger. (northern dialects) Beamter [bəˈʔamtɐ],
(western dialects) Verwaltung [ˌfɔʔˈvaltʊŋ], Du. beamen [bəʔamən], or Danish hand [hɞnʔ].
2.2. PRONUNCIATION
2.2.1 The following pronunciation scheme is substantially that used by Indo-

European speakers at the end of the common Late Indo-European period.
2.2.2. Indo-European vowels and examples in English and French:
English French English French

ā father tard a idea partie
ē made (esp. Welsh) été (but longer) e met les
ī meet pire i chip ici
ō note (esp. Welsh) port o pot mot
ū boo court u put tout
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2. Phonology
NOTE. Following the mainstream laryngeal theory, Proto-Indo-Hittite knew only two
vowels, *e and *o, while the other commonly reconstructed vowels were earlier combinations
with laryngeals. Thus, short vowels a < *h2e; e < *(h1)e; o < *h3e, *(h1)o; long vowels ā < *eh2;
ē < *eh1; ō < *eh3, *oh. Different schools consider a or o to be the output of *h2o in Late Indo-
European. Short and long vowels , are variants of the semivowels j and w.
2.2.3. Falling diphthongs and equivalents in English and French:
i as in Eng. vein, Fr. Marseille u Eng. e (met) + u (put), Fr. Séoul

i as in Eng. oil, Fr. coyotes u as in Eng. know, Fr. au + ou
i as in Eng. Cairo, Fr. travail u as in Eng. out, Fr. caoutchouc
NOTE. In long diphthongs, the first component is pronounced longer than the second one,
but the duration of the group is the same (see above).
2.2.4. Consonants:
1. b, d, h, l, m, n, are pronounced as in English.
2. p, k, t, are plain as in Romance, Balto-Slavic, Greek or Indo-Iranian languages,

and unlike their English or German equivalents, cf. Fr. pôle vs. Eng. pain, Fr. qui vs.
Eng. key, Fr. tous vs. Eng. tongue.
NOTE. The aspirate or ‗h-sound‘ which follows the English k disappears when the k is
preceded by an s, as in skill.
3. t and d are made by striking the edge of the teeth with the tip of the tongue, as in
Romance languages, and unlike English, in which it is made with the tongue drawn a
little further back, so that the tip strikes against the front of the palate or the
teethridge. In other words, the place of articulation is the same as for the English th
en thin.
4. g always as in get.
NOTE. For Balto-Slavic palatalisation, compare the g in garlic and gear, whispering the two
words, and note how before e and i the g is sounded farther forward in the mouth (more
‗palatal‘) than before a or o. That is what we represent as [gj] when writing a palatalised g.
Similarly, we use [kj] pronounced as k in key compared to c in cold.
5. c stands for [gw], which is pronounced similar to [g] but with rounded lips.
Compare the initial consonant in good with get to feel the different articulation. The
voiceless q (which stands for [kw]) is similar to [k] but pronounced with rounded lips;
as c in cool, compared to c in car.
139
6. The voiceless aspirated kh, th, are pronounced very nearly like English word-
initial p, k, t, as in pen, ten, Ken, but much more aspirated. The extra aspiration
might be trained by using English words with combinations of p+h, t+h, k+h, i.e. to
the corresponding mutes with a following breath, as in loop-hole, hot-house, block-
house, pronouncing them first in two distinct parts and then more rapidly, trying to
run the p, k, t, on to the following syllable.
7. The aspiration of voiced bh, dh, gh, ch, must be a voiced aspiration, which
makes their pronunciation troublesome.
NOTE. ―The key to the pronunciation of all these letters is learning to pronounce a voiced h
instead of the voiceless English h (it is true that some English speakers make voiced h a rather
infrequent allophone of h – e.g. in the word inherent). Voiced sounds are those made with a
vibration of the vocal cords. Some consonants are voiced, others voiceless. All vowels are
voiced, unless you whisper them. An extremely easy way to tell whether a sound is voiced or
not is to put your hands firmly over your ears: start by making a prolonged sss sound, which is
voiceless; then make a zzz sound, which is voiced, and you will hear the vibration of the vocal
cords very plainly as a droning in your ears. Lengthen the ordinary English h into a prolonged
breathing and it will be quite obviously voiceless. The task now is to modify this breathing
until you can hear that it is accompanied by the droning. The sound you are aiming at is
similar to the sound children sometimes use when they want to make someone jump. The
voiced h, once produced, can easily be combined with g, b, etc., and practice will soon smooth
the sound down until you do not seem to be trying to give your listeners a series of heart
attacks.‖ Coulson (2003).
8. j as the sound of y in yes (probably more lightly), never the common English
[ ʒ], as j in join; w as in will.
9. Indo-European r was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue (still
common today in many IE languages), as in Scottish English curd. In the majority of
IE languages, and thus possibly in PIE, this sound is at least occasionally allophonic
with an alveolar tap [ɾ], pronounced like the intervocalic t or d in American or
Australian English, as in better.
NOTE. Speakers of Southern or BBC English should be careful always to give r its full value,
and should guard against letting it colour their pronunciation of a preceding vowel.
10. l is dental, and so even more like a French than an English l. It does not have
the ‗dark‘ quality which in varying degrees an English l may have.
140
2. Phonology
11. s is usually voiceless as in English sin, but there are situations in which it is
voiced (therefore pronounced z), when followed by voiced phonemes (see below).
12. Doubled letters, like ss, nn, etc., should be so pronounced that both members of
the combination are distinctly articulated, as s+s in English ‗less soap‘, n+n in Eng.
greenness.
2.3. SYLLABLES
2.3.1. In many modern languages, there are as many syllables in a word as there are
separate vowels and diphthongs. Indo-European follows this rule too:
swe-sōr, sister, skrei-bhō, write, ne-wā, new, ju-góm, yoke.
NOTE. According to Fortson (2004): ―PIE grouped sounds into syllables in much the same
way as Greek, Latin, Sanskrit and many other languages. In any given sequence of consonants
and vowels, the vowels constituted the syllabic peaks, and were linked to a preceding
consonant (if one was available) which formed the onset (beginning) of a syllable. If two or
more consonants occurred together in the middle of a word, they were usually split between
two syllables. In the abstract, a word of the structure VCCVCVCCVC would have been
syllabified VC.CV.CVC.CVC. It is possible that certain consonant clusters could group together
in the middle of a word as the onset of a syllable; if so, by a universal phonological principle
they would have also been able to form word-initial onsets‖.
2.3.2. Resonants can also be centre of a syllable. It is possible to hear similar sound
sequences in English interesting (‗íntṛsting‟), cattle (‗cattḷ‟), bottom (‗bottṃ‟), or
Brighton (‗Brightṇ‟), as well as in other modern languages, as in German Haben
(‗Habṇ‟), Czech hlt, Serbian srpski, etc. In this kind of syllables, it is the vocalic
resonant [r], [l], [m], or [n] –constrained allophones of [r], [l], [m], [n] –, the one
which functions as syllabic centre, instead of a vowel proper:
kṛ-di, heart, wḷ-qos, wolf, de-kṃ, ten, nō-mṇ, name.
NOTE. Words derived from these groups, represented CRC, are unstable and tend to add
auxiliary vowels before or after the resonants, i.e. C°RC or CR°C. Because of that, their
evolutions differ greatly in modern IE languages. For example, dṇghwā, language, evolved
probably as *d°nghwā, into PGmc. tung(w)ō, and later English tongue or German Zunge, and
into Old Latin dingwa, and then the initial d became l in Classic Latin, written lingua, which
is in turn the origin of Modern English words ―linguistic‖ and ―language‖. For wḷqos (cf. Ved.
vṛkas < PII wṛkas), it evolved either as *w°lkwos into PGmc. *wulxwaz (cf. O.H.G. wolf) or
141
BSl. *wilkas (cf. O.C.S. vьlkъ), or as *wlukwos into Common Greek *wlukwos (cf. Gk. lykos),
Ita. *wlupos (cf. Lat. lupus).
2.3.3. According to Ringe (2006), each sequence of one or more resonants was
syllabified as follows. If the rightmost member of the sequence was adjacent to a
syllabic (i.e. a vowel, on the initial application of the rule), it remained nonsyllabic,
but if not, it was assigned to a syllable peak. The rule then iterated from right to left,
the output of each decision providing input to the next.
NOTE. Ringe (2006): Forms of kwon-, dog, neatly illustrate the process: The zero grade
was basically kwn- (since full-grade forms show that the high vocalic was an alternating
resonant, not an underlying syllabic high vowel). The genitive singular kwn-ós, dog‟s, of a
dog, was syllabified as follows: the n was adjacent to a vowel and therefore remained
nonsyllabic; consequently the w was not adjacent to a syllabic, and it therefore surfaced as
syllabic u, giving kunós (cf. Skt. śúnas, Gk. kunós). On the locative plural kwn-sú, among
dogs, was syllabified as follows: the n was not adjacent to a vowel and therefore became
syllabic ṇ; consequently the w was adjacent to a syllabic and therefore remained nonsyllabic,
giving kwṇ-sú (cf. Skt śvásu). There are some exceptions to this rule, though.
2.3.4. Apart from the common vocalic resonant CRC, another, less stable sequence
is found in PIE *C°RV → CVRV/CRV; as, kerwos<*k°rwos, deer. Auxiliary vowels
were sometimes inserted in difficult *CRC; as, cemjō<*gw°mjō, come, etc.
NOTE. ―Some have proposed a ‗reduced IE vowel‘, the so-called schwa secundum (Hirt
1900, Güntert 1916, Sturtevant 1943), although they were probably just auxiliary vowels, mere
‗allophonic vocoids‘ initially necessary to articulate complex groups‖ (Adrados–Bernabé–
Mendoza 1995-1998). It is commonly accepted that LIE dialects did in fact add an auxiliary
vowel to this sequence at early times, probably before the first dialectal split: as early Indo-
Iranian and Balto-Slavic dialects show, vocalisation of most *CRV groups had already
happened when *CRC hadn‘t still been vocalised, i.e. PIE *C°RV → *CVRV.
The most unstable *CRV sequences found in LIE are possibly those with a resonant
or glide as the initial consonant, i.e. *RRV; as, suffix -m°no-, m°rijar, die, etc.
Although cf. also adjectival suffix (-t/s)-°mo-, ordinal sépt°mos, etc.
NOTE. Such irregular forms kept their apparent alternating pattern in post-LIE period,
hence probably an auxiliary vowel was still inserted in the IEDs. The convention is to write the
dot ° before the resonant, but in this grammar we prefer a simpler notation, with the dot
below; since compounds of CRV cannot naturally include a resonant in IE, there is no possible
confusion. From the examples above, it is written here conventionally mṇo- (v.i. §7.7.2),
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2. Phonology
mṛijar, die (cf. Skt. mriyate, Av. miryeite, Gk. emarten, Lat. morior, O.C.S. mĭrǫ, mrěti, Lith.
mĩrti), suffix -(t/s)-ṃo- (v.i. §5.4), séptṃos, etc.
Most dialects show a common auxiliary vowel with maximal opening (in [a]) for the
resonant, into a general CaRV, even in those dialects that show different outputs (as well as
non-vocalisation) for CRC; i.e. m(a)rijar, -(t/s)-amo-, séptamos, etc. Adrados–Bernabé–
Mendoza (1995-1998). As with consonant change, in this grammar the phonetically correct
notation is therefore avoided in favour of the phonemically correct notation.
2.3.5. In the division of words into syllables, these rules apply:
a. A single consonant is joined to the following vowel or diphthong; as lon-dhom,

land, rei-dhō, ride, etc.
b. Combinations of two or more consonants are regularly separated, and the first
consonant of the combination is joined to the preceding vowel; as legh-trom,
support, pen-qe, five, etc.
When a consonant is followed by a resonant or a glide, the consonants are not

separated, even in the middle of a word and preceded by a vowel; as, a-gros, field,
me-dhjos, middle.
c. In compounds, the parts are usually separated; as a-pó-sta-tis, distance, from

apo + statis.
2.3.6. The semivowels [j], [w] are more stable than resonants when they are syllable
centres, i.e. [i] or [u].
NOTE. Both forms appear – like resonants – in a complementary distribution, i.e. as CIC
and VJV, and never as ˟CJC or ˟VIV. Some authors make a distinction between consonantal
[j], [w], and vocalic [i], [u]; see Schmitt-Brandt (Die Entwicklung des Indogermanischen
Vokalsystems, 1967), Szemerényi (1985), or Mayrhofer (“Lautlehre (Segmentale Phonologie
des Indogermanischen)”, in Indogermanische Grammatik I, Cogwill-Mayrhofer 1986).
When they are pronounced lento, they give the allophones (or allosyllables) ij, uw.
Examples of alternating forms in PIE include médhijos (cf. Lat. medius), and
medhjos (cf. O.Ind. mádhjas or Gk. κέζζνο); dwōu, two (cf. Goth. twai, Gk. δσ-),
and duwōu (cf. O.Ind. duva, Gk. dúō < dúwō, Lat. duo).
NOTE. The so-called Sievers‘ Law was behind most of these forms; it explains that the
weight of a syllable in LIE affected the pronunciation of following consonant clusters
consisting of a consonant plus a glide before a vowel (e.g. -tjo-, -two-): if the syllable before
the cluster was heavy (i.e. if it ended in -VCC or - C), the vocalic equivalent of the glide was
143
inserted into the cluster (yielding -tijo-, -tuwo-). One of the conditions is that the rule only
applied when the glide began the final syllable of the word.
It is the same rule as Lindeman‘s Law, whereby monosyllables beginning with consonant
plus glide (like kwōn, dog, or djēus, sky) had the cluster broken up in the same way as
Sievers‘ Law (kuwṓn, dijḗus) if the word followed a word ending in a heavy syllable.
Descendants of both alternating forms might be preserved in the same dialect, or be found in
different different dialects. Lindeman‘s Law can be interpreted as the sandhi equivalent to
Sievers‘ Law; the variant dijḗus is determined by the final position of the preceding word: on
one hand we have ##... #dijḗus ## and ##...VR#dijḗus##, on the other
##...C#djēus##. See Fortson (2004) and Meier-Brügger (2003).
2.4. PROSODY
2.4.1. The Indo-European verse is quantitative: it is based, that is to say (as in Latin,
Greek or Sanskrit), on a regular arrangement of long and short syllables and not, as
in English, of stressed and unstressed syllables.
Syllables are distinguished according to the length of time required for their
pronunciation. Two degrees of quantity are recognised, long and short.
NOTE. To distinguish long and short syllables more clearly from long and short vowels the
former may be referred to as heavy and light respectively (corresponding to the Sanskrit
terms guru and laghu, IE crāwú and leghú, respectively).
In syllables, quantity is measured from the beginning of the vowel or diphthong to the end of
the syllable. Such distinctions of long and short are not arbitrary and artificial, but are purely
natural, a long syllable requiring more time for its pronunciation than a short one.
2.4.2. A syllable is long or heavy usually,
a. if it contains a long vowel; as, mā-tḗr, mother, kē-lā-jō, hide,
b. if it contains a diphthong; as, lai-wós, left, oi-nos, one,
c. if it is followed by two or more consonants (even in another word); as,

dherghs, shit, korm-nos, bleach.
2.4.3. A syllable is short or light usually if it contains a short vowel (or vocalic
resonant) followed by a vowel or by a single consonant; as, dre-pō, cut, or e-í-mi,
go; or qṛ-mis, worm, cṃ-tis, march.
NOTE. In old compositions, sometimes final short vowels are found as heavy syllables; as,
Skt. deví etu, or vocat. vṛki, tanu, cf. Lindeman (1987) or Beekes (―On laryngeals and
144
2. Phonology
pronouns”, KZ96, 1982). They are possibly glottal stops, remains of the old merged LIE
laryngeal *H, i.e. *dewíH, *wrkiH, etc. ―The Rig Veda preserves many words that must scan as
though a laryngeal or some remnant of a laryngeal (like a glottal stop) were still present
between vowels, a phenomenon called laryngeal hiatus‖. For example, Skt. v tas „wind‟ must
sometimes scan trisyllabically as va‟atas, which comes from earlier pre-PII *weHntos or PII
wáʔatas < PIE *h2weh1ntos → NWIE wentos; although for Ringe (2006) from Lat. ventus,
Welsh gwynt, PGmc. *windaz, only NWIE wentós or wēntos (cf. Proto-Toch. *wyentë)
could be reconstructed.
2.5. ACCENT
2.5.1. There are accented as well as unaccented words. The last could indicate words
that are always enclitic, i.e., they are always bound to the accent of the preceding
word, as -qe, and, -w , or; while another can be proclitics, like prepositions.
2.5.2. Evidence from Ancient Greek, Vedic Sanskrit and Balto-Slavic accent let us
reconstruct a LIE pitch (also tonic or musical) accent system, with only one, acute
accent. Late Indo-European was therefore a stress language in which syllable
strength was chiefly a matter of pitch differences: the accented syllable was higher in
pitch than the surrounding syllables.
NOTE 1. For Beekes (1995): ―There are several indications that Proto-Indo-European was a
tone language at some time in its development. The accent-systems of both Sanskrit and
Greek already give reason enough to surmise that this may have been the case.‖
According to Clackson (2007): ―Qualitatively our best evidence for PIE accent comes from
two of the oldest and most conservative branches: Greek and Vedic Sanskrit. For both
languages there is a large body of texts with word-accents marked and adequate metalinguistic
descriptions of the nature of the accentual system. The accent of both Greek and Sanskrit was
a mobile pitch-accent type, but there were differences between the two systems (…) Since the
two morae of some of the Greek circumflex nuclei have arisen from contraction of two
syllables, it seems reasonable to assume that the syllable-based accent of Sanskrit is original
(…).‖
We can therefore assume that the attested distinction between acute and circumflex accent
in Ancient Greek and Baltic languages does not come from the LIE period, but were late
independent dialectal developments. According to this description of events, the Greek and
Indic systems were lost: Modern Greek has a pitch produced stress accent, and it was lost
entirely from Indic by the time of the Prākrits. Balto-Slavic retained LIE pitch accent,
reworking it into the opposition of ‗acute‘ (rising) and ‗circumflex‘ (falling) tone, and which,
145
following a period of extensive accentual innovations, yielded pitch-accent based system that
has been retained in modern-day Lithuanian and West South Slavic dialects. Some other
modern Indo-European languages have pitch accent systems; as, Swedish and Norwegian,
deriving from a stress-based system they inherited from Old Norse, and Punjabi, which
developed tone distinctions that maintained lexical distinctions as consonants were conflated.
NOTE 2. A possibility is that PIE (or, more exactly, PIH) was a tonal language, i.e. that it had
more than the limited word-tone system usually called pitch-accent. This position was argued
by Szemerényi (1985), Lubotsky (The system of nominal accentuation in Sanskrit and Proto-
Indo-European, 1988) and by Kortlandt (―The laryngeal theory and Slavic accentuation” in
Bammesberger (ed.), 1988). They are mainly based on Sanskrit accentual system and
typological considerations, since such a system would account for the old ablauting patterns
found in PIE.
2.5.3. The accent is free, but that does not mean anarchy. On the contrary, it means
that each non-clitic word has an accent and only one accent, and one has to know –
usually by way of practice – where it goes. Its location usually depends on the
inflectional type to which a given word belongs.
NOTE. The term free here refers to the position of the accent—its position is (at least partly)
unpredictable by phonological rules, i.e. it could stand on any syllable of a word, regardless of
its structure. Otherwise homophonous words may differ only by the position of the accent,
and it is thus possible to use accent as a grammatical device.
2.5.4. The place of the original accent is difficult to reconstruct, and sometimes
different positions are attested. According to Clackson (2007), comparison of
Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, Greek and Sanskrit allows us to reconstruct the place of the
PIE word accent with confidence, what let us deduce some properties of the
accentual system:
a) The accent can fall on any element which functions as a syllabic nucleus.
b) The accent can fall on any syllable of a word.
c) No word has more than one accent.
2.5.5. According to Ringe (2006), thematic nominal (i.e. those ending in the
thematic vowel) had the accent on the same syllable throughout the paradigm;
thematic verb stems also have generally a fixed accent.
Some athematic verb stems and nominal have fixed accent (mostly on the root), but
most had alternating accent; there were different patterns, but in all of them the
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2. Phonology
surface accent was to the left in one group of forms (the nominative and accusative
cases of nominal, the active singular of verbs) and to the right in the rest.
Stems and endings can be underlyingly accented or not, and words with no
underlying accent are assigned accent on the leftmost syllable by default.
NOTE. According to Lehmann (1974): ―The location of the high pitch is determined
primarily from our evidence in Vedic; the theory that this was inherited from PIE received
important corroboration from Karl Verner‘s demonstration of its maintenance into Germanic
(1875). Thus the often cited correlation between the position of the accent in the Vedic perfect
and the differing consonants in Germanic provided decisive evidence for reconstruction of the
PIE pitch accent as well as for Verner‘s law, as in the perfect (preterite) forms of the root
*deyk-, ‗show‘.‖
IE Vedic O.E. O.H.G.

1 sg. dedóika didéśa tāh zēh
1 pl. dedikmé didiśimá tigon zigum
2.6. VOWEL CHANGE
2.6.1. The vowel grade or ablaut is normally the alternation between full, zero or
lengthened grade vocalism. Proto-Indo-European had a regular ablaut sequence that
contrasted the five usual vowel sounds called thematic, i.e. e/ē/o/ō/∅. This means
that in different forms of the same word, or in different but related words, the basic
vowel, a short e, could be replaced by a long ē, a short o or a long ō, or it could be
omitted (transcribed as ∅).
NOTE. The term Ablaut comes from Ger. Abstufung der Laute, ‗vowel alternation‘. In
Romance languages, the term apophony is preferred.
In Romance languages, theme is used instead of stem. Therefore, theme vowel and thematic
refer to the stem endings. In the Indo-European languages, a common conventional
nomenclature is that thematic stems are those stems that have the common ―theme vowel‖,
i.e. the e/o ending. Athematic stems lack that theme vowel, and attach their inflections
directly to the stem itself.
2.6.2. When a syllable had a short e, it is said to be in the e grade; when it had no
vowel, it is said to be in the zero grade, when in o, in o grade, and they can also be
lengthened. The e-grade is sometimes called full grade.
NOTE. While changes in the length of a vowel (as e-∅-ē, o-∅-ō) are usually termed
quantitative ablaut, changes in the quality of a vowel (as e-o or ē-ō), are termed qualitative
147
ablaut. Because qualitative changes are more frequent than lengthened-grades, these forms
are usually termed e-grade or o-grade for convenience (Fortson 2004).
A classic example of the five grades of ablaut in a single root is provided by the
following different case forms of IE patḗr, father, and ṇpatōr, fatherless.
Ablaut grade IE Greek (translit.) Case

e-grade or full grade pa-ter-ṃ πα-ηέξ-α pa-tér-a Accusative
lengthened e-grade pa-tḗr πα-ηήξ pa-tḗr Nominative
zero-grade pa-tr-ós πα-ηξ-όο pa-tr-ós Genitive
o-grade ṇ-pá-tor-ṃ ἀ-πά-ηνξ-α a-pá-tor-a Accusative
lengthened o-grade ṇ-pa-tōr ἀ-πά-ησξ a-pá-tōr Nominative
NOTE. Another example of the common Ablaut is t-stem nepot-, grandson, which gives
lengthened grade Nominative, nep-ōts, full-grade Genitive nép-ot-os, and zero-grade
feminine nep-t-is, grand-daughter. The study of declensions and practice with vocabulary
should help the reader learn such alternations.
2.6.3. Synoptic table of common examples of different vowel grades (adapted from
Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza 1995-1998):
Vowel Grade Full (F) Zero (∅) Lengthened (L)

e/o - ∅ - ē/ō dom- dm- dōm-
je/jo - i - jē/jō djeu- diw- djēu-
we/wo - u - wē/wō kwon- kun- kwōn
ei/oi/ai - u/i - ēi/ōi/āi bheid- bhid- bhēid-
eu/ou/au - u/i - bheud- bhud- bhēud-
au/ai - u/i - āu/āi
ēu/ōu/āu pau- pu- pāu-
ā/ē/ō - a - ā/ē/ō stā- sta- stā-
ēi/ōi - ū/ī - ēi/ōi pōi pī pōi
2.6.4. There are also some other possible vowel grade changes, as a-grade, i-grade
and u-grade, which usually come from old root endings, rather than from
systematised phonetic changes.
NOTE. It seems that the alternation full-grade/zero-grade in PIE was dependent on the
accent. Compare klewos/klutós, eimi/imés, patérṃ/patrós, etc., where the unstressed
morpheme loses its vowel. This happens only in the oldest formations, though, as Late Indo-
European had probably lost this morphological pattern, freezing many older ablauting words
and creating a new (more stable) vocabulary without changes in accent or vowel grade.
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2. Phonology
2.6.5. As we have seen, vowel change was common in Proto-Indo-European. In

many words the vowel varies because of old ablauting forms that gave different
derivatives.
So for example in o-grade domos, house, which gives dómūnos, lord, as Lat.
dominus, Skt. dámūnas; but full grade root dem-, which gives demspóts, master,
lord (from older gen. *dems) as Gk. δεζπόηης (despótēs), Skt. dampati, Av. dəṇg
patōiš, (with fem. demspotnja).
NOTE. The forms attested in Indo-Iranian (and maybe Greek) come from i-stem potis,
probably derived from the original Late PIE form dems-póts, cf. ghósti-pots, guest, as Lat.
hospēs, hospitis, O.Russ. gospodь<*-ostьpot-; compare, for an original PIE ending -t in
compounds, Lat. sacerdōs < *sakro-dhots, O.Ind. devastút-, ―who praises the gods‖, etc. The
compound is formed with pot-, lord, husband, and pot-nja, mistress, lady.
2.6.6. Different vocalisations appeared in IE dialects in some phonetic

environments, especially between two occlusives in zero-grade; as e.g. skp-, which
evolved as Lat. scabo or Got. skaban.
NOTE. According to Fortson (2004): ―In word-initial consonant clusters consisting of two
stops plus a resonant, a prop vowel was introduced between the two stops to break up the
cluster; this vowel was introduced between the two stops to break up the cluster; this vowel is
called ―schwa secundum‖ (…) . For example, one of the forms of numeral ‗four‘ was *kwtuor-,
which developed a schwa secundum to become *kwetuor- or *kwətuor-, yielding Lat. quattuor
and Homeric Gk. písures (as opposed to Gk. téssares from a different form, *kwetuor-).‖
Although the dialectal solutions to such consonantal groups aren‘t unitary, we can find some
general PIE timbres. A general a; an i with a following dental (especially in Gk. and BSl.); or
u, also considered general, but probably influenced by the context, possibly when in contact
with a labial, guttural or labiovelar. Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998).
2.6.7. Sometimes different reconstructions might account for some vowel

differences, most frequently in combinations of *RH or *HR; as, *lawō for lowō,
wash, *Sṃos for Samos, summer, *kṛwos for kerwos, deer, etc.
NOTE. Different reconstructions might be equally valid, depending on the criteria employed.
Sometimes different PIE language stages have to be taken into account; as, for root neqt-,
night, a common PIH *noqts is reconstructible, which had a genitive in *neqts according to
Hitt. nekut; however, pre-LIE shows a generalised non-ablauting pattern; cf. O.Gk. nuks,
nuktós, O.Lat. nox, noctis. The newer i-stem noqtis was the general post-LIE (and later also
149
PII, NWIE) form, without accent-ablaut changes; cf. O.Ind. nakti, Gmc. naxti, Sla. notjь, Bal.
nakti. See below §4.7 for a discussion on the reconstruction of root nouns.
2.7. CONSONANT CHANGE
2.7.1. Regarding consonant change, different similar reconstructions might appear,

too. Some might not fit into a single LIE original word; as, ghortos, garden (cf. Gk.
khortos, Lat. hortus, O.Ir. gort), and ghordhos, enclosure (cf. Gk. khortis, Lith.
gardas, O.C.S. gradu, Goth. gards, Phry. -gordum, Alb. garth).
NOTE. They have been explained as one original form borrowed with a (dialectal) consonant
change into other dialects, but it is more likely that both forms were found in LIE.
2.7.2. The so called s-mobile refers to the phenomenon of alternating word pairs,
with and without s before initial consonants, in roots with similar or identical
meaning. This ‗moveable‘ prefix s- is always followed by another consonant. Typical
combinations are with voiceless stops (s)p-, (s)t-, (s)k-, with liquids and nasals, (s)l-
, (s)m-, (s)n-; and rarely (s)w-.
NOTE. Examples include (s)ten-, cf. with s- O.Ind. stánati, Gk. sténō, O.Eng. stenan, Lith.
stenù, O.Sla. stenjo, and without s- in O.Ind. tányati, Gk. Eol. ténnei, Lat. tonare, O.H.G.
donar, Cel. Tanaros (name of a river). For (s)pek-, cf. O.Ind. spáśati, Av. spašta, Gk. skopós
(<spokós), Lat. spektus, O.H.G. spehon, without s- in O.Ind. páśyati, Alb. pashë. For (s)ker-,
cf. O.Ind. ava-, apa-skara-, Gk. skéraphos, O.Ir. scar(a)im, O.N. skera, Lith. skiriù, Illyr.
Scardus, Alb. hurdhë (<*skṛd-), without s- in O.Ind. kṛnáti, Av. kərəntaiti, Gk. keíro, Arm.
kcorem, Alb. kjëth, Lat. caro, O.Ir. cert, O.N. horund, Lith. kkarnà, O.Sla. korŭcŭ, Hitt.
kartai-, and so on. Such pairs with and without s are found even within the same branch, as
Gk. (s)tégos, ‗roof‘, (s)mikrós, ‗little‘, O.Ind. (s)tṛ, „star‟, and so on.
NOTE. Some scholars posit that it was a prefix in PIE (which would have had a causative
value), while others maintain that it is probably caused by assimilations of similar stems –
some of them beginning with an s-, and some of them without it. It is possible, however, that
the original stem actually had an initial s, and that it was lost by analogy in some situations,
because of phonetic changes, probably due to some word compounds where the last -s of the
first word assimilated to the first s- of the second one. That helps to explain why both stems
(with and without s) are recorded in some languages, and why no regular evolution pattern
may be ascertained: so for example in wḷqons spekjont, they saw wolves, becoming
wḷqons ‘pekjont. Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998).
2.7.3. In a cluster of two consonants differing in voicing, the voicing of the first is
assimilated to that of the second.
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2. Phonology
Voiceless s was assimilated to voiced z before a voiced consonant; as, nisdos [‗niz-
dos], nest, misdhom [‗miz-dhom], meed, salary, or osdos [‗oz-dos], branch.
Voiced stops become voiceless when followed by a voiceless consonant: e.g. agtós
[ak-‗tos] (cf. Gk. αθηος (aktos), Lat. actus). The same happens with voiced aspirates,
as in leghtrom, support (cf. Gk. lektron, O.H.G. Lehter or from the same root Lat.
lectus); or nictós, washed (cf. Gk. a-niptos <*n-niqtos, ‗unwashed‟, O.Ir. necht).
Voiceless stops become voiced before voiced consonants; as, ped- in zero-grade -pd-
, cf. Gk. επηβδα (epi-bd-a), Av. frabda, ‗forefoot‘.
Voiced and voiceless stops are pronounced alike in final position; as, qid [kwit] (cf.
O.Ind. cit), or pod, foot (cf. voiceless O.Ind. nom. pāt, after having lost the final -s).
NOTE. Although the accuracy of some allophones in Late Indo-European is certain, for
practical reasons the phonetically correct notation is therefore avoided in favour of the
phonemically correct notation. We deem that to write them as a general rule, like writing ‗thə‟
or ‗thi‟ for English the, or ‗dogz‟ for dogs, while possibly helpful to show the actual
pronunciation, would probably be an obstacle to the understanding of the underlying
etymology; also, such phonetical variations exist naturally, and don‘t need to be supported by
the orthography.
2.7.4. A sequence of two dentals -TT- (such as -tt-, -dt-, -tdh-, -ddh-, etc.) was
eliminated in all Indo-European dialects, but the process of this suppression differed
among branches: Vedic Sanskrit shows little change, some others an intermediate -
sT- (Iranian, Greek, Balto-Slavic) and others -ss- or -s- (Italic, Celtic, Germanic).
Compounds were not affected by this trend; as, kréd-dhēmi, believe.
We find a common intermediate stage in Iranian, Proto-Greek (cf. Gk. st, sth, in
pistis, oistha), and North-West Indo-European (cf. *Hed-ti ‗eats‟, in Lat. est, Lith.
esti, OCS jastŭ, and afield O.H.G. examples). Therefore, we can assume that PIE
*d+t, *t+t, *dh+t → NWIE, PGk st; PIE *d+d, *t+d, *dh+d → NWIE, PGk sd; PIE
*d+dh, *t+dh, *dh+dh → NWIE, PGk sdh.
Common examples are found in forms derived from PIE root weid-, know, see,
which gave verb widējō, cf. Lat. vidēre, Goth. witan, O.C.S. viděti, Lith. pavydéti;
p.p. wistós, seen, from wid-tó-, cf. O.Ind. vitta-, but Av. vista-, O.Pruss. waist,
O.Sla. vestъ, or Ger. ge-wiss, Lat. vīsus, O.Gk. ϝηζηνο (wistos), O.Ir. rofess, etc.; noun
wistis, sight, vision, from wid-ti-, cf. Goth wizzi, Lat. vīsiō; Greek wistōr, wise,
learned man, from wid-tor, cf. Gk. ἵζηωρ (hístōr)<*ϝίζησξ (wístōr), PGk wistorjā,
151
history, from Gk. ἱζηορία (historía); Imp. wisdhi! know!, from wid-dhi, cf. O.Ind.
viddhí, O.Gk. ϝίζζη (wísthi), O.Lith. veizdi, and so on.
NOTE. An older PIE *TT → *TsT has been proposed, i.e. that the cluster of two dental stops
had a dental fricative s inserted between them (giving *-tst- and *-dzd-). It is based on some
findings in Hittite, where cluster tst is spelled as z (pronounced ts), as in PIH *h1ed-te, ‗eat!‘ →
*h1ette → *h1etste → Old Hitt. ēzten (pronounced étsten), or Ved. Skt. attá (interpreted as from
*atstá, where *s is lost). Cf. also for Indo-Iranian imperative *da-d-dhí ‗give!‘ in L.Av. dazdi,
O.Ind. dehí<dazdhi<*dadzdhi (Mayrhofer Lautlehre 1986), instead of the expected O.Ind.
*daddhi. However, confirmation from a common LIE *-stis found in Indo-Iranian too
(which might be interpreted as previous *TsT where the initial *T is lost); as, O.Ind. mastis,
―measure”, from *med-tis, or Av. -hasta-, from *sed-tós. This LIE evolution TT (→ TsT)? →
sT was overshadowed by dialectal developments, v.s. §1.7.2.III.
2.7.5. It seems that simplification of geminated PIE *-ss- occurred already in LIE,
as Greek and Indo-Iranian dialects show. However, in this book the written
gemination is considered the most conservative approach. Only the attested
simplification of gemination is reconstructed; as, esi for es-si, you are.
NOTE. So, from *essi we have O.Ind. ási, Av. ahi, Gk. εἶ <*esi (Hom. and Dor. ἐζζί are
obviously analogic forms), etc. That form from es- is reconstructed e.g. by Adrados–Bernabé–
Mendoza (1995-1998), Fortson (2004), Cardona (2004), Ringe (2006), among others. It is
therefore to be pronounced with a simple /-s-/, and written accordingly -s-.
This is not the only solution to gemination in PIE, though, as shown by e.g. Lat. amassō,
propriassit, with original IE gemination after Kortlandt. Therefore, the fact that *-ss- is
simplified into -s- in some attested words does not confirm that the simplification occurred
necessarily and always in LIE (or IED) times, because it could have occurred later, although it
shows a clear trend toward simplification.
2.7.6. Consonant clusters *KsK were simplified by loss of the first stop; as, present
stem of prek-, ask, pṛk-skṓ- [pr-‗sk ] (cf. Lat. poscit, Skt. prccháti).
2.7.7. Word-final -n was often lost after ō; as, kwō(n), dog (cf. O.Ir. cú); or
dhghomō(n), man (cf. Lat. homō); this loss was not generalised, although it seems
that it was already common in Late Indo-European.
NOTE. Fortson (2004): PIE forms where the *-n disappeared, like the word for ‗dog‘ above,
are written by Indo-Europeanists variously with or without the n, or with n in parentheses:‖
kwōn or kwō or kwō(n). We prefer to write them always with -n by convention.
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3. WORDS AND THEIR FORMS
3.1. THE PARTS OF SPEECH
3.1.1. Words are divided into eight parts of speech: nouns, adjectives (including
participles), pronouns, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.
3.1.2. A noun is the name of a person, place, thing or idea; as, Klewopatrā,
Cleopatra, dānus, river, dhworis, door, wṛdhom, word.
Names of particular persons and places are called proper nouns; other nouns are
called common.
NOTE. An abstract noun is the name of a quality or idea. A collective noun is the name of a
group or a class.
3.1.3. An adjective is a word that attributes a quality; as, patrjóm, parental,

leukós, bright, kartús, hard, grṇdhís, grown.
NOTE 1. A participle is a word that attributes quality like an adjective, but, being derived
from a verb, retains in some degree the power of the verb to assert.
NOTE 2. Etymologically there is no difference between a noun and an adjective, both being
formed alike. So, too, all nouns originally attribute quality, and any common noun can still be
so used. Thus, Aleksanṓr Regs, King Alexander, distinguishes this Alexander from other
Alexanders, by the attribute expressed in the noun regs, king. See §10.9 for names of persons,
and §10.4.4 for apposition of titles.
3.1.4. A pronoun is a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing or idea without
either naming or describing it: as, egṓ, I, twos, thine, wejes, we.
Nouns and pronouns are often called substantives.
3.1.5. A verb is a word capable of asserting something: as, bherō, I carry, bear.
NOTE. In English the verb is usually the only word that asserts anything, and a verb is
therefore supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion. Strictly, however, any adjective
or noun may, by attributing a quality or giving a name, make a complete assertion, see below
§10 Syntax.
3.1.6. An adverb is a word used to express the time, place, or manner of an assertion
or attribute: as, peri, in front, epi, near, antí, opposite.
NOTE. These same functions are often performed in Indo-European by cases of nouns,
pronouns and adjectives, and by phrases or sentences.
3.1.7. A preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun or pronoun
and some other word or words in the same sentence; as, e.g., ad, at, to, dē, from
upwards, kom, with, ek(sí), outside, upo, under, and so on.
3.1.8. A conjunction is a word which connects words, or groups of words, without

affecting their grammatical relations: as, -qe, and, -w , or, -ma, but, -r, for.
3.1.9. Interjections are mere exclamations and are not strictly to be classed as parts
of speech; as, alā! hello!, ō O (vocative), wai, alas (grief), ha ha! (laughing sound);
ha! (surprise); etc.
NOTE. Interjections sometimes express an emotion which affects a person or thing

mentioned, and so have a grammatical connection like other words.
3.2. INFLECTION
3.2.1. Indo-European is an inflected language. Inflection is a change made in the

form of a word to show its grammatical relations.
NOTE. Some modern Indo-European languages, like most Germanic and Romance dialects,
have lost partly or completely their earliest attested inflection systems – due to different
simplification trends –, in nominal declension as well as in verbal conjugation.
3.2.2. Inflectional changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, or at the
beginning, but oftener in its termination:
pods, the or a foot, pedós, of the foot; eimi, I go, imés, we go.
3.2.3. Terminations of inflection had possibly originally independent meanings

which are now obscured. They probably corresponded nearly to the use of
prepositions, auxiliaries and personal pronouns in English.
Thus, in ghórdejos, of the barley (Gen.), the termination is equivalent to ―of the‖;
in deikō, I show (indicative), and deikom, I was showing, I used to show
(imperfect),.
3.2.4. Inflectional changes in the body of a verb usually denote relations of tense or
mood, and often correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in English:
Present déikesi, thou show, aorist dikés, you showed; present (gí)gnṓsketi, he
knows, recognises, is able, perfect gnowa, I am able or „I am in the state of knowing
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3. Words and their Forms
(having recognised)‘; the change of vowel grade and accent signifies a change in the
aspect.
3.2.5. The inflection of nouns, adjectives, pronouns and participles to denote

gender, number and case is called declension, and these parts of speech are said to be
declined.
The inflection of verbs to denote voice, mood, tense, number and person is called
conjugation, and the verb is said to be conjugated.
NOTE. Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison. These are, however,
properly stem-formations made by derivations.
3.2.6. Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections are not inflected, and
together form the group of the so-called particles.
3.3. ROOT AND STEM
3.3.1. The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached, is called the stem.
The stem contains the idea of the word without relations; but, except in the first part
of compounds (e.g. somo-patōr, ―of the same father”, sibling, mṇ-dōmi, commit),
it cannot ordinarily be used without some termination to express them.
Thus the stem pater- denotes father; patḗr, nominative, means a father or the
father, as the subject or agent of an action; patér (or pater) is the vocative, as in O
father!; patérṃ is the accusative and means to a father or to the father, as the direct
object; patrós is the genitive and indicates of a father or of the father, and so on.
NOTE. In inflected languages like Indo-European, words are built up from roots, which at a
very early time were possibly used alone to express ideas. Roots are modified into stems,
which, by inflection, become fully formed words. The process by which roots are modified, in
the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called stem-building. The whole of this
process is originally one of composition, by which significant endings are added one after
another to forms capable of pronunciation and conveying a meaning.
According to Mallory–Adams (2007): ―To the root might be added a variety of suffixes to
create a stem and then finally the case endings depending on number and perhaps gender. In
some cases, the so-called root-nouns, there are no suffixes before the case ending. Using R for
‗root‘, S for ‗stem-creating suffix‘, and E for ‗case-number-ending‘, we might establish the
formula for an inflected word in Proto-Indo-European as R-(S)-E.‖
3.3.2. A root is the simplest form attainable by analysis of a word into its
component parts. Such a form contains the main idea of the word in a very general
155
sense, and is common also to other words either in the same language or in kindred
languages; cf. for stā-, stand, reduplicated present sí-stā-mi, I stand, noun stā-mṇ,
place for standing, zero-grade p.p. sta-tós, placed, standing, or noun sta-tis,
erection, standing.
For example, the root of verb spekjō, look, is spek-, which does not necessarily
mean to look, or I look, or looking, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of looking,
and possibly cannot be used as a part of speech without terminations.
The roots of the reconstructed PIE language are basic morphemes carrying a lexical
meaning. By addition of suffixes, they form stems, and by addition of desinences,
they form grammatically inflected words (nouns or verbs).
NOTE. Clackson (2007): ―The most influential theory of root-structure was put forward by
Benveniste, in a chapter of a book concerning nominal formations in IE languages (Benveniste
1935). Benveniste used recent findings from work on the laryngeal theory (…) to present a
unified view of the PIE root, and his root theory closely follows earlier work by Cuny and
Kuryłowicz (see Szemerényi 1973). According to Benveniste, the basic structure of all PIE
roots was *CeC- (C = any consonant), i.e. monosyllabic, with initial and final consonants‖ and
with e as fundamental vowel; as, sed-, sit, bher-, carry.
Fortson (2004) offers a practical summary of complementary information to the theory:
o This template could be modified in certain ways, especially by adding consonants either
at the beginning or the end to form consonant clusters. Most commonly, a resonant could
occur on either side of the vowel, resulting in roots of the shape *CReC-, *CeRC-, and
*CReRC- (remember that both i and u can function as resonants). Examples of them are
dhwer-, door, derk-, see, or ghrendh, grind.
o Roots could also have any of the basic structures above preceded by s; as, spek-, see,
sneich-, snow. We have already talked about the s-mobile, v.s. §2.7.
o Certain classes of consonants rarely or never co-occur within a given PIE root. According
to Meillet, impossible PIE combinations are voiceless stop and voiced aspirate (as in
*tebh or *bhet), as well as two plain unaspirated voiced stops (as in *ged or *bed). The
*tebh type is commonly found if preceded by an *s-, though. The source of these
constraints is unknown, although similar constraints are known from other language
families.
o A few roots began with a cluster consisting of two stops; as, tkei-, settle, and pter, wing,
as well as those with word-initial ‗thorn‘ clusters, as ṛtkos, bear, or dhghom-, earth.
156
NOTE 2. For peculiarities of the PIH reconstruction, also from Forston (2004):
The bulk of roots with laryngeals fall into four types: *CeH-, *HeC-, *HReC and *CeRH. In
all these cases, the laryngeal was either the first or last consonant of the root. Some roots
contained a laryngeal before the final consonant.
Some roots had a rather than e as the original PIH vowel; as, nas-, nose, sal-, salt. For
reasons that are debated, initial k- is particularly common in this class of roots; as, kadh-,
protect, kamp-, bend, and kan-, sing.
3.3.3. The reconstructed PIE roots that appear with extra phonetic material (one or
two sounds) added on to them, without any discernible change to the meaning of the
root, are called extended roots (Fortson 2004).
NOTE. Clackson (2007) compares gheud-, pour (Lat. fundō, perf. fūdī, Goth. giutan), with
ghew-, pour (cf. Skt. juhóti, Gk. khéō, Toch B kewu): ―The longer form *gheud- is easily taken
to be composed of *ghew- followed by a ‗determinative‘ *d. According to Benveniste, every
root with a structure more complex than *CeC- was an extended root (he used the term thème
to denote what we call here ‗extended root‘). The root *yeug- can therefore be seen as an
extended form of a more basic *yew-, a hypothesis which is supported by the fact that there is
actually a root *yew- ‗join‘ reconstructed from Sanskrit yuváti ‗ties‘ and Lithuanian jáuju ‗I
mix‘.‖
3.3.4. Most of the reconstructed PIE lexicon is in the form of roots. However, there
are some words which apparently belong to a very ancient layer of IE vocabulary, and
cannot easily derived from roots; as, sāwōl, sun, dhughtēr, daughter, acnos,
lamb, wortokos, quail.
A few, like abel-, apple, and pelekus, ax, have a shape that seems un-Indo-
European, and are thought by some to be prehistoric borrowings from non-IE
languages. Fortson (2004).
3.3.4. The stem may be the same as the root; as, dō-, give, dakru, tear; but it is
more frequently formed from the root:
1. By changing or lengthening its vowel; as, from athematic root verb dā-, divide,
common derivative dai-mai, divide up, distribute.
NOTE. Formally, following Benveniste‘s theory, the PIE root for the verb is reconstructed as
*deh2(j)-, i.e. from root *deh2-, and enlargement *-j-, see Rix (2001).
157
2. By the addition of a simple suffix; as, from root dā-, divide, derivative dā-mos,
people, people‟s division (cf. Dor. Gk. δεκνο, O.Ir. dām, Hitt. da-ma-a-iš).
NOTE. Some suffixes probably conveyed an earlier underlying meaning, e.g. the suffix -
trom tends to indicate an instrument, as arā-trom, plough, from a verb arājō, plough,
while kinship names tend to have the suffix -er- or -ter-, cf. swes-ōr, sister, bhrā-tēr,
brother.
3. By two or more of these methods; from the same root, suffixed derivative dai-tis,
time, period, cf. Gmc. tīÞ, Arm ti, as well as Gk. δαηηύο, O.Ind. dātu-.
4. By derivation and composition, following the laws of development peculiar to the

language, which we will see in the corresponding chapters.
3.3.5. Inflectional terminations are modified differently by combination with the

final vowel or consonant of the stem, and the various forms of declension and
conjugation are so developed.
3.4. GENDER
3.4.1. The genders distinguished in Late Indo-European are three: masculine,

feminine (both are referred to as animate) and neuter or inanimate.
The masculine functions as the negative term in the opposition of animates; i.e.
when the gender is not defined when referring to animates, the masculine is used.
NOTE. This is a grammatical utility, one that is only relevant for concordance, and whose
development is probably related to the evolution of the language and its inflection. Therefore,
the feminine is the positive term of the opposition within the animates, because when we use
it we reduce the spectrum of animates to the feminine, while the masculine still serves as the
negative (i.e. non-differentiated) term for both animates – masculine and feminine – when
used in this sense, i.e. when not differentiating the gender.
Clackson (2007): ―Masculine nouns in other IE languages appear as nouns of the common
gender in Hittite, but Hittite has no nominal declension corresponding to the feminine stems
in *-eh2 or *-ih2. The lack of a feminine gender in Hittite has led scholars to ask whether the
feminine ever existed in the Anatolian branch.‖
According to Mallory–Adams (2007): ―The fact that Proto-Indo-European also forms

collectives in *-h2- (e.g. the Hittite collective alpa, ‗group of clouds‘ from a singular alpeš,
‗cloud‟) has suggested that this was its original use and that it later developed the specifically
feminine meaning.‖
158
3.4.2. The gender of Indo-European nouns is either natural or grammatical.
a. Natural gender is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted: bhrātēr (m.),
brother; cenā (f.), woman, wife.
b. Grammatical gender is a formal distinction as to sex where no actual sex exists in

the object. It is shown in the form of the adjective joined with the noun: as swādús
noqtis (f.), a pleasant night; mṛghú kanmṇ (n.), brief song. The gender of the
adjective is simply a gender of concordance: it indicates to which noun of a concrete
gender the adjective refers to.
NOTE 2. Names of classes or collections of persons may be of any gender. For example,
wolgos (masc.), (common) people, or teutā (fem.), people (of a nationality).
3.4.3. The neuter or inanimate gender differs from the other two in inflection, not
in the theme vowel. The gender of animates, on the contrary, is usually marked by
the theme vowel, and sometimes by declension, vocalism and accent.
3.4.4. The neuter does not refer to the lack of sex, but to the lack of liveliness or life.
Sometimes, however, animates can be designated as inanimates and vice versa.
While the distinction between masculine and feminine is usually straightforward,

sometimes the attribution of sex is arbitrary; thus, different words for parts of the
body are found feminine, as nāsis, nose, kanmā, leg; masculine, as kolsos, neck,
armos, arm, upper arm; and neuter, as kaput, head, or genu, knee.
3.4.5. The animate nouns can have:
a. An oppositive gender, marked:
I. by the lexicon, as in patḗr/mātḗr, father/mother, bhrātēr/swesōr,

brother/sister, sūnús/dhugtēr, son/daughter;
II. by the stem ending, as in general ekwos/ekwā, horse/mare; or infrequent

wlqos/wlqīs, wolf/she-wolf, deiwos/deiwja, god/ goddess;
III. by both at the same time, as in swekros/swekrús, father-in-law-mother-

in-law, wīrós/cenā, man-woman, regs/regeinā, king-queen.
b. An autonomous gender, that does not oppose itself to others, as in nāus (f.),
ship, pods (m.), foot, egnis (m.), fire, owis (f.), sheep, jewos (n.) or legs (f.), law.
159
c. A common gender, in nouns that are masculine or feminine depending on the

context; as, cōus, cow or bull, deuks, leader, ghostis, foreigner.
d. An epicene gender, which, although being masculine or feminine, designates

both sexes; as, médodiks, doctor, nawāgós, sailor, nemots, enemy, setis, visitor.
3.4.6. The gender of a noun can thus be marked by the stem vowel (or sometimes by
inflection), or has to be learnt: it is a feature of a word like any other. In its context,
concordance is a new gender mark; a masculine noun has a masculine adjective, and
a feminine noun a feminine adjective. However, not all adjectives differentiate
between masculine and feminine, a lot of them (those in -i-s, -u-s, -ēs, -ōn, and
some thematic in -os) are masculine and feminine: only the context, i.e. the noun
with which they agree, helps to disambiguate them. This happens also in nouns with
a common gender.
3.4.7. Most endings do not indicate gender, as in patḗr and mātḗr. Only by
knowing the roots in many cases, or from the context in others, is it possible to
determine it.
NOTE. Clackson (2007): ―Nouns of all genders can occur in the athematic declension. Non-
neuter animate nouns are usually assigned gender through correspondence with the natural
sex of the referent, non-neuter inanimate nouns are assigned gender by convention.‖
Some of the suffixes determine, though, totally or partially if they are masculine or
feminine. These are the following:
1. -os marks masculine when it is opposed to a feminine in -ā or -ī/-ja, as in

ekwos/ekwā, deiwos/deiwja, god/goddess, etc. This happens also in adjectives in
the same situation, as in newos/newā, or bheronts/bherontja, bearing.
In isolated nouns, -os is generally masculine, but some traces of the old
indistinctness of gender still remained in LIE, as in the names of trees (among
others). In adjectives, when the ending -os is not opposed to feminine, concordance
decides. A common example is snusós, daughter-in-law, a feminine from the o-
declension.
2. -ā marks the feminine in oppositions of nouns and adjectives. It is usually also

feminine in isolated nouns, in the first declension.
160
NOTE. There seems to be no reconstructible masculines in -ā; so e.g. BSl. *slough , servant
(cf. O.Sla. slŭga, Lith. slauga ―service‖, O.Ir. sluag, ―army unit‖) etc. is probably to be
reconstructed as original NWIE sloughos (cf. Ir. teg-lach < *tegoslougo-).
According to Clackson (2007): ―(…) the only one of the three major declension classes to
show a restriction to a single gender is the class of feminine nouns formed with the suffix *-eh2
or *-ih2. Where IE languages show masculine nouns in this declension class, such as Latin
agricola ‗farmer‘ or Greek neānías ‗young man‘, they can be explained as post-PIE
developments. The feminine is only therefore distinguished in one declension type, and it is
this same declension that is absent in Hittite. It appears that the category of feminine gender
is to be closely associated with the declension class in *-h2.‖
3. Endings - <*-(e/o)h2, -ī/-ja <*-ih2, although generally feminine in LIE, show

remains of its old abstract-collective value, as neuter plural. It appears in nouns,
adjectives and pronouns
3.5. NUMBER
3.5.1. Nouns, pronouns, adjectives and participles, all are declined in Indo-
European in two numbers, singular and plural. The same is found in the PIE verbal
conjugations.
NOTE. The same categories of case are found in singular and plural, but with a greater
degree of syncretism in the latter, with common ablative-dative endings, and nominative-
vocative, see below. According to Meier-Brügger (2003): ―Singular and plural are grammatical
categories that are common to the verb and the noun. They permit one to indicate by means of
congruence the association of the noun with the subject of the action, indicated by the verb
form employed. The relationship of singular to plural is a question of syntax.‖
3.5.2. Late Indo-European shows also traces of a dual number for some nouns and
pronouns, but the formation of stable verbal dual forms is only traceable to
individual dialects.
NOTE. Clackson (2007): ―The dual does not just denote that there are two of something: it
can also be used as an associative marker in a construction standardly referred to as the
elliptical dual in grammars and handbooks.‖ So e.g. Ved. Skt. dual Mitr refers to Mitra and
his companion Varuna; Hom. Gk. dual Aíante referred probably to Ajax and his brother
Teucer. In languages that do not show dual, however, the plural is used as an associative to
denote pairs in Latin Castorēs, the plural of the name ‗Castor‘, is used to denote the semi-god
Castor and his twin Pollux.
161
Meier-Brügger (2003) reproduces the words of Matthias Fritz‘s work on the dual: ―The
origins of the dual are contained in two word types: On the one hand, the personal pronoun is
a starting point of the numerus dual; on the other, among nouns, terms for paired body parts
are of great importance. While pronouns in the first and second person feature the dual as
grammatical category as far back as they can be traced, the dual category initially does not
exist among substantives. In the case of the terms for paired body parts the duality is lexically
founded. (…) The formation of verbal dual forms based upon the first person personal
pronoun takes place where the formation was no longer completed in the Proto-Indo-
European period, which then does not take place in the language branches. Thus, the
secondary endings may be reconstructed. In the case of syntagmata, using the substantive as a
basis, a dual form and the number word for ‗two‘ transferred the dual inflection over to the
numera, thus echoing the relation of syntagmata to pronouns and adjectives.‖
Given the scarcity of remains found in West IE languages, it is likely that that LIE
did not have a fully developed system for the dual. Also, its use seems to have been
optional even in its most common use: body parts.
NOTE. Clackson (2007): ―The dual is reconstructed for pronouns, animate nouns and
inanimate nouns, but it is likely that its usage was optional at least with words denoting
inanimates (that is, the lower end of the ‗animacy hierarchy‘). Note that in the two early IE
languages with a paradigmatic dual, Greek and Sanskrit, pairs of body parts, such as hands,
eyes, legs, knees etc., may be denoted either by the plural or by the dual, and the plural is in
fact more common for bodypart terms in Homeric Greek.‖
3.5.3. Verbs which are collocated with non-neuter plural forms of nouns must agree
with them in number; that is also the case for most neuter plural forms of nouns.
However, the so-called collective neuter plural requires concordance in the

singular. Such forms are scarce, and found only in the nominative and accusative; in
the other cases, they follow the plural paradigm.
NOTE. Examples are given in Meier-Brügger (2003) and Clackson (2007) from Greek
kúklos ‗wheel, circle‘ (kúkloi ‗circles‘ vs. kúkla ‗set of wheels‘), mērós ‗thigh‘ (m roí ‗thigh-
pieces‘ vs. mēra ‗agglomeration of thigh-meat‘), Hitt. alpas ‗cloud‘ (alpes ‗clouds‘ vs. alpa
‗cloud-mass‘), or Lat. locus ‗place‘ (locī ‗places‘ vs. loca ‗places‘).
162
4. Nouns
4. NOUNS
4.1. DECLENSION OF NOUNS
4.1.1. Declension is made by adding terminations to different stem endings, vowel

or consonant.
Adjectives are generally declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be classed
with them, but they have some peculiarities of inflection which will be later
explained.
4.1.2. There are eight commonly reconstructed cases for Late Indo-European:
I. The nominative is the case of the subject of a sentence and predicate nominative.
II. The vocative is the case of direct address.
III. The accusative is the case of the direct object of a verb. It is used also with
many prepositions.
IV. The genitive may generally be translated by the English possessive.
V. The ablative, the source or place from which.
VI. The dative, the case of the indirect object. It also indicates possession, and
beneficiary of an action.
VII. The locative, the place where.
VIII. The instrumental, the means and the agent.
NOTE. The oblique cases appear in the English pronoun set; these pronouns are often called
objective pronouns; as in she loves me (accusative), give it to me (dative) or that dirt wasn‟t
wiped with me (instrumental), where me is not inflected differently in any of these uses; it is
used for all grammatical relationships except the genitive case of possession, mine, and a non-
disjunctive nominative case as the subject, I.
4.1.3. Nouns and adjectives are inflected in LIE in four regular declensions,
distinguished by their final phonemes – characteristic of the stem –, and by the
opposition of different forms in irregular nouns. They are numbered following
Graeco-Roman tradition: first or a-stem declension, second or o-stem declension,
third or i/u-stem declension, fourth or c-stem declension, and the variable nouns.
The stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant stem, by omitting the case-ending;
if a vowel stem, by substituting for the case-ending the characteristic vowel.
163
Decl. Stem ending Nominative Genitive

1. ā (ja/ī, ē, ō) -∅ -s
2. e/o (Thematic) m., f.-s, n.-m -os/-osjo
3. i, u and Diphthong m., f.-s, n.-∅ -eis, -eus; -jos, -wos
4. Resonants & Consonants -s, -∅ -es/-os
(5) Heteroclites -∅, -r -(e)n
NOTE. Most Indo-Europeanists tend to distinguish at least two major types of declension for
the oldest PIE, thematic and athematic. Thematic nominal stems are formed with a suffix -o-
(also -e-), and the stem does not undergo ablaut, i.e. there is no ablaut difference between the
strong and the weak cases, and there is no accent change, see below.
Feminine stems in -ā < *-eh2 were originally c-stems with final *-h2 which, under pressure
from the o-stem adjectives, were adapted to the thematic paradigm of the masculine o-stems.
It is sometimes separated from the athematic declension into a new class, even if being
originally consonantal, because of such peculiarities; so e.g. in Clackson (2007): ―In respect of
the reconstructed case-endings, the class of feminine nouns in [a-stem declension] shows
clear affinities with the athematic class [c-stem declension], and the o-stem declension
diverges more radically from both. In the daughter languages, however, there is a general
tendency for the o-stem class and the feminine ā-stems to become more closely associated,
almost certainly through the combination of the two classes in a number of pronominal and
adjectival declensions as masculine and feminine alternatives.‖
The declension of i/u-stems and c-stems is more complex, as it involves accent-

ablaut changes. Fortunately the most productive (thus more frequent) declensions in
LIE are mainly o-stems and ā-stems.
NOTE. Stems in consonant, i, and u, are more archaic, and they are classified further by
their ablaut behaviour into different so-called dynamic patterns, after the positioning of the
early PIE accent in the paradigm. See below §4.7.
The distinction of i-stems and u-stems from c-stems is also traditional, but according to
Fortson (2004), to keep that distinction for PIH probably ―is both unnecessary and
misleading, as it masks the fundamentally identical behavior of both groups over against that
of the thematic nouns‖. In LIE, however, there are pragmatic reasons to distinguish them.
4.1.3. The following are general rules of declension:
a. The nominative singular for animates ends in -s when the stem endings are i, u,
diphthong, occlusive and thematic (-os); in -∅ when the stem ends in ā, resonant and
s; in the plural -es is general, -s for those in ā, and -os for the thematic ones.
164
4. Nouns
NOTE. For collectives/feminines in -ja/-ī <*-jə<*-ih2 we prefer to use in our texts the
ending -ja for feminines, and -ī for neuters as a general rule. It is not intended as a
‗normative‘ selection, though, but as a conventional simplification of the otherwise tedious
repetition -ja/-ī that is followed in other books, while at the same time reflecting the natural
evolution pattern of such forms in NWIE (see below §§4.2, 4.4.2). So e.g. this convention does
not limit the use of feminines in -ī; as e.g. Lat. -trīx, or coxendīx.
b. The accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in -m or -ṃ (after

consonant), the accusative plural in -ns or -ṇs.
NOTE. A general accusative plural ending -ns (-ṇs after consonant) is usually reconstructed
for Late Indo-European, because e.g. within the u-stem from PIE *-u-ns, early IE languages
show *-uns, *-ūns, *-ūs; cf. Goth. sununs, O.Ind. sūnūn, Gk. uíuns, Lith. sūnus, O.C.S. syny,
Lat. manūs. See H. Rix (FS Risch 1986). Most scholars also posit an ‗original‘, older **-ms
form (a logical accusative singular -m- plus the plural mark -s), but they usually prefer to
reconstruct the attested *-ns, thus implicitly suggesting either the theoretical origin of the
ending, or a previous PIH *-ms → LIE *-ns. For a PIH *-ms, cf. maybe Hitt. -uš (Ottinger
1979), but Lyc -s (<*-ns?). To be consistent with decisions taken elsewhere in this grammar
(as e.g. reconstructed PIE *-T(s)T- as NWIE intermediate -sT-, see §2.7), the intermediate,
attested -ns is the conservative choice, whereas **-ms is just a probable hypothesis about its
actual origin.
c. The vocative singular for animates is always -∅, and in the plural it is identical to
the nominative.
d. The genitive singular is common to animates and inanimates, it is formed with -

s: -s, -es, -os. An alternative possibility is extended -os-jo. The genitive plural is
formed in -ōm, and in -ām in a-stems.
NOTE. Case endings in -e/o-, -ē/ō-, are generally written in this book in -o-, -ō-, in
inflected nouns, given the alternating nature of these forms even within the same dialectal
branches, and the unknown nature of the original ablauting forms. Sihler (1995), Fortson
(2004), Ringe (2006), reconstruct ‗original‘ forms in -es, while Beekes (1995) deems -(o)s the
oldest athematic declension. Meier-Brügger (2003) or Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza
reconstruct both as alternating -es/-os. For Sihler (1995), since e-grade is typical of
consonant stems, maybe forms in -o- in o-stems were the ‗original‘ ones, and those in -e- were
secondary creations; that same argument is found for the genitive of athematic nouns in -es,
supposedly substituted by the ‗original‘ thematic -os (Fortson 2004). In any case, it seems
that in Late Indo-European forms in -o- prevailed, as did the thematic declension; as, kunós,
over kunés, from kwōn.
165
e. The obliques singular end usually in -i: it can be -i-, -ei-, -ēi-, -oi-, -ōi- or -āi-,
and their extensions. In the plural, there are two series of declensions, instr. -bhis/-
mis (from sg. -bhi), dat.-abl. -bhos/-mos (PII -bhjas) as well as (BSl. and PII) loc.
in -su (PGk. -si).
NOTE. Comparison shows an ins. sg. -bhi, (cf. Gk. -phi, Myc. -pi, and also Arm. ins. marb),
BSl. -mi (cf. Lith. akmenimì, O.C.S. kamenĭmĭ) and for Northwestern IE dialects a division
between Italic+Celtic and Germanic+Balto-Slavic Plural forms: Celtic shows traces of an
instrumental -bhis (cf. O.Ir. dat.-loc.-ins.-abl. cridib, and in Graeco-Aryan, cf. O.Ind.
sūnúbhis, Av. bāzubīs, Arm. srtiwkh), Italic and Celtic show a dat.-abl. -bhos (cf. Celtiberian
dat.-loc.-ins.-abl. arecoraticubos, Lat. matribus, Osc. luisarifs), while Balto-Slavic shows Inst.
-mis (cf. Lith. sunumìs, O.C.S. synumĭ), dat.-abl. -mos (cf. O.C.S. synŭmŭ, Lith. sūnùms,
sūnùmus), and Germanic shows a dat.-abl.-ins. -m-.
Meier-Brügger (2003) considers that ―[e]vidence seems to indicate that while the dative and
ablative plural were marked with *-mos, the instrumental plural was marked with *-bhi (…)
Thus, -bh- would have established itself in Italic and Indo-Iranian as the sole initial consonant,
replacing -m-. Conversely, -m- would have established itself in Balto-Slavic and Germanic.
Indo-Iranian *-bhias can thus be regarded as a cross between the instrumental *-bhi and the
dative/ablative *-mos”. Similarly Mallory–Adams (2007) differentiate for the oldest PIH
declension a Dat. *-mus, instrumental *-bhi, and Abl. *-bh(j)os. Kortlandt (1983) and Beekes
(1985) reconstruct an original Dat. Pl. *-mus and Abl. Pl. *-jos, both supposedly substituted
later by the ending *-bh(j)os.
For an original *-mus, the Leiden school revitalised an old claim (Van Helten 1890, Loewe
1918) to explain the lack of Umlaut of -i in dat. pl., as e.g. OHG tagum, which followed
Georgiev‟s (1963) and Kortlandt‟s (1983) proposals to explain the ending away by comparing
it to O.Lith. -mus, thereby suggesting an original *-u-. That proposal has been questioned e.g.
on the basis that the O.Prus. dat. pl. -mans, is generally believed to have resulted from the
contamination of dat. Pl. *-mos > -mas, and acc. Pl. -ans (Bemeker 1896, Brugmann 1911,
Poljakov 1995). The Leiden position has been questioned on the grounds of the late and
dialectal character of BSl. and Gmc. edings among others by Álvarez-Pedrosa (2001, see
<http://revistas.ucm.es/fll/15781763/articulos/ESLC0101110239A.PDF>) and Halla-aho
(2006, see <http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/hum/slavi/vk/halla-aho/problems.pdf>).
Fortson (2004) sums up the problem of reconstructing -bh- and -m- endings for PIH: ― All
this taken together suggests that the *-bh- and * -m- endings developed late, probably after
Anatolian split off from the family, and may have originally been postpositions or adverbs
ultimately related to Eng. by and Germ. mit ‗with‘. (It is cross-linguistically common for
postpositions to develop into case-endings.)‖
166
4. Nouns
What is certain is that there was a NWIE west/east dialectal differentiation into -bh- or -m-;
i.e. dat.-abl. pl. -bhos/-mos (and PII -bhjas), ins. sg. -bhi/-mi, ins. pl. -bhis/-mis. We
generally prefer to write the only the forms in -bh- in this grammar, though, given the
extension of those forms in all PIE territory, against the forms in -m-, limited to Germanic
and Balto-Slavic. In any case, when writing these endings, one should keep in mind that they
are dialectally distributed in a uniform way, so that forms in -bh- are not found in the same
branches as those in -m-; i.e., if you use forms in -m- when writing or speaking IE, don‟t use
forms in -bh-, and vice versa.
f. Inanimates have a syncretic form for nom.-acc.-voc. -∅ in athematics, or -m in

thematics. The plural forms end in - .
NOTE. Inanimates have a nom.-voc.-acc in *-(e/o)h2, which evolved as -ā in Sanskrit and

Slavic, and -a in most other dialects. A convention is therefore followed in this book, using
short -a to distinguish the overlapping neu. pl. nom.-voc.-acc. from the fem. sg. nom.
g. All animates share the same form in the plural for nom.-voc. -es.
4.1.4. The so-called oblique cases - opposed to the straight ones, nom.-acc.-voc –,
are the genitive and the obliques proper, i.e. ablative, dative, locative, and
instrumental. Straight cases are generally identified with strong cases (those which
do not undergo ablaut in athematic declension), while the rest are the weak cases.
NOTE. IE languages show an irregular oblique declension system, especially in the plural,
due to its syncretic original nature and to late dialectal merging trends. Sanskrit or Avestan
had 8 cases. Anatolian and Italic dialects show up to 8 (cf. Osc. loc. aasai for Lat. ‗in ārā‟, or
ins. cadeis amnud for Lat. ‗inimicitiae causae‟, preiuatud for Lat. ‗prīuātō‟, etc.). Balto-Slavic
shows seven, Mycenaean at least six cases, while Koiné Greek and Proto-Germanic had five.
Nominal Desinences (Summary)
Singular Plural
Animates Inanimates Animates Inanimates
NOM. -s, -∅
-es
VOC. -e, -∅ -m, -∅ - , -∅
ACC. -m -ns
GEN. -es/-os/-s; -osjo -om
ABL. -es/-os/-s; -ēd/-ōd/-d -bhos (-mos); -om
DAT. -ei -bhos (-mos)
LOC. -i -su (-si)
INS. -ē/- ; -bhi (-mi) -eis; -bhis (-mis)
167
4.2. FIRST DECLENSION
4.2.1. FIRST DECLENSION PARADIGM
1. They are usually animate nouns and end in ā (or jā), and rarely in ja/ī, ē, and ō.
Stems in ā are very common, generally feminine in nouns and always in adjectives,
and the ā ending is used to make feminines in the adjectival motion. Those in ja/ī
are rare, generally feminine, and etymologically identical to the neuter plural in
nom.-acc.-voc. Those in ō and ē are feminine only in lesser used words.
NOTE. The entire stem could have been reduced to IE a (hence a-stem declension), because
this is the origin of the whole PIE stem system, the ending *-(e)h2.
2. The IE first declension corresponds loosely to the Latin first declension (cf. Lat.
rosa, rosae, or puella, puellae), and to the Ancient Greek alpha declension (cf. Gk.
ρώξᾱ, ρώξᾱο, or ηῑκή, ηῑκῆο).
a-Declension Singular Paradigm
NOM. -∅
VOC. -∅ (- )
ACC. -m
GEN. -s
ABL. -d/(-s)
DAT. -i
LOC. -i
INS. -∅/-bhi (-mi)
NOTE. This declension in ā, older *-eh2, is usually reconstructed in the singular as older
(athematic) PIH nom.-voc. *-eh2 (voc. -h2e?) acc. *-eh2m, gen.(-abl.) *-(e)h2os, dat. *-(e)h2ei,
loc. *-eh2i, ins. *-(e)h2eh1, abl. *-(e)h2ed; as, dat. *h1ekw(e)h2ei → ekwāi (see Beekes 1995,
Clackson 2007). The ablative sg. was linked to the genitive sg. (-s) in the older stages of the
language, but as the feminine declension was adapted to the thematic declension in o/e, an
ablative in -d was generalised already by Late Indo-European. From Beekes (1995), Adrados–
Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998), Clackson (2007).
3. It is therefore identical to those nouns in r, n, s of the fourth declension, but for

some details in vocalism: the gen. has an -s and not -es/-os; the difference between
nom. and voc. can be obtained by nom. -ā vs. voc. -a (as found in Gk. and BSl.). The
zero-grade of the nom.-acc.-voc. in ja/ī stems is different from the gen. in jā.
168
4. Nouns
4.2.2. FIRST DECLENSION IN EXAMPLES
1. Nominative singular in -∅; as, ekwā, mare, patrjā, fatherland, adj. newā, new,
cowij , bovine.
NOTE. The representative noun of this paradigm is the word for ‗mare‘ which occurs in
Sanskrit áśvā, Latin equa and (Old) Lithuanian ašvà. This word is probably not of common
PIE origin, although it is likely a post-LIE word that appeared to differentiate the feminine of
the animate ‗horse‘, which was previously used for male and female alike. Clackson (2007).
Examples of ja/ī include potnja/potnī, lady, mistress, deiwja/deiwī, goddess.

NOTE. Stems in ja/ī (<*-ih2) are productive in adjectives of the -u- and -nt- form, found
generally as -ī in Indo-Iranian (cf. Skt. bhárantī), -ja in NWIE (cf. O.C.S. nesǫšti <*-ontj-)
and PGk (cf. phérousa<*-ontja), Beekes (1995). Because they were not productive in nouns
already in IEDs, the declension of the attested nouns is frozen as an athematic stem from
which they derive. So e.g. from nom. deiwī, Skt. dev- , Gk. d -a (<*diw-ja), gen.-abl. diwj s,
cf. Skt. dev-y s, Gk. d -ās (<*diw-jās). Clackson (2007).
Those in ē, ō, also rare, make the nominative in -s; as, spekjēs, aspect.
NOTE. These are known from Latin (since Indo-Iranian merged ē with ā especially from the
word for ‗path‘. Like the forms from *-ih2, these old nouns in *-eH or *-oH retain their c-stem
declension paradigm (with accent-ablaut); a famous example found in Beekes (1995) or
Fortson (2004) includes pontēs, path, found in Skt. pánthās, Av. pantå, and afield in Lat.
vātēs – although later reinterpreted as i-stem pontis in NWIE, cf. Lat. pons, Russ. put‟,
O.Pruss. pintis. Its declension is reconstructed as nom. pontēs, acc. pontēm, gen. pṇtós,
ins. pl. pṇtbhí.
2. Vocative singular in -∅. It is normally identical to the nominative, but

disambiguation could happen with distinct vowel grades, i.e. nom. in -ā, voc. in -a.
NOTE. According to Ringe (2006), the vocative of those in ja/ī<*-iH would have been made
in *-i, following the example of the ‗fall of the laryngeal‘ in vocatives of those in *-aH.
3. Accusative singular in -m; as, ekwām, patrjām, potnjam/potnīm, spekjēm.
4. Genitive singular in -s; as, ekwās, patrjās, spekjēs.
Stems in ja/ī produces a genitive singular in -ās; as, potnjās.
5. Dative-ablative singular in -āi, ekwāi, patrjāi.
NOTE. This LIE -i comes probably from an older PIE general dat. *-ei ending; as,
*h1ekweh2-ei → ekwāi. A dat.-abl. ending *-ei is also found for stems in ē and in ja/ī.
169
6. Locative singular in -āi; as, ekwāi, patrjāi.
7. Instrumental singular in -∅, -ā-bhi, -ā-mi; as, ékwābhi, pátrjābhi.
f. ekwā adj. f. cowij f. potnja f. spekjē-

NOM. ekwā cowij potnja/potnī spekjēs
VOC. ekw cowij potnja/potnī spekjē
ACC. ekwām cowij m potnjam/potnīm spekjēm
GEN. ekwās cowij s potnjās spekjēs
ABL. ekwād cowij d potnjād spekjēd
DAT. ekwāi cowij i potnjāi spekjēi
LOC. ekwāi cowij i potnjāi spekjēi
INS. ékwābhi cowij bhi potnjābhi spekjēbhi
There is only one example from this declension with a proterodynamic inflection (see
§4.7), namely the word for ‗woman‘: nom. cenā, gen. cnās, cf. O.Ir. nom. ben, gen.
mná, Skt. nom. jánis (gn ), gen. gn s (jányur). Beekes (1995).
4.2.3. THE PLURAL IN THE FIRST DECLENSION
1. The following table presents the plural paradigm of the a-stem declension.
a-Declension Plural Paradigm
NOM.-VOC. -s
ACC. -ns
GEN. -m
DAT.-ABL. -bhos (-mos)
LOC. -su (-si)
INS. -bhis (-mis)
NOTE. The plural is reconstructed as from PIH nom.-vocc. *-eh2(e)s, Acc. *-eh2ns (<**-eh2-
m-s), gen.(-abl.) *-(e)h2om, dat.-abl. *-(e)h2bh(j)os or *-(e)h2mus, loc. *-(e)h2su, ins. *-
(e)h2bhi(s); as, *h1ekweh2es → ekwās. From Beekes (1995), Clackson (2007).
2. Nominative-vocative plural in -s: ekwās, patrjās, cowij s.
3. Accusative plural in -ms: ekwāns, patrjāns.
4. Genitive plural in -m: ekwām, patrjām.
170
4. Nouns
5. Dative and ablative plural in -bhos, -mos, and PII -bhjas; as, ékwābhos,
patrjābhos.
6. Locative plural in -su (also PGk -si); as, ékwāsu, pátrjāsu.
6. Instrumental plural in -bhis, -mis; as, ékwābhis, patrjābhis.
NOTE. The obliques have also special dialectal forms Gk. -āisi, -ais, Lat. -ais; as, Lat.
rosīs<*rosais.
f. ekwā f. cowij f. potnja

NOM.-VOC. ekwās cowij potnjās
ACC. ekwāns cowij ns potnjāns
GEN. ekwām cowij potnj m
DAT.-ABL. ékwābhos cowij bhos pótnjabhos
LOC. ékwāsu cowij pótnjasu
INS. ékwābhis cowij bhis pótnjabhis
ABL. ékwābhos cowij bhos pótnjabhos
4.3. SECOND DECLENSION
4.3.1. SECOND DECLENSION PARADIGM
1. Nouns of the second declension have a stem ending in e/o, and they are usually
called thematic. They can be animates and inanimates, as well as adjectives. The
inanimates have an ending -m in nom.-acc.-voc. The animates, with a nominative in
-s, are generally masculine in nouns and adjectives, but there are also feminine
nouns and animate (i.e. masc.-fem.) adjectives in -os, probably remains of the old
indistinctness of animates.
NOTE. The o-stem declension is probably very recent in PIE – even though it happened
already in PIH, before the Proto-Anatolian split – and that‘s why it is homogeneous in most IE
dialects. As Mallory–Adams (2007) say, ―[t]he o-stems were the most productive form of
declension. By this is meant that through time, especially at the end of the Proto-Indo-
European period and into the early histories of the individual Indo-European languages, the
o-stems appeared to proliferate and replace other stem types. In Vedic Sanskrit, for example,
they constitute more than half of all nouns. High productivity is often interpreted as evidence
that the o-stems are a later declensional form than many of the other stems. Highly productive
forms are ultimately capable of replacing many other forms as they provide the most active
model by which speakers might decline a form.‖
171
2. The IE second declension is equivalent to the second declension in Latin (cf. Lat.
dominus, dominī, or uinum, uinī), and to the omicron declension in Greek (cf. Gk.
ιόγνο, ιόγνπ, or δῶξνλ, δῶξνπ).
o-Declension Singular Paradigm
Animate Inanimate
NOM. -os
VOC. -e -om
ACC. -om
GEN. -os/-osjo/(-oso)/(-ī)
ABL. -ēd/-ōd
DAT. -ōi
LOC. -ei/-oi
INS. -ē/-ō
NOTE 1. This model could have been written without the initial vowel -o-; the probable
origin of this vowel is the ending of some primitive ‗original‘ stems in -o, while other,
primitive athematic stems would have then been reinterpreted, and an -o added to their stems
by means of analogy (Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza 1995-1998). So, this paradigm could be
read from a historical point of view as nom. -s, acc. -m, gen. -s, -sjo, -so, and so on.
NOTE 2. The thematic declension is usually reconstructed in the singular as from older PIH
nom. *-os, voc. *-e, acc. *-om (neu. nom.-voc.-acc. *-om), gen. *-os, dat. *-ōi (<**-o-ei), loc. *-
oi, ins. *-oh1, abl. *-ōd (<**-o-ed); as, dat. *wlkwo-ei → wḷqōi, abl. *wlkwo-ed → wḷqōd.
Sometimes, the a-stem and o-stem ablative is reconstructed as from PIE *-ot or *-et, or even
*-h2at (in Fortson 2004). As we have seen, -d and -t are pronounced alike at the end of the
word, so the difference is mainly an etymological one.
4.3.2. SECOND DECLENSION IN EXAMPLES
1. Nominative singular animate in -os; as in wḷqos, wolf, dómūnos, lord, wīrós,

man, adj. cīwós, alive.
2. Vocative singular animate in -e; as in wḷqe, dómūne, cīwé.
3. Accusative singular animate in -om; as in wḷqom, dómūnom, cīwóm.
4. Nominative-vocative-accusative singular inanimate in -om; as in jugóm, yoke,
adj. newom, new.
5. Genitive singular in -os, -osjo, also -e/oso, -ī; as in wḷqosjo, jugós,
dómūnosjo.
172
4. Nouns
NOTE. The original genitive form -os is rare in animates, as the genitive had to be
distinguished from the nominative. This disambiguation happens by alternatively lengthening
the ending, as -os-jo (or -e/os-o, probably from the pronominal declension) or changing it
altogether, as in Ita.-Cel. -ī. In Hittite, the genitive -os is found, so it is usually considered the
oldest form, as in the athematic declension. A generalised -osjo is found in Sanskrit,
Armenian, Greek and Italic, so this alternative ending must have replaced -os early, still
within the LIE community.
6. Ablative singular in -ōd, -ēd: wḷqōd, cīwṓd, jugṓd.

7. Dative singular in -ōi: wḷqōi, dómūnōi, newōi, jugṓi.
8. Locative singular in -oi, -ēi: wḷqoi, dómūnoi, newoi, jugói.
9. Instrumental singular in -ō, -ē: wḷqō, dómūnō, newō, jugṓ.
m. wḷqo- n. jugó- adj. newo-

NOM. wḷqos jugóm newos
VOC. wḷqe jugom newe
ACC. wḷqom jugóm newom
GEN. wĺqosjo jugós newosjo
ABL. wḷqōd jugṓd newōd
DAT. wḷqōi jugṓi newōi
LOC. wḷqoi jugói newoi
INS. wḷqō jugṓ newō
4.5.3. THE PLURAL IN THE SECOND DECLENSION
1. The thematic plural system is usually depicted as follows:
o-Declension Plural Paradigm
Animate Inanimate
NOM.-VOC. -ōs/(-oi)
-
ACC. -ons
GEN. - m/-ēm
DAT.-ABL. -obhos (-omos)
LOC. -oisu (-oisi)
INS. - is
NOTE. The animate plural paradigm is reconstructed as PIH nom.-voc. *-ōs (<**-o-es), acc.
*-ons (<**-o-m-s), gen.(-abl.) *- m (<**-o-om), dat.-abl. *-o(i)bh(j)os/-omos, loc. *-oisu
173
(<**-o-eis-su), ins. *- is (<**-o-eis); as,*wlkwo-es → wḷqōs. Inanimates have a nom.-voc.-acc

in *-(e/o)h2 evolved as -ā in Sanskrit and Slavic, and -a in most dialects. A nom.-voc.
(pronominal) ending -oi is also found. See Beekes (1995), Fortson (2004), Clackson (2007).
2. Nominative-vocative animate plural in -ōs; as, wḷqōs, dómūnōs, wīrṓs.
3. Accusative animate pural in -ons; as, wḷqons, dómūnons, cīwóns.
4. Nom.-voc.-acc. inanimate plural in - ; as, jugá, cīwá.
5. Genitive plural in -ōm; as, wḷqōm, dómūnōm, cīwṓm, jugṓm.
6. Dative and ablative plural in -obhos, -omos; as, wḷqobhos, cīwóbhos.
7. Locative in -oisu, PGk. -oisi; as, wīrṓisu, dómūnoisu.
8. Instrumental in - is; dómūnōis, cīwṓis, jugṓis.
m. wlqo- n. jugo- adj. newo-

NOM.-VOC. wḷqōs jug newōs
ACC. wḷqons jug newons
GEN. wḷqōm jugṓm newōm
DAT.-ABL. wĺqobhos jugóbhos newobhos
LOC. wĺqōisu jugóisu newōisu
INS. wḷqōis jugṓis newōis
4.4. THIRD DECLENSION
4.4.1. THIRD DECLENSION PARADIGM
1. Third declension nouns end in i, u (also ī, ū) and diphthong. They are found as
neuter, masculine or feminine; those in ī, ū, are always feminine.
2. This declension usually corresponds to Latin nouns of the third declension in -i

(cf. Lat. ciuis, ciuis, or pars, partis), and of the fourth declension in -u (cf. Lat. cornū,
cornūs, or portus, portūs), and to Greek vowel stems in η, σ, εσ, ασ, οσ, ω (cf. Gk.
ἰρζύο, ἰρζύνο, or πόιηο, πόιεσο).
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4. Nouns
i/u-Declension Singular Paradigm
Animate Inanimate
NOM. -s
VOC. -∅ -∅
ACC. -m
GEN.-ABL. -s
DAT. -ei
LOC. -∅/-i
INS. - /-ē/-bhi (-mi)
NOTE. The i/u-stem declension is a variation of the common athematic declension of c-

stems. The obliques show weak stems (root ablaut and accent shift) in some nouns.
The proterodynamic paradigm for u-stems is reconstructed in the sg. as nom. *-u-s, voc. *-
eu, acc. *-u-m, gen. *-ou-s, dat. *-eu-i, loc. *-ēu, ins. *-u-h1; for i-stems nom. *-i-s, voc. *-ei,
acc. *-i-m, gen. *-oi-s, dat. *-ei-i, loc. *-ēi, ins. *-i-h1. See Beekes (1995).
3. The -s can indicate nominative and genitive: the distinction is made through the
full-grade or extension of the vowel before the declension, see below.
4.4.2. IN I, U
1. Nominative sg. animate in -s; as, owis, sheep, noqtis, night, ghostis, guest,
sūnús, son, egnis, fire, pṛtus, ford, swḗdhus, custom; adj. swādus, pleasant.
2. Vocative singular animate in -∅, or full -ei, -eu; owi, sūnéu/sūneu, swēdhu.
3. Accusative singular animate in -m; as in owim, noqtim, ghostim, sūnúm.
4. Nominative-vocative-accusative singular inanimate in -∅; as in mari, sea, kṛdi,

heart, peku, cattle, deru, wood, medhu, mead, adj. swādu.
5. The genitive singular shows two inflection types:
 Type I genitive singular in -eis, -eus, also -ois, -ous; as, ghosteis, mareis,
sūnéus, swēdheus, adj. swādeus.
 Type II genitive singular in -(e)jos, -(e)wos; as, owjos, noqtjos, kṛdejós,
swḗdhewos, pékewos.
NOTE 1. About both types of inflection, a description was made by Wackernagel-Debrunner
(Altindische Grammatik, 3 vols., 1896/1954), Kuryłowicz (The inflectional categories of Indo-
175
European, 1964), Szemerényi (1985), etc. It is so found in Sihler (1995), Adrados–Bernabé–

Mendoza (1995-1998).
They are usually said to be derived from a PIH proterodynamic inflection, originally made
with a weak form (vowel change and accent shift), from which LIE simplified its root ablaut
formation and accentuation; starting from the weak stems, zero grade roots were generalised
and accents became static on the root or the suffix (Meier-Brügger, 2003); as, from PIH
*pertus, pṛtéus, remade LIE (without root ablaut) pṛtus, pṛtewos. See below §4.7.
NOTE 2. Both types are sometimes said to be derived from two ‗original‘ PIH i/u-stem
accent-ablaut inflections, later merged into the known paradigms. They would have been a
proterokinetic inflection, represented by **mént-ēi-s, **mént-i-m, **mṇt-éi-s, and an
amphikinetic (?) inflection represented by **h3ew-i-s, **h3w-éi-m, **h3w-jo-s, that gave birth
to the LIE types known to us. Sihler (1995): ―In any case, the surviving i-stem inflections,
which in this view are a sort of Chinese menu selection of items from [proterokinetic] and
[amphikinetic], exhibit too much agreement in detail in InIr., Gmc., Ital. and BS to be
independent innovations. Accordingly, even if this theory is accepted, the necessary leveling to
get to the usual reconstruction must have been complete in the parent language.‖
6. Dative in -ei, usually full -ei-ei, -eu-ei; as, ghóstejei, pékewei.

NOTE. For a dat. sg. -ei, pure stem or full ending in -i, cf. Gk. -seï (<*-t-ej-i?), O.C.S. kosti.
7. Locative in -ei, -eu, usually lengthened -ēi, -ēu, -ewi; as, noqtēi, sunḗu.
8. Instrumental in -ī, -ū (<*-h1), in -ē (<*-eh1) following the genitive, or in-bhi, -
mi: pṛtū, pṛtéwē.
NOTE. While the instrumental ending *-h1 (from Indo-Iranian) follows the athematic
declension, the ending -mi from Balto-Slavic (hence also LIE -bhi) follows the thematic
declension, but could have been a later innovation from an old trend to reinterpret athematic
as thematic nouns. The older Hitt. -awet doesn‘t clarify the situation.
Type I Type II
f. ghosti- m. sūnu- n. mari- f. noqti- m. pṛtu- n. peku-
NOM. ghostis sūnús mari noqtis pṛtus peku
VOC. ghosti sūnéu mari noqtei pṛtu peku
ACC. ghostim sūnúm mari noqtim pṛtum peku
G.-A. ghosteis sūnéus mareis noqtjos pṛtéwos pékewos
DAT. ghóstejei sūnéwei márejei nóqtejei pṛtéwei pékewei
LOC. ghostēi sūnḗu marēi noqtēi pṛtḗu pékewi
INS. ghostī sūnewē marī noqtī pṛtéwē pekū
176
4. Nouns
NOTE. For information on the alternative reconstruction mari/mori, sea, see Appendix II
Formal Aspects.
THE STRONG TYPE
Its inflection is similar to the consonant stems, and they have no alternating vowels
before the declension; ī and ū are substituted before vowel by -ij, -uw. They are
always feminine, and they cannot be inanimates nor adjectives. They are mostly PIE
roots (in *-iH, *-uH), and found mainly in Indo-Iranian.
NOTE. This inflection is usually classified within the i/u-stems, for nouns where an i
precedes the final laryngeal, i.e. in *-i(e)H- (It is not always clear when it comes from *-h1 and
when from *-h2; they were probably completely parallel in LIE and merged). The old
declension shows nom. *-iH, acc. *-ieH-m, gen. *-iH-os: in Sanskrit *-iH became generalised,
showing gen. -ías, while Slavic and Germanic show -jā- < *-jəH. The *-uH stems are
completely parallel with those in *-iH; cf. for ‗tongue‘, a general LIE dṇghwā, but also found
as PII dṇghūs. See Beekes (1995), Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998).
Only NWIE forms and declension is followed here (wḷqī-, she-wolf, is apparently found in
Celtic, apart from Indo-Iranian).
f. bhrū- f. sū- f. dhī- f. wḷqī-

NOM. bhrūs sūs dhīs wḷqīs
VOC. bhrū sū dhī wḷqī
ACC. bhrūm sūm dhīm wĺqīm
GEN.-ABL. bhruw s suw s dhij s wḷqij s
DAT. bhruwéi suwéi dhijéi wḷqijéi
LOC. bhruwí suwí dhijí wḷqijí
INS. bhrūbhí sūbhí dhībhí wḷqībhí
4.4.3. IN DIPHTHONG
1. There are long diphthongs āu, ēu, ōu, ēi, which sometimes present short vowels.
NOTE. Other stems that follow this declension in the attested dialects, in ā, ē, ō, are
probably remains of older diphthongs. Therefore, these can all be classified as diphthong
endings, because the original stems were formed as diphthongs in the language history.
Its paradigm is reconstructed for those in -u as *-ē/ōus(s), acc. *-e/ou-m, gen. *-u-os, and
for those in -i as nom. *-oi, *-is, acc. *-oi-m, gen. *-i-os. Beekes (1995). It is not a common
177
declension, and IE nouns proper included in it are found inflected as follows: strong forms
with nom. *-s, voc. *-∅, acc. *-m, loc. *-i; weak forms with gen.-abl. *-és, dat. *-éi, ins. *-éh1.
m. f. cōu- m. djēu- f. nāu-

NOM. cōus djēus nāus
VOC. cou djeu nāu
ACC. cōm djēm/dijḗm nāum
GEN.-ABL. cous diwós nāwós
DAT. cowéi diwéi nāwéi
LOC. cowi djewi/diwí nāwí
INS. cowḗ diwḗ nāwḗ
NOTE. An expected accent-ablaut reconstruction for nāu- would be strong nāu <*neh2u-,
weak nau-<*nh2u- or rather *n°h2u-; however, forms in nāu- are found in Vedic and Ancient
Greek dialects throughout the whole paradigm, possibly indicating older strong *noh2u- and
weak *neh2u-, respectively. See Meier-Brügger (2003) for more on this question.
In zero-grade genitives there are forms with -i- or -ij-, -u- or -uw-.
NOTE 1. Some secondary formations – especially found in Greek – are so declined, in -eus,
-ewos as in Av. bāzāus, Arm.,Gk. Basileus, possibly from PIE -āus (Perpillou, 1973) but
Beekes (2007) considers it Pre-Greek.
NOTE 2. Stang‘s law governs the word-final sequences of a vowel + semivowel j or w +
nasal, simplified in PIE so that semivowels are dropped, with compensatory lengthening of a
preceding vowel, i.e. VJM → M; as, djēm, not *djewm; cōm, not *gwowm, cōns, not
*gwowns, etc. A similar trend is found with laryngeals, *VJh₂m > M; as, sūm, also attested
as suwṃ, etc.
4.4.4. THE PLURAL IN THE THIRD AND FOURTH DECLENSION
1. The following table depicts the general plural system of the fourth declension.
i/u- and Consonant-Declension Plural Paradigm

Animate Inanimate
NOM.-VOC. -es
-
ACC. -ns
GEN. - m/-ēm
DAT.-ABL. -bhos (-mos)
LOC. -su (-si)
INS. -bhis (-mis)
178
4. Nouns
NOTE. An older plural paradigm for u-stems is reconstructed as nom.-voc. *-eu-es, acc. *-u-
ns, gen.-abl. *-eu-om, dat. *-u-bhos, *-u-mos (<**-u-mus?), loc.* -u-su, ins. *-u-bhis, *-u-mis
(<**-u-bhi?). See Beekes (1995), Fortson (2004).
2. Unlike in the singular, in which only some nominatives have an -s, in nom.-voc.
plural the -s is general, and there is always one fix-grade vowel, e. So, the opposition
singular-plural in -s/-es is actually ∅/e.
3. The nom.-voc. plural animate is made in -es, in full-grade -ei-es for i, -eu-es for
u, and -ijes, -uwes, for ī, ū; as ówejes, sūnewes, pŕtewes, bhruwes.
4. The accusative plural animate is in -ns: owins, sūnúns, pṛtuns, cōns.
5. The nom.-voc. acc. plural inanimate in -a: pekwa, marja, swādwa.
NOTE. The athematic inanimate plural ending commonly represented by -a corresponds to
an older collective *-h2, which sometimes lengthened the preceding vowel (i or u) instead.
6. Gen. pl. in -om (type I usually in full -ei-om, -eu-om); as, ghóstejom,
pṛtwom.
NOTE. The -m of the acc. sg. animate, nom.-acc.-voc. sg. inanimate and this case could
sometimes be confused. It was often disambiguated with the vocalic grade of the genitive, full
or lengthened, as the singular is always ∅.
7. For the obliques plural, cf. dat.-abl. ówibhos, sūnubhos, nóqtibhos; loc.
sūnusu, nóqtisu, ins. sūnubhis, ówibhis, máribhis.
Type I Type II Diphth.

f. ghosti- m. sūnu- f. noqti- n. peku- m. cou-
NOM.-VOC. ghóstejes sūnewes nóqtejes pekwa cowes
ACC. ghostins sūnúns noqtins pekwa cōns
GEN. ghóstejom sūnewom noqtjom pekwom cowom
DAT.-ABL. ghóstibhos sūnubhos nóqtibhos pékubhos coubhos
LOC. ghóstisu sūnusu nóqtisu pékusu cousu
INS. ghóstibhis sūnubhis nóqtibhis pékubhis coubhis
4.5. FOURTH DECLENSION
4.5.1. FOURTH DECLENSION PARADIGM
1. The stem of nouns of the second declension ends in consonant or resonant, i.e. -
n, -r, -s, occlusive (especially -t), and rarely -l, -m. The inflection of animates is
essentially the same as that of the second or thematic declension.
179
2. Nouns of the fourth declension correspond to Latin nouns of first declension in -r

(cf. Lat. magister, magistrī), and third declension in consonant (cf. Lat. prīnceps,
prīncipis, cōnāmen, cōnāminis, etc.), and to the Ancient Greek consonant stems
declension (cf. Gk. παηὴξ, παηξὸο, ηάπεο, ηάπεηνο, ἡγεκώλ, ἡγεκόλνο, etc.).
The nominative ending is -s (with occlusive, -m, -l), but there is also a nominative
sg. with pure stem vowel (desinence -∅ and lengthened ending vowel), so that the
full-grade vocative is differentiated. And there is no confusion in nom./gen., as -s has
a different vowel grade (nom. -s, gen. -és or -os).
Consonant-Declension Singular Paradigm
Occlusive, -m, -l -r, -n, -s

NOM. -s -∅ (long vowel)
ACC. -ṃ
VOC. -∅ -∅ (full grade)
GEN.-ABL. -es/-os
DAT. -ei
LOC. -i/-∅
INS. -ē/-bhi (-mi)
NOTE. The so-called common, basic or athematic paradigm, the hypothetically oldest
attainable PIE noun declension system, is reconstructed in the singular as nom. *-s, *-∅, voc.
*-∅, acc. *-m, gen.-abl. *-(e/o)s, dat. *-ei, loc. *-i, *-∅, ins. *-(e)h1. See Meier-Brügger (2003),
Fortson (2004). This paradigm was originally common to the i/u-stems, and it was probably
inherited (and innovated) by the first and second declensions.
Besides the usual loc. ending -i there was also the bare stem without ending. Such unmarked
(‗flat‘) locatives are widely encountered in modern languages (cf. Eng. next door, home), and
in PIE they are well-attested in n-stems, but are rare in other consonant stems.
3. Inanimates have pure vowel stems with different vowel grades. In nouns there
should be no confusion at all, as they are different words, but neuter adjectives could
be mistaken in nominative or vocative animate. Distinction is thus obtained with
vocalism, as in animate -ōn vs. inanimate -on, animate -ēs vs. inanimate -es (neuter
nouns in -s show -os).
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4. Nouns
4.5.2. IN OCCLUSIVE, M, L
1. Nominative sg. animate in -s; as, pods, foot, regs, king, preks, plea, bhurghs,
watch-tower, ghjems, winter, nepēts, grandson, adj. bélowents, strong.
NOTE. The nom. of some stems are often reconstructed with a long vowel; as, *pōds, *rēgs,
*prēks. Such forms are found in the different languages showing ablaut with lengthened
grade; as, ō/o in Goth. fotus, Gk. pód-a, and ē/e in Lat. pēs, pedis. It is usually interpreted that
these are levelled forms from an original o/e opposition, so the long vowel vs. short vowel
becomes unnecessary for the parent language. Also, sometimes it is doubted whether the
original nominative had an s, cf. *pōd(s) in Beekes (1995), because all attested languages show
a lengthened vowel with either the final occlusive or -s, but not with both (cf. Skt. p t, which
could derive from *ō, *ē, or *o, Dor. Gk. pōs, Lat. pēs), what suggests a compensatory
lengthening with the loss of a final consonant cluster, that was reinterpreted as the original
stem in declension (e.g. to form the accusative in some languages), i.e pods → *pōs → *pōds
(Sihler 1995).
2. Accusative singular animate in -ṃ; as, podṃ, regṃ, bhurghṃ, ghjemṃ,

népētṃ, bélowentṃ.
NOTE. Forms in m make the accusative by lengthening the root vowel, *Vmm > * m, as a
consequence of Stang‘s Law, v.s. §4.4.2; as, nom. *doms, ‗house‟, acc. *dōm (<*dom-ṃ), cf.
Arm. tun or Gk. δῶ, or nom. *dhghōm, ‗earth‟, acc. *dhghōm (<*dhghom-ṃ), cf. Skt. kṣām.
Root nouns like these ones are quite old in the language history, and are therefore rare in LIE,
which had replaced them for newer derived nouns; as, domos, house, or dhghṃós, earth.
3. Vocative singular animate in -∅; as, pod, reg, bhurgh, bélowent.
4. The nom.-voc.-acc. singular inanimate in -∅; as sal, salt, part. bheront.
5. Genitive singular in -os, -es; as, pedós, rēgos, bhurghos, ghimós, salós,
népotos, bélowentos, bhérontos.
NOTE. Older root nouns made the genitive-ablative often in -s, -é/ós, i.e. ablaut and accent
on stem vowel; as, for strong nom. *doms, weak gen. *dems or *dmés/dmós, for strong nom.
*dhghōm, gen. *dhghmés/*dhghmós or (possibly already in the proto-language) metathesised
*ghdhmés/*ghdhmós. They appear in IEDs mainly frozen in compounds (cf. dems- in
demspots), because most of them were reinterpreted. On forms like *dmés or *pdós,
―[u]nsurprisingly, such forms have been largely eliminated from the attested paradigms.‖
Sihler (1995). For the original lengthened grade rēgos/rēges, see §4.7.
6. Dative singular in -ei: pedei, rēgei, bhurghei, bhérontei.
181
7. Locative singular in -i: podi, regi, bhurghi, bélowenti.
m. pod- f. prek- f. bhurgh- n. bheront-

NOM. pods preks bhurghs bheront
VOC. pod prek bhurgh bheront
ACC. podṃ prekṃ bhurghṃ bheront
GEN.-ABL. pedós prēkos bhurghos bhérontos
DAT. pedéi prēkei bhurghei bhérontei
LOC. pedí preki bhurghi bhéronti
INS. pedbhí prēkbhi bhurghmi bhérontbhi
4.5.3. IN R, N, S
1. Nominative singular animate in -∅ with lengthened vowel; as in mātḗr (also

m ēr), mother, elōr, swan, kwōn, dog, osēn, autumn, ōs, mouth, mōs,
character, adj. juwōn, young, ṇmātōr, motherless.
NOTE. The lengthening of the predeclensional vowel in stems in r, n and s stems has been
explained (Szemerényi‘s Law) as a consequence of an older (regular PIE) nom. -s ending; as,
**ph2tér-s→*ph2tḗr, **kwon-s→*kwōn, etc.
Common s-stems without lengthening include neuter stems (which are not usually
marked in the nominative); as, opos, work, nebhos, cloud, spes, hope, etc.
Adjectives usually end in -es; as, sugenḗs, well-born, of good stock (cf. Gk.
eugenḗs, O.Ind. sujanāḥ).
2. Accusative sg. animate in -m; as in māterṃ, élorṃ, kwonṃ, óposṃ,
júwonṃ.
3. Voc. sg. animate in -∅ with full vowel; as mātér, élor, kúon, juwon, opos,
sugenés.
4. The nom.-acc.-voc. singular inanimate in -∅; as in nōmṇ, name, genos, kin.
The adjectives in -s have a neuter in -es; as, sugenés.
5. Genitive singular in -os, usually with an e, not an o, as the final stem vowel; as,
éleros, nómenos, bhugenos, júwenos, nébhesos, génesos, ópesos, ēsos,
spēsos; but cf. zero-grade in old stems, as mātrós, kunós, and also o, as mosós.
NOTE. Athematic nouns made the genitive in -es, -os; even though some reconstruct only
one gen. ending for an ‗original‘ paradigm, we prefer to write always -ós for pragmatic
reasons; as, kunós instead of kunés. Examples of an apparently old, so-called static
182
4. Nouns
inflection, is found in PII nom. mā-tr, gen. mā-tr-s, acc. pl. mā-tr-ns; remains of this rare
paradigm are also found in Gmc. dialects for ‘father‟ in gen. patŕs.
6. Dative singular in -ei, mātréi, élerei, kunei, júwenei, ópesei, sugenesei.

7. Locative singular in -i: māteri, éleri, kuni, júweni, ópesi, sugenesi.
8. Instrumental singular in -ē or -bhi/-mi: mātṛbhí, élerbhi, patṛbhí, kunbhí,
júwenbhi, ópesbhi, sugenesbhi.
m. kwon- f. pater- n. genes- n. nomṇ- adj. sugenes-

NOM. kwōn patḗr genos nōmṇ sugenḗs
VOC. kwon patér genos nōmṇ sugenés
ACC. kwonṃ paterṃ genos nōmṇ sugenesṃ
G.-A. kunós patrós génesos nómenos sugeneses
DAT. kunéi patréi génesei nómenei sugenesei
LOC. kuní pateri génesi nómēn sugenesi
INS. kwṇbhí patṛbhí génesbhi nómenbhi sugenesbhi
NOTE. ―Where the derivation is transparent, neut. s-stem nouns were built to the tonic e-
grades of verb roots. The stem had the form *-os in the (endingless) nom./acc.sg., *-ōs<**-
osH2 in the nom./acc.pl; the stem of the remaining cases and numbers was an invariant *-es-‖.
Sihler (1995), who further reconstructs the inflected forms of genos, with root accent
throughout the paradigm.
4.5.4. THE PLURAL IN THE FOURTH DECLENSION
With a paradigm common to the third declension, here are some inflected
examples.
m. pod- f. prek- m. kwon- f. māter- n. genes-

N.-V. podes prekes kwones māteres génesa
ACC. podṇs prekṇs kwonṇs māterṇs génesa
GEN. pedóm prēkom kunóm mātróm génesom
D.-A. pedbhós prēkbhos kwṇbhós mātṛbhós génesbhos
LOC. pedsó prēksu kwṇsú mātṛsú génesu
INS. pedbhí prēkbhi kwṇbhí mātṛbhís génesbhis
NOTE. The plural of adj. ṇmātōr, motherless, consists of masc./fem. nom. ṇm tores, neu.
nom-voc.-acc. ṇm tora gen. ṇmatróm, etc.
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4.6. VARIABLE NOUNS
4.6.1. Many nouns vary in declension, and they are called heteroclites.
4.6.2. Heteroclitic forms are isolated and archaic, given only in inanimates, as
remains of an older system, well attested in Anatolian.
4.6.3. They consist of one form to mark the nom.-acc.-voc, and another for the
obliques, usually r/(e)n; as, bhemṛ/bhémenos, thigh, ghēsṛ/ghésenos, hand,
gutṛ/gútenos, throat, kowṛ/kówenos, cavern, ūdhṛ/ūdhenos, udder,
wedhṛ/wédhenos, weapon, etc.
4.6.4. Different paradigms are also attested:
 Opposition r/(e)n- (lengthened ending); as, jeqṛ/jeqóneros, liver,

NOTE. For PIE jeqṛ, cf. Ved. yákṛt, Gk. hēpar, Lat. iecur, Av. yākarə, and compare its Obl.
Skt. yakn-ás, Gk. hḗpat-os<*hēpnt-, Lat. iecinoris.
 Alternating with other suffixes; as, gheimṛ/gheims/ghjems, winter,

skīwṛ/kīwōn/skinōn, shinbone, later column, wēsṛ/wēsṇtós, spring,
wedṛ/wédenos/wodā, water, swepṛ/swopnos, dream.
 Formed from the consonant r or n of the heteroclite; as, pāwṛ/pūr/puōn,
fire, nomṛ/nómeros/nómenos, precision, number, Gk. skōr (gen.
skatos), Hitt. šakkar (gen. šaknaš), Lat. -scerda, ―shit”.
4.6.5. The heteroclites follow the form of the genitive singular when forming the
obliques. That is so in accent-ablaut and in the lengthening before declension.
4.7. INFLECTION TYPES
1. While in o-stems and generally in a-stems there are generally no accent-ablaut

changes, within the c-stems it is possible to distinguish different old accent-ablaut
patterns, which make this a more complicated declension.
NOTE. Fortson (2004): ―To understand athematic nomina inflection, one must distinguish
between the so-called strong and weak cases. The strong cases differ from the weak cases
typically in where the accent is located and which morpheme is in the full grade; most
commonly, the full grade and the accent shift rightward in the weak cases, comparable to the
shift seen in most athematic verbs.‖
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4. Nouns
Fortunately it is the least productive of all declensions (i.e. it is infrequent in new

nouns), and most stems that included accent-ablaut patterns were progressively
substituted for other stems in LIE.
NOTE. Fortson (2004): ―All athematic nouns consisted of three parts: root, suffix, and
ending. (...) As already alluded to, these three morphemes could each show up in different
ablaut grades depending principally on the position of the accent, which could fall on any of
the three. According to the standard theory, in any given case-form of an athematic noun the
unstressed morphemes appeared in the zero-grade, while the stressed morphemes were in a
grade ―stronger‖ than zero-grade- that is, one with a vowel, generally e, but also o.‖
2. We can distinguish at least two kinds of inflections in PIE, which differ in ablaut
and accent. These types are called hysterodynamic (dynamis ‗accent‘; hystero- ‗more
toward the back‘) and proterodynamic (protero- ‗more toward the front). In these
types the accent shifts rightward in the weak cases from its position in the strong
cases (Beekes 1995).
NOTE. Other inflection pattens are apparently inherited from the parent language – the
definition, pattern and the very existence of some of them is still debated –, but they are
usually not found in IEDs, if not in frozen remains of the older system. Therefore, it is not
interesting to complicate the regular athematic system further, and we will treat such remains
as irregularities of a common LIE system. For more information, see below.
3. The neuters followed the proterodynamic inflection, and do not have nom. -s,
acc. -m. Some of the masculine-feminine nouns follow the proterodynamic inflection
too.
4. In hysterodynamic nouns, the suffix is accented in the strong cases, the ending in
the weak. So e.g. in the word for ‗father‘, we have strong nom. sg. pa-tḗr s, acc. sg.
patér-ṃ, but weak gen. pa-tr-és.
NOTE. Fortson (2004): ―Root nouns with mobile accent (on the root in the strong cases, on
the endings in the weak cases) are often considered as belonging to this type, though the fit is
not exact: they have full grade or lengthened grade of the root in the strong cases and full
grade of the ending in the weak cases‖. For pragmatic purposes, we will include nouns formed
with only a root and ending among hysterodynamics, too. The most common type has o-grade
of the root in strong cases, and e-grade in the weak cases. So e.g. for foot, nom. pods, acc.
pedós.
In the so-called amphikinetic nouns, the root is also accented in the strong cases, the ending
in the weak, and the suffix is typically in the lengthened o-grade (rather than the expected
185
zero-grade) in the nominative singular, and ordinary o-grade in the accusative singular. The
old word for dawn (found in PGk and PII) belongs here; áus-ōs (c. Gk. aúōs), acc. sg. áus-
os-m (Ved. uṣasam ), gen. us-s-és (Ved. usás).
5. In proterodynamic nouns, the root is in the full grade and accented in the strong
cases, and both accent and full grade shift to the suffix in the weak cases.
NOTE. According to Fortson (2004): ―Most i- and u-stems in Sanskrit appear to have been
proterokinetic, such as Ved. nomin. matís ‗thought‘, accus. matím, genit. mates, from PIE
*mén-ti-s, *mén-ti-m, *mn-téi-s.‖ Vedic had generalised the zero-grade of the root throughout
the paradigm, as the other languages; hence LIE mṇtis, mṇtéis. The same could be said of
the remodelling of old *pertus, *pṛtéus, remade pṛtus, pṛtewos.
As we have seen, some i/u-stems behave in parallel to those athematic nouns, showing zero-
grade ending -i-, -u- in strong cases (as nom. -i-s, -u-s, acc. -i-m, -u-m, and full-grade -ei-, -
eu- in weak cases (nom. -ei-s, -ei-os, -eu-s, -eu-os). By the time of LIE these nouns do not
usually show ablaut in their root syllable. Common examples are found of verbal abstract
nouns in -ti-, one of the most common groups of i-stems; also common were abstract nouns in
-tu-, although this usually appears in post-LIE infinitives.
Remodellings like these led to a new class of proterodynamics that descriptively had o-grade
of the root in the strong cases and zero-grade in the weak. Among animate nouns of this type,
the best attested is the word for ‗dog‘, nom. kwōn, acc. kwōn-ṃ, gen. kun-ós (or kun-és).
EXCURSUS: NOMINAL ACCENT-ABLAUT PATTERNS

While nominal accent-ablaut patterns are very interesting for internal reconstruction, they
remain a marginal issue for the largely thematic Late Indo-European language, and more so
for IEDs. The state of the art about such patterns is summed up in a recent article by Alvin
Kloekhorst <http://www.kloekhorst.nl/KloekhorstIENominalAblautPatterns.pdf>.
The author exposes results based on testimonies of Hittite, in which he is a renowned expert.
Accent-ablaut paradigms can be reconstructed according to two systems, Leiden and
Erlangen, which correspond to two different times, which we could roughly assign to PIH and
(early) LIE respectively. He explains the transformations from one system to the other, from
which a system of two models (static and dynamic) turns into a system of four (static,
proterodynamic, hysterodynamic, and resulting from analogical changes, amphidynamic).
The system of four models of Erlangen is explained by Frazier in the following link, with
examples in p. 112: <http://roa.rutgers.edu/files/819-0406/819-FRAZIER-0-0.PDF> and
summed up in <http://www.unc.edu/~melfraz/ling/frazier-UCLA-handout.pdf>.
186
4. Nouns
The Erlangen system is therefore nearer to the Late Indo-European system, because the
reconstructed patterns are more recent. However, in some cases the reconstructed forms –
since they look for a logical agreement with Anatolian – are clearly different from non-
Anatolian results; as e.g. the oblique cases of *nebhos – see note 34 in Kloekhorst‘s article and
Clackson (2007, p. 94).
About root nouns of the type Lat. rex, lux, pēs, etc., the problem gets more complicated. A
priori there are only two possibilities about the distribution of the tone: either static (with
columnar accent on the root), or kinetic/dynamic, with accent on the root in the strong forms,
and on the ending in the weak forms. However, to make grades and vowel ablaut fit into
common patterns is more difficult (see Appendix III.1 for some examples).
Kloekhorst shows some problems in the ablaut models of root nouns. Examples are:
 The word for ‗foot‘, which is usually reconstructed as having a static paradigm, *pṓd-s,
*pód-m, *péd-s, seems to be mobile in Hittite: acc.pl. pāduš < *pód-ms vs. gen.pl. patān <
*pd-óm.
 Av. vāxs shows gen. vacō, but Old Indian and Latin show systematically lengthened grade
(gen. O.Ind. vācáh, Lat. uōcis); for example Brugmann‘s Law, if applicable, should apply to
O.Ind. and Av. See <http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~iranian/Avesta/a14_lesson11.pdf>, p.4
for Avestan grammar. Hence it could be that O.Ind. and Av. alternate with different
ablauts.
 The inflection of *gwow is static in Old Indian, but dynamic in Greek.
 Inflection of *ker(d) is dynamic in O.Ind., but is the only example of static inflection in
Greek, so this could correspond to an older model.
 The position of the accent in weak cases of *kwon are not coincident in Gk. and O.Ind.
 *suH and *dieH show alternating forms in O.Ind.
 The reconstruction of *j(e)uH needs *juHs- in Sanskrit and Lithuanian, but *jeuHs- in
Slavic (de Vaan).
 Also, Greek has lost the ablaut changes in those monosyllabics (e.g. τείρ); Latin has
merged diphthongs and has lost the original ablaut patterns; O.Ind. has merged vocalic
ablaut *e/o into a; in Hittite, root nouns are limited to some words in transition to other
inflection types (pat, gwau, siw-at, nekuz, karaz, tekan, kess-ar, gim(a)-, happar-, tuekk-
). Frequently root nouns of one language are only found as derived nouns in others, and
because of that coincidences are scarce.
Paul Kiparsky helps clarify the problem with the following recent article
<http://www.stanford.edu/~kiparsky/Papers/ucla_IE_09.submitted.new.pdf>, although in
187
p.7 he exposes the difficulties of fitting the attested results with the created models. In section
d) p. 12 of this article, Kiparsky resorts to the artifice of ‗accented morphemes‘ to explain the
brief *o of O.Ind. dat. gáve. It is possibly derived from weak form *gwew.
Clackson (2007) proposes a different alternating paradigm; in p.86 he reconstructs *pods,

gen. *peds., while Kloekhorst in the note of p. 3 proposes *pōds/peds. In Greek and Old
Indian, these nouns aren‘t acrostatic.
About Lat. rex, in Latin, Celtic and Old Indian the declension of this word shows
systematically lengthened grade – in Latin letter x is considered as two consonants, so the
syllable is in every case long. For results in Celtic, see p. 19 in the article
<http://www.univie.ac.at/indogermanistik/download/Stifter/oldcelt2008_1_general.pdf>.
Fort he reconstruction of this root noun there are, a priori, at least four possibilities:
a) Nom. sg. *Hregs / gen. *Hrgós, as Gk. nom. ἀλήξ <*Hner-s gen. ἀλδξόο<*Hnrós. It
seems that the Vedic (Sharfe) Celtic (McCone) words for king and queen point to that
form.
b) Nom. sg. *Hregs / gen. *rēgos, as Gk. θῆξ, where the weak form is not *Hrg, but
*reHg-.
NOTE. It has been assumed that it is acrostatic, with alternating full/long, based on:
 The attested nominative could be analogical in relation to the weak forms.
 The long vowel appears systematically in the attested languages.
 The derived form in O.Ind. rājan has lengthened grade, when long grade was expected
(there could be a special form in Gk. arēgṓn). Cf. Av. bərəzi-rāz with Osc. meddiss (zero-
grade).
c) Nom sg. *rēgs, gen. *rēgós, taking as model O.Ind. vac (if the long vowel is not
derived from Brugmann‘s Law), or náuh.
d) Nom sg. *rēgs, gen. *regós, taking as model Av. vac, or O.Ind. ap. In this case we
should have to explain the difference in results within Old Indian as a result of later
analogies with nau.
It is therefore quite difficult to obtain unequivocal reconstructions for these old athematic
root nouns, so the forms reconstructed are usually just one possibility of the alternating
patterns.
Unfortunately it often happens that we can demonstrate one form and the opposite at the
same time. Fernando López-Menchero has followed these criteria in the reconstruction of the
LIE lexicon in Appendix II, according to the available data on LIE dialects:
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4. Nouns
Acrostatic:
 *gwow-, Lat. Bōs o/e, maybe o/o

 *knouk-, Lat. Nux o/e
 *pod-, Lat. Pēs o/e
 *woq-, Lat. Vox o/e AK maybe dynamic of the type ō/o – ō/ō (a.i.) or maybe ō/e
(Avestan), or o/o (Greek)
Dynamic:
 *djeHw-, Lat. Diēs e/∅

 *(H)reHj-, Lat. Rēs e/∅
 *weik-, Lat. Vīcus e/∅
 *leuk-, Lat. Lux e/∅
 *deuk-, Lat. Dūx e/∅
 *sneich-, Lat. Nix e/∅
 *ghjems-, Lat. Hiems e/∅
 *weis-, Lat. Vīs e/∅ (also *wejos/es)
Special dynamics:
 *āp/ap-, ā/a
 *kwon-, Lat. Canis o/∅
 *naHw-, Lat. Nāuis ā/ā
 *dheghom-, Lat. Humus e-o/∅-∅
 *mōs/mosós, Lat. Mōs ō/o (or maybe ō/ō?)
Without reference – these nouns are supposedly full/lengthened within an acrostatic
system, hence they are all put into the same group (even though Lat. prex is not inflected with
a long vowel):
 *leg- Lat. Lex

 *reg- Lat. Rex
 *prek- Lat. Prex
 *pag- Lat. Pax
 *H3ops (ēpos) – the laryngeal does not colour the following vowel (Eichner‘s Law)
 *ros, rēsos, Lat. Rōs (H3ops and ros could be inflected like mōs and vice versa)
 *jeus could be inflected on the basis of *jūs; on the other hand, it is commonly
reconstructed meus as *mūs<*muHs, and *sūs<*suHs, so the weak forms would
have a long *ū (Kiparsky in p. 16 shows the same paradigm with *séuh-nu-s, *suh-
nú-s).
Some stems that only appear dialectally as root nouns have been transferred to their general
o-stem or i-stem declension:
189
*kerd- ‗heart‘, *mems- ‗meat‘, *meHns- ‗month‘, *nas ‘nose‘, *ner ‗man‘, *noqt- ‗night‘;
stems in *os/es, *puwos ‗pus, rottenness‘ and *bhāos ‗light‘ and ‗speech‘. *sal, *dont
(assimilated to a root noun) and *weis ‗strength‘ are reconstructed as alternating.
gwen- has been transferred to the feminine declension. For its consideration as root noun,
see Jasanoff <http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~jasanoff/pdf/Old%20Irish%20be_.pdf>.
4.8. NUMBER DEVELOPMENTS: THE DUAL
4.7.1. While singular and plural are relatively fixed values, the dual has proven to be
unstable; it is found in Ind.-Ira., Gk., BSl. and Cel.
NOTE. Generally speaking, the rise and decline of the dual may be directly investigated in
individual IE languages, e.g. in Greek, in which the dual is a fixed component of the language,
while it is missing altogether in Ionic and Lesbian. The origins of the dual might be found in
two word types: the personal pronoun and terms for paired body parts (as ‗ears‘, ‗eyes‘,
‗breasts‘, etc.). It is uncertain whether the dual was an old category that gradually
disappeared, or more likely a recent (Late Indo-European) development that didn‘t reach all
IE dialects. See Meier-Brügger (2003).
4.7.2. The formations vary depending on the stems.
1. The nominative-accusative-vocative is made:
 Stems in a: in -āi for ā; in -ī for ja/ī.

 Stems in o: Animates in -ōu (alternating -ō/-ōu); inanimates in -oi.
 Stems in i, u: Animates and inanimates in -ī, -ū.
 Consonant stems: in -e (not general).
NOTE. The endings are usually summed up as a common PIE *-h1(e), *-(i)h1. See Fortson
(2004).
2. The obliques were still less generalised, the system being reconstructed as
follows:
 Genitive in -ous,
 Dative-ablative in -bhos/-mos,
 Locative in -ou,
 Instrumental in -bhis/-mis.
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5. ADJECTIVES
5.1. INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES
5.1.1. In Proto-Indo-European, the noun could be determined in three different

ways: with another noun, as in stone wall; with a noun in genitive, as in the father‟s
house; or with an adjective, as in paternal love. The adjective corresponds to the
third way, i.e., to that kind of words – possibly derived from older genitives – that are
declined to make it agree in case, gender and number with the noun they define.
5.1.2. The adjective is from the older stages like a noun, and even today Indo-
European languages have the possibility to make an adjective a noun (as English), or
a noun an adjective (stone wall). Furthermore, some words are nouns and adjectives
as well: wersis, male, can be the subject of a verb (i.e., a noun), and can determine a
noun.
Most stems and suffixes are actually indifferent to the opposition noun/adjective.
Their inflection is common, too, and differences are usually secondary. This is the
reason why we have already studied the adjective declensions; they follow the same
inflection as nouns.
5.1.3. However, since the oldest reconstructible PIE language there were nouns
different from adjectives, as wḷqos, wolf, or pods, foot, and adjectives different
from nouns, as rudhrós, red, solwos, whole. Nouns could, in turn, be used as
adjectives, and adjectives be nominalised.
NOTE. Noun has a wide sense in PIE, for many nouns may be used both adjectivally and
substantivally, and the classification of nouns by inflectional type is independent of whether
they are substantives or adjectives. In this book the terms ‗noun‘ and ‗nominal‘ are then to be
interpreted in their wider sense.
5.2. THE MOTION
5.2.1. In accordance with their use, adjectives distinguish gender by different forms
in the same word, and agree with the nouns they define in gender, number and case.
This is the motion of the adjective.
5.2.2. We saw in §3.4 that there are cases of motion in the noun. Sometimes the
opposition is made between nouns, and this seems to be the older situation; as,
patḗr/mātḗr, bhrātēr/swesōr.
But an adjective distinguishes between masculine, feminine and neuter, or at least

between animate and neuter (or inanimate). This opposition is of two different kinds:
a. Animates are opposed to inanimates by declension, and also vocalism and accent;
as, -os/-om, -is/-i, -nts/-nt, -ēs/-es.
b. The masculine is opposed to the feminine, when it happens, by the stem vowel;
as, -os/-ā, -nts/-ntja, -us/-wja.
NOTE. From Beekes (1995): Two feminine forms are strongly deviant:
o fem. potnja, mistress (originally powerful), next to masculine potis. The feminine
may contain the individualizing suffix -en-, ‗one who is (powerful)‘.
o fem. piwerja, fat, alongside masc. piwōn. Here too the forms are originally
independent: from *peiHu-ōn ‗one who is fat‘, and fem. from *peiH-ur ‗fat‘.
The general system may be so depicted:
Animates Inanimates
Masculine Feminine Neuter

-o- -os -ā -om
-i- -is -is -i
-u- -us -wja/-wī -u
-nt- -nts -ntja/-ntī -nt
-e- -ēs -ēs -es
5.2.3. Compare the following examples:
1. For the so-called thematic adjectives, in -os, -ā, -om, cf. somós, - , -óm,
equal, rudhrós, - , -óm, red, wolós, - , -óm, willing, kserós, - , -óm, dry, etc.
But note the root accent in newos, -ā, -om, new, solwos, -ā, -om, whole, kaikos, -
ā, -om, blind, lajos, -ā, -om, fat, etc.
NOTE. Most adjectives have o-stem, among them verbal adjectives and compound
adjectives, cf. diwós, heavenly, klutós, heard, famous. The corresponding feminine forms
feature ā.
2. For adjectives in -is, -i, cf. grṇdhís, -í, grown, lēnis, -i, weak, moinis, -i,
obliged, muttis, -i, speechless, ṇwidis, -i, ignorant, etc.
192
5. Adjectives
3. For adjectives in -us, -wja/-wī, -u, cf. ēsús, -ujá, -ú, good, mṛghús, -ujá, -ú,
short, leghús, -ujá, -ú, light, ōkús, -ujá, -ú, swift. With root accent, cf. swādus, -
uja, -u (Southern IE swādús, -ujá, -ú), pleasant, mḷdus, -uja, -u, soft, tṇghus, -
uja, -u, fat, tanus, -uja, -u, thin, tṛsus, -uja, -u, dry, dhṛsus, -uja, -u, bold, etc.
NOTE. On the original stress of PIE *swādus, see the so-called Erlangen School Ablaut
system, e.g. at <https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/2667/1/299_021.pdf>
from Lubotsky (1987), and Frazier (2006) at <http://roa.rutgers.edu/files/819-0406/819-
FRAZIER-0-0.PDF>.
4. Adjectives in -nts, -ntja, -nt, are frequently found in suffixes; as, -went-,
possessing, rich in (masc. nom. -wents, gen. -wṇtós, neu. -wṇt, fem. -wṇt-ja),
and especially in present participles in -nt-.
The old athematic declension is reconstructed as hysterodynamic, with nom. -ńts,

acc. -ńtṃ, gen. -ntós.
NOTE. Some participles also show traces of the static inflection that we saw in athematics,
especially in PII; they show nom. -nt-s, acc. -nt-ṃ, gen. -nt-s. Beekes (1995).
However, -o/e-nt- was reinterpreted (probably still within the LIE community) as
from the thematic conjugation, where no accent-ablaut patterns are applied, see
§7.7.2. Only Sanskrit shows a generalisation of the athematic paradigm.
5. Adjectives in -ēs, -es, are found with possessive semantics formed from neuter s-
stems by internal derivation; so e.g. -klewēs, -famed, from kléwos, fame; -genḗs, -
born, from genos, kin; or -menēs, -minded, from menos, sense (intelligence).
A special s-stem is perfect participle suffix -wos-, which has an ablauting

declension; as, knowing, nom. weid-wṓs (cf. O.Ind. vidús-, Av. vīduu , Gk. eidós),
acc. weid-wos-ṃ, zero-grade oblique forms, as gen. weid-us-os (cf. Skt. vidúṣas,
Av. vīdušō, Gk. weidwótos), fem. wid-us-ja / wid-us-ī (cf. Skt. vidúsī, Gk. widúia,
Myc. a-ra-ru-ja), pl. nom. weid-wos-es, gen. weid-us-om, etc.
NOTE. Cf. for the zero-grade further afield Toch. B. acc. lt-wes, fem. lt-usa, and Lith. fem.
áug-us-i ‗having grown‘. For tentative reconstructions of ‗original‘ PIH ablaut-accent nom.
*wéid-wos or *wíd-wos, acc. *weid-wós- or *wid-wós, gen. *wid-ús-, etc. cf. Beekes (1995),
Sihler (1995), Fortson (2004).
193
5.3. ADJECTIVE SPECIALISATION
5.3.1. Adjectives could be formed by the addition of suffixes to roots or word-stems.

Most adjectives so formed are o-stems.
5.3.2. Common adjectival suffixes for nouns and verbs are (Fortson 2004):
The all-purpose adjectival suffix -jo- and -ijo-, also used as a compositional suffix
(cf. Lat. ēgregius), and often to form patronymics (‗son of…‘), cf. Hom. Gk. Telamṓn-
ios Aías ‗Aias (Ajax) son of Telamon‘, Lat. Seru-ius ‗son of a slave (seruus), Servius‘.
NOTE. For adjectival suffix -jo- and -ijo-, cf. Hitt. istarniya- ‗central‘ (<ištarna ‗between‟),
Ved. dámiya- ‗domestic‘, gávya- ‗pertaining to cows‘, Lat. ēgregius ‗outstanding‘ (<ē grege
‗out of the herd‘) etc. According to one widely held view, locational adjectives like Skt.
dámiya- (from dam- ‗home‘) were originally possessive derivatives formed by adding -o- or -
ó-.
The suffix -kois most commonly found added to nouns to indicate origin or
material composition, cf. Gaul. Are-mori-cī ‗those by the sea, Aremoricans‘, Goth.
staina-hs ‗stony‘. It appears frequently in extended -iko- as a suffix indicating
appurtenance, as Gk. hipp-ikós ‗having to do with horses‘, Lat. bell-icus ‗pertaining to
war‘.
NOTE. Related is -isko-, found in Gmc. and Bal.-Sla. to indicate affiliation or place of
origin. The suffix -ko- was apparently also used as hypocoristic or diminutive, cf. Ved. putra-
ká-, ‗little son (putrá-)‘, avi-k - ‗ewe-lamb‘ (avi- ‗sheep‘); cf. Slavic *-ĭko- in O.C.S. ovĭ-ca
‗sheep‘, otĭ-cĭ (Russ. otec) ‗father‘, etc. (Meillet 1961, Fortson 2004), or Lat. forms in -ko- for
diminutives, as -cus or -culus (combined with -lo-, see below), as well as Hittite, after Shields
(Hittite neka- and the origin of the Indo-European diminutive suffix *-ko-, 1998). The older
function was possibly simply adjectival. Miller (Latin suffixal derivatives in English and their
Indo-European ancestry, 2006).
The suffix -ro- was added to the zero-grade of an adjectival root to form that root‘s
free-standing adjectival form, and was usually accented; as, rudhrós, red.
The suffix -tó- forms passive verbal adjectives (v.i. §7.7), and also possessive
adjectives, as Lat. barbā-tus ‗bearded‘, Eng. beard-ed, O.C.S. bogatŭ ‗wealthy‘.
Stems in -nt- form adjectives (viz. in -ment-/-went-), but are mostly found within
the verbal system as present participles.
Words in -ter- are nouns, and adjectives are derived usually in -trjo- and others.
Nouns in -ti make adjectives in -tjo-, or -tiko-, usually with an ethnic meaning.
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5. Adjectives
IE -lo- formations are found in a variety of adjectival functions, including ancient

hypocoristics (shorter forms of a word or given name), as well as (later) diminutives.
NOTE. Cf. Lat. porculus ‗small pig‘, MHG verhel (Germ. Ferkel), Lith. paršẽlis ‗piglet‘,
sūnẽlis ‗little son‘, etc. or Goth. Wulfila, O.H.G. Wolfilo lit. ‗little wolf‘ (according to Senn,
Krahe and Meid, Risch, etc.), while O.Ir. Túathal (personal name; cf. túath ‗tribe, people‘),
cited by Jurafsky (1996) is possibly not a diminutive, Miller (2006).
The accent is sometimes used to distinguish thematic nouns from adjectives.

NOTE. There are sometimes secondary processes that displace the accent from an adjective
to create a noun; cf. Gk. leukós ‗white‘, léukos ‗white spot‘.
5.3.3. Common adjectival suffixes from prepositions and examples include:
 In -tero: próteros, énteros, éksteros, níteros, etc.

 In -no: úpernos, Lat. supernus, éksternos, Lat. externus.
 In -jo: enjos, cf. O.Ir. inne ‗interior zone‟, O.Ind. ni-já-, Goth. inna; autjos,
ántitjos, preitjos, cf. Ltv. pr e(k)ša, O.Ind. ní-tya-, Lit. íščios, Ltv. íščios
‗intestine‘.
 In -qo: wiqos, diverse (cf. O.Ind. viśva-, ‗all‟), niqos, inferior (cf. Gmc.
*nihuuela), proqos near/far (cf. Lat. procul/prope/proximus), seqos, isolated
(cf. Lat. secus, sequius, Corn heb, Bret. hep, O.Ir. sech; but Lat. antīqus <*anti-
h3qo-).
 In -qo: áporos, cf. O.Ind. apara-.
 In -mo: epiromo- (cf. O.Ir. iarum, Alb. i èpërm), Lat. immus, summus.
5.4. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
5.4.1. In Proto-Indo-European, as in English, there are three degrees of

comparison: the positive, the comparative and the superlative.
5.4.2. The adjective in its natural or ‗positive‘ state may be made comparative and
superlative by the addition of suffixes.
5.4.3. The comparative, a difference of grade between two compared values, is
generally formed by adding the primary comparative suffix -jos- to the root in e-
grade (if there was one), regardless of the grade or stem of the generic adj. Thus from
swād-ús, comp. swād-jōs, sweeter, rather than ˟swādu-jōs, or from dḷnghos,
comp. dlegh-jōs, longer, rather than ˟dḷngh-jōs; also, from kartús, kret-jōs,
195
harder, but from mag-nos (no-stem) mag-jōs, bigger (Lat. maiior), from sen-os,
sen-jōs, older (cf. Skt. san-yas, Lat. senior), etc.
NOTE. ―Older (probably PIE) was -is, which is preserved in adverbs: Lat. ntr. maius ‗greater‘
< *-ios, adv. magis; Goth. min ‗less‘ < *minn-is, mais ‗more‘ > *meh2-is (cf. E. more).‖
According to Sihler (1995), ―[t]he suffix *-yos- added to a root X originally meant ‗X to a
pronounced degree; very X‘. This is essentially the force of the affix in InIr. Pragmatically, of
course, a statement like fruit is sweet, but honey is very sweet is equivalent to fruit is sweet,
but honey is sweeter, and that is the basis for the evolution of the paradigmatic comparative
(…).‖ This origin is probably behind its use as augmentative and pejorative in some languages.
Also, the intensive/comparative was added directly to the root (in full grade) rather than to
the stem of the adjective, in accordance with the ―view that the original meaning of the suffix
was different from our notion of a paradigmatic comparative, which would be a derivative of
the generic itself (as is clearly the case in NE damnedest and L difficilior). Thus Vedic
átavyas-, a form with both the intensive suffix and the privative prefix, means ‗not very
strong‘ (from tavyás- ‗very strong‘) rather than ‗very unstrong; very weak‘. That is, it is a
privative based on an intensive, not the other way around like the NE comparative untidier.‖
Cf. O.Ir. sír, cp. sía<*sējós, ‗longus, longior‘; lán (plēnus cf. lín ‗numerus‟), cp. lia<*plējós (Lat
ploios, Gk. pléos); cf. Lat. ploirume, zero-grade Lat. maios, O.Ir. mía. So, for júwen- we find
Umb. cp. jovie<*jowjē-s, O.Ir. óac ‗iuuenis‟, óa „iunior‟; óam „iuuenissimus‟, O.Ind. yuva(n)-
(yūnah), cp. yavīyas-, sup. yavista-h.
The form -jos- varies allophonically with -ijos-, cf. new-jōs, new-ijōs, newer. According
to Meier-Brügger, ―[*-ijos] replaces [*-jos] in nominative singular masculine and feminine
forms with the structure K .K- and KVR.K-; whereas, according to rules of phonetics, *-jos- is
expected in forms with three or more syllables.‖
The inflection of the comparative is that of the hysterodynamic inflection for s-

stems: singular nom. masc./fem. -jōs, acc. masc./fem. -josṃ, nom.-acc. neu. -jos,
gen. -jesos, dat. -jesei, loc. -jesi; plural masc./fem. -joses, acc. masc./fem. -josṇs,
nom.-acc. neut. -jōs, gen. -jesom, dat. -jesbhos, etc.
NOTE. This declension comes from an older ablauting *-´jōs, acc. m.f. *-jés-m, gen. *-is-ós,
dat. *-is-éi, loc. -jes-i, dat. pl. -is-bh´-, etc. Sihler (1995). Beekes (1995):
The suffix -(t)er-o- is the basis for the secondary comparative forms; as, from upo,
up, upon, úperos (cf. O.Ind. úpar-a-) beneath, nearer.
NOTE. The suffix -(t)ero- is the -o- adjective form of adverbs ending in -(t)ṛ and -(t)er; as,
sup, under, sup-er-, over, and sup-er-o-, found above; pro, at the front, forward, and pró-
ter-o-, toward the front, earlier. Adverbs and adjectives that were derived from them were
196
5. Adjectives
capable of marking relative contrast, e.g. in the case of opposites or selection from a pair; cf.
from sem-, one, sṃ-ter-o, the other of two in a unity. The original use of this suffix was then
probably to convey the idea of binary contrast to something else, rather than intensive; as,
qóteros, which (of two)?, enteros, the other (also second, v.i. §5.5.2) in contrast to aljos,
(an)other. Sihler (1995), Meier-Brügger (2003).
5.4.4. The superlative marks the highest grade among two compared values. The
same suffix (with the ablaut -is-) is the base for a common suffix -is-tos (<*-ist(h2)o-
, cf. Skt. -iṣṭha-, Gk. -istos, Goth. -ista), and -t-ṃos (cf. Skt. -tamas, Gk. -tato-, -
tamo-), and (possibly a combination of -is-tos and -t-ṃos) -is-ṃos (Ita.-Cel. *-
isamo-); as, sénistos, oldest, mágistos, biggest (Gk. megistos, Lat.
maximus<*magisamos), néwistos, newest, etc.; probably common to certain
numeral suffixes.
NOTE. As stated by Sihler (1995), ―a complex of two separate elements *-ṃ- and *-mo- is
indefensible morphologically. An original PIH *-(t)mHo- solves the phonological problem, but
there is no reason otherwise to suppose the presence of a laryngeal‖. This form in *-ṃmo- is
also preferred by Fortson (2004) among others, while a laryngeal is preferred e.g. in Meier-
Brügger (2003). Again, the auxiliary vowel in a sequence *T-RE is the most logical assumption
(Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza 1995-1998), hence LIE *-mo/- °mo-.
Superlative of the secondary comparative is made in -ṃo-; as, úper-ṃo-, sup-

ṃos (Lat. summus), from ṇdherós, underly, ńdh-ṃos (Lat. infimus, Skt.
ádhamas), from entós, inside, ént-ṃos, (Lat. intimus), innermost.
NOTE. While adjectival suffixes -jos-, -istos, are added to the root (in e-grade) without
extensions, -teros and -ṃos are added with the extensions.
Suffixes -jo-, -tero-, and -is-to-, had probably an original nominal meaning.
NOTE. Thus, the elongations in -jos- had a meaning; as in Latin, where iuniores (<*jun-jos-
es) and seniores (<*sen-jos-es) were used for groups of age; or those in -teros, as *mātérterā
‗aunt on the mother‘s side‘, *ekw teros lit. ‗the horsy one‘ (in contrast to ‗ass‘), ‗mule‘, Sihler
(1995). Forms like *jun-jos-es were not common in PIE, although indeed attested in different
dialects.
5.5. NUMERALS
5.5.1. CLASSIFICATION OF NUMERALS
Indo-European numerals may be classified as follows:
I. Numeral adjectives:
197
1. Cardinal numbers, answering the question how many? as, oinos, one; dwōu,
two.
2. Ordinal numbers, adjectives derived (in most cases) from the cardinals, and
answering the question which in order? as, prāmos, first; ónteros, second.
3. Distributive numerals, answering the question how many at a time? as, semli,
one at a time; dwisni, two by two.
II. Numeral adverbs, answering the question how often? as, dwis, twice, tris,
thrice.
5.5.2. CARDINALS AND ORDINALS
1. These two series are as follows, from one to ten:
Cardinal Eng. Ordinal Eng.

1. oinos, oinā, oinom one prāmos first
2. dwōu, dwāi, dwoi two ónteros second
3. trejes, trja/trī, trísores three tritjos third
4. qétwores four qetwṛtos fourth
5. penqe five penqtos fifth
6. s(w)eks six sekstos sixth
7. septḿ seven séptṃos seventh
8. oktṓu eight ókt wos eighth
9. newṇ nine neunos ninth
1 dekṃ ten dékṃtos tenth
0.
NOTE 1. From root oi-, PII ai-kas (<*oi-k-os), CA ei-kos, PGk oi-wos. For prāwos
(<*prəHwos<*pṛh2-wo-), first, cf. O.Ind. pūrva-, O.C.S. prŭvŭ. For prāmos,
(<*prəHmos<*pṛh2-mo-), cf. Gk. Dor. pratos (<*prā-wo-to<*prā-mo-), Lith. pìrmas, O.Eng.
forma, or Goth. fruma (maybe also in Lat. prandēre < *prāmdo-dejom ‗first eating‘); Lat.
prīmus (<*prī-isamos<*prei-isamos, Pael. prismu). All forms are probably related through
the same root as in particle pr , forth, thus originally meaning ‗foremost‘ or similar. For. fem.
trja/trī<*triH, three, cf. Skt. trī, Gk. tría, Lat. tria, U. triia, Goth. þrija, O.Ir. tre, but. It
seems that weks, six, could have been the ‗original‘ PIH form, to which an s- from septḿ was
added; it would have lost the -w- later (Sihler 1995).
NOTE 2. The ordinals were formed by means of the thematic suffix -o-, which caused the
syllable before the ending to have zero-grade. The newer suffix -to- was the most productive
in Late Indo-European. For internal reconstruction in PIH, Late Indo-European and early
dialects, see Szemerényi (1970). For eighth, Beekes (1995) reconstructs an original short vowel
198
5. Adjectives
*h3kt(e)h3wó- cf. gr. ogdo(w)os, but cf. for lengthened grade Lat. octāuus <*oktōwos <*eh3-
w-. An original *dekṃt-ó- is reconstructed, later metanalysed into the attested dékṃ-to-
(Sihler 1995). The same could be said of most ordinals, apparently from earlier zero-grade
forms and accent on the ending, Sihler (1995) and Beekes (1995), but recognised as having
been replaced already in parent language; as, **trjó- → *trijó- ‗third‘.
2. The forms from eleven to nineteen were usually formed by placing the number
and then dekṃ, ten. Hence Late Indo-European used the following system:
Cardinal Ordinal
11. sémdekṃ / oinos dekṃ sémdekṃtos / prāmos dékṃtos
12. dwōu dekṃ éteros dékṃtos
13. trejes dekṃ tritjos dékṃtos
14. qétwores dekṃ qetwṛtos dékṃtos
15. penqe dekṃ penqtos dékṃtos
16. seks dekṃ sekstos dékṃtos
17. septḿ dekṃ séptmos dékṃtos
18. oktṓ dekṃ ókt wos dékṃtos
19. newṇ dekṃ newnos dékṃtos
NOTE. Eleven and twelve were already fossilised collocations in O.Lat. undecim
(<*oinodecem), O.Ind. áikadaśa, probably from oinom dekṃt (Sihler 1995). For a frozen
thirteen, cf. Skt. trayodaśa, Lat. trēdecim (<*trēsdecem).
Also Gmc. and BSl. apparently from *óinoliqa ‗one left‘, *dwṓliqa ‗two left‘, with ordinals
*óinoliqtos, *dwṓliqtos, although the exact reconstruction of these forms is problematic
(Beekes 1995).
3. The tens are normally formed with the units and suffix -dkṃta “group of ten‖.
Cardinal Ordinal
20. (d)widkṃtī (d)wídkṃtṃos
30. trídkṃta trídkṃtṃos
40. qatwŕdkṃta qatwŕdkṃtṃos
50. penqédkṃta penqédkṃtṃos
60. séksdkṃta sékskṃtṃos
70. septḿdkṃta septḿkṃtṃos
80. oktṓdkṃta oktṓdkṃtṃos
90. néwṇdkṃta néwṇdkṃtṃos
100. (d)kṃtóm dkṃtémtṃos
199
NOTE. These forms are traditionally reconstructed for LIE with lengthened preceding vowel
or resonant (as a conventional writing of LIE uncertain output for *RH), based on
comparative evidence alone (e.g. Sihler 1995, Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza 1995-1998), but
internal reconstruction might explain the development of all attested forms more elegantly
following the Leiden school (Kortlandt, Beekes, De Vaan, etc.), with the hypothesis that the
glottal stop of the d in dkṃtóm with the preceding vocalic resonant caused the development
toward outputs similar to those of *RH; i.e. -Rʔkṃta <*-HkṃtəH < *-h1kṃth2 <*-dkṃt-(h2?).
Hence our selection of writing an etymological d- to represent the old glottal stop, that had the
common effect in the attested dialects of lengthening the preceding vowel (or vocalic
resonant). The ending - , comes from neuter ending *-(e)h2, which by convention we write -a.
See e.g. at <http://eprints.ucm.es/tesis/19911996/H/3/AH3005401.pdf> Lujan‘s tesis on
numerals, with a full review of the available theories, or Kortlandt‘s original 1983 article
<https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/1877/1/344_043.pdf>.
4. The hundreds are made as compounds of two numerals, like the tens:
Cardinal Ordinal
200. dwikṃtos dwikṃtémtṃos
300. trikṃtos trikṃtémtṃos
400. qatwṛkṃtos qatwṛkṃtémtṃos
500. penqekṃtos penqekṃtémtṃos
600. sekskṃtos sekskṃtémtṃos
700. septṃkṃtos septṃkṃtémtṃos
800. oktōkṃtos oktōkṃtémtṃos
900. newṇkṃtos newṇkṃtémtṃos
1000. sṃgheslom sṃgheslotṃos
NOTE. For n. (sṃ)gheslom, thousand, cf. Skt. n. sa-hásra-m, Av. ha-zaŋra, from PII sa-
ģhasla-m; from i-stem adjective gheslijos, -ā, -om, ‗having a thousand, thousand-fold‟, cf.
Skt. sahasríya-, Gk. khīl(l)ioi< PGk khesl-ij-o- (Sihler 1995), Lat. n. mīlle, (n. pl) mīlia,
possibly from an original fem. abstract *sṃ-ih2 ghesl-i, or *sm-ih2 ghsl-ih2; for fem. *sm-ih2,
cf. Gk. mía. Both Lat. *mīl(l)i and mīlia ―might be postulated as free forms within the same
synchronic structure‖ J. Gvozdanović (1992) against a starting point *-ij (E. Hamp, 1968).
For the ordinal, cf. Skt. sahasra-tama.
A difficult to reconstruct *tūsṇtī<*tūs-kṃt-ij-os? ‗fat hundred‘?, is found (Mallory–Adams
2007) in Northern IE; cf. Gmc. þūsund-i, pl. þūsundjōs, Toch. tumame, Bal. tūksunt-i, O.Prus.
tūsimtons, Sla. *t sōt-j-ā.
200
5. Adjectives
5. The other numerals are made similar to the tens, with the units in first place; as,
oinā widkṃtī, f. twenty-one; m. qétwores tridkṃta, thirty-four.
NOTE. For the simple type oinos widkṃtī, cf. Skt. éka-viṅśati (in compounds where the
unit could be inflected); with copulatives, cf. Lat. unus et uiginti, Bret. unan-warn-ugent, Ger.
einundzwanzig, Du. eenentwintig, Fris. ienentweintich, Da. enogtyve, etc.
The normal order of composite numerals is units+tens, and there was a natural
tendency to follow a ‗units+tens+hundreds+…‘, cf. Skt. ekādaśaṃ sahasram, lit. ‗one
ten thousand‘, one thousand and eleven. So e.g. penqe dekṃ kṃtóm, one hundred
and fifteen, oinom qatwŕdkṃta septṃkṃtos, seven hundred and forty-one.
All numbers signal the ordinal; as, prāmos widkṃtṃos, (masc). twenty-first,
tritjā trídkṃtṃā trikṃtémtṃā, (fem.) three hundred thirty-third.
6. Numerals were often inserted as prefixes of possessive compound forms, of the
type qatwṛ-pods, four-footed, quadruped. As first members, numbers 1-4 had a
special zero-grade form: sṃ-, one-; dwi-, two-, tri-, three-, and q(a)tur- [q(a)twṛ-
before consonant], four-.
NOTE. The ‗original‘ zero-grade qtwṛ-, qtur-, appears usually with an inserted schwa
secundum, generally LIE [a], i.e. qatwṛ-, qatur-; also, PGk qetwṛ-, qetur-. See §2.6.6.
5.5.3. DECLENSION OF CARDINALS AND ORDINALS
Of the cardinals oinos, dwōu, trejes (and dialectally qétwores), are declinable.
a. The declension of oinos, -ā, -om has often the meaning of certain, a, single,
alone; as, oinos dinos, a certain day. Also, as a simple numeral, it agrees with a
plural noun of singular meaning. The plural occurs also in phrases like oinōs
álterōsqe, one party and the other one (the ones and the others).
The root sem-, in semos, one, refers the unity as a whole, found in adj. somós,
equal.
NOTE. Gk., Arm., Toch., show an old declension, found in frozen compounds in Late Indo-
European: masc. nom. *sems, acc. *sēm (<**sem-m) neu. nom.-acc. *sem (gen.-abl. *smós,
dat. *smei, loc. *sem(i), ins. *smē), and fem. *smja/ī (acc. *smja/īm, gen.-abl. *smjās, dat.
*smjāi, loc. *smjā(i), ins. *smjā). Beekes (1995), Ringe (2005).
c. The inflection of dwōu, two, is irregular, connected to issues concerning the

dual:
201
masc. fem. neu.

N.-V.-A. dwōu dwāi dwoi
GEN. dwous
DAT.-ABL. dwobhos/dwomos
LOC. dwou
INS. dwobhis/dwomis
NOTE. Apparently an older n./f. dwoi was separated into a newer Late Indo-European f.
dwāi. Also, IE ambhōu, both, from ambhí, is inflected like dwōu; for adjective ambhojos,
cf. Skt. ubháya-, O.C.S. oboji, Lith. abejì (Beekes 1995).
c. The inflection of trejes, three, is mostly a regular i-stem one:
masc. fem. neu.

NOM.-VOC. trejes trja/trī trísores
ACC. trins trjans/trīns trísores
GEN. trijom
DAT.-ABL. tribhos/trimos
LOC. trisu
INS. tribhis/trimis
NOTE. The inflection attested of qétwores seems to have followed an old accent-ablaut
paradigm acc. qet-wér-ns, gen. qet-ur-óm, loc. qet-wṛ-sú, etc. (Beekes 1995). A feminine
form qétes(o)res (*kwetu-sre- for Beekes), is found in Celtic and Indo-Iranian, deemed
therefore usually an old PIE formation (although in decline, given that most old IE languages
had already lost it), or an innovation based on trisores. A neuter qetwṓr <*kwetworH is
found in Greek and Balto-Slavic. Tocharian, Italic, and Gothic show no gender distinction; all
such finds indicate either an old common LIE trend of disuse of inflection for this number, or
dialectal innovations. Sihler (1995), Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998).
d. The ordinals are adjectives of the o and ā declensions, and are regularly declined.
6.3.2. Cardinals and ordinals have the following uses:

a. Only compound numbers have no gender or flexion; as, penqédkṃta kmtóm
m., f., n. hundred and fifty; numbers including one, two, or three have gender and
flexion; as, oinā séksdkṃta, (fem.) sixty-one, dwāi widkṃtī, (fem.) twenty-one,
trísores qetwŕdkṃta, (neu.) forty-three, oinom widkṃtī putla, (masc. acc.) 21
children.
202
5. Adjectives
b. The highest denomination generally stands last, the next before it, etc., and the
unit is first; as, qétwores séksdkṃta septṃkṃtom sṃgheslom, 1764.
c. LIE had no special words for million, billion, trillion, etc. They were expressed by
multiplication. From common loan million, from Lat. mille ‗one thousand‘, we could
reconstruct sṃghéslijōn, million, dwighéslijōn, billion, trighéslijōn, trillion,
etc.
d. A common expression in PIE is the adverbial use of the accusative singular
neuter of the ordinal; as, prāmom, firstly; ónterom, secondly, etc.
e. Fractions are expressed, as in English, by cardinals in the numerator and ordinals
in the denominator. The neuter is generally used for substantivised ordinals, or the
feminine with noun ‗part‘; as, n. dwōi septṃa (or f. dwāi septṃāi pṛtes) two-
sevenths; n. trísores ókt wa, three-eighths.
When the numerator is one, it is usually omitted: tritjom, one-third; qétwṛtom,
one-fourth, and so on.
NOTE. Indo-Iranian exhibits an old trend to omit the parts in which it is divided, if only one
is left; as, dwāi pṛtes, two-thirds (―two parts‖), trja pṛtes, three-fourths, etc.
The compositional sēmi-, half-, is combined with ordinals to express cardinals plus
half; as, sēmi-tritjos, two and a half, lit. ‗having a half of the third (item)‘.
NOTE. For IE ‗half‘, cf. Lat. adj. dwismedhjos, noun dwismedhjom, ‗divided medially‘;
however, proper forms meaning ‗divided in two‘ are reconstructed from multiplicatives, v.i.
f. In approximatives, the old disjunctive use of numerals was made by collocations

of adjacent cardinals in ascending order, e.g. penqe seks septḿ, five, six, or seven.
A common IE penqe septḿ (for penqe septṃwe), five or seven, is also possible.
g. Time periods are made with compounds:
For years, as dwiatnjom, a period of two years, triatnjom, qaturatnjom,

sṃgheslijatnjom, millenium, etc.
For days, as dwidjówijom, a period of two days, tridjówijom,

qatwṛdjówijom.
For months, as dwimēnstris, a period of two months, bimester, trimēnstris,

trimester, qatwṛmēnstris, seksmēnstris, semester, etc.
NOTE. For month names, a compound with mēns-riis followed; as, septṃmēnsris,
september, oktōmēnsris, october, etc.
203
5.5.4. DISTRIBUTIVES
1. Distributive numerals are number words which express group membership. They
are used mainly in the sense of so many apiece or on each side, and also in
multiplications. They answer to the question how many of each? how many at a
time?
2. The oldest formations are collocations of geminated cardinals, with both

members inflected; as, semos semos, oinos oinos, each one, penqe penqe, each
five, etc.
NOTE. For this kind of distributives, cf. Gk. tri tri, O.Ind., éka- eka-, Zor. Pahl. ēk ēk, Pers.
das das, Parth. Sogd. ‗yw ‗yw, Arm. tasn tasn, Toch. A sam sam, B ṣeme ṣeme, okt okt, ñu ñu;
also in Hittite iterated groups, in place of distributives, 1-aš 1-aš, 1-an 1-an.
This is also found in nouns, cf. Lat. alteros alterom ‗each other‘, O.Ind. díve díve,
‗each day‘; Myc. we-te we-te ‗each year‘; etc.
3. Some PIE distributives were formed with adj. suffix -(s)no-, and
abstract/collective suffix -ī; as, dwīsnī, two at a time, two each, trisnī, qátrusnī.
NOTE. For this formation e.g. dwīsnī, cf. Lat. bīnī, Gmc. *twiznaz (<*dwisnōs, cf. O.N.
tvenner, O.H.G. zwirnēn, O.Eng. twīn, Du. twijn), Russ. dvójni, Lith. dvynù, Arm. krkin, Lyc.
kbisñni. Also, it is believed that oi-no- was originally the first member of that series
(remember dialectal PGk oi-wos, PII oi-kos), meaning ‗singleness, unity‘, before replacing
sem-. Distributives for higher numerals were later expressed in IE languages using a word
that meant ‗each‘, as, Eng. each, Fr. chaque, Alb. kaa, Bret. cach, etc.
4. Distributives can be used to express percentage; as, for ‗twenty percent‘, dekṃ
dekṃ dwōu, two for each ten, kṃtóm kṃtóm widkṃtī, twenty for each
hundred.
5.5.5. NUMERAL ADVERBS
1. The so-called numeral adverbs are a distinctive class of adverbs which specifically
answer the question qoti, how many times? how often?
2. The most common ones are formed with zero-grade and a lengthening in -s; as,
semli, once, dwis, twice, tris, thrice, and qatrus (<*kwətwṛ-s), four times.
NOTE. For NWIE semli, cf. O.Lat. semol, Umb. sumel, Goth. simble, O.H.G. simlē, O.Ir.
amal; for the expected *sṃni-, maybe Hitt. šani. PII sṃ-qŕt, from -qṛt, v.i.; PGk sṃ-pṇqus,
alone, cf. Gk. hapaks, Hitt. pa-an-ku-uš, L. cūnctus. For the rest, e.g. tris, cf. Lat. ter, Myc. ti-
204
5. Adjectives
ri-se-roe (<Tris-(h)ḗrōhei), Gk. tris, O.Ind. triḥ, Goth. driror, O.Ir. thrí, Luv. tarisu, Lyc.
trisu. Higher numbers are found in Lat. and maybe behind Hitt. 3-iš, 10-iš, 20-iš, 30-iš, etc.
See Sihler (1995).
3. Some old compounds are also found in -ki.
NOTE. A certain reconstruction is difficult, though; cf. Hitt. -an-ki, Gmc. zwis-ki, Gk. -ki,
Indian *-ki (cf. Sogd. -ky, Yaghnobi īki īki ‗one by one, one each‘, Chorasmian -c); maybe also
in Arm. erkics. Variant Gk. -kis, Hitt. -kis are probably due to assimilation to the type dwis,
twice, twofold. For higher numbers, probably an innovation, cf. Greek numeral adverbs in -a-
kis, and Hittite in -an-ki, maybe from a common PIE *-ṇki.
4. A system of simple collocations is used, placing the cardinal number before a

noun meaning ‗time‘; as, penqe qŕtewes, five times, oktṓ qŕtewes, eight times,
and so on.
NOTE. For m. qṛtus, time, cf. O.Ind. -kṛtwaḥ (<*kwŕt-wnt-m, see Hollifield 1984), Bal.
*kart-a-, Sla. *kortŭ, O.Ir. cruth, O.Welsh pryd. For (rare) compounds, viz. sṃ-qṛt, once, cf.
O.Ind. sa-kṛt, Av. ha-kərət; cf. also Umb. trioper ‗three times‘, Osc. petiropert ‗four times‘.
5.5.6. MULTIPLICATIVES
1. Multiplicatives like single, double, triple, etc. which answer the question how
many fold?, had a variety of compounds for the first numerals.
2. The oldest PIE multiplicatives found were collectives, made in -jo-, -t- and -k-;
as, óinokos, single, sole, unique, dwojós, two-fold, group of two, duad, trejós,
three-fold, triad, qetwerós, four-fold, group of four, penqstís, group of five,
dekḿts, group of ten, decade.
NOTE. For North-West common óinokos, cf. Gmc. *ainagas (cf. Goth ainahs, O.N. einga,
O.Eng. anga, O.Sax. enag, O.H.G. einac), O.C.S. inokŭ, Lat. unicus (<*oine-kos? or *oino-
ikos?); suffix -kois also found in O.Ind. -śáḥ, Gk. -kás, Hitt. -kaš. For PIE dwojós, trejós,
cf. Ved. tvayá-, trayá, Myc. duwojo-/dwojo-, Gk. doiós, O.H.G. zwī, g. zwīes, Lith. dvejì, trejì,
O.C.S. dĭvojĭ, trojĭ, O.Ir. trēode. For qetwerós, cf. Skt. catvarám, O.C.S. četvori, Lith.
ketverì, Lat. quaternī. Apart from -jo-, common PIE collectives are found in -t-, usually -ti-,
as penq-s-tis, group of five, fist, cf. O.Ind. paṇktí-, Av. sastí-, xsvasti-, O.C.S. pęstĭ, -tĭ, Lith. -
t-, -ti-, Gmc. funxstiz (cf. Goth. fūst), O.Ir. bissi, O.Welsh bys, but also -ts, as, dekḿ-ts, Gk.
δεθάο (dekás), Lat. *dekents>*dekients, spreading *j-ṇts as new formant, into Gk. πεληάο
(pentás), then ηξηάο (triás), etc. Lat. *quinquens>quinquiens, then triēns, etc; cf. e.g. neuter
plurals widkṃtī (interpreted as dual), lit. „a group of two decades, double decads‟, twenty,
tridkṃta, ‗triple decads‘, thirty, and so on.
205
4. Proportional or relative numerals express how many times more (or less) one
thing is than another; they are made as follows:
a. in -plós, as sṃplós, simple, dwiplós, two-fold, double, twice as much, twice
as large, triplós, three-fold, triple.
NOTE. For dwi-plos, cf. Lat. duplus, Hom. Gk. f. acc. diplḗn (<dwi-pl -m) Umbr. dupla,
Goth. twei-fls, O.H.G. zvī-fal, ―doubt‖, O.Ir. dīabul, maybe Av. bi-fra- ‗comparison‟, Lyc. B
dwiplẽ. sṃ-plos is found in Gk. ἁ-πιόο (ha-plós), Lat. simplus, tri-plos is found in Gk.
ηξηπινῦο (triplous), Lat. triplus, Umb. tripler. For -plos (cf. Arm. -hal), a connection with PIE
pel-, fold, is usually assumed.
b. in -pḷks, as, dwipḷks, ‗with two folds‟, duplex, tripḷks, ‗with three folds‟.
NOTE. For pḷk-, also reconstructed as from root pel-, cf. Lat. -plicare, Gk. plekō <*pl-ek, ‗to
fold‘. For dwipḷks, cf. Lat. duplex, Gk. δίπιαμ (díplaks), Umbr. tuplak.
c. with verbal adjective -pḷtós, folded, is used to denote something divided in n

parts; as, dwipḷtós, an object folded in two.
NOTE. Cf. Gk. -plasio-<*-platio-<*pḷt-jo-s, a derivative that could express ‗belonging to the
class of objects folded in two‘ (Gvozdanović, 1992); maybe also here i-stem O.Ir.
trilis<*tripḷtis? For dwipḷtós, cf. Gk. δηπιάζηνο (diplásios), Ger. zwifalt. A similar form is in
Gmc. *poltos ‗fold‘.
d. with suffix -dhā, as dwidhā, two-fold, divided in two parts.

NOTE. cf. Skt. duví-dha, dve-dha, Gk. δηρζά <*δη-ζα (di-thá) and maybe also (with the
meaning ‗half‘) O.N. twēdi, O.Eng. twǣde, O.H.G. zwitaran, O.Ir. dēde, Hitt. dak-ša-an.
206
6. PRONOUNS
6.1. ABOUT THE PRONOUNS
6.1.1. Pronouns are used as nouns or as adjectives. They are divided into the
following seven classes:
1. Personal pronouns: as, egṓ, I.
2. Reflexive pronouns: as, se, himself.
3. Possessive pronouns: as, ṇserós, our.
4. Demonstrative pronouns: as, so, this, that.
5. Relative pronouns: as, jos, who.
6. Interrogative pronouns: as, qis? who?
7. Indefinite pronouns: as, qis, anyone.
6.1.2. Like adjectives, pronouns are declined for case and number and – except for
the personal and reflexive pronouns – for gender. Pronouns have a special
declension, differing from the nominal declension in several respects.
6.2. PERSONAL PRONOUNS
6.2.1. The personal pronouns of the first person are egṓ, I, wejes, we; of the
second person, tū, thou, juwes, you. The personal pronouns of the third person - he,
she, it, they - are wanting in Indo-European, an anaphoric (or even a demonstrative)
being used instead.
NOTE. Late Indo-European had no personal pronouns for the third person, like most of the
early dialects attested. For that purpose, a demonstrative was used instead; as, from ki, id, cf.
Anatolian ki, Gmc. khi-, Lat. cis-, id, Gk. ekeinos, Lith. sis, O.C.S. si, etc.
6.2.2. Since every finite verb form automatically indicates the ‗person‘ of the verb,
the nominal pronoun forms are already adequately marked. Therefore, pronouns are
not generally used in verbal sentences; they might be used to mark insistence,
though: esmi, I am; egṓ esmi, me, I am.
In comparison with the orthotonic forms, often strengthened by particles, the

special enclitic forms feature the minimal word stem and may be used in multiple
cases.
NOTE. Tonic forms are fully stressed (emphatic or contrastive), while enclitic are unstressed
clitic object pronouns; these are clearly attested in Anatolian, Indo-Iranian, Greek, Balto-
Slavic and Tocharian. They are mostly reduced versions of the full forms, and it is a common
resource write them added to the preceding verb, cf. Hitt. -mu, O.Lith. -m(i).
6.2.3. The personal (non-reflexive) pronouns are declined as follows:
First Person
Singular eg-, me- Plural we-, no-

Orthotonic Enclitic Orthotonic Enclitic
NOM. eg(h)óm, egṓ, I wejes, ṇsmés, we
ACC. mewóm, me me ṇsmé, nōns, us nos
GEN. mene, of me mo ṇseróm, of us nos
DAT. meghei, moi ṇsméi, nosbhos nos
LOC. meghjom mei ṇsmí, nosi
INS. mojo nosbhis
ABL. med
- ṇsméd
- Second Person
Singular tu-, te- Plural ju-, we-

Orthotonic Enclitic Orthotonic Enclitic
NOM. tū, tu, thou juwes, jusmés, you
ACC. tewóm, thee t(w)e jusmé, wōns, you wos
GEN. tewe; of thee t(w)o wesróm, of you wos
DAT. tebhei, tebhjo t(w)oi jusméi, wosbhos wos
LOC. t(w)ei jusmí, wosi
INS. t(w)ojo wosbhis
ABL. t(w)ed jusméd
NOTE. A comprehensive comparison of the reconstructed forms is at the end of this book:
1) For 1st P. Nom. eghóm (<*egh2-óm), emphatic from egṓ (<*eg-óh2), cf. O.Ind. ahám, Av.
azəm, Hom.Gk. εγων, Ven. ehom.
2) Enclitics moi, mei, and t(w)oi, t(w)ei, are found in genitive, dative and locative, but
they are deliberately specialised in this table.
3) 1st sg. dative is often found reconstructed as mebhi/mebhei, following the 2nd pl.
tebhei/tebhi.
4) -es endings in nom. pl., ṇsmés, (j)usmés (<*juswés?) attested in Att.-Ion. Greek and
Gothic.
208
6. Pronouns
5) An older ju(s)wes is probably behind the generally reconstructed nominative *jūHs?

based on Balto-Slavic (and Germanic) forms, which would therefore be a contraction of the
original form (cf. Skt. yū-yám, Gk. u-meis, Lat. uōs, Cel. s-wīs, Goth. iz-wis<*uz-wes?)
6) Zero-grade forms in jus- are also found as us- (from wes-? cf. Goth. izwis<*uswes?).
7) Possibly accusatives jusmé<*jusmēn<**jusmens, and ṇsmé<*ṇsmēn<**ṇsmens.
8) Probably acc. pl. **nos-m-s→nōns and **wos-m-s→wōns.
8) Gen. n som, w som, is also attested.
9) Osc.-Umb., O.Ind. variant (orthotonic) series of Acc. Sg. in -m, as mēm(e), twēm,
tewem, usóm, s(w)ēm.
10) Dual forms (in *-h1) are for the 1st nom. wē, acc. tonic ṇwé, enclitic nō; for the 2nd jū,
acc. tonic ūwé, enclitic wō.
For the personal pronouns of the third person singular and plural, the anaphoric i-
is used. See §6.5 and §6.6 for more details on its use and inflection.
6.3. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
6.3.1. Reflexive pronouns are used in the accusative and the oblique cases to refer to
the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand, meaning ‗(one)self‘.
They do not have a nominative case, do not distinguish number, and can be used
with any of the three persons.
se, -self
ACC. se, myself, yourself, himself/herself/itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.

GEN. sewe, soi, of myself, yourself, himself/herself/itself, ourselves, etc.
ABL. swed, by/from/etc. myself, yourself, himself/herself/itself, ourselves, etc.
DAT. sebhei, soi, to myself, yourself, himself/herself/itself, ourselves, etc.
L.-I. sei, in/with myself, yourself, himself/herself/itself, ourselves, etc.
NOTE. Particular IE languages show an old swoi and swe, cf. Gk. Lesb. ϝε. According to
J.T. Katz precisely this swe is regarded as ancient and se as secondary. In contrast, G.E.
Dunkel connects se/soi, which he considers more ancient, with the demonstrative pronoun
so.
6.3.2. The reciprocals one another, each other, were expressed like the distributives
(v.s. §5.5.4), with the first member in the nominative, and the second in the
accusative (or other oblique case); as, aljos aljom, onjos onjom, etc.; as,
209
NOTE. Cf. Hitt. 1-aš 1-an ku-w-aš-ki-it ‗one killed the other continuously‘, O.Ind. anyonya-
<*anyás anyám, Av. aniiō.aniia-, Chor. nywny, Gk. allālo-<*alos allon, *alloi allous ‗one
another‘, Lat. aliī aliōs, alterius alterum; for oinos álterom, cf. Latin unus alterum, Eng.
one another, Ger. einander, etc. Reciprocity is one of the principal meanings of middle voice
forms, v.i. §7.1.2.
6.4. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
6.4.1. From the bases of the personal pronouns, the oldest possessive pronouns
seem to have been mos, mine, ṇsmós, ours, twos, thine, usmós, yours, swos,
own.
NOTE. So e.g. in Gk. emós (<*h1mós), ammos, sós, ummos, hos, Av. ma-, θwa-, O.Ind. tva-.
Variants exist in tewós (as Gk. teϝós, Lat. tuus), sewós (as Gk. heϝós, Lat. suus), explained as
neologisms, but ―which may well be as early as Late PIE‖ (Sihler 1995).
6.4.2. The common Late Indo-European possessives were formed from the same
bases with suffixes -(i)join the singular, -(t)ero- in the plural; as, méwijos,
menjos, my, ṇserós, our, téwijos, thy, userós, your, séwijos.
NOTE. For such common PIE forms, similar to the genitives of the personal pronouns (v.s.
§6.2), cf. Gk. ēméteros (<ṇsmé-tero-), uméteros (<usmé-tero-), O.Lat. noster (<nos-tero-)
uoster (<wos-tero-), Goth. unsara-, (<ṇs-ero-), izwara- (<wesw-ero-?), etc. all used as
possessive pronouns; for the singular, cf. Lat. meus, O.C.S. mojĭ, Goth meina-, etc. O.Ind.
madīya-, tvadīya, etc. were formed from the ablatives mad, tvad, etc., while possessives
mamaka-, asmāka-, jusmāka-, were made from the genitives. See Szemerényi (1970),
Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998), Meier-Brügger (2003).
6.4.3. Possessives are declined like adjectives of the first type, in -os, -ā, -om.
NOTE. PIE swos, séwijos, are only used as reflexives, referring generally to the subject of
the sentence. For a possessive of the third person not referring to the subject, the genitive of
the anaphoric must be used. Thus, paterṃ séwijom chenti, (s)he/it kills his [own] father;
but paterṃ esjo chenti, (s)he/it kills his [somebody (m.) else‟s] father. See below §10.1.2 for
more on its use.
6.5. ANAPHORIC PRONOUNS
6.5.1. Anaphora is an instance of an expression referring to another, the weak part

of the deixis. In general, an anaphoric is represented by a pro-form or some kind of
deictic. They usually don‘t have adjectival use, and are only used as mere
abbreviating substitutes of the noun.
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6. Pronouns
NOTE. Old anaphorics were usually substituted in modern IE languages by demonstratives.
They are usually integrated into the pronoun system with gender; only occasionally
some of these anaphorics have been integrated into the personal pronouns system in
Indo-European languages.
6.5.2. Indo-European has a general anaphoric pronoun, is, ja/ī id, an old
demonstrative pronoun with basis on PIE root i- with ablaut ei-.
NOTE. PIE root i- is also the base for common relative jo-. Demonstrative is, ja/ī, id, with
anaphoric value, ―he/she/it‖, in Italic (e.g. Lat. is, ea, id), Germanic (e.g. O.H.G. ir, er/iz, ez),
Baltic (e.g. Lith. jìs/jì), Greek (e.g. Cypriot ín), Indo-Iranian (e.g. Skt. ay-ám, iy-ám, i-d-ám).
6.5.3. The other demonstrative pronoun, so, sā, tod, functions as anaphoric too,
but tends to appear leading the sentence, being its origin probably the relative. They
are also used for the second term in comparisons.
NOTE. Demonstrative so, sā, tod is also widely attested in Celtic (e.g. O.Ir. -so/-d), Italic
(e.g. Lat. is-te, is-ta, is-tud), Germanic (e.g. Goth. sa, sō, þata, O.Eng. sē, sēo, þæt, O.H.G. der,
die, daz), Baltic (e.g. Lith. tàs, tà), Slavic (e.g. O.C.S. tŭ, ta, to), Alb. ai, ajo, Gk. ho, hē, tó,
Indo-Iranian (e.g. Skt. sá, s , tát), Toch B se, sā, te, Arm. ay-d, Hitt. ta. Modern IE languages
have sometimes mixed both forms to create a single system, while others maintain the old
differentiation.
6.6. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
6.6.1. The function of demonstrative pronouns, deixis, includes an indication of

position in relation to the person speaking. It is possible to express a maximum of
four (generally three) different degrees of distance; as, I-deixis (here, near the
speaker), thou-deixis (there, near the person addressed), that-deixis (there, without a
particular spatial reference), yonder-deixis (yonder, over there).
6.6.2. The demonstrative pronouns so, this, that, and is, this one, that one, ―the
(just named)”, are used to point out or designate a person or thing for special
attention, either with nouns, as adjectives, or alone, as pronouns, and are declined as
follows:
211
so, sā, tod, this, that
Singular Plural
masc. neu. fem. masc. neu. fem.
NOM. so sā toi tāi
tod tā
ACC. tom tām tons tāns
GEN. tosjo tesjās toisom tāsom
ABL. tosmōd tesjās toibhos/toimos tābhos/tāmos
DAT. tosmōi tesjāi toibhos/toimos tābhos/tāmos
LOC. tosmi tesjāi toisu tāsu
INS. toi tesjā tōis tābhis/tāmis
NOTE. Variants are observed in the attested dialects: 1) Nom. so (before all consonants) is
also found as sos in Old Indian, Greek and Gothic (in all other circumstances), and as se in
Latin (cf. Lat. ipse). 2) Nom. sā is found as sja/sī in Germanic and Celtic. 3) Nom. Pl. tāi is
general, while sāi is restricted to some dialects, as Attic-Ionic Greek, possibly from original
fem. *tā and masc. *to (Meier-Brügger 2003). However, linguists like Beekes (1995) or
Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998) reconstruct the nominative form in s- as the
original Proto-Indo-European form. 4) The instrumental singular forms are difficult to
reconstruct with the available data.
is, ja, id, this one, that one
Singular Plural
masc. neu. fem. masc. neu. fem.
NOM. is ja/ī ejes jās
id ī/ja
ACC. im jam/īm ins jāns
GEN. esjo esjās eisom
ABL. esmōd esjās eibhos/eimos
esom
DAT. esmōi esjāi eibhos/eimos
LOC. esmi esjāi eisu
INS. ei esjā eibhis/eimis
NOTE. Some emphatic forms exist; as, ejóm for is, idóm for id; ijóm for ja.
6.6.2. Distance degrees in demonstratives might be classified as follows: kos, kā,

kod (also ghei-ke, ghāi-ke, ghod-ke), I-deixis, ‗this here‟, oisos, oisā, oisom,
thou-deixis, ‗this there‘, general so, tod, sā, that-deixis; elne, elnā, elnod, yonder-
deixis.
212
6. Pronouns
NOTE. While there is no definite or indefinite article in PIE, and nouns might be translated
as indefinite or definite depending on the context – as in Sanskrit or Latin –, when the
difference is crucial demonstratives are used. See §10.4.3.
6.6.3. Deictic particles which appear frequently with demonstrative pronouns

include -ke/-ko-, here; -ne-/-no-, there; -wo-, away, again.
NOTE. For PIE i-, se-, he, cf. Lat. is, O.Ind. saḥ, esaḥ, Hitt. apā, Goth. is, O.Ir. (h)í; for -ke/-
ko-, in (e)ke, ghei-(ke), this (here), cf. Hitt. kās, eda (def.), Lat. hic (<*ghe-i-ke), Goth. hi-,
sa(h), O.Ir. sin, O.C.S. sĭ, si, se, Lith. šìs, ši; for ke-enos, cf. Gk. keĩnos (<*ke-enos), O.N.
hánn, hann, ‗he‘; for au-, away, again, cf. Gk. houtos, O.Ind. a-sau, u-, Av. ava-, OCS.
ovĭ…ovĭ; for se-, te-, in oi-se, is-te, ene, this (there), cf. Lat. iste, Gk. οιος (<*oihos), O.Ind.
enam (clit.); for en-, cf. O.C.S. onĭ, Lith. anàs ‗that‘; for -ne, -no-, that, cf. Lat. ille (<*el-ne),
ollus (<*ol-nos), Gk. keĩnos (<*ke-enos), Goth. jains. Common derivatives kei, here (loc. from
ke), num-ke, now (from nū, now), or i-dhei, there, tom-ke, then (from tom, then). Latin
(c)ibī, (c)ubī are frequently found reconstructed as PIE *ibhi, *qobhi (cf. Hitt. kuwaapi(t), see
Kloekhorst 2007), but it is not difficult to find a common origin in PIE i-dhei, qo-dhei for
similar forms attested in different IE dialects; cf. Lat. ubī, Osc. puf, O.Ind. kuha, O.Sla. kude,
etc.
6.7. INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
6.7.1. INTRODUCTION
1. There are two forms of the interrogative-indefinite pronoun in Proto-Indo-

European, and each one corresponded to a different class: qi- (with ablaut qei-) to
the substantive, and qo- to the adjective pronouns.
SUBSTANTIVE ADJECTIVE
qis bhéreti? who carries? qos wīrós bhéreti? what man carries?
qid widḗjesi? what do you see? qom autom widḗjesi? which car do you
see?
NOTE. In the origin, qi-/qo- was possibly a noun which meant ‗the unknown‘, and its
interrogative/indefinite sense depended on the individual sentences. Later both became
pronouns with gender, thus functioning as (orthotonic) interrogatives or (enclitic) indefinites
(Szemerényi, 1970). The form qi- is probably the original independent form (compare the
degree of specialisation of qo-, further extended in IE dialects), for which qo- could have been
originally the o-grade form (Beekes 1995, Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza 1995-1998). The
substantive interrogative pronoun in PIE was qi-, whereas qo- was used to fill adjectival
functions (Meier-Brügger 2003, Sihler 1995). Some IE dialects have chosen the o-stem only,
213
as Germanic, while some others have mixed them together in a single paradigm, as Indo-
Iranian, Balto-Slavic or Italic. Cf. Sktr. kaḥ, Av. ko, Gk. tis, Lat. qui, quae, quod; quis, quid,
Osc. pisi, Umb. púí, svepis, O.Pers. čiy, Pers. ki, Phryg. kos, Toch. kus/kŭse, Arm. ov, inč‟,
Gmc. *khwo- (cf. Goth. hwas, O.N. hverr, O.S. hwe, O.E. hwā, Dan. hvo, O.Fris. hwa, O.H.G.
hwër), Lith. kas, Ltv. kas, O.C.S. kuto, Rus. kto, Pol. kto, O.Ir. ce, cid, Welsh pwy, Alb. kush,
Kam. kâča; in Anatolian, compare Hitt. kuiš, Luw. kui-, Lyd. qi-, Lyc. tike, and Carian kuo.
2. The substantive interrogative pronoun qis? who?, qid? what?, declined like i-:
Singular Plural
m. f. n. m. f. n.
NOM. qis qejes
qid qī/qja
ACC. qim qins
GEN. qesjo qeisom
ABL. qesmōd qeibhos/qeimos
DAT. qesmei qeibhos/qeimos
LOC. qesmi qeisu
INS. qī qeibhis/qeimis
NOTE. PIE -qe, and, is probably derived from the same root, and was originally a modal
adverb meaning ‗as, like‘; e.g. patḗr mātērqe, father like mother (Szemerényi 1970).
Similarly, jois probably behind Hitt. -ya.
3. The adjective interrogative pronoun, qos? qā? who (of them)?, qod? what kind
of? what one?, is declined throughout like the relative:
Singular Plural
m. f. n. m. f. n.
NOM. qos qā qoi qās
qod qā
ACC. qom qām qons qāns
GEN. qosjo qoisom
ABL. qosmōd qoibhos/qoimos
DAT. qosmōi qoibhos/qoimos
LOC. qosmi qoisu
INS. qoi qoibhis/qoimis
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6. Pronouns
4. The indefinite pronouns qi-/qo-, any one, any, are declined like the
corresponding interrogatives.
SUBSTANTIVE qis, anyone; qid, anything
ADJECTIVE qos, qā, qod, any
5. PIE had other interrogative or relative particle, me-/mo-.
NOTE. It survived in Celtic (e.g. Bret ma, may ‗that‘), Anatolian (Hit. masi ‗how much‘), and
Tocharian (Toch. A mänt ‗how‘).
6.7.2. COMPOUNDS
1. The pronouns qi- and qo- appear in different combinations:
a. The forms can be repeated, as in substantive qisqis, anyone, qidqid, anything,

or adjective qāqos, qāqā, qāqod, whoever.
NOTE. For this use, similar to the distributive ones, e.g. qāqos, whoever, cf. Gaul. papon,
O.Ir. cāch, O.C.S. kakй, Lith. kók(i)s, and also Gk. εκαηερος, εκαζηος, O.Ind. pratieka, Hitt.
kuissa, Goth. ainhvaþaruh; for qisqis, anyone, cf. Gk. ηις, οζηις, O.Ind. kim kid, kacit,
kaścana, kopi, Hitt. kuis kuis, kuis-as kuis, Lat. quisquis, quīlĭbĕt, quīvis, Goth. hvazuh,
hvarjizuh, Arm. in-č.
Other common PIE forms include solwos, all, cf. Gk. ολοι, O.Ind. visva, sarva, Hitt.
hūmant-, O.Ir. u(i)le; enis, certain, cf. Gk. ενιασηον, O.Ind. ekaścana Lat. quīdam; álteros,
ónteros, the other, from aljos, onjos, some other, etc.
b. In some forms the copulative conjunction -qe is added to form new pronouns,
usually universals; as, qiskomqe, qisimmoqe, whoever. Indefinites itaqe, and
also, toqe, also, joqe, and.
NOTE. Cf. Gk. ηις αν, ηις εαν, O.Ind. yaḥ kaś cit, yo yaḥ, yadanga, Hitt. kuis imma, kuis
imma kuis, kuis-as imma (kuis), Lat. quiscumque, Goth. sahvazuh saei, Ger. wer auch
immer, O.Ir. cibé duine, Russ. кто бы ни;
c. Some forms are made with prefixes, like (substantive) edqis, some(one) among
many, edqid, something, (adjective) edqos, edqā, edqod, whether, some. Other
forms with suffixes; as, qéjespejoi, some.
NOTE. For (ed)qis, cf. Gk. ηις, O.Ind. anyatama, Hitt. kuis ki, Lat. ecquis, quis, aliquis,
Goth. hvashun, Russ. edvá, O.Ir. nech, duine. For qéjespejoi cf. Gk. οιηινες, O.Ind. katipaya,
Hitt. kuis ki, Russ. несколько.
215
d. The negatives are usually composed with negation particles, usually ne; as,
neqis, nobody, neqid, nothing, neqom, never; but neqos, someone.
NOTE. For neqis, nobody, no one, cf. Gk. οσδεις, O.Ind. na kaḥ, Hitt. UL kuiski, Goth. (ni)
hvashun, Gaul. nepon, O.Ir. ní aon duine, Lat. nec quisquam, Russ. никто.
e. It is also found as in compound with relative jo-; as, jos qis, anyone, jod qid,
anything, cf. Gk. hóstis hótti, Skt. yás cit, yác cit.
f. With identity or oppositive forms; as, qidpe, indeed, aljodhei, elsewhere.
2. There are compounds with numerals; as, ghei-sem, exactly so, in this one way.
NOTE. Cf. Hitt. ki-ššan „thus, in the following way‟, from ghei-sem, „in this one way,
exactly so‟, also found in eni-ššan „thus, in the manner mentioned‟, apeni-ššan „thus, in that
way‟, etc. For ne-oinom, ‗no one‟, none, not any, cf. Eng. none, Ger. nein, maybe Lat. nōn.
Also, Latin nūllus (<ne-oinolos, „not any‘), none, null.
3. Reflexives are found in jota sei, alike, nearly, sweike, thus, swāi, so, etc.
6.7.3. CORRELATIVES
1. Many pronouns, pronominal adjectives and adverbs have corresponding

demonstrative, relative, and interrogative-indefinite forms in Indo-European. Such
parallel forms are called correlatives, and some common forms are the following:
Demonstrative Relative in jo- Interrogative

so, sā, tod jos, jā, jod qis? qid?, qos? qā? qod?
this, that who, which who?, what? which?
ita jota qota?
so so how?
tālis jālis qālis?
so constituted as of what sort?
tām jām qām?
that way which way how, in what way?
tom, tod jom qom? qod ?
then when when?
idhei, tor jodhei qor? qodhei?
here, there where where?
t i j i q i? qote?
thither whither whither?
216
6. Pronouns
totrōd jomde qomde? qotrōd?

from there wherefrom from which?
totjos jotjos qotjos?
so many as many how many?
toti joti qoti?
so often as often how often?
t wṇtos j wṇtos q wṇtos?
so much/large as much/large how much/large?
to(s)jo josjo qosjo?
of whom/which whose pertaining to whom/what?
íteros jóteros qóteros?
(an)other which (of two) which (of two)?
tori jori qori?
therefore wherefore why?
NOTE. Relative forms in italics are inferred following the general paradigm, because its
reconstruction is missing with the available comparative data. The rest of them are
reconstructed in Mallory–Adams (2007), Szemerényi (1996), Sihler (1995), among others.
6.8. RELATIVE PRONOUNS
6.8.1. There are two general pronominal stems used as relative pronouns, one
related to the anaphorics (jo-), and one to the interrogative-indefinites (qi-/qo-).
NOTE. The interrogative pronoun is also used as indefinite in all IE languages. In some it is
used additionally as relative, without differentiation in Anatolian, with it in Italic (e.g. Lat.
quo- opposed to quis), Tocharian, later Celtic, Germanic and Baltic; the other group,
comprising Aryan, Greek, Phrygian and Slavic kept using the PIE relative pronoun jo- (<*Hjo-
), from the anaphoric root i-; cf. Gk. hós, hē, ho, Skt. yás, yā, yad, Av. ya-, Phryg. ios, Sla. i-že,
Cel. io, Goth ja-bai, maybe Hitt. ya, Toch. A yo. Despite Szemerényi (1970), who considers it
mainly a S.LIE innovation, only Proto-Italic shows no traces of the common PIE relative, and
because of that it is generally considered lost in that branch, not an innovation of the others.
6.8.2. PIE forms in jo- introduced appositive-explicative relative clauses, while

those in qi-/qo- introduced attributive-restrictive clauses. For more information, see
below §10.5.3.
6.8.3. IE relative pronoun jos, jā, jod, the o-stem derivative from i-, is inflected
like so, sā, tod.
217
6.9. OTHER PRONOUNS
6.9.1. Identity pronouns are those generally called intensifiers or emphatic

pronouns, expressions like Eng. ‗x-self‘ (himself, herself, myself, oneself, etc.), Ger.
selbst, selber, Lat. ipse, Ita. stesso or Russ. sam.
Proto-Indo-European formations that function as identity pronouns stem from a

common epe, self; as, se epse, s(w)el (e)pe, -self.
NOTE. cf. Hitt. apāsila, O.Lat. sapsa, sumpse, ipse, Goth. silba, O.Ir. fessin, fadessin
(>féin), Russ. сам.
6.9.2. Oppositive pronouns are usually derived from suffix -tero-; as, qóteros?
which of two? íteros, another, álteros, the other one, próteros, first (of two).
NOTE. For qóteros, cf. Lat uter, O.Eng. hwæðer (Eng. whether), Lith kataràs, OCS
koteryjĭ, Gk. póteros, Skt. katará-; from this word is Latin neuter<neqóteros, ‗neither one
nor the other‘. For sṇterí, missing, cf. Gmc. *sun-dr- (e.g. Ger. sonder), Gk αηεξ (ater),
O.Ind. sanutar; from sni, apart, cf. Lat. sine ‗without‘, Goth. sundrō, O.Sla. svene, O.Ir. sain
‗different‘.
6.9.3. Adjectival pronouns include identity as well as oppositive pronouns; as,

somós, the same, or aljos, onjos, the other.
NOTE. Such nominal forms, properly categorised as vaguely belonging to the field of
pronuns, receive pronominal inflection. For adj. somós, equal, same, cf. Gmc. *samaz, Gk.
ὁκόο, ὁκνῦ, ὁκαιόο, Skt. samaḥ, Av. hama, O.C.S. самъ, O.Ir. som. The best attested
pronominal adjective is aljos, aljā, aljom, other (cf. Gk. állos, Lat. alius, Goth. aljis, O.Ir. ail,
Toch. B alyek).
218
7. VERBS
7.1. INTRODUCTION
7.1.1. VOICE, MOOD, TENSE, PERSON, NUMBER
1. The inflection of the verb is called its conjugation.
2. Through its conjugation the verb expresses voice, mood, tense, person and
number.
3. The voices are two: active and middle (or more exactly middle-passive).
4. The moods were up to five:
a. The indicative, for plain statement of objective fact.
b. The imperative, for commands.
c. The optative, for intentions or hopes for action.
d. The subjunctive, for potentiality, possibility.
NOTE. An old injunctive is also reconstructed to account for S.LIE forms; v.i. §7.4.2.
5. The general tenses are three, viz.:
a. The present.
b. The past.
c. The future.
NOTE. The so-called future stem is generally believed to have been an innovation in post-
LIE, not spreading to some dialects before the general split of the proto-languages; however,
the distinction between a present and a future tense is common to all IE languages.
6. The aspects were up to three:
a. For continued, not completed action, the present.
b. For the state derived from the action, the perfect (or more exactly stative).
c. For completed action, the aorist.
7. There are three verbal tense-stems we will deal with in this grammar:
I. The present stem, which gives the present with primary endings and the
imperfect with secondary endings.
II. The aorist stem with secondary endings, giving the aorist (always past), usually
in zero grade, with dialectal augment.
III. The perfect stem, giving the perfect, only later specialised in present and past.
NOTE. From this reconstructed original PIE verbal system, a future stem was created from
some present stem formations. The aorist merged with the imperfect stem in Northwestern
dialects, and further with the perfect stem in Germanic, Italic, Celtic and Tocharian. The
aorist, meaning the completed action, is then reconstructed as a third PIE aspect, following
mainly the findings of Old Indian, Greek, and also – mixed with the imperfect and perfect
stems – Latin.
8. The persons are three: first, second, and third.
9. The numbers in the Indo-European verb are two: singular and plural, and it is
the only common class with the noun. It is marked very differently, though.
NOTE. The reconstructed dual in the verbal system seems to have been a late development,
systematised only after the LIE split in some dialects, and disappeared in others, see §3.5.
7.1.2. VOICE
1. In grammar, voice is the relationship between the action or state expressed by a

verb and its arguments.
2. When the subject is the agent or actor of the verb, the verb is said to be in the
active. When the subject is in some way affected by the verbal action, it is said to be
in the middle-passive.
NOTE. For Clackson (2007): ―The middle is the voice used to denote that the subject is in
some way affected by the verbal action. Thus, for transitive verbs the active typically
represents the subject as the actor, and the middle represents the subject as the undergoer.
For intransitive verbs the middle is preferred when there is some notion of control over the
verbal action (hence the middle inflection of ‗think‘ and ‗speak‘), but if the verb denotes an
event or action where the participant cannot have control, the active is used (thus ‗be‘, ‗vomit‘
and ‗wait‘).‖
2. The active and middle-passive voices in Indo-European generally correspond to

the active and passive in English. The middle had these uses in LIE (Clackson 2007):
a. Personal involvement, or sense of benefaction for the subject; as, Skt. yájati
(active) ‗(s)he performs a sacrifice‘ (said from the priest), and yájate ‗(s)he
performs a sacrifice‘ (said of person for whose benefit the sacrifice is made).
220
7. Verbs
b. Reflexivity, generally referring to an action whose object is the subject, or an

action in which the subject has an interest or a special participation; as, Greek
lówō (active), I wash, lówomar (middle), I wash myself, or wéstijetor, (s)he
dresses (him/herself), (s)he gets dressed.
c. Reciprocity; as, Hitt. appanzi (active) ‗they take‘, Hittite SU-za appantat (lit.
hand take-middle) ‗they took each other by the hand‘.
b. Passivity, usually meaning that an action is done. This is the default meaning in
Italo-Celtic and Germanic, also found in the Greek and Anatolian middle; as,
stoighōs péwontor, streets are (being) cleaned.
NOTE. According to Fortson (2004): ―The middle could also express the passive voice,
which indicates that the subject is acted upon by someone else: ‗is being fought‘, ‗was washed‘.
A tradition of scholarship rejects positing a passive voice for PIE because there was no
separate set of passive endings. But all the daughter languages that have a separate passive
conjugation have developed it in whole or in part from the PIE middle endings, and it seems
best to regard the middle as having been, in fact, a mediopassive or middle-passive – capable
of expressing either voice depending on the context.‖
3. Apart from this middle-passive voice system, the relic of an old impersonal -( )r
desinence is reconstructed for LIE times.
NOTE. This desinence begins in the third person (singular or plural), according to Jasanoff
(“The r-endings of the Indo-European middle”, Sprache 23, 1977) and Szeméreny (1985), and
probably not as middle mark, as proposed by Kuryłovicz (Indogermanische Grammatik II
Akzent-Ablaut, 1968) and Bader (“Relations de structure entre les desinences d‟infectum et de
perfectum en latin”, Word 24, 1968); it is indeed probably at the origin of middle-passive
primary endings in -r, though, but was apparently used as impersonal mark within the active
voice. It is the oldest reconstructed meaning of the -r ending, and it is only found originally in
the 3rd sg. and 3rd pl. (probably originally without lengthening or distinction of singular vs.
plural). The ending is reconstructed as *-( r. It is found in Italo-Celtic, Germanic (cf. O.H.G.
skritun), Tocharian, Old Indian, and possibly in Armenian. Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza
(1995-1998).
It marked impersonality, as in Celtic impersonal verbal forms; it is similar to Eng.

‗there‘ in ‗there are three books‘, and equivalent to Ger. ‗es wird‘ in ‗es wird
geschlafen‘, or Spa. ‗se‟ in ‗aquí se duerme‘. It was attached directly to the present,
aorist or perfect stem. So e.g. kei sweper, one sleeps here, ‗it is slept here‟, edjēu
wṛgjer, today one works, ‗it is worked today‘.
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4. Some verbs are only active; as, esmi, be, edmi, eat, or dōmi, give.
5. Many verbs are middle-passive in form, but active or reflexive in meaning.

These are called deponents in Latin; as, gnāskar, be born, keimar, lie, lay;
séqomar, follow, etc.
7.1.3. MOODS
1. The mood in which a verb appears expresses the speaker‘s attitude or stance
taken towards the action – whether (s)he is asserting that it is factual, or indicating a
wish that it were or were not true, or reporting the action second-hand, or indicating
a contrafactual condition (Fortson 2004).
NOTE. While the oldest PIE had possibly only indicative and imperative, a subjunctive and
an optative were common in Late Indo-European, both used in the present, perfect and aorist.
Not all dialects, however, developed those new formations further into a full system.
2. The indicative mood is used for most direct assertions and interrogations, with
the action described as fact.
3. The imperative is used for exhortation, entreaty, or command.
3. The subjunctive mood is used for actions described as completely theoretical,

generally with a future meaning, frequently translated by means of the auxiliaries
may, might, would, should.
c. The optative is used to express wishes, hopes, and various other non-factual
modalities.
7.1.4. ASPECT
1. Aspect is a grammatical category that refers to the type of action indicated by a

verb. Actions can be done once or repeatedly, to completion or not, or be ongoing
with neither a true beginning nor end.
2. According to the generally accepted view, the imperfect and aorist were distinct
aspectually, the imperfect expressing incomplete or ongoing action in past time
(imperfective aspect), the aorist indicating completed or punctual (one-time) action
in past time (perfective aspect).
3. The perfect or stative referred to a current state derived from the action
(resultative aspect), without a temporal reference.
222
7. Verbs
NOTE. A number of archaic examples of the perfect, especially in Indo-Iranian and Greek,
refer to states in present time; so e.g. Lat. meminit ‗remembers‘, Gk. mémone, Goth. man ‗is
mindful of‘, ‗thinks‘. Furthermore, the singular perfect endings are sued to inflect a class of
presents in Anatolian, the so-called ḫi-conjugation. These facts together have led researchers
to believe that the PIE perfect was a stative. In the dialects attested, however, except for relic
forms like these, perfect forms express past tense; to explain this development, it is usually
said that the PIE stative perfect had (or optionally had) resultative overtones (‗is in a state
resulting from having done X‘, therefore ‗has done X‘). Fortson (2004).
The Late Indo-European aspectual system might be so depicted, using a amore exact vs. the
traditional notation:
Process Aspect Aspect (traditional) Tense Tense (traditional)

Stative Stative Perfect system (unmarked) Perfect tense
Perfective Aorist system (unmarked) Aorist tense
Eventive Present Present tense
Imperfective Present system
Past Imperfect tense
The terminology around the stative, perfective and imperfective aspects can be confusing.
The use of these terms in this table is based on the reconstructed meanings of the
corresponding forms in PIE and the terms used broadly in linguistics to refer to aspects with
these meanings. In traditional PIE terminology, the forms described in the above table as
stative, perfective and imperfective are known as the perfect, aorist and present systems. The
present/imperfective system in turn can be conjugated in two tenses, described here as
present and past but traditionally known as present and imperfect. The traditional terms are
based on the names of the corresponding forms in Ancient Greek (also applied to Sanskrit),
and are commonly encountered. The existence of the terms ‗perfect‘ and ‗perfective‘, with
quite different semantics, is especially problematic, and is a perennial source of confusion in
linguistics as a whole.
7.1.5. TENSES OF THE FINITE VERB
The tenses of the indicative have, in general, the same meaning as the
corresponding tenses in English:
a. Of continued action
I. Present: deikō, I show, I am showing, I do show
II. Imperfect: deikom, I was showing, I used to show
b. Of completed action or the state derived from the action
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V. Aorist: dikóm, I showed, I had shown, I have shown
c. Of state derived from the action
IV. Perfect: doika, I am in a state derived from having shown.
7.2. FORMS OF THE VERB
7.2.1. THE VERBAL STEMS
1. The actual forms of the tenses and moods were made from tense-stems, of which
there were up to four for each verb, called (1) the present, (2) the aorist, (3) the
perfect; and also (4) future stems in post-LIE times.
NOTE. There are some characteristic forms of each stem, like the suffix -n- or -sko, which
give mostly present stems. Generally, though, forms give different stems only when opposed
to others.
2. The different stems are used in the verbal conjugation as follows:
STEMS WHERE USED

Present Present and Imperfect (active and middle-passive)
Aorist Aorist (active and middle-passive)
Perfect Perfect
Future Future
3. There are some monothematic verbs, as esmi, be, or edmi, eat – apparently
remains of the oldest PIE. And there are also some traces of recent or even
nonexistent mood oppositions. To obtain this opposition there are not only
reduplications, lengthenings and alternations, but also ablaut and accent shifts.
NOTE. Not every verb could form all three tense-stems. Quite a few did not form perfects,
for example, and derived verbs only had present stems in PIE. IEDs did usually however
innovate additional tense-stems for these verbs.
4. Most Late Indo-European verbs are built with a series of derivational suffixes
that alter the root meaning, creating denominatives and deverbatives. The first are
derived from nouns and adjectives; as, torsējō, dry, “make dry”, from ters-, dry, or
newājō, make new, from new-, new. The last are derived from verbs, as widējō,
see, from weid-, see, know.
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7. Verbs
NOTE. It is not clear whether these deverbatives – causatives, desideratives, intensives,

iteratives, etc. – are actually derivatives of older PIE roots, or are frozen remains, formed by
compounds of older PIE independent verbs added to other verbs, the ones regarded as basic.
5. Reduplication is another common resource; it consists of the repetition of the

root, either complete or abbreviated; as, sisdō, sit down, settle down, from sed-, sit,
gígnōskō, know, from gnō-, mímnāskō, remember, from men-, think, etc.
6. Thematic e/o has no meaning in itself, but it helps to build different stems
opposed to athematics. Thus, It can be used to oppose a) indicative athematic to
subjunctive thematic, b) present thematic to imperfect athematic, c) active to middle
voice, etc. Sometimes accent shift helps to create a distinctive meaning, too.
7. Stems are inflected, as in the declension of nouns, with the help of vowel grade
and endings or desinences.
7.2.2. VERB-ENDINGS
1. Every form of the finite verb is made up of two parts:
I. The stem. This is the root or an extension, modification or development of it.
II. The ending or desinence, consisting of:
a. The signs of mood and tense.
b. The personal ending.
So e.g. the root deik-, show, lengthened as thematic present verb-stem deik-e/o-,
to show, and by the addition of the personal primary ending -ti, becomes the
meaningful déik-e-ti, he shows.
2. Verbal endings can thus define the verb stem, tense and mood. Fortson (2004):
DESINENCES WHERE USED
Primary active present indicative active, active subjunctives
Secondary active imperfect and aorist indicative active, active optatives
Primary middle-passive present indicative middle, middle subjunctives
Secondary middle-passive imperfect and aorist indicative middle, middle optatives
Perfect perfect
3. The primary series indicates present and future; sg. -mi, -si, -ti, and 3rd pl. -nti
are the most easily reconstructed LIE formations. The secondary endings indicate
past; sg. -m, -s, -t and 3rd pl. -nt. The subjunctive is marked with primary
225
desinences, while the optative is usually marked with secondary endings. The
imperative has ∅ or special endings.
The secondary endings are actually a negative term opposed to the primary ones.
They may be opposed to the present indicative, they may indicate indifference to
tense, and they might also be used in the present.
They can also mark the person; those above mark the first, second and third person
singular and third plural.
Also, with thematic vowels, they mark the voice: -ti active primary | -t active
secondary; -tor/-toi middle primary | -to middle secondary.
4. The augment appears in Ind.-Ira., Gk., and Arm., to mark the past tense (i.e., the
aorist and the imperfect). It was placed before the stem, and consisted generally of a
stressed é-, which is a dialectal Graeco-Aryan feature not found in N.LIE.
ACTIVE ENDINGS
1. The characteristic active primary endings are singular -mi, -si, -ti, 3rd plural -
nti, while the secondary don‘t have the final -i, i.e. sg. -m, -s, -t, 3rd pl. -nt.
NOTE. The secondary endings are believed to be older, being originally the only verbal
endings available. With the addition of a deictic -i, termed the ‗hic et nunc‟ particle (Latin for
‗here and now‘), the older endings became secondary, and the newer formations became the
primary endings. It may have been the same as the -i found in pronominal and adverbial
forms. Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998), Fortson (2004). Compare a similar
evolution in Romance languages from Lat. habere, giving common Fr. il y a ‗there (it) is‘, or
Cat. i ha ‗there is‘, while the Spanish language has lost the relationship with such older Lat. I
‗there‘, viz. Spa. hay ‗there is‘ (from O.Spa. ha+i), already integrated within the regular verbal
conjugation of the verb haber.
2. These desinences are used for all verbs, whether athematic or thematic; as, esti,
he is, or déiketi, he shows. However, in the 1st sg., thematics end in -ō; as, deikō.
NOTE. These endings in -ō are probably remains of an older situation, in which no ending
was necessary to mark the 1st sg. (that of the speaker), and therefore, even though a desinence
-m became general with time, the older formations prevailed, along with a newer thematic -o-
mi.
3. The thematic and athematic endings of the active voice are reconstructed as
follows:
226
7. Verbs
Athematic Thematic
Primary Secondary Primary Secondary
Sg. 1. -mi -m -ō -om
Sg. 2. -si -s -esi -es

3. -ti -t -eti -et
1. -mes -me -omos -omo
Pl. 2. -te -te -ete -ete

3. -ṇti -ṇt -onti -ont
NOTE. About the reconstruction of PIE active endings:
1) 1st p. pl. thematic endings -o-mo, -o-mos, are found in Italic (Lat. -mus), Celtic (O.Ir. *-
mo or *-mos), Balto-Slavic (cf. Pruss. -mai, O.C.S. -mŭ<*-mo, *-mos or *-mom), and from -
mo- or -me-, in Germanic (cf. Goth. -m) and Indo-Iranian (cf. O.Ind. -ma). Primary
Thematic ending -o-mo- does not have a clear ‗original‘ PIE ending, but an -s the most logical
choice, given the contrast between primary endings -mes/-me. So in Ringe (2006). Beekes
(1995) tentatively reconstructs -o-mom-.
2) 2nd P. Pl. ending athematic -the (<*-tHé) is only found differentiated in PII, while in the
other dialects it would have evolved as a common -te.
3) Athematic desinences in *-enti, as found in Mycenaean and usually reconstructed as

proper PIE endings, weren‘t probably common PIE desinences. Compare Att. Gk. -aasi (<-
ansi<-anti), or O.Ind. -ati, both remade from an original zero-grade PIE *-nti. In fact,
Mycenaean shows some clearly remade examples, as Myc. e-e-esi<*esenti (cf. Ion. εωλ), or ki-
ti-je-si (<ktíensi).
MIDDLE-PASSIVE AND PERFECT ENDINGS
1. The middle-passive endings are generally those of the active voice with a
characteristic middle voice -o, in which the primary endings have an additional -i or
-r, depending on the dialects.
NOTE. In the moods, the endings attested are the same. Only dialectally were some new
endings developed to differentiate the subjunctive.
2. There were apparently two possible set of endings already in Late Indo-
European: either because the original primary -r endings were replaced by the
endings in -i, or because both came to be used with the same meaning by different
dialects at the same time, with an expansion of that use through neighbouring
227
contact zones. Syncretic trends led in any case to dialectal specialisation of both
marks into the known (middle, middle-passive or passive) systems attested.
NOTE. Italic, Celtic, Tocharian, and Phrygian had mediopassive primary endings in -r (cf.
Lat. -tur, O.Ir. -tha(i)r, Toch. -tär, Phryg. -tor), whilst others show -i (cf. Skt., Av. -te, Gk.,
Toch. -tai, Goth. -da); both forms coexisted in Anatolian (with -r as primary ending,
combined with -i cf. Hitt. -ta-r-i, nta-r-i), in Tocharian (with -r as primary ending, -i as
secondary), Indo-Iranian (with -r- passive forms), and afield cf. also Germanic (with remains
of forms in -r with impersonal value, cf. O.H.G. skritun).
From these finds it is thought that -r was the old ‗original‘ primary middle marker (possibly
taken from the impersonal mark, v.s. §7.1.2), corresponding to the -i of the active. Both
mediopassive endings (-r and -i) coexisted already in the earliest reconstructible PIE, and -i
probably began to replace the old impersonal -r as the general middle marker already by Late
Indo-European, as the Anatolian endings -r- and Sanskrit remains of middle forms in -ro-
show. In the northern dialects -r became later specialised for the passive constructions or
disappeared. It is therefore reasonable to think that while the general trend in N.LIE was to
keep (or generalise) the middle-passive with primary endings in -r, in S.LIE the middle-
passive in -i gradually replaced the older endings. Endings in -r generalised in Phrygian and
impersonal -r in Armenian (both S.LIE dialects), and endings in -i generalised in Germanic (a
N.LIE dialect), which also shows traces of an old -r, further complicate the situation, showing
that specialisation trends – at least in a post-IED period – were not uniform.
Fortson (2004): ―This *-r is now generally thought to have been the primary middle marker,
corresponding to the *-i of the active. Middles in Anatolian, Italic, Celtic, Tocharian, and
Phrygian preserve this -r, but it has been replaced by the -i of the active in Indo-Iranian,
Greek, Germanic, and Albanian‖.
Clackson (2007): ―The morph *-r appears therefore to have acted as the analogue to *-i in
the active endings and originally marks the ‗here and now‘ of middles. This explanation,
proposed by Cowgill (1968:25-7), also accounts for the absence of *-r in Greek and Vedic
middle endings: at one stage these languages must have replaced the primary marker *-r with
*-i on the analogy of the active endings.‖
Ringe (2006) also considers the hic-et-nunc particle of the mediopassive to have been *-r
rather than *-i, having been replaced by the spread of active *-i.
Beekes (1995) considers the addition of *-r or *-i to the ‗original‘ (secondary) endings to be a
late development from a PIH point of view: ―From this it follows that the -r was not
characteristic of the primary endings. But neither was the -i of Sanskrit and Greek the marker
of the primary ending in PIE, because the languages which generalized the -r show no trace of
the -i. That on the other hand especially the marker of the primary endings of the active (the -
i) in some languages was also used for the middle, is understandable. The conclusion is that
228
7. Verbs
there was no opposition between primary and secondary (…) we shall see that the perfect
endings can be considered as secondary endings of the middle (…)‖.
Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998) also deem both marks *-r and *-i to have
coexisted parallel to each other as systems to mark the primary endings, as a late
development.
3. The thematic and athematic endings of the middle-passive, reconstructed from a

Northern Late Indo-European point of view, are as follows:
MIDDLE-PASSIVE AND PERFECT ENDINGS
ATHEMATIC THEMATIC
STATIVE
Primary Secondary Primary Secondary
-mar -ma -ar -a -a
Sg. -sor -so -esor -eso -tha

-tor -to -etor -eto -e
-mesdha -medha -omesdha -omedha -mé
Pl. -(s)dhwe -dhwe -e(s)dhwe -odhwe -té

-ṇtor -ṇto -ontor -onto -(ḗ)r
NOTE. 1) The Southern Late Indo-European middle primary endings in -i are easily
reconstructed for the singular, -ai, -soi, -toi, and the 3rd plural -ntoi, even though Toch. B
(secondary endings) -tai, -te, -nte still suggest to some (Neu 1968) that the original PIE were
*-sai, *-tai, *-ntai, instead of the general opinion. Dialectal Greek forms in the singular point
to an alternative 1st sg. -oi. A full discussion of the reconstruction is found e.g. in Villanueva
Svensson‘s <http://eprints.ucm.es/tesis/fll/ucm-t26697.pdf>.
2) The forms of the 1st and 2nd person plural were apparently the same in both systems.
Greek, Indo-Iranian, and Anatolian dialects show middle-passive 2nd plural forms in -medha
(<*-medh-h2, O.Ind. -mahe, Gk. -metha, Toch. -ämtä-), -mesdha (<*-mesdh-h2, cf. Gk. -
mestha, Hitt. -wašta-), Toch. -cär (cf. Toch. -t<-dhwe), O.Ind. mahi>*-megha, and -men,
cf. Gk. -men, Hitt. -wen-i.
1st pl. *-mo(s)r, Lat. -mur, and 2nd P. Pl. Osc. -ter, Hitt. -ttumari,. In Ita.-Cel. a form *-ntro
has been related to the perfect, hence related to the ‗original‘ paradigm with an 3rd p. pl.
secondary -ro, primary -ro-r?; a 3rd p.sg. -o, -or is also reconstructible.
4) The forms in -r are reconstructed according to Kortlandt (1979), Sihler (1995), Beekes
(1995), Fortson (2004), and Clackson (2007); all of them make a similar account of the ‗older‘
paradigm, which includes the forms 3rd sg. prim. -or, sec. -o, 3rd pl. prim. -ro, sec. -ront,
attested in scattered remains in Hittite, Sanskrit, Tocharian, Sabellian, and Old Irish, what
suggest that they were the ‗original‘ ones, being replaced by the common endings. The old
229
middle-passive ending system was then apparently sg. -a-, -tha-, -o-/-to-, pl. -ro-/-nto-, to
which primary endings were attached in -i, *-so-i, *-to-i , *-nto-i, or in -r, *-ar, *-tar, *-or, pl.
*-ro-r?/*-ntor, from older *-h2-, *-th2-, *-o, pl. *-r.
These endings share similarities with the perfect ones, cf. *-h2e, *-th2e-, *-e, pl. *-mé-, *-é, *-
ḗr. About the different writing of *-th2e-, as -tha or -ta, it is not only restricted to Proto-Indo-
Iranian; cf. perf. Gk. oĩstha.
This similarity of perfect and ‗original‘ middle endings is explained differently according to
the available theories on the prehistory of PIE verb (through internal reconstruction),
apparently involving complicated syncretic and innovative trends regarding the voices, tenses
and aspects. However, what seems clear from the later developments attested in the older IE
languages, is that the synchronic picture of the Late Indo-European middle and perfect verbal
ending system had to be near to the one depicted above.
DUAL ENDINGS
A complete reconstruction of the dual endings is not possible, because there is too
little and contradictory data, probably because of the late development of the verbal
dual (see above §3.5).
Only the active paradigm shows common endings:
Primary Secondary
1. -wes -we
Du. 2. -t(h)os -tom

3. -tes -tām
NOTE. Dual endings are found in Ind.-Ira., Gk., BSl. and Gmc., but apart from a common 3rd
prim. -tom / sec. -tām in O.Ind. and Gk., there is only a general (usually incomplete)
paradigm 1st w-, 2nd & 3rd t-, with different lengthenings in *-e/-o, *-es/-os, *-ā. This table has
ben taken from Beekes (1995). Fortson (2004) reconstructs an uncertain -to- for 2nd and 3rd.
Only Beekes tentatively reconstructs uncertain middle endings for the parent language.
7.2.3. THE THEMATIC VOWEL
1. Stem vowels are – as in nouns – the vowel endings of the stem, especially when
they are derivatives. They may be i, u, ā, ē (and also ō in roots). But the most
extended stem vowel is e/o (also lengthened ē/ō), called thematic vowel (see above
§2.6) which existed in PIH before the split of the Anatolian dialects, and which had
overshadowed the (older) athematic stems already by Late Indo-European. The
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7. Verbs
thematisation of stems, so to speak, relegated the athematic forms especially to the

aorist and to the perfect; many old athematics, even those in -ā- and -ē-, are usually
found extended with thematic endings -je/o-.
NOTE. The old thematics were usually remade, but there are some which resisted this trend;
as edmi, I eat, dōti, he gives, or idhi! go!
The stem vowel has sometimes a meaning, as with -ē- and -ā-, which can indicate
state. There are also some old specialisations of meanings, based on oppositions:
a. Thematic vs. athematic:
- Athematic indicative vs. thematic subjunctive. The contrary is rare.
- Thematic present vs. athematic aorist, and vice versa.
- It may also be found in the middle-active voice opposition.
b. Thematic stem with variants:
- The first person, thematic in lengthened -ō.
- Thematic o in 1st sg. & pl. and 3rd pl.; e in 2nd and 3rd sg. and 2nd pl. There are
also archaic 3rd pl. in e, as senti, they are.
c. Opposition of thematic stems. This is obtained with different vowel grades of

the root and by the accent position.
2. In the so-called semithematic inflection, ahematic forms alternate with thematic

ones.
NOTE. The semithematic inflection is for some an innovation of LIE, which didn‘t reach
some of the dialects, while for other scholars it represents a situation in which the opposition
thematic-athematic and the accent shifts of an older PIE system had been forgotten, leaving
only some mixed remains within an already generalised LIE regular thematic verbal system.
7.3. THE CONJUGATIONS
7.3.1. Conjugation is the traditional name of a group of verbs that share a similar
conjugation pattern in a particular language, a verb class. Late Indo-European shows
regular conjugations, and all verbs may be conjugated in any person, number, tense,
mood and voice by knowing which conjugation it belongs to.
NOTE. According to Clackson (2007): ―In order to explain the number of different stem
formations with the same function, Meillet supposed that in the parent language not just one
present stem was opposed to one aorist stem, but rather it was possible to form several
231
present and aorist stems from the same root. These stems were held to show different
‗nuances‘ of aspectual meaning (or, to use the German term, Aktionsart), such as punctual,
repeated or incipient action. Each root could show a wide variety of different formations, none
of which presupposed the other. (…)
However, better knowledge of the earliest attested IE languages has led to a revision of this
view, and researchers have increasingly become aware that if two stems can be reconstructed
for PIE, one may represent an archaism and the other an innovatory replacement. Thus
athematic verbs are in general a relic class, replaced over the history of individual languages
by thematic formations. Motivation for the replacement of athematic verbs is not difficult to
find: the juxtaposition of root-final consonants and the athematic endings (mostly consonant-
initial) led to clusters which were often simplified or otherwise altered, so that the boundary
between root and desinence, or suffix and desinence, became opaque to speakers. In some
languages, paradigms still survive which exemplify the extent to which regular phonological
developments can conceal the form of the root and the suffix. (…)‖
7.3.2. A reference classification of PIE verbs into conjugations is the Lexikon der
indogermanischen Verben (2001), supervised by H. Rix. It offers a conservative
approach, not including much information on the Hittite verb (and thus Anatolian),
being thus very interesting as a real approach to a living Late Indo-European verb.
NOTE. Nevertheless, it features a PIH phonetic reconstruction, and looks for the ‗original‘
pre-LIE lexicon, what makes the work fit somewhere between the conventional PIH
reconstruction and the modern PIH/LIE distinction, being thus somehow inconsistent, and at
best showing a picture of a pre-LIE verbal system. It is therefore complex for a simple
grammar, and indeed not directly applicable to an IED scheme, in which some athematic
paradigms had been lost (or frozen into scarce, hence irregular examples), while newer verbs
(and remade ones) further split within the most productive classes. Nevertheless, it is no
doubt the most comprehensive work to date on the Proto-Indo-European verb.
7.3.3. The most important LIV verbal classes is as follows (Meier-Brügger 2003):
LIV STEM CLASS Examples

1a Present, athematic, amphidinamic root *gwhen-ti/*gwhn-énti
1b Present, athematic, acrodynamic root alternance with -o-
*stēu-ti/*stéw-n ti + -Ø- = -
1g Present, athematic, with -e- reduplication o-ti.alternance
n
*d with
hé-dhoh1-ti/*d hé-d-o- +ti- o
hh1-n
1h Present, athematic, with -i- reduplication -*sti-stéh

= -ō- 2-ti/*sti-sth2-énti
1i Present, thematic, with -i- reduplication *gi-gnh1-é-ti
1k Present, athematic, with nasal Infix *li-né-kw-ti/li-n-kw-énti
1n Present, thematic suffix -e-, e grade root *bhér-e- ti
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7. Verbs
1o Present, thematic suffix -é-, zero grade root *ghrh3-é- ti

1p Present, thematic suffix -ské-, zero grade root *gwm-ské- ti
1q Present, thematic suffix -jé-, zero grade root *gnh1-jé-toi
2a Aorist, athematic, root *gwem-t
2b Aorist, athematic, suffix -s- *prek-s-nt
2c Aorist, thematic, reduplicated *we-ukw-e-t
3a Perfect, reduplicated *gwe-gwom-/gwe-gwm-
7.3.4. We have divided the Late Indo-European verbs in two main conjugation
groups: athematic and thematic. The latter were the most productive and abundant
ones in IEDs, and often replaced the older athematics by means of derivation.
Athematic and thematic groups are, in turn, subdivided into four and eight
subgroups respectively.
A. THE THEMATIC CONJUGATION
The thematic conjugation group is formed by the following 8 subgroups:
I. Root verbs with root vowel e in the present and o in the perfect:
a. Triliteral: deikō, dikóm, doika, deiksō, show, etc.

b. Concave: teqō, teqóm, toqa/tōqa, teqsō, escape, séqomai, follow, etc.
NOTE. For IE teqō, cf. O.Ir. téchid/táich (<e/ō).
II. Concave root verbs with non-regular perfect vocalism. Different variants
include:
a. labhō, lābha, take; lawō, lāwa, enjoy, slabai, slāboma, fall (Middle
Voice); aisdai, praise.
NOTE. Compare Gk. αιδομαι, O.ind. ile, Gmc. part. idja-.
b. kano, kékana/kékāna, sing.

c. legō, lēga, join, read, decide.
d. lowō, lōwa, wash.
e. rādō, rāda, shuffle, scrape, scratch.
f. rēpō, rēpa, grab, rip out.
g. rōdō, rōda, gnaw.
233
III. Verba vocalia, i.e., thematic - -je/o-, - -je/o-, -í-je/o-, -ú-je/o-:
a. amājō, love.
e. lubhējō, love, desire.
i. sāgijō, look for, search.
u. argujō reason, argue (cf. Lat. arguō, Hitt. arkuwwai).
o. Causative-iteratives in -ejo-: bhoudhejō, wake somebody up.
IV. Verbs in -je/o-:
a. Triliteral: kupjō, kup(j)óm, koupa, keupsō, demand, desire, tremble.

b. Concave: jakjō, jēka, throw.
c. Lamed-he: parjō, pepra/péprōka, produce.
d. Reduplicated Intensives: kárkarjō, proclaim, announce (cf. Gk.
θαξθαίξσ, but Skt. carkarti).
V. Intensives-inchoatives in -ske/o-:
a. Of mobile suffix: swēdhskō, swēdhjóm, swēdhwa, swēdhsō, get used

to.
b. Of permanent suffix: pṛkskṓ, inquire.
VI. With nasal infix or suffix:
a. Perfect with o vocalism: jungō, jugóm, jouga, jeugsō, join.

b. Reduplicated perfect: tundō, tét(o)uda/tút(o)uda, strike.
c. Convex: bhrangō, bhrēga, break.
d. Nasal infix and perfect with o root: gusnō, gousa (cf. Lat. dēgūnō,
dēgustus)
e. Nasal infix and reduplicated perfect: cf. Lat. tollō, sustulii (supsi+tét-),
lift.
VII. With reduplicated present:
a. sisō, sēwa, sow.

b. gignō, gegna, gégnāka, produce.
VIII. Other thematics:
o pḷdō, pép(o)la.
o widējō, woida, see.
o etc.
234
7. Verbs
B. THE ATHEMATIC CONJUGATION
Verbs of the second or athematic conjugation group may be subdivided into:

I. Monosyllabic:
a. In consonant: esmi, be, edmi, eat, ēsmai, find oneself, be.
b. In ā (<*-h2): snāmi, swim, bhāmai, speak.
c. In ē (<*-h1): bhlēmi, cry, (s)rēmai, calculate.
d. With nasal infix: leiq- (lineqti/linqṇti), leave, kleu-
(kḷneuti/kḷnunti), hear, peu- (punāti/punānti), purify, etc.
NOTE. These verbal types appear mostly in Indo-Iranian and Hittite examples, and could
therefore be more properly included in the suffixed (BIVc) type below.
e. Others: eimi, go, etc.
II. Reduplicated:
a. (sí)stāmi, stand.
b. (dhé)dhēmi, set, place, do.
c. (jí)jēmi, throw, expel.
d. (dí)dōmi, give.
e. (bhí)bheimi, fear.
f. k keumi/kuwóm/kékuwa, strengthen.
III. Bisyllabic:
a. wémāmi, vomit.
NOTE. These verbal types appear mostly in Indo-Iranian and Hittite examples, and could
therefore be more properly included in the suffixed (BIVc) type below.
b. bhleumi, weaken, (cf. Goth. bliggwan, ―whip‖).
NOTE. This verb might possibly be more correctly classified as bhleujō, within the verba
vocalia, type AIIIu in -u-jo- of the thematic group.
IV. Suffixed:
a. In -nā- (<*-neh2): pṛnāmi, grant, sell (cf. Gk. πεξλεκη, O.Ir. ren(a)id,
etc.), qr nāmi, buy (cf. O.Ind. krīnāti, O.Ind. cren(a)im, gr.
πξίακαηetc).
b. In -nu-: ṛneumi, rise (up).
c. With nasal infix: lineqmi (linqō), bhenegmi (bhegō), amneghti
(amghō)
NOTE. For these verbs Old Indian shows zero grade root vowel and alternating suffixes.
235
7.4. THE FOUR STEMS
7.4.1. TENSE-STEMS AND VERB DERIVATION
1. In the earliest reconstructible PIE, secondary verbs existed probably only in the
present-tense system, and had no perfect or aorist forms – although presumably they
could be conjugated in the imperfect, since it forms part of the imperfective/present
system.
NOTE. Even some of the primary verbs were missing perfect and aorist forms, or had forms
with unpredictable meanings, and many primary verbs had multiple ways of forming some or
all of their aspects. Furthermore, evidence from Old Indian indicates that some secondary
verbs in PIE were not conjugated in the subjunctive or optative moods.
Collectively, all of this indicates that in PIH, especially early on, all of the aspects and moods
were probably part of the derivational rather than inflectional system. That is, the various
tenses, aspects and moods were originally independent lexical formations. Furthermore, a
basic constraint in the verbal system might have prevented applying a derived form to an
already-derived form (Rix 1986).
That old dynamic situation reconstructed for the PIH conjugation is similar to the system
found in Late Indo-European, where old desiderative present stems are generalised as new
future stems in a post-LIE period, without the possibility of conjugating it in the subjunctive
or optative moods, or even create participles (see below §7.4.2).
2. With verb creation we refer to the way verbs are created from nouns and other
verbs by adding suffixes and through reduplication of stems.
3. There are generally two kinds of suffixes: root and derivative; they are so
classified because they are primarily added to the roots or to derivatives of them.
Most of the PIE suffixes (like -u-, -i-, -n-, -s-, etc.) are root suffixes. The most
common derivational suffixes are studied in the following sections.
4. Reduplication is a common resource of many modern languages. It generally

serves to indicate intensity or repetition in nouns, and in the Proto-Indo-European
verb it helped create present stems (especially intensives), and more frequently it
marked the different stems, whether present, aorist or perfect.
5. Examples of the stems found for PIE verbal root leiq-, leave, include:
 Present stem nasal li-n-qe/o- (cf. Gk. limpánō, Lat. linquō, -ere, O.Ir. -
léici), and also PII athem. li-n-eq-e/o- (cf. Ved. riṇákti, Av. irinaxti)
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7. Verbs
 Aorist stem liq-é/ó- (cf. Ved. rikthās, Gk. élipon, Lat. līquī)
 Perfect stem (lé-)loiq- (cf. Ved. rireca, Gk. léloipen, Goth. laiƕ, O.Pruss.
po-lāikt, O.Lith. liekti)
 Desiderative/Future stem leiq/liq-se/o- (cf. Gk. leípsō).
 Causative-Iterative derivative present stem loiq-éje- (cf. Ved. recayati,
Lith. laicaũ, laikýti)
ACCENT-ABLAUT IN INFLECTION
Thematic stems, including subjunctives, had fixed accent on the stem.
In athematic stems, the accent usually alternated in PIE, falling on the endings in
the middle-passive and the nonsingular active, but on the preceding syllable in the
singular active.
However, s-aorists seem to have had fixed accent on the root, and it appears that
there were a few root presents that exhibited a similar pattern; and reduplicated
presents (but not perfects) seem to have had a fixed accent on the reduplicating
syllable (Ringe 2006).
NOTE. No matter what the accentual pattern was, there was normally a difference in ablaut
between the singular active and all other forms of athematic stems. The commoner attested
patterns are exemplified in the paradigms shown in §§7.8.1, 7.8.2.
Obviously, the inflection of thematic stems was simpler and easier to learn. In the
development of Northwestern dialects, nearly all presents would become thematic.
7.4.2. THE PRESENT STEM
PRESENT ROOT STEM
A pure root stem, with or without thematic vowel, can be used as a present,
opposed to the aorist and perfect. Present verbal roots may be athematic and
thematic. The athematics were, in Late Indo-European, only the remains of an older
system.
CLASS BIa – Monosyllabic Athematic
[LIV types 1a & 1c, Old Indian 2nd class] Monosyllabic athematic root presents
ending in consonant or resonant; their inflection is usually made:
 in the active voice sg., root vowel e and root accent.
237
 in the active voice pl. and middle voice, root vowel ∅ and accent on the ending.
The most common example is es-mi, to be, which has a singular in es- and plural
in s-. There are also other monosyllabic verbs, as chen-mi, to strike, ed-mi, to eat,
wek-mi, to will, etc.
NOTE. There was a general tendency within Late Indo-European to use thematic
verbs instead of the old athematic ones. ―The athematic verbs have been largely
replaced by those of the thematic type‖ Beekes (1995).
BIe.- Other monosyllabic athematic root stems, as ei-mi, go; these follow the same
declension.
ed-, eat chen-, knok ei-, go es-, be

1. edmi chenmi eimi esmi
Sg. 2. edsi chensi eisi esiii

3. estii chenti eiti esti
1. dmes chṇmés imés smes
Pl. 2. dte chṇté ité ste

3. denti chṇenti jenti senti
i post-LIE ésti(<*etsti?)<*édti. ii please note PIE es- + -si = esi.
NOTE. In an old inflection like that of the verbal root es, i.e. sg. esmi, pl. smés, sometimes
a semithematic alternative is found. Compare the paradigm of the verb be in Latin, where
zero-grade and o vowel forms are found: s-omi (cf. Lat. sum), not es-mi; s-omos (cf. Lat.
sumus), not s-me; and s-onti (cf. Lat. sunt), not s-enti. Such inflection, not limited to Latin,
has had little success in the Indo-European verbal system, at least in the older IE languages
attested. There are, however, many examples of semithematic inflection in non-root verbs,
what could mean that an independent semithematic inflection existed in PIE, or, more likely,
that old athematic forms were remade and mixed with the newer thematic inflection
(Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza 1995-1998).
The middle voice forms that correspond in terms of formation are treated
separately as zero grade root statives in LIV (type 1c); only two cases are certain.
CLASS BIII – Disyllabic Athematic
Disyllabic athematic root stems that make the present in full/∅ root vowel; as,
wémāmi, vomit, bhleumi, weaken.
The alternative ∅/full root vowel is generally reserved for the aorist.
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7. Verbs
CLASSES BIb & BIc – Narten Present
[LIV type 1b, Narten present] Root athematic stems with alternating long/full root
vowel and fixed root accent, acrodynamic; as, stēu-ti, 3rd pl. stéw-ṇti. They are
conjugated frequently in the middle voice.
CLASS AI – bhárati/tudáti
[LIV types 1n & 1o – Old Indian 6th Class] Thematic root stems with e grade and
thematic suffix -e/o- before the endings. A common example is bhér-e-ti, ‗bears‘.
Thematic inflection shows two general old paradigms:
a. Root vowel e and root accent, as déiketi, (s)he/it shows.
b. Root vowel ∅ and accent on the theme vowel.
NOTE. The b-types are called tudáti-presents from a representative example in Ved. tudáti
‗beats‘ < *(s)tud-é-ti, a verb that forms a common LIE nasal infix present (s)tu-né-d-. There
seems to be no certain present reconstructible for common PIE, according to Beekes (1995).
The a-type appears usually in the present, and the b-type in the aorist – pres. déiko
vs. aor. dikóm –, although apparently both could appear in both stems in PIE. In
fact, when both appear in the present stem, the a-type is usually a durative –
meaning an action not finished –, while b-type verbs are terminatives or punctuals –
meaning the conclusion of the action. This semantic value is not general, though,
often found only in Graeco-Aryan dialects. The a-type present stems correspond to
LIV type 1n, while the b-type present stems correspond to LIV type 1o.
NOTE. The newer inflection is, thus (in a singular/plural scheme), that of full/full vocalism
for present, ∅/∅ for aorist. The athematic root inflection in full/∅ appears to be older than the
thematic one. The thematic inflection therefore probably overshadowed the athematic one by
Late Indo-European, and there are lots of examples of coexisting formations, some of the
newer being opposed to the older in meaning.
PRESENT REDUPLICATED STEM
Depending on its formation, present stems may show either full reduplication,
sometimes maintained throughout the conjugation, or simple reduplication, which
normally consists of the initial consonant of the root followed by -i-.
Depending on its meaning, reduplication may have a general value (of iteration or
intensity), or simply opposed values in individual pairs of basic verb vs. deverbative,
helping to distinguish the verb in its different forms.
239
Simple reduplication is made:
 With consonant + i,
- in athematic verbs; as, bhi-bher-, carry (from bher-),
- in thematic verbs; as, gi-gnō-sko-, know (from gnō-), etc. si-sdo-, sit
down, (from zero-grade of sed-, sit),
- Some intensives have half full, half simple reduplication, as in dei-dik-,

show (from deik-).
- There are other forms with -w, -u, as in leu-luk-, shine (from leuk-, light).
- There are also some perfect stems with i.
 With consonant + e/ē, as dhe-dhē-, de-dō-, etc.
Simple reduplication in e appears mainly in the perfect, while i is characteristic of

present stems. Reduplication in e is also often found in intensives in S.LIE.
CLASS BII – Athematic in -i-/-e-
[LIV types 1g & 1h] Athematic present with -i- or -e- reduplication. Roots with long
vowel (as dhē-, stā- or dō-) are rare in present stems, usually reserved for the aorist.
The reconstructed PIH paradigm of stā- is given here for comparison.
dhē-, do dō-, give stā-, stand *steh2-, stand

1. dhédhēmi (dí)dōmi (sí)stāmi *(sí)steh2mi
Sg. 2. dhédhēsi (dí)dōsi (sí)stāsi *(sí)steh2si

3. dhédhēti (dí)dōti (sí)stāti *(sí)steh2ti
1. dhedhamés (di)damés (si)stamés *(si)sth2més
Pl. 2. dhedhaté (di)daté més

(si)staté *(si)steh2té
3. dhedhanti (di)danti (si)stanti *(si)sth2ṇti
NOTE. 1) Reduplication didn‘t affect the different root vowel grades in inflection, and
general accent rules were followed; as, bíbherti-bibhṛmés, sístāmi-sistamés, etc.
2) Most athematic verbs are usually reconstructed with an accent-ablaut paradigm (as in
Sanskrit, or the assumed older situation in PIE), but another simple columnar accent could
have been possible, as in Greek, probably from a LIE trend to simplify the system, similarly to
the simplified nominal accent-ablaut paradigm; it could read post-LIE dhédhames,
dhédhate, dhédhanti, or dídames/dames, sístames/stames, etc.
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7. Verbs
3) Formal reduplication was optional in Late Indo-European, its generalisation being a

Graeco-Aryan feature; as, dédōmi/dídōmi vs. dōmi, gígnōskō vs. gnōskō, etc.
4) Reduplication reconstructed in -e- (cf. for dhe-dhē- Skt. dádhāti, O.Lith. desti, O.C.S.
deždǫ, Lat. re-ddo?; for dé-dō-, Skt. dádati) is also found in -i- (cf. for dhí-dhē-, Gk. títhēmi;
for dí-dō- Gk. dídōmi, Celtib. didonti). The LIV classifies Greek forms in -i- as from an
original PIE -e- assimilated to the -i- class, but there is no certainty in that assumption for all
cases, given that reduplication appears not to have been obligatory in PIE. A general
reduplication in -e- for dhē- seems to be well established for most languages, though. As
Fortson (2004) states: in many examples of the type from the daughter languages, the
reduplicating syllable has -i- rather than -e-, as in Vedic Skt. jí-gā-ti ‗he goes‘ and Gk. dí-dō-
mi ‗I give‘. This pattern probably spread from thematic reduplicated presents like Gk.
gígnomai ‗I become‘. Or, after Beekes (1995): ―It is unclear when e and when I were used. Skt
dádāmi, Gr. dídōmi ‗to give‘ perhaps suggest that both forms appeared in the same
paradigm.‖
CLASS AVII – Thematic in -i-
[LIV type 1i] Thematic present with -i- reduplication is clearly a secondary
development from the LIV type 1h. Common examples are gi-gnō, beget, pi-bō,
drink.
CLASS BIVd – Intensives
[LIV type 6a] Stem formations of the action type ‗intensive‘, meaning ―repeated
bringing about of a state of affairs‖, have an (almost) complete reduplication of the
root (only an occlusive at the end of the root was not repeated); as, wer-w(e)rt-, to
turn, dei-dik-(sk)-, to indicate, qér-qr-, to do again and again, from qer-, cut
(off), carve.
Full reduplication, normally found in the present stem, repeats the root or at least
the group consonant/resonant+vowel+consonant/resonant. gal-gal-, talk, bher-
bher-, endure, dṛ-dr-, mṛ-mr-, whisper, murmur, etc.
Full reduplication is also that which repeats a root with

vowel+consonant/resonant; as, ul-ul-, howl (cf. Lat. ululāre).
NOTE. Examples include Greek πνξθπξσ, πακπαηλσ, γαξγαηξσ, κνξκνξσ, κεξκεξηδσ,

θαγραιασ, καξκαηξσ, δελδηιισ, ιαιεσ, and, in other IE dialects, Slavic glagoljo, Latin
(‗broken‘ reduplication with different variants) bombico, bombio, cachinno, cacillo, cracerro,
241
crocito, cucullio, cucurrio, curculio, didintrio, lallo, imbubino, murmillo, palpor, pipito,
plipio, pipio, tetrinnio, tetrissito, tintinnio, titio, titubo, etc.
PRESENT CONSONANT STEM
IN -s-
A present-tense thematic suffix -(e)s- is found, for example in kleu-sō, obey, be

obedient, g-esō, carry (*h2g-es-, from *h2eg- → agō), aug-sō, grow (cf. Gk. aéksō,
Lat. augeō).
Thematic -s- also makes desideratives which are the basis of post-LIE futures, v.i.
Extended -s- stems, as -sk- and -st-, are almost all thematic.
NOTE. Thematic suffix -ste/o- has usually an expressive meaning, meaning sounds most of
the times; as, bhṛstō, burst, break (from bhresjō, shatter).
CLASS AV – In -ske/o-
[LIV type 1p].- Thematic suffix -ske/o- is added to roots in the zero-grade,
especially to monosyllabics and disyllabics, and make iterative (or inchoatives); as,
pṛk-skṓ (from prek-), ask, ask repeatedly, cṃ-skṓ, walk about (cf. cemjō, come),
gnō-skō (from gnō-), know.
It can also be added to reduplicated stems, as dí-dk-skō (from dek-), gí-gnō-skō,

and to lengthened roots, especially in ī, u, ē, ā, as krē-skō (from ker-).
NOTE. Several verbs reconstructed for PIE with this ending refer to asking or wishing.
Sometimes these deverbatives show limited general patterns, creating especially iteratives
(with repeated, habitual or background action, i.e. durative sens, cf. Hitt. walḫ-iški-zzi ‗beats
repeatedly, beats several objects‘, Gk. pheúgeskon ‗they would habitually flee‘), but also
inchoatives (indicating beginning or inception of an action or state, cf. Lat. rubē-sc-ere ‗to
grow red‘), causatives, and even determinatives or terminatives. Apparently, the same -ske/o-
can also produce denominal duratives like medhuskō, get drunk (from medhu, mead,
intoxicating drink) or wodskō, wash (from wod-, water). (Piotr Gąsiorowski, n.d.)
This lengthening in -sk- seems to have been part of present-only stems in LIE; cf. Lat.
flōrescō/flōruī, Gk. κικληζκω/κεκληκα, and so on. Cases like LIE verb pṛkskṓ, ask, demand
(cf. O.H.G. forscōn, Ger. forschen, Lat. poscō>por(c)scō, O.Ind. pṛcch, Arm. harc‟anem, O.Ir.
arcu), which appear in zero grade throughout the whole conjugation in different IE dialects,
are apparently exceptions of the PIH verbal system; supporting a common formation of zero
grade root iterative presents, compare also the form (e)ské/ó- (<h1skó), the verb es- with
‗existential‘ sense, as O.Lat. escit, ―is‖, Gk. ẽske, ―was‖, Hom. Gk. éske, Pal. iška, etc.
242
7. Verbs
Supporting the theory that -sk has a newer development than other lengthenings is e.g. the
Hittite formation duskiski(ta) (cf. O.Ind. túsyate, „silenter‟, O.Ir. inna tuai „silentia‟), which
indicates that in Anatolian (hence possibly in Indo-Hittite as well) such an ending – unlike the
other endings shown - was still actively in formation.
CLASSES BIVb & AVI – Nasal Presents
[LIV type 1k – Old Indian class 7] Stems in -n- are said to have a nasal suffix or a
nasal infix – a morpheme placed inside another morpheme. They may be athematic
or thematic, and the most common forms are -n, and extended -neu-/-nu-, -nā-.
The so-called nasal presents are thematic and thematics with nasal infix -n-,
typically active transitives. The distribution of the ablaut grades was the same as in
root presents: full grade in the singular active, zero-grade elsewhere.
The infix was inserted into the zero-grade of the root, between its last two sounds
(generally a resonant or high vowel followed by a consonant), i.e. in CeRC- roots, the
produced the characteristic alternation CR-né-C-/CR-n-C-; as, from jug-, 3rd sg.
nasal present 3rd sg. ju-né-g-ti, he yokes, 3rd pl. ju-n-g-énti; ku-n-és-mi, kiss.
Other examples include li-ne-q-mi, becoming thematic li-n-q-ō, leave; other

thematics include pu-n-g-ō, prik, bhu-n-dh-ō, be aware. Other stems with nasal
infix became verba vocalia; as, dhre-n-g-ājō, hold; pla-n-t-ājō, plant.
CLASSES BIVc & AVI – In -neu-
[LIV type 1l – Old Indian classes 5, 8] Athematic nasal infix present -néu-/-nu-
usually enforcing the weak vocalism of the root, as in stṛ-neu-mi, becoming
thematic ster-n(u)-ō, spread, ṛ-neu-mi, set into motion, etc.
NOTE. Derivative kḷneumi is difficult to reconstruct with certainty; often interpreted as
with infix -n-, i.e. kḷ-n-eu-, it has been proposed that it is a zero-grade suffixed klu-neu-, cf.
Buddh. Skt. śrun; Av. surunaoiti; Shughni çin; O.Ir. cluinethar; Toch. A and B käln. Skt.
śRno-/śRnu- < *kluneu-/klunu- would show a loss of u analogous to the loss of i in tRtīya-
‗third‟ < IE tritijo-.
It produced (often transitive and vaguely causative) athematic verbs that refer to
the beginning or termination of an action (the so-called inchoatives), or suggest that
something is done once (rather than repeated) (Piotr Gąsiorowski, n.d.).
A rarer variant of this pattern involves -nu-, -ne/o-, formations with stress
alternating between the full-vowel root and the inflection.
243
NOTE. Other forms (possibly derived from inflected -neu- and -nei-) include -nwe/o-, -
nje/o-. These formations seem to be very recent in Late Indo-European. In Greek it is
frequent the nasal suffix -an-. Others as -nwe/o-, -nje/o-, appear often, too; as Gk.
phthínuo, Goth. winnan (from *wenwan); Gk. iaíno, phaínomai (from bhā-) and O.Ind.
verbs in -nyati.
CLASS BIVa – In -nā-
[LIV type 1m – Old Indian class 9] Athematic nasal infix -nā-; as, pṛ-nā-mi, grant,
sell, qr -nā-mi, buy, dṃ-nā-mi, to subdue, etc.
IN OCCLUSIVE
Indo-European roots could be lengthened with an occlusive to give a verb stem,

either general or present-only. Such stems are usually made adding a dental -t-, -d-, -
dh- (as plek-tō, plait, from plek-, weave) or a guttural -k-, -g-, -gh- (as dha-k-jō,
do), but only rarely with labials or labiovelars. They are all thematic, and the
lengthenings are added to the root.
PRESENT VOWEL STEM
CLASS AIV – Primary je/o-Presents
[LIV types 1q & 1r – Old Indian 4th class] Some roots and derivatives (deverbatives
or denominatives) form the thematic verb stems with -je/o-, usually added to stems
ending in consonant. These are called primary je/o-presents (not to be confused
with ―primary‖ in the meaning ―non-past‖ of verbal endings).
NOTE. According to the LIV, it forms thematic durative verbs, conveying ―a subject‘s state of
being without stressing the entry of the subject into the state of being‖; as kapjō, take, seize,
mṛsjō, not heed, ignore (from mors-, forget), oqjō, eye (from noun oqos, eye, cf. oqō, see).
In these cases, the root grade is usually ∅; as, mn-jṓ, from men-, think, bhudh-jō,
wake up, from bheudh-; but the full grade is also possible, as in spek-jō, look, lā-
jō, from lā-, bark.
NOTE. Fortson (2004): ―The type with zero-grade of the root and accented suffix,
characteristically used with intransitives, may have been restricted to middle inflection
originally, which would explain why in some branches (Indo-Iranian, Armenian) it came to be
used to form the passive.‖
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7. Verbs
These verbs may be deverbatives – normally iteratives or causatives – or

denominatives. With an iterative-causative action type [LIV type 4b], cf. swopjō, lull
to sleep, from swep-, sleep.
They served especially to form verbs from nouns and adjectives, as, from nōmṇ,
name, nōmnjō, name (cf. Gk. onomainō, Got. namnjan), from melit, honey,
mḷitjō, take honey from the honeycomb (as Gk. blíttō), etc.
NOTE. Equivalent stems in thematic -u-e/o- are rarely found in the present, but are often
found in the past and perfect stems. Stems in -u- show then an opposed behaviour to those in
-i-, which are usually found in present stems, and rarely in past or perfect stems. In present
stems, -u- is found in roots or as a suffix, whether thematic or athematic, giving a stem that
may normally appear as the general stem of the verb. It is therefore generally either part of the
root or a stable lengthening of it (cf. gheu-/ghō-, pleu-/plō-, etc.).
CLASS AIII – Verba Vocalia
[LIV types 1q & 1r – Old Indian 4th class] The preceding vowel may be an -ā-, -ē-, -
i- or -u-, sometimes as part of the root or derivative, sometimes as part of the suffix.
Possible suffixes in -je/o- are therefore also the so-called verba vocalia, - je/o-,-
ḗje/o-, -íje/o-, and -úje/o-.
Class AIIIa – Factitives
[LIV type 7] Roots or stems in -ā- (<*-eh2-/*-h2-), added to the weak form of a root
to produce athematic or thematic stems mixed with -i-, generally indicating ―the
entry of the subject into a new state of being‖; as, am-ā-jō, love, sēd-ā-jō, settle (cf.
sed-ejō).
NOTE. Athematic presents in -ā- are classified in LIV as ―fientive stems‖, like mnā-, become
furious, from men-, hold a thought.
Some find apparently irregular formations as Lat. amō, ―I love‖, from an older am -je/o-,
mixed with -i-; however, they are sometimes reconstructed as from *amā-, i.e. in -ā without
ending (cf. Lat. amas, amat,...), as in Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998); against it,
compare common IE formations as Umb. suboca ‗invoke‘, Russ. délaiu, and so on.
Added to thematic adjectival stems it was used to form factitives, verbs meaning ‗to
make something have the quality of the adjective‘, especially when opposed to
statives in -ē- (cf. Hitt. maršaḫ-marše-, Lat. clarāre-clarēre, albāre-albēre, nigrāre-
nigrēre, liquāre-liquēre); as, from new-o-, new, new-ā-jō, make new,
245
They may also form statives or duratives. But there are also many deverbatives in -
ā- without a special value opposed to the basic verb.
NOTE. Stems in -ā- help create (usually athematic) subjunctives and aorists. -ā- is less
commonly used than -ē- to make iterative and stative deverbatives and denominatives.
Class AIIIe – Statives
[LIV type 8] Thematic stems in -ē-, mixed with -i-. Sometimes the -ē- is part of the
root, sometimes it is a suffix added or substituting the -e- of the stem.
NOTE. These stem formations are defined in LIV as of the ―essive‖ action type, conveying ―a
subject‘s state of being…without stressing the entry of the subject into the state of being‖ (see
above Class AIV). Its stem ending is reconstructed as *-h1jé-, as a derivative of *-jé-, upon the
fientives with *-eh1-/-h1-.
They may form verbs of state (or statives) if added to and adjectival root thematic
in e/o, meaning ‗have the quality of the adjective‘, as rudhējō, be red, albhējō, be
white, with a stative value, lubhējō, be dear, be pleasing, senējō, be old, etc.
It is also found in combination with -s- in -ē-s-, -ē-ske/o-, yielding intransitive

verbs denoting change of state (‗become X‘); as, roudhēskō, turn red, senēskō, get
old (Piotr Gąsiorowski n.d.).
CLASS AIIIo – Causative-Iteratives
[LIV type 4a] The co-called causative-iterative stems show root in o-grade and
accented thematic suffix in -éjo-, conveying the meaning ―a cause of bringing about a
state of affairs, or the repeated bringing about of a state of affairs‖; as, from sed-, sit,
sodejō, cause to sit, from men-, think, monejō, remind, advise; wortejō, cause to
turn, from wert-, turn, from wes-, dress, wosejō, clothe, put on clothes, (cf. Hitt.
waššizzi, Skt. vāsáiati, Ger. wazjan, Alb. vesh), sedejō, be sitting (cf. sed-, sit),
bhoudhejō, wake somebody up (cf. bheudhō, awake), ṛghejō, incite (cf. ṛgujō,
reason, discuss), etc. And it is also used to form denominatives, as wosnejō, buy,
sell, from wesnom, sale.
It formed non-causatives, too; as, from leuk-, light, loukéjō, shine (cf. Hitt.
lukiizzi, Skt. rocáyati, Av. raočayeiti, O.Lat. lūmina lūcent).
NOTE. It is sometimes difficult to know if the original form was -éje/o- or -ḗje/o-, because
the former is apparently attested only in Anatolian, Indo-Iranian, Greek and Armenian (cf.
Arm. Gen. siroy, ―love‖, sirem, ―I love‖<*keire-jé-); Greek loses the -j- and follows (as Latin)
246
7. Verbs
the rule ‗uocālis ante uocālem corripitur‘, what helps metrics. However, Greek had probably a
present with long ē (as in non-liquid future and perfect). Mycenaean doesn‘t help clarify
uncertain reconstructions; moreover, it is often accepted that some forms in O.Ind. -ayati are
isolated. See Appendix II – Guide to the Reader for dubious reconstructions.
DESIDERATIVES AND THE FUTURE STEM
[LIV type 5] Following the LIV, the desiderative action type conveys ―the subject‘s
desire or intent to bring about a state of affairs‖. These stems are built with a
thematic -s- ending. cf. wéid-se/o-, ‗want to see, go to see‟, hence „visit‟, as Lat.
vīsere, Goth. gaweisōn, O.S. O.H.G. wīsōn, a deverbative from root weid-, from
which the general present stem is wid-ḗje/o-, see.
NOTE. Aorist stems in -s- are usually athematic. Sometimes the -s- marked the subjunctive.
Because of its common use in verbal inflection, deverbatives with a lengthening in -s- aren‘t
generally opposed in meaning to their basic stems, and there was no general common
meaning reserved for the extended stem in -s-. Compare Lat. pressī <* pres-sai vs. Lat.
premō; Lat. tremō vs. a Gk. ηρεω<*tre-sō, O.Ind. trásate ‗he is frightened‘.
Some of their descendants function as futures, hence the assumption that future
formations in IEDs come from LIE desideratives/causatives. Present stems, usually
formed with extensions in -s- (and its variants), became with time a regular part of
the verbal conjugation in some dialects, whilst disappearing in others.
NOTE. It is assumed then that PIE did not have a future stem. That might seem strange, but
it is possible to express future tense without having a special formation (‗I do it tomorrow‘).
Gothic, for example, is an IE language that didn‘t have an especial future formation.
Nevertheless, the development of the earliest languages attested show that within the post-
LIE times a future stem must have been developed.
[LIV type 5a] Desiderative/causative stems were usually made in IEDs with root
vowel e, i.e. in full-grade, with a suffix -s-<*-(H)s-:
1. Thematic -s(j)e/o-; as, do-sjé-ti, ‗he intends/wants to give‘, later ‗will give‘ or
‗about to give‘ (cf. Skt. dā-ṣy -mi, Lith. dúosiant-).
NOTE. A common origin of the future in -s- is found in Sanskrit, Balto-Slavic, Italic
(Sabellian), and in Celtic futures in -sje/o- (cf. O.Russ. byšęštĭ<*bhuH-sjont- ‗about to be‘,
Gaul. pissíiumi ‗I will see‘), and Doric Greek in -sēje/o-, -sje/o-. Cf. also Hom. Gk. kaléō
<*kal-e-sō ‗I will call‘, Classical Greek and Archaic Latin in -se/o- (cf. O.Lat. faxō<*dhak-sō ‗I
will make‘, O.Lat. peccas-sō, from peccāre, etc. and Gk. dḗk-s-o-mai ‗I will bite‘ to active
present dáknō ‗I bite‘). Cf. from derk-, see, Skt. drakṣyáti ‗he shall see‘, and Gk. dérksomai ‗I
247
shall see‘. Some more dialectal extensions are found appearing before the -s- endings; as, -i-s-
in Indo-Iranian and Latin, -e-s- in Greek and Osco-Umbrian.
For the future stem coming from sigmatic aorist stem, Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-
1998): ―Homeric Greek aorists dúseto, bḗseto, are exactly parallels to future dúsomai,
bḗsomai, remains of the same sigmatic thematic stem, and not remade forms as Leumann
(1952-53) and Prince (1970) proposed.‖
2. An athematic future in -s- is found in Italic (cf. Umbr. fu-s-t ‗he will be‘) and
Baltic (Lith. bùs ‗he will be‘).
3. [LIV type 5b] A reduplicated desiderative with i-reduplication and a suffix *-

(h1)se-, found in Indo-Iranian and Celtic; as, wi-wṇ-sō, overpower, win, from wen-
, overpower, win; from chen-, slay, chi-chnā-se-ti<*gwi-gwn-h1se, wants to slay,
will slay (cf. Ved. Skt. jíghāṃsati ‗wants to slay‘, O.Ir. fut. (-)géna < Cel. *gwi-gwnā-
se-ti ‗will slay‘); di-dṛk-sō, want to see.
It seems that future stems originated already within a disintegrating post-LIE

community, which tended to integrate the known -s- desiderative present stem
formation paradigm into the conjugation system, so that it became possible to create
systematic futures of all verbs.
IMPERFECT AND INJUNCTIVE
The present stem was used to form the present tense and the imperfect, which –as
already said – is usually thought to have signified durative or repeated action in the
past time (was going, used to go). Formally it was usually identical to the present
stem, except that secondary endings were used instead of primary. 1st sg. -m is the
same in both thematic and athematic imperfects.
NOTE. Fortson (2004) continues: ―The original type is best preserved in Anatolian, Indo-
Iranian, and Greek: for example, Hitt. (preterite) daškinun ‗I (repeatedly) took‘, Vedic Skt.
ábharam ‗I was carrying‘, Av. barəmz ‗I was carrymg‘, and Gk. épheron ‗I was carrying‘ (…)
Outside of these branches, the IE imperfect has either been completely lost, or merged with
the aorist. In those branches where the imperfect was lost, a new imperfect conjugation was
often innovated (as in Italic and Slavic), sometimes of obscure origin (as in Celtic).‖
Indo-Iranian, Greek, Armenian and Phrygian attest a prefix called the augment that
was added to past-tense forms. It is reconstructible as e-; as, imperfect é-bher-e-t
‗he was carrying‘ (cf. Ved. Skt. ábharat, Gk. éphere, Arm eber), or aorist e-dhē-
‗placed‘ (cf. Phrygian edaes ‗he placed‘).
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7. Verbs
NOTE. The great success of that particular augment (similar to other additions, like Lat. per-
or Gmc. ga-) happened apparently later in those proto-languages. Vedic Sanskrit clearly
shows that augment was not obligatory, and for Proto-Greek, cf. Mycenaean do-ke/a-pe-do-
ke, Myc. qi-ri-ja-to, Hom. Gk. πξηαην, etc. It is often shown in most PIE grammars because
(Brugmannian) tradition in IE studies has made augment seem obligatory for PIE.
According to Meier-Brügger (2003): ―The PIE augment *(h1)é was quite probably an adverb
with the meaning ‗at that time‘ and could be employed facultatively where indicative forms of
present and aorist stems were combined with secondary endings to produce a clear past tense
(…) The establishment of the augment as a norm in the indicative aorist, indicative imperfect,
and indicative pluperfect took place in a post-Proto-Indo-European phase. Other IE languages
such as Latin or Germanic developed their own suffixal means of indicating past tense forms.‖
The augment is in fact related to the so-called ‗injunctive mood‘, defined as augmentless
past-tense forms that appear in Indo-Iranian and Ancient Greek, of obscure function, much
discussed by scholars. ―Their precise function or functions are still not fully clear. In Homer,
injunctives are interchangeable with past tenses but sometimes have gnomic force (that is, are
used to express general truths). In Indo-Iranian, injunctives can indicate intent, futurity, and
some quasi-modal meanings, and were also used in commands, especially prohibitions‖
(Fortson 2004).
7.4.3. THE AORIST STEM
AORIST ROOT STEM
[LIV type 2a] Monosyllabic athematic root aorists are formed by adding the
secondary endings directly to the full grade of the root in the active singular, and to
the zero-grade of the root elsewhere. They are usually opposed to presents:
 In -neu-; as, pres. kḷneumi, aor. 3rd p. sg. kleum, 3rd p. pl. klwent, hear, or
pres. qṛneumi vs. aor. qerm, make, do, etc.
 Reduplicated; as, pres. sí-stā-mi, I stand, aor. 1st sg. stā-m, I stood, 3rd pl.
sta-nt, they stood; pres. dhé-dhē-mi, I do, I put, aor. dhē-m, I did, pres.
pí(m)-plē-mi, I fill, aor. plē-m, I filled.
 In -ske/o-, -je/o-; as, pres. cṃskṓ, I walk about, aor. 3rd sg. cem-t, he
walked about, 3rd pl. cm-ent, they walked about.
 Thematic presents; as, pres. ghewō, I pour, aor. gheum, I poured.
Thematic aorist root stems are usually made in ∅/∅ root vowel grade, secondary
endings, and sometimes reduplication; as, pres. deik-ō, aor. dik-óm, pres. linq-ō, I
249
leave, aor. liq-óm, I left, pres. wid-ḗjō, aor. wid-óm; cf. also from leudh-
go/come, ludhóm, I went, I came, most commonly used as aorist of cemjō
(<cṃjō), I come.
NOTE. As already seen, these stems could form aorists and presents: The liqé/ó- form (i.e.
zero grade and accent on thematic vowel) is usually reserved for the aorist stem, while the
leiqe/o- form (i.e. full grade) is rarely found in the aorist – but, when it is found, the present
has to be differentiated from it. This is made (1) with vowel opposition, i.e., full grade, o-grade
or zero grade, (2) thematic vowel, or (3) with secondary phonetic differentiations (as accent
shift).
AORIST REDUPLICATED STEM
[LIV type 2c] Aorist reduplicated stems are usually thematic, with a general vowel e
(opposed to the i of the present), zero-grade root vowel (general in aorists); as,
chenmi/che-chṇ-om, murder, kill; weqmi/we-uq-om, say, speak;
NOTE. Fortson (2004): ―(…) reduplicated aorists typically have causative meaning, such as
Ved. Skt. á-pī-par-as ‗you made cross over‘, Gk. dé-da-e ‗he taught‘ (<‘caused to know‘), and
Toch. A śa-śärs ‗he made known‘.‖ Cf. also Lat. momorit, totondit, spopondit, etc., or O.Ind.
atitaram, ajijanam, etc.
In roots which begin with vowel, reduplication is of the type vowel+consonant.
Some roots which begin with vowel form also reduplicated aorists; as ag-ag-om (as
Gk. εγαγολ, whereε<ā<*é+a – Wackernagel, hence *é-agagom).
AORIST CONSONANT STEM
[LIV type 2b] The most common consonant stem is the sigmatic aorist, formed with
the suffix -s-, generally athematic.
The -s- is added usually to the root, whether monosyllabic or disyllabic, in

consonant or vowel, opposed to the present. Such root aorists usually show
lengthened e-grade in the active voice, and zero grade in the rest; as, pres.
pí(m)plēmi, I fill, aor. plēsm, I filled, 3rd pl. plesṇt, they filled; qērsṃ, I made, 3rd
pl. qṛsṇt, they made, from qer-, make; dēik-s-m, I indicated, wēgh-s-m, I
carried, I conveyed, etc.
NOTE. Lengthened vocalism in sigmatic aorists was probably an innovation in Late Indo-
European. For lengthened grade, cf. maybe Latin forms like dīxī (<*dēik-s-), uēxī from uehō
(cf. O.Ind. ávāk-ṣam from váhāmi ‗drive‘), rēxī from regō, etc., or Toch. B preksa, A prakäs
250
7. Verbs
(<*prēk-s-ā), according to Lindeman (1968). Without lengthening (i.e. full grade) they are
found in Greek and in the s-aorist middle in Indo-Iranian, cf. Gk. élekse<*é-leg-s- ‗he said‘.
For Beekes (1995), the lengthened grade ―perhaps it has disappeared through regular sound
developments (*dēik- → deik-, Osthoff‘s Law).‖
It could also be added to a vowel ā, ē, ō, with the same stem as the present, or to
the noun from which the verb is derived; as, pres. alkējō, aor. alkēsom, grow.
The general system of thematic present vs. sigmatic aorist stems may be so
depicted: -ēje/o- vs. -ēs-; -āje/o- vs. -ās-; -je/o- vs. -is-; -je/o- vs. -ās-; -je/o- vs.
ēs-; and -e/o- vs. -ās-.
Monosyllabic or disyllabic sigmatic aorist root stems in i, u, ā, ē, ō, have a fixed

vowel grade; as, aor. pewism, pewisṇt, purify.
NOTE. Aorist stem formation in -i-, -ē-, -ā- is still less common. Other common formations
in -s- include the following: In -is- (Latin and Indo-Aryan), -es- (Greek), as genis- from gen-,
beget, wersis- from wers-, rain; also, cf. Lat. amauis (amāuistī, and amāuerām<*-wisām),
etc. In -sā-, attested in Latin, Tocharian and Armenian. Also attested are aorists in -sē-,
thematic -sje/o-, etc.
Stems in -t- function usually as aorists, opposed to present stems, especially in

Italic, Celtic and Germanic.
NOTE. While the use of -t for persons in the verbal conjugation is certainly old, the use of an
extension in -t- to form verbal stems seems to be more recent, and mainly a North-West IE
development.
Stems in -k- are rare, but there are examples of them in all forms of the verb,
including aorists.
AORIST VOWEL STEM
Aorists in ā, ē, are very common, either as root stems with athematic inflection, or
mixed with other endings, e.g. -u-.
NOTE. As already said, stems extended in -u- are rarely found in present stems, but are
frequent in past stems; the opposite is true for -i-.
When opposed to a present, stems extended in -ā, -ē, are often aorists. Possible
oppositions present stem vowel vs. aorist stem vowel include:
251
 Present thematic in -i- vs. aorist athematic in -ē, -ā; as, mṇjō vs. mṇḗm,
consider, alkējō vs. alk m, protect.
 Present thematic in e/o vs. aorist athematic in -ē, -ā; as, legō-legēm, collect.
The use of stems in -u- is usually related to the past, and sometimes to the perfect.
Such endings may appear as -we/o-, often -āwe/o-, -ēwe/o-; as, plēu-, from plē-,
sēu-, from sē-, gnōu-, from gnō-.
Endings -i-/-ī- are scarcely used for aorists, but they appear in some stems used
both for present and aorist stems; as, awisdhijō vs. awisdhijóm, hear, Lat. audĭo,
audĭui.
7.4.4. THE PERFECT STEM
[LIV type 3a] The perfect stem has or lengthened root vowel and special perfect
endings, sg. -a, -tha, -e, pl. -mé, -té, -(ḗ)r, which are only used in the perfect
indicative.
In Gk. and Ind.-Ira., the stem was often reduplicated, generally with vowel e; in
Latin and Germanic, reduplication is often absent.
NOTE. Historically the perfect was possibly a different stative verb, a deverbative from the
root with certain formation rules, which eventually entered the verbal conjugation, meaning
the state derived from the action of the present stem. PIE perfect did not have a tense or voice
value.
Root vowel is usually /∅, i.e. o-grade in the singular and zero-grade in the plural;
for a contrast pres. 1st sg./ perf. 1st sg. / perf. 3rd pl., cf. gígnō / gé-gon-a / ge-gṇ-
mé, know; bhindh-ō / bhondh-a / bhṇdh-mé, bind; bheudhō / bhoudh-a /
bhudh-mé, wake up.
NOTE. 1) for different formations, cf. kan-ō / (ké)kan-a / kṇ-mé, sing, cf. O.Ir. cechan,
cechan, cechuin (and cechain), cechnammar, cechn(u)id, cechnatar.; d-ō-mi / de-d-ai, give,
cf. O.Ind. dadé, Lat. dedī. 2) For examples of root vowel ā, cf. Lat. scābī, or Gk. ηεθηλα, and
for examples with root vowel a, cf. Umb. procanurent (with ablaut in Lat. procinuerint) – this
example has lost reduplication as Italic dialects usually do after a preposed preposition (cf.
Lat. compulī, detinuī), although this may not be the case (cf. Lat. concinuī).
2) There are also perfects with lengthened root vowel; as, from Latin sedē-jō, perf. sēd-a,
sit; ed-ō, perf. ēd-a, eat; cem-jō, perf. cēm-a, come; ag-ō, perf. āg-a, act; from Germanic,
sleb-ō, perf. séslēb-a, sleep; etc.
Reduplication is made in e, and sometimes in i or u.
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7. Verbs
NOTE. Apparently, in Indo-Iranian and Greek dialects reduplication was obligatory,

whereas in North-West Indo-European it wasn‘t. For an older nonobligatory reduplication,
there is common PIE perfect woistha (<*woid-th2e), know, from weid-, see (hence the
stative meaning ‗state derived from having seen‟?), cf. O.Ind. véttha, Gk. (w)oīstha, Goth.
waist. Cf. also afield Gk. εγλσθα, Lat. sēuī (which seems old, even with Goth. saiso), Lat. sedī,
from sedeō and sīdo, which do not let us reconstruct whether the original form is sesdāi or
sēdāi.
7.5. MOOD STEMS
7.5.1. INDICATIVE
The indicative expresses the real action, and it is the default mood; the other ones
were specialised in opposition to it. It appears in the three verbal stems. The
following table depicts the minimal verbal stem system attested for IEDs, according
to finds from Vedic Sanskrit and Ancient Greek (Clackson 2007):
Present Aorist Perfect Future? ii

past & non-past past [no voice/tense non-past
Indicative
active & middle active & middle opposition] active & middle
Subjunctive active & middle active & middle [no voice opp.]i -
Optative active & middle active & middle [no voice opp.]i -
Imperative active & middle active & middle - -
Infinitive active & middle? active & middle? - -
Participle active & middle active & middle [no voice opp.] -
i The moods in the perfect were probably developed late in the history of the proto-language
(see §7.4.1). Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998), Fritz (Meier-Brügger, 2003), Fortson
(2004), Clackson (2007), among others attribute their development to a late innovation,
probably a Graeco-Aryan one. For a reconstruction of a PIE moods in the perfect, see Beekes
(1995), Ringe (2006). Given that Northwestern dialects tended to merge later perfect, aorist
and imperfect into a common preterite, it is probably safe to assume that in any case mood
distinctions for the perfect were not much used in NWIE.
ii With the future we refer to the post-LIE stem incorporated into the conjugation of a certain
verb. Those desideratives with present stems in thematic -s- reconstructed for LIE (of which
the LIV cites more than 100 examples, with almost 40 of them certain) could have in turn
their own present, aorist, perfect, and even future stems.
The general mood system might be so depicted:
253
Indicative Imperative Optative Subjunctive

action commands wishes, hopes action described as
Function described completely
as fact theoretical
default not conjugated in ablauting athematic thematic -e/o-
Charact. mood the first person -ī/jē-, thematic -oi- suffix affixed to
special personal affixed to stem stem
endings secondary endings primary endings
7.5.2. IMPERATIVE
The imperative, used to express direct commands, had probably in PIH the same
basic stem of the indicative, and was used without ending, in a simple expressive-
impressive function, of exclamation or order. Imperatives are the equivalent in verbal
inflection to the vocative in nominal declension.
NOTE. In Late Indo-European a new system was derived from this older scheme, a more
complex imperative system, featuring person, tense and even voice.
The general athematic 2nd sg. imperative ending was -∅; as in ei! go! from eimi; or
es! be! from esmi. An ending -dhí seems to have been common in LIE too; as, i-
dhí! go!, s-dhí! be!
The thematic 2nd singular imperative was the bare thematic stem; bhere! carry!,
age! do! act! The 2nd pl. ends in -te, as bhérete! carry!, agete! do! act!
The thematic and athematic 3rd sg. and 3rd pl. have a special ending -tōd.
NOTE. Endings in *-u, i.e. 3rd sg. *-tu, 3rd pl. *-ntu, are also reconstructed (see Beekes 1995)
from forms like Hitt. paiddu ‗let him go‘, or Skt. é-tu, ‗go‘; the inclusion of that ending within
the verbal system is, however, difficult. A common IE ending -tōd (cf. Skt. -t t, Gk. -tō, O.Lat.
-tōd, Celtib. -tuz, Goth. -dau), on the other hand, may obviously be explained as the
introduction into the verbal conjugation of a secondary ablative form of the neuter pronoun
tod, this, a logical addition to an imperative formation, with the sense of ‗here‟, hence ‗now‟,
just as the addition of -i, ‗here and now‘ to oppose new endings to the older desinences
(Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza 1995-1998, Fortson 2004). This formation was further
specialised in some dialects as future imperatives.
In root athematic verbs, plural forms show ∅ vowel and accent on the ending; as, s-
entōd! be they!
254
7. Verbs
For Late Indo-European, only the person distinctions of the active voice are
reconstructed with certainty. Common middle forms include the bare stems plus
middle desinences; as, 2nd sg. -s(w)e/o (cf. Skt. -sva, Gk. lúou<*lúe-so, Lat.
sequere<*seque-se, Ira. *-swe/o), 2nd pl. -dhwe, cf. Gk. lúes-the, O.Ind. bháva-
dhvam. Beekes (1995), Sihler (1995).
Athem. Them. Middle

2. -∅, (-dhí) -e -so
Sg.
3. -tōd -etōd (-to)
2. -te -ete -dhwe
Pl.
3. -ṇtōd -ontōd (-nto)
NOTE. Forms for the 3rd person are uncertain, although a common sg. -tōd (from the active
voice) is reconstructed; cf. Skt. -tāt, Gk. -sthō (sth- from plural and -ō from tōd), Lat. -tōd.
Middle secondary endings 3rd sg. -to, 3rd pl. -nto, are tentatively reconstructed by Beekes
(1995) as imperative marks with basis on the Sanskrit (-tām, -ntām) and Hittite (-taru, -
antaru) endings.
7.5.3. SUBJUNCTIVE
1. The subjunctive is normally formed by the addition of the thematic vowel to the
verb stem (be it athematic or already thematic), followed apparently by primary
endings (although in Indo-Iranian both primary and secondary endings were used).
The subjunctives made from thematic verbs end therefore usually in so-called
‗doubled‘ thematic vowels, i.e. -ē, -ō, and -ā, always opposed to the indicative. These
are sometimes called athematic subjunctives.
NOTE. The reader should take on account that the classification of forms in -ā, -ē, -ō, as
―athematic‖ is purely conventional; so, for example, Dahl considers them as two thematic stem
allomorphs, terming them long-vowel-subjunctive [=athematic] against short-vowel-
subjunctive [=thematic]. See <http://folk.uio.no/eysteind/PaperICHL.pdf>.
2. The subjunctive always has full grade in the root, and is usually made following
these rules:
a. Indicative athematic vs. subjunctive thematic; as, ind. esmi, I am, senti, they
are, subj. esō, (if) I be.
b. Indicative thematic vs. subjunctive with lengthened thematic vowel; as, ind.
bhéresi, you carry, Sub. bhérēsi, you may carry, (if) you carried.
255
NOTE. Following Meier-Brügger, ―[t]he subjunctive suffix is PIE *-e-, In the case of
athematic verbal stems, the rule is [where K=Consonant] -K+∅- (indicative stem), -K+e-
(subjunctive stem); correspondingly, that of thematic verbs is -e+∅ - (indicative stem), -e+e-
(subjunctive stem).‖
3. Subjunctives could also be formed in the same way from root and s-aorists,
where likewise the full grade of the aorist stem was used (Fortson 2004).
NOTE. As indicated by first-person subjunctives like Ved. krṇavā ‗I will do‘, Old Avestan
yaojā ‗I will yoke‘, Gk. phérō ‗let me carry‘, and Lat. erō ‗I will be‘, the 1st singular ended in -ō
rather than -mi (Fortson 2004).
7.5.4. OPTATIVE
The optative mood is a volitive mood that signals wishing or hoping, as in English I
wish I might, I hope it may, I wish you could, etc. It is made with the following
suffix, and secondary endings.
1) In the athematic flexion, a general alternating suffix -jē-/-ī- with full-grade in
the singular and 3rd pl. and zero-grade elsewhere; as, s-jḗ-m, may I be, s-ī-
mé, may we be, es-ī-nt, may they be.
NOTE. ―The stress was on the ending in the 1st and 2nd pl. forms of the mobile paradigms,
and evidently also in the sg. forms of the middle voice, but not in the 3rd pl. forms, where a
number of indications point to original root stress‖, as Lat. velint, Goth. wileina, and O.C.S.
velętъ. But, Vedic -ur appears ―in all those athematic forms where the stress is either on the
root or on a preceding syllable‖. See <https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/2878>,
Kortlandt (1992).
2) When the stress is fixed, it is -oi- in the thematic flexion, and -ī- in the
athematic (e.g. Narten presents); as, bher-oi-t, may he carry.
NOTE. This is probably the thematic -o- plus the zero-grade Optative suffix -i- (<*i-h1-), i.e.
originally *-o-ih1-, or maybe *-o-jh1-, see Hoffmann (1976). Optative endings might yield a
reconstruction of vocalic resonants in PII, PGk from -o-jṃ, -o-jṇt.
3) In the 1st person middle the thematic ending is found (cf. Skt. bruv-īyá); as, s-
īj-á, bhér-oj-a.
Athematic stems have usually root vowel in zero-grade, while thematic stems show
no ablaut.
NOTE. For athematic optatives form the present with zero-grade; cf. Lat. siēm, duim, Gk.
ιζηαιην, διδοιην, ηιθειην, O.Ind. syaam (asmi), dvisyām (dvesmi), iyām (emi), juhuyām
256
7. Verbs
(juhkomi), sunuykām (sunomi), rundhyām (runadhmi), kuryām (karomi), krīnīyām

(krīnāmi), etc. Exceptions are Lat. uelim (not uulim), Goth. (concave) wiljau, wileis, etc.
7.7. NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS
7.7.1. INFINITIVES
1. The infinitives are indeclinable nouns with non-personal verbal functions, which
can be as many as inflection, voice, aspect and even time.
2. The oldest infinitives are the verbal nouns, casual forms inflected as nouns,
sometimes included in the verbal inflection. A verbal noun is a declinable
substantive, derived from the root of a verb.
NOTE. Infinitives are, thus, old nouns reinterpreted as forming part of the verbal
conjugation, probably within the Late Indo-European period. As Meier-Brügger (2003) notes,
―The development of means of differentiation of voice, aspect, and tempus in the infinitive
formations is post-Proto-Indo-European.‖
The difference in syntax is important: the verbal noun is constructed as a

substantive, thus e.g. with the object in the genitive; as, wīrosjo chentis, the
murder of a man. Such a formation is opposed to an infinitive with an accusative; as,
wīróm chentum, to murder a man.
3. Verbal nouns were, thus, the normal way to express the idea of a modern
infinitive in PIE. They were formed with the verbal stem and usually a nominal
suffixes -ti-, -tu-; as, statis (<*sth2-ti-), standing, placing, from stā- (<*steh2-)
stand; cem-tus, coming, from cem-, come.
NOTE. Cf. Skt sthíti- ‗stay, sojourn‘, Grk stásis ‗place, setting, erection [of a statue]‘, Lat
statim ‗firmly, steadfastly‘, Eng. stead. Mallory–Adams (2007). Some IE dialects chose later
between limited noun-cases of those verbal nouns for the infinitive formation, generally Acc.,
Loc., Abl.; compare Lat. *-os (sibilant neuter), Gmc. *-on-om (thematic neuter), etc.
4. In Late Indo-European, a common infinitive suffix -tu- (and more limited -ti-)
seems to have been usually added to the accented strong verbal root, conveying the
same meaning as the English infinitive; as, stātum, to stay, opposed to the weak,
unaccented form in participle statós, placed.
NOTE. For generalised IE infinitive formation in -tu [generally -tu-m, i.e. the accusative of
the abstract noun suffix -tu-, often called supine (solely used with verbs of motion to indicate
purpose)], cf. Skt. -tus, -tum (acc.), Gk. -tós (<*-tew-os), Av. -tos (gen.), -tave, -tavai (dat.), -
257
tum, Lat. (active & passive supine) -tum (acc.) -tū (dat.-loc.) -tui (dat.), Prus. -twei (dat.) -tun,
-ton (acc.), O.Sla. -tŭ (supine), Lith. -tų, etc.; for -ti-, cf. Ved. -taye (dat), BSl., Cel. -ti (loc.),
Lith. -tie (dat.), etc.; also, in -m-en-, cf. Skt. -mane, O.Gk. -men(ai), etc.
Also, a common ending -dhjāi added to the verbal stem formed common middle
infinitives.
NOTE. The reconstructed -dhjāi (Haudry), is the basic form behind Ved. -dhyai, Gk.
Middle -ζθαι, Umb. -fi, Toch. -tsi, as well as Latin gerunds and the Germanic *-dhjōi (Rix
1979), all related to an original middle infinitive (Beekes 1995, Sihler 1995), although
appearing in both active and passive formations (Fortson 2004). Other forms include -u-, -
er/n-, -(e)s-, extended -s-, -u-, -m-, also Gmc. -no- (as Goth. ita-n<*edo-no-), Arm. -lo-, etc.
7.7.2. PARTICIPLES
1. The participles are adjectives which have been assimilated to the verbal system,
expressing tense and voice; like other adjectives, they have nominal inflection.
NOTE. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European shows an intense reliance on participles,

and thus a certain number of participles played a very important role in the early language.
2. Those in -nt-, fem. -nt-ja/ī, are the older ones, and form participles of active
voice to present or aorist stems.
NOTE. In Anatolian, this participle is semantically equivalent to verbal adjectives in -tó-.
In athematics it seems that an ablauting suffix -e/ont with full and zero grade
coexisted in the declension of present participles; cf. s-ent-(also s-ont-)/s-ṇt-, who
exist, being, weq-ont-/uq-ṇt-, who speaks, speaking, dhe-dhē-nt-/dhe-dha-nt-,
placing, jung-ent-/jung-ṇt-, joining, d-ent-, eating (from which dentis, tooth), j-
ent-, going, chn-ent-, killing, ag-ent-, driving, guiding, etc.
NOTE. For s-ṇt- instead of sent-, cf. ap-sṇt- (for apo-we-s-ent-is) in Lat. (ab)sent-,
Myc. pl. (a-p)e-a-sa, i.e. ap-ehassai (with -assa-<*-ṇt-ih2-). A. Morpurgo Davies (1978,
reviewed in Meier-Brügger 2003) considered that ―[a]s far as we know, there is no reason to
attribute *h1s-ent- to Proto-Greek.‖
In thematics, a form -o-nt- (i.e. -nt added to the thematic vowel) is generalised as,
bher-ont-, who carries, carrying.
NOTE. The suffix -o-nt- shows no generalised ablaut full-grade/zero-grade paradigm in

IEDs. It is safe to assume no accent-ablaut change for North-West IE, and probably also for
LIE, as ―[i]t remains to be seen whether the thematic forms were originally declined as *-ont-
258
7. Verbs
/*-nt- (as in Vedic), and were only secondarily reinterpreted as *-o-nt-‖, as some have posited;
Meier-Brügger, 2003 (reviewing Rix 1976, Szemerényi 1990).
Also, some questions about the participles are not easily reconciled: in Latin, they are
formed with e ending for stems in -i-; in Greek, they are formed in o and are consonantal
stems. Greek, on the other hand, still shows remains of the thematic vowel in participles of
verba vocalia -ājont-, -ējont-, etc. Latin doesn‘t.
Aorist active participles were formed similarly to present participles, as the root
aorist participle stā-nt-, having stood (cf. Ved. sthānt-, Gk. stant-), s-aorist dhech-
s-ṇt- [‗dhek-snt], having burnt, dḗik-s-ṇt-, having indicated,
3. The perfect active participle has an ablauting suffix -wos-/-us-, fem. -us-ja/ī;
as, weid-wós-, wid-us-ja, knowing, ‗who is in a state of having seen‟, from weid-,
see; bher-wós-, ‗who is in a state of having carried‟. Common is the reduplicated
Perfect stem; as, qe-qṛ-wós-, making, from qer-.
For the declension of these participles in -nt- and -wos-, see above §5.2.
4. The middle participles have a common suffix -mṇo- for athematic, -o-mṇo in
thematics; as, bhéro-mṇos, carrying (oneself, for oneself), álo-mṇos, who feeds
himself, nurtured, from alō, raise, feed (cf. Lat. alumnus), dhē-mṇā, the one who
gives suck, from dhē-i-, suck (milk), suckle (as Av. daēnu-, Lat. femina, ‗woman‘).
NOTE. On the *-mXno- question, where X is a vowel or laryngeal or even laryngeal+vowel,

while Melchert (1983) or Szemerényi (1990) support an original -mn-o-, a competing
hypothesis is Fritz‘s one with an original *-mh1eno-, into variants *-mh1no- and then -mno-, in
which ―the laryngeal disappears when the suffix is added to a root or stem with a non-syllabic
final position preceding the full vowel e. The non-laryngeal full grade form *-meno- would
then have the newly constructed zero grade form *-mno-‖ (Meier-Brügger 2003). The
differentiation of the perfect *-mh1n-ó- vs. the present *´-o-mh1no- in the various IE
languages may be traced back to the athematic/thematic dichotomy (Rix 1976). For an
explanation on the auxiliary vowel in Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998), see §2.3.
5. In addition to participles, PIE had verbal adjectives in -tó- and -nó-, added
usually to the zero-grade of a verbal stem that indicated completed action, and were
semantically like past participles in English. If the verb they were formed from was
transitive (like eat), the verbal adjective was passive and past in tense (eaten), but if
the verb was intransitive (like go), the verbal adjective was simply past in tense
(gone) Fortson (2004). Examples include chṇ-tós, slain, from transitive chenmi,
259
murder, cf. Skt. hatá-, Gk. -phatós, sjū-tós, sewn, from sisō, tṇ-tós, stretched,
klutós, heard; cṃ-tós, (having) come, from intransitive cemjō, come.
a. General -tó-, added usually to zero-grade roots; as, altós, grown, dhatós,
placed, kaptós, taken, liqtós, left, etc. Exceptions include e.g. gnōtós, having
been understood.
b. Old (not generalised) -nó- and its variants; as, plēnós, ‗(having been) filled
up‟, full, bhidhnós, „having been split‟, parted, bitten; wṛgnós, worked.
NOTE. For plēnós, from pel-, fill, an adjective which was not part of the verbal paradigm,
cf. Skt. pūrṇá-, Lat. plēnus (vs. past participle –plētus ‗filled‘), Goth. fulls (double -ll- < *-ln-),
O.Ir. lán, Lith. pìlnas. Also, the common PIE verb is found from this root, plḗnāmi, fill, cf.
O.Ind. pṛn ti Goth. fullnan, Ger. füllen, O.Ir. lín(a)im, Arm. lnum, and root Gk. píplēmi.
Verbal adjectives in -mó-, -ló-, functioned as past participles in individual languages; as,
present passive participle in Balto-Slavic -mo-, cf. O.C.S. nĕsomŭ, Lith. nēšamas ‗being
carried‘, perhaps Anatolian, cf. Luv. kīšammi- ‗combed‘. For its old use, cf. prāmós,
foremost, first, from per-, v.s. §5.5.2; however, Latin prīmus is usually reconstructed as from
prei-isamós (cf. Paelignian pr smū), but possibly superlative pṛw-isamós, from the same
root as common PIE prāmos, prāwos, first, is the solution (see Szemerényi 1970, Adrados–
Bernabé–Mendoza 1995-1998).
7.7.3. GERUNDIVES AND ABSOLUTIVES
1. Verbal adjectives are not assimilated to the verbal system of tense and voice.
Those which indicate need or possibility are called gerundives.
NOTE. Verbal adjectives and adjectives (as verbal nouns and nouns) cannot be easily
differentiated.
2. Whereas the same participle suffixes are found, i.e. -tó-, -nó-, -mó-, there are
two forms especially identified with gerundives in IEDs:
a. -ló- and -li- are found in Latin, Balto-Slavic, Tocharian and Armenian; as,
ṇbherelós, unbearable, ágilis, agile, etc.
NOTE. For suffix -lo- as a participle suffix, cf. Russ. videlŭ, Lat. credulus, bibulus, tremulus,
etc.
b. -jó- (a common lengthening to differentiate adjectives) is sometimes a

gerundive of obligation, as well as forms in -tu-, -ti-, -ndho-, etc.; as, dhṛsjós,
260
7. Verbs
that has to be dared; gnōtinós, that has to be known; gn skendhos, that has to
be born, awisdhíjendhos, that has to be heard; and so on.
NOTE. Some forms in -ndhos seem to retain a so-called fossil proto-gerundive (Meiser
1998), from an archaic ending *-dnós, whose meaning lack the passive obligation common to
the gerundive; so e.g. *mlāje-dnós>O. Lat. *blandos, *rotodnós (Lat. rotundus), round, or
*seqodnós (Lat. secundus). Outside Latin it is possibly found e.g. in Gk. tēkedṓ ‗consumption‘
or *phagedṓn (cf. Gk. phagédaina ‗gangrene‘); see Blanc (2004) in
<http://www.cairn.info/publications-de-Blanc-Alain--7916.htm>.
Jasanoff dismisses this so-called lex unda, proposing an ‗original‘ -tino-, in his article
<http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~jasanoff/pdf/Latin%20gerundive%20(preprint).pdf>.
We would have then a group of passive participles-gerundives, which indicate
possibility/obligation, built by agglutination of two suffixes; as, -ti-no-, -i-jo- (cf. O.Ind.
ramanīya, miśranīya), -tew-(ij)o-, -ti-mo- (cf. Gk. aidesimos), O.C.S.
pečalьnъ ‗deplorable‘ (cf. O.Ir. fedelm), Lat. amābilis, etc. Jasanoff also presents abstracts in
-(n)ti-, which are behind the Latin gerund.
c. A future (or obligation) passive gerundive ending, -téw(ij)os, existed in Late

Indo-European; as, legtéw(ij)os, which has to be said, read or gathered. Because
of its passive use, it may be used only with transitive verbs.
NOTE. For the absolutive use of -téw(ij)os, cf. Gk. -ηος, -ηεος, O.Ind. -tavya, O.Ir. -the,
etc., probably all from verbal adjectives in -tu-, full grade -tew-, usually lengthened with
common gerundive ending -ij-.
d. -mṇ, with a general meaning of ‗able‘; as, mnāmṇ, mindful.
NOTE. For the ‗internal derivation‘ (after the German and Austrian schools) of this PIE
suffix -mṇ→*-mon, cf. Gk. mnẽma < mń-mṇ ‗reminder‘, Gk. mnḗmon < mnāmṇ ‗who
remembers‘; compare also Skt. bráhman ‗prayer‘, Skt. brahmán ‗brahman‘, etc.
3. The adverbial, not inflected verbal adjectives are called absolutives or gerunds.
They were usually derived from older gerundives.
NOTE. PIE speakers had to use verbal periphrases or other resources to express the idea of a
modern gerund, as there were no common reconstructible PIE gerunds. Just like verbal nouns
were the usual basis to express the idea of infinitives, verbal adjectives (and especially
gerundives) were a common PIE starting point to create gerunds.
261
7.8. CONJUGATED EXAMPLES
7.8.1. THEMATIC VERBS
I. PRESENT STEM
ACTIVE
loutum, to wash (present stem low-o-)
Indicative Subjunctive Optative Imperative IMPERFECT

lowō lowō lowoim - lowom
Sg. lówesi lówēsi lowois lowe lowes

lóweti lówēti lowoit lówetōd lowet
lówomos lówōmos lówoime - lówomo
Pl. lówete lówēte lówoite lówete lówete

lówonti lówōnti lowoint lówontōd lowont
deiktum, to show (present stem deik-o-)

deikō deikō deikoim - deikom
Sg. déikesi déikēsi deikois deike deikes

déiketi déikēti deikoit déiketōd deiket
déikomos déikōmos déikoime - déikome
Pl. déikete déikēte déikoite déikete deikete

déikonti déikōnti deikoint déikontōd déikont
weistum (<weid-tum), to see (present stem wid-ḗjo-)

Sg. widējō widējō widējoim - widējom
widḗjesi widḗjēsi widējois widēje widējes
widḗjeti widḗjēti widējoit widḗjetōd widējet
Pl. widḗjomos widḗjōmos widḗjoime - widḗjomo
widḗjete widḗjēte widḗjoite widḗjete widḗjete
widḗjonti widḗjōnti widējoint widḗjontōd widḗjont
262
7. Verbs
MIDDLE-PASSIVE
loutum, to wash (present stem low-o-)
Indicative Subjunctive Optative IMPERFECT

lowar lówōmar lówoima lowa
Sg. lówesor lówēsor lówoiso lóweso

lówetor lówētor lówoito lóweto
lówomesdha lówōmesdha lówoimedha lówomedha
Pl. lówedhwe lówēdhwe lówoidhwe lówedhwe

lówontor lówōntor lówointo lówonto
deiktum, to show (present stem deik-o-)

deikar déikōmar déikoima deika
Sg. déikesor déikēsor déikoiso déikeso

déiketor déikētor déikoito déiketo
déikomesdha déikōmesdha déikoimedha déikomedha
Pl. déikedhwe déikēdhwe déikoidhwe déikedhwe

déikontor déikōntor déikointo déikonto
weistum, to see (present stem wid-ḗjo-)

widējar widḗjōmar widḗjoima widēja
Sg. widḗjesor widḗjēsor widḗjoiso widḗjeso

widḗjetor widḗjētor widḗjoito widḗjeto
widḗjomesdha widḗjōmesdha widḗjoimedha widḗjomedha
Pl. widḗjedhwe widḗjēdhwe widḗjoidhwe widḗjedhwe

widḗjontor widḗjōntor widḗjointo widḗjonto
263
II. AORIST STEM
ACTIVE
loutum, to wash (aorist stem sigmatic lou-s-)
Indicative Subjunctive Optative

lousṃ lousō lousīm
Sg. lous lousesi lousīs

loust louseti lousīt
lousme lóusomos lóusīme
Pl. louste lóusete lóusīte

lousṇt lousonti lousīnt
deiktum, to show (aorist stem dik-ó-, zero-grade)

dikóm dikṓ dikóim
Sg. dikés dikḗsi dikóis

dikét dikḗti dikóit
dikome dikōmos dikoime
Pl. dikete dikēte dikoite

dikónt dikṓnti dikóint
NOTE. For original dikóm, cf. diśáti, Gk. ἄδικος, etc.
weistum, to see (aorist stem wid-ó-, zero-grade)

widóm widṓ widóim
Sg. widés widḗsi widóis

widét widḗti widóit
widome widōmos widoime
Pl. widete widēte widoite

widónt widṓnti widóint
NOTE. For PIE accent on the optative suffix, following the accent on the thematic vowel of
certain Aorist formations, cf. O.Ind. them. aor. opt. sg. vidé-s (<*widói-s).
264
7. Verbs
MIDDLE-PASSIVE
loutum, to wash (aorist stem lou-s-, sigmatic)

lousma lousar lóusīma
Sg. louso lóusesor lóusīso

lousto lóusetor lóusīto
lóusmedha lóusomesdhā lóusīmedha
Pl. lousdhwe lóusedhwe lóusīdhwe

lousṇto lóusontor lóusīnto
deiktum, to show (aorist stem dik-ó-, zero-grade)

diká dik r dikoima
Sg. dikeso dikēsor dikóiso

diketo dikētor dikoito
dikómedha dikṓmesdhā dikóimedha
Pl. dikedhwe dikēdhwe dikoidhwe

dikonto dikōntor dikointo
weistum, to see (aorist stem wid-ó-, zero-grade)

widá wid r widoima
Sg. wideso widḗsor widoiso

wideto widētor widoito
widómedha widṓmesdhā widóimedha
Pl. widedhwe widēdhwe widoidhwe

widonto widōntor widointo
265
III. PERFECT STEM
loutum, to wash (perfect stem lōu-/lou-)

lōwa lōwō loujḗm
Sg. lōutha lōwēsi loujḗs

lōwe lōwēti loujḗt
loumé lṓwōmos lowīmé
Pl. louté lṓwēte lowīté

lowḗr lōwōnti low nt
deiktum, to show (perfect stem doik-/dik-)

doika doikō dikjḗm
Sg. doiktha doikesi dikjḗs

doike doiketi dikjḗt
dikmé dóikomos dikīmé
Pl. dikté dóikete dikīté

dikḗr doikonti dik nt
weistum, to see (perfect stem woid-/wid-, know)

woida woidō widjḗm
Sg. woisthai woidesi widjḗs

woide woideti widjḗt
widmé wóidomos widīme
Pl. wistéii wóidete widīte

widḗr woidonti wid nt
i From woid-tha. ii From wid-té.
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7. Verbs
7.8.2. ATHEMATIC INFLECTION
I. PRESENT STEM
ACTIVE
estum, to be (present stem es-/s-)

esmi esō sjēm - esṃ
Sg. esi ésesi sjēs es/sdhí es

esti éseti sjēt estōd est
smes ésomes sīme - sme
Pl. ste ésete sīte (e)ste ste

senti esonti sīnt sentōd sent
NOTE. Proto-Indo-European verb es-, be, exist, originally built only a durative aspect of
present, and was therefore supported in some dialects (as Gmc., Sla., Lat.) by the root bheu-,
be, exist, which helped to build some future and past formations.
kleutum, to hear (present stem kḷneu-/kḷnu-, with nasal infix)
Indicative Subjunctive Optative Imperative IMPERF.

kḷneumi kḷnewō kḷnujḗm - kḷnewṃ
Sg. kḷneusi kḷnéwesi kḷnujḗs kḷnéu/kḷnudhí kḷnéus

kḷneuti kḷnéweti kḷnujḗt kḷneutōd kḷnéut
kḷnumés kḷnéwomos kḷnwīmé - kḷnumé
Pl. kḷnuté kḷnéwete kḷnwīté kḷnuté kḷnuté

kḷnunti kḷnéwonti kḷnewīnt klnwentōd kḷnúnt
NOTE. Indicative forms could have possibly been read with a columnar accent in a post-Late
Indo-European period, i.e. kḷnumes, kḷnute, opt. kḷnwīme, kḷnwīte, imp. kḷnudhi, as in
Greek.
The 3rd pl. optative had full-grade root vowel, see Kortlandt (1992), Beekes (1995).
267
stātum, to stand (present stem (si)stā-/(si)sta-, reduplicated)

(sí)stāmi stájō (si)stajḗm - (si)stām
Sg. (sí)stāsi stájesi (si)stajḗs stā/stadhí (si)stās

(sí)stāti stájeti (si)stajḗt stātōd (si)stāt
(si)stamés stájomos (si)staīmé - (si)stamé
Pl. (si)staté stájete (si)staīté staté (si)staté

(si)stanti stájonti (si)sta nt stanti (si)stant
NOTE. Indicative forms were possibly read in post-LIE period with columnar accent, as
sístames, sístate, etc. or stames, state, etc.
The optative formations show zero-grade stem sta-, and the accent is written to distinguish -
a-ī- from a diphthong -aī-.
For sta-jo- as a thematic subjunctive (cf. O. Gk. subj. 1st pl. ζηείοκελ (< PGk stejo- < LIE
*stəjo- > NWIE stajo-), from Gk. ἵζηεκη; also, ζείοκελ (<PGk dhejo- < LIE *dhəjo- > NWIE
dhajo-) from ηίζεκη, IE dhē-; δείοκελ (<PGk dejo- < LIE *dəjo- > NWIE dajo-) from Gk.
δίδωκη, IE dō; and so on.
MIDDLE-PASSIVE
kleutum, to hear (present stem kḷneu-/kḷnu-, with nasal infix)

kḷnumár kḷnéwomar kḷnwīmá kḷnumá
Sg. kḷnusór kḷnéwesor kḷnwīsó kḷnusó

kḷnutór kḷnéwetor kḷnwītó kḷnutó
kḷnumesdha kḷnéwomesdha kḷnwīmedha kḷnumédha
Pl. kḷnudhwé kḷnéwedhwe kḷnwīdhwé kḷnudhwé

kḷnuntór kḷnéwontor kḷnwīntó kḷnuntó
NOTE. In a post-LIE period a common columnar accent would have been also possible; viz.
kḷnumar, kḷnusor, etc.
268
7. Verbs
stātum, to stand (present stem (si)stā-/(si)sta-, reduplicated)

(si)stamár stájomar (si)staīmá (si)stama
Sg. (si)stasór stájesor (si)staīsó (si)staso

(si)statór stájetor (si)staītó (si)stato
(si)stamesdha stájomesdha (si)staīmedha (si)stámedha
Pl. (si)stadhwé stájedhwe (si)staīdhwé (si)stadhwe

(si)stantor stájontor (si)staīntó (si)stanto
II. AORIST STEM
ACTIVE
kleutum, to hear (aorist klew-/klu-)

klewom klewō klujḗm
Sg. klewes kléwēsi klujḗs

klewet kléwēti klujḗt
klwome kléwōmos klwīmé
Pl. klwete kléwēte klwīté

klwont kléwōnti klwīnt
NOTE. For aorist klew-/klu- cf. Gk. ἔ-θιπνλ, O.Ind. áśrot.
stātum, to stand (aorist stem stā-)

stām stajō stajḗm
Sg. stās stajesi stajḗs

stāt stajeti stajḗt
stamé stájomos staīmé
Pl. staté stájete staīté

st nt stajonti staīnt
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MIDDLE-PASSIVE
kleutum, to hear (aorist stem kluw-)

klwá kléwomar klwīmá
Sg. klwesó kléwēsor klwīsó

klwetó kléwētor klwītó
klwomesdha kléwōmesdha klwīmedha
Pl. klwedhwé kléwēdhwe klwīdhwé

klwontó kléwōntor klwīntó
stātum, to stand (aorist stem stā-)

stamá stajar staīmá
Sg. stasó stájesor staīsó

stató stájetor staītó
stamedha stájomesdha staīmedha
Pl. stadhwé stájedhwe staīdhwé

stantó stájontor staīntó
III. PERFECT STEM
kleutum, to hear (perfect stem ké-klou-/ké-klu-, reduplicated)

kéklowa kéklowō keklujḗm
Sg. kékloutha kéklowesi keklujḗs

kéklowe kékloweti keklujḗt
keklumé kéklowomos keklwīmé
Pl. kekluté kéklowete keklwīté

keklwḗr kéklowonti keklw nt
270
7. Verbs
stātum, to stand (perfect stem se-stā-/se-sta-, reduplicated)

sestā séstājō sestajḗm
Sg. séstātha séstājesi sestajḗs

sestā séstājeti sestajḗt
sestamé séstājomos sestaīmé
Pl. sestaté séstājete sestaīté

sest r séstājonti sesta nt
NOTE. For reduplicated s(t)e-sta-, cf. O.Ind. perf. tastháu, Av. -šastarə, Gk. héstamen,
O.Ir. -sestar.
7.8.3. COMMON PIE STEMS
I. THEMATIC VERBS
1. Root:
o Present lowō, I wash, aorist lousṃ, perfect lélowa.

o Present serpō, I crawl, aorist sṛpóm.
o Present bherō, I carry, aorist bhērm, perfect bhébhora.
o Present bheugō, I flee, aorist bhugóm.
o Present bheidhō, I believe, persuade, aorist bhidhom.
o Present weqō, I speak, aorist (them. redupl.) weuqom.
o Present tremō, I tremble, aorist tṛmom.
NOTE. A particular sub-class of thematic presents without suffix is of the type Skt. tudáti,
which have present stems with zero-grade root-vowel, as glubhō/gleubhō, skin.
2. Reduplicated:
There are many reduplicated thematic stems, analogous to the athematic ones:
o Present gignō, I beget, (from gen-), aorist gnom/genóm, perfect gégona,

p.part. gnātós.
NOTE. For gnātós, cf. O.Ind. jātás, Av. zāta-; Lat. nātus, Pael. cnatois, Gaul. f. gnātha
―daughter‖; O.N. kundr ―son‖, also in compound, cf. Goth. -kunds, ― be a descendant of ―, O.E.
-kund, O.N. -kunnr.
o Present pibō, I drink (<reduplicated pí-pō, from pōi-).

o Present mimnō, I remember, (from men-).
271
3. In -je/o-, some of them are causatives:
o Present spekjō, I watch, aorist speksṃ, p.part. spektós.

o Present tenjō, I stretch, aorist tnom/tenóm, perfect tétona, p.part. tṇtós.
4. Verba vocalia:
o Present widējō, I see, I know, aorist widóm, perfect woida p.part. wistós
(<wid-tós).
o Present monejō, I make think, warn, as Lat. moneo, from men-, think.
o Present tromejō, I make tremble, from trem-, tremble.
5. In -ske/o-:
o Present pṛkskṓ, I ask, demand, inquire (cf. Lat. posco, Ger. forschen) from
prek-, ask.
o Present gnāskar, I am born (cf. Lat. gnascor), p.part. gnātós, from zero-
grade of gnō-, beget.
o Present (gí)gnoskō, I begin to know, I learn, from gnō-, know.
6. With nasal infix:
o Present jungō, join (from jeug-), aorist jeugom; p.part. jugtós.
NOTE. Compare O.H.G. (untar-)jauhta (as Lat. sub-jugaui), Lat. jungō, -ere, -nxi, -nctus,
Gk. δεύγλῡκη, δεῦμαη δπγελαη; O.Ind. yunákti (3. Pl. yunjánti = Lat. jungunt), yunjati, full-
grade yōjayati (<jeugējeti); Av. yaoj-, yuj-; Lit. jùngiu, jùngti, etc. For past participles (with
and without present infix -n-), compare O.E. geoht, iukt, Lat. junctus, Gk. δεπζεόν, O.Ind.
yuktá-, Av. yuxta-, Lit. jùngtas, etc.
II. ATHEMATIC VERBS
1. Root: They are the most archaic PIE verbs, and their present conjugation is of the
old type singular root vowel in full-grade, plural root vowel in zero-grade.
o Present esmi, I am.

o Present eimi, I go.
o Present bhāmi, I speak.
NOTE. The verb talk is sometimes reconstructed as PIE *āmi, I talk, and imperfect *ām, I
talked/have talked; for evidence of an original ag(h)-jō, compare Lat. aiō, Gk. ην, Umb. aiu,
Arm. asem. Thus, this paradigm would rather be thematic, i.e. present ag(h)jō, I talk, vs.
imperfect ag(h)jóm, I talked/have talked.
272
7. Verbs
o Present edmi, I eat.

NOTE. Note that its early present participle dent-, ―eating‖, was frozen as substantive
dentis, meaning ―tooth‖.
o Present welmi, I want.
2. Reduplicated:
o Present (sí)stāmi (from stā-, stand), aorist stām, p.part. statós.

o Present déidikmi (from deik-, show), aorist dēiksṃ, perfect dédoika,
p.part. diktós.
o Present dhédhēmi (from dhē-, do, make), aorist dhēm, p.part. dhatós.
o Present dídōmi (from dō-, give), aorist dōm, p.part. datós.
o Present jíjēmi, expel, aorist jem.
NOTE. For evidence on an original PIE jíjēmi, and not ˟jíjāmi as it is sometimes
reconstructed, cf. Lat. pret. iēcī, a form due to its two consecutive laryngeals, while Lat. iaciō
is a present remade (J. González Fernández, 1981).
3. With nasal infix:
o kḷnéumi, hear (from kleu-), aorist klewom, perfect kéklowa, p.part.

klutós, heard, also ‗famous‘.
o punémi, rot (from pew), aorist pēwsṃ.
7.9. VERBAL COMPOSITION
Verbs were often combined with adverbs to modify their meaning. Such adverbs
were called preverbs and in the first instance remained separate words. Over time
they tended to join with verbs as prefixes.
NOTE. For more on preverbs, see below §10.6.1.
Occasionally, verbs were compounded with a non-adverbial element, such as a

noun. The most familiar example of this is kréd-dhē-mi, believe, trust, literally
‗place one‟s heart in‘, cf. Vedic Skt. śrád dadhāti, Lat. crēdō, and O.Ir. cretim
(Fortson 2004).
7.10. THE VERBAL ACCENT
The finite verb of a LIE main clause was normally placed following the subject and
the object, at the end of the sentence, where the sentence accent usually decreases.
273
However, when the verb was stressed at the beginning of the sentence, or in a
subordinate clause, it carried its normal accent.
NOTE. Fortson (2004): ―In Vedic Sanskrit, main-clause finite verbs that do not stand at the
beginning of their clause are written in the manuscripts without accent marks. In Greek, the
rules for accenting verbs are different from those for nouns, and resemble the accentuation of
strings of clitics; this suggests an affinity between the prosody of verbs and the prosody of
chains of weakly stressed or unstressed particles. In Germanic heroic poetry, fully stressed
words alliterate with one another, but certain verbs, together with unstressed pronouns and
particles, do not participate in alliteration; this suggests weaker prosodic status for those
verbs. In certain Germanic languages, such as modem German, verbs are required to be the
second syntactic unit in main clauses, which is the same position taken by many unstressed
sentence particles elsewhere in Indo-European (Wackernagel‘s Law)‖.
Meier-Brügger (2003) also states that ―[r]esearchers agree that Vedic generally reflects the
fundamental characteristics of Proto-Indo-European, and thus, that the finite verb in a main
clause was unstressed (…) It remains disputed whether the second position of the finite verb,
common to modern Germanic languages such as German, originated from the inherited
phenomenon of enclitics, or whether it appeared secondarily‖. On that, Wackernagel (1892)
―the German rule of word order was already valid in the mother language‖.
Finite verbs were therefore prosodically deficient in PIE, they could behave as
clitics, i.e. they had no stress and formed an accentual unit with a neighbouring
stressed word. However, they were fully stressed when moved to the front of a clause
for emphasis or contrast, or when occurring in subordinate clauses. See below §10
Syntax.
274
8. Particles
8. PARTICLES
8.1. PARTICLES
8.1.1. Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections are called particles.

They cannot always be distinctly classified, for many adverbs are used also as
prepositions and many as conjunctions.
8.1.2. Strictly speaking, particles are usually defined as autonomous elements,

usually clitics, which make modifications in the verb or sentence, but which don‘t
have a precise meaning, and which are neither adverbs nor preverbs nor
conjunctions.
8.1.3. Indo-European has some particles (in the strictest sense) which mark certain
syntax categories, classified as follows.
8.1.4. Emphatics or generalisers may affect the whole sentence or a single word,
usually a pronoun, but also a noun or verb.
i. The particles -ge/-gi, -ghe/-ghi, usually strengthen the negation, and

emphasise different pronouns; as, egōge, „I (for one), as for myself, I…‟, neghí,
certainly not.
NOTE. The origin of these particles is possibly to be found in the same root as PIE -qe,
acquiring its coordinate value from an older use as word-connector, from which this
intensive/emphatic use was derived. Compare O.Ind. gha, ha, hí, Av. zi, Gk. ge, -gí, -τí, Lith.
gu, gi, O.Sla. -go, že, ži, Also, compare, e.g. for intensive negative neghi, O.Ind. nahí, O.E.
nek, Balt. negi. If compared with Gk. -thé, O.Ind. gha, ha, O.Sla. -že, -go, and related to -qe, a
common PIH particle gwhe/o might tentatively be reconstructed.
ii. e comes probably from the pronoun i-, v.s. §6.5, §6.6. It appears e.g. in e-
djēu, today, e-so, this, etc.
iii. ī, e.g. in num- , now.
iv. ke, here, this, cf. Lith. šè‟, Lat. -c(e), O.Lat. hocce <*hod-ce.
v. u, cf. Skt. u, Gk. hoũtos, Goth. u.
vi. tar, cf. Luv. -tar, Hom. Gk. tar. It appears to have been especially used with
interrogatives, qis tar?, who (indeed)? cf. Luv. kuiš-tar = Hom. Gk. tís tar.
vii. kem, a modal particle; cf. Hitt. -kan, Gk. ke(n), Ved. kám.
8.1.5. Verb modifiers:

275
a. The old -ti had a middle value, i.e. reflexive.

NOTE. This is a very old value, attested in Anatolian, cf. Hitt. za, Pal. -ti, Luw. -ti, Lyd. -(i)t,
Lyc. -t/di.
b. The modal -man, associated with the indicative, expresses potentiality (when
used in present) and irreality (in the past).
NOTE. It is probably the same as the conjunction man, if, and closely related to -ma, but.
c. The negative particle mē, nē, associated with the indicative or forms
indifferent to the moods.
8.1.6. Sentence categorisers indicate the class of sentence, whether negative or

interrogative.
i. Absolute interrogatives were introduced by special particles, generally an.
NOTE. The origin could be the ―non-declarative sense‖ of the sentence. It has been proposed
a common origin with the negative particle ne/ṇ.
ii. Negation has usually two particles, etymologically related:
- Simple negation is made by the particle ne, and lengthened with -i, -n, -d,
etc.; as, emphatic nei, not at all. From the same root is the privative prefix
ṇ-, un- (cf. Hitt. am-, Skt. and Gk. a(n)-, Lat. in-, Eng. un- etc.).
- Mood negation or prohibitive (used with verb forms in negative
commands) is the particle mē, general west IE nē.
NOTE. For PIE mē, compare Gk. κή, O.Ind.,Av.,O.Pers. mā, Toch. mar/mā, Arm. mi, Alb.
mos. In some PIE dialects (as generally in west IE), nē (from ne) fully replaced the function
of mē, cf. Goth. ne, Lat. nē, Ira. ni. It is not clear whether Hitt. lē is ultimately derived from
mē or nē. For ne oinom, not ever, not at all, cf. Lat. nōn, Eng. none, Gk. ou from *ne h2oiu.
8.1.7. Sentence connectives introduce independent sentences or connect different

sentences, or even mark the principal sentence among subordinates.
so and to, which are in the origin of the anaphoric pronoun.
nu, now, which has an adverbial, temporal-consecutive meaning; cf. Skt. nú,
O.C.S. nyne, Lith. nù, Hitt. nu, Gk. nu, Lat. nunc, O.Ir. nu, Goth. nu.
de; postpositive, cf. Gk. dé.
276
8. Particles
ar, and, thus, therefore, an introductory or connective particle, which is possibly

the origin of some coordinate conjunctions; cf. Lith. ir ‗and, also‟, Gk. ra, ar, ára
‗thus, as known‟. Also reconstructed as -ṛ.
ne, thus, cf. Lat. ne, Gk. ne, Skt. ná, Lith. nei.
-pe, cf. Lith. kaĩ-p ‗how‘, Lat. quip-pe ‗because‘.
sma, truly, cf. Skt. smá, Gk. mēn.
swod, as, like, cf. Av. hvat, Goth. swa.
tu, cf. Skt. tú, O.C.S. thu-s, Goth. dau(h), Ger. doch.
8.2. ADVERBS
8.2.1. There is a class of invariable words, able to modify nouns and verbs, adding a
specific meaning, whether semantic or deictic. They can be independent words
(adverbs), prefixes of verbal stems (preverbs) – originally independent but usually
merged with them – and also a nexus between a noun and a verb (appositions),
expressing a non-grammatical relationship, normally put behind, but sometimes
coming before the word.
NOTE. In PIE the three categories are only different uses of the same word class; they were
eventually classified and assigned to only one function and meaning in the different languages
attested. In fact, adverbs are often clearly distinguished from the other two categories in the
history of Indo-European languages, so that they change due to innovation, while preverbs
and appositions remain the same and normally freeze in their oldest attested positions.
8.2.2. Adverbs come usually from old particles which have obtained a specific
deictic meaning. Traditionally, adverbs are deemed to be the result of oblique cases
of old nouns or verbal roots which have frozen in IE dialects, thus loosing inflection.
8.3. DERIVATION OF ADVERBS
8.3.1. Adverbs were regularly formed in PIE from nouns, pronouns and adjectives.
8.3.2. From pronouns we find adverbs made as follows:
i. With a nasal lengthening; as, tām, at that point, jāmi, already, teni, until,
kina, from this side, dom, still, num-, now, nom, so.
NOTE. Those in -ām are interpreted as being originally acc. sg. fem. of independent forms.
ii. An -s lengthening, added to the adverb and not to the basic form, giving
sometimes alternating adverbs; as, ap/aps, ek/eks, ambhí/ambhís, etc.
277
iii. An -r lengthening; as, tor, kir, etc. which is added also to other derived
adverbs. It is less usual than the other two.
NOTE. Compare for such lengthenings Goth. hwar, her, (O.E. where, hier), Lat. cur, O.Ind.
kár-hi, tár-hi, Lith. kur, Hitt. kuwari. Also, IE qor-i, tor-i, kir-i, etc. may show a final
circumstantial -i, probably the same which appears in the oblique cases and in the primary
verbal endings, and which originally meant ‗here and now‘.
8.3.3. Some older adverbs, derived as the above, were in turn specialised as suffixes
for adverb derivation, helping to create compound adverbs from two pronoun stems:
a. From dē, from upwards; as, imde, from there; or nasal -dem.
b. Possibly from root dhē-, put, place, there are two particles which give suffixes
with local meaning ‗here‘, from stems of pronouns, nouns, adverbs and
prepositions, -d(h)em, and -dhei/-dhi; as idhei, there, ṇdhi, in excess.
NOTE. For -dem, cf. Lat. idem, quidam, O.Ind. idān-im; for -dhem, -dhi, Gk. -then, -tha, -
thi.
c. Some adverbial suffixes with mood sense – some with temporal sense, derived
from the older modal; as, ita, so, uta, rather, anta, towards, etc.; and itim,
item, autim, otherwise, uti, out, etc.
NOTE. Compare from PIE -ta (<*-th2), Lat. iti-dem, ut(i), ita, Gk. protí, au-ti, O.Ind. iti,
práti; from -t(i)m, Lat. i-tem, Gk. ei-ta, epei-ta, O.Ind. u-tá.
d. In -d: cf. Lat. probē, Osc. prufēd; O.Ind. pascāt, adharāt, purastāt.
e. In -nim: cf. Osc. enim ‗and‘, O.Ind. tūsnim ‗silently‘, maybe also idānim is
*idā-nim, not *idān-im.
f. In -tos: cf. Lat. funditus, diuinitus, publicitus, penitus; O.Ind. vistarataḥ ‗in
detail‘, samkṣepataḥ, prasangataḥ ‗occasionally‘, nāmattaḥ ‗namely‘, vastutaḥ
‗actually‘, mata ‗by/for me‘.
g. In -ks: cf. Lat. uix, Gk. πεξημ, O.Ind. samyak ‗well‘, prthak ‗separately‘, Hitt.
hudak ‗directly‘.
8.3.4. From nouns and adjectives (usually neuter accusatives), frozen as adverbs
already in Late Indo-European. The older endings to form adverbs are the same as
those above, i.e. generally -i, -u and -(i)m.
Common cases of substantives and adjectives include the following, from which
mainly the accusative and locative were productively used (Beekes 1995):
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8. Particles
The nominative might be behind edjēu, today (cf. Lat. hodiē, O.Ir. indiu, Welsh
heddyw, Skt. ady ).
The accusative singular is found very often in adverbs:
 Of content: One of the most extended adverbs was neuter nominative-

accusative singular of the adjective for ‗great‘, used to mean ‗greatly‘, mega (cf.
Hitt. mēk, Ved. máhi, Gk. méga, O.N. mjǪk); also, we could infer plēim, much,
from plēis, more (cf. Gk. polú, O.C.S. mŭnogo, Lat. multum, Goth. filu).
 Of space or time: prāmom, firstly; éterom, secondly, already seen.
 Of direction: cf. Lat. domum<domom, ‗housewards‟, Skt. dūrám < dūróm,
„in (toward) the distance‟.
 From an apposition: partim, partly.
The genitive is seen in words which indicate place and time; as, noqtjos, at night
(cf. Gk. nuktós, Goth. nahts).
The ablative indicates the origin of something; as, Skt. dūr t < dūród, „from far
away‟.
The locative is often found; as, péruti, in the previous year (cf. Skt. párut, Gk.
peruse, Ir. uraid, M.H.G. vert), témesi, in the dark (cf. Skt. támas, Lat. temere,
‗blindly‘), domoi, at home (cf. Gk. oíkoi, Lat. domi), dhghjesi, yesterday (cf. Skt.
hyás, Alb. dje, Gk. khthés, Lat. herī, O.Ir. in-dé, Goth. gistra-), etc.
The instrumental is found in diwḗ, during the day, noqtī, during the night (cf.
Skt. dívā, O.C.S. nošĭjo i dĭnĭjo).
8.4. PREPOSITIONS
8.4.1. Prepositions were not originally distinguished from adverbs in form or

meaning, but have become specialised in use. Originally postpositions, most
eventually became prepositions, being its original placement attested in Anatolian,
Indo-Iranian, Sabellic, and sometimes in Latin and Greek.
NOTE. They developed comparatively late in the history of language. In the early stages of
the Proto-Indo-European language the cases alone were probably sufficient to indicate the
sense, but, as the force of the case-endings weakened, adverbs were used for greater precision.
These adverbs, from their common association with particular cases, became prepositions; but
many retained also their independent function as adverbs.
279
8.4.2. Prepositions are regularly used either with the accusative or with the oblique
cases.
8.4.3. Some examples of common PIE adverbs/prepositions are:
ad, to, by, near; cf. Lat. ad, Goth. at.
ambhí, on both sides, around; cf. O.Ind. abhí, Gk. amphi, amphis, Lat. am, amb-,
Gaul. ambi, O.Ir. imb-, O.H.G. umbi (as Eng. by, Ger. bei).
ana, to; on, over, above. Cf. O.Ind. ána, Gk. ánō, aná, Goth. ana, O.C.S. na.
antí, opposite, in front. Cf. O.Ind. ánti, átha, Gk. antí, Lat. ante, Goth. and, Lith.
añt; Hitt. ḫanti.
apo, po, from; out. Cf. O.Ind. ápa, Gk. apo, aps, apothen, Lat. ab, abs, po- Goth.
af, Slav. po-.
apóteri, behind.
au-/we-, out, far. Cf. O.Ind. áva, vi-,Lat. au-, uē-, Gk. au, authi, autár, O.Ir. ó, ua,
Toc. -/ot-, O.C.S. u.
dē/dō, from, to . Cf. Skt. -d , Lat. dē, O.Ir. dí, O.C.S. -da. Also behind O.H.G. zādal.
deks(í), at the right side. Cf. Skt. dákṣiṇa-, Lith. dēšinas, Gk. deksiós, deksíteros.
ek(sí) (<*h1egh-s-), out. Cf. Gk. ek(s), Lat. ex, Gaul ex-, O.Ir. ess-.
ektós, except.
en(i)/ṇ, in. Cf. O.Ind. ni, nis, Gk. en, ení, Lat. in, Goth. in, Lith. in, O.C.S. on, vŭ.
enter, between, within, inside; cf. Skt. antár, Lat. inter, O.Ir. eter, O.H.G. untar,
Alb. ndër.
entós, even, also.
epi, opi, pi, on, upon, by, at, towards here, around, circa. Cf. Gk. epi, opi, pi,
O.Ind. ápi, Av. áipi, Lat. ob, op-, -pe, Osc. úp-, Gmc. ap-, ep-, Arm. ev, Lith. ap-, O.Ir.
iar, ía-, ei-, Alb. épërë, etc.
eti, even, also; over. Cf. O.Ind. áti, átaḥ, at, Gk. eti, Lat. et, Goth. iþ, O.C.S. otŭ.
kṇta, by, along, down. Cf. Hitt. katta, Gk. káta, O.Ir. cét, O.W. cant. Perhaps from
kom.
ko(m), together, with; near. Cf. Lat. cum, Ir. co, Goth. ga-.
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8. Particles
meta, between, with. Cf. Gk. méta, Goth. miþ, Ger. mit.
ṇdhos, ṇdher(í), down, under. Cf. Av. aϑairi, O.Ind. ádhaḥ, ádhara-, Lat. infra,
inferus, Goht. undar, Gmc. under-.
ṇdhi, more, over. Cf. O.Ind. ádhi, Gk. éntha.
ni, downward, down, under. Cf. Skt. ní, O.C.S. ni-zŭ, , and also in the word for
‗nest‘, ni-sd-o- (from sed-, sit).
níteros, down, below, inferior. Cf. Skt. nitáram, O.H.G. nidar, Eng. nether, etc.
obhi, bhi, in the middle; around, from, to, etc. Cf. Lat. ob ‗towards, to‘, O.Ind.
abhi, Av. aiwi, Goth. bi.
ólteri, beyond.
per(i), over, around, through. Cf. O.Ind. pári, Gk. péri, Lat. per, O.Pruss. per, Alb.
për.
perti, through, otherwise.
pos/posti/pósteri, behind.
poti, toward, cf. Av. paiti, Gk. póti.
pósteri, afterwards.
postrōd, backwards.
pra, next to.
prāi, at the front, in front, ahead. Cf. O.C.S. prědŭ, Lat. prae.
pr iteri, along(side).
pro, in front, opposite; before; forwards, ahead. Cf. O.Ind. prá, Gk. pró, Lat. prōd-
, O.Ir. ro-, Goth. fra (Eng. from), O.Pruss. pra, pro, Lith. pra.
próteri, in front of.
pros, before, ahead. Cf. Skt. purás, Gk. páros. Maybe here Goth. faúra (Eng. for).
proti, (over) against. Cf. Skt. práti, O.C.S. protivŭ, Gk. próti, pros.
rōdhí, because (of).
sni, sneu, without. Cf. Skt. sanu-tár, Toch. sne/snai, Gk. áneu, Lat. sine, O.Ir.
sain.
sṇter(i), separately, Cf. Gk. áter, M.H.G. sunder.
281
som, together. Cf. Skt. sám, O.C.S. sŭ, Lith. sam-.
trās, trāntis, through. Cf. Skt. tirás, O.Ir. tar, Lat. trans, O.Ir. tre. From the same
root Goth. þairh.
ud(sí), on high. Cf. Skt. úd, O.C.S. vy-, Goth. ūt (Ger. aus).
upér(i), on, over, above. Cf. O.Ind. upári, Gk. hupér, Lat. s-uper. O.Ir. for, Goth.
ufar, Arm. (i) ver.
upo, under, down, below. O.Ind. úpa, Gk. hupó, Lat. s-ub, O.Ir. fo, Goth. uf.
wī, separately.
NOTE. Further information e.g. in <http://eprints.ucm.es/tesis/fll/ucm-t26697.pdf>.
8.5. CONJUNCTIONS
8.5.1. Conjunctions, like prepositions, are closely related to adverbs, and are either
petrified cases of nouns, pronouns and adjectives, or obscured phrases: as, jod, an
old accusative. Most conjunctions are connected with pronominal adverbs, which
cannot always be referred to their original case-forms.
8.5.2. Conjunctions connect words, phrases or sentences. They are divided in two
main classes, coordinate and subordinate.
8.5.3. Coordinates are the oldest ones, which connect coordinated or similar
constructions. Most of them were usually put behind and were normally used as
independent words. They are:
i. Copulative or disjunctive, implying a connection or separation of thought as well

as of words; as, -qe, and, -wē, or, toqe, also, joqe, atqe, and, itaqe, and also,
neqe, nor, enim, and.
NOTE 1. Postpositive particles were placed directly after the word (or first word of the
phrase or clause) that was being conjoined or disjoined; -qe, it can be put once or twice; cf.
Lat. arma uirumque canō, ‗Arms and the man I sing‘, Lat. senātus populusque ‗the senate and
the people‘, Skt. dev ś ca ásurās ca, ‗Gods and Asuras‘, Gk. patḗr andrõn te theõn te ‗father of
men and gods‘. The same can be said of -we, cf. Skt. náktaṃ vā dívā vā, ‗during the night or
during the day‘.
NOTE 2. For PIE neqe, compare Lat. ne-que, Gk. νὕ-ηε, Arm. o-c, O.Ir. nó, nú, Welsh ne-u,
O.Bret. no-u, Alb. a-s, Lyc. ne-u, Luw. na-pa-wa, and for PIE mēqe, in Greek and Indo-
Iranian, but also in Toch. ma-k and Alb. mo-s. The parallel newe is found in Anatolian, Indo-
Iranian, Italic and Celtic dialects.
282
8. Particles
ii. Adversative, implying a connection of words, but a contrast in thought: as, ma,
but, auti, or, autim, perti, otherwise, ati, but, ōd, and, but, ektós, excepted.
NOTE. Adversative conjunctions of certain antiquity are at(i) (cf. Goth. adh-, Lat. at, Gk.
atár), (s)ma/(s)me (cf. Hitt.,Pal. ma, Lyd. -m, Lyc. me, Gk. má, mé, Messap. min), auti (cf.
Lat. autem, aut, Gk. aute, authis, autis, autár), ōd, and, but (cf. O.Ind. ād, Av. (ā)at, Lith. o,
Sla. a), etc. In general, the oldest IE languages attested use the same copulative postpositive
conjunctions as adversatives, their semantic value ascertained by the context.
iii. Causal, introducing a cause or reason: as, nam, for.
iv. Illative, denoting an inference: as, tori, therefore, ar, thus, therefore, ita,
swāi, so, ṇdha, then, s(w)eike, thus.
8.5.4. Subordinates connect a subordinate or independent clause with that on

which it depends. They were introduced in PIE generally with relative clauses. The
(rare) conjunctions that could have subordinate value included:
a. jō/jōd, how, as; jod/qod, that; jāwod, so long as; all have a general
subordinate value, usually relative, final or conditional.
NOTE. For common derivatives of PIE jo, related to the relative pronoun, compare for jod,
qod, that, Skt. yád, Gk. hó, hóti, Lith. kàd, Lat. quod, Goth. þat-ei; for jō, jōd, how, as, Skt.
y d, Av. yā, Gk. hō(s), Myc. jodososi /jō-dōsonsi/ ‗as they shall give‘; for jāwod cf. Skt. yav t,
Gk. hẽos>héōs; for -jo (probably replaced by -qe) Hitt. -a/-ya, Toch. -/yo.
b. Conditional, denoting a condition or hypothesis; as, mān, if, ei, in that case,
nemān, unless, sēd, sni, apart.
NOTE. For ei, possibly related to i-, hence to jo, cf. Goth. -ei, Gk. eí, O.C.S. i, Lat. s-ī.
c. Comparative, implying comparison as well as condition; as, mān, as if.
d. Concessive, denoting a concession or admission; as, eti, even, an, perhaps, au,
howbeit, although, perom, besides.
NOTE. For eti, even, and, cf. Lat. et, Gk. eti, maybe nasalised ṇti in Germanic und-, as
Goth., Eng. and.
e. Temporal: as, antí, prāi, before, pos(ti), after.
g. Final, expressing purpose; as, uta, in order that, ne, that not.
h. Causal, expressing cause; as, jodqid, because.
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8.6. INTERJECTIONS
Interjections are natural exclamations of pain, surprise, horror and so forth, and
they are onomatopoeic in nature.
These are the most common IE interjections, not taking into account pure examples
of onomatopoeia, like boom! and the like (from Beekes 1995, Mallory–Adams 2007):
ā (surprise, pain); cf. Skt. ā, Lith. (a)à, Gk. ã, Lat ā, ah, Goth. o.
ai (surprise, pity); cf. Skt. e, ai, Av. āi, Lith. aī, ai, Gk. aí, aiaĩ, Lat. ai.
bhā, truly; cf. Av. bā(t), Lith. bà, Gk. phḗ.
bheu, bhū (pain); cf. Gk. pheu, phū, Lat. fū, fī.
ē (exclamation, vocative-particle); cf. Skt. , Lith. é, Gk. ẽ, Lat. eh (ē-castor ‗by

Castor‘); perhaps O.H.G. nein-ā ‗oh no‘;
ō (exclamation, vocative-particle); cf. Gk., Lat. ō, O.Ir. á,a, Lith., Goth. o, Eng. oh.
eheu (complaint); cf. Skt. aho, Lat. eheu.
ha (surprise); cf. Skt. ha, Gk. hā, Lat. hā, M.H.G. ha.
ha ha (laughter); cf. Skt. ha ha, Russ. xa xa, Gk. hà há, Lat. hahae, N.H.G. ha ha.
Compare khákhatnos, laugh, and the verb Skt. kákhati, C.S. xoxotati, Arm xaxank
‗laughter‘, Gk. kakházō, Lat. cachinnō, O.H.G. kachazzen, suggesting that one may
have laughed kha kha! earlier in PIE (Beekes 1995).
wai! woe, alas! (grief); cf. Latv. wai, Arm. vay, Lat. vae, O.Ir. fáe, W. gwae, Goth.
wai, Eng. woe. Lat. vae victis ‗woe to the vanquished‘.
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PART III
SYNTAX
Like Pāṇini, we haven‘t made – and probably couldn‘t make – any conventional selection of
the proper IE syntax, since ―[t]o do so explicitly and incontrovertibly would be difficult in any
language, given several ways of expressing the same idea and various other ways of expressing
closely similar ideas‖ (Coulson 2003). We have nevertheless collected some studies on the
common PIE syntax, with examples attested in the older dialects, so that the natural means of
expression of Proto-Indo-Europeans – their principles and parameters (Chomsky-Lasnik
1993) – are properly exposed, for the learner to adopt the correct setting.
The most comprehensive summary available on PIE morphosyntax was written by Matthias
Fritz in Indo-European Linguistics (Michael Meier-Brügger, 2003), pp. 238-276.
The most comprehensive, widely referenced work on sentence syntax is still Winfred Philipp
Lehmann‘s Proto-Indo-European Syntax (1974). It has been made available online for free at
the University of Texas at Austin – Linguistics Research Center
<http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/books/pies00.html>.
Excellent recent works on syntax include Benjamin W. Fortson IV Indo-European Language

and Culture (2004), pp. 137-153, and James Clackson‘s Indo-European linguistics (2007), pp.
157-186.
Their texts have been adapted to this grammar, omitting specialised comments, references
to academic articles, or the source of examples in the different old IE languages, so that any
reader interested in further information on IE syntax should read the original works.
Collection of texts arranged and adapted by Carlos Quiles

9. Morphosyntax
9. MORPHOSYNTAX
9.1. VERBAL MORPHOSYNTAX
In addition to its lexical meaning, the finite verb consists of grammatical categories,
which are in turn composed of the following five dimensions: person, number, mode,
tense-aspect, and diathesis.
There are three categories of number (singular, dual and plural), four modes
(indicative, imperative, subjunctive, optative), three tense-aspects (present, aorist,
perfect), and three voices (active, middle, passive).
9.1.1. PERSON
1. There are three dimensions in person, classified according to classical

grammarians: In the singular, the first person indicates the speaker; the second, the
person to whom he speaks; and the third, that about which one speaks.
The first person refers to an object thought of as animated, whether a human being
or not. The second person refers to the being or object thought of as listening. The
third person may indicate living beings or objects.
The 1st plural may indicate that there is more than one speaker, and the 2nd plural
that there are more than one listener, but they could refer to the speaker or listener
as groups (M. Fritz 2003).
NOTE. ―The distinction between the inclusive first person plural (‗we‘, i.e. including the
speaker, his group, and the listener) and exclusive first person plural (‗we‘, i.e. the speaker and
his group, without the inclusion of the listener) cannot be reconstructed as Proto-Indo-
European. That which is true of the plural, also applies to the dual‖ (M. Fritz 2003)
9.1.2. TENSE-ASPECT AND MOOD
TENSE-ASPECT
The Proto-Indo-European tense-aspect system shows three common formations:

perfect or stative stem (expressing a state of being), present or imperfective stem
(depicting ongoing, habitual or repeated action), and aorist or perfective stem
(depicting a completed action or actions viewed as an entire process). In the
indicative mood the present or imperfect stem was conjugated in two tenses: present
and past.
287
NOTE. In the post-Proto-Indo-European period, there were, aside from the languages that
continued the use of the subjunctive, various other means of expressing future actions,
including a new future stem formation, v.s. §7.4.2. Periphrastic future was express by means
of an auxiliary verb, usually meaning ―become‖ in North-West IE, while Hittite had ―come‖ o
―go‖ (cf. Hitt. uwami/paimi) + present. Vedic had also a form in -tar- (nomen agentis) +
copula.
Examples (Fritz 2003):
a) Present: Lat. aperiuntur aedes ‗the house is opened‘; Gk. nóston dízdnai
meliēdéa ‗You seek honey-sweet homecoming‘, Ved. dákṣi śvam dákṣiṇā g ṃ
dadāti ‗the Dakṣiṇā gives a steed, the Dakṣiṇā gives a cow‘.
b) Imperfect: Lat. nam ego ibam ad te ‗for I came to you‘; Gk. mála gàr kraterōs
emákhonto ‗for they fought very hard‘.
c) Aorist: Gk. tón rh' ébale prōtos ‗It was him that he hit first‘; Ved. rayíṃ ca
putr ś cādād ‗He gave riches and sons‘.
d) Perfect: Lat. servos es, liber fuisti ‗A slave you are; free you have been‘; Gk. kakà
dè khroï eímata eĩmai ‗I clothe bad garment on my skin‘; Ved. apó rireca ‗he released
the water‘.
INDICATIVE
The indicative is used for statements to which the speaker lends validity: By using
the indicative, the speaker gives his statement the character of a true statement.
Whether or not the contents of the statements in fact correspond to reality, is of
course uncertain (M. Fritz 2003).
Examples – Gk. epí khthonì baínei ‗(s)he runs on the earth‘; Ved. candrámā
apsvàntár suparṇó dhāvate diví ‗the beautifully winged moon runs in the waters
across the sky‘.
IMPERATIVE
According to M. Fritz (2003), the imperative holds a special place in the verbal
paradigm, ―similar to that in the nominal paradigm occupied by the vocative, which
is equally directed to a listener, and with which the imperative shares the formal
characteristic of having a singular form which is composed of the stem without an
ending, with no sign of its connection to the sentence.‖
288
9. Morphosyntax
Examples – Lat. habe bonum animum ‗have good courage‘; Gk. áll‟ áge mímnete
pántes ‗come now, stay‘; Ved. t indra sáhase piba ‗Drink this, oh Indra, for
strength‘.
SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE
―According to Delbrück‘s investigations of fundamental notions (Ai. Syntax 1888),

the subjunctive mood expresses a will, while the optative mood expresses a wish. It is
important to note that the will or the wish (as the case may be) that is meant is that of
the speaker, and not that of the subject, or, more precisely stated, that of the actor
that is designated by the nominative form. The wish of the subject was originally
expressed through its own derivational verbal form, namely, the desiderative‖ (M.
Fritz 2003).
1. The subjunctive, which originally indicates the future, has three main functions
(Mendoza 1998):
 In its voluntative function, it indicates the will of the speaker; as, Gk. mḗpō
ekeîse íōmen lit. ‗not-yet there-to we-should-go‘; Ved. sá dev n éhá vaksati lit.
‗(that) he the-gods here should-bring‘.
 In its deliberative function, it indicates the deliberation of the speaker; as, Gk.
p i gàr… íō lit. ‗where-to, then…I-shall-go?‘; Ved. kath mahé rudríyāya
bravāma lit. ‗how from-the-great-court of-Rudra we-shall-talk?
 In its prospective function, it serves to express things that happen in the
future; as, Gk. ei de‟ ke m dṓōsin, eg dé ken autos hélōmai ‗if Ptc. Ptc. they-
give not (to me), I Ptc. Ptc. myself will-take (it)‘ .
According to M. Fritz (2003), ―the subjunctive is used to express his will when he
considers that it is within his power to bring about the verbal action. A declaration of
will in a strict sense is only possible when the speaker has direct influence on events,
such that that which is desired may also be executed. This means that a true
expression of will may only be in the first person singular, while all other cases are
equally requests. If the first person subjunctive is taken as a request made of oneself,
a connection to the second and third person subjunctive is possible in which the
speaker has no direct influence on the realization of the verbal action, so that the
statement may only be understood as a request. A further connection may be made
289
with the 1st person plural, in which the speaker communicates his own will, and at the
same time directs a request to others.‖
Examples (Fritz 2003):
a) 1 sg.: Lat. quod perdundumst properem perdere ‗what may be lost, I will/want to
hurry up and lose‘; Gk. áll‟ áge oí ka eg dō kseínion ‗thus I will/want to give a gift of
welcome also to him‘; Ved. purā vāṃ vīry prá bravā jáne, ‗your earlier heroic
deeds I will/want to announce to all people‘; Ved. prá nú vocā sutéṣu vām ‗On the
occasion of the pressing, I thus will/want to announce the heroic deeds of both of
you‘.
b) 1 pl.: Gk. nũn dè mnēsṓmetha dórpou ‗now we will/want to think about the
meal‘; Ved. svastáye vāyúm úpa bravāmahai ‗We will/want to call to Vaayu for the
sake of welfare‘.
c) 2nd person: Lat. taceas ‗you should remain silent‘; Ved. abh ṣú naḥ sákhīnām
avit jaritrn m satám bhavāsi ūtíbhiḥ ‗you, oh helper of the singer‘s friends,
will/should protect us well with a hundred helps‘.
d) 3rd person: Lat. sed uti adserventur magna diligentia ‗but they should be
guarded with great care‘; Gk. oú gár tís me bíēi ge hek n aékonta díētai ‗For none
will/should force me to leave against my own will‘; Gk. kaí poté tis eípēisi kaì
ópsigónōn anthrṓpōn ‗and one day, even one of the descendants will say‘; Ved. sá
sunvaté ca stuvaté ca rāsate ‗who will/should give both to him who presses, and to
him who prizes‘; Ved. sá no víśvāni hávanāni joṣad ‗That man will/should be
friendly and take receipt of all our sacrifices‘.
2. The optative, which originally indicates possibility, has three functions (Mendoza
1998):
 A desiderative function, expressing the wish of the speaker; as Gk. eíth hōs
hēbṓoimi lit. ‗I-wish that I-would-be-young‘; Ved. ahám prathamáḥ pibeyam
lit. ‗I the-first want-to-drink‘.
 An exhortative function; as, Gk. k rúks tís hoi hépoito lit. ‗(that) herald one
him accompanies‘.
 A potential function expressing possibility or potentiality; as, Gk. nûn gár ken
héloi pólin lit. ‗now really ptc can-take the-city‘.
290
9. Morphosyntax
According to M. Fritz (2003), ―when the optative is used to express a wish, the
speaker indicates that he is not directly able to bring about the verbal action. The
optative proves to be more uniform that the subjunctive, given that in its cupitive
function, the optative, independently of the category of person, always indicates a
simple wish of the speaker, regardless of his influence on the realization of the verbal
action.‖
Examples of the potential function: – Lat. nec me miserior femina est neque ulla
videatur magis ‗a more miserable woman than myself does not exist, and will most
probably never be seen‘; Lat. roget quis ‗one might ask‘; Gk. oú tis keínon anēr
alalḗmenos elthōn‟ alléllōn peíseie gunaĩká te kaì phílon huión ‗a man, who comes
travelling with news of that, could not convince his son and the woman‘; Ved. víśvo
devásya netúr márto vurīta sakhyám ‗each mortal will likely desire the friendship of
the leading god‘.
Examples of the desiderative function:
a) 1st person: Gk. nũn dè kléos esthlón apoímēn ‗and now I would like to wrest noble
fame‘; Ved. víśvābhir gīrbhír abhí pūrtím aśyām ‗by all songs, I would like to obtain
fulfillment‘; Ved. sy méd índrasya sármani ‗we would like to be under Indra‘s
protection‘.
b) 3rd person: Lat. ut illum di deaeque senium perdant ‗that elder is the one that the
gods and the goddesses would like to ruin‘; Gk. humĩn mèn theoì doĩen ‗to you
indeed, the gods like to give‘; Gk. all‟autou gaĩa mélaina‟ pãsi khánoi ‗the black earth
should open to all precisely here‘; Ved. deváṃ vo devayajyáyāgnim īḷīta mártyaḥ
‗the mortal should praise your god Agni through worship‘.
In terms of content, the similarity between the prospective function of the

subjunctive and the potential function of the optative is evident in the comparison of
Gk. kaí poté tis eípēisin ‗one day, someone will say‘ and Gk. kaí poté tis eípoi ‗one
day, someone will in all likelihood say‘.
9.1.3. VOICE
1. Active and middle voices are distinguished formally by their endings, see above.
NOTE. According to Fortson (2004), ―in traditional grammatical usage, active means that
the subject is doing the action rather than being acted upon, while middle means the subject is
either acting upon itself or is in some other way ―internal‖ to the action. This rough guideline
291
works reasonably well for verbs that could inflect in either voice (…) But in many other cases,
the distinction between active and middle inflection was purely a formal one: there were some
verbs that inflected only in the active and others only in the middle, without clear difference in
meaning. Verbs having only middle inflection are often called middle verbs. (Students familiar
with Latin can think of these as equivalent to the Latin deponent verbs – active in meaning
but having only passive endings, which come historically from the PIE middle.).‖
For Clackson (2007): ―Combining the functions of the middle in opposition to the active and
the semantics of the lexical stems which are associated with the middle, we can say something
of the prototypical use of the middle, which appears to be dependent on how speakers view the
semantic role of the subject. The middle is the voice used to denote that the subject is in some
way affected by the verbal action. Thus, for transitive verbs the active typically represents the
subject as the actor, and the middle represents the subject as the undergoer. For intransitive
verbs the middle is preferred when there is some notion of control over the verbal action
(hence the middle inflection of ‗think‘ and ‗speak‘), but if the verb denotes an event or action
where the participant cannot have control, the active is used (thus ‗be‘, ‗vomit‘ and ‗wait‘).‖
3. The function of the category ‗passive‘, which appears in many IE languages, but
did not exist as a grammatical category in Proto-Indo-European, was performed by
the middle voice (Fritz 2003, Fortson 2004, Clackson 2007). The various IE
languages that feature a passive voice each formed it independently from each other
(Fritz 2003).
9.2. NOMINAL MORPHOSYNTAX
9.2.1. NOMINATIVE
According to M. Fritz (2003), the nominative ―indicates the theme of the sentence
which, in a non-marked sentence, is placed in sentence-initial position. Other
sentence elements are also thematized in taking the sentence-initial position, which,
in the non-marked sentence, is reserved for the subject.‖
―The Proto-Indo-European nominative does not indicate the subject of an action in

the logical sense, but rather in the sense that appears to the observer to be bearer and
middle-point of the action that is expressed by the verb‖ (Delbrück 1879).
The concept of the subject is itself difficult to grasp; for H.-J. Sasse it is ―a
syntactical relation with semantic and pragmatic functions… [the] sentence element
that is indicated as the subject has a doubled function as it is both pragmatic (as an
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9. Morphosyntax
indicator of the topic of the sentence) and semantic (as an identifier of the agent).
This double-function finds expressing in its syntactical characteristics (Sasse, 1982).
9.2.3. VOCATIVE
According to M. Fritz (2003), the vocative is the nominal form that is used for
addressing a listener. There is only a distinct vocative in the singular, and even then,
not all nominal paradigms feature a separate vocative form. Where there is no
separate vocative, its function is taken by the nominative. The same occurs when two
actions of addressing are linked: While the first is in the vocative, the second is in the
nominative. – Examples: Gk. Zdeũ páter…Ēéliós th‟ ‗Oh father Zeus (voc.) … and
Helios (nomin.)‘; Ved. ágna índraś ca ‗Oh Agni (voc.) and Indra (nomin.)‘.
NOTE. On the v yav índraś ca construction, Fortson (2004): ―It was apparently a rule of
PIE grammar that when two vocatives were conjoined, the one preceding the conjunction was
put in the nominative rather than the vocative case. Almost all the examples of this come from
Vedic, as in the phrase v yav índraś ca ―o Indra and Vayu‖ after which the construction is
named. In this example, the god Vayu‘s name is in the vocative but Indra's is in the
nominative, as it precedes the conjunction ca ‗and‘. The sole example outside Indo-Iranian is
from an archaic passage in the Iliad‖ already seen, Zdeũ páter…Ēéliós th‟.
i. The vocative element in the sentence receives no accent. – Example: Ved. asmé ū
ṣú vrṣaṇā mādayethām ‗Enjoy yourselves nicely, you two heroes, in our company‘.
ii. In Old Indian, when the vocative forms a sentence of its own, and is thus in
sentence-initial position, it receives stress, regardless of its normal nominal accent,
on its first syllable, i.e. on the first syllable of the sentence. In this case, sentence
stress is meant and not word stress. – Example: Ved. dévā j vata ‗Gods! Live!‘
9.2.4. ACCUSATIVE
According to M. Fritz (2003), the accusative has the following functions:
a) Accusative of direction: it expresses that the verbal action bears an orientation in

terms of space; as, Gk. érkhesthon klisíēn ‗go both of you to your tent‘; Gk. hósoi
keklḗato boulḗn ‗who where summoned for consultation‘; Ved. yad múkhaṃ
gachaty áthodáraṃ gachati ‗if it goes to the mouth, then it goes to the stomach‘.
b) Accusative of extent: is further used to express spatial or chronological expanse;

as, Lat. noctem in stramentis pernoctare ‗to pass one night in the straw‘; Gk. douròs
293
erōḗn ‗at a spear throw‘s distance‘; Gk. kheĩma ‗in the winter‘; Ved. saptádaśa
pravyādh n ājíṃ dhāvanti ‗they run a race for a distance of seventeen times the
range of one shot‘; Ved. só asvatthé saṃvatsarám atiṣṭhat ‗he remained in the
Asvattha (tree) for one year‘.
c) Accusative of relation: it expresses the relation of the verbal action to a referent

in a non-spatial sense; as, Lat. indutum…pallam ‗clothed in a dress‘; Gk. melaíneto
dè khróa kalón ‗and she was reddened on her beautiful skin‘; Ved. nàinaṃ krtākrté
tapataḥ ‗neither things done, nor things undone hurt this one‘.
d) Object accusative: it indicates the direct object in the case of transitive verbs; as,
Ved. jíghran vái tád ghrātávyaṃ ná jighrati ‗truly smelling, he smells not what is to
be smelled‘.
e) Accusative of content: used when the contents of a verb are additionally

expressed through a noun which appears in the accusative; as, Lat. quod bonis bene
fit beneficium ‗which charitable act is well direct to the good‘; Gk. álloi d‟ ámph‟
állēisi mákhēn emákhonto néessin ‗here and there they fought the fight for the ships‘;
Ved. yád y maṃ y nti vāyúbhiḥ ‗when they go the way with the winds‘.
9.2.5. INSTRUMENTAL
According to M. Fritz (2003), the instrumental case indicates that which

accompanies the verbal activity. This meaning forms the basis from which other
meanings have developed:
a) Instrumental of accompaniment: in the case of a person, it indicates that the

person executes, or helps to execute the action; as, Lat. postquam utrimque exitum
est maxuma copia ‗after they marched up in great numbers on both sides‘; Gk.
enthád‟ hikáneis nēí te kaì hetároisi ‗you arrive here with the ship and the
companions‘; Ved. devó devébhir gamat ‗the god should come here with the gods‘;
Ved. víśvair ūmebhir gahi ‗come here with all helpers‘; Ved. divá stave duhit
gótamebhiḥ ‗the daughter of the heavens is prized by the Gotamas‘.
b) Instrumental of means: in the case of inanimate objects, the instrumental

indicates the means by which the verbal action is executed; as, Lat. neque etiam queo
/ pedibus mea sponte ambulare ‗and I cannot even walk around independently on
my own feet‘; Lat. vehimur navi ‗we sail with the ship‘; Gk. kephalēi kataneúsō ‗I will
nod with my head‘; Gk. péteto pnoiēis anémoio ‗he flew with a breath of the wind‘;
294
9. Morphosyntax
Ved. śatáṃ cákṣāṇo akṣábhiḥ ‗the god that sees with a hundred eyes‘; Ved. nāvéva
y ntam ‗as to those who go with the ship‘.
c) Instrumental of route: Lat. nemo ire quemquam publica prohibet via ‗no one
hinders another from walking on a public street‘; Lat. terra marique ‗on earth and
sea‘; Ved. antárikṣeṇa pátatām ‗which fly in the air‘; Ved. éhá yātam pathíbhir
devay naiḥ ‗comes this way on divine paths‘; Ved. mitrásya yāyām path ‗I would
walk on Mitra‘s path‘.
d) Instrumental of constitution: Lat. amphoram defracto collo ‗an amphora with a

broken neck‘; Myc. ti-ri-po e-me po-de i.e. tripos hemē podē ‗a tripod with one leg‘;
Ved. dy m iva strbhiḥ ‗like the heavens with the stars‘.
e) Instrumental of accompanying circumstances: in the indication of temporal

circumstances, the instrumental bears a resemblance to the temporal locative; as, Gk.
tetiēóti thumōi ‗with a worried temperament‘; Gk. phthóngōi eperkhómenai ‗coming
forward with noise‘; Ved. út sūryo jyótiṣā devá éti ‗up comes the divine sun with
light‘; Ved. índram viśa brhat ráveṇa ‗go to Indra with great noise‘.
f) Instrumental of reason: Lat. nam mihi horror membra misero percipit dictis tuis
‗for fright seizes from poor me my limbs because of your words‘; Gk. gēthosúnēi ‗out
of joy‘; Skt. sá bhī ní lilye ‗he hid himself out of fear‘.
g) Instrumental of comparison: Lat. qui omens homines supero antideo

cruciabilitatibus animi ‗I, who supersede all men, surpass in tortures of the heart‘;
Gk. eurúteros d‟ ṓmoisin ‗wider, however, than the shoulders‘.
9.2.6. DATIVE
According to M. Fritz (2003), the dative had the following uses:
a) Relational dative: when used to indicate people, the dative indicates an actor or
actors who receive (action; [indirect] object dative) or possess (state; possessive
dative); as, Lat. nullan tibi lingua est? ‗have you no tongue?‘; Lat. tibi me exorno ut
placeam ‗I adorn myself for you, in order to please‘; Lat. quoniam vox mihi prope hic
sonat? ‗what voice thus sounds for me so near?‘; Lat. nunc tibi amplectimur genua
‗now we shall seize your knees‘; Lat. mihi quidem atque oculis meis ‗indeed for me
and my eyes‘; Gk. hoí d‟ ḗnteon allḗloisin ‗and they met one another‘; Gk. tōide d‟
eg n autòs thōrḗksomai ‗and for this one I will arm myself‘; Gk. autoùs dè helṓria
295
teũkhe kúnessin ‗and he gave them to the dogs as prey‘; Gk. mēdé moi hoútōs‟ thũne
‗do not rage so to me‘; Gk. toĩsi dè thumòn enì stḗthessin órine ‗and he stirred the
soul in their chests‘; Gk. daímosin eĩnai alitrós ‗to be a sinner to the gods‘; Ved.
dádhāti rátnaṃ vidhaté…mártyāya ‗he distributed wealth to the devoted mortal‘;
Ved. dev n devayaté yaja ‗sacrifice to the gods for the worshipper of gods‘; Ved.
átithis c rur āyáve ‗a dear guest for the son of Āyu‘.
b) Dativus finalis: when applied to abstract nouns, the dative indicates that the
noun is the goal of an action; as, Lat. ut quaestui habeant male loqui melioribus ‗that
they have it as a gain, that they speak badly of their betters‘; Lat. khármēi
prokaléssato ‗he called out to battle‘; Lat. ūrdhvás tiṣṭhā na ūtáye ‗be there upright
to support us‘.
9.2.7. ABLATIVE
According to M. Fritz (2003), the ablative expresses the place of origin of the verbal
action. Accordingly, the ablative is principally featured when a locatum moves, or is
moved, away from a relatum. Its functions include:
a) Ablative of place of origin: refers to a spatial idea, relating to separation, which is

accompanied by a movement away; as, Lat. primus cubitu surgat ‗he gets up out of
bed first‘; Lat. cunctos exturba aedibus ‗drive all from the house‘; Gk. neōn mèn
ekhṓrēsan ‗they retreated from the ships‘; Gk. ouk án dē tónd‘ ándra mákhēs erúsaio
‗could you not push this man from the fight?‘; Ved. īyúr g vo ná yávasād ágopāḥ
‗they went like cows from the field without a herdsman‘; Ved. tváṃ dásyū r ókasa
agna ājaḥ ‗you, oh Agni, drive the Dasyus from their homeland‘.
b) Ablativus originis: it is used to indicate the object in relation to which a

compared object differs; as, Lat. quo de genere natust ‗from which family he
originates‘; Ved. śukr kr d ajaniṣṭa ‗the shining one was born from the darkness‘;
Ved. ásataḥ sád ajāyata ‗from the non-being came the being forth‘.
c) Ablativus separativus: Gk. oút‟ oũn esthētos deuḗseai ‗and you will not lack in
clothing‘; Gk. mēdé m‟ éruke mákhēs ‗do not hold me back from battle‘.
d) Ablativus comparationis: Lat. levior pluma est gratia ‗thanks is lighter than a
feather‘; Gk. eĩo khérēa mákhēi ‗worse than he in battle‘; Gk. polú glukíōn mélitos
‗much sweeter than honey‘; Ved. svādóḥ sv dīyo ‗sweeter than sweets‘; Ved. sáhasaś
cid sáhīyān ‗stronger even than the strong‘.
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9. Morphosyntax
9.2.8. GENITIVE
According to M. Fritz (2003), the genitive had the following functions:
a) Partitive: in its partitive root meaning the genitive expresses that a part is meant
of the noun in the genitive case; as, Lat. modius…salis ‗a scoop of salt‘; Gk. lōtoĩo
phagṓn ‗eating of lotus‘; Gk. ēoũs ‗in the morning‘.
b) Genitivus qualitatis: Lat. lauri folia ‗leaves of the laurel‘; Gk. kṓpē d‟ eléphantos
epēen ‗a handle of ivory was on it‘.
c) Genitivus possessivus: Lat. patris amicus ‗the father‘s friend‘; Gk. Diós Ártemis
‗Artemis (daughter) of Zeus‘; Gk. patrós d‟eím‟ ágathoĩo ‗and I am (the son) of a
noble father‘.
d) Genitivus relationis: it is used in comparisons to indicate that with which

something is compared; as, Lat. monstri … simile ‗similar to a miracle‘; Gk. ē
trípodos peridṓmethon ēè lébētos ‗both of us are betting a tripod and a basin‘; Gk.
ḗpsato goúnōn ‗she touched the knee‘.
The genitive may often replace other cases without expressing their meaning; it
lends an additional partitive meaning to the meaning that the expected case would
have brought
9.2.9. LOCATIVE
According to M. Fritz (2003) , the locative had these uses:
a) Locative of place: the local meaning of the locative is not limited to a certain part
of the object, but rather may just as well pertain to its interior, exterior, or
environment; Lat. homo idem duobus locis ut simul sit ‗that the same man should be
in two places at the same time‘; Gk. aithéri naíōn ‗living in the heavens‘; Gk. ésti dé
tis nēsos méssēi alí ‗there is an island in the middle of the sea‘; Gk. óreos koruphēi
‗on the peak of the mountain‘; Gk. eũt‟ óreos koruphēisi Nótos katékheuen omíkhlēn
‗as when Notos (=the south wind) pours fog down from the mountain top‘; Ved.
mádhye … samudré ‗in the middle of the sea‘; Ved. yó víśvāni v ryā vásūni
hástayor dadhé (lit. who all desirable-ACC. goods-ACC. hand-LOC-DU put-PERF-3-
sg-med.) ‗who holds all treasures that one could desire to have in his own hands‘;
Ved. áhann áhim párvate śiśriyāṇám ‗he smote the dragon that had occupied the
mountain‘; Ved. párvatasya prṣṭhé ‗on the back of the mountain‘; Ved. sárasvatyāṃ
297
revád agne didīhi ‗shine beautifully on the Sarasvati (river) oh Agni‘; Ved. tásmin ní
jahi vájram ‗Strike him with the cudgel!‘.
b) Locativus temporalis: when the noun indicates, e.g. a unit of time, the use of the
locative only reveals the original spatial metaphor that underlies the concept of a
temporal relation; as, Lat. tempore uno ‗at one time‘; Gk. ṓrē ‗in the spring‘; Gk.
ḗmati tōi ‗on this day‘; Ved. yáṃ dev sas trír áhann āyájante ‗whom the gods
summon three times a day‘.
c) Locativus conditionis: the spatial idea may be carried over to the most various
circumstances; as, Ved. vidáthe santu dev ḥ ‗the gods should be present at the
sacrifice‘; Ved. víśve devā havíṣi mādayadhvam ‗all of you gods amuse yourselves at
the pouring of libations‘.
9.2.10. CASE FORMS: ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS
Nonmandatory case forms are found in great variety, as may be determined from
the studies of substantival inflections and their uses. Five groups of adverbial
elements are identified: (1) circumstance, purpose, or result; (2) time; (3) place; (4)
manner; (5) means (Lehmann 1974).
CIRCUMSTANCE, PURPOSE OR RESULT
Additional case forms may be used to indicate the purpose, result, or circumstance
of an action. So e.g. the instrumental in Skt. mrḷáyā naḥ suastí ‗Be gracious to us for
our well-being‘ (Lehmann 1974).
The dative was commonly used in this sense, as in the infinitival form Skt. prá ṇa
yur jīváse soma tārīḥ ‗Extend our years, soma, for our living [so that we may live
long]; Hitt. nu-kan mNana-Luin kuin DUMU.LUGAL ANA mNuwanza haluki para
nehhun ‗and the prince NanaLUiš whom I sent to Nuwanza to convey the message‘
where Hittite dative noun haluki ‗message‘ (Raman 1973).
When an animate noun is involved, this use of the dative has been labelled the
indirect object; as, Skt. riṇákti krṣṇ raṛuṣ ya pánthām (lit. he-yields black to-ruddy
path) ‗Black night gives up the path to the red sun‘.
NOTE. As these examples may indicate, the dative, like the other cases, must be interpreted
with reference to the lexical properties of the verbal element.
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9. Morphosyntax
TIME
A further adverbial segment in sentences indicates the time of occurrence. The

cases in question are various, as in Skt. dívā náktaṃ śárum asmád yuyotam ‗By day
and during the night protect us from the arrow‘. The nominal form dívā ‗by day‘,
which with change of accent is no longer an instrumental but an adverbial form
outside the paradigm, and the accusative náktaṃ ‗during the night‘ differ in
meaning. The instrumental, like the locative, refers to a point in time, though the
―point‖ may be extended; the accusative, to an extent of time. Differing cases
accordingly provide different meanings for nouns marked for the lexical category
time (Lehmann 1974).
PLACE
According to Fritz (2003), ―The Proto-Indo-European cases with local meaning are
the locative, accusative, and the ablative. These cases designate a general spatial
relationship between two objects, which include places (which are concrete objects)
and actions (in which concrete persons or objects participate). The locative simply
organizes spatially. With the accusative and the ablative, the concept of direction
comes into play, with each indicating an opposing direction: The accusative indicates
that the verbal action is oriented toward the object referent; the ablative indicates
that the verbal action is oriented away from the object referent. These local
dimensions then serve – in a process of transfer that is itself the result of cognitive
reflection – equally to describe temporal relations and other circumstances.‖
A. The accusative indicates the goal of an action, as in Lat. Rōmam īre ‗go to Rome‘,
Hitt. tuš alkištan tarnahhe ‗and those (birds) I release to the branch‘ (Otten and
Souček 1969).
B. The instrumental indicates the place ―over which an action extends‖ (Macdonell
1916): sárasvatyā yānti ‗they go along the Sarasvatī‘.
C. The ablative indicates the starting point of the action: sá ráthāt papāta ‗he fell
from his chariot‘; and the following example from Hittite (Otten and Souček 1969):
iššaz (š)mit lālan AN.BARaš [d]āi ‗He takes the iron tongue out of their mouths‘.
D. The locative indicates a point in space, e.g., Skt. diví ‗in heaven‘ or the locative
kardi ‗in heart‘, in the following Hittite example (Otten and Souček): kardi-šmi-ia-
at-kán dahhun ‗And I took away that [illness which was] in your heart‘.
299
Nouns with lexical features for place and for time may be used in the same
sentence, as in Skt. ástam úpa náktam eti ‗He goes during the night to the house‘.
Although both nouns are in the accusative, the differing lexical features lead to
different interpretations of the case. In this way, inflectional markers combine with
lexical features to yield a wide variety of adverbial elements.
MANNER
Among the adverbial elements which are most diverse in surface forms are those
referring to manner. Various cases are used, as follows (Lehmann 1974).
A. The accusative is especially frequent with adjectives, such as Skt. kṣiprám

‗quickly‘, bahú ‗greatly‘, nyák ‗downward‘.
B. The instrumental is also used, in the plural, as in Skt. máhobhiḥ ‗mightily‘, as

well as in the singular, sáhasā ‗suddenly‘.
Similar to the expression of manner is the instrumental used to express the sense of
accompaniment: Skt. devó devébhir gamat ‗May the god come [in such a way that
he is] accompanied by the other gods‘.
C. The ablative is also used to express manner in connection with a restricted

number of verbs such as those expressing ‗fear‘: réjante víśvā kṛtrímāṇi bhīṣ ‗All
creatures tremble fearfully‘.
MEANS
Adverbial expressions of means are expressed especially by the instrumental; as,

Skt. áhan vṛtrám ... índro vájreṇa ‗Indra killed ... Vrtra with his bolt‘. The noun
involved frequently refers to an instrument; cf. Hitt. kalulupuš šmuš gapinit
hulaliemi (lit. fingers their with-thread I-wind) ‗I wind the thread around their
fingers‘.
Animate nouns may also be so used. When they are, they indicate the agent: agnínā
turváṣaṃ yáduṃ parāváta ugr devaṃ havāmahe ‗Through Agni we call from far
Turvasa, Yadu, and Ugradeva‘. This use led to the use of the instrumental as the
agent in passive constructions (Lehmann 1974).
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10. SENTENCE SYNTAX
10.1. THE SENTENCE
A sentence is a form of words which contains a statement, a question, an

exclamation, or a command.
The fundamental order of sentences in PIE appears to be OV. Support for this
assumption is evident in the oldest texts of the materials attested earliest in the IE
dialects. Examples of this include the following, from Fortson (2004): Hitt. nu=za
MUŠilluyankaš DIM-an taraḫta ‗And the serpent overcame the Stormgod‘; Ved.
maruto ha enam na ajahuḥ ‗Indeed the Maruts did not abandon him‘; Lat.
Eumolpus tanquam litterārum stūdiōsus utīque ātrāmentum habet ‗Eumolpus, so
interested in learning, surely has (some) ink‘; Runic ek hlewagastiz holtijaz horna
tawido ‗I, Hlewagastiz of Holt, made (this) horn‘; Toch. A. kāsu ñom-klyu tsraṣiśśi
śäk kälymentwaṃ sätkatar ‗Good fame of the strong spreads out in ten directions‘.
NOTE. Lehmann (1974): ―The fundamental order of sentences in these early dialects cannot
be determined solely by frequency of sentence patterns. For, like other linguistic
constructions, sentence patterns manifest marked as well as unmarked order. Marked order is
expected in literary materials. The documents surviving from the earliest dialects are virtually
all in verse or in literary forms of prose. Accordingly many of the individual sentences do not
have the unmarked order, with verb final. For this reason conclusions about the characteristic
word order of PIE and the early dialects will be based in part on those syntactic patterns that
are rarely modified for literary and rhetorical effect: comparative constructions, the presence
of postpositions and prepositions, and the absence of prefixes (…).‖
Lehmann is criticised by Friedrich (1975) who, like Watkins (1976) and Miller (1975),
support a VO prehistoric situation, probably SVO (like those found in ‗central‘ IE areas), with
non-consistent dialectal SOV findings. In any case (viz. Lehmann and Miller), an older PIH
OV (VSO for Miller), as attested in Hittite, would have been substituted by a newer VO (SOV
for Miller, later SVO through a process of verb transposition) – thus, all Indo-European
dialects attested have evolved (therefore probably from a common post-Proto-Indo-European
trend) into a modern VO.
Fortson (2004): ―Part of the problem with it is arriving at a clear definition of a verb-final
language. In the strict sense, a verb-final language is one where the verb always comes at the
end of each clause unless other factors intervene. The only well-known older PIE language
that meets this criterion is Hittite. No matter what the genre, no matter how stylistically
marked the text, the verb in Hittite is always clause-final, with one exception – when it is
fronted to the beginning of the clause for emphasis or contrast (…). None of the other old IE
languages behaves so rigidly (…); there is essentially no position in the clause (on the surface
at least) where the verb cannot appear.
It is usually stated that in these languages, the pragmatically neutral order is SOV. This may,
in fact, be true, at least of some of them (such as Latin); but with so many word-order
permutations possible (and frequent), clearly they cannot be called ―verb-final‖ in the same
way as Hittite. There are any number of reasons, according to current theory, why a verb may
or may not appear as the last word in its clause.‖
Clackson (2007): ―The investigation of PIE word order in terms of rigid SVO and SOV
patterns was rightly criticised as a ‗pseudo-problem‘ by Watkins in a much-cited article of
1976. It would be wrong, however, to think that because word order cannot be expressed in
terms of strict SOV or SVO patterns it is somehow unimportant, or that it was free. If PIE were
a ‗non-configurational‘ language, with completely freeword order, we would still have to
explain why the unmarked place of the verb is sentence-final in Hittite, Sanskrit and Latin,
and why word comparisons which reflect original juxtapositions of noun and dependent
genitive agree in showing the order genitive – head noun (…) Agreements such as these could
lead to the conclusion that the unmarked order was SOV for the PIE sentence, and head-final
for the PIE noun phrase. But variation from these patterns is widely attested, particularly in
poetic or highly stylised texts, which make up a large part of our corpus of many early IE
languages.‖
10.1.1. KINDS OF SENTENCES
1. PIE sentences were either nominal, i.e. formed by nouns, or verbal, if they
included a verb.
2. Sentences are formed by a subject and a predicate. The subject of a sentence is

the person or thing spoken of. The predicate is that which is said of the subject.
a. The subject is usually a noun or pronoun, or some word or group of words used
as a noun. However, because the personal endings of verbs encode the subject in
them, it is not grammatically necessary to use an overt personal pronominal subject
in addition. When subject pronouns occur, it is usually said that its use is emphatic
(Fortson 2004); as, Lat. sīcutī ego accēpī ‗as I understand it‘ (Sallus, Bellum
Catilinae 6.1), where ‗I‘ serves to contrast his own understanding with the opinion of
others.
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10. Sentence Syntax
However, in nominal sentences, an overt pronominal subject is generally required

for clarity; as, O.Pers. adam navama, ‗I (am) the ninth‘.
The syntax of possessive swos, own, is treated by Fortson (2004): ―Reflexive

adjectives (and pronouns) refer back to the grammatical subject of a sentence. But
the possessive ―swo-‖ had broader usage, to judge by the daughter languages: it could
refer back not to the grammatical subject, but to newly introduced discourse material
or to an older topic that is returned to. As an example of the former, consider Ved.
tráya índrasya sómaḥ sut saḥ santu devásya své kṣáye sutap vnaḥ ‗Let the three
somas be pressed for the god Indra in the soma drinker‘s own house‘ (translation
following Brent Vine; soma was an intoxicating sacred drink). Here the grammatical
subject is tráya. .. sómaḥ ‗the three somas‘ and the possessive své refers to the soma-
drinker, who is newly introduced. Similar behavior can be found in other older IE
languages.‖
b. The predicate of a sentence may be a verb (as the dog runs), or it may consist of
some form of esmi, be, and a noun or adjective which describes or defines the
subject (as It is good). Such a noun or adjective is called a predicate noun or
adjective.
3. In Proto-Indo-European, simple sentences may be composed of only one word, a

noun or a verb; as, ‗God!‘ or ‗(it) rains‘.
NOTE 1. Nominal sentences of this type are usually interjections and vocatives. Verbal
sentences of this type include imperatives (at least of 2nd sg.) and impersonal verbs, which had
never a subject in the oldest dialects attested; as, for Eng. (it) rains, cf. Goth. rigneiþ, Lat.
pluit, Gk. ὓεη, Skt. várṣati. It is believed that when IE dialects became SVO in structure, so
that a subject was required, the third singular anaphoric pronoun, corresponding to it,
German es, French il, etc., was introduced as subject in such sentences. Such pronouns were
introduced because SVO languages must have subjects in sentences, as do intransitive verbs in
any OV language. Such verbs could be supplemented by substantives in various cases, among
them the accusative. These constructions are especially prominent for verbs referring to the
emotions; as, Skt. kitaváṃ tatāpa (lit. with-regard-to-the-gambler there-is-pain) ‗it pains the
gambler‘, Lat. miseret, pudet, taedet ‗It makes one pitiful, ashamed, bored‘. Compare also
Cicero‘s Lat. eōrum nōs miseret (lit. ‗of-them us it-makes pitiful/there-is-pity‘) ‗we feel pity for
them‘ or O.H.G. thes gánges thih nirthrúzzi (lit. ‗of-the way you may-there-not-be-weariness‘)
‗Do not let yourself be wearied of the way‘. In PIE sentences various case forms could be used
with verbs. The simplest sentences may consist of verbs accompanied by nouns in seven of the
303
eight cases; only the vocative is not so used. The nouns fill the role of objects or, possibly
better stated, of complements (Lehmann 1974).
NOTE 2. Besides the simple sentence which consists only of a verb, a simple sentence in the
early dialects and in PIE could consist of a verb accompanied by a noun or pronoun as
complement. A subject however wasn‘t mandatory. Nor were other constructions which may
seem to be natural, such as indirect objects with verbs like ‗give‘. The root *dō- or in its earlier
form *deH- had in its simplest sense the meaning ‗present‘ and was often unaccompanied by
any nominal expression (Lehmann 1974).
10.1.2. NOMINAL SENTENCE
1. Nominal sentences, in which a substantive is equated with another substantive,

an adjective, or a particle, make up one of the simplest type of sentence in PIE.
Such a type of sentence is found in almost every IE dialect; cf. (Lehmann 1974) Hitt.
attaš aššuš ‗the father (is) good‘, Skt. tváṃ váruṇa, ‗you (are) Varuna‘, O.Pers. adam
Dārayavauš ‗I (am) Darius‘, Gk. emo d‟ ákhos ‗and to me (there is) pain‘, Lat. omnia
praeclara rara ‗all the best things (are) rare‘. Apart from a noun or adjective, the
predicate could be an adverb; as, Hitt. mŠippa-LÚ-iš=wa=kan ŪL anda ‗Sippazitis
(is) not in (it)‘; Gk. metà dè glaukōpis Athénē ‗and Athena of glaucous eyes (was)
with (them)‘.
In all dialects, however, such sentences were restricted in its use to a especially
formal use or, on the contrary, they are found more often than originally in PIE.
Thus, in Latin and Germanic dialects they are found in proverbs and sayings, as in
Old Irish; in Greek it is also found in epic and poetry. In Balto-Slavic dialects the
pure nominal sentence has become the usual type of nominal sentence, even when
the predicate is an adverb or an adverbial case. However, such a use, which is more
extended in modern dialects (like Russian) than in the older ones (as Old Slavic), is
considered the result of Finno-Ugrian influence. (Lehmann 1974).
2. An action, state, or event could be syntactically backgrounded using a

construction called an absolute. Typically the absolute consisted of a noun modified
by a participle – semantically equivalent to a subject plus verb – in an oblique case
(Fortson 2004).
Thus Latin has ablative absolutes (hīs rēbus gestīs lit. ‗these things having been
done‘, i.e. ‗after these things were done‘ or ‗because these things were done‘), Greek
has genitive absolutes (Homeric aékontos emeĩo ‗with me being unwilling‘, pàr
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10. Sentence Syntax
émoige kaì hálloi hoi ké mé timḗsousi, ‗near me (there are) others who [particle] will
praise me‘), Vedic Sanskrit has locative absolutes (ucchántyām uśási ‗with dawn
shining forth‘, or havyaír agnír mánuṣa īrayádhyai, ‗Agni must be prayed with the
sacrifices of men‘,), and Gothic and Old Church Slavonic have dative absolutes (Goth.
imma rodjandin and O.C.S. jemu glagoljǫščemu ‗with him speaking, while he is/was
speaking‘).
NOTE. PIE surely had such constructions too, although which case or cases were used is
debated.
3. In addition to such expansions by means of additional nouns in nonrequired

cases, sentences could be expanded by means of particles.
NOTE. For Lehmann (1974), three subsets of particles came to be particularly important.
One of these is the set of preverbs, such as ā. Another is the set of sentence connectives, such
as nu. The third is the set of qualifier expressions, e.g., PIE nē/mē ‗(must) not‟. An additional
subset, conjunctions introducing clauses, will be discussed below in the section on compound
clauses. Preverbs are distinctively characterised by being closely associated with verbs and
modifying their meaning. In their normal position they stand directly before verbs (Watkins
1964).
Generally, thus, concordance governed both members of the pure nominal

sentence. Unlike the personal verb and its complements (governed by inflection), the
nominal sentence showed a strong reliance on concordance between subject and
predicate as a definitory feature: both needed the same case, and tended to have the
same number and gender (Lehmann 1974).
THE COPULATIVE VERB
Nominal sentences are not always simple clauses without copula; examples are
found with an explicit copula with stylistic and semantic change (Ramat 1993): Hitt.
LÚ.ULÙ.LU=ku GUD=ku UDU=ku ēšzi ‗whether he is man or ox or sheep‘.
The copulative verb esmi is only necessary when introducing late categories in the
verbal morphology, like time and mood. Therefore, when the mood is the indicative,
and the time is neuter (proverbs without timing, or present with semantic neuter)
there is no need to use esmi.
NOTE. The basic form of nominal sentences has been a matter of dispute. Some Indo-
Europeanists propose that the absence of a verb in nominal sentences is a result of ellipsis and
assume an underlying verb esmi (Benveniste 1950). They support this assumption by
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pointing to the requirement of such a verb if the nominal sentence is in the past tense; cf. Hitt.
ABU.IA genzuualaš ešta ‗My father was merciful‘. On the contrary, Meillet (1906-1908),
followed by Lehmann (1974) and Mendoza (1998), consider that nominal sentences did not
require a verb but that a verb might be included for emphasis. This conclusion may be
supported by noting that the qualifiers which were found in PIE could be used in nominal
sentences without a verb. As an example we may cite a Hittite sentence which is negative and
imperative, 1-aš 1-edani menahhanda lē idāluš ‗One should not be evil toward another one‘.
Yet, if a passage was to be explicit, a form of esmi could be used, as in Skt. nákir indra tvád
úttaro ná jy yāṅ asti ―No one is higher than you, Indra, nor greater‘.
Fritz (in Meier-Brügger 2003): ―Nominal phrases are not simply verbal phrases without a
finite verb (with what is called ellipsis of the copula), but rather constitute an independent
type of clause. Thus, the predicate noun in nominal phrases is always stressed, unlike the
verbal predicate in verbal phrases. In fact the term ‗elipsis‘ is not exact, since the copula is not
essential. Contrarily, the use of the copula should rather be seen as an adaptation to the
common pattern of verbal phrases, which always feature a finite verb form. This use of the
copula is in fact a sort of explicative signification, in which the content of the copula is
expressed through the connection of the various sentence elements and is given particular
emphasis alone through an independent linguistic symbol of comparable meaning.‖
On the original meaning of esmi, since Brugmann (1925) it is reconstructed as

‗exist‘ hence its use as a copulative verb through constructions in which the predicate
express the existence of the subject, as in Hom. Gk. eím‟ Odusseús Laertiádēs, hós…
‗I am Odisseus, son of Laertes, the one who…‘ (Mendoza 1998).
10.1.3. VERBAL SENTENCE
The simplest structure of the common Indo-European sentence consists of a verb,

i.e. the carrying out of an action. In it, none of the verbal actors (subject and object)
must be expressed – the subject is usually not obligatory, and the object appears only
when it is linked to the lexical nature of the verb.
NOTE. The oldest morphological categories, even time, were expressed in PIE through
lexical means, and remains are found of such a system; cf. Hitt. -za (reflexive), modal particles
in Gk. and O.Ind., modal negation in some IE dialects, or the simple change in intonation,
which made interrogative or imperative a declarative sentence – in fact, the imperative lacks a
mark of its own.
The relationship between the subject and the object is expressed through the case.
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10. Sentence Syntax
There is no clear morphological distinction between transitive and intransitive

verbs in Proto-Indo-European.
NOTE. Some Indo-European dialects have specialised certain verbal suffixes as transitives
(causatives) or intransitives, as Gk. -en, Gmc. -io, Lat. -a, etc., while in some others a preverb
combined with a verbal root makes the basic verb transitive or intransitive.
When subjects are explicitly expressed, the nominative is the case employed.
NOTE. Expression of the subject is the most prominent extension of simple sentences to
include more than one substantival expression. Apart from such explicit mention of the
subject, predicates may consist of verbs accompanied by two or more nouns, in cases which
supplement the meanings of the verbs (see below). Such constructions must be distinguished
from the inclusion of additional nouns whose case forms indicate adverbial use.
PREDICATES WITH TWO OR MORE SUBSTANTIVES
Few verbs are mandatorily accompanied by two nouns (Lehmann 1974):
1. The use of the dative in addition to the accusative. This is made almost obligatory
with verb dō-, give; as in Skt. t bhiām enaṃ pári dehi (lit. those-two-DAT. him-
ACC. over you-give), ‗Give him over to those two‘; Gk. d ra phérein t i patrí ‗give
presents to the father‘ (Mendoza 1998).
2. The instrumental and ablative, as Skt. áhan vrtrám ... índro vájreṇa ‗Indra killed
... Vrtra with his bolt‘; Skt. tváṃ dásyū r ókaso agna ājaḥ ‗You drove the enemies
from the house, O Agni‘.
NOTE. While the addition to these sentences which is indicated by the nouns in the
instrumental and the ablative is essential for the meaning of the lines in their context, it does
not need to be included in the sentence for syntactic reasons.
3. The causative accompanied by two accusatives, as Skt. dev uśataḥ pāyayā

havíḥ (lit. gods desiring you-cause-to-drink libation) ‗Make the desiring gods drink
the libation‘.
In such sentences the agent-accusative represents the object of the causative element: as
Arthur A. Macdonell indicated (1916), in a corresponding simple sentence this noun would
have been given in the nominative, as Skt. dev havíḥ pibanti ‗The gods drink the libation‘.
Accordingly a simple verb in PIE was at the most accompanied by one substantive,
unless the additional substantive was complementary or adverbial.
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10.2. SENTENCE MODIFIERS
10.2.1. INTONATION PATTERNS
1. According to Fritz (in Meier-Brügger 2003), with regard to sentence accent, one
may note that the word that begins the sentence is stressed. Sentence-initial position
implies the function of establishing the topic: In nominative language, the subject in
sentence-initial position is considered the normal, unmarked type. In interrogative
sentences, the nominal element, about which the question is asked, establishes the
theme. It is thus the interrogative pronoun that begins the sentence
NOTE. An enclitic is added as a second word in the sentence; a further enclitic is added as a
third word. This is known as the (Delbrück-)Wackernagel Law, see §10.6.4.
2. The sentence was characterised in PIE by patterns of order and by selection

(Lehmann 1974):
A. Selection classes were determined in part by inflection, in part by lexical

categories, most of which were covert.
NOTE. Some lexical categories were characterised at least in part by formal features, such as
abstract nouns marked by -ti-, nouns in the religious sphere marked by -u- and collectives
marked by *-h.
B. In addition to characterisation by means of order and categories of selection, the

sentence was also delimited by intonation based on variations in pitch.
2. To the extent that the pitch phonemes of PIE have been determined, a high pitch
may be posited, which could stand on one syllable per word, and a low pitch, which
was not so restricted.
Words were characterised on one syllable by a high pitch accent, unless they were
enclitic, that is, unmarked for accent.
3. Accented words could lose their high pitch accent if they were placed at specific
positions in sentences:
A. Vocatives lost their accent if they were medial in a sentence or clause; and finite
verbs lost their accent unless they stood initially in an independent clause or in any
position in a dependent clause in Vedic. These same rules may be assumed for PIE.
On the basis of the two characteristic patterns of loss of accent for verbs,
characteristic patterns of intonation may also be posited for the IE sentence.
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10. Sentence Syntax
B. Judging on the basis of loss of high pitch accent of verbs in them, independent
clauses were characterised by final dropping in pitch. For in unmarked order the verb
stands finally in the clause; as, purodh m evá gacchati (lit. priesthood verily he-
attains) ‗He attains the priesthood‘.
C. In marked order on the other hand it stands initially. H. S. Ananthanarayana

investigated the accent patterns in accented Vedic texts, particularly in the Taittirīya
Brāhmaṇa, and concluded on the basis of the interpretation of sentences with similar
lexical material that sentences with initial verb are marked.
Thus, in contrast with the previous example, the following indicates ―emphasis‖ of
the verb (Ananthanarayana 1970): gácchati pratiṣṭh m ‗He attains stability‘
Since gacchati in the other example has no high pitch accent, and since other such
sentences have a similar distribution of accents, it may be concluded that sentences
with normal, unmarked meaning have a final lowered pitch accent. This might be
indicated with #.
Clauses, however, which are marked either to convey emphasis or to indicate

subordination, do not undergo such lowering. They may be distinguished with final ||
(Ananthanarayana 1970): yát stríyam upey t || nírvīryas syāt # (lit. if woman he-
may-approach impotent he-may-become) ‗If he were to approach a woman, he might
become impotent‘.
The intonation pattern indicated by # apparently conveyed the notion of a simple,

nonemphatic utterance, whether a statement, question, or command: kásmai nú
satrám āsmahe # (lit. why indeed sacrifice we-perform) ‗Why should we perform
sacrifice?‘
The intonation pattern indicated by || apparently conveyed the notion of an

emotional or emphatic utterance or one requiring supplementation, as by another
clause. These conclusions are supported by the patterns found in Germanic
alliterative verse. For, as is well known, verbs were frequently placed by poets in the
fourth, nonalliterating, metrically prominent position in the line: þeodcyninga þrym
gefrūnon (lit. of-people‘s-kings glory we-heard-of) ‗We heard of the glory of the kings
of the people‘.
This placing of verbs, retained by metrical convention in Germanic verse,

presumably maintains evidence for the IE intonation pattern. For, by contrast, verbs
could alliterate when they stood initially in clauses or in subordinate clauses; egsode
309
eorlas, syððan ǣrest wearð (lit. he-terrified men since first he-was) ‗He terrified
men from the time he first was [found]‘; þenden wordum wēold wine Scyldinga (lit.
as-long-as with-words he-ruled the-friend of-the-Scyldings) ‗As long as the friend of
the Scyldings ruled with his words.‘
The patterns of alliteration in the oldest Germanic verse accordingly support the
conclusions that have been derived from Vedic accentuation regarding the intonation
of the Indo-European sentence, as do patterns in other dialects.
D. Among such patterns is the preference for enclitics in second position in the
sentence (Wackernagel 1892). Words found in this position are particles, pronouns,
and verbs, which have no accent in Vedic texts. This observation of Wackernagel
supports the conclusion that the intonation of the sentence was characterised by
initial high pitch, with the voice trailing off at the end. For the enclitic elements were
not placed initially, but rather they occupied positions in which unaccented portions
of words were expected, as in Skt. prāvep mā bṛható mādayanti, ‗The dangling
ones of the lofty tree gladden me‘. The pronoun mā ‗me‘, like other such enclitics,
makes up a phrase with the initial word; in this way it is comparable to unaccented
syllables of individual words, as in Skt. pravātej íriṇe várvṛtānāḥ (lit. in-windy-
place on-dice-board rolling) ‗[born] in a windy place, rolling on the dice-board‘.
10.2.2. SENTENCE DELIMITING PARTICLES
1. The particles concerned are PIE nu, so, to, all of them introductory particles.
Their homonymity with the adverb nu, nun and the anaphoric pronoun was one of
the reasons earlier Indo-Europeanists failed to recognise them and their function.
Yet Delbrück had already noted the clause-introducing function of Skt. sa (1888), as
in Skt. tásya t ni śīrṣ ṇi prá cicheda. (lit. his the heads off he-struck) sá yát
somap nam sa tátaḥ kapíñjalaḥ sám abhavat (lit. Ptc. what soma-drinking it-was
from-that hazel-hen [grouse] together it-became] ‗He struck off his heads. From the
one that drank soma, the hazel-hen was created‘. Delbrück identified sa in this and
other sentences as a particle and not a pronoun, for it did not agree in gender with a
noun in the sentence. But it remained for Hittite to clarify the situation.
In Hittite texts the introductory use of the particles is unmistakable (J.Friedrich

1960); ta and šu occur primarily in the early texts, nu in the later, as illustrated in the
following Old Hittite example (Otten and Souček 1969): šer-a-ššan GAD-an pešiemi
310
10. Sentence Syntax
šu- uš LÚ-aš natta aušzi (over-and-Ptc. cloth I-throw Ptc.- them man not sees) ‗I
throw a cloth over it and no one will see them‘ (Lehmann 1974).
2. Besides such an introductory function (here as often elsewhere translated ‗and‘),

these particles were used as first element in a chain of enclitics, as in n-at-ši ‗and it
to-him‘, nu-mu-za-kan ‗and to-me self within‘ and so on.
In Homeric Greek such strings of particles follow different orders, but reflect the IE
construction, as in: oudé nu soí per entrépetai phílon êtor, Olúmpie (lit. not-indeed
and to-you but it-turns ‗dear‘ heart Olympian) ‗But your heart doesn‘t notice, Zeus‘.
As the translation of per here indicates, some particles were used to indicate the
relationships between clauses marking the simple sentence (Lehmann 1974).
3. Many simple sentences in PIE would then be similar to those in Hittite and Vedic
Sanskrit. Among the simplest is Skt. tám índro didveṣa ‗Indra hated him‘.
Presumably tam is a conflated form of the particle ta and the enclitic accusative
singular pronoun; the combination is attested in Hittite as ta-an (J. Friedrich 1960).
Similar examples from the other early dialects could be cited, such as the Italic
inscription of Praeneste, or the Germanic Gallehus inscription: Ek HlewagastiR
HoltijaR horna tawido, ‗I, Hlewagastir of Holt, made the horn‘. In these late texts,
the subject was mandatory, and accordingly two nominal forms had come to be
standard for the sentence. If however the subject is not taken into consideration,
many sentences contained only one nominal element with verbs, in the early dialects
as well as in PIE (Lehmann 1974).
10.3. VERBAL MODIFIERS
10.3.1. DECLARATIVE SENTENCES
1. The injunctive has long been identified as a form unmarked for mood and
marked only for stem and person. It may thus be compared with the simplest form of
OV languages.
By contrast the present indicative indicates ―mood‖. We associate this additional

feature with the suffix -i, and assume for it declarative meaning.
2. As Lehmann (1974) says, ―Yet it is also clear that, by the time of Vedic Sanskrit
and, we assume, Late PIE, the injunctive no longer contrasted directly with the
present indicative. We must therefore conclude that the declarative qualifier was
expressed by other means in the sentence. We assume that the means of expression
311
was an intonation pattern. For, in normal unmarked simple sentences, finite

unaccented verbs stood finally in their clause, as did the predicative elements of
nominal sentences; Delbrück‘s repeatedly used example may be cited once again to
illustrate the typical pattern: víśaḥ kṣatríyāya balíṃ haranti ‗The villagers pay
tribute to the prince‘. Since the verb haranti was unaccented, i.e., had no high pitch,
we may posit for the normal sentence an intonation pattern in which the final
elements in the sentence were accompanied by low pitch.‖
Lehmann (1974) supports this assumption by noting that a distinctive

suprasegmental was used in Vedic to distinguish a contrasting feature, interrogation
or request (Wackernagel 1896). This marker, called pluti by native grammarians,
consisted of extra length, as in ágnā3i ‗O fire‘ (3 indicates extra length). But a more
direct contrast with the intonation of simple sentences may be exemplified by the
accentuation of subordinate clauses. These have accented verbs, as in the following
line from the Rigveda: antáś ca pr gā áditir bhavāsi ‗If you have entered inside, you
will be Aditi‘. As the pitch accent on ágā indicates, verbs in subordinate clauses
maintained high pitch, in contrast with verbs of independent clauses like bhavāsi.
We may conclude that this high pitch was an element in an intonation pattern which
indicated incompleteness, somewhat like the pattern of contemporary English.
3. Evidence from other dialects supports the conclusion that, in late PIE, declarative
sentences were indicated by means of an intonation pattern with a drop in
accentuation at the end of the clause.
NOTE. In Germanic verse, verbs of unmarked declarative sentences tend to occupy

unaccented positions in the line, notably the final position (Lehmann 1956). Although the
surface expression of accentuation patterns in Germanic is stress, rather than the pitch of
Vedic and PIE, the coincidence of accentuation pattern supports our conclusions concerning
PIE intonation.
10.3.2. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
1. The interrogation was apparently also indicated by means of intonation, for some
questions in our early texts have no surface segmental indication distinguishing them
from statements, for example, Plautus Aulularia 213, aetatem meam scis, ‗Do you
know my age?‘.
312
10. Sentence Syntax
NOTE. Only the context indicates to us that this utterance was a question; we may assume
that the spoken form included means of expressing interrogation, and in view of expressions
in the later dialects we can only conclude that these means were an intonation pattern.
2. Questions are generally classified in two groups:
 Those framed to obtain confirmation, yes/no questions (Bestätigungsfragen).

This feature accompanies statements in which a speaker sets out to elicit
information from the hearer.
 Those framed to obtain clarification (Verdeutlichungsfragen).
3. Yes/no questions (Bestätigungsfragen) were made (Clackson 2007):
a) By an intonation pattern alone, as noted above. That is the reconstruction

favoured by most of those who have addressed the issue (Delbrück 1893-1900,
Meier-Brügger 2003), because of the finds in Hittite and Vedic Sanskrit. It might
therefore be considered one of the oldest means to express interrogation of any type,
including yes/no questions. This is most probably the older situation in PIE.
b) Disjunctive questions can be formed by juxtaposition of a verb with a negated

verb, as in the following example of Vedic Sanskrit prose text (3 indicates extra
length): chinátti s ná chinattī3 [cuts she not cuts pluti] ‗Does she divide or not?‘..
NOTE. For Clackson (2007): ―These different reconstructed hypotheses are not mutually
exclusive: it is possible that different types of ‗yes-no‘ question formation existed alongside
each other in PIE. Indeed, systems of marking through intonation exist alongside other
systems in many languages of the world. In French, for example, there are three different ways
of forming ‗yes-no‘ questions: Il vient?, Est-ce qu‟il vient? and Vient-il? all mean ‗Is he
coming?‘.‖
c) By an interrogative affix or particle. Such means of expression for interrogation

are found in most IE languages, apparently from a late development, since the
particles used are different. Two of them have been reconstructed for PIE, though:
i. The particle nu, found in Greek and Vedic Sanskrit as interrogative particle, is
also extremely widely used in non-interrogative sentences in Hittite, as well as in
Sanskrit and Greek. It was probably then mainly a S.LIE resource.
ii. Lehmann (1974), following Delbrück (1893-1900) and Eichner (1971) argues that
Lat. -ne, was the original interrogative particle, since its post-placement accorded
with the typology of OV languages, in which interrogative particles are placed
sentence finally. According to Minton Warren, it ―occurs about 1100 times in Plautus
313
and over 40 times in Terence‖ (1881). Besides expressions like Lat. egone ‗Me?‘,
sentences like the following occur (Plautus Asinaria 884): Aúdin quid ait?
Artemona: Aúdio. ‗Did you hear what he is saying? Artemona: yes‘.
Other evidence for a postponed particle for expressing interrogation is found in

Avestan, in which -na is suffixed to some interrogatives, as in Av. kas-nā ‗who
(then)?‘; and in Germanic, where na is found finally in some questions in Old High
German. Old Church Slavic is more consistent in the use of such a particle than are
these dialects, as in chošteši li ‗Do you wish to?‘ This particle is also used in
contemporary Russian.
The particle used to express interrogation in Latin, Avestan, and Germanic is

homophonous with the particle for expressing negation, PIE ne.
NOTE. It is not unlikely that LIE an of questions is behind same ne/ṇ particle used for the
negative. As the interrogative particle, however, it has been lost in most dialects. After
Lehmann (1974), its loss is one of the indications that late PIE was not a consistent OV
language. After Mendoza, the fact that such interrogatives of a yes/no-answer are introduced
by different particles in the oldest attested dialects means that no single particle was
generalised by Late Indo-European; cf. Goth. niu, Lat. -ne, nonne, num, Gk. ἣ, λὐ , Skt. nu,
Sla. li. However, the common findings of Hittite, Indo-Iranian, Germanic and Latin are
similar, if not the same.
4. The partial interrogative sentences are those which expect an aclaratory answer
(Verdeutlichungsfragen), equivalent to English ‗What…?‘, ‗Where…?‘, ‗Who…?‘, and
so on. They are introduced in PIE by pronominal or adverbial forms derived from
interrogative qi-/qo-, always placed initially but for marked sentences, where a
change in position is admitted to emphasise it.
NOTE. In some languages, interrogatives may be strengthened by the addition of posposed

particles with interrogative sense, as in Av. kaš-na (<*kwos-ne). Such forms introduce indirect
interrogatives when they ask about a part of the sentence. Indirect interrogatives in the form
of total interrogatives (i.e., not of yes/no-answer) are introduced by particles derived from
direct interrogative particles (when there are) or by conditional conjunctions; as Hitt. man.
5. According to Clackson (2007), question words are typically fronted and followed
by enclitics, as Vedic kás te mātáraṃ vidhávām acakrat (lit. who you-gen mother-
acc widow-acc he-made) ‗Who made your mother a widow?‘; Vedic kásya bráhmāni
jujusur yúvānaḥ lit. ‗of whom the formulas like the-young-men?‘;
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10. Sentence Syntax
Where an element precedes the question word, it makes sense to interpret this as a
left-detached element, and it appears that in Vedic Sanskrit, as in Hittite, left-
detachment does not count in the calculation of second position; as Vedic índraḥ kím
asya sakhyé cakāra (lit. Indra-nom what-acc he-gen friendship-loc he-did), ‗As for
Indra, what did he do in his friendship?‘; Vedic brahmā kó vaḥ saparyati ‗priest
which you honors?‘ See §10.6.3 for more on emphasis.
10.3.3. NEGATIVE SENTENCES
1. Indications of negation, by which the speaker negates the verbal means of

expression, commonly occupy third position in the hierarchy of sentence elements.
2. We can only posit the particles ne and mē/nē, neither of which is normally
postposed after verbs.
NOTE. For prohibitive particle mē, compare Gk. mḗ, O.Ind.,Av.,O.Pers. mā, Toch. mar/mā,
Arm. mi, Alb. mos. In other IE dialects it appears as nē, cf. Goth. ne, Lat. nē (also as modal
negation), O.Ir. ni. It is not clear whether Hitt. lē is ultimately derived from mē or nē,
although Clackson (2007) reconstructs a common Anatolian *nē, due to Luv. ni(s), Lyc. ni.
Although mē is sometimes reconstructed as the ‗original‘ PIE particle, the Anatolian finds
don‘t let us decide which form is older. Apparently, S.LIE and Tocharian had mē, while
Anatolian and North-West IE seem to have used nē.
PIE ne is found as Goth.,O.H.G. ni, Lat. nĕ- (e.g. in nequis) O.Ind. ná, O.Sla. ne, etc.
Sometimes it is found in lengthened or strengthened forms as Hitt. natta, Lat. non, Skt. ned,
etc. A common PIE lengthened form is nei, which appears in Lat. ni, Lith. neî, Sla. ni, etc.
3. The negative element ne was not used in compounding in PIE (Brugmann 1904);
the privative prefix ṇ-, un-, had this function.
Comparative evidence suggests, following Fortson (2004), that certain classes of

words were preferentially negated not with the adverb but with the privative prefix;
among these words were participles and verbal adjectives. Greek and Latin, for
example, ordinarily use their negative adverbs when negating participles, but some
fixed archaic constructions point to an earlier time when the privative prefix was
used instead, as Homeric Gk. a-ékontos emeĩo ‗with me being unwilling, against my
will‘, Lat. mē īn-sciente ‗with me not knowing‘, in-uītus ‗unwilling‘ (later replaced by
nōn uolēns ‗not willing‘), im-prūdēns ‗not knowing beforehand‘ (later nōn
prouidēns). Compare also Av. an-usaṇt- ‗not wanting‘, Goth. un-agands ‗not fearing‘.
315
4. In the oldest languages, negation seems to have been preverbal; Vedic nákis, Gk.
oú tis, mē tis, Lat. nēmo, OHG nioman ‗no one‘, and so on. If the negation has scope
over a single word or constituent, it usually directly precedes that constituent.
Sentential negation typically directly precedes the verb, as in English. But it could
also be moved toward the front of the sentence for emphasis. (Fortson 2004).
NOTE. Moreover, there is evidence for proposing that other particles were placed
postverbally in PIE (Delbrück 1897). Delbrück has classified these in a special group, which he
labels particles. They have been maintained postpositively primarily in frozen expressions: ē
in Gk. egṓnē, ge in égōge ‗I‘ (Schwyzer 1939). But they are also frequent in Vedic and early
Greek; Delbrück (1897) discusses at length the use of Skt. gha, Gk. ge, and Skt. sma, Gk. mén,
after pronouns, nouns, particles, and verbs, cf. Lat. nōlo < ne volo, Goth. nist< ni ist, and also,
negative forms of the indefinite pronoun as O.Ind. m -kis, ná-kis, Lat. ne-quis, etc. which may
indicate an old initial absolute position, which could be also supported by the development of
correlative forms like Lat. neque, etc., which combine negation and coordination. Lehmann,
on the contrary, believes in an older postposed order, characteristic of OV languages, because
of the usually attributed value of emphasis to the initial position of negation, postverbal
negation examples (even absolute final position in Hittite and Greek), the old existence of the
form nei, as well as innovative forms like Lat. ne-quis or Gk. oú-tis (Lehmann 1974).
It is therefore safe to assume that in post-LIE times negation was usually preverbal,
as in modern Romance languages (cf. Fr. n‟est, Spa. no es, etc.), but it could be placed
word-initially in emphatic contexts, and it is also found postponed in some archaic
lexical or syntactic remains of the older IE languages, as it is found in modern
Germanic languages (cf. Eng. is not, Ger. ist nicht, etc.).
5. Prohibitive sentences have a different negative particle, mē/nē. The older IE

languages seem to have used the unmarked indicative (the so-called ‗injunctive‘) for
prohibitions, as some relic forms in Vedic might show. In Tocharian and Hittite, the
tense-marked indicative was used. However, the tendency to replace the indicative
with the imperative in prohibitions is seen in Greek and Latin, where the imperative
became the marker of all commands, being mē/nē the modal negative.
For example, following Clackson (2007), while the ‗original‘ situation would have
been cemt, he came (aorist), ne cemt, he did not come (aorist), cemje, come,
mē/nē cemjes, stop coming, this was reinterpreted and the imperative was used
instead (hence a negative particle added to the positive utterance), i.e. mē/nē
cemje, stop coming.
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10. Sentence Syntax
NOTE. Clackson (2007) continues: ―Note also that several languages have opted to use
modal forms (subjunctive and optative) in prohibitions. The most likely explanation for this is
that speakers have extended the secondary functions of these modal forms, which include
marking requests, wishes and other directive expressions, to embrace negative commands as
well.‖
According to Clackson (2007), some older IE languages show a difference between

inhibitives, commands to stop doing something that the hearer is engaged in, and
preventatives, commands or warnings not to do something in the future; that
differentiation is found in Indo-Iranian, Tocharian, and apparently in Celtic too.
Although the constructions differ, the Indo-Iranian differentiation could have been
the original one: the present stem forms inhibitives, while the aorist stem forms
preventatives.
10.4. NOMINAL MODIFIERS
10.4.1. ADJECTIVE AND GENITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS
1. Proto-Indo-European attributive adjectives were normally preposed.
Delbrück (1900) summarises the findings for Vedic, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, and
Germanic, giving examples like the following from Vedic: śvet ḥ párvatāḥ ‗white
mountains‘. Lehmann (1974) adds an example of Hitt. šuppi watar ‗pure water‘.
In marked constructions adjectives might be postposed, as in Ved. áśvaḥ śvetáḥ ‗a

white horse, a gray‘.
2. The position of the attributive genitive is the same as that of the attributive
adjective. A striking example is given from the Old English legal language (Delbrück
1900): ōðres mannes hūses dura ‗the door of the house of the other man‘.
3. Like the adjective construction, the attributive-genitive construction may have

the modifier postposed for marked effect, as is sómasya in Skt. kíṃ nas tátaḥ syād
íti? prathamabhakṣsá evá sómasyar jña íti (lit. what us then it-might-be Ptc. first-
enjoyment Ptc. of-soma) ‗What might then happen for us? The first enjoyment of
[Prince] Soma‘. (Delbrück 1878)
NOTE 1. The relatively frequent marked use of the genitive may be the cause for the
apparently free position of the genitive in Greek and Latin. The ambivalent order may also
have resulted from the change of these languages toward a VO order. But, as Delbrück
317
indicates, the preposed order is well attested in the majority of dialects. This order is also
characteristic of Hittite (J. Friedrich 1960).
NOTE 2. In accordance with Lehmann‘s (1974) views on syntactic structure, the attributive
genitive, like the attributive adjective, must be derived from an embedded sentence. The
sentence would have a noun phrase equivalent with that in the matrix sentence and would be
a predicate nominal sentence. Such independent sentences are attested in the older dialects.
Delbrück gives a number of examples, among them: Skt. aṣṭaú ha vaí putr ádites (eight Ptc.
Ptc. sons of-Aditi) ‗Aditi had eight sons‘; Skt. áhar dev nām sīt (lit. day of-gods it-was) ‗Day
belonged to the gods‘. These sentences accordingly illustrate that the genitive was used in
predicate nominative sentences to convey what Calvert Watkins has labelled its primary
syntactic function: the sense ―of belonging‖. When such a sentence was embedded in another
with an equivalent NP, the NP was deleted, and the typical genitive construction resulted.
Hittite also uses s as a genitive as well as a nominative marker. For ―genitives‖ like
haššannaššaš ‗(one) of his race‘ can be further inflected, as in the accusative haššannaš-šan
„(to one) of his race‟ (J. Friedrich).
4. Fortson (2004): Common to all the older languages was the ability of nouns and
their modifiers to be separated by intervening elements, yielding what are called
discontinuous or distracted noun phrases (a construction called hyperbaton in Greek
and Latin grammar): Cuneiform Luv. alati awienta Wilušati ‗they came from steep
Wjlusa‘ (KBo 4.11:46), Gk. ándra moi énnepe Moũsa polútropon ‗tell me, Muse, of
the resourceful man‘ (Odyssey 1.1), Lat. magnā cum laude ‗with great praise‘, Old
Irish Marta for slúaig saithiu „on the swarm of the host of March‘ (Felire Oengusso,
March 31). Distraction of other types of phrases was common as well. The technical
details of distraction are not well understood; in some cases, it is the result of part of
a phrase being moved to a position of emphasis or contrast.
10.4.2. COMPOUNDS
1. Nominal compositum or nominal composition is the process of putting two or

more words together to form another word. The new word, called a compound word,
is either a noun or an adjective, and it does not necessarily have the same meaning as
its parts.
2. According to their meaning, compounds can be broadly classified in two types
(Fortson 2004):
a. Endocentric (or determinative), as blackbird, ‗(a type of) black bird‘, when the
compound is essentially the sum of its parts, and its referent (a type of bird) is one of
318
10. Sentence Syntax
the compound members itself (usually the second one, as here). Examples include
Skt. Siṃha-puras ‗Lion City‘ (Singapore), Ger. Blut-wurst ‗blood sausage‘.
b. Exocentric or possessive compounds (usually called bahuvrihis, see below),
illustrated by Eng. redthroat, is more than the sum of its parts and refers to
something outside itself: the referent is not a type of throat, but a type of bird
possessing a red throat. Examples include O.Ir. Fer-gus ‗hero-strength = having a
hero‘s strength‘, Gk. Aristó-dēmos ‗best people = having the best people‘.
It is frequently said that bahuvrihis typically have o-grade of the ablauting syllable
of the second compound member. Such is indeed the case in such forms as Gk. eu-
pátōr (<su-patōr) ‗having a good father‘, and Umbrian du-purs- (<dwi-pods)
‗having two feet‘. These o-grades are likely to be survivals of old ablauting inflection
rather than engendered directly by the process of compounding.
3. In the derivation of compounds special compounding rules apply.
The verbal compounds in a language observe the basic order patterns, For PIE we
would expect an older OV order in compounds, as e.g. Skt. agnídh- ‗priest‘ < agni
‗fire‟ + idh ‗kindle.‘
NOTE. A direct relationship between compounds and basic syntactic patterns is found only
when the compounds are primary and productive. After a specific type of compound becomes
established in a language, further compounds may be constructed on the basis of analogy, for
example Gk. híppagros ‗wild horse‟, in contrast with the standard productive Greek
compounds in which the adjectival element precedes the modified, as in agriókhoiros ‗wild
swine‘ (Risch 1944-1949). Here we will consider the primary and productive kinds of
compounds in PIE.
4. Two large classes and other minor types are found:
A. The synthetics (noun+noun), which make up the majority of the PIE

compounds:
a. Pure synthetics, i.e. noun+noun.
NOTE. While both members of the compound can be changed without a change in meaning,
some rules govern these compounds (Mendoza 1998);
- phonetic: there is a preference for a succession of high vowels – low vowels, and for labial
or labialised sounds in the second term (Wackernagel 1928).
- prosodic: the law of growing members, i.e. the tendency to place the shorter member
before the longer one; that rule is followed in dvāndvā (copulative compounds of two
319
names in the dual number, cf. Skt. Mitrā-Váruṇā, ‗Mitra and Varuna‘, Dy vā-prṭhivī
‗sky and earth‘), but also concerning paratactic members, cf. Gk. álloi mèn rha theoí te
kaì anéres híppokorustaí (Behagel 1923).
- semantic: since Krause (1922) it is believed that the most important, near and logical
notions are put in first place; i.e. compounds are subject to the principles of ‗importance‘
and ‗sequence‘ (Bednarczuck 1980).
b. Sinthetics in which the first element is adverbial, i.e. adverb+noun.

B. The bahuvrihis.
c. Adjective + nouns, apparently not so productive in PIE as in its dialects.
d. A small number of additive compounds.
5. The second term of a compound word may be then (Ramat 1993, Adrados–
Bernabé–Mendoza 1995-1998):
i) A noun (Gk. akró-polis ‗high city, citadel‘)
ii) An adjective (Gk. theo-eíkelos ‗similar to the gods‘) or
iii) A noun adapted to the adjectival inflection (Gk. arguró-toxos ‗silver arc‘)
NOTE. Sometimes a suffix is added (cf. Gk. en-neá-boios ‗of nine cows‘), and the compound
noun may have a different gender than the second term (cf. Lat. triuium ‗cross roads‘, from
trēs and uia).
6. The first term is a pure stem, without distinction of word class, gender or
number. It may be an adverb, a numeral (Gk. trí-llistos ‗supplicated three times‘,
polú-llistos ‗very supplicated‘) or a pronoun (cf. O.Ind. tat-puruṣa ‗that man‘), as well
as a nominal-verbal stem with nominal (Gk. andra-phónos ‗who kills a man‘),
adjetival (Gk. akró-polis), or verbal function (Gk. arkhé-kakos ‗who begins the evil‘),
and also an adjective proper (Gk. polú-tropos ‗of many resources‘).
7. Usually, the first term has zero-grade, cf. O.Ind. ṇr-hán, Gk. polú-tropos, Lat.
aui-(caps), etc. Common exceptions are stems in -e/os, as Gk. sakés-palos ‗who
shakes the shield‘ (Gk. sákos ‗shield‘), and some suffixes which are substituted by a
lengthening in -i, cf. Gk. kudi-áneira ‗who glorifies men‘ (Gk. kudrós), Av. bərəzi-
čaxra- ‗of high wheels‘ (Av. bərəzant-).
In thematic stems, however, the thematic -e/o appears always, as an o if noun or
adjective (Gk. akró-polis), as an e if verb (Gk. arkhé-kakos).
8. The first term usually defines the second, the contrary is rare; the main
compound types are:
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10. Sentence Syntax
A. Formed by verbs, cf. O.Ind. ṇr-hán, Gk. andra-phónos (Gk. andro- is newer)
Lat. auceps, O.Sla. medv-ĕdĭ ‗honey-eater‘, bear, and also with the second term
defining the first, as Gk. arkhé-kakos.
B. Nominal determiners (first term defines the second), with first term noun (cf.
Gk. mētro-pátōr ‗mother‘s father‘, Goth. þiudan-gardi ‗kingdom‘), adjective (cf. Gk.
akró-polis, O.Sla. dobro-godŭ „good time‟, O.Ir. find-airgit „white plant‟, Lat. angi-
portus „narrow pass‟), or numeral (cf. Lat. tri-uium, from uia, Gk. ámaza „chariot
frame‟, from ázōn).
C. Adjectival determiners (tatpuruṣa- for Indian grammarians), with first term
Noun (cf. Gk. theo-eíkelos, Goth. gasti-gods „good for the guests‟), adverb (cf. O.Ind.
ájñātas, Gk. ágnotos „unknown‟, phroudos „who is on its way‟, from pró and odós).
D. Possessive compounds (bahu-vrihi- „which has a lot of rice‟, for Indian
grammarians), as in Eng. barefoot, „(who goes) with bare feet‟, with the first term
Noun (cf. Gk. arguró-tozos, O.Sla. črŭno-vladŭ, „of black hair‟), adjective (cf. Lat.
magn-animus, „of great spirit‟), adverb (cf. O.Ind. durman s, GK. dus-menḗs,
„wicked‟).
9. The accent could also distinguish determiners from possessives, as in O.Ind.
rāja-putrás ‗a king‘s son‘, from O.Ind. rajá-putras ‗who has a son as king, king‘s
father‘, see below.
SYNTHETICS
Synthetics consist of a nominal element preceding a verbal, in their unmarked

forms, as in Skt. agnídh- ‗priest‘. As in this compound, the relation of the nominal
element to the verbal is that of target.
The particular relationship of nominal and verbal elements was determined by the
lexical properties of the verb; accordingly, the primary relationship for most PIE
verbs was that of target. But other nominal categories could also be used with verbs.
Kinds of relationships (Lehmann 1974):
1) The receptor relationship, as Skt. deva-héḍana ‗god-angering‘, in m karma

devahéḍanam (lit. not we-do god-angering) ‗we will not do anything angering the
gods‘.
2) The instrument or means relationship; as Skt. ádri-jūta ‗stone-speeded‘, in

rátho ha vām rtaj ádrijūtaḥ pári dy vāprthiv yāti sadyáḥ (lit. chariot Ptc. your
321
born-at-right-time speeded-by-stones about heaven-earth goes in-one-day) ‗Your

chariot, created at the right time, speeded by stones, goes around heaven and earth
in one day‘.
3) The time relationship; as rta-j ‗truly-born‘, in the example above.
4) The source relationship, as Skt. aṅho-múc ‗distress-delivering‘, in bháreshv

índraṃ suhávaṃ havāmahe „ṅhomúcaṃ suk tam (lit. in-battles Indra well-called
we-call-on freeing-from-trouble doing-well) ‗In battles we call on Indra, whom it is
well to call, who frees from troubles, who does well‘.
5) The place relationship, as Skt. dru-ṣád ‗tree-sitting‘, in vér ná druṣác camvòr

sadad dhárih (lit. bird like sitting-in-tree bowls he-has-sat fallow) ‗Like a bird
sitting in a tree the fallow one has sat down in two bowls‘.
6) The manner relationship; as, Skt. īśāna-kŕt ‗ruler-acting‘, in ádhā yó víśvā

bhúvanābhí majmánā īśānakŕt právayā abhy ávardhata (lit. here who all worlds-
above with-strenght acting-like-a-ruler with-youthful-strength above he-grew)
‗Who grew beyond all worlds with his strength, acting like a ruler, having youthful
strength‘.
These compounds exhibit the various relationships of nominal constituents with

verbal elements, as in Skt. tv -datta ‗(by-)you-given‘, in vidm hí yás te adrivas tv -
dattaḥ (lit. we-know Ptc. which your having-the-stones given-by-you) ‗For we know
your [wealth] given by you, you of the pressing-stones‘.
Synthetics attested in the Rigveda accordingly illustrate all the nominal

relationships determinable from sentences. Synthetics are frequently comparable to
relative constructions, as in the following sentence: gnír agāmi bh rato vṛtrah
purucétaṇaḥ (lit. to-Agni he-was-approached the-Bharatan Vrtra-killer by-many-
seen) ‗Agni, the god of the Bharatas, was approached, he who killed Vrtra, who is
seen by many‘.
Besides the large number of synthetics of the NV pattern, others are attested with
the pattern VN. These are largely names and epithets, such as púṣṭi-gu, a name
meaning ‗one who raises cattle‘, and sanád-rayi ‗dispensing riches‘.
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10. Sentence Syntax
BAHUVRIHIS
The second large group of PIE compounds, Bahuvrihis, are derived in accordance
with the sentence pattern expressing possession. This pattern is well known from the
Latin mihi est construction (Bennett 1914; Brugmann 1911): nulli est homini
perpetuom bonum ‗No man has perpetual blessings‘.
NOTE. Lehmann (1974) accounts for the derivation of bahuvrihis, like Lat. magnanimus
‗great-hearted‘, assuming that an equational sentence with a noun phrase as subject and a
noun in the receptor category indicating possession is embedded with an equivalent noun, as
in ‗great spirit is to man‘ = ‗the man has great spirit‘.
On deletion of the equivalent NP (homini) in the embedded sentence, a bahuvrihi compound

magnanimus ‗greathearted‘ is generated. This pattern of compounding ceased to be primary
and productive when the dialects developed verbal patterns for expressing possession, such as
Lat. habeo ‗I have‘.
Bahuvrihis may be adjectival in use, or nominal, as in the vocative use of sūnari

‗having good strength‘ (made up of su ‗good‘ and *xner- ‗(magical) strength‘) in Skt.
víśvasya hí pr ṇanaṃ j vanaṁ tvé, ví yid uchási sūnari (of-all Ptc. breath life in-
you Ptc. when you-shine having-good-strength) ‗For the breath and life of everything
is in you, when you light up the skies, you who have good strength‘. The Greek
cognate may illustrate the adjectival use: phéron d‟ euḗnora khalkón (they-bore Ptc.
powerful bronze) ‗They carried on board the bronze of good strength‘. The bahuvrihis
are accordingly similar to synthetics in being comparable to relative clauses
(Lehmann 1974).
NOTE. Although the bahuvrihis were no longer primary and productive in the later dialects,
their pattern remained remarkably persistent, as we may note from the various philo-
compounds in Greek, such as philósophos ‗one who holds wisdom dear‘, phíloinos ‗one who
likes wine‘, and many more. Apart from the loss of the underlying syntactic pattern, the
introduction of different accentual patterns removed the basis for bahuvrihis. As Risch
pointed out, Greek eupátōr could either be a bahuvrihi ‗having a good father‘ or a tatpurusha
‗a noble father‘. In the period before the position of the accent was determined by the quantity
of final syllables, the bahuvrihi would have had the accent on the prior syllable, like r ja-
putra ‗having kings as sons‘, RV 2.27.7, in contrast with the tatpurusha r ja-putrá ‗king‘s son‘,
RV 10.40.3. The bahuvrihis in time, then, were far less frequent than tatpurushas, of which
only a few are to be posited for Late Indo-European. An example is Gk. propátōr ‗forefather‟.
If the disputed etymology of Latin proprius ‗own‟ is accepted, *pro-pətrjós ‗from the
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forefathers‘, there is evidence for assuming a PIE etymon; Wackernagel (1905) derives
Sanskrit compounds like prá-pada ‗tip of foot‘ from PIE. Yet the small number of such
compounds in the early dialects indicates that they were formed in the late stage of PIE
(Risch). Contrary to Pokorny‘s reconstruction of *pro-pətrjós is the existence of adverb
*proprītim (<*priH-ti-) ‗particularly‟, found in Lucretius, which makes it difficult for the
haplology to be sustained. A more plausible reconstruction is from verb prijājō, from prijós,
dear, with an ancient meaning of ‗inalienable possesion‘ in Sanskrit, or just ‗possesion‟ in
Latin (see Blanc 2004).
NOTE 2. Dvandvas, such as índrāviśṇu and a few other patterns, like the teens, were not
highly productive in PIE, if they are to be assumed at all. Their lack of productiveness may
reflect poorly developed coordination constructions in PIE (Lehmann 1969). Besides the
expansion of tatpurushas and dvandvas in the dialects, we must note also the use of expanded
root forms. Thematic forms of noun stems and derived forms of verbal roots are used, as in
Skt. deva-kṛta ‗made by the gods‘. Such extended constituents become more and more
prominent and eventually are characteristic elements of compounds, as the connecting vowel -
o- in Greek and in early Germanic; Gk. Apolló-dōros ‗gift of Apollo‘ (an n- stem) and Goth.
guma-kunds ‗of male sex‘ (also an n- stem). Yet the relationships between the constituents
remain unchanged by such morphological innovations. The large number of tatpurushas in
the dialects reflects the prominence of embedded-modifier constructions, as the earlier
synthetics and bahuvrihis reflected the embedding of sentences, often to empty noun nodes.
As noted above, they accordingly have given us valuable information about PIE sentence types
and their internal relationships.
10.4.3. DETERMINERS IN NOMINAL PHRASES
Nouns are generally unaccompanied by modifiers. Demonstratives are infrequent;

nouns which might be considered definite have no accompanying determinative
marker unless they are to be stressed, in which case the demonstrative precedes.
(Lehmann 1974).
The relationship between such demonstratives and accompanying nouns has been
assumed to be appositional; it may be preferable to label the relationship a loose one,
as of pronoun or noun plus noun, rather than adjective or article plus noun.
In Homer too the ―article‖ is generally an anaphoric pronoun, differing from

demonstratives by its lack of deictic meaning referring to location (Munro). Nominal
phrases as found in Classical Greek or in later dialects are subsequent developments;
the relationship between syntactic elements related by congruence, such as
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10. Sentence Syntax
adjectives, or even by case, such as genitives, can often be taken as similar to an

appositional relationship (Meillet 1937).
To illustrate nominal phrases, cf. Vedic eṣām marútām ‗of-them of-Maruts‘. The
nominal phrase which may seem to consist of a demonstrative preceding a noun,
eṣām marútām, is divided by the end of the line; accordingly eṣām must be
interpreted as pronominal rather than adjectival.
Virtually any line of Homer might be cited to illustrate the absence of close
relationships between the members of nominal phrases; cf. Odyssey nēûs dé moi hḗd‟
héstēken ep‟ agroûnósphi pólēos, en liméni Rheíthrōi hupò Nēíōi hulḗenti ‗My ship is
berthed yonder in the country away from the city, in a harbor called Rheithron below
Neion, which is wooded‘. The nouns have no determiners even when, like nēus, they
are definite; and the modifiers with liméni and Neíoi seem to be loosely related
epithets rather than closely linked descriptive adjectives.
The conclusions about the lack of closely related nominal phrases may be supported
by the status of compounds in PIE. The compounds consisting of descriptive
adjectives + noun are later; the most productive are reduced verbal rather than
nominal constructions. And the bahuvrihis, which indicate a descriptive relationship
between the first element and the second, support the conclusion that the
relationship is relatively general; rājá-putra, for example, means ‗having sons who
are kings‘ rather than ‗having royal sons‘; gó-vapus means ‗having a shape like a
cow‘, said of rainclouds, for which the epithet denotes the fructifying quality rather
than the physical shape. (Lehmann 1974).
Accordingly, closely related nominal expressions are to be assumed only for the
dialects, not for PIE. Definiteness was not indicated for nouns. The primary
relationship between nominal elements, whether nouns or adjectives, was
appositional.
10.4.4. APPOSITION
1. Apposition is traditionally ―when paratactically joined forms are grammatically,

but not in meaning, equivalent‖ (Lehmann 1974).
NOTE. Because of the relationship between nouns and modifiers, and also because subjects
of verbs were only explicit expressions for the subjective elements in verb forms, Meillet
325
(1937) considered apposition a basic characteristic of Indo-European syntax. Subjects were

included only when a specific meaning was to be expressed.
2. A distinction is made between appositional and attributive (Delbrück); an

appositional relationship between two or more words is not indicated by any formal
expression, whereas an attributive relationship generally is (Lehmann 1974).
A. Thus the relationships in the following line of the Odyssey are attributive:
arnúmenos hḗn te psukhḗn ka nóston hetaírōn lit. ‗striving-for his Ptc. life and
return of-companions‘. The relationship between hḗn and psukhḗn is indicated by the
concordance in endings; that between nóston and hetaírōn by the genitive.
B. On the other hand the relationship between the two vocatives in the following
line is appositional, because there is no mark indicating the relationship: t n
hamóthen ge, theá, thúgater Diós, eipè ka hēm n ‗Tell us of these things, beginning
at any point you like, goddess, daughter of Zeus‘. Both vocatives can be taken
independently, as can any appositional elements.
3. Asyndetic constructions which are not appositive are frequently attested, as Skt.
té vo hṛdé mánase santu yajñ ‗These sacrifices should be in accordance with your
heart, your mind‘. Coordinate as well as appositive constructions could thus be
without a specific coordinating marker.
4. Comparable to appositional constructions are titles, for, like appositions, the two
or more nouns involved refer to one person.
NOTE. In OV languages titles are postposed in contrast with the preposing in VO languages;
compare Japanese Tanaka-san with Mr. Middlefield. The title ‗king‟ with Varuna and
similarly in the Odyssey, Poseidáōni ánakti, when ánaks is used as a title. But, as Lehmann
himself admits, even in the early texts, titles often precede names, in keeping with the change
toward a VO structure (Lehmann 1974).
5. Appositions normally follow, when nouns and noun groups are contiguous, as in
the frequent descriptive epithets of Homer: Tòn d‟ ēmeíbet‟ épeita theá, glaukôpis
Athḗnē, ‗Him then answered the goddess, owl-eyed Athene‘.
To indicate a marked relationship, however, they may precede (Schwyzer 1950). But
the early PIE position is clear from the cognates: Skt. dyaus pitā, Gk. Zeû páter, Lat.
Jūpiter.
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10. Sentence Syntax
10.5. MODIFIED FORMS OF PIE SIMPLE SENTENCES
10.5.1. COORDINATION
1. While coordination is prominent in the earliest texts, it is generally implicit.
The oldest surviving texts consist largely of paratactic sentences, often with no
connecting particles; cf. Lat. ueni, uidi, uici ‗I came, I saw, I won‘; Gk. ḗiomen, hōs
ekéleues, anà drumá …/ heúromen en bḗssēisi tetugména dṓmata kalá lit. ‗we-went
as you-commanded, through the-jungle…/we-found in the-valley a-polished palace
beautiful‘; Hitt. adueni akueni nu URUḫattusa iyannaḫe ‗we-eat, we-drink Ptc. from-
Hatusa I-go‘.
2. New sentences may be introduced with particles, or relationships may be

indicated with pronominal elements; but these are fewer than in subsequent texts.
Similar patterns of paratactic sentences are found in Hittite, with no overt marker
of coordination or of subordination. According to Friedrich (1960) ―purpose and
result‖ clauses are not found in Hittite; coordinate sentences are simply arranged
side by side with the particle nu, as in the Hittite Laws. Conditional relationships too
are found in Hittite with no indication of subordination, v.i. §10.5.3.
The arrangement of sentences in sequence is a typical pattern of PIE syntax,

whether for hypotactic or for paratactic relationships.
3. Expressions for coordination were used largely for elements within clauses and
sentences. When used to link sentences, conjunctions were often accompanied by
initial particles indicating the beginning of a new clause and also indicating a variety
of possible relationships with neighbouring clauses (Lehmann 1974).
NOTE. Sentence-connecting particles are, however, infrequent in Vedic and relatively
infrequent in the earliest Hittite texts; Lehmann (1974) concludes that formal markers of
sentence coordination were not mandatory in PIE.
COPULATIVE
The normal coordinating copulative particle in most of the dialects is a reflex of PIE
-qe.
NOTE. Hittite -a, -ia is used similarly, as in attaš annaš a ‗father and mother‘ (J. Friedrich
1960). This is probably related to Toch. B yo.
327
This is postposed to the second of two conjoined elements; as, Ved. ágna índras ca
‗o Agni and Indra‟; or to both, as Skt. dev ś ca ásurās ca, ‗Gods and Asuras‘, Gk.
patḗr andrõn te theõn te ‗father of men and gods‘ (Beekes 1995).
Introducing another sentence, as Gothic fram-uh þamma sokida Peilatus fraletan

ina ‗And at this Pilate sought to release him‘.
There is an tendency toward a polysyndetic use (Mendoza 1998); cf. Gk. aieì gár toi
épis te phílē pólemoi te mákhai te (lit. always then for-you the-discord -and dear the-
wars -and the-battles -and) ‗Discord, wars and battles are always dear to you‘.
NOTE. With the change in coordinating constructions, new particles were introduced; some
of these, for example, Lat. et, Goth. jah, O.E. and, have a generally accepted etymology;
others, like Gk. kaí, are obscure in etymology. Syntactically the shift in the construction rather
than the source of the particles is of primary interest, though, as noted above, the introduction
of new markers for the new VO patterns provides welcome lexical evidence of a shift. The
syntactic shift also brought with it patterns of coordination reduction (Ersparung) which have
been well described for some dialects (Behaghel). Such constructions are notable especially in
SVO languages, in which sequences with equivalent verbs (S, V, O, Conj., S 2, V1, O2) delete the
second occurrence of the verb , as M.H.G. daz einer einez will und ein ander ein anderz, ‗that
one one-thing wants and another another‘. Lehmann (1974)
ALTERNATIVE
The disjunctive particle PIE -w is also postposed to the second element; Lat. silua
alta Iouis lūcusue Diānae ‗the high forest of Jupiter or the grove of Diana‘; or to
both, as Skt. náktaṃ vā dívā vā, ‗(either) during the night or during the day‘, or Gk.
theòs ēè gunḗ (with change to prepositional order) ‗or goddess or woman‘.
NOTE. In Hittite, however, the postposed particles -ku ... -ku (<-qe…-qe) ‗or‘, were used
with alternative function, always repeated and only as nexus between sentences; for nouns
there was the particle našma, which stood between nouns rather than after the last. This
pattern of conjunction placement came to be increasingly frequent in the dialects; it indicates
that the conjunction patterns of VO structure have come to be typical already by PIH.
DISJUNCTIVE
In all older IE languages it was possible to express this function of parataxis by

simple repetition of negation, and that was the only possibility in Vedic.
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10. Sentence Syntax
However, a disjunctive compound conjunction neqe is found in Indo-Iranian,

Anatolian, Italic, Celtic and Germanic. It was not a frozen lexical remain, since the
older IE languages analyse the compound as ne+qe.
NOTE. A compound with the prohibitive negation mḗqe is also found in Indo-
Iranian and Greek, and with the alternative newe in Indo-Iranian, Anatolian, Italic
and Celtic.
The compound conjunction can appear introducing only the second member of
both negatives, or it can be repeated also in the first member to emphasise the
parallelism of this type of construction (Mendoza 1998).
Both systems, as well as the simple negation, are attested in the oldest texts.
ADVERSATIVE
No common adversative conjunction seems to be reconstructible for PIE, although

dialectally some conjunctions did succeed with this function, probably in a LIE or
post-LIE period; as, at(i), ōd, etc. (v.s. §8.5).
NOTE. That has been related by Bednarczuk (1980) with the postpositive character of
paratactic conjunctions of the common language, what configures them as polysyndetic and
capable of joining words and sentences, while the adversative function – exclusive of the
sentence parataxis – demands prepositive conjunctions and necessarily monosyndetic.
In the older IE languages, the adversative function is expressed by the same

postposed copulative conjunction -qe, being its adversative use defined by the
context, by the semantic relationship between the sentences (Gonda 1954).
10.5.2. COMPLEMENTATION
1. Compound sentences may result from the embedding of nominal modifiers.
NOTE. In VO languages embedded nominal modifiers follow nouns, whereas in OV

languages they precede nouns. This observation has led to an understanding of the Hittite and
the reconstructed PIE relative constructions. If we follow the standard assumption that in
relative constructions a second sentence containing a noun phrase equivalent to a noun
phrase in the matrix sentence is embedded in that matrix sentence, we may expect that either
sentence may be modified. A sentence may also be embedded with a dummy noun; the verb
forms of such embedded sentences are commonly expressed with nominal forms of the verb,
variously called infinitives, supines, or participles. In OV languages these, as well as relative
constructions, precede the verb of the matrix sentence (Lehmann 1974).
329
2. An example with participles in the IE languages is Skt. vásānaḥ in the last lines
of the following strophic hymn: rúśad vásānaḥ sudṛśīkarūpaḥ lit. ‗brightly dressing-
himself beautifully-hued‘.
It may also have ―a final or consequential sense‖, as in the following strophic hymn:
tvám indra sravitav apás kaḥ ‗You, O Indra, make the waters to flow‘. Also in the
poetic texts such infinitives may follow the main verb, as in ábodhi hótā yajáthāya
dev n (lit. he-woke-up priest for-sacrificing gods) ‗The priest has awakened to
sacrifice to the gods‘ (Lehmann 1974).
NOTE. The postposed order may result from stylistic or poetic rearrangement; yet it is also a
reflection of the shift to VO order, a shift which is reflected in the normal position for
infinitives in the other IE dialects. In the Brahmanas still, infinitives normally stand directly
before the verb, except in interrogative and negative sentences (Delbrück). On the basis of the
Brahmanic order we may assume that in PIE nonfinite verbs used as complements to principal
verbs preceded them in the sentence. Hittite provides examples of preposed complementary
participles and infinitives to support this assumption (J. Friedrich). Participles were used
particularly with har(k)- „have‟ and eš- ‗be‟, as in ueriian ešta ‗was mentioned‘; the pattern is
used to indicate state.
INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES
According to Fritz (in Meier-Brügger 2003) in Proto-Indo-European, the existence

of participles may safely be asserted. Additionally, infinitive constructions with final
dative, accusative of direction, and the locative of destination are presumed to have
existed. While infinitives are defined by syntax, the very presence of participles
reveals that there were participial constructions in Proto-Indo-European. According
to J.L. García Ramón (1997), ―[the assertion] of a true Proto-Indo-European
infinitive ending in *-sén(i) is justified,‖ which could be traced to a locative form,
which, according to K. Stüber (2000) appears in the case of s-stem abstract nouns
with the locative forms ending in *en.
Infinitives could indicate result, with or without an object (J. Friedrich 1960): 1-aš
1-an kunanna lē šanhanzi (lit. one one to-kill not he-tries) ‗One should not try to kill
another‘.
Infinitives could be used to express purpose, as in the following example, which

pairs an infinitive with a noun (J. Friedrich): tuk-ma kī uttar ŠÀ-ta šiianna išhiull-a
330
10. Sentence Syntax
ešdu (lit. to-you-however this word in-heart for-laying instruction-and it-should-be)

‗But for you this word should be for taking to heart and for instruction‘.
The infinitive could be loosely related to its object, as in examples cited by

Friedrich, such as apāš-ma-mu harkanna šan(a)hta (lit. ―he-however-me for-
deteriorating he-sought) ‗But he sought to destroy me‘.
The complementary infinitive indicates the purpose of the action; as Friedrich

points out, it is attached to the verb šanhta plus its object mu in a construction quite
different from that in subsequent dialects.
These uses are parallelled by uses in Vedic, as may be noted in the work of
Macdonell (1916), from which some examples are taken in Lehmann (1974). On the
basis of such examples in Vedic and in Hittite, he assumes that infinitive
constructions were used to indicate a variety of complements in PIE.
Hittite and Sanskrit also provide examples of participles functioning appositionally

or as adjectives indicating state (J. Friedrich 1960): ammuk-uar-an akkantan IQ.BI
(lit. to-me-Ptc.-indicating-quotation-him dying he-described) ‗He told me that one
had died‘.
This pattern had been noted by Delbrück (1900) for the Rigveda, with various
examples, as śiśīhí mā śiśayáṃ tvā śṛṇomi, ‗Strengthen me; I hear that you are
strong‘. The adjective śiśayá ‗strengthening‘ is an adjective derived from the same
root as śiśīhí. Delbrück also noted that such ―appositives‖ are indicated in Greek by
means of clauses. Greek represents for Lehmann accordingly a further stage in the
development of the IE languages to a VO order. Yet Greek still maintained preposed
participles having the same subject as does the principal verb, as in: t n mèn id n
gḗthēse, lit. ‗it Ptc. seeing he-rejoiced‘ (Lehmann 1974).
This pattern permits the use of two verbs with only one indicating mood and
person; the nonfinite verb takes these categories from the finite.
Participles were thus used in the older period for a great variety of relationships,
though also without indicating some of the verbal categories.
Dependent clauses are more flexible in indicating such relationships, and more
precise, especially when complementary participles and infinitives follow the
principal verb.
331
10.5.3. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
1. As with coordination, subordination could be made without grammatical mark in

the older IE languages, hence the context alone decided if it was a subordinate; as in
Eng. the man he called paid the boy (Lehmann 1974).
So e.g. Hom. Gk. all‟ áge nûn epímeinon, arḗia teúkhea duō ‗then now wait (until) I
dress the weapons of war‘; Lat. fac noscam ‗make me know‘ (Delbrück 1900).
2. These sentences, with a change in person, mood, or simply eliminating the pause
between both sentences, are usually considered the origin of some types of
subordinates.
Especially common is this archaic type of paratactic construction in substantive

subordinates, i.e. those sentences which take the role of a verbal actor (subject or
object), or of a constituent of the nominal sentence. Such archaic forms are found in
substantive subordinates expressing thoughts, words, desires or fears, in which these
are quoted literally, without change in person, i.e. in the direct syle, proper of a stage
of the language previous to the introduction of the indirect style (Rubio 1976).
3. The most extended substantive sentence in the older languages is in fact not the
one introduced by conjunctions – which is considered a late development –, but
those whose subordination is introduced by non-finite forms of the verb, like
participles and infinitives.
Almost all languages have infinitives and participles functioning as subject or object
of the sentence, especially with verbs of will or in nominal sentences. That is found in
Hittite, Greek, Latin, Germanic, Slavic, and especially frequent are participles in -nt
(the oldest ones), clearly differentiated from the main clause with the common
subordinate+main order.
NOTE. The order subordinate+main seems to have been obligatory in PIE. This has been
linked with the lack of subordinates of purpose and result, because in these constructions
iconicity demands a postposed order. Precisely conditionals – apparently the first
subordinates introduced by conjunctions, see below – have a structure which is necessarily
correlative, with a systematic preposed order to the subordinate.
In the attested IE languages that relative order subordinate+main was eventually inverted,
which has been linked with a typological change of a language OV into a VO one. At the same
time, there was a tendency to place the relative pronoun immediately after the noun to which
it refers, all of which is typically found in most IE languages of a late period.
332
10. Sentence Syntax
Examples of such subordinate clauses without mark include (Mendoza 1998): Hitt.
MU.KAM-za-wa-ta šer tepawešanza nu-wa BE-LI-NI INA URUḪayaša lē paiši ‗the
year having been shortened, (Ptc.) Lord, do not go to Hayasa‘; Gk. kaì prín per
thum i memaṓs Tróessi mákhesthai dè tóte min trìs tósson hélen ménos lit. ‗and
before even in-his-soul willing-to against-the-Trojans fight Ptc. then to-him thrice
bigger took-him impetus‘.
NOTE. According to Mendoza (1998), such examples are usually analysed as absolute
constructions (see above §10.1.2). In Hittite, where there are no absolutes, they are interpreted
as pure nominal sentences, without copula.
But, if the relation between both clauses is inverted, and with it their order, the result is two
juxtaposed sentences, the second one (with participle) introduced by nu too, but with the
personal verb, with an explicit copula: Hitt. man I-NA URUḪayaša paun-pat nu-za MU.KAM-
za-wa-ta šer tepawešanza ešta (lit. ptc. to Hayasa I-would-have-gone ptc. the-year in-which-
it-has-been-shortened is) „I would have gone to Hayasa, but the year got shorter‟.
The conclusion is that from these sentences, with the integration of such substantive
subordinate constructions into the main clause, come the absolute participle constructions
attested in all IE branches but for Anatolian (Holland 1986).
4. A common resource in the older IE languages was to ‗transform‘ finite verbs into
nominal sentences, due to the syntactic flexibility of participles. As, for Gk.
hoppóteros dé ke nikḗsēi … gunaĩká te oíkad‟ agésthō ‗who wins … he carries home
the woman‘, Gk. tõi dé ke nikḗsanti phílē keklḗsēi ákoitis ‗by the one having won you
will be called dear wife‘ (Ramat 1993).
NOTE. So e.g. the performative assertion, a linguistic act of guarantee and compromise,
expressed by the syntactic secondary rule of demonstrative in Ved. ayám te asmi ‗with-that
yours I-am‘, is transformed into a participle clause in the complex m m m imam táva
sántam … ni gārit ‗that he bolts me not‘, lit. ‗being here yours‘. The participle reinforces a
performative assertion ‗With that I promise you, Atri. Do not let Svarbhānu destroy me‘. This
is the case of the finite verb of existence in another linguistic act, of confessional formula; as,
Hitt. ēšziy=at iyawen=at ‗It is. We did it‘, which is transformed into ašān=at iyanun=at , lit.
‗This (is) absent. I did it‘. From this syntactic use of Hitt. ašant- we can glimpse Lat. sōns,
sontis ‗guilty‘, the old participle present of verb ‗be‘, esse. Ramat (1993).
CONDITIONAL
Of all subordinate clauses introduced by conjunctions, only conditionals seem not

to be related to the relative clauses. In fact, they are the only conjunctional
333
subordinate developed in Hittite, well attested since the older texts (introduced by
takku), and whose conjunction is not derived from the relative (Mendoza 1998).
According to Clackson (2007), a particular marker appears to be used to introduce

conditional clauses in at least three different early branches of IE: -qe, the connective
enclitic (although it also has other functions), both at the word level and, less
generally, clause level. The Sanskrit derivative of -qe, ca, is used in thirty-one
passages in the Rig-Veda, the corpus of early Sanskrit hymns, to introduce
subordinate conditional or temporal clauses; in all cases the clause with the clitic ca
stands before the main clause.
Wackernagel (1942) had noticed similar, marginal, uses of the cognates of Sanskrit
ca to introduce subordinate, and in particular conditional, clauses in Gothic, Latin
and Greek. This support for a PIE use of -qe to introduce conditional clauses then
appeared to be confirmed by Hittite, since the element -ku of the conditional particle
takku ‗if‘, can be derived from -qe.
RELATIVE
Indo-Europeanists have long recognised the relationship between the

subordinating particles and the stem from which relative pronouns were derived in
Indo-Iranian and Greek.
Thus Delbrück has pointed out in detail how the neuter accusative form of PIE jo-
was the basis of the conjunction jod in its various meanings: (1) Temporal, (2)
Temporal-Causal, (3) Temporal-Conditional, (4) Purpose. He also recognised the
source of conjunctional use in sentences like Skt. yáj j yathās tád áhar asya k me
„ṅśóḥ pīyū ṣam apibo giriṣṭh m, ‗On the day you were born you drank the mountain
milk out of desire for the plant‘ (Lehmann 1974).
Thus, subordinated clauses that are introduced by relative pronouns can perform
the function of subject, object, adverbial phrase, appositional phrase, and attribute.
a) In the older IE languages, the relative clause often precedes the main clause (and
with it, the antecedent). The relative pronoun or adverb is often paired with a
pronominal or adverbial antecedent, yielding what are called correlative structures of
the type ‗(the one) who …, he …‘, or ‗in the way which …, in that way…‘ (Fortson
2004).
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10. Sentence Syntax
b) The earliest type of subordinate jo-, qi-/qo- clauses must have been the
preposed relative constructions; Vedic yó no dvéṣṭi, ádharah sás padīṣṭa ‗who us
hates, down he will-fall‘. But elements could be left-detached for topicalisation (see
below §10.6.3): púro yád asya sampinak (lit. rocks when of-him you-destroyed)
‗when you destroyed his rocks‘.
NOTE. This conclusion from Vedic receives striking support from Hittite, for in it we find
the same syntactic relationship between relative clauses and other subordinate clauses as is
found in Vedic, Greek, and other early dialects. But the marker for both types of clauses
differs. In Hittite it is based on IE qid rather than jod; thus, Hittite too uses the relative
particle for indicating subordination. The remarkable parallelism between the syntactic
constructions, though they have different surface markers, must be ascribed to typological
reasons; we assume that Hittite as well as Indo-Aryan and Greek was developing a lexical
marker to indicate subordination. As does yad in Vedic, Hitt. kuit signals a ―loose‖
relationship between clauses which must be appropriately interpreted. Lehmann (1974).
As J. Friedrich has stated (1960), kuit never stands initially in its clause. Sentences in which
it is used are then scarcely more specifically interconnected than are conjoined sentences with
no specific relating word, as in examples cited by Friedrich (ibid.): nu taškupāi nu URU-aš
dapiianzi išdammašzi (lit. Ptc. you-shout Ptc. city whole it-hears) ‗Now cry out [so that] the
whole city hears‘. Like this example, both clauses in a kuit construction generally are
introduced with nu (J. Friedrich 1960). We may assume that kuit became a subordinating
particle when such connections were omitted, as in Friedrich‘s example. These examples
illustrate that both yád and kuit introduce causal clauses, though they do not contain
indications of the origin of this use.
CORRELATIVE
It is therefore generally believed that subordinates originated in relative sentences,

as Vedic, Old Irish, Avestan and Old Persian illustrate. Proverbs and maxims are a
particularly conservative field in all languages, and even etymologically there are two
series which appear especially often in correlatives; namely, qo-...to-, and jo-...to-.
NOTE. For IE qo-..to-, cf. Lat. cum...tum, qualis...talis, quam...tam, or Lith. kàs...tàs,
kòks...tàs, kaîp...taîp, kíek...tíek, etc., and for jo-...to-, Ved. yás...sá tád, yáthā...táthā,
y vat...t vat, Gk. oios...toios, ósos...tósos, O.Pers. haya (a compound from so+jo, with the
same inverse compound as Lat. tamquam, from two correlatives), etc.
For Haudry this correlative structure is the base for subordination in all Indo-
European languages. Proto-Indo-European would therefore show an intermediate
335
syntax between parataxis and hypotaxis, as the correlative structure is between a

‗loose‟ syntax and a ‗locked‟ one.
Examples of equivalent old correlative sentences include the following (Watkins

1976, Ramat 1993): Hitt. nu tarḫzi kuiš nu apāš KA.TAB.ANŠE ēpzi (lit. Ptc. wins
who Ptc. he reins takes) ‗Who wins, (he) takes the reins [=takes charge]‘; Ved. sa yo
na ujjeṣyati sa pratamaḥ somasya pāsyati lit. ‗he who Ptc. shall-win, he the-first
the-soma will-drink‘; Ved. sa yo na ujjeṣyati tasya idam bhaviṣyati ‗he who Ptc.
shall-win, of-him this will-be‘; Gk. hós nun orkhéstōn … atalótata paízei tò tóde k[]n
‗who now of the dancers more sporting plays, of him (is) this […]‘; Gk. hoppóteros dé
ke nikḗsēi … gunaĩká te oíkad‟ agésthō ‗who wins … he carries home the woman‘.
RESTRICTIVE AND EXPLICATIVE RELATIVE CLAUSES
Greek, Indo-Iranian, Phrygian, Slavic and Celtic have inherited a stem jo- but
Anatolian, Latin, Sabellian and Tocharian derive their relative pronouns from a stem
qo-/qi-. This distribution cuts across other isoglosses separating the IE languages
and does not seem to reflect a dialectal difference of the parent language.
Common examples of relative clauses are (Fortson 2004): yéna im viśvā cyavanā
krt ni ... sá janāsa índraḥ ‗(The one) by whom all these things have been made to
shake ... that, people, (is) Indra‘; Gk. hós ke theoĩs epipeíthētai, mála t‟ ékluon autoĩ
‗Whoever obeys the gods, they listen to him as well‘.
NOTE. Fritz (in Meier-Brügger 2003) sums up the uses of the qi-/qo- and jo- relative
pronouns, according to Ch. Lehmann. Clackson‘s (2007) description is very clear: ―A crucial
element of the recent work has been the difference between restrictive or defining relatives
and non-restrictive (also called descriptive or appositional) relatives. Restrictive relatives
delimit the head of the relative clause, but non-restrictive relatives merely add extra
information about their head. Compare the following sentences:
[a] The tea that I drank was cold.
[b] The tea, which I eventually drank, was cold.
In [a] the relative defines and restricts the referent, whereas in [b] the relative gives
incidental information, and is in effect a separate assertion from that of the main clause. In
English, if the relative pronoun is omitted, only a restrictive interpretation is possible. Some
English speakers prefer, or are taught, to use that as a relative pronoun in restrictive clauses.‖
The differentiation of relative clauses introduced by qo-/qi- and jois summarised

by Clackson (2007) according to the finds in the older IE languages:
336
10. Sentence Syntax
 qo-/qi- shows a common use for attributive-restrictive relative clauses in

Hittite and Latin, and their most common order is relative-matrix; as, Lat.
pecuniam quis nancitor habeto ‗fortune, who acquire it own it‘, Goth. ni weistu
hwaz ih sagen thir, ‗you don‘t know what I say to you‘.
 jois most commonly used in appositive-explicative relative clauses in Vedic
Sanskrit and Homeric Greek, with a matrix-relative order of the sentence; as,
Ved. sóma y s te mayobhúva ūtáyah sánti dāśúṣe t bhir no „vit bhava (lit.
Soma which from-you benefitious aids are for-the-one-who-worships-you,
with-them of-us helper be-you) ‗Soma, with your aids, which are benefitious to
those who worship you, help us‘.
NOTE. Clackson (2007): ―Should we then conclude that PIE had two separate relative
pronouns, and different clause structures for restrictive and non-restrictive relatives? It is
often a fault of Indo-Europeanists to over-reconstruct, and to explain every development of
the daughter languages through reconstruction of a richer system in the parent language. (…)
However, the reconstruction of two relative pronouns for PIE does fit the attested facts better
than any of the other theories on offer.‖
Very characteristically, if the antecedent is a noun rather than a pronoun, it is

placed within the relative clause and in the same case as the relative, sometimes
repeated in the main clause. Thus instead of saying The gods who gave us riches can
take them away, speakers of these languages would have said literally, Which gods
gave us riches, they/those gods can take them away (Fortson 2004): Hitt. nu=kan
kāš IM-aš kuēz wappuwaz danza nu zik wappuaš DMAḪ tuēl ŠU-TIKA dā (lit.)
‗from which riverbank this clay (has been) taken, o genius of (that) riverbank, take
(it) in your hand‘, i.e. ‗0 genius of the riverbank from which this clay has been taken
...‘; Old Latin quem agrum eōs uēndere herēdemque sequī licet, is ager uectīgal nei
siet ‗the field which (lit., which field) they are allowed to sell and pass to an heir, that
field may not be taxable‘.
NOTE. As can be seen from some of the examples so far quoted, the relative pronoun did not
need to be the first member of its clause. In several of the ancient IE languages, the relative
could be preceded at least by a topicalised element, just like the subordinating conjunctions.
CIRCUMSTANCE
Lehmann (1974) assumes that the use of Skt. yád, Hitt. kuit, and other relative
particles to express a causal relationship arose from subordination of clauses
337
introduced by them to an ablative; cf. Skt. ácittī yát táva dhármā yuyopimá lit.
‗unknowing that, because your law, order we-have-disturbed‘, m nas tásmād énaso
deva rīriṣaḥ (lit. not us because-of-that because-of-sin O-god you-harm) ‗Do not
harm us, god, because of that sin [that] because unknowingly we have disturbed your
law‘.
As such relationships with ablatives expressing cause were not specific, more
precise particles or conjunctions came to be used. In Sanskrit the ablatival yasmāt
specifies the meaning ‗because‘.
Further, yad and yátra specify the meaning ‗when‘. In Hittite, mān came to be
used for temporal relationships, possibly after combined use with kuit; kuitman
expressed a temporal relationship even in Late Hittite, corresponding to ‗while,
until‘, though mahhan has replaced mān (J. Friedrich 1960 gives further details).
The conjunction mān itself specifies the meanings ‗if‘ and ‗although‘ in standard
Hittite. In both Hittite and Vedic then, the ―loose‖ relative-construction relationship
between subordinate clauses and principal clauses is gradually replaced by special
conjunctions for the various types of hypotactic relationship: causal, temporal,
conditional, concessive.
Just as the causal relationship developed from an ablative modified by a relative

construction, so the temporal and conditional relationship developed from a clause
modifying an underlying time node.
10.6. SYNTACTIC CATEGORIES
10.6.1. PARTICLES AS SYNTACTIC MEANS OF EXPRESSION
Noninflected words of various functions were used in indicating relationships

between other words in the sentence or between sentences.
1. Some were used for modifying nouns, often indicating the relationships of nouns
to verbs. Although these were generally placed after nouns and accordingly were
postpositions, they have often been called prepositions by reason of their function
rather than their position with regard to nouns (Delbrück).
2. Others were used for modifying verbs, often specifying more precisely the
meanings of verbs; these then may be called preverbs.
338
10. Sentence Syntax
3. Others, commonly referred to as sentence connectives, were used primarily to

indicate the relationships between clauses or sentences (Watkins 1964; Lehmann
1969).
PREPOSITIONS AND POSTPOSITIONS
Prepositions and postpositions were simply independent adverbs in PIE (as in

Anatolian, Indo-Iranian and the oldest Greek), and they could appear before or after
their objects, although the oldest pattern found is agreed to be postposed. Anatolian
and Vedic have almost exclusively postpositions, not prepositions; as, Hitt. šuḫḫi šēr
‗on the roof‘, Ved. jánā ánu ‗among men‘; and also remains in Gk. toútōn péri
‗about these things‘, and Lat. mēcum ‗with me‘ (Fortson 2004).
Postpositions in the various dialects are found with specific cases, in accordance
with their meanings.
Yet in the Old Hittite texts, the genitive rather than such a specific case is
prominent with postpositions derived from nouns, such as piran ‗(in) front‘ (Neu
1970): kuiš LUGAL-ua-aš piran ēšzi (who king‘s front he-sits) ‗whoever sits before
the king‘ (Lehmann 1974).
PREVERBS
Rather than having the close relationships to nouns illustrated above, the same
adverbs could instead be associated primarily with verbs, often the same particles
which were used as postpositions.
Examples include (Fortson 2004) Hitt. š=aš šarā URU-ya pait ‗and he went up to
the city‘; Ved. abhí yó mahin dívaṃ mitró babhūva sapráthāḥ ‗Mitra the renowned
who is superior to heaven by his greatness‘; O.Av. frō mā sāstū vahištā ‗let him teach
me the best things‘; Gk. edētúos eks éron hénto ‗they put aside desire for food‖;
O.Lat. ob uōs sacrō ‗I entreat you‘ (would be uōs obsecrō in Classical Latin); O.Ir. ad-
cruth caín cichither ‗fair form will be seen‘.
NOTE. German and Dutch are well known for having many separable affixes. In the
sentence Ger. Ich komme gut zu Hause an the prefix an in the verb ankommen is detached.
However, in the participle, as in Er ist angekommen ‗He has arrived‘, it is not separated. In
Dutch, compare Hij is aangekomen ‗He has arrived‘, but Ik kom morgen aan ‗I shall arrive
tomorrow‘.
339
English has many phrasal or compound verb forms that act in this way. For example, the
adverb (or adverbial particle) up in the phrasal verb to screw up can appear after the subject
(―things‖) in the sentence: He is always screwing things up.
Non-personal forms, i.e. nouns and adjectives, form a compound (karmadharaya)

with the preposition; as O.Ind. prasādaḥ ‗favour‘, Lat subsidium, praesidium, O.Ind.
apaciti, Gk. apotisis ‗reprisal‘, etc.
Preverbs might occupy various positions:
1. If unmarked, they are placed before the verb, as in the examples above.
2. If marked, they are placed initially in clauses (Watkins 1964); as, Av. pairi uši
vāraiiaϑβəm ‗cover (their) ears‘, where the preverb (pairi, literally ‗around‘) has
been fronted to the beginning of the clause for prominence or emphasis.
NOTE. In the course of time the preverbs in unmarked position came to be combined with
their verbs, though the identity of each element is long apparent in many of the dialects.
Thus, in Modern German the primary accent is still maintained on some verbal roots, and in
contrast with cognate nouns the prefix carries weak stress: ertéilen ‗distribute‘, Úrteil
‗judgment‘. The steps toward the combination of preverb and verbal root have been described
for the dialects, for example, Greek, in which uncombined forms as well as combined forms
are attested during the period of our texts.
NOTE. In the attested IE dialects:
- Preverbs which remained uncombined came to be treated as adverbs.
- Combinations of preverbs plus verbs, on the other hand, eventually came to function like
unitary elements.
The two different positions of preverbs in early texts led eventually to different word classes.
SENTENCE PARTICLES
Particles were also used to relate sentences and clauses (J. Friedrich 1959):
takku LÚ.ULÙLU-an EL.LUM QA.AZ.ZU našma GÌR-ŠU kuiški

if man free his-hand or his-foot someone
tuuarnizzi nušše 20 GÍN KUBABBAR paai

he-breaks Ptc.-to-him 20 shekels silver he-gives
„If anyone breaks the hand or foot of a freeman, then he must give him twenty
shekels of silver.‟
340
10. Sentence Syntax
Particles like the initial word in this example indicate the kind of clause that will
follow and have long been well described. The function of particles like nu is not,
however, equally clear.
NOTE. Dillon and Götze related nu and the use of sentence connectives to similar particles
in Old Irish (Dillon 1947). Such particles introduce many sentences in Old Irish and have led
to compound verb forms in this VSO language. Delbrück had also noted their presence in
Vedic (1888).
Since introductory šu and ta were more frequent than was nu in the older Hittite
texts, scholars assumed that sentences in IE were regularly introduced by these
sentence connectives. And Sturtevant proposed, as etymology for the anaphoric
pronoun, combinations of so- and to- with enclitic pronouns, as in the well-known
Hittite sequence ta-at, cf. IE tod, and so on (see Otten and Souček 1969 for the use of
such particles in one text).
It is clear that sentence connectives were used in Hittite to indicate continued

treatment of a given topic (Raman 1973). It is also found with Hittite relative
constructions, a function which may also be ascribed to Vedic sá and tád.
Compare this syntactic use of particles sá, nú, tú, in Ved. sá hovāc Gargyaḥ lit. ‗Ptc.
Ptc.-said Gargyas‘ tád u hovācāsuriḥ lit. ‗Ptc. Ptc. Ptc.-said-Asuri‘.
NOTE. For Lehmann (1974), since this use may be accounted for through post-PIE
influences, sentence connectives may have had a minor role in PIE.
Other particles, like Hitt. takku ‗if‘, had their counterparts in PIE, in this case in -
qe. This is also true for emphatic particles like Skt. íd; they were used after nouns as
well as imperatives.
10.6.2. MARKED ORDER IN SENTENCES
1. Elements in sentences can be emphasised, by marking; the chief device for such
emphasis is initial position, i.e. elements are moved leftward in a process called
fronting.
2. In unmarked position the preverb directly precedes the verb. Changes in normal
order thus provide one of the devices for conveying emphasis.
341
Other devices have to do with selection, notably particles which are postposed after
a marked element.
3. Emphasis can also be indicated by lexical selection.
4. Presumably other modifications might also be made, as in intonation.
The various syntactic devices accordingly provided means to introduce marking in

sentences.
10.6.3. TOPICALISATION WITH REFERENCE TO EMPHASIS
1. Like emphasis, topicalisation is carried out by patterns of arrangement, but the

arrangement is applied to coequal elements rather than elements which are moved
from their normal order.
2. Topicalisation by arrangement is well known in the study of the early IE

languages, as in the initial lines of the Homeric poems. The Iliad begins with the
noun m nin ‗wrath‘, the Odyssey with the noun ándra ‗man‘, opening both poems:
m nin áeide ‗Sing of the wrath‘ and ándra moi énnepe ‗Tell me of the man‘. The very
arrangement of moi and other enclitics occupying second position in the sentence, in
accordance with Wackernagel‘s law, indicates the use of initial placement among
nominal elements for topicalisation (Lehmann 1974).
Examples (Fortson 2004) include Hitt. ḫalziššai=wa=tta DINGIRMEŠ-aš attaš

DKumarbiš ‗Kumarbi, the father of the gods, is calling you‘; O.Av. sraōtū sāsn
fš ŋhiiō suiie taštō ‗Let the bondsman (?), fashioned for benefit, hear the teachings‘,
Gk. ménei tò theĩon doulíāi per en phrení ‗The divine (power), even when in
bondage, stays in the mind‘, Lat. fuimus Trōes, fuit Īlium ‗We were (but no longer
are) Trojans, Troy was (but no longer is)‘.
Fortson (2004): ―Certain verbs, especially existential verbs (e.g., ‗there is‘) but also
verbs of speaking and imperatives, preferentially occur clause-initially across all the
IE languages: Skt. āsīd rājā nalo nāma ‗there was a king named Nala‘ (Mahābhārata
3.53.1), Lat. est in cōnspectū Tenedos nōtissima fāmā īnsula ‗within sight there is a
most famous island, Tenedos‘ (Vergil, Aeneid 2.21-22), dialectal Old Russian estĭ
gradŭ mežu nobomŭ i zemleju ‗there is a city between heaven and earth‘ (Novgorod
birch bark fragment 10.1).‖
342
10. Sentence Syntax
NOTE. The fronted element was characteristic of certain situations of the discourse, like the
beginning of a text, the kataphora (repetition of a cohesive device at the end of a sentence, like
a pronoun catching up an antecedent) and imperatives (Ramat 1993); compare e.g. the
beginning of a typical tale ‗there was a king‘, in Skt. āsīd rājā, Gk. ẽske tis … (w)annássōn,
Lith. bùvo karãlius, O.Ir. boí rí, Russ. žyl byl korol‟, etc.
As these passages and many others that might be cited illustrate, the basic sentence
patterns could be rearranged by stylistic rules, both for emphasis and for
topicalisation. In this way the relatively strict arrangement of simple sentences could
be modified to bring about variety and flexibility.
3. Clause-initial position is a place of prominence for any constituent, not only for
verbs; as Hitt. irma=šmaš=kan dāḫḫun ―sickness I have taken away from you‖.
Topicalisation was probably a syntactic process in PIE (Fortson 2004).
4. Interrogatives, as already stated, move forward to the so-called complementiser

position, which can also be occupied by other elements, like relative pronouns or
subordinating conjunctions. The complementiser position precedes the rest of the
clausal positions proper, but this position is preceded by the topicalisation position;
if the latter is filled by a topicalised element, the complementiser is no longer clause-
initial (Fortson 2004).
Some examples are Hitt. ammuqq=a kuit ḫarkun ‗And also (that) which I had‖,
Ved. jātám yád enam apáso ádhārayan ‗when the craftsmen held him, just born‘,
O.Av. naēnaēstārō yaϑənā vohunąm mahī ‗since we are non-scorners of good
things‘, fēstō diē sī quid prodēgeris ‗if you splurge a bit on a holiday‘.
Topicalisation usually consists of one constituent or subconstituent, but it can be

more complex: Ved. áher yāt ram kám apaśya indra ‗which avenger of the snake
you saw, o Indra?‘ ádevena mánasā yó riṣaṇyáti ‗who does wrong with impious
intention‘.
Cf. also from the Archaic Latin of Plautus, the subordinating conjunction sī ‗if‘ can
be preceded by some or all the other clausal constituents save the verb: saluos
domum sī redierō ‗if I shall have returned home safe‘, perfidia et peculātus ex urbe et
auāritia sī exulant ‗if betrayal and embezzlement and greed are exiled from the city‘
(Fortson 2004).
5. According to Clackson (2007), some early IE languages show a clear distinction

between the left-detached and fronted position in the sentence. If the sentence
343
includes one of the introductory particles nu, su or ta (sometimes termed S-

adverbs), then these normally precede the fronted element.
In these sentences, left-detached nominal phrases are picked up by anaphoric

pronouns in the body of the sentence. Enclitics and sentence adverbs are positioned
as if the left-detached element was absent; as, Old Irish maisse doíne ní=s toimled
(lit. glory of-men, not=of-it he-partook) ‗The glory of men, he did not partake of it‘;
Lat. N. Pumidius Q.f. [11 other names omitted] heisce magistreis Venerus Iouiae
muru aedificandum coirauerunt (lit. Pumidius-nom . . . these-nom magistrates-nom
Venus-gen of-Juppiter-gen wall-acc to-be-built-acc supervised) ‗Numerius Pumidius
son of Quintus [and 11 others], these magistrates supervised the building of a wall to
belong to Venus daughter of Juppiter‘.
These examples suggest that the pattern of left-detached elements at the beginning
of the sentence should probably be allowed as a possible permutation in the parent
language.
6. Right-detached nominal phrases are another common feature of old IE

languages. Constituents are placed to the right of the verb as in Gk. oũtin eg
púmaton édomai metà hoĩs hetároissin ‗none will I eat last among his comrades‘,
where the prepositional clause is to the right of the verb édomai ‗eat‘. The object has
been fronted; the reflexive pronoun hoĩs ‗his own ones‘ refers to the topic oũtin more
than the grammatical subject eg , as a rule (Ramat 1993).
The so-called ‗sentence amplification‘ or ‗sentence expansion‘, consists in

appositional phrases and other adjuncts tacked on to the end of a grammatical
sentence (Clackson 2007). The first verse of the Rigveda provides an example: agním
īḷe puróhitaṃ yajñáasya devám rtvíjam hótāraṃ ratnadh tamam (lit. Agni-acc I-
praise domestic-priest-acc sacrifice-gen god-acc sacrificer-acc invoker-acc best-
bestower of treasure-acc) ‗I praise Agni the domestic priest, god of the sacrifice,
sacrificer, invoker, best-bestower of treasure‘. All of the necessary grammatical
information is contained in the first two words, which could stand on their own as a
complete sentence, and the sentence is then expanded by the addition of five noun
phrases in apposition to the accusative agním.
344
10. Sentence Syntax
10.6.4. WACKERNAGEL‘S LAW AND THE PLACEMENT OF CLITICS
1. One of the best known features of clausal syntax of older IE languages is the
tendency of unstressed clitic particles to appear second in their clause after the first
stressed element, a phenomenon discovered by Jacob Wackernagel in the late
nineteenth century.
Examples include (Fortson 2004) Hitt. kiēll=a parnaš ēšḫar papratar QATAMMA
pattenuddu ‗Of this house too may it likewise drive out the bloodshed (and)
uncleanliness‘; Mycenaean Greek da-mo=de=mi pa-si ko-to-na-o ke-ke-me-na-o o-
na-to e-ke-e (lit. people-NOM.=conn=she-ACC. say plot-GEN. communal-GEN. use-
ACC. have-INFIN.) „But the people say that she has the use of the communal plot‘;
Vedic tvā mantrāḥ kavisastā vahantu ‗Let the spells recited by the poets lead you
hither‘; Greek ēmos d‟ ērigéneia phánē rhododáktulos Ēṓs ‗but when early-born,
rosy-fingered Dawn appeared‘, Lat. tū autem in neruō iam iacēbis ‗But you will soon
be lying in custody, Gothic fram-uh þamma sokida Peilatus fraletan ina ‗And at this
Pilate sought to release him‘.
NOTE. Sometimes, however, one of these clitics appears as the third or fourth word in its
clause. Recent research, especially by the American linguist Mark Hale, has shown that
Wackernagel‘s Law actually involves several processes that usually, but not always, conspire to
place unstressed particles in second position in the clause. His discoveries have explained the
exceptions to a strict formulation of the law (Fortson 2004).
2. Three types of postpositive clitics (and clitic-positioning rules) can be

distinguished (Fortson 2004):
―a. Word-level clitics modify or limit a single word or constituent, and are placed
directly after the word or the first element of the constituent. Such clitics tend to have
the function of emphasizing the word to which they are attached, or setting it in some
kind of contrastive relief or focus (the clitic is boldfaced): Hitt. nu=wa=za apun=pat
eši ‗occupy only that (land)‘, Vedic pracyāváyanto ácyutā cid ‗the ones who move
even unmovable things‘.
If the word that such a particle modifies is first in its clause, then the particle
appears (coincidentally) second in its clause: Ved. sthir cid ánnāi dayate ví
jámbhaiḥ ‗even tough food he cuts apart with his teeth‘ (Rig Veda 4.7.10), Lat. hoc
quoque maleficium ‗this crime too‘.
345
Such particles, when modifying a phrase, can often come second in the phrase, as in
Gk. én ge taĩs Thḗbais ‗in all of Thebes indeed’.
NOTE. Some clitics, such as the descendants of PIE -qe, and, can act as word-level clitics as
well as sentence connectors.
b. Sentence-connective clitics conjoin or disjoin clauses or sub-clausal constituents.

Examples of these clitics are PIE -qe, and, and -we, or. They are attached to the first
word of the constituent or clause being conjoined or disjoined, whether that is a
single word (Ved. ágna índras ca ‗o Agni and Indra‟), a phrase (Lat. silua alta Iouis
lūcusue Diānae ‗the high forest of Jupiter or the grove of Diana‘), or a clause (Old
Avestan y zī ŋhar y scā həṇtī y scā mazdā buuaiṇtī ‗indeed (those) who are
and who will be, o Mazda‘).
NOTE. A more complicated example is explained by Clackson (2007) from ―Ved. utá vā yó
no marcáyād ánāgasaḥ (lit. and part rel-NOM. us-ACC. harm-OPT. innocent-ACC.-Pl.) ‗Or
also who would harm innocent us…‘ There are two enclitics, the disjunctive particle vā, which
follows the left-detached slot, and the personal pronoun nas following the relative pronoun,
which occupies the ‗front‘ slot (the pronoun nas appears as no by a process of sandhi).
It should be noted that the position of the particle vā, which has scope over the whole
sentence following the left-detached element, is exactly paralleled by the behaviour of
connectives and adverbs with scope over the sentence in Greek, which stand immediately after
the left-detached element. Hale (1987a and 1987b) collected evidence for second-position
enclitics in Indo-Iranian and showed that, in general, enclitics with scope over the sentence
and connectives occurred after left-detached elements, which he refers to as the topic position,
whereas enclitic pronouns were placed after the fronted element. Hale claims that the
behaviour of these two different sets of enclitics reflects an inherited difference between the
two sentence positions.‖
c. Sentential clitics are clitics whose scope is a whole clause or sentence. These
include the unstressed personal pronouns as well as a variety of sentential adverbs
that serve expressive functions and are often untranslatable into English. They are
positioned in various ways. Some are placed after the first stressed word in a
sentence and any emphatic or sentence-connective clitics associated with that word,
while others (called ―special clitics‖ in the technical literature) are positioned after a
particular syntactic structural position in the clause. If the first word in a sentence is
a proclitic, that is, an unstressed word that attaches phonologically to a following
stressed word, the sentential clitic will of course not come directly after it, as in Gk.
346
10. Sentence Syntax
eks hēméōn gár phāsi kák‟ émmenai ‗for they say that bad things are from us‘,
where the proclitic eks ‗from‘ is not a proper phonological host for the clitic gár.
Sentential clitics occur not infrequently in strings or chains: Ved. ná v u etán

mriyase ‗indeed you do not die thereby‘; Gk. ē rhá nú moí ti píthoio 'may you
indeed now trust me somewhat‘. In Vedic utá vā yó no marcáyād ánāgasaḥ ‗or
also who would do wrong to us the innocents‘, where the pronominal clitic nas (no)
‗us‘ is in the second position before the topicalized part, while the disjunctive clitic
vā, PIE -w , (and ca, PIE -qe) take the second position within the topicalized part.‖
3. There are so-called ―preferential hosts‖, which are fronted rather than detached,
and which are not followed by enclitics in second position, which is apparently a
persistent exception to Wackernagel‘s Law in languages like Sanskrit, Greek or Latin.
Adams (1994) explained it this way:
―Unemphatic pronouns in Classical Latin prose, far from always being placed
mechanically in the second position of their colon, are often attracted to particular
types of hosts, namely antithetical terms, demonstratives / deictics, adjectives of
quantity and size, intensifiers, negatives, temporal adverbs and imperatives. I have
suggested that what these hosts have in common is their focused character, and have
accordingly argued that enclitic pronouns had tendency to gravitate towards focused
constituents. The prominent constituent serving as a host may be at the head of its
colon, in which case the clitic will indeed be second, in apparent conformity with
Wackernagel‘s law. But often the host is in the second or a later position, thereby
entailing a place later than second for the pronoun.‖
According to Clackson (2007), we should also include relative and interrogative

pronouns in this list of preferential hosts for enclitics. ―Adams‘ findings for Latin also
appear to apply well to cases of enclitic pronouns which do not follow Wackernagel‘s
Law (or even Hale‘s modifications of it) in Vedic Sanskrit. So for example in Vedic
ágnīṣomā yó adyá vām / idáṃ vácaḥ saparyáti (lit. Agni-and-Soma-VOC., rel-
NOM. today you-two-DAT. this-ACC. speech-ACC. he-praises) ‗Agni and Soma! The
one who today hymns you this praise . . .‘ Note the placement of enclitic pronoun
vām, which is unexplainable in terms of ‗second position‘, but can be explained if we
consider the temporal adverb adyá ‗today‘ as a preferential host.
In other languages too there is evidence for breaches of Wackernagel‘s Law, and for
the placement of pronominal enclitics after items identified by Adams as preferential
347
hosts. Consider the Greek sentence taken from Krisch (1990) and used by him to
support Hale‘s arguments: Gk. autàr egṓ theós eimi, diamperès hḗ se phulássō (lit.
conn I-NOM. god-NOM. I-am, thoroughly who-NOM. you-ACC. I-protect) ‗But I am
a goddess, the one who protects you steadfastly‘. Here the enclitic se follows the
relative pronoun hḗ, which comes second in the clause after the emphatically placed
adverb diamperés. The relative here can easily be seen as a preferential host, the
focussed element in its clause.‖
NOTE. Clackson (2007) summarises the situation by establishing that while in Hittite no
enclitics are allowed after left-detached elements, or delayed after fronted element, in
Sanskrit, Greek and Latin sentence enclitics can stand after left-detached elements, and
pronominal enclitics may be delayed, which may therefore reflect the evolution from PIH into
Late Indo-European syntax.
10.7. PHRASE AND SENTENCE PROSODY
1. On the so-called ―phonology-syntax interface‖, Fortson (2004): ―Words

belonging to the same constituent that start out as contiguous in the deep structure
and stay contiguous throughout the derivation will tend to be grouped together as a
single phonological unit, whereas words that only become contiguous through certain
kinds of movement sometimes do not. (…) For example, in Greek, clitics normally
receive no accent, but if two or more occur in a string, all but the last one get
accented, as in ei mḗ tís me theōn ‗if no one of the gods me …‘. However, in a
sequence like doulíāi per en phrení ‗even in bondage in the mind‘, there are two
clitics in a row but the first is not accented. The reason is that per ‗even‘ emphasizes
doulíāi ‗in bondage‘ and is phonologically attached to it, while en ‗in‘ is a preposition
that governs phrení ‗the mind‘ and is proclitic to that word. The two resultant clitic
groups [doulíāi per] and [en phrení] form two separate prosodic groups with what is
called a prosodic boundary between them. (A prosodic boundary, incidentally, is not
generally audible as a pause or other break). We conclude that the rule placing an
accent on the first of two successive clitics applies only if the two clitics belong to the
same clitic group.‖
2. According to Fortson (2004), noun phrases consisting of a bare noun are much
more likely to enter into certain kinds of clitic groups than are noun phrases where
the noun is modified by another element. In punctuated Greek inscriptions,
interpuncts do not ordinarily separate a definite article from a following noun; but an
348
10. Sentence Syntax
interpunct is present if the article is followed by a noun modified by another element,

indicating a stronger prosodic break between the two.
In Homer, there is a different behaviour of prepositional phrases vs. the positioning

of the sentence-connecting conjunction dé, an enclitic that normally occurs second in
its clause. If the clause begins with a prepositional phrase consisting simply of a
preposition plus bare noun, the clitic will follow the whole phrase (e.g. eks pántōn dé
‗and of all‘…), whereas if the clause begins with a more complex phrase consisting of
a preposition followed by an adjective-noun phrase, the clitic will come in between
the preposition and the rest of the phrase (e.g. dià dè khróa kalón ‗and into the fair
flesh‘…). Therefore, eks pánton is prosodically cohesive enough to function as a
single word for the purposes of clitic placement, while dià khróa kalón is not.
A similar phenomenon is found in the Old High German of Notker Labeo: a definite
article is written without an accent when preceding a simple noun phrase (e.g. taz
héiza fíur ‗the hot fire‘), indicating clisis and destressing of the article, but is written
with an accent when preceding more complex noun phrases (e.g díe uuîlsalda állero
búrgô ‗the fortune of all cities‘).
3. Through the study of rules and behaviour of poetic meters (metrics), another rule
appears (Fortson 2004): ―In certain Greek and Roman meters, for example, there is a
rule that a sequence of two light syllables in particular verse-positions must belong to
the same word. The rule, though, has an interesting exception: a word-break between
the two syllables is allowed when one of them belongs to a proclitic (as in the
sequence ut opinione ‗that in [his] opinion‘). This means that the prosodic group
consisting of proclitic plus word was tighter than that consisting of two full-content
words – tight enough to behave, for the purposes of the poetic meter, as though there
were no word-division.‖
10.8. POETRY
1. In the oldest poetry, some common etymologically related Indo-European

formulae have been reconstructed; as, klewos ṇdhchitom, immortal fame (cf. Skt.
ákṣitam śrávas, Gk. kléos áphthiton, where the Skt. form is deemed older); mega
kléwos, big fame, kléwesa nerōm (<*klewesh2 h2nróm), famous deeds of men,
heroes (cf. Gk. kléa andrōn, Ved. śrávas nrṇ m); wesu klewos, good fame (cf. Av.
vohu sravah, O.Ir. fo chlú). The sun was called ‗the wheel of the sun‘, s weljosjo
349
qeqlos, cf. Skt. sūryasya cakrás, zaranii.caxra-., (from PII súwarjasja ḳaklas,
see Lubotsky‘s Indo-Aryan inherited lexicon, IEED, n.d.), Gk. hēlíou kúklos (<PGk
s weljohjo quqlos), O.Ice. sunnu hvél, O.E. sunnan hweogul.
NOTE. Also, the concept ―sun chariot‖ – a mythological representation of the sun riding in a
chariot – is typically Indo-European, corresponding with the Indo-European expansion after
the domestication of the horse and the use of wheels. Examples include the Trundholm sun
chariot of the Nordic deity, Sól, drawn by Arvak and Alsvid (see the cover image); Greek
Helios riding in a chariot, Sol Invictus depicted riding a quadriga on the reverse of a Roman
coin, and Vedic Surya riding in a chariot drawn by seven horses.
Epithets and adjectives pertaining to the gods might also be found (Beekes 1995);
as, dōtōr wesw m, those who give goods, riches (cf. Skt. dāt vásūnām, Av. dāta
vaŋhvąm, Gk. dōtēres e ōn), from wesus, riches, goods, from the same root as
ēsús, good.
Other formulae are not etymologically related, but still deemed of PIE origin; as,
Skt. prthú śrávas, Gk. kléos eurú, ‗broad fame‘; or a common name for the sun Skt.
spáśam víśvasya jágatas ‗he who spies upon the whole world‘ (lit. ‗the moving one‘,
or ‗the living beings‘), similar to Gk. theōn skópon ēde‟ kai‟ andrōn ‗he who spies
upon gods and men‘ (Beekes 1995, Clackson 2007).
It is possible to reconstruct formulae from a nexus of correlations, where no single

language preserves the complete formula (Clackson 2007). Watkins reconstructs the
formula pālāje wīrṓs pékewaqe (<*peh2- *wīro- *peku-), protect men and
livestock, from the correspondence of (etymologically related words underlined) Skt.
tr yantām asmín gr me / g m áśvam púruṣam paśúm lit. ‗protect in-this village
cow, horse, man, (and) flock-animal‘ Av. ϑrāϑrāi pasuu vīraii lit. ‗for protection of-
cattle (and) of-men‘, Lat. pāstōrēs pecuaque salua seruāssīs lit. ‗shepherds farm-
animals-and may-you-preserve‘, Umb. nerf arsmo uiro pequo castruo frif salua
seritu ‗magistrates ordinances men cattle fields fruit safe let-him-preserve‘ (Clackson
2007).
2. The metrical structure of Indo-European poetic language was reconstructed by

Meillet, although his attribution of the Indo-Greek system to the parent language is
not widely accepted today. The oldest Indian and Greek poems were based on a
prosodic structure of alternating long and short syllables [see above §2.4.]:
350
10. Sentence Syntax
Beekes (1995): ―At the end of the line (the cadence) this alternation was strictly
regulated, whereas it was free at the beginning. Both the Indic and the Greek systems
used the caesura (word-end at a fixed place in the line at a syntactically significant
break); in both systems, too, a line had a fixed number of syllables, but a line could
also have a variant with a syllable less (catalexis). [Meillet] saw an exact similarity
between the eleven syllable line used by the Greek poetess Sappho and the triṣṭubh of
the Rigveda ( ¯ long, ˘ short, x long or short, | caesura; a begins the cadence);
triṣṭubh x x x x | x ˘ ˘, ¯ ˘ ¯ x
Sappho ¯ ˘ ¯ x | ¯ ˘ ˘ ¯ ˘ ¯ x
Meillet‘s theory was further developed by Roman Jakobson, who believed that the
oldest Slavic metric system was comparable to the one Meillet described, and derived
from an Indo-European decasyllabic line. A similar continuation could be seen in a
verse-tipe utilized in Old Irish.‖
It is probable then that the Proto-Indo-European verse consisted of a fixed number

of syllables, as was the case with Avestan. Longer lines would have contained a
caesura (division between phrases).
Beekes (1995) takes as example of PIE poetry a stanza from a hymn of Zarathustra
in Gatha-Avestan (Yasna 44.4), with a phonetic transcription: The line consists of
four plus seven syllables (with a caesura after the fourth syllable):
Tat ϑvā prsā rš mai vauca, Ahura:

Kas-nā drta zam ca adah nabās ca
avapastaiš, kah apah urvarās ca?
Kah vaʔatāi vanmabyas ca yaugi āsuu?
Kas-nā vahauš, Mazdā, dāmiš manahah?
This I ask Thee, tell me truthfully, O Lord:

Who has upheld the earth below and heavens [above]
from falling down who the waters and the plants?
Who to the wind and the clouds has yoked the swift [horses]?
Who, Wise One, is the founder of Good Thinking?
Beekes (1995) continues: ―It is probable that this kind of song is of Indo-European
origin, for we find a parallel to it in the Edda (Alvíssmál 15):
351
Segðu mér, Alvíss, –ǫll of rǫc fira

voromc dvergr, et vitir –
hvé sú sól heitir, er siá alda synir,
heimi hveriom í.
Tell me this, Alwis –of everything in the world

I think, dwarf, that thou knowest–
What the sun is called, the sun which people see,
by all creatures of the world.
In the answer the sun is referred to, among other things, as a ‗wheel‘, hvél [ see
above]. The Germanic verse here is stress verse, and is not related in this respect to
Indo-European poetry.‖
10.9. NAMES OF PERSONS
4.8.1. The use of two-word compounds for personal names was common in PIE; as,
Suklewos, of good fame, with cognates found in poetic diction, cf. Gk. Eukleḗs, and
Skt. Suśráva-, or Illyr. Vescleves-.
NOTE. The use of two-word compound words for personal names is common in IE
languages (see above §10.4.2). They are found e.g. in Ger. Alf-red ‗elf-counsel‘, O.H.G. Hlude-
rīch ‗rich in glory‘, O.Eng. God-gifu ‗gift of God‘ (Eng. Godiva), Gaul. Orgeto-rix ‗king who
harms‘, Gaul. Dumno-rix ‗king of the world‘, Gaul. Epo-pennus ‗horse‘s head‘, O.Ir. Cin-néide
(Eng. Kennedy) ‗ugly head‘, O.Ind. Asva-ghosa ‗tamer of horses‘, O.Ind. Asvá-medhas ‗who
has done the horse sacrifice‘, O.Pers. Xša-yāršā (Gk. Xérxēs) ‗ruler of heroes‘, O.Pers. Arta-
xšacā ‗whose reign is through truth/law‘, Gk. Sō-krátēs ‗good ruler‘, Gk. Mene-ptólemos ‗who
faces war‘, Gk. Hipp-archus ‗horse master‘, Gk. Cleo-patra, Pátro-klos ‗from famous lineage‘,
Gk. Arkhé-laos ‗who governs the people‘, O.Sla. Bogu-milŭ ‗loved by god‘, Sla. Vladi-mir
‗peaceful ruler‘, from volodi-mirom ‗possess the world‘; etc. Individual names may further be
modified through the use of suffixes to form hypocorisms.
4.8.2. Other area in which it is suspected the retention of ancient Proto-Indo-

European personal names is the use of animal names or numerals, composed of one
stem; as Wḷqos, wolf, cf. O.Ir. Olc, O.Eng. Wulf, Gk. Lukos, Skt. Vŕka; or,
Qétwṛtos, fourth, cf. Lat. Quārta, Lith. Keturai, Russ. Četvertoj, Gk. Tetartíōn.
NOTE. The word for ‗name‘ and possible Indo-European names can be found in Beekes
(1987), Markey (1981), Pinault (1982), Schmitt (1973), and Watkins (1970).
4.8.3. Further, the syntactical indication of the father‘s name also dates from Proto-
Indo-European, whether by adding the name of the father in the genitive, in the
352
10. Sentence Syntax
sense of ‗son of X‘, or by adding a possessive adjective that is derived from the name
of the father.
NOTE. An example of the former is Hadubrand Heribrandes suno; an example of the later
is Myc. a-re-ku-tu-ru-wo e-te-wo-ke-re-we-i-jo, i.e. Alektruwōn Etewoklewehijos
‗Alektruwōn, son of Etewoklewēs‘, or Russ. Nikolaj Sergejevich. Patronymics ending in -ios
(later -ius) led to what is called the nomine gentile in Rome, cf. Gaius Iulius Caesar with
Gaius = praenomen < individual name, Iulius = nomen gentile < patronymic and Caesar =
cognomen.
4.8.4. When considering the giving of names to individuals, one departs generally
from the basis of the free men.
Whereas the man is addressed using the individual name, a simple ‗oh woman‘
suffices in the case of woman. ―The woman is treated more as a typus, the man as an
individual‖. Wackernagel (1969) makes clear that the same forms of address were
adopted for interactions with the gods.
According to Meier-Brügger (2003), to say that the Indo-Europeans were not very
different from the Romans and Greeks would not likely be too far from the mark. In
Rome, women generally carried only the nomen gentile, cf. Cornelia, Julia, etc. In
the case of the Greeks, most names of women are simply feminine forms of
masculine names of individuals, e.g. Myc. a-re-ka-sa-da-ra, i.e Aleksandrā
(corresponding to Aleks-anōr ‗who fights off men‘), Hom. Andromákhē, from
Andrómakhos ‗who fights with men‘, etc.
353
PART IV
TEXTS &
DICTIONARY
ETYMOLOGY
By Fernando López-Menchero
Appendix I: Indo-European in Use
APPENDIX I: INDO-EUROPEAN IN USE
I.1. KOMTLOQJOM (CONVERSATION)
Common expressions in Indo-European include:
English Eurōpājóm
hello! alā! / gheuse!
dear Peter: qeime Perte:
welcome crātós / sucṃtós tū
good day latom ēsúm
good morning wēsrom ēsúm
good afternoon / evening wesprom ēsúm
good night noqtim ēsúm
how are you? qotā wḷḗjesi?
I am fine wḷējō sū
Who are you? qis esi?
Whose (son) are you? qosjo esi?
what is your name? qotā kluwḗjesi? lit. „how are you heard?‟
what is your name? qid esti tebhei nōmṇ?
my name is Peter kluwējō Pertos lit. „I am heard Peter‟
my name is Peter meghei Pertos nōmṇ
pleased to meet you gaudhējō tewe gnōtim
please chedhō lit. „I ask you‟
thanks méitimons / moitmom
thanks (I give you) prijēsna / prósēdjom (tebhei agō)
I thank you prijējō tewom
you are welcome, sir esti sū, potei
excuse me ṇgnōdhi
sorry/pardon me parke
I am sorry kesdō
don‟t worry mē koisāje
good bye, darling sḷwḗj [sḷwēje], prijótṃā
357
good luck kobom ēsúm

yes dā / jāi / ne-(ghi)
indeed nem-pe / ita tod
no nē / nei
alright tagtei
attention probhoudhos
where is the door qodhei dhworis?
here is what I asked kei esti jod pṛkskóm
what is this? qid (esti) tod?
this is food pitús tod (esti)
what time is it? qid esti daitis?
it is true wērom tod
very good / the best bhodistom / bhodsṃom
is everything alright? solwā sū (ágontor)?
how old are you? qótobhos átnobhos tū?
I am ten years old dekṃ gnātós esmi lit. „ten born I am‟
do you speak European? bhāsor [bhasor] an Eurōpājóm?
I speak a little páukolom bhāmor
I don‟t understand you nē tewom peumi
tell me what you think seqe moi qid kṇsējāsi
I don‟t know nē woida
shut up takḗj [takēje] / takḗjete
sit down sisde (sg.) / sísdete (pl.)
come here cemj [cemje] kom-ke
I'm going right now nū ghenghō kom
what do you do or study? qóterom ghléndhesi an dr jesi?
are they married? esti lachḗjonti?
I love women lubhējō pelū dhḗmonāns / cenāns
write here your address deikom skreibhe kei tewe
I live in the Main Street Stoighei Magnéi ceiwō / trebhō
358
Lucrecia and I are friends Lukretjā egṓqe ámeikes smes / ámeike

swes
the cat mews in the garden kattā ghortei mijaluti
the dog bites the cat kattām mordḗjeti kwōn
the woman walks with the cat kattā dhḗmonā al jetor
I see the head of the cat kattās dṛkō ghebhlām
Where is the train? qodhei esti douknom?
the train is here douknom (esti) kei
I want to eat fish welmi piskim ghostum
do you want to sleep with me? welsi mojo sweptum?
yes, I wish for it jāi, moksi gherijar
no, you stink / smell bad nē, smérdesi / bhragr jesi dus
it is hot! qām kalḗjeti! lit. how hot is it!
it is cold! qām srīgējeti! lit. how cold is it!
I go swimming to the lake laqom eimi dhochei snātum qāqei
everyday
can I smoke? moghō (an) smeughtum?
may I smoke? moghnjom meghei an smeughtum
(esti)? / esti moi smeughtum?
smoking prohibited smeughtum wétānom
happy new year ghoilom newom atnom
I agree with everything that you solwei manjō kom, jod dhghjéstenei
explained me yesterday in your bhéresi dewtlei peri
mail
I thank you for the interest that méndhesi prijējō te, jobhi áiwesi prōd
you always have to carry on steightum awējāsi
NOTE. About the sentence ―is it possible to smoke?‖, constructed with the verb esti,
compare Lat. est in Ovid (Metamorphoses Book III, 479) quod tangere non est, ―as it is not
possible to touch”; also Virgil est cernere, ―it can be seen‖; also, for Gk. estì(n), ―it is possible‖,
compare Lucian (The Parliament of the Gods, 12) Ἔζηηλ, ὦ ἗ξκῆ, ―is it possible, Hermes‖.
359
I.2. HORATJOSJO KANMṆ (HORATII CARMINVM)
Liber primus – XIV. The translation tries to respect the original Asclepiad metrical
pattern.
NOTE. It takes into account <http://e-spacio.uned.es/fez/eserv.php?pid=bibliuned:Epos-

4B3E2DFB-2CD0-30D4-D45C-87D42540B962&dsID=PDF>.
Eurōpājóm
Ō nāu, an mari isonti te prōd ati
Neuwolmōs? qid agēs? Isri ghṇde stipúm
Kopnom; dṛknija nē twoi
Rēsplighstós nocós tewe
Bhod masdōs érinōs bhrikotwoisot
Ádtempnāsqe krop s?; todper ṇwerwonās
Moghsēnt edli kareinās
Per teutum dhúnijom choróm
Pontom? Sekla ghi nē senti tebhei sḷwa
Nē deiwōs itim ámghessi ghawēsi tū
Dhanwos dā genos atlā
Kselwagnā eti pontik
Gentim nōmṇqe morknóm tewe sei bhledēs
Nawtās bhéidheti nē qrumnapikēbhi qid
Bhīlús. Wentowojom tod
An tū nē séqesoi, kawḗi
Prīsnim jā bhudhis oghlos cərús bhūs meghei
Nū ghoidhos prijakoisāqe ja leghwa nē
Leuk ns énteri ghustéi
Leinois plākoní Qékladṇs

NOTE. The form dhanwos has been reconstructed according to the Germanic form for
convenience in metrics, instead of an older common dhanus (found in Old Indian and
Hittite).
360
Latin (original) English
O navis, referent in mare te novi O luckless bark! new waves will force you back
Fluctus: o quid agis? fortiter occupa To sea. O, haste to make the haven yours!
Portum: nonne vides, ut E'en now, a helpless wrack,
Nudum remigio latus, You drift, despoil'd of oars;
Et malus celeri saucius Africo, The Afric gale has dealt your mast a wound;
Antennaeque gemant? ac sine funibus Your sailyards groan, nor can your keel sustain,
Vix durare carinae Till lash'd with cables round,
Possint imperiosius A more imperious main.
Aequor? non tibi sunt integra lintea: Your canvass hangs in ribbons, rent and torn;
Non Di, quos iterum pressa voces malo. No gods are left to pray to in fresh need.
Quamvis Pontica pinnus, A pine of Pontus born
Silvae filia nobilis. Of noble forest breed,
Jactes et genus, et nomen inutile: You boast your name and lineage—madly blind
Nil pictis timidus navita puppibus Can painted timbers quell a seaman's fear?
Fidit, Tu, nisi ventis Beware! or else the wind
Debes ludibrium, cave. Makes you its mock and jeer.
Nuper sollicitum, quae mihi taedium, Your trouble late made sick this heart of mine,
Nunc desiderium, curaque non levis, And still I love you, still am ill at ease.
Interfusa nitentis O, shun the sea, where shine
Vites aequora Cycladas. The thick-sown Cyclades!
NOTE. Translation in English by John Conington (Horace. The Odes and Carmen Saeculare
of Horace, 1882). Taken from <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/>.
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I.3. THE NEW TESTAMENT IN INDO-EUROPEAN
The original in Greek as well as Old Latin versions have been taken into account.
I.3.1. PATER NOS (LORD‘S PRAYER)
Eurōpājóm English Latine Ειιεληθά

Pater Nos, Our Father, who Pater noster, qui es Πάηεξ ἡκῶλ ὁ ἐλ
kémeloisi jos art in heaven, in caelis: ηνῖο νὐξαλνῖο·
esi,
Nōmṇ Hallowed be thy sanctificetur ἁγηαζζήησ ηὸ ὄλνκά
sqénetoru tewe. Name. Nomen Tuum; ζνπ·
Regnom Thy kingdom adveniat Regnum ἐιζέησ ἡ βαζηιεία
cémjetōd tewe. come. Tuum; ζνπ·
Dhidhḗtoru Thy will be done, fiat voluntas Tua, γελεζήησ ηὸ ζέιεκά
woljā Téwijā, ζνπ,
ita kémelei jota On earth as it is in sicut in caelo, et in ὡο ἐλ νὐξαλῷ θαὶ
pḷtáwijāi. heaven. terra. ἐπὶ γῆο·
Qāqodjūtenom Give us this day Panem nostrum ηὸλ ἄξηνλ ἡκῶλ ηὸλ
bharsjom our daily bread. cotidianum da ἐπηνύζηνλ δὸο ἡκῖλ
ṇseróm edjēu nobis hodie; ζήκεξνλ·
dasdhi nos
joqe dhḷeglāns And forgive us our et dimitte nobis θαὶ ἄθεο ἡκῖλ ηὰ
ṇser ns parke, trespasses, debita nostra, ὀθεηιήκαηα ἡκῶλ,
swāi skéletbhos As we forgive those Sicut et nos ὡο θαὶ ἡκεῖο ἀθίεκελ
párkomos. who trespass dimittimus ηνῖο ὀθεηιέηαηο
against us. debitoribus ἡκῶλ·
nostris;
Enim mē ṇsmé And lead us not et ne nos inducas θαὶ κὴ εἰζελέγθῃο
péritl i enke into temptation, in tentationem; ἡκᾶο εἰο πεηξαζκόλ,
prōd,
mō úpelēd But deliver us from sed libera nos a ἀιιὰ ῥῦζαη ἡκᾶο
nosēje nos. evil. Amen Malo. Amen ἀπὸ ηνῦ πνλεξνῦ.
Estōd. ἀκήλ.
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I.3.2. SLWĒJE MARIJĀ (HAIL MARY)

Sḷwēje Marijā, Hail Mary, full of Ave María, gratia Θενηόθε Παξζέλε,
crātjā tū, grace, plena, ραῖξε, θεραξηησκέλε
Μαξία,
Arjos twojo esti; the Lord is with Dominus tecum. ὁ Κύξηνο κεηὰ ζνῦ.
thee;
súwoqnā cénāisi blessed art thou Benedicta tu in εὐινγεκέλε ζὺ ἐλ
esi, among women, mulieribus, γπλαημί,
súwoqnosqe and blessed is the et benedictus εὐινγεκέλνο ὁ
úderosjo two fruit of thy womb, fructus ventris tui, θαξπὸο ηῆο θνηιίαο
bhreugs, Jēsus. Jesus. Iesus. ζνπ (ὅηη ΢σηήξα
ἔηεθεο ηῶλ ςπρῶλ
ἡκῶλ)
Noibha Marijā, Holy Mary, Mother Sancta Maria,
Déiwosjo Mātér, of God, Mater Dei,
nosbhos ōrāje pray for us sinners, ora pro nobis
ágeswṇtbhos, peccatoribus,
nūqe mŕtjosqe now and at the nunc et in hora
nos daitei. hour of our death. mortis nostrae.
Estōd. Amen. Amen.
I.3.2. KRÉDDHĒMI (NICENE CREED)

Oinom kréddhēmi We believe in one Credo in unum Πηζηεύνκελ εἰο ἕλα
Deiwom, God, Deo, Θεὸλ
Paterṃ the Father Patrem Παηέξα
solwomóghmonṃ, Almighty, omnipoténtem, παληνθξάηνξα,
djḗwepḷtáwīdhōtṃ, Maker of heaven factórem cæli et πνηεηὴλ νὐξαλνῦ
and earth, terræ, θαὶ γῆο,
dṛknj m sólwosom and of all things visibílium ὁξαηῶλ ηε πάλησλ
ṇdŕknj mqe visible and ómnium et θαη ἀνξάησλ.
dhētṓr; invisible. invisibílium;
Árjomqe Jēsum And in one Lord Et in unum Καη εἰο ἕλα θύξηνλ
Ghristóm oinom, Jesus Christ, Dóminum Iesum Ἰεζνῦλ Υξηζηόλ,
Christum,
Déiwosjo Sūnúm the only-begotten Fílium Dei ηὸλ πἱὸλ ηνῦ ζενῦ
oinógnātom, Son of God, unigénitum, ηὸλ κνλνγελῆ,
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Patrós jos gnātós begotten of the et ex Patre natum ηὸλ ἐθ ηνῦ παηξὸο
aiwōd prāi solwōd, Father before all ante ómnia γελλεζέληα πξὸ
worlds (æons), sæcula: πάλησλ ηῶλ αἰώλσλ,
Deiwos Deiwōd, Light of Light, Deum de Deo, θῶο ἐθ θσηόο, ζεὸλ
leuksmṇ very God of very lumen de lúmine, ἀιεζηλὸλ ἐθ ζενῦ
léuksmene, wērom God, Deum verum de ἀιεζηλνῦ,
Deiwom wērōd Deo vero,
Deiwōd,
gentós, nē dhatós, begotten, not génitum non γελλεζέληα νὐ
made, factum, πνηεζέληα,
Patréi kómbhoutis, being of one consubstantiálem ὁκννύζηνλ ηῷ παηξί·
substance with Patri,
the Father;
josōd solwā dhakt by whom all per quem ómnia δη' νὗ ηὰ πάληα
senti; things were facta sunt; ἐγέλεην·
made;
qos nosbhis rōdhí who for us men, qui propter nos ηὸλ δη' ἡκᾶο ηνὺο
dhghómṇbhis and for our hómines et ἀλζξώπνπο θαὶ δηὰ
kémelobhos kidét, salvation, came propter nostram ηὴλ ἡκεηέξαλ
down from salútem ζσηεξίαλ
heaven, descéndit de θαηειζόληα
cælis;
enim memsom and was incarnate et incarnátus est ἐθ ηῶλ νὐξαλῶλ θαὶ
Noibhōd Ánamōd by the Holy Ghost de Spíritu Sancto ζαξθσζέληα ἐθ
Wéwṛtei Marijād of the Virgin ex María Vírgine πλεύκαηνο ἁγίνπ θαὶ
eksí ándhesād, Mary, and was et homo factus Μαξίαο ηῆο
enim dhghomōn made man; est; παξζέλνπ θαὶ
geneto; ἐλαλζξσπήζαληα,
eti krukídhētos he was crucified crucifíxus étiam ζηαπξσζέληα ηε
nosbhis prōd for us under pro nobis sub ὑπὲξ ἡκῶλ ἐπὶ
Pontjei upo Pilatei, Pontius Pilate, Póntio Piláto, Πνληίνπ Πηιάηνπ,
pastos sepēlitosqe and suffered, and passus et sepúltus θαὶ παζόληα θαὶ
esti, was buried, est; ηαθέληα,
joqe ati tritjei stete and the third day et resurréxit tértia θαὶ ἀλαζηάληα ηῇ
diwí, skréibhmona he rose again, die secúndum ηξίηῃ ἡκέξα θαηὰ
ad kémelomqe according to the Scriptúras; et ηὰο γξαθάο, θαὶ
skāndwós, Patrí Scriptures, and ascéndit in ἀλειζόληα εἰο ηνὺο
déksijāi sedḗjeti; ascended into cælum, sedet ad νὐξαλνὺο, θαὶ
heaven, and déxteram Patris; θαζεδόκελνλ ἐθ
sitteth on the δεμηῶλ ηνῦ παηξόο
right hand of the
Father;
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joqe dwonim from thence he et íterum θαὶ πάιηλ ἐξρόκελνλ

kléwosē cemjest shall come again, ventúrus est cum κεηὰ δόμεο θξῖλαη
cīwóns mŕwonsqe with glory, to glória iudicáre δῶληαο θαὶ λεθξνύο·
kómdhēnqos; judge the quick vivos et mórtuos;
and the dead;
qosjo regnom nē whose kingdom cuius regni non νὗ ηῆο βαζηιείαο
antjom bhéuseti. shall have no end. erit finis; νὐθ ἔζηαη ηέινο.
joqe Noibhom And in the Holy Et in Spíritum Καὶ εἰο ηὸ Πλεῦκα
Ánamom, potim Ghost, the Lord Sanctum, ηὸ Ἅγηνλ, ηὸ θύξηνλ,
ḗtrodhōtṃqe, and Giver of life, Dóminum et (θαὶ) ηὸ δσνπνηόλ,
Patrós Sūneusqe who proceedeth vivificántem: qui ηὸ ἐθ ηνῦ παηξὸο
proilóm, from the Father, ex Patre Filióque ἐθπνξεπόκελνλ,
procédit;
qei Patrē who with the qui cum Patre et ηὸ ζὺλ παηξὶ θαὶ πἱῷ
Sūnéwēqe semli Father and the Fílio simul ζπκπξνζθπλνύκελνλ
áidetor enim Son together is adorátur et θαὶ
magt jetor bhatós worshiped and conglorificátur; ζπλδνμαδόκελνλ, ηὸ
jos próbhātṇs glorified, who qui locútus est ιαιῆζαλ δηὰ ηῶλ
terqe esti. spake by the per Prophétas; πξνθεηῶλ.
prophets.
joqe oinām, In one holy Et in unam εἰο κίαλ, ἁγίαλ,
noibhām, catholic and sanctam θαζνιηθὴλ θαὶ
kṃtísolwām apostolic Church; cathólicam et ἀπνζηνιηθὴλ
apostólejām apostólicam ἐθθιεζίαλ·
ékklētijām. Ecclésiam.
Oinom bhatējar we acknowledge Confíteor unum ὁκνινγνῦκελ ἓλ
agesupomoukom one baptism for baptísma in βάπηηζκα εἰο ἄθεζηλ
cadhmṇ; the remission of remissiónem ἁκαξηηῶλ·
sins; peccatorum
sáitl mqe cītām we look for the et exspecto πξνζδνθνῦκελ
cémjonq m. Estōd resurrection of resurrectionem ἀλάζηαζηλ λεθξῶλ,
the dead, and the mortuorum et θαὶ δσὴλ ηνῦ
life of the world vitam ventúri κέιινληνο αἰῶλνο.
to come. Amen. sæculi. Amen. Ἀκήλ.
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I.3.3. NOUDÓS SŪNÚS (PARABLE OF THE PRODIGAL SON)

11 Dhghomōn “A certain man Homo quidam Ἄλζξσπόο ηηο εἶρελ
enis sūnuwe had two sons. habuit duos filios: δύν πἱνύο.
eiket,
12 joqe And the younger et dixit θαὶ εἶπελ ὁ λεώηεξνο
jowísteros of them said to adolescentior ex αὐηῶλ ηῷ παηξί,
patréi his father, illis patri: Pater, Πάηεξ, δόο κνη ηὸ
weuqét : Pater, „Father, give me da mihi ἐπηβάιινλ κέξνο ηῆο
rijós dasdhí the portion of portionem νὐζίαο. ὁ δὲ δηεῖιελ
moi aitim qāi goods that falls substantiæ, quæ αὐηνῖο ηὸλ βίνλ.
meghei áineti, to me.‟ So he me contingit. Et
joqe rēim divided to them divisit illis
ibhom widhét. his livelihood. substantiam.
13 Enim nē And not many Et non post θαὶ κεη' νὐ πνιιὰο
péluwāns days after, the multos dies, ἡκέξαο ζπλαγαγὼλ
dināns pos, younger son congregatis πάληα ὁ λεώηεξνο
solwā garlós, gathered all omnibus, πἱὸο ἀπεδήκεζελ εἰο
jowísteros together, adolescentior ρώξαλ καθξάλ, θαὶ
sūnús reu journeyed to a filius peregre ἐθεῖ δηεζθόξπηζελ
porsótenom far country, and profectus est in ηὴλ νὐζίαλ αὐηνῦ
oigheto there wasted his regionem
δῶλ ἀζώησο.
londhom, possessions with longinquam, et
idheiqe rēim prodigal living. ibi dissipavit
nudét sewe substantiam
ghlóidotos suam vivendo
ceiwents. luxuriose.
14 Enim ítāpo But when he had Et postquam δαπαλήζαληνο δὲ
solwā cósissēt spent all, there omnia αὐηνῦ πάληα ἐγέλεην
kom, dhṛghtós arose a severe consummasset, ιηκὸο ἰζρπξὰ θαηὰ
molét famine in that facta est fames ηὴλ ρώξαλ ἐθείλελ,
ghrēdhus land, and he valida in regione θαὶ αὐηὸο ἤξμαην
londhei began to be in illa, et ipse cœpit ὑζηεξεῖζζαη.
ólnosmei, joqe want. egere.
egētum sepe
bhwije.
15 Itaqe cālós, Then he went Et abiit, et θαὶ πνξεπζεὶο
qismei jugeto and joined adhæsit uni ἐθνιιήζε ἑλὶ ηῶλ
kéiwijom himself to a civium regionis πνιηηῶλ ηῆο ρώξαο
ólnosjo londhī, citizen of that illius: et misit ἐθείλεο, θαὶ ἔπεκςελ
imqe sontḗjet country, and he illum in villam αὐηὸλ εἰο ηνὺο
porkons sent him into his suam ut pasceret ἀγξνὺο αὐηνῦ
pāsksi. fields to feed porcos. βόζθεηλ ρνίξνπο:
swine.
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16 Atqe úderom And he would Et cupiebat θαὶ ἐπεζύκεη

skḷiqāis gladly have filled implere ventrem ρνξηαζζῆλαη ἐθ ηῶλ
plḗnātum his stomach with suum de siliquis, θεξαηίσλ ὧλ ἤζζηνλ
gheríjeto the pods that the quas porci νἱ ρνῖξνη, θαὶ νὐδεὶο
porkōs edent swine ate, and no manducabant: et ἐδίδνπ αὐηῷ.
jans atqe neqis one gave him nemo illi dabat.
ismei dōt. anything.
17 Swei poti “But when he In se autem εἰο ἑαπηὸλ δὲ ἐιζὼλ
wṛtomnós, came to himself, reversus, dixit: ἔθε, Πόζνη κίζζηνη
ēgt: qotjoi he said, „How Quanti ηνῦ παηξόο κνπ
patrós domei many of my mercenarii in πεξηζζεύνληαη
mísdhotes father‟s hired domo patris mei ἄξησλ, ἐγὼ δὲ ιηκῷ
paskneis servants have abundant ὧδε ἀπόιιπκαη.
spréigonti, kei bread enough panibus, ego
egṓ au dhami and to spare, and autem hic fame
mṛijar! I perish with pereo!
hunger!
18 ṛísomnos I will arise and surgam, et ibo ad ἀλαζηὰο πνξεύζνκαη
paterṃ eisō go to my father, patrem meum, et πξὸο ηὸλ παηέξα κνπ
mene ad, joqe and will say to dicam ei: Pater, θαὶ ἐξῶ αὐηῷ,
ismei seksō: him, “Father, I peccavi in cælum, Πάηεξ, ἥκαξηνλ εἰο
Pater, have sinned et coram te: ηὸλ νὐξαλὸλ θαὶ
kémelom proti against heaven ἐλώπηόλ ζνπ,
tewomqe antí and before you,
memlar,
19 jāmi nē and I am no jam non sum νὐθέηη εἰκὶ ἄμηνο
deknos egṓ, longer worthy to dignus vocari θιεζῆλαη πἱόο ζνπ:
sūnús téwijos be called your filius tuus: fac me πνίεζόλ κε ὡο ἕλα
kluwētum: son. Make me sicut unum de ηῶλ κηζζίσλ ζνπ.
dhasdhi me like one of your mercenariis tuis.
swāi qimqim hired servants.”‟
mísdhotom
tewe.
20 Ita ṛitós “And he arose Et surgens venit θαὶ ἀλαζηὰο ἦιζελ
paterṃ ludhét and came to his ad patrem suum. πξὸο ηὸλ παηέξα
sewe. Eti jom father. But when Cum autem ἑαπηνῦ. ἔηη δὲ αὐηνῦ
qeli bhūl , em he was still a adhuc longe esset, καθξὰλ ἀπέρνληνο
patḗr tósjope great way off, his vidit illum pater εἶδελ αὐηὸλ ὁ παηὴξ
dṛket, joqe ana father saw him ipsius, et αὐηνῦ θαὶ
kṛsents and had misericordia ἐζπιαγρλίζζε θαὶ
kómqēilj compassion, and motus est, et
δξακὼλ ἐπέπεζελ
krūtós esti ran and fell on accurrens cecidit
ἐπὶ ηὸλ ηξάρεινλ
enim kolsom his neck and super collum ejus,
petlós em kissed him. et osculatus est αὐηνῦ θαὶ
bhusājét. eum. θαηεθίιεζελ αὐηόλ.
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21 Wedét And the son said Dixitque ei filius: εἶπελ δὲ ὁ πἱὸο

óisosm i to him, „Father, I Pater, peccavi in αὐηῷ, Πάηεξ,
sūnús: Pater, have sinned cælum, et coram ἥκαξηνλ εἰο ηὸλ
kémelom proti against heaven te: jam non sum νὐξαλὸλ θαὶ
tewomqe anti and in your sight, dignus vocari ἐλώπηόλ ζνπ, νὐθέηη
memlar: jāmi and am no longer filius tuus. εἰκὶ ἄμηνο θιεζῆλαη
nē deknos egṓ, worthy to be πἱόο ζνπ.
sūnús téwijos called your son.‟
nōmnādhjom
22 nū “But the father Dixit autem pater εἶπελ δὲ ὁ παηὴξ
mísdhatbhos said to his ad servos suos: πξὸο ηνὺο δνύινπο
bhato patḗr servants, „Bring Cito proferte αὐηνῦ, Σαρὺ
sewe; bhéresi: out the best robe stolam primam, ἐμελέγθαηε ζηνιὴλ
prāmām and put it on et induite illum, ηὴλ πξώηελ θαὶ
dhrághete him, and put a et date annulum ἐλδύζαηε αὐηόλ, θαὶ
togām joqe ring on his hand in manum ejus, et δόηε δαθηύιηνλ εἰο
tom westíjete, and sandals on calceamenta in
ηὴλ ρεῖξα αὐηνῦ θαὶ
anom tosjo his feet. pedes ejus:
ὑπνδήκαηα εἰο ηνὺο
ghéseni
kérpjonsqe πόδαο,
esjo daste
pedsú:
23 kom And bring the et adducite θαὶ θέξεηε ηὸλ
piwónṃqe fatted calf here vitulum κόζρνλ ηὸλ
bhérete and kill it, and let saginatum, et ζηηεπηόλ, ζύζαηε θαὶ
loigom joqe us eat and be occidite, et θαγόληεο
chénete, joqe merry; manducemus, et εὐθξαλζῶκελ,
edāmos, joqe epulemur:
wḷdām
terpāmos,
24 jodqid kei for this my son quia hic filius ὅηη νὗηνο ὁ πἱόο κνπ
sūnús mene was dead and is meus mortuus λεθξὸο ἦλ θαὶ
dhedhuwós ēst alive again; he erat, et revixit: ἀλέδεζελ, ἦλ
atqe coje ati: was lost and is perierat, et ἀπνισιὼο θαὶ
skombnós ēst, found.‟ And they inventus est. Et εὑξέζε. θαὶ ἤξμαλην
atqe wṛētar. began to be cœperunt epulari. εὐθξαίλεζζαη.
Enim wḷdām merry.
bhwijónt.
25 Agrei au “Now his older Erat autem filius ελ δὲ ὁ πἱὸο αὐηνῦ ὁ
senísteros ēst son was in the ejus senior in πξεζβύηεξνο ἐλ
sūnús: joqe field. And as he agro: et cum ἀγξῷ: θαὶ ὡο
jom cēmsēt came and drew veniret, et ἐξρόκελνο ἤγγηζελ
enim domom near to the appropinquaret ηῇ νἰθίᾳ, ἤθνπζελ
nedisēt, house, he heard domui, audivit ζπκθσλίαο θαὶ
kómkantum music and symphoniam et ρνξῶλ,
léigṃqe dancing. chorum:
kluwét.
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26 Joqe neqom So he called one et vocavit unum θαὶ

móghuwom of the servants de servis, et πξνζθαιεζάκελνο
ghaulós pṛket and asked what interrogavit quid ἕλα ηῶλ παίδσλ
qid ghāi-ke these things hæc essent. ἐππλζάλεην ηί ἂλ εἴε
bhousēnt. meant. ηαῦηα.
27 Isqe sqet: And he said to Isque dixit illi: ὁ δὲ εἶπελ αὐηῷ ὅηη
bhrātēr tewe him, „Your Frater tuus venit, Ὁ ἀδειθόο ζνπ ἥθεη,
cēme enim brother has et occidit pater θαὶ ἔζπζελ ὁ παηήξ
piwonṃ patḗr come, and tuus vitulum ζνπ ηὸλ κόζρνλ ηὸλ
two chone because he has saginatum, quia ζηηεπηόλ, ὅηη
loigom, jodqid received him safe salvum illum ὑγηαίλνληα αὐηὸλ
tom cīwóm and sound, your recepit. ἀπέιαβελ.
solwom ghōde. father has killed
the fatted calf.‟
28 kṛditós autim “But he was Indignatus est ὠξγίζζε δὲ θαὶ νὐθ

esti, joqe nē en angry and would autem, et nolebat ἤζειελ εἰζειζεῖλ. ὁ
eitum welwāt. not go in. introire. Pater δὲ παηὴξ αὐηνῦ
Ar patḗr ejos Therefore his ergo illius ἐμειζὼλ παξεθάιεη
eksodlós, father came out egressus, cœpit αὐηόλ.
bhwijét im and pleaded with rogare illum.
chestum. him.
29 Atqe se So he answered At ille ὁ δὲ ἀπνθξηζεὶο
protiweqents, and said to his respondens, dixit εἶπελ ηῷ παηξὶ
patréi bhato father, „Lo, these patri suo: Ecce tot αὐηνῦ, Ἰδνὺ
sewe: edke many years I annis servio tibi, ηνζαῦηα ἔηε
totjons atnons have been et numquam δνπιεύσ ζνη θαὶ
sístāmi twei serving you; I mandatum tuum νὐδέπνηε ἐληνιήλ
upo, joqe never præterivi: et ζνπ παξῆιζνλ, θαὶ
neqom dikām transgressed numquam dedisti
ἐκνὶ νὐδέπνηε
tewe kleusō your mihi hædum ut
ἔδσθαο ἔξηθνλ ἵλα
dus, atqe commandment cum amicis meis
neqom meghei at any time; and epularer. κεηὰ ηῶλ θίισλ κνπ
ghaidom desta yet you never εὐθξαλζῶ:
wḷdāi ameikos gave me a young
senutéwijāi. goat, that I might
make merry with
my friends.
30 Mō ita tom But as soon as Sed postquam ὅηε δὲ ὁ πἱόο ζνπ
sūnús tewe this son of yours filius tuus hic, qui νὗηνο ὁ θαηαθαγώλ
kei, rēim came, who has devoravit ζνπ ηὸλ βίνλ κεηὰ
loutsāis cṛālós devoured your substantiam πνξλῶλ ἦιζελ,
cēme, livelihood with suam cum ἔζπζαο αὐηῷ ηὸλ
ólnosmōi harlots, you meretricibus, ζηηεπηὸλ κόζρνλ.
píwonṃ killed the fatted venit, occidisti illi
loigom chonta. calf for him.‟ vitulum
saginatum.
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31 Atqe oise “And he said to At ipse dixit illi: ὁ δὲ εἶπελ αὐηῷ,

tosm i him, „Son, you Fili, tu semper Σέθλνλ, ζὺ πάληνηε
weuqét: are always with mecum es, et κεη' ἐκνῦ εἶ, θαὶ
suneu, tū me, and all that I omnia mea tua πάληα ηὰ ἐκὰ ζά
áiwesi mojo have is yours. sunt: ἐζηηλ:
esi, enim
solwā menjā
téwijā senti.
32 Wḷd m autim It was right that epulari autem, et εὐθξαλζῆλαη δὲ θαὶ
terptum, joqe we should make gaudere ραξῆλαη ἔδεη, ὅηη ὁ
gaudhētum merry and be oportebat, quia ἀδειθόο ζνπ νὗηνο
opos est, glad, for your frater tuus hic λεθξὸο ἦλ θαὶ
jodqid bhrātēr brother was dead mortuus erat, et ἔδεζελ, θαὶ
tewe kei and is alive revixit; perierat, ἀπνισιὼο θαὶ
dhedhuwós ēst again, and was et inventus est. εὑξέζε.
atqe coje ati; lost and is
skombnós ēst, found.‟”
atqe wṛētar.
I.3.4. NEWOS BHEIDHOS (NEW TESTAMENT) – JŌHANĒS, 1, 1-14

1 Pārjei Wṛdhom In the beginning in principio erat ἖λ ἀξρῇ ἦλ ὁ
bhewet, joqe was the Word, Verbum et ιόγνο, θαὶ ὁ ιόγνο
Wṛdhom and the Word was Verbum erat apud ἦλ πξὸο ηὸλ ζεόλ,
Deiwei ēst ensí, with God, and the Deum et Deus θαὶ ζεὸο ἦλ ὁ
joqe Deiwos Word was God. erat Verbum ιόγνο.
Wṛdhom ēst.
2 Ensí id pārjei He was in the hoc erat in νὗηνο ἦλ ἐλ ἀξρῇ
Deiwei ēst. beginning with principio apud πξὸο ηὸλ ζεόλ.
God. Deum
3 Eisōd solwā All things were omnia per ipsum πάληα δη' αὐηνῦ
gegner enim id made through facta sunt et sine ἐγέλεην, θαὶ ρσξὶο
aneu neqid Him, and without ipso factum est αὐηνῦ ἐγέλεην
gégnissēt josjo Him nothing was nihil quod factum νὐδὲ ἕλ. ὃ γέγνλελ
gégone. made that was est
made.
4 Ismi cītā In Him was life, in ipso vita erat et ἐλ αὐηῷ δσὴ ἦλ,
bhewet, joqe and the life was vita erat lux θαὶ ἡ δσὴ ἦλ ηὸ
cītā ēst the light of men. hominum θῶο ηῶλ
dhghómonom ἀλζξώπσλ:
leuks.
370
5 Itaqe leuks And the light et lux in tenebris θαὶ ηὸ θῶο ἐλ ηῇ

skotei skéjeti, shines in the lucet et tenebrae ζθνηίᾳ θαίλεη, θαὶ
joqe oisām darkness, and the eam non ἡ ζθνηία αὐηὸ νὐ
skotos nē turét. darkness did not conprehenderunt θαηέιαβελ.
comprehend it
6 Gnātós esti There was a man fuit homo missus ἖γέλεην ἄλζξσπνο
wīrós Deiwō sent from God, a Deo cui nomen ἀπεζηαικέλνο
sontonós whose name was erat Iohannes παξὰ ζενῦ, ὄλνκα
Jōhanēs John. αὐηῷ Ἰσάλλεο:
nṓmṇtos.
7 Tristimonj i This man came hic venit in νὗηνο ἦιζελ εἰο
ludhét se, for a witness, to testimonium ut καξηπξίαλ, ἵλα
leukbhi bear witness of testimonium καξηπξήζῃ πεξὶ
tristidhēnts, ei the Light, that all perhiberet de ηνῦ θσηόο, ἵλα
solwoi ijo through him lumine ut omnes πάληεο
kreddhēsēnt. might believe. crederent per πηζηεύζσζηλ δη'
illum αὐηνῦ.
8 Nē olne leuks, He was not that non erat ille lux νὐθ ἦλ ἐθεῖλνο ηὸ
immō, leukbhi Light, but was sed ut θῶο, ἀιι' ἵλα
tristidhēnts. sent to bear testimonium καξηπξήζῃ πεξὶ
witness of that perhiberet de ηνῦ θσηόο.
Light. lumine
9 Leuks wērom That was the true erat lux vera quae ελ ηὸ θῶο ηὸ
ēst, solwom Light which gives inluminat omnem ἀιεζηλόλ, ὃ
bh light to every man hominem θσηίδεη πάληα
dhghomonṃ, coming into the venientem in ἄλζξσπνλ,
dhoubnom kod world. mundum ἐξρόκελνλ εἰο ηὸλ
ludhl θόζκνλ.
10 Dhoubnei ēst, He was in the in mundo erat et ἐλ ηῷ θόζκῳ ἦλ,
enim ijo world, and the mundus per θαὶ ὁ θόζκνο δη'
dhoubnom world was made ipsum factus est αὐηνῦ ἐγέλεην, θαὶ
gegner, atqe nē through Him, and et mundus eum ὁ θόζκνο αὐηὸλ
im dhoubnom the world did not non cognovit νὐθ ἔγλσ.
gnōt. know Him.
11 Somobhos He came to His in propria venit et εἰο ηὰ ἴδηα ἦιζελ,
ludhét, atqe im own, and His own sui eum non θαὶ νἱ ἴδηνη αὐηὸλ
somói ghadónt did not receive receperunt νὐ παξέιαβνλ.
nei ad. Him.
12 Jotjoi im But as many as quotquot autem ὅζνη δὲ ἔιαβνλ
ghadónt, received Him, to receperunt eum αὐηόλ, ἔδσθελ
moghtim them He gave the dedit eis αὐηνῖο ἐμνπζίαλ
tobhos génonī right to become potestatem filios ηέθλα ζενῦ
dōt Diwoputla, children of God, Dei fieri his qui γελέζζαη, ηνῖο
esjo nōmṇ to those who credunt in πηζηεύνπζηλ εἰο ηὸ
kréddhēntbhos, believe in His nomine eius ὄλνκα αὐηνῦ,
name:
371
13 joi nē ésenos, who were born, qui non ex νἳ νὐθ ἐμ αἱκάησλ

neqe memsī not of blood, nor sanguinibus νὐδὲ ἐθ ζειήκαηνο
woljās, neqe of the will of the neque ex ζαξθὸο νὐδὲ ἐθ
wīr immō flesh, nor of the voluntate carnis ζειήκαηνο ἀλδξὸο
Déiwosjo will of man, but of neque ex ἀιι' ἐθ ζενῦ
gnātṓs sonti. God. voluntate viri sed ἐγελλήζεζαλ.
ex Deo nati sunt
14 Joqe Wṛdhom And the Word et Verbum caro Καὶ ὁ ιόγνο ζὰξμ
memsom became flesh and factum est et ἐγέλεην θαὶ
wṛstós esti, dwelt among us, habitavit in nobis ἐζθήλσζελ ἐλ
enim pḷtomóm and we beheld His et vidimus ἡκῖλ, θαὶ
ṇsmí dhēke ení, glory, the glory as gloriam eius ἐζεαζάκεζα ηὴλ
enim ejos of the only gloriam quasi δόμαλ αὐηνῦ,
qedos dṛkomes, begotten of the unigeniti a Patre δόμαλ ὡο
qedos swāi Father, full of plenum gratiae et
κνλνγελνῦο παξὰ
oinógnātejom grace and truth. veritatis
παηξόο, πιήξεο
Patrós wḗrotjō
crátjāqe ράξηηνο θαὶ
plēnóm. ἀιεζείαο.
I.4. THE RIGVEDA IN INDO-EUROPEAN
Eurōpājóm Sanskrit English

Progṇpotis dā-toi Prajapatir vai idam-agre In the beginning was
pārjei ēst asit Prajapati (the Creator),
tosjo woqs dwitjā ēst Prajapatir vai idam-agre With Him was the Vak
asit (the Word),
Woqs dā Péromom Vak vai Paramam Brahma And the Vak (the Word)
Bhlaghmṇ was verily the Supreme
Brahman.
NOTE. It is possible that the Logos concept of Greek philosopher Philo of Alexandria
(adopted in John 1) was influenced by the Vak of Hindu philosophy.
372
APPENDIX II: LATE INDO-EUROPEAN LEXICON
This lexicon is available online with regular updates and as automatic dictionary-
translator at <http://indo-european.info/>.
An English – Indo-European dictionary is found in Appendix II.1.
For detailed information on the Proto-Indo-European words, its etymology, usage,

root and meaning, see the following section, Appendix II.2.
For detailed forms from descendant languages used for the reconstruction of PIE
words, see Appendix III.3.
FORMAL ASPECTS
The reconstructed artifice schwa *ə (still widely used in modern IE linguistics, cf.
e.g. Ringe 2006, de Vaan 2008, etc.) does not represent an actual vowel. It might
represent in this reconstructed post-Late Indo-European lexicon:
1) The schwa primum, vocalic output of the older merged laryngeal *H, assimilated
to a different vowel in the different IEDs. That laryngeal schwa is omitted if it is
word-initial and appears alone, as in *H3bhruH, or if the preceding syllable has full
vocalism, as in *klamrós, but it is written elsewhere, as in *p∂ter-. See The Loss of
Laryngeals, and Conventions Used in This Book.
2) The results of the so-called Saussure effect. See The Loss of Laryngeals.
3) The schwa secundum, reconstructed for irregular outputs of groups that

included resonants, i.e. *C(°)RV or *C(°)R(°)C, due to auxiliary vowels inserted in
LIE times. For this alternating auxiliary vowel, a dot below is more commonly
written for resonants plus vowel, i.e. CṚV. See Phonology, especially §2.3.
Some supposed late remains of the LIE merged laryngeal in groups including
resonants, i.e. *CRHC, *CHRC, *CRHV, *CHRV, etc. are not written down by
convention. A selection is made of the most common west IE evolution; as, Ita., Cel.
gnātós (with an evolution equivalent to Gk. gnētós) for an older gṇəʔtós, born. See
above The Loss of Laryngeals, and §2.1.
Middle-passive endings are written with the 1st sg. -ai, -oi, which correspond to
NWIE -ar. See above §7.2.2.
Sometimes, forms different to those found in this book are intentionally

reconstructed in this lexicon, to complement each other and give an overall image of
the possible reconstructions; as, -e- reduplicated athem. dhédhēmi, shown in this
lexicon as -i- reduplicated athem. dhídhēmi, and non-reduplicated, them. dhakjō.
See §7.4.2. Class BII.
Dubious reconstructions of stative verbs, added in this edition, (see §7.4.2, Class
AIIIe vs. Class IIIo) include awējō, bhəwējō, gāudhējō, ghəbhējō, lubhējō;
while some appear to be bivalent -ejō-/-ējō-: dḷgh jō, ṛk jō, tṇ jō.
Heteroclite as well as athematic (especially root) nouns are shown according to the
general reconstruction paradigms. Some difficult choices have been made, though, if
more than one form is found. See §§4.6, 4.7.
On the alternative vocalic reconstruction a/o, as in mari/mori, the Leiden school

(de Vaan among others) defends a phonetic law Lat. a < PIE *o (free and
accompanied by certain consonants); as, badius, canis, fax, lacus, lanius, manus,
malleus, mare, uagus, ualua, uas, uaris, etc. of which badius, canis, lacus, mare,
and maybe manus have correlatives with root vowel O.Ir. o. However, we have some
clear counterexamples; as mora, mola, moneō, monīle and maybe focus, forō.
According to de Vaan, cohors, dolō, dolus, domus, folium, glomus, hodiē, (h)olus,
noceō, oculus, odor, onus, opus, ouis, podium, probus, procus, rota, and toga
do not accomplish the phonetic conditions to be counterexamples.
374
II.1. ENGLISH – LATE INDO- agnus castus weitēks
agonise cḷnāmi
EUROPEAN agreement koimā
agreement meitrom
English Late Indo-European air porā
a bit pau akin koinós
abandoned ermos alas troughi
abound spreigō alas wai
about per(i), per(ti) alder álesnos
above upsi alder wernā
absent apowésentis alike jota sei
absolute perṃós alive cīwós
abundant chonós all oljoi oljāi olja
abuse dhebhō allergy dedrus
abyss ṇbhudhnóm alleyway smoughos
acarian koris allied soqjos
accelerate spreudō along práiteri
accordance sṃoitis already jāmi
acorn célṇdis also toqe
acorn medjom altar āsā
acquire kwāimi always áiw(es)i
acquire potijai ambush énsēdjom
acquit luwō apó ancestor strutjos
activate kjējō ancient prīskos
active strēnwos and atqe
Adam's apple croghos and enim
address deikos and joqe
adhere gleibhō and qe
adjust árarjō and also itaqe
administrate médneumi and not neqe
adorn mondō angelica qondhros
adorn peikō angle qedos
adult altjos animal bhugos
advanced prokos animal cīwotos
advantage (sí)stāmi antí/prāi animal smalos
advise plākejō ankle spṛos
affirm əgjō announce kárkarjō
afflict ághneumi annoy peigō
after pos(ti) annoyance oghlos
afterwards pósteri annoying mōlestos
again ati annoying trudsmós
against komtrōd anorak kroknos
against proti another onjos
aggravate odáugjai another aljos
agile ágəlis anounce mḷgājō
agitate dhúneumi ant mṛmeikā
agitate kreutō antique ántijos
agitated kighrós anyone qisqis qidqid
apart sēd at least ge

apart sṇi at that point tām
aperture ōstjom ate ghosóm
apparent windos atribute bhagō
appear mlōskō attack wṛgos
appearance wida attack wendhō
appease sēdājō attack (to be in) wṛgējō
appease litājō attention próbhoudhos
appendix plighā auger téredhrom
apple ábelos augur kailom
approach (to) pḷnamaí aument āugejō
arch weitō aunt ámetā
arch wekō aunt mātérterā
ardour aisdhom autumn osēn
arise kenō avoid leinō
arm armos awaken bhoudhejō
arm bhāghus axe áksijā
arm dóusontos axe bheitlom
armour twakos axe sekūris
army korjos axe tekslā
army strātos axle aksis
around ambhí babble batā
arrange dúnāmi babble plabrājai
arrangement stāmṇ babble lalājo
arrival ghētis baby dhēljos
arrive ṇkneumi back awou
arrive ghēmi back gurnos
arrow kēlom back retrōd
art artis backbone wṛaghmṇ
article melmṇ backward ápōqos
articulation anglos backwards postrōd
as qām bad dus
ash āsos bad elkós
ash kenēs bad upelos
ashtrē oskos badger brokos
ashtree bhṛksnos bag bholghis
ashtree ósonos bag kṓrukos
ask pṛkskō bald kalwos
asp apsā ball ghroudos
aspect spekjēs ball gugā
aspire wḗnāmoi ball orghis
ass kūlos band seimā
assigned prōtós bandy-legged walgos
assort kjājō banquet daps
asunder wī barbaric bálbalos
asunder-legged wāros barefoot bhosos
at ad bargain wesnejō
at hand práighesto bark baubājai
376
Appendix II: Late Indo-European Lexicon
barley ghórdejom be scratched kṛsējō

barley jewom be sharp akējō
barrel dōljom be sitting sedējō
basin wḷghis be situated ēsmoi
basket kistā be sticked lipējō
basket korbhis be strong wegō
basket qasjos be strong wigējō
basket sportā be swollen oidējō
basket woidlos be swollen tumējō
bast lubhros be swollen (to) swəlējō
bath lowtrom be thirsty tṛsējō
bath-tub célwonom be used eukō
be bhewmi be violent chṛjō
be esmi be visible dṛkjai peri
be afraid timējō be warm tepējō
be allowed likējō be wet mədējō
be angry eisāskai be withered mṛkējō
be annoying pigējō beak rōstrom
be bitter geigō beak sroknā
be born gnāskai beam tegnom
be bright spḷndējō beam trabhis
be broken lugējō bean bhabhā
be cold alghējō bear ṛtkos
be cold srīgējō bear bhermi (bherō)
be concealed lətējō beard bhardhā
be curved wijējō bearing bhṛtis
be delayed stṇtējō beast ghwerā
be dry āsējō beast weidr
be empty ghṛējō beast of burden jóugsmṇtom
be expensive dápnāmi beastly ghwērīnós
be experienced kaldējō beat wḷeisō
be far (sí)stāmi apó beat up orgājō
be favourable bhəwējō beautiful chaisos
be fit wḷējō beautiful wēmos
be flat ləpējō beaver bhebhros
be followed swemōr because jod qid
be furious sājō become swēdhskō
be high kelsō accustomed
be hot kḷējō become vigorous k keumi
be interested mendhai bed spondhā
be loaded gemō bee bheiqlā
be named kluwējō beech bhāgos
be necessary opos esti been bhūtós
be old senējō beer álumṇ
be pregnant kuwējō beer kremom
be proper dekējō beer sudhjom
be red rudhējō before antí
be rotten pūtējō before pəros
377
before prāi birth sūtus

before dawn anksi bit akmā
befoul sterkō bite denkō
befriend (to) nínāmi bite mordējō
beget gignō bitter bhidrós
begird jṓsneumi black ātros
beguile dreughō black dhoubhús
behind apóteri black kṛsnos
belch reugō blackbird meslā
believe kréddhēmi blade akjēs
belly tarsós blame onējō
belong ainō blaze sweidō
beloved kāros bleach kormnos
belt (for safety) wérunos bleat bebājō
bend greugō bleat blēkājō
bending nṃtos blind andhos
beneficial síslāwos blind kaikos
benefit lawō blister kaldos
benefit lawtlom blister wenseikā
bent kambos block mersō
bent pandos blood esṛ
berry morom blood kruwós
beseech prekō bloom bhlosējō
beset adghō blow bhesmi
besides perom blow bhlāmi
besiege sedējō ambhí blow ( )wēmi
betrothed sponstós blow out munkō
better bhodjós blue ghlastos
between énteri blunt bhukús
beware kəwējō boar apros
biceps kiskā boar twṛkos
big crotsos board ploutos
big məgnos boast bhledō
big eater corós boast ghelbō
bile cheldi boat plowós
bilge out semjō bodkin ēlā
billow sredhō body kṛpos
bind nedskō boil bherwō
bind bhendhō boil seutō
bind kekājō bold dhṛsus
bind ligājō boldness dhṛstis
bind reigō bolt tormos
bind síneumi bone ostis
biped dwipods border krēqā
birch bherāgs bore bhorājō
bird awis born gnātós
bird petsnós bosom sinus
birth gentlom both ambhou
378
bought qrītóm broom aksteinos

boundary eghṛ broom swoplom
boundary margōn broth jeus
bovine cowijós brother bhrātēr
bow arqos brother-in-law daiwēr
bowels gudom brotherly bhratrijos
bowl tekstā brother's son bhrātreinos
box kəpsā brown bhrounos
boy kelots bud gnoubhos
boy maqos bug keimēx
boy póweros building demos
bracelet welīks building place dṃpedom
brain kerəsrom bull porsis
bramble dristos bull tauros
bran tolkos bulrush bhrughnos
branch kankus bulrush joinkos
branch osdos bumblebee krāsrōn
branches cespis bundle bhaskis
brass ajos bundle dhrighsós
brassy ájesnos burden bhermṇ
brave tregsnos burglar tājots
breach bhernā burn aidhō
bread bharsjom burn (pím)prēmi
break bhrṇgō burn smelō
break bhrúsnāmi burn dhechō
break rumpō burn eusō
break off rewō burn konkejō
break up lemō burn kremājō
breast bhrusos burnt ustós
breath anəmos burst spṛgō
breath ātmós burst in skekō
breath spoisnā bury ghrebhō
breathe ātō bury sepēlijō
breathe pneusō bush bhrutēks
breeze áweljā bush dousmos
brew bhrewō bush qṛsnos
briar ksentis but mō
bridge bhrēwā butter arwā
bright bhānús butter ghertom
bright leukós butterfly pāpeljos
brilliant argrós buttock klounis
bring out dhraghō buttocks pougā
broad plātús buy qrínāmi
brooch bharkos buy selō
brooch dhéicodhlā buzz susājō
brood aglā cabbage kaulis
brook apnis cable snēwər
brook reiwos cable winis
379
cackle grakijō certainly dā

cackle kaklājō certainly ghi
calculate deljō certainly ka
calf loigos certainly smā
calf wetlos certainly toi
call ghawō chaff akos
call for tolājō chain katēsna
calm sēknis chain seinus
caluum caput gholwā chair sedlā
camel wḷbhontis chalk krētā
camp kastra chamber kēlā
can moghō chance wikis
cancer ghṇdhus change mejnō
cannabis worgjom character mōs
canopy skostrom charge merkēds
captive kəptos charioteer ṛots
car woghnos chatter blatsājō
carbon kṛdhōn cheap wésolis
caress ghneumi cheat meugō
carrot mṛkā cheer owājō
carry portājō cheese kwatsos
carry weghō cheese tūrjós
cart kṛsus cherry tree kornos
carve skalpō chest pegtos
carve skreidō chest ṛklā
carve smeidhō chew gjewō
castle kasterlom chew mṇtō
castrate skerdō child pūpos
cat kattā child putlom
catch kəpjō chin mṇtom
cattle ármṇtom chin smekslā
cattle peku chirp bhrigijō
cauldron qorjom chirp titijō
cause winsō choice wolos
cause to slope klínāmi choke bhleusō
caution wadhis choose wolējō
cave antrom choose opjō
cave speqos circle kirkos
cavern kowṛ circuit ámbhinom
cavity celom circulate qelō
cedar bhrosdhos citizen keiwis
ceiling tegtom city polis
cellar gupā civil kéiwijos
centre stornjā clack glokijō
cereal dhōnā claim qínumoi
cereal jéwornjom clang klagjō
cerebellum mosgom classical ántitjos
certain enis clean mūdnós
380
clean powejō come back ghighējō

clean pūtós come out pārējō
clean pewō command judhejō
cleanse sṛpijō commission upóqrijom
clear aiskrós commit mṇdōmi
clear bhlaidos common kómmoinis
clear skīrós communicate mesgō
cleave bhindō community kommoinitats
close klawdō compasses kirknos
close wṛeumi compete sperdhō
close wṛijō complain qésai
close to pəra complete kómplēnos
closed klawstós complexed (to wṇghējō
cloth westis be)
clotted tmktos compose qejō
cloud nebhis comprehend tṇējō
clown skoirsās conceive dídjāmi
club baktlom concession lētis
club lorgos concubine pareikā
club seikā condense stejō
club wísogā condition dhēmṇ
coal oncōl conducted elóm
coast moljā conflagration dáwetus
coat pḷtom connect serō
cockoo kukūlós conscience kómwoistis
cockoo kukulājō consider mṇjō
cockroach blaktā consideration qeistis
cold kiklós consort komjugs
cold ougros conspiracy jālos
cold srīgos conspirator jōrós
collapsed rwtós conspire jáneumi
collar monīli contain ṛkējō
collect karpō contend bhogājō
collect legō contend wikjō
collection kómāglom contrive smudhnō
collection qejtis convex weksós
colony ápowoiks convey nekmi
colorant keimos convey porejō
colour kiwos convocation klāstis
colour wornos cook peqō
coloured pṛqos cook peqtṓr
colt kábṇlos cook poqós
colt kánkestos cooked peqtós
comb kesō cooking peqtis
comb pekō coot bhelēks
comb pektēn copy áimneumi
comb pektō core pūrós
come cemjō corn niktis
381
cornice ghrendhā crown grendjom

corruption tādhis crumb groumos
cost of a feast dapnom crumb smeikā
couch stālos crumble dhrubhjō
cough qostā crumble bhrijājō
cough tustijō crush mṛtājō
coughing tustis crush pinsō
courage nantis cry dhrensājō
course drewā cry wāghijō
course kṛstus cry kreugō
court kómwoirjom cry krigā
courtyard dhworom cry reudō
cousin jentēr crying roudos
cover kelos cudge dolājō
cover skemō cuirass bhrusnjā
cover skeumō cup kalēiks
cover skeutō cup koupā
cover tegō curb bhegō
covering skūtos curd cheese grutis
cow cows curdled milk tmklos
cow lāpos curly kripsos
cow wakkā curtail sneitō
crab karkros curve witjom
crack reimā curve keubō
crackle krépāmi curve qelpō
cradle gretlom curved kṃros
crane cṛús curved kṛwos
crawl rēpō cushion qolkā
crawl serpō custom swēdhus
crazy dhwolnos cut tomos
create genesājō cut kaidō
create krēmi cut kretō
creātor amsus cut sékāmi
creature teknom cut tmāmi
creep snəghjō cut off snadhō
crest kripstā cut off spḷtājō
crib bhondhsā cut open bhṛijō
crime kreimṇ cut out drepō
crime lōbā cut out treukō
crimpy hair gouros dace menis
crook bhogjos dad appās
crop sasjom dad attās
cross kreuks dad tātā
cross terō dam roinos
crossbeam ghlaghos damage klādis
crow kornīks damage lēumi
crowd plēdhwis damage pēmṇ
crowd slougos damage wolsom
382
damp bewō deity deiwotāts

dare dhṛsō delay morā
dark dhóncelos demand kupjō
dark dhoncos demon dhwosos
dark dhuskos den bhōljóm
dark keiros dense tegús
dark mḷnos densifiy stoipejō
dark morcós depart oighai
dark skeuros departure proitis
darkness recos deposit loghos
darkness temesras depressed neiwós
dart golbhnos desert jēlom
daughter dhugtēr desert teusqa
daughter-in-law snusós deserve mṛējō
dawn ausōsā designate mātējō
dawn áussketi desire aisskā
day dhochos desire gherijai
day djēws desire awējō
day djnos desire chelō
day latom desire smegō
dead mṛtos desire wənskā
dead mṛwos desire wənskō
deaf bodhrós desire wekmi
deaf dhoubhos desire wenō
dear leubhos desire eagerly jṇtō
dear prijós destitute awtjos
death chentis destroy dheukō
death dheunos destroy nokejō
death mṛtis destroy olējō
death neks destruction dhchitis
debt dhḷeghlā detergent mūdlom
deceive chḷnō development augos
deceive dhwerō devotion krōbhtus
deceive melsō devour sleugō
decide skidjō devour cerbhō
declare lenghmi devour cṛājō
decline sterbhō devour (to) swelājō
decree dhedhmós dew dolghos
deep dhubús diarrhea dhorjā
deer kerwos dick bhṇghus
defame kḷwijō die mṛijai
defecate ghedō died walóm
defecate kakkājō difference kritis
defect smeros different íteros
defective mṇkos dig bhodhjō
defence wertrom dig kánāmi
defend mághneumi dig out teukō
deflect skḷneumi dim bhlendhos
383
dimension mētis dough reughmṇ

dinner kersnā dough taismos
dip wṛonkis dove dhombhos
direct dhṇghus dove kólumbhos
direct regō down nī
direction wertmən dowry dōtis
dirt kóqros drag selkō
dirt lutom drag deukō
dirt qoinom drag traghō
dirty coudhros drag wersō
dirty salús drag away tenghō
dirty keqō drapery drappos
dis- rēd/re draw streigō
disabled mṛkos draw tight stringō
disgrace ghálerom dream ónerjos
disguise mengō dream swepṛ
dish pēlwis dream swopnjom
disk orbhis dream swopnjājō
dismantle dhruslijō dregs suljā
dispersed rārós dress westijō
dispossession spoljom dress wosejō
disrupt dolejō drink ēchṛ
distaff qolus drink pōtis
distance apóstətis drink pibō
distribute nemō drinker pōtṓr
dive cadhō drinking pōnom
diverse wikwos drip seilō
divide kḷjō drive enkō prō
divide rnāmi drizzle aghlóws
divide weidhō drone bhoiqos
divide up daimoi droop lāgō
do dhídhēmi-dhəkjō drop bṇdus
do harm ghudjō drop dhrubhtis
do harm kepō drop leibs
do military dhreughō drop spakos
service drum bámbalos
do not? nom nē drunken ēchṛjos
docile glegos drunken tēmos
doctor médodiks dry kserós
dog kolignos dry sisqos
dog kwōn dry susdos
domain dṃseghṛ dry tṛstos
dome krūtis dry tṛsus
door dhworis dry torsejō
door wēr dry (to) ādmi
door-bar ṛkēslom dry skin sterbhnjom
double dwoplos duck anəts
doubt okējō dust pelwos
384
duty (religious) dhēs end antjom

dwell trebhō end bendā
dwelling bhūta end dhicsnis
dwelling westus end termēn
eagle éroros endeavour rōdhjō
eagle owl bughōn endure tlāmi
ear ousis enemy nemots
early ájeri enhance bheljō
early ghrēw enjoy oneself terpō
earth dheghom enjoyment terptis
earth pḷtáwijā enlarge augējō
earth tersā enough (to be) dheughō
eastern áusteros entrails sorwā
easy reidhos entrails sternom
eat áknāmi entrance januwā
eat edmi envelope wélwtrom
eat weskai environment bhewtlom
edge ōrā envy ṛsjā
edge bhrenō equal somós
eel ellus equipment kómopjom
effort mōlos equipped with went
egg ṓw(ij)om erect ghorsejō
eight oktōu ermine kormōn
eighth oktowos escape skeubhō
eject jəkjō establish tkeimi
elastic tṃpus estimate qíqeimi
elbow ōlnā eternal aiwós
elder edhlos eternal jucis
element skōlos eternity áiwotāts
elm olmos even aiqos
elm woighos even eti
embank klāmi even gladhros
embroidery snētjā even étiqe
embryo geltis evening wespros
embryon cṛebhos evident gnōros
employee dhṃos evil skelos
empty wāstos example deikmən
empty wōnós excavator kernos
empty ausijō excellent bhodrós
enact sankijō excellent wēsus
encircle gherdhō excepted ektós
enclose twerō exchange mojnos
enclosure ghordhos exchange mejō
enclosure kaghos exchange moitājō
enclosure odhrom excite sprewō
enclosure wṛegis exclusive káiwelos
enclosure wṛtom exhaustion dhətis
encourage ghorejai expect welpō
385
expel (jí)jēmi fastening apmṇ

experience perijō fat lajos
expert suwids fat pīmós
explode bólboljō fat piwōn
expression bhātis fat tṇghus
expression weqtlom fatality moros
extend spáneumi father pətēr
extend spēmi father-in-law swékuros
extend tendō fatherland pətrjā
extend tenjō fatherly pətrjos
extend tensō fault agos
extend (to) tonejō fault loktos
extended próstōrnos fault mendom
extension stṛnos favourable bhōwijós
external éksteros fear pəwējō
extinguish césneumi fear āghar
extraordinary ṇswodhros fear bhíbheimi
exuberant jṇdros fear dweimi
eye oqos fearful dwoiros
eyebrow bhrūs feast westos
face enīqā feast wḷda
fact dhētis feather peróm
fair weather qoitrós, koitrós feather petsnā
fall polnō feather plousmā
fall kadō feather pornós
fall asleep swōpijō feeble térunos
fall asleep dṛmijō feed pāskō
fall down piptō feel awisdhijō
fall into ghrewō feel qeisō
fallow polkā feel ashamed aichesājō
false mḷjos female dhḗmonā
family gentis fence saipis
family wenjā ferment jesō
famine nōunā fern pratis
famous klūtós ferret wéiwersā
fan bhlādhrom fetch oitmi
fan prējō fever tepnos
fancy ləskējō field arwom
far dew field maghos
far porsōd fierce saiwos
far (from) qeli fierceness tonslis
farewell ṛtís fifteen penqdekṃ
farm woikslā fifth penqtos
farmer agróqolās fifty penqadkṃta
far-reaching sītús fig bheikos
fart pesdō fight katus
farther peros fight streudō
fashion teksō file sleimā
386
fill (pím)plēmi flour mlātóm

fill pḷnāmi flourishing ghlustis
filling plēmṇ flow plewō
filling plētis flow sísermi
filth mergis flow sormos
finch spingjā flow bhleucō
find (wí)wermi flow mejājō
find by chance nṇkskai flow srewō
find out windō flow weisō
finger cistis flow down stelghō
finger dékṃtulos flower bhlōs
fingernail onchis flower bhlōtis
finish cerjō fluoresce bhelō
fire ecnis flush away rínāmi
fire pāwṛ flutter spṇdō
firm omos fly muskā
first prāmos fly petō
first prāwos fly cḷājō
first prīsmos foal kurnos
first (of two) próteros foam spoimā
fish piskis foenum koinos
fist penqstis fog kalgōn
fist pougnos fog nebhlā
five penqe foggy, to be wapējō
fix pastos fold cijā
fixed pəgtós fold bheugō
flake bhlokos fold plékāmi
flame bhləgsmā follow seqai
flame bhokos food pasknis
flask óbrusjā food pitús
flat lergos food westā
flat plākos foot pods
flat plānos footprint lorgā
flat-footed plautos footprint pedom
flatness pḷtnos forbid wétāmi
flax leinom force stolgos
flea puslēks force tewos
fleabane dhwestus force twenkō
flee bhougājō force in treudō
flee bhugjō ford pṛtus
fleece gnebhis forearm lakertos
flexible lugnós forehead bhrówṇtis
flight bhougā foreigner ghostis
flimmer merkō foremost prījós
flimmer míkāmi forest nemos
flood pleudō fork ghabhlom
floor plārom fork mergā
flour melwom form magō
387
form pṛptus fuck eibhō

formerly ōlim fuel dawtis
fortieth qətwṛádkṃtṃos fugacious tokwós
fortification karkar full plēnós
fortify moinijai full plētós
forty qətwṛádkṃta fundament upósēdjom
forwards prō(d) fungus swombhós
foundation dhṃelós furniture endósēdjom
fountain awā furrow pṛka
fountain awṇ furrow qelsō
fountain dhontis furrow solkos
four qətwṛes further ólteros
four days qətwṛdjówijom furthest óltṃos
four each qətrusnos gall bistlis
four hundred qətwṛkṃtos gape ghjājō
four hundreth qətwṛkṃtémtṃos garden ghortos
four times qətrus garlic alujos
four years qətwṛatnjom garlic kesnus
fourteen qətwṛdekṃ garment togā
fourth qətwṛtos garment wospos
fox wolpis gather gercō
foxglove spjonos gather katsājō
fragment bhroustom gaul galnos
fragrant swekos gaze qekō
framework wītja gender genjos
fraud dolos gentle klisrós
fray sremsō germ genmṇ
free léudheros get angry kṛdijai
free nosejō get cumulated derghō
freeze prunsō get dressed ewō
frequent menghos get drunk pojejō
friend ámeikā get dry tersai
friend amēiks get encrusted kreupō
fringe antjās get in a space telpō
from apo get tired kmāmi
from extrōd gift dōnom
from there imde gird kingō
from there totrōd girl maqā
from this side kina give (dí)dōmi
from upwards dē give birth pṛijō
from which jomde give joy sōlājai
frost pruswa give one's tongejō
frozen snow kernós opinion
fruit ágrēnom glade loukos
fruit bhreugs glance auga
fry bhagjō glare swelō
fry bhreicō glass pōtlom
frypan landhom glide sleidhō
388
glimmer bherkō grave bhodsā

glimmer ghlōmi gravel geisā
globe globhos greasy liprós
gloomy mauros greater plējós
glory klewos greatest plēistos
glove ghesris green ghelwos
glow kandō grey kasnos
glowing ash geulom grey pálowos
glue gloitṇ grey pḷowós
gnat kūleks grey rāwos
gnaw ghrendō grind ghrewō
gnaw (to) gnāmi grind melō
gnaw away trowō groan onkājō
go leitō groin ili
go eimi groin ṇcḗn
go ṛskai groom pusbhis
go aside greubhō ground bhudhnos
go away cícāmi ground swólejā
go down keidō ground telsus
goat bokkos group kerdhos
goat dighā group qelos
goat ghabhros grow krēskō
goat kaprā grow ṛdhjō
goat kapros grow fat peidō
goatish ghaidīnós grow thin kerkō
god deiwos growl ghelijō
goddess deiwā grown augtós
godly déiwijos grown grṇdhís
gold ausom grumble ghremō
gold ghḷtom grumble wṛṇgai
golden ghḷtnós grunt bhremō
good bhilis grunt grundijō
good dwenos guardian sṛwos
good ēsús guerrilla bhogā
good mānos guest ghóstipots
good probhwos guile astus
goos ghansōr guilty sontis
grain grānom gull medgós
grand-daughter neptis gullet cḷā
grandfather awos gulp slṛgjō
grandfather dhēdhjos gum gengā
grandmother anus gush skatējō
grandmother áwijā gush up bhrendhō
grandson nepēts hail grōdis
granny annā hair ghaitā
grant lēmi hair kaisrom
grass ghrāsmṇ hair kerom
grass ghrāsom hair lowā
389
hair pilos head towards wergō

hair rewmṇ health kóilutāts
hair welnos healthy jekos
hair wondhos healthy koilús
hair (strong) saitā heap kūmós
hairdresser tonstṓr heap struwis
half sēmi- hear gheusō
hall werstidhlom hear kḷneumi
ham persnā hearing kleumṇ
hammer matlā heart kṛdi / kṛdjom
hammer moltlom hearth aidhis
hammer ordhos hearth chornos
hand ghesṛ heat āmi
hand ghestos heat cheros
hand mṇus heat olejō
hand wṛonkā heath kaitom
handle ansā heave erō
handle ghetlā heaven kémelom
handle skāpos heavy cṛ(āw)ús
handle qṛeumi heavy crətos
hang lembō hedgehog eghjos
hang pendō hedgehog ghēr
happen gígisai heed pāsmi
hard kartús heel kalkis
harm skodhos heel persā
harn wṛeinā hello alā!
harrow ókētā helmet kelmos
harsh drismós help jewō
harvest əsnātis hen kerkos
haste spoudā henbane bhélunā
hasten bhūsjō herb lubhjā
hasten skegō herd gregs
hatchet tōkslos herdsman cówqolos
hate odjō (ōda) herdsman kerdhjos
hatred ōdjom here kei
have eikō heron árdejā
have fever cerō hesitate kenkai
have taste səpijō hide kēlājō
have wrinkle gṛbējō hide keudhō
haven kopnos hiding place kūlā
hawk astris high altós
hawk ōkúpteros high bhṛghos
hazel kósolos high orús
hazelnut árusā high úperos
head ghebhlā high úpselos
head kaput hill kolnis
head kersṛ hill montis
head of cereal speikā himself se
390
hinge kṛdḗn house weiks

hint apóteros housemaster esos
hip koksā hovel cṛcestjom
hip londhwos hover prewō
hip bone koksednīks how jota
his séwijos how qālis
hiss streidō how qota
hit bhenjom how great qawṇtos
hit kawdō how many qot(j)os
hit kawō howbeit aw
hit bhətjō howl ululājō
hit bhlagō hum kemjō
hit bhleicō human being dhghomōn
hit bhutjō humble wailos
hit slakō humiliate neidō
hit steupō hump gibbā
hold potējō hundred kṃtom
hold seghō hunger dhṃis
hold (to) jemō hunger ghrēdhus
hole lugjā hunt woitā
hollow dholos hunt (wí)weimi
hollow dhónejā hurry sperghō
hollow ghéwejā hurry speudō
hollow kowos hut kleitis
hollow out skerbhō hut koutā
holy noibhos I egō
holy qentos ice eisom
holy sakros ice gelu
home god lāōs ice gləgjēs
honey melit ice jegis
honour aisdai icicle krustā
honour məgtājō icicle stejsjā
hoof kophos ignorant ṇwidis
hook ankos ill aigros
hook kenkos illuminate bháneumi
hook khamos illuminate loukejō
hook onkos immediate ūdhús
hoopoe ópopā immediately kitōd
hope spes immortal ṇmrótijos
horn kṛnu impel peldō
hornbeam gṛbeinos important swērús
hornless kemos impregnate tengō
horse ekwos impression wḷtus
horse kabōn in en
horse markos in excess ṇdhi
hostage gheislos in the middle meti
hot kḷtos in the morning prōi
house domos incise ghelō
391
incision bhṛmā jaws gopos

incite ṛghējō join jungō
incite trenkō joint artus
incited orghós joint koubos
inclined nīqos joke ghloumos
include glembhō joke ghleumi
incompetent duswids journey itājō
increase augmṇ joy gaudhjom
increase augō joyful ghoilos
indeed gar joyful rōdos
indeed qidpe judge jewesdiks
indication deiktis juice sapos
induce (to) woghejō juice soukos
infere densō jump rebhājō
inferior n teros jump dhṛnumoi
inflammation dheghwis jump leigō
inflate bhleidō juniper lentos
inflate pusjō juniper toksos
inform steumi just jówestos
inheritance orbhjom keel kareinā
insect empis keep bherghō
inside endo keep kadhō
inside entós key klāws
inside ētṛ kidney neghrōn
insipid merwos kill nékāmi
inspect (to) skewō kin genos
insult pējō kindness prósēdjom
intellect menmṇ king regs
intelligence sṇstus kingdom regnom
intelligent glēkis kingly regjos
intend mṇsjai kiss kusis
interest dhēnos kiss sówijā
interior ennós kiss bhusājō
internal énternos knead bheurō
internal énteros knead debhō
interval énterom knee genu
intestine énteros knee teupō
intestine ghoros knock bheldō
intestiones routos knot nōdos
invert (to) wortejō knot osbhos
investigate windō peri know (gí)gnōskō (gnōwa)
invisible eksoqs know woida
invoke kiklēskō know skijō
iron īsarnom knower gnōtṓr
irritate prousijō knowing woidwṓs
island enslā knowledge gnōtis
ivy khéderos known gnōtós
jaws gombhos lack egējō
392
lack kəsējō leek pṛsom

lack meitō left laiwos
ladder skandslā left soujós
ladle trowā left-handed skaiwós
lake ágherom leg kanmā
lake lakus leg krous
lamb acnos legal suit stlītis
lamb wṛēn legbent watjos
lame klaudos lend gherō
lamp lapsā lend loiqnom
land agros length dḷnghotā
land erwā leprosy trudskā
land kampos less mínusi
land londhom less sḗtjosi
land oudṇ lessen sewājō
land estate kāpos leuer weghtis
landlady dómūnā lick linghō
landlord dómūnos lie leghō
lap gremjom lie keimoi
lapwing cówijā lie kúbāmi
large fish sqalos lie leughō
last ópitjos lie open pətējō
last póstṃos life cītā
last year péruti life cīwos
late lodi lifetime saitlom
laugh khákhatnos ligament tenos
laugh wṛisdējō light bhāos
law jewos light dṛktā
law legs light leghús
lax loksos light leuks
lay leghos light leuksmṇ
lay strāmṇ light lṇghros
lay down loghējō light up lukskējō
lazy leghskós lighting bhānom
lead nijóm like iwe
lead plúwaidhom like lubhējō
lead wedhō likewise itim
leader deuks lily leiljom
leaf bholjom limb apsos
leaf leups limb karōn
lean gneichō lime-tree leipā
leap rebhā lime-tree pteljā
leap kekō limit bhrēunā
learn didkskō limp skṇgjō
leather korjom line streibā
leather letrom line strigjā
leather bag wədris link nedō
leave linqō link wédhneumi
393
lion wlewā magic qdnos

lip ghelnom magic soitos
lip ləbjom magic force qedos
lip mēknos magnanimous məgnánəmos
liquid latēks magnificent ṃgadhós
liquid serom magpie peikos
liquid wḷeiqos maid ándhesā
liquid (to be) wḷiqējō maim skutājō
list rēimṇ maintain dḷghējō
listen kleumi make afraid trosejō
listening kleutis make bitter streubhō
little paukos make black mercō
little owl warnā make equal (to) somejō
live cejwō make hot dhochejō
lively cīwāks make money pelō
liver jeqṛ make noise bhelō
load gomos make noise strepō
load onos make up dṛkjō
lobster kṃertos male wersis
lock ghrendhos mallow-plant mḷwā
lock of hair pulgā man mánnusos
lofty mlōdhrós man wīrós
long dḷnghos mane kripsnis
long for gheidhō manner koitús
long hair káisṛjēs mantle sagom
long-lasting sēros maple ákeris
look spekjō maple kleinos
look like prepō march cṃtis
loom weimṇ march oimos
lot koupnā mare ekwā
lot teusmṇ mark ghronos
lotus kémeros marrow smerwā
loud klārós marry sneubhō
loud torós marsh máreskos
louse lousēn mass kōmos
love kāmi mass mōlis
love stergō mass sloidhos
love wenos massacre agrā
love (to) amāyō mast masdos
love potion wenēsnom master potis
lovely koimos matching dwīskos
lower nérteros mate bhendhros
luck toughā mate dāmos
lung lənchijóm mattock sligōn
lung pleumōn maxilla genus
lush cīrós me me
luxury ghloidos mead medhu
lynx louksos meager pétḷos
394
means moghtrom moon louksnā

measure mestis more məgis
measure metrom more plēis
measure modos more than that immō
measure mēmi morning āmros - āmrei
measure mētijai morning ausrom
measured mestós morning wēsros
meat mēmsóm mortar mṛtāsjom
meet katsājai moss muskos
meet mimdō mother ammā
meet with point aikō mother mātḗr
(to) mother-in-law swekrús
meeting komnom motley pṛknos
melodious bhendos mould gheutis
melt tādhēskō mound tumlós
memory smemorjā mount skandō
mention mṇtos mountain ceri
mention cotejō mountain oros
metal raudos mountain pérkūnjom
midday médhidjōws mountain-path kḷdis
middle medhjos mouse gleis
middle (in the) obhi mouse mūs
middling leswos mouth ōs
might moghtis mouthful bukkā
mild loisós move djejō
mild moilos move ṛneumi
milk glakti move meicō
milk molgējō move mowejō
mill moleinā move pelkō
millet meljom move away spṛnō
millstone cṛawenus movement ṛnutis
millstone molā much pelu
mind mṇtis mucus moukos
miracle smeirātlom mud korkos
miserable treughos mud loimos
missing sṇterí mud mūtrom
mist mighlā mud penom
mistletoe wiskom multitude lugtos
mistress potnjā multitude tūljom
mix miskejō mum mammā
mix krāmi mundane cécālos
model dhinghō murder chenmi
modest nesros murmur dṛdrājō
molder pujō murmur mṛmrājō
moment mēqos muscle kīkus
money alchos muscle meus / muskós
month mēnsis must mudstos
moo mugijō mutilate kersō
395
mutilated klambós no nē
mutter muttijō noble atlos
mutual moitwos noble məglos
myop neukos nobody neqis
mystery kelgā nod newō
nail klawos noise swonos
nail onghlos noise tóntenos
nail pṇgō noisy bholós
naked nócodos none nōinos
name nōmṇ nord skouros
name práinōmṇ nose nāsis
name werjō not ghawōd
name kḷējō not mē
name nōmnājō not at all nei
narrow amghús nothing neqid
narrowness ámghustis nourish alō
nates nətis now nū
native gnos now numki
nature bhewtis nut knouks
navel onbhlos oak aigā
near nedjos oak perqos
near proqēd oak tree grōbhos
neck knokos oakum stoupā
neck kolsos oar rēsmos
neck mongos oat awigsnā
neck monos oath loughjom
neck ughḗn oath oitos
necklace torqis obedience kleustis
need ṇkējō obey kleusō
needle akus obliged moinis
nest nisdos obscurity temos
net grebhos observe sṛwājō
net nedsā observe tewai
nettle nedis occipital moldhā
network gersā occupation koisā
network krātis odor odós
never neqom of here ke
new new(ij)os of horses ekwīnós
newness newotāts of rams/goats agīnós
nigh proqos of this side kíteros
night noqterinós offshoot stelōn
night noqtis offspring gnās
night bird streigs oil solpos
nightmare morā oint oncō
nine newṇ oint līnō
ninth néwṇos ointed līnós
nipple spēnos ointment ghreimən
nit sknidā ointment oncṇ
396
old gerlós pain edunā

old senēks pain kormos
old wetwos paint pinkō
old (to become) gerō palate stōmṇ
omoplate skubtis palisade edhṛ
on epi palm pḷmā
on account of rōdhí panic mórmoros
on top udsqe parent gentṓr
once semli parent gentrīks
one oinos part aitis
one semos part pṛtis
one-eyed kolnos part qestis
one-year wetsós parterre leisā
creature particle bhrustóm
onion kaipā partridge kákabā
onion krémusom pass jāmi
open ōsmi pass trepō
open wṛeumi apo passage teqom
open land rewos past pṛnos
opening kaghlā pasture pāstus
opinate kṇsējō path sentos
opinion dhōmós patience kómtḷtis
oppress amghō patient tlātjos
oppress ipjō paunch pṇdēks
or awti pause rowā
or we pay attention ghowejō
oral goulos pea kikēr
orange badjos peace pags
orient woidejō peaceful qijētós
orphan orbhos pebble ghrowā
otherwise awtim pee moighos
otherwise perti peel gleubhō
otter wədrā peg kippos
our ṇserós penetrate neghō
out ud penis bhalnós
outdoors rew penis lalu
outermost ékstṃos penis moutos
outside ek(sí) penis pesnis
over (s)úperi penis poutos
over uperi penthouse kéliknom
over there oltrōd penury loigós
owen uqnós people teutā
owl káwonā people wolgos
own ghəbhējō pepper píperi
ox uksōn perch dhghusā
ox-stall cowstas perfect kómsqṛtos
paddle pḷdājō perform sáneumi
page pəstrom perhaps an
397
perimeter wərbhis platform stātlom

period áiwesos plea preks
permissive mḷdhos pleasant seljos
permit (to) leidmi pleasant swādús
persecute jeghō pleasant moghjos
persecute wṛnāmi pleasantly ghornim
perseverance mōdos pleased prītós
perspective dṛksmos pleasure prītis
perspire spoisājō plough arātrom
phantom lemsos plough arājō
pick lesō plough animal aghjā
pickaxe səkesnā plough handle seghdhlā
piece pṛsnā plough handle steiwā
pig porkos ploughshare wogsmis
pig sūs pluck gnebhō
pig trogos plum sloiwom
piglet sūkós plump kratsos
pike ceru plunder mərnamói
pile ákeswos pod gherghros
pile kolnom pod skḷiqā
pillage wḷeumi poet wātis
pillar stobhos point ardis
pimple wəros point glōghis
pin down gangō poison woisos
pin down karnājō pole pertā
pinetree bharwos pole spelgis
pinetree dhanwos policeman worós
pink elwos polish sleimājō
pinnacle stertos pond stagnom
pintle bendlā ponder medai
pious jāgjus poodle lāmā
pipe srwtom pool staknom
pipe strudsmā poor ormos
piss minghō poppy makōn
pit mākājō porcine swīnós
pit skrobhis porridge poltos
pitch peiks portent sqeros
place stānom portico antas
place stlokos portico pṛgā
place sinō portion bhagos
place stānējō position stətus
placed on top épiromos post ksūlom
plait plektō post mētā
plait resgō post sparos
plane glabhō posterity troghos
planet rewis pot auqslā
planitiēs plātom pot kumbhā
plate stlāmṇ potter wheel dhroghnom
398
pouch makēn promontory akrom

pour ghundō promontory prostos
power galnos promote kákneumi
powerful kúwṛos pronounce bhəskō
praise loudis property rentus
praise cerō property selwā
pray chedhō propice sinísteros
pray meldhō propriety rēis
pray ōrājō prosper mājō
prayer moldhos protect alkejō
precarious dúsōpis protect pālājō
preceding preistos protest glagha
precipitate krepō protrusion sondhos
precisely arti proud bhorsos
precision nomṛ proud meudos
predator dhaunos prove probhwājō
prepare adejō provide sepō
presence weidos provided with ansātos
present práiloghos handle
press bhríkāmi provision penos
press dhenghō proximity enstar
press premō prune (to) kastrājō
press presō pubescent mṛjos
press tightly kamō public servant ambhíagtos
prestige meidos pulse ercom
prevail cínāmi pumice poimēks
previous kintos punch pungō
previous préwijos puncture dheicō
price pretjom punish membhō
prick kentrom punishment woinā
prick wésnāmi pure kəstos
prickle aknā pure powros
prickle speiksnā purpose meinom
pride molpā pus puwos
priest bhlaghmṇ push agō
priest sákrodhots push kelō
principal promos push away (to) steugō
proclaim əgsājō pushed agtós
procreation gentus pustule pustlā
produce gonējō put dhejō
produce (to) gnājō put stelō
produce of land dhēnom put forth prṓddōmi
productive dhēlēiks put in order tagjō
profession kerdos put off nocējō
profit bhéwedā put on mṇtijai
progeny teukmṇ putrid pūlós
prominence pṛstis quadruped qətwṛpods
promise spondejō qualify tādējō
399
queen regeinā red-deer elēn

question pṛkskā reddish rudhsós
quick peimis redness reudhos
quick twṛtos reduce míneumi
quickly bhersi reed arom
quiet sāmis refrain from parkō
quietness sāmən region pagos
radiance loukós rejoice torpejō
radiant loukētjos rejoice gāudhējō
raffle kleutō rejoice oneself tusjai
rag kentom relation ḗpijos
rag pannos relative pāsós
rage rəbhjō relative sweljos
rain wṛstā relax remō
rain plówijā release ledō
raise tḷnō relief podjom
ram agós religion perístānom
ram erjos remain mṇējō
range rékneumi remain (water) stagō
range (to) kerdhō remaining loiqós
rank agmən remember mímnāskō (memna)
rather uta remnant atiloiqos
raven korwos remoteness ekstar
raw ōmós renew newājō
ray rədjom renowned mōros
raze gneibhō rent doros
razor ksnowātlā rent keusō
reach əpjō repair sṛkijō
reach ikjō repellent aghlós
ready ōkinós replication aimom
realise pretō reprove kudājō
reality bhéwonom reputation kléumṇtom
reap metō request áisoskō
reason rətis require bhedhō
reason argujō residence sedos
receive tekō residence selom
receive ghṇdō resin cetus
recent kṇjós resin peitus
recitate spelō resonate tónāmi
reckon rēmoi resound boukājō
reckon puwējō resound gewō
recline kumbō respect aisō
recognize gnōsmi respect wṛējai
recommend swādejō rest qijētis
red dherghos rest ermi
red rudhrós rest qejēskō
red (-haired) reudhos rest tḷijō
red ochre miljom restless ṇqijētós
400
restrain kēsmi rope resgtis

restrict strengō rope sognos
result temkō rot kṛjēs
retain dhermi rot kṛnāmi
retaliation qoina rotten kṛnos
retire spleighō rotten pūterós
revenge apóqitis rough bhorcos
rheum grammā rough brenghos
rheum lippā rough dṃpus
rib kostā round wolwós
ribbon tenā row wṛstos
rich deiwots row rējō
riches ops rowan tree sorbhos
ride reidhō rub melkō
right déksteros rub terjō
right regtós rubbed trītós
right way jeunis rubber gloidos
righteous pūjós rubbish ceudhos
rigid sternós rubbish swordis
rigid (to be) stupējō rudder oisjā
ring anos rude rudlós
ring krenghos ruin réwesnā
rite admṇ ruin rikjō
rivalry neitom rule wḷdhējō
river dānus ruler (in stolbos
river ford wadhom topography)
road kelus rūmen reusmṇ
roam wəgājai ruminate reusmnājō
roar dhrēnos rummage ruspājai
roar rugijō rumor bhāmā
roaring ghromos rumor (to reumi
rob sterō produce)
rock kárrēkā rump ghodos
rock ondos run bhecō
rock pelsā run dhewō
rock roupis run dremō (dídrāmi)
rock kṛdjō run kṛsō
rod cosdhos run retō
rod litwos run around dhreghō
rod mentā run away tekwō
rod slatā rust roudhstos
roebuck jorkos rye wṛughis
roe-deer alkis ryegrass airā
roll wolmos ryegrass dṛwā
roof robhos sack coinos
room kētjā sacrifice sákrodhokjom
root wṛdjā sad creughos
root wṛrādīks sad gorgós
401
sad treistis seam sjewmən

sadness gorgnóm seaside leitos
safe stiprós season jōrom
sailor nawāgós seat sodjom
saint kadros second dwóteros
salary misdhom second éteros
sale wesnom second ónteros
saliva saleiwā secret rounā
salt sal secrete músnāmi
salt saldō secretion seimṇ
sanctuary némētom sect wereinā
sand samdhos secure seghurós
sand/gravel pēnsús sedge olwā
sandal pedlom sedge sesqos
satisfaction sātis see dṛkō
satisfy sánāmi see oqō
saucer pətera see welō
say seqō see widējō
scabies skabhjēs seed sēmṇ
scald-crow bhodhwos seek sāgijō
scale bhrounóm seem dokejō
scammony akōkós seen dṛktis
scandal bhloskos seesaw sweigō
scant mṇwos seize ghreibhō
scanty sneitos seizing āmós
scar kekātrīks self sewe
scar krenktis sell pṛnāmi
scatter skedō send smeitō
scatter (to) sperjō send sontejō
scene polpos send away īljō
scissors kastrom sense menos
scold lājō sentence bhānis
scorch dáwneumi separate seqos
scrape gneidō separate derō
scrape off greumō serpent natrīks
scrape out reubō servant ambhíqolos
scratch gṛbhō serve bhúncai
scratch gredō service upóstānom
scratch meukō set staurejō
scratch skabhō set fire wərjō
scrath out meidō set out ṛijai
scream waplājō settle sodejō
scythe dhēlgs settlement leghskā
sea mari settlement sedmən
sea tríjətos seven septṃ
sea heaviness srodhos seventh séptṃos
seabream atis sew sjewō
seal swelāks sewer's awl sjūdhlā
402
sewn sjūtós shit smerdā

shackle winkijō shit sterkos
shade skojā shit sterkos
shadow skotos shiver tresō
shadow unksrā shoddy rupús
shake kreitsō shoe kṛpjos
shake krotjājō shoot selgō
shake qətjō shoot skeudō
shaker mṇkstrom shore aperos
shall skelō short mṛghús
shameful kaunós shoulder omsos
share erkō shoulder-blades pletjā
sharp akris show deikō
sharp gigrós shrew sworēx
sharp kətos shriek krokijō
sharp pikrós shrine tegos
sharpen (kí)kōmi shuttle kristājō
shatter bhresjō sibling sṃópətōr
shave ksnujō sickle lewis
shave rādō sickle sṛpā
shave tondejō side splighstós
sheath wageinā side stlātos
sheep owis sieve kreidhrom
sheep skin moisos sieve sējdhlom
shelf skolpos sieve krinō
shell konkhā sieve sējō
shelter krowos sign gnōtlom
shepherd pōimōn silent tausos
sherd skroupos silent (to be) silējō
shield rebhō silent (to be) təkējō
shield skoitom silently tausnim
shift mejtis silver árgṇtom
shimmer bhḷgējō similar sṃlis
shin-bone skīwṛ simple meros
shin-bone teibhjā simultaneously oinowṛstós
shine erqō made
shine bhrēgō sincere ṇdwojos
shine dhelō sing kanō
shine lukējō sing senchō
shine nitējō single óinoikos
shine skejō sink mergō
shine (to) leukō sink senqō
ship nāws sip lṃbō
ship plówijom sip sorbhējō
shirt kṛdsus sir arjos
shit coucis sir audhos
shit dherghs sister swesōr
shit skerdā sister-in-law glōs
403
sister's son swesreinos smooth sleigō

sit down sisdō smooth slējús
site loghjom snail sleimāks
six seks / sweks snake anghwis
sixth sekstos snake kélodhros
skeletton skroutos snake sérpenos
skillful dhabhros snake snoghā
skin kūtis snappy swerwos
skin pelnis snare merghā
skirt baitā snatch rəpjō
skull mreghmós sneeze stṛneumi
slack mlīnós snore srenkō
slack slagós snore stertō
slanting loksós snow sneighs
slate lēsanks snow sníncheti
slaughterer truks so ita
slave dōsos so mān
sleep swopnos so nom
sleep sesmi so swāi
sleep swepō so many tot(j)os
sleeper swelom so much tawṇtos
slender kṛklos sob gheipō
slender makrós soft mḷdus
slip slabai soften mḷduwijō
slip sleibō softened mḷdsnos
slip sleubō soil bhudhmṇ
slip in smúghneumi soldier neros
sloe dherghnos solid dhobos
slop mouros solid māterós
slow mḷsos solidify greutō
slow tárudos some edqos, -qā, -qod
small alpos someone neqos
small gherús someone edqis, edqid
small paulos son sūnús
small pillar skolmā song kanmṇ
smaller meiwijós son-in-law gemros
smell bhragrājō soon moksi
smell odējō soot dhoulis
smell sísghrāmi soot sōdjā
smell good swekō sorrow croughnos
smile smejō soul etmṇ
smith ghwobhros sound dhwonos
smog sneudhs sound klṇgō
smoke dhūmājō sound swénāmi
smoke dhūmós soup supā
smoke smoughos sour amrós
smoke smeughō sour sauros
smooth rastós sow trogjā
404
sow segō spring lendhā

sow sisō spring mānājō
sowing segēts spring wesṛ
sowing sēlom spring skatō
space ghewos spring skerō
spade laghā spring sḷijai
span potmos sprout geimō
sparrow parsā sprout wisējō
sparrow sparwos spurn tembhō
speak bhāmoi square qəddrom
speak tloqai squeak pipjājō
speak wíweqmi squeeze wēskō
spear ghaisom stab pinjos
spear lostos stab tálejā
spearshaft ghastā stable stārós
speckled bhṛktos stain dherkō
speckled mṛktos stain smitlā
speech əgtis stain smaneumi
speech bhāmən stake stauros
speechless muttis staked staurós
spelt ados stalk kolmos
spelt alēiks stalk tibhjā
spend neudō stall stādhlom
spend the night awō stamp on stembhō
spill seiqō stand (sí)stāmi
spill sujō standing post stətis
spin snēmi star sterlā
spit spjwtos star steros
spit spjewō star sweidos
splash persō stare stelpō
spleen spelghā start dherbhō
split dṛnós starvation ghosdos
split dṛtis stay wesō
split dṛtós steadfast woikós
split lúnāmi steady dhṛmos
split delō steal klepō
split skerjō steal tājō
split skindō steam bholos
split skḷjō steam up dhemō
split spleidō steep kloiwos
spoil deusō steep ṛdhwos
spokesman kṇstṓr step cāmṇ
spoon leiglā step ghenghō
spot kālis step ghradjai
spray ros sterile stérolis
spread strātós stick ghaisom
spread stṛnō stick spōnos
spread out pṇtō stick steipēts
405
stick stupos string tentrom

stick sworos stroll alājai
stick ghaisējō strom srewtis
stick glínāmi strong bélowents
stick koljō strong krepús
stick limpō strong melos
stick stigājō strong nertos
sticky gloijós struck bhītós
still dom study ghlendhō
sting ákulos study stoudjom
stink smerdō stuff bhṛkjō
stir up mendhō stumble stemō
stir up (to) sewō stupid mlākós
stock kreumi stupid mōrós
stone akmōn stutter lepō
stone ləpods subsequent pósteros
stone səksom succeed bheughō
stonework lāurā success kobom
stool skabhnom such tālis
stop stāwō suck seugō
stop strigājō suck dheimi
stop up teurō suck mendō
stork kíkōnjā sudden abhnós
storm ṃbhros suffer qṇtjō
story kleutrom suffer pətjai
straighten (to) storejō suitor prokós
strain kemō sulphur swelplos
strainer rēti summer samos
strap telmṓn summer heat chrensós
strap wḷōrom summit bhroigos
straw pálejā summit kolmṇ
stream bhleugsmṇ summit okris
stream bhoglā sun sawel(jos)
stream srowmos sunlight swelā
street stoighos superior (s)úperos
strenght belom supplementary wíteros
strength weis support kleitrom
strengthen dherghō support leghtrom
stretched tṇtos support bhḷkjō
strew strewō support steutō
strick dhōunis sure pəgrós
strike bhínāmi surface pelom
strike bhreukō surname kómnōmṇ
strike keldō sustenance pādhlom
strike plṇgō swallow glujō
strike tundō swallow qemō
strike wedhskō swamp pḷwods
string strengom swan elōr
406
sway kēwējō tell wedō

sweat swoidos tell off lamṇtom
sweat swoidājō temple temlom
sweet dḷkus temple tenjom
swell bhreusō ten dekṃ
swell pankō tendon kenklom
swell salom tendril olgjā
swell turgējō tension (engine) tórkmṇtom
swelling bhulja termite tṛmos
swelling cotlós terrible ghouros
swelling keulom thanks moitmos
swelling panknos that ei
swelling paplā that elne elnā elnod
swelling pounā that one oisos
swift ōkús that, the one that jos (je), jā, jod
swim snāmi the other one álteros
swindle swendhō then ṇdha
sword kladjos then tom
sword ṇsis then tom-ke
syrup bhrwtom there idhei
table speltā therefore ar
tablet klāros therefore tori
tablet loisā thick dṇsus
tail doklom thief bhōr
tail dumbos thigh bhemṛ
tail ersā thigh morjods
tail ersábhaljom thigh touknā
tail pukos thin bhlakkos
take emō thin speimis
take labhō thin tṇus
take care swerghō thing weqtis
take possession áinumoi think sṇtējō
talk gálgaljō thinnen kakō
talk garsijō third tritjos
tame kékuros thirst tṛstis
tame dómāmi this ghei-ke ghāi-ke
taste geustis ghod-ke
taste gusnō this is, id
team lāwós this ke kā kod (eke ekā
tear dakru ekod)
tear ləkesājō this se/sos sā/sī tod
tear rōdō thorn sqijā
tear off weldō thorn tṛnā
tearing ləkós thousand smeighsli
teat dhēlós thrash studējō
teat tettā threaten tercō
technique teksnā threatening torcós
tell jekō three trejes trija trísores
407
three in a go trisnôs torture cēlejō

three times trĩs torture rigjō
threefold triplós totality solwotāts
thriving spəros touch krēwō
throat bhṛugs touch palpājō
throat gutṛ touch tṇgō
through trāntis tough raukos
throw jəkējō towards anta
throw supājō towards poti
throw away celō towards there totrēd
thrush tṛsdos towards this side kitrōd
thumb polnēks towel tergslom
thunder tontrom tower tursis
thunder torsmṇ tower mṇijai
thunderbolt meldhjā town dounom
thurify kodējō track ogmos
thus s(w)eike track werstis
tick deghā track pentō
tick rekā traitor prodətṓr
tie dídēmi transport woghos
tile tēglā transporter weghtṓr
time daitis trap ləkjō
time qṛtus trap ségneumi
time tempos trap segnom
time wetos travel ambhírēmos
time before ánksitjom travel kelujō
dawn tread spṛāmi
tip bhṛstís treasure kusdhos
tip ghərtā treat drewō
tire lṇcō tremble tremō
tired cḷēnós trestle stoghos
to ana triplication trípḷtis
to dō troop twṛmā
to another place áljote trouble kādos
today edjēw trouble oghlejō
together sṃ trough aldhōn
tomb sépeltrom trousers skousā
tomorrow krasi trout perknā
tongue dṇghwā true wēros
tongue-tied balbos trunk stērps
tool kaplos trunk stṃnos
tooth dentis trust bheidhō
top kōnos try kōnājai
torch chōks try to get ṛnumái
torch dáwētā tube aulos
torment cedhō tube rebhrus
torpid (to be) tṛpējō tuff of hair wḷtis
tortoise ghelus tunic ruktus
408
tunnel bolkos upright ernos

turban wosis use bhreugtis
turfgrass smelgā use bhrūgjai
turkey téturos usual nitjos
turmoil túmolos uter úderos
turn derbhō utterance wedmṇ
turn qerpō valley klopnis
turn swerbhō valuation mēdos
turn torqejō value wertos
turn welwō vanish dhchínāmi
turn wṛstis variegated pelupoikos
turn wṛtō vase gheutlom
turn around witājō vegetable ghelwos
turned aside pérperṇks vegetation dhalnā
turnip rāpom vehicle weghtlom
twenty dwidkṃtói veil wṛeikā
twice dwīs veil gheughō
twig lougos vein weisnā
twin jemós very abhro-
twisted lordós very well úperesū
two dwou, dwāu, dwou vessel bhidhós
two each dwīsnōs vessel kaukos
type qoros veteran gerwós
udder ūdhṛ vibrate wibrājō
udder ūdhros victim wéiktomā
ugly bhoidhos victory seghos
ugly bhoidos view dṛktis
ugly tṛrpis vigor wṛgā
un- ṇ vigorous súnoros
unbind luwō (lewō) vigour woikā
unbound lūnós village woikos
unbound lūtós vine weitis
uncle áwontlos vine-leaf pámponos
uncle pətrujós violent twoisós
under sup violet sleiwos
under upo virginal poughos
underly ṇdherós virtue dekos
understand peumi vis-à-vis seqi
unexpected nekopīnós viscose cobhōn
unfair ṇjoustos vision dṛkos
union kómjougos visitor setis
unjustice ṇjousjom vital energy aiwu
unknown ṇgnōtós vivid ētros
unmade ṇdhētós voice woqs
unmuddy ṇsloimis vomit wémāmi
until teni vow wochējō
untouched kairós vulture bhāsos
uppest (s)upmos vulture cḷturós
409
wade sworā wealth opnā

wake up bheudhō weapon wedhṛ
wake up gerjō wear gesō
walk steighō weasel kérberos
walk wadhō weather wedhrom
wall mākesjā weave krekō
wall walnom weave webhō
wall dhoighos weave wegō
walls moinja web tekstlom
walnut knuwā webbing wṛéikonjom
wander ersājō wedge kúnejos
war dsā wedge tṛmēts
warm chormos weed mousos
warm cherō weed runkō
warmth topnos weed sṛijō
warn monejō weep bhlēmi
warp keukō weft traghsmā
warrior meilēts weigh kenkō
wart wersmṇ weight pondos
was bhūm welcome crātós
wash klewō well bhrewṛ
wash lowō well sū
wash neicō went ludhóm
wasp wopsā went sodóm
watcher bhulkos west éperom
water āps wet molqos
water aqā wet oucós
water weri wet wosmós
water wodā wet rəgājō
water wodṛ wet (be) ucējō
water wopjā what qis qid
water prúsneumi wheat bhar
watercress cérurom wheat bharseinā
wave tusnā wheat bhreugsmṇ
wave welnā wheel dhroghós
wave wṇdā wheel qeklom
way itṛ wheel rotā
way pontis wheelrim kantos
way tropos wheelrim witus
way weghjā whelp kuwos
we ṇsme whelp mondós
we wejes / weje when jom
weak klamrós when qṃdō
weak lēnis when qom
weaken bhleumi whenever s(w)ei
weaken mlājō where qomde
weaken mḷkāmi where qodhei
weakness bhelu where qoi
410
where (rel.) jodhei wine woinos

wherefore jori wine-cask kḷpros
wherefrom qotrōd wing agslā
whey misgā wing peterós
which qād winnow neikō
which qóteros winter gheimṛ
whine ghirrijō winter ghjems
whip werbos winterly gheimrīnós
whip wḷepējō wintry ghéimentos
whirl cṛcots wipe mṇtrājō
whirl twṛbhōn wipe tergō
whirl snerō wire chislom
whirlpool dhwolsā wire weiros
whisper swerō wisdom widjom
whisper swrswrājō wise gnōwos
whistle sweighlājō witch wikkā
whistle sweisdō with kṃti
white albhos with kom
white argis withdraw anjō
white kweidos wither wijēskō
white-stained bhlōros without ṇeu
whither qote withraw kesdō
whither qotrēd witness tristis
who, which qos qā(i) qod wolf wailós
whoever qāqos wolf wḷqos
whole solwos woman cenā
whore loutsā woman morignā
whore skortom womb colbhos
why ? qori wonder smeirai
wicked ṇprobhwos wonderful smeiros
wide plākos wood deru
wide urús wood kḷdos
widely known wíklutom woodpecker kikjā
widow wídhewā woodpecker peikā
wife sṃloghós woodpiece skoidos
wife uksōr woodworker tetkōn
wild ghwērós wool wḷnā
wild reudos word wṛdhom
will weltis work drājō
will welmi work drātis
willing wolós work opos
willlow widhus work wergom
willow salēiks work wṛgjō
win winkō work with a penō
wind wentos thread
wind gergō workman drātṓr
wind wondhejō world dhoubnom
window louksā worm longhros
411
worm ochis
worm qṛmis
worm wormis
worn bhoros
worry mérneumi
worse pedjós
worship jagjō
worthy deknos
wound elkos
wound wolnos
wound chendō
wound swṛneumi
wrap weipō
wrap out werpō
wrapping wélwṃen
wrath eisā
wring out légneumi
wrinkle gorbos
wrist dornom
write skreibhō
yarn glomos
yarn snēmṇ
yawn ghanos
year atnos
yell klāmājō
yellow bhlōwos
yellow knakos
yes jāi
yesterday dhghjesi
yew oiwos
yoke jugóm
you juwes / juwe
you tū
young júwenis
young juwṇkós
young juwōn
young goat ghaidos
youngster machos
youth júwṇtā
youth machotis
412
II.2. LATE INDO-EUROPEAN – ENGLISH
The Latin meaning and syntax (Synt.) further define the English meaning and
proper usage of the Late Indo-European words, while the notes show their proper
inflection. The PIH column shows the laryngeal reconstruction of the words, or the
roots behind LIE vocabulary.
Late IE Synt. Notes PIH Meaning (Latin)

əgjō intr H3eg affirm aiō
əgsājō tr proclaim proclamō
əgtis fem speech contiō
əpjō inc H2ep reach apīscor
əsnātis fem jo harvest segēs
ábelos mas H2e - e lo a ol- apple malum
abhnós adI HºHi3- h- r n sudden repentīnus
HºHiº3- h-r n
cf. ōkús
abhro- pref (per-) very per-
acnos mas H2eg(wh)-no lamb agnus
ad ind at ad
adejō tr AIIIo prepare praeparō
adghō tr AIIa H2edgh beset circumveniō
ādmi tr BIf HeHi2-d- a jō dry (to) siccō
admṇ neu rite ritus
ados neu ádesos H2ed-os spelt ador
āghar intr fear metuō
ágherom neu lake lacus
aghjā fem H2egh plough animal iūmentum
aghlós adI repellent repellens
aghlóws fem (aghlewós) drizzle irrorātiō
ághneumi tr BIVb afflict affligō
agīnós adII of rams/goats caprīnus
aglā fem brood prōlēs
ágəlis adI H2eg- Hli-/ ili- agile agilis
/Hlo-
agmən neu en rank agmen
agō cau H2eg push agō
agos mas H2ego- fault noxa
agós mas HeHi2gó-, ram ariēs
HeHi3gó- /
HºHiº2g-,
HºHiº3g-
agrā fem massacre truci atiō
ágrēnom neu H2eg-r fruit fructus
agróqolās mas farmer agricola
agros mas H2egro- land ager
agslā fem wing āla
agtós adI pushed actus

aichesājō sta feel ashamed pudet
aidhis fem ej hearth aedes
aidhō intr H2eHio2-dh/ burn ar eō
HoHio2-dh
aigā fem H2eigeH2 oak robus
aigros adI H2oig-ro ill aeger
aikō tr AIa H3eHiº2k meet with point ic i ō
(to)
áimneumi BIVb copy imitor
aimom neu H2eimo- replication effigĭēs
ainō sta H3eHi2; dat belong pertineō
áinumoi tr H3eHi2 take possession potior
aiqos adI even aequus
airā fem ryegrass lolium
aisdai tr H2eisd- honour honorō
aisdhom neu ardour ardor
aiskrós adI H1eisk- / H2eisk- clear clārus
? aidh-sk?
aisō tr H2eis- respect reuereor
áisoskō tr request quaerō
aisskā fem desire desiderium
aitis fem jo H3eHi2-ti / part pars
H3Hi2-ti
áiw(es)i ind always semper
áiwesos mas period aetas
aiwós adII H2eiwo- eternal aeuus
áiwotāts fem jo eternity aetas
aiwu neu H2oiwu(s)/ vital energy uitālitās
H2oiwi-
/H2oiwo-/
H2oiwā-
ájeri ind HºHi2eri early mane
ájesnos adII brassy aereus
ajos neu es H2ei-os brass aes
ákeris fem jo maple acer
ákeswos mas pile aceruus
akējō intr Hº3H 2k-
i be sharp aceō
akjēs fem Hº3Hi2k- blade aciēs
akmā fem bit buccella
akmōn mas (ákmenos) H2ek-mon stone lapis
aknā fem prickle agna
áknāmi tr BIVa eat e ō
akōkós mas Hº3Hi2k- scammony acridium
H3oHi2k-
akos neu es chaff acus
akris adI Hº3(e)Hi2k-ri-, sharp ācer
Hº3(e)Hi2k-
(e)ro-
akrom neu Hº3Hi2k-ro- promontory promontorium
414
áksijā fem axe ascia

aksis mas jo H2egws-iH2 axle axis
aksteinos fem broom genista
ákulos mas sting aculeus
akus fem ew needle acus
alā! excl. hello heus!
alājai intr stroll am ulō
albhos adI H2elbho- white albus
alchos mas money pecūnia
aldhōn mas en trough potārium
alēiks (alikós) spelt alica
álesnos fem H2el-esno- alder alnus
alghējō sta be cold algeō
aljos lois id H2el-yo another alius
áljote ind to another place aliō
alkejō tr AIIIo protect tueor
alkis mas / ej cf. elēn roe-deer alcēs
fem
alō nourish alō
alpos adI small paruus
álteros adII the other one alter
altjos adII altjós adult adultus
altós adI high altus
alujos mas garlic ālius
álumṇ neu H2elu- beer ceruisia
amāyō tr HemH, cf. omos love (to) amō
ambhí ind h2ṇ t hí ? > around circum
*h2ṇ t hí
ambhíagtos mas ambhíagots public servant agens publicus
ámbhinom neu circuit circuitus
ambhíqolos mas servant seruus
ambhírēmos mas travel iter
ambhou lois both am ō
ámeikā fem friend amīca
amēiks mas (amikós) friend amīcus
ámetā fem aunt amita
amghō tr H2emgh oppress angō
amghús adI H2mghu-; narrow angustus
amghus
ámghustis fem narrowness angustiae
āmi tr BIIf cf. ai hō HeHi2- heat calefaciō
/ HHi2-nu-mi
ammā fem mother mamma
āmós mas seizing apprehensiō
amrós adI H3mH2-ró sour amārus
āmros - mas cf. āmi morning mane
āmrei
an ind perhaps forsan
anəts mas / et H2enH2-t(i)- duck anas
fem
415
ana ind əna to ad

ándhesā fem maid uirgō
andhos blind caecus
anglos mas H2eng-lo articulation rotula
anjō tr withdraw remoueō
ankos mas H1enko- hook ancus
anksi ind cf. noqtis before dawn anteluciō
ánksitjom neu time before dawn antelucānum
anəmos mas H2enH1(e)-mo breath animus
annā fem granny anus
anos mas ring anus
ansā fem handle ansa
ansātos adII provided with ansātus
handle
amsus mas H2emsu- creātor creātōr
anta ind towards uersus
antas H2enH2teH2 portico antae
antí ind H1enti before ante
ántijos adI antique antiquus
ántitjos classical classicus
antjās fem fringe antiae
antjom neu end fīnis
antrom neu cave tugurium
anus fem H2enu- grandmother anus
aperos mas shore ripa
apmṇ neu apsmṇ fastening copula
apnis fem ej H2ep-ni brook amnis
apo ind from ab
apóqitis fem revenge represalia
ápōqos adI *apoHkwo- backward āuersus
apóstətis fem distance distantia
apóteri ind behind post
apóteros adI hint posterus
apowésentis adII absent absens
ápowoiks mas (ápowoikjos) colony colonia
appās mas dad pappa
apros mas Hepro- boar aper
āps fem (após) H2e(H)p- water aqua
apsā fem H2epseH2 asp pōpulus
tremula
apsos mas limb membrum
aqā fem H2ekweH2 water aqua
ar ind therefore ergō
arājō tr H2rH1; H1rjō; arjō plough arō
árarjō tr adjust a aptō
arātrom neu plough arātrum
árdejā fem heron ardea
ardis fem ej point punctus
árgṇtom neu H2rg- silver argentum
argis adI white albus
416
argrós adI H2(e)rgró- brilliant splendidus

argujō tr reason arguō
arjos mas sir dominus
ármṇtom neu cattle armentum
armos mas H2erH-mo- arm armus
arom neu H2erom reed harun ō
arqos mas H2rkwo- bow arcus
arti ind precisely a eō
artis fem jo art ars
artus mas joint artus
árusā fem H2er- hazelnut a ellāna
arwā fem butter aruīna
arwom neu H2erH3w-o \ field aruum
ṛ ṇ
āsā fem HeHi2-seH2 altar āra
āsējō sta HeHi2-s-ējō be dry areō
āsos mas ash cinis
astris mas ej hawk astur
astus mas guile astus
ati ind again re(d)
atiloiqos mas remnant reliquiae
atis fem seabream sparus aurata
atlos adI noble nō ilis
atnos mas year annus
ātmós mas breath halitus
ātō intr AIIe HºHw2et- breathe respirō
atqe and ac
ātros adI H1eH2-tro black āter
attās mas dad tata
audhos mas sir dominus
auga fem H2eugeH2 glance fascis
augējō prog enlarge augeō
āugejō cau AIIIo aument augeō
augmṇ neu en increase augmentum
augō cau H2ewg increase augō
augos neu áugestis development auctum
augtós adI grown auctus
aulos fem HHw1l- tube conductus
auqslā fem cf. uknós pot aula
ausijō tr empty hauriō
ausom neu gold aurum
ausōsā fem ausos dawn aurōra
H2eus-oHs-eH2
ausrom neu morning matīna
áussketi intr dawn illūcescō
áusteros eastern orientālis
aw ind howbeit autem
awā fem fountain fons
awējō tr H2ew desire esi erō
áweljā fem breeze aura
417
awigsnā fem H2ewig-sneH2 oat auēna

áwijā fem grandmother auia
awis fem ej H2ewH1i- bird auis
awisdhijō tr H2ewi(s) + feel sentiō
dheH1
awṇ neu (ávenos) fountain fons
awō dur H2ew spend the night pernoctō
áwontlos mas uncle avunculus
awos mas H2euH2o- grandfather auus
awou ind H2ewo(u) back retrō
awti ind or aut
awtim ind otherwise autem
awtjos adI H2eut- destitute estitūtus
badjos adI orange badius
baitā fem skirt falda
baktlom club baculum
bálbalos and barbaric barbarus
balbos adI tongue-tied balbus
bámbalos drum bombus
batā fem babble locutiō sine
sensu
baubājai intr bark latrō
bebājō intr bleat ē ō
belom neu strenght uis
bélowents neu strong robustus
bendā fem end extrēmum
bendlā mas pintle cnodax
bewō tr AIa damp im uō
bhəskō tr pronounce pronuntiō
bhətjō tr hit quatiō
bhəwējō tr bhH2w- /bhH3w be favourable faueō
dat.
bhabhā fem bean faba
bhāghus mas ew arm bracchium
bhagjō tr fry frigō
bhagō cau atribute a icō
bhagos mas portion portiō
bhāgos fem bheH2go- beech fāgus
bhalnós mas penis pēnis
bhāmən neu speech affāmen
bhāmā fem rumor fāma
bhāmoi intr bhH2-moi speak for
bháneumi tr BIVb illuminate illūminō
bhānis fem sentence sententia
bhānom neu lighting illuminātiō
bhānús adI hānus bright lucidus
bhāos neu (bh esos) bheH2os; light lux
hāwos
bhar neu (bharós) wheat far
bhardhā fem beard barba
418
bharkos mas brooch fibula

bharseinā fem wheat farīna
bharsjom neu bread pānis
bharwos fem pinetree pīnus
bhaskis mas bundle fascis
bhāsos mas vulture ūltur
bhātis fem bhətis expression expressiō
bhebhros mas beaver fī er
bhecō intr AIa run currō
bhedhō intr AIb require postulō
bhegō cau curb arcuō
bheidhō tr AIa trust fī ō
bheikos fem fig fīcus
bheiqlā fem bheiq- bee apēs
bheitlom mas non IE? Item axe ascia
 ai.
parasu
bheldō intr AIa knock attuō
bhelēks fem coot fulica
bheljō tr H3bhel enhance prosperō
bhelō intr fluoresce superluceō
bhelō intr make noise strepō
bhelu neu weakness ē ilitas
bhélunā fem henbane hyosciamus
bhemṛ (bhémenos) thigh femur
bhendhō tr AIa bind ligō
bhendhros mas mate collēga
bhendos adI melodious melodicus
bhenjom hit contusiō
bherāgs fem (bhergos) bherH2-g birch betulla
bherghō tr AIa keep conseruō
bherkō sta AIa cf. merkō glimmer fulgeō
bhermi tr Bia bhHr; bher bear herō
(bherō)
bhermṇ neu burden onus
bhernā fem breach fissūra
bhersi ind bhristi ? cf. quickly citō
testis <*tristis
bherwō inc AIa boil feruō
bhesmi intr Bia blow spirō
bheudhō inc AIa wake up expergiscōr
bheughō perf. AIa succeed eueniō enē
bheugō AIa fold flectō
bheurō tr liqui ō knead commisceō
bhéwedā fem profit compendium
bhewmi dur BIa / BIIb bhwH2 be sum
bhéwonom neu reality reālitās
bhewtis fem jo hūtis hūtís nature nātura
bhewtlom neu environment circumiectus
bhíbheimi tr fear timeō
419
bhidhós mas vessel fiscus

bhidrós adI bitter asper
bhilis adI good bonus
bhínāmi tr BIVa bhiH strike tun ō
bhindō cau cleave fin ō
bhītós adI bhiH-tó struck tusus
bhləgsmā fem flame flamma
bhlādhrom neu fan flā ellum
bhlaghmṇ neu priest flāmen
bhlagō tr hit tun ō
bhlaidos adI clear candidus
bhlakkos adI thin flaccus
bhlāmi tr blow flō
bhlōwos adI bhleH3 cf. hlōs yellow flāuus
bhledō intr AIa boast glorior
bhleicō intr AIa hit flīgō
bhleidō intr AIa inflate inflor
bhlēmi intr weep fleō
bhlendhos adI dim sublustris
bhleucō intr AIa flow fluō
bhleugsmṇ neu en stream flūmen
bhleumi tr BIII/AIIIu helujō weaken ē ilitō
bhleusō tr AIa choke suffocō
bhḷgējō sta shimmer fulgeō
bhḷkjō tr support fulciō
bhlokos mas flake floccus
bhlōros white-stained can i ē
maculātus
bhlōs mas hlēsos bhleH3-s- flower flōs
bhlosējō sta bloom floreō
bhloskos mas scandal scandalum
bhlōtis fem hlōtjos bhlH-ti flower flos
bhṇghus adI dick crassus
bhodhjō tr dig fo iō
bhodhwos mas scald-crow coruus
bhodjós adI comparātīuus better melius
bhodrós adI excellent excellens
bhodsā fem grave fossa
bhogā fem guerrilla guerrilla
bhogājō intr contend litigō
bhogjos mas crook amnis
bhoglā fem stream amnis
bhoidhos adI bhoiH-dhH1o- ugly foedus
< hei 'timeō'
bhoidos neu es ugly foedus
bhoiqos mas drone fūcus
bhokos flame focus
bholghis mas ej bag follis
bholjom neu bheljom leaf folium
bhōljóm neu hōwljóm den cu īle
420
bholos mas steam uapor

bholós adI noisy strepitosus
bhondhsā fem crib praesepēs
bhōr mas bhrós thief fūr
bhorājō tr bore forō
bhorcos adI rough rudis
bhoros mas worn gestāmen
bhorsos adI proud superbus
bhosos adII barefoot planipēs
bhoudhejō cau AIIIo awaken expergefaciō
bhougā fem flight fūga
bhougājō cau flee fūgō
bhōwijós adI bheHwiyó- favourable propitius
bhragrājō sta smell oleō
bhrātēr mas hrātros bhreH2-ter brother frāter
bhrātreinos mas brother's son so rīnus
bhratrijos adII brotherly frāternus
bhrēgō intr AIIf shine luceō
bhreicō tr AIa fry frigō
bhremō intr AIa grunt fremō
bhrendhō intr AIa gush up exu erō
bhrenō intr AIa edge excellō
bhresjō tr shatter isrumpō
bhrūgjai tr AIVa bhreuH-g use fruor
bhreugs mas (bhrugós) fruit frux
bhreugsmṇ neu en wheat frūmentum
bhreugtis fem jo use ūsus
bhreukō tr AIa strike mulceō
bhrēunā neu limit līmes
bhreusō cau AIa swell tumefaciō
bhrēwā fem bridge pons
bhrewō tr AIa brew concoquō
bhrewṛ neu (bhrewṇos) well puteus
bhṛghos adI hṛghú- high altus
bhrigijō intr chirp frigō
bhrijājō tr crumble friō
bhṛijō cau hHriyō hHru cut open incī ō
yō
bhríkāmi tr press premō
bhṛkjō tr stuff farcio
bhṛksnos fem bhrH2g-sno ashtree frāxinus
bhṛktos adI cf. mṛktos speckled uarius
bhṛmā incision incisiō
bhrṇgō tr bhrH1-g break frangō
bhroigos mas summit cacumen
bhrosdhos fem cedar cedrus
bhrounóm neu scale squāma
bhrounos adI brown spā ix
bhroustom neu fragment frūstum
bhrówṇtis mas forehead frōns
421
bhṛstís fem tip cuspis

bhṛtis fem bearing portātiō
bhrughnos fem bulrush iuncus
bhṛugs mas (bhṛugós) throat guttur
bhrūs fem (bhruvós) H3bhruH; eyebrow brus
bhrews
bhrúsnāmi tr BIVa break efringō
bhrusnjā fem cuirass lorīca
bhrusos mas breast pectus
bhrustóm neu particle particula
bhrutēks mas (bhrutkós) (bhrutkós) bush frutex
bhrwtom neu bhrwHtó- syrup ēfrutum
bhudhmṇ neu en soil solum
bhudhnos mas ground fundus
bhugjō dur flee fugiō
bhugos mas animal bestiola
bhukús adI bhukus blunt hebes
bhulja fem swelling tumor
bhulkos mas watcher uigil
bhūm intr (aor. ab bhHu-m; bhwom was fuī
esmi)
bhúncai intr AIa serve fungor
bhusājō tr kiss osculō
bhūsjō intr hasten percurrō
bhūta fem dwelling mansiō
bhutjō tr hit quatiō
bhūtós adII been part. pf. esse
bistlis fem gall īlis
blaktā fem cockroach blatta
blatsājō intr chatter laterō
blēkājō intr bleat ē ō
bṇdus mas drop gutta
bodhrós adI deaf surdus
bokkos mas goat caper
bólboljō intr AIVd explode explō ō
bolkos mas tunnel cuniculus
boukājō intr resound personō
brenghos adI rough raucus
brokos mas badger mēlēs
bughōn mas eagle owl u ō
bukkā fem mouthful bucca
cadhō intr gwH2dh dive immergō
cāmṇ neu step gradus
cécālos adI mundane mun ānus
cedhō tr AIa torment cruciō
cītā fem gwH3itu-, gwH3i- life uita
taH2, gwH3iwotā
cīwāks adI lively uīuax
cejwō dur AIa gwH3ei-w live uīuō
cīwotos mas animal animāl
422
cēlejō cau AIIIo torture tormentō

célṇdis fem ej acorn glans
celō tr AIa gwelH2 throw away a iciō
celom neu g(e)uH2-lo cavity cauitās
célwonom neu gwelH1-ono- bath-tub lauā rum
cemjō intr gwṃjō come ueniō
cenā fem gwnH2; gwēnis woman mulier
gwnā
cerbhō devour uorō
ceri neu ej gwerH- mountain mons
cerjō intr AIa finish finiō
cerō tr AIb praise lau ō
cerō sta have fever fe riō
ceru neu ew pike ueru
cérurom neu watercress berrum
césneumi tr BIVb extinguish exstinguō
cespis fem branches foliamen
cetus mas resin itūmen
ceudhos neu es rubbish immunditia
chaisos adI ghwH2y-so beautiful pulcher
chedhō tr AIa pray rogō
cheldi neu bile fel
chelō tr AIa H1ghwel desire esi erō
chendō cau wound feriō
chenmi tr murder interficiō
chentis fem jo death nex
cherō tr warm calefaciō
cheros neu es heat calor
chislom neu wire fīlum
chḷnō tr deceive fallō
chōks fem (chkos) chōkeH1? torch fax
chonós adI abundant abundans
chormos adI warm formus
chornos mas chṛnos hearth fornus
chrensós mas chrensmós; summer heat aestus
cf. cherō
chṛjō intr be violent furō
cícāmi inc BIIa gweH2 go away a eō
cijā fem fold ouīle
cínāmi intr BIVa prevail praeualeō
cīrós adI lush laetus
cistis fem finger digitus
cīwos mas gwH3i-wo- life uita
cīwós adI gwH3i-wó- alive uīuus
cḷā fem gullet gula
cḷājō intr fly uolō
cḷēnós adI tired lassus
cḷnāmi intr BIVa gwlH agonise praepatior
cḷturós mas vulture uultur
cṃtis fem march itus
423
cobhōn adI viscose conglūtīnōsus

coinos mas sack saccus
colbhos mas womb uterus
corós mas big eater cibicida
cosdhos mas rod uirga
cotejō tr AIIIo mention allū ō
cotlós mas swelling tumōr
coucis fem shit merda
coudhros adI dirty immundus
cówijā fem lapwing uanellus
cowijós adII bovine ouīnus
cówqolos mas herdsman pāstor
cows and cewos gweH3u- / cow ōs
gwH3eu-
cowstas (cowstajós) gwou-stH2 ox-stall ouīle
cṛ(āw)ús adI gwṛH2-u/ heavy grauis
gwṛeH2u/
gwreH2u;
cṛ āw us
crətos adI gwrH-tó heavy rūtus
cṛājō tr gwrH3 devour uorō
crātós adI grH2-to welcome grātus
cṛawenus mas gwreH2-n millstone mola
/gwreH2-w
cṛcestjom neu hovel gurgustium
cṛcots mas (cṛcetós) whirl gurgues
cṛebhos mas embryon foetus
creughos adI gwru-Hgh sad maestus
croghos mas Adam's apple a amī malum
crotsos adI big grossus
croughnos adI sorrow maestitia
cṛús fem (cṛewós) crane grus
dā ind certainly certō
daimoi tr divide up istri uō
daitis fem time tempus
daiwēr mas (daiwrós) brother-in-law leuir
dakru neu ew akru ṛk-akru tear lacrima
>drakru > dakru
/ skw-akru
dāmos mas mate so ālis
dānus mas river fluuius
dápnāmi tr BIVb be expensive carus esse
dapnom neu cost of a feast impensa dapis
daps mas dapós banquet daps
dáwētā fem torch taeda
dáwetus mas conflagration incendium
dáwneumi tr BIVb scorch accen ō
dawtis fem fuel cibus ignis
dē ind from upwards ē
debhō tr AIa knead epsō
424
dedrus mas allergy allergia

deghā fem tick rihipicephalus
deikmən neu example exemplum
deikō tr AIa show monstrō
deikos mas address irectiō
deiktis fem quoque diktis indication in icātiō'
deiwā fem goddess dea
déiwijos adII godly īuus
deiwos mas god deus
deiwotāts fem eiwotātjos deity eitās
deiwots adI (déiwetos) rich īues
dekējō intr be proper decet
dekṃ ind dekm(t) ten decem
dékṃtulos mas finger digitus
deknos adI worthy dignus
dekos neu es virtue decus
déksteros adII right dexter
deljō tr AIVc dHl; del calculate calculō
delō tr split a iungō
demos neu es building ae ēs
denkō tr AIa bite a mor eō
densō tr AIa infere ē ūcō
dentis mas jo H1dont- / H1dṇ tooth dens
t-
derbhō intr AIa turn gyrō
derghō intr AIa get cumulated cumulō
derō tr erH e rjo separate sēparō
rneHmi
deru neu (drewos) derH-u; doru wood lignum
deukō tr AIa drag ūcō
deuks and (dukós) leader dux
deusō tr spoil ruinō
dew ind dewH2 dweH2 far procul
dhətis fem exhaustion exhaustiō
dhabhros mas skillful habilis
dhalnā fem vegetation uiridia
dhanwos fem pinetree a iēs
dhaunos adI predator praedator
dhchínāmi inc BIVb vanish a eō
dhchitis fem destruction ēlētiō
dhebhō intr AIa Hdhebh abuse a ūtōr
dhechō dur AIa burn ar eō
dhēdhjos grandfather auus
dhedhmós mas decree consultus
dheghom mas (dhghmos) dhghmós, earth humus
dheghoms
dheghwis fem inflammation inflammātiō
dheicō tr AIa dheigw puncture figō
dhéicodhlā brooch fibula
dheimi tr dheH 1i suck sūgō
425
dhejō tr AIb put ponō

dhēlēiks adI hēlikós productive fēlix
dhēlgs fem (dhḷgos) scythe falx
dhēljos mas baby lactans
dhelō intr AIb shine splen eō
dhēlós mas teat tetta
dhēmṇ neu condition habitus
dhemō intr AIb steam up uaporō
dhḗmonā fem hēlus female femina
dhenghō tr AIa press imprimō
dhēnom neu produce of land genitūra terrae
dhēnos neu es interest faenus
dherbhō inc AIa start functionem
incipiō
dherghnos fem sloe prūnus
spinōsa
dherghō tr strengthen corro orō
dherghos adI red rū er
dherghs fem (dhṛghos) shit excrēmentum
dherkō cau AIa stain maculō
dhermi tr dherH2 retain retineō
dhēs mas (dhasós) dhH1s- duty (religious) sacrificātiō
dhētis fem jo dhHtí-, dheHti- fact factum
dheughō intr AIa enough (to be) sufficiō
dheukō cau AIa destroy conterō
dheunos neu es dh(u)nH2 death fūnus
dhewō intr AIb dhewH1 run currō
dhghjesi ind yesterday herī
dhghomōn mas (ghdhómeno human being homō
s)
dhghusā fem perch perca
dhicsnis mas jo end fīnis
dhídhēmi- tr BIIb / AIVb dheHi1 do faciō
dhəkjō
dhinghō tr AVIa model fingō
dhḷeghlā fem debt ē itum
dhṃis fem hunger famēs
dhṃelós fem dhH1melo- foundation fun ātiō
dhṃos mas dhH1mo- employee famulus
dhṇghus adI direct directus
dhobos adI solid solidus
dhochejō cau AIIIo make hot foueō
dhochos mas (dh)echṛ / day iēs
(dh)ochṛ
dhoighos mas wall moenia
dholos mas hollow cauitas
dhombhos mas dove columba
dhōmós mas opinion sententia
dhōnā fem cereal cereāle
dhóncelos adI dark fuscus
426
dhoncos adI dark o scūrus

dhónejā fem hollow uōla
dhontis mas ej fountain fons
dhorjā fem diarrhea diarhea
dhoubhos adI deaf surdus
dhoubhús adI dhoubhus black āter
dhoubnom neu world mundus
dhoulis hūlis soot fūligo
dhōunis mas strick fūnis
dhraghō tr AIIa bring out prōmō
dhreghō intr AIa run around circumcurrō
dhrēnos mas roar gemitus
dhrensājō intr cry rensō
dhreughō sta AIa do military militō
service
dhrighsós mas bundle fascis
dhṛmos adI steady firmus
dhṛnumoi intr BIVb dherH3 jump saltō
dhroghnom neu potter wheel tornus
dhroghós fem wheel rota
dhṛsō tr AIIh dare au eō
dhṛstis fem boldness audacia
dhṛsus adI bold audax
dhrubhjō tr dhrub(h)? crumble comminuō
dhrubhtis fem jo drop stilla
dhruslijō tr dismantle ismontō
dhubús adI dhubus deep profundus
dhugtēr fem (dhugtrós) dhugH2ter daughter fīlia
dhūmājō dur smoke fūmō
dhūmós mas dhuH1-mo smoke fūmus
dhúneumi tr BIVb agitate agitō
dhuskos adI dark fuscus
dhwerō tr AIa deceive efrau ō
dhwestus fem fleabane pulicāria
dhwolnos adI crazy insānus
dhwolsā fem whirlpool uertex
dhwonos mas sound sonitus
dhworis fem ej dhweris, dhur- door foris
dhworom neu courtyard forum
dhwosos mas dhwosos (masc.) demon diabolus
/dhwesos -es-
(neut.)
dídēmi tr dH1(-je/o) tie ligō
dídjāmi tr BIIa deiH2 conceive concipere
didkskō tr learn īscō
dighā fem goat capra
djejō intr move moueō
djēws mas (djwos) dyeH1-w day iēs
djnos fem jnā day iēs
dḷghējō intr dat maintain contineō
427
dḷkus adI sweet dulcis

dḷnghos mas cp. dlongho-, long longus
dleH1ghijos-, dlH1gho-
sp.
dleH1ghistH2
o-
dḷnghotā fem length longitu ō
dṃpedom neu building place locus operum
dṃpus adI rough rudis
dṃseghṛ neu ṃseghnós domain dominium
dṇghwā fem dnghu-H2; tongue lingua
dṇt-ghuH2 ?
dṇsus adI thick densus
dō ind to ad
dokejō pred AIIIo seem uideor
doklom mas tail cauda
dolājō tr dolH1- cudge olō
dolejō tr AIIIo dolH1- disrupt īrumpō
dolghos mas dew ros
dōljom mas barrel ōlium
dolos mas fraud dolus
dom ind still dum
dómāmi tr dmH2 tame omō
(dí)dōmi tr BIIc deHw3 give ō
domos fem (domõs, domus house domus
dómewos)
dómūnā fem landlady domina
dómūnos mas landlord dominus
dōnom neu doH3-no /doH3- gift ōnum
ro
dornom neu wrist manicula
doros mas rent scissūra
dōsos mas slave seruos
dōtis fem jo dowry dos
dounom neu duHno- ūno- town oppidum
dousmos mas bush ūmus
dóusontos mas arm braccium
drājō intr work la orō
drappos mas drapery drappus
drātis fem work labos
drātṓr mas jo workman operārius
dṛdrājō intr murmur murmurō
dremō intr run currō
(dídrāmi)
drepō AIa cut out a scin ō
dreughō cau AIa beguile ēcipiō
drewā fem course cursus
drewō tr AIa treat consuēscō
drismós adI harsh asper
dristos mas bramble ūmus
428
dṛkjai peri intr. be visible manifestor

dṛkjō tr make up perspiciō
dṛkō tr see ui eō
dṛkos mas vision faciēs
dṛksmos mas perspective prospectus
dṛktā fem light lūmen
dṛktis fem view conspectus
dṛktis fem jo seen uisus
dṛmijō dur fall asleep obdormiscor
dṛnós mas drH-nó split fragmentum
dṛtis fem split scissiō
dṛtós adI split scissus
dṛwā fem ryegrass lolium
dsā fem dsH2 war bellum
dumbos mas tail caudula
dúnāmi tr duH2 arrange ha ilitō
dus ind bad malē
dúsōpis adI precarious precārius
duswids adI incompetent inscius
dweimi tr fear timeō
dwenos adI good bonus
dwidkṃtói adII twenty uigintī
dwipods adII jo biped īpēs
dwīs lois twice bis
dwīskos adI matching pār
dwīsnōs lois two each īnī
dwoiros adI dweiros, fearful īrus
dweisos?
dwoplos adII double duplus
dwóteros adII second secundus
dwou, dwāu, adII two duo
dwou
ēchṛ neu (échenos) H1eH1gwh- r n drink pōtiō
ēchṛjos adI drunken ē rius
ecnis mas jo H1egw-ni- fire ignis
edhlos fem H1edh-lo- elder ebulus
edhṛ neu (édhenos) palisade uallum
edjēw ind today hodie
edmi tr H1ed eat e ō
edqis, edqid pron someone ecquis
edqos, -qā, - pron some ecquī -quae, -
qod quod
edunā fem pain dolor
egējō sta lack egeō
eghjos mas H1egh-yo / hedgehog er
H1ogh-i(H)no-
eghṛ neu (eghnós) boundary circunscriptiō
egō pron (mene) egH(o)2 I egō
ei ind that ut
eibhō intr AIa H1eibh fuck futtuō
429
eikō tr H1eik have ha eō

eimi dur H1ei go eō
eisā fem wrath ira
eisāskai inc be angry irāscor
eisom neu ice gelū
ek(sí) H1egh-si outside ex
eksoqs adI (éksoqjos) invisible inuisibilis
ekstar neu (ékstaros) ek-stH2-ṛ cf. remoteness longinquitās
enstar
éksteros adI tab external exterior
ékstṃos adI outermost extimus
ektós ind excepted praeter
ekwā fem mare equa
ekwīnós adII of horses equīnus
ekwos mas H1ekwo- horse equus
ēlā fem bodkin cuspis
elēn mas (alnós) cf. alkis red-deer alcēs
elkos neu es wound ulcus
elkós adI bad malus
ellus mas ew eel anguilla
elne elnā pron that ille illa illud
elnod
elóm tr aor. a gesō conducted gessī
elōr mas (éleros) swan olor
elwos pink rosaceus
emō tr take emō
empis fem insect insectus
en ind in in-
anghwis fem ej H2engwi- ; cf. snake anguis
ochis
endo ind inside in
endósēdjom neu furniture suppellex
enim ind and et
enīqā fem eni-H3kw-eH2 face faciēs
enis adII tab certain quī am
enkō prō tr AIa drive con ūcō
ennós adI interior interior
énsēdjom neu ambush insidiae
enslā fem island insula
enstar neu (énstaros) en-stH2-ṛ cf. proximity proximitās
ekstar
énteri ind between inter
énternos adI internal internus
énterom neu interval interuallum
énteros adI tab internal interior
énteros adI tab intestine intestīnus
entós ind inside intus
éperom neu west occidens
epi ind opi on insuper
ḗpijos adII H1eH1p-i- relation a fīnis
430
épiromos adI ópiromos placed on top supernus

ercom neu H1ergwo- pulse erūm
erjos mas H1er- ram ariēs
erkō fac H1rk share commūnicō
ermi intr H1rH1 rest requiescō
ermos adI H1rH1-mo- abandoned solus
ernos adI upright arrectus
erō tr AIa heave erigō
éroros mas er-H3ero- eagle aquila
erqō intr AIa H1erkw shine splen eō
ersā fem H1ers- tail cauda
ersábhaljom neu tail cauda
ersājō sta wander errō
erwā fem land terra
esmi dur H1es be sum
ēsmoi intr be situated sum
esos m H1esH-o- housemaster erus
esṛ neu (ésenos) H1esH2-r blood sanguis
ēsús adI eH1su- ? ēsus good bonus
éteros adII second secundus
eti ind even etiam
étiqe ind etsqe even etiam
etmṇ neu en soul animus
ētṛ mas ētenós H1eH1-tr inside interior
ētros adI ātros ? vivid uiuidus
eukō tr AIa euk / eHwk be used colō
eusō intr H1eus burn ūrō
ewō inc H1ew get dressed in uō
extrōd ind from ex
gálgaljō intr talk garriō
galnos mas power potentia
galnos mas gaul gallus
gangō intr pin down siffilō
gar ind ar ge indeed enim
garsijō intr talk garriō
gāudhējō intr geH2-dheH1 / rejoice gau eō
geH2wi-dheH1 /
geH2-dhH1-sk ?
gaudhjom neu joy gaudium
ge ind at least quī em
geigō sta AIa be bitter acūtus sum
geimō intr AIa sprout germinō
geisā fem gravel calculus
geltis fem embryo fētus
gelu neu ew ice gelū
gemō tr AIb be loaded grauātus esse
gemros mas gemHro- son-in-law gener
genesājō cau create generō
gengā fem gum gingiua
genjos mas comp. -gnH1yo- gender sexus
431
genmṇ neu en genH1mn germ germen

genos neu es genH1os kin genus
gentis fem jo genH1ti- / family familia
gṇH1ti-
gentlom neu genH1tlo- birth nascentia
gentṓr mas genH1tor parent genitor
gentrīks fem (géntrijos) genH1triH2 parent genitrīx
gentus mas genH1tu- procreation genitus
genu neu knee genū
genus neu maxilla maxilla
gercō tr AIa H2ger grneumi gather cogō
gergō cau AIa wind contorqueō
gerjō intr H1ger wake up expergiscor
gerlós adI old senex
gerō prog AIa gerH2 old (to become) sēnēscō
gersā fem network gerra
gerwós mas veteran ueterānus
gesō tr H2gs wear gerō
geulom neu glowing ash fauilla
geustis fem jo taste gustus
gewō intr AIa resound resonō
ghəbhējō tr own possi eō
ghabhlom neu fork furca
ghabhros mas goat hircus
ghaidīnós adII goatish hae īnus
ghaidos mas young goat haedus
ghaisējō sta stick haereō
ghaisom neu spear gaesum
ghaisom neu stick pilum
ghaitā fem hair capillum
ghálerom neu disgrace la ēs
ghanos neu es yawn hiātus
ghansōr mas er goos anser
ghastā fem spearshaft hasta
ghawō tr ghH2ew / call uocō
ghwH2e
ghawōd ind not haud
ghebhlā fem head caput
ghedō tr AIb defecate iunificō
gheidhō tr AIa long for aueō
ghei-ke ghāi- tab this hic haec hoc
ke ghod-ke
ghéimentos adI wintry hiemālis
gheimṛ neu (ghéimenos) gheims, cf. winter hiems
ghjems
gheimrīnós adII winterly hibernus
gheipō intr AIa sob hippitō
gheislos mas ghweistlo- ? hostage obses
ghelbō intr AIa boast glorior
ghelijō intr growl grunniō
432
ghelnom neu lip labrum

ghelō intr incise insecō
ghelus fem tortoise testu ō
ghelwos neu es ghelHw3-os/es vegetable olus
ghelwos mas ghelHw3-os green uiridis
ghēmi intr BIIb gheH1 arrive perueniō
ghenghō intr AIa step ua ō
ghēr mas (gherós) hedgehog ēr
gherdhō tr AIa encircle circum ō
gherghros fem pod siliqua
gherijai tr desire esi erō
gherō tr lend commo ō
ghertom neu butter butyrum
gherús small exiguus
ghesṛ neu (ghésenos) cf. ghestos hand manus
ghesris fem glove igitā ulum
ghestos neu cf. ghēsṛ hand manus
ghētis fem jo arrival aduentus
ghetlā fem handle stīua
gheughō tr AIa veil o um rō
gheusō tr AIa hear au iō
gheutis fem mould fūtis
gheutlom neu vase acārium
ghéwejā fem hollow fouea
ghewos es space spatium
ghi ind certainly certō
ghighējō intr come back re eō
ghirrijō intr whine hirriō
ghjājō inc gape hiō
ghjems mas (ghjmos) gheims; cf. winter hiems
gheimṛ
ghlaghos mas crossbeam patibulum
ghlastos adI ghḷ(H)-sto- blue caeruleus
ghlōmi intr BIIc ghlH3 ghlōjō glimmer reni eō
ghlendhō tr AIa study pertractō
ghleumi intr joke nugor
ghloidos mas luxury sumptus
ghloumos joke nuga
ghḷtnós adII golden aureus
ghḷtom neu ghH3-to gold aurum
ghlustis adI flourishing fluorescentia
ghṇdhus mas cancer cancer
ghṇdō tr AVIc receive accipiō
ghneumi tr BIIIb caress mulceō
ghodos mas rump pūga
ghoilos adI joyful alacer
gholwā fem cf. ghelus caluum caput bald head
'testu ō'
ghórdejom neu barley hordeum
ghordhos mas cf. ghortos enclosure saeptum
433
ghorejai cau AIIIo encourage hortor

ghornim ind pleasantly libenter
ghoros mas intestine intestīna
ghorsejō cau AIIIo erect horreō
ghortos mas cf. ghordhos garden hortus
ghosóm tr (aor. ab ate ē ī
edmi)
ghóstipots adII jo guest hospes
ghostis and ej foreigner aduena
ghosdos mas ghostos starvation inedia
ghouros adI terrible terrens
ghowejō tr AIIIo pay attention faueō
ghradjai dur step gredior
ghrāsmṇ neu en grass grāmen
ghrāsom neu ghreH2-so grass herba
ghrebhō tr AIa bury inhumō
ghrēdhus mas hunger fames
ghreibhō tr AIa ghrbh / ghr-i-bh seize captō
ghreimən neu ointment unctiō
ghṛējō sta be empty uacuus sum
ghremō intr AIa grumble fremō
ghrendhā fem cornice corona
ghrendhos neu es ghrona lock cirrus
ghrendō intr AIa gnaw fren ō
ghrēw ind ghreH1u early mane
ghrewō cau AIa grind conterō
ghrewō fall into ingruō
ghromos mas roaring fremitus
ghronos mas mark signum
ghroudos mas ball pila
ghrowā fem pebble calculus
ghərtā fem tip cuspis
ghudjō do harm amnō
ghundō cau pour fun ō
ghwerā fem beast fera
ghwērīnós ghwerīnós beastly ferīnus
ghwērós adI ghwēr ghwer wild ferus
ghwerós
ghwobhros mas smith faber
gibbā fem hump gibba
gígisai intr BIIe geis happen acci ō
gignō cau genH1 beget gignō
gigrós adI sharp acūtus
gjewō tr AIa chew man ō
gləgjēs fem ice glaciēs
glabhō tr plane ēfo iō
gladhros adI even glaber
glagha fem protest querēla
glakti neu milk lac
glegos adI docile infirmus
434
gleibhō tr AIa adhere a haerō

gleis mas (glisós) mouse glis
glēkis adI intelligent callidus
glembhō cau AIa include inclū ō
gleubhō tr AIa peel glū ō
glínāmi intr BIVa stick a haerō
globhos mas globe globus
glōghis fem point cuspis
gloidos mas rubber glūtinum
gloijós adI sticky glutinoosus
gloitṇ neu gloitnós glue glūten
glokijō intr clack glociō
glomos neu es yarn glomus
glōs fem glēsos gH2lōw sister-in-law glōs
glujō tr AIIIu swallow glūtiō
gnājō tr produce (to) gignō
gnāmi tr knH2 cf. kanmā gnaw (to) a rō ō
kṇmā knāmā
gnās m/f gnājós offspring prōlēs
gnāskai inc gnH1-eH2-sk be born nāscor
gnātós adII gnH1-tó; comp. - born nātus
gṇtó-
gnebhis fem fleece uellus
gnebhō tr AIa pluck uellicō
gneibhō tr AIa raze rā ō
gneichō intr AIa lean nītor
gneidō tr AIa scrape a rā ō
gnōros adI evident euidens
gnos ad in compositiōne native ingenuus
(gí)gnōskō tr AVc gneH3 know nōscō
(gnōwa)
gnōsmi tr BIe gnēsmi recognize agnoscō
gnōtis fem knowledge nōtiō
gnōtlom neu sign signum
gnōtṓr mas knower nōtor
gnōtós adI gnH3tós known nōtus
gnoubhos mas bud geniculum
gnōwos wise nāuus
golbhnos mas dart acūmen
gombhos mas jaws dentes
gomos mas load onus
gonējō tr gonH1-eio/e- produce generō
gopos mas jaws fauces
gorbos mas wrinkle rūga
gorgnóm neu sadness tristitia
gorgós adI sad tristis
goulos mas oral buccale
gouros mas crimpy hair tur i ō
grakijō intr cackle gracillō
grammā fem rheum grāmiae
435
grānom neu grH2-no- grain grānum

gṛbeinos fem (s)karp ? hornbeam carpinus
betulus
gṛbējō sta have wrinkle rugātus sum
gṛbhō tr AVIII scratch charaxō
grebhos mas net rēte
gredō tr AIa scratch sca ō
gregs mas grēcos H2greg- herd grex
gremjom neu lap gremium
grendjom crown corōna
gretlom cradle cūnae
greubhō dur AIa go aside mē āuertō
greugō intr AIa bend curuō
greumō tr AIa scrape off a rā ō
greutō intr AIa solidify soli ificō
grṇdhís adI grown grandis
grōbhos fem oak tree quercus suber
grōdis mas hail gran ō
groumos mas crumb grūmus
grundijō intr grunt grunniō
grutis fem curd cheese lac passum
gudom bowels intestīnum
gugā fem ball globus
gupā fem cellar pitheūs
gurnos mas back dorsum
gusnō tr taste gustō
gutṛ mas (gútenos) throat guttur
idhei ind there i ī
ikjō tr H2yk reach ic i ō
ili neu (ílijos) groin intestīnum
īljō tr AVIII H1lH2 redupl. send away aman ō
lām-loja- H1i-H1lH3
leisō
imde ind from there inde
immō adII more than that immō
nekmi tr BIIe H1nk convey apportō
ipjō oppress opprimō
is, id pron tab this is, ea, id
īsarnom neu iron ferrum
ita ind itH so ita
itājō freq journey itō
itaqe ind and also itaque
íteros adII different differens
itim ind likewise item
itṛ neu (ítenos) way iter
iwe ind H1iwe like ceu
jəkējō sta throw iaceō
jəkjō tr eject iaciō
jagjō tr jH2g-jo/e worship uenerō
jāgjus adI jeH2g-ju- pious pius
436
jāi ind yes certō

jālos mas conspiracy coniurātiō
jāmi intr yH2 pass transeō
jāmi ind already iam
jáneumi tr AIVb ieH2; conspire coniurō
iH2neumi
januwā fem entrance iānua
jeghō tr persecute persequor
jegis mas ej ice glaciēs
jekō tr AIb tell narrō
jekos adI healthy sānus
jēlom neu desert desertum
(jí)jēmi cau BIIb jeH1 expel expellō
jemō tr hold (to) contineō
jemós neu twin geminus
jentēr mas (jentrós) cousin frāter
patruēlis
amitinus
jeqṛ neu (-óneros) liver iecur
jesō intr. AIb HHies- ferment fermentō
jeunis fem right way uia recta
jeus neu (jusós) broth ius
jewesdiks adII jo judge iudex
jewō intr AIa help a iuuō
jewom neu barley hordeum
jéwornjom fem cereal cereāle
jewos neu (jéwesos) law iūs
jṇdros adI exuberant laetus
jṇtō tr AVIa desire eagerly aueō
jod qid ind because quia
jodhei rel where (rel.) ū ī
joinkos mas bulrush iuncus
jom rel when cum
jomde rel from which unde
joqe ind and et
jori rel wherefore quapropter
jorkos mas roebuck gazella
jōrom neu yeHro- season tempus
jōrós mas conspirator conspirātor
jos (je), jā, rel tab that, the one that is quis
jod
jṓsneumi tr BIVb HieHw3-s begird cingō to
jota rel how quōmo o
jota sei ind alike quasi
jóugsmṇtom mas beast of burden iūmentum
jówestos adI just iūstus
jucis adII H2yu-gwiH3 eternal iūgis
judhejō tr AIIIo kwid kwismei command iu eō
jugóm neu yoke iugum
jungō tr ieHw3-g join iungō
437
júwenis adII young iuuenis

juwes / juwe pron tab you uōs
juwṇkós adII H2iw-wH1ṇkó- young iuuenis
júwṇtā fem youth iuuentus
juwōn adI (júwenos); H2iw-wHen-- young iuuenis
sup.
jéwistH2o-
kəpjō tr kHp catch capiō
kəpsā fem box capsa
kəptos captive captus
kəsējō sta lack careō
kəstos adI pure castus
kətos adI H3Hi2kH3-to- sharp catus
kəwējō sta beware caueō
ka ind certainly sīc
kábṇlos mas colt equulus
kabōn mas (kábonos) horse equus
kadhō tr keep praeseruō
kadō prog fall ca ō
kādos neu es trouble cūra
kadros adII saint sanctus
kaghlā fem opening caula
kaghos mas enclosure claustrum
kaidō cau cut cae ō
kaikos adI blind caecus
kailom neu augur augurium
kaipā fem onion caepa
kairós adI untouched integer
káisṛjēs fem long hair caesariēs
kaisrom neu hair capillum
kaitom neu heath silua
káiwelos neu exclusive exclusōrius
kákabā fem partridge perdix
kakkājō intr defecate cacō
kaklājō intr cackle cacillō
kákneumi tr BIVb promote foueō
kakō cau thinnen tenuefaciō
kaldējō sta be experienced calleō
kaldos mas blister callus
kalēiks mas/ (kalikós, kalīks cup calix
fem kalijós)
kalgōn (kálgenos) fog cālīgo
kālis fem spot macula
kalkis heel calx
kalwos adI kḷHwos bald caluus
kambos adI bent tortus
kāmi tr love amō
kamō tr kH2m press tightly comprimō
kampos mas land campus
kánāmi tr BIIIa dig fo iō
438
kandō tr glow can ō

kánkestos mas colt equulus
kankus mas kanku kākā branch ramulus
kanmā fem knH2 kṇH2mā leg crus
knāmā knH2mi-
cf. gnāmi
kanmṇ neu (kánmenos) song carmen
kanō intr sing canō
kantos mas cf. witus wheelrim cantus
kaplos mas cf. skāpos tool instrumentum
kāpos mas land estate fundus
kaprā fem goat capra
kapros goat caper
kaput neu (kaputós) head caput
kareinā fem Har- keel carīna
karkar mas (karkarós) fortification mūnītūra
kárkarjō announce nuntiō
karkros crab cancer
karnājō tr AIIIa pin down carinō
karōn fem en limb membrum
kāros adI beloved cārus
karpō tr collect carpō
kárrēkā fem rock rūpēs
kartús adI kartus hard ūrus
kasnos mas grey cānus
kasterlom neu castle castellum
kastra neu (kastrõm) camp castra
kastrājō tr prune (to) castrō
kastrom neu scissors forfex
katēsna fem chain catēna
katsājai intr meet congredior
katsājō tr gather cōgō
kattā fem cat fēlēs
katus mas kH2etu- fight pugna
kaukos mas vessel collectāculum
kaulis fem cabbage caulis
kaunós adI shameful pudendus
kawdō tr AIIa keH2w-d hit cū ō
kawō tr AIIb keH2w hit cū ō
káwonā fem owl noctua
ke kā kod pron this hic hae hoc
(eke ekā
ekod)
ke ind ki of here hic
kei ind here hic
keidō intr AIa go down escen ō
keimēx mas bug cīmex
keimoi inc lie iaceō
keimos neu kéimesos colorant colorans
keiros adI dark o scūrus
439
kéiwijos adII civil cīuīlis

keiwis and ej citizen cīuis
kekājō tr bind nectō
kekātrīks fem kekātrikós scar cicatrix
kekātrijós
kekō intr leap saltō
kékuros adI tame cicur
kēlā fem chamber cella
kēlājō cau hide cēlō
keldō tr strike percellō
kelgā fem mystery mysterium
kéliknom neu penthouse cēnaculum
kelmos mas helmet galea
kelō tr kelH1 push impellō
kélodhros mas snake coluber
kēlom neu arrow sagitta
kelos neu es cover coopertūra
kelots mas (kéletos) boy ephebus
kelsō intr AIa kelH3 klneH3- be high excellō
kelujō intr travel iter facere
kelus fem road uia
kémelom neu heaven caelum
kémeros fem lotus lotus
(kí)kōmi tr BIIc H3Hi2keH3 sharpen exacuō
kemjō tr hum cantillō
kemō intr AIb strain a nītor
kemos adII hornless incornis
kenēs fem (kensós) ash cinis
kenkai intr hesitate uacillō
kenklom tendon ten ō
kenkō inc AIa weigh pen ō
kenkos mas hook hamus
kenō intr kṇjō arise oborior
kentom mas rag pannus
kentrom neu prick centrum
kepō tr do harm infensō
keqō tr AIa dirty mancillō
kerəsrom neu kerH-s-ro- brain cerebrum
kérberos mas weasel mustela
kerdhjos mas herdsman pāstor
kerdhō tr AIa range (to) or inō
kerdhos mas group grex
kerdos neu es profession ars
kerkō inc AIa grow thin tenuescō
kerkos fem hen gallīna
kernos mas excavator pāla
kernós mas frozen snow nix gelāta
kerom neu hair caesariēs
kersnā fem dinner cēna
kersō tr AIa mutilate mutilō
440
kersṛ neu (kersenós) kersṛ , kersṇ, head caput

kerH1os
kerwos mas kerH2wo- deer ceruus
kesdō intr withraw cē ō
kēsmi tr ke(k)Hs-mi restrain reprimō
kesnus mas garlic ālius
kesō tr comb pectō
kētjā fem room cubiculum
keubō cau AIa curve curuō
keudhō AIa hide a ī
keukō dur warp inflectō
keulom neu swelling turgentia
keusō tr keusH rent locō
kēwējō intr keH1w- sway oscillō
khákhatnos mas laugh cachinnus
khamos mas hook hāmus
khéderos fem ivy hedera
kighrós mas agitated agitātus
kikēr mas (kikrós) pea cicer
k keumi intr BIIIb become vigorous uigescō
kikjā fem woodpecker pīca
kiklēskō tr kiklēwa invoke inuocō
kiklós adI kelH cold frīgi us
kíkōnjā fem stork ciconia
kīkus mas kī´kewos muscle mūsculus
kina ind from this side hinc
kingō tr gird cingō
kintos adII previous praecē ens
kippos mas peg cippus
kirknos mas compasses circinus
kirkos mas circle circus
kiskā fem biceps biceps
kistā fem basket cista
kíteros adI of this side citer
kitōd ind immediately citō
kitrōd ind towards this side citrō
kiwos mas colour colōr
kjājō tr kieH2 assort iri eō
kjējō cau activate ciō
klādis mas damage clā ēs
kladjos mas sword gladius
klagjō intr clang clangō
klāmājō intr yell clamō
klambós adI mutilated mutilus
klāmi tr embank aggerō
klamrós adI klmH2-ro weak ē ilis
klāros mas tablet tabella
klārós adI klH1-ró loud resonus
klāstis fem klH1-dhH1-ti convocation conuocātiō
klaudos adI lame claudus
441
klawdō tr close clau ō

klawos mas nail clāuus
klāws fem klāwós key clāuis
klawstós adI closed clausus
kḷdis fem kəlnis?; cf. mountain-path callis
kəldos
kḷdos mas cf. kəldis wood lignum
kleinos fem maple acer
kleitis fem hut casa
kleitrom neu support firmāmentum
kḷējō sta be hot caleō
kḷējō tr klH1 name nōminō
klepō tr AIa steal clepō
kleumi neu kluH listen au iō
kleumṇ neu hearing au ītus
kléumṇtom neu reputation reputātiō
kleusō tr AIa obey o oe iō
kleustis fem klustís obedience oboedientia
kleutis fem jo quoque klutis listening audientia
kleutō tr AIa raffle sortior
kleutrom neu story historia
klewō tr AIa wash purgō
klewos neu es glory gloria
klínāmi cau cause to slope clinō
klisrós adI gentle gentilis
kḷjō tr (s)kel divide iui ō
kḷneumi tr BIVb* kleuH <*kḷ-ne- hear au iō
uHmi
klṇgō intr AIIc klH1-g sound clangō
kloiwos adI kloinos steep clīuus
klopnis fem jo valley uallis
klounis fem jo buttock clūnis
kḷpros mas wine-cask cupa
kḷtos adI hot calidus
klūtós adI kluH-tó famous au ītus
kluwējō sta be named clueō
kḷwijō tr defame ifāmō
kmāmi prog kmH2 get tired ēfetiscor
kṃertos mas lobster langusta
kṃros curved camur
kṃti dh°r with cum
kṃtom ind hundred centum
knakos adI knH2-ko yellow glaesus
kṇjós adI recent recens
knokos mas neck ceruix
knouks fem (kneukos) nut nux
kṇsējō tr opinate censeō
kṇstṓr mas kenstor spokesman orātor
knuwā fem walnut nux
kobom neu success euentus
442
kodējō tr thurify turificō

koilús adI koilus healthy sānus
kóilutāts fem jo health ualētū ō
koimā fem agreement pacta
koimos adI lovely cārus
koinos mas foenum hay
koinós adII koi(H)-no akin cognātus
koisā fem occupation cūra
koitús fem (koitewós) manner modus
koksā fem kokso- hip coxa
koksednīks fem (koksednikós -edniH2 hip bone coxen īx
,
koksedniyós)
kolignos mas dog canis
koljō tr stick a haerō
kolmṇ neu en summit culmen
kolmos mas kolH2-mo- stalk calamus
kolnis fem ej kolH-ni- kḷH-ni-, hill collis
kolH-wi, kolH-
wo
kolnom neu pile su līca
kolnos adII one-eyed unioculis
kolsos mas nōn qolsos neck collum
quoniam gmc.
nōn *hw incipit
kólumbhos mas dove columba
kom ind with cum
kómāglom neu kómagdhlom collection collectiō
kómjougos mas union coniunctiō
komjugs epi komjugós consort coniux
kómmoinis adII common commūnis
kommoinitat fem jo community commūnitas
s
komnom neu meeting congregātiō
kómnōmṇ neu surname cognōmen
kómopjom neu equipment armāmenta
kōmos mas mass globus
kómplēnos adII complete complētus
kómsqṛtos adI perfect perfectus
kómtḷtis fem patience patientia
komtrōd ind against contrā
kómwoirjom neu court curia
kómwoistis fem conscience conscientia
kōnājai inc try cōnōr
konkejō cau AIIIo burn com ūrō
konkhā fem shell concha
kōnos mas H3Hi2k-eH3-no- top tur ēn
kophos mas hoof ungula
kopnos mas haven portus
kóqros mas dirt immunditia
443
korbhis mas (kórbhejos) basket corbis

koris fem acarian acarus
korjom neu leather corium
korjos neu army exercitus
korkos adI mud caenum
kormnos mas bleach aqua lixiuiae
kormōn mas (kórmenos) ermine mustēla
erminea
kormos mas pain dolor
kornīks fem (kornikós, crow cornīx
kornijós)
kornos cherry tree cornus
kṓrukos mas bag saccus
korwos adI korw-, korweH2 raven raucus
kósolos fem hazel corilus
kostā fem H3osteH2 rib costa
koubos mas joint artus
koupā fem kūpā cup cūpa
koupnā fem lot copia
koutā fem cf. kotos hut mapālia
kowos adI hollow cauus
kowṛ neu (kówenos) kuH2-r cavern cauerna
krāmi tr Bib / BIVa krH2 / kṛneH2 mix permisceō
krasi ind tomorrow cras
krāsrōn mas en bumblebee crā rō
krātis fem ej krH2tis network crātis
kratsos plump crassus
kṛdḗn kṛdnos hinge car ō
kṛdhōn mas (kṛdhenós) carbon car ō
kṛdi / kṛdjom neu (kṛdejós / heart cor
kṛ jī
kṛdijai prog get angry stomachor
kṛdjō intr krH-d rock trepi ō
kṛdsus fem shirt camisia
kréddhēmi tr krd + believe crē ō
dhH1/dhH3
kreidhrom neu sieve crī rum
kreimṇ neu crime crīmen
kreitsō intr AIa shake agitor
krekō AIa weave texō
kremājō cau burn cremō
krēmi tr krH1 create creō
kremom neu beer ceruisia
krémusom neu onion caepa
krenghos mas ring anus
krenktis fem scar cicātrix
krépāmi intr crackle crepō
krepō intr AIa precipitate praecipitor
krepús adI strong fortis
krēqā fem border limēs
444
krēskō prog grow crēscō

krētā fem chalk crēta
kretō tr AIa cut exsecō
kreugō intr AIa cry gemō
kreuks fem (krukós) cross crux
kreumi tr kru-H stock ēpositō
kreupō inc AIa get encrusted incrustor
kreutō tr AIa agitate permoueō
krēwō tr AIIf touch commoueō
krigā cry clamor
krinō tr kry; tab sieve crinō
kripsnis fem jo mane crīnis
kripsos adI curly crispus
kripstā fem crest crista
kristājō cau shuttle agitō
kritis fem difference differentia
kṛjēs fem rot cariēs
kṛklos adI slender gracilis
kṛnāmi tr krH1 rot corrumpō
kṛnos adI rotten corruptus
kṛnu neu kṛnewós tab horn cornū
krōbhtus mas devotion ēuotiō
krokijō intr shriek crociō
kroknos mas anorak peplum
krotjājō tr shake agitō
krous neu (kreusos) leg crūs
krowos mas shelter refugium
kṛpjos mas krH2pjo-; shoe calceus
krāpjo-
kṛpos neu es kwṛpos ? body corpus
kṛsējō sta be scratched carreō
kṛsnos black āter
kṛsō tr AIIh run currō
kṛstus mas course cursus
kṛsus mas cart currus
krustā fem icicle crustula
krūtis fem krūtís dome cupula
kruwós mas es kr(e)uH2- blood cruor
kṛwos adI curved curuus
ksentis fem cf. ksnujō briar sentis
kserós adI ksērós dry siccus
ksnujō tr ksuwō ksujō shave a rā ō
ksējō ksənjō
ksnowājō
ksnutējō
ksnowātlā fem razor nouācula
ksūlom fem post columna
kúbāmi sta lie cu ō
kudājō intr reprove or iurgō
kukulājō intr cockoo cucu facere
445
kukūlós mas cockoo cucūlus

kūlā fem hiding place latebra
kūleks mas kūlkós gnat cūlex
kūlos mas ass cūlus
kumbhā fem pot catīnus
kumbō intr recline accum ō
kūmós mas kuH1-mo heap cumulus
kúnejos mas wedge cuneus
kupjō tr demand exigō
kurnos mas foal pulllus
kusdhos mas treasure thesaurus
kusis mas kiss basium
kūtis fem ej kHuti- kūtís skin cutis
kuwējō sta be pregnant grauidus sum
kuwos mas whelp catulus
kúwṛos adI powerful potens
kwāimi tr acquire acquīro
kwatsos mas cheese caseus
kweidos mas white candidus
kwōn mas (kwnos) dog canis
ləbjom neu lip labrum
ləkesājō cau tear lacerō
ləkjō trap laciō
ləkós mas tearing lacerātiō
lənchijóm neu lung pulmō
ləpējō sta be flat plānus sum
ləpods mas (ləpedós) stone lapis
ləskējō sta fancy lascīuiō
lətējō sta be concealed lateō
labhō tr take emō
laghā fem spade pāla
lāgō intr AIIe (s)leH2g; cf. droop ēlanguescō
lṇgwō
laiwos adII left laeuus
lājō tr scold o iurgō
lajos neu fat adeps
lakertos mas forearm lacertus
lakus mas ew lake lacus
lalājo intr babble laterō
lalu ind penis pēnis
lāmā fem poodle lāma
lamṇtom neu tell off o iurgātiō
landhom neu frypan sartagō
lāōs mas laesos home god lār
lāpos mas cow ōs
lapsā fem lamp lampās
latēks mas latkos liquid latex
latom mas day dies
lāurā fem stonework opus saxeum
lawō tr lH2; abl. benefit fruor
446
lāwós mas leH2wó- team squadra

lawtlom neu benefit lucrum
ledō tr lH1d release āmittō
leghō sta lie occu ō
leghos neu es lay fulcrum
leghskā fem settlement sē ēs
leghskós adI lazy pīger
leghtrom mas support destina
leghús adI cf. lənghros; light leuis
leghus
légneumi tr BIVb wring out ēguttō
legō tr collect legō
legs fem lēgos law lēx
leibs mas (libós) drop gutta
leidmi tr permit (to) permittō
leiglā fem leig hlā spoon ligula
leigō intr AIa H1lei-g jump saliō
leiljom neu lily liilium
loimos mas (s)H2loimo-; mud līmus
sloimos
leinō tr AIa avoid uitō
leinom neu flax līnum
leipā fem lime-tree tilia
leisā fem parterre līra
leitō intr AIa go eō
leitos neu léitesos seaside litus
lembō tr AIa hang suspen ō
lēmi tr Bic lH grant in ulgeō
lemō tr H3lem break up a rumpō
lemsos mas phantom phasma
lendhā fem spring fons
lēnis weak lēnis
lentos fem juniper picea
lepō intr stutter al utiō
lenghmi BIe declare ēclārō
lergos adI flat plānus
lēsanks fem lēsankós lēwanks ? slate ardesia
lesō tr pick carpō
leswos adI middling sublestus
lētis fem concession indulgentia
letrom neu CELT. *pletro- ?, leather corium
cf. lat. pellis
leubhos adI dear cārus
léudheros adI H1leudh free liber
leughō intr AIa lie mentior
leukō intr shine (to) luceō
leukós adI bright lucens
leuks fem (lukós) light lux
leuksmṇ neu en light lūmen
lēumi tr BIg leH1u damage a flictō
447
leups mas (lupós) leaf folium

lewis mas sickle falcula
ligājō tr bind ligō
likējō tr be allowed licēt
limpō sta stick haereō
linghō tr lick lingō
līnō tr liH lināmi oint linō
līnós adI ointed litus
linqō tr leave linquō
lipējō sta be sticked a haereō
lippā fem rheum lippa
liprós adI lipH2ró greasy a ipōsus
litājō appease litō
litwos mas rod lituus
lṃbō tr sip lam ō
lṇcō cau AVIc (s)leH2g cf. lāgō tire fatigō
lṇghros adI cf. leghús light leuis
lōbā fem crime ēlictus
lodi neu late tarde
loghējō cau lay down ēpōnō
loghjom neu site situs
loghos mas deposit ēpositus
loigos mas calf uitulus
loigós mas H3loigo- penury lack
loiqnom neu lend commo ātus
loiqós adII remaining reliquus
loisā fem tablet līra
loisós adI mild mitis
loksos mas lax salmō
loksós adI slanting obliquus
loktos mas loktus fault culpa
londhom neu land regiō
londhwos mas hip lumbus
longhros mas worm lom rīcus
lordós adI twisted tortus
lorgā fem footprint uestigium
lorgos mas club uirga
lostos mas spear hasta
loudis mas ej praise laus
loughjom neu oath sacramentum
lougos mas twig rāmulus
loukejō cau AIIIo illuminate ilūminō
loukētjos adI radiant splendidus
loukos mas glade saltus
loukós mas radiance splendor
louksā fem window fenestra
louksnā fem moon lūna
louksos mas lynx lynx
lousēn fem (lusnós) louse pedis
loutsā fem whore merētrix
448
lowā fem hair coma

lowō tr lH3w wash lauō
lowtrom neu bath lā rum
lubhējō tr like libet (mihi)
lubhjā fem herb herba
lubhros mas bast liber
ludhóm intr aor. a cemjō went iī
lugējō sta be broken fractus sum
lugjā fem hole ōrificium
lugnós adI flexible flexibilis
lugtos mas multitude copiae
lukējō sta shine luceō
lukskējō tr light up incen ō
lúnāmi tr leH2; leH2u- split rumpō
lūnós adI lūtós unbound solūtus
lutom neu l(H)u-to- dirt lutum
lūtós adI unbound solūtus
luwō (lewō) tr lewH unbind luō
luwō apó tr acquit a soluō
mədējō sta be wet ma eō
məglos adI noble nō ilis
məgnánəmos adI magnanimous magnanimus
məgnos adI sup. mH1-g-nó big magnus
mégistH2o- / mH1-gH2
məgis ind more magis
məgtājō tr honour mactō
machos mas maghu- youngster iuuenis
machotis fem youth iuuentūs
mághneumi tr BIVb defend ēfen ō
maghos mas field pratum
magō tr mH2g form configurō
mājō prog prosper mātūrō
mākājō cau pit maciō
makēn mas (maknós) pouch crumēna
mākesjā wall mūrus
makōn mas makenos poppy papauer
makrós adI slender macer
mammā fem mum mamma
mān ind meH2n so etenim
mānājō intr spring mānō
mánnusos mas man homō
mānos adI good bonus
maqā fem girl puella
maqos mas boy ephebus
máreskos mas marsh mariscus
margōn mas margenós boundary margō
mari neu ej sea mare
markos mas horse equus
masdos neu mast mālus
mātējō tr designate ēsignō
449
mātḗr fem mātrós meH2-ter- mother māter

māterós mas solid solidus
mātérterā fem aunt mātertera
matlā fem hammer malleus
mauros adI gloomy fuscus
ṃbhros mas cf. nebh- storm imber
ṃgadhós adI ṃgH2-dhH1o- magnificus
me pron H1me; aton. me mē
mē ind not nē
medai intr mH1 cōgit. ponder medeor
medgós mas gull mergus
médhidjōws mas midday meri iēs
medhjos adII middle medius
medhu neu ew mead mel
medjom neu acorn glans
médneumi tr BIVb meH1d / mH1d administrate a ministrō
médodiks epic med- mē - cf. doctor medicus
regs
mēdos neu valuation aestimātiō
meicō intr AIa H1mei-gw; -gw move mutō
rārus
meidō tr AIa mei /meit /meid scrath out esculpō
meidos neu prestige auctoritās
meilēts mas (meiltós) warrior milēs
meinom neu purpose propositiō
meitō sta AIa lack ēsum
meitrom agreement contractus
meiwijós adI smaller minor
mejājō intr mínāmi flow meō
mejnō inc AIa change mūtō
mejō inc exchange mūtō
mejtis fem jo quoque mjtis shift permutātiō
mēknos mas lip labrum
meldhjā thunderbolt fulmen
meldhō intr pray precor
melit neu mélitos honey mel
meljom neu millet milium
melkō tr AIa rub mulceō
melmṇ neu article articulus
melō tr AIb grind molō
melos adI strong robustus
melsō tr AIa cf. məljos deceive mentior
melwom neu flour farīna
membhō tr AIa punish puniō
mēmi tr measure metior
mēmsóm neu memsóm meat carō
mendhai intr cogit. be interested interest
mendhō tr AIa stir up torqueō
mendō tr suck sūgō
mendom neu fault mendum
450
menghos adI frequent frequens

mengō tr AIa disguise uestiō
menis mas dace phoxinus
menmṇ neu en intellect intellectus
menos neu es sense sensus
mēnsis mas ej meH1ns-, mH1nt- month mēnsis
mentā fem rod uirga
mēqos neu es meH1-Hu-os moment mōmentum
mercō tr AIa make black nigrō
mergā fem fork furca
merghā fem snare laqueus
mergis fem filth situs
mergō cau AIa merg/mezg sink mergō
merkēds fem (merkədós) charge naulus
merkō cf. herkō flimmer fulgeō
mérneumi tr BIVb worry tur ō
meros adI simple merus
mersō tr block incterclu ō
merwos insipid insipidus
mesgō tr AIa communicate communicō
meslā fem blackbird merula
mestis fem memstis ? measure mensūra
mestós adII memstós? measured mensus
mētā fem post mēta
meti ind in the middle in me iā parte
mētijai tr measure mētior
mētis fem meH1-ti- dimension īmensiō
metō tr AIb reap metō
metrom neu mētrom 2º measure mensūra
comp.
meudos adI proud superbus
meugō intr AIa cheat ēlū ō
meukō tr AIa scratch ērō ō
meus / neu mūsós muscle mūs
muskós
mighlā fem mist uapor
míkāmi dur flimmer micō
miljom neu red ochre minium
mimdō inc meet accurrō
mímnāskō intr AVc cogit. remember memini
(memna)
míneumi cau BIVb eff. m nami reduce minuō
minghō intr piss mingō
mínusi ind less minus
misdhom neu salary sālārium
misgā fem miks- whey sērum lactis
miskejō cau AIIIo meik/meik-sk- mix misceō
mlājō cau weaken ē ilitō
mlākós adI ml-H2-kó stupid stultus
mlātóm neu mlH2-tó flour farīna
451
mḷdhos adI ml(H2)-dh- permissive permissīiuus

mḷdsnos adI softened ēmollītus
mḷdus adI ml-du; tab soft mollis
mḷduwijō tr soften molliō
mḷgājō tr anounce nuntiō
mlīnós adI slack ēneruis
mḷjos adI false falsus
mḷkāmi intr BIIIa weaken ēlanguescō
mḷnos adI melH2-; mḷnejós dark mulleus
mlōdhrós adI lofty excelsus
mlōskō intr mlH3 appear appareō
mḷsos mas slow lentus
mḷwā fem mḷH-weH2 mallow-plant malua
mṇdōmi tr commit man ō
mṇējō sta remain maneō
mṇijai omc tower ēmineō
mṇjō sta mnH2 consider opīnor
mṇkos adI cf. mənwos defective mancus
mṇkstrom neu shaker mixtarium
mṇsjai neu intend inten ō
mṇtijai tr put on mentior
mṇtis fem jo mentis mind mens
mṇtō tr mH2t; mtH2 chew man ō
mṇtom neu chin mentum
mṇtos mas mention mentiō
mṇtrājō tr wipe a rā ō
mṇus fem (mənewós) hand manus
mṇwos adI cf. mənkos scant insignificans
mō ind but sed
mōdos mas moH3do- perseverance constantia
modos neu es measure modus
moghjos adI pleasant amoenus
moghō tr AIId mH3gh can possum
moghtis fem jo might potestās
moghtrom neu means remedium
moighos mas pee uriina
moilos adI miH1- mild comēs
moinijai tr fortify mūniō
moinis adI obliged mūnis
moinja neu walls moenia
moisos mas sheep skin pellis ouīna
moitājō tr exchange mūtō
moitmos mas méitimos thanks grātes
moitwos adII mutual mutuus
mojnos mas exchange commūtātiō
moksi ind soon mox
molā fem molH1(e)H2 millstone mola
moljā fem coast lītus
moldhā fem occipital occipitium
moldhos mas prayer prex
452
moleinā fem mill molīna

mōlestos adI annoying mōlestus
molgējō tr milk mulgeō
mōlis fem ej mass mōlēs
mōlos neu es effort mōlimen
molpā fem pride superbia
molqos adI wet madidus
moltlom neu molH-tlo/-to/-lo hammer malleus
mondō tr adorn ornō
mondós mas whelp cattulus
monejō cau AIIIo warn moneō
mongos fem neck collus
monīli neu monH- collar monīle
monos mas neck ceruix
montis mas ej hill mons
morā fem delay mora
morā fem nightmare somnus
terrorificus
morcós dark o scūrus
mordējō tr bite mor eō
morignā fem woman mulier
morjods mas ed thigh poples
mórmoros mas panic horror
morom neu berry mōrum
moros fem cf. mṛtis fatality infortūnium
mōros adI mōros mēros renowned nō ilis
cf. yōrom
yērom
mōrós adI stupid mōrus
mōs mas (mosós) character ingenium
mosgom neu cerebellum cerebellum
moukos mas mucus mūcus
mouros mas mounos slop illuuiēs
mousos fem weed alga
moutos mas penis mūtō
mowejō cau AIIIo move moueō
mreghmós mas skull caluaria
mṛējō sta deserve mereō
mṛghús mas short breuis
mṛijai intr die morior
mṛjos mas pubescent pū es
mṛkā carrot carota
mṛkējō sta H2mr-k be withered marceō
mṛkos adI disabled murcus
mṛktos adI cf. bhṛktos speckled uarius
mṛmeikā fem ant formīca
mṛmrājō murmur murmurō
mərnamói tr -nH2moi plunder exspoliō
mṛtājō tr crush conterō
mṛtāsjom neu mortar mortārium
453
mṛtis fem jo cf.moros death mors

mṛtos adII dead mortuus
mṛwos adII dead mortuus
mūdlom neu detergent ētersīuum
mūdnós clean mundus
mudstos mas must mustus
mugijō intr moo mugiō
munkō tr AVIa blow out ēmungō
mūs neu mūsós muH-s-; mews mouse mūs
muskā fem fly musca
muskos mas moss muscus
músnāmi tr BIVa meuH; secrete a ō
muneH2/3-mi;
meuH2/3-s-
mūtrom neu mud lutum
muttijō sta mutter muttiō
muttis adI speechless mutus
ṇ ind un- in-
nətis fem nates natis
nantis fem courage audacia
nāsis fem ej neH2s-i nose nārēs
natrīks fem (natrikós, serpent natrix
natrijós)
nawāgós epic sailor nauta
nāws fem nāwós neH2w- ship nāuis
ṇbhudhnóm neu abyss abyssus
ṇcḗn fem H1ngw groin inguen
ṇdha ind H1ndh- then deinde
ṇdherós adI tab underly inferior
ṇdhētós adII unmade infectus
ṇdhi ind in excess magis etiam
ṇdwojos adI sincere sincērus
nē ind no nē
nebhis fem ej cloud nū es
nebhlā fem fog nebula
nedis fem ej nettle urtīca
nedjos adI nHed-yo- near propinquus
nedō tr AIb nHd link nō ō
nedsā fem net nassa
nedskō tr Ava nHd-skō bind nectō
neghō tr AIa penetrate penetrō
neghrōn mas en kidney rēnis
nei ind not at all nequaquam
neicō tr wash lauō
neidō tr AIa humiliate humiliō
neikō tr AIa winnow ventilō
neitom neu rivalry inimicitia
neiwós adI depressed ēpressus
nékāmi tr kill necō
nekopīnós mas unexpected necopiinus
454
neks mas (ṇkos) death nex

némētom neu sanctuary sanctuārium
nemō tr n-em distribute istri uō
nemos neu es forest nemus
nemots epic. (németos) enemy inimīcus
nepēts mas (népotos) grandson nepos
neptis fem jo grand-daughter neptis
neqe ind and not neque
neqid pron. nothing nihil
neqis nobody nemō
neqom ind never nunquam
neqos pron. someone quisquis
neros mas H2ner(o)- soldier milēs
nérteros adII lower inferus
nertos adI strong robustus
nesros adI neHs-ro modest modestus
ṇeu ind without sine
neudō tr AIa spend impen ō
neukos adI myop myops
new(ij)os adI new nouus
newājō tr renew nouō
newṇ ind H1newn nine nouem
néwṇos adII ninth nouenus
nōnus
newō intr AIa nod nuō
newotāts fem newotātjos newness nouitās
ṇgnōtós adI unknown ignōtus
nī ind down sub
nijóm aor. a herō lead ūxī
niktis fem corn grānum
nínāmi tr BIIa, BIVa H3nH2 nami befriend (to) faueō
nīqos adII inclined prōnus
nisdos mas nest nī us
nitējō sta *nei- shine niteō
n teros adI tab inferior inferior
nitjos adI usual usitātus
ṇjousjom neu unjustice iuiuria
ṇjoustos adI unfair iniustus
ṇkējō tr AIIIe need necesse est
ṇkneumi tr BIVb H2nk; cf. arrive perueniō
nṇkskai pf.
H2eH2nó(n)kH2e
= ānoka
ṇmrótijos adII ṇmṛtó- immortal immortālis
nṃtos mas bending plecāmentum
nṇkskai tr AVc H2n-H2nk-sk- ; find by chance nanciscor
cf. ṇkneumi
nocējō cau put off exuō
nócodos adII nogwod(h)o- naked nū us
/nogwoto
455
/nogwno-
nōdos mas knot nō us
noibhos adII holy sanctus
nōinos pron nōinlos none nullus
nokejō cau AIIIo destroy eleō
nom ind so num
nom nē ind do not? nonne
nōmṇ neu en H3neHu3-mn, name nōmen
H3nHu3-mn,
nōmnājō tr name nōminō
nomṛ neu nómenos precision su tilitās
noqterinós adII night nocturnus
noqtis neu jo night nox
nosejō cau AIIIo free recipiō
nōunā fem noH2u- famine esuriēs
ṇprobhwos adI wicked improbus
ṇqijētós adI restless inquiētus
ṇserós adII our noster
ṇsis mas jo H2nsi H2nsr sword ensis
ṇsloimis adII unmuddy illīmis
ṇsme pron tab we nōs
ṇswodhros adI extraordinary rārus
nū ind now nunc
numki ind ki num now nunc
ṇwidis adI ignorant ignārus
obhi ind middle (in the) ob
óbrusjā fem flask obrussa
ochis mas cf. anghwis worm lom rīcus
odáugjai intr aggravate exulceror
odējō tr smell olō
odhrom neu enclosure claustrum
odjō (ōda) tr H3d hate ō i
ōdjom neu hatred ō ium
odós mas es odor odor
oghlejō cau AIIIo trouble inquietō
oghlos mas annoyance molestia
ogmos mas H2og-mo track orbita
oidējō sta H3eid be swollen tumeō
oighai intr depart proficiscor
oimos mas march itus
óinoikos adII single ūnicus
oinos adII H1oi-no- one ūnus
oinowṛstós adII simultaneously in eō em
made tempore factus
oisjā fem H3iH2s-? rudder tēmō
oisos adII that one iste
oitmi tr BIf H3oit- fetch appetō
oitos mas oath sacrāmentum
oiwos fem H3eiwo- yew taxus
okējō sta doubt u itō
456
ókētā fem harrow occa

ōkinós adI ready compositus
okris fem Hº3eHi2k-ri- summit apex
oktōu āi oi H1oktō u eight octo
oktowos adII eighth octāuus
ōkúpteros mas H3ku-/eH3ku- + hawk accipiter
-ptero-/-petro-
ōkús adI HeH3-k-u- ōkus swift rapidus
cf. abhnós
olejō cau AIIIo ol- / al- ? heat a oleō
olējō cau AIIIe H3elH1 destroy a oleō
olgjā fem tendril cincinnus
ōlim ind formerly ōlim
oljoi oljāi olja pron pl. all omnes
olmos fem elm ulmus
ōlnā fem H3olH1-neH2 elbow ulnā
ólteros adI further ulterus
óltṃos sup. furthest ultimus
oltrōd ind over there ultrā
olwā fem sedge ulua
omos adI H3emH3o- firm firmus
ōmós adI eH3mH2 raw crū us
omsos mas H1omH-so shoulder umerus
onbhlos mas H3nbh- navel umbilicus
onchis mas ej H3nghw-i fingernail unguis
oncṇ neu (óncenos) h3engwṇ ointment unguen
oncō tr AVIII H3engw oint unguō
oncōl mas ṇclós H1ongw-ōl cf. coal car ō
ecnis
ondos neu óndesos rock saxum
onējō tr H3enH2 blame culpō
ónerjos mas Honr -n- dream somnus
Honerio-
onghlos mas nail clāuus
onjos adII another alius
onkājō groan uncō
onkos mas hook uncus
onos neu es H3en-os- load onus
ónteros adII second secundus
ópitjos adII last ultimus
opjō tr choose ēligō
opnā fem wealth substantia
ópopā fem hoopoe upupa
opos neu (ópesos) H3ep-os- work opus
opos esti intr be necessary opportet
ops mas ēpos riches ops
oqō tr see ui eō
oqos mas H3okwo- eye oculus
ōrā fem edge ōra
ōrājō tr pray ōrō
457
orbhis mas H3erbhi-; cf. disk orbis

orghis
orbhjom neu inheritance hērē itās
orbhos adII H3erbho- orphan orbus
ordhos mas pordhos ? cf. hammer malleus
orgājō tr H3erg beat up contun ō

orghis fem ej H3erghi-; cf. ball pila
orbhis
orghós tr H1orghó- incited sollicitātus
ormos adI poor pauper
oros neu es mountain mons
orús adI H3eru-; H3ersi- high altus
ōs neu (sos) H3eHw3s- mouth ōs
(Bernabé)
H1eH3s-
(Melchert)
H3eH1s- (Vaan)
osbhos mas knot nodus
osdos mas H2osdo- branch rāmus
osēn mas (osnós) H3esH3r autumn autumnus
H3esH3en
oskos fem H3es-ko- /-kā ashtrē frāxinus
ósonos fem H3es-no- ashtree ornus
ostis mas ej H3estHi-; bone os
H3estHṛ- /
H3estHṇ -
ōsmi tr BIf H3eHw3s- open aperiō
ōstjom neu aperture ōstium
oudṇ neu (óudesos) land terra
ougros adI cold frigidus
ousis fem Hº3H 3s-,
w ear auris
H3oHw3s-,
H3eHw3s-,
H3H3wºs-
ṓw(ij)om neu H1oH2w-yo egg ōuum
owājō tr cheer ouō
owis fem H3ewi- sheep ouis
pəgtós adI pH1g-to fixed pactus
pəgrós adI pH1g-ro pH1g- sure constans
no
pəra ind close to iuxta
pəros ind before prae
pəstrom neu page pagina
pətējō sta ptH1 /pH1t lie open pateō
pətēr mas (pətros) pH2-ter; tab father pater
pətera fem saucer patera
pətjai tr suffer patior
pətrjā fem fatherland patria
pətrjos adII fatherly paternus
458
pətrujós mas uncle patruus

pəwējō sta fear paueō
pādhlom neu peH2-dhlo/tlo- sustenance pā ulum
pagos mas region pagus
pags fem pāgos peace pax
pālājō tr protect protegō
pálejā fem straw palea
pálowos adI grey pallidus
palpājō tr touch tangō
pámponos mas vine-leaf pampinus
pandos mas bent pandus
panknos swelling pannus
pankō intr swell tumescō
pannos mas rag pannus
pāpeljos mas butterfly pāpiliō
paplā fem swelling papula
pareikā fem concubine paelex
pārējō intr come out pāreō
parkō tr AIIb refrain from parcō
parsā fem sparrow parra
pasknis mas ej food pā ulum
pāskō tr peH2-sk; cf. feed pāscō
pāsmi
pāsmi intr BIe peH2-sk; cf. heed atten ō
pāskō at
pāsós mas relative familiāris
pastos adI fix fixus
pāstus mas pasture pastus
pau ind tab a bit paucum
paukos adI tab little paucus
paulos adI tab small paruus
pāwṛ neu (pwnós) peH2w-r- fire ignis
pedjós adI II worse ēterius
pedlom neu sandal sandalia
pedom neu pedóm ? footprint peda
pegtos neu es chest pectus
peidō prog AIa grow fat pinguescō
peigō tr AIa annoy molestō
peikā fem woodpecker pīca
peikō tr AIa adorn ornō
peikos mas magpie pīcus
peiks fem (pikós) pitch pix
peimis adI quick celer
peitus mas resin resīna
pējō tr AIa insult insultō
pekō tr comb pectō
pektēn mas (pektnós) comb pecten
pektō tr AIa comb pectō
peku neu (pékewos) cattle pecu
peldō tr AIa pelH2; cf. impel pellō
459
pḷnamaí
pelkō intr AIa move migrō
pelnis fem jo skin pellis
pelō tr AIb make money lucror
pelom neu surface superficiēs
pelsā fem rock rūpēs
pelu ind pelH1u much multum
pelupoikos adI variegated varius
pēlwis fem dish peluis
pelwos neu es pḷHwo-, dust puluis
polHwo-, pḷHwi-
pēmṇ neu damage ētrimentum
pendō tr hang pen ō
penō tr work with a cum fīlō la orō
thread
penom neu mud lūtum
penos neu es provision prouisiō
penqadkṃta adII fifty quinquaginta
penqdekṃ ind fifteen quindecim
penqe ind five quinque
penqstis fem jo fist pugnus
penqtos adII fifth quintus
pēnsús mas sand/gravel saburra
pentō tr AIa track in āgō
peqō tr AIa cook coquō
peqtis fem cooking coctiō
peqtṓr mas cook coctor
peqtós adI cooked coctus
per(i), per(ti) ind about per
perijō tr experience experiō
perístānom neu religion religiō
perknā fem cf. pṛqos trout tructa
pérkūnjom neu perw-r en mountain mons
perṃós adII absolute a solūtus
perom ind besides praeterea
peróm neu feather plūma
peros ind farther prorsum
pérperṇks ind turned aside perperām
perqos fem oak quercus
persā fem pers(n)eH2 heel calx
persnā fem ham perna
persō intr AIa splash respergō
pertā fem pole pertica
perti ind otherwise altrinsecus
péruti ind last year anno
praeterito
pesdō intr fart pe ō
pesnis mas jo penis pēnis
peterós mas wing āla
pétḷos adI pétH2los meager petilus
460
petō intr ptH1 fly a uolō

petsnā fem feather penna
petsnós mas bird uolucrēs
peumi tr understand intellegō
pewō tr AIa pwH clean purgō
pibō tr peHi3 drink i ō
pigējō sta be annoying molestus
(esse)
pikrós adI sharp picans
pilos mas hair pilus
pīmós adI fat crassus
(pím)prēmi tr BIIb prH1 burn cremō
pinkō tr paint pingō
pinjos neu stab baculum
pinsō tr crush pinsō
píperi neu ej pepper piper
pipjājō intr squeak pipiō
piptō tr (pepta) fall down praecipitor
piskis mas ej fish piscis
pitús mas food cibus
piwōn adI fem. píweryā fat pinguis
plabrājai intr babble garriō
plākejō cau AIIIo advise sua eō
plākos adI flat plānus
plākos adI wide latus
plānos adI plH2-no flat plānus
plārom neu floor conta ulātiō
plātom neu planitiēs campus
plātús adI plH2-tu plātus broad latus
plautos adI flat-footed plautus
pḷdājō intr paddle plau ō
plēdhwis fem ej crowd multitū ō
plēis ind plōis pleH1-is / ploH1- more plūs
is
plēistos adII sup greatest plūrimus
plējós adII comp greater maior
plékāmi cau fold plicō
plektō tr AIa plait plectō
(pím)plēmi tr BIIb plH1; cf pḷnāmi fill pleō
plēmṇ neu filling plētūra
plēnós adI plH1-nó full plēnus
plētis fem filling plētūra
pletjā fem coll. shoulder-blades scapulae
plētós adI plH2-to full plēnus
pleudō tr AIa pleu-d flood inun ō
pleumōn mas en lung pulmō
plewō intr AIa flow fluō
plighā fem appendix appendix
pḷmā fem plH2meH2 palm palma
pḷnamaí intr BIVa pelH2 cf. pel ō approach (to) appropinquō
461
pḷnāmi inc BIVa plH1; plḗnāmi fill pleō

pḷnēmi cf.
pímplēmi
plṇgō tr AVIc plH2-g strike plangō
plousmā fem feather plūma
ploutos mas board tabula
plówijā fem rain pluuia
plówijom neu cf. plowós ship nāuis
plowós mas cf. plówijom boat ratis
pḷowós adI pelH- pḷH-; grey albogiluus
polHwós
pḷtáwijā fem pḷtH2wiH2 earth terra
pḷtnos mas plH2t-H2no; cf. flatness planitiēs
plātús
pḷtom coat sagum
plúwaidhom neu lead plumbum
pḷwods mas (pḷwedos) swamp palus
pṇdēks mas (pṇdkos) paunch pantex
pneusō intr AIa breathe anhelō
pṇgō tr pH1g nail pangō
pṇtō tr ptH1 /pH1t spread out pan ō
podjom neu relief podium
pods mas (pedos) foot pēs
poimēks mas poimkós pumice pūmex
pōimōn mas en poH2i-mōn shepherd pāstor
pojejō cau AIIIo get drunk ine riō
polis fem (pólejos) (t)pḷH-i- city urbs
polkā fallow ueruactum
polnēks mas (polṇkós) thumb pollēx
polnō intr pH3l fall ca ō
polpos mas scene pulpitus
poltos mas pelH- porridge puls
pondos neu es weight pondus
pōnom neu drinking pōtus
pontis mas ej way uia
poqós mas cook coquus
porā fem air aer
porejō cau AIIIo cau convey asportō
porkos mas pig porcus
pornós mas cf. pratis 'filix' feather plūma
porsis mas bull bouuculus
porsōd ind far procul
portājō tr carry portō
pos(ti) ind after post
pósteri ind afterwards postea
pósteros adI tab subsequent posterus
póstṃos sup. tab last porstrēmus
postrōd ind backwards retrō
potējō tr hold possi eō
poti ind towards uersus
462
potijai inc abl acquire potior

potis mas ej master dominus
pōtis fem jo drink pōtiō
pōtlom neu glass pōculum
potmos mas span lātitū o
potnjā fem mistress domina
pōtṓr mas drinker pōtor
pougā fem buttocks pūga
poughos adI virginal uirginālis
pougnos mas fist pugnus
pounā fem swelling turgentia
poutos mas penis pēnis
powejō cau AIIIo clean purgō
póweros mas boy puer
powros adI pure pūrus
prāi ind prH1i before prae
práighesto ind at hand praestō
práiloghos adII present praesens
práinōmṇ neu en name praenōmen
práiteri ind along praeter
prāmos sup prH2-mo- first prīmus
pratis fem ej cf. pornós fern filix
'plūma'
prāwos adII first prīmus
preistos adI preceding anterior
prējō intr fan fla ellō
prekō tr aliqui a aliquō beseech precor
preks fem prēkos plea prex
premō tr AVIII press premō
prepō intr AIa look like uideor
presō tr AVIII press premō
pretjom neu price pretium
pretō tr AIb realise percipiō
préwijos adI es previous anterior
prewō dur AIa hover pullulo
pṛgā fem portico porticus
pṛijō tr prH3 give birth pariō
prijós adI dear cārus
prījós adII prījesos foremost prīmus
prīskos adI *preiskwú ? ancient priscus
prīsmos sup. first prīmus
prītis fem priH-ti pleasure electātiō
prītós adI priH-to pleased electātus
pṛka fem furrow sulcus
pṛknos adI motley uarius
pṛkskā fem question quaestiō
pṛkskō tr (bhewom ask poscō
kwomē
pṛnāmi tr BIVa prH2 sell uen ō
pṛnos adI pṛH-nó, perH-nó past praeteritus
463
prō(d) ind forwards prō

próbhoudhos mas attention attentiō
probhwājō tr prove pro ō
probhwos adI probhú- good bonus
prodətṓr adII traitor próditor
prṓddōmi tr put forth pro ō
prōi ind in the morning mane
proitis fem departure profectiō
prokós mas suitor procus
prokos adI advanced prouectus
promos sup principal prīmus
proqēd ind near prope
proqos adI nigh propinquus
prósēdjom neu kindness beneficium
próstōrnos adI extended extensus
prostos mas promontory tumulus
próteros adII first (of two) prīmus a
duobus)
proti ind against contrā
prōtós neu prH3-tó assigned attri ūtus
prousijō intr irritate irritō
pṛptus (pṛptewós) form forma
pṛqos adI cf. perknā coloured uarius
pṛsnā fem prH3sneH2 piece fragmentum
pṛsom neu leek porrum
pṛstis mas prominence prominentia
pṛtis fem prH3ti- part pars
pṛtus mas (pṛtwos) ford portus
prunsō tr freeze gelō
prúsneumi tr BIVb water rigō
pruswa fem frost pruīna
pteljā fem lime-tree tilia
pujō inc puH molder putēscō
pūjós adI cf. pūtós righteous pius
pukos mas tail cauda
pulgā fem lock of hair crīnis
pūlós adI cf. pūterós putrid puter
pungō tr punch pungō
pūpos mas child pūpus
pūrós mas puHro- core nucleus
pusbhis mas H3pu-s-bhi groom pu ēs
pusjō tr inflate inflō
puslēks mas pusḷkós flea pūlēx
pustlā fem pustule pustula
pūtējō sta be rotten pūteō
pūterós adI cf. pūlós rotten puter
putlom neu child infans
pūtós adI cf. pūjós clean putus
puwējō tr reckon computō
puwos neu es puH pus pūs
464
qəddrom neu square quadrum

qətjō tr shake quatiō
qətrus ind four times quater
qətrusnos adII four each quaternī
qətwṛádkṃta adII kwtwH3r- forty qua rāgintā
qətwṛádkṃt adII fortieth qua ragēsimu
ṃos s
qətwṛatnjom neu four years quadriennium
qətwṛdekṃ ind fourteen quattuordecim
qətwṛdjówijo neu four days quadriduum
m
qətwṛes adII ktwH3r-; tab four quattuor
qətwṛkṃtémt adII four hundreth quadrigentesi
ṃos mus
qətwṛkṃtos adII four hundred quadrigenti
qətwṛpods adII jo quadruped qua rupēs
qətwṛtos adII fourth quartus
qād ind which quā
qālis adII how quālis
qām ind kweH2m as quam
qāqos pron whoever quisque
qasjos mas basket cista
qawṇtos pron how great quantus
qdnos adI magic magicus
qe ind (encl.) and que
qedos mas angle angulus
qedos neu magic force magia
qeisō tr kwei-s/kwei-t feel sentiō
qeistis fem AIa quoque kwistis consideration consi erātiō
qejēskō intr qiH1 rest quiēscō
qejō tr compose compōnō
qejtis fem quoque qjtis collection collectiō
qeklom neu wheel rota
qekō tr AIa gaze prospectō
qeli ind far (from) procul
qelō dur AIa k elH2
w circulate uersor
qelos neu group caterua
qelpō tr AIa curve incuruō
qelsō tr furrow sulcō
qemō tr swallow uorō
qentos adII holy sacer
qerpō inc AIa turn reuertor
qésai intr complain queror
qestis fem part pars
qidpe ind indeed quippe
qijētis fem rest quiēs
qijētós adI peaceful quiētus
qínumoi tr claim uin icō
qíqeimi tr BIId estimate aestimō
qis qid int tab what qui quae quod
465
qisqis qidqid pron anyone quisquis

quidquid
qṃdō int when quan ō
qṇtjō tr suffer patior
qodhei int where u ī
qoi ind where quō
qoina fem retaliation ulciscātiō
qoinom mas dirt excrēmentum
qoitrós, adI fair weather serēnus
koitrós
qolkā fem cushion culcita
qolus fem (ew) distaff colus
qom ind when cum
qomde ind where unde
qondhros fem angelica angelica
qori ind why ? cūr
qorjom neu cauldron catīnus
qoros mas type in olēs
qos qā(i) qod rel tab who, which quī quae quo
qostā fem cough tussis
qot(j)os int how many quot
qota int how ut
qote int whither quō
qóteros pron which uter
qotrēd ind whither quō
qotrōd ind wherefrom unde
qṛeumi dur BIIIb kwrH qerjō handle gerō
qrínāmi tr kwrei-H2 buy emō
qrītóm adII bought emptus
qṛmis mas (qṛmejós) worm uermis
qṛsnos mas bush arbustus
qṛtus mas (qṛtewós) cf. krwtis time uix
rəbhjō intr rage ra ō
rədjom neu rtH ray radium
rəgājō tr wet rigō
rəpjō tr snatch rapiō
rətis fem (rətjos) reason ratiō
rādō rac H(w)rH2d shave rā ō
rāpom neu turnip rāpum
rārós adI dispersed rārus
rastós adI smooth glaber
raudos neu es roudho- ? metal metallum
raukos adI tough rudis
rāwos adI grey rāuus
ṛdhjō intr grow crēscō
ṛdhwos adI Hrdh-wo- steep arduus
rebhā fem leap saltus
rebhājō intr jump saltō
rebhō tr AIa shield tegō
rebhrus mas tube conductus
466
recos mas H1eregwo- ; pl. darkness tenebrae

rēd/re ind dis- re(d)
regeinā fem rēgnī queen regīna
regjos adII kingly regius
regnom neu regjom kingdom regnum
regō tr H3reg direct regō
regs mas rēgos king rex
regtós mas right rectus
reidhō tr AIa ride equitō
reidhos adI easy facilis
reigō tr AIa bind alligō
reimā fem reiwā crack rīma
rēimṇ neu en rīmo- rīmā- list seriēs
rēis fem rijos *HreH1-i- propriety rēs
<*HrH1jós)
reiwos mas reiH2- brook rīuus
rējō intr AVIII H1rH row rēmō
rekā tick ricinus
rékneumi tr BIVb range or inō
remō intr AIb relax requiescō
rēmoi neu H2rH1 reckon reor
rentus mas property possessiō
rēpō intr crawl rēpō
resgō tr AIa plait plectō
resgtis fem rope restis
rēsmos mas H1reH1-smo / (- oar rēmus
t-smo ?)
rēti neu strainer colum
retō intr AIb run currō
retrōd ind back retrō
reubō intr AIa scrape out a rā ō
reudhos adI red (-haired) rūfus
reudhos neu es H1reudhos/es redness ru ōr
reudō intr AIa reu H reu ō cry rū ō
reudmi
reudos adI wild rudis
reughmṇ neu dough pasta
reugō intr AIa H1reu-g belch ructō
reumi rumor (to rūmorem faciō
produce)
reusmṇ neu rūmen rūmen
reusmnājō intr ruminate rūminō
rew ind outdoors forās
réwesnā fem ruin ruina
rewis mas Hrew planet planēta
rewmṇ neu hair capillum
rewō inc / tr AIa H3rw / rwH3 break off ēfringō
rewos neu (réwesos) rews, rows; cf. open land rūs
jewos, weis
ṛghējō tr incite sollicitō
467
rigjō tr torture tormentō

ṛijai inc set out orior
rikjō tr ruin ruinō
rínāmi tr BIVa H3ry flush away egerō
ṛkējō sta tr AIIIe H2rk contain arceō
ṛkēslom neu door-bar repagula
ṛklā fem rktla chest arcula
rnāmi tr BIVa H1erH2 divide īui ō
ṛneumi intr BIVb H3r move cieō
ṛnumái tr BIVb try to get capessō
ṛnutis fem jo movement mōmentum
robhos mas H3robho- roof tectus
rōdhí ind (abl./instr.) on account of causā
rōdhjō tr endeavour conitor
rōdō tr H(w)rH2d tear rō ō
rōdos adI joyful alacer
roinos mas dam agger
ros mas rēsos spray ros
rōstrom neu beak rōstrum
rotā fem rotH-eH2 wheel rota
ṛots mas et charioteer auriga
roudhstos mas r(o)udh-to? rust rō īgō
roudos mas crying plōrātus
rounā fem ruH-nā rūnā secret secrētum
roupis fem rock rūpēs
routos mas intestiones intestīnum
rowā fem pause cessātiō
ṛsjā fem H2r- envy inuidia
ṛskai intr H1r go eō
ṛtís fem jo farewell a itiō
ṛtkos mas H2rt-ko- bear ursus
rudhējō sta be red ru eō
rudhrós adI H1ru-dhro- red ruber
rudhsós adI reddish rubeus
rudlós adI rude rudis
rugijō intr H3reuH / H3reug roar rugiō
/ H3reuk
ruktus mas tunic tunica
rumpō tr break rumpō
runkō tr AVIa H3ruk weed runcō
rupús adI rupus shoddy insincērus
ruspājai tr rummage rūspor
rwtós adI H3rw-to collapsed rutus
s(w)ei neu whenever sī
s(w)eike ind thus sīc
səkesnā fem pickaxe sacēna
səksom neu stone saxum
səpijō tr have taste sapiō
sāgijō tr sH2g seek sāgiō
sagom neu mantle sagum
468
saipis mas fence saepēs

saitā fem hair (strong) saeta
saitlom neu lifetime saeculum
saiwos adI fierce saeuus
sājō sta be furious saeuiō
sákrodhokjo neu sacrifice sacrificium
m
sákrodhots mas et priest sacerdos
sakros adI holy sacer
sal neu (salós, sali salt sal
sálejos)
saldō cau salt sallō
salēiks fem (salikós, salīks willow salix
salijós)
saleiwā fem saliva salīua
salom neu swell salum
salús adI salus dirty immundus
sāmən neu quietness quiēs
samdhos mas sand sabulum
sāmis adI quiet quiētus
samos mas sṃos sṃā summer aestas
sánāmi tr BIVb sH2; sH2neumi; satisfy satisfaciō
sātijō cf. westijō
)
sáneumi tr BIVb snH perform efficiō
sankijō tr enact sanciō
sapos fem juice succus
sasjom neu crop messis
sātis fem satisfaction satiās
sauros adI sour acerbus
sawel(jos) seH2w-l/n; sw- sun sōl
ṛ n
se pron (sewe) tab himself se
se/sos sā/sī pron tab this iste ista istud
tod
sēd ind apart sē
sēdājō cau appease sē ō
sedējō sta be sitting se eō
sedējō ambhí sta besiege circumse eō
sedlā fem chair sella
sedmən neu settlement conditus
sedos neu es residence sē ēs
segēts fem (segtós) sowing satiō
seghdhlā fem sghe hlā plough handle buris
seghe hlā
seghō tr AIa hold retineō
seghos mas victory uictoria
seghurós adI secure firmus
ségneumi tr BIVb trap capiō
segnom neu trap pedica
469
segō tr AIb sow serō

seikā fem club fustis
seiqō tr spill effun ō
seilō intr AIa drip exstillō
seimā fem seiH-meH2 band uitta
seimṇ neu H2sei-mn secretion secrētiō
seinus mas seiH-nu- chain catēna
sējdhlom neu sieve cōlum
sējō tr AVIII sH1y sieve cōlō
sékāmi tr cut secō
sēknis adI calm calmōsus
seks / sweks ind six sex
sekstos adII sixth sextus
sekūris fem axe secūris
selgō tr AIa shoot isparō
seljos adI pleasant amoenus
selkō intr AIa HeHw3lk / drag sulcō
s-HHw3elk
selō tr AIb buy emō
selom neu solos solā solis residence domicilium
sēlom neu sowing sementis
selwā fem property possessiō
sēmi- adII half medius
semjō tr aquam a naue bilge out excupāre
semli ind once semel
sēmṇ neu sḗmenos seed sēmen
semos mas semo- sṃo- one ūnus
senchō intr sing canō
senējō sta be old seneō
senēks mas (senós) senos; senH1, old senex
senH2
senqō inc AIa sink mergō
sentos neu es path sēmita
sepēlijō tr bury sepeliō
sépeltrom neu tomb sepulcrum
sepō tr provide parō
septṃ ind seven septem
séptṃos adII seventh septimus
seqai dur follow sequor
seqi ind vis-à-vis aduersum
seqō tr say īcō
seqos adI separate separātus
serō tr AIa connect serō
serom neu liquid serum
sēros adI long-lasting sērus
sérpenos mas snake serpens
serpō intr AIa crawl serpō
sesmi sleep ormiō
sesqos fem sedge spartum
setis epic. visitor uisitātor
470
sḗtjosi less sētius

seugō tr AIa suck sūgō
seutō sta AIa boil ferueō
sewājō prog lessen minuō
sewe igenes. self sui
séwijos adII his suus
sewō tr seuH stir up (to) permoueō
silējō intr silent (to be) sileō
síneumi tr BIVb syH(w) bind ligō
sinísteros adI propice i ōneus
sinō tr place sinō
sinus mas ew bosom sinus
sisdō intr sit down sī ō
sísermi intr BIIe flow fluō
sísghrāmi tr smell olfaciō
síslāwos adI beneficial benignus
sisō tr sHi1 sow serō
sisqos adI dry siccus
sītús adI sHi-tu cf. sisō far-reaching sparsus
sītus
skīrós adI clear clārus
sjewmən neu sjuHmən seam sūtūra
sjewō tr AIa syHw sew suō
sjūdhlā fem syHw -(dh)leH2 sewer's awl sū ula
sjūtós adI sewn sūtus
skabhjēs fem scabies sca iēs
skabhnom neu stool scamnus
skabhō tr scratch sca ō
skaiwós adI left-handed scaeuus
skalpō tr carve scalpō
skandō dur mount scan ō
skandslā fem ladder scāla
skāpos mas handle manubrium
skatējō dur gush scateō
skatō inc spring scatō
skedō intr AIa scatter dispergor
skegō intr hasten festīnō
skejō sta AIa shine luceō
skekō intr AIa burst in irrumpō
skelō tr AIa shall e eō
skelos neu es evil scelus
skemō tr cover uelō
skerbhō tr AIa hollow out excauō
skerdā fem (s)keHr(-deH2) shit merda
\Hr/Hn
skerdō AIa castrate castrō
skerjō tr split scin ō
skerō intr spring exsultō
skeubhō inc AIa escape effugiō
skeudō tr AIa shoot ēmittō
471
skeumō tr AIa cover o ruō

skeuros adI dark o scūrus
skeutō tr AIa s-kuH-t cover operiō
skewō tr AIa H2kw- inspect (to) inspiciō
skidjō tr decide ēcernō
skijō tr know sciō
skindō tr split scin ō
skīwṛ neu skīwṇós (s)kiHu- shin-bone tī ia
skḷiqā fem pod siliqua
skḷjō tr (s)kel split scin ō
skḷneumi BIVb deflect eflectō
skṇgjō intr limp clau icō
sknidā fem nit ouum
skodhos mas harm damnum
skoidos mas woodpiece lignum
skoirsās adII clown scurrā
skoitom neu skoito-s, skeito- shield scūtum
m
skojā fem shade umbra
skolmā fem small pillar columella
skōlos mas element ēlementum
skolpos mas shelf pluteus
skortom neu whore scortum
skostrom neu canopy umbraculum
skotos mas shadow umbra
skouros mas nord septentriō
skousā fem trousers pantalōnus
skreibhō tr AIa write scri ō
skreidō tr AIa carve caelō
skrobhis fem pit scrobis
skroupos mas sherd scrūpus
skroutos mas skeletton larua
skubtis fem omoplate scapulae
skutājō tr maim truncō
skūtos mas skuH-to covering operīmentum
slabai intr slip labor
slagós adI slH2gó- slack laxus
slakō tr hit offen ō
slatā fem rod ferula
sleibō AIa slip prolabor
sleidhō intr AIa glide surrēpō
sleigō AIa smooth explanō
sleimā fem sleH1i-meH2 file līma
sleimājō tr polish līmō
sleimāks mas jo snail cochlea
sleiwos adI violet liueus
slējús adI sleH1i-u- slējus smooth lēuis
sleubō inc AIa slip prolabor
sleugō tr AIa devour uorō
sligōn mas en mattock ligō
472
sḷijai inc spring saliō

sloidhos mas mass massa
sloiwom neu plum prunum
slougos mas crowd multitū ō
slṛgjō tr gulp lurcō
sṃ ind together cunctim
smā ind certainly certō
smalos mas smH1-lo, smeH1- animal animal
lo
smegō tr AIa desire cupiō
smeidhō tr AIa carve caelō
smeighsli neu thousand mille
smeikā neu crumb mīca
smeirai tr wonder a mīror
smeirātlom neu miracle mirāculum
smeiros adI wonderful mīrus
smeitō tr AIa send mittō
smejō intr AIa smile arri eō
smekslā fem chin mentum
smelgā fem turfgrass agrostis
smelō dur AIa burn urō
smemorjā fem memory memoria
smaneumi inc BIVb s-m i H- stain maculō
smeneumi
smerdā fem shit merda
smerdō intr AIa stink foeteō
smeros neu es defect mendum
smerwā fem marrow medulla
smeughō intr AIa smoke fūmō
smitlā fem sm(i)H2- stain macula
sṃlis adI similar similis
sṃloghós fem wife uxor
sṃoitis fem accordance concursus
sṃópətōr epi sṃópətros sibling fraterculans
smoughos mas alleyway angustiae
smoughos mas smoke fūmus
smudhnō intr AVId acc. uel cōgit. contrive machinor
smúghneumi tr BIVb slip in irrēpō
snəghjō intr creep rēpō
snadhō tr cut off amputō
snāmi intr Bib snH2 swim nō
sneighs fem (snighwós) snow nix
sneitō tr AIa curtail ēminuō
sneitos adI scanty exiguus
snēmi tr (s)-nH1; spin neō
sneH1-ye/o-
snēmṇ neu yarn nēmen
snerō intr AIa whirl contorqueō
snētjā fem embroidery intextus
sneubhō tr AIa marry nū ō
473
sneudhs fem (snudhós) (aerea) smog turbulentia

snēwər neu *sneH1w-r n - cable mitra
sṇi ind apart separātim
sníncheti sta snow ninguit
snoghā snake serpens
sṇstus intelligence sensus
sṇtējō think cōgitō
sṇterí ind missing absente
snusós fem daughter-in-law norus
sodejō cau AIIIo settle instituō
sōdjā mas soot fūlīgō
sodjom neu seat solium
sodóm intr (aor.ab eimi) went iī
sognos mas rope retinaculum
soitos mas soiH(w)-to magic uenēficium
sōlājai tr selH2 give joy sōlor
solkos mas s-HHw3olko- furrow sulcus
solpos mas oil oleum
solwos pron soḷH2-wo, whole tōtus
sḷH2-wo
solwotāts fem solwotātjos totality integritās
somejō tr AIIIo make equal (to) aequō
somós adII somHó-; sṃos equal aequus
sondhos mas son-dhH1o protrusion excrescentia
sontejō cau AIIIo send mittō
sontis adI guilty sons
soqjos mas allied socius
sormos mas sorā flow fluxus
sorbhējō tr sip sor eō
sorbhos fem rowan tree sorbus
sorwā fem entrails uiscus
soujós adII left sinister
soukos mas swoqós juice sūcus
sówijā fem kiss sauia
spəros adI spH1-ro thriving prosperus
spakos mas drop gutta
spáneumi BIVb extend exten ō
sparos mas post sparus
sparwos mas sparrow parra
speikā fem head of cereal spīca
speiksnā fem prickle spīna
speimis adI thin tenuis
spekjēs fem aspect speciēs
spekjō tr look speciō
spelghā fem spleen lien
spelgis mas pole asser
spelō intr recitate recitō
speltā table tabula
spēmi prog speH1 extend exten ī
spēnos mas psteHn ?? nipple tetta
474
speqos mas cave specus

sperdhō tr AIa compete certō
sperghō intr AIa hurry festīnō
sperjō tr scatter (to) spargō
spes fem spēsos hope spes
speudō tr hurry accelerō
spingjā fem finch passer
spjewō intr AIa spit spuō
spjonos fem foxglove igitālis
purpurea
spjwtos adI spit sputus
spleidō tr AIa split secō
spleighō intr AIa retire sēcē ō
splighstós mas side latus
spḷndējō sta be bright splen eō
spḷtājō tr AIa cut off separō
spṇdō intr s-pH1d flutter coruscō
spoimā fem foam spūma
spoisājō intr perspire spirō
spoisnā fem breath halitus
spoljom neu dispossession spolium
spondejō tr AIIIo promise spon eō
spondhā fem bed lectus
spōnos mas stick uirga
sponstós mas betrothed sponsus
sportā fem basket sporta
spoudā tr haste coactus
spṛāmi tread calcō
spreigō sta AIa abound a un ō
spreudō intr AIa accelerate accelerō
sprewō tr AIa excite excitō
spṛgō tr AIIh spH2r-g burst isplō ō
spṛnō cau move away spernō
spṛos mas ankle talus
sqalos mas large fish squalus
sqeros neu es portent prodigium
sqijā fem thorn spīna
sredhō intr sredh / sret billow aestuō
sremsō intr AIa fray diffilor
srenkō intr AIa snore sternuō
srewō intr AIa flow fluō
srewtis fem quoque srwtis strom fluxus
srīgējō sta be cold frigeō
srīgos neu es cold frīgus
sṛijō tr weed sarriō
sṛkijō tr repair sarciō
srodhos mas sea heaviness aestūs
maritimī
sroknā fem beak rostrum
srowmos mas srowos, srewmṇ stream cursus
475
srwtom neu pipe fistula

sṛpā fem sickle falcicula
sṛpijō tr cleanse putō
sṛwājō tr observe seruō
sṛwos mas ṛ sicu wṛk s guardian custōs
non er sicut
kerwos
stətis fem steH2ti- / stH2ti-; standing post statiō
stātis
stətus mas position status
stādhlom neu stall stā ulum
stagnom neu pond lacus
stagō sta remain (water) remaneō
staknom neu pool stagnum
stālos mas couch solium
(sí)stāmi intr BIIa steH2 stístāmi stand stō
(sí)stāmi sta advantage praestō
antí/prāi
(sí)stāmi apó intr be far istō
stāmṇ neu steH2-mṇ / arrangement institūtiō
stoH2-mo-
stānējō tr place con ō
stānom neu place locus
stārós adI stable stā ilis
stātlom neu platform catasta
staurejō tr AIIIo set instaurō
stauros mas stoH2u-ro stake adminiculum
staurós adI stūrós staked a miniculātus
stāwō tr AIa stop ētineō
steighō intr AIa walk am ulō
steipēts fem (steiptós) stick stīpēs
steiwā fem plough handle stīua
stejō inc AIa condense spissō
stejsjā fem icicle stīria
stelghō intr AIa flow down ēfluō
stelō tr put pōnō
stelōn (stélenos) cf. tálejā offshoot stolō
stelpō intr AIa stare intueor
stembhō tr AIa cf. tem hō stamp on conculcō
stemō intr stumble titu ō
sterbhnjom neu dry skin pellis sicca
sterbhō intr AIa decline eca ō
stergō tr AIa love amō
sterkō tr AIa befoul coinquinō
sterkos neu es shit stercus
sterkos neu es shit stercus
sterlā fem H2s-ter-leH2 star stella
sternom neu entrails intestina
sternós adI sterH1-nó/ rigid rigidus
sterH1-yó
476
sterō tr AIa rob fūror

stérolis adI sterile sterilis
steros mas H2ster- star stella
stērps mas (stṛpos) trunk stirps
stertō intr AIa snore stertō
stertos mas pinnacle pinaculus
steugō tr AIa (s)H2teu-g push away (to) a igō
steumi tr inform ēnuntiō
steupō tr AIa hit quatiō
steutō tr AIa support sustineō
stigājō tr stick instigō
stiprós adI safe secūrus
stlāmṇ neu plate lamina
stlātos mas s-tlH2-to side latus
stlītis fem ej (s)H2lei-t/s legal suit līs
stlokos mas place locus
stṃnos mas trunk truncus
stṇtējō sta be delayed moror
stobhos mas pillar su licā
stoghos mas trestle uara
stoighos mas street uia
stoipejō cau AIIIo densifiy stīpō
stolbos mas ruler (in uirga
topography)
stolgos mas force uis
stōmṇ neu es palate palātum
storejō cau AIIIo straighten (to) corrigō
stornjā fem centre centrum
stoudjom neu study studium
stoupā fem oakum stūpā
strāmṇ lay strāmən
strātos army exercitus
strātós adI strH2-tó spread strātus
streibā fem line linea
streidō dur AIa streid / streig hiss stri ō
streigō tr AIa draw stringō
streigs fem (strigós) night bird strīx
strengō AIa restrict o stringō
strengom string corda
strēnwos adI active strēnuus
strepō intr AIa make noise strepō
streubhō tr AIa make bitter acer ō
streudō dur AIa fight certō
strewō tr AIa str-w strew sternō
strigājō intr stop strigō
strigjā fem line stria
stringō tr AVIa draw tight stringō
stṛneumi intr BIVb pster sneeze sternuō
stṛnō tr s-trH2 spread sternō
stṛnos mas extension strātus
477
strudsmā fem pipe canna

strutjos mas ancestor abauus
struwis fem ej heap struēs
studējō sta thrash stu eō
stupējō sta rigid (to be) stupeō
stupos mas stick pālus
sū lois H1su-(H) well enē
sudhjom mas beer zythum
sujō tr spill effun ō
sūkós mas piglet porcellus
suljā fem dregs colluuiēs
súnoros mas vigorous uiridis
sūnús mas ew son fīlius
sup ind under sub
supā fem soup ius
supājō tr throw iaciō
(s)úperi ind tab over super
(s)úperos adI tab superior superior
(s)upmos sup. uppest summus
sūs mas (suwós) suH-; sews pig sūs
susājō intr buzz susurrō
susdos mas H2sus- / H2suso dry siccus
/ H2susk(w)o-/
H2susdo-
/H2souso-
sūtus mas birth partus
suwids adI expert doctus
swəlējō tr swlHeH1, inc. be swollen (to) tumeō
swəlēskō caus.
swolējō
swādejō cau AIIIo recommend suā eō
swādús adI sweH2d-u-; pleasant suauis
swā us
swāi ind so sīc
swēdhskō inc become suēscō
accustomed
swēdhus fem ew custom mos
sweidō blaze flagrō
sweidos neu es star sī us
sweighlājō intr whistle sī ilō
sweigō prog AIa seesaw oscillō
sweisdō AIa whistle siffilō
swekō intr AIa smell good fragrō
swekos adI fragrant fragrant
swékuros mas father-in-law socer
swekrús fem ew swekrúH2 mother-in-law socrus
swelā fem sunlight aprīcum
swelājō tr devour (to) uorō
swelāks mas (swélakos) seal phoca
sweljos mas relative familiāris
478
swelō intr AIa glare splen eō

swelom neu sleeper traversa
swelplos neu es sulphur sulpur
swemōr dur be followed secūtus ueniō
swénāmi intr BIIIa sound sonō
swendhō prog AIa s-wndh swindle ēcrēscō
swepō dur AIa sleep ormiō
swepṛ neu (swépenos) dream somnium
swerbhō inc AIa swr-bh turn gyrescō
swerghō tr AIa take care cūrō
swerō intr AIa whisper susurrō
swērús adI swērus important sērius
swerwos adI snappy transpuntorius
swesōr fem er sister soror
swesreinos mas sister's son so rīnus
swīnós adII porcine porcīnus
swoidājō intr swi jō sweat sū ō
swoidos mas sweat sū or
swólejā fem ground solea
swombhós mas fungus fungus
swonos mas swonós ? noise sonus
swōpijō cau fall asleep sōpiō
swoplom neu broom everriculum
swopnjājō intr cog. dream somniō
swopnjom neu dream somnium
swopnos mas sleep somnus
sworā fem wade sūra
swordis fem ej rubbish sor ēs
sworēx (sworkós) shrew sorēx
sworos mas stick pālus
swṛneumi tr BIVb wound uulnerō
swrswrājō intr whisper susurrō
təkējō inc silent (to be) taceō
tādējō tr qualify qualificō
tādhēskō intr melt tā ēscō
tādhis fem ej tH2-dh/k/w corruption tā ēs
tagjō tr put in order or inō
taismos mas dough massa
tājō tr steal fūror
tājots mas tajetos tāyus = tātis burglar fūr
tálejā fem cf. stelōn stab talea
tālis adII such tālis
tām ind at that point tam
tarsós mas belly uenter
tárudos adI slow tardus
tātā neu dad pappa
tauros mas bull taurus
tausnim ind silently silenter
tausos adI silent silens
tawṇtos pron so much tantus
479
tēglā fem teg hlā tēgula

tegnom neu beam tignum
tegō tr cover tegō
tegos neu es shrine aedicula
tegtom neu ceiling tectum
tegús adI tegus dense crē er
teibhjā fem shin-bone tī ia
teknom neu creature crātūra
tekō tr AIb receive accipiō
tekslā fem axe secūris
teksnā fem technique ars
teksō tr AIa tek(s) fashion fabricor
tekstā fem bowl testa
tekstlom neu web tēla
tekwō intr AIa tHkw run away ēcurrō
telmṓn neu tel-H2-mon- strap infula
telpō intr AIa get in a space locus mihi est
telsus fem ew telH2o-, ground tellus
telH2mōn
(télH2menos)
tembhō tr AIa (s)tem-b(h); cf. spurn contemnō
stem hō
temesras fem pl. darkness tenebrae
temlom neu temH-lo /temH- temple templum
no
temos neu es obscurity o scuritās
tēmos mas drunken ē rius
tempos neu es time tempus
tenā fem ribbon taenia
tendō tr extend ten ō
tenghō tr AIa drag away a strahō
tengō tr impregnate tingō
teni ind until tenus
tenjō tr AIa extend prolongō
tenjom neu temple tempus
temkō prog result ēueniō
tenos neu es ligament ligāmen
tensō extend prōtēlō
tentrom neu string fūnis
tepējō sta be warm tepeō
tepnos neu es fever febris
teqom neu passage trāiectiō
tercō tr AIa threaten minor
téredhrom neu auger terebra
tergō tr AIa *trigwō ? cf. wipe tergō
gr.
tergslom neu towel mantellum
terjō tr rub teirō
termēn mas (terṃnós) end terminus
terō tr BIVb trH 1;
w cross transeō
480
tṛneumi
terpō intr AIa enjoy oneself oblector
terptis fem jo quoque tṛptis enjoyment electātiō
tersā fem earth terra
tersai intr get dry serescō
térunos adI teren feeble tener
tetkōn mas (tétkenos) woodworker lignārius
tettā fem teat tetta
téturos mas turkey pavō
teukmṇ neu progeny progeniēs
teukō AIa dig out effo iō
teupō inc AIa knee genuflector
teurō tr AIa stop up o tūrō
teusmṇ neu lot cumulus
teusqa neu (tesqõm) desert desertum
teutā fem teuteH2 people populus
tewai tr observe tueor
tewos neu es force impetus
tibhjā neu stalk tibia
timējō tr be afraid metuō
titijō intr chirp titiō
tkeimi tr Bid establish con ō
tlāmi sta telH2; cf. tḷnō endure resistō
tḷnāmi
tlātjos adI patient patiens
tḷijō sta rest requiescō
tḷnō tr telH2; tḷnāmi cf raise tollō
tlāmi
tloqai intr speak loquor
tmāmi tr temH1 cut secō
tṃpus adI elastic diffusilis
tṇējō sta tr comprehend teneō
tṇghus adI fat o ēsus
tṇgō tr touch tangō
tmklos adI curdled milk lacte
coagulātum
tmktos adI clotted concrētus
tṇtos adI stretched tentus
tṇus adI tnH2-u- thin tenuis
togā fem garment toga
toi ind certainly profectō
tōkslos mas hatchet bipennis
toksos fem tk-so, tok-so, juniper iuniperus
tkwso-, tokw-so ?
tokwós adI fugacious fugax
tolājō tr call for a uocō
tolkos mas bran furfur
tom ind then tum
tom-ke ind then tunc
tomos mas cut sectiō
481
tónāmi intr BIIIa (s)tenH2 / resonate tonō

(s)tonH2
tondejō tr AIIIo shave ton eō
tonejō tr AIIIo extend (to) exten ō
tongejō tr AIIIo give one's opinion opīnor
tonslis fem fierceness tūlēs
tonstṓr adII jo hairdresser tonsōr
tóntenos mas noise strepitus
tontrom neu thunder tonitrus
topnos mas warmth tepor
toqe ind also quoque
torcós adI threatening minax
tori ind therefore propterea
tórkmṇtom neu tension (engine) tormentum
tormos mas bolt cnō ax
torós adI loud penetrans
torpejō cau AIIIo rejoice electō
torqejō cau AIIIo turn torqueō
torqis fem ej necklace torquēs
torsejō cau AIIIo dry torreō
torsmṇ neu thunder tonitrum
tot(j)os adII so many tot
totrēd ind towards there eō
totrōd ind from there inde
toughā fem luck fortūna
touknā fem thigh perna
trabhis fem ej beam trabs
traghō tr drag trahō
traghsmā fem weft trāma
trāntis ind through trāns
trebhō sta AIa trb(h) dwell ha itō
tregsnos mas brave au āx
treistis adI sad tristis
trejes trija adII tab three trēs
trísores
tremō dur AIa tremble tremō
trenkō tr AIa incite incitō
trepō tr AIa pass peram ulō
tresō AVIII shiver tremō
treudō cau AIa force in intrū ō
treughos adI miserable miser
treukō tr AIa cut out a scin ō
tríjətos mas sea mare
triplós adII threefold triple
trípḷtis fem triplication triplicātiō
trĩs ind three times ter
trisnôs three in a go trīnī
tristis adII ej witness testis
tritjos adII third tertius
trītós adI triH-tó rubbed trītus
482
tṛmēts fem (tṛmtos) wedge cuneus

tṛmos mas termite tarmes
tṛnā fem thorn spīna
troghos mas posterity su olēs
trogjā fem sow porca
trogos mas pig porcus
tropos mas way uia
trosejō intr AIIIo make afraid terreō
troughi ind alas uae
trowā fem ladle trua
trowō tr AIId gnaw away corrō ō
tṛpējō sta torpid (to be) torpeō
tṛrpis adI ugly turpis
tṛsdos mas thrush turdus
tṛsējō sta tṛsyō be thirsty sitiō
tṛstis fem thirst sitis
tṛstos adI dry siccus
tṛsus adI dry siccus
trudskā fem leprosy leprae
trudsmós adI annoying molestus
truks epi (trukós) slaughterer interfector
tū pron (tewe) you tū
tūljom neu tuHljo- multitude multitū ō
tumējō sta be swollen tumeō
tumlós mas mound tumulus
túmolos mas turmoil tumultus
tundō tr strike tun ō
turgējō sta swell turgeō
tūrjós mas cheese caseus
tursis fem ej tower turris
tusjai intr rejoice oneself delector
tusnā fem wave unda
tustijō intr cough tussiō
tustis fem ej coughing tussis
twakos neu es armour armatūra
twenkō tr AIa force compellō
twerō tr AIa enclose amplexor
twoisós adI violent uiolentus
twṛbhōn mas (twṛbhnos) whirl tur ō
twṛkos mas boar aper
twṛmā fem troop turma
twṛtos adI quick uelox
ucējō sta H1ugw/H1eugw/ wet (be) ūmeō
H1uegw
oucós adI H1ougw- / wet ū us
H1uogw-
ud neu out ex
úderos mas uter úterus
ūdhṛ neu ū henos H1uH h-r n udder ū er
HeH 1 h-r n
w
483
ūdhros adI udder ū er

ūdhús adI ū hus immediate imme iātus
udsqe ind on top insuper
ughḗn mas (ughnós) H2ugh- neck collus
uksōn and en ox bos
uksōr fem (úkseros) wife uxor
ululājō intr howl ululō
unksrā fem unksnā shadow umbra
upelos adI H2wp-elo bad malus
úperesū ind very well optimē
uperi ind H2u-per over super
úperos adI high superus
upo ind under sub
upóqrijom neu commission interpretium
upósēdjom neu fundament fundamentum
upóstānom neu service seruitium
úpselos adI upsēlós high altus
upsi ind above supra
uqnós mas cf. aukslā owen fornus
urús adI H1ur-u; urus wide amplus
ustós adI H1us-to- burnt ustus
uta ind rather potius
wədrā fem otter lutra
wədris mas leather bag uter
wəgājai intr roam uagor
wənskā fem desire ēsi erium
wənskō tr desire ēsi erō
wəros mas w o rHo- cf. pimple uarus
wersmn
wərjō tr set fire accen ō
wadhis mas ej caution uas
wadhō intr walk uā ō
wadhom neu river ford uadum
wageinā fem sheath uagīna
wāghijō intr cry uāgiō
wai ind alas uae
wailos mas humble humilis
wailós mas wolf lupus
wakkā fem cow uacca
walgos adI bandy-legged ualgus
walnom neu wall uallum
walóm intr (aor. a died mortus est
chenmi)
wapējō sta foggy, to be nebulosus sum
waplājō sta scream clamō
warnā fem little owl noctua
wāros mas asunder-legged uārus
wāstos adI empty uānus
wātis mas ej poet uatēs
watjos adI legbent uatius
484
we encl or ue
webhō tr Hwebh weave texō
wédhneumi tr BIVb link ligō
wedhō tr wHedh / Hwedh lead a ūcō
wedhṛ neu wédhenos weapon arma
wedhrom neu weather tempus
wedhskō tr strike cae ō
wedmṇ neu utterance locūtiō
wedō tr AIb H2wed(H) tell narrō
weghjā fem way uia
weghō tr carry uehō
weghtis fem jo leuer uectis
weghtlom neu vehicle uehiculum
weghtṓr mas transporter uector
wegō dur AIb be strong uegeō
wegō tr AIb weave texō
weidr neu wie r wei e beast bestia
nos
weidhō tr AIa divide īui ō
weidos neu es presence praesentia
weiks mas/ (wikós) cf. woikos house domus
fem
wéiktomā fem victim uictima
(wí)weimi tr BIId hunt uēnor
weimṇ neu en loom textrīnum
weipō tr AIa wrap inuoluō
weiros mas wire fūnis
weis neu wīsós weiH-s/os/es strength uis
weisnā fem vein uēna
weisō sta AIa flow fluō
weitēks fem (weitkós) agnus castus uitēx
weitis fem ej vine uītis
weitō cau AIa arch incuruō
wéiwersā fem ferret uiuerra
wejes / weje pron wei-; tab we nōs
wekmi tr desire esi erō
wekō intr AIb arch flectō
weksós adI convex conuexus
weldō tr Hwl; cf. wḷeumi tear off uellō
welīks fem (welikós) wḷēiks bracelet armilla
welmi tr will uolō
welnā fem wḷnā wave unda
welnos neu es hair uellus
welō tr AIb see ui eō
welpō tr AIa expect expectō
weltis fem wḷtis will uoluntās
wélwṃen neu wrapping tegmen
welwō tr H1wl-w turn uoluō
wélwtrom neu envelope inuolūcrum
wémāmi tr vomit uomō
485
( )wēmi tr BIIb H2weH1 blow exhalō

wēmos adI beautiful pulcher
wḗnāmoi tr aspire appetō
wendhō intr AIa attack oppugnō
wenēsnom neu love potion uenēnum
wenjā fem family familia
wenō dur desire concupiscō
wenos neu es love amor
wenseikā fem blister uensīca
went suff wentjos equipped with praeditus
wentos mas H2weH1-ṇto- / wind uentus
H2wH1ento-
weqtis fem thing rēs
weqtlom neu expression dictus
wēr neu (wṛos) door forēs
werbos neu es H1wr-b whip flagellum
wereinā fem sect secta
wergō sta AIa head towards uergō
wergom neu work labos
weri neu Hwr wēr wēri water aqua
werjō tr werH1 name nōminō
(wí)wermi tr BIIe find inueniō
wernā fem alder betullla
wēros adI true uērus
werpō tr AIa wrap out ēuoluō
wersis mas male mās
wersmṇ neu en cf. wəros wart uerrūca
wersō tr AIa drag uerrō
werstis fem track trames
werstidhlom neu hall uestibulum
wertmən neu direction irectiō
wertos mas value ualor
wertrom neu defence ēfensiō
wérunos mas belt (for safety) cinctus
weskai neu eat uescor
wēskō tr squeeze exprimō
wésnāmi tr AIVa prick instigō
wesnejō tr AIIIo bargain negotior
wesnom neu sale uēnum
wesō sta AIb H2wes stay maneō
wésolis adI cheap uīlis
wespros mas *we- evening uesper
'exclūsīuum' we-
skw(e)ro- /
wesp(e)ro- /
wekero-
wesṛ neu (wesenós / spring uēr
wesentós/)
wēsros mas morning matina
westā fem food pulmentum
486
westijō tr cf. wosējō dress uestiō

westis fem jo cloth uestis
westos mas feast daps
westus mas dwelling domicilium
wēsus adI H1wesu-; wesu- excellent excellens
wēsu-/wosu-;
we-H1su?
wétāmi tr *we- exclūsīuum forbid uetō
wetlos mas calf uitulus
wetos neu es time tempus
wetsós wes one-year creature annucula
creātūra
wetwos adI es old uetus
wī ind asunder sē
wibrājō cau vibrate ui rō
wida fem appearance appārentia
widējō tr weidmi ? see ui eō
wídhewā fem H1wídheweH2 widow uidua
widhus fem willlow salīx
widjom fem wi jā wisdom scientia
wigējō sta be strong uigeō
wijējō sta weH1i be curved uieō
wijēskō inc wither uiēscō
wikis fem ej chance uicis
wikjō dur contend certō
wikkā fem witch uenēfica
wíklutom adII widely known satis constans
windō tr AVIb find out comperiō
windō peri fac investigate inuestigō
windos adI apparent appararens
winis fem cable cable
winkijō tr shackle uinciō
winkō tr win uincō
winsō cau AVIa cause causō
wikwos adI diverse multifārius
wīrós mas wiHró-, weiHro-, man uir
woiHro-
wisējō sta sprout uireō
wiskom neu mistletoe uiscum
wísogā fem club uirga
witājō intr turn around circumeō
wíteros adI supplementary complementār
ius
wītja fem wHi- framework textus
witjom neu curve curua
witus mas cf. kantos wheelrim cantus
wíweqmi tr AIa speak loquor
wḷbhontis mas H1wlb(h)o-nt- camel camēlus
wḷda fem feast conuiuium
wḷdhējō tr (H)wlH2dh; rule imperō
487
cf. wḷēyō
wḷeiqos neu es liquid liquor
wḷeisō tr AIa beat uer erō
wḷējō sta (H)wlH2; be fit ualeō
cf. wəl hēyō
wḷepējō sta whip lepeō
wḷeumi tr BIIIb H2welH1; cf. pillage iripiō
wel ō
wlewā fem lion leō
wḷghis fem basin uallis
wḷiqējō sta liquid (to be) liqueō
wḷnā fem H1wl-neH2 wool lāna
wḷōrom strap lōrum
wḷqos mas wolf lupus
wḷtis fem tuff of hair caesariēs
wḷtus mas impression adspectus
wṇdā fem wave unda
wṇghējō sta complexed (to be) tortus sum
wochējō tr H1ewgwh / vow uoueō
H1wegwh
wodā fem water aqua
wodṛ neu (wédenos) wedṛ water aqua
woghejō cau AIIIo induce (to) a ūcō
woghnos mas car uehiculum
woghos mas transport uectiō
wogsmis mas ploughshare uomer
woida tr know sciō
woidejō cau AIIIo orient irigō
woidlos mas woH1i- basket uī ulus
woidwṓs adII (woidwesos) fem: widwəsyā knowing conscius
woighos fem elm ulmus
woikā fem vigour uigor
woikos mas cf. weiks village uīcus
woikós adI wikrós steadfast peruicax
woikslā fem farm uilla
woinā fem punishment poena
woinos mas weinom wine uīnum
woisos mas poison uenēnum
woitā fem hunt uēnātus
wolējō tr choose ēligō
wolgos neu es people uulgus
wolmos mas roll spīra
wolos mas wōlos choice ēlectiō
wolós mas willing uolens
wolpis fem ej fox uulpēs
wolnos neu es H2wolH1no wound uulnus
wolsom neu damage perniciēs
wolwós adI wōlós round rotundus
wondhejō cau AIIIo wind torqueō
wondhos wondhsos hair caesariēs
488
wōnós adI empty uānus

wopjā fem water aqua
wopsā fem wop-seH2 wasp uespa
woqs fem (weqs) voice uox
worgjom neu cannabis cannabis
wormis mas worm uermis
wornos mas colour color
worós mas policeman tresuir
wortejō cau AIIIo invert (to) inuertō
wosejō tr AIIIo cf. westijō dress uestiō
wosis mas H1ws turban tiara
wosmós adI wet madidus
wospos mas garment in ūmentum
wṛaghmṇ neu backbone spīna
wərbhis fem ei perimeter circumductus
wṛdhom neu wṛH1-dhH1o- word uerbum
wṛdjā fem wrH2d-iH2; cf root rā ix
wṛā ēiks
wṛegis mas enclosure clausūra
wṛeikā fem veil rīca
wṛéikonjom neu webbing ricinium
wṛeinā Hwr harn urīna
wṛējai tr respect uereor
wṛēn mas (wernos) lamb ueruēx
wṛeumi tr BIIIb werjō wṛneumi close clau ō
wṛeumi apo tr BIIIb werjō apo open aperiō
wṛneumi apo
wṛgā fem vigor uigor
wṛgējō sta attack (to be in) urgeō
wṛgjō tr/intr work la orō
wṛgos wrH-go- attack impetus
wṛijō tr close clau ō
wṛisdējō intr laugh rī eō
wṛnāmi tr AIVa persecute persequor
wṛṇgai intr grumble ringor
wṛonkā fem hand manus
wṛonkis fem dip fouea
wṛrādīks fem (wṛā ikós wrH2d-eiH-; root rā ix
wṛā ijós cf.wṛ yā
wṛstā fem H2wrs; rain pluuia
worsos worsā
wṛstis fem turn uersiō
wṛstos mas row uersus
wṛtō tr AIIh turn uertō
wṛtom neu enclosure saepimen
wṛughis mas ej rye sēcale cereāle
489
II.3. ETYMOLOGY FROM DESCENDANT LANGUAGES
5.Ind.-Ira., 6.Balto-
PIE 1.Italic 2.Celtic 3.Germanic 4.Greek
An., Arm. Slavic
1a.Latin 1b.Other 2a.West. 2b.East. 3a.West. 3b.East.
4.1.-Ion- 6.1.- O.C.S.
Att. 6.2.- Russ.
2a0.- 3a1.-Ger. 5.1.-Skr.
1b1.-Osc. 2b0.- 4.2.-Aeol 6.3.- Lith
Ogham. 3a2.-Eng. 5.2.-Ved.
1a0.-Lat. 1b2.- Gal/Brit 4.3.-Dor 6.4.-Latv.
2a1.-O.Ir. 3a3.-Nor. 5.3. Avest.
1a1.-Gal- Umbr. 2b1.- 4.4.-Boeot. 6.5.- Sr.
2a2.-M.Ir. Da. 3b0.-Goth. 5.4.-
Rom. 1b3.- Welsh 4.5.-Phyg. 6.6.- Pol.
2a3.- 3a5.-Du. Arm.
1a2.-Pren. Volsc. 2b2.-Corn. 4.6.-Mac. 6.7.- Tch.
Mod.Ir. 3a6.-Low 5.5.- Hitt.
1b4.-Pelig. 2b3.-Bret. 4.7.-Ac- 6.8.- Slo.
2a4.-Sco. Ger. 5.6.- Pers.
Kyp. 6.9.-
4.8.-Myc. O.Pruss.
əgjō aiō 1b2.-aiu   5.4.-asem
'iussī'
əgsājō axāmenta ToA.-
āksisam, B
aksaskau
əgtis
əpjō apīscor,  'ligō'; āpnoti
coepī,  5.3.-
aptus, 'tactus'; apayeiti,

cōpula; 'tangō' 3. Pl.
ape āpənte
(imperat.); <āpwantai
apud<ap- 5.4.-unim
wod <pn?
'possideō'
5.5.-eipmi
'emō' 3. pl.
appaanzi
əsnātis 
ábelos Abella aball, ubull avallo apful apls?  ablъko,
(malifera <*ablu, 2b1.-afal KRIMGOT jablъko
sec. abaln 2b2, 2b3.- : apel 6.3.-obulas
Vergilium) aval (fr.), obelìs
(arb.)
abhnós irl.   abьje 'citō'

Opunn, t- <*HºHi3-
op bh-, 
'repentīnus 
' / obann, 'citō,
tobann subitō'
<*HºHiº3-
bh- 
abhro- abor- 2b1.-afr- 3a3.-afar abrs 'uī' 
'multō' 'multō' 'multō' abraba
'multō'
biabrjan
'stupōre.
excitārī'
acnos agnus; 1b2.- úan proto- 2b1.-oen 3a2.-  < (j)agn ,
agnīle, habina(f) celt. (pl. wyn) ēanian,. to * (j)agnьcь
auillus, 'agnīnae' *ognos 2b2.- yean <*- 'auillus';
agnīnus oin/oan/on gwhn- jagnilo
2b3.-oan 'sicut 'agnīle'
(pl. ein) agnus
esse'
ad ad az; adpud ad- (v.g. ad- az; zagēn, at; at-  ha<ad-
491
'quoad' adgládur 2b2.-add-; zougen augjan ghe; t-
1b2.-ar- 'appellō') a(g) 'cum' 3a2.-æt; 'monstrō' saráti
<ad-ghe tōgian 'reptat'
'timeō'
3a3.-at
adejō 2b2.- ad, pl ada addas zil, Ziel til, ga-tils 
arsie<adio 'mōs'; 'correctus'; 'fātum' 'correctus'
'sanctē'; adas eddyl 'fās' 3a2.-til
arsmor<ad 'pertinens' 'correctus';
mon 'ritus'; til 'tenus';
arsmatiam 3a3.-til
<admatio- 'tenus'
'rituālem';
armamu
'ordināmini
'
adghō  5.5.-ha-at-
'onerō' ki 'claudit'
ādmi  hāt-
'fuscātiō' 'siccārī';
<*HºHi2dj- hātes-
/HºHi2sd-; 'dēsiccāri';
· hatnu-
; 'dēsiccō'

·;

<*adjō /
asdjō ?
admṇ 
ados ezzisca atisk <*-  5.5.-hattar; TOK A, B.-
'sēmen' esko hat- āti
'aruum' 'siccus 'grāmina'
esse'
āghar ·ágathar egis-līh *ogan 
'terribilis' (og); agis 'afflīgor';
3a2.-ege (agisis)  '-
(i-), awe 'timor'; ctiō';

'timor' unagands
'onus,
'audax' multitūdō'
ágherom  ILLYR.- ozero
'Acherōn' Oseriates 6.3.-
eras
aghjā ag allaid ael 'id';  ahī 'bōs'
'ceruus', ál eilion 5.3.-azī
'catulus' <*agliones 'forda'
'equī' 5.4.-ezn
'bōs'?
aghlós álad? eglian agis  agha
'uulnus' 'aegrotāre' '' 'afflīgor'; 'prāuus'

aeleu<aghl 3a2.-egele agliÞa, 'onus, aghala
owo 'repugnans aglō multitūdō' 'malum'
'dolor' ' 'tribulātiō' 5.3.-agō
us-agljam 'prāuus'
'tribulāre'
aglus,
agluba
'difficile'
aglaitei
àselgeia'
aghlóws 2b1.-glaw,  5.4.-aɫǯaɫǯ 6.9.-aglo
'pluuia' 'tenebrae' 'obscūrus' 'pluuia'
2b3.-glav
492
'id'
ághneumi 
agīnós  ajína-<*Hº 6.3.-o ìnis
Hig- 'pellis'
6.3.-
izaena
'coriāceus'
aglā ál ael 
'grex'
ágəlis agilis  ajirá-
agmən agmen,  ájman-
exāmen
agō agō acum atom-aig 2b1.-agit/â 3a3.-aka  ájati
'agere' 'adigit me' 'it' 'condūcō' 5.3.-azaiti
1b2.-aitu áin <*agni- 2b2-2b3.-a
'agitō' 'ductiō'
agos ekel  āgas-
'damnum' 'culpa'; 'culpa';

3a2.-acan, 'innocens' ánāgas-
ōc 'doleō' 'innocens'
agós ag, agh ??  ajá- 'ariēs'; koza (k cf.
'cerua' <*HºHiºg- ajā 'capra' kostь)
4.8.-a3-ki- 5.4.-ayc (j)azno
pa-ta <*HºHiºg- 'pellis'
A B.-dhī 5.6.-azak, 6.3.-o kà,
'capra' azg 'capra' o ys
<āgios/ōgi
os
agrā ár 2b1.- 
hair/aer 'uenātiō'
2b3.-air
pl. airou
ágrēnom áirne 2b1.-aeron ackeran, akran 'fruit'  agoda,
'prūnus 'baccae', Ecker jagoda
spinōsa' eirin 'prūnī' 3a2.- 6.3.-úoga
2b3.-(h)irin æcern 'bacca'
'prūn. sp.' 6.4.-uôga
<H2ogeH2
agróqolās 
agros ager 3a2.-æcer akrs  ájra-
agslā 
agtós actus 
aichesājō ekeln aiwiski  5.5.- осохъ
'repudiō' 'uerecundi <*aigʷh-s- iskuna(hh) 'ignōminia'
3a2.- a' kos 'iniuriō' *ai>*au !!
æwan aiwiskōn 'uerecundi TOK B.-
'contemnō' 'repudiō' a'; yäsk

 'mancillō'
aidhis 
aidhō aedes, aed (aeda) Aedui (VN) eit 'ardor' ;  inddhé; 6.7.-nisteje

aestas, <*aidhu- ast 'ardor'; édhah 'caloriferu
aestus 'ignis' 'siccātor'  'cremium' ; m'
<*aidh-stu- 3a2.-ād 'aer', vīdhrá-
(cf. irl. tess 'cremium';  'sūdus';
*tep-stu-) oast 'sicc' <HHi2-dh- i aka
'sūdus' 'later
combustus
' 5.3.-
aesma
'cremium'
5.5.-ay-
493
'caleō'
aigā aesculus ? eih 

3a2.-ác
aigros aeger 3a2.-ācol  A B.-ke- bába jagá
'agitātus'; ék 'prāuus' 'uenefica';
inca 'dolor' <*ke + jedza
3a3.-eikja, *aigio- 'morbum,
eikla TOCH A īra'
'tormentō'; ekro B 6.3..-ingas
ekki 'dolor' aik(a)re 'piger'
aikō icō, iciō   5.3.-išarə igla 'acus'

'hasta'; <*H3H º2k-
i
 'protinus'
<*H3Hiº2k 6.3.-
'prope' i šmas,
ji šmas
'hasta'
áimneumi 
aimom imāgō,  5.5.-
aemulus, himma
imitor
ainō  5.5.-enant
'infortūniu 'domitus'
m'
áinumoi  inóti (inv)
'potior';'in/abdūcit'
· 5.5.- pai-

  (pe+ai)
(Hes.); 'dō'; UW-
 upahili
'praedae' 'datārius' 
aiqos aequus  eka 'ūnus'
airā  'mala erakā 6.4.-aĩres,
herba' 'herba' aĩrenes
aisdai aistan   īdé (p.pt

'caueō'  īdya)
'honorō'
<*aisd-
aisdhom 
aiskrós ésca,  5.5.-asara- iskra
éscae , esara- 'scintilla';
'lūna' jasnъ
<H2eiskjo- 6.3.-
áiškus,
iškùs
aisō aisusis ēra /Ehre aistan   īdé (p.pt

'sacrificiis' 3a2.-ar 'caueō' īdya)
esono- 'honor' 'honorō'
'sacer' <*aisd-
áisoskō aeruscāre eiscurent eiskōn,  eshati iskati
'arcessieri heischen 'quaerit', 'quaerō';
nt' 'poscō' eshah, iska
3a2.- icchah 'desideriu
āscian, 'desideriu m' 6.3.-
āxian m' ieskoti
'poscō' ishma- 6.4.-ieskat
'deus
amoris'
5.3.-ishaiti
'desiderat'
aisskā eisca  icchā iska
'postulātiō' 5.4.-aic
494
3a2.-æsce 'inuest.'
'inuestigāti
ō'
aitis aeteis part áes 'aetas' 2b1.-oes  5.3.-aēta
is' aíttíúm <ait-to 'aetas' <* 'multa,
'portionum' 'pars, punītiō'
destīnum'

'causa'
áiw(es)i io aiw  
3a2.- ā, ō
3a3.-æ, ei
áiwesos áis, aes, Aesus  āyu A B.eshë
óis, oes 2b1.-oes 'tempus, (āyuša ) < *aiuesiā
2b2.- saeculum' 'uis uitālis'
huis/oys/ū
z
2b3.-oet,
oat, oad
aiwós aeuus, ēwa <*-ā aiws  TOK A.-
longaeuus 'tempus, <*aiwi 'longaeuus āym-
aeternitās' 'tempus, ' 'spiritus,
3a3.- vi mundus' uita'
<*-i, æ
'uita,
aetās'
áiwotāts 
aiwu aewum ēwa <*-ā aiws  <*ay- āyu-; TOK A.-
'tempus, <*aiwi wen āyu āym-
aeternitās' 'tempus, 'tempus, (āyuša ) 'spiritus,
3a3.- vi mundus' saeculum'; 5.4.-oc´ uita'
<*-i, æ  <*H2oiu 'nōn'
'uita, (loc.) 'nōn'
aetās'
ájeri ēr, ehe, air  5.3.-ayar

eher *ajeri-ed- (ayan)
3a2.-ær, to>
ere 
3a3.-ār 'ientāculu
m'
ájesnos 
ajos aes ēr aiz  áyah
3a2.-ār 'ferrum,
3a3-eir metallum'
5.3.-ayō
ákeris acer ahorn 
3a3.-aer
ákeswos 
akējō aceō 2b1.-hogi 
'acuō';
diauc
<*dē-āko
'puter'
akjēs aciēs ekka, Ecke  osla<*osъl

'angulus' a 'cōs'
'cuspis'
3a2.-eggja
3a3.-egg
akmā ham,  k sъ
hamm 'sine 'buccella?'
morsō' 6.3.-
kumuo^ss
akmōn  a man- kamy,
495
() (a nas) к мень
'incūs' 5.5.-aku 6.3.-
akmuõ;
ãšmens
'lāmina'
aknā agna agana, ahana   a áni- 6.3.- ašnìs

Ahne 'id' 'foenum' 'cōs'; 'hasta' 'id'
3a2.-   6.4.-asns
egenu 'id' 'germen'
áknāmi 3a3.-agn  a nāti
'inescatori 'glans'; á anam

um'; æja 'cibus'
'esca'
<ahjan 5.3.- -āsa
'pāscōr' '-uorus'
akōkós exācum 3a3.-ag  osoka
'centaurion 'cladium 'cuspis' 'c rех'
lepton' mariscus'; 6.3.-ãšaka
2b3.-eok agge, ugg 'spīna',
<eksāko- 'cuspis, furfur
'matūrus, dens'
blandus'
akos acus ahir, Ähre ahs 'spīca' 
(aceris); *ahiz 'id' <aksnā,

aceruus 3a2.-ear 'palea'
(cf. *ahuz 
Minerua 3a3.-ax 'acūtus'
<*Menesw 'spīca'
ā)
akris ācer, acris, 1b1.-akrid a(i)cher 2b1.- 3a3.- gr  a rí- ostrъ
acre; 'acrī' / 'uiolentus arocrion <*akro- <*Hº3Hi2k- 'cuspis' 6.3-ašrùs,
acidus; 'acriter' (uentus)' 'atrocia' 'perca 'cuspis' 5.4.-aseln aštras;
acerbus 1b2.- <*-ero-? 2b3.-acer- fluuiālis' 'acus' ašer s
<*akridhH1 peracri uission 'perca flu.'
o- 'opīmus' 'cum 6.4.-ass
acūtīs 'acūtus'
digitīs'
akrom  ágra-
'cuspis'
5.4.-aseln
'acus'
5.5.-hekur
<Hº3Hiº2k
áksijā ascia achhus, aqizi  5.5.-
Axt ates(s)a-
3a2.-acus
æx axe
aksis axis 2b1.- ahsa  áksah osi
achel, 3a3.-oxoll 6.3.-ašìs
echel
2b3.-ael
aksteinos aittenn 2b1.-  ostъ,
<2b1 eithin ostъnъ
'cuspis'
6.3.-akstìs,
ãkstinas
'id'
ákulos aculeus 2b3.- ebil 3a2.-egle,  osla
<*aku-īlio- ails 'arista'; <*osъla
āwel <*- 'cōs'
wolo-
'furca'
akus acus  5.5.-akus оsъtъ
496
(acūs), 'cōs' 'carduus'
acia 6.3.-
<*acu-iā akúotas
'arista'
alā!  ole(le)
'hurra' 6.3.-aluoti

'bellō 'salutō'
clamō'
alājai ālea, afslaunan?  5.5.- 6.4.-aluot,

ambulō, 'furō' 'errō'; alwanzatar aluotie^s
alūcinor  'frutilla' 'errō'
'mendīcus'; āl'a
 'amens'
'alūcinor',


'uitō';

'confūsus'
albhos albus Alafaterno 2b1.- albiz, elbiz  5.4.-alauni lebedь<
m, Alafis elfydd<álb 3a2.- (fluminis <*alabhn? *olb-edь
'Albius' hiyo aelbitu, nōmen) 'columba' 'cygnus'
ielfetu 5.5.-al-pa- 6.3.-bal-
3a3.-elptr, áš? añdis
olpt 'nubēs' 'columba'
'cygnus'
alchos  árhati alga
'adquisitiō' 'debet, 'adquisitiō'

 meret;
'lucror' arjati
 'lucrātur'
 'bouium arghah
adquisitor' ''ualor';
arəjaiti
'ualēt'
5.5.-
halkuessar
'messis'
5.6-
arzīdan
'lucror'
aldhōn 3a2.-  ladiji,
ealdoÞ, alъdiji
3a3.-olda 'phasēlus'
6.3.-
eldij le
'sartagō'
alēiks alica  halki-
'grānum'
álesnos alnus Eller, Erle *alisa >  ALB.-halë ólьcha
3a2.-elor, ESP aliso  'populus 6.3.-
ellen, alba' elk/alksnis
ellern,elde 6.4.-
r àlksnis
3a3.-jolstr
<*elustrā
alghējō algeō 3a3.- 
elgiar,
elgur
'aqua-nix'
aljos alius, alter alttram aile 2b1.-eil/ail 
àlteram' 2b2.-(e)yll
2b3.-eil
497
áljote aljaþ 
alkejō 3a2.- alhs  rak ati elkas,

ealgjan<al 'templum'  5.4.-aracel alkas
goojan  'protectiō' 'nemus
ealh 'protectiō' sacrum'
'templum'  6.4.-elks
 'uis';
3a3.-aluh  'idolus'
'amulettum 'potens'
'
alkis alcēs ëlho, Elch  a- ya- losь
<gmc. <*olkis <gmc. <*olkis
3a2.-eolh,
elk
alō alō alim 2b1.-allt alt 'uetus' alan  an-ala-

'mons' 3a2.-ald, 'crēscō' 'insatiābilis 'ignis';
2b2,b3- old 'id' aliÞs ' rdhnóti/ád
aot,aod 'adipōsus' dhi
'litus' 'procreat'
alpos  álpa 6.3.-alpti
 'dēbilis' 'paruus' 'debilitor'

'hauriō' 5.5.-
 alpanda
'flaccus' 'dēbilis' ?;
 alpu-
'specus' 'suauis'
álteros 
altjos altior, alt(a)e alþeis 
altius 'ēductus' 'uetus'
altós altus alt/allt 2b1.-allt  <
'litus' 'clīuus' altyos
2b2.-als 'silua'
'litus'
2b3.-aot,
aod 'litus'
ālujos ālium, *allō <*aliā  ālú- ,
ālum 'rādix' ālukám-
`bulbus'
álumṇ alūta, al-schaf  olъ
alūmen 'pōculum' 6.3.-alùs
3a2.-
ealu(đ)
amāyō amō, ímih ammen ?  ami- (ved.
amīcus (Castignan 'alō, amī i,
o Cippus) ēducō' etc.),
'amōre' ? ámīvā-
<Hēmīd? (l 'morbum'
Eichner)
ambhí ambigō, ampt; imb-, imm- 2b1.-ambi, bei bi (cf.   ambhi-tah
amputō, amvíannu 2b2,2b3.- 3a2.- obhi) 5.3.-aiwito
amiciō; am d 'circuitu'; am-, im- ymbe, be- 5.4.-
(arc.); 1b2.-ambr; bī- ambolj
anceps, amboltu, 'sospēs'
sollemnis aferum
'circumferr
e';
anferener
'circumfere
ndi'
ambhíagto ambactus ambaht, andbahts 
s (lat.) be-Amt-e
2b1.- 3a2.ambih
amaeth t
498
ámbhinom 
ambhíqolo ancilla, 
s anculāre
ambhírēm 
os
ambhou ambō, beide, bai (m)  ubhāu oba

ambae, bēde ba(n) 6.3.-abu
ambō 3a2.-bā-
tha
ámeikā 
amēiks 
ámetā  ALB.-ame 6.3.-anýta
'id et (cf anus)
māter'
amghō angō; cum-ung 2b1.-(cyf- angi, engi, aggwus  amhas o , oziti;

angustus, 'angustus' )yng, wng eng 'id' 'angustus'  'metus' ve ,
angiportus 2a3.- 2b3.- 3a2.-enge 'près' 5.5.- vezati 'ligō'
, angīna cumhang enk(<eks·a hamank/e
ng) nk/ink 'ligō'
amghús cum-ung 2b1.-(cyf- angi, engi, aggwus  a hu- zъ-kъ
'angustus' )yng, wng eng bhēdī
2a3.- 2b3.- 3a2.-enge 'strictē
cumhang enk(<eks·a uagināta'
ng) 5.4.-anjuk
ámghustis angustiae angust,  zostъ
Angst
'metus'
āmi áith <*āti-  antī, antikā
'furnus' <*HHi2- 'focus'
anjō, cf. 5.5.-i-nu-

uz-zi; a-a-
ri 'calefit,
stomachāt
ur'
ammā Ammaí/ae 3a1, a3.-  amba TOK; В

'Matrī' amma ammakki
āmós āmes  vyāmá
'ulna
(mensūra)'
samāmá
'longitūdō'
amrós amārus `(Sauer)a  amlá-,
mpfer amblá
3a2.-
ampre;ōm
'oxyd.'
3a3.-apr
'acūtus'
āmros -  5.4.-aur, TOK A
āmrei 'diēs' (suff. awr omäl, В
-mero- in <*awur emalle

*siH2-) <*H1eH2m 'calidus'
ōr 'diēs'
an an an  6.3.-an-gu
'uel'
anəts anas anut, Ente  ātíh 'auis oty

(anitis) 3a2.-ened  aquatica' 6.3.-ántis
(i-)
ana anhelō 1b2.- an-dess ana, an ana  anu 6.3.-anóte,
<an+anslō antentu 'ab 3a2.-on 5.3.-ana, anót
, antemnā 'intenditō'; meridiāno', 3a3.-ā anu 'secundum
499
anseriato etc 5.6.-anā '
'obseruātu
m'; anglar
'oscines'
ándhesā ainder, 2b1.-anner 
aindir 'uitulus' 'flos'
2b3.-
ounner 'id'
andhos andabata  andhá-;
'c. 5.3.-anda-
gladiātr.'
anglos angulus ai(n)gen ancha,  á gam og(ъ)lъ
'sartagō' enka f. 'aula; 'membrum' 'angulus'
'ceruix'; dolium'; ; a gúli-/ri-

enkel 'id' 'cubitus' 'digitus'
3a2- <*ank, a guš há
ancléow,  'pollex'
ankle 'uallis' 5.3.-
'femur' <*ank angušta-
3a3.- okkla 'id'
'femur' 5.4.-
ankiun/giu
n 'angulus'
anjō  5.4.-
'sentīna', hanem

'excupō' 5.5.-
han(iya)
'excupō';
hanessa-
'ligula'
ankos ancus, écath 2b1.- ango,  a(n)cati og(ъ)lъ

uncus, 'hamus anghad angul, 'barbamen 'uiet"
aduncus, piscis" angeln tum'. akna-,
unculus, 3a2.-onga  akta-
ungustus, 'puncta' 'cubitus' 'aduncus'
ancrae 3a3.-ankr  a kurá-
'colpus' 'aduncus' 'propago' 
5.3.-aka-
5.5.-5.5.-
hink
'prosternō'
anksi ūhta, anaks  áñjas, 6.3.-
uohta 'subitō'; áñjasā anksta,
3a2.-ūht,, *uhtwō 'citō, ankstù
ūht,e 'aurōra' protinus' 'mānē'
*uhtiugs (adi, adv.),
'opportūnu anksti( )
s' (n)
ánksitjom 
anəmos animus, anál 2b1.-anadl us-anan  5.4.-hoɫm voniati
anima 2b3.- 'exspirō' (hoɫmoy) 'foetēre'
alazn/alan <H2onH1-
mo-
annā 
anos anus áinne <  5.4.-anur
āininjo-
ansā ansa, ē(i)si Öse 'id'  6.3.-asà;
ansātus 'habēnae' 3.3.-æs 'habēna' asótas
<*ansjō 4.3.-ania 6.4.-uosa
'anus ling. <*ansia
calceī'
ansātos ansātus  6.3.-asótas
500
amsus RUN. got-lat  ásu
a[n]suR; anses 'spīritus';
Ase; 3a2.- 'sēmideī' ásura
ōs 3a3.- 'spīritālis'
āss (Oslo 5.3.-a hu-
<As-lo ?) 'id'; ahura
5.5.-hassu
'rex'
hassa-
'genitūra'
anta end 'antea' and;  añt, anta
3a2.-enti and(a)-;
'id' andeis
3a3.-endr, 'fīnis'
enn 'id'
antas antae 3a3.-ond  ātā, ātā
'uestibulu 5.3.-aiyā
m' 5.4.-dr-and
antí ante, étan enhyt,  anti; ánta-

antiquus, *antono- ennyd 'clīuus' 'fīnis'
antēs, 'frons'; 'tempus' 5.4.-ənd
antiae éata <anti-iti-? 5.5.-ha-an-
'aetās' ti (hanti);
<*ant-odio- hantiyai
? 'cūrō'
ántijos 
ántitjos  5.5.-
hantezziya
antjās antiae andi, 
'frons, -tis'
3a3.-enni
'id"
antjom enti, Ende  anta
3a2.-end
antrom  5.4.-ayr
(g.pl.
ayric)
anus anus, ano, Ahn;  5.4.-han 6.3.-anýta
anna Enkel (Hes) 5.5.- ha- 'socrus'
'patruus' an-na-aš
(hannaš)
'mater,
auia'
āperos uover /   5.4.-ap'n

Ufer 'ripa'
3a2.-öfer
apmṇ amm, ám 
'manus' 'nōdus'
apnis amnis abann Abona  ap-, āpah 6.4.-ue
2b1.-afon (fluminis 'aqua'; 'aqua'
2b2.-auon nōmen) abdah
2b3.-Pont- 'nubēs'
aven 5.5.-hapa-
apo ab, 1a2.- aba, ab af, ab-u   5.1.,5.3.- 6.3.-apa ià

aperiō apehtre 3a2.-æf, of apa ? 'infera
<ap- 'ab extrā' 3a3.-af 5.5.-a-ap- pars'
weryō; pa (apa)
asporto<a 'retrō'
bs;
pōnō<pos
nō; porrigō
apóqitis   ápaciti-
501
ápōqos awk <*afoc  ápāka-
3a3.-ófugr
<*ápHkwo
apóstətis abstantia, Abstand  visthala- р сстояни
distantia 'locus е
recondictu 6.3.-atstùs
s' 'longinquu
s'
apóteri aften aftaro,  apataram
3a2.- aftuma,
æftan, aftumists
after
3a3-aptan
apóteros 
apowésent absens abwesend 4.8.-a-pe-o vivasati
is (<sum) apehwn, 'abest';
a-pe-o-te apavāsa
apehontes 'extinctiō'
; a-pe-a-sa
apehansai
(es)
ápowoiks 
appās  TOK B:

 appake
apros aper 1a2.-apruf, ebur /  vupar veprъ
abrof Eber  ? 6.3.-vepris
(acc. pl.) 3a2.-eofor 'capra'
āps aapas, ToAB.-āp 5.1.-5.3.- 6.3.-6.4.-
aapam āp-/ap- ùpe, upe
apsā aspa,  osína

Espe Hes.  *opsīna
3a2.- 6.3.-
æspe, asp apuš ,
epuše
6.6.-
osa,osina/i
ka
apsos cf, aptus  ápsas- ToA.-āpsā
'membrum (pl.)
q.' OSS.-
æfcæg
'collum'
5.5.-
happis-
/happessa
r-
aqā aqua aha, Ache ahva  oká
'id' 'flūmen'
3a2.-ēa
'id'; īg, īeg
<*aq-jā
'insula'
ar   TOK. В ra- 6.3.-ar 'et,
 'quia' emphat quoque'
6.4.-ar 'et,
at, tunc'
arājō arō airid <*- 2b1.- erien arjan  5.5.-hārs- ori , ор ,
 
jeti; arbar? arddaf/erd <*arjō <*arjō orati
'pānis'
'frūmen', di 3a2.-erian, 6.3.-ariú
arán ear
'pānis'
árarjō arma,  aram, 6.6.-ko-
502
armentum, pf.  álam jarzy 'ligō'
ars, artus,  'satis';

rītus 'mihi ará-
decet'; 'rortae
 radius' r
'coniux' -tí-
 'seruus'
'uirtus' 5.3.-arānte
 'fixāntur';
'optumus';
 arəm
'uinculus' 'decenter'
5.4.-arnem
'faciō';
pr.arar
5.5.-har-
ap- ?
arātrom arātrum arathar 2b1.-aradr  5.4.-arawr
2b2.- <H2rH3tro
aradar m
2b3.-
arazr/arar
árdejā ardea 3a3.-arta  6.5.-roda
'ardea,
ibis'
ardis aird  ali
árgṇtom argentum airget Argantoma  rajatám
2a3.- gus 5.3.-
airgead 2b1.- ərəzatəm
arian(t) 5.4.-arcat'
2b2.- 5.5.-
argans/arh harkant- ?
ans 5.6.-
2b3.- ardatam
arc'hant
argis   árjuna- TOK A.-
5.5.-harki, ārki; TOK
hargai B ārkwi
argrós  rjrá-

argujō arguō  5.5.-
arkuwai
arjos airech Ario-  ar(i)yá-,
'nobilis'; mānus āryaka
aire 5.3.-airyō
'primas' 'arius'
ármṇtom armentum, Ermenrīch; *Aírmana-  5.4.-y- jarьmъ
arma 'id' reiks 'artus' armar 'iūgum'

3a3.- 'Hermeneri 'adaptō' 'decens'
jormuni cus'; 
'iūmentum' Herminone 'uehiculum'
s
armos armus aramō 3a1, a2.- arms  īrmá- ramo
'furca', arm <*armi- <*H2 'umerus'
*aramones rHmo- 6.3.-armaĩ
` 5.3.- rəm 'a.currus'
- <*H2
rHmo-
5.4.-
armukn
'cubitus'
arom harundō  ALB.-
dalëndysh
e?
503
arqos arcus, arçlataf 3a2.-earh, arhvasna  rakita
arquus arculātās' arrow 'sagitta' 'iuniperus' 'salix'
3a3.- or 6.4.-
(orvar) 'id' (r)cis
'iuniper.'
arti  5.4.-ard 6.3.-artì
'nunc 'prope'
ipsum'
artis ars, iners, art  tí-
sollers, 3a3.- 'modus,
artiō einarđr pactus'
'simp.x'
artus artus, artē  tá- artì 'prope'

'simul' 'rectus';
 'nunc, tám 'fas;
dudum' tú-
 'tempus
'adeptus' bonum, t.
annī, ordō'
5.3.-arəta-,
ərəta- 'id'
5.4.-ard
(ardu)
'structūra'
5.6.-arta-
'lex'
árusā  ALB.-arrë орѣхъ,
' 'nux' orec 'nux'

'
(Hsq)
arwā arvīna 
'intestīna'

 (Hs)
arwom aruum; 1b2.- arbor 2b1.-erw  urvarā

aruus -a. arvam-en 'grānum' 2b3.-eru, 'terra
um 'in aruum' <*H2rH3- ero fēcunda'
wens 'sulcus' 5.4.-
haravunk`
āsā āra aasai 'in essa, Esse  5.5.-hassi
ārā' 1b2.- 'cam.' (loc.<hass
are 'ārae' 3a3.- a) 'focus'
aRina,
arinn
āsējō āreō, aasai 'in án essa, Esse azgo 'cinis'  āsa-h TOK A.-
aridus, āra ārā' 1b2.- 'candidus, <asyōn <asdyō 'cinis' asatär B
ardeō (pt. are 'ārae' nōbilis' 'āra'; erin 'siccō', 5.4.- osotär <*-

assus) <asnos ? 'solus'; 'siccus' ; azazim wōs- a
ārea (cum Asche 'id'  <*azgh part.
ōrā?) 3a2.-ash < 'siccō' perfectō
'cinis'  'cinis' 6.8.-ozditi
'maltam
torrēre'
āsos asca azgo 'cinis'  āsa-h

<*asgōn  'cinis'
3a2.-asce, 5.4.-a iun
æsce
3a3.-æsce
astris astur 
(asturis)
astus astus, 5.5.-
astūtus astayarat(t
504
)ar
ati at, atauus, aith, ad ategnatus oh 'sed' Þ-Þan ,  ati; atah ot-, otъ 'ab'
atnepōs (ante 'pergnōtus' <at-ge ac 'sed' 'sed' (cf. 'inde'<atos < atos?

tonum) 2b3.-aznat 3a2.-ac 5.3.-aiti 6.3.-at-,
'rursus' 'sed' 'ultra' ata-, atō-
5.6.-atiy 'ab'
atiloiqos  atir ka- otъl kъ
atis attilus  6.3.-atìs,
õtas
6.4.- ãte
atlos adal, edel haimōþli  5.3.-āΘ TOK A ātäl
3a2.- 'patrimoniu 'tener' wya- Θ 'homō'

aeđele m' 'ēducō' raētaona's
'pater Θ'
atnos annus, 1b1,1b2.- aÞnam  átati 'it'
perennis, akno-; per- (dat. pl.);
sollemnis acni, sev- at-aÞni
akni
ātmós 
ātō athach ādhmōt,  ātmán,

'halitus' ātum, <*HºH 2t-,
w instr.
<atāko Atem  tmánā
3a2.-æðm, <*HºHw2et-
āthum ; 

<*HºHwº2t-
atqe atque, ac 2b1.-a(c) 
2b3-2b3.-
ha(g)
ātros āter, ātrius Aadíriis áith 2b1.-odyn  átharvan vátra 'ignis'
'atrius' 'flamen
1b2.-atru, igneus'
adro 5.3.-ātarš
'ignis'
5.4.-airem
'ūrō'
attās atta atto atta  attā 'mātēr' оtьcъ
5.5.-at-ta- <attikós
aš, attaš
audhos 2b1.-udd al-ōd audahafts'f 
2b3.- 'plena ortunātus';
ozac'h potestās'; audags
'dominus'< kleinod 'beātus'
udakkos 'gemma';
3a2.-ōd
'pertinentia
'; ōdan
'fortunātus'
augā  ALB.-agoj iugъ?
'radius, 'amanescit' 'meridiēs'
lumen' , agume
'alba
matinālis'
augējō 
āugejō 
augmṇ 
augō augeō wachsen aukan  jas- 'uis'; áugti

3a2.- ugrá-
weaxan, 'fortis'
wax 5.5.-ukturi-
'durābilis'
505
augos augur 3a2.-eáca,  jas- 'uis' 6.3.-
(animātus) eke augestis
, augustus 'additāmen 'augmen'
tum'
augtós augtós  6.3.-
áukštas
'altus'
6.4.-aukts
'id'
aulos aluus, 3a3.-aul,  5.4.-ul(i) ulica 'uia'

alueus aule, jōl 'alueus' 'uia'; ulьjь
<*ēul-  yli 'pannāle'
'angelica 'canālis' 'pregnāns' 6.3.- aulãs;
siluestris' <HºHwº1l- 5.5.- aul s,
halluwa- avil s
'cauus, 'fauus'
profundus'; 6.4.-ula
auli 'pipa' 'axis'
auqslā aulla, āula 2b1.-offen 3a1, a2.- aúhns  (i ukhá, ukhā
'cupa ofen 'id' <uknós schwa 5.5.-
petrea' 3a3.-oghn 'furnus' secundum happina
'id' ) 'furnus'  'flamma''
ausijō hauriō 3a3.-ausa 

ausom aurum  5.4.-os-ki áuksas,
ausas
6.9.-ausin
ausōsā aurōra fáir? (cf. 2b1.-  u āh (ac. utro

wēsros) gwawr   u āsam) <*ustro
2b3.- F vāsara <*usro-
gwere  'diēs, 'matīna'
laouen 'cras' matīna' 6.3.-ausrà
'stella 5.3.-usā 6.4.-austra
matutīna' (ac.
usāñham)
ausrom Easter  u ár- utro
'Pascha' <*ausrjom <*ustro
'cras' <*usro-
ALB.-err 6.3.-ausrà
'obscūritās' 'aurōra'
áussketi  uccati 6.3.-a šta
5.3.-
usāusaiti
áusteros auster  za ustra
'mane'
6.3.-
austrinis
'uentus a
NE'
6.4.-
austrums
aw aut, au- aut, auti, úathad odid 'rārus' ouh 'etiam, auk   avar 'hic' 6.3.-aurà,

tem autem 'paucitās' <*aw-tītos sed' 'tamen, 'iterum' aure 'ibi,
1b2.-ute, (=diffusus) 3a2.-ēak donec'  (de- uide!'
ote; uru 3a3.-auk uro?)
'illō', ura-
ku 'ad
illam'
awā Auentīnus Avara,  avani avuõts
(mons) Avernus 'flūmen'
awējō aueō, con-ói Avicantus awi-liuÞ  ávati
auidus, 'protegit' 2b1.- 'gratia' 'beneuolus 'postulat';
audeō, evyllys ' avas-
506
auārus 'uoluntās'  'satisfactiō'
2b3.-eoull, 'amīcus' 5.3.-avaiti
youll 'prouidet';
avah
'auxilium'
5.4.-aviun
'libidō'
áweljā cf. aura ahél, aial 2b1.-awel 
2b2.- 'tempest.'
auhel/awel
2b3.-avel
awigsnā auēna   ovьsъ
6.3.-avi à
6.4.-àuzas
(pl.)
áwijā 
awis auis  vih, véh

<*awjetos 5.3.-
'aquila' vay(as)-
'coruus'
5.4.-haw
5.5.-
suwais
awisdhijō audiō,  āvis umъ<aum
 
oboediō 'audiō', 'pălam'; os
 ud/para- 'intellectus'
'celeber' avati ; aviti,
(F)i 'comperiō' javiti
5.5.-a-uš- 'monstrō'
zi 'uidet'
5.6.-āškār
'clārus'
awṇ 
awō wuorag  vāyati?

'ebrius' 'casa'; 'fatigātur'
3a2.-  5.4.-
wōrag, 'ātrium' aganim,
wōrig,  awt'
weary 'somnus' 'refugium'
'fatigātus' (kall.) <H2outi-
áwontlos 
awos auus, aue avontir ōheim awō 'auia'  5.4.-hau uji
auunculus 'nepōs'/óa, 'auunc' 'aūnculus' 'auus' 'auunculus'
úa 2b1.- 3a3.-ái 5.5.-huhha 6.3.-
ewythr 'id.' <*H2ēuH2ó avynas
2b2.-euitor n-
2b3.-
eontr<awe
ntro
awou au-ferō, ó 'de, cum, au-tagis  5.1, 5.3.- u 'dē'; u-

au-fugiō per' 'diataxis'? ava 'ab, (myti)
2b1.-o, ex' 'abluō' u-
hou 'de, 5.1.-ávara bejhati
cum' 'inferior' 'aufugiō'
5.3.-aora 6.3, 6.4.-
'dē' au 'ab'
6.4.-
aumanis
'amens'
awti 
awtim 
awtjos ōtium? úabar 2b1.-afer ōdi, öde *auþeis  ALB.-hut
507
'uānitās' 'uānus' 'dēsertus' 'dēsertus' 
2b2.-ufer 'irrītē'
'id'
*auberos
2b3.-euver
'id'
badjos badius buide 
baitā pfeit paida 
'camisia' 'bracca' 'tentorium'
3a2.-pād
'tapēte'
baktlom baculum, bacc <lat. 1b2.-bach  6.3.-

bacillum, ? <l.?  bàksteleti
imbēcillus 1b3.-bac'h 6.4.-bakstit
<l.?
bálbalos barbarus, blaesus baby bābe,  bababā- baba

babae, 'infans' bōbe 'auia'  karōti 'anus'
papae, 'loquor' 'balbūtiō'; bъbl'u,
babaecalu bāla? bъbati
s balbus, 'puer' 'balbūtiō'
blaesus 6.3.-
balbãsyti
'garriō'
balbos 
bámbalos bammeln  búbenъ
'strepere' 'uagor' 6.3.-

3a3.- 'crabrō' bimbalas,
bumba  bimbilas
'pulca' 'crabrō';
bambéti
'resonō'
batā 2b2.-  bata 'oh'
badus 'balbūtiō'

'lunaticus'  'nugō'
2b3.-bat,
bad
'hebetātiō';
bada,
badaoui
'sine
sensu
loquī'
baubājai baubor  6.3.-ba bti
'grunniō'
(boues)
bebājō bēbō, beiccithir 2b1.- bāh;  bekura bekati;

bālō, bēlō 'mugit' beicchio blöken 'uox' blek(ot)átь
'mugīre' 3a3.-bekri 6.4.-bê,
'ariēs' beku, biku
belom dēbilis  bala-, boljьjь

<*dē-  balīyan, 'maiōr',
habilis? balistha bolje adv.
'magis,
plūs'
bélowents 
bendā bend/benn 2b1.-2b3.- ? pint 
'cornū' ban 'penis'
bendlā 3a2.-pintle  5.5.-
pintanza
'clāuus'
bewō imbuō  ambu
'fragrantia' 'aqua';
508
 ámbhas-
'fragrans' 
'pluuia'
bhəskō fascinō, -  bhišákti
inus 'sānat'
bhətjō fatuus; anda-bata  bótatь
batt(u)ō 'glad. 'agitō'
<gall.; caecus'; batъ
fāmex? bathu 'baculum'
'monētam
b.'
bhəwējō faueō 1b2.-fons báe  bhávā goveti
'fauens', 'praestanti samátsu
foner a' no v dhé
'fauentēs' <bheHwiy 'faue nōbis
o- in proeliīs';
bhavya-
bhabhā faba bōna  bobъ
3a2.-bēan 'lens' 6.3.-pupà
3a3.-baun
bhāghus buog, Bug  bāhu
3a2.-bōg 'cubitus' 5.3.-
'umerus' 4.2, bāzāu-š
3a3.-bōgr 4.
'cubitus'
bhagjō bahhan,  ba ítь,
backen ba átь ?
3a2.- 'desiderō'
bacan
bhagō  bhajati bogъ
'edere' 'diuidit' 'diuisiō'
bhakta bogъ
'prandium' 'deus'
bhakšati bogatъ
'uorat' 'diuēs'
bhikšate
'uorat'
5.3.-bag-
(ba at)
baxta
'prandium'
5.4.-bag
'deus'
bhagos TOK..-A bhaga ubоgъ,
pāk В 'sors, nеbоgъ
pāke; bonu.' 'pauper'
pāci 5.3.-baga-,
'thesaurus'
bhāgos fāgus buohha bōka  buzina

3a2.-bēce, 'littera'
beech
bhalnós ball <*ln bulle 

'menbrum' 'vulva',
bille 'penis'
3a2.-
beallucas
'testiculī',
ballock
bhāmən affāmen 



bhāmā fāma 
bhāmoi for, fātum, faamat bannan  sa-bha baju, bajati

509
fābula 'appellat'; 'multāre'  'congregāti 'narrō';

fatium 'fāri' 3a2.-baen  ō'; bhanati basnь
'rogātiō; 5.4.- 'fābula'
boian ban<bhāni
'glorior' ' s 'uerbum'
3a3.-bōn
bháneumi bán 'albus' bōnen,  bhāti, 6.5.-baju,
bohnen 'appāreō', bhāsati ba so
bouhhan fut. 'lucet'; 'micō,

<bau-  bhāna, ardeō'
taikna? 'clārus' bhāti,
'signum  bhāma,
igneum' 'signum', bhasa 'lux';
3a2.-  vībhāvah
'ortus
bōnian 'splendens'
stellae',
'polīre'   5.3.-
bēacen F 'lux' bāmya,
'signum' bānu 'lx.'
5.4.-
banam
'aperiō'
(aor. batsi)
bhānis 3a3.-bōn  'uox' 5.4.-ban basnь
'prex' 'et uerbum' 'fābula'
bhānom 
bhānús bán 'albus'   bhānú-
bhāos iubar basc? 3a2.-basu,  bhās-,

<*dyu- 'ruber'; bot baso  bhāsa ;
bhās (orig. .i. tene 'purpura' pamph. subhās-
adiect.?); 'ignis' F 'bene
cf. <bhōzdo-?  lucens'
dēgener, 
bicorpor
bhar far bear-berry baíra-  borъ
'ūua ursī' bagms 'milium
'morus' quodam'
bhardhā barba < bart; barta  barha brada
farda 'ascia' 'plumae 6.2.-
3a2.-beard gallī boroda;
'barba'; caudae' borozda
barda 'sulcus'
'ascia' 6.3.-
3a3.-barđa barzda
'ascia' 6.4.-
bārzda
bharkos barc 2b1.-barch  brk
'hasta' 'id' 'cuspis,
mystax'
bharseinā 
bharsjom farrāgō, 1b1,1b2.- bairgen/ba 2b1-2b2.- 3a2.-bere' bariz-eins  brašьno
farīna far; 1b2.- irghean 2b3.-bara hordeum' 'farīna' 'farīna'
farsio, <*barigenā 3a3.-barr
fasiu /-onā 'id.'
'farrea'
bharwos 3a2.-bearu  borъ
'silua' 'picea'
3a3.-borr
'arbos'
bhaskis fascis basc 2b1.-baich 

1a1.- 'collāris' 'onus'
ambibasci 2b3.-
a bech/beac
510
´h
bhāsos  bhāsah

'aquila'
bhātis fātiō  5.4.-bay
(=uerba) 'fāma' (bayi)
bhebhros fiber, feber bibro-, bibar  babhrúh bibrъ,
bebro- 5.3.- bobrъ
bawrish 6.3.-
bebrus,
béras
bhecō  bebu,

 be átь
'fugiō, 6.3.- bégu,
timeō' begti
bhedhō beta bida TOK В bādhate ед
'rogātiō'; 'rogātiō' peti, A 'premit' 'aduersitās
bitten bidjan, etc poto bībhatsate ' 6.3.-
3a2.- 'rogāre' 'honorātiō' 'ōdit' bodetis
biddan; etymologia jñu-bādh 'repugnārī'
cnēow- disceptāta 'genuflecte ;bãda-s
gebed, <*gwedh- / ns' 'famēs'
kneo-beda bhedh / 6.4.-bads,
'genuflexiō' bheidh badus 'id'
;
3a3.- kne-
beð 'id';
biđja 'rogō'
bhegō bongid 2b1.- 3a3.-  bhanákti 6.3.-banga
'frangit' dyvwng banga ? 'pānis' perf. 'unda'
'inflexibilis' 'battuō' babháñja 6.4.-buogs
'frangō' 'turma' !
bha ga
'unda'
5.4.-
bekanem
'frangō'
bheidhō fīdō, fidēs beitten; baidjan 
<bhideH1- bītan 'obligō'; 'suādeō';

? 3a2.- beidan 'oboediō'
bædan, 'exspectō'
bid; bīdan
'exspectō'
bheikos fīcus , 5.4.-t'uz
<linguā beot. 5.5.-sigga,
medit.  has(s)ik
bheiqlā 2a1.-bech 2b1.-beg- bia  bъ ela,
eg(y)r <*bigwa, bь ela
'crābrō' bini 6.3.-bitìs
3a2.-béo,
bee
bheitlom biail bihal, 
<*beiāli- ? bihel, Beil
3a2.-bil,
bill 'ensis'
bheldō bolt(e),  6.3.-beldu,
Bolz beldeti
'sagitta' 6.4.-belzt
3a2.-bolt
'id'
3a3.-bulta
'battuō'
bhelēks fulix, fulica belihha,,  balāka /-kā
511
belche 'fulica' 'grus'
bheljō buil  'et 5.4.-a -
'effectus, uerrō' avelum;
ūsus' avelum
'uerrō'
bhelō fulix, fulica óibell 2b1.-beleu belihha, bala  bhālam belъ <ē
'fauilla' 'marta'; belche 'pallidus 'albus'; 'splendōr' 'albus'

<opi- ufel 'fauilla' 'fulica' equus' sam- 6.3.-bãlas,
'fulica'
bhelo; bhālayati baltas
bel-tene; 'prospectat 'albus'
Belenos ' 6.4.-bãls
(Apollo); balākā 'pallidus'
Belisama 'grus'
(Minerva) 5.4.-bal
'pallōr'
bhelō belen,  bha á- 6.3.-bìlstu,
bellen latrans' bila , bìlti
'latrō' (*bhel-s-); 'loquescor'
boln bhā atē 6.4.-bilstu,
'clamō'; 'loquitur'; bil u, bilst
buldern, bhaṇ atē 'loquī'
poltern <lnd 'id.';
3a2.- bháṇati
bylgan 'id.'
'clamō'
3a3.-belya
'id.'
bhelu 2b2.-bal bluwan, balwa-  bolъ
'aegrotās' bleuen wēswei 'aeger';
2b3.- 'battuō' 'malum' boléti
baluent 3a2.-bealo bliggwan 'aegrotāre'
'id.' 'malum'; 'battuō'
blow(e)
3a3.-bol
'infortuniu
m'
bhélunā filix, filex, belinuntia, bil(i)sa,  belenъ,
felix, filix  Bilme belena
3a2.-
beolone
bhem femur  bedró,
едро
<*bhemró
bhendhō offendō, buinne benna bintan bindan  badhnāti, 6.3.-binda
dēfendō ? <bhondhy 'genus 3a2.- 'socer' bandhati 'pecus';

; offendix, aa uehiculī' bindan  'ligāmen' bandhu beñdras
offendime 'nexus, 3a3.-binda   'familiāris' 'sodālis'
ntum armilla' 'patior' 5.3.-
bandayaiti
bhendhros bindan  bándhuh beñdras
'famīliāris' 'cgnātus' 'socius'
5.6.-
bandaka
bhendos binn 2b1.-ban  bhandate
2b3.-bann 'exsultat,
'canora'. beātē
clamat'
bhenjom epit <eks- 2b2.-bony ban(o) banja  5.3.-banay
bhen-tī 'ascia' 'mors'; 'uulnus, °n
'culter' Bahn? contusiō' 'aegrum
3a2.-benn faciunt'
'uulnus'
512
bherāgs frāxinus 2b1.-berth birihha baírhts  bhūrjah beresta
<*bhrH2gs 3a3.-biork 5.5.- 6.3.-
eno-; parkuiš bér as
farnus
<*bhrH2gs
nó-
bherghō bargā bergan bairgan  brego,
'casa' 3a3.- brešti
beorgan 'cūrō'
3a3.- 6.2.-
bjarga beregú,
beré ь
bherkō brecc Briccius brehen in brahua  bhrā atē

<*bh ktos 2b1.-brych 3a2.- augins  5.5.-pár-
'uarius' 'id" bregdan 'subitō' ku-iš
2b2.-brygh 'rapidē <bhrows? 'pūrus'
'id' mouēre'
bhermi ferō, forda, 1b2.-fertu berim; cymeraf, gebären baíran   bhárati, ber ,
(bherō) fertilis, 'feritō', brath cymryd 3a2.- 'fūr' bhárti, bьrati

fortūna, fūr ferest 'iudicium'; <*bhrt beran, 'grauis' bíbharti, 'emō'
'feret', cobrith 'emō' bear bibhárti brezda
1b3.-ferom 'auxilium' brawd 3a3.-bera 5.3.-baraiti 'grauis'
'ferre' 'iudicium' 5.4.-berem 6.3.-beriù
'sternō'
bernas
'puer'
bhermṇ  brem
bhernā bern,  5.4.-beran BU G.-
berna 'ōs' bъrna 'ōs'
6.3.-burnà
'bucca'
bhersi festīnō; bras 2b1.-brys  5.5.-pars- brъzo 'id'
cōnfestim 'rapidus' 'rapidus' 'fugiō' 6.3.-
2b3.- bruzgùs
bresic, 'rapidus'
brezec
bherwō feruō, berbaim; 2b1.-berw  bhurváṇi
fermentum breó ? 'feruens' 'manipulō' 'inquiētus'
, dēfrutum <*bhriwo- 2b3.-bero, 5.4.-bark
'flamma' beru 'acerbus'
bhesmi  bábhasti;

'anima'; bhasát
 'podex' `
'frigidus';

'susurrāns'
bheudhō buide, 2b1.-bodd biotan  bódhati biditu

buidechas 'uoluntās' 'offerō'  'comperit' 'vigilat'
'gratiās' 2b2.-both gibot 'percontor' budhyatē bunoti
'iussus' 'expergisci 'expergisc.'
tur' bljudu
bodhayati 'obseruō'
'expergef.' 6.3.-budéti
5.3.- 6.3.-bundù
baodah 'expergisc.'
'conscienti
a'
baoidis
'odor'
bheughō biuchen usbaugjan  bhuji yà-
'lixiuiīō' 'ēuerrīō' 'liber'
5.3.-baog-,
bunja-
513
'liberīō'
5.4.-
bu em 'id'
bheugō fid-bocc buc 'putris' biogan, biugan;  bhujáti; 6.3.-bauga
'arcus 2b3.-amsir biegen, bugjan ? bhugná- und
ligneus'; poug bücken, 'emō' 'flexus' ; ba gurs
bog ` `temps bûckeln bhúja- 'tumulus'
'mollis' mou' 3a2.- 'brachium'
bīegan;
bow
bheurō  5.5.-purut
'lutum'
bhéwedā buaid 2b1.-budd 3a3.-búti 
'uictoria' 'benefic.' 'permut.'
2a3.- 2b3.-bud 3a5.-būte
buaidh 'bradium' /buit
'captiō'
bhewmi fuī, fiō, fufans bíu 'sum' 2b1.- bim, bin bauan  bhávati byti
futūrus; 'erant' byddaf 3a2.-beon, 'habitō, 'germinō' <*bhéweti, 6.3.-būti
superbus, 1b2.-fust 2b2.- be; būan colō' aor. abhūt,
probus 'erit' bethaf <*bhūwon inf.
2b3.- o- 'uīuō' bhavitum
bezaff/bez <*bhewHtu
ann m
5.3.-bavaiti
bhéwonom búan 2b1.-bun A B.-banë bhavana-
'constans' 'regīna, 'domus' m 'domus,
<*bhouno- domina' <*bhouonā nascentia,
cōgitātiō'
bhewtis buith 'ens'  bhūti- , bytь 'esse'
bhūtí- 6.3.-būti,
'essentia' būtìs 'id'
bhewtlom bōdel  bhavítram 6.3.-būklà
'patrimoniu 'natūra, 'mundus' 'domicilium
m', bōl secus' '; būklas
'praedium' 'cubīle'
3a2.-bold, 6.7.-bydlo
botl <*dhlo- 'id'
'domus' ;
build
bhíbheimi foedus -a - bibēn,  bháyate, bojo, bojati

um Beben 'simius' bhibhāya se
3a3.-bifa, 5.3.- 6.3.-bija s,
bifra (cf. bayente, bijótis;
titran) byente baile,
5.4.- bailùs,
bāk<bháya baime
ka 'timor' 'timor'
bhidhós fiscus<dhs 3a3.-biða, 

k; fidēlia bide, bidne 
<sl 
bhidrós bittar, baitrs  5.4.-birt
bitter
3a2.-biter,
bitter
3a3.-bitr
bhilis bil Bilicatus, bili-, bila-, 
Bilicius bil; bilewiz, 'cārus'
bilwiz
'nomus';
Unbill
billīch
514
'adaequātu
s'
3a2.-
bilawit
'simplex'
bhínāmi perfines benim; 2b1.-  bij , bi-ti
'perstringa rubaid benaff
s' 'interficit' 'putō'
*pro-bhei- 2b3.-bitat
'resecāret'
etbinam
'laniō'
bhindō findō, bibdu bīzzan, beitan  bhinadmi,
fisūra 'culpābilis' beiBen 'mordeō' bhedati
<*bhebhid 3a2.-bite;
uōts ? bitter
bhītós ro-bíth  (raz)bít,
'tusus est'; zabíta;
bithe <- про итый;
*tyos bíta 'pāla'
'tusus'
bhləgsmā 
bhlādhrom 
bhlaghmṇ flāmen Messap.  brahmán
blamini
bhlagō flagrum, 3a3.-  blaška ,
flāgitō, blaka, bloškiù
flāgitium, blakra, 'pullullō'
conflages blekja
bhlaidos 3a2.-blāt  ALB: bledъ
'albimentu bleronj 'pallidus'
m' 'uiridis' 6.3.-
blaĩvas
'sobrius'
bhlakkos flaccus  bláhyj

'nescit' ? 'malus,
(Hes.) foedus'>
6.3.-blõgas
'id' 6.4.-
blāgs
'dēbilis'
bhlāmi flō blāen, 
blāsan
3a2.-
blāwan,
blow
bhlōwos flāuus, Flaviies blá; blár 1b2.-blawr blāo, blau  6.3.-blãvas
flōrus. 'Flauiii' 'candidē 'cinereus' 'id' <gmc.
fuluus? maculātus' 3a2;-blue 6.4.-blãvs
'caesius' <gmc.
bhledō indlaidi uz-ar-  6.4.-
'gloriatur' pulzit blaadu,
'ebullit' blaazt
cf. platzen,
plätschern
bhleicō flīgō, flīxī, 2b1.-blif  (i blizь, blizъ
flīctum 'catapulta, longa) 'prope=qu
ballista'; atiens'
blifaidd 6.3.-blaĩzĩt,
'celeriter' bli zt
bhleidō bláed 2b1.- 3a2.-bloat  6.4.-
'rumor' bloedd 'id' 'exstillō' bli^stu,
515
 bli^du,
'fermentō' bli^zt et

'rumorōsu' blie^ u, -
du, -st
'condensor
'
bhlēmi fleō blæjen,  bleju,

blāzan  'ballō' blejati
'bālō' ; 'bālō' 6.4.-
plär(r)en bl ju, blet
3a2.- 'id.'
blætan,
bleat;
blare;
blagettan,
blægettan
'clamō'
bhlendhos gmc. blint, blind blinds  bradhnah bledu,
*blundaz>l 3a2.-blind 'caecus' 'ruber' blesti 'errō,
at. blondus 3a3.-blindr blandan fornicō'
sik bledь
'misceor' 'farsa'
6.3.-
blend iù,
bl sti
'dormiō'
6.4.-
blendu,
blenst
'male
uideō'
bhleucō fluō, 2b1.- 

flūmen, blyngu? 'obruō';
fluuius, irascor 
conflūgēs 2b2.- 'ebrius';
blouhi 
'puniō' 'bulla'
bhleugsmṇ 
bhleumi 
bhleusō blūs 'falx' ;  blъštati?

<*euk-  'splendeō'
bluhhen, 6.3.-
bliehen blunkù,
'incandēsc blukti
ō' 'pallescō'
3a2.-
blyscon,
blush
'rubēscō',
blysa
'flamma'
bhḷgējō fulgeō, Flagiui umblissiu blecchen,  bhargas blagъ
flagrō, 'fulgurātor blecken 'fulgor' 'bonus'
flamma es' 'uidērī' ; ToB.- 6.3.-
<gsm, blæc pälketär blágnytis
fulmen 'nīger' 'ardeō' 'incandēscī
3a2.- '
blæcern 6.4.-
'lūmen' balgans
'albus'
bhḷkjō fulciō, 2b1.-balog Balke,  bhurijāu bólozno

fulcrum; 'pinnaculu Block 'carīna' 'arma' 'taeda,
sufflāmen m' 3a2.- fustis'
516
? balca, 6.3.-
bealca bal ien
'trabs'
bhlokos floccus blaha 
'rudis
sindō'
bhlōros 
bhlōs flōs fluusaí bláth 2b1.-blawd bluomo blōma 
'flōrae' 2b2.- 3a2.-
fluusasiaís blodon blōstm
'florālibus' 2b3.-
bleusuen
(-sm-)
bhlosējō 
bhloskos blosc  blázgu, -éti
(bloisc) intr.,
'strepitus' blázginti
'resonāre'
bhlōtis bláth 2b1.-blawd bluot  TOK A
2b2.- 'tālea, pält, B pilta
blodon folium <PT *pältā
2b3.- 3a2.-blēd, 'petalum,
bleusuen blade folium'
(-sm-) 3a3.-
blat<*blōdi
'id'
bhṇghus pinguis bungo  bahú- 6.4.-bìezs

(cont. 'tuberculu 'multum';
'crēbrē'
*finguis et m' bahulá-
opīmus) ? 3a3.-bingr, 'crēber'
bunga 5.3.-b zah
'aceruum' 'altitūdō,
profunditā
s' 5.4.-
bazowm
'multum'
5.5.-panku
'omnis'
bhodhjō fodiō 2b1.-bedd 3a2.-bed badi  5.5.-pèda- bodo, bosti

'sepulcr'. 'lectus' 'fouea, 'figō'
2b2.-beth cāuitās' 6.3.-bedù,
2b3.-bez besti 'id'
bhodhwos bodb Ateboduus 3a2.- 
2a3.- , beadu
badhbh Boduognat 'proelium'
us
bhodjós 
bhodrós bezzir(o), batiza,  bhadra
bezzist batista 'bonus';
3a2.- 'optimus' su-bhadra
bet(e)ra, gabatnan 'magnificu
betst 'fruor' s' 5.3.-
3a3.-betr bōta hu-baδra
'beneficiu 'beātus'
m'
bhodsā 
bhogā bágim bāgaudae bágu  bazel
'pugnō' 2b1.-bwyo 'pugnō' 'clamans'
combāg 'quatiō' 3a3.-bágr 6.4.-
'pugna' bai 'culpa' 'imped.' buozties
'stomachār
ī'
517
bhogājō 
bhogjos búal <gl bah, Bach 
'amnis'; 3a2.-becc
búar<gr 3a3.-bekkr
'diarrhoea'
bhoglā búal; búar bah, Bach  bha gá- bangà ?
'diarrhoea' 3a2.-becc ? 'unda' 'unda'
<bhogyo <*bheg? <*bheg?
'quatiō' 'quatiō'
bhoidhos foedus -a -  besъ
um 'simius' <*bhoidso-
'daemoniu
m' 6.3.-
baĩsas
'phasma'
bhoidos 
bhoiqos fūcus 3a2.-bēaw 
bhokos focus  5.4.-boc;
bosor
'ruber'
bholghis follis bolg Bulga 3a2.-belly balgs  6.8.-
2b1.- 'pantica' 'pellicula' blazína
boly/bol, 'puluīnum'
bola 6.9.-
2b3.-bolc'h balsinis 'id'
'cortex'
bholjom folium bileoc blat, Blatt 
<*bheljo- 3a2.-blæd (*bho >
'foliculum'; *bhu
bile 'arbos' propter
Cowgill's
legem?)
bhōljóm baile 3a3.-bōl; 

'sedēs, schwed.
locus' mdartl.
bylja, bölja
<*bulja
'nīdiculum'
bholos bolad, -dh  5.4.- bal 6.4.-buls/la
'odor' 'cāligō' 'aer cal.'
bholós 
bhondhsā 3a2.- bansts  6.3.-bandà

bōsig, <*bhondhs  'pecu,
boose ti-  pecora'
3a3.-bāss
bhōr fūr, -is  5.4.-burn

'manus,
uis'
bhorājō forō, feriō 3a2.-bore 
'ōrificium'
bhorcos borb, borp  5.4.-bark 6.4.-
'rudis' 'uiolentus' bar^gs
'strictus,
seuērus'
bhoros 
bhorsos borr 2b1.-bwrr parrēn 
2b1.-borr 'supīnus'
parrunga
'superbus'
barsch
'raucus'
3a3.-abiēs
518
bhosos bar  5.4.-bok bosu
'nūdus'  'rāsus' 6.3.-bâsas
3a2.-baer 6.4.-bass
'nūdus'
3a3.-berr
bhoudhejō 
bhougā fūga  
<*bhugiH2
bhougājō 
bhōwijós báe  bhāvya-
'praestanti 'fūtūrus,
a' faciendus'
bhragrājō fragrō bræhen 
<bhrēyō;
bracko,
Bracke
'canis
uēnātor'
bhrātēr frāter fratrum bráthir bratronos brōthar broþar  bhrātā, bratrъ,

1b2.- 2b1.- 3a2.-  bhrātr bratъ
fratrum, brawd pl brōthor, 5.3.-brātar 6.3.-
fratrom brodyr brother 5.4.-elbayr broterelis
(g.pl.) 2b2.- 3a3.-brōðir
broder/bru
der 2b3.-
breur -
bredeur
bhrātreino 
s
bhrātrijos 
bhrēgō 2b1.-berth beraht, baírhts  bhrājatē brezgъ
'clārus, berht 'id' 'clārus' 5.5.-parkui 'aurōra'
pulcher' 3a2.- 'limpidus' 6.3.-
beorht, 5.6.- brékšta/ko
bright brāzaiti 'id'
bhreicō frīgō; 1b2.-frehtu  bhrjjáti 6.3.-
fertum<*fir 'coctus' <*bherg bìrgelas
ctum 5.6.-biriš- 'ceruisia'
tan
bhremō fremō 2b1.-brefu brummen;  brezgъ;

bremo, brjákatь
'strepitus'
Bremse 
'frēnum' 'tonitrus'
3a2.-
bremman
bhrendhō brenn<bhe  *bredъ
rndhwā 'sarmentu
'profūsiō'; m' 3.-
bebarnatar bréstu,
, do- bréndau,
eprinn; brésti
bruinnid 'mātūrō'
bhrenō frōns braine 2b3.- 3a2.-brant  6.4.-
(frōntis) 'arista' brenniat 'clīuus' bruodinš
'id' 3a3.- 'cuspis
brandr tectī'
'acroteria
nauium et
domūm'
bhresjō brissid 2b3.-bresa brestan  5.5.- 6.3.-
(*bhrésteti) 'pugnāre' 'ērumpō' parš(iya)- braszleti
'frangit'; 3a2.-burst 'frangō' 'rumpī'
519
brosc,
broscar
'strepitus'
bhrūgjai fruor fruktatiuf brūhhan, brukjan 
<*frūje-, (*frūgetātiō Brauchen 'opus esse'
frūx ns) 3a2.-
(frūgis), 'frūctus'. brūcan
fructus, 1b2.-fri(f)
frūmen, 'frūgēs'
frūniscor
bhreugs 
bhreugsm 
ṇ
bhreugtis 
bhreukō Breuci,  brúsiti
Breucus; 'acuō';
Breucoma brósitь
gos 'iaciō'
(Brumath 6.3.-
in Alsacia) braukiù
braukia
bra kti
6.4.-
brucina^t
bhrēunā brú 3a1,a2.-  briaunà
(bruach) brūn 'ōra,
<*bhrūwāk 'acūtus' corōna'
os 3a3.-brūn <*bhrēunā
limbus'
bhreusō brú 2b1, b2, briustern; brusts  brjúcho,
(bronn) b3.- Brausche 'pectus' brjúxo
'pantica' bron(n) 'tumor'; 'pantica'
<bhrusōn 'pectus' brust brъstъ
bruinne 'pectus' 'gemma,
'pectus' 3a2.- pampinus'
<bhrusnyo brēost,
brollach breast,
<slāk brisket
'sinus'
bhrēwā Brīua brucca,  brъvъno
Brücke; 'trabs'
brügel,
Prügel
'uirga'
3a2.-brygc
3a3.-brū
bhrewō defrūtum bruth 'ius, briuwan, TRHAK. bruja
feruor' brauen;  'fluxus'
prođ 'i, f' ; 'ius, feruor'
brōt 'p'
3a2.-
brēowan;
brođ 'i,f';
brēad
'pānis'
bhrew tipra<to- brunno brunna  4.4.-albiur,

eks- 3a2.- albeur
bhrewr brunna 'fons'
(tiprat)
bh ghos for(c)tis, Brigit Admageto- Berg baúrgs   b hant-, f. bregъ 'ripa'
arc. bri (ac. briga 'mons'; 'urbs' 'mūrus' b hatī
for(c)tus brigh) 2b1.- burg 'urbs' bairs barháyati
520
'collis' bryeint 3a2.- 'mons' 'auget'
'priuil barrow 5.4.-barjr
2b2-2b3.- 'mons'; 5.5.-parku-
bre burg
bhrigijō frigō 3a2.-   brešú,'cla

beorcan, 'auis mō'
bark quaedam' brgljati
3a3.- 'garriō'
berkja bergléz
'latrō' 'pīca'
6.3.-
burgéti
'antipat.
esse'
bhrijājō friō, refrīua briathar 2b1.-  brīnanti ре ,
faba, 'uerbum, brwydr 'iniuriantur' рить
friuolus, causa' 'pugna' 'rādō';
fricō <*bhreitrā bridъ
'dumēs'
bh ijō feriō, barae, 2b1.-bar, berjan,  bh nāti (?) borjo, brati
forma; forō bara 'īra' ; baran 'īra' bern 'uellō'; 'secat'; 'pugnō';

barrad 'quatiō' 'guttur'; bhárvati 6.3.-burti
'rāsūra' 3a2.-bered  'dēuorat' 'incantāre'
2a2.- 'concussus 'inuulsus'; 5.6.-burrad
bairenn ', bor  'secat',
'ōrificium' 'barranca'; bárdhaka
3a3.-berja  'culter'
'destruō'
'quatio';
bora
'ōrificium'
bhríkāmi 
bh kjō farciō, barc 
fartus 'impetus' 'agglutinō,
(undae) fortificō'
part.

bh ksnos 
bh ktos 
bh mā forma  A B.brimë
'ōrificium'
bhrṇgō frangō, braigid braca brehhan, brikan  brháti 6.3.-
fragilis, (vn. 'bracca' brechen; 'scinditur' braškù,
fragmentu braimm) 2b2.-bram prahhen, braškéti
m, 'pēdit' t- 'pēdus' prägen <gskō
suffrāginēs air-brech 'premō' 6.4.-
'rumpere'; 3a2.- brakškēt,
bróc brekan, brakstēt
'bracca' break
bhroigos 2b1, 3a3.-brikja  braj 'rigor

2b3,.brig 'erigō'; 'erigor'; membrī'
brikna 
'hilaritās' 'undulāt.' 
bhrosdhos brot 2b2.-bros brart  ALB.-
'spīna'; 'id' 'margō' breth,
brostaim 2n3.-brod bredhi
'figor' 'di' 'abiēs'
bhrounóm fris-brudi briune,  bhrūṇá-m brъsn ti
'reicit' brūne 'embryō' 'scabō'
'abdōmen, 6.4.-
uulua'; bra na,
breoðan bra a
'frangere'
521
bhrounos 3a1, 3a2.-  cf. babhrú bronъ

brūn 'albus
'testudō,
3a3.-brūnn rāna' equus'
brynétъ'ca
ndidus,
pallidus'
bhroustom frūstum, bronnaim 2b1.-briw brýsan 
frūstra ? 'damnō' 'uulnus' 'frangō'
bhrówṇtis frons abra (pl. 2b1.- MAKED.- 5.3.-
(frontis) abrait) amrant a bruvadbhi
'superciliu 2b2.-  'supercilīs'
m' abrans
'superc.'
2b3.-
abrant
bh stís fastigium; barr Cunobarru burst  bh stíh borshchъ
fastus -us, 'extrēmum, s 'cerda' 'cuspis' 'ungula'
fastidium cacumen' 'superbus 3a2.-byrst
<*fastitid.? sicut canis' 3a3.-burst
2b1.-bar
2b3.-barr
bh tis fors breth uergobretu giburt ga-baúrþs  b tí-
<*bh tā- s 'partus' 'partus' 5.4.-bard
'portātiō'; 2b1.-bryd 'molēs'
bráth 'mens';
<*bh tu- brawd
'iudicium' 'iudicium'
2b2.-brys
bhrughnos brognena 2b1.- 3a, a3.- 
'rāmōrum' brwynen brogne
2b2.- 'rāmus'
brunnen
2b3.-
broennenn
bh ugs frūmen<fru 3a3.-barki   5.4.-erbuc

gsmen 'collum' (ad 'pectus'
<*bhor-g- ) <*bhrugo-
bhrūs frons bruuad 3a2.-brū  bhrūh bruvi,
(frontis) (gen. du.), F (bhruváh) ровь
 
abrait  5.3.-brvat- 6.5.-óbrva
(nom. pl.)
bhrúsnāmi frustum bronnaim 2b1.-breu, brōs(e)m(e 
'damnō', brau ) 'mīca'
sub. 'fragilis' 3a2.-
robria; brū 2b2.-brew briesan<a
'quatiō'<bh 'fractus' usj; bruise
rusiō,
brúire,
bruan,
bruar
'fragmentu
m'
bhrusnjā bruinne 2b1.-bronn brunja, brunjō 
<*bhusnyo 'id' brunna, 'lōrica
- 'pectus'; <*bhrusnā Brünne id' scutulāta'
brúasach 2b3.- 3a2.-byrne <celt.
'mgnipecti bronn, 'id'
s' bron 'id'
bhrusos brú 2b1.-bru brust  brjúcho,
<*bhrusō 'uenter, 3a2.- brjúxo
(bronn <*- uterus' brēost, 'pantica'
snos) 'id' breast
522
bhrustóm 
bhrutēks frutex broth briezen, 
'barba, brōz
capillum' 'tumor'
bhrwtom dēfrutum bruth 2b1.- prut, brut 
'feruor' <*- brut/brwd <*-tis
tis 'ardor' 3a2.-prod,
2b2.- brōd 'ius';
bredion 3a3.-broth
'coctiō'
2b3-
brot/broud
'ius'
bhudhmṇ fundus, bond, bodam,  budhna-
profundus bonn Boden 5.3.-bunō
3a2.-botm, 5.4.-bun
bottom
3a3.-bytna
(vb)
bhudhnos 
bhugjō fugiō 3a2.-bow biugan  bhujati 6.3.-

būgstu,būg
ti
bhugos boc(c), boc  bukkah 6.3.-
po(c) (boekes), 'ariēs' būgstu,
boccánach Bock 5.3.-būza būgti intr.
'phasma' 3a2.- 'ariēs' 'terreō',
bucca, 5.4.-buz kaus.
buck 'agnus' baugìnti
3a3.- 5.6.-buz baugùs
bukkr, 'caper' 'timens'
bokkr/i
bhukús bo, bocc ALB.-butë 5.4.-but' 6.3.-bukùs
'suāuis' 'suāuis' <*któ 'heb.' 'hebes'
bhuljā bolach biule, ufbauljan  buri- , 6.3.-

<*bhulāk- Beule; pull 'tumefaciō' (Hes) buli- bulìs,bùl ,
<*bulno- 'pūga' bule 'pūga'
'caput, 5.4.-boil
apex' (gen. pl.
3a2.-byle; bulic
pulse multitūdō)
bhulkos su/bubulcu Samn> It.l 

s bifolco
bhūm fuī  ábhūt 'fuit'
bhúncai fungor  bhunkte ALB.-
'oblectātur' bungu,
, bubhuk ā bunk
'famēs; 'abies
bh ga- nutritīuus'
'oblectām.'
5.4.-boyc
<*bhoug(w
)os 'cibus'
bhusājō bus, pus Buss(erl),  5.6.- 6.6.-buzia
'labrum'; bussen bōsīdan 'osculum,
busóc, 3a2.-buss buccula'
pusóc
'osc.'
bhūsjō 3a3.-büsia  bhū ati ыстрый
'uī effluō' 'conitor' 'celer'
bhūtā both 'casa' buode,  6.3.-bùtas
Bude 'domus'
523
3a3.-bōþ,
booth
bhutjō fūstis, bibdu būstis boz(z)an bauþs 
fūsterna, 'culpābilis' 'truncus' <*bhud 'surdus,
confūtō, <*bhebhut 3a2.- mutus'
refūtō, wōs cf. bēatan,
fūtuō bhindō; beat
fo-botha 3a3.-
<*butāt beysta
'minātu' (forem)
bhūtós futūrus ro-both  bhūtáh byti, bytъ
<*bhūtú-, <*pro- (part. 'esse,
futāre bhūtós; esse) modus,
<*bhūtós both 'casa' uiuendī'
6.4.-b t
bistlis bīlis 2b1.-bust 
2b2.-
bistel/byst
el
2b3.-bestl
blaktā blatta  *blo ьšīca
>UC .
6.3.- blãkē
<yā
'cimex'
blatsājō blaterō, pla(d)der(e 
blatiō )n
blēkājō blöken  blek(ot)átь

bṇdus buinne 2b2.-  bindú
'scaturigō' banne,
banna
'nōn gutta'
2b3.-
banne
bodhrós bodar 2b1.-  badhirá-s
2a3.- byddar
bodhar 2b2.-
bothar
2b3.-
bouzar
bokkos bocc boc  5.3.-būza
3a3.-bokkr 5.4.-buc
'agnus'
bólboljō bulliō  5.4.-
pɫpjam
'collabor'
bolkos belach 2b1.-bwlch  5.4.-pelem
'rupēs, 'Spalte' 'fodiō'
uia'; bolg 2b3.-
(contam. boulc'h
tolg?)
boukājō bóchna puche,  bukkati bu ati
'mare' pochen 'ululans' 'latrat'; 'resonō'
(=tonans) 'quatiō' búk-kāra- 6.3.-
<*boukany 3a2.-poke 'rugītūs' bukùoti;
ā 'pungō' bùk ius
'balbus'
brenghos brong(a)id  P AC.-
e múhu-
5.3.-
mrzujīti 'b.
uitae'
524
brokos 1a1.- brocc 2b1, 2b3.-  6.6.-Brok
brochus, broch 'nōmen
bronchus flūminis'
bughōn būbō,  búk-kāra- búchatь

būtio,  'rugītus' 'surdē
būteo 'clamō' 5.3.- strepō
 bu ahin- 6.3.-
'clamor' 'ululans' baubl s
 5.4.-bu, 'būtio';
'ululans'
buē bùk ius
5.6.-būm 'balbus'
bukkā bucca pfüchen, puggs 'id.'  6.3.-p kšti
Pfoch 'exclamāre
3a2.- '
pohha,
pocca,
pocket
'follis,
saccus'
3a3.-poki
'id.'
cadhō ba(i)dim 2b1.-boddi  gāhatē
'mergō' 'imbuor' 'profunditā 'mergit'
2b2.- s'
bedhy 'id'
2b3.-
beuziff 'id'
cāmṇ  pra/ ví- 6.3.-

gāman- ga^jums
5.3.-gā- 'et seriēs'
man-
cécālos  jagat <-nt
'profānus' 'mundus'
cedhō quetzen,  gandhayat 6.3.-
quetschen 'contumeli e 'feriō' gadinù,
'opprimō, a' gandhá- gadìnti ;
tundō' <*gʷendhn 'olor' intr.
3a3.- o-;  5.3- gendù,
kvadda 'id' 'inuidia' gantay- gésti
'foetor'
cītā uita bith Biturīges  jīvita- ivotъ
(betho) <*- 'rēges m.' 5.3.-gaeā 6.3..-
tu-; bethu 2b1.-byd 'mundus, gyvatà
(bethad) 'mundus', opes, 6.4.-dzĩtu
<*gwīwotut bywyd domus'
- 2b2.-
bit/bys 'id'
2b3.-bed
'id'
cīwāks uīuax (-  jīvaka- (*- 6.3.-
ācis) ko suff. a gyvókas
nōmine uel 'uīuus'
adiect.)
cejwō uīuō; iūgis biad 2b1.-bwyd Hom. jīvati ivú, itь
<H2yu-gwi- <*gwejHto 'cibus'   5.4.-keam 6.3.-gyjù,

m 'cibus' 2b2.- 'uiuam' gýti 'sānō'
buit/boys/b
ūz 2b3.-
boed/boue
d
cīwotos beath(aidh TOK.-  
5.5.-LUW ivotъ
e)ach aiyye huitumar 6.3.-
525
'capra, gývulis
ouis'
cēlejō quellen  5.4.-kelem el j ,
3a2.- 5.5.-guls- el ti
quellian 'pingō' 'depolorō'
3a3.-kvelia 6.3.-gélti
'pungere'
célṇdis glans  gula- eludь<* e
5.4.-kalin l dъ
6.3.-
giléndra
'anōna'
celō uolō -āre; 2b1.- quellan  gálati

balneum blif<*gwlē 'scatō',   'defluit,
<gr. mo? Quelle 'eiectus' ēuanescit'
'catapulta' garút
5.4.-
ənkenum;
ən kēc
'iēcit'
celom uola kiol, Keule  gōla 'pila'
'nāuis q.' 'pantica, 5.4.-kalum
3a2.-cēol trulla'; 'carpō'

'id' 'follis'
célwonom  5.5.-
<*-neyo kueluwana
cemjō ueniō, kúmbened quïman, qiman  gácchati TOK A.-
conj. 'conuenit', queman, <*gwmjō, <*gw -sk; käm, kum-,

aduenam cebnust qiman, <*gwm- jígāti B käm-,
'uēnerint' kommen <*gwi-gwā kam-, em
skō;
3a2.-come  5.4.-
<*gwi-gwā jamaiti,
jasaiti
cenā ben (mna, 2b1.- qino, qens  jáni- ena

ban) benyw <pgmc. (gnās) 6.9.-genna
2b2.- *kwēniz 5.4.-kin
benen (knoj)
5.5.-LUW
wana(tti)
cerbhō  5.5.-karip 6.3.-

 gróbas 'ilia'
ceri  girí- <*gʷ gora

'aquilō' rH-i-. 6.3.-gìre,
5.3.-gairi- girià 'id'
6.4.-garš
'silua'
cerjō kurre 'id' qaírrus  5.4.- 6.3.-gùrty
3a3.-kuirr, 'mitis' korusane 'decedō'
kyrr 'id' m 'ruinō'; TOC A
koreay kur, B
'morior' ikwär
5.5.- 'senescō'
karussiya-
'sileō';
kariya
'sistō'
cerō grātēs, brateis bard bardus queran  grṇāti, giriù, gìrti

grātus, 'gratiae' 'bardus' 2b1.-bardd 'suspirāre'   grṇīt 6.4.-
grātia βρατωμ <*gwr- 'bardus' gūrtí- dzirties
'mūnus' d(h)o-s =grātēs
'laus'
gūrtá-
526
=grātus
5.3.-aibi-g°
r°nte 3p
5.4.-
kardam
'clamor'
cerō korts  jvarati; 6.3.- iūr ti
'febris' jvara- 'speciō'
'febris' 6.4.- re^t
'nictō'
ceru uerū 1b2.-berva bi(u)rn 2b1, b2, krūt, qaíru ? 5.3.-grava-
'uerua', 'hasta' b3.-berf Kraut? 'pālus' 'germinō'; 'hasta'
berus 'herba' 
'ueribus' 3a2.-krūd 'germen'
<*krūdā
cérurom berrum biror/biolar kresso 
césneumi bás qist 'ruina';  jásate ugasitiú a

<*gwōs-to- qistjan 'inexting.' 'esuriō' s?'pauor'
? 'mors' 'ruinō' 5.5.-kist 6.3.-
gesa ,
gèsti 6.4.-
dzisu, dzist
cespis uespicēs quispel  gu pitá 6.5.-gwozd

'brocha'; 'caesariēs' 'entramad 'silua'
questa, o'
Quast
'gerra'
cetus bitūmen, be(i)the 2b1.-bedw cuti, Kitt  játu
betulla <*betuyā <*betuā 'b' 'gluten' 'gumma'
`buxus' 2b2.- 3a2.-
bedewen cwudu
'popl.' 'mastix'
2b3.- 3a3;-
bezuen kvāða
'betula'
ceudhos būbināre buadraim 2b1.-budr quad, Kot  ogaviti
'conturbō' 'immundus 3a2.- vexāre'
' cwēad, gáditь
squash 'polluō'
'quatiō' 6.3.-geda
'dedecus'
chaisos  6.3.-gaĩsas

 'lux
 caelestis';
 gi dras 'c'
'clārus'; 
6.4.-gaišs
'clārus'
chedhō CELTIB.- guidimm uediíumí ? 
(g. pl.) 2b1.- 'desiderō'

kueðontiku gweddi 'implorō'
m? 'rogātiō'
cheldi fel galla  zhlici, zlici
chelō 3a3.-  el ti,
gildra/i elati
'pedica'
chendō fendō gonim  hanmi, pf.
'feriō' 'nex' jaghāna

guin 'tundō' 'necō'
'uulnus' 5.5.-
kunatar
'nex'
chenmi dē-, of- gonim 2n1.-  hanmi, pf. en ,
527
fendō 'feriō' 3ª gwan(u) 'nex' jaghāna goniti,
gonaid; 'quatiō'  'necō' gъnati
gáetaid 2b2.- <*ghwenjō 5.4.- 'agō'
denom. a gwane 'id' 'tundō' ganem, 6.3.-genù,
<*ghwṇ to- 2b3.-goan- jnjem 'q.' giñti 'id';
; guin 'id' 5.5.- geniù, gìnti
<ghwoni kuenz, pl. 'dēfendō'
'uulnus'; kunanzi;
kunatar
'nex'
chentis 
cherō gorim 2b1.-gori gerwen  gh ṇ ti gr j ,
'calefaciō'; 'alō' 'praeparō' 'calefiō' 'luceō' gr ti ,
fo-geir; gor 2b3.-gor 3a2.- 5.4.- goritъ,
'calor, pus' 'calor' gierwan 'id' jernum goreti 'ūrō';
'calefiō'
cheros 2b1.-gor gor  háras- po arъ
'incubātiō, 'stercus' 'aestās' 'ardor' 'incendium'
pus' 3a2.-gyre 5.4.-jer 'et 6.3.-gãras
'id' sūdum' 'uapor,
desiderium
'
chislom fīlum 2b1;-gi-au  5.4.-jil i-ca ; ila
'tendōnes, 'corda, 'ueena'
ligamina' monīle' 6.3.-gijà;
gýsla 'id'
6.4.-
dzi(k)sla
'id'
chḷnō fallō,  hváratē zъlъ

falsus;  'uiet'; 'malus'
fallax  hválati, 6.3.-;
(Hes) hruṇāti valùs
'errat' 'obliquuus';
5.3.- pa vil-ti, -
zbarəmna au 'nitor'
'tortus';
zūrah
'fallācia'
chōks fax, arc.  ALB.- vãk
 
facēs;   dukem 'candēla'
facētus, (Hes)? 'speciō,
facētia uideor';
duk
'aspectus'
chonós  ghaná- gone(je)ti
'abundanti 'densus, 'sufficiō'
a' massa' 6.3.-ganà

'diuēs' 5.4.-yogn 'satis'
? 'multum' 6.4.-gana `
'uirgō' 5.6.- 'id'
āganiš
chormos formus  5.3.- 6.3.-gorme
'calidus'; garǝma-; 'calor'

<*-mṇtia- garma- 6.4.-
'furnus' pada- gar^me 'id'
'mensis q.'
5.4.-jerm
chornos fornus, gorn GRANNO  gh ṇá- grъnъ,
furnus, 'ignis' S 'ignis' gorn 'ăēna'
fornāx 5.4.-
jernum
'calefiō'
528
chrensós grís 'ignis'; 2b1.-  ghramsá-
grían gwres 'insolātiō,
(gréne) 'calor sōlis' splendor';
<gwhrensn 2b3.- grīsmá-
ā 'sōl' groez, 'aestās'
grouez
ch jō furō, furiō,  5.5.-
furōr kururiyahh
- 'bellum
agō'; kurur
'hostīlis,
hostīlitās';
cícāmi baïd 2b1.-bad  jígāti 'it' lit. dial.

'moritur' 'pestis'  5.4.-kam góti 'īre'
<*gwH2- 2b3.-bad 'uadō'  'stō' (=a.i. ALB.-ngā
yeti, do·bá; 'torpēdō' aor. agām 'currō'
pf. at-bath; 'iī' <*ganiō
bás (n)
cijā 1b2.-bio 3a3.-kvē 
cínāmi 3a3.-kveita  'uis'; jināti ; 6.3.- iguju,
 jáyati iguti
'obligō' 'uincit' 'assequī'
jyāyān
'potens'
5.3.-zināt
'nocēt'
5.6.-adināt
'sustulit'
cīrós uireō  jīrá-
'uiuāx,
celer'
cistis bisi ega 2b1.-bys zwisila? 
'stiriae' 2b2.-bis, 'rāmus,
bes furca'
2b3.-biz 3a3.-kvistr
'rāmus'
cīwos 2b1, 2b2.- 
biw 'pecu'
cīwós uīuus bivus beo 2b1.-2b2.- qius  jīvá- ivъ
'uīuōs' byw 6.3.-gývas
2b3.-beo
cḷā gula, gelim 2b1.-gwellt kela,  glotátь

ingluuiēs, 'pāscor' 'grāmen' Kehle 'cibus 'uorō'; glot,
glūtus, gelt-both 2b2.-gwels 3a2.-ceole piscibus' glotók
glūt/t/ō 'pabulum' 2b1.- 'fauces'
guelticion
'fen.'
cḷājō 
cḷēnós 2b1.-2b3.-  glāná
blin 'dēbilitātus'
cḷnāmi uallessit ? at-baill 2b1.- quelan  5.4.-kelem alь 'dolor'
'perierit' 'perit' aballu 'patī' 'uerō'; 'tormentō'; 6.3.-gélti

<*eks-id- 'pereō' 3a2.- 'cuspis' kel <gwel- 'pungere';
gwaln 2b2.-bal cwelan no-/so- gìlti
'pestis' 'morior'; /Ho- 'indolescer
cwellan 'uulnus' e'; giltine
'necō' 5.5.-guls- 'mors'
'pingō'
cḷturós vultur, 

voltu(us)
c tis conuenti-ō kúmbennie cumft gaqumþs  gáti-
ís (g.) 'conut.'
529
cobhōn Quappe  5.4.-kaw (- aba,
'piscis q.' oy) 'argilla' 'testūdō'
3a2.-quab 6.9.-
'palūs' gabawo
'rāna'
coinos bían  jīna-; jīla-
'pellis" 'conductus'
colbhos uolua kilbur,  gárbhah rebe

1a2.-galba chilburra,  'mātrix' 'pullus
Kalb  sá- equī'
3a2.- garbhya-
cilforlamb 'couterīnus
'agna '
māter'; calf 5.3.-
garəwa;
gərəbuš
'pullus'
corós carni-  aja-gara- 6.3.-gara
uorus '*capriuoru
s'
cosdhos bot, bod bottos quast,  alb.-ghethi gvozdь
'pēnis' 'axis' haste ? 'folium' 'clāuus'
2b1.-both 'hasta' 6.6.-
'axis' g(w)ózd
cotejō quedan 'id' qiþan  gadati ?
3a2.- 'dīcit'; un- 'dīcit'
cweðan, qēþs 5.4.-
quoth 'inenarrābil ko em
3a3.- is' 'uocō, inuit'
kveða 'id' 5.6.- āy°
m, am
cotlós botulus bél quiti 'uulua' qiþus 
<1b 'labrum' 3a2.- 'stomachu
<*gwetlos? cwidele s; uenter';
'pustula, qiþuhaftō
varix' 'praegnans
3a3.-kviðr, '
kviðugr
coucis būbināre MAK gū-th ; govno;
  guváti guditi
(Hes.) ? 'cacat', 'calumniar'
gūnam (dh)
'cacatum'
5.3.-gū-qa-
5.4..-ku,
koy `
coudhros 
cówijā gāuia kaha, kā  hava
'cornīx' 'coruus'
3a2.-kaa 6.8.-
'coruus ga^vǝc
frugilegus' uanellus
cowijós  gávya-,
 'nouem gavyá-
cum 5.4.-kogi
bubus' 'butyrum'
cówqolos buachaill 2b1.- 
bugail
2b2-2b3.-
bugel
cows bōs bó (bou) chuo  gáu (g. *gov do
gó , loc. 6.4.-guws
530
gávi)
5.3.-gāus
5.4.-gov
5.5.-
*guwau
cowstās CELTIB.-  go há-
poustom
c (āw)ús grauis bair; baire 2b1.-bryw kaúrus, pl.  gurú> 6.3.-

'grāuitās' 'robur, kaúrjōs; 'onerō'; gárīyān, gùrstu,
bruth robustus' kaúrjan <ud- gāri ha gùrti
'pndus' 'onerō' g; 5.3.-gouru- 'remittō'
 5.4.-karem (uentus)
 'possum'
crətos brūtus <1b  6.4.-gr ts
'grauis'
c ājō uorō, tuarae 2b1.- querdar,  giráti, pо ъro,

uorāgō, 'esca' breuad Köder 'esca'; giláti, po reti
gurguliō 'uermes' 'cibus  grṇāti 6.3.-geriù,
laqueī' 'guttur' 5.3.-jarait gérti
5.4.-
kèrem
'abradō';
ker, kur
'esca'
crātós grātus  gūrtáh 6.4.-dzirts
'exsultātus'
c āwenus bró, bráo 2b1.- 3a2.-quern kuairnus TOK B.- grāvan- rъnъvi
breuan kärweñe 5.4.-erkan 6.3.-gìrnos
2b2.-brou <*gwrH2wo
2b3.-breo njo- 'lapis'
c cestjom 
c cots gurges, quer(e)kel  gárgara;grī griva 'iuba'
gurguliō, a, querka <gwerwā vā 'collum' 6.3.-
gurgustiu 3a3.-kverk 'collum' nigalgalīti/j gargaliúoju
m 'tōlēs' algulīti 'stertō'
'uorat'
c ebhos brommach 
< *-
ombhāko
creughos brón 'cūra' 2b1.-  grustь
*<brugnos brwyn 'ringor' 'cūra';
'mordens gryzo,
dolior' grysti
'rōdō
6.3.-
gráu iu,
gráu ti 'id'
croghos bráge, 2b1.- krage 
brágae abalbroua 'guttur'
'collus' nnou
2b2.-
briansen
'guttur'
2b3.-
Brehant
crotsos grossus bras 2b1, b2, 
b3.-bras
croughnos brón 2b1.- 
brwyn 'ringor'
c ús grus tri-garanus chranuh  5.4.-krunk eravь
(Taruos) 3a2.-cran 6.3.-gérve
2b1-b3.-
531
garan
dā   da
daimoi fo-dálim ? arcanto- teil 'pars' ; dails<*dail  dāti, dyáti; delъ ?

'seiungō' danos eit, zīt os 'pars';  dātár 'pars'
'monetāriu 'tempus' RUN- 'portiō' 'diuīsor';
s' *<daitis da[i]liþun  dātu,
3a2.-d l, 'diuidēre' 'dīuīsor'; dātrám
tīd 'aestus'  'distribūtiō';
'hospitiō'
 dātram
'usūra'; 'falx'
 diná, ditá
'dīuīsus'
5.4.-dāra
'salārium'
daitis zīt, eit ALB.-ditë 5.4.- ti
<*tidiz 'diēs' (tioy)
3a2.-tīd; 'aetās'
tide
'aestus'
3a3.-tīð
'id'
daiwēr leuir zeihhur  devár- deverь
3a2.-tācor 5.4.-taygr 6.3.-
dëverìs
dakru lacrima<da 2a1.-dér 2b1.-deigr zahar tagr  á ru 6.3.-ašarà,
cruma 2a3.-deór 2b2.- 3a2.-téar 5.3.-asrū- ãšara
dagrow 5.4.- TOK A.-
(pl.) artawsr ākär
2b3.- 5.5.-
dacrlon ishahru
(ūdus)
dāmos dám 2b1.-dauu 

<*dāmā 'cliens' 'populus'
'comitātus' 2b2.-dof
gener
2b3.-deuff
dānus Dānuvius,  dā-na Don,Dniep

Condate 'adeps 'fluxus er,Dniestr
'confluens' animālis' horm. <Danapriu
; Donwy (elephanti s,
(*dānuuiā) acum)' Danastius
5.3.-dānu <*apara *
'flūmen, nazdya-
fluxus'
5.4.-tamuk
'madidus';
tamkanam
'madefiō'
5.5.-
dame(n)k-
'pluō'
dápnāmi 
dapnom damnum 3a3.-tafn  5.4.- taun,
'hostia' 'impensa'; tawn

'insūmō' <dapni
'festa'
daps daps, tappen  dāpayati TOK A.-

damnum 'decerpō' 'scindō' 'diuidit' tāp 'ēdit'
3a2.- 5.4.- taun,
tappen tawn
'tundō' <dapni
3a3.-tapa 'festa'
532
'perdō'
dáwētā 
dáwetus duellum dóud  davathu
'incendium 'inflammāti
' ō'
dáwneumi bellum, dóím 'ūrō'; 2b1.- zuschen  dun ti, 6.3.-d iáuti

arc. dōud deifio, 'ūrō' 'taeda'; dāvayati 'siccō'
duellum 'incendium cynnud 'id' 3a2.-tēona  'urit" <dyēw
<*dáwetlo ' = ai. -gr m., tēone 'damnum'; doman- 'caelum' ?
m davathu;  'damnum'  'incendium' 6.4.- aut
connad, 2b3.-devi, 3a3.-deleō' 'miser'; ; dū 'id'
condud keuneud  'damnum'
'id' 'ruinant'
'cremium'
dawtis connad, 
condud 'incendium'
<*komdaut
o
'cremium'
dē dē, dat dí 2b1.-di, y, i zādal <  tađa 'tunc' kudá 'quo,
dēterior, 1b2.- 2b2.-the *dē-tlom ;kadā , ubi', tade
dēmum, daetom 2b3.-di 'paupertās' yadā 'cum' 'inde', jeda
dēnique 'delictum' 5.3.-tađa, 'cum'
yađa 'id' 6.3.- tadà
'tunc'
debhō depsō  5.4.-topel 6.5.-

<deyw  'quatiō' depim,-iti
'corium' 'flīgō'
6.6.-
deptac
'calcō'
dedrus zittaroh  dadruka- 6.3.-
3a2.-teter 'eruptiō dedervine '
cutanea,
lepra q.'
deghā dega Zecke  5.4.-ti
(degaid) 3a2.-ticia,
'blatta tick; tickle
quercinea' 'titillāre'
deikmən 
deikō dīcō deíkum, zīhan ga-teihan  disháti,

deicum 'iustitia' dideSTi
teitu, deitu 5.5.-
'dicitō' tekkuššan
umi
deikos zīch  de á-
'forum'. 'iustitia' 'locus' ;
3a2.-tīg, di -, di ā
tīh 'pratum' 'directiō'
3a3.-teigr
'fundus'
deiktis dictiō in/bi-ziht  5.3.-ādišti-
'accusātiō' 'indicātiō' š <*dikti-
3a2.-tiht 'indicātiō'
'id'
deiwā 
déiwijos dius, diuus déa  divyáh
deiwos deus (dīuī) deívaí dia (dé) Deuognata īo  dēvá-s divъ
(diuae) 2b1.-duiu- 3a2.- 5.3.-daēvō 6.3.-dëvas
tit 'caput Tīwes- 'daemoniu
d.' dæg m'
3a3.-tivar
533
deiwotāts deitās  devátāti
deiwots dīues  5.5.-
asiwant-
'pauper'
dekējō decet, tiçit 'decet' dech  dā ti,
decus, 'optimus' 'accipiō'; dā nóti
 
dignus; 'censeō' 'honorat';
dīscō, da ā
4.2.-
doceō  'stātus,
'id' fātum'; dā
4.8.-de-ko- 'uenerātiō';
to dīkšatē
<*dek(s)to 'sacer fit'
5.4.-etes
'uīdit'
5.6.-
dasəm
'patrim.';
dāšta-
'adeptus'
dek decem 1b2.- deich n- 2b1.-deg zehan, taíhun  dá a decetъ
desen- 2b2.-2b3.- zehn 6.3.-d šimt
(duf) 'duo- dek 3a2.-tien,
decim' tyn
dék tulos digitus,  5.5.-
digitulus kalulupa
deknos 
dekos decus dech, Dago-  da asyáti
deagh <*dego <*dekes-
'optimus'; 2b1, b2.- je/o-
dea- da 'bonus' 'honorat'
déksteros dexter dess Dexsiua zeso, taíhswa  dák iṇa-, desnъ
2b1.- zesawēr <*deksiwó, dak iṇá- 6.3.-
 
deheu, 5.3.- d šinas
deau dašina-
2b2.-
dyghow,
dyow
2b3.-
dehou
deljō dolus <gr. dolom, zalōn; zāla  5.4.-toɫ
dolud <gr. 'periculum' 'dolus' 'linea';
3a2.- toɫem
talian; talk 'ordinō'
'loquor'; 5.5.-tallija-
tæl 'inuocō'
'calumnia'
3a3.-tāl
'delūsiō'
delō dolō -āre; delb<delw 2b1.-delu, toll(e)  dálati, delvi

dolābra; ā 'figūra'; delw 'id' 'extremum 'artibus dāláyati (dъlъvi)
dōlium; dolba(i)d 2b2.-del ramī'; oll creātum'; daṇ á 'dōlium';
doleō, 'format' 'limēs';  'ferula' delъ?
dolor fo-dālim ? Zelt 'deleō' 5.4.-tal 'pars'
Seiungīō 'tentorium' 'impres, 6.3.- dylù,
uersus' dìlti
6.4.-delu,
dilt
demos 
denkō zangar  dá ati, pf.
'ācer', zāhi *dṇk-n ; dadá a
'tenax', aor. 5.3.- ti i-

534
Zange dastra
'forfex' (adv.)
3a2.-tang,
tōh, tange
densō  (H.) dámsas-
'diuinātiōn 'prodigium'
es'; ; dasrá-
 'prodigiōsu
'sensātus' s'
5.3.-da ra
'habilis'
dentis dens dét/déad 2b1.-2b3.- zand, tunþus  dántam desna
(dentis), dant Zahn (ac. sing.), 6.3.-
dentum (g. 2b2.-dans 3a2.-tōþ, datáh dantìs,
pl. Var.) tooth (gen. dantu (g.
sing.) pl.)
derbhō zerben,  drbháti u-dorobь

zirben 'corbis' 5.3.- 'aula'
3a2.- dərəuda dorób'i
tearflian 'fascis' 'torquere'
'rotō'; 5.4.-torn derébitь
torfian 'funiculus, 'ēuellere'
'iaciō'; turf laqueus'
derghō dremm 2b3.- zarga  5.4.- trcak
<drghsmo dramm 'arista'  'capiō'; <derghso-
s 'fascis' 2b2.-targe ; 'magnibus

'multitūdō 'litterāle' 'manus' fascibus'
hominum' 3a3.-targa
'id'
derō 2b1, 2b2, zeran, dis-taíran,   drnāti dero,

2b3.-darn verzehren; ga-taíran explōdit'; dьrati
'glūbō';
'portiō' (a.i. orn 'īra' ; 'abscindō'  5.3.- 6.3.- derù,
dīrná-) trennen 'pellis'; darədar- diriù, dìrti
3a2.-teran,  5.4.-terem
torn
deru dūrus<drūr dair, daur 2b1.- 3a2.-trēo, triu 'arbos'  dāru drevo

us ? 'robur'; dâr/derwe tree  (dró ) 'lignum,
dron<drun n <*derdrom 'lignum' arbos'
ós 'fixus'; 2b2.-dar 'arbos' dárvih 6.3.-dervà
derb 2b3.-derv-  'ligula' 'lign. pinī'
'certus'; enn <*dru-H2 5.4.-tarr
drúi 'quercus' 'materia'
'druida' tram 'fixus'
5.5.-taru,
dat. taruui
deukō dūcō, dux; non to-ucc dygaf ziohan, tiuhan 

arc. ab- 'afferō' ziehen 
doucit 3a2.-tēon 
deuks 
deusō 3a2.-   dūsáyati
teorian 'careō' ; 5.5.-tuhs

<tiuzōn 'desinō'
'cessō'
dew dūrō, cundrad 3&2.-  'olim' dūráh, dave,
dūrāre; <*condūra tēorian,  cimp. davnó
dūdum, d tire 'fatigō'' 'longaeuus dávīyas 'olim';
dum 'contractus ' (heterocl. 'longinquu davьnъ
' /ṇ) s'; dūtá 'antiquus'
doe 4.3. 'nuntius'
<*dōuio-  'id' ;do a
'lentus' 'egestās';
5.3.-
535
duvaištam
'diutissime'
dūraē 'id';
5.4.-tevem
'dūrō', tew
'-ātiō'
5.5.-tuwa
<*dwH2yo
dhətis 
dhabhros faber, gedēfe ga-daban  5.4.-darbin dobrъ
effāfilātus 'opportūnu 'opportet' ? 'ferrārius' 'bonus'
s' gadōf 'id' dh bhino-? 6.3.-
3a3.-dafna / dabnùs
'habilis' dhH2bhro 'ornātus'
no- ?
dhalnā duille pompedou dill; Dill;  5.4.-dalar
*dolīniā la dolde 'floreō'; 'uiridis'

'folia' 'quinquefol 3a2.-dile; 'propagō'
ium' dyle
2b1.-dail 'anethum
'folia' graveolens
2b2.-delen '
'folium' 3a3.-dylla
'sonchus
arvensis'
dhanwos tanna 'ilex'  dhanu.-
'arcus'
5.5.-tanau-
dhaunos faunus ILLYR.- 3a2- af-dauiÞs  5.3.-dvaidī davítь

Daunī Dēana 'afflictus' (Hes) 'premimus' 'opprimō'
'tribus q'
dhchínāmi situs ? tinaim, 2b3.-tinsot  k ināmi
'paedor' tinaid 'sparsit' 'dissipō' 'deleō'
dhchitis sitis  k ití
dhebhō  dabhnōti
'noceō' 'nocet';
adbhuta
'mīrus'
5.3.-dab-
'fallō'
5.5.-tepu
'paruus';
tepnu-
'negligō'
dhechō foueō, daig 2b1.-deifio dac, Tag dags 'diēs'  dáhati eg , ešti
febris, (daiged) 'adūrō' 'id' fidur-dōgs 'cineres' 'cremat' 6.3.-degù,
fōmes 'ignis' 2b3.-devi 3a2.-d g 'quatriduus 5.3.-da aiti dègti
'cremō' 'id' ' 'id' 6.4.-daglas
'crēmātūra'
dhēdhjos deite, teite,  dedъ;
'petruus' djádja 'id'

6.3.-
'auia';
 d de/dis
'patr.'
dhedhmós 2b1.-deddf 
'decrētum,
lex'
dheghom humus dú (don)   ksam- 6.3.-z me
'locus' 5.5.-tekan
dheghwis daig DEGO(S)  TOK B.-
(dega, teki
post. 'aegrotās'
536
daiged)
'ignis'
dheicō fīgō, fīuō 1b2.-fiktu Deich,  ? ToB.- 6.3.-
'figitō' Teich 'premō' tsākam ? dýgstu,
'excavātiō' 'mordet' dýgti,
3a2.-dīc díegiu,
'fossus, díegti
canālis' 6.4.-diêgt
dhéicodhlā 
dheimi fē-mina, 1b2.-feliuf, denim caus.  dhayāmi, caus. dojiti
fē-lix, filiu 'sūgō', daddjan 'suxit' dháyati;

fellāre, 'lactantes' den(a)id 'fēmina' dhin ti
fīlius <dhināti 'alit'
del 'tetta' 5.4.-diem
dhejō 1b2.-feia  5.5.-tiya- дену, де ,
'faciat' деть
dhēlēiks fēlīx, cf.  cf. dhānā 6.3.-cf.
fēnus, -  'grānum, dúona
oris, (Hes.) pecunia;' 'pānis'
fēnum, <dhēkya 5.3.-cf. 6.4.-cf.
fēcundus dānōkarša duõna 'id'
'formīca q.'
dhēlgs falx delg 2b1.-dal(a) tolch,  6.3.-dalgis
'spīna' 'stigma' Dolch 'falx';
2b2.-delc 3a2.-dalc dilgùs
'monīle' 'Spange' 'acerbus'
3a3.-dalkr
'acus'
dhēljos fīlius; fēlō, 1b2.-feliuf, del 'tetta, tila 'tetta'  dhārú- 6.3.-
-āre., filiu delech 3a3.-dilkr 'femina' 'lactans' pirmdel
fētus, fēta `lactantes' 'lacte' 'agellus' 5.5.-LYC 'prīmō
tideimi<LU parens'
W *tittaimi 6;4.-de^ls
'fīlius'
dhelō dellrad ge-telle  5.4.-delin,
'splendor' 'pulcher' 'clārus'
3a2.-deall
'praeclār.'
3a3.-
Mardoll,
Dellingr
dhēlós del 3a2.-delu  6.4.-d ls
<*dhelos, <*-lā (d la)
dínu 3a3.-del, <*dhēlós
<*dh numi däl (dial.)
, dinid <*dhelos
'sūgit'
dhēmṇ 2b1.-deddf tuom dōms  dhāman- 6.3.-dome,
<-dhmā 'iudicium, 'iudicium, 'conditiō'; 'et lex, domes s
'decrētum, mōs, fama' <*-  'lex, cubiculum' 'attentiō'
lex' (cf. status' -ō- ō- iustitia' 5.3.-
dedhmós) 3a2.-dōm dāman-,
'opiniō' d man-
dhemō dem timber,  dhámati dъmo, doti

'fuscus, timmer 'o.'; 'obscūrus' 'inflat' 'inflō'
āter' dampf 5.3.- 6.3.-
'uapor' dāđmainya dumiù,
'3a3.- - 'turgens' dùmti 'id'
daam 5.6.-dam
'obscūrus 'atimus'
et arōma'
dh monā 
537
dhenghō daingen dengyn tunga  d ga
'robustus'; 'barbarus' 'stercus', 'arcus'
dingid, <*dangeno Düngung 6.3.-degiu,
fording - 3a2.-dung dengti
'premit, 'stercus, 'tegō';
supprimit' geniceum, dangus
<*dheigh? carcer' 'caelum'
dhēnom faenum; TOK B.-В  dhānā 6.3.-dúona

faenus; tāno   'frūmentu 'pānis'
ae non ē 'frūmentu <*dhē-k-iā- m', 6.4.-
cf. m' (Hes) dhānyá- 'id duõna
paeminōsu et diuēs', 'pānis'
s dhanin,
dhanika
'di.'
5.3.-dānō-
karša-
'formīca q.'
5.6.-dāna
'grānum'
dhēnos 
dherbhō faber, verderben  5.4.- 6.3.-dìrbu,
effāfilātus 'ruinō' derbuk dìrbti
3a2.- 'rudis' 'laborō'
deorfan
dherghnos fragum ? draigen 2b1.- tirnpauma  drāk ā deren
draen/drai 'cornea' 'ramulus' 'ūua' 'cornus'
n 6.3.-
2b3.-dréan drìgnes
'Hyosciam
us'
dherghō fortis, arc. fortis dringid 2b1.-  d hati, - держу,
forctus 'potius' 'ascendit'; dringo dh k держ ть
dréimm 'scālō' 'tenens' (in 'teneō'
'scālātiō' comp.)
5.3.-
drǝn aiti;
dra aitē
'tenet'
TOK A
tränk-, B
trenk-
'adhaerō'
dherghos derg terken  6.3.-derkti
'polluō' 'polluō' -rk-
3a2.-
deork,
dark
dherghs fraces druosana  droska
(faēcēs, 'ferment.' 'sollicitō' <dh ghskā
floccēs) 3a2.-  '- 'fermentu
1a1.- drosne/a ūdō' m'
drasica 'id' 6.3.
3a3.-dregg drages
<*dhrəghiā
s 'id'
dherkō zurch  6.3.-derkti
'caca' 6.4.-dārks
'eq.pictu.'
dhermi firmus, 2b1.- tarnen  dhāráyati; dórog ?

frēnus, emdrit 'cēlō'  sadhríy- 'cārus,
frēnum, 'decens"; 3a2.-  ñc- oner.'
ferē, fermē dryd darian, 'scamnum' 'concentror 6.3.-
538
'parsimoni tarry ;  ' derù/réti
ōsus' 'maneō'  dhāraka- 'fungor'
'concentrāt 'recipiens' darãu,
us' 
5.3.- darýti
dārayeiti 'faciō'
5.4.-dadar
'quiēs'
dhēs fēriae, arc. fíísnam  dhi ṇya-
fēsiae; 'templum' <*dhH1os 'deuōtus'
festus, 1b2.- 'deus';  5.4.-di-k
fānum fesnaf-e 'in <*dhH1sā <dhēses
<*dhH1sno fanum' 'dea' 'dī'
-; fas(tus)
dhētis 3a2.-d d, missadēþs  vásudhiti-
deed 'peccātum' 'mūnificent
ia' 5.3.-
zrazdāti
'fidēs'
dheughō dual toug, taugt daug  duháti,dóg dú ij
'sufficiens'; 'id'; <*dhoughe 'dispōnō'; dhi 'robustus'

duan tuht 'ūtile est' 'mulgeō' 6.3.-da g
'equipāme
'crēber' 'habilitās" ntum' 5.3.- 'multum'
3a2.-dēag handugā dáuginti
'id'; 'promulgāti 'augēre'
gedīegan ō'
'superāre'
dheukō faunus ILLYR.- 3a2- af-dauiÞs  5.3.-dvaidī davítь

Daunī Dēana 'afflictus' (Hes) 'premimus' 'opprimō'
'tribus q'
dheunos fūnus ; dīth touwen, diwans  ádhvanīt 6.4.-dvans,

fūnestus <*dhwītu- 'morior' <*dhéwon 'exstinguit' dvanums
'morior';
'fīnis, 3a2.- o-  dhvāntá- 'uapor'
mors' dōian, die 'mortālis';  'obscūrus'
'id' dauþus 'mortuus 5.3-
'mors' sum' apadvasait
i 'ēuolat'
dhewō dóe? tou,   dhávatē,
'mare' Tau<daww fut. dhāvati

<*dheuiā a  5.6.-
3a2.-dēaw 'iuuō'; dawīdan
3a3.- 
dogg(dogg 'celer'
war)
dhghjesi herī, here in-dé 2b1.-doe gestaron gistra-  hyáh
2b2.- dagis ALB.-dje 5.6.-dī,
doy/de dīg, dīn
2b3.-
dech/deac'
h
dhghomōn homō humuns duine -gdonio guma  6.3.- muõ;
<*dhghm(m 1b2.- <*dhghomj 2b1.-dyn zmogùs
)on-, ar. homonus '- o-
hemō; ibus'
humus
dhghusā giesen  5.4.-jukn 6.3.- uvìs
'cyprinus' 'piscis' (i- 'piscis' 'piscis'
3a3.-gös prot.) 6.4.-zutis
'perca' 'anguilla'
dhicsnis fīnis, fīniō  6.3.-
d gsnis
'pālum'
dhídhēmi- faciō fakīad dedor 'fit'; tuon, tun tuon; ga-  dádhāti, deti

539
dhəkjō 'faciat' dede 3a2.-do; deþs 'res aor. Ádhāt 6.3.-déti
fefakust 'posuit' deed 'res gesta' 5.5.-dai,
'fēcerit' /'dedit'? gesta' tiya- 'pōno,
1b2.- moueō', 1ª
feia/façia, tehhi/tiyam
fakust i
1b3.-façia
'faciat'
dhinghō fingere, feíhúss conutuing teig daigs  déhmi, de a<dhoi
figulus 'mūrōs'; (con-ud- 'massa' 'massa' 'mūrus' dehī ghyā
fifikus ding) 3a2.- 'oppidum' 'molde'
'molieris' 'aedificat'; dough 5.3.-
1b2.-fikla, digen daēzayeiti
ficlam 'firmus' 'mūnit'
`fitillam, 5.4.-
libum' dizanem
'cumulō'
5.6.-
paridaiza
'claustrum'
, didā
'oppidum'
dhḷeghlā flexuntes; dligim 2b1.- dulgs  *dъlgъ,
indulgeō? 'mereō' dylyed 'debitum' долг
Forsan dliged 'lex' 'clamātiō';
significātiō tamen dlyu, dylyu
sic dēcurrit dilgud 'dēbēre'
ius teneō - 'remissiō' 2b3.-dellit
-> 'ius <do·lugi) 'dēbēre'
cēdō'
dh is famēs, ad ru-deda 3a2.- 
fatim, 'evanescer demm,
fatigō, e, dim
fatiscō tabescere' 'tenebrae'
dh elós famulus, famel 
familia 'familia'
1b2.-
fame ias
'id'
dh os famulus, famel  dhāman-
familia 'familia' 'sedēs,
1b2.- famulī'
fame ias
'id'
dhṇghus daingen  daghn ti degъ:
'firmus, 'celer', 'consequit dogъ 'uis'
robust.' comp. ur' <*dheugh?

<*dan/den daghná ; дягнуть
gino- 'conseque 'corrigī'
ns' 6.3.-déngti
'currere'
dhobos tapfar faúrdammj  debelъ
'gravis'; an 'crassus'
tapfer 'mōlificō, 6.3.-dàbls
'firmus' impedō' ?
Damm <dhobmo 'exuberans
'dīcus' '
dhochejō 
dhochos tag, Tag dags  áhar,áha 6.3.-
3a2.-dag, (áhn-as) ? dagas,
day 5.3.-asn- 'aestus,
3a3.-dagr m? messis'
'diērum' 6.9.-dags
540
'aestās'
dhoighos feíhúss daigs  dēz

'mūrōs' 'massa' 'cumulus'
dholos 2b1.-dol Tal 'uallis' dals  dolъ ;

'uallis' 3a2.-dæl 'cauea, 'cubiculum' dolu
2b3.-Dol 'idl' uallis' ; 'deorsum';
3a3.-dalr dalaþ 'ab';  dole 'sub'
'arcus' dalaþa  'oculus'
'sub'
dhombhos tūba, (hraiwa-  dobъ
Taube )dūbō 'rōbur' (ad
3a2.-dūfe,, (sine col.)
dove nasāle) 6.4.-
3a3.-dūfa dumbs dumbra
'mutus' zeme
'nigra terra'
dhōmós tuom dōms  dúma
'iudicium, 'iudicium, 'cumulus' 'cōgitātiō'
mōs, fama' PHRYG. 63.-dome,

status' 'concilium' -s s
3a2.-dōm 'attentiō'
'opiniō'
dhōnā TOK B dhānā 6.3.-dúona
tāno 5.3.- 'pānis'
'grānum' dānokarša 6.4.-
'formīca q.' duõna,
5.4.-dāna duone
'grānum' 'portiō p.'
dhóncelos 
dhoncos 1b2.-dew tunkal,  5.5.- 6.4.-danga
'nebula' dunkel dankuiš, <*dhonguā
3a2.-dank dunkela 'palūs'
dhónejā danea tenar/er  dhánu - d nis
'area' 'plana 'palma, 'area, 'pons
manus';Te solea' desertum' nauis'
nne
'solum'
3a2.-
den(n)
'cauea'
dhontis fons, APUL;-  dhanáyati TOK.-tsän
Fontus Ardaneae 'currit' 'fluere'
= Herdonia 5.6.-
(locus) danuvatiy
'fluit'
dhorjā foriō, foria 3a2.-  dristátь

drītan, dirt 6.3.-der-k-
3a3.-drīta iù derkti
dhoubhos dub 'āter' Dubis toup, taub daubs  5.5.- dobъ
2b1.- 'necius' 'surdus' 'fūmus' duddumi 'rōbur' (ad

dub/du 3a2.-dēaf dumbs 'caecus' 'surdus' col.)
'āter' 'surdus' 'mutus' 6.4.-
2b2.- 3a3.-daufr (hraiwa- dumbra
duw/du )dūbō 'col.' zeme
2b3.-du 'nigra terra'
dhoubhús dub 'āter' Dubis toup, taub daubs  5.5.-
2b1.- 'necius' 'surdus' 'fūmus' duddumi

dub/du 3a2.-dēaf 'caecus' 'surdus'
'āter' 'surdus'
2b2.- 3a3.-daufr
duw/du
2b3.-du
541
dhoubnom domun dubnoreix  dъno
'mundus' 'rex m.' <*dъbno
'id' 6.3.-
dùgnas
'solum'
dhoulis fūlīgo dúil  dhūli-, dúlo
'desideriu dhūlī 'armae
m' 'puluis' ostium'
dúlьce
'tibiae
ostium'
6.3.-dūlis
'apis pipa'
dhōunis fūnis  TOK.-A, B
tsu-
'adaptō'
dhraghō tragan dragan  doró itь
'portō' 'dūcō' 'excauō' ;
3a2.- draga
dragan, 'uallis';
draw doroga
'trahō' 'iter'
3a3.-draga
'dūcō'
dhreghō droch 'rota'  5.4.-durgn 6.3.-
'currō'; 'tornus drā u,,

'rota' fictiliārius' drāzu,
 drāzt
'cursus' 'currō'
dhrēnos treno,  *tr dъ

Drohne  <trantis/
'crabrō'  dhrantis
3a2.-drān  'crābrō'
'crābrō' 
dr n 'id' 6.3.-trãnas
'crābrō'
dhrensājō 1a1.- drésacht treno, drunjus  dhráṇati dr selъ
drēnsō, - 'stridentia' Drohne 'strepitus' (F) 'tonat' 'tristis'
āre 'clamor drécht 'crabrō' 'clangō';  5.4;- 6.4.-

cygnōrum' 'cantus' 3a2.-drān 'flētus' drn im duñduris
<*dhrenktā dr n 'id';  'clangō' 'uespa,
dora 'strepitus' crabrō'
'crabrō'
dhreughō drungus drong 2b3.-drogn truht- driugan  drugъ
<ger. 'copiae' 'coetus'; 'copia' 'militō' 'sodālis'
<ger. drog 3a2.-dryht 6.3.-
'factio' 'id' dra gas
<ger. 's.Itinr;'
dhrighsós gairb-  drьkolь

driuch (capil.) 'uirga'
'fascis 6.3.-dri kti
capilliī' 'fīlum
extendō';
dr kti
'longīs
fīlamentīs'
dh mos firmus  dhīra;
dhárma-
'uirtus, lex'
dh numoi dar- , impf. 1b1.-derig  dhārā

no-daired; (Hes. 'cursus,
nom. Dáir  gutta,
(Dára) fut. sēmen'

542


'sperma'
dhroghno 
m
dhroghós droch 
dh sō infestus, (gi)tar, gadaúrsan  dhr -ṇ -ti, 6.3.-

infestō, (gi)turran , gadars dhár -ati, dresù<-
manifestus 3a2.- pf. ensō
dear(r), dadhar a 6.4.-
dare drùošs
'audāx'
dh stis giturst  d í-
3a2.-
gedyrst
dh sus türre  dh ṇú-; drьzъ (z?)

dh ú- 6.3.-
'doctus' dr sùs
5.3.-
daršyu-,
daršita-
dhrubhjō drucht <*- Tropfen  6.4.-
tu 'gutta' 'gutta'; 'friō'; druba a

triofan,  'fragmentu
triefen 'fragmentu m'
'fluō' 3a2.- m'
drop
'gutta';
drēapian
'destillāre'
dhrubhtis 
dhruslijō drullia trōren 'id'; driusan  5.5.- 6.3.-
'ruinae' trūrec, 'cadere, 'frangō' dhuwarnai drùzgas
2b1.-dryll` traurig decadere' - ?? 'scrūpum'
'fragmentu 'tristis' 6.8.-
m' 3a2.- druzgati
drēosan 'comprimō'
'id'
dhubús domun dubnoreix tief 'id' diups  TOK B.- 6.3.-dubùs

'mundus' 'rex m.' <*deupos <*deupos 'profunditā tapre 'profundus,
domain 2b1.-dwfn 3a2.-deep, 'profundus' s maris' <*dhubrós cauus'
'profundus' 'prof.' dive 'id' ; taupjan 'altus' 6.4.-duôbjš
<*dhubni- 2b2.-down 'mergor' 'profundus'
<*dhubni-
2b3.-doun
dhugtēr fútir duxtir Tochter daúhtar  duhitár- dъšter-
(Larzac); 3a2.- 5.4.-dustr 6.3.-
CELTIB.- dohtor 5.5.- dukter-
tuater 3a3.-dóttir túwatara
(K.1.3)
dhūmājō fūmō  dhūmāyati
dhūmós fūmus; dumacha, toum  dhūmá- ; dymъ

fūmō; dumhach 3a2.-  'tūs' dhūmāyati 6.3.-dúmai
fimus <*dhumuk dōmian 5.5.- 6.4.-d mi
<*dhuimos o- tuhhui,
'nebulae' tuhheššar
dhúneumi suffiō; donst, dauns  dhūn ti;
fimus, Dunst 'id' exhalātiō' 'reuoluor' dhūnāna-,

suffimentu 3a2.- 'furiō'  dhūni-
m, foeteō, dununga 'c.' 'agitātiō'
foetidus 'delirament  5.4.-de-
um' 'baccans' dev-im

543
3a3.-dūni 'tempestās
'ignis' '
dhuskos fuscus, donn Donnos dosan,  dhūsara-
furuus <*Dhwosn tusin 'puluerulen
os `giluus' tus'
2B1.-dwnn 3a2.-dox,
'subfuscus dusk,
, aquilus' dosen,
dun
`spadix'
dhwerō fraus, -dis; frosetom  dhvárati durь
frūstra ? fraudātum 'lūdō' 'nocet' 'stultitia'
' 5.5.- 6.3.-
dwarnahh padùrmai?
un? 'frēgī' 'repens'
dhwestus festūca doss ? 3a2.-  dhattūra <
'frutex' (cf. dweorge- *dhvastūra
dousmos) dwostle ,
'pulicāria' dhustūra-
'stramoniu
m'
dhwolnos dall 2b1-2b2- tol, tulisc, dwals 

'caecus' 2b3-.-dall toll 'id' 'dēmēns, 
clūas-dall 3a2.-dull necius' 'Dionys.'
'surdus' 'obscūrus' (H)
dhwolsā 
'turbulentia
'

'turbid.,trist
is' 
dhwonos donnal tünen  dhvana,
'ululātus' 'tonō' dhuna,
<*dhwon- 3a2.-dyne, dhvani
no din
dhworis forēs, 1b2.-furo, dorus; doros, turi, Tür daúr  dvāra dvьri,
forās; furu indorus duros, 3a2.-duru, 5.4.-dur-k' дверь
forum 'forum' 'intra' duron dor, door 6.3.-dūrys
2b1, b2,
b3.-dor
dhworom forum 1b2.-furo,  5.3.- двор
furu dvarǝm
5.4.-i durs
'forās'
5.5.-an-
dur-za 'ibī'
dhwosos furō<*dhus dasacht dūsius dwās, Tor; dius  dhvamsati duxъ, duša
ō, furia? 'īra' 'daemon stultus 'bestia, 'reuoluor' 'ruinat' 'anima';

bestia, immundus, getwās fēra' 'furō' dhvasrá- dvóchatь
bellua incubus' 'spectrus'  'ruinātus' 'id' 6.3.-
fimbria ?? tior, Tier 'baccans' 5.5.- dvasià
<*dhwénsr 'id'; Dusel  antuhsas ? 'spectrus'.
iyā 'hebetātiō,i 'tempestās 'homō' cf. dvesiù,
nfort.' ' ToB dv sti
3a2.-  onolme 'spirō'
'inspirātus' 
dwæs 'homō' 6.4.-dust
'id';dēor 'id' <*an- 'suspirō'
dizzi, doze onmo-
'dormō'
dídēmi  dā., dyati
 
5.5.-tiya
'uinculum'
'liga'
dídjāmi  dīdyati
544
'apparuit'; 'splendet';
 dīti

'clārus' 'splendōr'
5.5.-tesha
'somnium'
didkskō discō,   dákšati<*d
doceō edk- 'quet';
dā n ti,
dāš i,
dā ati
'honorat'
dighā ziga, Ziege  (Gr- 5.4.-tik
3a2.-ticcen Thrak) 'pelle
caprīnum'
djejō dían  dīyati deju, die^t
'celer'; 'rotō';  'uolat, 'saliō,
déne 'fugiō'; uibrat' tripudiō'

'celeritās' (cont.)
'persequor'
;  
'quaerō'
4.2.-

djēws diēs, iúveís die 2b1.-dydd zīo  (pitā)
iuppiter (gen), 2b2.- F dyáuh
 
(iouis) diúveí det/dyth/g 5.4.-tiw
(dat) eyth 'diēs'
1b2.- 2b3.-deiz 5.5.-siwatt
iupater
djnos nundinae, denus len(gi)zin, sinteins  dína-m dьnь
SCBacch. 'spatium Lenz<lang 'quotidiē' 6.3.- dienà
noundinu temporis', at-tin 6.4.-dìena
m trédenus 'mēnsis
'triduum' maius'
dḷghējō indulgeō coindelg delgu 3a2.-tulge tulgus 
'contractus 'contineō' 'firmē' 'firmus' 'permaneō
, 2b1.-daly, , ēdūrō'
comparāti dala, dal
ō' 'teneō'
2b2.-
dalhen
'tentus'
2b3.-
delgim;
dalc'h
'possessiō'
dḷkus dulcis 

'mustum'


dḷnghos longus; longo- 3a1.-lang laggs; <* dīrghá dlъgъ
indulgeō ? (nōmen 3a2.-lang, tulgus dlH1gho-; 5.3.- 6.3.-ilgas
hominis) lang; 'firmus'  darəga
tulge, tylg 'continuus' 5.4.-drang
'firmē' 5.5.-
daluki-
dḷnghotā 3a2.-  dīrghatā dlъgota
lengðu,
length
d pedom 3a3.-topt, 
toft, tomp 'solum'
<*tumf(i)tō
545
d pus  5.5.- t pъ, tupoj
dampu-
d segh 2b1.-daear  ti-ezerk`
'solum' 'mundus'
2b3.-douar
'terra'
dṇghwā lingua<din fangvam tenge 2b1.- zunga, tuggō  jihvā, juhū- jezykъ
gua 2a3.- tafawt/tafo Zunge 5.3.-hizvā- <*jēz kъ
teanga d 3a2.-tunge , hizū h<z 6.3.-
2b2.- 3a3.-tunga 5.4.-lezu lezúvis
tauot/tavas (cont. (*legh)
2b3.-teod *legh)
dṇsus densus  5.5.-
dassuš
(dat..ta-aš-
u-u-i)
'robustus'
dō dōnec, do du-ci 'et' zuo, zu du  da 'et, sed'
arc. 2b1.-di 3a2.-tō, to (coniunctiō
dōnicum, <*dū 'ad' )
dōnique, 2b2.-ðe 6.3.-do
dōneque <*dū 'ad'
dokejō doceō  5.5.-dākki,
'uidētur' takkanzi
doklom dúal zagel 'et tahjan  da ā
'cirrus' pēnis' 'uellō'; tagl 'fimbria,
3a2.- tægl, 'singulum limbus'
tail capillum'
dolājō 
dolejō doleō 2b1.-e-thyl 
<*do-eks-
dol- 'ēligit'
dolghos delt 2b3.-delt talg, Talg  5.4.-
'humidus' 'sebum' telam/em/
3a2.-tallow um 'pluō';
'id' tel 'intensa
pluuia'
dōljom dōlium  *dьly
dolos dolus < gr. dolom, zala talzian 
dolud <gr. 'computus' 'doceō'
3a2.-tæl 'id
et fraus';
talk
3a2.-tāl
'fraus'
dom dum, do, du 'ad' duci 'et' zuo, zu du; du-  da 'tunc'
nōndum, 2b1.-di 'ad' 3a2.-tō ginnan 6.3.-da-
agedum 2b2.-ðe 'incipere' (perfectīuu
quidum, <*dū 'ad' m)
dummodo, 6.4.-da 'ad'
quandō, da-iet
dumnē, 'inīre'
dumtaxat;
dō-ni-cum,
dōnec
dómāmi domō, damnaim 2b1.-addef temmen, ga-tamjan  damayati,

domitus 'equōs 'confiteor' zähmen  dāmyati
ligō'; fo· 2b2.- 3a2.- 5.5.-da-
daimim ansav temian, ma-aš-zi,
'patior' 'confiteor' tame ta-ma-aš-
šir
'obligat,-
546
uēre'
(dí)dōmi dō, dōnum duass  dádāti, damь,
<*dovestã aor.  dānam datь; danъ
'dōnum' 5.4.-tam 'dōnum'
5.5.-dahhi 6.3.-dúomi
'emō' 'id'
domos domus, dam-liacc zimbar, ga-timan  dámah, domъ
dominus 'domus Zimmer 'geziemen,  'in' dámūnas 6.3.-
lapidum'; 3a2.- adaptō' 5.3.-dami nãmas
aur-dam timbar (loc.)
'prodomus' 3a3.-timbr 5.4.-tam
dómūnā  6.2.-dom
dómūnos dominus  dámūnas
dōnom dōnum; dunum; dán 2b1.-  dāna- danь, darъ
dōnō duunated dawn 5.4.- tur 6.3.-duõnis
'dōnāuit'
dornom dorn Dagodurn 3a3.-tarra, 
<*durno-? us ? terra 'palma'
'pugnus, 1b1.-dwrn 'extendō'
manus' <*durno-?
2b3.-dorn
doros gataúra cf.  dara-, razdorъ
<*gaturaz 'saccus dāra- 'disputātiō'
<*kom- coriī' 'scissum' 6.4.-nuõ-
dəros daras
'fissūra' 'fibrae
reliquae'
dōsos  dāsa
 'in 5.5.-zah(h)
bellō' 'pugna'


dōtis 
dounom dún branodunu zūn, aun 
m, 'uallum'
lug(u)dunu 3a2.-tún
m
2b1.-dín
dousmos dūmus, doss ? zūsach; 
dūmmus 'frutex' zirzūsōn,
zerzausen
'dispectō';
zūse
'caesariēs'
dóusontos doé (doat);  dó - 6.3.-
duais (do ṇá ) paduse
<*dousti- 5.3.-daoš- 'manica'
5.6.-dōš 6.8.-
'umerus' pazduha
'id'
drājō  6.3.-
dar(i)a ,
darýti
6.4.-darit
drappos 
drātis 
drāt r 
d drājō 2b1.-dwrd  dardurá- 6.3.-

deirdrethar 'strepitus' (Hes) 'rāna, tibia' dardéti
'clamat'; 'crepō'
dordaid 6.4.-dardet
'strepit'; 'crepō'
547
dord 'str.' 6.5.-
drdljati
'garriō'
dremō zittarōm  drāti
 
(dídrāmi) 'tremō';:  'currit', int.
tremen 'fugiō'; dáridrāti
'oscillō';  'pauper
trame  est';

'scāliculum 'cursus' drapayati
' 'fūgat'
3a2.-trem, drámati,
trym int.dandra
'gradus' myate;
3a3.-titra drávati
<didrā 5.3.-
'tremō' drāvaya-
drepō 1a2.- Drippia, trabe  drāpí- drjápa-ju

drappus Drippōnius 'fimbria' 'falx' 'uestis, 6.3.-
3a3.-trof,  toga' drãpanos
trefr 'id' drapsá- 'uest'
'titulus' 6.4.-drãna
5.3.- 'drappus'
drafša-
'insignia'
dreughō aur-ddrach triogan,  drúhyati
'phasma' trügen; 'machinat'
Traum 5.3.-
'somnium' dru aiti
3a2.- 'mentītur'
bidriogan; 5.6.-
dream drauga-
'somnium' 'mentītor'
3a3.-
draugr
'phant.'
drewā Druentia  drávati 6.3.-Drùv-
'currit' intas
6.5.-Dráva
drewō trū(w)ēn, triggws  6.3.-drutas
trauen; 'frētus''; 'firmus'
triuwi, treu triggwa 6.9.-druwīt
'frētus' 'indutiae' 'credō'
3a2.- druwis
trewe, true 'creditus'
3a3.-
triggys,
trūr
drismós  6.4.-
'acerbus'  drīsme
'fissura
pellis'
dristos driss, dris- 2b1.-drysi 
tenach 2b3.-dreis
'uepres'
d kjai peri 
d kjō 1b2.- ad-con- 2b3.- zoraht gatarhjan  pa yati/da
terkantur darc 'uīdī' derc'h 'ēuidens' 'agnōscō, dar a
'uideant' (ad-cu) 'uisus' 3a2.-torht consignō'
derc erderc 3a3.-
'oculus' 'ēuidentis' Torget/torg
air-dirc hatten
'celeber'
548
d kō 
d kos derc derco  d a-

<*derkos (Marcellus 'oculus';
'oculus'; ) 2b1.- 
drech drych
<*d kā 'imagō' ks
'uultus' 2b3.-
dremm
<*derksmā
'uultus'
d ksmos 2b1.-drem 

'uultus' 'conspectu
2b3.-
s'
dremm <*-
ksmā
d ktā an-dracht  A B.-dritë
'taeter'
d ktis 
d ktis 
d mijō dormiō  drrati, dremlju

 drāyati/te dremati
(Hom) 5.4.-tartam 'obdormisc
'lentus' or'
d nós 2b1.-2b2.- zorn  dīrná-s dërnъ
2b3.-darn 'disputātiō' 'caespes'
'portiō' 3a3.-torn
'id'
d tis gataúrþs  drti- 'pellis' dertь
'destructiō' 5.3.-dǝrǝtō 'furfur'
d tós 3a2.-tord  dr á-, raz-drьtь,
'excrēment dértyj
um'
3a3.-torð-
'id'
d wā 1a1.- 2b1.- 3a2.-tare DELPH.- dūrvā деревня
dravoca drewg  'pānĭcum' 'pagus'
<1a1 'pānis' 6.3.-dirva
2b3.- 'ager
draok, frūmentāri
dreok us'
dsā  dāsa
 'in 5.5.-zah(h)
bellō' 'pugna'


dumbos zumpfo,  5.3.-duma-
zumpf(e); dumna-?
zapfen 'manus'
'clauicula' 5.6.-dum,
3a2.- dumb
tæppa,
tap, tip
dúnāmi indūtiae zouwan, taujan ?  dúvas-
tun 'faciō' 'possum' 'dōnum,
3a2.-do gratia';
duvasyáti
'honorat'
dus dis-, do-, du- zur- tuz-; tuz-  dus-/dur- dъ dь,
difficilis 3a2.- wērjan dú yati do dь
torbegīete 'haesitāre' 5.3.-duš-, *duz-djus
'difficile du - 'pluuia'
emptū'
549
dúsōpis cf. Inops domme  durāpa-
'pauper' 'difficile
<dus-op- adeptu'
smyo-
duswids duí  durvidya-
dweimi dīrus   dv i
<*dwoiros, F 'ōdit'

dweiros, 5.3.-
'dīrus',
dweisos?  dvaēš-
<*dFieros 5.5.-
'agilis' kuwaya-
'timeō'
dwenos duenos, zouwan, taujan ?   dúvas-
bonus, tun 'faciō' 'possum' 'dōnum,
bellus, 3a2.-do gratia';
beō; duvasyáti
indūtiae 'honorat'
dwidk tói uigintii fiche 2b1.-ugain   5.4.-k'san
2b2.- F
ugens
2b3.-ugent
dwipods bipēs  dvi-pád-

(bipedis)
dwīs bis, arc. zwir <gmc.  dví , duví
duis *tuis 5.3.-biš
dwīskos zwisk  5.4.-kic`
'duplus' 'contiguus,
3a2.-twisk coniunctus
'id' '
dwīsnōs bīnī zwēne  dvójni
3a2.- 'geminī'
twēne, 6.3.-dvynaĩ
twin
3a3.-
tvennr
dwoiros 
dwoplos duplus  5.4.-kul
dwóteros 
dwou, duo, duae dau, dó 2b1.- zwā, zwō twai  dváu, dvā dъva
dwāu, dou/deu/d ,zwei 5.3.-dva 6.3.-dù
dwou au 3a2.twā, 6.4.-divi
2b2.-dow two
2b3.-
dou/daou
ēch ēbrius <*ne 5.5.-ekumi ToAB-
sōbrius eghw 3ª pl. yoktsi
<*se- 'sōbrius akuwanzi
H1oH1gwhr- sum'; *H1eghwm
ijo-  i
<*sōbrius /H1ghwṇti
(arm.
nawt'i)
ēch jos 
ecnis ignis  agní- ognь
5.5.-aknis <ungni<H1
'deus q.' ngwni
<ind-ir. 6.3.-ugnìs
edhlos ebulus odocos attuh,  jelь 6.3.-
attah gle
3a2.-aduk 6.4.-egle
edh etar  odr; odrъ
?
550
3a2.-eodor 'stabulum' 'lectus';
'et domus' odrina
'stabulum'
edjēw hodiē indiu heddyw  adyā,
<gho + <sind+dyē <so+dyēw adyá <*e-
dyēw; e- w 5.5.-
quidem anisiwat
edmi edō edum ci-ni estar 2b1.-ys (g)ezzam, itan   atti jamь
'edere' 'quamuis 'est' essen <imperat. 5.4.-utem (*emь), 3.
non edat' 3a2.-etan *esdhi; *som+ ed sg. jastъ
<edstro, Hom (cf. ai. (*estъ)
Fut. īss- fut.<sub. samatti, 6.3.-édu,

(*i-ed-s-), lat. éd iau,
pf. dofūaid cumedō) ésti
(*de-u(p)o- 5.5.-e-id-
od-e), mi
Partiz.
esse
<edtio
edqis, ecquis, ekkum etwas  ѥдъв ,
edqid ecquid 'idem' 'ecquid' edvá
'paene'
6.3.-
vosnevõs
'uix'
edqos, - 
qā, -qod
edunā cūrae idu (idan), fitan<f-  5.4.-erkn 6.3.-úodas
edāces pl. idain itan? 5.5.-idalu 'culex'
'dolores 'pariō' 'malus' 6.4.-uôds
partūs' <edwḷ/ 'id'
*edwn
egējō egeō, egmo 'rēs' ekorōdo 
egestās (crhma) 'solus,
simplex'
3a2.-ekla
'dēfectus'
eghjos igil, Igel  5.4.-ozni je ь
3a2.-igil, 6.3.-e s
igl, īl
egh 2b1.-daear  5.4.-ezr 6.3.-e
'solum' 'limēs'; ti- 'limēs'
2b3.-douar ezerk`<*d
'terra' s-
'mundus'
egō egō ich ik  ahám
3a2.-iċ
ei ei; sa-ei   i 'et,
'quālis' quoque'
eibhō Ant-aib,  yábhati jebú, jetí

Burgund- 
aib, Weter- 'indecens'
eiba,
Wingart-
eiba ??
eikō eigan; *aigan  ī ē, ī ē
aigana, <*óikonom (pf.<oikei)
eigen (aih, 'possidet';
'proprius' aigum, ī vará-
3a2.-āgan; praet.II 'patrimon.'
āgen, own aihta); ī itar
<éikonos aigin 'p.tārius'
551
'proprietās' 5.3.-iše
'domīnat',
išvan
eimi eō eituns do·eth <*- 2b1.-wyf iddja 'iuī'   éti, ímáh, 6.3.-eiti

(set) itūrī itjo-; do· 'sum'; wyt yánti;
(sunt) feth 'es' ayate
eitōnes <*do+upo+ 5.5.-iti 'it'
1b2.-etu itjo- ? 5.6.-aitiy 'it'
'itō'; ēst 'uenit' 6.5.-it 'i'
'ibit' <eidhi
eisā īra, irāscor 3a2.-oast  i ṇāti, TOK B.-
'festīnātiō' 'firmus'; í yati 'ciet' aise

3a3.-eisa 'sagitta' i irá- 'potentia'
'adorior'  'firmus';
'uacuō'; í u-
 'sagitta'
 5.3-aēš
'adortus' 
(v),aēšma
(n)
eisāskai 
eisom is 3a2.-is  5.3.-isu inej<íniyos
3a3.-iss 'gelidus' 'pruina'
5.4.-gesu 6.3.-ynis
'gelidus',
aexa
'frīgus'
ek(sí) ex eh- ess, ass, a 2b1.-a  iz
1b2.-ehe 6.3.-i
eksoqs exsops  cf. anák-
'caecus' et 5.4.-
ana ' 'sine
oculīs'
ekstar cf. instar 




éksteros exterus echtar 2b1.-eithr 
'foras' 'sed,
praeter'
ékst os extimus 2b1.-eithaf 
ektós extos 'sed' 
ekwā equa 
açvā 6.3.-asvà
ekwīnós equīnus 
ā vīná
'equī iter
singulī dieī'
ekwos equus ech eposognat 3a2.-eoh aíƕatundi  á vah

us, epona 'ēruscus' 'equitans' 5.3.-aspō
2b2.-2b2.- MYK.-e-pi- 5.6.-asa
ebol 2b3.- qo-i
ebeult /epikuoihi/
'equulus'
'equitantib
us'
ēlā āla, Ahle  ārā 6.3.-ýla
3a2.-āl, <got.
āel, eal, 6.4.- ĩlens
awl <got.
elēn elit (fem.) 2b1.-elain lamb ?  5.4.-eɫn (j)elenь,
<*elṇ-tī (fem.) 'agnus' (cf. lat. olénь
<*elǝnī columba, 6.3.-
aesl. élnis,élnias
iastrebъ), , ellenis

6.4.-al^nis
552
elkos ulcus,  ár as-
ulciscor 'haemorroi
des'
elkós elc 'malus'; 3a2.-ill ?  la ,
olc 'malus 'malus' alъ ,
<wḷkwos 3a3.-illr lakati
<*elhila? 'famem
'malus' habēre'
6.3.-álkti
'id'
6.4.-al^kt
'¡d'
ellus anguilla āl, aal  5.5.-illuy-

<*angu + 3a2.- l,  ankas;
illa; illa eel ellu-essar-
 'ōrificium
 · serpentis'

elne elnā ollus > ille úlleis, ulas al; tall<to- 2b1.- 
elnod 'illius' al-nā, anall alarch
1b2.-ulo, 'ultra, ib, 2b2.-
ulu ìllo, inde' elerhc
illuc'
elóm   iyarti, īrte

 etc 'moueō'
(intr.)
5.4.-
elanim 'fiō';
elanem
'scandō';el
uzanem
'promō'
5.5.-halāi
'trūdō';
elaniya
'incessō'
elōr olor, elae SUIZ.- 

alceedo <*elouio- wīss- 'auis
elg,birch- quaedam'
ilge
3a3.-
alle,alfagel
; alka
elwos Helvii, elo, elawēr  aruṇá-
Helvetii 'flāuus' 'ruber,
aureus'
5.3.-
auruša
'albus'
emō emō  5.5.- 6.3.-imù
wemiya?
'inueniō'
empis imbi, Imme 

'exāme.' 'culex'
3a2.-imbe
'id'
en in, arc. en en in-; ingen, essedon in in   anīka<enio on-; vu(n)-
1b2.-en inigena <enisedom 3a2.-in kw 'uultus' 6.4.-ie-
2b1, b2, 5.4.-i
b3.-en
anghwis anguis, esc-ung 2b1.-euod  áhi-s u (u á)
'serpens'
anguil(l)a 'anguila' 'uormes'  'serpens' 6.3.-angìs
'uipera' 5.3.-azish 6.6.-w ż
553
5.4.-i , awj
endo endo, indu inne 
'instestīna'
endósēdjo 
m
enim 
enīqā enech 2b1.-  ánīka-m
'uultus' wyneb 'id' 'uisus, oc.'; 'faciēs,
2b3.-enep pl.  aciēs'
'id' 'frons'
enis enim íním, inim ienēr<ony jains < i +  instr. onъ
1b2.-ene, o oinos 'ille' <ke-enos an na, 6.3.-añs,

enem 3a2.-geon  anáyā anàs 'ille'
3a3.-enn, 5.4-so-in
inn 'īdem'
5.5.-an-ni-
iš 'ille'
enkō prō 2b1.- bringan, briggan  TOCH. B
hebrwng brahta 'afferō' prank-, AB
<*səm+prō 3a2.- pränk-
'coeō' bringan 'auferō'
2b2.-
hebrenchi
at 'dux'
2b3.--
hambrouc
'dūcō'
ennós inne <*en- inna, inni, inn(a) 'in'; 
njā 'interior inne 'in' innuma.'int
pars' imus'
énsēdjom insidiae indnaide  pr -s da
'praestolāti
ō'
enslā insula  6.3.-salà;
ãtsala
'meātus,
meandrus'
6.4.-sala
enstar instar cf. ecqairw
'ōdī',
existamai
ths fīlias
énteri inter anter eter/eidir 2b1.-ithr untar, undar <  antar trь,
1b2.-anter, 2b2.-yntre untan *ṇter 5.3.-antarə нутро,
ander 2b3.-entre, 3a2.-under (cf. 5.4.-antar внутрь;
etre 3a3.-und ṇdherós) j tro
'sub' 'iecur'
énternos internus  trьńь
énterom 
énteros interulus entrai eter, etir, Celtib.- 3a3.-iðr  āntra- troba,
etar entara 'intestīna' 'intestīna' troba,
2b1.-ithr 5.4.- утро
2b2.-ynter ənderk 'id'
5.5.-an-tū-
ri-ias
énteros 
entós intus, inser  antastya- 6.3.- istri
intestiinus 'uiscera 'intestīna' 'renes'
edibilia' 6.4.-ìekša
3a3.-īstr, 'intern.'
īstra 'id'
554
éperom iar-n 'post' afar 'post'  'ab'
apara-
siar, aniar 'postea, ad
'ab/in occ.' occidente
m'
epi ob; up, ob 'ad' iar n-, iar Ywerddon 3a2.- iftuma,   api 6.3.-ap-,
operiō<op- m- <epi- eofolsian aftuma MYC-o-pi 5.3.-aipi; api-; -pi
ueriō ; <epirom; uerionos 'blasfemō'; 'ultimus'; ape 'ad' 'ad'
oportet Ía-daim 'Hibernia' eofut, ibdalja 5.4.-ev, ew
<op-uortet 'claudō' eofot'culpa 'descensu 'et, etiam'
(cf. obhi) (lat. obdō); ' s' 5.5.-appa
éithech 'iterum'
'periurium'
(cf.
epiorkew);
Ériu<epiw
eriō;
éibheall<e
pi-bhel
'feruor'
pijos  āpí
'propitius' 'amīcus'
épiromos iarum 'post  ALB.-i
eum' èpërm
'superior'
ercom eruum orbaind araweiz 

'grānī' 'cicellus' 'cicer'
erjos ariēs 1b2.-erietu heirp,  5.4.-or-oj jarina
'arietem' (h)earb 'agnus, -a' 'lāna'
6.3.-(j)éras
erkō (h)erciscō  5.5.-ark aršýti

(h < (Hes) (3ª s. arki, 'scindere'
hērēs); pl. arkanzi, <*H1orkeHi
disertiones inf. -
arkuwanzi)
ermi 2b1.-araf ruowa,  5.3.-airime 6.3.-rowa
'segnis, Ruhe cessātiō' 'quiescens' 'stagnus'

lenis' 3a2.-rōw 'cēdō' 6.4.-rāwa
<eremos 'quiēs' 'id'
ermos 2b1.-araf  armās ,
'segnis, 'desertus' armaka
lenis' 'ruinae'
<eremos
ernos 3a3.-  árṇa-
run(n)e 'rāmus' 'fluctuōsus'
'rāmus'
erō orior  nóti
éroros irar/iolar 2b1.-eryr aro ara 'aquila'  5.5.-haran, orьlъ
<*eriro- <*h3érō, 'auis' hāras <*orilo-
2b2.-er arn 'aquila' 6.3.-er lis
2b3.-erer 3a2.-earn
erqō erc  árcati 'et TOK A
'caelum'; laudat' yärk, В
suairc 5.4.-erg yarke
'pulcher' 'cantus' 'honorātiō'
<*su-erkʷis
ersā err ars 'cūlus'  5.4.-or
3a2.-ears 5.5.-arras
ersábhaljo e(a)rr(- ars-bille 
m ball) 'clūnis'
'cauda' 3a2.ars-
belli 'id'
555
ersājō errō, rōrārii irre; rāsen aírzeis,  ár ati 6.3.-aršùs
'festīnō' aírziÞa  'homō' 'fluit'; 'impetuōsu

3a2.-ræs 'error'; 'impulsus' r abhá- s'
'cursus' ēs(mēr)  'taurus'
3a3.-rās 'Mars' irasyáti
'cursus' 'rabit'
5.5.-
arsaniya-
'inuideō'
erwā 2b1.-erw ero; erda aírÞa  5.4.-erkir

'campus', 3a2.-earth <*ertā  (ad erkin
pl. erwi, 3a3.-j rð;  'caelum?)
erwydd j rvi  (Hes)
2b2.-erw, <erwan-
ereu 'arēna'
2b3-
eru/ero
'sulcus'
esmi sum, fuī súm, est, am, is immi bin, ist ist 'est'   ásti, ábhut есть

íst estud 3a2.-am, 5.4.-em 6.3.-esmì
sent is, be 5.5.-esmi; 6.4.- smu
1b2.-est, as-/es-
sent
ēsmoi  āste
5.5.-e-es-
zi
esos erus  5.4.-išxan
'princeps'
5.5.-ishas
es as(s)er,   ásrk, ásrt 6.4.-asins

assarātum (asnáh)
; saniēs, 5.4.-ariun
sanguis 5.5.-e-eš-
<*H1sH(e) ar
n-gʷ- ? (esanas)
ēsús  5.5.-assu-
<*eH1su-?, <*oH1su-?

éteros cēterus 1b2.-etro- A B.- 5.3.-atāra- eterъ,
'secundus' ját(e)re 'hic e jeterъ
'alius' duobus' 'quiscumq
ue'
eti et; etiam 1b2.-et eti ith- itwīz iÞ 'sed';  ati 'ultra'
'quoque, 3a2.-ed id-weit 5.3.-aiti
ultra' 'rursus'; 'insultus'
etic 'et edwīt
quoque'
2b1.-etmet
'retunde'
étiqe etic  'dum, ácchā 'ad, е
usque, ad' tenus' <etskwe
<*enste? 'adhuc'
etmṇ 
ēt inathar 2b1.- ād(a)ra,,  5.4.-

'intestīna' permed- Ader 'id'  xvāra
interedou 3a3.-æðr  <*suātra?
? 'ilia' 'uēna'  'bonus
'pantica'
animus'
ētros âtar 'celer' THRAK.- TOK A 6.3.-ãtrus
3a2.- dre Athrus, atär, В 'uiolentus'
'promtus' Ieterus, etär ? 6.4.-atr
Iatrus 'hērōs' 'celer'
'flūmen
556
Jantra'
eukō uxor (nisi usurs to-ucc- bí-ūhts  úcyati u iti 'discō'

uk-Hsor: 'uxōres' 'intellegō' <*unkto- Pind. 'placet'; ukъ
uján) PELIGN.- ro-uicc, 'assuētus'  ókas- 'discipliina'
usur 'id' do-uicc 'placidus' 'domus' 6.3.-
'attulit' 5.4.- jùnkstu/nkt
<unk usanim i 'suescō';
'discō, ūkis 'uilla'
suescō';
amusin
'uxor'
eusō ūrō, ustus 3a3.-ysia  ó tami,
u áh;
uccháti
'luceō'
ewō ind-uō, ex- 1b2.-an- fuan<upo-  5.3.- ob-uti,
uō, sub- ouihimu ownom ? aorəm о уть
ūcula 'induitor' 'falda' 'calceus' 'calceor'
5.4.- 6.3.-a ti
aganim 'calceor'
'induō'
5.4.-awd
'calceus'
5.5.-
unuwasha
'ornātus'
extrōd 
gálgaljō gallus (uel gall <ln 2b1.-gallw 3a2.-  gargara- ? glagolati,
*kanlos?, 'fāma' 'uocō' ceallian, 'cantō' Instrum. gologólitь;
got. hana) (quoque 2b3.-galu.- call 'uocō' musicāle голос
cygnus) 'uocātiō' quodam <*galso-
'uox'
galnos Gallī gal 2b1.-gallu  golemъ
'audacia' 'posse' 'magnus'
dí-gal 2b2.-gallos 6.3.-galiù,
'uindicātiō' 'potestās' galéti
2b3.- 'posse'
gallout
'posse'
galnos 
gangō géoin, 3a2.-ge-  gañja-

géim canc 'irr.' 'irrissiō'
'clamor'
gar  'enim' argi
'reapse'
garsijō garriō, gáir(m) 2b1.-gawr carron  járatē 6.3.-gùrti
garrulus 'clāmor' 'clamor', 'stridere' 'uox'; 'tonat'; 'clamō'

gáire gair 3a2.- gargara
'uocō,
'risus' 'uerbum' ceorran narrō' 'instrum.q.'
grith 2b1,2,3- 'rumpō' (cf.
'clamor' garm 3a3.-kurra golgol.)
'clamor' 'murmurō'
gāudhējō gaudeō gūaire  TOK-kātk 6.3.-

<gāwedhē <*gauryos 'nimis'; d iaugiúos
yō 'nōbilis'  <*gaud iú
gaudium 'nōbilis' os
gaudhjom 
ge mih, mich; mik, þuk  'et 5.5.- TOK.- k(e)
dih, dich 'mē, tū' equidem'; ammuk, (part.)
'mē, tē'  tuk 'egō,
etc. tū'
geigō gér  5.4.-kc-u; 6.3.-gì ti
557
'acerbus' kc-anem 'acerbescō
<gigrós 'pungō' '
ALB.-
gjize?
'caseus'
geimō chīnan, (us)-  5.4.-cil, 6.3.-z iju,
keimen; keinan ciul, cel ziet;
chīmo 'propagō' ýd( i)u
'propagō'; ydéti
kīl, Keil 6.4.-
'cuneus' zie^du,
3a2.- ziedet
cīnan; kīð
'catulus'
geisā kis, Kies PRHYG 6.9.-
  i zdros
'saxum'
geltis 3a2.cild, - kilþei  jar ú- glota
child; 'uterus' 'uterus' 'turba,
colt 'pullus' in-kilþō ja háram familia'
'praegnans 'pantica' (neg.)
' ga i-h,
gali-
'pullus'
gelu gelū, gelō  kalt kalds  chladъ
'pruinam' 
'frigidus'; 'frigidus' (Hes.) 'frigus'
kühlen <*gol-do-.
3a2.-calan
'frigeō'
cold
'frigidus';
chill
3a3.-
cala<golei
ō 'id'
gemō gemō; 1b2.- gemel gefyn 3a2.-  5.4.- ьm , ti
gumia gomia, 'uinculum' 'uinculum' cumbol, 'plēnus mlem 'comprimer
(deriu.) kumiaf cumul sum'; 'comprimō' e' 6.3.-

'grauidas' 'tumor, 'onus' gùmulas
uulnus' 'glomus'
3a3.- 6.4.-
kumla gùmstu,
'premō' gùmt
'capiō'
gemros gener,  jāmātar-
genta 5.3.-
zāmātar-
genesājō 
gengā gingīua 3a3.-kokkr  ji ginī, gustъ
'pila' 'rotundus' jhiñjhikā 'pinguis'

'tumor 'planta 6.3.-
apud quaedam' gùnga,
gungul s
oleas'
'pila'
inginis
'calla
palust.'
genjos genius 3a3.- sama- 
chunni kunjans 'coniugātu
'*aequisexi s'
s'
genmṇ germen, gein  jániman-,
germānus <*genṇ <*genmne jánman-
558
(gene), H2 ?
dat.
ge(i)nim
genos genus -kunds  jánas zetъ
5.4.-cin 6.3.-zéntas
'natūra'
gentis gens, nātiō 1b2-natine 3a2.-  jātí- z t 'gener'
'natiōne' (ge)cynd, 'genitus' 6.3.-gentìs
kind 'familiāris'
'indolēs'
gentlom 2b3.-genel  janítram
'parere' 'progeniēs' 'locus n.'
5.4.-cnawl
'parens'
gent r genitor  janitár- ALB.-

5.4.-cnaul dhender
*<-tlo- 'procus'
gentrīks genitrīx  jánitrī
gentus genitus  jantú-
'creātūra'
genu genū, glún, glúin knio; kneo; kniu  jānu; TOK A.-
geniculum <*glūnos knie <*gnewom (gonatos) prajñú kanwem

<*gnūnos? 3a2.-knee 'prosternāt 'proster.' B kenīne
3a3.-knē us' 5.3.- nūm
(ac.)
5.4.-cunr
<*gonu
5.5.-gi-e-
nu
5.6.-zānū
genus gena, gi(u)n Genaua kinni, kinn kinnus  hánu- 6.3.-

genuīnus (geno) 2b1.-gw n 3a2.-cinn, 'mentum' 'maxilla' ándas
(dens) 'bucca' 'subris.' chin  5.3.-zānu- 'maxilla'
gen 2b1.-g n, 'laetus
'subrisus' genau sum'
2b2.-
genau/gan
ow
2b3.-guen
'gena'
gercō cf. grex, cf. greig cf. 2b1-b2- krammen <*H jarante ог рнов т
gremium (grega) b3.-gre 'id' 'rapiō, 2geryō; 'appropinq ь; gursti
'grex capiō'  uant', 'pugnus'
equōrum' 3a2.- 'pugnus', gaṇá- gurtati,
krimman ? <*g no- gurnoti
'id'; 'manus'; 'grex' 'scabō,
crammian , grama fodiō'

'accumulār  'pagus' gramada
e' 'congregāti TOK B.- 'molēs'
ō',  akart(t)e 6.3.-
'prope' gurgulys
'crēbritās';
grumulas
'grumus'
gergō krāgo  guṇá- ' sъgrъ iti
''hamus' 'gerrae 'fiilum' se
3a2.-crōk, corbis' <*rrn 'contrahī' -
crook, gárta- k
crinkle 'id'; 'sella 6.3.-
creek currūs' gre iù,
'meandru gr ti
m" <**gren iō
559
gerjō expergisco 3a3.-  járate, ALB.-ngrē,

r karskr, caus.jā- ngríhem
'obdormien
kerskr s' gar-ti
'uiuidus, 5.3.-
uiridis' frarisa-
jagārayant
əm p.pr
gerlós 
gerō karal, Kerl  járati , zьreti

<*gorH2lo- 'sēnēx'; jīryati; 'mātūrō'
'homō'  járant-
3a2.-ceorl, <*greH2ius 5.3.-zarta
churl 'anus'; 'aetātis
3a3.-karl  <*- dēbilitās';
'h. oy- zrvan-,
mātūrus' 'Gorgōna' zrūn- ?
'tempus'
5.4.-cer
'sēnēx'
gersā gerra 2b1.-gyrr kerren/ehr  5.4.-car
'pecu en 'uerrō' 'uirga, 'arbos, -
agere' 3a2.- pēnis' stus'
cierran
'uertō'
3a3.-kjarr
'arbustus'
gerwós 
gesō gerō, 3a3.-kos  5.4.-acem
gestus 'congeriēs' 5.5.-kis-
kasta 'fiō'
'iaciō'
geulom gúal kol, Kohle  jválati зол 'cinis'
'carbō' 'carbō' 'ardet', TOK B.-B
3a2.-col, jvālá-, oliye
coal 'id' jvālā 'furnus'
'taeda,
lūmen'
5.4.-hur,
krak 'ignis'
geustis 
gewō gāuia? gikewen  gavatē govorъ
'nominō' 'lāmentor'; 'resonat' 'strepitus';

3a2.- govoriti
'lāmentum'
cīegan 'strepō'
'uocō' >'loquor'
6.3.-
gaudùs
'maestus'
ghəbhējō habeō hafiar gabim 2b1.- geban 'dō' giban 'dō';  gábhasti- habá
'habeatur' 'prehendō' gafael <*kom + gabei 'manus, 'emere'
hipid 'retineō' ep ? Cf. <kómopyo braccium' gobьzь
'habuit' 2b2.-havel at. coēpī m 'opes' 'profusus'
hipust 2b3.- gabeigs 6.6.-gaba
'habuerit' kavout 'opulentus' 'id'
2b2.-pre- <*
habia, kom+ep?
prehubia
'praebeat'
ghabhlom 1a1.- gabul Gabalus gibil  gabasti-
gabalus 'furca, 'patib' 'hastiāle', 'pīlum'
'pīlum' patib.' 2b1.-gafl gabala
'fork' 'furca'
560
2b3.-gaol 3a2.-
geafel,
gafol
ghabhros 1b2.- gabor Gabro- 
habina 2a3.- magus
'agnas' gabhar 2b1.-gafr
2b2.-
gauar/gav
er
2b3.-
gaor/gavr
ghaidīnós haedīnus geizzīn gaitein 
'haedulus' 'haedulus'
ghaidos haedus, geiz/geizīn gaits; 
haedīnus -'īnus' gaitein
3a2.- 'haedulus'
gāt/gæten
3a3.-gēt
ghaisējō haereō  6.3.-gaištù,
-a , gaĩšti
haesitō;
gaišìnti
'deleō'
ghaisom gae 2b1.- 3a3.-geirr 

2a3.-gaoi gwaew 'hasta' 'hamus'
gwayw
2b2.-
hochwuyu
'uen'
2b3.-
guugoiuou
ghaisom gaesum; gaé; gāide 2b1.- gēr,  h as- 6.3.-
gaesātī 'gaesātus'; gwayw geisila, 'missiile'; eid iù,
gāetas =ir.foga Geissel hin ti eid ia ,
`qui 2b2;-gew 3a2.-gār, 'disparō' eĩsti 'feriō'
occidit' 2b3.- 3a3;-geirr, 5.3.-
<ghoizd- guugoiuou geisl zaēna-
dtpl. 'arma'
ghaitā gaīset  5.3.-gaēsa
<*ghait-s- 'antiae 'crispus c.'
cap.'
ghálerom galar 2b1, b2.- galle  5.5.- kal- zolok
'aegrotās' galar 'uitium in la-ar 'uulnus'
`luctus, equō, (kallar) nazóla
planctus'; saxō' etc. 'malus' 'cuura'
lat.<galla? <*kal?? 6.3.- alà
'damnum'
ghanos 3a3.-gan 



'patulus' (
copul.)
ghansōr (h)anser géis(s) gans  hamsáhgosi
'cygnus' 3a2.-gōs, 6.3.- asìs
goose
ghastā hasta hostatu, gat gartia gazds 
anostatu 'sarpmentu <*gherdh ? 'cuspis'
'(in)hastātō m'; tris- cf. жердь
s' gataim 3a2.-yard
'perforō' <gherdh?
ghawō guth gutuater got, Gott guþ 'deus'  hávate, zov ,
<*ghutu-s <**ghutu- 'id' pl. guda  'glorior' hváyati; zъvati
'uox' pǝtēr 3a2.-god, <*ghutóm puru-hūtá- 6.3.- aveti
561
'flāmen godfæðer ' 'Indra' 'incantāre'
quīdam' 5.3.- 6.4.-zavēt
zavaiti, 'malēdīcit'
zbayeiti,
zaozaomi
5.4.-
jaunem
'consecrō'
ghawōd haud gáu, gáo, 2b1.-geu, 
gó 'falsus' gau 'fals.'
gu-forcell geaowc/eu
'f. testis' og 'culpb.'
2b2.-gou
2b3.-gaou
ghebhlā gibil gibla  TOK A.-
Giebel 'pinaculum' pāl
'timpanum'
gebel
'craneum'
3a2.-gafl
'cuspis'
ghedō 3a2.-geat  hadati,

'id' 'cūlus, hadate
3a3.-gat podex' 5.3.-
'ōrificium' zaðah-
'cūlus'
gheidhō gell git, Geiz  grdhyati ido,
'pignus' 'auaritia' 'auet' ьdati
gellaid gīten 5.3.-. grða- 'exspectō'
'pollicētur' 'aueō' 'iussus' 6.3.-
3a2.- geid iù
gītsian geĩsti'
'iubeō'
ghei-ke hic 1b2.--hont; 2b1.-a(g)  gha, ha ne jedinъ

ghāi-ke era-hunt 'cum' <  (particula e 'ne
ghod-ke 'eādem' *ad-ghe 'nōn, sīc' post unus
negātiōne quidem'; -
m); hi 'sīc' zi
ghéimento  hemantá
s 'hiems'
5.5.-
gimmant-
'id'
gheim hibernus  h man zima
'hieme' 6.3.- ima
5.4.-jme n
5.5.-
gimmant
gheimrīnós hibernus  5.4.-jme n
'hiems'
gheipō hippitō geifen, 
/ben, /pen
3a2.-ji/
gibe 'nugō'
gheislos gíall Congeistlu gīsal, Gisla- 
s gisel, mundus
2b1.- Geisel
gwystl 3a2.-gīsl
2b2.- 3a3.-gísl
guistel
2b3.-
goestl
562
'cautiō'
ghelbō gelpfen,  pra- chrabьrъ
gelfen galbhá- 'bellicōsus'
3a2.- 'animōsus' 6.3.-
gielpan gulbinti
ghelijō gellan, -en gōljan  pra- galitь-sja
'clamō'; 'saluutō' 'hirundō' galbhá- 'insultō'
nahti-gala 'animōsus'
3a2.-
giellan,
yell
ghelnom 3a3,.gjɔlna  5,4.-jeɫun el ti

r, gäl 'palatum' 'sūgō'
'labia' 6.4.-zele^t
'sūgō et
lambō'
ghelō 2b1.- gielde gilþa 'falx'  halá- 6.3.- úolis
gylym, 'nullum 'sacerdōs 'arātrum' 'truncus,
geleu, gely lacte cybelis' 5.4.- jlem lignum'
'culter' dans'; 'arō'; jol
<*ghelmo galza 'pālus'
'porcus 5.5.-iskalla
castrātus' 'abscindō'
ghelus  elū,

elъvь
ghelwos (h)olus,  zelije
arc. helus, <*ghloHw3e
helusa H2 /
ghlHw3eH2
'iuuenis
herba'
ghelwos heluos; gel gelo  hári-, zelenъ

fuluos ? 'lucidus, 'flāuus'  hárita- 'uiridis';
albus'; 3a2.-geolu F 'flāuus'; zlakъ
gealach 'id' 3a3.- 'et híraṇya- <*gholko-
'lūna' gulr florulentus' 'aurum'; 'frons -
<ptgm. ;  híri- ndis'
*gula- ·  <ghḷH-i- 6.3.-
Hes) 'aureus' elvas,
5.3.-zari- ãlias
,zairita- 6.4.-zal's
'id';
zaranya-
'aurum'
ghēmi gēn geen  inf. jáhāti
3a2.-gān (Krimgot.) hom 'cēdit;
'eō'  desinit'
3a3.-gā, p.pr. hāna-m

 'profectus'
'repell.' 5.3.-
 zazāmi
'cēdō' 'linquō'
ghenghō cingim; Cingeto-rīx geggen, gaggan,  jámhas- 6.3.-
céimm 2b1.-hy- gehen; gaggida 'inguen' 'gradus, engiù,
<*kenksm gyngu; gang gagg planctus'; eñgti;
en cam 'gradus' 'gradus' já ghā iñgsnis
'gradus' 'gradus' 3a2.- framgāhts 'tibia'; 'gradus'
cing 2b2.-cam gongang, 'progressu jaghána-
(cinged) 'id' go s' 'inguen'
'milees' 2b3.- 3a3.- 5.3.-
camm 'id' ganga; zangam
gangr 'tibia'
ghēr (h)ēr (ēris)  (Hes.)
563
gherdhō gurten 'id' bigaírdan  grhá- gordъ

3a2.- 'cingere' 'domus' 'urbs'
(Hes.)
gyrdan 'id' gards 5.3.- 6.3.-
'domus' gərəða- gardas
'cauerna 'ouīle'
domestica' árdas
5.5.-gurtas 'area'
'oppidum'
gherghros furfur  ghar ati goróchъ
<*for-for 'sorgum, 'terit' 'cicer,
milium'; siliqua'

'tostum 6.3.-gurùs
hordeum'; 'friābilis';
 gùrti 'friō'

'glarea,
detriitus'
gherijai horior, herest gor 'pius'; gerōn faíhu-  hary
hortor 'uolet' goire 'iubeō'; gaírns 'gaudeō'; 'gaudeō'

heriam 'piētās' gern 'coditiōsus' 'gratia';
'arbitrium, 'libenter; 
potestāte gierig 'pugna'
m', 'coditiōsus' 
Herentateí 3a2.- 'tripudiātiō'
s `Veneris' giernan,
1b2.- yearn
heriest 'id' 'desiderō'
gherō cohors  hárati

'emō, ferō'
ghertom gert <*-tā  gh tá-m
'lacte'
gherús gair, garait  hrasvá; горе

>goirid; 'peius'; hrasati 'maeror'
gerraim  'dētrah' ALB.-
'scindō'; 'egeō' 5.3.- gerrān
gaire 'uitae zarahehīš 'castrātus
breuitās' 'minima' equus'
ghes  5.4.-jern TOK.-A

ALB.- dorë 5.5.- tsar B šar
kessar
ghesris  kisri-
'glomus'?
ghestos praestō ? ocuis,  ? hástah 6.3.-pa-
ocus, agus 'palma'; 5.3.-zastō astìs
? 'et' <*ad  < 5.6.-dasta 'axilla'
ghosti- ? ghēsər
ghētis 
ghetlā 2b1.- 
haeddel
2b3.-
haezl/heal
gheughō 3a3.-gyger  gu/gūhati 6.3.-gū ti
'raptor'; 'abscondit' 'protegō
gyg 5.3.- gù e
'subterran. guzaēta, m.=ger.
deus' 'id' gyg
gheusō heus  gh ati
'proclamat'
5.3.-gaoš-
'audiō'
5.5.-
kusduwai
564
'calumniō'
gheutis 
gheutlom FAL.-  hotrá-
huti[c]ilom 'hostia'
ghéwejā fouea 
'latebra'
ghewos gawi, Gau gawi `  5.4.-gavar 6.3.-

'id'; 'territorium' - 'territorium' gomur s
goumo, (cf. cwra) 'patens' 'Gaumen'
Gaumen 6.4.-
'palatum' gāmurs
'larynx'
ghi nec  hí -zi (part.

(negōtium,  post
haudōt., 'nōn, sīc' pronōmen)
negāre)
ghighējō 
ghirrijō hirriō girren, grētan ?  gharghara- gъrkati
grollen salutor > ,
3a2.- grüssen, ghurghura-
gierran greet
ghjājō hiō, hiāscō eehianasú gīēn,  kīnu- zej , zin

m gähnen  'aperiō' , zjati
'ēmittendār 3a2.-  6.3.- ió-ju,
um' giwian, 'hiātus' -ti 6.4.-.
1b2.- giowian <*gheH2 ãvaties
ehiato 'poscō'
'ēmissōs'
ghjems hiems gaim-red, Giamillus,  'nix' 5.4.-jiun,
gem-rad Giamon  jiwn 'nix'
2b1.- 'hiems' <*ghiōm
gaem/gae
af
2b2.-goyf
2b3.-
goañv
ghlaghos galgo, galga  5.4.-jak 6.3.-
Galgen 'pālus, 'rāmus' alga(s)
3a3.-galgi crux' 'hasta'
6.4.- alga
'uirga'
ghlastos glass glastum glast 
'uiridis, (n. 'splendōr'
caeruleus' plantae)
2b1.-glas
'caer,vir.'
2b3.-glas
ghlōmi fel; gel glastum gluoen, gulþ  hári- zelenъ
(h)olus, 'lucidus, 'Isatis glühen; 'aurum'  'fel, <*ghel(H3)i 'uiridis';
folus (arc. albus'; tinctoria' gold īra' /gholH3i, golubój

helus(a)) gealach 2b1, b2, 'aurum'; 'flāuus' hárita- 'caerul.';
heluus 'lūna' b3.-glan galla, THRAK.- 'flāuus'; zlato
1a1.- glain 'mundus' Galle 'fel';  híraṇya- 'aurum';
giluus, 'uitrum' 2b1.-gell gelo 'aurum'? 'aurum' lъtъ'fel''
galbus, glass 'giluus'; (Gelwes) 5.3.-zari- 6.3.-geltas
galbinus 'uiridis; glas 'giluus'; ,zairita- 'flāuus';
caeruleus' 'uiridis'; Glut <-tis 'id'; eliù,
glain 3a2.-gold; zaranya-, éliau,
'gemma' gealla, 'aurum' élti,
2b3.-gell geolo, 5.6;-zāra- 'uireō';
<*ghel-no gloom; 'fel' tul ìs 'fel';
'spadix, gleam, alvas,
565
balanus' glas; glare elvas
3a3.- 'heluus'
glana;
goll; gall
'fel'
ghlendhō ·fo·gleinn . 2b1.- glanz  gladeti,
inglennat dichlyn 'uisus'; глядеть
'uestigant' glänzen 6.3.-glendi
atgleinn 'speciō' 'quaere',
'dēmonstra 3a2.- glenst
t' glenten 'id' 'quaerere'
ghleumi ·a2.-glēo,  6.3.-
glee 'id' 'nuga' gláudoti
3a3.-gly 6.4.-
'gaudium' glauda^t
ghloidos glizzan, glitmunjan 

gleissen 'splendeō' 'blandus
3a2.-glītan esse'
ghloumos glumen  glamiti se
'iubilō' 'nugor'
3a3.-
glaumr
'iubilum'
ghḷtnós 
ghḷtom gold gulþ  híranyam zlato>zólot
5.3.- o 6.3.-
zaranim geltas
'heluus'
6.4.-zelts
ghlustis gluss 2b1.-glo glosen, glaggwō 

<*ghlustu- 'carbō' glosten 'certō, 'giluus';
'clāritās'; 2b2.-glow 'luceō' ; profectō' 
gluair 'id' klug 'iuuenis
(*ghleuri-) 2b3.-glaou 'clārus' herba'
'clārus'; 'id' 3a2.-
glower
'micō';
glōwan
`fulminare'
ghṇdhus 3a1, a2.- gund  gadu ?
gund 'pus' 'tumor' 'tumor' Tonsillae
ghṇdō pre-hendō gataim 2b1.-gann, 
'rapiō'; ro- genni 'capiō'
geinn 'arceor'
'locum
habet'
ghṇdhn-
ghneumi gnauwen  gnošati,
'grunniō' 'fricō'; gnušati

3a2-gnēaþ 'gracilitās' 'repellō' ;
'auarus'  gnusьnъ
3a3.-g-nūa 'gracilis' 'repellens'
'tergō'  6.3.-
'spūma'  gniūsai
'bestiolae'
ghodos  5.3.- zad
zadah- <*zadъ
ghoilos gāel, gaol geil gailjan  zelo 'ualdē'
'familiāritā 3a2.-gāl 'beō' 6.3.-gailas
s', amicitia 'imptōsu.'
gholwā kalo, ka(h)l  5.4.-glux golova,
'caluus' (glxoy) голов 'cp'
566
3a2.- <*ghōlu- 6.3.-galvà
callow 'id' ko- 'caput' 'caput'
ghórdejom hordeum gersta   5.4.-gari
ghordhos gart gards  g há- gradъ

'circulus' 'domus'  <gh dho- 'oppidum'
3a2.-gard bigairdan ALB.-garth 'domus' 6.3.-
'fundus' 'cingō' 5.5.-gurtas gardas
'oppidum'
<-to-?
ghorejai 
ghornim 
ghoros hīra, hillae garn 'filum'  híra- 6.3.- arnà
haru-spex; <*ghornā 'uitta'; hirā
hernia 3a3.-gorn 'uēna'
(p. garnar)
ghorsejō horreō, hirpus garb 2b1.-garw 3a2.-gorst  hár atē,
hircus, 'lupus' 'raucus' 'herba 'continens' h yati

hispidus SAB.- <ghərwos quaedam' 'ēr(icius)' 5.3.-
fircus  zaršayamn
'porcellus' a-
'expluman
s'
5.4.-jar
'iuba'
ghortos hortus, gort 'ager' garth  5.5.-gurtas
cohors 'claustrum' 'atrium' 'oppidum'
2b3.-garz <-dho-?
'saeptum'
ghosóm hostia,  jagdhi 6.4.-gōste
hostīre 'esca'; 'daps'
ághas (2,
3s.)
5.3.-gah-
ghóstipots hospēs  gospodь<-
ostьpot-
ghostis hostis gast gasts  gostь
3a2.-giest
3a3.-gastr
ghosdos  5.5.-kāst ToA.-ka t,
B.-kest
ghouros gōrag qaurjan  ghōrá- uryty
'miser' 'offendere' 'piget'
3a2.-gyrn gaurs
'tristitia' 'afflictus'
ghowejō faueō ? 1b2.-fons goumen gaumjan  govejo,
<*bhuH ? 'fauens', 'id' 'obseruō goveti
foner 3a2.- 'iēiūnō,
'fauentēs' gīeman honorō'
<*bhuH?
ghradjai gradior do·greinn gritten; griÞs  gr d ,
'persequor' gritt 'gradus' gr sti
'gradus' 'ueniō'
6.3.-gridi-
ju 'eō'
ghrāsmṇ 
ghrāsom grāmen gras, gras  'uorō' grāsa
<grasmen Gras;  'bucella,

Grün 'uenter' morsum';
3a2.-gras; grásatē
grōwan, 'uorat'
grow
567
'uiridēscō,
crēscō';
græne,
green
'uiridis'
ghrebhō graban graban  pogrebo,
3a2.- pogreti
grafan 6.3.-
3a3.-grafa grebju,
grebt
'fodiō'
ghrēdhus grātag *grēdu-s; ALB.- g dhyati gladъ,голо
'auidus' *grēdōn; gɛrdɛs 'desiderō'; д
3a2.- grēdag-s 'uenātor gardha- 6.3.-gardù
Greed, '-elicus' mulierum' 'desideriu 'succulent
grǟdig 'id' m' us'
6.4.-
gar^ds 'id'
ghreibhō grīfan greipan  grabh-, greb ,
3a2.- grab-, greti
grapian g bhnāti 'rapiō,
5.3.-grab rēmō'
5.5.-karp <*ghrebh
'emō, 6.3.-
terminō' griebiù,
gri bti
6.4.-gribet
'uolō'
ghreimən grēme  6.3.-

'sordēs' graĩmas
3a2, 3a3.- 'flōs lactis'
grīma
'persona'
gh ējō hērēs geisini gaidw 

'egestās' 'egestās' 'uidua';
3a2.-gād, <*ghi-tuó 
gæd 'id" 'careō';

'uacuus';

'sine';

'cēdō';

'terra' 
ghremō gremmen gramjan  5.3.-gram- gremétь
 
'saeuiō' 'irāscor' 'saeuitia' 'tonāre'
Gram 6.3.-
'maestitia' grumiù/éti
grimm ''tn.'
'horrendus' 6.4.-
gremju
'murm.'
ghrendhā grunda, grintil  gr da
suggrunda 'tignus' 'lectus'
3a2.- 6.3.-
grindel 'id' grindìs
'tignum'
ghrendhos grenn grennos grana,'mys granōs  granь
'barba' 'barba' tax' (acc. pl.) 'limes'
<*ghrendh 2b1.-grann 3a2.-granu 'crīnes' gránka
no- 'palpebra' 'id' 'arbuscula'
2b3.- <*ghronā
grann
568
'cilium'
ghrendō frendō grunt, grundu  6.3.-
Grund 'terra' 'terō' gréndu,

3a2.- 'grānum' gresti
grind(an) 'terō'
'molō'
grund
3a3.-grotti
'mola'
ghrēw 3a3.-  5.5.-karū
grýiandi 'et prīdem';
'aurōra', karuwili-
dagen gryr 'antīquus'
'illucescit'
ghrewō 2b1.-gro, grien 
'glarea' 'glarea' 'quatiō';

2b2.-grow 3a3.-grjōn 'intactus'
'id' 'grāna' 
2b3.- 'cutis'
grouanenn 
'id' 'tangō'
ghrewō ingruō,  grúchnutь
congruō, 'succedit' a
(Hom); 'strepitosē

'repens' cadere'
6.3.-
griuva
griūti 'gruō'
6.4.-g aut
'fconterō'
ghromos Gram  5.3.-gram- gromъ
'maestitia' 'strepitus" 'saeuitia' 'tonitrus'
(Hes.)
ghronos Granne  granь
'arista' 'tempus' <*ghronis
3a3.-grån, 'fīnis''
gr n
'picea,
abiēs' (=
acus)
ghroudos grúad 2b1, b3.- 3a2.- 
'maxilla' grud(d) 'id' grēada
'tetae'
ghrowā 
ghərtā garth grāt  6.6.-grot

'mons' 'cacumen'  6.7.-hrot
(secus <*ghrētis 'mons'
hortus) (Hes)
ghudjō gúass 2b1.-gwst 3a2.-(ā- 
'periculum' 'morbum' )gíetan 6.3.- ūvù,
'feriō, ūti
interficiō' 'morior',
fac.-da /ýti
ghundō fundō, giutan  juhoti

fūtis, 
futtilis
ghwerā 
ghwērīnós ferīnus  zv rína
6.3.-
verienà
ghwērós ferus, fera,  TOK B zverь;
ferīna <*ghwērs er- 'uēnor' zverína
569
 A aru B 6.3.-
erwe '- verìs; ver
ātor' ienà
ghwobhros faber gobae <*- dat. pl. wa(f)fen  6.3.-Gabe,
bhṇts gobedbi 'arma' Gube
(gobann 2b1.-gof, 3a2.- 'ignis' <*-
<*-ntsnos) pl. gofein wæpen bhyā
'id' <*-
ēbhno-
gibbā gibba, 3a3.-keiv  geibstù,
gibbus, 'perperus' geĩbti
gibber 'clinor,
decadō'
gígisai kēren,  5.5.-kis,
kehren kīs; ki-i-sa;
3a2.- ki-ik-ki-is-
kērian ta-ri
gignō gignō, ro·genar 2b1.-geni knōt, knuot knōÞs  jánati
nāscor 'nātus 'nascor' 'id' 3a2.- 'generus', 'ēueniō'; 'prodūcit';

sum', · 2b3.-genel cennan sexus' 'nātus'; jāyate
gainethar 'pariō' 'gignō'  .'nascitur'
< 'familiāris' <
*gṇH1yeto *ǵṇH1yetoi
r ‘nascitur’;
gein
'nascentia'
gigrós 
gjewō kiuwan,  5.6.- ьvo,
kauen jāvīdan ьvati
3a2.- 6.3.-
cēowan, iáunos
chew 'maxilla'
gləgjēs glaciēs 3a3.-klaki 
<glagyēs
(propter
aciēm)
glabhō 1a1.- gulban 2b1.-gilb  elobítь

gulbia <*gulbīno- 'foratorium' 'cauitās' globà
'scalprum, 'cuspis, gilbin  'piipa'
runcīna' rostrum' 'acumine' 'cauus' globokъ
2b2.- 'profundus'
geluin
'rostrum'
2b3-
golbina
'rostrata'
gladhros glaber glat, glatt  gladъ-kъ
3a2.-glœd 6.3.-
'alacer' glodùs, -
3a3.-glaðr nas
6.4-glãstît
'mulceō'
glaghā glām klaga,  garhā
clamōr, Klage 'canō' 'punitiō' ;
murmurāti 'protestātiō <*glagyō gárhati/te
ō'' < ': 5.3.-grzaiti
*glagh- klagōn 5.6.-gila
smā (actus)
glakti lac (lactis)  jálāsa

 'sīōlācium'
 5.4.-kat'n
 5.5.-
570
galaktar
'id'
glegos 3a3.-  jálāsa BU glézъ
kløkkva 'sōlācium' 'molliō'
'molliō' 6.3.-
3a6.- gl nas
klinker 'tener'
'tener'
gleibhō klebēn  u-glьbl'o
3a2.-clifian (eff.)
gleis glīs (glīris);  >lat. girí- ,
galērus<*g galea girikā
raec.
glēkis glic(c) klug 
'sapiens'
glembhō glomus, klamben  POL;-glab,
globus 'agglutinō' TCEK.-
; Klumpen hloub
'agglom..' 'truncus'
3a2.-
clamb(er)'s
calō'
gleubhō glūbō klioban 
'scindere'
3a2.-
clēofan
glínāmi glūs, glenim 2b1.- klenan,  glej glekъ

glūten, <*gli-nā-mi glynaf chlinu  'lutus'
glis, -tis, 'adhaereō' 'adhaer.' 3a2.- 'adhaesīuu 6.3.-gliejù,
glittūs, 2b3.- clæg,clay s' gli ti 'linō';
glūtinō glenaff; 'arg'  glitis
geot 3a3.-klina 'desiderō' 'muccus'
'grāmen' < 'linō'
*gel-tā
globhos globus, Kalb kalbō  6.3.-glébiu,
Galba, 'uitulus'; 'uitulus' glébti
galbeus, klāftra 'amplector'
glēba, 'braccia' SE B.-
glēbō 3a2.-calf zglòbiti
'sūra et 'adaptō'
uitulus'
glōghis 3a3.-kleggi  glogъ

'frēnum' 'lingua' 'spīna'
gloidos glóed 3a2.-clāte  6.4.-glīde^t
'glūten' 'lappa'; 'glutinōsus
clite 'lutum' fierī'
gloijós 3a2.-  *gl vъ; glej
cl g, clay 'lutum'
3a3.-klæg 6.4.-glievs
'lutum'
gloitṇ glūs, -tis,  glyte

glūten, - 'glūtinōsus' 'muccus';
inis, glittūs . (Hes.) glitùs
'glūtinōsus'
.
glokijō glociō klukken  klъcati
3a2.- 'battuō'
cloccian 6.3.-
klukšéti
glomos glomus glomar klimmen  6.3.-
'frēnum' 'stringō' 'glamōsus' glomóju -ti
571
3a2.- 'amplector'
climman, gl m s
climb 'lutum'
'scālō'
glōs glōs  5.4.-tal zolva
6.5.-zäova
glujō glūtiō,  glotátь;
ingluuiēs glot(ók)
gnājō nascor, gníu 2b1.-adian  jā-s
ignāuus, <*gnēyō 'prolēs' 'ingenuus
(im)praegn 'faciō' <*ati·gnā (ad), et
ō prōlēs
(nom)'
gnāmi cnáim nuoen,  (3.
nöejen sg. ),

gnās 2b1.-adian  jā-s
'prolēs' 'ingenuus
<*ati·gnā (ad), et
prōlēs
(nom)'
gnāskai 
gnātós nātus, PAEL.- aicned Cintu- 3a2.- -kunds  jātá- 6.3.-
cognātus, pälign. <*ad- gnātus heofon- 'oriundus'  'frāter' 5.3.-zāta- éntas
(-)genitus cnatois genǝ/gene 'primogenit kund <*genǝ-to-
'nātīs' -tous'; '*caeligenu 'gener'
'nātūra' gnātha, s'; -cund
geneta 3a3.-kundr
'fīlia' 'fīlius'
gnebhis 
gnebhō 2b1.-cnaif kneifen  kniebiù, -
'uellus' 'fricō' 'fullō' bti 'fricō'
2b2.-kneu 3a2.- knab-ù,-éti
2b3.- hnæppan 'glubō'
kreoñ, 'quatiō'
kaneo 3a3.-hnafa
'secō'
gneibhō 3a2.-cnīf, 
knife 'id' furrum?
3a3.-knīfr
gneichō cōniueō; conegos, (h)nīgan, hneiwan;  5.5.- knimbù,
(cō)nītor -ī, kunikaz neigen, *ga(h)nipn kaniniya- knìbti
nictō, -āre 'conixus' nicken an <*gneib 'subsidō' 'flectere'
=*conigātu 'inclinor'; 'tristis <*gneib
s hnaiw esse'
'humilis'
3a2.-
hnīgan
gneidō nīdor cned cnes hnītan  6.4.-
'uulnus' 'pellis' 'allīdō' (*<dyō); knide^t

<*knidā 3a3.-hniss 'urtīca' 'prurīre'
'nīdor ' kni det
'pangere'
gnōros ignārus, 1b2.- 
narrō naratu
'narrātō',
naraklum
'nūntiātiō'
gnos singulus Truticnos, aina-kla- 
<*s gnos, Coimagni 'singulus' 'recens
mali/prīuig nātus'
nus
572
(gí)gnōskō gnōuī, 1b2.- itar·gninim, Ate-gnatus kunnan, kunnan,  jñāta-, znaj ,
(gnōwa) ignōrō, naratu asa· 2b1.-gwn, kennen, kannjan; ALB.-njoh jñāyáte znati
ignārus, 'narrātō', gninaim atwaen können kann <*gnēskō 5.4.- <*gnō-
narrāre naraklum 'sapiō', ad· 2b2.- 3a2.- <*gonne ana 'em 6.3.- ina ,
'nūntiātiō' gnin gon,aswo cnāwan, 'potest' <*cana 'e inóti
'agnoscit' m 2b3.- know m 6.4.-zinât
<*gninu- gounn/gon <*knējan <*gnH3sky
n -, aor.
caneay
gnōsmi ignōrō ?  ajñāsam, - ToA.-
sthās kñasäst
5.4.- 'agnōuistī'
caneay <*gnēsH3-
5.5.- s-
kane/iss-zi
(ganeszi)
<*gnēsti
gnōtis nōtiō kunst *knōþs  pra-jñāti- znati,
'ars'; dat.knōdai 'nōtiō, 'agnitiō'; znatь
urchna^t 'genus'; necessitūd jñātí- 'scīre'
'agnitiō' kunþi <gṇtí ō' 'necessitū 6.3.-
dō' pa intìs
'agn.'
6.4.-znuõts
'gener'
gnōtlom cf. nōbilis einknuadil  jñātra- 6.3.-
'insignis' 'intelligenti nklas
beknuodile a' 6.9.-
n 'audibile ebsentliun
fierī' s
'dēsignātu
s'
gnōt r nōtor  jñātár-
5.3.-
nātar-
gnōtós nōtus; gnáth eposognat kund kunþs  jnātáh 6.4.-pazîts
nota us 3a2.-cūþ, 'nōtus' 'nōtus'
<*gnota, 2b1.- kūth
notāre, gnawd 3a3.-kuðr,
cognitus, 'usuāle' kunnr
agnitus
gnoubhos gnobh Knopf;knü  gniáubti
pfen 'ligō' 'amplector'
3a2.-
knobbe,.kn
ob
gnōwos (g)nāuus Bodo- 3a2.-. 
cnous gecnæwe
1b2.-go- 3a3.-knār
gnaw 'habilis'
1b3.-gnou
'ēvidens'
golbhnos gulban, 2b1.- kolbo 
gulpan gilb(in) 'uirga'
<*gulbīno- 'forator., 3a3.-kolfr
'cuspis, acumine' 'acumen'
rostrum' 2b2.-
geluin
'rostrum'
2b3.-
golbina
'rostratam'
gombhos gemma kamb,  já(m)bhatē z bъ,
573
<gembhnā Kamm 'dens' , 'rapiō' zobъ
'pecten' jambhah 'dens'
3a2.- 'morsum, pro-zebati
camb, dens' 'pectinō'
comb 'id' 5.3.-həm, 6.3.-
3a3.- zəmbayati ambas
kambr 'id' 'angulus'
6.4.-zùobs
'dens'
gomos gemō; 1b2.- 3a2.-  gomola
gumia gomia, cumbol, 'glēba'
(deriu.) kumiaf cumul 6.3.-
'grauidas' 'tumor, gùmulas,
uulnus' gumul s
3a3.-kams 'globus'
'glēba'
gonējō 3a2.-  janáyati
cennan
<*gonjan
gopos gop, gob kiver,  5.3.- zob 'pīcus',
<*-bb-? Kiefer zafar/fan zobátь
'maxilla' 'fauces' 'edō'
Kâfer 6.3.- ébiu,
'scarabaeu -eti 'id'
s'
3a2.-cēafl,
jowl 'id'
gorbos 
gorgnóm 
gorgós garg graen  groza
'rudis'; 'maestitia' 'horrendus' 'horror'
gráin 6.3.-
'repugnanti gra óju -ti
a' 'minor'
<*gragnis
goulos gūtus, uola 
gouros gúaire kauern  6.3.-
'adesse' 'circulus' ga ras
3a3.-kaure 'uellus'
6.4.-gauri
'u.pubicus'
6.5.-guriti
se 'plectī'
grakijō gracillō, grāg krächzen  garjati gra u,
graculus 'gracillaati krāhhon>c 'tonat' grakati
ō' h 'resonō' <krag 6.3.-
3a2.- 5.4.- gìrg d iu,
cracettan karka girg déti
3a3.-krāka 'strepitus' 'frumpere'
'coruus"
grammā grāmiae 3a3.-kramr qrammiþa  grьme dь
'umidus, 'humiditās' 'gram.'
nix pogro o
sēmirōrāta' 'summergō
' 6.3.-
grimsti 'id'
grānom grānum grán 2b1.- korn kaúrn  jīrná 'trītus' zrьno
gronyn 3a2.-corn 6.3.- ìrnis
2b2.- 'pisum'
gronen 6.4.-zirnis
2b3.- 'id'
greunenn
574
g beinos carpinus  5.5.- grabína
karpina-
GIS 6.3.-
skirptas
'ulmus'
g bējō gerbach krimpf,  5.4.-karth grubu
'rugōsus' krampf, 'tortus' 'tibia' !! 'dorsum,
krumpf conuuls.';
'tortus' gorb
3a3.-korpa 'gibba'
'ruga' 6.4.-
grumbt
'rug. fiō'
g bhō kerben  жре ий
'caelō'  'et 'alea,
3a2.-carve scrībō' tractus'
'id' 6.4.-
grīpsta,
grīpste
'rasiō'
grebhos krebe  grapsa,
'corbis', 'rēte, glapsa
Krippe corbis, 'fascis'
'iparulāriu enygma' (-
m' ei- scrībō,
3a2.-cribb )
'id'
gredō krazzōn,  A B.-gërüj
kratzen ;gërrusë,
3a3.-krota krūs(ë)
'scalpō' 'strigilis'
gregs grex graig 2b1-2b2- 
(gregis) (grega) 2b3.-gre 'complūra';
'grex 'id' cf. 
equōrum' 'congregō'
gremjom 
grendjom grinne Kranz;-  6.3.-
'fascis' enze grandìs
'corb.' 'anu, ar'
3a2.-cræt 6.6.-
'raeda' greda sie
'torquērī'
gretlom kratto,Krät  grathnāmi
ze 'corb.' 'plectō';
3a2.- grantha
cradol, 'nodu.,
cradle corōna'
greubhō SCOTT.- Kropf  grubinéti
groban 'tollēs'; 'tortus' 'uacillāre,

'cacumen' sich 'gryphus'; labī'
krüpfen 
'flectere' 'torqueō'
3a2.-
crēopan,
crēp 'rēpō'
greugō gruc, grug kriochan, 
'ruga' kriechen
grucánach 'rēpō'
'rugātus' krucka;
Krücke
'baculum'
3a2.-
cryce,
575
crutch
greumō grūmus Krume 
'mīca 'uetus rēs'
pānis'  'situs
3a2.- sub ungue'
crūma 'id'
greutō gruth kroten 
<*grutús ? 'premō'
'lacte 3a2.-
putridum, crūdan;
caseus' crowd
curds
'caseus'
grṇdhís grandis  grodь
'superbus' 'pectus'
grōbhos grabātus 1b2.-  PR.-wosi- grab
'lectus' Grabovius grabis 'betulla'
<Illyr., 'quercus 'euonymus 6.4.-
Mac. deus' ' Gruõbina
grōdis grandō, -  ? 5.4.-karkut gradъ
inis 'glarea' <*gagrōdo 6.3.-
- grúodas
groumos 
grundijō grundiō, grunzian, 
grunniō grunnen
3a2.-
grunian,
grunt
grutis gruth kroten 
'premō';
krot
'pressiō'
3a2.-
crudes,
curd(es);
crowd
'glomus'
gudom 3a2.-kyte,  gudám

kite 
'stomachu
s'
gugā galla glún 'genū' Kugel,  gula- , ьly,
gláo- kliuwa 'tumor' glāu- gúglja

snáthe 3a2.- 'cardō' 4.6.-gūzak 'tumor'
'linea, cy ǵel, 'talus' 6.3.-gugà
norma' cudgel; 'promuntor
claw ium'
'garra'
gupā chubisi  5.3.-gufra goba

`tugurium'  'uultur''profundus' 'lepra'
; 5.4.- 6.3.-
Koben gumbed gumbas
'porcīle' 'boueda' 'cauit.'
3a2.-cofa,
cove
gurnos  5.4.-kurn ( 6.3.-
kran) gurnas
'coxa,
ossu q.'
gusnō gustō, do-roigu kiosan, kiusan;  ju átē vu-kusiti
dēgūnō 'ēlexit'; kiesen kausjan 'delectat'' 'gustō'
asagussim 3a2.- 'examinō' 5.6.-
576
kiosan, gakusts daustar
choose 'proba' 'amīcus'
gut guttur 3a2.-codd  5.5.-kuttar
'saccus'
idhei ibī 1b2.-if; infig. -id- 2b1.-yd  iha
ifont 2b2.- yz, 'hic natus' 5.3.-ida
'ibidem' yth
2b3.-ez
ikjō 
ili īlia, īle Ile; Islay Ilio-mārus  (Hes.) jal'ity
<gr.? 'insula 'magningui 'testiculī'
quaedam' nis'
2b1.-il?
'fermentu
m'
īljō   iyarti, īrte

 etc 'moueō'
(intr.)
5.4.-
elanim 'fiō';
elanem
'scandō';
eluzanem
'prōmō'
5.5.-halāi
'trūdō'
imde 
immō immō  5.5.-imma
īnekmi  a a- nes , nesti
<enkenk- 'portiō' 'portō'
'tulī'; 5.4.- hnjo- 6.3.-nešù,

'molēs' c 'messis' nešia ,
5.5.- ḫi-in- nèšti
ik-zi 6.4.-nesu,
'attribuit', nešu, nest
inclinātur
ipjō  impai-

'onus' 'dēpressus
sum'
is, id is, id; ī- izio, hé. Hed; 2b1.- is, ita    ay-am, id- jo 'eum';
dem, eis- idic/ídík; a<(esyo, eidau, eidi 'eum' am, iy-am iako
dem is-id-um esyās) 5.6.-iyam 'quālis'
'īdem'; 6.3-jis
1b2-ere,
erse
īsarnom (<aes non iarn, Isarnus, īsarn eisarn  (<ayas)
possiblile aiarann Iserninus 3a2.-
propter 2b1.- isærn, iron
longa ī) haearn, 3a3.-ísarn,
haiarn járn
2b2.-
hoern/horn
2b3.-
houarn
ita ita, item, iti 1b2.-itek 2b1.-yd, yt  ittham, iti 6.3.-it, itin
'ita' 'rectē'
itthā, itthād
'hic'
itājō 
itaqe 
íteros iterum  itarah
'alter';
577
itaratah
'indirectē'
itim 
it iter, arc.  5.5.-itar TOK A.-
itiner 'uia' ytār
iwe ceu <*ke-  iva
iwe 5.5.-i-wa-
ar (iwar)
jəkējō 
jəkjō 
jagjō iēiūnus   yájati;

(Pl. 'sacer'; yajñá-
iāiūnus'),  'sacer' ;
iēientō 'sacrificium yajas-
' 'sacrificium
'
5.3.-
yazaite
jāgjus iēiūnus  yájyu-
(Pl.
iāiūnus')
jāi 1b2.-ie 2b1.-ie jē, jeh jai 
'iam' 'sic'
jālos 
jāmi iānua, á 'axis,  yāti 'it'; jado,

iānus carrus' yāna- jachati 'eō'
áth<yātus 'uia, (in veh.)
'portus' uehiculum' 6.3.-jóju,
5.3.-yāh- jóti 'equitō'
'crimen,
decisiō'
jāmi iam ju 'iam, ja ju, 'iam', ja  ju
'sic'; 'sic' 6.3, 6.4.-
3a2.-ju jau
'iam'
jáneumi á(i)lid iawl 'laus,  ) yāvan jarъ
'rogat, iussus' 'auiditās, 'offensor'; 'uiolentus'
desiderat' iolaf inuidia'; yātár jarostь
'laudō'  'uindicātor' 'exasperāti
2b3.-iolent 'quaerō'; ; yātú ō'

'precentur' 'cruciātōr' ; 'incantus' 6.8.- ja^l
 5.3.-yātu 'inuidia'
'poena'; 'incantus/t
 or'; yā-sā
'uiolentus'; 'desideriu
 m'
'offendō'
5.4.-janam
'molior'
jānuwā 
jeghō jagōn,  (pra-
jagen )yak ati
'agitātur';
yahú,
yahvá
'inquiētus>
fīlius'
jegis aig f. (ega) 2b1.- iā ihilla <  6.5.-eka
2b2.-yey, *jichilla
yeyn 'stiria'
2b3.-ien, 3a2.-
yen 'frīgus' gicel(a),
iceicle
578
3a3.-jaki
jekō iocus icht 2b1.- giht 
'populus' ieith/iaith 'ēnuntiātus
'populus, .' gehan
lingua' 'ēnuntiō'
jekos (h)ícc 2b1.-iach  ya as
'sānātiō' 'sānus' 'sānātiō' 'honor'
2b2.-yagh
2b3.-iac'h
jēlom -ialo-;  jályj
Nantoialo- 'sterilis'
> Nanteuil 6.4.- jels
2b1.-ial 'immatūrus
'desertum' '
(jí)jēmi iaciō,  5.5.-i-ja-mi
iaceō 'faciō'; pi-
ja-mi
'mittō'
jemō redimiō,  yámati, TOK A, B
infula ? yácchati yām-'faciō,
<*imdhlā, 'tenet' efficiō'; A
geminus 5.3.- yam-, yom-, B
yasaitē 'id' yäm-
'assequor'
jemós geminus emon<*em eban; ibns  yámati,
??? no- eben 'aeq.' 'aequus' yácchati
'geminus' 3a2.-efn, 'tenet';
emnaid even 'id' yáma-
'duplex' 3a3.-Ymir 'habēna';
'deus yamá
Hermaphr.' 'geminus'
5.3.-yəma-
'geminus'
jentēr ianitrīcēs  yatār- jetry

(!!) 'cognāta' 6.3.-jenter-
5.4.-ner
jeq iecur i(u)chair  yákrt ikra

(iecoris, 'ouae  (yakná ) 'caviar'
iecinoris) piscis' 5.6.- jigar 6.3.-jãknos
6.4.-aknas
jesō 1a1.-iestā ess ias 'ferueō' gesan,  yasati
'spūma' 'cataracta' et 'clamor, jesan 'ferueō'; 'efferuēt'

eruptiō' 'fermentō' 'feruens'; 5.5.-
2b3.-gòell 3a2.-giest,  is(sa)na-,
'leuitus' yeast 'siccus' ēssana-
<*upo-ies- <*HHiº2-s- 'massa'
lo-
jeunis úain  y ni 'locus
'occasiō=l otiī';
ocus syona<suy
aptus, ouni
tempus 'placidus'
aptus' 5.3.-
yaonəm
'uia'
jeus iūs híth 2b1.-iot, 3a3.-ōst ALB.-gjär   yūh juxa
'pulsum' iwt/uwd 'caseus' 'fermentu pra-yāuti 6.3.-jūshe
<*iutā? 'pulsum' m' ; 'agitō' 6.4.-jaut

mlat. iotta 2b2.-iot 'ammassō'
'pulsum'
2b3.-iod
'papillae'
579
jewesdiks 
jewō iūō -āre 3a2.-  yuy ti
géocian 'uitāt,
'saluō' protegit'
jewom eorna  yávah ovin
(Hom.) 5.3.-yava 6.3.-javaī
5.5.-ewa
jéwornjom 
jewos iūs (cf.  yóh
iouestōd - 5.3.-
lapis niger) yaosh-
jṇdros  indra- ? дръ,
'deus q.' ядрый
'celer'
6.3.-
Indrajà
'flum.q.'
jṇtō (h)ét Iantumaru  yátate
'inuidia' s, 'studēt'
Adiatunnu yatnás
s 2b1.- 'studium'
addia(n)t
'auidit.'
jod qid  yad, yena яко
jodhei 
joinkos iuncus; áin<ioini- eynholz, 
iūniperus Einbeerba
um
3a3.einir-
jom 
jomde 
joqe jah  5.5.-ya, a;
yakku
jori 
jorkos 2b1.-iwrch 

2b2.-yorch
2b3.-
iourc'h
jōrom hornus<ho jār jēr   paryārinī< jara 'ver',
-yōrnos? 3a2.-geār 'tempus' pari-yārinī jarь
cf. ahd. 3a3.-ār 'post 'grānum
hiuru<hiu annum aestātis'
jāru prīmum 6.3.-jōre
pariens'
5.3.-yārə
'annus'
jōrós 
jos (je), jā,    yas, yā, i-ze, ia-ze

jod 'uter' yad;
4.5 yatara
'uter'
j sneumi  5.3.-yasta- poja ,-
y 'cinctātus' jasati
'cingō' 5.5.-ish 'cingō';
'ligō' pojasъ
'cinctus'
jota 
jota sei 
jóugsmṇto iūmentum 
m
580
jówestos iūstus, P. huisse  istъ 'uērus'
Fest. 'decens'
iouiste
'iustē'
jucis iūgis  5.3.-
yavaējī-
5.4.-yave
'semper'
judhejō iubeō, iuba 2b1b2,b3.-  ud-yōdhati ojьminъ ?
<'agitans' iud 'pugna' 'proelium' 'turbulātur'; 'miles'
<youdhos yúdhyati, 6.3.- judù,
2b1.-udd yōdhati -éti
'dominus' 'pugnat'; 'moueor';
yúdh- judra
'proelium, 'turbulentia
miles'; ' 6.6.-
yudhmá judzi
'bellicōsus' 'incitō'
5.3.-yūiδ
yeinti
'pugnant'
jugóm iugum ughaim 2b1.- juch, joch juk  yugá 'pār' igo (iga)
iou/iau 3a2.-juk 5.5.-i-u-ga- 6.3.-iungas
2b2.-ieu 3a3.-ok an, yukan
2b3.-ieo,
geo
jungō iungō untar-  yumákti 6.3.-jungiu

jauhta
'subjugāuī'
júwenis 
juwes / ir pl. yūs, du.  pl. yuvám 6.3.-yūs,

juwe 2b1.-gē, gī yut du. yūyám du. yudu
3a3.-er (t<dwō) 5.3.- 6.4.-y s
yūzəm
5.4.-yez
5.5.-šu-
(um-)me-
es
juwṇkós iuuencus 1b2.-iveka, oac, óc iouincillus junc, jung juggs  yuvaká,
iuenga 2b1.- 3a2.-iung, yuva á-
'iuuenca' ieuanc geong,
2b2.- young
iouenc/yo
wynk
2b3.-
iaouank
júwṇtā iuuenta ōetiu, ōitiu 3a2.-youth junda  yuvatva
<tūt <tā <*yuwəntw
o-
juwōn iuuenis, 1b2.-iouies óa 'iunior';  yúva(n)- junъ
iūnīx; 'iuvenibus, óam (yūna ), 6.3.-jáunas
iūnior; militibus'; 'iuuenissim grd. 6.4.-jauns
iouiste jovie us' yávīyas-,
<comp.*jo yávi a-
wiē-s 5.6.-
y(a)van
(yūnō)
kəpjō capiō, cacht Moenia- hevan, hafjan  kapatī 'duo 6.3.-kúopa

captus 'seruus' coeptus heben 'leuāre ' 'ansa' pugnātī'
2b1.-caeth 'leu.' haban
'seruus' haben 'habēre'
2b2.-caid 'habēre' hafts
581
f. caites 3a2.- 'captus'
2b3.- hebbian,
quaez hebban,
heave 'id',
habban
'habēre'
kəpsā 
kəptos captus, cacht haft, -hafts 
captīuus 'serua' behaftet
3a2.-hæft
'seruus'
kəsējō careō, casit cess 3a3.-hes  āsti, kosa, кос
castus, 'oportet' 'hasta' 'penniculu á ati 'falx'
castrum, b2- *<kestā m in bouis 'scindit'
castigō castrous cauda' astrám
'fundī', 'culter,
castruo, sīca, ensis'
kastruvuf
kəstos 
kətos catus cath  itá-
'astūtus'
kəwējō caueō (cf. 3a2.-  kutiti
skewō) híegan 'apparātus' 'machināri'
'efficiō' ;  prekutiti
3a3.-heyja 'praeparō' 'ornāre'
'id'
ka    kám (pro kъ(n) 'ad'
'forsan' dat 6.3.--ki
commodī, (imper.)
imper.,
affirm.)
kábṇlos caballus  kobyla
'equa'
kabōn cabō, capall Caballos  konь, конь
cabōnus, <*kabni
caballus 6.3.-
kum lē
'equa'
kadhō cassis ? cais huota, Hut 
'amor'; 'custodia';
miscuis huot, Hut
'odium' 'petassus'
3a2.-hōd
'c., p.' >hat
'p.'; hædre
'timens'
kadō cadō antkadum casair  sád-
'occidione
m'
kādos cadeis caiss 2b1.- haz, hass hatis  ri- ādas-

amnud 'odium' cawdd 'īra' 'id' 'odium' <*keH2dno 'de
'inimīcitiae cas 3a2.-hete forāneo
s
causā' <*kadsi- 'id' (Lubotsky) curans'
'odium' 3a3.-hatr 5.3.-sādra-
2b2.-cueth
2b3.-cuez,
keuz
kadros cā(i)d caddos  ā adāna
'excellii' 'excellens'
kaghlā 
kaghos caulae < κα, ας 2b1.-cae hag 'urbs' 
caholae, 'incipias', 'saeptum, hac
582
cōlum, kahad fundus' 'saeptum,
cōlō, -āre; 'capiat' 2b3.- claustrum'
cohum, 3a3.- quae/kae
incohō kukēhē(n)
s
'occupaver
int';
cehefi
'captus sit'
kaidō caedō  khidáti
kaikos caecus cáech 2b1.-coeg haihs  kēkaras
'monophth' 'uacuus' 'monophth. 'uentus 'paetus'
2b2.-cuic ' occidentāli
'luscus' s'
kailom caelum cél (a 2b1.-coilou 3a3.-heill hails  celъ
britonnicō) 'auspic.' 'salus' 'sānus' 'sānus'
2b2.-coel celjo, celiti
'harusp.' 'sānō'
2b3.-
chuillioc
kaipā caepa, 

cēpa in Cerynēa
(Hes.)
kairós sincērus, 
caerimonia
káis jēs 
kaisrom caesariēs  kēsara- TOCH A
i äk, В
ecake ?
'leō'
kaitom būcētum Cetobricca heida, haiþi  5.5.-
<bū-c- , Kaitobrix Heide 'prātum' GIStiyessar
ētum (cf. 'Setúbal' 3a2.-h þ, ?
iuncētum) 2b1.-coit, heath
coed 'silua' 3a3.-heiðr
2b2.-
cuit/coys/c
os 2b3.-
koat
káiwelos caelebs  kévala- егл
'solus, 'ūnicus'
ūnus' 6.3.-
kaivìnti
'exhuaurīre
'
kákabā cācăbō -  kúkubha-

aare 'gallus q.'
kakkājō cacō, caccaim; 2b1.-cach kacken 

cacca cacc 2b2.- 'cacca'
'cacca' caugh
2b3.-cac'h
kaklājō cacillō; cicirrus = gackizōn,  kurku a-, kokotátь
cūcurriō, Messius gackern  'perdix' kukku a- kokotъ m,
3a2.-cocc ,'gallus' kokošъ f
'gallus' (cf. fr. coq)
kákneumi cécht behagen  akn ti 6.3.-kankù,
'potestās, 'decet'; 'potest, kàkti
imperium' hagen iuuat'; 'assequor'
<*kankt- / 'sementāle aktí TOK.-A
*kenkt- ' 'auxilium' kākmart, В
3a2.-hatch 5.3.-sa aiti kamart
583
'alō' 'callet' 'dominium'
3a3.-høgr 5.6.-saxt
'decens' 'multum'
kakō hager  5.3.-kasu 6.3.-
'tenuis' 'paruus' nukašéti
'defetiscor'
kaldējō 
kaldos callus, calath, calliomarc  kíṇa- kaliti
calleō calad us 'farfara' <*krṇa 'durēscō
'dūrus' 2b1.-caled (incandenti
'dūrus' s ferrī)'
caill<kalnāi
'testic.'
kalēiks calix, 1b2.- Schale  kalá a-

culigna skalçe-ta, 
scalseto 'e 
paterā',
scalsie 'in
paterā'
kalgōn 
kālis columba, 1b2.- caile helm  kala ka-, kalъ
cālidus, kaleruf 'macula' 'macula 'columba'; kalana-, 'excrēment

callidus, (buf) frontālis 'nō'' kalma a- um'
cālīgo 'callidos pecuum'  'macula, kalína
(boves) 'āter'; sordees'; `Viburnum
 karka- opulus';
'asinus' 'albus, kalú- a
 rociinus' kalú-ga
'macula'
 5.4.- arma 'palūs'
'mancillō' 'rociinus' 6.3.-
kalýbas,
kalývas
'albicollis'
kalkis 
kalwos caluus, Kalúvieís,  (áti-)kūrva,
calua, Kalaviis kurva,
caluāria 'Calvius' kālvālīk ta
5.3.-
kaurva-
kambos camm Cambo- 
2a2.-cam dunum 'discruris'
2b1.-2b2.-
cam
2b3.-
kamm
kāmi cārus caraim Carant-us, huora hōrs  cak 6.3.-
carae 2b1, b2, 'meretrix' <*hōra- 'placuit'; kamaros
'amīcus' b3 caraf 3a2.-hōre 'adulter' kāma- 'lasciuia'
car 'id' 'amor'; 6.4.-
'amīcus' 3a3.-hōra- kāmáyati kãme^t
<*hōrōn cāru- 'esuriō';
'amoenus', kärs
nicāyya 'expetens'
'attractīuus
'
5.3.-kayā,
kāma-
kamō hemmen  5.4.- kom
'obstō' 'multitūdō kàmel 'glomus'
3a3.- in festā'  'exprimere' 6a3.-

hemja 'cāmus' kamúoti;
'retineō' kams 'id'
584
kampos campus silb cf. hamf 'id' hamfs  kapanā kupiná
'tribūtum; Cambio- 3a2.-hōf 'mutilus' 'flectō'; 'uermis' 'fascis'

argentum'; dūnum, 'id' 'flexiō'; kapa a- 6.3.-kumpti
cimbe Cambo-  'acumen'; 'flector';
'convictiō' ritum 'uermis' cāpa- kampas
 'arcus' 'angulus'
'flexus' 6.4.-
kampis
'abies
lasiocarpa'
kánāmi canālis  khánati;
khā-
'puteus'
khá-
'cauitās'
5.3.-kani
'fossum';
xā 'id'
kandō candō *cando  cándati;

possibile 'carbō' candráh
in (Hes) 'lūna'
deriuātioni
bus
kánkestos Cassiciate Hengst Lex Salica: 

(locus) 'admissāri chengisto 
<*kankstīk us' 'equus (Hes.)
ā 3a2.- castrātus
2b1.- hengest
caseg 'id'
'equus'
2b2.-
cassec 'id'
2b3.-
kezeg (pl.)
kankus géc/géag 2b1.- huohili hōha  ankú- ; s kъ
'rāmus' cainc/cang 'aratiuncul 'arātrum' ākhā 'surculus';
cécht au a'; 'stīpēs, socha
'arātrum' <*kanku puntāle' 'hamus'
6.3.-šakà
kanmā cnáim hamma 
<*knH2mi- 'poples' <*knH2me
2a3.- <*konH2m H2 'tibia,
cnámh eH2 cubitus'
3a2.-
hamm 'id'
kanmṇ 
kanō canō, 1b2.- canim, 2b1.-cathl 3a2.-hen hana 
cantus kanetu cétal, 'cantus' 'gallīna' 'gallus' 'mane
'canitō' forcital 2b3.- canens
'disciplīna' kentel (gallus)'
'lectiō'
kantos cantus cétad 2b1.-cant;  kutъ
<gall. 'sella lloergant <lat. 'angulus'
rotunda' 'plēniluniu
<kanto- m'
sedo-; cét 2b3.-kant
'columna' 'circulus'
(cf:.cantalo
n)
kaplos capus, capanna, hābba,  kopьje
cappulō, SE B.- happe  'ascia' 'hasta'
concipilō kòpa 'falx' 6.3.-
'horreum' skãplis
585
<VEN-I.ILL 'ascia'
kāpos huoba,  ALB:
Hufe, 'hortus' kopshtē

Hube 'id' 'hortus'
3a2.-hōba
kaprā 
kapros caper, caera/caor caer-iwrch 3a2.-hæfer 
capra a 'ouis' 3a3.-hafr 'ursus'
kaput caput, cud, cuth, houbit, haubiÞ  kapúcchal

capillus caut Haupt  a-
<*kapont- 3a2.- 'caesariēs';
? hēafod, kapāla-
hafola 'craneus'
3a3.-
haufud
kareinā carīna 2b1.-ceri 
<*carīso- 'nux',

'nucleus 'nucis
fructūs' arbos'
karkar carcer karnitu harahus 
'erexit, 'circulus
locāuīt' lapidum in
2b2.-carn sepulcrō'
'sepulcrum 3a2.-
' hearg
'sanctuāriu
m'
3a3.-hɔrgr
'id et agger
lapidum'
kárkarjō (h)ruom, hrōþeigs  carkarti; 6.3.-ap-

Ruhm 'celeber' 'nuntius' kīrtí- kerd iu;
'fāma' *hrōpjan 'fāma'; kardas
3a2.-hrōm, (b?) 'uocō' kārú- 'echo'
hrēð hrōps 'cantor'
3a3.- 'rumor'
herma
'nuntiō'
karkros cancer 3a3.-ræke  karka a- , rakъ
<>rus? karka- ; <*krakъ
ka ka a-
=cancer?
'lorica'
<*ka krta-
karnājō carinō caire 2b&.-cared harawēn;  ukoriti

'punitiō' 'nequitiae' herb `contumeli
(Hes.)
2b2.-caa 'amarus' ō'; korъ, '-
'punitiō" 3a2.- a'
2b3.-carez hierwan 6.3.-kìrinti
'd' <*kryā 'contemnō' 'id'
6.4.-
karināt
'deludere'
karōn 
kāros cārus huora hors  6.4.-kärs
'meretrix' <*hōra- 'expetens'
3a2.-hōre 'adulter'
'id'
3a3.-hōra-
<*hōrōn
karpō carpō, corrán 2b1.-cor herbist  5.5.- rъp ,
carpinus 'falx' 'puncta' <*karpistó- 'fructus'; karpina reti 'creō'
586
cirrim 'autumnus'  'arbor q.' 6.3.- kirpti
'putō' 3a2.- 'cuspis' 'putō'
corr hærfest 6.4.-
'cuspis' 'segēs' š ērpet
'rādō'
kárrēkā carrac, 2b1.- harg  karkara-,
craice, carrecc 'templum' karka a-
creice 2b2, b3.- 3a2.-hearg 'dūrus';
(craice, carrek 'id' karaka-
creice); 'grandō'
crach
'raucus'
kartús hart hardus  ka u, 6.3.-kartús

'dūrus', 'dūrus'  ká uka- 'acer'
harto  'acer';
'multō' 'uis' krátu- 'uis
3a2.- spirituālis'
heard; 5.3.- 5.3.-
hard xratuš 'id'
3a3.-
harðr;harð
a 'id'
kasnos cānus 2b1.- haso   a á-
ceinach <*kaswo 'flāuus'
'lepus' 3a2.-hasu
kasterlom 
kastra castra cathir 1b1.-caer 3a2.-  chattra-
'urbs' c(h)ester <*skadtro-
<lat. /skottro-
'umbella'
kastrājō 
kastrom castrō -āre ALB.- astrám
thadër 'culter,
'bipennis' sīca, ensis'
katēsna 
katsājai 
katsājō caterua, 1b2.- 1b2.-cader 3a2.-  kotьcь
catēna kateramu, 'festa' heaðor 'cella,
cassis, cateraham 'claustrum' claustrum'
casa ? o 3a3.-
'congregā hadda?
mini' 'anus'
kattā catulus 1b2.-katel cadla ? hatele  NUBIAN vykot;
(katles) 'tripa' 'capra' kadis, kotiti s
'catulus' 3a3.- BERBER 'pariō'
haðna kadiska
'capella'
katus cath catu-rīx hadu, skaþjan   ātáyati kotora,
2b1.-cad; hader 'uulnerāre' 'memor īra' 'abscidō' kotera
cadr 3a2.- Theuda- átru-
'robustus' heaðu- hatha-s 'inimīcus'
2b2.-cas; 3a3.-H ðr, 5.5.-kattu;
cadr 'id et 'Mars' LUW.-
pulcher' kattawatna
llis
'accusātor'
kaukos caucum;  kó a- 'et 6.3.-
cucullus ? situlus, káuša-s
uagīna, 'icraneus'
testiculum, 6.4.-
penus, kau^ss 'id'
thesaurus'
587
kaulis caulis, cuaille hohl ushulōn  kúlyam 6.3.-káulas
caulus 'pālus' 'cauus'; 'excauō' 'calamus' 'ossis' 'ossis'
<*kaulīnio- aushl.- kulyā 6.4.-ka ls
3a2.-hol(e) 'canālis' 'cal., tibia'
'cauus' 5.5.-
kalwis(si)n
a?
kaunós hōn, Hohn hauns  кунять

'uituperium 'humilis'  'nutō'
' (Hes.) 6.3.-kàuns
3a2.-hēan 'pudor'
'humilis'
kawdō 
kawō cūdō, cuad, i. houwan hawi TOK. A 5.3.-fra- kov ,
cōdex, cogad 3a2.- 'fēnum' ko-, В kau- kušaiti kovati
caudex 'caedere, hēawan (inf. 'quatit, 6.3.-káuju,
pugnāre' 3a3.- kautsi), fut interficit' káuti
(O'Dav. h ggua B kowu 5.6.- 6.4.-
gl.) <*kāw- kuštan nuòkau^t
'interficiam' 'interficere' 'q., i.'
káwonā  šuka cova;
(signif. ?) 'psitacus'; kujáti
kauti 'murmurō'
'clamat' 6.3.-ka kti
'plangor';
šaükti
'clamō'
ke kā kod hi-c, ce- ekak hē, her 'is'; hina  5.4.- artic.: sь , sego

(eke ekā eterus; ce- 'hanc', Heute 'hunc'.  'hodiē' -s; sa, ast 'is'
ekod) dō,sī-c,illī- ekík 'hoc'; 3a2.-hē, himma <*kyāmero 'hic' 6.3.-
c; tun- ídí-k 'id' he, hie 'is' 'huic'; hita m 5.5.-ki 'hic'; šìs;šiañdie
c, nun-c; 2b2.-erek 3a3.-hānn, 'nunc' kinun n 'id'
ecce 'id' hōn 'm;f'' 'nunc' 6.4.-
esmi-k šùodien
'huic' 'hodiē'
ke cēterus cēbnust 
<*ce- 'aduenerit' <*ke-eno- 
eterus,
cedo, cette
kei cis, citer; 1b2.-çive cé, OGH koui hiar, hier; hēr  6.3.-šè
citrō, citrā; 'citrā' < coi hitu/hita- 6.4.-še
citimus *kî-uo; mum
çimu, simo 'demum'
'ad citima, 3a2.-hēr
retro'
keidō 2b1.- 3a2.-hit 
cwyddo, 'icere'
di-gwyddo 3a3.-hitta
'cadō, 'id'
accidō'
keimēx 
keimoi cūnae, 2b1.- 3a3.-hīð,  ete

cūnābula (d)argud hīði 'concubīō' 5.5.-ki-it-
<*are-koito 'ursārium' ta, ki-it-ta-
'somniculu ri
m'
keimos cīmex cíarann  yāmá 6.3.-šemas
'blatta' 'color 'caesius'
obscūr'.
5.3.syāma
ka 'mons
q.'
588
keiros cíar hēr 'uetus'  háriṇī, serъ
'spādix' 3a3.-hārr 'fuluus' hárita 'cānus'
'cānus' 'color q.'
kéiwijos 
keiwis cīuis ceus hīrāt heiwa-  eva sir 'orbus'
'mātrimoni frauja 'cārus' 6.3.-si va
um' 'dominus' 5.3.-saē 'femina';
hī-rāt FiO 'orbus seirys
'nuptiae'; minor' 'uiduus'
geheuer
kekājō cicātrīx  kaca-
'caesariēs;
cicāt.'
kekātrīks 
kekō do·foscaid, 2b1.- scehan skōhsl  skakati,

pl. du· yscogi 'festīnō'; 'malus  sko iti
foscaiget 'agitāre' geschehen spiritus' 'lepora' 6.3.-šókti
<to+upo- 2b3.- accīdō', (Hes.)
'mouētur, diskogella Hengst
cēdit' 'id' 'sementāle
' skihtīg
'timidus';
schicken
'mittō';
gesciht
'historia';
schiht
'dispositiō'
kékuros cicur (-  akura-
uris, -um)
kēlā cella cuile 'cella' Halle  āla
<*kelnā 3a2.-hall
kēlājō cēlō, kaila helim; 2b1.-celu 3a1, a2.- huljan;  araṇá, kolótь
occulō, 'cellam' cuile helan; hulundi 'casa' árman 'instigō'
cella, 'cella', hulis 'cauea'; 'umbrāculu 6.3.-kalù,
color, culīna'; Hülse, hullistr m'; kálti,
clam, cuilche helm, halla 'cortex'; āla(a)
cilium 'tapēte' Halle hilms 'cubiculum'
'cassis'
keldō percellō, claidim 2b1.- holz halts  kolóda

procella, 'fodiō'; claddu 'id' 'lignum' ; 'claudus'  'tabula'
clādēs claideb<cl ; halz 
eddyf; caill cleddyf>gl 'mutilus' 

(caille) adius 3a2.-holt 
'lūcus' 2b3.-claza 'lignum'; 
'id'; kleze healt
'ensis' 'mutilus'
kelgā celg 2b1.-celg 3a2.-hylc  5.4.-kešck 6.5.-
'acūmen' 'cēlō' <ir. 'curua' 'simulō' czošgac´si
e 'rēpō'
kéliknom 
kelmos 3a1, a2.-  árman
helm 'umbrāculu
m'
kelō celer, haltan haldan  kaláyati

celeber<d 'teneō' agō, 'agitātiō' 'reor'
hli 3a2.- 'pāscō'
healdan,
hold
kélodhros 
kēlom cail 3a3.-hali  ará-; 6.9.-kelian
'tragula', 'cuspis' alá- 'tra.'
589
celtair 'cuspis'
kelos colōr hulis(a),  aras- 'flōs
hulst, lactis'
Hülse
'uagīna'
kelots helid  kāly ke

'homō'; 
Held
'hērōs'
3a2.-
helith,
hæle 'id,
id'
kelsō ante-, ex-, coll celicnon holm  cьlnъ

prae-cellō, <kolnos 'cēnāculu 'insula'; 'cacumen' 'cumba'
-ere; collis, 'dux' m' > got. Hügel celo 'frons'
culmen, kelikn 'collis' 6.3.-keliù,
columna 3a2.-hyll, kélti (tr)
hill k la <*ln
kìlti (intr)
kelujō 
kelus céle 2b1.-cilydd  k lias; ub.
'comes' <*- 'id' pl  'iter' keliáuti
yos 6.4.-celš;
celuo^t
kémelom humil, himins  5.5.-
 
Himmel  kammara-
3a2.-  'nebula'
heofon 
kémeros hemera  kamala- emerъ

'bauhinia' 'delphiniu 'helleborus
m, '
6.3.-
aconitum'
kemerai
'eupatoriu
m'
(kí)kōmi catus, cōs cath hār 'cōs'  i āti ( i-
(cōtis) 'doctus' 3a2.- hone 'glarea'; ī-tē),

'id' yáti, part.
3a3.-hein itá-;
'id' 5.3.-saēni-
'cuspis'
kemjō hummen, -  camara- komár
ln 3a2.- 'bos 'culex'
hum grunniens' 6.3.-
kìmstu,
kìmti
'rraucescō'
kemō cuma Camulos  amnītē,
'cūra' 2b1.- 'fatigor' ámati
cumal caffou 'id'
'seruus'
kemos 3a3.-hind  sáma-
'ceruulus'
kenēs cinis  TOK. B
'puluis' kentse
'oxydum'
kenkai cunctor hāhan, hāhan  ankate
<*concitor hangēn, 'pendō' 'cōgitat'
hengēn 'id' 5.5.-ga-an-
3a2.-hōn, ki 'pendit'
hangian,
590
hang
kenklom 3a2.-hōh(-  ka kāla- 6.3.-kenkle
sinu); hēla, 'os, costa' 'rotula'
heel 6.4.-
cinksla 'tnd
rot.'
kenkō 
kenkos ail-cheng hāggo  5.6.- ang kógotь
'rastrum' Haken 'ungula, 6.3.-kénge
3a2.-haca pugnus'
, hook 5.5.-kaga
'dens'
kenō recens ? cinim;  vъ-/na-
<*recen(i)e ciniud, ьn , - ti
nts ? cenél 'incipere';
'genus' konъ
'initium'
kentom centō hadara,  < kanthā
Hadern lat. 'remend
Hadel uestis'
'pannus' 5.3.-
kòtànak
'uestis'
kentrom contus, cinteir 2b1.-cethr handa; handugs  anti ? 6.3.-
percontāri 'calcar' 'acus' hantag 'modus, 'pungō'; 'pax' sīts'pertica'

<gr.; <lat. <lat.; b2, 'acer' pactus'  (minóti-ми
centrum<g b3 <lat. 3a3.- 'mālum; ръ; lat.
r. quoque hannarr pālus' pangō)
'habilis<ac
uminātus'
kepō  ápati TOK B.-
'defigit' kapille
5.5.- 'morbum'
kappilahh-
'furō';
kapilali-
'hostīlis'
keqō cechor  ákr 6.3.-
'palūs' > 'merda' ( akná ), šikù/kti
cechair chagaṇa- 'cacāre'
'merda, 'merda'
lutum'
kerəsrom cerebrum, cern 2b3.-kern hirni<*kerə  'caput' írah
cervīx 'angulus' 'occipitum' sniyom (Hom.), ( īrsnáh)
<*kers-vīk-  5.3.-sarah-

 ;
 srū-, srvā-
'craneus' 'cornū'
 5.4.-sar
'tempus'
 'tumulus'
'cornū' 5.5.-
karawar
kérberos corbaim  árvara- sobolь
'mancillō' 'canis 'uarius' 6.3.-kìrba
inferum' árvarī 'palūs'
'animal
noctis'
kerdhjos 2b1.-cordd hirti, Hirt haírdeis  6.3.-
<dhā (s)kerd ius
'caterua,
familia'
kerdhō 
591
kerdhos 2b1.-cordd herta 'id' haírda  árdha- reda
<dhā 3a2.- 'grex' 'cumulus' 'grex' 'grex';

'caterua, heord, 'cumulō' 5.3.- rediti
familia' herd 'id' sar°đa- 'ordinō'
'indolēs' 6.9.-
kērdan
'temp.'
kerdos cerd 'ars' cerdd 'ars, 
cantus' 'prouectus'
kerkō cracentēs, 3a3.-horr  kr yati ; krsati,-
gracilis<*kr <*hurha kr á- nouti 'tollō'
kilis 'flacciditās' 'flaccus' 6.3.-karšéti
5.3.- 'sēnēscō'
kərəsa- 6.4.-nuo-
kārst 'id'
kerkos cerc/cearc  krakara-,
krkaṇa-
kernos cern 2b1.-cern  carvati
'angulus' 'mandibula 'mandō' renovítьc
' ь
2b3.-kern 'genuīnus
d.'
6.3.-
ceruok(s)li
s 'id'
kernós Hornung  5.4.-sa n serën
'februārius 6.3.-serstu
m.' laiks
3a3.-hjarn 'tempus
niuālis'
kerom carrach ? hār; hursti  kapucchal sьrstь
'grammōsu 'cristas' a- 'c. post' 'lāna'
s' 3a2.-hær , 6.3.-šer s
hair 'iuba'
kersnā 
kersō corr 2b1.-corr  5.5.-karš-,
'atrophiātu 'atrophiātu 'tonsūra' karšiya-

s' s' 
'intonsus'
kers cervīx 2b3.-kern hirni<*kerə  'caput' írah
<*kers-vīk- 'occipitum' sniyom (Hom.), ( īrsnáh)
; cerebrum 'cerebrum'  5.3.-sarah-

<*-srom  ; srū-,
 srvā-
'craneus' 'cornū'
 5.4.-sar
'tempus'
 'tumulus'
'cornū' 5.5.-harsar
(r/n) h?
karawar
'cornū'
kerwos ceruus 2b1.-carw hiruz  5.5.- srъna;
2b2.- F karawar koróva
carow Hom  <*krH2w- 'bōs'
2b3.-karo 'cornū' 6.3.-
sirnas;kárv
e 'id'
kesdō cēdō cet  'uia' ā-sad-
'permissiō' 'assequor'
airchissec 5.3.-siiazd,
ht 'gratia, syazd,
indulgentia sizd;
592
' pazdayeiti
'fugat'
kēsmi castus, cáin 'lex,  āsti
castigō regulātiō' 'scindō' 'secat,
imperat';
āstár-
'castigātor'
5.5.- sāsti
'docet'
5.4.-
sastem
'minor'
sast
'minātiō'
kesnus cainnenn 2b1.-  esnók,
<*kasniina cennin чеснок
a 2b2.-kenin 'porrus'
2b3.-
kignenn
kesō cír<kēsrā 3a3.-  5.5.- ešo,
'pecten' haddr<*ko <*késkeso kis(ai)-. esati
stos m 'stuppa', 'pectō' 'pectō,

'caesariēs' 'cultus abrādō'
comae' 6.3.-kasà
'restis'
kētjā casa heþjo  5.3.-kata kotь ь
<orīgō? 'domus' 'cauerna,
5.6.-kad 'et nīdus'
id'
keubō cubitum; FAL.-cupa 2b1.-gogof huf, Hüfte hups 'coxa'  kubra-
cubō -āre; 'cubat' 'specus' 'id'; 'taba' 'specus'

cumbō - SAB.- 2b3.- 3a2.-hype 'cubitus' kakubhá-
ere cumba kougoñ 'id' 'coxa'; 'cacumen'
'lectica' <upokubā hoop
'anus'
keudhō cūdō codal schōde skauda-  kuhara

'pelleus 'pellis' 'uagīna' raip  'specus'
cassis' 3a2.- 'Shuhriem  kuhaka
hydan en, uitta 'latebrae' 'fallax'
'cēlō' calcei' kuhū 'lūna
3a3.- noua'
skauð 5.3.-xaōda
'uagīna' 'cassis'
5.4.-
suzanem
'mergō' *-
dhs-
keukō cúar hoger, hauhs  kucáti, kúka
'curuus' Höcker 'altus'; kuñcatē 'pugnus';
<*kukro- 'gibba' hiuhma 'flectitur'; ú ati
Hûgel 'cumulus'; kuca 'curuor';
'tumulus', hūhjan 'sinus' kú a
hōh, hoch 'cumulō' kuñcikā 'cumulus'
'altus' 'clāuis' 6.3.-
3a2.-hēah, 5.6.-kō ka kas
hight 'curuus' tumor'
keulom 3a2.-   5.4.-soil

hwylca  'cauitās'
'suppurātiō  <*keulo-
' 
(Hes)
keusō hūren  5.5.-
<*hūrjan kussaniya-
593
3a2.-
hyrian,
hire
kēwējō cēveō  po-kyva-jo
'nutō'
khákhatno cachinnnu kachazzen  kákhati chochotati
s s; 'rideō'; 'rideō' 'ridet' 'ridēre'
cachinnō 3a2.- 5.3.- 6.3.-kiknóti
ceahhetta xaxank 'id'
n 5.5.-
hahhars
khamos hāmus  chomotъ
'tortus' 'monīle
(equī)'
khéderos hedera  khadirá

'acacia
catechu'
kighrós 3a2.-  īghrá- sigátь,
hīgian, hie 'celer' signútь
'festīnāre' 'saliō' sig
'piscis q.,
cf. salmō'
kikēr cicer  5.4.-sisern 6.3.-keke

(H)


kīkeumi 
kikjā hehara,  kiki-,

Häher kikidīví-
3a2.-
higora,
higore
kiklēskō 
kiklós 3a3.-hēla  i ira- slana
<*hiḫhlōn- 5.3.- 'pruina'
'pruina' sarəta- 6.3.-š lù, -
3a5.-hal 5.4.-sard lti 'gelō';
'solum gel.' šáltas 'f.',
šalnà 'pr.'
kíkōnjā cicōnia , huon, hana  kánja,
PREN.- Huhn kanjúk
cōnea 'gallus'; 'miluus'
Henne
'gallīna'
kīkus cích 'tetta' 2b1.-cig  'uis'
'carō'
2b2.-chic
2b3.-kik
kina cen (- hina, hin hin 'ueni 
alpande) 'procul' hunc'
'cis-
(alpīnus);
sine'
kingō cingō, 1b2.-  kañcaté kinka , -ýti
cancellus shihitu 'crates' 'iungit' 'equum
iungō'
kintos cétne Cintugnāto hintana, hindana 
'priimus' s hintar 'retroo',
'primogenit 3a2.- hindar,
us' hindan hindumists
2b1.- 3a3.-
kyntaf 'id' handan
594
'hinc'
kippos cippus,  p(h)a
scīpiō 'cauda,
pēnis'
kirknos 
kirkos circus, 1b2.-  k kā( a-)

circum, kurclasiu  'collii
circā 'circulāriō  artus'?
mēnsi'
kiskā 3a5.-hijse,  ki ku- 6.3.-kiškà
hijs 'lacertus' 'poples'
'poplites' 6.4.-cis-ka
'coxa,
lumbus'
kistā cista, cess 
cisterna 'contortus'
kíteros citer(ius); hitumum, 
citimus hitamun
'demum'
kitōd citō hietz(t), 
jetzt 'nunc'
hiu-tu
'hodie'
kitrōd citrō; citra 3a2.-hider; hidrē 
hither
kiwos céo (cīach) 3a2.-hiew, hiwi  yā-vá- sivъ 'gris'
<*kiwoks hue 'speciēs' 'obscūrus' 6.3.-šývas
'nebula' 3a3.-hy 5.3.- 'pallidus'
'color syāva-
pellis' `'ater'
kjājō  5.5.-kinae,
 *sē- ki-na-iz-zi
? 'cernō'
kjējō cieō, ciō, heizan, haitan   cyávatē;

citō, heissen 'id' 'nominor'  cyuti-
cunctus<k 3a2.-hātan 'agitō' 5.3.-
ómkito, 'id' <*kye-w š(y)avaite
sollicitus 3a3.-heita 5.4.- u
'profectiō'
klādis clādēs coll; 2b1.-coll hiltia, hilta  kladivo
cellach 2b3.-koll 'pugna' 'malleus'
'bellum" 3a2.-hild
'id'
kladjos 
klagjō 
klāmājō clāmō, āre hlamōn  krándati
'strepō' 'strepit'
3a2.-
(h)limmen
'id'
klambós 3a2.-  6.3.-
laemp(i)- klumbas
halt 'paralyticu
'claudus';li s'
mp
'claudic'
klāmi hladan, afhlaþan  klad ,
laden 'ingrauō, klasti
'grauō' exaggerō' 6.3.-klóju,
3a2.- klóti
hladan, 'sternō';
595
load 'id' ù klodas
3a3.-hlaða 'stragulum'
6.4.-kla^ju,
kla^t 'id'
klamrós clam/clam 2b1-b2.-  klāmati
h claf 'aeger' 'dēbilis' 'languet'
'leprōsus' 2b3.-claff
klāros clár 2b1.-clawr  'et
2b3.-kleur portiō'
klārós clārus 
klāstis classis 
klaudos claudus coll<koldo 2b1.-coll halts 
s 2b2.-collet
'perditus' 2b3.-koll
klawdō claudō sliozan, 
slūten,
schlieBen
klawos 
klāws clāuis cló (cloi) 2b3.-clou sluzzil  klju ь

'clāuus' 'ferrement' Schlüssel 6.3.-kliūvù,
SchloB kliūti
'castellum' 'serere'
3a2.-slutil
klawstós 
kḷdis callis caill 'silua' 2b1.-celli holz 'et  CEC et
Caledonia 'lūcus' lignum' al..-klanec
2b2.-kelli 3a2, a3.- -ln-
holt 'id' 'angiportus
'
kḷdos clādēs caill 'lūcus' 2b1.-celli holz 'et  klada,
<*kaldī 2b2.-kelli silua' 'rāmus' koloda,
'nemus' 3a2, a3.- колод ,'rā
holt 'id' mus'
kleinos Lehne,  klënъ
Lein-baum MAK.- 6.3.-klevas

3a2.-hlyn 
kleitis cliath 'et 3a2, 3a2.-  6.3.-
 
cratis' lid 'cilium' pasklieti
3a3.-led, 'pandō'
lid 'id'
kleitrom clītellae clithar (h)leitara, hleiþra cf. 
'refugium' leiter 'id' 'tentorium' 'scāla'
3a2.-
hlæd(d)er
'scāla'
kḷējō caleō 2b1.-clyd  arád- 6.3.-šilù,
<kḷtó 'autumnus' šìlti
'calidus' LID.- 'incalescer
Sardis e';šiltas
'annus'
kḷējō calō, -āre; 2b2.- cailech caliācī 'id' hlōwan  u ā-kala- kólokolъ

concilium, karitu, 'gallus' 2b1.- 'rugīre,  'gallus' 'campāna'
nomenclāt karetu, ceiliog boāre'; hell 'inuocō' 5.5.-ša-ra-
 6.3.-kalbà
or, classis carsitu 2b2.- 'clārus'; a kal-li-iš- 'lingua'
`calato' chelioc Hall 'echo' ta 6.4.-kaluot
*kalētōd 'appellāuit' 'garriō'
klepō clepō  cluain hlefan hlifan  ToB.- 6.9.-
'cleperit'; 
<*klopni  kälypi- auklipts
niir kulupu 'dolum'  'occultus'
(ø) 
'magister 'fūr'
596
fūrum'
kleumi clueō, Kluvatiis ro· 2b1.-  ṇ ti <*kḷ- 6.4.-
inclitus, 'Clovatius' cluinethar clywaf, pf. 'audīuīi'; neu, pf. sludinat

gloria 1b2.- 'audit' cigleu  ep. u rāva; 'praeconār
Kluviier <*kluni- 2b2.-  karṇa- e'
'Cluvii' /*klunu-, ro clewaf 'laudō' 'auris'
·cuala 2b3.-
<*kuklowa kleuout
'audīuī' 'audiō'
kleumṇ hliuma  5.3.-
sraōman
kléumṇtom hliumunt  rōmata-
kleusō cluas, clūst hlosēn  r ati; 6.3.-
clúas 'audītus' 3a2.- rú ti- klausýti
'auris' hlystan, 'indulgenti 'audiō'
<kloustā listen 'au.' a'
3a3.-hlust 5.3.-
'audītus' sraoša-
'audiitus'
kleustis 
kleutis  5.3.-srūti-
kleutō hliozan hlauts  k t
3a2.- 'distribūtiō, 'adipiscor'
hlēotan heredentia' k tas
3a3.-hljōta 'fātum'
kleutrom hliodar  rōtra-
'cantus' 'auris'
3a2.- 5.3.-
hlēodhor sraoqra-
'cantiō'
klewō cluō (arc.) 2b1.-clir hlūt(t)ar, hlūtrs  slezá

'clārus' lauter 'id' 'clārus 'unda' 'lacrimae'
<*klū-ro-s 3a2.- <*kel
hlūt(t)or 6.3.-šlúoti
3a3.-hlér 'uerrere'
'mare'
klewos clú (clóe, F) rávas slovo
clue)
klínāmi 
klisrós 2b1.-  slava
claear 6.3.-šlovë
'abnuens'
2b2.-
clo(u)r
'gentilis'
2b3.-
klouar
kḷjō culter; sce(i)llec 2b1.-hollt halts  kalā 'pars'; koljo klati

calamitās 'rupēs' 'scisiō' 'claudus' 'fodiō' klpate 6.3.-kalù
incolumis 2b2.-felza 'decet' 'quatiō'
2b3.-
faouta
kḷneumi 
klṇgō clangō clocc 2b1.-cloch lahhēn, hlahjan  klegъtati,
'campāna' 'campāna' lachen 'rideō' kliknuti
'rideō' 6.3.-klagéti
3a3.- 6.4.-
hlakka kl ga^t
kloiwos clīuus, 1b2.- clé 'laiuus'; 2b1.-cledd (h)linēn hlei-duma  ráyati slojь
clīnō, kletram fo-cla 2b3.-kleiz 'clīnō' 'laeuus' 'clīnō'  'sustinet' 'iacimentu
acclīnis, 'feretrum, 'boreae'; hlēo hlaiw 5.3.-srita- m' 6.3.-
597
cliēns lecticam' kloín 'sepulcrum 'sepulcrum 'sustentus' šliejù, šli ti
<*kloinos ' '; hlaine 6.4.-sleju,
'arduus' 'collium' slìet
klopnis cluain  6.3.-
šlampù,
šlapti
'madēscō'
6.4.-slap t
'id'
klounis clūnis 2v1.-clùn 3a3.-  rōni-s 6.3.-
hlaunr (div.) 5.3.- shlaunìs
sraonish
kḷpros calpar<āli cilornn 2b1.- 

<gr. 'urceus' celwrn 'urna'
'situlus'
2b3.-
celorn
kḷtos 2b1.-clyd  6.3.-šiltas
klūtós inclutus, cloth 2b1.-clod hlūt, laut  rutá-
inclitus 'gloria, 'laus' <*klūtós 5.3.-srūta-
fāma' 'intonans' 5.4.-lu
3a2.-hlūd
'strepitōsu
s'
kluwējō clueō,  5.3.-sruiiē 6.4.-sluvêt
inclitus
kḷwijō calumnia, huolen hōlōn, 
calvor, 'fallō' afhōlōn 'incantō';

calviō, 3a2.- 'laudātor'
cavillor, hōlian
kmāmi cuma 2b3.-  amnītē,

'cūra' caffou 'id ámati,
cumal amyati
'ancilla' 'laborō'
k ertos cammarus Hummer  kama ha-
<gr. 'camm.' 'testūdō'
k ros camur  kmárati
'tectus' 'aduncus

'boueda' est'
5.3.-
kamarā
'cinctus'
k ti  ? 'et'
k tom centum cét/céad 2b1.-cant hundert hund, pl.  atám sъto
2b2.-cans 3a2.-hund- hunda 5.3.-sətem 6.3.-simtas
2b3.-cans rað (got.
raÞian
'computō'
knakos canicae canach ? caneco- honang,  kāñcana-
'herba sedlon Honig 4.3.- 'aurum,

palūdis' 'aureum 'melle' aureum'
solium' ? 3a2.-
hunig,
honey
kṇjós recens cain Cintu- hintana, hindumists  kani hana- ьn , -
'pulcher'; gnatus hintar 'postrēmus 'nouus' 'iuuenissim eti
cinim 2b1.-cein 3a2.- ' us'; kanīna 'incipiō'
'scateō' 'pulcher'; hindan 'iuuenis, ;konъ
cano/a cenau 3a3.- pulcher' 'initium';
'catulus' 'catulus' handan 5.4.-skund c do
<*kenǝuō; cynt 'prius' 'hinc' <*skentā 'puer';
cét 2b2.-kyns 'catulus' š enók
598
'prīmus' 'id' 'catulus'
2b3.-quen;
kent 'id'
knokos cnocc/cno 2b1.- genicke, 
c 'collis' cnwch Genick
'artus' 3a2.-nook
2b3.- 'angulus'
cnoch 3a6.-
hnakki
'collus'
knouks 
kṇsējō censeō censamur alb. thom  a sati setъ
'censētor', 'dīcō' 'dēcantat' 'inquit'
censaum *kēnsmi amsáyati
'censēre' 'proclamat'
; ámsa-
'uōtum';
5.3.- sah-
'pronuntiār
e'
kṇst r censor keenzstur,  a star-
kenzsur
knuwā nux cnú (cnó) 2b1.- (h)nuz , 
<*knus cneuen nuss
(knuwos) 2b3.- 3a2.-
knoen hnutu, nut
kobom cob Vercobius, 3a2.-  kobь
'uictoria' etc gehæp 'fortūna,
'adaequātu augurium'
s'; heppen
'beātus';
happen,
happy
kodējō  kadrú- ka y,
'cedrus' 'fuluus' kadit;
kadamba- accodis
'nauc. 'camīnus'
cadamba' kadegis
ALB.-kem 'iuniperus'
6.3.-
kadag s
'id'
koilús cél (a 2b1.-coilou 3a3.-heill hails  celъ
britonnicō) 'auspic.' 'salus' 'sānus' 'sānus'
2b2.-coel celjo, celiti
'harusp.' 'sānō'
2b3.- 6.3.-kails
chuillioc
kóilutāts 
koimā 
koimos cóim 2b1.-cu heim haims  kaimas
2b2.-cuf 'domus' 'pagus' 'concubō' 'pagus';
2b3.-cum 3a2.-hām, semьja
(nominib.) home 'familia'
3a3.-heimr 6.4.-sàime
'mundus' 'familia'
koinos  5.4.-khot ceno, сено

(Hsq) 6.3.- i nas
koinós cf. cīuis  cf. iva-
'commūnis' 'propitius'
5.5.-kaina-
599
'familiāris'
koisā cūra, arc. 1b2.- ushaista 
coirauit kuratu 'obligātoriu
PAL. 'curato' m'
coisatens
'cūrāuērun
t'
koitús heit haidus  ketu
'modus' 'modus, 'clāritās,
3a2.-hād, ars' forma,
haēd, intellectus';
heed 'id' ceta,
cetana
'signum'
koksā coxa coss 'pēs, 2b1.-cesail hahsa,  kák ā f., ToB.-
crūs'; <lat axilla hāhsina kak a- 'et kakse
achlais, 'cauitās latebra, 'lumbī'
ascall <lat. poplitea' recessus'
axilla 5.3.-kaša
'axilla'
koksednīks coxendīx  ToA
kap añi,
ToB
kektseñe
'corpus'
kolignos cuilén 2b1.-  A B.- 6.3.-kãl ,

'catulus' colwyn  këlüsh kale 'canis
2b2.-coloin 'catulus' femina'
2b3.-kolen
koljō 3a5.-helen  kl jь, klejь
<kolyā 'glūs'
'glūs' 6.3.-klejaĩ
'id'
kolmṇ 
kolmos culmus giolcach 2b1.- halm  kaláma- slama
'phragmitē calamenno 'iuncus' 6.2.-
s austrālis' u 2b2.- soloma
cala 6.4.-salms
'palea'
2b3.-
colouenn
kolnis collis coll 'caput, hull hallus  kū a-m 6.3.-kalnas
<*kḷnis / dux' 3a2.-hyll, 'rupēs'  ' <kḷlt 'mons',
*kolnis / <*kolnos hill 'prominenti kalnelis
etiam 3a3.-hvall, a, 'collis';
kolHwi-? hallr cumulus, kalvà
occipitium'
kolnom cuilenn 2b1.-celyn hulis,  ka ambá klasъ
'ilex uel 'id' Hulst, 'tarātrum',
echium 2b2.-kelin Hallig kólos
ūlgāre' 'id' 'quercus 'palea,
2b3.- ilex' calamus'
quelenn 3a2.-.
'id' hole(g)n,
holly,
holm-oak
kolnos coll, goll  kāṇá-

'luscus,  (Hes.) 'forātus,
caecus' unioculis'
kolsos collum coll 'caput' Hals hals 
3a2.-heals 'axis'
kólumbhos 
600
kom cum, cét- 2b1.- ga-  5.5.-katta 
contra, cant/gan (- <*kmta
controuers mt-) 2b2.-
ia cans/gans
2b3.-gant
kómāglom coāgulum  samāja-
'et
societās'
kómjougos coniux cuing 2b1.-kyn-  со з
'iugum' iwng
komjugs 
kómmoinis commūnis, múínikad commaín:' CELTIB.- gimeini, gamains 
comoinem 'commūni' dōnum comaiam ? gemein
obligātum' (Cab. 3a2.-
Fraguas) gemæne
kommoinit 
āts
komnom comono samain, samonios  samana-
'comitia' samhain 'nōmen <*sem+no
1b2.- ?? mensis'
kumne 'in 'comitium 'aestiuālis'
com.'; uel fīnis (cf.
kumnahkle aetatis' gimonios)
'in uel
conuentū' 'comitiālis'
kómnōmṇ 
kómopjom 
kōmos 
kómplēnos complētus comlán,  sampūrṇa
conlán
kómsq tos 3a3.-  sa -skar-;
skars(a) 'prodigium' ā- carya-
'gigas'; 'singulāris'
skyrse
'spectrum'
kómtḷtis 
komtrōd 
kómwoirjo 
m
kómwoistis cubus  совесть

<wid+tu,
2a3.-
cogais
kōnājai cōnor 2b1.- 
digon(i) 'diligenter
'faciō, agere';

possum'; 'ancilla'
digon,
gogawn
'satis'
konkejō hungar, hūhrus  kā k ati 6.3.-keñkti

hunger 'id" 'famēs' (Hes) 'poscit' 'noceō'
3a2.-  kákatē kankà
hungor/er  (Hom) 'sitit' 'damnum'
'id'
konkhā cong(u)ius  a khá- 6.4.-sence

<graec. (z-?)
kōnos 3a2.-hān  āṇa- 'cōs'
'miliārium'; 5.3.-saēni-
hone 'cōs' 'cuspis'
3a3.-hein 5.4.-san
601
'cōs' 'cōs'
kophos huof, Huf  aphá- kopyto
3a2.-hōf, 5.3.-safa
hoof
kopnos cuan 3a3.-hofn 
kóqros 
korbhis corbis carbat Carpentu  kórob,
'carpentum m, коро
, Carbantia 'cista'
mandibula Karbantori 6.3.-
(sic)' gon karbas
koris carius  корь

gl.tinea;  'cimex' 'aphis'
rum. cariu
korjom 
korjos cuire Tri-, Petru- heri, Heer harjis  5.6.-kāra- 6.3.-
'copiae, corii 3a2.-here 'dux' kãrias;
plēbēs' 2b1.-cordd herr; kãras
'tribus', pl. herjann 'bellum'
corddau (koir)
<*koriowes
korkos corcach horg  kalka-
'immundus 'merda'
' <*k kwo-
kormnos haran,  6.3.-
Harn šármas
'urīna' 6.4.-sãrms
kormōn ET OM- harmo  6.3.-
carmún šarmuõ,
šermuõ
6.4.-
sermulis
kormos har(a)m,  5.3.-fšar° sramъ
Harm ma- 'pudor' 'pudor'
3a2.- 5.6.-šarm
hearm, 'id'
harm
kornīks cornīx,  āri-,
sārikā
'auis q.'
kornos cornus  eremucha

6.3.-Kirnis
deus
cerasōrum'
;
šermùkšle
'sorbus'
k rukos corium curach 2b1.- harra 
'pellis corwg 'saccus" 'corii
scaphus' 3a3.-horr saccus'
'uestis
linea'
korwos coruus, crú 3a3.-skryla  āri-, soroka
cornīx 'clamō' sārikā 6.3.-kriunù
'auis q.' 'grunniō'
kósolos corilus coll 2b1.-coll- hasal 
en
2b2.-col-
widen
2b3.-limn-
collin 'tilia'
602
kostā costa  kôst 'costa' kostь
? 'ossum'
koubos hups 'coxa' 
koupā cūpa 3a2.-hyf  kūpa- 6.7.-kep

'exāmen' (Hes) 'specus' 'uulua'
3a3.-hūfr  5.5.- <*kъpъ
'carīna'  huppar !

'fauum'
koupnā cúan Haufen;  5.3.-kaofa- kupъ,
hof 'atrium' 'gibba' kuprъ
3a2.-heap; 5.6.-kaufa- 'coxis'
hof 'mons' 6.3.-
'templum' A B.-kjipī ka pas
6.4.-
kupenis
'floccus
niuis'
koutā 
kowos cauus, cúa 2b1.-cyw  ALB.-thelë
cauea, 'cauus' 'pullus' <F 'profundus'
cauerna cúass 2b3.-keo 'cauus'
'cauerna' 'specus'
kow cauerna  5.3.-sūra- 6.4.-šava
'cauitās'; 'lacūna' 'cauitās in

'antrum, 5.4.-sor arbore'
carcer' 'ōrificium'
5.6.-sūrāx
'id'
krāmi (h)ruoren,  rīṇāti;
rühren  (i rāyati
'agitō' schwa 'coquit'
3a2.-hrōr, secundum
rear )

'sēmicoctu
s'
krasi cras  va
<*kwrasi 5.3.-sūrəm
'māne'
krāsrōn crābrō 2b1.- hurnūz,  sъrъšenь
creyryn hornaz 6.3.-
3a2.- šìršuonas
hyrnet(u) 6.4.-sirsis
krātis crātis , ceirtle hurd, haúrds  krṇátti krutítь

crātēs 'glēba'; Hürde 'forēs'  'net' 'torqueō'
dentatae, cert 'parua 'porticulus'  ka a- 6.3.-
crātiō, rēs' 3a2.-hurth, 'cista'; 'textus' krañtas
cartilāgo hyrd  'arduum
'gemma'
litus'
kratsos crassus  krtsná- rьstvъ
'compleetu 'firmus'
s'
k d n 
k dhōn 
k di / cor (pl. cride, 2b1.- herza haírto  h dayam, srьdь,

k djom corda) croidhe, craidd 3a2.- (hairtins)  hārdi srъdьce,
<*kord/*k croí 'centre' heorte <kerdōn (Hom.) 5.3.- серд е
d <*kradjo- 2b2.-cres, zərədaēm <*sьrdьko
<*k djo- creys 5.4.-sirt 6.3.-širdìs
2b3.-kreiz, <*kērd-
kreis (instr. srti-
w)
603
5.5.-
kir/kardi-/
karta- /ka-
ra-az
5.6.-dil
k dijai  5.4.-sart- serdít'cja
num ALB.-
5.5.- zëmërone
kartimmiya m 'īra'
tt 'īra'
k djō cardō ceird 2b1.- Scherz  kūrdati 6.3.-

'gradus'; cerddaf 'id' 'burlesca' 'saltat' pakìrsti
'tripudiātiō'
fo-cerdaim go-gerdd 3a2.-  'obdormisc
'iaciō' 'burlesca' heorr(a) 'rāmus' or'
2b3.- 'id'
credam 3a3.-hjarri
'uadō' 'cardō'
k dsus cris(s) 2b1.-crys,  éres,
'capitium' gwregys черес,
2a3.-crios 2b2.-kreis, через
fochrus/as grugis *kertso-
'gremium' 2b3.-krez, 'capitium'
gouriz
kréddhēmi crēdō cretim  rad-
(perf. daddhāmi
crēdidī) raddhā
'fidēs'
kreidhrom crībrum criathar 2b1.-cruitr 3a2.- 
2b2.- hridder,
croider/kro hriddel
dar
2b3.-
croezr/kro
uer
kreimṇ 
kreitsō crīsō, -āre cressaim - 2b1.- (h)rīdōn;  6.3.-
st-; (ys)gryd, scrītan, skrie iù,
crith 'id' schreiten skri sti
'tremor, 2b3.-skrija 'uadō' 'torqueō'
febris' 'tremō' 3a2.- 6.4.-
hrissan; skritulis
hrīþ 'rota'
'tempestās
'
krekō hregil  kresátь

'uestis'  'ignem qt.'
3a2.- 'textus'; 6.3.-krekls
hrægl, rail  'camisia'
'id'; hrēol, 'uellera'
reel
'bobīna'
kremājō cremō, 1b2.- coirm korma, herd haúri  kū ayāti, kurjo, kuriti
carbō (!); krematra 'ceruisia' kourmi 'furnus' 'carbō' kuṇ ate 'fūmō'
cremōr, 2b1.-cwrwf 3a2.-herth karam- 6.3.-kuriù,
cremia 2b2.-coref, b(h)á- kùrti
coruf 'ceruisia' 'calefaciō'
krēmi Cerēs; kerri cf. coirm, hirso/i  ārīra korm,
Cerus 'Cererī' cuirm Hirse 'satisfactiō' 'corpus' корм
manus; 'ceruisia' 'sorgum' ;  5.4.-serem 'cibus'
procērus; 'exolētus'; creō; 6.3.-šeriù,

crēber<krē 'fīlius' serim šérti 'alō'
dhros; 'nāscor'; (cf. esp.
604
creō, ser 'prolēs' crear/criar)
crēscō 5.5.-
kar(a)š
'grānum'
kremom 
krémusom crim 'alius' craf 'alius' 3a2.-  6.3.-
hramse 'caepa' kermùse(s
'sil. a'. ) 'a.'
krenghos 1b2.- hring;  kr gъ
ingatro, Runge 'circulus';
krenkatru 'pālus' krogъ,
m, krikatru 3a2.-hring; krugъ
`cinctum' hrung 'rotundus'
krenktis crécht 2b1.-craith  6.3.-
'uulnus' 'cicātrix' krenkù
2b3.- 'coagulor'
creithi
'ulcera'
krépāmi crepō, hraban,  k patē kropotátь
crepundia Rabe 'lamentor'; 'grunniō'
'coruus' krpā 6.3.-krēpēt
3a2.-hræfn 'misericord 'maculor'
'id' ia'
5.6.-särfāk
'strepitus'
krepō crip, crib rapp 
'rapidus' 'rapidus'
3a3.-hrapa
krepús dēcrepitus crim 2b1.-cryf  krepъ
<*-krep- <*krpmo- 2b3.-kreñv
eto- 'celer'
krēqā crích 2b1.-crib ragen  krókva
'cacumen' 'ascendō' 'lapides 'fulcrum,
3a2.ofer- mūrī' tegnum'
hrægan 6.3.-krãke
'superō' 'baculus'
krēskō 
krētā crēta cré 2b1.-pridd 
2b2.-
pry/prī
2b3.-pri
kretō corium; herdo  k ntati rъtu,
scortum, 'uellus' ; 'scindit', resti;
cortex; skrindan k tā rъta
curtus 'findor' 'scisūra' 'scisūra
<*krtó/kwrt 3a2.- 5.5.- 6.3.-kertù
ó? herðan kariya- kirsti
'testiculī' 'tegō'; 'tundō'
kartāi- 6.4.-c rtu,
'scindere' cìrst 'id'
kreugō Gerücht hrukjan  kro a -*k- 6.3.-kra kti
'rumor' 'canō - 'clamor' 'uocātiō' 'cn. c.'
coruī'
kreuks crux crūach 2b1;-crug (h)rukki  6.3.-
'cacumen' 'cippus, ücken' kriáuklas
tumulus', 'tergum' 'costa'
2b2,3.- 3a2.-hrycg 6.4.-
cruc 'id'; rick kruknet
'tumulus' 'crucitus
sedeere'
kreumi cráu, cró 2b1.-craw 3a3.-  kryti 'tegō';
'stabulum, 'id' hreysi, krovъ 'tc'
605
casa' 2b2.-crow hraun 6.3.-kráuti
'cumulus' 'cumulō'
kreupō crupellarii riob  круп
'gladiatore 'leprōsus' ; 'grānum'
s' ruf 6.3.-
Mons 'pustula'; kraupù-
graupios gerob>gro 'rudis'
2b1.- b 6.4.-
crawen 3a2.-hrēof kra pis
<*kreuhan 'id.' 'scabiēs'
ā 'crusta' TOK A
2b3.- kärpi, B
krevenn kärpiye
'id' 'rudis'
kreutō rütten,  6.3.-krut ,
rütteln krudeti
3a2.- (pas.)
rudder/le
'cōlu'
hrēaðemū
s 'strix';
hrēod
'phragmite
s'
3a3.-
hraustr
'subitu'
krēwō (h)riuwan  karunā sъ-krušiti
'affligere' 'quatiō' 'piētās' 'rumpere'
bereuen (aor. pas. 6.3.-krušù,

'lamentor' krùšti
)
3a2.- 'fligō'
hrēowan,
reu
krigā 2b1.-cre, 3a3.-hrīka,  skrъgati
dychre hrikta 'rictus' 'ringor'

'ringor';skrī (Hes.)
ka 'clamō'
3a2.-scrīc
'interfector'
krinō crinō 2b1.-gwa-  krinu,
gr 'separō' krojú,
2b3.- krojítь,
gourner krinuti;
'cribrum' krajь
'margō'
kripsnis crīnis; ALB-krife; iprā
crista krip 'barbae'
<*kripstā 'uellus' 5.3.-srifā
'plūma'
kripsos crispus Crix(s)us Rispe 
2b1.-crych 'pāniculum
2b3.-crech ; fascis'
kripstā 
kristājō cressaim rīsta af-, us-  6.9.-craysi
'fascis' hrisjan 'calamus'
3a2.-
hrissan
kritis 
k jēs 
k klos 
k nāmi cariēs, ar-a-chrin  rṇāti
606
cariōsus, 'decadit' , 'ruinō' 'rumpit,
carius praet. do·  'lētum' frangit'
cer aor.
a arīt
5.3.-
asarəta
'intactus'
k nos crín  irṇa-
'uiētus'
k nu cornū congna(e) , horn haúrn  ga-
<*korngniy  RUN.- 'cammarus <*k -n-go-
o-? 'salpinx' horna '; 
2b1.-carn <kerH2-s
'manubriu
m'
2b2.-ewin-
carn
2b3.-karn
krōbhtus crábud creddyf,  shrambhat
crefydd e 'fīdō'
krokijō crociō; 1b2.- crāin  kara a- kerekoríty;
corūs, curnāco (crāna) 'coruus'; 'coruus' krъknoti

cornīx 'cornicem' 'porcus'  'clamō'
kroknos 1a1.- crocann 1b1.-croen  kruzno
crocina 'pellis' 'pellis' 'mastruca'
'mastruca' croinoc
'rubeta'
krotjājō crothaim hrad, hrat  kre iù,
'uelox'; kresti; -
redan ata /-ýti;
'cernō'; kretù/éti
retten 6.4.krèst
'liberō'
3a2.-rather
'potius'
krous crūs  5.4.-srun-
(crūris) k (pl).
(srvanc,
sruni-c)
<krūsni
krowos cráu, cró 2b1.-craw  krovъ,
'stabulum, 'id' кровъ
casa' 2b2.-crow 'tectus'
k pjos carpisculu cairem 2b1.-crydd  krъpa
m 'sūtor' 2b2.- 'textūra,
<*karpimo chereor calceus'
n- 2b3.-kere, 6.3.-kùrp
kereour 6.4.- kurpe
k pos corpus crī <kərpes (h)reef   krpā

3a2.-hrif 'forma'
(diaphr.), 5.3.-
midriff kərəfš,
kəhrpəm
'forma,
corpus'
k sējō car(r)ō, scharren  ka ati korósta
carreō 'rādō'; 'terit' 'mola'
carduus<c harsch 6.3.-karšiù,
arridus 'raucus' karšti
'pectinō,
cardō'
6.4.-
607
kāršu,kārst
'id'
k snos 3a2.-  kr ṇá- rьnъ,

heard- (Hes.) erenъ
hara, 6.3.-kéršas
heardra- 'uirgātu.';
'id' kiršl s
3a3.-harr thymallus'
'thymallus'
k sō currō car 'currus' carros hurren 

'currus' 'festīnō' 'succursor'
3a2.-horse
'equus'
k stus 
k sus currus carr 2b1.-car 3a2.-hors 
1a1.- 2b3.-karr
carrus
krustā crusta (h)roso,  5.5.- *krъxā,
(h)rosa 'frigus'; kursa/i- *krъšītī

'gelu,  'gelu' 'pellis' 6.3.-krušà
crusta' TOK.-A 'grandō'
3a2.-hruse kro ä
'solum' (acc.sg.),
B kro e
'frigidus'
krūtis crott, cruit 2b1.-crwth  6.3.-krūtìs
'harpa, 'uiola, 'sinus'
fidēs, gibba' 6.4.-krùts
gibba' 'id et collis'
kruwós cruor crú 2b1.-creu hrō  kravíh krьvъ
2b2.-crow 'carō' 'carō 6.3.-
crūda' kra jas
5.3.-xrū-
k wos curuus; cor 2b1.-cor-  skarna- sъ-krъ iti

cortīna; 'circulus'; wynt,  'rotundus'; 'compendi
corōna cruind crwnn 'id' karū-kara- ō'
<gr.? 'rotundus' 2b3.-cor- 'columna
uent 'turbo' uertebrālis'
cron 'id'
ksentis sentis; 
sentus 'scarificō'
kserós serescō, serb serawēn,  k ará-
serēnus 'amarus' serben  'et 'dēfluus'
'languere, arida terra' k ārá-
marcere', 'acer'
ksnujō nouacula; cír besnoten  k ṇāuti cf. ešo,
saucius 'pecten' 'pauper' <*ksesō, 'terit' esati

*ksowkjo-? <*kēs-rā 3a2.- <*ksusō, k ṇ tra- 'pectō,
besnyðian  'cōs'; abrādō'
'fūror' 'abrādō'; k urá- 6.3.-skutù,
3a3.-  'nouacula' skùsti
snøggr 'nouacula' 5.3.-hu- 6.4.-skuvu,
'breuiter xšnuta- sk t
tonsurātus' 'benē
acūtum'
ksnowātlā 
ksūlom silua? Säule sauls  6.3.-šùlas
'columna' 'columna' 'tignum, 'postis'
3a3.- postis' 6.9.-sulis
sūl(a), syl 'id'
'id'
kúbāmi 
608
kudājō gehiuze  kutsáyati ku do,
'clamor' 'conuicior' 5.6.- kuditi 'et
3a2.- nikūhīdan destruõ'
hūten, hōt
'clamõ';
hūsc -tiõ;
schūten,
shout
'uōciferārī'
kukulājō cucūlus  kukuvátь
6.3.-
kukúoti
6.4.-kūkuôt
kukūlós cucūlus cói (cúach) 2b1.-cog  k ka-, kukúša

<koviks kōkilá-
kūlā cúl <*kūlā 2b1.-cil, schūl; cf. 
'latebra' ysgil schūle <*(s)kūlom
'latēbra' 'latebra' 'corium'
3a3.-skjōl
'id'
kūleks cūlex cuil 2b1.-cylion 
'cūlices,
musc.'
2b2.-
kelionen
2b3.-
kelien-enn
'musca'
kūlos cūlus cúl 2b1.-cil  kūla-
'dorsum' 'dorsum' 'extrēmum'
2b2.-chil
'ceruix'
2b3.-kil
kumbhā cum, Cumba humpe  kumbhás

comm 'uallis' 'crassa  'olla'
'recipiens'; 2b1.- rēs' 'poculum'
coim cwm(m) 3a2.-hump
<*kumbhi- 'id' 'gibba'
'coxa, 2b2.-
media komm
pars' 'potārium'
kumbō 
kūmós cumulus  <*-
mn 'unda'
kúnejos cuneus, cuil 'culex' 2b1.-cylion  ūla-
culex 'cūlices, 'pālus,
musc.' tormentum
2b2.- ' ū-
kelionen ka- 'acus
2b3.-kelien bestiolae'
'musca' 5.3.-sū-kā-
'acus'
5.4.-slak
'pālus'
kupjō cupiō; 1b2.- accobor afhuapjan,  kupyate koptítь
uapor<kwa cubrar 'desideri.' afhuapnan 'fūmus'; 'irascitur' 'affūmāre'

pōs 'bonae' 'exstinguō' 6.3.-kv`pas
'halitus'
6.4.-kvept
'confum.'
kurnos  5.4.-
k'urak<het.
609
?
5.5.-kūrka
5.6.-kurra
kusdhos cf. custōs hort, Hort huzd 
<*kusdho- 'id' 'locus 'uulua'
sd-s ? 3a2.-hoard thesaurī'
'id'
kusis küssen  5.5.-
3a2.-kiss aor. kuwass

kūtis cutis 2b1.-cwd hūt, Haut 
'scrōtum' 3a2.-hýd, 'pyxis';

hide 'corium'
kuwējō inciēns; 3a2.-hūn  v-áyati sujь 'irritus'

cauus, 'iuuenis'  'turgescit' 6.3.-šūtis
cauea, 3a3.-hūnn 'grauescō' ūnyá- 'aceruus'
cauerna,c 'iuuenis, 'uacuus'
umulus cūbus' ávīra-
'potens'
OSS.- -
syjyn/suju
n
kuwos 2b1.-cyw 3a2.-hyse  āva- ; i-
'pullus' 'foetus' u-
kúw os córaid Kauaros,   ávīra-, 6.3.-

'heroes' Cavarillus  ūra- ša nas,
2b1.-cawr  5.3.-sūra- šaunùs
'gigas' 'dominus', 'habilis,
2b2.-caur  potens';
'inualidus'
'id'
kwāimi quaerō kvaísstur 4.3.- ALB.-kaa 6.3.-kvi sti
<*kwāisō 'quaestor'  'habet' 'inuītō'
1b2.- fut 6.9.-quoi

kvestur 'id' 'acquīrō' 'uolō, uīs',
quāits
'dēsideriu
m'
kwatsos caseus hwaþerian, hvaþō  kváthati vъ(s)-
hwoþerian 'spūma'; 'coquit' kysnoti, -
'id' hvaþjan kyseti
'spūmāre' 'acer fiō';
kvasъ
'caelia'
6.4.-kusat
'feruō'
kweidos uitrum ? weiss  vetá-, svetъ 'lux';
3a2.-white vitrá- svitati
'illucescere
'
6.3.-švi sti
'lucēre'
kwōn canis cu (nom) 2b1.-ci hunds  (u)vā 6.3.-šuõ

(*kwnes cona (acc. 2b3.-  ( únah) (šuñs)
gen, cf. pl.) con/koun 5.3.-spā
uocāre (sūnō)
<*wokw-) 5.5.-kuwas
(kunas)
ləbjom labium, leffur,  5.5.-lip(p)-,
labrum Lefze lil(l)ipa(i)-
3a2.-lippa, 'lambō'
lepur
ləkesājō 
610
ləkjō laciō, 3a2.-læl(a) 
laqueus, <lāhil-
lacesō, 'rāmus,
delicia flagellum'
ləkós lacer,  ALB - lóchma

lacerina,   lekure,
lacinia , likure
lancinō,
lənchijóm lungūn  5.4.-lanjk` lëgkoje
3a2.-
lungen,
lights
ləpējō laffe lōfa  KURD lapa 'pēdis
'palma' 'palma' lapk 'pēdis palma'
palma' 6.3.-lēpa
'id'; lopeta
'pāla'
ləpods lapis 1b2.- leac< lecc 2b1.-lech 
vapere <*lepkā
'soliō'
ləskējō lascīuiō, lainn 3a1, a2.- lustus  la ati lástitь

lārua, 'lascīvus' lust 'id' 'desideriu  6.3.-
lascīvus; <*las-ni-s 3a3.-lost, m' (Hes) lokšnùs
arēs? lyst 'tener'
lətējō lateō luog  rātrī 6.7.-lákati
'specus'; 'obliuiscor'; <lōtriyā 'adaptat'

luo  'nox'
'adaptātiō' (Hes.)
3a2.-lōmr
'deceptiō'
labhō  lábhate, 6.3.-lobis
'praeda' lámbhate, 'diuitiae';

 rábhate lobti 'dītor'
'uoluminōs (perf.
um' lalābha)
laghā láige, llain 
laigen 'rasorium' 'fodiō'
'pīlum'
lāgō laxus, lacc 2b1.- slah 'id';  langa- pereslega
langueō, 'dēbilis' llac(c) 'id' link 'cēssō <sl 'paralyticu 'defectus

'laeuus' 'dēbilis' s' in textū' ?
3a2.-slæc,  5.5.- 6.4.-leǵēns
slack <slHgōuso zalug(a)nu 'laxus'
'laxus' s - 'moror'
(cum
dḷṇghu
mixta)
laiwos laeuus (F) levъ
6.3.-
išlaivóti
'deuertī'
lājō lāmentum, lamatir līid edliw laílōun  laj , lajati
lātrō 'maledicen <*lēiyeti (*ate-līu-) 'uituperāuē 'et lātrō'
dus est' 'protestat' re' 6.3.-lóju,
lóti 'latrō'
lajos lardum<láy  5.5.-lesi-,
esdom; 'lardus' lissi- 'iecur'
laetus <layesnós
lakertos lacertus, *lakāre lecken  k alā lešto, -
lacca, 'flectō' 'podex' 'pede 'artus leteti 'uolō'
lōcusta 3a3.-leggr tundō'; crurālis' 6.3.-lekiù,

'tibia' l kti 'id'
611
'calx' ,  
lakus lacus, loch (u-) Penne- lā  loky
lacūna locōs 3a2.-lagu
2b1.-llwch 3a3.-logr,
<2a lā, læ
2b3.-
lagen
lalājo lallō lallen laílōun  5.5.-lala- lála
'uituperāuē 'blaterātiō, 'sermō, 'garrulus'
re' rumusculu blaterātiō' 6.3.-laluóti
s'
lalu  5.5.-lalu
lāmā lāma  6.3.-lomà
6.7.-lam
'cauea'
lāmṇtom 
landhom lann 2b2.-lann  randh- 6.9.-
'recipiens 'coquō', landan
q.' randhana- 'pulmentu
'pulmentu m' (ac.)
m'
lāōs lār (laris) LUS.- Lahe (dat.) 
Laebo
'laribus',
aho 'larī'
lāpos láeg 2b1.-llo 'id' HELV.-  A B.-lopë 6.4.-luõps
<*lāpego- 2b2.-loch, loobe, 'pecu'
'uitulus' leauh 'id' lioba
lapsā lassar llachar 3a3.-leiptr  5.5.-lap- 6.3.-lope
'flamma'; 'clārus' 'fulmen' (lāpzi) 'lux'
lasaid 'candeō, 6.4.-lāpa
'candet' caleō'; 'fax'
lappas '-
ndens';
lappiyas '-
or'
latēks latex <gr. laith Are-late letto  6.3.- ãt-

'ceruisia' 'Arles' 'lutum' 'gutta' upe 'locus
lathach 2b1.-llat 3a3.- leþja  q.'
'lutum' 'liquor' 'lutum' 'effundō'
(cf. 2b1 2b2.-lad
llaid 'id' ) 'liquor'
latom laithe<lati- lat[…] laþigs  leto
2a2.-laa Coligny 'uernālis' 'aestās'
(dat. láo, (potius
lou) cum lat.
laetus?)
lāurā 1b2.-  5.5.- ALB.-lerë
lausiae 'angustiae' 
lahhura 'cumulus
MIL.-lakre saxorum'
'lapis *leH2uro-
plāna'
lawō lucrum lóg, lúach 2b1.-golud lōn 'id' laun  l tam, loviti

'salārium' 'regnum' 3a2.-lean 'salārium' 'spolium'; l tram 'captō';
lour 'satis' llawer 'id'  'spolium' lovъ
(laros) 'multum' 3a3.-laun 'raptor' 'uenātus'
folad 2b2.- 'id'
'substantia wuludoc
' 'dives'
lāwós F 5.5.-lahha
'exercitus' 'expeditiō'
lawtlom 
612
ledō lassus lāzan, lētan  5.5.-lā- 6.3.-
<*lH1dtos, lassen 'id' ; 'linquō'; 'langueō' 'soluō' léid iu,
lētum verletzen latjan ALB loth léidmi,
'feriō' 'detineō' 'fatigō' léisti
3a2.-lætan 'linquō'
'id';late 6.4.-lai^st
'id'
leghō lectus legasit ligen, ligan  5.5.- la-gale o, le ati

'posuit' liegen (Hes.); a-ri 'iacet'; 6.3.-pa-
3a2.-licgan  laknu- leg s
 'deiciō'; 'consolidāti
'lectus' lak- 'cadō' ō'
leghos 2b1.-lle  lo esna
'locus' 'lectus' (pl. t.)
2b2.-le 'id' ‘uulua’
<*loghesn
o-
leghskā 2b3.-  6.9.-liscis,
leac'h, 'statiō, liskas
lec'h conciliābul 'statiō,
'locus' um' castra'
leghskós lesc 2b1.-llesg 3a3.-loskr 
'infirmus, 'languidus'
languidus'
leghtrom lehtar, 
lehter ',
matrix,
placenta'
3a3.-lātr
<loghtro
'lectus
animalium'
leghús leuis laigiu, lugu 2b1.- līht(i), leihts , laghú, lъgъkъ
'minor' llei/llai leicht cp. raghú 6.3.-
2b3.-nahu- 3a2.-léoht  'celer' leñgvas/vù
lei 5.3.-ragu-, s
'nihilō 6.4.-liegs
minus'
légneumi legaim 2b1.-llaith lecken  5.4.- li
'liquescō' 'madidus' 'madeō' 'palūs'
2b3.-leiz leck <*lēgyā);
'permeābili
s' 3a2.-
leccan 'id'
3a3.-leka
'defluō'
legō legō lāchi 'id' lēkeis, 
3a2.-l ce 'ueneficus'
'id'
legs lex  rāj-áni 'ad
normam'
5.3.-rāz-an
leibs libo, āre, 

'Africus'

'fundō'
leidmi lūdō, lūdus  ALB.-lind 6.3.-léidmi,

 (Hsq) 'parit'; léid iu,
 lindet <*li- léisti;
'contender n-d láidyti
e' ;  'nascitur' 'iacere'
'lūdit' (Hsq) 6.4.-laîst
613
<*loid
leiglā līgula liag/liach 2b1.-llwy 
2b2.-loe/lo
2b3.-loa
leigō loíg lloi 'uitulī' leichen;lei laikan  r jatē ликов ть<
'uitulus' 2b3.-lu-é h, leich, (laílaik) 'uibrō' 5.4.-ālētan 3b
'id' Leich laiks (equum) 'exsultāre'
'lūdus' 'tripudium' 6.3.-láigyti
3a2-lācan 'errō'
'tripudiō'
leiljom  5.5.-alil, ALB.-lule
alel 'flōs'
loimos līmus leim <PG. 
*laima-
3a2.-lēmo
3a3.-slím
leinō 3a2.- af-linnan  linati se

linnan 'cēdō'; bi- (Hes.) 'ēvanescō,
'cessō' linnan abscondor'
3a3.-lina 'cesō'
'cēdō'
leinom līnum lín, lion 2b1.-lliain lein lein  lьnъ,
'rēte' 2b2, b3.- 3a2, 3a3.- lьnenъ
lien līn 6.3.-lìnas
leipā 2b1.-llwyf  lipa
'ulmus' 6.3.-li pa
leisā līra, dēlīrus waganleis laistjan  lecha,
a 'orbita' 'inuestigō' lechá,
lesa 'ruga'; lists 'hortus'
leisten 'acumen, 6.3.-lýse
'praebeō'; artif.' 'id'
list 'acum., lais 'sciō';
aetif.'; laisjan
lērran 'id'; 'doceō',
lernen lubja-leis
'discō' 'uenenōsu
s'
leitō lītus? ga-leiþan  5.3.-iriiia-' ToA letas,
morior'; līt 'abeō'
irīrius- ToB
'mortuus' laitam, līt
leitos lītus, -oris ler <*li-ro- 2b1.-lli, līth 'uinum leiþu  lejo lijati,
'fluxus, llyr- 'id' fruct.' 'uinum 'dolium' litъ 'fundō'
mare'; do- dy-llyð 3a2.-līð fructuum' <*leitwom 6.3.-líeju,
lin 'se 'effundō' uinum fr.' líeti 'id'
effundere'' 2b2.-ly 'id' 3a3.-līð ietuvà
*-linut 2b3.- lin 'ceruisia' 'Lituania'?
tu(i)le 'pus'
'fluxus'
<*toliyo
lembō limbus limpfen  rámbate, 6.3.-nu-
'claudus lambate slimpa
esse' lamba- 'dēlapsus'
3a2.-limp 'clīuus' 6.4.-slīps
'id' 'obliquus,
pendens'
lēmi 3a2.-l ð unlēds  rāti леть
'fundus' 'pauper' 'pauper'; 'indulget'; 'licitus'

3a3.-lāð 'diues'; rātí- 'gratia' 6.3.-letas
'id'; lōð  et 'segnis'
'genitūra 'salārium' 'grātiōsus' 6.4.-lets
terrae' 'uīlis'
614
lemō lanius <- ro·laimeth 2b1.- lam  lomiti
*myo- ar 'audet' llafasu 'id' 'claudus' 'sine 6.3.-lémti
2b2.- 3a2.-lame interruptiō 'dēcīdō'
lauasos 'id' ne'
'licet'
lemsos lemurēs 2b1.-llef  lemóti
'uox' 'gurges'; 'saliuō'

2b3.-leñv 'auidus' 6.4.-lamāt
'clamor' 'uituperō'
lendhā lind Lindomag linde 
(lenda) us 'unda'
'Limmat' 3a3.-lind
2b1.-llyn <air.?
'pōtiō,
lacus'
2b3.-lenn
'lacus'
lēnis lēnis ,  lenъ 'piger'
lassus, 'ōtior'; 6.3.-lenas

lētum 'plānus'
lentos  5.4.-elevin jálovec,
jelenec
6.3.- glius
<*élus
6.4.-pa-
egle
lepō líaig (ego)   lápati lepetátь
<*lēpagi- 'tempestās
'medicus' '
lenghmi ant-lingen  5.5.-li(n)k
'respondeō 'accusō, li-ik-zi
' recūsō' 'iurat'
lergos lergg 2b1.-llyry Lurch  5.4.-ošork,
'planitiēs, 'uestigium, 'lacertus' lerg
semita' semita' ?
2b2.-lergh
'id'
2b3.-lerc'h
'id'
lēsanks ITAL líe lei 'saxum'  5.4.-learn
lavagna <*lēH2snk- <*leH2esH (lerin)
(líacc) 2-s  <*lēH2srn-
'saxum' > 'saxum'; ALB.-lerë

leug 'angustiae' 'cumulus
'gemma' MYK ra-e- saxōrum'
ja! *leh2uro-
lesō 1b2.- lestar 2b1.-llestr lesan, lisan  6.3.-lesù,
vesklu, <cym.? 'uas' lesen lèsti 'rostrō
veskla 2b2.-lester 3a2.-lesan carpere'
'uascula' 2b3.-lestr 3a3.-lesa
(v < *l?, cf. 'nauis' ?
vutu
'lavato',
vapere
'lapide' )
leswos sublestus lassig lasiws  TOK B.- 6.5.-loš
'lassus' 'dēbilis' leswi 'malum'
3a2.-lazy 'dēbilitās'
>'pīger'
lētis 
letrom lethar 2b1.-lledr ledar, 
615
2b3.-lezr Leder
3a2.-leþer,
leather
3a3.-leðr
leubhos loufir 'uel' liob, lieb  lubъ
3a2.- lēof
léudheros liber PAEL.- luss 2b1.-les Leute liudan  róhati liudi
FAL.- loufir <*lustu 'id' 'gentes' 'crēscō' 'ascendit' 'gentes'
loferta 'planta' 2b2.-leys 5.4.- 6.3.-liut
'liberta', 'id' eluzanem 'homō'
loifirtato <*-dhs-
'libertātis' 'prōmō'
leughō iogan, liugan;  lъ o,
lügen; laugnjan lъgati
leugnen 'recūsō' 6.3.-lūgoti
3a2.- 'rogō'
ēogan, lie
leukō  rócate TOK А В.-
5.5.-luk(k)- luk-
leukós cf. ūcius, 2b1.-am- 3a3.-log  rocá-, 6.3.-la kas
Loucios lwg, 'flamma' 'albus' rucá- 'pallens'
<*-iyos 'flamma' 4.8.-ro-u- 5.3.- 6.4.-làuks
ko rao ah- 'id'
'clārus'
leuks lux, cf. lóchetn cf. cf. liuhaþ cf.  ruc- lu a <*-jā
lucubrāre, 'fulmen' Leucetius 'lux' 'albus' 'splendōr' 'radius'
lūstrāre 'Mars' 6.2.-lu ,
2b1.-llug, луч 'id'
lluched
leuksmṇ 
lēumi gilauen 'id' lewjan   5.5.-lūri- 6.3.-
3a2.- 'prōdō' 'immunditi 'infortuniu liáuti(s)
læwan 'id' a' m' 'sistere'
luriyahh- UCR.-livyti
'humiliō' 'minuere'
leups luchtar loub, laufs, lauf  6.3.- lubà
'linter' aub; 'tegnus'
aube
'porticus";
3a2.-léaf
lewis 3a3.-lé  laví
<*lewōn
ligājō ligō  5.5.-link
'iurō'
likējō liceō, líkítud,  6.4.-līkstu,
liceor, licitud līku, līkt;
licitor, 'licētō'; salīkt
pollicērī 'negōt.
conuenīō';
nuolīkums
'contractus
'
limpō lippus, bilīban bileiban  limpati, pri-lьnoti;
lippa 'maneō' 'maneō' 'adeps'; lipyate pri-lьpljo,

'unguō' 'unguit'; pri-lьpeti
repas, 6.3.-limpu,
ripras lipti
'inmunditia' 6.4.-lipu,
lipt
'appendeō'
linghō lingō ligim 2b1.-llyo 
(v.n.)
616
2b3.-leat
līnō linō, līmus lenaid, pf. 2b3.-linom  līyati, lināti 6.3.-
rolil 'litūra' 5.5.- laista , -ýti
'sequitur' halina- 'adhaerō'
as-lenaim 'argilla'
'oblinō'
lenomnaib
'litūrīs'
līnós *len 2b3.-linom len (dial.)  līnáh linь 'tinca'
(lenomnai 'litūra' 'dēbilis, 'piscis 'adhaesus' 6.3.-li^nis
b 'lituuriis') tepidus' adhaesīuu 'id'
3a3.-len, s' 6.9.-linis
linr 'tener' 'id'
linqō linquō, léicim/leigi līhan, pf. leiƕan, pf.  riṇákti lichъ

līquī m, leicid lēh laiƕ 5.4.- 'reliquus'
3a2.-līon, lkànem 6.3.-
pf. lāh liekmì<*lei
kmi, liekù
lipējō leben 'id' liban 'uiuō'  ToB.- pri-lьpljò, -
lipetär lьp ti
'maneō'
lippā 
liprós Leber  riprá- липкий
'iecur' 'sordēs' TOK A.-
3a2.-lifer, 5.4.-leard lyipär
live r'id' 'iecur' 'reliquiae'
litājō litō < ?  6.3.-lytéti

'tangō'
'rogō'
6.4.-làitit
'mulceō'
litwos lituus lid, lit liþus  toch. AB
'pars'; 'membrum' lit-
ledig 'cadere,
'caelebs'; accidere'
lidōn 'putō' ???
3a2.- lið(u)
'artus'
3a3.-liða
'flectō'
l bō lambō laffan; leffil  lobъzati
'ligula' 'ingerō'; 'osculō';

3a2.- lopa
lapian 'gulōsus'
'bibō'
lṇcō 
lṇghros lungar 
3a2.-
lungor,
lungre
lōbā lobur 2b1.-llwfr 
'dēbilis 'pusilan.' 'corruptiō'
lobaim 2b3.-loffr (uel. slogw
'putrēscō' 'leprōsus' sicul lit.
slogà ?)
lodi 
loghējō legen lagjan  5.5.-lāk, lo iti
3a2.- lak
lecgan, lay 'subvertō,
supplantō'
loghjom lige<lēghy 2b1.-lle  lo e
o 'lectus, 'locus' 'lectus'
sepulcrum' 2b2.-le 'id'
617
loghos līga luog; ALB.-lagje  TOK. A s -logъ,
Lage<-ā <*lag 'insidiae' lake, В za-logъ
'situs' 'populātiō' leke 'pignus'
3a2.-lagu,
law 'lex'
loigos 
loigós líach  5.4.-aɫk` 6.3.-ligà
'miser' 'infortūniu 'inops' 'morbum'
m'; ALB;-lig 6.4.-liga

'paucus' 'malus'; 'id'
lige
'malum'
loiqnom Lehen  r kṇas-
3a2.-læn, 'possessiō'
loan 5.3.-
raexna
'substantia'
loiqós reliquus,  r ku- 6.3.- l kius
relicuos 'infecundu 'reliquiae'
s'
loisā līra (nōn leisa 'līra,  lecha
lyra) sulcus' 'cratis''
6.3.-
laista , -ýti
'lutō
adhaerō'
6.9.- layso
'argilla'
loisós lían 'tener' līso 'leniter' . lista  6.3.-líesas

3a2.-. læs, 'paucum' 'reliquus' 'tenuis'
less 6.4.-líess
'di'
loksos lahs  lāk ā loso ь
3a2.-leax 'uermeliō' 6.3.-lašišà,
TOK. В lãšis
laks 'piscis'
loksós licinus <* Lexouii, 
lecinos?; Lixouii 'bliquus',

līmus llechwedd 
'inclinātiō'
loktos locht lahan, 
'pūniō'
3a2.- lēan
'id'
londhom Land; 2b1.- llan lant, Land land  ljádá
dat.ith- 'ārea, 3a2.-land 6.9.-lindan
laind eclesia' 3a3.-lundr 'uallis'
'areae' 2b2.-laan
2b3.-lann
'stēpa'
londhwos lumbus ntī,  ledvьje
Lende
3a2.-
lendenu
longhros lombrīcus 2b1.- 
llyngyr
2b3.-
lenker-enn
lordós lorcach, lürzen  5.4.-lorck
lurcach 'fallōo' 'proclinātu 'convulsiō
'claudus'; 3a2.-be- s'  partium in
lurc 'c. lyrtan 'id' posteriōra'
618
pēs'
lorgā lorg 2b1.-llwry,  5.4.-olork
'trames' llwrw 'suauis'
2b2.-lergh,
lyrgh
2b3.-lerc'h
lorgos lorg 2b2.-lorch 3a3.-lurkr 
2b3.-
lorc`henn
lostos los(s) 2b2.-llost, 3a3.-lióstr 
arllost 'harpō'
2b3.-lost
loudis laus liod , Lied liuþōn 
'cantus' 'canō'
3a2.-lēoþ awiliuþ 'c.
'id' laudis'
loughjom lug(a)e, 2b1 llw urliugi liugan - 
luige <*uz-liugja aida 'nūbō'
'uōtum' 'bellum'; liuga
urlage <*leughā
'fātu' 'connūbiu
m'
lougos 3a2.-loc,  lý a
lock 'id' 'ferula'
3a3.-lok
'sera'
loukejō lūceō  rōcáyati
(Plautus) 5.3.-
rao ayeiti
5.5.-
lukkizzi
loukētjos ūcetius lóchetn <- Leucetius, lioht, licht liuhaþ 'lux' 
(Mars) nt- 'fulmen' Loucetius 'lux' 'medulla
> brit. 2b1.- 3a2.-lioht, abiētis'
lluched light <*louki-o
2b2.-lluhet
2b3.-
lu'hed-enn
loukos lūcus, arc. lōh 'saltus,  lōká- 6.3.-la kas
loucom; prat.' 'spatium, 'campus'
collūcāre 3a2.-lēah mundus,
'pratum' gentes'
loukós 2b1.llug; lauc, loug  rōká-
llug у dydd 'flamma' 5.4.-lois,
'dīlūculum' 3a2.-līeg loys 'lux'
'id'
louksā 3a3.-ljóre  5.3.-
< ljós rao ama-
'ōrificium 5.5.-
in tectō' lutta(i)-,
luttant-
louksnā lūna, luan; 3a2.-lioxan  ruk á- luna
lūstrāre luisne 'luceō' 'lampas' 'splendens' 6.9.-
<*luksnijo- 5.3.- lauxnos
'flamma' raoxšna- 'stellae'
louksos lug (loga) luhs  5.4.- lysyj
?? 3a2.-lox lusanunk 'caluus'
(pl.)
lousēn 2b1.- lūs, aus  6.3.-liule
lleuen pl. 3a2.-lūs,
llau louse
2b2.-
619
lowen/lūan
2b3.-
laouen
loutsā lot(t) liederlich afslautjan  lytátь
<Germ. 'negligens' 'praecipitor 'uagor'
3a2.-līedre '
'miseria'
3a2.-lodda
lowā ló <*wā,  lava-
lóë <*wiā
lowō luō, lauō 5.4.- 5.5.-lahhu
loganam 'fundō'
5.5.-lahhu
'fundō'
lowtrom lābrum, lóathar lautro 

lātrīna 'peluis' 'balneō'
<*lowātrei lóthur 2b3.-
nā 'canālis' louazr/laou
lothor er
'alueus'
lubhējō libet loufir 'uel' liuben, liufs  lubhyati lubiti

(lubet); lieben (Hes) 6.3.-
prolubium 3a2.- liaupse
lēofian, 'laus'
love
lubhjā liber (librī) luib/luibh 2b1.-luird luppi 'uirus' lubja-leis  6.3.-luba
? lubgort/lug 'horti' 3a2.-lyb 'uenēnum, 'lignum'
bort 2b2.- uenēnātor'
lowarth
'hortus'
lubhros liber lomm 2b1.-llwm lo(u)ft   lumpáti lupljú,
'nūdos' 'id' 'morbum'; 'ruinat' lupítь

<-smo; 'patior'  ALB;-labe 'glubō'
lommraim 'cortēx' 6.3.-
'glubō' luõbas;
lupù, lupti
'glub.'
ludhóm luid 3 pl. 2b1.- 3a2.-lane? 
 
lotar el(h)wyf 'semita' 
<*ludont 'ibō' 3a3.-lon  'aduena'
2b2.-yllyf 'uia
'id' domuum'
lugējō lūgeō, lucht Luxtos, liohhan  rujáti 6.3.-láu ti,
lūgubris <*lugtó- Lucterius 'dūcō'; 'maestus' 'frangit' lu ti
'copia(e)' 2b1.-llwyth arlohhan 5.3.-uruxti- 'frangō' (tr.
'tribus' 'abscīsus' 'fractiō' et intr.)
3a2.-to- 5.4.- 6.4.-lau^zt,
lūcan lucanem lu^zt 'id'
'deleō' <*-gs-
'soluō'
lugjā log ücke  6.3.-lugnas
2a3.-lag ? 'planta
q.'
lugnós lucta, fo-long- 2b1.-lloer loc, Locke  rugnás 6.3.-lùgnas
luctor, 'supportō' <*lugrā 'cirrus' 'uieō'; 'fractus,

luxus; 'lūna' (alt.: 3a2.-locen 'rāmus'; ruptus'
lūnō, <*lowsrā, 'sarrītus', 
lūnātus lat. lūridus) locc 'id' 'flexiō' 
2b2.-loir 3a3.-lykna
'id' 'genuflecto
2b3.-loer r'
'id'
620
lugtos 
lukējō luceō  ToB.-
lyuketär
lukskējō loscaid 2b1.-llosgo  5.4.-
'cremat'; 2b2.-losky luçanem
losc-<*luk- 2b3.-leski <*luk-sk
sk 'candō' 'candō'
lúnāmi līmen liímitú(m)  lunāti; ToAB.-lātk
<*lūmen?; <lat.?; lūnáh <*lH2-skō
cf. līber tamen 'sectus' ToB.-
<*eu, lúvfreis 5.5.-luttāi lyauto
līmus <*oi 'līberi' 'fenestra' ‘hiātus’
(katta)luzzi <*lēutā
- 'līmen'
lūnós lon 'ariēs, 3a2.- lun  lūnáh
merula?' alynnan 'redemptiō' 'sectus',
'liberō' lunāti
FINN 'secat'
lunnas
<*lunos
lutom lutum, loth <*lutā  ALB.-lum 6.3.-
lutāre, 'immunditi 'cruor'; 'lutum' liutýnas
 
lutōsus, a'
lustrum
lūtós solūtus lūdara  (u
'cūnae' longa)
3a3.-lūðr
'aquārium'
luwō luō, soluō 3a2.-lēas,  luw ToB.-
(lewō) release 5.5.-lā, lai- lyewetär
luwō apó absoluō 3a2.- lun 
alynnan, 'redemptiō'
alynian
'liberō'
mədējō madeō; maidim  mádati,
mattus 'errumpor' 'fluō, mádate
capilla 'gaudeō';
perdō'; mátsya

<*madtós? 'piscis'
'pectus' 5.3.-
mađaitē;
masya
5.4.-
maskah
'burrus'
məglos 
məgnánə 
mos
məgnos magnus mál Maglocunu 3a3.-miok mikils  mahānt-,

'princeps' s 2b1- 'magnus' máhi
(-gl-) b3.-mael (-gn-) 5.3.-
mazant-,
maz-
5.4.-mec
5.5.-meki
məgis magis,  A B.-
maiestās madheshtí
'-ās'
məgtājō mactō do-for-  mahayati

maig  5.4.-
'auget'- mecarem
magar
621
'augeetur'
machos mug Magu-rix 3a2.-magu magus  5.3.- 6.4.-ma
(moga) 2b1.-meu- 'puer', fm. 'puer' mahava- <*maǵš
'seruus' wy 'erem.' mægeÞ, mawi 'caelebs' 'paruus'
2b2.-mow- maid 'puella'
es 'serua' 3a3.-mogr magaÞs
2b3.- 'fīlius' 'uirgō'
maouez
'mulier'
machotis ingen 2b1.- magad, magaþe  5.4.-makth
maccdacht machteith Magd 'lepus
<*magot- 'uirgō' 'puella' iuuene'
aktā 2b2.- 3a2.-
'epheba'; mahtheid mægeþ,
ro- 'u.' maid
macdact 2b3.- 'puella,
'superadult matez serua'
a' 'serua'
mághneu  5.3.-*ha-

mi 'pugna' mazan- >

maghos mag, Arganto-  ? mahī
immaig, magus 'terra'
immach 2b1.-Ma-, -
'forās' fa 2b2.
- fa
magō mac(h)iō maistrid 2b1.- mahhōn ,  <*- 5.4.- ma o,
<germ. 'butyrum maeddu machen gjō macanim, mazati
'lapidārius, facit' 'āuertō, 'faciō' 'massō, macnum ? 'unguō'
structor' pugnō' 3a2.- pinsō 'compingor maslo
2b3.-meza macian,  , coagulor' 'aruīna'
'depsit' make 'id' 'pistor'
mājō mātūrus, Maatúís maith; 2b1, 2b3.-  5.5.-mai-,
māne, <*Mātīs 'dī maithid mad miya-
mānes, Mānēs' 'ignoscit' 2b2.-mas 'crēscō'
mānus,
Matūta
mākājō 
makēn ? mén 1b1.- mago  mošьna
'bucca'; megin 'stomachu 6.3.-
ménaigte <*makīnā s' mãkas/ ke
'qui 3a2.- ris
inhiant' maga, 6.4.-maks,
maw 'id' macińš
mākesjā māceria,  6.4.-
māceriēs, màcu,-kt
-erāre 'premō'
6.7.-
ma kám,
ati 'i.'
mākōn mahonus māhen,  makъ

Mohn 
3a2.-māho
makrós macer, mér ? magar  5.3.-mas-
maceō, 'digitus' 3a2.- cp. 'longus'

maciō mæger  5.5.-
maciēs 3a3.-magr  maklanteš
'Macedoniī'
mammā mamma, muimme 2b1, 2b2, mamme,  5.4.-mam mama
mamilla 'nutrix' 2b3.-mam muoma, 5.6.- 6.3.-
Muhme mām(ā), mamà,
māmī momà
622
mān   5.5.-

mahhan
'cum'
mānājō mānō móin 2b1.- 
'palūs' mawn
'palūs'
mánnusos Mann manna  mánuh, mo i,
3a2.-man (mans) mánusah мѫжь,муж
ь
<mangya
mānos mānis, Maatúís maith <*-ti; 2b1, 2b3.- 
mānus *Mātīs 'dī maithid mad
(arc.); Mānēs' 'ignoscit' 2b2.-mas
immānis <*-tu?
maqā macc- 2b1.- 
dacht machteith
2b2.-mah-
theid
2b3.-
matez
maqos OGHAM.- 2b1.-  6.4.-mázu
maqvi:(ge map/mab 'longus'; 'possum'

n.); macc 2b2.-mab 'beātus'
'fīlius' 2b3.-mab,
map
máreskos mariscus  5.5.-
marsiqqa
margōn margō mruig Allo- marka 
broges,
brogae
2b1-2b3.-
bro 'ager'
mari mare muirn Aremori-cī marī, Meer marei  morje
(mora) 2b2, 2b3.- 3a2.-mere 6.3.-
mor mãres,mãr
ios
markos marc marka,Mar marah, 
codurum Mähre
2b1.- 3a2.-
march mearh
2b2.- (fem.
margh/mar meriha,
h 2b3.- miere)
marc'h
masdos mālus maite, 3a1, 3a2.-  mostъ
<d<zd maide mast 'pons'
'pālus';
admat
'lignum'
mātējō  na-májatь
'prodō' 'indicō'

'infractiō' mańú,
 mańítь
'flagellum' 'fallō'
 6.3.-móju,
 'id'  móti
'signum
faciō'
māt r māter mātreís máthir, mātir muoter  mātár- matь,
'mātris' máthair 2b1.- <*māt r 4.3.- 5.4.-mayr mater-
1b2.- modryb 3a2.- 6.3.-mote
matrer 'id' mōdor 6.4.-mäte
623
3a3.-móðir
māterós materiēs  materój
mātérterā matertera 2b1.-  māt kā
modreped
(pl.) 2b2.-
modereb
2b3.-
motrep/mo
ereb
matlā mateola 3a2.-  matyá-
mattock<la 'raster'
t.
mauros maurus 3a3.-meyrr  (s)muryj
'mitis' 'obscūrus, 'gris obs'
caecus' chmúra
'nūbēs
obs'
bhros imber  ambhas-
lak  ;ambu
'odor' 'aqua'
gadhós magnificus 
<*mºgno- 'bonus'
dhH1ko-
me mē(d) mé 2b1.-mi   mā 5.3.-
2b2-me mā
mē  5.1, 5.3, ALB.-
5.6.-mā mos<mē +
5.4.-mi kwe?
medai medeor, meddiss midiur mitan  masti-
meditor, 'iūdex' 'iudicō' 3ª 'metior' 'meditor' 'mensūra'

modus, 1b2.-mers midithir; pf. 'colō' 5.3.-vīmad
medicus 'ius' ro-mídair 'medicus'
medgós mergus  madgú-
5.6.-māɣ
médhidjōw 
s
medhjos medius mefaí 'in mid- Medio- mitti midjis  mádhya-s me da
media' (im)medón lānum 3a2.-midd 5.4.-mēj 'uia'
<ugno 2b1.-mywn
'in'
medhu mid 2b1.- meto  mádhu medъ
(meda) medd, 'hydromel' 'hydromel' 'mel' 'mel'

'hydr.' meddw 'ebrius fiō' 5.3.-madu 6.3.-
medb 2b3.-mez, 'mel' medùs,
'intoxicātus mezo midùs
'
medjom mess 2b1,2b2..- mast, mats 

<medtu mes (pl.) Mästung 'esca'; 'testiculī';
'collectiō 2b3.-mez 'esca'; matjan 
glandum'; 'id' mus, 'edō' 'plēnus' !
maisse <- Gemüse
dtiā 'olus'
'pulmentu 3a2.-mete,
m' meat 'carō'
médneumi 2b1.- muoʒ, ga-mōt 
meddu müssen 'id' 'spatium 'imperō';

possideō, 3a2.- must habere, 'dominus'
possum' 'debeō' posse'
médodiks medicus meddiss  5.3.-vīmad
'iūdex' 'medicus'
PEL.-
624
.medix
mēdos māz us-mēt  5.4.-mit
'modus' 'modus 'cūrae, 'mens,
3a3.-māt uīuendī' consilia' intelligenti
a'
meicō migrō, 
migrāre 'mūtō'
meidō máel 2b1.-mail; meizan maitan  medь

'caluus, moel 'id';meizil , 'putō' 'mutilus, 'cupper' ?
hebēs' 'mutilus, meissel (meid) incornis'
caluus, 'scalprum' 
glaber' 3a2.-mīte 'uermis,
'larua ins.' larua
insectus'
meidos míad muoet kameit 
'honor' 'fāma' gemeit,
iactans,
stolidus
3a2.-
gemêd
'superbus'
meilēts mīles  milati
'conuentiō' 'conuenit';
;  mela(ka)
'conueniō' 'conuentiō'
samī-ká-
??
'proelium'
meinom DVENOS mían mwyn meinen  m nj ,
meinom 'desideriu 'dēlectātiō' 'significō' m niti
m' 3a2.- 'considerō'
mēnian
meitō gimeit *gamaiþs  m thati 6.3.-
'demens' 'mutilus' 'hebēs' 
'ferit' apmaitinti
3a2.- APRUS.- 'ferīre'
gemād 'id' ismaitint 6.4.-màitat
'perdere' 'deleō'
meitrom  mitrá mìemuri
'cinctus' 'ramiicus, 'corda'
cont.'
5.3.-miqra-
'id'
meiwijós minus, menvum 2b1.- minniro; mins;  mināti, mьníjь

nimis `minuere' minow min minnistr 'melius'; min ti 6.3.-máila
<némeisi; 'minuō' 3a2.-min 'minimus'  'minuō' 'piscellī'
minuō 3a3.-minnr 'dēcrēscō' 5.5.-
miejawas
'manicula'
Luw
mauwa 'IV'
mejājō meō Miniō día tomna Moenus  min , - ti
(Etruriae) gloss. .i. 'Main' 'praetereō'
día ti 'ut 2b1.- 6.6.-mijam,
eat'; Moin; mynet mija
Minius 'īre'; 6.7.-míjím,
(Gallaecia diminet? míjeti
e)
mejnō 
mejō mūnus, 1b2.- móin, máin 2b1.-mwyn mein   máyate izmeniti
mūnis, muneklu 'thesaurus' 'ualōr' 'falsus' 5.5.- 6.3.-
moenia, 'mūnus' <*meino- 3a2.-mān immiya- maina , -
immunis 'id' 'misceō' ýti 6.4.-
625
3a3.- miju, mît
meinn
'nocīius'
mejtis 
mēknos mén 2b1.-min mago 
'labrum' 'fauces'
2b2.- 2b3.-mīca
m(e)yn
2b3.-min
'faucīcum'
meldhjā 2b1.-mellt 3a3.-  APR.- maladńa
mjollnī mealde 6.4.-milna
'Tonitrii 't. mall.'
malleus'
meldhō meldōn,   braviti moljo,
melden 'loquitur' moliti
'indicō' 5.4.- 'precor'
3a2.-meld maltèm *ld>ld>l
'promulgāti 'precor' 6.3.-
ō' 5.5.-ma-al- meld iù/sti
ta-i, ma- ` 'id'
al-di
'precātur'
melit mel mil 2b1.-mêl mili-tou miliþ  5.4.-melr

(mellis) (mela/mea 2b2-2b3.- 'succus
la) mel mel.'
3a2.-mil-
dēaw
meljom milium  6.3.-málna
melkō mulceō; -  
m áti
āre; 'damnum'
'tangit,
mulcetra, - palpat' ;
cēdo marcáyati?
melmṇ 2b1.-cymal  márman- 6.3.-
'iunctūra' 'cantus, 'membrum' mélmenys
2b2.-mel membrum, 5.4.- 'carō
(pl. artus' marmin lumbī'
mellow) 'carō' 6.4.-
2b3.-mell mélmēni
'lumb'
melō molō 1b2.- melim 2b1.-malu molawēn malan;  5.5.- mleti,
kumaltu 2b3.-malaf ga- 'mola' malanzi molótь
'commolitō malwjan 'molunt' 6.3.-
' cf. ToA malvinti
malyw, B
mely
melos melior, moltam  6.4.-milns

multus 'multam' 'complūres
1b2.-motar '
'multae'
melsō mellaim  6.4.-mèls-t
'fallō' 'irritus,
miser'


'blasphēm
us'
melwom 3a2, 3a2.-  malvá- ALB.-mjel
mëlo 'stultus'
membhō mebul bi- 
'uerecundi mampjan 'accusō'

a' 'irrideō' 'culpa'
626
mēmi mētior mezzan; mitan; mēl  mimāti; mera

Mal 'tempus'; māthí; mā 'mensūra'
'occāsiō' mēls ''8 trā 6.3.-m tas
gallones' 'annus, t.'
mēmsóm membrum mír mims,  mās, m so
<msr; <*mē(m)sr mimz 'pelle'; māmsám TOK B.-
 
membrāna ó 'portiō' 'sūra' 5.4.-mis misa (pl.)
(msoy)
mendhai 2b1.- mendian mundōn  mēdhā m drъ
mynnu 'gaudeō'; 'intendoo' 'discō' 'intellectus' 'doctus'

'uelle' muntar, mundrei 'disciplīna' ; 6.3.-
go-fin(n) munter 'propositu  5.3.- mañdras,
'rogō' 'alacer' m' 'prūdens'; mazdā, mandrùs
2b2.- 3a3.-  mazdāh 'alacer,
mennaf 'id' munda <?  'id'; superbus'
2b3.- 'intendoo' mazdāh- 6.4.-
govyn <*mṇdh-tā muo^stie^s
'rogō' 'deus q.' 'ēuigilāre'
ALB.-
mund
'possum,
uincō'
mendhō mamphur, Mandel(ho  mánthati, m t ,
manfur lz) (t?) 'tumultus'; mathnāti m sti,

'manubriu 'lignum 'pugnus 5.3.-mant- motátь
m tornī' rotārium' 'turbō' (t)
rēmī'
3a3.- 6.3.-
m ndull men iù,
'manubriu mesti (t)
m molae'
mendō mannus, menn, 2b1.- manzon  mandurā ALB.-mes,
mandus mennán mynnan 'tetta' 'tetta', ? mezi,
<ILLYR? 'catulus' 'capella'  ? 'stabulum' mezat
2b2.-min 'stabulum' 'pullus';
'haedus' ment,
2b3.-menn mezej
'cat.' 'sūgō'
mendom mendum mennar 2b1.-mann 
'macula' 'locus'
mind mann geni
'signum' 'antojo'
menghos menicc 2b1.- manag; manags  maghá- mъnogъ
'saepe' mynych 'id' manch 'multum' 'dōnum' 'multum'
2b2.- 3a2.- mamhatē 6.3.-minià
menough manig, 'offert' 'copiae'
'id' many
mengō manganu meng mange  mañjú(lá) 6.3.-
m <gr; 'acūmen'; 'catapulta' 'illusiō, 'pulcher'; mánga
mangō<gr. mengach uineae'; mangalá 'rudis,

'fallāx" 'augurium' ingrātus'
menis maena muniwa  mīná- menь
<gr. 'phoxinus' 'piscis'
3a2.- <drav. ?
myne,
minnow
menmṇ menm(a)e  manman
menos Minerua,  mánas-
arc. 'animus' 'mens,
Menerua sensus';
<*-eswā manasvín-
'intelligens'
5.3.-
627
manah-
mēnsis mensis mí (mís) 2b1-2b2.- māno , menoþs  mās, mes cь

mis mānōt <*mēnōþ-  māsa- <*mēnsn$
2b3.-miz 3a2.mōna, 5.4.-amis ko- 6.3.-
mōnaþ menuo
<*mēnōt,
menesis
mentā mentula Mandel(ho  mántha- 6.3.-
lz) (t?) mente,
'lignum meñt ,
rotārium' mentùris
3a3.-
m ndull
'manubriu
m molae'
mēqos Mal mēl  5.5.-
'occasiō' 'tempus' 'longitūdō' mekkis
'magnus'
mercō 3a2.-mirki,  A B.- morgatь
mierce mje(r)gulë 'nictō'
3a3-myrkr, 'obscūritās' 6.3.-mìrgu,
myrkvan 5.5.- -éti 'id'
marwāi-
'nigrō'
mergā mergae, -  mrnjata
ārum 'uarinō' 'uerrunt'
(folia, 5.4.-
fructus) mer em
'deturbō'
merghā merges braige, 3a3.-  mre a,

braga merþi,   мер ж
'conuictus' 'nessa' 'funis'; 'rēte,
 funda'
 6.3.-
'corbis'
márška?
'rēte'
6.4.-marga
'cancellī'
mergis CAT.-brac meirc, 2b1.- bruoh, Bruxelles,  мерзкий
'lutum' meirg merydd bruoch Brussel 'palūs' 'repugnans
'rubigō'; 'dēbilitās'; 'palūs' <Bruocsell (Hes); '
bol merddwfr 3a2.-brōc, a ,

mergach 'paluus' brook 'id' 'fraces'
'uter 2b3.- 3a3.-
rugōsus' mergidhā morkna
m 'uiescō'
'hebescō'
mergō mergō  májjati 6.3.-
margóti
merkēds merx; amiricatud  mr áti

mercēs, '*immercāt 'capiō'; 'tangit;
mercārī ō', (Hes.): capit'
amirikum 
'*immercār  
ī'
merkō mrecht 2b1.-brith morgan 'id' maúrgins  mrъknoti
'uarius' 'id' 3a2.- 'matina'  <-ukyō 'obscurārī'
<m ktos 2b2.-bruit mergen, 'micō' smerk
2a3.- 'id' morning 'occāsus'
breachtac 2b3.-briz 6.3.-
h 'id' 'id' mérkiu,-ti
'nictō'
628
mérneumi 2b2.-  markoci
moreth 'irritō'
'cūra' PL.-
2B3.- markotny
morc'het 'ariscus'
'id'
meros merus (et brí ? 3a2.-mare  márīci- márevo
piscātus) 'tructa' 'herba 'splendeō'; 'radius' 'calor

aurea' 'forma' extrēmum'
mersō marren, marzjan  m yate 6.3.-
merren 'molestō' 'uorat; mìrstu, àiz-
'impediō' negligit' mìrst
3a2.- m ā 'obliuiscor';
mierran 'id' 'irrītē' maršùs
5.4.- 'immemor'
moranam
'obliuiscor'
merwos meirb 2b1.-merw maro, 
'dēbilis' 'insipidus' marawēr
2a3.- 'blandus'
meirbh
mesgō māsca,  mázgarь
Masche 'id' 'aranea'
3a2.-max, 6.3.-
mæscr mezgù,
'nodus' m gsti
'nodō'
meslā merula 2b1.- amusla, 
mwyalch Amsel,
2b2.- Meise
moelh<mei 3a2.-
salkā māse, ōsle
2b3.-
moualc'h
mestis mensiō - méit 2b1.-meint TOK A.- masti-h 6.3.-
n/m- infix. <*mantī 'id' mem; mãstas
'magnitūdō mənt(ə)
' 'sicut, tam'
mestós mensus  mastá-
'plēnus'
mētā mēta methas  mēthí-, mesto
'miliārium' mēthī 'locus'
(*mitostu-); 5.3.- 6.3.-mi tas
bərəzimita 6.4.-mìets
'alta m.'
5.4.-moit`
meti Metapīnu mit(i).'cum' miÞ 'cum'  (cf. ALB.-mjet;
m 'inter 3a2.-mið ); Metu-
aquas'  barbis
> s 'inter
palūdes'
mētijai mētior to-math- (3 mezzan; mitan; mēl  mātí- metitь
ª s. do- Mal 'tempus'; 'meditāme 'mensūra' 'intendere'
mathi)) 'occāsiō' mēls n', 
'minor' 'bossellus' 'mensūra'
mētis 2b1.-maut 3a2.-m ð  māti S OV.-mèt
? <*mōta 'meditāme 'mensūra, 'foetus'
'pollex' n' scientia'
A B.-matë  5.3.-miti-
metō metō, methel 2b1.-  met ,
messis, 'messores' medel mesti
permitiēs 'mess.' 'iaciō'
629
2b2.-midil 6.3.-metù,
'messor' mèsti
2b3.-midiff 'iaciō'
'metō'
metrom 2b1.-medr  mātrā
'habilitās'
meudos muad  m datē 6.3.-
'mundus, 'gaudet' mudrùs
superbus' 5.3.- 'uigil'
maođanō- 6.4.-mudrs
karana- 'id'
meugō muger muhhōn; 
mocken
3a2.-
micher
'fur'
meukō mucrō  mu í 6.3.-mùšti

'pugnus' 'quatiō'
meus / mūs, 3a1, 3a2.-  mu ká- myšьс

muskós musculus; mūs 'muscus' 'cunnus' 'brachium'
mūrex 5.4.-mukn;
<5.4.
mušk
'castoreum
'
mighlā 3a3.-mistr  mēghá- mьga

'intemp.' 'nubēs' 6.3.-miglà
3a5.- 5.3.-
miggelen maēha 'id'
'pulueris 5.4.-mēg
pluere' 'nebula'
míkāmi micō, de-meccim 2b1.-mygr micken ?  5.6.-mi ‘ mь ьtъ
dīmicō 'negligō' 'lucens' 'obseruō' palpebra' 'uisiō';
di-r-mygu me tat’
'negligō' 'somniō'
6.3.-
miegóti
'dormiō'
miljom minium  5.5.-
mida/midi
'ruber'
mimdō muoz ga-mōtjan,  5.4.-
'conuentus mat im
' 'appropinq
3a2.- uor'
mētan,
meet
mímnāskō reminiscor cu-man 2b1-b2.- 3a2.- (ga)man 

(memna) 'memoria' cof (ge)man <*mon- 4.2.-
'memoria' 3a3.-man 
2b3.-
cov/kouñ
míneumi minuō,  mināti
minūtus 'ēuānescō'
5.5.-mehur
<meiH2ur
'tempus'
minghō mingō, mist maíhstus,  m hati mì -âm, -

meiō 'merda' 'merda' 5.3.- ati
3a2.- maēzaiti 6.3.-m ù,
mīgan 5.4.- mišti
3a3.-mīga mizem
mínusi 
630
misdhom mēta / misdō  mī há mī da
Miete <*ōn 'mercēs',
3a2.- 5.3.-mī da
meord /
mēd
misgā 1b1.- medg/mea 2b1.- 3a3.-  āmíksā
mesga dhg maidd, mysa 'misceō' 'sērum'
(fr.- meidd 'serum'
mêgue) 2b2.-meith <*mihswōn
2b3.-meid -
miskejō misceō mescaim 2b1.- miskan  mēk áyati, mešiti

mysgu mimik 6.3.-mi šti
(vn) 'agitat'; <*meikiō
2b2.-meski mi rá- mìšras
'mixtus' 'mixtus'
mlājō mláith, 2b1.-blawd  mlā-ti
bláith 'farīna' 'dēbilitāt'
'suauis' 2b2.-blot
'id'
2b3.-bleud
'id'
mlākós malcad mulsch un-tila-  mūrkhá- mlь ati
'dēcadenti 'mollis' malsks 'mollis, 'stultus' 'conticeō'
a'; blén 3a2.-malsc 'irratiōnālis' aeger, 5.4.-meɫk 6.3.-mùlki-
'mollia'< 'superbus' ēffeminātu 'mollis' s
mlaknā s',  'obstinātus
'stultus' , stultus'
mlātóm mláith, 2b1.-blawd  6.3.-mìltai
bláith 2b2.-blot 6.4.- milti
'suauis' 2b3.-bleud
mḷdhos milti, milde unmildjai  márdhati
'id' 'sine 'tener, 'indulget'
3a2.-mild amōre' (f. mollis'
'blandus' pl.)
mḷdsnos blandus  m t-sná-
'stultus'  'līmus'
mḷdus mollis; meldach 2b1.-blydd 3a2.-mild mildeis  m dú mladъ,

mulier <- 'grātus' (<*ml-d/ml- 'id' 'blandus'  5.4.-melk molodú
yes (<*ml-d/ml- dh) *<meldui- 'iuuenis'
dh) 5.5.-
malisku,
milisku
'dēbilis'
mḷduwijō 
mḷgājō prō- *to-in-uss- 
mulgāre mlig-
mlīnós 2b1.-blin  mrityati blin 'crêpe'
'lassus' 'atriplex' 'tabec' 6.3.-blīnis
2b3.-
blinion
'inertes'
mḷjos malus mallom, maile; 2b1.-mall  5.3.- 6.3.-m las
mallud 'id' mell 'errōr' 'ruinātus' 'irritus, mairya 'mendāciu
-lsos/es <*mlso- miser' 'fallax' m'

 5.4.-meɫ 6.4.-màlds
'blasphēm 'peccātum' 'errōr'
us'
mḷkāmi malcaid  mlь ati
'pūtescit' 'tacēre', u-
mlьkn ti
'obticēre'
6.3.-
631
smùlkti
'macescer
e'
mḷnos mulleus mālōn , mēljan  mála- malína
Mal 'scribere' 'āter' 'sordēs' 'bacca'
'macula' <*melH2ōn maliná- 6.3.-melas,
, 'āter, mélynas
melH2niH2, immundus' 'caeruleus'
melH2n  6.4.-m lns
<melH2nó
mlōdhrós 
mlōskō mell  6.5;-

'mons' 'eō' izmòlīti
mullach 'pāreō'
'cacumen'
mḷsos prōmellere mall 
; 'tardus
remelīgō; sum'
 
remulcum 'paene'
mḷwā malua  mūrva-

'cannabis'
mṇdōmi mandō  maniyahha
'administrō
'
mṇējō maneō, aimne anmynedd  parimama

mantō 'patientia' 'id'  ndhi,
<anmenyā  ámaman
'permanen 'uacillō'
s' 5.3.-
framan
'perseuerō'
5.5.-
mimmai
'denegō'
mṇijai ēmineō, 2b1.- 3a2.-møna  menahhan
immineō, monid,myn 'emineō'; da
promineō, ydd mønir zmena+ha
mons, 2b2.- 'tumulus' nt 'contra'
minor, meneth 'id'
mināx 2b3.-
menez
'mons'
mṇjō meminī do-moiniur 2b3.-guo- firmonēn ga-munan  mányatē mьnjo
monim 'temnere' 'meminiss 'amens
'pollicēri' 3a2.-mon, e' sum'
man
'cogitō'
mṇkos mancus manc (-g-)  manāk 6.3.-
Mangel 'parum' meñkas
'dēfectus'; 5.5.- 'exilis''
mangōn maninkuw TOK. A,
'dēsum' anteš B.-mänk
'breues' 'egeō'
mṇkstrom maistre mengen  mìnkau
'misceō' 'fingō'
mṇsjai 
'intendō'
mṇtijai mentior  6.9.-
mēntimai
'mentīmur'
mṇtis mens toimtiu 3a2.-mind ga-minþi  matíh 6.3.-mintis
(mentis) 'cōgitātiō' cōgitātiō';
632
ana-minds
'suspectus'
mṇtō mandō méadal mindil  math-
<*mṇtnō? 'intestīna' 'oreae' <mºtjH2- 'agitō,

<*mṇth-lā  fricō,
(Hes) deleō, ūrō'
mṇtom mentum mant 2b1.-mant munþs  5.5.-meni
'gingīua'<2 'mandibula 'bucca' 'uultus'
b1? '
mṇtos commentu dermat gi-munt. ga-munds  matá- 6.3.-miñtas

s 'obliuiō' 'reminisce 'cōgitātiō'
ntia' 5.3.-mato
mṇtrājō men -mantalon  carmamnā mnu, mjatь

'farīna, 'semita'  s 'fullones' 6.3.-mìnti;
puluis' 2b1.-  mìniava
mathru 
'musgu'
mṇus manus manim, muntar, 2b1.- munt manwus ?   5.5.-
 
manins muintir manal 3a2, 3a3.- 'praestō' ALB.-marr maniyahha
1b2.- <*manuter 'modius' mund <*marn? - 'mandō'
manuve ā 'familia' <manatlo <*mṇt- 'capiō'
(l.) 2b3.-
malazn 'id'
mṇwos mīn<*mēni 2b1.-di-  manāk

'suāuis' fanw; di-  'parum'
menb fenwi 'monotrop 5.4.-manr
'paruus' 'diiminuō' us' (-nu)
  'paruu.'
<nw 'solus' 5.5.-minu-
'solus'
mō 
mōdos muot, Mut modags  5.5.-maz
3a2.-mōd 'īrātus' <*moH3ds-
'animus' 'resistō'
modos modus med mūta, met  addhā
<medā Maut 'pondus'; 'consilia' <*mddhē
'libra'; 'id'>lat. mōta 'certō'
dorumadir 3a2.-mōt 'tribūtum' 5.4.-mit
'fuerat 'id' 'cōgitātiō'
emensus';
airmed
'mensūra'
moghjos māg mēgs  6.3.-

'familiāris' 'gener' 'reluctāns megmi,
a2 3a3.- sum' megti
mag 'libenter
'gener' habeō'
6.4.-m gt
'faveō'
moghō do·formaig magan, magan  maghah moguti

'auget'; mugan (mag 'machina' 'potentia' 'posse'
mochtae, (mag 'possum' ) TOK A.- 5.4- po-mogati
mochtide 'possum') mahts mokats marthank 'iuuāre'
'potens' 3a2.mæg 'potentia' 'potens'  'auxilium, 6.3.-
'possum'; - remedium' mãgulas
meaht 5.6.- 'innumerus
'potentia' magus '
'magus'
moghtis maht, mahts  moštь,
macht mo ь
3a2.-
meaht,
633
might
moghtrom 
moighos 3a2.-mehs  mēha- TOK. В
5.4.-mēz mi o
moilos mītis móith, 2b1.-  máyas- mirъ ?
móeth; mwyn; 'oblectāme 'pax'
mīn mul ntum' <*moiro-
'suauis, 'modestus' miy dha- - milъ
plaanus' ; di-ful sdh- 'misericord
mē(i)th 'audax' 'oblātiō' ia' 6.3.-
'madidus, mwydo 5.3.- míelas ;
uber' 'mitigō' myazda- at-míetet
2b2.-muin, 'obl.' 'mitigō'
moin 5.5.- 6.4.-mīlš
2b3.-moan mīu/mīiau 'amor'
'gracilis'
moinijai 
moinis 
moinja moenia, tuidmen 3a2.-(ge-  min ti mirъ ?
mūniō, 'fixus' )mære 'aptat, 'pax'
arch. <*todīmina 'limes, fundat, <*moiro-
moeniō, t; mé(i)de territorium' struit' 6.4.-mìet
mūrus, a. 'ceruix' 3a3.- 'mūniō
moiros <*meidyo landamæri
'id'
moisos 3a3.-meiss  me á- mech,
'corbis' 'ariēs' мѣхъ 'uter'
5.3.- 6.3.-
maēša- maĩšas
'id' 'follis'
moitājō mūtō missi-; in-maidjan  месть
missi 'ulciscātiō'
'altrinsecu <*meit-ti
s' 6.4.-mie^ti,
3a2.- mie^tus
māɵum 'mūtātiō'
'dōnum'
moitmos SDPIC.- 3a2.- maiþms 
meitims; māðum <*moitmos
meitimúm 'thesaurus, 'dōnum'
'monument dōnum,
um gemma'
grātificātiō
nis'
moitwos mūtuus  mithuna месть
'par' 'ulciscātiō'
5.3.- <*meit-ti
miɵwa,
miđwana, -
ara 'id'
mojnos mūnus - móin, máin mwyn<*m mein  6.3.-
eris 'thesaurus' eino- 'falsus' maĩnas
'pretium, 3a2.-mān 6.4.-mains
ualor' 'id'
moksi mox mo, mos- 
molā mola  *o>u 
moljā mell Malea  ALB.-mal 6.3.-
'tumulus'; Insula 'pāreō' <**molHje lýgmala
mala 2b3.-mell H2 'mons' 'ripa'
'palpebra' 'condylus, 6.4.-mala
cumulus' 6.5;-
izmòlīti
634
'pareō'
moldhā mullach molda  mūrdhan
'tumulus' 3a5.- 'excelsus'; 'caput'

<Ptocelt. meldke 'propāgō'; 5.3.- ka-
*muldāko- <muldikō  mərəδa-
'tectus' TokA
malto
'prīmum'
moldhos 
moleinā molīna, 2b3.-meil 3a2.-  6.9.-

molīnus <*melyā mylen, mill malunis
<lat.
mōlestos 
molgējō mulgeō bligim<mli 2b1.-blith milchu, miluks 'lac'   mārš i, mlizu
gim Milch mārjati, 6.3.-mélzu
mlicht, 3a2.- mrjáti
blicht 'lac' meolcian, 'purgat'
milk
mōlis mōlēs, muoan, af-mauiþs  máj-u, -atь
mōlior, mûhen 'fessus' 'molīmentu 'fatigō'
molestus muodi, m, pugna' ; 6.3.-pri-si-

müde 'litigō' ; muoleti
'fessus'  (cf. 'defetiscor'
3a2.-mēðe ) 'uix'
'id'
mōlos 
molpā molad 2b1.-mawl, 

moli 'canō,
2b3.-meuli cantus'
molqos milgen milhma  molokó

'pecudibus 'nubēs'  'lac'
frūmen molokita
macerō' 'palūs'
6.3.-
malkas
'sorptiō'
6.4.- màlks
'pōtiō'
moltlom malleus,  mlatъ,
marculus mólot
mondō mundus? mandag  maṇ ati, mandagù-
(cf. 'alacer, maṇ ayati 'urbānus,
mūdnós) gaudens' bellus'
mondós 
monejō moneō manen,  mānáyati 6.3.-iš-
mahnen 'honorat'; manýti
3a2.- mánati
manōn, 'monet';
manian mnāyátē
'monētur'
mongos mong 2b1.- 3a3.-makki 
'crīnes' mwng 'ubi crīnes
2b3.-pl. crescunt'
mogou 3a4.-
manke
'crīnis'
monīli monīle muinél 2b1.-  maṇí- 'et monisto
'collus' mwnwgl gemma'
<moniklo 2b2.- <*monHi-
meneth
2b3.-
635
monid/me
nez
monos monīle formnae 2b1.-mwn mana  mányā
<upermon 'collus, 'crīnis' 'monīle' 5.3.-
yo monīle' ; manaorī
'umerus' gor-fynydd <*moneutr
'scāla' o-
montis 
morā mora maraim 2b2.-2b3.- 
'maneō' mar
'uacillātiō'
morā mor- (Nacht)ma  mora
(r)īgain hr 'uenefica'
'lamia, 3a2-
regīna (night)mar
terrōris' e
morcós 
mordējō mordeō murten  márdati, - TOK. A,
'marceō'; 'clepō' áyati 'terō' B.-märtk-

smerzan  5.4.-mart 'rādō''
'doleō' 'horrendus' 'pugna'
3a2-smart
'pungens'
morignā marītus; muirén 2b1.- marzus  márya- 6.3.-
uirgō?? morwyn, 'nuptiae' 'iuuenis, 'iuuenis, merga,
merch puer'; puer' martì

2b2.-  'diana' 5.6.-mērak 'puella'
moroin 'id' 6.4.-mērga
2b3.-
moren
morjods 2b1.- muriot  
morddwyd
2b2.-
morboit
'femur'
2b3.-
morzat/-
rzed
mórmoros formidō 
'metus';

'stix'
morom mōrum 2b1.- mūr-,  5.4.- 6.3.-mõras
vocal.? merwydde mōrbere,<l mor(eni), <lat.?
n at? mori
moros  māra- morъ
'fātum, 'mors' 'pestis'
infortūniu 6.3.-mãras
m, mors' 'id'
mōros már, mór iantumaru māri mers 
s 3a2.-mære 'celeber
2b1.-mawr 3a3.-mærr propter
2b2.-2b3.- arcum'
meur
mōrós mōrus  mūrá-
mōs mōs mout, Mut moths 'īra'  moštrjo,

(mōris); 'animus'   motriti
mōrōsus 3a2.-mōd  'spectāre';
'animus'    sъmejo, -

3a3.- mōðr  meti
'īra'  'audeō'

6.3.-
636
mata ,
matýti
'uideō'
6.4.-matu,
mast
'sentiō'
mosgom mar(a)g,  mastí ka; mozgъ
mar(a)k, majján, 'cerēbrum';
Mark majjā, mo danъ
'medullae' majjas 'medullae'
3a2.- 'medullae' 6.3.-
mearg 'id' 5.3.- smãgenes,
mazga- 'cerēbrum'
moukos 
mouros muria ? múr  5.4.-mōr mur,

'lutum'; 'fluō'; 'palūs, muráva
mún 'ūrīna'  ? immunditia 'caespēs'
<*mouno- '10.000' ' <*muri-? 6.3.-
mrur máuras
<*murur 'lutus'
'sedimentu 6.4.-ma rs
m'; -moyn 'caes.'
'immersus'
mousos mos,  5.4.- mъchъ
Moos; mamur <*musos
Moor 'et <*memus-
palūs' ro-
moutos mūtō / moth  6.3.-
muttō, - muténti
ōnis, 'coīre'
mutūnium;
mūtūniatus
mowejō moueō 1b2.- hemds-  mīvati 6.3.-
comohota mauen 'superō' káma- máuju,
'commota' 'manica mūta- máuti
camisiae' 'amōre 'addūcō
mōtus' (anum in
5.3.-ava- digitum'
mivāmahi
mreghmós 2b1.- bragen  5.3.-

br(e)ithel 'cerebrum' mərəzu-
signif.? 3a2.- 'uertebra
broegen, ceruicālis'
brain 'id'
m ējō mereō ro-smerta 
'praeparan 'partem
s' accipiō'



'parca'
m ghús breuis; murg,  TOK B.-

braccium murgi >braccium  märkwace
<gr. 3a2.- 'sūra'
myrge,
merry
'beātus'
m ijai morior  marati, mьr ,
'mortuus márate, mr ti
est' mriyáte 6.3.-
5.3.- mìrštu,
miryeite mirti
5.4.- 6.4.-
meranim mirstu, mirt
637
5.5.-me-ir-
ta 'mortuus
est'
m jos marītus  márya-
'iuuenis, 'iuuenis,
puer' puer'
5.6.-mērak
'id'
m kā mor(a)ha,  morkóvь,
Möhre (Hes.) morkva
3a2.-more, <ger.?
moru
m kējō marceō brén mercasius  morokvá
<*mrākno- 'palūs' 'palūs'
'putridus' bracem 6.3.-mirkt-
mraich, 'genus ti 'imbūtus
braich farris' sum'
'malta' 2b1.-braen
'putr.'
2b3.-
breyn/brei
n
m kos murcus, morgen  marcáyati 6.3.-pa-
murcidus 'dēbilis' 'botulus 'ruinat' smerkti
3a2.- sanguinis' marká- 'ruinō'
mearg 'mors'
'botulus' mǝrǝxš
3a3.-morr 'ruina'
` 'bot.' 5.4.-mor
<-rky
'tener'
m ktos 
m meikā formīca  vamrī-
m mrājō murmurō; muirn murmurōn,  marmara- *mrъmrati
murmur 'rumor, murmeln, 'rumor' 6.3.-
strepitus' murren murmura- murméti,
3a2.- 'ignis marméti
murc(n)ian crepitans'
5.4.-
mrmram
mərnamói marnaid i m ṇāti
'tradit' 'pugnō' 'clepit';
m ṇāti
'conuincit'
m tājō mortārium, meirb 2b1.-merw mur(u)wi  mrṇāti, -
morētum, 'mortuus' 'dēbilis'; 'mürbe 'ruinō'; mrṇati moromradi

morbus meirle brad 'id' 'blandus' 'ruina'; 'furtat' 'rōdere'
'furtum' 3a2.-  5;5.-
mrath mearo 'id' 'marmor' marriattari
'traditiō' 3a3.-merja  'disoluitur'
'quatiō' 'pugnō'
m tāsjom 
m tis mors  m ti sъ-mrъtь
(mortis) 6.3.-mirtìs
m tos mortuus mord 'nex' maurþr  m tá- mrьtvъ
3a2.-morð, 'nex' (Hesichyu 'mortuus, 6.3.-mirtóji
morðor <*- <*m -tro-m s) 'homō' mors'; dienà

tro- 'nex' (Hom.) mártah 'diēs
3a3.-morð 'homō' mortuōrum
'id' 5.3.- '
mərəta-;
maša-,
638
marəta- 'h.'
5.4.-mard
'homō'
5.6.-
martiya
'homō'
m wos mortuus marb 2b1.-marw  mrьtvъ
<*m wos + 2b2.- <*m wos +
*m tos marow *m tos
2b3.-maro,
marf
mūdlom mundus < muad muzzan  mudirá- myjo, myti
mūdnós 'mundus, 'purgō'; 'madeō' 'nubēs' 'lauō'

superbus'; smuz, 'sūgō'' m datē 6.3.-
mún 'urīna' Schmutz  'gaudet' máudyti
'immunditi 'umidus' 5.5.-mutai 'aliquem
a' 'purgō' balneō'
3a2.- (lutō uel 6.7.-mýdlo
smotten, urīnā)
smoteren
'mancillō'
mūdnós 
mudstos mustus, mossach 1b1.-mws ND.-  <ds musljákъ
mustum 'immundus 'id' mussig 'macula' 'impudīcus'
<umidus ' 2b3.-mous 'immundus
'id' '
mugijō mugiō muckazze  múñjati,
n; mucken 'mussitō' m jati
'susurrō'
munkō ēmungō 2b1.-mign mocht mucheln, mūka-  munákti, smy oi se
 
<*munknō 'palūs' 'mollis' mücheln mōdei 'nasus'; muñcáti, 'rēpō'
?, mūcus, <*mūkino; 'moho 'placiditās'  mucáti mukljiv
mūcor, odēre' 'mūgil'  'liberat' 'ūdus'
mūgil 3a2.-meek 5.3.- 6.3.-
'blandus' framuxti munkù
mugen 'liberō' 'abstērgeō'
'nebulor' ; mukls, -
ains
'palūdōsus'
mūs mūs mūs  mūs-, myšь
(mūris) 3a2.-mūs, mū á-,
mouse mū a-
5.4.-mukn
muskā musca  5.4.-mun mucha,
<*musyā mъšica
6.3.-mus
muskos muscus 3a3.-musk  muzga
'mūcor, 'palūs';
parua mozgъ'tem
pluuia, pus ūdus'
puluis'
músnāmi chrēo-  mó ati,
mōsido 'oculōs mu ṇāti
(Lex operiō'; 'clepit'
Salica)  ! 5.5.-
'cadaueris <*H2meu munnai-
raptus' 'āuertō'
mūtrom mothar modder  mūtra-
'dūmētum, 'lutum' 'urīna'
palūs' 3a2.- 5.3.-mūra
mother 'immundit.'
'faeces'; 5.4.-mtàr
639
mud; 'obscūrus'
smod
'immunditi
a'
muttijō 
muttis muttiō mutilōn 
'murmurō'
3a2.-
muteren,
mutter 'id'
3a3.-
muðla 'id'
ṇ in- e(n)- i(n)- a(n)- un- un- 
nətis natis, nōtan 

natēs 'puppis' 'tergum'
nantis néit genende ana- 
'pugna' 'nauus'; nanþjan
Ferdinand 'audeō'
3a2.-
nēþan
'audeō'
nāsis nāris, nasa  nāsā s/du nosъ
nāsis, 3a2.-nosu, (nasó ) du 6.3.-nósis
nāsus nose 5.3.- 6.4.-nãss
3a3.-nasar narəha <*nāsis
5.6.-
nāham
natrīks natrix nathir 2b1.-neidr natara, nadrs, 
(nathrach) 2b2.-nader atter g.pl. nadrē
2b3.- 3a2.-
natrolion/a n ddre
er
nawāgós nāvig-āre,  nāvāja-
-ium 5.3.-
navāza-
nāws nāuis nau, nó nausum 3a3.-nōr  náuh (ac.
(noe) nāvam)
5.4.-naw
5.6.-nāv
ṇbhudhnó  abudhná-

m  'infundātus
' 5.4.-
andund-k'
ṇc n inguen 3a3.- 
ökkvinn 'glandula'
'tumor'
ṇdha LUS.-inde inde- 'per' ande 'per-' und 'tenus'  'ibī, ádhi ALB.-në,
'et' (intens.) (int.) ibīdem' 'super, ad' ndë 'in'
'ind-reth 2b1.-
'cōgitātiō' an(ne)-
'dispositiō'
ṇdherós inferus; untar, undar <  adhara-
infimus, untan *ṇter 'contemnō'
infernus, 3a2.-under (cf. énteri)
infrā 3a3.-und
'sub'
ṇdhētós 
ṇdhi ande-  adhi
'magis' 'super'
ṇdwojos 
nē nē, ne ní 2b1.-ni  na
640
2b2.-ny
2b3.-ne
nebhis nebula, nem (es-), 2b1.-nef nebul  nábhas- nebo, -ese

nimbus neamh; 'caelum' 'nebula'  'nebula' 'caelum'
eptūnus? nél ?, ac. 3a2.-nifol 5.3.- 6.3.-
pl. níulu 'id' nabah- debesis
<*nebhlo-? 'caelum'
'nūbēs' 5.5.-nepiiš
'caelum'
(nebisas)
5.6.-nem
'ūdor'
nebhlā 
nedis nenaid, 2b3.-linad nazza,  6.6.-na
neantóg nezzila <*ṇd-ikā 6.3.-
<*ni-nati-? 3a2.- nõter ,
netele, notre
nettle
nedjos nectō nessimas nessam 2b1.-nesaf  náhus
1b1.- 'proximus' 2b2.- 'congener'
nesimei nessa naddhás
'proxime' 2b3.-nesa 'connexus'
nedō nōdus, nessimas nascim 2b1.-nes, nesten; nati 'rēte'  náhyati;
nōdō, 1b1.- <ndsk-; nessaf 'id' nezzi,, náhus
nassa nesimei arnenas 2b2.-nes Netz 'id'; 'uīcīnus,
'proxime' 'nectam'; 'propior' nestilōn congener'
naidm 2b3.-nes, 'lemniscāt naddhás
'nexus'; nessaf 'id'; us' 'connexus'
nessa, nasca 3a2.-net 5.3.-
nessam 'aptō' 'id' naska-
'propior, 'collectiō
proximus' textuum'
nedsā 
nedskō nectō (ad nascim ` 2b3.-  náhyati
plectō) naska
<nedhsk
neghō ness  ák u- vъ-nьzo -
<neg^hs-; 'confodiō'; 'stipēs' znotь;

'uulnus' 'hasta' <*nghsu-? no ь
'culter'
neghrōn 1a2.- nioro, 
nefrōnēs Niere
3a3.-nyra
nei nī, arc. nei nei 'nōn' 3a3.-nī nei 'nōn'  5.3.-naē- ni 'neque'
'nōn' iš 'et ni-kъto
nullus' 'nullus'
neicō noegeum nigim nihhus  n nēkti,
<*noigʷio 'lauō' 'monstrum nēnējmi
aquaticum'
neidō neizzen ga-naitjan  níndati 6.3.-

'tormentō' naiteins 'offensiō' 5.3.-naēd- níedeti
3a2.- 'sacrilegiu (nāismī) 'contemnō'
nætan 'id' m' 5.4.- 6.4.-nĩst
anicanem 'id'; naîdus
'maledicō' 'odium'
neikō cruth- 2b1.-  6.3.-niekó-

necht nithio;  ti
'rūber gwenith 6.4.-niekat
frūmen' 2b3.-niza;
(cf. 2b1, gwiniz
b3)
neitom níth <nītu- 2b1.-nwyd Neid neiþ 
641
'pugna' 'passiō' 'inuidia' 'inuidia'
3a2.-nīð
neiwós 3a2.- *naiw 'ἐνεῖ  níva
neowol, χεν' 'uallis' <*nēiwā
nēol, 'depressiō'
'prōnus' 6.3.-néivoti
(cf. lat. 'tormentō'
procul) 6.4.-ni vât
'humiliō'
nékāmi 
nekopīnós necopīnus  внез пно
neks nex, éc (éca) 2b1.-  na (y)ati
nequālia, <*ṇkus angheu/an 'cadauer'; 'perditur' ;

necō, 2a3.-éag gau nas-
noceō, 2b2.- 'infortūniu
perniciēs, ankow m'
noxa 2b3.- 5.3.-
ankou nasyeiti
<*ṇkewes 'ēuanescit'
némētom nemed nemhton nemida  namas
2b1.-nant 'honōrātiō'
'id' 5.3.-
nemata
'gigās'
nemō nummus ? nem, neim 3a1, 3a2.- niman  6.3.-

'dōnum' niman 'id'; 'emō' 'considerō' nãmas
nehmen <*n+em? ;  'domus'
(a1) cf. 6.4..- 'lex', 6.4.-nams
3a3.-nēma nemt/jemt  'id';
'id' 'legālis' nuõma
<*n+em? 'grauāmen'
nemos nemus nemed nemhton 3a2.-  námas
'sanctuāriu 'santuariu nimidas 'inclinātiō,
m' m'; nanto 'sacra reuerentia'
'ualle' silvārum' ; námati
2b1.-nant 'inclinātur'
'id' 5.3.-
námaiti 'id'
nemots náma 2b1, 2b2, nãma  5.3.- ALB.-
(námat) 2b3.-nam 'raptiō' 'ulciscātio nemanh name
'damnum' 'scelus' 'maledictiō'
nepēts nepōs niae 2b1.-nai nefo, nevo  nápāt- 6.3.-
(niath) 2b2.-noi 3a2.-nefa (Hom) nepotis
2b3.-ni pl. 'suboles'
nied
neptis neptis necht Neptacus nit  naptī
2b1.-nith (Hom)
2b2.-noit 'suboles'
2b3.-
nith/niz
neqe neque, 2b1.-na(c) nih naca ALB.-nuk
nec 2b2-b3.- 'nōn'
na(g)
neqid nec (ni) na(ka /cid)
quidquam hvashun cit
'nemō' 5.5.-
ULkuisk/ku
idki
neqis
neqom
neqos nech nepon некий
(neich) (nepi) 6.3.-
642
2b1.-neb nekurs
neros neriōsus, nerum ner 'ursus'; Esu-nertus Nerthus  nár(a)- nravъ
erō 'uirum, so-nirt ; 'homō' (nā) 'homō' 'mōs'

proc.' 'sānus, ner; hy-  sūnára- 6.3.-nóras
1b2.-nerf fors' nerth  'iuuenis' 'uoluntās';
'proceres, 'fortis' 5.3.-nar(a) noréti
princ'; 5.4.-air 'uelle'
(arn)
nérteros nertrak 'a nordrōni,  náraka- нор
 
sinistrā' nördlich 'inferus' 'infera, 'cauitās' ;
1b2.-nertru 3a2.- hadēs' въньрѫ,
'sinistrō' norðerra TOK B.- вънрѣти
'+sep.' ñor 'sub' 'παρεισδύε
σ αι'
6.3.-neriù,
nérti 'cadō'
nertos nert 'uis' Nerto-  n tú- 6.9.-
briga 'heros' nertien
2b1-2b2.- 'īra'
nerth
2b3.-nerz
nesros nár  5.5.-
nahsaras
'reverens'
ṇeu āne, an, inu 
ohne
3a2.-āno
neudō Nuado ōdonti, nuzzen, niutan  нуж ,
(Nuadat) ōdenti nützen 'd' 'attingō'; нужд
'piscātor' 'piscātōrī' 3a2.- nuta 'necesittās'
2b1.-Nudd nyttian 'piscātor' ; 6.3.-naudà
'id' 'fruor' un-nuts 'prouectus'
'inutilitās' , naudoti
'ūtor'
6.4.-
nàu^da
'pecunia'
neukos nuscitiōsu  6.3.-niáukti
s, 'nebulārī'
luscīnus 6.4.-
apnaukties
'id'
new(ij)os nouus nae, noe, Neuiodunu niuwi <*- niujis <*-  náva- novъ,
nue, nuie m yo- yo- 5.3.-nava- новый
2b1.- 3a2.-nīewe 5.5.-nēwas 6.3.-na ja-
newydd <*-yo- s
2b2.- 6.9.-nauns
nowyth
2b3.-
nouuid
newājō nouō niuwōn, ana-niujan  5.5.-
niwōn newahhum
3a2.- 'nouāuī'
niwian
newṇ nouem nói 2b1.-2b2.- 3a2.-nigun niun F náva devetь (nt
naw <ww 5.4.-inn a XC)
2b3.-nao 3a3.-niio 6.3.-devynì
6.4.-devińi
néwṇos 
newō nuō, nutō, nóid 2b1.-  návatē, ponúryj

nūmen 'nōtum adnau  nāuti (*neu-ro-)
facit'; ate-  'reuertitur'; 'inclinātus'
643
no 'fidō'; nudáti 6.3.-
aithne niùrkyti
'depositum 'dēprimō'
'
newotāts nouitās 
ṇgnōtós ignōtus  ajnāta-TOK B.-
aknātsa
'amens'
nī arneut-sa, nidar  ni, nitarām nizъ

inneut-sa 3a2.-nithar  5.3.-nī,
'exspectō' 3a3.-nidhr 'uallis' nitənam
<nēsedō; 5.4.-ni
arneigdet
'rogant'
nijóm 2a0.-netta,  náyati,
niott(a) <*niHHeH2 netum
2a1.-né, 'uictoria'; 5.3.-nayeiti

nía, niath  5.5.-
/oth, 'uincō' nāi/neya
niad/od,
niath
<*neits/*nij
ots 'hērōs'
niktis 
nínāmi an  nātha-
'desponde 'iuuō' 'protector,
ō' 3a2, protectiō';
3a3.-ann nāthate
'id', praet. 'rogat'
3a2.-ūðe
nīqos 3a2.-nihol  nīcā 'retrō' nicь, ни
(cf. lat. nyañc- ni ati
procul) 'subtō' 'pronum
esse'
nisdos nīdus net 2b1.-nyth nest  nī á- 6.3.-lìzdas
2a3.-nead 2b2.- 3a2.-nest 'residentia'
neid/neith 5.4.-nist
2b3.-neiz
nitējō niteō níab 'uis 2b1.-nwyd 3a2.-nīð, neiÞ  nīla 'āter
<*nitós; uitālis' 'passiō' nīth 'invidia' caeruleus';
nitor -ris; <neibhos <neito 'disputātiō' nayana,
renīdeō ?; 3a3.-nīð netra
<*nei- noíb 'irrīsus' 'oculus'
id(h)os 'sanctus'; 5.6.-naiba
(cf. āridus níam<nei 'pulcher,
ardeō) mā bonus'
'splendor,
pulchritūdō
'
nīteros 
nitjos Nitio- 3a2.- niþjis  nítya-
broges niððas 'familiāris'
'homines'
3a3.-niðr
'fam.'
ṇjousjom 
ṇjoustos 
ṇkējō écen 2b1.-  5.5.-
'necessitās anghen/an 'necessitās hienkan
' gen ' 'mors'
2b2-3.-
anken
644
'angō'
ṇkneumi ro-icc 2b1.-di- ginah, ganah,  a n ti, 6.3.-
'attingit'; anc genug ganaúhan 'talāris'; ná ati, pf. pranókti

sub. -íss 'effugiō' 'satis'; nah 'sufficit' ; 'continuus'; ānám a, 'praetereō'
<*īnkse/o- rank, ? 'prop' ganōhs  ānā a 6.4.-nãku,
; pf. ·ánaic cyfranc 3a2.- 'satis' ;  'amplore <*h2eh2no( nãki, nãkt,
do-icc <*kom-ro- geneah nēhv ? hastae' n)ke praet.
'uenit' anko- 'id' 'satis' ; 'prope'  5.3.- nãca
pr. du-uicc nāh, nēah,  ašnaoiti 'ueniō'
'cuspide
<*onkist nigh ? 'id' 5.4.-
actus'
con-icc (ge)nægan hasanem,
'inuenit' ? praet. hasi
con-icc- 'appropinq
'potest' uō'
comracc 3a3.-
'contiō' (g)nōgr 'id'
ṇmrótijos immortālis  a-m ta-

n tos nanto  námati TOK A, B.-
'uallis' 'inclinātur', näm-
2b1.-nant natá- 'plicō'
'uallis' 'plicātum'
2b2.-nans 5.3.-
'id' nǝmaiti 'id'
nṇkskai nanciō; ro-icc Selva- ginah, ganah,  ná ati, 6.3.-
nanciscor, 'attingit'; nectes genug 'id' ganaúhan nák ati nóksta,
na(n)ctus sub. -íss 'Proprietārī 3a2.- 'sufficit' 'assequitur nókia,
sum; <*īnkse/o- i' geneah 'id' ganōhs ' , aor. nokti
nancītor ; pf. -ánaic 2b1.-di- 3a3.- 'satis' āna ; 'mātūrō'
'nactus do-icc anc (g)nōgr 'id' 5.3.--
erit' (LXIIT) 'uenit' 'effugiō' nasaiti
pr. du-uicc rank, 5.5.-ni-ik-zi
<*onkist cyfranc (nikzi)
con-icc <*kom-ro- 'erigitur'
'inuenit' anko- 'id'
con-icc-
'potest'
comracc
'contiō'
nocējō 
nócodos nūdus nocht 2b1.noid/n nackt naqaÞs  nagná-
oeth 3a2- <Hes mana-
2b2.-noyth nacod, l 5.5.-neku-

2b3.-noaz naked (*o > u manza
3a3.- propter
nökkviðr, Cowgill's
nakuþer legem)
nōdos nōdus naidm náti 'rēte' 
'nexus'
noibhos noib  5.6.-naiba
'pulcher,
bonus'
nōinos nullus 3a1, 3a2.- 
nēn
nokejō noceō, éc 'mors' 2b1.-  na yati,

nex, angeu 'id' na ati 'id';
'cadauer';
nequālia, 2b2.-   nasu
perniciēs ancow 'id' 'cadauer'
2b3.- 5.3.-
negein nasyeiti
'necō' 'pereō'
nom num no- (part  5.5.-na
645
uacua) 'tunc'
nom nē 
nōmṇ nōmen ainm n- 2b1.-anu namo, namo  nāmā im

<*ṇmṇ / pl enuein Name 5.4.-anun <*ṇmṇ/*ṇ
*ṇmen 2b2.- 3a2.- 5.5.- men
hanow nama, laman- 6.9.-
2b3.-hano name emnes,
emmens
nōmnājō nominō namnan, namnjan 
nennen <*nomnjo/ <*H3nH3m
3a2.-nefna e ṇjō
nom numerus nós 2b1.-naws  5.5.- nuoma
<*nomso-? 'gnōtis'? lammar 'usufrucus,
'consuetūd 2b3.-neuz 'mensura beneficium
ō' ? 'id' quaedam '
temporis'
noqterinós nocturnus 

noqtis nox in-nocht 2b1.- naht, nahts  nákti-s noštь,

(noctis) 'hac nocte' henoeth nacht (*o > u 5.5.-nekuz ночь
2b2.-nos 3a2.-naht, propter 'nocturnus' 6.3.-naktìs
2b3.-noz night Cowgill's , nekuzzi
3a3.-natt, legem) 'uesperasc
nott it'
nosejō gi-nesan, ganisan  násatē TOK -A
genesen 'saluus 'reuertor' 'conciliātur' na u-

'sānō'; fierī' 'reuersiō' āsatyau 'amīcus'
nerren, nasjan   'Iuuātōres'
nähren 'saluō' 
'alō, cūrō' ga-nists 'templum'
3a2.- 
'sānātiō' 
nerian 'secūrus'
'ptegō'
genesan
'superuīuō'
;
nōunā núne, 2b1.- nōt, ot nauþs  ToA.-nut-, no da
naunae newyn 3a2.-nēad, <*nouti- ToB naut- 'necessitās
<*nəwenjo- 2b2.-nown nīed, need 'necessitās 'pereō' ' navь
2b3.- '; 'cadauer'
naoun naus <*nōwis
'cadauer', 6.3.-nõvyti
nawis 'mactō';
<*nowis nōwe
'mortuus' 'lētum'
ṇprobhwos 
ṇqijētós inquiētus  5.3.-a-
šāta-
'tristis'
ṇserós noster 2b3.-hon unser unsar 
3a2.-our
ṇsis ensis  ásyati
<*H2nsr 'iacit'
/H2nsor astram
'missīle'
PAL.-
hašīran
'sīca'
ṇsloimis 
ṇsme uns uns  asmān

<*uṇswe <*uṇswe 4.2. 5.3.ahma
3a2.-us 4.3.- 5.5.-anzāš

646
ṇswodhros 
nū nunc 3a1.-a2, nu (nū?);   nú, nū, nyne; nъ
<numke; a3.-nū naúh nūnám; 'sed'
num; 3a1.-nūn; 'adhuc' nūtana 6.3.-nù,
etiamnum; noch *nu-kwe 5.3.-nū(m), nūnaĩ
nū-per; nu- 'adhuc' nūram 6.4.-nu
diūs 5.5.-kinun
numki nunc <* 5.5.-kinun
kyāmeron
ṇwidis ainb unwizzi <*- unwits; Hom. avidyá
(ainfed); dio- unwiti  5.5.-awiti
noídiu 'ignorantia' <*-dio- <*newids; 'leō'

<*newidwō 3a2.- 'ignorantia' 'Hadēs'
s 'infans' unwita
obhi ob- (cf. bi 'ad,  abhi 'ad' obь, оbъ
epi), ob circum' 5.4.-abiy 'circum'
portum (cf. ambhí)
(XIIT)
óbrusjā obrussa  huprushi
<gr. 'turārium'
ochis anguis esc-ung 2b1.-euod  áhi-s u (u á)
'serpens'
'anguila' 'uormes'  'serpens' 6.3.-angìs
2b3.- 'uipera' 5.3.-azish 6.6.-w ż
rogedou 5.4.-auz,
'orgiis' awj
odáugjai atochta  5.5.-
'malum'  'furere' hatugatar
(Crim) 'terror'
odējō odor, 3a3.-  ALB.-amë 6.3.-

odefaciō, os<ōdso  'odor' úod iu,
ol(e)faciō, 'odor' 'odor' úosti
oleō  6.4.-uo u,
uost
odhrom etar  ostrimon odrъ
'margīō, 'stabulum, 'lectus'
uallum' claustrum' odrina
3a2.-supti- 'stabulum'
'uallum'
odjō (ōda) ōdi, odium 3a2.-atol  5.4.-ateam

'dīrus' <*H3d
3a3.-atall -hatuka
'id' 'dīrus'
ōdjom 
odós 
oghlejō 3a2.- 
eglian, ail
oghlos 
ogmos  ájma-
'meātus'
oidējō aemidus eiz 'tumor'  indra- edro, jadro

 'robustus': 'sinus;
 Indra 'deus uēlum,
'tumidipedi pluuiae'; nāuis';
s' indu ? jadъ 'virus'
'gutta' <oidos,
5.4.- jedro
aitnum<oid 'celer,
numi; robustus';
aitumn jadro
'tumor'; ait 'nucleus,
'maxilla' testic.'
647
6.8. jàditi
'uexāre'
6.3.-
aindinti
'excitō'
oighai  5.5.-egdu, 6.3.-eigà

'uestigium'igdu- 'crus' 'cursus'
<*eigh-
oimos  ma 6.3.- eisme
óinoikos ūnicus einac ainaha  inokъ
3a2.-ānga
3a3.-einga
oinos ūnus, óin, oen 2b1-2b2.- ains  ēnam inъ 'ūnus,

oinos un 'eum' alius'
2b3.-unan
oinow stós ūniuersus,  cf.
arc. одноврем
oinuors(ei) енный
(BACC) 6.9.-
ainawārst
'semel,
pariter
cum'
oisjā 3a2, a3.-ār  5.5.-hissa- oje

<*airō 'tēmō 6.3.-
propter currūs' íelekstis,
FI airō íena
oisos  'talis' esa-h 'iste'
oitmi ūtor; oisi úíttiuf<*-  Luw.-
<*oitsi iōns 'ūsus' <*H3eits- hizza(i)
(Duenos) 'feram' <*H3eits-
oitos oeth 2b1.- eid, Eid aiþs  5.5.-hai
'periuria' 3a2.-að, 'credō' 'confidō,

anutonou/ āþ  credō'
anudon 3a3.-eiðr 'uoueō'
oiwos ūua iva-, éo ivo- 2b1- īiwa, īwe,   eta 'uarius, iva
ywen Eibe; īgo rūber, 6.3.-ievà
2b2.-hivin 3a2.-īw; īh, uulpēs' 6.4.-i va
2b3.-ivin ēoh 5.4.-
3a3.-yr aigi<óiwiyā
'uīnum'
5.5.-
e(y)a(n)- ?
okējō ahta aha 
'attentiō'; 'sensus, 'dubium';

achten intell.'; 'dubitō'
'considerō' ahjan
3a2.-eaht 'arbitror';
'existimātiō ahma
' 'spiritus';
ahaks
'columba'
ókētā occa 2b1.- egida 
ocet/aged
2b3.-oged
ōkinós 
okris ocris, 1b2.-ukar, ochair 2b1.-ochr  a rí-

mediocris ocar
oktōu octō ocht 2b1.-wyth aht, acht ahtau  a ā, a āu osmь
2b2.-eath 3a2.eahta, 5.3.-ašta 6.3.-
2b3.-eiz eight 5.4.-ut`, aštuoni
648
3a3.-ātta uth
oktowos octāuus 
ōkúpteros accipiter  ācupátvan ястре ,
- iastrebъ;
suff. lat.
columba,
palumbēs,
gr.
ōkús ōcior 2b1.-dioc  ā ú-

'uelocior'; 'piger' 5.3.-āsu-
accipiter, 2b2.-dioc
acipedius, 'piger'
aquila <Hº 2b3.-'diek'
Hi3ku- lentus'
H2wi-lā;
olejō adoleō, alad ? 3a3.-ala aljan ?  alātam
adolescō, 'uariātus' > 'ardēre' 'auidus' 'carbō'
altāre 2a2.-aladh (cf. alacer
'tructa' ?)
olējō aboleō 1b2.-ondu,  5.5.-
holtu <* hallanna-,

'prosternito 'deleō'; hallanniya
'  'calcō,
<*H3elH1u paviō'
'fūnestus'
olgjā  5.5.- loza

 alkista(n)- 'pampinus'
 'rāmus'
 
ōlim  лони
'annō
praeteritō'
(arc.)
oljoi oljāi uile 2b1.- al(l) 'id' pl. alls 'omnis'  5.4.-olj
olja (h)oll<*(s)o alle <*ol-no-
lno- 3a2.-eal(l)
2b2, 2b3.- 'id'
holl
olmos ulmus lem Limo-, elmboum ,  ílim <
Lemo- Ulme germ.
3a2.-elm
ōlnā ulna uile (uilen), 2b1.-elin elina aleina  áratni- lanita

(dat. pl. 'ulna' 3a2.-  5.3.- <*olnita
uilneib) 2b2.-elin eln(boga) <*eH3l- arəna, 'maxilla'
<*olēn- <*olēnā <*olenā · frārāni- lakъtъ,
2b3.-ilin 3a3.-alen  (Hes) 5.4.-uln lókotь
<*olēno- <*ºH3l-  <ōlnā 6.3.-
5.5.-haliya alkúne,
'genufl.' úolektis
ólteros 
ólt os 
oltrōd uls; ultrō, últiumam oll 'amplus' all 'omnis' alls 'omnis'  par-āri lani
ultra; 'ultimam' ind-oll 3a2.-eall ala-mans 'tertiō 'annō/aest
ulterius; 1b2.-ulo, 'ultra' 'omnis' 'germanī' praeteritō ate
ultimus, ulu 'illō, old- 'quam' 3a3.-al- annō' (cf. praeteritīs'
olle; ollī; illuc' oll-athair foðr olitana,
ollīc, ōlim 'Dagdae' 'Wodan' olitinata)
olwā ulua, alga 3a3.-ulka  rjī a-h 6.3.-álksna
'ronna, 'lubricus, <*olgsnā ?
situs' adhaesīuu 'lāma'
649
s'
omos emis  ámah

(emsig) 'tormentu 'uiolentus'
'strēnuus' m' ámīti
3a3.-ama F  'confirmat'
'pestis' āmáyati
'nocet'
5.3.-ama-
'potentia'
amáyanā
'damnum'
ōmós om 2b1.-of 'id';  āmá-
'crūdus'; efydd 3a3.-āma 'crūdus' 'crūdus'
um(a)e 'aes' 'erysipelas' 5.4.-hum
'rudus' 'crud(ēlis)'
omsos (h)umerus 1b2.-onse ams  ámsah
5.4.-us,
ows
5.5.-
anassa
'dorsum' ?
onbhlos umbilicus Umbrī ? imlecan naba,  nābhih 6.4.-naba
nabalo
onchis unguis inga, ingen 2b1.- nagal,  nakhah, noguti

<*ṇghwīnā eguin/ewin Nagel (*o > u nakhám 6.3.-nâgas
2a3.-ionga 2b2.-euuin 3a2.-nægl, propter <*naghuká
2b3.-iuin nail m?
Cowgill's
3a3l.-nagl legem) 5.5.-
sanku(wa)i
-
oncṇ unguen 1b2.-umen imb (imbe) 2b1.- ancho  ājyam 6.9.-
'berri ymenyn 'butyrī 'grassa anctan,
unguen' 2b2.- unguen' sacrificiī' ancte
amen-en 'butyrum'
2b3.-
aman(n)
oncō unguō 1b2.-umtu  anakti
'unguito' 5.4.-
aucanem
oncōl  á gāra- glь, уголь
5.4.-acul, <*onglis
acowl 6.3.-anglìs
5.6.-angišt
ondos ond, onn  ádri-
(uinde)
onējō on anamou,  5.3.-

'uerecundi anaf 'id'  nadəntō
a'; anim 2b3.-anaff 'uituperāns
'mendum' 'mendum' '
5.5.-
hanna-
'iudicō'
ónerjos  5.4.-anurj ALB.-

<*H3nōrio- a^derre
onghlos ungula nagal,  ánghrih
Nagel
onjos andar anthar  anya-; 6.3.-
3a2.-other ántara- añt(a)ras
3a3.- 5.3.-anya-, 6.5.-wutory
annarr ainya- 6.7.-úterý
5.6.-aniya-
onkājō uncō, -āre ong 'uf'' 2b1.-och Unke  ja u, ja ati
650
ennach 'gemitus' 'rāna' 'suspirō'
'coru.'
onkos 
onos onus  ánah
(oneris) 'tormentu 5.5.-
m' an(n)iya-

 'efficiō'
ónteros ander- anþar  ántara-, SO B.-
3a2.-ōþer wutory
6.3.-
añtaras
ópitjos aften aftaro,  5.5.-

3a2.- aftuma, 'postea' appizzi(ya)
æftan, aftumists -
after
3a3-aptan
opjō praedotion ufteis  za-(j)apъ
t -t<p- 'optātī'; 'suppositu
(Festos) 1b2.-upetu s';
'praeoptan optātō', ne-vъz-
t'; opeter apьnъ
opīnor, lēctī' 'necopīnus'
optiō,
optō;
necopīnus
opnā opulentus  ápnas
<*opunent 'alimentum 5.3.-
us? '; afnahvant

'diues'
5.5.-
happinatt
'opulentus'
ópopā upupa wituhopfo,  6.4.-
Wiedeh. puppukis
3a2.- 6.6.-hupek
widohoppa
opos opus, upsannam somme ? uoben  apas
operō, 'operanda Opulentus; 'exerceō'; 'alimentum 5.3.-āpas
ops, m'; domme 3a2.-efnan ' 5.5.-
omnis<*op upsatuh 'pauper' 'faciō'; happar
-nis; sent 'factī <dus-op- 3a3.-efna 'transactiō'
officium<* sunt'; smyo-); 'faciō'
opídhēkyo upsed
m 'fēcit',
upsens
'fēcērunt';
2b2.-osatu
'facitō'
opos esti 
ops 
oqō  īksate 6.6.-
 
'aspicit' obaczy
oqos oculus enech 2b3.-enep  (du.) áksi oko
'uultus' 'id'  (ac. (aksnáh), (ocese),
Sing.) áksī; ochi
 ánīkam, 6.3.-akì

'uultus' prátīkam
 'uultus'
 5.3.-aši
(du.)
5.4.-akn
(akan), pl.
651
a -k`
ōrā ōra; ārea? or?  āre, ārāt 6.3.-óras
F 'procul' 'aer'; iš óro
Hom. 5.5-arha 'extra'

(asp. 'terminus';
explicanda arahziya/z
*ser ena(nt)
commixtā); 'foraneus'
?
ōrājō ōrō urust  5.5.-ariya-
'ōrāuerit' 'orāculum
consultārī'
orbhis orbis, 1b2.-urfeta  5.5.-harp tok A, B
 
orbita 'orbita'  'permūtō' yerpe

(Hsq).
orbhjom orpe, Orbius, arbi, erbi, arbja; 
orb(b)e, orbaniacus Erbe RUN-
orbae; 2b1.-Urb- 3a2.-ierfe arƀija
com-arbus gen/urien 'id' 'exsequiae'
'hereditās'
orbhos orbus com- Orbogeno Arbeit arbja  arbha rabъ
arpe/arbae s 'labōr' <*orbhjo- 'paulus' 'seruus'
'hērēs' ; 2b1.- 3a3.-arfi, 'hērēditās'; 5.4.-orb
erbaid Urbagen, arfa arbeiþs (orboy)
'committit' Urbgen, <*orbho- 5.5.-harp
Urien itis 'labōr' 'permūtō'
ordhos ord 2b1.-2b2.-  5.4.-urn
ord <*ōrdh
2b3.-horz
orgājō orcaid orge  TOK A.-
>oirggid 'occide' 5.4.- arkämn-, B
'necat'; Orgetorīx; harkanem erkau
orcun 2b1.-orn 'tundō, 'necropolis'
<*orgenā; 'nex frangō'
orn 'nex'; 2b3.- 5.5.-
orgiat treorgam hark(iya)
'caesar' 'forō' 'pereō',
caus.
harkanu,
harnink
orghis uirgge,  5.3.-ərəzi 6.3.-ar ùs
uirge 'testiculus' 'oua, 'lascīuus',
'testiculus' <H3orghi- scrotum' er ilas
(*orghiā) (ø) 'mas'
5.4.-orji-k
'oua'
5.5.-arki-
orghós 3a3.-argr  orj 'mas' 6.3.-ar ùs
'ēmollītus' 'tripudiō' 'ardens'
ormos arms  5.4.-ol-
3a2.-earm ormim
'miser' 'misereor'
5.5.-
arma(n),
irma(n)
'morbum'
oros CELTIB.- 
eniorosei
orús  r vá-
'mons' 5.5.-aru;
harsi
652
'pinguis
pānis';
harsar
'caput'
ōs ōs (ōris), á  ās- (sás) 6.3.-
cōram, 5.3.-āh- ústa(s)
aurīga, 5.5.-ais 'bucca
ōreae, (issas flūminis'
ōsculum <*i +
HHwsos)
osbhos odb 2b1.-oddf 
osdos ast asts  5.4.-ost
3a2.-ōst 5.5.-
hasduēr
osēn anōna ēorna ? ar(e)m, asans  5.4.-ashun jesenь,
<*esornyā Ernte 'segēs, <*op- 5.5.-zena, ósenь
'hordeum' 3a2.-asna aestās'; óhərā; zenant ? 'autumnus'

'salārius'; asneis 6.9.-
earn 'operārius' assanis
oskos asc  5.4.-hac'i ALB.-ah
3a2.-æsc 'hasta';

'fagus'
ósonos ornus huinnius 2b1-2b2.-  6.3.-úosis
2a3.- onn-en 6.4.-uo^sis
fuinnseog 2b3.-ounn-
en
ostis os (ossis), asna, 2b1.-  ásthi
ossum, easna, assen 'id' (asthnáh)
ossua esna 2b2.-asow; 5.3.-ast-
<*astonyo- esel 'id' 5.4.-
'costa'; 2b3.-ezel oskr<*osth
asil 'id' wer ?
'membrum' 5.5.-
hastāi-
ōsmi ōstium  5.5.-
has(s), ha-
as-zi
ōstjom ōstium  ósthah usta
'labrum' 'bucca'
5.3.- ustina
aost(r)a 'labium'
'labra'
oudṇ  5.4.-getin

5.5.-utne,
udne
ougros uafer?, úar; ócht oer  oman 6.3.-áušti
au[c]tumn 'frigor' 'frigor' frigēscō'
us ? (<ougtu-) (<oumən) (*augsketi
5.3.-aota; ?);
aodar 6.4.-a ksts
'frigor' 'frigidus'
ousis auris <*H3º au, ó (aue) Su-ausia ausō  5.3.- uxo
(ausins) <*H3oH 3s uši<H3H3wº (ušese)
w
Hw3s-
-,  s 2 5.4.- 6.3.-ausìs
<*H3eHw3s unkn
-, <*usonko

(Hom.) m 5.5.-
ehur
<*HeHw-
w(ij)om ōuum og 2b1.- ei  5.3.-ap- ajьce
(pl.ugai) wy<ówiyo 3a3.-egg āvaya-?
2a3.-ubh m 2b2.- 'castrātus'
653
(uibhe) uy/oy 5.4.-ju
2b3.-ui pl. <*(y)ōyo-
Uiou
owājō ouō, -āre 
owis ouis 1b1.-uuef, oi 2b1.- ewig ouwi, ou aweþi  ávi-, avika- ovinu
oui 2b2.-euhic 3a2.- 'grex'; , avikā 'aries'
'cerua' ēowu, awistr 5.4.-hoviw ovьca
ēowe, 'ouīle' 'pastōr' 'capra'
ewe; 5.5.-hawi- 6.3.-avis
ēowestre LYC.-xawã
'id'
pəgtós pactus 
pəgrós pignus -  pajrá-
oris 'solidus'
pəra 3a1, 3a2.- faúra  purā
fora 'antea' 'antea' 'antea'
2b1.-para
'antea'
pəros arsaid, Frist  purá ;
arsid 'terminus' 'pridem'; pura -

'vetus' 3a2-first  'uetus' sthita-
'primus' 'praestans'
; 'purō-
gavá- 'dux'
5.3.-parō
pəstrom passer  páttra- 'et
āla'
pətējō pateō, pat[ít?] 2a4.- 2b1.-etem, fuodar, faÞa  5.3.- 6.3.-pet s

pandō, patet', aitheamh edau 'id' Fuder 'uallum'   paana 'umerus'
patera patensíns 'fūnis' 'onus'  'amplus'
`panderent 3a2.- 'patera' 5.5.-
' fæðm, pattar, dat.
fathom paddani
'fūnis'; 'tabula (?)'
fōðor
'onus'
pətēr pater pater, dat. athir Ateronius fater fadar  5.1, 53.-
paterei 3a2.-fæder pitár-
1b2.- 3a3.-faðir 5.4.-hair,
iupater hayr
pəterā patera  5.5.-
(Lyc.) GIpattar
pətjai patior 
pətrjā patria aithre 

'paternitās'
pətrjos patrius, aithre fetiro,  pit vya

patruus; fatirro, 5.3.-.
proprius<p fatureo, tūirya-
ropatrius Vetter
pətrujós patruus fetiro,  pít vya-
fatirro, <*pǝtrōus; 5.3.-tūirya

fatureo, 'uitricus' 5.4.-
Vetter yauray
3a2.- 'uitricus'
fædera
pəwējō paueō, urfūrian   pjáuju,
pauiō, 'concundō' pjáuti
putō, 3a2.- 'secō';
depuuere, āfyran 'id' pjúklas
pudet 'secūr.'
6.4.-p a t
'metō'
654
pādhlom pābulum  5.3.-pāqra-
vant-
'protector'
pagos pagus fah, Fach 
'dominium'
3a2.-fæc
'interuallu
m'
pags 
pālājō palatium LUS.-  pālayati
trebopala
'protector
pagī'
(Cabeço
das
fraguas)
pálejā palea  palāvah pleva
6.3.-pelai
pálowos  parusa
'liuidus'
palpājō palpo(r), fuolen, 
palpitō, fehlen 'agitō'
palpebrae 3a2.-
fælan, feel
pámponos 3a3.-  bimba- bubulja
fimbul-, 'turbō' 'puer' 'gutta'
'pipula 6.3.-
metallī' bamba
'umbilicus'
pampa ,
pampti
'tumescō'
pandos pandus, 3a3.- 
pandō -ā fattr<fanta
panknos 
pankō pānus,  po iti se
pānīcum, 'inflāri'
pantex pogvica
`globulus'
pannos pannus an-art ? fano, fana 

'pannus Fahne 'textus'
līnī' 3a2.-fana 
'texō'
pāpeljos pāpiliō - vīvalter,  *pepelūšьk
ōnis (Fei)falter ā,
3a2.- *popelūšьk
fīfoldara ā
6.3.-
papelu kà
paplā papula, buoben  pippala 6.3.-papas
papilla 'tetae' 'ficus' 'papilla'
3a2.- pipluh
pappe, 'macula
pap 'id' corporis'
pareikā Parcae a(i)rech  5.3.-
(=uenefica pairikā
e) 5.6.-parīk
pārējō pāreō 

 
(Hes.)
parkō parcō airc 
655
'angustia';
aircur
'pressiō'
parsā parra 1b2.- 2b2.- sperk, sparwa  скворе
parfam, frau<spr sperch, 'sturnus' <spar- ?
parfa 2b3.-frao Sperling
`parram' 3a3-
spearwa,
sparrow
pasknis 
pāskō pascō, ain-chess 2b1.- fuotar,Futt fōdjan  5.4.- TOK.-A

pābulum 'pānis pawr<pāro er;fuoten  hauran<pā pās-, B
<pādhlom, corbis'; 'pābulum'; 3a2.- 'edō et -tro 'grex' pāsk-
pānis ás(a)id pori 2b3.- fōðor; bibō'; UV pa´d- 'protegō'
'crēscit' peuriff fēdan  du *peH2
'pascō' 3a3.- fōðr; 'sine cibō'
føða,
pāsmi pāreō ALB.- 5.4.-hayim pas ,
pashë 'uīdī 'uideō' pasti
5.5.-pahs- 'pāscō'
'protegō'
pāsós pāricida < 

pāso-kaida
pastos fest  pastya
3a2.- fæst 'residentia'
3a3.-fastr 5.4.-hast
'fixus'
pāstus pastus  pastva
<*two-
'grex'
pastvina
'pastus'
pau paucus, fao, fō; fawai 
paul(l)us, 3a2.-fēa,
paruus few
3a3.-fār
paukos 
paulos paulus folo, fula,  5.4.-ul A B.-pelë,
fulī(n), 'pullus' 'pullus' 'capra' pēlë <pōlā
Füllen <pōulos; 'equa'
3a2.-fola am-ul
'id' <pulyo- 'sterilis'
pāw aasaí úr .i. tiene ur fiur, Feuer, fōn *puōn  5.4.-hur 6.7.-pyr(i)

purasiaí 'in O'Clery (Botorrita funko, (funins) u longa) (hroy); hn- 'fauilla'
ārā Glossar. A 10) Funke oc 'furnus' TOK.-A
igniāriā' Hapax; 2b1.-ur-ael 'scintella' (*pūn-) por, В
1b2.-pir, Abrám de 'asbestīnu 3a2.-fýr, 5.5.- puwār,
ac. úr na m' <air.? fire pahhuwar, pwār
purome Caldae 3a3.-furr, dt.
fyrr pahhu(e)ni
pedjós peius 3a2.-bad  5.6.-bad
pedlom  patalla
'soccus'
pedom peda perum ed 3a3.-toft  padá 6.3.-pédà
(Festus) 'solum' 'spatium'; 'pauimentu 'solum'; 'locus, 'passus';

'uestigium' ined<*enip m' 'pauim.' uestigium, pãdas
; oppidum edo- passus' 'solea'
'locus' 5.4.-het
'uestigium'
5.5.-peda-
'locus'
pegtos pectus ucht  pák a pach(a)
656
<*pogtus 'umerus, 'axilla, ing.'
(ochta) āla'; 6.3.-paksis
dat. pl. pák as 'angulus
ochtaib 'latus' domii'
peidō feizzit, fett  pétva 6.4.- pìsa,
(part.p.) (fons) 'ueruex' pīse
3a2.- 'arbustētu
fæted, fat m'
peigō piget, feihhan  pí una-
piger 'maleficent 'maleficus';
ia'; fēhida, pi ācá-
Fehde 'daemoniu
'inimicit.' m'
3a2.-fācen
'falsiō'; fah,
foe
'inimicus'
3a3.-feikn
'ruīna'
peikā pīca peico speh(t),  pika
'pīcum' Specht
peikō pingō<*pin feeh filufaihs  pimçáti pisu
gō / pinknō 3a2.-fáh 'uarius' 'uarius' 'ornat', 'scrībō'
? 'uarius' pinkte pьstrъ
'pingit', 'uarius'
péçah 6.3.-
'form, col.' paĩsinti
5.3.-paēsō 'fuligine
'idem' mancillāre'
5.6.-ni-pith
'scrībō'
peikos 
peiks pix vī(g), vīhe  pьkьlъ,

? 'palūs' pьcьlъ
peimis éim fimmelen,fi 
mmeren
3a2.-
fimble,
fumble
'palpō'
3a3.-fimr;
orð-fimi
'uerbōrum
eloquentia'
peitus pītuīta, íth  pītudāru
pīnus 'sebum'; 'pīnus' 'arbos
<peitsnos iath quaed'
'pratum' ALB.
oishe<pits
yā 'id'
pējō paene, fiēn faian  pīyati
pēne; 'ōdisse';fia 'puniō'; 'damnum' 'insultat';

paenitet; nt, Feind fijan 'ōdī' 'caecus'; pīyu,
pēnūria; 'inimīcus'  pīyaru
patior (a fion 'ōdī' 'caecus' 'insultans';
partic. pāpa
pətos); 'malum';
paeminōsu pāman
s, 'aegrotās
pēminōsus pellis'
5.3.-
pāman 'id'
5.4.-
657
hivand
'aeger'
pekō áil? fahs ga-fahrian  pak -man- 6.3.-púošiu
'amoenus' 'caesariēs' 'praeparō'; 'pectō'; 'cesariēs' (*pōkēiō),

3a2.-fair fagrs 'uellus' 5.3.- púošti
'idoneus' 'idoneus' pašna- 'ornō'
3a3.-fær 'cilium' pešù, pèšti
'agnus' 5.4.-asr 'dispectō'
'uellus'
pektēn 
pektō pectō, 1b2.- 3a1, a2.-  5.6.-

pecten petenata fehtan 'id',  pašm
'pectinata 3a2.- 'pecten' 'lāna'
m' feohtan <*pkten-
'plectō'
peku pecu, 1b2.- fihu <*fexu faihu 4.8.-po-ku- pá u, 6.3.-pekus
pecus pequo 'patrimoniu te-ro (c. pá us (k!)
'pecua' m' gonu, doru 5.4.-asr
lat. genu) <*pokur
peldō pellō; 1b2.- ad·ella el(h)wyf falzan  polosá
ōpiliō; arpeltu 'uisitat; 'eam' 'collocō'; 'prope', 'ārea'

appellō - 'appellito' adall Filz 
āre 'uisitātiō'; 3a2.-felt 'appropinq
do·aidlea 'textus' uō' 
'uenit'
pelkō olca 'terra felga 't. ungifolgan 
ueruactī' ueru.' 'inflexus'
>f. ouche, 3a2.-fealg,
e.huelga fallow
pelnis pellis, fel, Fell þrūts-fill  pa a(la), pelena

palea, 3a2.-fell, 'lepra' 'solea' pélьka 'tapete'
palear film 'textus'
palla
pelō fāli, feil 'ad  plenъ,
uēnum' 'uendere'; polōn

3a3.-falr 'uēnum' 'praeda'
'id' <pēlyo 6.3.-pelnas
'salār.'
pelom palam West- ALB.- phálakam pol 'solum',
falen, Ost- shpall 'tabula et pole 'ager',
falen, Feld 'aperiō' fructus' polъ
'ager' 5.4.- hоɫ <*polos
3a3.-fjol (hоɫоу) 'patens,
'tabula' 'ager' cauus'
pelsā all GALL.- felis, Fels  pāsī
Palas de <pel iH2
Rei
pelu plūs, (h)il 'multī' filu filu  purú- 6.3.-pilus
plūres 3a3.-fj l- fem. <*pḷH1u-, 'insuper'

<*polH1uiafem. pūrvī-
*<pḷH1u-
iH2
pelupoikos filu-faihs cf. puru-pē a-

pēlwis peluis  pālavi popelъ
'situlus 'asser'; 'cinis'
lactis'; pālikā 'olla'

'cassis'; pārī
 'situlus
lactis',
pelwos puluis ulvos  palāvah
(ueris); 'puluis' 'pollen' 'uersae
658
puls (ltis); (uerbum rēs'
pollen singulāre)
pēmṇ paeminōsu  pāmán-
s, 'eruptiō
pēminōsus cutanea
quaedam'
5.3.-
pāman-
'scabiēs'
pendō 
penō cf. pendō, 3a1.-3a2.- spinnan  5.4.- pьno, peti
pendeō; spinnan <*spenwo 'laborō' hanum 'tendō'
sponte 'neō' nom 'texō' 6.3.-pinù,
pìnti
'plectō'
penom enach; en anom fenna, fani ILLYR.- pa ka- 6.3.-
'aqua' 'palūdem' fennī ; Pannonia. paniabùde
en-glas 2b1.-en- fūhti, 'amanita
'aquōsum wyn feucht muscaria'
lacte'; 'lactōsum 'ūdus' 6.4.-pane
éicne butyrum' 3a2.- fenn; 'fertilisans'
'salmō' fūht 'id'
penos penus, fenea  6.3.- penù,
penātēs 'puls' penéti
'alō';
p nas
'aliment.'
penqadk t quinquāgin coíco  pañcā át

a tā 5.4.-yisun<
*hingisun
penqdek quindecim finfzehan fimftaíhun  pañca-

da at
5.4.-hnge-
tasán
penqe quinque pomperias cóic pimpetos fimf fimf  pañca petь
'quincuriae 'quintus' 3a2.-fīf 5.3.-pañca 6.3.-penki
' pempe- 3a3.-fimm
doula
2b1.-
pymp/pum
p 2b2.-
ppymp
2b3.-pemp
penqstis bissi ega 2b1.-bys fūst  pestь
'stīria' 'digitus' 3a3.-fyst;
2b2.-bis, il-kuistir
bes 'digitī
2b3.-bis, pedis'
bizou
penqtos quintus *pontos fimfto, fimfta-  pakthá- petъ
finfto 5.3.- 6.3.-
3a2.-fifto puxđa- (cf. peñktas
3a3.- 4º)
fim(m)ti
pēnsús  pā sú песок,
'puluis, 'arēna'
arēna'
5.3.-
p snu-
'arēna'
5.5.-
passila-
659
'glarea'
pentō 
peqō coquō popīna 2b1.-pobi  pácāmi
'coquīna' 2b2.-
pobaz
2b3.-pobet
'coctus'
peqtis coctiō  paktí- реštь
5.4.-hac 6.9.-pectis
'pānis'
<*poqti-
peqt r coctor  paktár-
'*coctrīx'
peqtós coctus 2b1.-  paktá- potъ
poeth <*pokw-to
'sudor'
per(i), per<per/pe per, ir-, er- eri-; fir-, ver- fair   pári pre 'ante'
per(ti) ri pert<perti 2b1,2,3.- 3a2.-fyr- 5.3.-pairi 6.3.-per
er- 5.4.-pairy
perijō experior, a(i)re areānī fār, Gefahr fairina  5.4.-p'jor

perītus, 'custodia' 'exploratōr 'periculum' 'culpa' 'experimen
comperiō, es' ; tum'
perīculum firina
'infractiō'
perístāno iress, am-  5.4.-
m ires(s) amparist
'irreligiosō'
5.6.-parast
'sacerdōs'
perknā earc, orc forhana 

'salmō' 'tructa'
pérkūnjom Hercynia 3a2.-firgen faírguni  Parjánya Perunъ

silva; 'cacumen 'mons' <*perwr 'Tempestā 'Tonitrus'
, siluestre' 'limēs' s'; párvata 6.3..-
Querquern <*pérwnto- perkiūnas
ī 'id 5.5.- 'id'
peru,
peruna
'rupēs'
per ós fern  paramá-
'longinquu 'ulterior' 'ultimus,
s, procul' optimus'
(adi, adu)
perom perom  param 'et
'sine' postea,
tamen,
tantum'
peróm TOK B parṇá- перо
paruwa 5.3.- 6.3.-
'plūmae' parǝna- sparnas
5.5.- 'āla'
partawar 6.4.-
'āla' spārns 'id'
peros perum ire<peryo  parā
'sine' 'ultra' 'ultra'; 'procul'

'faciō' 5.5.-parā
'ultra,
foras'
pérperṇks perperām,  parañc попер к
perperus 'impertinen
s'
perqos quercus Hercynia forha  parkatii perunъ
660
silva; 'picea' 'ficus 'fulmen'
Querquern 3a2.-furh, sacra' 6.3.-
ī fir perkúnas
'tonitrus'
persā perna<sn; fersana, fairsna  pār ṇi-
pernīs Ferse 'talus' 'talus'
3a2.- 5.3.-
fersna pāšna- 'id'
5.5.-
paršina
'lumbus'
persnā 
persō 3a3.-fors,  p at, рrachъ
foss pr atá- 'puluis';
'cataracta' 'gutta' prъstь
pr ant-, 'spūma'
p atī 6.3.-
'uarius' pursla(s)
5.3.- 'id'; purkšti
paršuya 'sternuō'
'aquae q.'
5.5.-
papparš-
pertā pertica  5.4.-ort 6.7.-
'propagō' 'uinea' príska
perti 1b1, b2.-  pered
pert 'per'
péruti ónn-urid vert  par-út

àb anno 3a3.-fjorð 5.4.-heru
priore'
pesdō pedō, 2b1.- firt, ferzan<per  párdatē<p bzdetь;

pōdex, rech<pərd furt<perd d érdeti perdetь
z
pēdis kā 3a2.-  5.3.-рərəδ 6.3-bezdù,
feortan  aiti bezdéti;
3a3.-freta 'terribilis' bìzdas
podex' ;
pérd u,
pérst
6.4.-pirdu,
pirst
pesnis pēnis<pes fasel,  pásas- pìsti

nis visel 5.5.- 'copulāre'
pesn/pisen
'uir'
peterós accipiter eithre fed(e)rah ,  patará-,
 
<*pet(e)r- fedara- patáru-
yo- 'uolans' ;
'cauda'; cf.páttra-
e(i)tte 5.4.- tìr
'plūma'
pétḷos petilus; fr.  5.5.-
petit 'patens' pittalwa(nt)
petō petō én 2b1.-edn, fedara  pátami 6.3.-pētit

<*pet(s)no eterin 'id'  'cadō' 'auet'
-, ethait 2b2.- fut. FUT.
<*petontī- (h)ethen  pati yáti
'auis' 2b3.-etn-  5.5.-

coihaam 'uolō' piddai-
petsnā penna, ette<petyā 2b1.-edn, fedara  pátami 6.3.-pētit

petō , én (auis) eterin  'cadō' 'auet'
2b2.-  5.5.-pittar
(h)ethen 'uolō' (pittanas)
661
2b3.-etn-
coihaam
petsnós én 2b1.-edn, 
eterin <*petesān
2b2.- ós,

(h)ethen <*petesnó
2b3.-etn- s
coihaam
peumi putō  5.5.- пыт ть

? kappuwai 'quaerō,
'ingnōrans' TOK А cōnor'
putk 6.4.-plaût
'arbitror' 'signif.'?
pewō pūrus, úr 'uiridis' 2b1.-ir fowen  punāti,
 
putus, 'cernō' pávate
nepus <*fawjan = 'pūrgō';
<*nepūt-s; ai. pavítra
purgō paváyati 'cribrum'
pibō bibō ibim 2b1.-yfed  pibati pijo, piti
(v.n.) 6.3.-paĩkas
2b2.-eve 'stultus';
2b3.-eva pìktas
'malus',
pikùlas
'diab.'
6.4.-pikuls
'diab.'
pigējō 
pikrós bitter baitrs 
pilos pilus, filz 'feltrum'  plъstь
pīla<pilsā 3a2.-felt 'penniculu 'penniculu
'id' s' m'
pīmós opīmus 
'adeps'
(pím)prēmi exprētus  5.5.-
(Plaut.) parai/pari
'conflō'
pinkō 
pinjos witufina,  pínāka pьnь, пень
vine 'tabella' 'stirps'
'aceruum
lignī'
pinsō pinsō,  pináSTi pixati
pīlum 'calce iciō'
pisenica
'frūmentu
m' 6
3.-paisyti
'trītūrat
píperi piper  pippalī
pipjājō pipiō, pīpō, pipatio piepen  píppakā 6.3.-pypti

pīpilō, 'clamor 'auicellus' 'auis 'siffilō'
pīpulum plorantis'  quaedam'
piptō petō én (auis) 2b1.-edn, gefaʒ  pátami

eterin 'casus' 'uolō', 'cadō'
2b2.- 3a2.- 
(h)ethen gefētan 'uolitō';
2b3.-etn- 'casī'  'āla'
coihaam
piskis piscis íasc > iasc fisc, fisch fisks  piskárь,
3a2.-fisc, писк рь
fish 'gobiō'
662
pitús hith 2b1-b2.-yd  pitus pišta
(grānum) 'id' 5.3.-pituš 6.3.-pi tūs
2b3.-(e)ys
'id'
piwōn īriu (īrenn) '  pīvan-, f.
 
'terra' (Ptol.) pīvarī
plabrājai labraid 2b1.-llafar 3a2.- 
'loquitur'; 'sermō', flappen,
rel. llafaru flap
labrathar; 2b2.-lauar, 'quatiō,
amlabar lauaraf garriō'
'mutus' 2b3.-lavar
'id'
plākejō 
plākos placeō, lecc? 2b1.-llech vlage,  6.3.-
placidus, 'discus 2b3.-lec'h flach; fluoh 'superficiē plãkanas
plācō ā; saxeus' 'id' 3a2.-floh; s'; 6.4.-

plancus? cf. ləpods flōk-fōted 'placenta'; plùoku,
placenta -g-  plakt
< 3a3.-flā  'mare'; 'pauiculor'
plaga -g- 
 'latus'
plākos 
plānos plānus Medio- 3a3.-flana  polonýna
lānum 'errō' 'errābundu 'altipl.'
s' 6.3.-plónas

'errō' 'tenuis'
6.4.-plãns
plārom lár 2b1.-llawr Flur 
'uestibulu
m'
3a2.-floor
plātom 
plātús planta lethan; leth Litano- Fladen;  p thúh; plešte

? 'latus, briga vluoder  prathimán 'umerus'
dimidium' 2b1.-llydan 'piscis  <*pletH2m 6.3.-plónas
2b2.-2b3.- plānus' 'rēs plāna' on- 'tenuis'
ledan 3a2.- 'planitūdō'
flounder, 5.3.-
flōr; flat pərəqu
5.5.-palhi-
plautos plautus; 1b2.-pre-  6.3.-
plaudō plotatu 'rectandulu pla ksta
'prosternitō s' 'palma'
'
pḷdājō fledirōn,  6.3.-
flattern 'madeō'; pelde^t

'uolitō' 'uuor' 'nō'
pledina^t
'ālās
plaudō'
plēdhwis plēbs, 
plēbēs
plēis plūs lía 3a3.-fleire, 
<*ploH1is; fleiri <*pleH1iso
cf. plīsima n-
plēistos 3a3.-flestr,  5.3.-
fleistr fraēšta-
plējós 
plékāmi plicō altain 2b1.- 3a4.-folde- falthan  prasna
'rasōrium' elinn/ellyn kniv ''plexus'
2b3.-altin 'nouacula 5.3.ərəzat
663
'ferula' retractilis' o frašnəm
'aureā
armatūrā'
plektō plectō flehtan flahta  pleto,
3a2.- 'fascis plesti;
fleohtan capillōrum' plotъ
'uallum'
(pím)plēmi plēnus lán  píparti,
'plēnus, pūryáté,
lín prānah
'numerus'
plēmṇ plēmināre 
plēnós plēnus; 1b2.- lán; lín 2b1.-llawn fol, foll, fulls  pūrná-s, plъnъ
polleō ? plener 'numerus, 2b2.-luen, voll prāṇa- 6.3.-pìlnas
'plēnīs' pars'; u(i)le leun, len 3a2.-full 5.3.-frāna- 6.4.-pilns
'omnes' 2b3.-leun 'implētiō'
5.4.-li
(liog)
plētis com-plētiō  prātí-
pletjā leithe  5.5.- plešte

'umerus' paltana 'umerus'
'umerus'
plētós (com)plētu  5.4.-li ALB.-plot
s (liog)
pleudō im-lúadi fliozan flauts ?  6.3.-
'exagitat'; 'fluō' 'gloriōsus' plūdau,
for-lúadi 3a2.- flautjan plūsti
'uersat' flēotan, 'superbiō' 6.4.-
fliotan plau^st
pleumōn pulmō  kloman plušta

(cont. 'dexter <ploutyā
) pulmō' 6.3.-
(k...m pla iai
<p...m)
plewō pluit, pluor, fo·luathar KONBOU flouwen, flōdus (F) plávate plov , pluti
perplouēre 'uolat'; TO/COMP flewen 'fluxus' 'nauigō' 'nātat'; 'natō' ;
loan, lón LUTUM 'louō';  pravate plovъ
'adeps'; 2b1.-llyw floum 'diuēs'; 'saltat'; 'nāuis'

lúd 'dominus' 'colluuiēs' 'lauō' plutá 6.3.-pláuju,
'impetus'; 2b2.-loe 3a2.-  'obrūtus'; plóviau,
ess-com- 'id' .flōwan 'lauātiō'; pluti pláuti 'lauō'
lu- 2b3.-levier 'obruō'  'alūiēs' TOK A, B.-
'proficiscī'; 'id' 3a3.-flōa 'nauigābilis 5.3.- plu-
lúath 'citō'; 'id' ' usfravānte 'uolāre'
lúam 'ascendunt
'dominus' '
5.4.-
luanam
'lauō'
plighā sliss 'latus'  plēhatē
'inguen' 'mouētur'
pḷmā palma lám 2b1.-llaw folma  pāníh
'manus' <*plāmā 3a2.-folm 4.3.- 5.3.-

<*plāmā 2b2.- pərənā
lof/lef, luef 5.5.-palhi-
'amplus'
pḷnamaí appellō, - ad·ella el(h)wyf 
āre 'uisitat'; 'eam' (i schwa
do·aidlea sec.) 'et se
<do+ad incitāre';

'uenit,
'prope'
accēdit,
664
tangit'
pḷnāmi pleō lín(a)im, füllen fullnan  p ṇāti. 6.3.-pilù,
comalnur, 3a3.-fill 'pleō' p ṇ ti pìlti
comallaim 5.4.-lnum; 'fundō'
heɫum
'effundō'
<*pelnumi
plṇgō plangō fluohhon faiflōkum  6.3.-plakù

'maledicō'; 'tutudēre' 
vlackern
'uolitō'
3a3.-
flōcan
'id';flaw
plousmā plūma vlūs, Vlies  6.3.-
'lānūgō' pluskos
3a2.-flēos, 'lānūgō'
fleece 6.4.-
pluskas 'et
pannus'
ploutos pluteus 3a3.-fleyðr  6.3.-
'fastigium' pla tas
'fustis
examinis'
6.4.-plāuts
'uallus
muri'
plówijā 
plówijom lū(a)ë 2b1.-llyw 3a3.-fley 
'pēs'; luí <- 'id et -ātor'
jā 2b2.-loe 'id
'gubernum et -ātor'
, cauda'
plowós TOK B.-  plavá- plov
plewe
pḷowós palleō, liath 2b1.-llwyd falo  palitáh plavu

pallidus, <*pleito- 'pallidus' (fem. 'albus'
pallor, 3a2.-fealo, páliknī) 6.3.-palvas
pullus falu 'id' 5.4.-alikh
'cānae'
5.6.-pīr
pḷtáwijā Letha Letauia 3a2.-fold ?  p thivī
2b1.-Litau, 'stābulum' 'terra'
Llydau 5.3.-
'Brittania' pərədhwī
pḷtnos lethan, Litano- Fladen 
leathan briga 'planitiēs 'arbōr
'amplus' 2b1.-llydan et platanacea
2b2.-2b3.- placenta' '
ledan
pḷtom palla,  pa a-
pallium 'uestis'
plúwaidho lúaide lōt, ot 
m 'perpendic
ulum'
3a2.-lēad
pḷwods palūs -ūdis fel(a)wa,  palvalá- 6.3.-pélke

Felber (Hes) 6.4.-pelce,
'salix'  plācis
'rigō' 
pṇdēks pantex,  5.5.-
pantica panduha
665
pneusō fnehan 
'respirō',
fnāsteōn
ànhelare'
3a2.-
fneosan
'strn.';
3a3.-fnysa
'resufflō'
pṇgō pangō, prupukid áge 2b1.-aelod faahan, fāhan  pajráh 6.8.-pãz

pāx, èx 'membrum 'membrum' fangen, 'clāuus' 'corpulentu 'iunctūra,
pāgina, antepacto , columna'; Fach s' uallum'
pālus <ksl; ?' áil 'grātus' 3a2.-fæc
prōpāgō 1b2.-pasa 'interuall'
'causā'; 3a3.-
pacri- fægiligr
'propitius, 'grātus';
plācātus'
pṇtō pandō pat[ít?] 
<*pṇtnō ?; 'patet',  (i
pateō patensíns schwa
'panderent' secundum
),

podjom podium u(i)de 'iter' 
pods pēs 1b2.- peri, ís<*pēd-su 2b1.-is fuoz fōtus   5.1, 5.3.- 6.1.-podъ

(pedis) persi 'sub' 'inferior' 3a2.-fōt pad 'sub'
ALB.-
'pede' 3a3.-fōtr përposh 5.4.-otk
'sub' 'pēdes'
5.5.-
pata;peda
n 'locus'
poimēks 
pōimōn fōtar fōdr  pāti
'canna', 'capsa' <poH2-iu-, 'protegit';

Futter 'grex'; go-pā
(uestis)  'pāstor';
3a2.-fōðor, 'pāstor' pāyu, pāla
fōdor 'custōs' ;
'uagīna' n -pī-ti-
3a3.-fōðr 'tresuir'
'uestīment ,nrpa 'rex';
um' pātra
'recipiens'
5.3.-pāiti
'id'; rāna-
pā
'protectiō
crūris'
pojejō  pāyáyati poj , pojiti
polis  pūh 6.3.-pilìs
(puráh), 'oppidum'
pūram
polkā 
polnēks polleō, fuolan,  5.6.- palъcъ;
pollēx fühlen pālidan palam
'sentiō' 'sāgiō' 'quaerō';
3a2.- bez-palъij
fælan, fēl 'sine
'id' digitīs'
3a3.-felma
'palpō'
polnō fallan,  5.4.-pùl 6.3.-púolu,
666
fallen <*phōlo- pùlti
3a2.-fallan 'ruina' 6.4.-pùolu,
pult
polpos pulpitum  parpa
'domus'
poltos puls (ltis); littiu (litten) 2b1.-lith spelta,  pálala- polba
puluis cf.; <*pḷtnó 'pulmentu Spelt 'puls'; 'farīna 'ador'

pulmentu 'pulmentu m' 3a2.- 'pulm. q.' quaedam'
m m' spelta
pondos 
pōnom 1b2.-puni, án  pānam
poni 'lac' 'pōculum'
pontis pons áit(t) 3a, a2.- . finÞan  pāthas p tь 'iter'

(<pōthni-) findan 'id' 'inueniō' 'locus' *pontis
'locus' 3a3.-finna panthā-s
'id' 'uia'
5.4.-hwn
'portus'
poqós coquus 
 'pistor'
porā 
porejō portō ferien, farjan 'iter  píparti na-perjo

fahren 'iter faciō'  'perforō'; 'dūcit' 'perforō';
faciō'  5.3.- - pero
3a2.-fara 'uadum' pārayeité 'plūma'
'id'
5.4.-hord
'ambulātu
m'
porkos porcus, 1b2.- orc; Innsi- Orcades farah;  prase (-
porcīnus, porca, ork Ferkel ete·dim -
porculus purca 'porculus' nt)
porcās'; 3a2.-fearh 6.3.-
paršas;
paršienà
'porcīnus';
parš lis
'porculus'
pornós farn 'filix'  parṇá- pero
3a2.-fearn, 5.3.- 6.3.-
fern 'id' parəna- sparnas
'āla'
porsis farro (m)  p thuka-

verse (f) 5.4.-orth
porsōd porrō ar <*pari  pārya-
'ante' 'fīnis,
finālis'
5.4.-ar 'ad';
araj
'initium';ar
ajin
'prīmus'
portājō 
pos(ti) post, 1b1.-púst,  pa cā(t) poz-dъ
postea post 5.4.-əst 'tarde'
1b2.-post, 'ad' 6.3.-pas
pus
pósteri 
pósteros posterus  pastorьkъ
'adfiliātus'
6.3.-
pãstaras
667
6.4.-
pastars
póst os 
postrōd 
potējō 
poti  paiti
5.6.-patiy
potijai 
potis potior, fad brūÞfaÞs  patih gospodь
possum; 'crassus' 'procus' 5.3.-paitis 'dominus'
hospēs hundafaÞs 5.5.-pat 6.3.-patis
(-fadis) 'quoque' (dial.)
'centuriō' 6.4.-pats
'ipse'
pōtis pōtiō  pītí- 6.8..-pi^t

'recessus 6.9..-poūt
maris' 'bibere'
pōtlom pōculum ól ? inf. 
'bibere'
potmos aitheamh 2b1.-atem faden tamen
'filum' 'filum' 
3a2.- 'dēsideriu
fæðm, m'
fathom
3a3.-faðmr
potnjā  patnī patni
pōt r pōtor  pātar-,
'uīnī p.' pātár-
pougā pūga fochen 'flō'  6.4.-pauga
3a3.-fjūk 'caput,
'niuea puluīnu';p
tem.' ga 'rafaga'
poughos óg, nomen  6.7.-pouhy
óge 'simplex'
pougnos pungō, ochtach<p fiuhta,Ficht  6.3.-pušìs
pugnus, uktākā e 'picea' 'pugnō'; 'pīnus'

pugīl, 'picea, 3a2.- 'picea'
pugnō pīlum' fiuhtia<fiuh
tjōn
pounā úan  APR.- 6.3.-puns
'spūma' pounian 'protubera
'pūga' nt.
arborea'
poutos prae- uth ? 'uter'  puppu a- potka<*pъt
pūtium  'cūlus' 'infectiō ьka
buccālis' 6.3.-pu iù,
p sti
'tumescō'
powejō fowen,  paváyati
voewen
'cernō'
póweros puer 

<
powros 
prāi prae, air<pəri Are- 3a1, a2.- fri-sahts   pare 'ibi' pri<prei

praeter; preiuatud` 'oriens'; morica, furi <pəri 'exemplum 5.4.-erēc' 'ad, ante'
prehendō< prīvātō, rem<prisə Are- 'ante' >vor, , imagō' (eriçu) '6.3.-
prae-; reō' mi 'ante' brigium, before <*preiskw- pri <prei
prior<*priy 1b2.-pre ar <*pari abrit. Are- u 'ueterior, 'ante'
ós-; 'prāe'; 'ante' clūtā <pəri flāmen' 6.4.-
668
prīmus<pri pre-pa prìe(k)ša
smos 'priusquam 'anterior'
(Herentas) '; pretra (*preitiā)
; prīdem, 'prīores';
prīscus; preve
prīstinus, 'singulārite
prīuus r'
práighesto 
práiloghos 
práinōmṇ 
práiteri 
prāmos prandium frum fruma  6.3.-
<*prām- fromm <* pìrmas
ediom 'probus' ? 
<*p m- 3a2.-forma
pratis raith ratis farn,  parna páporotь<
2b3.- Farnkraut 'folium, poportyo
radenn 3a2.-fearn, plūma' 'filix'; pero
(coll.) fern 5.3.- 'plūma'
parəna 'id' 6.3.-
pepártis,
sparnas
'āla'
6.4.-
paparde
prāwos prāuus, frō frauja  pūrva- prъvъ;
prōnus; 'dominus', 'dominus' 'prōnus'; <pərəwos; pravъ
prōra<prō f. <pr pravanā 'rectus'
wryā frouwa<pr ōwryā 'prōpensus 6.3.-
ōwōn ' 5.3.- primas<*p
3a2.-frēa, paurva- érəmos
f. frūa; 'prior' TOK B.-
forwost/est pärwe e
'prīmus'
preistos 
prējō  parāi- prejet,

'incendō' 'exhalō, pretь
flabellō' 'sūdō'
para
'uapor'
prekō precō, frāgēn fraihnan  p ccháti prositi
poscō, prāt 6.3.-
procus, 'processus' praša , -
precēs 5.4.- ýti; piršti
harcanem 'manum
5.4.-harsn pet.'
'pacta' 6.5.-pròsiti
'idem'
preks prex, 2b1.-rheg fragen fraíhnan  prā ;
precor, 'maledictiō' 'inquīrō' 'inquīrō' pra na
poscō, 'quaestiō'
procus 5.3.-
f(ə)rasā-
'id'
premō 
prepō richt 2b1.-rith furben  5.4.-
'forma' 'purgō' 'conspicuu
erewim
s sum'
'pareō',
eres (-ps-)
'faciēs'
presō premō, TOK B.- ALB.-pres p t-, pru, pratь,
pressii, prām 'putō', aor. p tanā peretь ;
669
prēlum 'retineō'preva; me 'pugna' per ,
<*preslom prêt 'mē 5.3.-pərət-, pьrati
(cf.  piget'; pəšanā 'id' 'quatiō,
et ) pritem 5.4.-hari lauō';
'affligor' 'quatī' pьrj ,
(harkanem pьreti
?) 'contender
e'
6.3.-periù,
perti 'q, l'
pretjom 
pretō ráthaigid fruot fraÞjan,  prantù,
'intelligens' frōÞ 'intell.' pràsti
3a2.-frōd fraÞi 'suēscō';
'id' 'intellectus' prõtas
'intellectiō'
6.4.-
prùotu,
prast
'intell.'
préwijos 
prewō Frosch  právatē prýgnutь,
'rāana' ; frā 'saltat'; prýgatь
'alacer' plava- 'saltō';
3a2.- 'rāna' prytь
frogga 'id' 'rapidus
<prugskō; gradus'
frō, froh
3a3.-frauki
p gā pergula  pragъ
'limen'
6.3.-
pérgas
'canna
piscaatoris
'
p ijō pariō, 1b2.- 2b1.-erthyl verse,  p thuka- za-prъtъkъ
reperiō, Propartie 'abortus' Färse 'praebeō' 'uitulus; 'ouum sine

pars, Propertiī' 'uitulus' 'uaticinātu pulmentu cortice'
imperō 3a2.- m est' m cum 6.3.-
Parca<pári ferarr,  risso' periù,perét
ka farrow,  5.4.-ort i 'alō'
heahfore,  'uitulus'
'uitulus'
heifer
prijós proprius, riar rhydd frī 'liber'; frijōn  prīnāti prejo
proprītim, *prīyarā 'līber' friunt, 'amō'; <* 'gaudet'; 'faueō';
propriāssit 'delicia' Freund frijonds <*preH2i- prīyate prijatelь
'proprium 'amīcus'; 'amīcus'; us 'amat'; 'amīcus'
fēcerit' 3a2.-frēo, freis acc. 'blandus' priyá-s 6.3.prieks
fri; frīond, frijana 4.8.-pa-ra- 'cārus' 'gaudium'
friend we (pl.) 5.3.-frya-
3a3.-frijāls
'līber'
prījós 
prīskos priscus  5.4.-erēc'
(eriçu)
<*preiskw-
u 'ueterior,
flāmen'
prīsmos prīmus rem 'ante' 
<prismos
(Herentas)
670
prītis proprītim  prīti-
prītós 3a2.-  prītá-
'admissāri 5.3.-frita,
us' frīna, fria
frīd/fríðhen
gest
p kā porca, 1b2.- rica> fr. furuh,  pár āna- 6.3.-pra-
porculētu porculeta raie Furche 'sinus, paršas
m 2b1.-rhych 3a2.-furh pracipitium 'sepulcrum
2b3.-rec 3a3.-for ' '
'cannāle'
p knos pulcher?< 2a3.-earc 2b1.-erch  pr ni-

perkros 'ruber' (Hes)
p kskā 1b2- forsca  p cchā
pe(r)sklu 5.4.-harc
supplicāti
ōne'
p kskō poscō, pestlúm, arco 2b1.- forscōn  prccháti 6.3.-
precor, peeslúm archaf 'inuestigō' 5.3.-pºrº praša , -ýti
procus, 'templum' 2b2.- 3a2.- saiti
prex, arghaf frignan
postulō 2b3.-
archas
'petiit'
p nāmi pār, parō parsest ren(a)id  5.3.- 6.3.-perkù,

(āre), 'par est' 'uendit'; pairyante pirkti 'emō'
 p.
comparō ern(a)id  'aequāntur'
(āre) 'concedit';  ; pāra
ni rir 'non 'meretrix' 'culpa'
uendidit'
p nos perendiē ? firni faírneis  purāṇá- 6.3.-
<perniyo- 'antiquus' 'anterior' pérnai
'uetus, <*perno-; 5.6.- 'annō
doctus' af fairnin paranam praeteritō'
3a2.-fyrn, jera 'anterius' 6.4.- pērns
firn 'uet.' 'praeteritī 'annī
3a3.-forn annnī' praeteritī'
<*p nó-;
fyrnd
'aetās'
prō(d) prō, 1b1, 1b2.- ro- 2b1.-ry- fir-, ver-; fra-, fair-;  prá, pra-; pro 'per'

prronus, pro-, pru- 2b3.-ro-, für, for <p faur <p 'duos ante prapra 6.3.-para,
prōdest ru-, ra- annos'; 5.3.-frā, pro 'id'
 fra-
'prō et 'prō'
próbhoudh robud 2b1.-  prabodha probudítь
os 'admonitiō' rhybudd 'conscienti 'expergefa
'cautiō' a' ciō'
probhwājō 
probhwos probus fromm  prabhu´- pravъ,
<*mo- 'potens' пр вый
'pius' <*prōwos
3a2.-fram
'strēnuus'
3a3.-framr
'id'
prodət r proditor  прод ве
'uenditor'
6.3.-
pardav jas
'id'
671
pr ddōmi 
prōi fruo, früh  prātar
proitis freidi <*fra-  préti-
iþi-ja- 'nōmen
'apostata' hominis'
prokós procus  5.4.-p'esay
fem harsn
prokos reciprocus, 2b1.-  prokъ
procerēs (y)rhawg 'protinus' 'reliquus'
(<> 'ad longum
pauperēs), futūrum'
arc. gpl. 2b3.-araok
procum 'prīdem'
promos 1b2.- fram 'ultra' fram 'ultra'   pro-stъ
promom 3a2.-from 'simplex'
'ab'
proqēd 
proqos propē, 2b1.-rhag  prāk (rar. prokъ
propinquu 'ante' pranc-) 'relictus'
s 2b3.-rak- 'antea,
'ante' olim'
prósēdjom subsidium,  prasāda
praesidium 'grātĭa'
próstōrnos  prastīrna prostorno
prostos ross 2b1.-rhos  prastha-s
'parāmus' 'altiplanitiē
2b3.-collis s'
próteros pruter pan  prataram
'prius 'futuure'
quam' 5.3.-fratara
'anterior'
proti pretium  prati; protivъ

 pratya 6.4.-pret
 'compensā
'ante' tus'
prōtós portiō rath rhad  pūrtí-,
<*prōtóm 'grātia, 'uāticinātu pūrtá-
(cf.p tis) fauor' m' 'grātificātiō
'id' 2b3.Rat- ,
louuen praemium'
prousijō prruriō,  pl ati ALB:
prūna<sn 'cremat' Prush
'prūna'
p ptus richt 2b1.-rith  5.4.-
'forma' 'conspicuu erewim
s sum' 'pareō',
eres (-ps-)
'faciēs'
p qos procus erc 'et forhana  p ni-
'piscis q.' salmō', 'tructa' 'falcō';

bōs'; orc 3a3.- 'nigellus';
<*porkos fjorsungr 
'et ōuum' 'trachinus 'āter fit'
dracō'
p snā rann /  pūrtám
 'praebeō' 'praemium'
2b1.-rhan 
2b2.-ran 'vaticinātu
2b3.- m est'
rannou
'partimonia
672
'
p som porrus, 
porrum
p stis postis First  p - há-m prъstъ

'crista' 'postis' 'summum' 'digitus'
3a2.-fyrst, 5.3.-par-šti 6.3.-pirštas
fierst 'id' 'tergum' 'id'
p tis pars  pūrtám
(partis), 'vaticinātu 'praemium'
portiō m est' 5.5.-parta-
/-i
p tus portus Augusto- furt farjan 'iter  píparti

ritum fahren 'iter faciō'
2b1.-rhyd faciō'
2b2.-rid 3a3.-fjorðr
2b3.-rit
prunsō pruīna < friosan, frius 'gelu,  pru vā
*prusuīnā frost frigus' 'pruīna'
3a2.-
frēosan;
frost
3a3.-
friōsa, frør
prúsneumi Pruso, 3a3.-frysa,  pru ṇóti pryskatь
Prusonius frustan 6.3.-
pra sti
'uultum
lauāre'
pruswā pruīna  pru vā
pteljā tilia  5.4.-tèli
'ulmus' 'ulmus'
<gr.
pujō pūs othar fūl, faul fuls   pūyati 6.3.-puvù,
(pūris), 'morbum'; 'pūtridus'; 'pūtridus' 'sanies' 5.3.-puyeiti púti
pūteō othrach vut 5.4.-hu 6.4.-p t
'cumulus 'cunnus' 'sanguis 'pūtescere'
merdae'; 3a2.-fūl 'id' suppurātu , caus
othar-lige 3a3.- s' p det
'sepulcrum fauskr
' 'lignum
pūtrid.' fuð
'cunnus'
pūjós 
pukos fuhs faúhō  púccha- puch
'uulpēs' 'uulpēs' 'plumāmen
3a2.-fox ';
pušistyj
'densus'
6.3.-
paustìs
'capillum
animāle'
pulgā ulcha, ul-  pula,
fota; Ulaid pulaka
'usteriense 'hirsutiō';
s'<ulutī pulastí
'simplex
pilātus'
pūlós 3a, a2.-fūl fūls 'puter'  PASHTO.- 6.3.-pūliai
>faul 'id' pūl 'turbor 'pūs'
3a3.-full oculōrum'
'id'
673
pungō pungō, ochtach fiuhta,  6.3.-pušìs
pugnus, <puktākā 3a2.- 'pugnus';

pugilis, 'picea' fiuhtia 'pugnō';
pugnō <fiuhtjōn 

pūpos pūpus  6.3.-
pupela
'papula'
6.4.-pups
'pectus
feminīnus'
pūrós 3a2.-fyrs,  pyro
furze 'frūmen' 'spelta'
'Agropyron 6.3.-pūrai
repens' 'frumen
hiemāle'
pusbhis pūbēs,  pumān
publicus; <opusyō (ac.
impūbēs, 'nūbō' pumā sa
impūbis, m, gen.
impūber pu á )
'homō'
5.5.-
hapusa-
'cuspis,
pēnis'
pusjō pustula 3a3.-føysa  púsyati, napyštiti
*fausian 'inflō' pu ṇāti, se 'inflārī'
'inflō' p ati 'alō' 6.3.-pūsl
pú pa- 'bulla'
'flos' 6.4.-pùslis
'id'
puslēks pūlēx <*sl floh<*plou  plúši- blъcha
k <*blusyā 5.4.-lu, low 6.3, 6.4.-
3a2.-fleah, <*pluso- blusā
flea
pustlā 
pūtējō 
pūterós puter, othar 
pūteō 'morbum';
othrach
'cumulus
merdae';
othar-lige
'sepulcrum
'
putlom putus, puclo  putrá 'fīlius' pъta 'auis'
putillus, PEL.- 5.3, 5.4.- 6.3.-putýtis
pus(s)us, puclois puqra 'id' 'auicella'
pusillus>p 'puerīs' 6.4.-putns
ullus 'id'
pūtós putus  pūtá-
puwējō putō ? 5.5.-
'ingnōrans' kappuwai
puwos pūs  pūya-
(pūris);
puter
qəddrom 
qətjō quatiō cāith hotzen  6.3.-
'acus, 3a2.- 'sternō'; kutinétis

furfur' hūdenian 'furfur' 'ēplumor';
<kwōti kuntù,
674
atkutàu,
kùsti
'quiescō'
qətrus quater  catúh
5.3.-
aruš
qətrusnos 
qətw ádk quadrāgint cethorcho 

ta ā
qətw ádk 
t os
qətw atnjo 
m
qətw dek quattuorde viorzëhan 
cim fidwōrtaíhu
n
qətw djówij 
om
qətw es quattuor cethir petuar[ios] vier fidwōr  catvārah etyre

'quartus' 3a2.- Hom 5.3.- 6.3.-keturì
2b1.- fēower  (i awārō 6.4.- etr
pedwar schwa 5.4.- ork
2b2.- secundum
peswar )
2b3.-peuar
qətw k té 
mt os
qətw k to 
s
qətw pods quadrupēs  átuspad-
qətw tos quartus 
qād 
qālis quālis  kolь,
'quam kolikъ
magnus' 'quantum'
6.3.-kõl(ei)
'qua tenus'
qām quam , 1b2.-panta  5.4.-kàn(i)
quantus 'quanta' 'quantum,
et sicut
comp.
quam'
qāqos cach 2b1.-pob  kakъ
2b2.-pup
2b3.-pep
qasjos quālum,  košь,
quallus košélь
qāwṇtos 
qdnos 
qe que -ch (noch,  ca
sech)
qedos triquetrus (h)wezzen, gahvatjan  c dati,
wetzen 'id'; 'exacuō' cōdáyati
3a2.- hvōtjan ?? 'impellit'
hwettan, 'minor'
wet (id)
qedos  ākūti чудо
'gloria'; 'animus, 'mirāculum

 desiderium '
'gloriātus' ' kaví
675
'clārus,
sapiens'
(d);
udra- 'IV
plebs'
5.3.-Sudroi
'Aracosiānī
'
(=gloriātī?)
qeisō ad·cí pissiumi  cítti ьstь,
<*kwiset 'uideō' 'intellectus' estь
'uidet'; ciall 2b1.-pwyll (c tati, 'honor';
'intellectus, 'id' cíkētati) ьt , isti
sensus' 2b3.-poell 5.3.- isti- 'computō,
<*kweislā 'id' <*kweit legō'
'id'
qeistis  cítti- ьstь
'intellectus' 'honor'
qejēskō quiēscō cían ? 'diū' (h)wīla hveila  cira- pokojь
'tempus' 'hora' 'longus, 'quiēs'
3a2.-hīl, procul' 6.1.-pociti
while 5.4.-han- 'maneō'
g im
<*s -q
5.6.-
šiyātish
'confort'
qejō  cin ti, inъ
'faciō' cáyati 'ordō';

'compositi káya- initi
ō' 'corpus" 'ordinō,
 5.3.- dispōnō''
'factor' ayeiti, kojú, kojíty
( invaiti 'machinor'
) 'legō
cern.';
kaēš 'stru.'
qejtis 
qeklom 3a2.-  cakrá-m koleco,

hweohl, 'corbis' 5.3.-caxra- kolo (nōn
wheel 5.5.-kaluti red.)
 'fīlō'
3a3.-hjól 'circulus' 6.3.-kãklas
qekō  kā ate, poko o
'indicium' ca e<kwe- 'monstrō'
kwk-ti
ca su
'oculus'
qeli 2b1-2b2- 

2b3.-pell
qelō colō, do·foichell 3a3.-hvel  cárati 6.8.- len

inquilīnus 'transit, 'moueor' 'circulat' 6.9.-kelan
uenit'  kars- 'arō'
<*to+upo+   <*kwel-s
kwelnā-
qelos cland  kúla-m elovekъ
'puerī' 'familia' 'homō'
kr í- eljadь
'gentes' 'domesticī'
qelpō (h)welben, hvilftrjōm 
wölben 'sepulcrum 'sinus';

3a2.- ' 
heofon-
676
hwealf
qelsō  kar ati
'margō, 'arat'
līmes, 5.5.-
sulcus' karšaiti
'sulcat'
5.5.-guls,
gul-as-zi
'insculpit'
qemō 3a3.-  cāmati,

hvōma   camati
5.4.-kìm-
k` 'faux,
guttur'
5.6.- am
'cibus'
qentos 3a2.-hūsl hunsl  5.3.- svetъ
'sacrament 'hostia, spənta- 6.3.-
um' uictima' (cp. span- šveñtas
yah,
spəništa-)
5.5.-kunna
'rectus,
dexter'
qerpō repēns ? carr 2b1.-parr hwerfan, hvaírban 
(cf. uerpō) 'uenābulu 'uenābulu werben; 'spatiāri' 'pugnāta';

m' m' wirvil, 'columna
Wirbel cum
2a2.- tabellīs'
hweorfan
3a3.-
hverfa
qésai queror, 3a2.-  vásiti 6.3.-
questus; hwōsan 'spirat' švirkšti
tranquillus 'id' ūt-kārá- 'siffilāre'
<*trāntikw 3a3.- 'siffilātiō'
eslós ? hvæsa
'spirō'
qestis cuit 2b1, b2.-  astь,
<*kwesdis, peth ч сть
cuid 2b3.-pez 6.3.-kedeti
'explōdō'
qidpe 
qijētis quiēs  5.3.-šāiti-š,
šiyāti-š
'gaudium'
5.4.-han-
gist
qijētós quiētus  5.3.-šyāta- TOK B.-В
, šāta- āte
'gaudens' 'diuēs'
qínumoi cin (cinad) 
<*kwinuts Hom

'culpa'
qíqeimi cin (cinad)  cik ti, aj , ajati
<*kwinuts 'obseruō'; cinōti 'exspectō'

'culpa' 'afflictor'; 'animaduer
 tō',
'honos'; cāyati
 'cūrō'
'negligō' cāra-
'explorātor'
677
qis qid quis, quid cid  cid ьto
5.5.-kwis
qisqis quisquis,  kim cid
qidqid quidquid 'aliquid'
5.4.-in-
5.5.-kuis
(as) kuis
q dō quandō 1b2.-panu-  kadā когд
pei 5.3.-kadā (г<?)
'quandōqu 6.3.-kadà,
e' kad
qṇtjō céss(a)id;<  6.3.-
*kwṇt-tā- <*qṇdhskō ken iù,
cēssad ;  kesti;

'patientia' 'patientia, pakantà
dolor' 'patientia'
6.4.-cìešu
cìest
qodhei ubī < puf   kuha kude
cubei, arc. 5.2.-kú
cubi, cube; 5.5.-
unde, kuwabi
alicubi,
necubi
qoi quō 1b2.-pu-e co quō 1b2.-cw,  kū 'ubī' 6.3.-ku

/-o modō cwd 'ubī'
qoinā  apa-citih cena

'represalia 'represalia 'pretium'
e' e' 5.3.- 6.3.-kaina
kaēna; 'pretium'
citha
'expiatiō'
qoinom caenum, 3a2.-whin  6.4.-svīni^t
cūnīre 'genista' 'inquinārī'
obscēnus, 3a3.-hvein
in-, con- 'agrpstis'
quināre,
ancunulent
ae
qoitrós, 
koitrós
qolkā culcita  kūrcá-
qolus colus 
'axis'
qom cum, pún cuin 1b2.- wann hvan  5.3.-kəm ko-gda
quom, 1b2.- pan(n) 3a2;-when 'quō modō' 6.9.-kan
quandō pon(n)e,
qomde unde, arc. 
cunde
qondhros combrētu cuinneog Wannebob  6.3.-
m bell šveñdrai
3a3.- 'planta q.'
huonn
qori cūr, quor. hwār 'ubī' hvar 'ubī'  kár-hi 6.3.-kur
quir-quir <ēr 'id' 'quandō ' 'ubī'
'ubicumqu 3a2.-hwær 5.4.-ur
e' 'ubī' 'ubī'
qorjom coire 2b1.-pair 3a3.-huerr  carú-s, ч р ,
2b2-2b3.- cara ч рк
per
qoros cortumiō  kara-
<kworotom 'factūra'
678
H1os 5.5.-
kwera-
'ārea'
qos qā(i) quī, quis cia 'quis'
2b1.-pwy hvas 
qod 2b2.-pyw
2b3.-piou
qostā casachtac 2b1.-pas, 3a2.- 
h peswch hwósta
2b2.-pāz
2b3.-pas
qot(j)os quot 2b1.-pet  káti

5.3.- aiti
5.5.-
kuwatta
qota ut, utī, utei, puz  katham
us-piam, - 1b2.-puz-e 5.5.-kuwat
quam, uti- <*ts
nam, -que
qote hvaþ  (cf.


*<pet)
qóteros uter, utra, - 3a2.hwæþ ƕaþar  katará,
um er katama
qotrēd 3a2.- hvadre 
whither
qotrōd hvaþro 
q eumi petiro-pert creth<kwer 2b1.-  karōmi 6.3.-kuriu,
'quater' tis prydydd 'indicium, sa k t kurti 'faciō,
'poëtica'; 'poëta' monstrum'; 'semel' struō,
cuirim? peri 'faciō, <F 5.3.- incendō';

'pōnō' causō' 'monstrum' kərənaoiti
 keriu,
cruth pryd 'facit' kereti
'forma' 'forma, 'incantō'
tempus'
qrínāmi crenim 2b1.-prynu  krīnāmi

(v.n.) krayáh
'ēmī'
2b2.- 'acquistāti
prenne, ō'
perna
2b3.-prena
qrītóm críth prid <-to  krītá- ukrijenъ (-
'emptiō' 'pretium, no subst. -
oppignerāt to)
iō'
q mis cruim 2b1.-pryf  krmih 6.3.-kirmis
5.6.-kirm
q snos crann <*- 2b1-2b2.- 3a2.-hyrst  chvórost
snā 'arbos' pren 'arbuscula 'robur' <chvorstъ
2b3.-prenn e' 'rāmus'
6.3.-kirmis
q tus petiropert cruth 2b1.-pryd  sa-kºrt
'quater' 'forma, 'fr., temp.' 'semel'
modus' 2b2.-prit
'tempus'
2b3.-pred
rəbhjō rabiō, -ere recht 'fūria' 3a2.-  rábhate;
rabbian rábhas-
'uiolentia'
rədjom 
rəgājō rigō regan, rign  ALB.-rrjeth rõkia, rõkti
regen 'pluuia' 'scatō, fluō' `leuiter
679
'pluit' pluerei';
3&2.- roke 'leuis
regen; rain pluuia'
'id'
3a3.-raki
'humiditās'
rikr
'humidus'
rəpjō rapiō, -ere recht refsen  rapas- 6.3.- ap-

<*reptu- 'castigō' 'Harpia' 'mutilitās' répti
'īra' 3a2.- raphitá- 6.4.-r ples
repsan, 'uulnerrātu 'forfex'
respan 'id' s'
5.5.-
arpuwai-
'infaustus
esse'
rətis 
rādō rādō, rōdō, 2b1.- rāzi (Hes) rádati
radula, rhathu; 'subtiilis'  5.5.-

rastrum, rhathell ratze,  ardala-
rallum, 'radula' atte 'mūs' 'radens 'secūris'
rāmentum 3a2.-rætt secūris'
'mūs'
rāpom rāpum, ruoba,  6.3.-

rāpīna üpe<ōby ropiena
ō 'rāpīna'
3a3.-rōfa
'cauda
equī'
rārós rārus  ərté r dъkъ
'desertus' 'exclusīuē' 'rārō'; oriti
árma, 'separō'
armaká- 6.3.-arda ,
ruinae' -ýti 'id'
rastós 
raudos raudus, aruzzi, Erz A B.- 5.6.-rōi ruda, руд
rōdus, 3a2-arut arɛnts 'cuprum'
roudus 'chalybs,
(Festus) adamans'
raukos raucus (cf. rohon  rūk á- `? rykajo,
rūnā) 'rūgīre'; rykati
rūh? 'rugire'
3a2.-ryn 6.3.-rūkti
<*rūhjan 'rūdō'
'rūdō' 6.4.-rucu,
rùkt 'id'
rāwos rāuus rām, rōm  rāmá-
'fuligō' 'āter'; rāmī
3a2.-rōmig 'nox'
'fūlīginōsus
'
dhjō arbor, ALB.-rit 5.4.-ordi rast ; rodъ
arbos TOK.-orto 'fīlius' 'partus,
'supra' 5.5.-ḫardu- gens';
'prognātus' roditi,
KURD- ra dati
ārzang 'parere',
'color ranъ
obsc. 'mane'
intemperiē (orqros)
arb.' BUL.-
680
ra da se
'sol oritur'
6.3.-rasma
'productiō'
dhwos arduus; ar- ard 'altus, Arduenna 3a3.- ALB.-rit  várdhati rast ,
et nōn *ur- magnus' 2b1.-hardd rðugr 'crescō' 'erectus' 'crescit' rastú
rārum 'pulcher' *Hwrdh- ūrdhvá-s <*ordh-tō
4.3.- *wrHdh- 'crescō'
 
wo- 5.3.- TOK A
ǝrǝdva- orto
'altus' 'sursum'
rebhā rebaigim reben  5.6.-raftan
'lūdō'; reb, 'mouērī' 'īre'
rebrad
'lūdus'
rebhājō 
rebhō hirn-ireba  rebro

'craneus';  'costa'
rippa 'tectus'
'costa';
3a2.-ribb
'costa'
3a3.-rif
rebhrus riobhar rhefr rippa  rebro
'cribrum' 'rectum' 'costa'; 'costa'
2b3.-reor 3a2.-ribb
'costa'
3a3.-rif
recos dorch 3a3.-røkkr riqis  rájas- TOK B.-
'obscūrus' 'inferum' 5.4.-erek erke t
<*do- 'niger'
regyo-
rēd/re re (resuō,  5.5.-arha
reiciō, (kisai-
respiciō) 'destruō')
regeinā regīna rígain 2b1.-rhiain  rājñī
<*rēgnī 'uirgō'
regjos 
regnom regnum rén 
'spatium'
regō regō reraig regu recchen, uf-rakjan  jyati
'tendō' recken 'in altum 'firmus est'
'extendere' extendere' 5.5.-
3a2.- harg(a)nāu
reccan 'id' 'palma'
regs rex rí (ríg)  reiks <  rāj- (nom.
, celt. rí sg. rā ),
rigomagus rājan-
, caturix
2b1.-rhi
regtós rectus recht 2b1.- raihts 
<*regtu- cymreith/r
'lex' haith
2b3.-reiz
'ordō,
disp.'
reidhō rédid, parauerēd rītan  6.3.-ried ti
ríadid; us 'eq 3a2.-rídan 'uoluō';
ríad add.' rēda 3a3.-rídha raidīt
'equitāiōt' 'currus' 'instigō'
2b1.-
rhwyddhau
681
'festīnō';
gorwydd
'equus'
reidhos réid 2b1.- bereit ga-raidjan  TOK A.- 6.3.-raidù-
 
<*reidhi- rhwydd 'aptus' 'adaptāre';  ritk- 'gignō' 'aptus':
'facilis, <*reidhi- 3a2.-rēde, *ga-raiþ-s B ritk 6.4.-raids
plānus, 'facilis' ready 'aptus' 'sānō' 'promptus,
suauis' 2b3.-rouez 3a3.-greiđr aptus';
'thin-sown' 'aptus'; riedît
reiđi 'concinnār
adminiculu e,
m adaptāre'
reigō corrigia < ad-riug, 2b1.- ricken ; ric 
gal. con-riug; modrwy 'ligatūra'
fo-riug 'anus';
'sistō'; rhwym
ārach, 'uinc.'
cuimrech 2b3.-rum
'uinculum' 'id'
reimā rīma réo <*riwo- 3a2.-rāw,  6.3.-rievà
'linea' ræw, row 'rupēs';
'linea' raĩve
'linea'
6.4.-riewa
rēimṇ rím 2b1.-rhif rīm 
'numerus' <*rīmā <*rīmom
<*rīmā 3a2.-rīm
rēis rēs, reus 1b2.-re- 2b1.-rei ?  rā , rāyá ;
per 'pro regnum rayí-;
rē', dat. rēvánt
abl. ri 'diuēs'
5.3-raya
i.s.raēvant
reiwos rīuus riathor 2b1.-reatir rīde  ráya-s reka
'torrens' 'torrentum' 'amnis' 'flūmen' <*roikā; roi
3a2.-rīð 'exāmen'
'torrens'
rējō ráïd, rá-, rüejen <*rō  6.3.-iriù,
imb·rá- 3a2.- ìrti
<*rō- rōwan
<*rō-
rekā ricinus  lik ā 6.3.-érke
<*lak ā 'id' 'ricinus'
5.4.-o(r)jil ` 6.4.- rce
'pediculus' 'mōrōsus'
rékneumi rechnen rahnjan  racayati rokъ
'id' 'calculō' 'praeparat' 'opportunit
ga-rēhsns, ās'
ragin reko, rešti
'consilium' 'dicō'
raknoti,
ra iti 'uelle'
re ь
'accūsātiō'
remō fo-rim- ramf, rimis  rámatē 6.3.-remiù,
dēpōnō Rand 'quiēs' 'tranquillē', 'quiescit, remti
rinde ? 'limēs, comp. oblectātur'; 'fulciō';

'recipiens' contentiō'  ratá- ràmas
3a2.-rand 'libīdō'; 'quiēs'
'scūtum' ráti- 'quiēs' 6.4.-rāms
'pudīcus'
rēmoi reor, ratiō; rīm 2b1.-rhaid rāmen rathjō  ratu-
'habilitās',
682
(prō)portiō: 'numerus'; 'necessit.' 'cōnor' 'calculus' ' 'ueredictu
portiō =prō do-rīmu 2b2.-reys, 3a2.- (< lat.?) potior' m'; aram,
ratiō; rītus 'numerō' res rōmon 'id' álam 'satis'
2b3.-red
(<lat.?)
rentus rét (réto) >  rátna 'et
rud 'rēs' gemma,
thesaurus,
dōnum'
rēpō rēpō rebo, reba,  6.3.-replióti
repa 6.4.-rāpt
'vinea'
resgō restis rusch(e)  rájju- rozga
'iuncus' 'corda' 'rāmus'
3a2.- 6.3.-rezgù,
resc(e), rèksti
risc(e), rekstis
rysc(e) 'id' 'corbis'
6.4.-re ǵēt
resgtis 
rēsmos rēmus, rāme ; ruodar   6.3.-irklas
rēmō, imram 'iter' 3a3.-róa <*tlo-
tri/septe-
resmom
rēti rēte  6.3.-retis
retō rota, rethim; 2b1.-tyred rado, rato  rátha ritù, rìsti
birota, rath 'rota'; (*to-rete) 'rapidus' 'currus' 'rotō'
rotundus do·airret 'ueni!'; 3a2.-ræd 5.3.-raa
'superat' guo-redaf 'id' 'id'
'succurrō'
2b3.-
redont
'currunt'
retrōd 
reubō rubus, robb? rupfen raupjan 
rūbidus, animal? 3a2.-
rubēta rīepan, rip
reudhos rūfus, ruad Ande- 3a3.-rauth- rauds  rohita rъdъ
ruber roudos r 6.3.-
2b1.-rhudd ra das
2b2.-
rud/ruth
2b3.-ruz
reudhos rōbur, 
rōbus
reudō rūdō riozan   rudáti, 6.8.-ruditi
'flēre' róditi 'flēt' 'dēplorō'
3a2.- 6.3.-
rēotan ráudmi 'id'
reudos rudis, rúad 'ruina' 2b1.rhuddi rōzzen  udrá-
rūdus, on 'dēcadō' 'Apollō'
rullus 'residuum, 3a2.-
furfur' rotian, rot
'id'
reughmṇ roum,  5.3.-
Rahm rao(g)na-
'crēma' 'burrum'
3a2.-rēam 5.6.-
3a3.-rjūmi rō(g)an 'id'
reugō ērūgō, it-  5.4.-orcam rygajo se

ructō ruchen.rēo 5.6.-ā-rōg 6.3.-
can; rjáugmi,ra
683
rouhhan, ugiù
rauchen
'id'
3a2.-
rocettan;
rēocan
'fūmō'
reumi rūmor, rún 2b1.-rhin rienen rūna  rāu-ti, rovo, ruti
rauus, 'secrētum' 'secrētum' 'lamentor' 'secrētum' 'murmurō' ruváti, 'murmurō'
rauis, 3a2.-rūn ravati
rauiō, 'id'; rēon 'murmurat'
raucus 'lamentus'
3a3.-rymja
rūmor
reusmṇ rūmen, 2b1.-  rōmantha-
rūma,-mis, rhumen 'rūminātiō'
rūmāre, 'pantica'
rūmināre
reusmnājō 
rew rūs ré <*rewi- rûm, rūm  ravьnъ
/*rew-yā Raum 'spatium' <orvьnъ
róe, rói 'spatium' rūms 'plānum';
'planitiēs' 3a2,a3.- 'amplus' rovesnyk
rūm 'id' 'coaetāneu
s'
réwesnā 
rewis ré 'lūna';  ravi 'sōl'
reo dorcha 5.4.-arew
'obscūra 'id'
nox'
rewmṇ rón 'crīnis'; 2b1.- riomo,  r man-,
rúaimneac rhawn Riemen l man
h 'crīnis' 'cinctus' 'capillum'
<*roumniā- 2b2.-ruen 3a2.-rug
k- 'crīnis' 'drappus'
'capillum 2b3.-reun 3a3.-
longum' 'crīnis' rogg(r)
'caesariēs'
rewō (ē/dī/ob- rúam 3a2.-rūwi riurjan  rávate, ryjo, ryti
)ruō, - 'rūtrum'; 'asp. pelle' 'uiescō'; 'erumpō; rudhí, 'fodiō';

rutus; rúamar 3a3.-ryja riurs 'terram rāvi am, rъv ,
rūtrum; 'effossiō' 'ouēs 'peremptōr r ruvat рв ть
fodiens'
rutellum; tondeō' ius' 'frangō' 'abrumpō'
rutābulum 5.5.- 6.3.-ráuju,
ar(u)wai ráuti
'prosternō' 'abscindō,
runcō'
rewos rūs roe, rói 
2a2.-roen>
raon
*rovesno-,
*rovesyâ?
ghējō ar(a)g  rágha jërzat'
'piger, 'tripudiō' 'uiolentia' ; 'inquiētus
molestus' ghāyáti esse'
3a2.-earg 'conciet' 6.3.-ar ùs
'id' 5.5.-ārki 'lascīūs'
'cōpulat'
rigjō ringid ; 2b1.-dir- reichen  rái -aus, -
 
riag rwyn, cyf- 'extendō' ? 'extendō' ytis
'tormentu rwynein 3a2.- 'oblongor'
m' 'tormentu ræc(e)an,
684
m' reach
ijai orior  nóti
5.4.-y-
arnem
5.5.-arta
'stat'
rikjō rixa ? 2b1.- rīhe 'linea'  likhāmi
rhwygo 'rumpō' 'scabō'
2b3.-
roegaff
rínāmi irrītō, rían 'mare' ēnos rennen 'id' rinnan  riṇāti, vyrin ti
prorītō ' hēnus' 3a2,.rinna 'currere' 'irritō' ríṇvati
n, run
kējō arceō, trííb- rigil, riegel  5.4.- raka
arca, arakavúm 'repagulum 'defendō' argelum 'sepulcrum
arcānus àedificare' ' 'impediō' ' 6.3.-
3a2.-rail (cf. rakìnti
censeō- 'claudō'
consulō)
5.5.-
har(k)-
'teneō'
kēslom rigil, riegel  5.4.-argel 6.3.-
'repagulum 'impedime rãktas
' ntum' 'clāuis'
3a2.-rail
klā arcula  5.4.-arkl
rnāmi ōra; cf. ern(a)id ?  cf. bhajate
dīligō 'dōnat' 'amō'; 5.5.-arha,

tamen fut. 'amor' erha 'ōra'
ebra
neumi orior  rnóti

5.4.-ari
'sta'
5.5.-arnu-,
arai-; arta
'stat';
arriya
'suscitō'
numái cf. rēs cf. 1b2.-re-  rāti ?
per 'pro 'dōnat' cf.
rē', dat. rā , rāyá
abl. ri rayí-
'opes';
rēvánt
'diuēs'
5.3-ərənu
'dōnō'; cf.
raya 'opes'
5.4.-arnum
'emō'
LYD.-arlili
'proprius'
nutis 
robhos 
rōdhí  5.6.-rādiy radi
rōdhjō no-ráidiu, 2b1.- reden; rōdjan;  rādhn ti, raditi,
no-rádim; adrawd; rātan garēdan rādhyati 'curor'
imm-rādim amraud 'consl.' 'curor' 'efficit,
'meditor' 'mens' 3a2.- concinnat'
rædan 5.3.-rāđaiti
'legere' 'parat'
685
3a3.-røđa
rōdō rōdō (wr-), 2b1.- ruozit  vardva- vredъ
rostrum rhathu, 'suscitat' 'mitis' 'uulnus'
rhathell 3a2.- avradanta
'līma' wrōtan 'mitigātis'
'fodiō'
rōdos 3a2.-rōt  radъ
'cōmis' 'libens'
3a3.-rö 6.3.-rõds
task'animo 'id'
r'
roinos róen 'iter, 2b3.-run rein, Rain 
callis, 'collis' 3a3.-rein
continuī 'limes'
montes'
ros  rása- rosa

 'succus' 6.3.-rasa
 '- 5.5.-
fluō' arsiya-
'fluō'
ALB.-resh
'ninguit'
rōstrom 
rotā rota roth 2b1.-rhod rad  ráthas 6.3.-rãtas
2b3.-ros 'currus'
5.3.-raqō
ots ara, ac.  arati
araid 'seruus';
sarāthi?
'auriga'
roudhstos Rost  lo a- 6.3.-rùstas
3a2.-rost, 'rufus'
rust 6.4.-ru^sa
<*rūdhsā
roudos rōz  róda- 6.3.-raudà
rounā rún 2b1.-rhin rūna rūna 
'secrētum' 'secrētum' 3a2.-rūn
roupis rūpes -is 3a3.-rufinn  *rōpa- 6.3.-rupis
<*rūpi-; 'saetōsus, 'ōrificium' 'rūpēs',
rupex -icis dispectināt raupaĩ
<*rupik- us'; rauf 'uariola,
'ōrificium' morbillum'
6.5.- r pa
'ōrificium'
routos 3a2.-  5.4.-rōt
rēada,
read
rowā ruowa,  6.3.-rowa
Ruhe 'stagnus'
3a2.-rōw 6.4.-rāwa
'quiēs' 'id'
sjā 3a2.-   īr yā TOK A rse,
eorsian 'imprecātiō 'malitia' B rser
'malēuolus , 5.4.-her 'odium'
sum' maledictiō, 5.5.-
contumelia arsaniya
' 'inuideō'
LUV.-hīrūt
'iurāmentu
m'
skai eirgg, eirg 3a2.-eart ALB.-  ccháti
'i'; do·rega <*H1eH1or ardhur 5.5.-ār-,
686
/·terga e 'es' <*H1orgh- arhi
'ueniet' 3a3.-aru un- 'ueni' 'perueniō';
(3ª pl.) āri
'peruenit'
tís 
tkos ursus art Deae  ksa-s
Artioni 5.3.-arəsō
2b1.-arth 5.4.-arj
5.5.-
hartagga
rudhējō rubeō (ir)rōtēn,  rudeti s
erröten 'rubescō'
'rubescō' 6.3. ra sti;
3a3.- raudēti
rēodan,
redden
rudhrós ruber, rúad rauths  rudhirá-ḫ; rudru, ridru
rūfus, cf. aruṇa 6.3.-
rōbus 5.3.-cf. ra das
(dial.) auruša
<*H1eru-
rudhsós russus ; cf. raocah- rusъ ,
cf.   / ruk á русый
sk. r vá 6.3.-rùsvas
'rubidus';
ra svas
rudlós 
rugijō rugiō rucht 3a2.-ryn inrauhtjan  rъ etъ

'rugītus' <*rūhjan; 'irāscor' 'rūgītus'; 'hinnīre'
rēoc  6.4.-rûkts
'saeuus'  'asper'
'rugiens'
ruktus rucht rhuch(en) rocko, *rukka > it. 
Rock 'id' rocca
3a2.-rock 'castula'
'id'
rumpō rumpō; roubōn bi-raubōn  lumpáti, rupá 'cūra'
rūpēs 'clepō' 'clepō'; caus. 6.3.-rūpeti
(6.3.- 3a2.- raupjan rōpayati 'curō'
rupis); rēofan 'decerpere
rūpex 'scindere'; , capere'
rubbish
3a3.-rjūfa,
riūfa
runkō runcō, rucht 2b1.- rūh ?  luñcati; 6.3.-
runcō, 'porcus' rhwgn 'raucus' 'fodiō' rūk á- ? raukiù,

runcina, 'frictiō, 3a2.-rūh   'raucus' ra kti
rūga scaptiō' 'id' 'rūgō'
rupús rūpex  6.3.-rupùs
'solox'
ruspājai rūspor, -ārī gi-rūspit 
gl. zu
inhorruit
(aper),
räus/rūs/
riuspern/-
ln,
räuspern
'in collō
rādere'
rwtós rutus; rūta  rutáh zarýt, rýla
'fractus'
687
s(w)ei sei 
s(w)eike 
səkesnā sacēna scian 2b1.- 3a2.- 
'culter' ysgïen segisna
səksom saxum sahs  socha
'culter' 'culter?'
səpijō sapiō sipus saer/saor 2b1.-saer saf, sapf,  5.3.-višāpa
'sciens' 'artifex' <*səpró Saft 'venenōsu
(*sēpwos), 'succus'; s'
3a2.-sæp 5.4.-ham
'succus' 'succus'
sāgijō sāgiō; saigim, 2b1.- suohhen, sōkjan  5.5.-
sāga ?, saigid haeddu suchen šak(k)-,
signum sarugud 'assequor' 3a2.- šek(k)-
<*seHgno <sakro- sayrhaed, sæcan, 'sciō,
m sag sarhad seek periō';
(Lubotsky) 'offensiō' 'off.' 3a3.-søkja sagai-?
'ōmen'
sagom 
saipis saepēs, 

saeptum, 
saepe,
saepiō
saitā saeta seito/a  s tu- setь 'rēte'
Saite 'id' 'nexus' 6.3.-saĩtas,
3a2.-sāda 5.3.-haētu- si tas
'corda' 'saeptum 'uinculum'
3a3.-seiðr aquae' 6.4.-saĩte
'id' 5.5.- 'monīle'
ishiyani
'capillum'
saitlom saeculum 2a2.-gar- Deae 
séle Setlocenia
e
2b1.-
hoedledd
2b3.-
hoazl/hoal
saiwos 
sājō saeuus, sáeth hoed sehr sair 'dolor'  5.5.-sawar 6.4.-sievs,
saeuiō 'aegrotās, 'damnum' 'multum' 'dīrus' 'īra' sīvs 'acer'

afflictiō' sehren 'luguber'
sáethar 'uulnerō' F
'labor' 3a2.-sār 
'dolorōsus'
sákrodhokj 
om
sákrodhots 
sakros sacer, sakoro  5.5.-šaklai
sacerdōs, 'sacra' 'ritus, mōs,
sagmen sacrasias lex'
sal sal 1b2.-salu salann 2b1.-halen salt  5.4.-al, solь

<*saleino- 2b2.- altkh 6.4.-sāls
haloin
2b3.-
holenn
saldō saldō saill 2b1.-hallt salzan  sladъkъ
<*saldi 'salsus' 3a2.-seal- 'salsus' 'dulcis'
'salsā /sieltan <*salu- 6.3.-saldùs
carō, (cf. bsl.) 'id'
sebum'
688
salēiks salix sail 2b1.- sal(a)ha, 
(sailech) helyg-en 3a2.-sealh
saleiwā salīua sal, sa(i)le 2b1.-halog salo  sāra-, slavo-o ije
'immunditi 'id' 'turbidus'; sāla- 'gris' 'oculus
a'; 2b3.- sal caeruleus'
salach haloc, 'id' (salwes) solovój
'immundus 'im.tia' 'isabel.
' 3a2.-salu color'
'turbidus'
salom salum sal, sá(i)le Salla>ang. 3a2.-  6.9.-salus
'mare' Hail seolo 'amnis'
'mare'
salús salach; sal 2b2.- salo  5.5.-salpa соловой
'immunditi halou, 'merda 'spadix
a' stercora canis' equus'
sāmən sám semfti,  sāman-

'quiēs'; sanft (Pind.) 'sōlācium,
sáim 'suāuis' 'mansuētu conciliātiō';
'tranquillus <*samtiyo- s' santva- 'id
' 3a2.- et mītis'
soft(e)'id'
samdhos sabulum sam(b)t, , babhasti
sant ; 'conterit';
3a2.-sand  bhasma

3a3.-sandr 'fūmus' 'cinis'
 'terō'
sāmis 
samos sam, 2b1-2b2.- sumar,   samā
samrad < haf Sommer 'diēs' NON 'annus',
*samo-roto 2b3.-hañv 3a2.- cf. arm. tempus,
sumor, awr diēs
summer <*awur 5.3.-ham
<*H1eH2m 5.4.-am
ōr 'annus';
amarn
<*smH2er
m
sánāmi satis, 1b2.- sáith sat 'id' gasōþjan; aor. a-si-n-vá-, sуtъ (y!!)
satius; sanes ? <*sāti-) 3a2.- *sōþ(s),  ásinvan 6.3.-sótinti;
satiō -āre, abl. 'sānīs' 'satiās'; gesēdan; dat sōþa (Hom), 'insatiābilis sótis
satietās, sáithech sad 'id' 'satiās' ;  Hes ' 'satiās';

satiās, 'satiātus' 3a3.-saðr saþs <*saj-; 5.4.-at-ok sōtùs
satur; 'satiātus'  'plēnus, 'satiātus'
sānus ? 'satis'; adultus'; 6.4.-sãts
 ha , <*sātis
 ha oy, yag
'satis'
'satiātus'
<*sadio-
/sawo-
sáneumi con-suí 2b1.-  sanoti

'expugnat' cynyddu  'uincit' ;
'capere,  ásanam
expugnāre' 'interficiō'; 'uīcī';
 sanema
'arma'
'uincāmus'
5.5.-sanh
'quaerō'
sankijō sanciō, 3a2.-saht  5.5.-šaklai-
sanctus 'pax' 'ritus, mōs,
3a3.-saett lex'
'concilium'
sapos sapa; sap- 2b1.-syb- saf, Saft  5.3.-vī-
689
pīnus, wydd 3a2.-sæp, šāpa
sāpīnus 'sāpīnus' sap 'uenenōsō
succō'
5.4.-ham
<*pm
'succus,
sapor'
sasjom sasiam   sasyá-m
'asia' 'terra' 'et fructus,
 
2b1.-haidd 'herbans' sēmen,
'id' grānum'
2b3.-heiz 5.3.-
'id' hahya-
'frūmentāri
us'
sātis satis, sáith *sōþ(s),  6.3.-sótis
satius dat sōþa
sauros 3a1.-sūr,  TOK.В syrъ, syrój

sauer  sūrma 'caseus,
3a2.-sūr, 'morbus acerbus,
sour oculāris' hūmidus'
3a3.-sūrr 6.3.-sūras
'salātus'
sāwel(jos) sōl súil<sūli ? 2b1.-haul 3a3.-sōl sauil  súvar, slьnъce

<*sH2wōl 'oculus' <*seH2wōl sūrya- <*sH2ulnik
2b2.-heul, <*suH2liyo- o-
houl 5.3.-hvar 6.3, 6.4.-
2b3.-heol (hwəng) sáule
se se si-k F se
se/sos ip-se; sa- exo 'hic' -so; so-sin; so- 3a2.-se, sa, sō; sī    sa/sah,sā;

sā/sī tod psa; sum, impu<imb sio she 'illa' e-sa;a-sau
sam, sōs, +su 2b3.-ho-n 3a3.-sā 5.3.-
sās (*sōns); 'noster'; ha/hō,hā;
sí 'illa' ho-z aeSa,hāu
'vester'
sēd sēd, soluō,  5.4.-k'eç sveni(je)
sedūcō; 'absolūtus' 'extrā'
sedulus <pron.
*swe
sēdājō sēdō sāten 
'placō'
sedējō sedeō 1b2.-  6.3.-
sersitu s d iu,
'sedetō' s d ti
sedējō circumsed imm·said sez  pr -s da
ambhí eō, <*epi+sed- 'insidiae';
obsideō 'obsidium'
sedlā sella sedlon sezzal, sitls  5.4.-etɫ sedló

Sessel Hes.
sedmən 
sedos sēdēs síd 'pax' 2b1.-  sádas
<*sedeH1? sawdd 5.3.-hadiš-
'subsideor' 'palatium'
segēts 
seghdhlā 2b1.- 
haeddel 'buris'
2b3.-
haezl, hael
seghō seuērus Segomāro sigi, sigu sigis  sáhate
s, 'uictoria'; 'uictoria' 'habeō', 'dominat'

Segodūnu sigirōn  sáhas-
690
m, 'uincō';  'potestās,
Segobriga 3a2.-sige, 'excellens'; uictoria'

2b1.-hy sigor 'retineō', sahurah
'fortis', 'uictoria'  'potens'
haeddel  5.3.-
'' MYK sahaz=sah
2b3.- ekoto? as-
haezl,healf
seghos 
seghurós seuērus  sáhuri-
'firmus' 'potens'
5.5.-
sakuriya-
'capere'
ségneumi 1a1.- suanem<s 2b1.- Schnürsen  sájati segnoti
sagum ogno- hoenyn kel 'pendō', 'capere'
'retinacula' 'pedica' 'laqueus' annectō 6.3.-sègti
, sén 5.6.- 'id'
<segno- frāhajam
'pedica' ipf.1ªs.
segnom 
segō seges, segeticion  TOK.-A
Seia 'prolis' äktālyi B
2b1.-heu, aktālye '-
hau tālis' -*yo?
seikā sīca seigel  sī ь 'talea'
'tignum'
3a2.-sāgol
'uirga'
seiqō siccō, Sequana sīhan,  s catē, sь ,
siccus seihen 'humiditās' siñcáti sьcati
'cōlō'; 5.3.-haēk-, 'mingō'
seich hin aiti
'mictiō'
seilō VEN.-Silis, silid 3a2.-  6.3.-séile
Silarus; sioloÞ 'salīua'
HISP.-Sil 'mare'
seimā sim 3a2.-sīma  sīmán(ta),
'catēna' 'laq, fun.' 'cinctus'; sīmā

3a2.-sīmi 'flagellō' 'margō'
'funis' 5.5.-ishai
'ligō'
seimṇ 2b1.-hufen 3a1, 3a2.- 

'crēma seim 'sanguis'
*soimeno- 'mucilagu
m, melle'
seinus sīn senawa,  5.3.-hinu- 6.3.-síena
'catēna, Sehne 'uinculum' 'margō,
monīl' 'funis' mūrus'
3a2.-sinu 6.4.-
'id' pasainis
'monīl.'
sējdhlom sithlad/síol 2b1.-hidl, 3a3.-sāld *sēÞl  pro-seati
thughadh 'cribrum' 'id' 'cribrum' > 6.3.-síetas
2b3.-sizl, karel. 'cribrum'
sil 'id' siekla
sējō simila sithlad/síol 2b1.-hidl, 3a3.-sāld *sēÞl   pro-seati
thughadh 'cribrum' 'id' 'cribrum' > <*kieH2? 6.3.-sijóju,
2b3.-sizl, karel. -ti
sil 'id' siekla
sékāmi secō, 2b2.- tescaid<to- 2b1.- sega  sek 6.3.-
secūris, prusekatu eks-sk; hesg(en) 'secō'; i-sēkti
691
saxum, 'prōsecātō' seche, 'carex' segisna, 'inhumō',
sacēna, ; aseçeta seiche 2b2.- Sense išsēkti
signum 'nōn secta' 'pellis' heschen 'falx' ; 'scalpō';
'canna, Segel sekyra
arundō' 'uēlum' 'secūris'
2b3-hesk 3a2.-secg
<sek-skā 'ensis', sail
'id'
sēknis sēgnis 
'silenter'

'silens';


'minus,
minimē' 
seks / sex sé 2b1.- sechs saíhs  á šestь,
sweks chwech, 3a2.-siex, 5.3.-xšvaš есть
chwe six 5.4.-vech 6.3.-šešì
2b2.-
whegh,
whe
2b3.-
c`houec`h
<swex
sekstos sextus sessed 2b1.- sehsto, saíhsta  a há-, 6.3.-
chweched; sehto š štas
sekūris secūris  sekyra
selgō selg/sealg 2b1.-in  s játi'soluit'
'uenor' helcha
'uenāndō'
2b2.-
helhwur
'uenaator'
2b3.-em-
olc`h
'uenor'
seljos 
selkō sulcō, selah  ; 5.4.-heɫg ToВ sälk-
sulcus 'phoca' ; 'tardus, 'trahō'
3a2.-sulh ; piger'
3a2.-seolh  <*HeHw3lk
'ph.' HºHwl-
A B.-helq,
heq 'trahō'
<*(s)olkeiō
selō consulere, selb Luguselua sellen saljan  sъlati

consilium 'propriētās' 2b1.-helw 'uendō' 'sacrificō' 'praeda' 'mittere'
?? to-selb 'id' 3a2.-sellan sala sъlъ
'conseruō' 'fideicomis 'oblātiō'
sus'
selom solum, s l saliþwōs  selo
solea 'domus, 'hospitia' <sedlo-?
domicilium' 'pagus,
ager'
6.3.-salà
'insula';
sоl 'ager'
sēlom síl 'sēmen' 2b1.-hil  6.3.-
'progeniēs' pas l s
'satiō'
selwā selb Lugu- 
2a3.- selua
sealbh, helw
692
seilbh
sēmi- sēmi- sāmi- 
semjō sentīna do·es-sim  6.3.-sémti
'effundō'
semli simul, arc. 1b2.- amal 'sicut' simble(s), simlē 
semol sumel simblum
'semper'
sēmṇ sēmen sāmo  seme
<*sēmōn 6.3.-
semenys
semos semper, emith 2b1.- sin-hīun sin-teins  samá- 6.3.-s nas

simītu, 'tanquam, hanter 'coiux' 'quotidiē';   'omnis, TOK A.-
semel, quasi' < 'dimidium' 3a2.- sums  ecquis ', sä
singulī *semiti hefyd sinhīwan 'quīdam' 'nullus'; sak t 'quīdam'
<s gnoi, 'quoque' 'id'; some  'semel' ;
'alicunde';
simplēx 2b2.- 'nōnnullus'  sámiti;
hanner 'id'  sahásra
2b3.- 'alter' 'mille'
hanter 'id' Myc. e-me 5.3.-hama- 
'omnis';
ha-krt;
haza ra
5.4.-
amēn(ain)
'omnis'
senchō sing (to) 2b1.- singan, siggwan  'uox , samghai
de(h)ongl singen 'canō'; augurium'; (PRAKR)
'explicō' 3a2.- sangws  'dīcō,
singan 'cantus,  'nōmen afferō'
3a3.- musica' iouis'
syngua
senējō seneō  6.3.-sen ju
senēks senex sen senognātu sineigs,  sana- 6.3.-s nas

s 2b1.- sinista 5.3.-hana- 6.4.-sens
2b2.-2b3.- 'senissimu 5.4.-hin
hen s'
senqō sinkan, sigqan  5.4.-
sinken, 'cecidit' ankanim
seicht 'cadō,
'ūdus' dēminuō'
3a2.-
sincan
3a3.-
søkkva
sentos sét 'uia' 2b1.-hynt 3a2.-sīth ainamma  TOK A.-
<*sentus 2b3.-hent 'iter, uices' sinþa sont
'uia' 'semel'
sandjan
'mittō'
sepēlijō sepeliō  saparyati
'uenerātur'
sépeltrom 
sepō sepeliō,  (aor sápati
sepultum  'colit' ;
'parō'; saparyáti
?? 'venerātur'
'arma'; 5.3.-haf-

'coquō' (sustineō)
5.4.-ep'em
'coquō'
sept septem secht n- 2b1.-saith sibun sibun  saptá sedmъ<*s
2b2.-seyth 3a2.- 5.3.-hapta eptəmtos
693
2b3.-seiz
seofon 6.3.-
3a3.-siau septiñtas.
sépt os septimus sechtm-ad sextameto 3a2.-  saptamá,s
s seofoða aptátha
5.3.-
haptaqa
5.4.-
haftum
5.5.-šipta.
seqai sequor sechur, sehan, saihvan  sácate; 6.3.-sekù,
sechithir; sehen 'id' 'uidēre' sí akti sèkti
rosc 3a2.-seon, 'comitō'
'oculus' see 'id' 5.5.-sakui
<proskwo 3a3.-sja 'oculus'
m; écosc 'id'
'faciēs'
<*in-kom-s
seqi 
seqō inquam, scél Ate-spatus sagen  'dīc' 6.3.-sakīti,
inquit 'narrātiō' 2b1.- 3a2.- sakýti
cosc chwethl, secgan
'correctiō' hepp 3a3.-
aithesc 'inquit' seg(g)ja
'responsu 2b3.-que-
m' in- hezl cosb
cho-sig 'pūnitiō'
'quid
significat'
seqos secus sech 2b1.-heb  sākám, secen<*se
'praeter, 'sine' sácā, sáci ken ,
trans' 2b2.-heb 'iuxta' sec<*seki
<*sekwā/se 'id' 5.3.-ha ā, 'praeter'
k wo 2b3.-heb 'ab'
'id'
serō serō, aserum sreth<srtā 3a3.-sörwi sarwa 

seriēs, 'linea' 'monīle' 'arma'
sors
serom serum  sará-
'fluidus'
sēros sērus; sír 'longus' 2b1.-2b2.- 
sērius? 2b3.-hir
sérpenos serpens  sarpá A B.-
<'reptīle' gjarpën
serpō serpō  sárpati
sesmi  sasti
5.3.-hah
5.5.-ses-
sesqos seisc 2b1.-hesg 3a3.-sef 
'iuncus' 2b2.-
sescenn heschen
'palūs' 'canna'
setis satelles < sétig 'uxor'  strī ? посетить
etrusc. 'sodālis'; 'uxor' 'uisō'
za-la? Hom. 6.3.-sv tis
 'id' 'hospēs'!
s tjosi sētius sīd Seit seiÞus 
'post' <seH1-i-tu
3a2.-sīth, 'tardē'
seugō sūgō súgim 2b1.- 3a2.- 
sugno súcan
(v.n.)
2b3.-
694
sunaff/sun
a
seutō siodan, sauþs  hāvayan šu ú,
sieden 'animal 'coquunt' šutítь
3a2.- hostiāle' 5.5.-suttati 'nugō'
séoðan, 'tumescō' 6.3.-
seethe ? siau iù/sti
'uentilō'
sewājō virsūmen;  'sinīō,
säumen permittīō'
'perdere'
sewe 
séwijos 
sewō soïd 2b1.-huan  suváti,
'uoluit' <*sowonā sauti,
? 'sōl' savati 'id'
5.3.-hav-
'id'
5.5.-šūāi-
'incitō'
silējō sileō 3a2.- ana-silan 
sālnes
'silēnti.'
síneumi  syáti, 6.3.-si ti
sināti, 6.4.-sìet
sinōti
5.3.-hā(y)-
5.5.-išiya-,
išāi
sinísteros sinister cf. ? nertru cf; sániyān
'sinistrō  'ūtilius'

<uirīliōre' 5.3.-cf;
vairyastāra
'laeuus',
váriyān
'potius'
sinō sinō, pōnō,   áva-syati 6.3.-
situs F 'consistit' ãtsainus

'tranquillus' avasāna- 'negligens'
(cf. 'terminus'
) suváti
5.3.-hāra-
'id'
5.5.-zeya
'coquō'
sinus sinus ALB.-gji
<*sinos
sisdō sīdō < si- 1b2.- sa(i)did, 2b1.- sizzu; sitan  sīdati, se do,

sdō, sedeō sersitu fut. seiss sedddu caus. <*sitjan;  sátsi, sedeti
'sedetō', (*sed-s-ti); sezzen, caus. 'uendere'; cau.sādáy 6.3.-
zeref suidigur setzen satjan  (i ati *sédmi,
`sedens', 'locō' <*sodejō schwa <*sodejō sed iu
andersesu 3a2.-sittiu, secundum 5.3.-hiδaiti
st sit ) 'statuō' ,
ìntersideri 3a3.-sit niša hasti,
t' ni-
šāδayeiti
5.4.-nstim
<*nisdyō?;
hecanim
<*-ds-
5.5.-sisd-
695
'quiescō'
sísermi serum sirid 'errat, Sarmus  sísarti, 6.3.-apsirti
sagit' 'flūmen' 'pulsus' sárati 'fluō' 'circumeō'
2b1.-herw sará-
<*seruo- 'fluidus'
'error' 5.5.-sesar
'colō'
sísghrāmi  jíghrāti, TOK.-A

'odor' ghrāti krām, В
kor 'nasus'
síslāwos 
sisō serō, sēuī 1b2.- síl 2b1.-sil, hil sā(j)en, saian  sasyá-m seti
satiō, semenies 'sēmen' 'prolēs' sāwen praet. 'sēmen'; 6.3.-séju,
sēmen saithe haidd heiz 3a2.- saiso; sāyaka séti
'exāmen' 'barley' sāwan manaseþs 'missīle'
haid 3a3.-súrr, 'humānitās 5.5.-sai-
'examen' saurr ' 'disparō';
'sēmen' sehur
'urīna'
sisqos cf. siccus sesc 2b1.-hysb  siñcáti
'siccus, f. hesb 'fundō'
ster.' 2b3.-hesp, 5.3.-hisku
2a3.- hesk 'siccus'
seasg
sītús sith- aeq. sīto 'laxē' 
sithithir 3a2.-sīd
'longus' 'amplus'
skīrós 3a3.-skírr skeirs  š iryj
<*skeiro- 'umbrāculu 6.6.-
m q.' szczery
sjewmən Saum  syūman-
seam 'neruus'; 'uinculum';

3a3.- 'cantus' sūtra-
saumr 'fīlum,
aphorismu
s'
5.5.-
sum(m)an
za(n)
'corda'
sjewō suō, siula siujan  syūtáh šiti, ить
sūbula <*sewlo- 'sūtus' 6.3.-siuti;
'sūbula' sīvyati süd em,
'suit' siūlas,
5.5.-suwēl .siúola-
'fīlum' 'fīlum'
sjūdhlā sūbula siula  sūtram уло
'fīlum' 'cuspis';
сило
'pedica'
6.3.-siūlas,
siúola-;
'fīlum';
saiklis
'fibula'
6.7.-sidlo
sjūtós sūtus 3a2.-sēod  syūtáh zashít,
<*siutós < shila
*sjūtós 6.4.-s ts
'crumēna' <*sjūtos
skabhjēs 
skabhnom scamnum,  skabhnāti,
696
scabellum skambháh
'fulcrum'
skabhō scabō, schepfen, skaban  5.4.-kāfaδ, skoblь

scabiēs, schaffen; 'tondēre'; 'scalprum'; kāvaδ 'runcina''
scaber skaft gaskapjan  'scabit' 6.4.-skabrs
'schaft' 'creāre' 'incussiō'; (skap) 'scaber'
3a2.- 
scafan, 'lancea'
scaban;
scieppan
'cr.';
gesceap,
shape
'forma'
skaiwós scaeuus ciotach chwith 
'sinistera'
skalpō scalpō,  kḷptáh 6.3.-
sculpō sklempiù
skandō scandō, scendim 2b1.-cy-  skándati
scāla 'saliō' chwynnaf  'pedica, 'saliō'
<*skand(t/ 'initiō' offensiō'
s)lā
skandslā 
skāpos scāpus, 3a,a2.-  kopьje

scōpa, skaft 'sceptrum' 'hasta'
scōpiō 'hasta' 6.4.-š èps
3a3.-skapt 'id'
'id'
skatējō 
skatō scatō, scatán, 2b1.- Schad(e)  6.3.-

scateō scadán ysgadan 'alosa  skastu,
'harengus' 'harengus' pseurohar skasti
engus'
3a2.-
sceadd 'id'
skedō scindula, 3a2.-  skhadatē skodъ
 
scandula scateren, (i schwa 'scindit' 'paruus';
scatter, secundum 5.4.-šert š édryj
shatter ) 'frag. lignī' 'profūsus'
6.3.-
skedervà
'fragmentu
m'; kedeti
'explōdō'
skegō 3a2.-  khajati
sceacan, 'remouet'
shake khája-
'agitō' 'turba'
3a3.-skaka
'id'
skejō caesius; heit haidus  ketu 6.3.-
caelum<ka 'modus'; 'modus, 'clāritās'; skaidrus,
idlom, heitar ars' ceta, skaistas
kaitslom? 'clārum' cetana 'clārus'
(caelum) 'signum'; 6.4.-
3a2.-hād, citra skaidrs
haēd 'conspicuu 'clārus'
3a3.-heidr s';
'honos'; 5.3.- iqra-
heid(r) 'conspicuu
'clārum s'
(caelum)
697
skekō scén 2b1.- gi-scehan 
'terror' ysgogi 'accidō'
scuchim 'moueō'
'proficiscor 2b3.-
' diskogella
'turbō'
skelō culpa ? scal skal  6.3.-skeliù,
<*klpā 'debeō' ; (praet- -éti 'dēbeō,
Schuld praes) culpābilis
<*skulþi esse';
'dēbitum' skìlti
3a2.-sceal, 'dēbitor
gescola, fierī';
shall kaltas
3a3.-skal 'dēbitor',
kalt ,
skolà
'dēbitus'
6.9.-
skellants '-
tor',
skallinsnan
skelos scelus scelah <*-  chalam
lha-'tortus' 'tortus, 'fraus'
3a2.- improbus' 5.4.-sel

sceolh 'id' 'claudus'  'tortus'
3a3.-
skjalgr
<*skelkó-
'id'
skemō camisia caimmse 2b1.-hefys hemidi, skaman ?  āmulyà-
<gall. <lat. <gmc? Hemd 'pudet' 'camisia'
2b2.-hevis 'camisia'
gmc? 3a2.-homa
'tegumn'
skerbhō scrobis cer(b)aim scarph,  š erbá
'putō' scharf 'morsum;
cerb 'raucus' fisūra'
'acerbus' '3a2.- 6.3.-skirbti
sceorpan 'acer fiō'
'rādō' 6.4.-skrabt
'excauō'
skerdā mūscerda, sceirdim scharn TOK.-B  chrnátti, sratь

sūscerda, 'spuō' <*skorno-; kärtk-  chardayati 'cacāre'
ouicerda, hart, Harz 'cacō'; A 'spuō'; <*ker(H);
bocerda 'mastiche' kärtkāl, B kardama skaredъ
3a2.- kärkkālle 'lutum, 'repugnans
scearn; 'palūs' situs' '
hart 5.3.-sairya 6.3.-šarwai
3a3.-skarn 5.5.- 6.4.-sãrni
šakkar
(šaknaš)
5.6.-
sargōn,
sargīn
skerdō scerdid scurz, kurz  ALB.- oskórd
'abscabit' 'breuis'  'alium' hurdhe,'ali 'ligō'
3a2.-scort um' 6.3.-skersti
, short 'mactāre'
skerjō carō, carneis scar(a)im 2b1.-ysgar sceran,  kórka
corium, 'partis' 'separō' 'separō'; Scheren 'crusta'
cortex, kersnu scu(i)rim gwa-sgar 3a2;- 6.3.-skiriù,
scortum, 'cēna' 'disiungō' 'dispergō' scieran skìrti
698
cēna 1b2.-karu 3a3.-skera 6.4.-š irt
'portiō';
esna
cēnam'
skerō scerōn  kiráti 'iacit' skorъ 'citō'
'gaudēre',  (i 6.3.-
scher(e)n schwa sker s,
'festīnō' secundum sker lis
schrecken ); 'locusta'

'terreō' 'uermis
3a2.- saltans'
secge-
scēre
'cicada
locusta'
skeubhō scioban, af-skiuban  skubo,
schieben 'repudiō' skubati
3a2.- 'euellō'
scēofan 6.3.-skùbti
'abmoueō' 'festīnō'
3a3.-
skopa
'currō'
skeudō sciozan, skaut  c dati, is-kydati
schiessen; 'proiectus' 'termēs cōdáyati 6.3.-
schutten, dentis' 'impellit' skudrùs,
schûtzen (Hes.) 5.4.- ust skaudrùs
'protegō' 'promptus' 'celer'
skeumō scū, skuggwa  skauti, 6.4.-
scuwo 'speculum' 'cilium' skunāti, skumstu

'umbra' 'pellis' skunōti 'obscurāri,
skugina, 4.3.- tristis fierī'
Scheune çiu<skewo
'mapalium' s 'tectus'
scūm
'spūma';
schummer
'occas'
3a2.-sciō
'nubēs';
scuwa
'umbra'
skeuros obscūrus cúarán scūr skōhs  6.3.-skūra
'calceus' 'tectus' 'corium'
skūra, k valas
sciura 'pelle ouī'
'mapal.' 6.4.- àula,
scuoh skura
'calceus' 'cortex'
3a2.-skōr
'calceus'
skeutō cutis, 2b1.-kwd hūt<hūdi  skunāti, kútatь

cunnus<ku 'scrōtum'; Haut  skun ti, 'operīre'
tnos eskit, hodo,  'tegit, sъkotati
esgit,esgid Hode 'usque ad operit' 'sōlor'
<pedskūt 'testic.' pelle' <kunt
'calceus' hutte  6.3.-kut s
F
2b2.-eskit, 'mapal.' 'bursa';
 'ānus';
esgis 3a2.-  kiáutas
hodma 'cortex'
'obscūritās'
skewō caueō (cf. kutef hören 'id' hausjan  (-s- kaví- , udo
kəwēyō) `'cautens' scouwōn, 'audīre' ) 'audiō' vātēs, 'mirabilia'
699
schauen <*H2kH2ow  doctus' 6.3.-kavēt
'spectō'; sj- 'percipiō' 5.3.- vīšī 'dubitō'

shön hāwian 'gloria' 'prouideor';
'pulcher' 'spectō';  kōh
3a2.- us-skaws 'spectator' 'numen'
hīeran, 'sensātus'; 5.4.-
hear; show skauns cucanem
'monstrō'; 'perspicuu 'monstrō'
scīenc s'
'pulcher'
skidjō 
skijō  chyáti
? 'diuīdō'
'possum' 5.5.-sākk 
skindō scindō scéith 2b1.- scīzan,  chinatti

'uomitus' chwydu scheißen  'assula' 'glūbō'
'vomitō' 3a2.-
2b2.- scītan, shit
hweza 'i.'
2b3.- 3a3.-skíta
c`houeda 'cacō'
skīw scina  5.4.-siwn c vjë,
<*skinōn 'columna' 'columna' c vka
3a2.-scinu 6.3.-saiva
'šaivà'
skḷiqā siliqua  skolьka
'ostrea'
skḷjō silex<*skil scoiltim 2b1.-hollt 3a2.- skalja  iskalla(i)- skala
eks ; 'scindō'; 'scisiō' scielian 'tilia'; 'fodiō' 'scindō' 'rūpēs'
culter sce(i)llec 2b2.-felza 3a3.-skilja; skildus
'rupēs' 2b3.- skil 'titulus';
faouta 'diferentia' hallus?
'rūpēs'
skḷneumi coluber schilhen  klъka
<kélodhros 'strabus 'crus' 'poples'

; calx esse' 'uermis' 6.3.-
3a2.-  kulkšìs,
scielfan, 'rotō' kulkšnìs
shelve  'coxa';
'abruptus 'membrum' kulnìs
esse' 'calx'
skṇgjō hinkan  khañjati
'claudicō'; 'claudicō' 'claudicat'
skank, sákthi-
Schenkel 'sura'
'sura'; 5.3.-haxti-)
schenken 'sura'
'dō'!
sknidā lens ? sned 2b1.-nedd 3a2.-hnitu  gnída
2b3.- 6.3.-glìnda
nezenn <*gnìnda?
skodhos scīth 2b1.- scadōn, skaþjan,  5.4.-
'fessus'; esgud schaden skōþ 'incolumis' xatàrem
escid 'agilis' 'id' 'damnō' 'deleoo'
'infatigābili 3a2.-
s' skaðian 'id'
skoidos scīt, Scheit 

3a2.-scīd
<*-d?
skoirsās scurra scern 
'diuertimen
tum'
700
3a3.-skjarr
'timidus'
skoitom scūtum scíath 2b1.- scīt, Scheit  štitъ
<*skoito- <*skeito- ysgwyd 'lignum'
2b3.- 3a2.-scīd
skoed 'id'
skojā 3a3.-skī ALB.-hē,  chāyā- сень

'simulātiō' hie, (h)ona 'umbrōsus' 5.3.- 6.3.-sejs,
TOK B.- ;  asaya- seja
skiyo  'nullam <*keyā
'tentorium' umbram
iaciens'
5.6.sāya
skolmā scalm  6.3.-
'nauis' 'scalmus' kélmas

3a3.-sk lm  'truncus'
'cuspis, 'ensis' SORB.-
siliqua' oɫm
skōlos 3a1, 3a2.- ALB.-hele  kalā kolъ
scāla 'ueru' 'pālus' 'particula' <*kolos
'lanx'; 'pālus'
skola 6.3.-kuõlas
'diuisiō' 'id'
skolpos scelifa  6.3.-kálpa
'tegumen 'pālus' 'tignum
membranō currūs
sum' niuālis';
3a2.- kìlpa
scielfe, 'stapia'
shelf
3a3.-skj lf
'scamnum'
skortom 
skostrom  chattra
'umbella'
skotos scáth 2b1.-(cy- skadus  chattra
)ysgaud 'obscuritās' 'umbella'
2b2.-
scod/skēz
2b3.-
skeud
skouros caurus, skūr, skūra  5.4.-curt severъ
cōrus Schauer windis 'frigus' 6.3.-
'frigus' 'turbulentia šidure,
3a2.-scūr, ' šiaur s
scéor 'id'
skousā 2b1.-cwthr hose  ko ha-
'anus; 3a2.-hosa 'uensica, 'abdomen,
rectum' 'uagīna' follis' recipiens'
<*kuzdhro-
skreibhō scrībō krabelen,  rebъ
kerban 'scabō' 'mīca'

'scabō'  6.4.-
3a2.-  grīpsta
ceorfan,  'scobis'
'raster'
carve 'id.'
skreidō scrissid schrīssen, dis- 
'putat' -reißen skreitan
3a2.- 'discindō'
hrītan,
write
skrobhis 
701
skroupos scrūpus, - 3a3.-  repъ
eus, skroflig ? <skrep
scrūpulus - 'raucus, 6.6.-
um iniquus' skorupa
skroutos scrōtum, 2b1.- scrōtan and-  6.9.-
scrūtillus, ysgrud 'scindō' hruskan 'deplet' scrundos
scrūtor 3a3.- 'scrutor' (Hes.) 'ferfex'
hrjōða
'populor,
depleō'
skubtis cf. cubitus ND.-schuft  upti-, ALB.-sup
(bouis) 5.3.-supti-
skutājō scutillus ? scothaid hudele  6.3.-skutù,
'pannus' 'canna' skusti
skūtos 2b1.-eskit 
'calceus' 'pelle,
2b2.-eskit, corium'
esgis 'id'
<*pedskūt
o-
slabai labō -āre; er(sch)laff slēpan,  sl bъ

labor ī/is; en saizlēp 'uagina, 'dēbilis'
labium; 3a2.-lappo 'dormiō' bulla' 6.3.-
labrum; 'harapus' slobstù,
limbus slõbti
'langescō'
6.4.-slābêt
slagós laxus lacc 2b1.-llacc slah  lak ná 6.4.-

<*(s)lH2gs (express. < Angl. 3a2.-slæc, 'lepus' 'tener, leǵēns
o- gg) slack (=cum suāuis,
3a3.-slakr laxīs blandus'
auribus)
slakō slach(d)ai slahan, slahan;  s ká-
m; slacc; schlagen slauhts 'hasta,
slacaire 3a2.- 'trucidātiō' sagitta'
'offensor' slahan, 5.3.-
slay harǝ aya-
'ēmittō'
slatā slat 2b1.- latta 
(ys)lath 3a2.-
2b3.-laz laeththa
sleibō 2b1.-llym ? slīfan 
'acūtus' 3a2.- 'lūbricus'
2b3.- slīpan, slip
lemm?'filo'
<bsm
sleidhō lumbrīcus slōet, slīten  srédhati sle ý/-
< *londhr- slaod 3a2.-slīdan 'errat' edítь
īko- ? 'uiscositās' 'sequor'
6.3.-
slýdau,
slýsti
sleigō sligim, fo- slīhhan, slaíhts  slizь
sligim schleichen 'glaber, 'cōs' 'lūtum'
'linō', 'sigilōsē leuis' slízkij
adslig uadō' lūbricus
'allicit' schleicht slьzъkъ
sliachtad 'leuis' 'εiς
'planifactiō' 3a2.-sliht, oλισ ον',
slige slight 'id'
'pecten'
sleimā līma, līmō; slemun 2b1.-llyfn slīmen cf. 
702
cf. lēuis 'suāuis' 2b3.- 'limāre' 'suāuis'
gurlimun
'delinitī'
sleimājō 
sleimāks slīm,  slimák ;
Schleim sliny
'pituita' 'muccus'
6.3.-
sli kas;
sli nas
'salīua'
sleiwos liiuor lí 'colos' Liuo, Schlehe  nīlá <*līló- sliva
īuius 'prūnus' 'lōtus' ? 'prūnum'
2b1.-lliw 3a2.-slāh, <(s)loiHtós 5.5.-sulai-,
2b2.-liu sloe 'id' cf.  suliya-
2b3.-liou <*plouHtó- 'plumbum'
slējús lēuis 
sleubō lūbricus sliiofan; sliupan 
Schlucht
3a2.-
sluupan
sleugō slucim, 2b1.-llyncu schlūchen,  lkas

sloigim; - llewa schlucken  6.3.-pa-
lungu, 3ª 'pulmenta' 3a3.-slūka  la kis
loingid *lugamā  'pantica
'est, bibit, 2b3.- uitulī'
consumit' lonka;
roluncas
'ēdit'
sligōn ligō, -ōnis sliucht 3a2.- 
'uestigium, slicc<slikja
sectiō, - 'malleus'
proles'
sḷijai saliō, saltraid 1b1.-satru  vъ-sleplj

saltō, 'conculcat' 'conculcāt.'  6.3.-ãtsala
salebra, 1b3.- 'palūs';
salax sautrein salpas
'conc.' 'meandrus'
sloidhos 
sloiwom 
slougos sluag Catu-slugi  sluga
'copiae' 2b1.llu, 'seruus'
teg-lach telu
'familia' 2b2.-luu,
teilu
sl gjō lurco(r), slurken. 
lurcō, -ōnis slurc 'fauces'
'fauces'
s samonios  sám- so-sedъ
? 'nōmen 'coniux' 'cum' 'uicīnus'
mensis' 5.3, 5.4- 6.3.-sam-,
ham 'cum' sa 'cum'
smā nam <   sma

mān ? 5.5.-ma-
'sed'
smalos malus<'par mallom/ud míl 2b1, b2, māla; smals  5.4.-mal malъ
uus' 'malus' b3.-mil small 'p.' 'paruus' 'ouis' 'paruus'
3a2.-
smæl,
small
3a5.-maal
'uitulus'
703
smegō smach  6.3.-mégti
'gustu., 'uolupe';
odor' smaguriaút
3a2.- i 'pic.'
smakin
'sapiō'
smeidhō smid, aiza-smiþa  5.5.- 6.3.-
Schmied 'aeris 'ligō'; summittant smailùs

3a2.-smið faber'' 'culter' - 'ascia' 'cuspis'
smeighsli mille  sahásra-m
5.3.-
haza ra-
smeikā mīca smāhi 

'paruus' 'paruus'
3a2.-
smēalīc
'minūtus'
smeirai 
smeirātlom 
smeiros 
smeitō mittō;  5.3.-
cosmittere hamista
(Fest.) 'subditus'
paitimināi
ti 'ualedicit'
smejō mīror; míad 3a2.-smile  smáyatē, - smejo,
mīrus; 'gloria' 3a3.-mila ati smijati se
cōmis, moídit smēra- 6.3.-smeju,
cosmis 'gloriātur' 'subridens' smiêt; n.
smaĩda,
smaidît
smekslā māla smech/sm( 3a2.-máer  ma ru- 6.3.-
<*smkslā/ e)ig 'labrum' 'barba' smakrà
mantslā/m 5.4.- 6.4.-
agslā; mauruk 'id' smakrs
maxilla 5.5.-
zama(n)ku
r <*smok-
ur 'barba'
smelgā smēle,  6.3.-smìlga
Schmiele 6.8.-smlza
'aira 'aira
caespitōsa caespitōsa
' '
3a3.smele,
smile
smelō smāl, 3a2.-  prysmalýty
smōl, smo(u)lder 6.3.-smilkti
smūal smel(l) 'fūmāre'
'cinis; 'odor'
ignis'
smemorjā memoria, mertaid Ro-smerta mornēn maúrnan  smarati 6.3.-meréti
memor 'instruit' 2b1.- 'curō' 'curō' 'cūrō'; 'reminiscit 'cūrat'

airm(m)ert armerth 3a2.- 'cūra' ur' 6.5.-máriti
'prohibitiō' 'praeparāti mimorian,  5.3.- 'cūrat'
ō' ge-mimor, 'testis' ? maraiti
murnan 'id'  'commenta
'parca' t'
5.4.-
mormork
'cūra'
704
smāneumi macula smīzan, bi-smeitan  5.4.-mic sm dъ

<smə-tlā schmeißen 'linō' 'immunditi 'fuscus',
'unguere';
'id'  a'
'unguentu <*smidyo
m'
smerdā 
smerdō merda  smerdétь

'foetentes' 'foeteō'
6.3.-
smirdéti
'id'
6.4.-
smir^de^t
'id'
smeros  murayl marúška;
'obscūrus' 'obscūrus' maráju, -tь
'calumniō'
6.3.-moraĩ
'mucor'
smerwā medullae ? smir Smerius, smero 'ol.' smaírþr  6.3.-
(smera) Smertulus smirwen 'oleum'; 'oleum' smarsas

2b1.-mêr schmieren smarna 'unguentu 'oleum'
2b3.- 'unguō' 'stercus' m'
mél<moell 3a2.-
e smeoru 'id'
smeughō múch 2b2.-mwg 3a2.-  5.4.-mux 6.3.-
'fūmus' 'ignis' sméocan 'suffocō' 'fūmus' smáugti
2b2.-mok 'suffocō'
2b3.-
moug,
mog
smitlā tamen meil, Mal  6.3.-mi les
macula 3a2.-māl 'mancillō' 'fermentu
<smətlā m'
6.4.-mìeles
'id'
s lis similis samail 2b1.-hafal 
2b2.-haval 'aequus' ;

2b3.-
hañval
s loghós  sulogъ
'coniux' <s -logъ
s oitis simītu emith 2b1.-hefyd  sámiti
'tanquam, 'quoque' 'conuentiō,
quasi' < congressu
*semiti s'
s ópətōr 3a3.- sam-  5.3.-
feðra hamapitar
smoughos 
smoughos 
smudhnō smuainim; gamaudja  5.6.-mōуе мыслить
smuained: n 'memorō' 'uerbum'; 'querella' 6.3.-

'cōgitātiō' ufarmaude 'loquor' maud iù,
i 'obliuiō' maud ia ,
ma sti
'affligor'
smúghneu smiegen,  5.4.-mxim; mъknuti
mi schmiegen 'penus' mxem sja
'nītor' 'immergō'; 'transīre'
3a2.- mux 6.6.-
smūgan 'tinctūra', mug(a)
rēpō 'angiportus
705
3a3.- '
smjūga 6.7.-
smeknouti
'dēdūcō'
6.3.-
(s)munkù,
(s)mùkti
'ēuadere'
snəghjō snaighim snahhan  6.3.-snake
3a2.- † 'cochlea'
snake
'serpens'
snadhō snad-; 2b1.- snatta, 
snass naddu; Schnatta
'amputātiō' nedim 'uulnus,
'ascia' incisiō'
2b3.-ezeff 3a3.-naddr
, eze 'id' 'cuspis'
snāmi nō 1b2.-snata snáid; 2b1.-nawf   snāmi
'umecta' snām 2b3.- 'balneor'
'nātātiō' neuñvi 5.5.-sanh
(v.n.) 'lauō'
sneighs nix, ninguit snechte; 2b1.-nyf snēo snaiws  snegъ
snigid 3a2.-snāw, 6.3.-
'ninguit' snow sni gas
sneitō snéid snīdan, sneiþan  snit
'curtus' schneiden 'putō, 'truncus,
3a2.- metō' rāmus'
snīðan 'id'
sneitos 
snēmi neō snī- sníid 2b1.- najan, nēþla  'neō' snāyati nítь 'fīlum'
'torquet, nyddu,nod nāen, 'acus'  'inuolutat, 6.3.-nýtis
cruciat'; wydd nāwen 'fīlum' uestit'; 'rēs
sním <*- 2b2.- 'suō' ; snāva textrinae'
mo- 'nēre, nethe; snuor, 'nexus, 6.4.-snāju,
torquēre, notuid 'id' Schnur neruus' snāt; nīts
tormentum 2b3.- 'funis' 'rēs
'; nezaff; 3a2.- textrinae'
snáthad nadoez 'id' snood
'acus' 'uitta'
snáthe
'fīlum'
snēmṇ nēmen sním <*- 
mo- 'nēre,
torquēre,
tormentum
'
snerō narwa snōrjō  n tyati nerët(o)

Narbe 'corbis' (Hes) > 'tripudiat' 'piscis q.'
'cicatrix' ;  6.3.-nyrù,
snuor 'cista' nìrti; neriù,
'catella' nérti
3a2.-naru, 'infibrō'
narrow
'strictus'
snētjā snáth(e) 2b1.- 3a2.-  6.4.-snāte
'fīlum'; ysnoden snood 'stragulum'
snithe, 'uitta' 'uitta'
sníthe <*- 2b2.-snod
tyos 'id' <3a2
'textus'
sneubhō nūbō  snubiti

706
'pacta, 'copulō'
procus'
sneudhs nūbēs, 2b1.-nudd  5.3.-

obnūbilāre <*snoudho (Hes.) snaoða
- 'nebula'
snēwər neruus sniumi sniwan,  snāvan- snovo,

'rapidus' sniumjan 5.3.- snujo
3a2.- 'festīnō' snāvarə 'ordior'
snēome 3a2.- 5.4.-neard 6.3.-
'id' 3a3.- snēome snaujis
snūa /era 'id' 'laque.'
'ligō'
sṇi sine, sē, sain o-han, a- suntar, sundrō  sanutar svene
sēd 'uariē'; han 'ab, sondern 'proprius' 'abiectē' 'abiectē'; 'praeter,
sanas(<sa separātim' 3a2.- (<sṇter) sanutara-, sine'
nista) 2a2.- sundor sanutya
'secrētus' hanys 3a3.-sundr 'inconspicu
'swcrētē' us' 5.3.-
hanarə
'abiectē'
5.5.-sanna
'cēlō',
sanezzi
'dulcis'
sníncheti ninguit snigid 
'pluit'
snoghā 
sṇstus sensus  5.5.-
instanza(n
)- 'anima'
sṇtējō sentiō, sin, -nnes  seštь
sensus, ''sensus' 'intelligens'
sententia <*sent-no-; 6.3.-sintéti
sinnan 'cōgitē'
'meditor'
sṇterí 
snusós norus, snura  snu ā snuxa
nora 3a2.-snoru 5.4.-nu
3a3.-snor (nuoy)
sodejō suidigud sezzen, satjan  sādáyati (ā saditi

'sessiō' setzen 'uendere' Brugm.) <*sōdej- (ō
3a3.-setia 5.3.-ni- propter
šāđayeiti Winter)
sōdjā súide 2b1.- 3a2-3a3.-  6.3.-
huddygl sót súod iai
2b3.-huzel 6.4.-
suõdr ji
6.7.-sáze
<*sōdio-
sodjom solium suiden, for- 2b1.-sedd 
ud gor-sedd
'scamnum' 'thronus'
(upo-pro)
sodóm cēdō <ke-  'uia' ā-sad-, ut- choditi 'īre'
sdō sad-
5.3.-
pazdayeiti
'deturbat'
sognos 
soitos 2b1-2b3- 3a2.-siden  s tu- setь 'rēte'
hud 'magus' 'cantus' 'uinculum' sitьce
2b2.-hus, 3a3.-seið 'funis'
707
hudol
sōlājai sōlor slán sālig , sēls  5.4.-
'sānus' selig 'id' 'bonus' 'faueō' ala 'em

(tamen 3a2.-sæl 'alacer' <slH2-sk-y
cum hitt. 'beātus' <sísl 'quaerō'
salli 3a3.-sæll āwos
<so/elH2i 'id' 'fauens'
'magnus'
comparātu
r' - cf.
solwos)
solkos sulcus, 
sulcō
solpos salba salbon  sarpíh TOK A

<*solpā 'ungere'  'butyrum' sälyp B
3a2.-sēalf  salype
<*solpā (Hes)
solwos saluus salavs  sárva- TOK A

<sḷH2-wo, 'saluus', <*solH2-wo <*sol H 2-wo salu
arc. sollus, sullus 5.3.- 'complētus'
salūbris, 'omnes' haurva , В solme
sollers, 1b2.- 5.4.-olj, orj 'complētē'
sollemnis; saluvom, 5.5.-salli
salūs *- salvom, 'magnus'
Hut>*uHt sal(u)uom LUV.-
'id' salhitti-
'augmen'
solwotāts  sarvātat(i)
5.3.-
haurvatāt-
somejō 3a3.- samjan  *samayáti
semja 'conformār 'aequat,
'concordār e' conformat'
e'
somós suide amit, samit samaÞ  sāman-, samъ
*som-de 'cunctus' 'cunctus' sāmaná- 'ipse,
'hīc' 3a2.- 'commūnis' solus,
same, 5.3.-hāma- ūnus'
seem 'idem, ipse'
sondhos Sinter  6.5.-sèdra
'stalactīta' 'excrēment 'stalactīta'
um'
sontejō sét 'uia'; 2b1.-hynt senten, sandjan;  5.3.-hant- 6.3.-
sétig 'uxor' 2b2.- senden sinþs 'assequor' siun iù,
eunhinsic 3a2.-send 'occasiō' 5.4.-° si sti
'iustus' sandjan ntànam 6.4.-sùtu,
2b3.-hent 'mittō' 'uadō' sùtît
'uia'
sontis sons, sand, sunjis,  satyá-
insons Sünde sunjeins 'uērum'
'culpa' 'uērum' 5.3.-haiya-
3a2.- 'id
sōð,sooth, 5.6.-
sin hašiya- 'id'
3a3.- 5.5.-
sannr, asanza-
sannr 'uērum'
soqjos socius, 3a2.-secg  sákhā,
pedisequu 3a3.-seggr sakhi
s 'amīcus'
sormos Sarmus  sarma-
'flūmen' 'pulsus'
708
sorbhējō sorbeō srub sur(p)feln,  5.4.-arbi *serbjo,

'faucīcum' schlürfen 'potāuī', *sьrbati
'uorō'
praes. arb- 6.3.-
enam srebiù,
sr bti
6.4.-
strebju,
strèbt
sorbhos sorbus 3a3.-sarf  sāra- sorobalina
'rutilus 'nucleus 'ribes'
rutilus arboris' soróga
(ichth)' 'rutilus'
6.3.-
serbeñtas
'id'
6.4.-sa^rts
'rubidiī
uultus'
sorwā  5.5.-
'intestīnum'sarhuwant
- 'intestīna,
foetus'
soujós 1b1.-aswy  savyá- šujь
5.3.-
haoya-
soukos sūcus 2b3.-  TOK B.- sokъ
sun<soukn <*swokwó sekwe <swokwo-
o- s 'pūs' 6.3.-sakai,
svekas
<*swokwos
'resīna'
sówijā 
spəros prosperus  sphirá
'crassus'
spakos sachilli  'g. 6.3.-
'saudaria' pluuiae' spakas
spáneumi séim spanan 
<*spéimi- 3a2.- 'dūcō';

'exilis, spanan 'gestus' ;
macer' 3a3.-späd,  
'tenuis' 

'tenuis'
sparos sparus, FR. sper;  podъpьro,
sparum, ardoise Speer 'piscis preti
paries (cf. lat. 'hasta' quidam' 'fulcitō'
<'baculum paries) 3a2.-spere upór
cellae 'id' 'sublica'
3a3;-spjor
'id'
sparwos parra 1b2.- 2b2.-frau sparo, sparwa 

parfa(m) 'coruus' Sperling  (Hes)
'id' 2b3.-frao 3a2.-
'id' spearwa
speikā cuspis<cur spiz,  spina

ispids? Spieß; 'macula, 'dorsum'
spīca, speihha; scopulum' 6.4.-spina
spīna spiil, Speil 'hasta'
3a2.-spitu;
spēca,
spāca,
spire
3a3.-spita
709
speiksnā 
speimis seim 3a3.-spiki 
'parra'
spekjēs 
spekjō speciō, 1b2.- spehōn,  (s)pá yati

speciēs, speture spähen; 5.3.-
specus, 'spectōrī', spaahi spasyeiti
auspex speturie 'formidus' 5.4.-
'spectōriae 3a3.-spā spasem
' 'uaticin.' 'exspectō'
spelghā lien selg 2b3.-felc'h  plīhā slezena
'intestīna' 5.4.- 6.3.-

pàicaɫn bluznìs
spelgis 2b1.- 3a2.-spelc,  5.4.-pèlk
fflochen spilc
'assula' 3a3.-
<*splokitnā spjalkir
spelō appellō - spel spill  5.4.-ara- 6.3.-pelt
āre 'narrātiō'; 'fābula' 'minātiō' spel 'uituperāre'
gotspellōn 'adagium, pal'as (pl.)
'euangeliz fābula' 'uituperium
āre'; '
Beispiel
3a2.-spell
'id',
gospel<gō
dspell
speltā spilda  phálakam
'tabula 'scūtum' 'tabula,
scribendī' titulus'
5.5.-LUW
palahsa
'scūtum'
5.6.-
ispar,sipar
'titulus'
spēmi spatium; 2b1.- spōwan spēdiza  sphāyate spejo,
 
spēs, ffysgyaw 'proliferāre' 'postea';  'auget'; speti 'bene
prosperus; 'festīnō' ; gi- spāto  sphāta ēueniō';
spissus<s 2b2.-fesky spuoten 'tarde' 'extensus'; 'magnus' speсhъ
pidto 'id' spidsk 'consequor  sphira 'studium',
'palmus';
'  'crassus' spešiti
3a2.-  5.5.- išpāi 'festīnō';
spuon  'copiosē sporъ
'adipiscor'; 'specus' cumedit' 'abundans'
spōd, spēd (cf. kowos) 6.4.-sp t
'celeritas' 'patrimoniu
m'; spēks
'uis'
spēnos sine 'tetta' spanvarc  stána 6.3.-

(bó trí 'porcellus'  'pectus spen s
phne) 3a3.-speni fem.'
'tetta' 5.4.-stin
'id'
5.6.-
pistān 'id'
speqos 
sperdhō spurt 'id' spaúrds  spárdhatē, predajo
3a2.-spyrd 'uia 'saliō' spūrdháti 'uibō, salō'
'id'; sprint cursoria' 5.3.- 6.3.-
spərəd- sprind s
'auiditās' 'interuallu
710
5.4.- m'
sprdem
'ēuadō'
5.5.-
ispart(iya)
'id'
sperghō springan  sprháyati прягу,
'saliō' 'inuidet' прячь
3a2.- 5.3.- ā- 'abscondō'
springan spərəzatā
'id' 'commōtus
3a3.- est'
srpinga 'id'
sperjō sprāt  5.4.-

'dispersiō'  sp em;
'sēmen' pàratem
'et
remoueō'
spes spēs  spexъ
'studium'
speudō spioz,  A B.-. 6.3.-
Spieß 'festīnō'; punë ? spáusti
'hasta'  '- <pudnā 'premō';
3a3.-föysa nātiō' 'labos' spaudà
'agō' 5.4.-phoit 'pressiō'
'anxietās'
spingjā fincho, 

Fink 'pipiō'
3a2.-finch
3a3.-pink
spjewō spuō 3a1, a2.- speiwan  hīvati pljujo,

spīwan  5a3.- pljьvati
3a3.-spyja spāma 6.3.-
'salīua' spiáuju,
5.4.- spiáuti
t`kànem
spjonos spionia sion (dig. 2b1.- 
(pergula?) Purp.) fionou
'rosārum'
2b2.-
foeonnenn
'lig.'
spjwtos spūtus  styūtáh 6.4.-
spla ts
'tussītus'
spleidō sliss/slios flins, 'silēx'  6.3.-plītes
'latus, 3a2.-split, 'micae';
fragmentu flint 'id'; plivina
m' splinter 'liber,
cortex'
spleighō sliasa(i)t i pléhate
'tībia' 'crūra 'ambulat'
lingid ?, separō,
praet. decorē eō'
leblang
'saliō'
splighstós sliasa(i)t 2b1.-ystlys i plēhatē
'tībia' 'crūra 'mouētur'
sliss/slios separō,
'latus' decorē eō'
spḷndējō splendeō less flinkern,  sphuli ga 6.3.-
<pləndtu flunkern 'cinis' 'scintilla' splénd iu
711
'lux'; 5.4.- p'ail 6.4-
lainnech - (p'ailic) spulguot
iāko 'fulgor' 'fulgurō'
'fulgurans'
spḷtājō spolium; alta(i)n allaw spaltan,  (s)pha ati; ras-platiti;
 
spelta 'culter' 'rādō' spalten  sphu a- polъ 'latus,
<gmc <altāmu 3a2.-spilð  'patens'; media
2b3.-altin, 'ruīna' 'forfex' pa ú pars'
aotenn  'acūtus' 6.3.-spãlis
'obruō'
'ferula, 'līma'
culter'
spṇdō Spat  spandate 6.3.-
'convulsiō, 'funda'; 'quatit' spístu,

tumor' 'vehemens spísti
' 'illuminō'
6.4.-
spuo s
'clārus'
spoimā spūma feim, Feim  phéna- pena
3a2.-faam, 6.3.-spáine
foam 'lineae
spumōs.
maris'
spoisājō spīrō, 2b1.-ffun visen,  picchōrā piskati
spīrāculum <spoinā visten 'tibia' 'siffilāre'
'respirātiō' 'siffilāre' 6.3.-
(uentus); pysketi
fispern, 'pēdō'
fispeln
spoisnā 
spoljom spolium  spha ati spãliai

'scindit'
spondejō spondeō  5.5.-

šipand
'sacrificāre'
spondhā 
spōnos sponda sonn ffonn Spaten  5.4.-pùnd
'stīpēs' 'uirga' 3a2.-spōn, 'cuneae'; 'recipiens'

spada <*phondho
3a3.- -
spánn
'ligniculum'
sponstós 
sportā sporta  5.4.- 6.3.-
<etr.< gr.? 'spīra'; pàrem, spartas

'spartus' pàrim 'fimbria'
'amplector'
spoudā 
sp āmi 
spreigō 3a3.- 
sprikja 'floreō'
'extendō'
spreudō 2b1.-ffrwst sprautō  6.4.-
'festīnātiō' 'citō' sprûsts
<*sprustós
<dt
'impulsus'
?
sprewō 2b1.-ffreuo spriu,  6.3.-
'scatō'; Spreu spria nas
ffraw 'foenum' 'sublīmis'
712
'uiuidus' 6.4.-
sprautie^s
'ēmergō'
sp gō spargō arg 'gutta' 2b1.- sprehhan  sphūrjati, perga
eira/eiry 'loquor' 'serō' sphūrjáyati 'pollēn

'nix'; 3a2.- 'displōdō'; 'explōdō' flōris' 6.3.-
ffraeth sprecan,  parjánya- sprãga, -
(*spregh- speak 'id' 'plēnus 'nimbus' éti
to-) 'celer' sum'  'explōdō'
2b2.- 6.4.-spragt
irch/er 'id' 'id.';
2b3.-erc'h spirg(t)s
'id' 'ērectus,
sānus'
sp nō spernō seir (di 2b1.-ffêr 3a2.-  sphurāmi spiriù,
pherid) 'tibiculum' spurnan, 'palpitō' 'calcō' spìrti

'talus' 2b2.-fer spurn 'talus' 5.5.-
'crus' 'contemner isparnu-
e'
sp os seir (di 2b1.-ffêr  sphurāmi
pherid) 'tibiculum' 'palpitō' 'calcō'

'talus' 2b2.-fer 'talus'
'crus'
sqalos squalus hwal,Walle  APR.-kalis
r,Weller
3a2.-
hwæl,
whale
3a3.-hvalr
sqeros 3a3.-skars   ā- carya-
*kwer-r? 'mīrus'
sqijā scé (pl. 2b1.-  6.3.-skùju
sciad) ysbyddad(
'spīnus' en)
2b2.-
spethes'ba
cca' 2b3.-
speza
sredhō fretus? srithit 2b1.-stret stredan, 
<*s t-ṇtī gl.'latex' > streden, 'aestūs
streyth strudeln maritimī'
'flūmen'
sremsō fimbria  sramsate strásno
srenkō srennim 
srewō sruaimm 2b3.-strum stroum   srávati; struja

'flūmen' 'copia 'fluxus' srava- 'fluxus';
(lactis)' 3a2.- 'fluxus' ostrovъ'ins
strēam 5.3.- ula'
3a3.- raonam 6.3.-sraviù,
straumr 'flūminum' sravéti
5.5.-
arsarsur(a)
'fx'
srewtis sruth 2b1.-ffrwd 
(srotha) 2b2.-frot
2b3.-froud
srīgējō 
srīgos frīgus 
s ijō sarriō,  srṇī 'falx,
sarculum pālus'
s kijō sarciō sarsite  5.5.-šar-
sarcina 'sarcītē' 'uallum' nin-k-
713
 'suppleō,
'sacrāment resarciō'
um'
srodhos 
sroknā srón 2b1.-ffroen  s kvan-,
'nasus' 'narīna' srákva
2b3.-froan 'angulus
oris'
srowmos 
srwtom  srutá-
'rhytion' 'fluentum'
5.4.-a u
(inst.
a uou)
'canālis'
s pā 
s pijō sarpiō, sarf, mhd.  'falx'; serpъ
sarpmentu sarph  'falx'
m 'acūtus' 'rapiō' 6.3.-sirpis
'id'
s wājō seruō serevkid  5.3.-haraiti chranjo/niti

'auspiciō, 'herō"  'custodit' ?
iussu' 'iunō' pasušhaur 'conseruō'
1b2.-seritu vō 6.3.-sérg-
'seruatō' 'c.gregisr' mi -g-
s wos seruus 2b1.-herw  5.3.-
<*serwom 'hērō"; pasuš-
 'iunō';
'grassātiō' haurvō
?
'canis
*wer?
gregis'
*ser(w)?
Lyd sareta
*serṇto
'protector';
serli
'auctoritās'
; saroka
'protectiō'
stətis statiō statíf stat staþs  sthíti-
3a2.-stede
stətus status 1b2.- 2b1.- stado, staþa 'ripa'  6.3.-statùs
statita ystawd Gestade 'erectus'
'statūta' 'fascis' 'id' 3a2.-
2b3.-steut stath 'id'
<stātā' 'id'
stādhlom 
stagnom 
stagō stagnum stán 2b1.- 
ystaen, 'dēfluō'

taen 'gutta'
'aspersiō'
2b2.-stean
2b3.-stean
<lat.?;
staer
<stagrā
'flūmen'
staknom stagnum stahel, 
Stahl 'id'
3a2.-steel
'chalybs'
stālos 2b1.-cystal stuol 'sella' stōls  stolъ
ìtem' 3a2.-stōl 'thronus" 'thronus;
714
<*kom-sta- 'sella' sella ->
lo- 3a3.-stóll mensa'
6.3.-
pastõlai
'repositoriu
m'
(sí)stāmi stō -tau 'sum'; 2b1.- stoþ (part.)  ti hati stati
-sissiur, - gwastad
sissedar 'plānum'
'stō' ; foss <upóstato
'seruus' 2b2.-
fossad goustad
'firmus'
(sí)stāmi 
antí/prāi
(sí)stāmi abstō, Abstand  visthala-
apó distō 'locus
recondictu
s'
stāmṇ stāmen 1b2.- sessam stōma,  sthāman- stamík
stahmei `<*si-stā- dat. stōmin <*steH2- 'positiō, 'sublica'
'statiōni'; mu- 'stāre' 'fundament 'trāma' uis' 6.3.-

stahmito um, rēs' <*stoH - stomuõ, -
2
'statūtum'; 'tignum' eñs
<*steH2-
'stātūra';
stúomas
stānējō 
stānom destina;  sthānam stanъ
destinō 'miser' 5.3.-stāna 6.3.-stónas

 'id'
stārós stōri  sthirá- starъ
'celeber' 'firmus' 'uetus'
3a2.-stōr 6.3.-stóras
'potens' 'densus,
3a3.-stōrr crassus'
'magnus'
stātlom obstāculu 2b1.- stadal,  6.3.-
m cystadl Stadel stãkl s
'aequiuale 'pitheūs' 'textrīna'
ns'; 3a2.- 6.4.-staklis
distadl staþol 'pināculum'
'inualidus'
staurejō 
stauros instaurō, stür(e),  stavarī-s,
restaurō Steuer 'pālus, stavãri-
'gubernācu crux' 'nōdus'
lum' 6.4.-st rs
3a2.-stēor, <*stūros
stēr 'id'
3a3.-staurr
'pālus'
staurós stūr  sthāvará- ,
<*stūros sthávira-
'crassus, 'amplus,
firmus' compactus
, firmus' ;
sthūrá-,
sthūlá-
'crassus'
5.3.-stūra
'latus,
715
fortis' 5.4.-
stvar
'crassus'
stāwō stūan stōjan  staviti
'obstō' <*stōwjan 'locō'
3a2.- 'dispōnō': 6.3.-stóviu,
stōwian, -eti 'stō'
stow
'retineō'
steighō tīagu; 2b1.- taith stīgan, steigan  stighnōti stign

techt 'iire' 'iter' ; steigen 'id' 'ascendō'; 'linea' 'ascendit' 'ueniō';
mor-dwy 3a2.- staiga 'uia' stьgna
'naulum' stīgan 'uia'
2b3.-tiz 3a3.-stīga 6.4.-staĩgât
'festīnaatiō 'uadere';
' steĩgtis
'festīnō'
steipēts stipēs, 1b2.- stiif, steif  stibhi- 6.3.-
stipulor steplatu, 'erectus' 'calcō' 'fasciculum stimpù
stīpō; stiplato 3a2.-stiif, ' stìpti
obstīpus 'stipulātō' stiff 'id' 5.4.- 'coagulor'
stipem 6.4.-stipt
'comprimō' 'erigor'
steiwā stīua,  tīvrá-
stimulus, 'acer'
stilus 5.3.-
staēra-
'cacumen'
stejō stīria, stīlla stein stains  styāyatē sténa

'lapis'; stier 'lapis' 'adeps'; 5.3.-stā(y)- 'mūrus'
'rigidus'  'cumulus' 6.3.-stìngti;
3a2.-stān 'gutta' styrstù,
'id' st rti
'rigeō
oculīs'
stejsjā 
stelghō 2b3.-staot stallen 

`mictioo' 'mingō" 
<*stalto-? 3a2.-stale 'gutta'
'id'
stelō stolidus, stellen;  sthála-m,

stultus, Stelle; 'columna' sthalī
stolō; Stall 'tumulus'
locus, arc. 3a2.- 5.4.-
stlocos; stellan; stelcanem
īlicō <*en- steall 'efficiō''
stlokōd; 'stābulum' stelunk
3a3.-stallr 'rāmus,
'āra' truncus'
stelōn stolō 3a2.-stela  5.4.-steln
stelpō sellaim 2b1.-syllu  6.3.-stilbti
'aspiciō'; (v.n.) 'id' 'renidens'
sell 2b2.-sylly
'oculus, 'id'
aspectus, 2b3.-
iris' sellout 'id'
stembhō 
stemō stammeln stamms  6.3.-
'balbutiō' 'balbus' stumiù, -
3a2.- iko. mti
stammer 6.4.-
stuomitie^
716
s
sterbhnjom srebann 

'pellis' (Hes.),


'corium'
sterbhō ussarb 2b1.-serfyll sterben;  stérbnutь

'mors' 'cadūcus' strif, stref (Hes.); ; ustrabiti
'rigidus,  'recreāre'
firmus'; 'id'
streben
'intendō'
3a2.-
starve
(fame)
stergō serc 'amor' 2b1.--  strego,
serch 'id' strešti
<sterkā ? 'seruō';
stra ь,
stóro
'uigil'
sterkō  5.5.-is-tar- teršiù,
ak-zi <-rkti teršti
sterkos stercus; 2b1.-trwnc Dreck  6.3.-trašà ;
-rg- troia troeth 'id' 'merda' (g) 'fraces uīnī' teršiù,
2b3.-troaz 3a2.-ðreax teršti
'urīna' 'caries' 'mancillāre'
3a3.-
Þrekkr
sterkos 
sterlā stella ser Dirona, stern  inst. pl.
Sirona st bhi ;
2b1.-seren tāra , tarā
2b2.- 5.4.-ast,
steren (aste)
2b3.- 5.5.-
steren hasterz(a)
sternom 2b1.-sarn stirna  5.5.-
'stratum' 'frons' istarna;
istarniya-
'centrālis'
sternós cf. starr, 
consternō, störrisch 'solidus'
āa. 'contumax'
stornēn ; sturni
'rigeō' ?, 'stupor'
sued. 3a2.-
sturna stierne
'detinēre' 'serius'
sterō serb 2b1.-herw 3a1, 3a2.- stilan (r/l 

<*sterwā 'illegālitās' stelan cf. hehlen)
'spolium'
stérolis sterilis stero stairō  starī- BULG.-

'ariēs' (vaccae) sterica
sterke 5.4.-sterj, 'Gelte'.
'uitulus' sterd
3a2.-stierc
'uit.'
steros stēlla ser Sirona sterno staírnō  inst. pl.

2b1.-seren 2b1.-  st bhi ;
2b2, 2b3.- steorra tāra , tarā
sterenn 2b2.- 5.4.-ast,
717
steorra (aste)
stērps stirps serrach sterban ?  stirpti
'pullus' 'morior' 'orior,
crēscō'
stertō 
stertos 2b1.-serth sterz 
'erectus, 'cauda' <- 'flor
obscēnus'; do umbillicus'
tarddu 3a3.-stirðr
'exeō' 'erectus';
storð
'culmus';st
ertr 'caud'
steugō túagaim 2b3.-stuc'h stochern  tujáti, tъštati se
'asciā 'cuspis' 'pungō'; 'terreot' tuñjáti, 'properō';
quatiō' <*stoukkā Stock 5.5.-hatuk, tunákti 6.3.-
stúag 'stirps'; ha-tu-uk-zi 'quatit' stùngis
'ascia'; stucki, <*Hteugti 'hebes
stúaic Stück 'terribilis culter'
'cacūmen' 'fragmentu esse'
m'
steumi  stáuti,
'promittit' stávate 'id'
5.3.-staoiti
'laudō'
5.4.-t'ovem
'incantō'
5.5.-
isduwa
'publicor'
steupō stupeō, 2b1.- stobarōn  pra- 6.4.-stupe,
stuprum ystum 'obstupēre' 'quatiō'; stumpáti, stups

stupendus; 'curua, 'maiestuōs t pati, 'fragmentu
titubāre ? forma' us' tupáti, m ligneum'
2b3.-  túmpati, (cf.
stumm 'id' 'raucus' tumpáti Stumpf)
LUW.-
dūp(a)i-
steutō studen ,  6.4.-stute,
stützen stuta
3a3.-styðja 'uirga'
stigājō īnstīgō, 1b2.- tiug- sticken, stiks  tējatē 6.3.-stingù,
stinguō anstintu <*tigu-) stechen; 'puncta' 'pungō', 'acūtus stìgti

(ad 'distinguito' 'ultimus' stih, 'punctiō' est'. 'maneō'
unguō), Stachel 'id' tējáyati (c.) 6.4.-stigt
īnstinguō, 3a2;- t jas- 'immergō'
distinguō, stician; 'candor';
stice tigmá-
3a2.-stikill 'acer'
'puncta' 5.3.-taē a-
'acūtus';
tigra-
'puncta'
5.5.-tekan
'ligō'
stiprós stīf, steif  5.4.-stuar 6.3.-stiprùs
'erectus' <*stiw-ar 'robustus'
3a2.-stīf 'solidus,
'id' ingens'
stlāmṇ 
stlātos lātus, latus leth ?  ta a- 'ripa' steljo
(er), later, 'latus, 5.4.-lain stьlati
718
lāmina; dimidium' <stlāto-in; 'extendō';
stlāta/stlatt ara-stal stelja
a <*stḷno 'tectus'
Latium? 'tectus' ; 6.3.-tìltas
5.5.- 'pons'
istalk(iya) 6.4.-slāju,
'pauiō' slāt
'cumulō';
tilts 'pons'
stlītis līs (lītis) ; liuss leid, Leid  rí jati
stlītibus 'repulsiō'; 'damnum' 'scelestus' 'adflictor',

iudicāndīs ni er- 3a2.-lāð, 'delinquō' cau.
(st?) lissaigther loath  re áyati
'nunquam 'odium'  <*H2lei-s
fastiditur' <*H2loito- 5.3.-
irišiieiti 'id'
stlokos 
st nos tamun; 2b1.- stam,  TOK.-A
samaigim cysefin Stamm 'trulla' tām, В
'locus' <*kentu- 3a2.-stem stām
stamīno 'arbor'
'prīmus'
stṇtējō stunden  5.5.-
'protēlō' istantai-
stobhos sab; stam, stafs  stabhnāti, stebelь
semmor Stamm 'littera' 'pergulō'; stabhn ti, 'propāgō'

'trifolium' 'stirps' stambhatē 6.3.-
'tenax';
3a2.-stefn,  'sustineō'; stembras
stemm 'ūua'; stambhan 'id'
'tempus' ;  am 6.4.-
staff 'plumbāta' 'pedica' stuobrs
3a3.- 5.3.- 'conductus'
stefna stəmbana
'quodam 'sustentus'
tempus' 5.5.-
istap(p)
'claudō'
5.6.-sitabr,
istabr
'robustus'
stoghos stanga; usstagg  5.5.- oste ь
stengil, 'prome!' 'propositus istagga(i) 'toga';
Stengel ';  'arcus' stegátь
'culmus'; 'arista'; 'appropinq

stungen 'cuspis' uor'
'pungō' 6.3.-
3a2.-staeg sténgiu
'transenna' 'molior'
; stingan
'pungō'
stoighos 2b1.- steiga, staiga  ALB.- stьga
mordwy Steig 'linea' shtek, 6.4.-stiga
'nauigātiō shteg-u
in mare' 'meātus'
stoipejō 
stolbos stlembus Stolpe;  stolb;
'lentus, stelpen stlъpъ
grauōsus' 'sistere 'columna,
sanguinem turris'
' 6.3.-
3a2.- stulpas 'id'
stulpe 6.4.-stùlps
719
stolgos tolg; ta(i)lc stolkeren  6.3.-stelgti
'robustus' 'stolzieren' 'oculōs
3a2.-stalk figere';
'propāgō'; stalgùs
stealc 'obstĭnātus'
'erectus'
stōmṇ istomid  stāmú- ?

'trifocalium 'tonans'
' 2b1.-safn 5.3.-
'bucca' staman-
2b2.- 'fauces'
stefenic 5.5.-
'pal' istaman(a)
2b3.- 'auris'
staffn/stao
ñ
storejō cf. sterren, and-  ст р ться
consternō, starren staúrran 'sustineō' 'annītor'
aaa. 'rigescō, 'animō
stornēn rigeō' demissō
esse'
stornjā  5.5.-
istarna-,
istarni-
stoudjom 
stoupā stūpa,  stū-p-a-,

stuppa stupá-
'cannabis',
<gr.?  'caesariēs'
'densificō'
strāmṇ strāmen 
strātos trét (tréoit)  tratъ

'greges' 
strātós strātus srath  st tá- prostërt, -a
'platea, 5.3.- 'prostr.'
ripa' starǝta- 6.3.-stìrta
'praesēpe'
6.4.-stirta
<strtā
streibā sríab strife, 
Streife
3a2.-stripe
streidō strideō 
 (g)
streigō stringō strik; striks  стригу,
(ensem), strīhhan 'stria' 'seciēs стричь
striga, 'uirgāre' laterātus' 'scindō';
stria<gyā, 3a2.- stregъ
strigilis strica; 'koura'
strīcan 6.9.-strigli
'ustilagō'
streigs strīx;  стриж
striga 'strīx'
strengō strangulō sreng ; Strang;  6.4.-stringt

<gr. srengim streng  'aridus
 'dūcō'; 'robustus' 'strictus' fierī'

srincne 3a2.-
'cordō strang;
umbilicālis' string
'funis';
strain
'tendō'
strengom 
720
strēnwos strēnuus 2b1.-trin starr and-  starátьsja
'mōlimentu 'rigidus staúrran 'uis' 'molior'
m, (oculu)' 'langueō' strьmo
proelium' 3a2.- 'firmus,
starian arduus'
'aspicere'
strepō strepō, 3a2.Þræft 
stertō 'līs'-
3a3.-Þrefa
'id'
streubhō strūbēn  6.3.-
'horrescō' 'amarus' stru(m)ps
struppe 'rāsus'
'truncus' 6.4.-
strupulis
'necius,
truncus'
streudō trot > troid 2b1.-trythu strūz, 
'pugna' 'turgescō' Strauß
trythyll 'resistentia
'lascīuus' , pugna'
3a2.-strūt
'tur., pug.'
3a3.-
strutte
'intendō'
strewō struō, 1b2.- 2b3.- straujan  ostruiti ?
strūxī, strusla, strouis 3a2.-strew 'deleō'
strūctum; strucla, 'stravi'; CROAT.-
struēs, struhcla mod. strovaliti
struīx '*struem, streuein
struiculam' 'sternere'
strigājō strigō, 3a3.-strika  6.3.-
obstrigillō 'detineō' stringù,
strìgti
6.6.-
zastr/ustr-
zac
strigjā 
stringō stringō stric, Strick 
'funis'
st neumi sternuō sreod 2b1.-  5.4.-

(ys)trew prngam,
2b3.- p rn em
streuyaff
st nō sternō, sernim; 2b1.-sarn straujan  st ṇāti,

strāuī, srath 'strāta' st ṇ ti
strātus, 'strues'; ystrad
strāmen cossair 'uallis
'lectus' 2b3.-strad
'fundum'
st nos 2b1.-sarn stirna,  stīrná-s strana
'et pauim.' Stirn 'frons' 'pectus' 'latus,
locus'
strudsmā strūma Strauß  trъstь
'rāmus' 'iuncus' 'conductus'
3a2.- <*trusom 6.3.-trùšiai
ðrotu/e, 'id'
throat 6.3.-trums
'tumor'
strutjos sruith 'lār' 2b1.-  строй
strutiu 'patruus'
721
'antiquam' 6.3.-strūjus
'senex'
struwis struēs, 1b2.- strō, Stroh 
struīx strusla, 'palea'
strucla, 3a2.-
struhcla strēaw, 'id'
'*struem,
struiculam'
studējō 
stupējō 
stupos 3a1, 3a2.-  TOK.-A стопк
stubbe 'pālus' top, tow 'clāūs
'truncus' 'pālus' ligneus'
6.3.-
stùbura-
'col.
uertebrālis'
sū su-, so- Su-carus Su-gambri  su- sъdravъ
;so- 3a3.- <sugwiyēs su-bhága- 'sānus'
scél(a)e sūsvort 'benē 'beātus' 6.3.-
'euangeliu 'āterrimus' vivens' 5.3.-hu- sūdrus
m' 'animōsus'
6.7.-zbo í
'beātus'
sudhjom zythum<gr  5.5.-
. sessar
sujō sauia sou 'sauia'  'pluit'; sunóti 6.3.-sulà
<*souia  'premit 'savia';
TOK- prēlō'
swase, 5.5.-
swese suhha-;
heu-
'pluuia'
sūkós sucula socc sáil 2b1.-hwch sugge  sūkará-
'porcus 2b3.-hoch 3a2.-sugu, 'porcus'
maris' suga 5.6.-xūk
suljā sol, bi-sauljan  sūra- 6.3.-sulà
suhlen 'id' 'maculō' 'lūtum'; 'ebrians 'sauia'

3a2.-sylian 'purgō' pōtiō.'
'id.' 5.3.-hurā
'caseus q.'
súnoros so- 2b1.-hy-  sūnára-
nirt<*suner nerth
to-
sūnús suth hog-en sunu, sohn sunus   sūnúh synъ
'foetus, 'puella' 3a2.-sunu, 6.3.-sūnùs
fructus, <*sukā son
prōlēs, 3a3.-sunr,
nāscentia' sonr
sup 
supā sūf;sūfan, supōn  sūpa- sъs-o -ati,
saufen 'id' 'suffocō' Iter. sysati
3a2.- 'sorbeō'
sūpan 'id' <*sup-s-.
3a3.-sūpa
'bibō'
supājō sipō, 3a2.-  svapū svepiti se
dissipō, geswōpe 'scopae' agitāri';
obsipō, 'sordēs' sъpo, suti;
insipere 3a3.-sōfl sypati
'scopae'; agitō',
svāf 'pilum' rasypati;
722
sunoti
èffundere'
(s)úperi super, - 1b2.- for(-) 1b1.-gor-, ubari, ubiri ufar  upári
rus, -rior, super; gwar- , über 5.3.-upairi
suprā, subra 1b2.-gor- 3a2.-over 5.4.-
suprēmus, 'supra' 1b3.-gour- 3a3.-yfir ver(oy)
superne,
summus
(s)úperos superus 1b1.- obaro, ufarō  úpara-
supruis obere 'suprā'
'superīs' 3a2.-yferra
1b2.- <*uperizō
superne
(s)upmos 
sūs sūs 2b1.-hwch sū, swīn   sūkaráh svinija
5.3.-hū-
susājō sūsōn,  sysati
sausen
susdos sūdus sōr; sōrēn gmc.   ú ka; ú suxъ
<*susdos 'siccō' <*H2sousó <*ausyō; yati 'siccat' <*H2sousó

3a2.-sēar, s (cf. ai. 5.3.-haos s; sušiti
sōr; sere sūk ma- 'exarescer 'siccō'
'tenuis') e' 6.3.-
sa sas
sūtus suth  sūtu-
'foetus, 'praegnātĭo
prolēs' '
suwids suí 2b1-syw  suvid-
swəlējō insolescō schwellen  5.5.-sulle-
tr. /sullēss-
3a2.-swell 'insolescō'
tr.
swādejō 
swādús suāuis sadb Suadu- 3a2.-swēte  svādú- swōti
genus 3a3.-soetr 'dulcis'; 5.3.-

<sweH d- x raṇdraº
v
2
nó
swāi svai, suae CELTIB.- swaswe 
'sī' sua
1b2.-sve,
sue 'sī'
swēdhskō 
swēdhus suēscō<s situ, Sitte sidus  svadhā

wēdhskō, 3a2.-sidu
'populus'
sodālis,  
arc. F
suodales
pl.
sweidō sīdus swīdan  5.3.-xʷ 6.3.-
(sīderis); 'ardeō' aēna- svid ti,
consīderō, 3a2.-svitol 'splendeō, svìsti
dēsīderō 'clārus' flagrō' 'splendeō';
svidùs
'splendens'
6.4.-svīst
'illūcescō'
sweidos 
sweighlājō sībilō, sweglōn; swiglōn 
sīffilō swegala
'tibia'
sweigō swīhhōn  toch. A svigát'
723
'errō, fallō' wāweku; В 'errō'
3a2.- waike 6.3.-svaĩgti
swīcian 'id' 'mendaciu 'id'
m'
sweisdō sétim, 2b1.- hvinan;  k vē ati, zvizdati,
séidim 'flō' chwythu whistle k vēdati svistati
2a3.- (v.n.) (ks
séididh 2b2.- expresīuu
whythe m)
2b3.- 'susurrat'
c`houeza
swekō 1b1.- swehhan 
chweg ben, mal
'amoenu' suecke/ia
chwaeth 'odores';
'gustus' 3a2.-
1b2.-whek sweccan
'id' swæcc
1b3.- 'fragrantia'
c'houek;
'id'
swekos 
swékuros socer 2b1.- swehur  vá urah 6.3.-
chwegrwn swāgur 5.3.- sh shuras
2b2.- 'cognātus' xvasurō
hwigeren
swekrús socrus 2b1.- swigar- swaihro  va rūs
chwegr 3a2.- 5.4.-
sweger skesur
swelā 3a2.-swol   ALB.-diell 6.3.-svìlis
'calor' 'sōl' 'febris'
swelājō 3a2.- ALB.-sill , 5.3.-xvar-
swillan gjell ? 'uorō'
<*swelgan, 'esca' 5.4.-k'alc'
swill, 'famēs'
swallow <swl-sk.-
swelāks seilchide sëleh  ALB.-šligɛ
'cochlea'; 'phoca 'chondricht 'coluber'
selige uitulīna' hys'
'testūdō' 3a2.-
seolh, seal
'id'
sweljos 3a3.-svilar  svatъ,
'leuires' svojak
6.3.-
sváinis
'leuir'
swelō schwelen, swiltan  'lux, svárati ; 6.3.-svilù,
swelzan 'morior'; calos'; svargá- svìlti
'ūrō et swultawair  'caelum' 6.4.-
tormentō' Þja 'splendor' svelme
3a2.- 'moritūrus' 'uapor,
swelan ardor'
swelom swelli,  6.3.-súolas

mhd. 'scamnum 'scamnum'
swelle remigiī'; ; sìle
'tabula'  'potārium'
3a2.-syll, (Hom.)
selma,
sealma
'tabula'
swelplos sulpur swebal swibls 
724
3a2.-swefl
swemōr to-senn- 3a1, a2.- swumsl  svambù-?
'persequor' swimman 'lacus' 'pondus
; tofunn 'nō'; sund non
'persecūtiō 'fretum' sustinens'
'
swénāmi sonō, senim, hanes 3a2.-  svánati; 6.4.-sanēt,
sonus senn, 'historia' swinsian svanah senēt
sephainn (<rumor?) 'sonāre 'sonus' 'fremitāre'
'sonāre instr.'; 5.3.-xanat-
instrument swinn axra-
um'; sanas 'musica'; drensātiō'
'susurrō' swan
'cygnus'
swendhō a-sennad swintan,  vandhya uvedati
'denique, schwinden 'carbō'; 'sterilis' 'marceō',

postremō' 'ēuanescō'  вянуть
<*dhno? 3a2.- 'anthriscus'
swindan
swepō sōpiō, súan 2b1,b2,b3. antswebbe  svápiti, sъpati,

insomnis; -hun; n, svápate; Iter. sypati,
somnus, 2b1.- entsweben svapna; usъnoti;
somnium anhunedd 3a2.- svapnya sъnъ;sъnij
'insomnia' swefian 5.3.-x'ap-; e
3a3.-sofa x'afna 6.3.-
5.4.-k'un sãpnas
(k'noy) 6.4.-sapnis
5.5.-
suppariya
swep sopor  5.5.-
suppariya
'somniō'
swerbhō chwerfu suuerban af-, bi-  5.5.- svrabъ
'turbitō'; 'extergō' swairban war(a)p 'prurītus'
chwyrn 3a2.- 'extergō' 'lauō' 3a4.-
'celeriter' swerban svarpst
'id' 'tarātrum'
swerghō serg sorga saúrgan; ALB.- sūrk ati sraga
'agrotās' 'cūra' saúrga 'id' dergjem '- 5.5.- 'aegrotās'
3a2.-sorg otō' TOK istarningai 6.3.-sirgti
'id' A särk, B ? 'morbum' 'aegrotō'
sark
'morbum'
swerō susurrō, 2b1.- swarm  'mus' svárati svirati
(ab)surdus chwyrnu 'examen' 'siffilō'
, sorēx 3a2.- 6.3.-surmà
swearm 'id' 'tibia'
swērús sērius svãri; swērs  5.5.- svarús
<*seH1ro ? schwer 'uenerand suwaru- 'grauis';
'grauis' us' 'grauis' sverti
3a2.- 'pensō'
swaer 'id'
swerwos 
swesōr soror siur 2b1.- swistar  svásar- sestra

chwaer  5.4.-khoyr 6.3.-seser-
2b2.- (Hes.)
huir/hoer,
hor
2b3.-
c'hoar
swesreino sōbrīnus  svasrīya- sestrinъ
s 5.4.-k'eri 'sorōrius'
725
'auunculus' 6.3.-
seserenas
swīnós suīnus schwein swein  svinъ,
'id' 'porcus' свин
3a2.-swine 6.4.-sivens
'id'
swoidājō sūdō -āre swizzen   svídyati, 6.4.-svîstu,
<*swidjō sv datē svîst
3a2.-sweat
swoidos sūdor 2b1.- sweiz  svēdah
<*swoidōs- chwys<*s 3a2.-swāt <*sweidos/ 5.3.-
widso es xvaēda-
2b2.-whys
swólejā solea fol. i. bond, 
pl. solaig, (Hes.)
soilgib
swombhós swamp 
'spongea'; 'porōsus'
Sumpf
'palūs'
3a2.-
swamm
'fungus';
swamp
'pal.'
swonos sonus son swan  svaná-
'cygnus'
swōpijō 
swoplom 3a2.-  svapū
geswōpe
'uersūra'
3a3.-sōfl
swopnjājō 
swopnjom 
swopnos somnus suan 2b1.-b2.- 3a2.-swefn  svápna-s
b3.-hun (voc e)
3a3.-svefn
sworā sūra, swir  sváru-
surus, 'sublica' 'sublica' 'surus'
surculus 3a2.-
swier/ior
'id';
swīera/ora
'collus'
swordis sordeō, sorb swarz, swarts 
sordēs, 'macula' ? schzarz 'id' 'āter'
sordid., 3a2.-
suāsum sweart 'id'
sworēx sworēx  'mus' susol
<*sus- ?
6.4.-
susuris
'sorēx'
sworos 
sw neumi serb 2b1.- sweran  5.3.- x ara- chvóryj
'amārus' chwerw 'id' 'doleō'; 'uulnus' 'aeger'
2b2.- swert
wherow 'ensis'
'id' 3a2.-
2b3.- sweord,
c`houero sword 'id'
726
'id'
swrswrājō 
təkējō taceō 1b2.- tachtaid? 2b1.-tagu dagēn Þahan 
tasetur 'suffocat' 'id' 3a2.- 'taceō';
'tacitī'; 2b3.-taga thagōn þahains
taçez 'id' silentium'
'tacitus'
tādējō tadait 
'censeat' 'decens'
tādhēskō 
tādhis tābēs, tám 'mors' 2b1.- douwen,  5.4.- tajo, tajetъ
tābum, tawdd, tauen 'fundō, tànam 'fundō,
tābeō toddi 'regelō' regelō' 'imbuō' regelō'

'liquēfactiō' 3a2.-
2b3.- teuzi ðawian,
'regelō, thaw
fundō' .Tamēssā
>Thames
3a3.-þīða
'regelō'
tagjō taxō -āre  TOK A 6.3.-
 aor tā i (pl.), patogus

B tā 'comfortabi
'praetor' lis' 6.8.-
tá iti
'consolārī'
taismos tóis- 2b1.-toes theismo, 
renn/táis 2b3.-toaz deismo 'farragō'
3a2.-
thoésma
'lev'
tājō SAMN.- táid<*tātis  stāyat т ть 'fur';
tai?osktod 'fur' 'irritus' 'clam'; taj 'clam'
(tayosktod stāyu, tajo, tajiti
) 'clepito' tāyu, stena 'cēlō'
'fur' tatь 'fur'
5.5.-
tajezzi,
tajazzi
'clepit'
tājots (s)tatod SAMN.- táid<*tātis  stāyat т ть 'fūr';
'clepitō' tai?osktod 'fūr' 'frugi, 'clam'; taj 'clam'
(Duenos) (tayosktod irritus'; stāyu, tajo, tajiti
) 'clepitō' i tāyu, stena 'cēlō'
VOL.- 'egeō', 'fūr' tatь 'fūr'

atahus egestās' 5.5.-
(fut?) 4.8.-ta-ti- tajezzi,
qo-we-u tajazzi
'clepit'
tálejā talea, tālla  6.3.-
'uirgō'; a(t)tólas

 'termēs'
'germinō' talõkas
'adultus'
tālis tālis  toli, tolь
'tam uetus' toliko
'tam'
6.3.-. tõlei
'eātenus'
tām tam, e-tanto thuo, duo þē 'ita  'ibi, 5.3.- təm т м, dial.
tamquam, 'tanta', 'ibi' factum' tunc' 'tunc' т мк ,
tandem 1b2.-e- 3a2.-thō  т мок ,
727
tantu 'ibi' 'id' т мотк
'tanta' 6.3.-nuo
tām 'inde'
tarsós tarr 2b1.-tor(r), 
'uenter', torrog 'palma
torrach 2b3.-tar/tor pedis'
'pregnans'
tárudos tardus  tarunah'
iuuenis'
tātā tata 2b1.-tad 3a3.-  tatá- ` táta,

2b2.-tat þjazi  tetъka
'gigans' 'paulus' 6.3.-t tis,
tete
tauros taurus taurom tarb Taruos  turъ
2a3.-tarbh 2b1.-tarw
2b2.-tarow
2b3.-taro,
tarv
tausnim  tūsnīm
'silenter'
tausos inna tuai 2b1.-taw 3a3.-  tú yati tušítь
'silentia' 'tacē' thyster 'gaudet' 'exstinguō'
2a2.-tó 2b3.-tao 'silentiōsus tūsnīm
'silentium' ' 'silenter'
5.5.-dušk-,
duškīa-
'gaudeō'
tuhus(s)iya
'meditor'
tāwṇtos tantus e-tanto   e-tāvant

'tanta' 5.3.-aē-
(Hom.),
1b2.-e-  tavant
tantu
'tanta'
tēglā 
tegnom tignum stehho, hleiþra-  5.4.-tàkn sto ár
stach stakeins 'pālum'; 'pālum'
'pālum' 'insertiō tàkalal 6.3.-
3a2.-staca tentae' 'capitello, stãgaras
architrave' 'hasta'
6.4.-
stēga,stēg
s
tegō tegō, toga ·tuigiur 2b1-2b2- dah  sthagati 6.3.-stíegiu
 
to 'tectus' 'tectum' stíegti
tegos tech Tegerno- dah  stogъ

(tige<tége mali 'tectum' 'tectum, 'horreum'
sa) 2b1.-tig, 3a2.-þæc domus, 6.3.-stógas
'domus' ty 'id' 3a3.-þak capsula' 'tectum'
2b2.-ti 'id' <*togom
2b3.-bou-
tig 'bouīle'
tegtom tectum 
tegús tiug 2b2.-tew dicchi, 
2b3.-teo dicki, Dick
3a2.þicce,
thick
teibhjā tībia tóib/taobh 2b1.-2b2.-  6.3.-stáibis
'latus' 2b3.-tu
teknom thegan,  tákman-

degen 'id'  'prolēs'
3a2.-
728
thegan,
thane
'puer,
seruus,
hērōs'
tekō techtaim 2b1.-teg dicken  tenkù, tèkti
'habeō'; 'pulcher'; 'rogō' 'sufficiō'
étig annheg 3a2.-
'foedus'; 'foedus' thiggian
toich 2b3.-tizaff 'implorō'
'naturāle' 'accipiō'; 3a2.-tigga
'mendicō'
tekslā 
teksnā 
teksō texō, testa, tál 'secūris' dehsala  5.2.- tesati; тку,

subtīlis, 'secūris', 'generō'; táksati, тк ть
subtēmen tāht, Docht  tāsti 'texō'
'mycha'  <*tétkti 6.3.-tasýti
'lignārius'; 'fabricat'; 'secat';
 <- 5.3.-tashat takišīs
ksnā 'ars' 5.4.- 'rēte'
tekhem
'texō'
5.5.-
takk(e)s
'componō'
tekstā testa  5.3.-tāšta-,
tašta-
tekstlom tēla  5.4.-t'el
'fīlum'
tekwō techid Vo-tepo-rix diu, diuwa Þius<tokw  tákti tekъ
'fugit' (pf. 2b1.-go- 'seruus, ós 'festīnātur'; 'cursus'
táich); dep serua'; 'seruus' taktá, táku, 6.3.-tekù, -
ateog 'recursus' Dirne (cf. takvá): takvá éti
'rogō 2b3.- 3a2.- f. Þiwi;col. 'pernix';
(recurrō)'; tec'het ðēowu, Þēwisa; 5.3.-ta aiti
intech n. 'fugere' ðēowe(n) widuwairn 'currit'
'iter' a 'orbus' 5.5.-
<*enitekwo watku?
m, 'saliō'
5.6.-tāxtan
'currere'
telm n tailm 2b1.-telm 
(telma) 'laqueus' <*telH2mo
'funda, 2b3.-talm n- 'lorum'
laqueus' 'funda'
telpō ·tella, ·talla  talpa, talpā tlъpa, tolpá
'sedēs' 'multitūdō'
6.3.-telpù,
tilpti
6.4.- telpu,
tìlpt
telsus tellus, talam 2b1, b2, dil, dilo,  tala- tьlo <*telo-
meditulliu <*tel-mon- b3.-tal Diele 'id' 'tabula', 'superficiē 'solum'
m <*- (talman) 'frons' 3a2.-ðille cf.  s' 6.3.-
tolHujo-?; 'solum' 'tabula' 'tolerans' talima- pãtalas
tabula 3a3.-þil(i) 'pauiment.' 'lectus';
<taldhlā? 'id' ; tīrthá- tìltas 'pons'
'uadum'
tālu
'palatum'
5.4.- tàl
729
'regiō'
tembhō cf. stampfon  cf. cf. ступ ть
(con)temn 'calcō' 'conculcō', stabhnóti, (-p-)

ō, pf. 3a2.- 'firmus' stabhnáti 6.3.-cf.
contempsī stamp 'id' 'continet' stambras
'propagō,
calamus'·
temesras tenebrae demar,  tamisrā 6.4.-timsa,
Dämmeru tumsa
ng
temlom templum 
temos tenebrae, temel; 2b3.-teffal demar,  tamas-; tьma; tem
temere teim, Dämmeru tamasrāh, <temnь-
temen ng tamisrā 6.3.-tamsa
'obscūrus' 3a2.- 5.3.- 6.4.-
thimm təmah- tim(s)a,
3a3.-taam 5.6.- tār tumsa
<tam-sra-
tēmos tēmulentus  tam 'animō tamiti
, linquī' 'tormentār
abstēmius e'
tempos tempus, 3a3.-  5.4.- tàmb topъ

temptō, þambr 'tapēte" 'sella equī' 'crassus'
temperāre, `'crassus' <iran. 5.6.-tāb-ađ tepstí
antemnā, 'torqueō, 'densē
templum, neō' vestīr.'
contemplā 6.3.-
rī tempti
'tendō';
tìmpa
'tendō -n'
tamprùs
'elasticus'
tenā taeinia tan (tain)  6.4.- tina
<gr. 'tempus' (dim <* 'nessa'
)
tendō tendō 3a2.-  tandatē
ðindan 'dēfetiscitu
'turgescō, r'
irascor' 5.6.-
tanīđan
'neō,
torqueō'
tenghō tēmō, - dīhsala  5.3.-qang- rast g ,
ōnis 'tēmō' 'arcuō, rast šti
<tenghsm- curuō' 'distrahō',
tegostь
'grauis';
te a
'litigium'
6.3.-tingùs
'piger'
tengō tinguō<gō thunkōn 
(ctam.
unguō)
teni tenus;  nūtanā , - 6.3.-
protinus, tnā dabartìnis
diūtinus 'praesens' 'praesens'
tenjō tendō, 1b2.-enden(n)en, uf-þanjan  tan ti 6.3.-tìnstu,

tentu dehnen <*- (med.) 5.3.-pairi- tìnti
intenditō', 3a2.- toneyo/e tanava 'tumescō'
ustentu ðenian, 'teneam' 6.4.-tinu,
730
ostenditō' ðennan ti^t 'plectō'
tenjom tempus - tinne, tinge 
oris 3a2.-þɵun-
wang
temkō con-tēci teithi ding, gaþaih, pt.  tañc- t'aknuty
'condensat 'quālitātes' dingen gediegen> tanákti 'prodesse'
'; 'congregārī gedeihen 'condensat 6.3.-tánkus
técht '. 'prosperō' ' 'crēber'
'densus' 3a2.-ðing, Þeihs 5.5.- 6.8.-tek
thing (*ténkos), tame(n)k- 'prosperitā
3a3.-Þing pl. Þeihsa 'adiungō' s'
'causa, 'tempus'
iudicium,
rēs';Þetter
'densus'
tenos tenus, -  tánas- 6.3.-tãnas
oris, 'tumor'
tensō tōlēs<tonsl dinsan atÞinsan  tamsayati 6.3.-tesiù,
ēs, 'tendō' 'di' 'agitat, t sti
tōnsillae; obtendit'; 'oblongō'
prōtēlum, vítasti- 'id'
prōtēlāre; 5.3.-vitasti-
tēnsa 'tensiō'
tentrom tét/tead 2b1.-tant  tántra-, teneto,
(pl. tántu-s tonoto
tannau) 6.3.-tiñklas
'rete'
tepējō tepeō tefúrúm té (n.p téit) 3a2-  tápati teplъ
'sacrificium 'calidus'; ðefian 5.3.-tapaiti 'calidus'
' 1b2.- tess<tepst 'resiffilāre' 5.5.-tepsu
tefra u 'calor' 3a3.-teva 'siccus'
'carnes 'id'
cremanda
s'
tepnos ten, tene, Teno-  5.3.-tafnu-,
teine, tine 2b1.-tãn tafnah-
'ignis' 2b2.-tān
2b3.-
tan(et-)
teqom intech 'uia'  tekъ
<*enitekʷ 'cursus'
om
tercō toruus<*tor  tarjayati trebog
gwós 'metus' 'alarma'
téredhrom terebra tarathar 2b1.- 
tarater/tara
dr
2b2.-tardar
2b3.-
tarazr/tarar
tergō tergō, 1b2.- dork Þaírko  5.4.-tùrc

mantēlum mantrahkl 'carīna' 'ōrificium' (t`rcoy)
u, 3a2.-  'māla,
mandraclo ðurruc  maxilla' ;

mantēle' `cumba'  aracem
 'pāstus'
 
tergslom 
terjō terō tuirenn drescan, þriskan  5.5.- tiru
'triticum' dreschen tattarai-;
'id' tariya
''defetiscor'
731
termēn termen, teremnatte druimm 2b2.-drum dremil  tárman

terminus ns (p3p) (drommo) ? Dorsum 'repagulum 'puncta
'limēs'
1b2.- <drum? '  uerus'
termnome 3a3.- 'ōrificium' sutárman
(lc) Þromr 'benē
VEN.- 'angulus' trāduc'
termo 5.5.-tarma
'cun.,acus'
terō intrāre,  tárati,
extrābunt, 'extrēmum' tiráti,

trāmes 'penetrans' tāráyati
(meō) tūrvati
'praedomin
at' 5.5.-
tarra-
'possum';
tarhui
'fortis'
terpō durfan þaúrban  trpyati, 6.3.-
(darf) (þarf trpṇóti, tarpstù,
'egēre'; <*torp-) t mpáti, tarpti
darba 'egēre'; tarpati 'crēscō';
'necessitās Þrafstjan 'satiātur', tērpinat
' 3a2.- 'sōlor' cau. 'ēmendāre'
ðearf 'id'Þaúrban tarpáyati
3a3.-Þurft 'egeō'; 5.3.-qrafδa
'id' Þarbs 'id'
'necessitās
'
terptis durft 'id?' þaúrfts  t ptí-, t pt
3a3.-þurft <*t ptí 'explētiō' 'satisfactiō'
'id?' 'necessitās
'
tersā terra terúm tir 
<*terso- 'territorium'
tersai torreō, tart 'sitis' dorrēn, gaþairsan  5.4.-
terra, derren, t a amim,
tostus<tors dörren t aršamim
itos 'torreō' 'uiescō'
térunos tener, SAB. terc 3a3.- Þarihs  táruṇa- 6.3.-

termēs, terenum 'rārus, Þyrma  5.2.- tarnas
tardus 'molle' paucus' 'pulchrum'  tauruna- 'seruus'
<*Þormaz  'iuuenis'
(Hes.)
tetkōn ták aṇ-
 5.3.-tašan-
 
tettā tetta zitze, tutta  5.5.-tita
'tetta'
téturos turtur; tethra  tittirá-, tetrevi

tetrinniō, - 'coruus' 'urogallus'; tittirí-, 'fasiānus'
īre,  tittíri- 6.3.-
tetrissitō, - 'auis 'perdix' t tervinas
āre quaedam' 5.4.-tatrak 'id'
'auis q.' 6.4.-teteris
'a.q.'
teukmṇ diehter  tokám
'nepōs' 'subolēs';
tókman
'progeniēs'
5.6.-taumā
'genus'
teukō toll, toll 2b1.-twll  istъknoti
'malleus,
732
'cauitās' forāmen' scalprum' èffodere'
<tukslo- 2b3.-toull  3a2.-
'ōrificium' 'uentilātiō' tukstet
'forem
battere'
teupō dofta, Þiubjō  6.3.-tūpiù,
ducht 'clam' 'crēbriter' t pti
'sēdēs 6.4.- tupt
remigiī;
diob, Dieb
'fur'
3a2.-
doft;thiof.
thief
teurō obtūro, 3a3.-þori 
retūrō 'multitūdō, 'cumulus'
massa'
teusmṇ túaimm 2b1.-tom thūschund Þūsundi  TOK- tysešta 'M'
'collis' e 'M' <*tūsk tī tumane/tm 6.3.-
3a2.- 'M' ām túkstantis
thousand 'M'
teusqa tesqua dost  tucch(y)á- tъštь>
'stercus' 'uānus' tóšcij
<'ēuacuāti 5.3.- 'uacuus'
ō' taošayeiti
3a2-ðost 'ēuacuat'
'id'
teutā touto; tuath Teutomatu 3a2.-þēod Þiuda  6.4.-tautà
touticum s,
'publicum' totatigenus
1b2.-tota 2b1-2b3.-
'urbs' tud
2b2.-tus
tewai tueor cumtūth 2b1.-tuð gethau ÞiuÞ 
 
'protectiō' 'operiō' tut 'disciplina, 'bonum'; 'benēdicit'
*kom-ud- 'ueneficus' obseruanti ÞiuÞjan
tówitus 2b3.- a' 'benedicō'
tūas-cert, tuec<*tuðo a2.-
tūa(i)th c 'puluinī geðīede
'septentriō tegumen' 'fauens'
nālis' 3a3.-Þyðr
'id'
tewos *toueō=far  tavás-, tyju, tyti
ciō 'corpus'; tavīti 'pinguescō'

tōmentum; 'liberō' 'uiget'
tōtus  5.3.-tavah-
<*tówetos 'saluus'; 5.4.-
=compact. T tunuvant-
'potens'
tibhjā tibia taoib 
timējō timeō 
titijō  i ibha 6.3.-

'Parra tilvìkas,
jacana' titilvìkas,
'auis qd.'
6.4.-tītet
'canō';
titilbis,
titilbīte
'a.q.'
tkeimi sinō, situs  k éti,
'construō' k iyánti 'id'
4.8.-ki-ti-
733
je-si 5.3.-šaēitī
'uiuunt' 'uīuit'
tlāmi tollō, -ere; tol <*tolā 2b1.-tlawd dolēn, þulan 5.4.-tòɫum telenok
tulī, tetulī; 'uoluntās', 'pauper' dulten, 'resistō'  'sinō, 'uitulus'

tulam tlāith' 2b3.-talm dulden 'patior'; permittō' 6.3.-iz-tilt
'feram' dēbilis' <*- 'funda' 'patior'; 
tjos; tailm cf. Geduld 'patiens';
'funda' 'patientia' 
3a2.- 'miser';
ðolian 'id' 
tlātjos tláith tlawd 
'tener' 'pauper' 'resistō'
tḷijō tu(i)lid,  tьlejo, -leti
con-tu(i)li 'decadō';
'dormit'; toliti
cotlud 'placō'.
'somnus' 6.3.-tyléti,
tìlti 'taceō';
tylùs '-itus'
tḷnō tollō tlenaid dolēn, þulan  'et tulayati; TOK A B.-
<*tḷnāti dulten, 'resistō' finiō'; tulā 'lībra' täl, praet.
'ēripit'; dulden  5.4.-tòɫum A cacäl, В
'patior'; 'lībra' 'sinō, cāla.

Geduld 'oriens' permittō'
'patientia'
3a2.-
ðolian 'id'
tloqai loquor atluchur  tlъkъ,
'gratias tolkъ
agō' 'explicātiō'
dotluchur;
'rogō'
tmāmi aestumō; tamnaid  tьnu

(con)temn  'quatiō'
ō? nīsī  6.3.-tinù,
<*(s)temb(   tìnti

h)nō; 'dēfricō'
contumēlia
t pus 3a3.-þ mb  5.4.- tàmb t pъ
'pantica, 'pantica; 'obtūsus,
neruus sella' crassus'
arcūs' 6.3.-
tamprùs ;
tìmpa
'fūnis'
tṇējō teneō tnúth donēn  tanōti
'inuidia' 3a2.- 'extendit'
ðunian
tṇghus 3a3.-þungr TOCH.-A 5.4.-tànjr tegostь
'grauis' tänk-, В (tànju) 'pondus'
tank- 6.4.-tànjr
'obstō' (tànju)
tṇgō tangō, tacken tekan  tāják TOK B.-
tactus 3a2.- <*dedg-  ? 'subitō' ce <*tēke
þaccian <*tedg- (i schwa
'plaudō' <*tetH2g- secundum
3a3.- (cf. lat. )
takam bibit ai.
pibati)
tmklos 3a3.-Þēl  takrá-m
'lacte 'butyrum'
butyrī' 5.6.-talxīna
734
'lacte
amarum'
tmktos técht 2b1.-teithi dīhte, dicht  t a
'densus'; 'quālitātes' 3a3.-Þéttr 'pluuia'
téchte 2b3.- 'proximus, 6.3.-tánkus
'decōrus', toñket densus' 'crēber'
tocad 'fātum'
'fortūna'
tṇtos tentus  tatá
tṇus tenuis tan(a)e 2b1.-tenau dunni  tanú-s
<*tanawio- 2b2.- 3a2.- 'tenuis'

tanow thynne 'longus'
2b3.-
tanao,
tano
togā toga tugae to 'tectus' 
'tegmen';
tuige
'strāmen'
<-yā
toi tó 
tōkslos tál dehsala  tesla
<*tekslā <*tekslā
toksos taxus  5.6.- taxš
'arcus' 'arcus,
sagitta'
tokwós deo 'id' þius TOK В takvá- 6.4.-
3a2.- 'seruus' cake 'rapidus' teksnis
ðēo(w) 'id' 'flūmen' 'seruus'
tolājō 3s2.-þyle  5.5.-talliya-
'ōrātor'
3a3.-þulr
'doctus'
þula
'uersus';
þulja
'murmurō'
tolkos 2b1.-talch  tolkъ
'fragm.' 'mortārium'
2b2.-talch ; tlъk ,
'furfures' tl šti,
толочь
'quatiō'
6.3.-tìlkti
'mansues
esse'
tom tum, tunc, dann,  (abl. A B.-ta-ní; 6.3.-tuõ
topper denn Hom.); 'nunc' 'protinus'
3a2.-  5.3.-tǝm
þanne, 'nunc' 
þænne,
þonne
tom-ke 
tomos autumnus 

<*au-
tomH-ino-;
contumēlia
tónāmi tonō, stöhnen  stánati, stenati

tonitrus 'grunniō'  stanáyati 'grunniō'
3a2.- 'gemō' 'fremit 6.3.-stenù,
stenan 'id' stániti
tondejō tondeō teinnid, 2b1.-tam stunz 
735
tennaid; 'morsus'
tonn, tond
'pelle
tonejō den(n)en, uf-þanjan  tānáyati
dehnen <*-
3a2.- toneyo/e
ðenian,
ðennan
tongejō tongeō, tanginúd denchen, Þagkjan,  ALB:
tongitiō 'sententia' denken Þāhta tange
3a2.- 'meditor'; 'resentmen
ðyncan, Þekkr t' :
think 'grātus'; TOCH. A
3a3.- *Þagks tunk-, В
Þekkja 'grātias' tankw
'intellegō'
tonslis 
tonst r 
tóntenos tintinnāre  t tьnъ
tontrom tonitrus Tanaros donar  tanā,
3a2.- stanayitnú-
þunor, 5.6.-
thunder tundar
topnos ten 'ignis' 2b1-b2-  5.3.-fafnah
b3.-tan 'calos'
toqe cf. doch þau(h)  5.5.-takku тоже (-же
correlat. 'oppidō' 'quam, uel, 'si' <*gwe,
'quoque' 3a2.- potius' *ghwe,
though *ge-ye ?)
'tamen'
torcós 
tori correlat. dar þar 'ibī'  tar-hi 'tunc'
cur<*kwor 3a2.-þær,
there
tórkmṇtom 
tormos Darm  5.5.-tarma-
'intestīnum' 'cardō' 'clāuus'
3a2.-
þearm 'id'
3a3.-þarmr
'id'
torós torm<rsmə Taranis  tārá- torotóritь
n 'strepit.' 2b1,b2,b3. 'penetrans' 'penetrans' 'garriō'

torann -taran 'id' 'clamem' 5.5.-tar- 6.3.-
'tonitrus' 'dīcō' tariù,tarti
'dīcō'
torpejō 
torqejō torqueō, trochal 2b1.-torri drehen;  tarkú- trakъ
tormentum 'catapulta' 'rumpō' drāhsil 'fūsus' 'fūsus' 'cinctus'

, tormina, 2b3.-terryff 'lignārius' 'directus' tarkáyati
nastorquiu 'id' 3a2.- 'cōgitat'
m Þræstan 5.5.-
tarku(wai)
'tripudiō'
torqis torquēs mun-torc mwn- 
dorch
torsejō torreō dōrren, gaþairsan  tar áyati
derren
torsmṇ 
tot(j)os tiot  <
*totyoi
736
totrēd ul-trō 3a2.- hidre  tátrā 'ibī'
ðæder,
thither
'huc''
totrōd ÞaÞrō 
toughā tocad TOGITAC 
'fortūna' C 'fortūna'

2b1.-
'infligō'
tynghet
'fort.'
2b3.-
toñket
'fātum'
touknā tón 'podex' 2b1.-tin dioh 
2b2.-tyn 3a2.-
théoh,
thigh
trabhis 
traghō trahō, trág 'litus'; vertragus drigil þragjan 
traha, traig 'pēs' 'pernix 'seruus' 'currō'
trāgum, trág- canis' 3a2.-ðrāg
trāgula, 'recēdō' 2b1.-trai 'tempus';
trāma 'recessus'; ðr gan
<traghsmā troed 'pēs' 'id'; thrall
2b2.- 'id'
truit/trys
2b3.-troad
traghsmā 
trāntis traans<trā 2b2.-traf, tar<teres 2b1.-traws durh Þaírh  tirah
ntis trahaf (tairse 2b2.-tres, 3a2.-durh 'procul'
'trans eam, trus <t(e)rkwe 5.3.-tarə,
tairsiu 2b3.-treuz tarō 'latere'
'trans eōs'
trebhō trabs, trííbúm triub, treb 2b1.-tref LUS.- þaúrp  tremъ

trabēs, 'domum' 'residentia' 2b3.-treb trebopala 'ager' 'aedificium' 'turris'
taberna tremnu 'protector 6.3. trobà
tabernācu pagī' 'domus'
l.' (Cabeço
das
fraguas)
tregsnos trén comp. 2b1.-tren ðrece,  trógatь
tressa ðroht 'uis, 'tangō'
tress impetus' 6.3.-
'pugna' 3a3.-þrekr treksne
'audacia' 'impetus'
treistis tristis drīsti, 
ðrīste 'id'
3a2.-ðrīste
'audax'
trejes trija trēs trí, f. téoir 2b1-2b2- drei þreis, ac.  tráyas, f. trije
trísores 2b3.-tri, f. 3a2.-þrīe, Þrins tisrá 6.3.-trys
tair, teir three
tremō tremō 3a2.- Þramstei  trem ú,
thrimman 'locusta' tremtity
'curam <*trems- 6.3.-trìmti
habēre' 'expellō'
3a6.-dram 6.4.-tremt
'strepitus' 'id'
trenkō truncus, trēicim trincos dringan, þreihan  raxta trutýtъ
truncō; 'linquō' 'gladiator dringen 'id' 'premere' nam (part.) 'quatiō'
drungus dūthracht? q.' 3a2.- 6.3.-treñkti
<gall. 'desiderō' 2b1.-trengi ðringan 'quatiō'
737
drong 'letum, 3a3.- 6.4.-
'multitūdō' fīnis' þryngja trìecu/ekt
'id'
trepō trepidus, draben,  t prá-, trepetъ
trepit, trapen 'uertō'; t pála- 6.3.--

turpis 3a2.- 'calcō'! 'uehemens trepseti
ðrafian  '; 'calcō'
'trottō'  trápatē
3a3.-trav 'uia' 
'repudiātur'
'pressa nix' 5.5.-teripp
'arō'
tresō 
treudō trūdō, trotaid 2b1.- -driozan, usþriutan  tru do,
trūdis 'ligat' cythruð verdriesse 'molestus truditi
<*truzd- d 'tormentār n 'molestō' esse' 'tormentō'
+d e' 3a2.-(ā-
)ðrēotan
'fatigō'
treughos tróg, truag 2b1, b3.- 
tru 'terō'

'pannus'
treukō 2b1.- drauche  6.3.-
trychu 'pedica' trúkstu, -
<*truksō; 3a2.-ðrūh au, -ti
trwch ''aquārium 6.4.-
'abscissus' tr kstu
'rumpō'
tríjətos trïath 

(trethan) 
'mare' 
<*triaton-
triplós triplus 
trípḷtis trilis 'crīnis, 3a2.- 
spīra' threefold  'triplus'
<*-tó
trĩs ter, terr fo-thrī driror  trí
trisnôs trīnī Þrennr 
'triplex' 'tridens'
tristis testis, - 1b2.- triss >  tri- há-
iculum, trstus; tress 'ter
testimoniu trístaamen 'tertius'; condicionā
m; tud tre(i)sse tum'
testament 'triduum'
um
tritjos tertius 2b1.- thridja  t tīya-s
trydydd
trītós trītus tréith  6.3.-
'deebilis' trìntas;
trìntis
'frictiō'
6.4.-trĩts
t mēts termes  5.5.-tarma

t mos tarmes, 2b1.- 
termes cynrhonyn
-itis 2b2, b3.-
contronen
2b3.-toroc
<*tōrāko
t nā dorn Þaúrnus   trṇa-m trъnъ;
3a2.-Þorn 'herba' strъnь
'calamus'
738
troghos trog 'puerī' 2b1-2b2-  trãg
2b3.-tro 'cursus' 'passus,
'coagulum' posteritās'
trogjā 
trogos troia trogaid ? drec, 

'ebrius' Dreck (Hes.)
'merda' 
3a2.-ðreax 'fermentu
'cariēs' m uīnī'
tropos Nd.-  tropá

drumpel, 'trottoir' (
dorpel copul.)
'limen'
trosejō terreō 1b2.- tarrach ðræs  trásati 6.3.-trisù
tursitu, 'tremendus 'fimbria' 'trepeō' 6.4.-trisêt
tursiandu '
troughi tróg, truag 2b1, 2b3.- 
'miser' tru 'miser' 'terō';

 'carreō'
trowā 
trowō 2b1.-taraw drawen,  6.3.-

<*toraw drohen 'id'  truniù, -eti
'quatiō' 3a2.-ðrēan  'putrefīō,'
2b3.- 'minor' 

toreusit 
'attrīuit'  

<*torōw- 


t pējō torpeō  u-trъpeti
6.2.-
toropétь
'urgeō'
6.3.-tirpti
'rigeō'
t rpis 
t sdos turdus 3a3.-  drozd
throstr <*trosdos
6.3.-
strazdas
t sējō þaúrsjan  t yati
t stis tart durst, þaúrstei 
Durst 'sitiens'
3a2- þurst (fem.)
t stos 
t sus torrus tur durri þaúrsus  t ú trezvъ
3a2.-þyrre, 'tabēs' 'sōbrius'
trudskā trosc trwsg(l) ðrūstfell þrūts-fill  'terō' trov , truti
<*tr ds-ko 'raucus' 'uorō' 6.3.-
2b3.- trunéti
trousk 'marceō,
'pellicula corrumpor'
dermatitis'
trudsmós tromm 2b1- trwm drōz,  trudno
'grauis' 'id' Verdruß 'difficile' ;
'molestia' trudъ
3a2.-ðrēat 'mōlimentu
'minātiō' m'
truks trux, trú (troch) 
truculentus 'capite
, trucidō anquīsītus'
739
tū tū tú thu  tvā
tūljom  5.5.-tulija- 6.3.-tūlas
'congregāti 'multi'; tūl
ō' 'massa'
6.9.-tūlan
'multī'
tumējō tumeō, tomm 2b1.-tom dūmo,  6.3.-tuméti
tumulus 'tumulus' 'id' Daumen 'tumulus' 'pinguescō'
twf 'uis' 'id' tùm(s)tas
tyfu 3a2.- 'aceruus'
'crēscō' thumb
'pollex'
3a3.-Þumi
tumlós 
túmolos tumultus  tumala-, 6.3..-
tumula- tùm(s)tas
TOK A 'cumulus,
tmā , B turma'
t(u)mane
'10.000'
tundō tundō, do-tuit cystudd stōzan, stautan  tudáti
studeō, 'cadit' 'dolor' stoßen
tussis 2v3.- 3a2.-
arstud stōtan
'cuspis'
turgējō 
tūrjós turgeō <*  turá- 'fors, tvarogъ
turigos? <*tūri-o potens' 'lac
5.3.-tūiri- coagulātu
'caseus q.' m'
tursis turris tiurrí turm < qq.  ILL;- LYD-Tursa

(mediter.) medit. boudorgis /Turra
tusjai  túsyate
5.5.-dus-
sk-
tusnā tonn tünne  6.3.-tvina ,
tvìnti
'tumere
aqua'
6.4.-tvans,
tvana
'uapor'
tustijō 
tustis 
twakos  tvac(as-)
'pellis'
5.5.-
tuekkas
'corpus,
ipse'
twenkō dwingan,  tvanakti 6.3.-

zwingen 'onerō' 'contrahō' tvankù-
3a2.- <twənkyō (cf. fr. 'calens,
ðwinglian  contraigna premens',
3a3.- <ksn nt) tv nkti
Þvinga, - 'creber'; 5.3.- 'turgēre
aða  ? wazjaiti aqua'
<*tuanzǵh
ati<ghsk
'obligātur'
twerō Turno-  tvoriti
magus, 'corda'; 'creō,
740
Turnācum  faciō'
'-altus' 'sirēna' tvaróg
2b3.-torn- 'caseus'
aod 6.3.-tveriù,
'falaria' tvérti
6.4.-turu,
tur t
twoisós  tve á- ;
'tremō' tvē ati
'excitātur'
5.3-
upāqwayei
ti 'timet'
tw bhōn turba, 2b1.-twrf 3a3.-þorp 5.5.- 

turbō, -āre, 'id' 'multitūdō tarup(p)- 'turba'
turbō, -inis hominum' 'congregō'
tw kos torc 'aper' 2b1.-twrch  'carō' tvá tar
(gen. tuirc, 'aper' 4.2, 4.3.- 'creātor'
acc. pl. 2b2.-torch  'id' 5.3.-
turcu) 'id' qbərəsa,
2b3.- ərəsō
tourc'h 'id' 'porcellus';
ərəsaiti
'scindit,
format';
qbōrəstar
'creātor'
tw mā turma turm 
'uertigō',
Sturm
'tempestās
' 3a2.-
ðrymm
'turma';
storm 'id'
tw tos trua, trulla, dweran  twar-
truella, 'celeriter 'festīnō'
amptruō, gyrō';
stören
`turbare'
ucējō 
oucós ūueō, fúal 'urīna' 3a2.-wake  uk áti
ūuescō; 'sillatiō' 'uuor' 'ūmectat'
ūdus 3a3.-v kr 5.3.-
<*ougwio- <*wogwós uxšyeiti
, ūmeō 'ūdus' 'id' 5.4.-
<*ughsmē oyc
yō / <*ougwo-
ougwimējō 'ūdus'
?
ud ūsque uss-, oss- aus ut 'extrō';  ud, ut vъz- (vъs-)
(ud/upo?) 'extrō';auB ūtana 'aper'; 'sursum'; 'ad-'

en, uz  uttara 6.3, 6.4.-
3a2.-ut, or-  'altius'; uz 'ad'
, ur- 'posterus'; uttama
 'altissimus'
'postumus'
5.3.-us,
;  'ira'
uz<uds
<ud-
gwəru;
úderos uterus; ingewā(n)t  udáram 6.3.-

uenter ? , -ende, (Hes) 5.3.-udara- védaras
Eingeweid 6.4.-
741
e ve^ders
ūdh ūber ūter, iuter,  ūdhar, v me

<*H1e- Euter <*H1ou(H) ūdhas <ūdhmen
u/<*H1ou- 3a2.-ūder, dh  (ūdhnas) 6.3.-ūdruó-
ieder <*H1uHdh ju, -ti
3a3..-ju(g)r 'grauida
<*eud- esse'
ūdhros 
ūdhús  huda(ak)

'rectus' 'celer(iter)'
udsqe ūsque  uccā
'deorsum,
sursum'
5.3.-usca
'super'
ugh n  u niha-
5.3.-vaj-
'fodicō'
5.5.-huek
'dēcollō'
uksōn oss 2b1.-ych ohso 'bos' aúhsus ,  uk ā
'ceruus' 'bos' 3a2.-oxa auhsa 5.3.-
2a3.-2a4.- 2b2.-ohan uxšan-
os (pl) 'bos'
2b3.-
ouhen,
oc'hen
uksōr 
ululājō ululō, ilach  úlūka 6.3.-

ulucus 'clamoor'; 'latrō' 'bufō' ul(ūl)óti
2a2.-ulach 'salutō'
'id'
unksrā umbra  6.3.-ùnkna
úkanas
'turbidus'
upelos fel übel ubils  huwappa-;
3a2.-yfel huwap(p)-
'uexō'
úperesū 2b1.-gorau 
'optimus'
uperi s-uper 1b2.-super for-; ferr 2b1-gor; obar, ubiri ufar  upári
<*uper- lo / guell 'id' 3a2.-ofer 5.5.-(sarā)
uper-so 2b2.-gor; 3a3.-yfir upzi 'sōl
'potius' guel 'id' oritur'
2b3.-guor;
gwell 'id'
úperos s-uperus supruis óchtar 2b1.-uthr iup 'ad 
'superīs' <ouptro 'excellens' supera'
ós,
uas<oupsu
upo s-ub sup fo- 2b1-2b2.- uuf uf  5.1, 5.3.-
1b2.-sub-, gwo- 3a2.-ufe upa
su-, 2b3.-gou 3a3.-of
upóqrijom 2b1.-gobr  upakriyā
'salārium' 'beneficiu
2b2.-gober m'
'id'
2b3.-bopr
'id'
upósēdjom subsidium fothae > 
fáth
742
upóstānom foss dago-  upasthāna vysokъ
'seruus' uassus m 'altus'
2b1-2b3.- 'seruitūdō'
gwas
2b2.-guas
úpselos uasal Uxe(l)lodu 
num
2b1.-uchel
2b2.-huhel
2b3.-uc´
hel, huel
upsi susque, ós, uas 2b1.-uch,  vysokъ

sustineō wwch 'altus'
2b2.-ugh
2b3.-uc´h
uqnós 
urús  urú-
5.5.-ura-
'magnus'
ustós ustus  u á-
uta CELTIB.-  uta 'secus,
uta 'et' ? an'
wədrā lutra coin ottar, Otter  udrah vydra

(canes) 3a2.-otor 'serpens 5.3.-udrō 6.3.-údra
fodorne aquae'
(pl.)
wədris uter otre 
wəgājai uagor, fán 2b1.- 
uagus 'cauitās' guoin,
<wāgnā /- gwaun
nos 'uallis,
pratum'
2b2.-goen,
goon,
'palūs'
2b3.-geun,
'palūs'
wənskā wunsc,  wāñchā
Wunsch <*w(ē)n-
3a3.-ósk sk-
<*wunskō-
wənskō wunscen,  vāñchati
wünschen <*w(ē)n-
sk-
wəros uarus ferbb (fem) 3a2.-  ToB.-yoro; 6.3.-vìras,
weleras weru vìris
'labra' <*wērā?
wərjō  5.5.-ur, vьrjò,
war vьr ti
'accendō' 'coqō'
6.3.-vírti,
vèrdu 'id'
wadhis uas (uadis, wetti; wadi;  6.3.-
pl. wetten wadjabōkō uadúoti
uadium) 3a2.- s 'littera 'uadem
wedd; fignorālis' dat'
weddian
'uxorem
uehere'
wadhō uādō, watan 
uadum 3a2.-
waden
743
wadhom 
wageinā uagīna  5.5.-wak- 6.3.- vó iu,
'rumpō'; 'mordeō' vó ti

'parauentu 'operiō';
s' 6.4.-vā u,
vāst
wāghijō uāgiō,   vagnu- 6.3.-
uāgor 'strepitus' 'tonus', vógrauti
vagvanú
'strepitus'
vagvaná-
'strepens'
wai uae fáe 2b1.-gwae wē a2.-wā wai   5.5.-uwai- 6.3.-vaĩ
a3.-wei 'afflictiō'
wailos gwael 3a3.-vīl wīl  vāyati/e ex 6.3.-vójes
'miser' 'necess' 'necessitās tenuātur', 'damnans'
' abhi-vāta- 6.4.-vajš
aeger' 'dēbilis'
(vāta-
siccus'),
vāyá-
'lassus'
wailós fáel, faol  5.4.-gayl,
kayl
wakkā uacca  va ā,
vā itā
walgos ualgus walkan  válgati
'pultāre' 'saltat,
3a2.- torquētur'
wealcan
'uoluō'
walnom uallus, fál <*wōl-; 2b1.- 
uallum felmae gwawl
'saepes' 2b3.-
goalenn
'uirga'
walóm 3a2.-wael  5.5.-LUW 6.3.-velys

'in proeliō (Hes) u(wa)lant 'mortuī';
mortuī' 'mortuus' TOK A-wäl
'morior'
wapējō vapor  vāpayati
'exhalō'
waplājō vapulō wuoffen, wōpjan  5.3.- vъpiti

wüeffen 'clamō, ufyeimi 'uocō';
3a2.- uocō' 'inuocō' wablju,
wēpan wabiti
'fleō' 'uocō'
3a3.-øpa
warnā OGH.bran  TOK. vorna
a 'coruus' wraun'a 'coruus'
'coruus' 6.3-varna
wāros uārus, 
uāricus,
uāra,
`(prae)-
uāricō
wāstos uastus, 2b2.- fās; fāsach wuosti  5.5.-
uānus vacetum, 'desertus' 'desertus' wastai- ?
uasetom 3a2.-wōsti 'labēs',
'vitiātum', 'id' peccātum
uas
'vitium';
744
antervakaz
e,
anderuaco
se
'intermissi
ō'
wātis uātes fáith ouateis wuot wōds 
gwawd 'amentia'; 'possessus
'carmen' wütten; '
3a2.-wōÞ
'cantus';
wēdan
'baccanāre
'
3a3.-
Oðinn; ōðr
'poësia'
watjos uatāx, wado 
uatius, 'sūra,
uārus, suffrago',
uascus<ua Wade
tskos 3a3.-voðvi
'musculatū
ra'
we -ue, ceu, no 'aut' 2b3.-nou 5.1, 5.3.-
F 
neu, nēue, 'aut' 'an'
vā 5.1.-
seu, siue eva
'modō',
evam 'ita'
webhō weban  ubhnāti,
3a2.- umbháti,
wefan, unábdhi;
webbian ūrna-
3a3.-vefa, vābhis
vefja 'aranea'
5.3.-
ubdaēna
'textus'
5.5.-hūbiki
'uēlum'
5.6.-bāfad
'texit'
wédhneum fedan 2b1.- wetan gawidan  vi-vadhá-

i 'iunctūra' gwedd a3.-ydd ?  'clitella';
fedil 'iugum'; 'habēna' < vadhra-
'iugum' arwest *udhetā 'coriī uitta'
coibdelach 'fidēs,
'congenr.' uitta'
wedhō fedim 2b1.-ar- widem(e),  váhate<vá 6.3.-vedú
(uxorem), weddu, cy- Wittum 'dos'; dhate 'ux. dūcō';

praet. weddu; dy- 3a2.- 'nūbō'; vadhūh veno 'dos'
do·coid/ veddio we(o)t(u)m s 'norus'
do·dechud 'nūbō' a, wituma 'sine dōte' 5.3.-
/ ·tuidched 'dos' <*n- vādayeiti
<* H2wed(h)- 5.5.-
to·(dē)·ko uwate/peh
m·wōdh- ute
wedh fodb  vadhá- TOK A

'spolium,  'letālis' wac, B
exuuiae' (Hesq.) 5.3.-vadar- weta
<wodhwos 'pugna'
wedhrom wetar,  vedrъ,
wetter vedro
745
3a2.- 'bonum
wedar tempus'
3a3.-veđr
wedhskō fāisc- 2b1.-   vadhati 6.3.-
'premō'; gwascu 'id' (Hes.); 'contundō'; vedegà

fodb 2b3.gwask 'quatiō'; vadhá- 'ascia'
'spolium, a 'id'  'letālis' 6.4.-vedga
exuuiae' 'tremitus' 5.3.- 'ascia'
<wodhwos vādāya-
'retirō';
vada-
'cuneus'
wedmṇ 
wedō ad·fét, in·  vádati vada
fét, ind·fét 'uocāuit'; 'loquitur' 'calumnia',
 'uox'; vandate vaditi

F 'laudat' 'calumniār
'canō' 5.5.- e'
watarmah 6.3.-
h- 'mandō' vadinù,
vadinti
'uocō'
weghjā uia viú, weg wigs  TOK A
amvían(n) wkäm· (pl.
ud wäknant),
1b2.-vea, B yakne <
via (abl.) *w'äkne
weghō uehō, 2b1.- wagon ga-wigan   váhati vezu
uectus, gweith 'moueō' 'cieō' 'currus'; 5.3.-vazaiti 6.3.-vezù
uēlox 'uices' 3a2.- (F)

<ueghslok 2b2.- wagian 'id' 'concussor
s gweth
terrae'
2b3.-gwez
weghtis uectis gewihte 
'pondus'
3a2.-wiht
'lanx,
pondus'
weghtlom uehiculum  vahítra-
weght r uector  volhar
<*vazdhar
5.3.-
vaxtar-
wegō uegeō wakan  vajati
'crēscō'
wegō uēlum<ue figim 'texō' 2b1.-gwe 
gslom 'rēte'
2b2.-guiat
'uela'
2b3.-guea
weidr 3a3.-vitnir  5.5.huitar
'animal' 'creātūra'
weidhō dīuidō 1b2.-vetu wīsan  vidhyati
'euitō';
weiso,Wei
se 'orbus'
weidos fíad 2b1.-  v das vidъ 'uisiō'
'honor', gwydd 'appārentia 'scientia' 6.3.-véidas
adv. 'praes' ';  < 'faciēs'
'coram' 2b3.-a *widesa ?
goez
'apertē'
746
weiks  vi vьsь (i
5.3.-vīs- nouāta)
6.3.-
vi špati
'dominus'
wéiktomā uictima 1b2.- wīhi 'id'; weihs  vinákti,
eveietu Weihnacht 'sanctus' vivékti,
'electum' en vevekti
<*ek- 3a2.-wīh- 'separō'
ueigētum? 5.3.-ava-
vaēk- 'id'
(wí)weimi inuītō -āre  'eō, v ti povin ti
intendō' 'persequitu 'subiciō'
 r' vojьna
'persequor' vēnati 'bellum'

'reuersus 'anhelat' 6.3.-vejù,
in proeliō' 5.3.-vīvāiti výti
, vayeiti 'id'
weimṇ uīmen fiam ND.-   v man-

'catēna' wīm(e)
'cintra'
weipō 2b1.- ziweibian biwaibjan  vepate 6.3.-atvipti
gwisgi<uip 'dispergō'; 'tremit'; 'pendere
skīmo? wīb 'mulier' vipātha (fragmenta
'agitātus' 3a2.- 'columna' )'
wæfan 5.3.-vip- 6.4.-viepe
'uestiō'; 'iaciō' 'copertūra'
wifel, wifer
'columna';
wīf 'mulier'
3a3.-vīfa
'tegō'; vīf
'mulier'
weiros fiar 2b1.-gwyr 3a2.-wír 
'hamātus' 'tortus'
2b3.-gwar,
goar
weis uīs, uīres; uiú?,  (pl.  vayas- vojь
uia? amvían(n) <*wīsnes) 'uitālitās, 'milēs';
ud 'et iuuentūs' ; vojьna
1b2.-vea, musculus' v ti 'bellum';
via?  'uī' ; 'persequitu vina 'culpa'
 'eō, r'
intendō'  uīdayati<s
d 'affirmat'
5.5.-huya-
'currō'
weisnā 
weisō uēna 2b1.- weisant  vē ati
gwyar 'arteriae'
'sanguist' 3a2.-
<*ueisaro- weasanð
'conductus'
weitēks 
weitis uieō, uītis féith vīda 'salix'  vetasáh vetvi(je),

'ligāmentu  'arundo' v tvь
m, corda' F 5.3.- 6.3.-výtis
'salix' vaēitish vejù
'salix' 'uertor'
5.6.-bēd
'salix'
weitō 
747
wéiwersā uīuerra iora rūadh 2b1.- eihhurno,  5.4.- vyvirka
? gwiwer Eichhorn varvarah 6.3.-
<lat. 3a2;-āc- vaiver ,
weorna vovere
wejes / uōs, 1b4.-uus wir; weis TOK.-wes vayám, vy (ac.)
weje uestrum, 3a2.-we vah 6.9.-wans
uōbis 3a3.-vēr 5.3.-vaem, (ac.)
vo
5.5.-wēs
wekmi  vañcati,
'uoluntāriu viva i
s' 5.5.-wek;
wewakk;
uwekir
'uoluēre'
wekō conuexus, feccaid Matres 3a2.-wōh un-wāhs  váñcati;
subuexus; 'flectit' Vocallineh 'tortus, <impeccāb vakrá-
uacillō ? ae; Ούακο flexus'; ilis 'convexus';
-μάγοι wāh <*wonko vak áṇā
2b1.- 'malum' 'pantica,
gwaeth 3a3.-vā maeandru
<*wǝk-to 'angulus, m'
'peius' damnum' 5.3.-vašta-
2b2.- 'flexus'
gweth 'id' 5.4.-
2b3.-goaz gangur 'id'
'id' <unkuro-
weksós 
weldō uellō 2b1.- wilwan 

gwellaif 'capere, (Hes.)
'forfices' rapere'
2b2.-
gwillihim
'id'
welīks fail, foil 
(falach)
'anus'
welmi uolō 1b2.-veltu uelor 3a2.-will wiljan  v ṇāti,
'uelle' vrnīté
welnā uallis ? wella , A B.-valë ūrmí- vlъna,
welle *<wḷnā 5·3.- volná
varǝmi- 6.3.-vilnìs
<*wḷni-
6.4.-vilna
welnos 
welō uoltus, fíl 'est, 2b1.- 3a2.-wlītan wulþus  5.4.-gel
uultus voici' gweled ; wlatian 'gloria, <*welno-,
<uele 2b3.- 'quaerō, magnificen *welso-
OGH;- guelet sāgiō' tia' wlits 'pulchritūd
velitas 'uisus' ''forma' ō'
'uisus' wulþrs
'ualor'
welpō uolup(e), 
uoluptās;
lepeō
weltis VENT.- ILLYR.-  6.3.-viltìs
Voltiχnos, Voltius, 'spēs'
Voltiomno Voltisa
s,
wélw en uolūmen a 5.4.-
'tegmen' gelumn
'torsiō'
748
welwō uoluō fillim 3a2.- walwjan  válati,

wallow valitáh
5.5.-hul(a)-
wélwtrom inuolūcrum  varútra-
'toga'
wémāmi uomō  vámit
(ī)wēmi uannus; wehen waían  vāti, vejo,
uatillus 3a2.- waíwō (Hom.); vāyati; vejetъ

wāwan 'uentōsus' vāyú 'id' 6.3.-vejas
  5a3.- 'uentus'
''; vāiti;vāyu
  'uentus'
5.5.-
huwant 'id'
wēmos vimpi  vāma-
<*wēmokw
is
2b1.-
gwymp
w nāmoi uēnor winnan winnō,  vánati, uniti 'uelle'
'pugnō'; winna van ti TOK A
gewinnen 'passiō' 'uincit, wañi, В
'uincō' desiderat' wīn-
5.3.-vanaiti 'delicia'
'capit'
5.5.-
wen(t)-
'futtuere'
wendhō 2b1.- wunta, wunds  5.4.-
ymwan uunde 'uulnerātus vandem
'pugnō' 'uulnus' ' 'deleō'
2b3.- 3a2.-
gwane wund,
'forāre' wound
gwa^n
'punctiō'
wenēsnom 
wenjā 
wenō uenus, fine 2b3.- wini winja  vánati, uniti
uenustus, 'familia' coguenou 'amīcus' 'pāstus, van ti; 'benē',
uēnor fingalach ìndigena' 3a2.-wine cibus' vanas- unjii, uneji
'parricida' 'id' 'lasciuia' 'potius'
coibnius 3a3.- 5.3.-vanaiti
'familiaritā winr<weni 'uēnor'
s' s 5.5.-
uen(t)-
'futtuere'
wenos Venus Venusia fine 3a3.-vinr 
(fem.) (Apulia) <wenjā 'amīcus'
'familia';
coibnius,
coibnes
(coibnis)
'familiāritā
s, affinit.'
wenseikā uē(n)sīca wan(a)st,  vastí-;
wenist 'stomachu vani hú-
'pantica' s 'rectum'
ruminantis'
went  --vān -vat

 (putravān) (vinovat
'culpābilis')
749
wentos uentus fet, ac. fit 2b1.-gwynt wint  vātah
'siffilārium' 2b2.- 3a2.-wind vānt-
gwyns 'siffilātiō'
2b3.- 5.5.-
gwent huwantes
weqtis ni-wiht waíhts  5.5.-uttar vešti
'nihil' <uktər
3a2.-wikt,
wight
'creātūra'
weqtlom foccul 2b1.-  vaktram
'uerbum' gwaethl 'ōs'
'disputātiō'
wēr uestibulum veru 3a1, 3a2,  vara-, vora
<werstidhl 'portam' 3a3.-wer vala- 'saepīment
om 1b2.- 'saeptum 'spatium, um'; zavor
verofeìn aquae' circumscri 'transitus
portam' ptiō' clausus'
5.3.-vala-
'id'
werbos uerbera, 1b2.gwrym hrimpfan, waírpan  5.5.- vérba
uerbero, 'fimbria, rümpfen 'iaciō' <w°rbnos hurpasta(n 'rāmussali
verbēna limbus' 'uultum 'Rhamnus'; )-, cis'

contorq.'; 'uirga' hurpusta- 6.3.-vir bas
werfen  'folium' 'uirga'
'iaciō' 'distorqueō 6.4.-virbs
3a2.- ';  'baculum'
weorpan,
warp
wereinā foirenn 2b3.- 3a2.-wræd wriþus  vrndam vereníca
'factiō' guerin 'grex' 'grex' 'leuō'; 'multitudō' 'corda' ;

'factiōnes' 'biga' 3a2.- веревк
 weorn, 6.3.-virve
'pendō' wearn  'id' 'corda';
5.5.-hurai virtene 'fila'
? 'ornō'
wergō uergō, 2b1.- birenkit, TOK A.- v ṇákti, vrigo,
uermina gwraint ?verrenkt wärkänt, várjati vrьsti
'uermēs' 'tortus' B.- 'rotat, 'iaciō'
3a2.- yerkwanto uertit'; 6.3.-
wrincle abhi-vlag- reñgtis
'ruga'; ? 'rēti 'contorque
wrencan captō' or'
'torqueō, 5.5.-hurki rangštùs
manipulō' 'festīnātus'
wergom vergo- werc, frawaúrhts   5.3.-

bretus werah 'peccatum' 'faciō'; vərəzyeiti
1b1.- 3a2.- 
gwreith weorc, 
'factur' work
1b3.-guerg 3a3.-verkr
èfficax'
weri ūrīnor, geir 2b1.-gwer 3a3.-vari A B.-hur-  vār, vāri TOK.-A
ūrīnātor 'sebum' 'sebum' 'fluxus; dë 'palūs' 'spargō'; 5.3.vār- wär, В war
 
<gwer? aqua', ūr  5.4.-gay
'parua ? 'hauriō'; <uerio-
pluuia'; *  'palūs'
aurr  5.5.-
'aqua, 'torrens' hurnai-
madidus' 'madefaciō
'
werjō , fut. 5.5.-
 weriye/a-;
750
hurt ?
'maledīcō'
(wí)wermi ·fúar wraton 'iter  obr sti
facere' <*e-we- <*wr-t
wr(H1)-e/o sъ-r sti
'conuenīre'
6.3.-su-
resti
'capere'
<*wr-t
wernā fern 'et 2b1.- ALB.-verrë 5.4.-geran
mālum' gwernen 'Pōpulus `trabs,
'id' alba' tignum'
2b2.-guern
'mālum'
2b3.-
gwern 'id'
wēros uērus fír Co-vīrus wār, wahr;   5.5.-warri- vera
2b1.-gwir wāra 'seruitium, ? <wērā
2b2.-goyr <wērā satisfactiō' 'subsidium' 'fidēs'
2b3.-gwir 'pactus' ??,

3a2.-wāer 
'id' (iunctūra)
???
werpō repēns ? worf  várpas- vьrpu,
(cf. 'manubriu 'suō'; 'artificium, vьrpsti

kwerpō); m'  acumen' 'rapiō'
ueprēs?, 3a2.- 'acus'; 6.3.-
uerpa? wrappen,  verpiù,
<*wrpr- wrap 'impetus'; verpti 'neō'
'inuoluō' 

'hunc'
wersis uerrēs frass, fross reineo var á- 6.3.-veršis
'pluuia' < 3a2.-  'rōs' 'pluuia' 'uitulus'
wrostā wræne v án- 6.4.-versis
'lascīuus' 'uirīlis' 'id'
vr abhá-
'taurus'
vršaṇa-
'testiculus'
5.3.-
varšna-
'uirīlis'
5.5.-wa-ar-
ša-aš 'pl'?
wersmṇ uerūca, fern 2b1, 2b2, werra,  var mán vrьchъ.
uarus, 'bonus' 2b3.-gwell Werre, 'tumulus' 'promunt.' verch ''id'

uarix, ferr 'potius' <werlo-? Warze 'caelum' vár īyas- 6.3.-viršùs
uarulus uide uperi 'potius' 3a2.-wearr 'altior', 'cacum.'
uide uperi vár i ha 6.4.-vìrsus
'summus' 'superus'
wersō uerrō werran,  5.5.- vrešti
verwirren? uaršīa-, 'tribulō';
'conturbō' uarš- vóroch 'id'
3a3.-vorr 'metō, 6.4.-
'remigātus' tribulō' varsms
'fruminis
aceruus'
werstis uestīgium 
werstidhlo 
m
wertmən 
751
wertos 2b1.- Wert wairþs  6.3.-vert ;
gwerth; 3a2.-worth vèrtas
gwerthe 'pretiōsus'
'uendere' 6.9.-werts
<3a?
wertrom 2b1.-  vartra-
gwerthyr
'oppidum'
wérunos ferenn; 3a2.-  A B.-varr vora
feronn, wearn <*uornā 'saepīment
ferann 'resistentia' 'sepulcrum um'
'aruum' 3a3.- '
dēfensiō
weskai uescor fess, feiss 2b1.-gwest wist waila  ánu
<uestā 'festa' `pulmentu wisan vāvasē
'cibus' 2b3.-ban- m'; 'oblector' 'uorāuit'
fiach ves 'festa' wastel>gât frawisan vástō
'coruus' eau 'uorō' 'uorātiōne'
ban-[f]ess 3a2.- 5.3.-vastra
'nuptiae' wesan 'fauces'
'dapem 5.5.-ueši,
habere'; uešīa
wist 'id' 'pastus'
3a3.-vist
'id'
wēskō uannus; fáisc 2b1.-  vāhatē
uatillum gwasgu
2b3.-
gwasgu
wésnāmi fennaid ort 'spīca, ALB.-usht nivāsita- 6.3.-
'mulcat' locus' 'arista' 'interfectus usnìs 'id'
3a2.-ord ' 6.4.-ušna
'cuspis' 'spīna'
wesnejō 
wesnom uēnum,  vasná- veno 'dōs'
uendō, 'pretium' 'pretium'

uēneō  vasnayati
<uēnum+e 'emō' 'negotiātur'
ō; 5.4.-gin
vīlis 'pretium'
<*ues(o)-li- 5.5.-
uššaniya-
'uendō';
uašīa-
'emō'
wesō foïd wisan aor.  vasati
'pernoctat' 5.4.-goy
(cf. 'exsistit'
subsum, 5.5.-huiszi
 'uīuit'
foss
'permanen
tia'
wésolis uīlis 
wespros uesper 2b1.-ucher  ksap- 'nox' vь era

umbra 2b2.-  5.3.- 'here'
<*unksrā gurthuher 'obscūrus' xšapar/xša 6.3.-
pan vãkaras
5.4.-gišer 'uesper';
'nox' ùnkn
<*uoikero- 'umbra'
5.5.- 6.4.-
ispant- vakars
752
wes uēr errach 2b1.- 3a3.-uār  vasantá-s
guiannuin, 5.4.-
gwaeanhw garown
yn <*wesontó
<*wesṇtein
o- 2b2.-
guaintoin
wēsros fáir 'aurōra 2b1.-  vasar-
, oriens' gwawr 'mane'
(cf. 'aurora' vāsarás
ausōsā) 2b3.- 'matutīnus'
gwerelaou
enn 'stella
matinae'
westā 
westijō uestiō, wasjan  váste
uestis 'uestītur' 'uestītur'
(Herod.); 5.4.-z-gest
(F) 'uestis'
5.5.-
wastanzi
'uestiuntur'
westis uestis wasti  5.4.-z-gest

(Hes) *<westu-
westos feis, fess 2b1.-gwest 3a3.-uist 
vástō
ban-fheiss 2b3.-ban- 'cibus' 'ante
'nuptiae' ves 'daps' uoratiōne
m'
westus Vesta MESSAP.- foss gwesti 3a1, 3a2.- wists  'urbs' vāstu- TOK.-A
vastei 'quies' 'domus' wist 'modus, MYC.- wa wa t, В ost
(dat.) <upo- 'habitus' pactus' -tu
wostu; i
foss 'domī'
wēsus 1b2.- fó <*wosu; Bello/Sego Wisu- iusiza ?   vásu-h veselъ
Vesune fíu -uesus 'melius' ; (gen pl.) 'bonus' 'alacer'
'Vesonae' 'dignus'; 2b1.-gwiw, iusila ? 'diuitiiae' 6.4.-v s ls
feb gwych 'laxāmentu 'sānus'
<weswā 2b3.-gwiou m'
'excellentia 'laetus'
' febtu
(febtad)
'subst.'
wétāmi uetō guetid 
'dīcit';
di-wedaf
'dīcō'
wetlos uitulus Viteliu 

'italia'; 'annucula
1b2.-vitluf creātūra'
'uitulōs'
wetos uetus Viteliu feis 2b2.-2b3.- widar wiÞrus  vatsa(ra) vetъchъ
<*wetwos, 'italia'; <*wetsi guis 'id' 'ariēs'; 'uitulus' 'annus'; 'annus'; 'uetus'

ueterīnus, 1b2.-vitluf 'sus' Widder 'biennālis'; uatsaka 6.3.-
uitulus, 'uitulōs'  'uitulus' u tušas
italia  5.5.-vitt, 'uetus'
'uitulus' wettant
'annus'
wetsós ueterīnus feis 2b1.-gwys ALB.-vitsh  vatsá-,
<*wetsi 'id' 'uitulus' vatsaká-
'sus' 2b2.-guis 'et uitulus'
'id'
2b3.-guis,
753
gwes 'id'
wetwos uetus  vetъchъ
<*wetwos; 'uetus'
uetustus 6.3.-
u tušas
'uetus'
wī uitium, F(F) vi; ví va vьsь
uituperō,  'omnis' 'omnis'
uitilīgō 'aequus' 5.3.-vī; 6.3.-vìsas
vispa 'omnis'
6.3.-viss
'id'
wibrājō uibrō, femm? 2b1.- weif weipan  6.3.-v bur-
vībix, 'cauda' <* gwynmon 'nexus'; 'coronō', iu, -ti
vipex, əngw n ? 2b3.- weifen wipja 'oscilāre'
vimex gwemon 'oscilō' ; 'corōna' 6.4.-viebt,
'id.' wimpel viebties
'vēlum' 'reuertor'
3a2.-
wīpian
'abterō';
wimpel
widā (find-)fad 2b1.-  vidā
'capillum' gwedd 'scientia'
widējō uideō 1b2.- ro- 2b1.-gwyr wait/witun,   vetti; véda wemь
vírseto fitir<wid 2b2.-gor inf. witan pl.  'nōuī' <*weidmi;
'scit' (orig. 2b3.-goar vidúr vede
3ª pl.) 'nouēre' 6.3.-
5.4.-gitem véizdmi
<*weidmi
wídhewā uidua fedb 2b1.- 3a2.- widuwō  vidhávā vъdova<vь
gweddw widow 'ephebus' 5.3.-vidava dova
2b2.-
guedeu
widhus fid (fedo) Uiducasse witu, wito 
'arbor' s 'lignum'
<fiodh 2b1.- 3a2.-widu,
gwydd wudu
'arbor'; 3a3.- viðr
syb-wydd (viðar)
'pīnus' 'silua,
2b2.- arbor,
guiden; lignum'
sibuit
2b3.-gwez
widjom airde 2n1.- (gi)wizzi; unwiti  vidyā
<*[p]ari- arwydd 'id' wizzī (f.) <*-dio- <*widesa ? 5.3.-viđya
vidiom 3a2.- 'ignorantia'
'signum' (gi)witt
wigējō uigeō wahhēn 'id' wakan 
3a3.-vakr 'uigilō'
'uigilans'
wijējō uieō, uitus, fēith 'fibra' gwden waddjus  'salix' vyáyati viti; vitь
uitta s, 'vinculum, 'uallum' 5.3.-vaēiti 'res torta in
uītex ligamen 5.5.-reh- modum
funis'
6.3.-vejù,
výti ;
výti, vytìs
'rāmussali
cis'
wijēskō viēscō, feugud wesel,  6.3.-výsti
754
viētus 'marcor'; verwest' 6.4.-vietēt,
fēo 3a2.- vītēt
'viētus' wesanēn,
<*ui-uo- wisnian
wikis uicis, weichen waihsta  vīci- 'dolus' 6.3.-vīkstu,
uicem 'uirō'; 'angulus' F <*mutātiō vīkt 'plecor'
weigen 'cēdō' (cf. 6.8.-vegati
oscilō'; 'd. brazo a 'oscilō'
Geweih torcer')
'cornua'
wehsal
'mutātiō'
3a2.-wīcan
'uirō' wicu
'hebdomas
'
wikjō 
wikkā uictima (cf. wicker 
wéiktoma) 'sortilegus'
3a2.-
wicca,
witch
wíklutom 
windō ro·finnadar 2b3.-  vindáti
gounn 5.4.-
gtanem
windō peri airde 2b1.-  pari-vindáti
'signum' arwydd 'id'
windos find 'albus' uindo- 

bona (PN)
2b1.-gwyn
2b2.-guyn
2b3.-
gwenn
winis 3a2.-wine-   venьcь
wincla 'fibra' 'corōna'
'serpens
ripārius'
wining
'ligatūra'
winkijō uinciō, 1b2.-  vi-vyákti
uincia previ latu 'amplectitu
'praevincul r'
ātō'
winkō uincō vincter fichid 2b1.-guith wīgan weihan;  vekъ 'uis'
<*wíkyeti 'proelium' 3a2.-et wigana 6.3.-vi kas
'pugnat' gewegan 'pugnae' 'id'
(dat.)
winsō uīrēs (r ad  vivē i,
mōs?) v ati 'agō'
wikwos 
wīrós uir, virāgō 1b2.- fer 2b1.-gwr Werwolf waír  vīrá-; 6.3.-výras
, uirtus, u(e)iro 2a3.-2a4.- 2b2.- 'id' virap á- 6.4.-wi^rs
cūria<*ko 'mancipia'; fear gur/gour 3a2.-wer; 5.3.-vīra- ;
m-wir- ueiro 2b3.-gour, werewolf pasu vīra
pequo uurgost 'lycanthrop
os'
wisējō uireō, wīsa  6.3.-veĩsti
uiridis 'gemma 'augō'
Wiese veislùs,
'pratum' vislùs
3a2.-wīse 'uber' ;
755
'propāgō veisl 'pr.'
3a3.-vīsir 6.4.-vaisla
'germen' 'prolēs'
wiskom uiscum wichsila  višnja
'cerisia'
wísogā uirga; wisc,  ve ká- 6.3.-vizgù,
uirgō; Wisch 'laqueus, vizgéti
uiscus, - 'penniculu nōdus 'tremō' ,
eris m' currens' viskiù,
3a3.-viska viskéti 'id'
'scopae'
witājō uitō  vitátь
'grassor'
wíteros vītricus ? widar, wiþra  vítara-, vъtorъ
wider 'contra' vītara- 'alter,
'contra' 5.3.- secundus'
3a2.-wið, vītarəm
with 'cum; 'perperam'
contra'
wītjā fíthe, fíthe  (i part. vītá- vilá <*wHi-
<*witjo- longa) 6.3.-vyt
(tech fithe) 'rāmus,
'textus' gerra'
6.4.-vĩte
witjom 
witus uitus  v tvь

'rāmulus'
6.9.-
witwan
'salix'
wíweqmi vocō, -āre  'dīxī' vákti, 6.9.-
giwahanen <*e-ue- vívakti wackītwei
, ukʷ-om 'loquitur', 'allicere';
erwähnen aor. enwackēm
'moneō' avocat ai
<wokwnēy 5.4.- 'applellām
ō go em us'
'clamō'
5.5.-ḫuek-,
ḫuk-
'coniūrō'
wḷbhontis cf. ulba, 3a2.- ulbandus  cf. úlba- ? velьb dъ,
uulua ? olfend 'barrus' 'uulua' velib dъ
3a3.- 5.5.- verbljud
ulfalde huwalpant- <got.
wḷdā fled Vlido-rīx  5.5.-
2b1.- 'uolō'; huldalai-

gwledd 'desideriu 'gratiam
m' facere'
wḷdhējō cf. ualeō cf. waltan, waldan  vlado,
follnathir, giwalt 'id' vlasti
follnadar 3a2.- 6.3.-véldu,
<*(Hw)l- geweald veldéti
ne-H 'id' 3a3.- 6.4.-vàldît
'imperat' vald
'potestās'
wḷeiqos 
wḷeisō flesc wlizjan  lés
'uirga' 'lignum,
silua'
leskovъ
756
'styraceus'
wḷējō ualeō, vale fal-n-, fol- Vlatos 'id'  5.5.-
aequiualen 'vale(ns)' n- 2b1.- walliyatar
s ualaemom follnathir, gwlad, 'laus';
, valaimas follnadar 'terra' ; annawali,
òptimus' <*(Hw)l- guletic,gwl annauli-
ne-H edig 'id' 'aequiuale
'imperō' 2b2.-gulat, ns'
flaith gulas 'id'
'auctoritās' 2b3.-gloat,
; flaithem glat
dominus' 'patrimoniu
<*uəlatjom m'
os; Conall
<*komwal-
wḷepējō 
wḷeumi uellō, fuil 2b1.-gweli (ver)letzen wilwan  5.5.- valka
uulnus, 'sanguis' <*uolīso-?) 'uulnerō' 'capere, 'deleō'; ualhmi 'bellum'

uolnus <*woli-; 'uulnus' 3a3.- rapere' 'capior' 'oppugnō', 6.3.-v les
fuili 2b2.-goly valkyria  hullā-, 'cadauer,
'uulnera' 'id' 'furia' <*(F), hulliya- 'id' spiritus'
2b3.- *(F?
golyow 'id' 'uulnus'
wlewā F 5.5.-(wa)- ToB-luwo
lwa-lla- 'animāl'
wḷghis uallis folc Wolke  5.5.-uellu- Волг

'currens' 6.3.-
pavalga
'salsa'
6.4.-val^gs
'humidus'
wḷiqējō liqueō, fliuch 2b1.-  6.3.-wa'lks
liquidus 'madidus' gulip/gwlib 'madidus'
2b2.-glibor wa'lka
'humor' 'palūs'
2b3.-
gloeb/gleb
wḷnā lāna, olann 2b1.-gwlan Wolle wulla  ūrnā vlъna

uellus, 2b2.-gluan 3a2.- gelmn 6.3.-vìlnos
uillus 2b3.-gloan wull(e), 'pannus' (pl.)
wool wil- 5.5.- 6.4.-vilna
mod 'colus' hulana
wḷōrom lōrum,  5.4.-lar
lōrica, 'habēna', 'corda,

lōripēs (Hes.) monīle'
wḷqos lupus olc 'malus' wulf wulfs  v ka-, fem. vlьkъ
(dat. uilc, 3a2.-wulf, RUN.- v kī 6.3.-vilkas
acc. pl. wolf wulafa 5.3.- 6.4.-vìlks
ulcu) 3a3.-ulfr, vəhrka-
fem.ylgr
wḷtis folt 2b1.-gwallt Wald wilÞeis  vāla-, volodь

<*wolto- 2b2.-gols 'pratum'; 'saeuus'  vāra- 'capillum';
2b3.-guolt wild  'iuba' vlasъ,
3a2.-weald  5.3.- volos

'id'  varəsa- <*lko-
3a3.-vollr  <*wolko- 6.3.-váltis

'id'  5.6.-gurs 'paniculum
 <*-ko avenae'
wḷtus uultus wuldor wulÞus 
'gloria' 'gloria,
magnificen
tia'
757
wṇdā 
wṇghējō winchan,  vá gati 6.3-véngiu,
winken 'claudus véngti 'uitō'
'oscillō' est'
3a2.-
wincian,
winch
'inuoluō'
wochējō uoueō 1b2.-  vāghát-
uufetes 'promulgō' 'sacerdōs'
'uōtīs'; hatē
uufru 'promulgat'
'uōtīvum'; 5.3.-aoxta
uofione 'dīxit'
'deō 5.4.-gog,
uōtōrum'. gogces
'dīc(as)'
wodā 
wod unda (cf. 1b2.-utur, u(i)sce wazzar watō dat.  avatá voda

APR abl.une <*udeskio- 3a2;- pl.  'puteus' 6.3.-
wundan n., *udni. odar wæter watnam. *awəntos vanduõ, -
unds 'spādix' 3a3.-vatn Wintrus udán(i) l., eñs
'aqua') 'hiems' (udná ) 6.4.-avuõts
Auentiinus samudra 'fons'
? 'mare'
5.3.-aođa-
'fons'
5.5.-wa-a-
tar (wātar)
woghejō wegan,  vāháyati voziti
wiegen 'id' 'portō'
3a2.-
wegan
'moueō'
woghnos uehō fén couinnus wagan 
'waggon' 2b1.-gwain 3a3.-uagn
woghos  vaha- vozъ <
'carrus' 'dūcens' vozú
5.3.-vāza- <*woghó-
'id et 'carrus'
uolans'
wogsmis uōmis, - waganso;  6.3.-vãgis

eris, wecki  'cuneus,
uōmer Wecken (Hes.) malleus'
'cuneus' 6.9.-
3a2.-wecg, wagnis
wedge 'uom.'
woida uīdī rofitir 2b1.-gwyr weiz, wait,   v da v d
wizzumēs witum vidmá 6.9.-waisei
3a2.-wāt, 5.4.-gitem 'scis'
witon
woidejō fóidid  vedayati
'mittit' 'indicat'
woidlos uīdulus cf.  veda
'uieor'; 'scopae,
fascis'
woidw s fíadu weitwōþs  vidús,

'testis' 'testis' vidvān
5.3.-viduš
woighos 3a2.-wice,  KURD.-viz vjazú
witch ALB.-vidh 6.3.-
vinkšna
758
woikā fích  v kъ
<*woikos 'uigor,
'īra, saeculum'
inimicitia'
woikos vīcus weihs F 5.6.-vith
ALB.-vise
(pl.)
woikós 2b1.- weigar <-  6.3.-véikus
gwych kró 'celer',
'splendens 'superbus' veiklùs
, excellens' 3a3.-vígr 'agilis',
'capax vikrùs
pugnandī' 'alacer'
woikslā 
woinā uindex  vīna 'culpa'
woinos uīnum (F) 5.4.-gini vino
5.5.-
wiyana-
woisos vīrus fi  vi á- TOK.-A
5.3.-viš-, wäs, B
viša- was
woitā 2b1.-gwit weida,  vītí-
'pulmentu Weide 'pulmentu
m' 'pastus, m, dēlicia'
uenātus'
3a2.-wāð
'uenātus,
iter'
wolējō wellen, waljan  varáyati volj , voliti
wählen 'dēsiderō'
3a3.-velja
wolgos uulgus 2b1.-gwala   vàrgah
'satis' 'turma'
2b3.-
gwalch '-
etās'
wolmos félmae, walm  'et ūrmí-
felmae 'feruor' mortārium' 'unda'
'saepes' 3a2.- :  5.3.-
wielm, 'uermis'arǝmiš
wylm 'id' 'unda'
5.4.-gil
<*uēl-
wolos wala  vāra-,
3a3.-val vara-
wolós (bene-, 2b1, 2b2, wela, waíla  vará-
male-) 2b3.-gwell wola, wohl 'benē' 'ēlector,
uolus <*wel-? 'id' 3a2.- <*wel- ? ēlectus,
'potius' well 'id' bellus'
wolpis uulpēs  lopā á- lisъ

5.3.- <*wleipso-
raopis; ? 6.3.-
urupis lãpe
<lupi <ulopē;
'canis' vilpiš s
5.4.-alues 'felēs fera'
(aluesu) 6.4-lupsa
5.5.- <ulopekā?
ulip(pa)na
'lupus'
5.6.-rōpās;
gurpak,
759
gurba
'felēs'
wolnos uulnus, flann 2b1.-gweli  5.6.-
uolnus 'ruber, <*uolīso-? (F) valāna,
sanguinole 2b2.-goly (F) vālāna
ntus'
wolsom fell 'dolus' 2b1.-guall  5.4.- gaɫt вилять
faill; fall 'defectus'  'dēlūdō'; 'clam'; goɫ 'subrēpō'

'negligenti 2b3.-gwall 'fallax' 'fur' 6.3.-vìlti,
a' 'malē' vìlbinti
'fallō'
6.4.-vilt 'id'
wolwós ualua 3a3.-valr  valá- obьlъ,
(=tortilis) <*aiwesi- 'cauerna'; о лый;
<*ueluā wolos cakra- valъ 'unda'
'tremulus' vāla- 6.3.-
'circulus' рv lùs
6.4.-apálš;
võls
significātiō
?
wondhejō 1b2.-pre- wintan, wandjan;  vandhúra- TOK.-A, B

uendu winden, inwinds 'currus'; 'sella wänt-
'aduertitō', wenden, 'contrārius'  currūs' 'circumteg
aha-uendu wandern   5.4.-gind ō'
auertitō'; 3a2.- 'anus'
windan
wondhos find (gen wintbrāwa,  vosъ, osъ
pl. Wimper <wiwondh 'barba
finnnae); 'palpebra' os; AP-wanso

fés 'p. barba'
'dispexus.'
<wendhso
wōnós uānus; 2b2.- 3a2, 3a2.- wans  ūná- 6.3.-vañs-

uacō, vacetum, wan 'id' 'deficiens' 'inops'; 'dēficiens' kariai 'oūm
uocō? uasetom 3a3.-wanr   5.3.-ūna incomplētu
'vitiātum', 'id' 'uānus' 'id' m'
uas 5.4.-unain
'vitium'; 'uacūs'
antervakaz 5.6.-vang
e, 'inops'
anderuaco
se
'intermissi
ō'
wopjā uxantia<up  vāpī 'aqua, osa<vosa
'Aurel'; lacus' 6.3.-vapsà,
trubia<trān 5.5.-uappu vapsva
s-w 'ripa'
wopsā uespa foich<lat. 2b1.- wafsa  5.3.- vapa<wōp
fūcus gwychi, 3a2.- vaw aka- a 'mare'
gwchi waefs, `skorpion' 6.3.- ùpe
2b2.-guhi- waeps 'flūmen'
en 2b3.-
guohi
'fucos'
woqs uox (uōcis) foccul Vepolitano giwahanen F vacas, TOK A
'uerbum' s 'ēuocō'   vacana- wak, В

fúaimm<s 'ampliruulti 3a3.-uāttr 'uocātiō' 5.3.- wek
mn s' 2b1.- 'indicium' vaxs;vak-
 'dīxī'
'strepitus' gwaethel ōmun 'uox' ,uxta 'lq'
gweb 5.4.-
'uultus' gocem
'uocō'
760
5.6.-uek,
uk
'coniurātus
'
worgjom Vorgium werih, 
Carhaix Werg
2b1.-cy- 'stuppa'
warch
2b3.-
coarcholio
n>koarc'h
wormis uermis frige pl. gwraint pl. 3a1, 3a2.- waúrms  vьrmьje
1a1.- friget; 'uermes in wurm 'insectus'
brigantes gorm<gmc pelle' 3a3.-ormr 6.3.-
varmas
'id'
wornos uarius,  varna
uariāre
worós 
wortejō frawarten fra-  vartáyati vratiti s
'corrumper wardjan 'uolūtat' 'inuoluere
e' 'corrumper se'
e'
wosejō werian wasjan ALB.-vesh vāsáyati
3a2.- 5.5.-
werian wassija-,
'gerō wessija-
indūtui ' 'et tegō'
wosis 3a2.-wase  usnisa
'textus' 5.5.-huesa
3a3.- 'fusus'
wasask
'inuoluor'
wosmós 1b2.- wasem  vasā
 
vestikatu 'palūs'  'oleum'
'libātō' wasal  u ra 'bōs'
'plūia'; 5.3.-
waso vanhu-tāt
'specus' 'sanguis' ;
3a2.-wōs, ustrō
ōze 'camellus'
'humiditās'
wospos uespillō ? 5.5.-
'legūmen' vaspa-
LUV-
vaspant-
'induens'?
w aghmṇ fracc  6.3.-rã as

'spīna' 'spīna'; 'extrēmum,
 cuspis,
'spīna furca'
dorsālis'
wərbhis urbs (arc.  warpa dai-
urps); 'circumscrī
urbem bō'
condere
w dhom uerbum 1b2.- fordat wort waúrd  vrata- vru, vrati

uerfale (signif.?) (Hes.) 'sententia' 'uoueō'
'templum'  5.3.-urvāta rotá, рот
(F) 'affirmātiō' 'uōtum'
 5.5.-weriya vra ь<wor
(F) 'uocō'; kyos
761
 PALAIC.- 'medicus'

wērti 6.3.-
'uocat' vardas
'nōmen'
<*wordhos
6.9.-wirds
w djā rādix, frén 2b1.- wurz , waúrts  (i
rāmus <w dno cf. gwraidd Wurzel schwa
<dhm ?; radamnos 3a2.-wyrt secundum
radius ? 'herba' ), 
w egis fraig ach-vre  vrajá-

'mūrus' 'pariēs  'uallum'
plexa' 'inclūdō' 5.3.-varəz-
'inclūdō'
w eikā rīca, reisan  urvisyeiti 6.3.-rišù,
rīcinium 'uertor,iter 'tortus' <*vri yati rìšti 'ligō'

f.'; Rist  'torquitur' rýkšte
'arcus 'cista' 'fascis'
pedis' ráišas
3a2.-wry 'paralyticu
'obliquus' s'
wrist 'artus 6.4.-riešu
p., manus' rist 'id'
wrīon
'operiō'
3a3.- ræx
'nodus'
w éikonjo 
m
w einā ūrīna  A B.-
 < shurë;
*uorseiō shure
'mingō' 'mingō'
w ējai uereor cō(a)ir 1b2.- we(h)ren warjan  vrṇ ti véru, vērt
'rectus' cywair 'caueō'; 'protegō'; 'defendō'; 'tegit, 'obseruō'

<*kom- 'rectus' warnen; war(s) 'uigil'; cauet'
uerios); warten 'protector'  vártra-
faire? giwar <worós;  'scūtum''
'uigilantia' 'cautus' warai 'uigilia'; vrtra-
3a2.-wær 'cautiō';  'oppositiō';
4.8..-wo-
'id' daúraward varūtár
wo
3a3.-varr s 'ianitor' 'protector'
'obseruāto
'id' Váruṇa-
rium'
5.5.-
weritema
'metus'
w ēn ueruēx F uran-
renō  5.3.-barra
<germ. 4.8.- <*varnak
we(r)wesij 5.4.-garn
eja
'lanifica' 
w eumi operiō, veru  api-vrṇóti (za)/vьro,

aperiō; 'portam' 'dēfendō' 'operit' vreti
uestibulum 1b2.- apa-vrṇoti 'operīre';
<werstidhl verofe 'in 'aperit' ot-voriti
om; portam' 'aperīre'
uruum, 6.3.-
uruō? ù veriu, -
vérti;
atvérti 'id';
vartai;
'porta'
762
w eumi aperiō  apa-vrṇoti ot-voriti
apo 'aperit' 'aperīre'
6.3.-atvérti
w gā 
w gējō urgeō rehhan wrikan  vrájati? vragъ
'puniō'; 'persequor' 'graditur' 'inimīcus'
ache 'īra' 6.3.-
3a2.- vérgas
wrecan 'id' 'seruos'
6.4.-vērgs
'id'
w gjō wirken waurkjan,   5.3.-
3a2.- waúrkeiþ  'faciō' vərəzyeiti
wirkian, 'laborat'
work
w gos ferg/fearg uergo-  'īra' ūrjā
'ira' bretus 'magnus
2b1.- uigor,
gwery succus'
'impiger'
2b3.-grerg
'efficax'
w ijō 
w isdējō rideō 3a2.-  vrīdate
wraestan 'eum
3a3-reista pudet, eī
uieō' pudōrī est'
w nāmi  5.5.-hurna- variti

'celeriter' 'uēnor' 'currō'
 6.3.-varúti
'pernix' 'id'
w ṇgai ringor  regnoti
'hiscere'
rogъ
'ridiculum'
w onkā branca frac, frag;  roka, ruká
<gall. tuargbais 'manus'
'ungula' (fr. A. a fraca 6.3.-rankà
branche) 'A manūs 'id'
sustulit'
w onkis fróg 'cauit., cf. 3a3.-vrā 
latēbra' worgjom 'angulus,
feirc 'cannabis' cuspis'
'protuberā
ntia'
w rādīks 
w stā frass, arc.  var ā,

fross  'rōs' var á- 'et
vēr, annus'
5.5.-wa-ar-
ša-aš 'pl'?
w stis uersiō  v tti- sъvьrstь
'rotātiō, 'coaeuus,
indolēs, par'
actiō, 6.8.-vr^st
dispositiō, 'seriēs,
modus indolēs'
conversan
dī', forma
rythmica'
w stos uersus  v ttá- 'rēs, verstá <*-ā
actiō, 'seriēs,
763
modus aetās, 1,07
conuersan km' 6.3.-
dī, forma varstas
rythmica' 'meātus
arātrī'
w tō uertō, 1b2.- fri(th) 2b1.- werdan, waírþan  vártati(-te), vrьteti se
uersus, kuvetu, 'uersus' gwrth/wrth werden vavartti pf. 'reuertor'
uortex, covertu fertas 'per' 'fi ' vavárta 6.3.-ver iù,
uertex 'conuertit ' 'uenābulu gwerthyd 3a2.- 5.5.- versti
; trahvorfi m' 'fusus' weorþan hurtalliya 6.4.-veršu,
'transuersē adbart 2b2.-orth 'mixtūra' verst
' 'aduersāriu 2b3.-ouz
s'
w tom fertae wurt, wort A B.- В wärto, vrata,
'tumulus 'fundus' vathë wart(t)o voróta 'id'
sepulcrālis' 3a2.- 'hortus, 6.3.-vartai
<*wertom weorð, silua' 'porta'
2a2.-fert worð 6.4.-vàrti
'id' 'claustrum' 'porta'
<*wortom
w ughis rocko,  rъ ь,
Roggen ro ь
3a2.-ryge, 6.3.- rug s
rye 6.4.-ruzdi
3a3.-rugr
764
APPENDIX III: IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS
III.1. ROOT NOUNS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
pod gwou leuk wōq nāu kwon mēns
(accent position verified)
Nom. pat gaúḥ ruk vak náuḥ sva mah
Voc. gauḥ ruk vāk nauḥ śvan
Acc. pa am gam rucam vacam nāvam svanam
Ins. pa a gávā rucā vācā nava śúnā masa
Dat. padé gáve ruce vāce nāve śune māse
Abl. pa áḥ góḥ rucaḥ vācáḥ nāváh śúnaḥ māsaḥ
Gen. pa aḥ góḥ rucaḥ vācáḥ nāváh śúnaḥ māsaḥ
Loc. padi gavi ruci vāci nāvi śuni māsi
Nom. gāvau rucau vācau nāvau śvānau

Voc. gāvau rucau vācau nāvau śvānau
Acc. gāvau rucau vācau nāvau śvānau
Ins. pa hyām go hyām rug hyām vāg hyām nau hyām śva hyām mā hyām |
mā hyām
Dat. pa hyām go hyām rug hyām vāg hyām nau hyām śva hyām mā hyām
Abl. pa hyām go hyām rug hyām vāg hyām nau hyām śva hyām mā hyām
Gen. pa oḥ gavoḥ rucoḥ vācoḥ nāvoḥ śunoḥ māsoḥ
Loc. pa oḥ gavoḥ rucoḥ vācoḥ nāvoḥ śunoḥ māsoḥ
Nom. gavas rucaḥ vācaḥ navah śvānaḥ

Voc. gāvaḥ rucaḥ vācaḥ nāvaḥ śvānaḥ
Acc. padáh gāḥ rucaḥ vācaḥ nāvaḥ śunaḥ masah
Ins. pa hiḥ gó hiḥ rug hiḥ vāg hiḥ naubhíh śvá hiḥ mā híh
Dat. pa hyaḥ go hyaḥ rug hyaḥ vāg hyaḥ nau hyaḥ śva hyaḥ mā hyaḥ
Abl. pa hyaḥ go hyaḥ rug hyaḥ vāg hyaḥ nau hyaḥ śva hyaḥ mā hyaḥ
Gen. pa ām gavām rucām vācām nāvām śunām māsām
Loc. patsu goṣu rukṣu vākṣu nauṣu śvasu māḥsu
pēs ōs lux uox nāuis canis mensis

pedis bouis lūcis uōcis nāuis canis mensis
Nom. πούσ βοῦσ ἀνόρ ὄψ ναῦσ κύων μόν μεύσ

Gen. ποδόσ βοόσ ἀνδρόσ ὀπόσ νεώσ κυνὸσ μηνόσ
Dat. ποδύ βοΐ ἀνδρύ ὀπύ νηΐ κυνὶ μηνύ
Acc. πόδᾰ βοῦν ἄνδρα ὄπα ναῦν κύνα
Voc. πούσ βοῦ ἄνερ ναῦ κύον
Nom. πόδε βόε νῆε

Gen. ποδοῖν
Dat. ποδοῖν βοοῖν νεοῖν
Acc. πόδε
Nom. πόδεσ βόεσ ἄνδρεσ νῆεσ κύνεσ

Gen. ποδῶν βοῶν ἀνδρῶν νεῶν κυνῶν μηνῶν
Dat. ποςύ ν βουςί ν ἀνδρϊςι ν ναυςί ν κυςὶ
Acc. πόδᾰσ βοῦσ ἄνδρασ ναῦσ κύνασ
nom. sg. patas/patis *guwau-

acc. sg. patan
gen. sg. patas
dat.-loc. pati
sg.
acc. pl. pātuš < *pó -ms
gen. pl. patān < *p -óm.
dat-loc. patā <*p ós
pl.
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
suH mūs djeuH judh kerd weik dheghom
Nom. suh mut yáuḥ yut har i su - viṭ kṣám, kṣáh

hart
Voc. suh mut yaùḥ yut viṭ kṣám
Acc. suvam muṣam dy'aam | yudham viśam kṣám
divam
Ins. suvā muṣā iva yu ha hṛ ā viśā ksama, jmá
Dat. suvai | suve muṣe dyave | yudhe hṛ é viśe kṣé
divé
Abl. suvāḥ | suvaḥ muṣaḥ yóḥ | yu haḥ hr ah viśaḥ jmás,
iváḥ kṣmás
Gen. suvāḥ | suvaḥ muṣaḥ yóḥ | yu haḥ hr ah viśaḥ jmás,
iváḥ kṣmás
Loc. suvi | suvām muṣi dyávi | diví yudhi hṛ í viśi kṣámi
Nom. suvau muṣau yāvau | yudhau viśau ksama

divau
Voc. suvau muṣau yudhau viśau ksama
Acc. suvau muṣau yāvau | yudhau viśau ksama
766
Appendix III: In-Depth Analysis
divau
Ins. sū hyām muḍ hyām yu hyām hṛ hyām viḍ hyām
Dat. sū hyām muḍ hyām yu hyām hṛ hyām viḍ hyām
Abl. sū hyām muḍ hyām yu hyām hṛ hyām viḍ hyām
Gen. suvoḥ muṣoḥ yu hoḥ hṛ oḥ viśoḥ
Loc. suvoḥ muṣoḥ yu hoḥ hṛ oḥ viśoḥ
Nom. suvaḥ muṣaḥ yāvaḥ | yu haḥ viśaḥ kṣāmas

ivaḥ
Voc. suvaḥ muṣaḥ ivaḥ yu haḥ viśaḥ kṣāmas
Acc. suvaḥ muṣaḥ ivaḥ yu haḥ hṛ aḥ viśaḥ ksas
Ins. sū hiḥ muḍ hiḥ yú hiḥ yu hiḥ hṛ híḥ viḍ hiḥ
Dat. sū hyaḥ muḍ hyaḥ yu hyaḥ yu hyaḥ hṛ hyaḥ viḍ hyaḥ
Abl. sū hyaḥ muḍ hyaḥ yu hyaḥ yu hyaḥ hṛ hyaḥ viḍ hyaḥ
Gen. sūnām | suvām muṣām ivām yu hām hṛ ām viśām
Loc. sūṣu muṭsu yuṣu yutsu hṛtsú viṭsu ksasu
sūs mūs iēs nox cor uīcus humus

suis mūris diei/Iouis noctis cordis uicī humī
Nom. ὗσ ςῦσ μῦσ Ζεὺσ νύξ κῆρ < κϋαρ οἶκοσ χθών
Gen. ςυόσ μυόσ Διὸσ νυκτόσ κῆροσ: χθονὸσ
Dat. Διὶ νυκτύ κῆρι χθονὶ
Acc. ὗν ςῦν μῦν Δύα νύκτα κῆρ < κϋαρ χθόνα
Voc. μῦ Ζεῦ κῆρ < κϋαρ
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Acc.
Nom. ὕεσ ςύεσ μύεσ μῦεσ νύκτεσ

Gen. ὑῶν ςυῶν νυκτῶν
Dat. ς υςύ μυςύ
ς ύεςςι
Acc. ὕασ ςύασ μύασ νύκτασ
nom. šiwaz ne-ku-uz ka-ra-az tekan n.,

sg. (nekuz) (karts) gen.
acc.
sg.
gen. šiwattaš nekuz kar-di-aš taknas
sg.
767
dat.-
loc. sg.
acc. pl.
gen.
pl.
dat-
loc. pl.
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
rēg ap sneich j(e)uHs neuk gheim op
Nom. rat yus hima-, heman apnas-

Voc. rat
Acc. rājam
Ins. rājā
Dat. rāje
Abl. rājaḥ
Gen. rājaḥ
Loc. rāji
Nom. rājau
Voc. rājau
Acc. rājau
Ins. rāḍ hyām
Dat. rāḍ hyām
Abl. rāḍ hyām
Gen. rājoḥ
Loc. rājoḥ
Nom. rājaḥ āpaḥ

Voc. rājaḥ āpaḥ
Acc. rājaḥ apaḥ
Ins. rāḍ hiḥ a hiḥ
Dat. rāḍ hyaḥ a hyaḥ
Abl. rāḍ hyaḥ a hyaḥ
Gen. rājām apām
Loc. rāṭsu apsu
rex rōs nix iūs nux hiems ops

rēgis rōris nivis iūris nucis hiemis opis
768
Nom. χεύρ *νύψ χειμϊσ -ών κλώψ
Gen. χειρόσ κλωπόσ
Dat. χειρύ κλωπί
Acc. χεῖρα νύφα κλῶπᾰ
Voc. κλώψ
Nom. χεῖρε κλῶπε

Gen.
Dat. χεροῖν κλωποῖν
Acc.
Nom. χεῖρεσ κλῶπεσ

Gen. χερῶν χειρῶν i κλωπῶν
Dat. χερςύ χειρςύ κλωψί ν
χεύρεςι
Acc. χεῖρασ κλῶπᾰσ
nom. sg. kessar ghesr gim(a)- happar

acc. sg. kiššeran ghsérom
gen. sg. kiš ša raš ghesrós ghsrós
dat.-loc. kiš ša rī (ghesréi / ghsréi)
sg.
acc. pl.
gen. pl.
dat-loc.
pl.
769
III.2. PRONOUNS
III.2.1. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
IE Lat. Gk. Skt. Hitt.

(sol)woi omnes  visva, sarva hūmant-
qāqos quisque  pratieka kuissa

qisqis quisquis  kacit kuis kuis, kuis-
quīlĭbĕt  ka cana as kuis,
quīvis  kopi
quīviscumque 
qiskomqe, quiscumque  yah ka cit kuis imma, kuis
qisimmoqe  yo yah imma kuis, kuis-
yadanga as imma (kuis)
qéjespejoi quidam  katipaya
qis, edqis ecquis, aliquis, quis, anyatama kuis ki
(cf. rus. edvá) quispiam, 
aliquisquam
enis quīdam (cf. eka cana
somós īdem (osc. ekkum)  eka (aequus), eni, uni, anni,
sama, sah eva asi
se epse, epe, ipse; arc. sapsa,  atman, svayam apāsila (cf. hit.
s(w)el (e)pe sumpse kinun lat. nunc)
neqis nullus, nec quisquam  na kah UL kuiski
álteros, alter anyatara (kuis)....kuis
ónteros
aljos*, onjos alius  anya, itara, apara tamai-
Eng. Ger. Goth. Gael. Russ.

all alle, jeder alls u(i)le все
every one jeder ainhvarjizuh cach, cách (gal. каждый, еже--
ainhvaþaruh papon) какой 'what,
which
anyone jeder hvazuh duine ar bith всякий
hvarjizuh
whoever jeder der, wer auch sahvazuh saei cibé duine кто бы ни
immer
some etliche несколько
someone jemand, hvas, hvashun nech, nach, duine кто-нибудь,
irgendeiner, etwas кой-что, eтeръ
certain ein gewisser sums áirithe некоторый
the same der selbe sama an céanna; тот же самый
himself selbst silba fessin, fadessin сам, онсий
>féin
none, nobody niemand, keiner (ni) hvashun ní aon duine никто
(gal. nepon)
the other one der andere an ceann eile другой, иной
someone else anderer aljis* aile, aill, eile (инъ)
*from aljos cf. lat. alibi, gr. , got. aljaþ, etc
770
III.2.2. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
IE Lat. Gk. Skt. Hitt.

is, se is (anaf.)   sah, esah apā
(e)ke, ghei-(ke), hic<ghe-i-ke  ay-am, id-am, (gen. kā, eda (def)
se, ete asya -air. a + len) <*
e/ei; esah (cf. lat.
equidem)
oise, iste, ene iste <is-te <oihos (tal) enam (enclit.) -----
el-ne ille, ollus <el-  a-sau, u- apā
ne/ol-nos
Eng. Ger. Goth. Gael. Russ.

he er, der is (h)í он
this dieser hier hi-, sa(h) sin этот, сей.(ant)
----- ----- ----- ----- -----
that, yonder dieser da, jener jains (s)ut тот
771
III.2.3. PERSONAL PRONOUNS
SINGULAR
OSC-
IE TON. AT. LAT PTOCEL OIr I OIr D Welsh I Welsh D CORN BRET
UMB
mi,
me, mé, myvi, my,
N egṈ, egóm ego deest ----- ----- me
mesme ? meisse myvy, me
mivi
-vy, -
mi, vi,
mē ma, - -me, -
A mewom; me deest *me, *mī ----- -m- ----- vyvi,
(arc.mēd) m-, m-, ff
vivi
f(f)
mi, my,
*mewe,
mene; mo, mui, mo vy ow, ma, va;
G meī deest *mene, meu
mei muisse (len) (ecl.); - ov; -m -m
*meme
m
vy,
*me, mi, vi,
ma, - -me, -
D meghei; moi mihī deest *mī, ----- -m- ----- vyvi,
m-, m-, ff
*moi vivi
f(f)
L mei, moi mē deest ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
I mojo ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
Ab med mē mehe ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
tiium, tú, ti, tydi,
N tū tū *tū, tustu ----- ----- ty, te te
tiú tussu tidi
di, dy,
tiu, -te, -
tewom; de, -de; -z-,
A tē tiom, *tu ----- -t- ----- ta, th-,
t(w)e dydi, -t
tio, teio -s
dydy
tuvai
'tuae',
tui; adj. dy the; - da
tewe; t(w)o, tuua, *towe < do
G touos, tái teu (len); - th, -t, - (len), -z
t(w)ei tua, *tewe (len)
tuus th (len) d (len)
touer,
tuer
di, dy,
-te, -
tebhei; tfei, tíf, de, -de; -z-,
D tibī *t(w)oi ----- -t- ----- ta, th-,
t(w)oi tefe dydi, -t
-s
dydy
deest
t(w)ei, (cf. 3ª
L tē ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
t(w)oi sueso,
seso)
I t(w)ojo ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
Ab ted tē deest ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
772
GMC GOT ON OE OHG LIT PRUS SLAV

*eka (cf.
ik ek ic ih aš as azъ
vén. .e.go)
*mike (cf.
vén. mik mik mec, mē mih mane mien <*men me^
mego)
*mīnō meina mīn mīn mīn manęs mais(e) mene
mennei,
*miza mis mēr mē mir mâni(e), man mi'nje'; mi
māim <instr.
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. manyje ----- mi'nje'
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. manimi ----- mъnojo^
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ----- ----- -----
toū, tou,
*þū þū þū þū dū, du tu ty
thou, tu
tien, tin
*þeke þuk þik þe(c) dih tave te^
<*ten
*þīn þeina þīn þīn dīn tavęs twais(e) tebe
*þeza þus þēr þē dir tâvi(e), tau tebbei, tebbe tebje'; ti
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. tavyje ----- tebje'
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. tavimi ----- tobojo^
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ----- ----- -----
GK ARM SKR AV TOCH ALB HITT

u:k (arc.),
 es ahám azəm n ṣ, uk unë
ammuk
ammuk; -
 is (mā) *mekwe mua, mue
mu
 im máma, me mana i <*m i im <I + em ammēl
máhya, mabya,
imdz <*imij ammuk; -
 máhyam, mabyah
<*emegh mu
me (mai)
 is máyi ----- =dat.
 inew máyā deest …..
 inén, indzén mát mat ammēdaz
tvəm, tūm A tu, В
 du tvám ti <*tū zik
(tard.) (tū) t(u)we
tuk; -tta, -
<*twe k'ez θąm (θvā)
ttu
adi. y-t, ac.
tweso  k'o táva, te tava (tai) tuēl
ten-t
túbhya, tabya, tuk; -tta, -
<*twoi k'ez
túbhyam, te tabyah (tai) ttu
 k'ez tváyi, tvé ----- =dat.
θvā
 k'ew tváyā …..
(tardiiuum)
 k'én, k'ezén tvát θat tuēdaz
773
PLURAL
Welsh
TON. AT. LAT O-U PTOCEL OIr I OIr D Welsh I CORN BRET
D
snisni,
*(s)nīs
wejes, sníni,
N nōs <*(s)nēs; ----- ni, nini ----- ny ni, ny
nsmé sisni,
*snīsnīs
sinni, sní
ny, ny ni, -n-, -
nōns
-n-, -m, ny; -n-, - on-, -
A <*nosms, nōs *snōs ----- -nn- -----
n(n) gan-, - hon-;-
nsmé; nos
gen- mp
*aterom an, agan,
athar, ár hon, hor,
nseróm; nostrum, <*nsero einym, an, yn; agen; -n,
G desunt m /so <*ns-rō- ar n- hol; -n, -
nos -ī einom -n -gan, -
m on
nsme gen
ny, ny ni, -n-, -
nsméi, nōbis -n-, -m, ny, -n-, - on-, -
D *snōs ----- -nn- -----
nosbhos <*nosbh n(n) gan-, - hon-;-
is (cf. gen- mp
L nsmí, nosi pubēs ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
<*pusbh
I nosbhis -) ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
Ab nsméd ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
*swīs chwi,
juwes, sib, sissi, hui, huy,
N uōs FAL <swēs; ----- chwich ----- why, wy
jusmé síi c'houi
uēs swīswīs wi
wōns PAELI -huy, -
GN.- why,-s-,
<*wosms, -ch-, - hu, -uy. -
A uōs uus *swōs ----- -b- ----- -gas-; --
jusmé; ch u; -oz-, -
ges-; ugh
wos ch
sethar, (h)oz,
far n-, einwch, awch, as, agas,
wesróm; uostrum, uestra *(s)wesro sethar- (h)ouz,
G for n-, einywc ych; - ages; -
wos -ī 'uestra' m si, sar, ho; -oz, -
bar n- h ch gas, ges
fathar ouz
-huy, -
jusméi, why,-s-,
-ch-, - hu, -uy. -
D wosbhos; *swōs ----- -b- ----- -gas-; --
ch u; -oz-, -
wos ges-; ugh
uōbis ch
jusmí, <*wosbh desunt
L is ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
wosi
I wosbhis ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
Ab jusméd ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
774
GMC GOT ON OE OHG LIT PRUS SLAV

my
*weys weis vēr wē wir mes <*wes mes <*wes
<*wes
mans<*nans
*uns uns(is) oss ūs(ic) unsih mus ny
<nṈns; *nō
nasъ
nōuson, nōusan
*unserō unsera vār ūser, ūre unsēr mūsų <*nōs-
*-sōn.-
sōm
noūmans
*uns uns(is) oss ūs uns mums namъ; ny
*nōmṈns
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. mumyse nasъ
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. mumis nami
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ----- -----
*yūs jus ēr gē, gīe ir jūs ioūs <jūs vy
wans<*vans
*(w)izwiz izwis yðr ēow iu jus vy
<vṈns; *vō
ioūson, ioūsān
*izwerō izwara yð(u)ar ēower iuwēr jūsų vasъ
<*-sōn-
ioūmans < vamъ ;
*(w)izwiz izwis yðr ēow(ic) iuwih jums
*jōmṈns ny
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. jumyse vasъ
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. jumis vami
….. ….. ….. ….. ….. ----- -----
GK ARM SKR AV TOCH ALB HITT

<nsme + es wēs (arc.);
mek' <*wes vayám vayam wes na <*nos
eol. <nsme anzās
anzās; -
 mez ahma -m, -äm ne <*nōs
nnas
 mer (nah) ne <*nōs anzēl
nas
asmábhyam ahmabya anzās; -
 mez ne <*nōs
, asmé, nas (nah) nnas
----- mez ----- =dat.
asmé
----- mewk' deest …..
----- ménj asmát ahmat anzēdaz
 duk' yūyám yūžam ju < *u sumēs
sumās; -
 dzez (vāh) -m, -äm
vas smas
sumenzan
 dzer (vah) (arc.),
vas
sumēl
šmabhya,
yuṣmábhya sumēs; -
 dzez yušmabya
m, vas smas
(vah)
----- dzez ----- =dat.
yuṣmé
----- dzewk' šmā …..
šmat,
----- dzénj yuṣmát sumēdaz
yušmat
775
III.3. WORD FORMATION: COMMON PIE LENGTHENINGS

AND SUFFIXES
IE Latin Old Irish West East Gmc. Greek Indian Slavic

Gmc.
------ uox  vāc 'uox'
rex rí  rāt
lex bó 'bos' ko  gáu/go
lux  ruk
grex  ap 'aqua'
mūs mūs  mū mysi (ac.)
pes 
nux 
trabs 
nix 
-os kamb snaiws  oka snegъ 'nix'
'pecten' 'nix' 'uerbum' 'splendor'
 jambha 'dens' zobъ 'dens'
'dens'
 tokъ

'cur
sus'

'currus'
-ós procus 'seca vará 'sequitor'
ns'
coquus 'rot oká
a' 'splendens'
 ghaná
'reliquiae' 'occisor'
-us genu(īnus) gin (geno) kinnus  hanu
dens
pecus/pecu haidus  ketú
faihu  pa ú
 dāru
domus  dáma domъ
-jom/jā ingenium cride 'cor'  vairya stoletie
'uirilitās' 'saeculum'
officium sétig <-yā 'sapi saujanya dolia 'pars'
'mulier' entia' 'probitās'
hospitium 
gremium 
prolubium 
repudium 
uaticinium 
principium 
dolium 
feria 
reliquiae 
- dōnum  sthānam
nos/no 'somnus' 'locus'
m
776
somnus  svapnah
'olla' 'sopnus'
regnum  snānam
'instrument 'nātus'
um'
<ks dānam
n 'candēla' 'dōnum'
 varna 'color'
(uarius)
 arambhanam
'initium'
 rodanam
 asanam
 anusthānam
 adhyayanam
 āsānam
 adhyānam
 abhidhānam
 indhanam
 kārnam
 tādanam
 grathanam
 patanam
 ádanam
 darshanam
 sváadanam
-nā lūna  tsená
'pūnitiō' 'pretium'
habēna  luna 'id.'
'uoluptās'
pruina 
ruina 
-njom somnium blíad(a)in  svápn(i)ya sunie
<yā 'anūs'
dominium  prāvīnya žnanie
'scientia'
patrimonium  kārtsnya upražnenie
'totālitās' 'exercitium'
matrimoniu  kārpanya cozarenie
m 'miseria'
triennium  znamenie
'importanti
a'
somnium  značenie
'significātiō'
scrutinium  obъiavlenie
'nuntiātiō'
lenocinium  prepodavan
ie
ricinium  čtenie
'lectiō'
 cobranie
'collectiō'
- exercitium  antastya-
tjom/tjā 'intestīna'
seruitium 
777
initium 
praeputium 
tristitia 
indutiae 
-twom  pañcatvam lekarstvo
'quique 'medicāmen
elementa' tum'
 gurutvam gosteprimst
'grāuitās' va
'hospitālitās
'
 stroitelstvo
'constructiō
'
 proizvodstv
o
'productiō'
 znakomstvo
'scientia'
-men 
nōmen ainm 'nōm nāman breme
en' 'nōmen' 'tempus'
agmen 'onu bhárma/bhárī
s' man
flūmen<gsm  preman čisme
'terminus' 'affectioo' (s+mºn)
'numerus'
flāmen<gsm F ashman
'halitus' 'saxum'
 bharman
'plāga' 'onus'
 tarman
'honor'
lūmen<ksm  bráhman

'ferr
e'
- pulmō  brahmáan
mon/mē 
n
 dharmáa

'port
us'


'scius'

'pulmō'
- augmentum hliumant  rómatam
mºntom 'reputātiō' 'reputātiō'
excrēmentum 
-on tēmōn  taksan
'tignārius'
nefrōnēs 'mas uksán
'
778
pecten (F) yúvan
'ariēs'
gluten 
-mos rēmus<tsm  kāma
'calamus'
fūmus  drumá
'uentus'
 dhūmá
'mortārium'
 trmá
-mā flamma<gsm 
glūma <ks
m 'cuspis'
plūma 
- prēlum 
los/lom
/lā
candēla 
fidēlia 
-kos/kā pertica  prā nika
parca  sainika
 bhiksuka
 balaka
 karabhaka
 maryaka
 abhisoka
-ro stuprum  'āla'

'dēlētiō'
-er leuir  'leuir'
'pute
us'
F'ad
eps'
'ūter
'
'diēs'

'adeps'
super 'super'

-tā iuuenta F' krtajnatā
totālitās'
'uīta' devatā
 rjutā
 gurutā
 sarvatā
-tāt(i)  aristátāti
 ayaksmátāti
 gṛbhītátāti
 jyesthátāti
deitās/dīvīnit  devátāti
ās
acritās  vasútāti
firmitās  ástatāti
779
commūnitās gamaindai  dáksatāti
ths
gemeind gamainths  ámtāti
e
managdut 
hais
-ti mens  mati
'nātūra'
pars  krti
'uinculum'
mors 'obl bhakti
ectamentu
m'
ars 'gras bati
us'
 drsti
'dilātiō'
'm vipatti
ouimentum
'
 bhrti
 pankti
-tu portus furt 'urbs' av. p∂r∂tu-š
'pons'
saltus gántus
-tūt iuuentūs oítiu mikiduÞs
'iuuentūs' 'magnitūd
ō'
senectūs sentu
'senectūs'
salūs bethu 'uita'
uirtūs oíntu 'ūnītās'
slántu 'salūs'
cáttu
'sanctitās'
nemarbtu
'immortālitās
'
-to 






-tor/tēr genitor  janitr

 gntr
 krtr
 drstr
 dhaatr
 raksitr
 bóddha
-in  bhāvin graždanin
'ciuis, homō
urbānus'
780
 puspadhārin krestianin
'homō
rusticus'
 medhavin angličanin
'anglensis'
 ku alin parižanin
'parisiensis'
 ksayin
-dhrom crībrum 
-trom arātrum 'ar
ātrum'
rostrum 'far
etra'
lūstrum 'lec
tus'
tarātrum 
'lauabum'

-dhlom stābulum 'olla
'
pābulum 

-tlom poculum  mántra
situlum  shrotra
-os- (n) onus slíab 'mons'  anas 'onus'
'gloria'
opus  apas 'opus'
'nubēs'
 shravas
'inferus'
 candramas
 tejas
 chandas
 tapas
 nabhas
 payas
 manas
 ya as
 raksas
 rajas
 vaksas
 vayas
 vasas
 vedhas
 iras
 saras
-os- (m) aurōr(a) aurōr-a  usáa 'auroora'
'aurōra'
calor 
'pudicitia'
tepor 
honor 
-estu inruccus  cvežestь
<ed+tu 'opulentia' 'frescor'
/esti
<ed+ti
781
comláinso 
'plēnitūdō'
áthius 
'acerbitās'
diuitius 
'simplicitās'
cosmuilius 
'similitūdō'
cuibdius 
'harmonia'
erdarcus 
'pulchritūdō'
faitigus 
'cautiō'
inderbus 
'incertitūdō'
cutrummus 
'equalitās'
mórálus 
'moralitas'
comarbus 
'hereditās'
coibnius 
'familiāritās'
astu<ad flaithemnas thiudinass  glupostь
+tu / 'dominium' us 'stultitia'
asti<ad 'regnum'
+ti
airechas gudjin-  polnostь
'nōbilitās' assus 'plēnitūdō'
'sacerdotiu
m'
óclachas  podrobnost
ь 'indicātiō'
muntaras  grustь
'familiāritās' 'tristitia'
remthechtas  gordostь
'antepositiō'
anamchairte  molodostь
s 'directiō 'iuuentūs'
spirituālis'
lánamnas  starostь
'matrimoniu 'senectūs'
m'
testas  iarostь
'testimonium 'exasperātiō
' '
émechas 
'opportunitās
'
coitchennas 
'generālitās'
782
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING
This work is mainly a compilation of scholar knowledge, the output of two

centuries of thorough research in comparative linguistics. It is highly
recommended to consult other books on IE linguistics to learn Proto-Indo-
European. Google books at <http://books.google.com/> is a great tool to read
some parts of any of these works and decide whether it is interesting to buy them or
not.
For this specific book we have used (among other, less important references) the
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indoeuropea III, Ediciones Clásicas, 1998.
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and French, Mouton de Gruyter, 2000.
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the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press, 2007.
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Introduction, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1995.
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Editions de Minuit, 1969.
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Chicago Press, 1933.
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University Press, 2007.
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1978.
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2008.
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introduction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2004.
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1996.
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Chicago: The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1980.
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o Kortlandt, Frederik Herman Henri: Italo-Celtic origins and prehistoric development of
the Irish language. Rodopi, 2007.
o Lazzeroni, Romano. La cultura indoeuropea. Bari: Gius, Laterza & Figli, 1998.
o Lehmann, W. P. Theoretical Bases of Indo-european Linguistics. London: Routledge.
o Lehmann, W.P. Proto-Indo-European Phonology. Austin: University of Texas Press and
Linguistic Society of America, 1952
o Lehmann, W.P. A Reader in Nineteenth-Century Historical Indo-European Linguistics.
Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1967
o Lehmann, W. P. Proto-Indo-European Syntax. Austin: University of Texas
Press, 1974
o Lehmann, W., Zgusta, L. Schleicher‘s tale after a century. In Festschrift for Oswald
Szemerényi on the Occasion of his 65th Birthday. Amsterdam: B. Brogyanyi, 1979. p.
455–66
o Lindemann, F.O. Introduction to the Laryngeal Theory, Oslo: Norwegian University
Press, 1987.
o Lubotsky, Alexander, Sound law and analogy: papers in honor of Robert S.P. Beekes
on the occasion of his 60th birthday, Rodopi, 1997.
784
Bibliography and Further Reading
o Mallory, J.P., Adams, D.Q. The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-

European and the Proto-Indo-European World. Oxford University Press,
USA, 2006 (Reprinted 2007).
o Mallory, J.P., Adams, D.Q. Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Routledge, 1997.
o Martínez, Javier, de Vaan, Michiel. Introducción al avéstico. Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas,

2001.
o Matasović, Ranko: Etymological dictionary of proto-Celtic. Brill, 2009.
o Mayrhofer, Manfred. Indogermanische Grammatik, i/2: Lautlehre, Heidelberg: Winter,

1986.
o Masson, Emilia. Les douze dieux de l‟immortalité. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1989.
o Meid, W. Archäeologie und Sprachwissenschaft. Innsbruck: Institut für
Sprachwissenschaft der Universität.
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European Linguistics. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2003.
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USA: Oxford University Press, 2006.
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Philologically arranged, Oxford University Press, 1899.
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Davies, Oxford University Press, 2004.
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o Renfrew, Colin. Archaeology and language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins.
London: Jonathan Cape, 1987.
o Ringe, Donald, et al. A History of English: Volume I: From Proto-Indo-European to
Proto-Germanic. USA: Oxford University Press, 2006.
o Roberts, Edward A., Pastor, Bárbara. Diccionario etimológico indoeuropeo de la lengua
española. Madrid: Alianza, 1996.
o Renfrew, Colin. Arqueología y Lenguaje: La cuestión de los orígenes indoeuropeos.
Barcelona: Crítica, 1990
o Rix, Helmut, (ed.) Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben: Die Wurzeln und
ihre Primärstammbildungen, Second Edition. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig
Reichert Verlag 2001.
o Sánchez Salor, E. Semántica y sintaxis. La oración compuesta latina. Cáceres:

Universidad de Extremadura, 1993.
o Shields, K. A history of Indo-European Verb Morphology. Amsterdam: Benjamins,
1992.
785
o Sihler, Andrew L. New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1995.
o Szemerényi, Oswald. Einführung in die Vergleichende Sprachenwissenschaft.
Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1989.
o Szemerényi, Oswald. Introduction to Indo-European Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford
o Tovar, Antonio. Antiguo Eslavo Eclesiástico. Madrid: Universidad Complutense, 1987.
o Tucker, T.G., Etymological Dictionary of Latin, Ares Publishers, 1976
o de Vaan, Michiel, de Vaan,Michiel Arnoud Cor: Etymological dictionary of Latin and the
other Italic languages. Brill, 2008.
o Villar, F. Los indoeuropeos y los orígenes de Europa. Madrid: Gredos, 1991.

o Wackernagel, Jacob, Langslow, David: Lectures on syntax: with special reference to
Greek, Latin, and Germanic. Oxford University Press, 2009.
o Watkins, Calvert, The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots, 2nd ed.,
Houghton Mifflin Co., 2000.
o Watkins, Calvert, How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics. Oxford
University Press, USA, 2001.
o West, M.L. Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford University Press, 2009.
o Whitney, William Dwight. Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass (reprint), 1924.
ONLINE RESOURCES
o Indo-European resources and dictionary-translator at <http://indo-european.info/>,

managed by the Indo-European Language Association.
o Indo-European Language Association: <http://dnghu.org/> and language resources

at <http://indo-european.eu/>.
o The Linguistics Research Center (LRC), University of Texas, at

<http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/> offers online books, lessons, texts, etc. on
Proto-Indo-European and early Indo-European dialects.
o The Indo-European Etymological Dictionary (IEED) at <http://www.indo-

european.nl>, managed by the Department of Comparative Indo-European Linguistics
at Leiden University, with some etymological dictionaries of Indo-European dialects.
o The Tower of Babel project at <http://starling.rinet.ru>, a lexicon project oriented to

Indo-European, Eurasiatic, Nostratic and other language families, with free software
and PDFs for download.
786
Bibliography and Further Reading
o Frederik Kortlandt‘s personal website offers some of his publications online at

<http://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/>.
o The Thesaurus Indogermanischer Text- und Sprachmaterialien (TITUS), at

<http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/>.
o The Digital Library Perseus Hopper at <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/>.
WIKIPEDIA
Wikipedia, the Free Online Encyclopaedia, and Wiktionary, are excellent sources of
common knowledge. We want to thank to all contributors and to their founders. Even
though the appropriate policy is to reference each work and their authors, it is impossible to
trace back each excerpt to its origin. These are the articles whose excerpts are identifiable in
this work – especially referring to IE dialects –, in order of appearance:
Indo-European languages <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languages>

Kurgan hypothesis <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis>
Haplogroup R1a <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haplogroup_R1a_(Y-DNA) >
Indo-Uralic: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Uralic_languages>
Old European Hydronymy: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_European_hydronymy>
Germanic languages: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_languages>
Romance languages: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_languages>
Italic languages: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italic_languages>
Celtic languages: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_languages>
Proto-Celtic: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Celtic_language>
Italo-Celtic: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italo-Celtic>
Slavic languages: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_languages>
Baltic languages: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_languages>
Balto-Slavic languages <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languages>
Messapian language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messapian_language>
Venetic language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetic_language>
Liburnian language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liburnian_language>
Lusitanian language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lusitanian_language>
Greek language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language>
Proto-Greek language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Greek_language>
Armenian language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_language>
Indo-Iranians: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Iranians>
Proto-Indo-Iranian: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language>
Phrygian language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrygian_language>
Ancient Macedonian: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_language>
Anatolian languages: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolian_languages>
Hittite language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hittite_language>
Luwian language: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luwian_language>
787
PIE phonology: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology>

PIE verb: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verb>
IMAGES AND MAPS

This is a list of Wikipedia or Wikimedia users, whose images have been used. Links are to
their personal sites or to the image in particular, depending on their expressed preferences
– or to ours, if not available. Reference is usually only to the latest contributor (or derivative
image), unless the core work was clearly done before him/her. In order of appearance of
their images:
Malene Thyssen: <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Malene>

Mirzali Zazaoğlu <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Writing_systems_worldwide.png>
Brianski: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IE_countries.svg>
Dbachmann: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Dbachmann>
Crates: <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Crates>
Cadenas2008: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:R1bmap.JPG>
Briangotts: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Briangotts>
Hayden120: <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Hayden120>
ZyMOS: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:ZyMOS>
Ewan ar Born: <http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utilisateur:Ewan_ar_Born>
Fabrice Philibert-Caillat:
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dédicace_de_Segomaros_(inscription_gallo-
grecque).png>
Therexbanner: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Slavic_World.png>
Slovenski Volk: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Slovenski_Volk>
MapMaster: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:MapMaster>
Alcides Pinto: <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Iberia_Late_Bronze.svg>
Fut.Perf. at Sunrise: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Future_Perfect_at_Sunrise>
Marsyas: <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Marsyas>
Ivanchay/Infocan:<http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%87%D0%B0%D1%81%
D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA:Ivanchay>
Ivaşca Flavius: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Scooter20>
Megistias: <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Megistias>
Javier Fernandez-Vina: <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Javierfv1212>
Hendrik Tammen: <http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Enricopedia>
788
BIOGRAPHY
Carlos Quiles (Badajoz, 1981), awarded best Cumulative Grade
Point Average (CGPA) in the four-year Baccalaureate (1995-1999),
second in the Extraordinary Baccalaureate Awards of Extremadura
(1999), studied the Bachelor of Laws (LLB), Bachelor of Economics
(BEc), and Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) degrees at the
Carlos III University of Madrid (1999-2005). He studied an intensive
English language proficiency level course (2000) in Cambridge, and
was awarded a scholarship for the best CGPA of the Faculty of Social
and Juridical Sciences (2001) to study in the Middlebury College
German School intensive immersion program (Advanced Grammar, Modern Literature,
Culture and Society). He spent an academic year (2001-2002) at the Humboldt University
of Berlin, studying BEc and BBA, as well as DSH-Oberstufenkurs, and courses in French
(French Law, History and Culture studies).
He worked as trainee for a Law and Financial Services firm (2005). He published some
conventional proposals and dictionaries on Astur-Leonese and Galician-Portuguese dialects,
designed dozens of websites, worked as foreign language teacher, and as database and web
administrator (2004-2006). He finished the LLB and BBA degrees in Catalan at the Open
University of Catalonia, while studying the Licentiate degree in Medicine and Surgery at the
University of Extremadura (2007-2010), obtaining it within half the time planned for the
European 6-year model. He is member of Spanish Bar and Medical Professional
Associations. He speaks English, French, German, and Russian, understands Arabic.
Fernando López-Menchero (Madrid, 1975), studied Civil

Engineering (1993-1999) in the Escuela Técnica Superior de
Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos de Madrid
(ETSICCP), in the Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées
(ENPC), and in the Technical University of Munich, obtaining
the double degree from ETSICCP (cum laude) and ENPC. He
pursued studies in Latin, Greek, Indo-European Languages,
culture from the Classics and Archaeology (2000-2005),
obtaining the degree in Classical Studies from the
Complutense University of Madrid (UCM). He obtained the
MSc. in Public Administration (2008-2009) from the
Instituto Universitario de Investigación Ortega y Gasset (attached to the UCM).
Most of his professional career has been involved in the road sector in the Spanish
Ministry of Fomento, where he works as a head of service. He has also been a member of
the concession team in the international company Acciona (1999-2000) and a collaborator
at the Professional Association of Civil Engineers (2000-2001). He has worked in Germany
(1997-1998), France (2005-2006), Luxemburg (2006), Belgium (2008) and Poland (2011)
in the framework of different international programmes. He is presently participating in the
VII Bellevue Programme (2010-2011) of the Robert Bosch Foundation in Warsaw. He also
loves programming, especially in Fortran and Visualbasic.
He speaks French with bilingual proficiency, speaks German, English, and Italian, and is
now making enormous progress in Polish. He has been a successful candidate at the
EPSO/AD/142/08/OPT1 competition as a linguistic administrator with main language
Spanish, and thus holds a laureate for consideration by any European Institution via EPSO.
790

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A GRAMMAR OF

Part I. Language and Culture

Part II. Phonology & Morphology

Part III. Syntax

Texts & Dictionary

Carlos Quiles Fernando López-Menchero

INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION

Printed in the European Union

Published by the Indo-European Language Association <http://dnghu.org/>

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-

GUIDE TO THE READER .................................................................................................. 13

1.1. THE INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE FAMILY ...............................................................49

2.1. CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS .................................................................................. 135

3. WORDS AND THEIR FORMS.............................................................153

3.1. THE PARTS OF SPEECH .......................................................................................... 153

4.1. DECLENSION OF NOUNS ........................................................................................ 163

5.1. INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES ...................................................................................191

5.3. ADJECTIVE SPECIALISATION .................................................................................. 194

6.1. ABOUT THE PRONOUNS .........................................................................................207

7.1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 219

7.3. THE CONJUGATIONS ............................................................................................. 231

8.1. PARTICLES ............................................................................................................ 275

9.1. VERBAL MORPHOSYNTAX ...................................................................................... 287

9.2.8. Genitive ....................................................................................................... 297

10. SENTENCE SYNTAX........................................................................301

10.1. THE SENTENCE ................................................................................................... 301

APPENDIX I: INDO-EUROPEAN IN USE...............................................357

I.1. KOMTLOQJOM (CONVERSATION) ............................................................................ 357

APPENDIX II: LATE INDO-EUROPEAN LEXICON.................................373

FORMAL ASPECTS ........................................................................................................ 373

APPENDIX III: IN-DEPTH ANALYSIS...................................................765

III.1. ROOT NOUNS...................................................................................................... 765

BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING..........................................783

ONLINE RESOURCES .................................................................................................... 786

Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998) distinguished between Late Indo-

We try to fill the void that Gamkrelidze–Ivanov and Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza

Apart from a trustable reconstruction of the direct ancestors of the older IE

Acceptance of Pāṇini‘s rules implied a final stabilization of the phonology of Sanskrit,

Badajoz, April 2011

GUIDE TO THE READER

abl.: ablative NP: noun phrase

Lyc.: Lycian v.i.: vide infra ‗see below‘

* denotes a reconstructed form, not preserved in any written documents

When representing word schemes:

J = glide (j, w) (conventionally, the symbol ° under the vocalic

Citation: parenthetical referencing of author-date is used for frequently cited books

NOTE. Adrados–Bernabé–Mendoza (1995-1998): ―We think (…) that a linguist should

The guidelines that should be followed, as summarised by Beekes (1995):

1. ―See what information is generated by internal reconstruction.

5. The question of how deviant forms should be evaluated is a difficult one to

1. Authority vs. Observation. It is through observation that science is carried

2. Verification and Disproof. ―Theories are only hypotheses, verified by more or

If two theories show a strong argument against the basic H0 (―nothing

The problem with these particular reconstructions might be summarised by the

THE THREE-DORSAL THEORY

Direct comparison in early IE studies, informed by the centum-satem isogloss,

Arguments in favour of only two series of velars include:

1. In most circumstances palatovelars appear to be allophones resulting from the

2. The reconstructed palatovelars and plain velars appear mostly in complementary

3. There is residual evidence of various sorts in satem languages of a former

 In Sanskrit and Balto-Slavic, in some environments, resonants become iR

4. The palatovelar hypothesis would support an evolution kj → k of centum dialects,

NOTE. Common examples are:

o *ghosti- ‗guest, stranger‘: Lat. hostis, Goth. gasts, O.C.S. gostĭ.

o PIE kwe, kwi→č (čto, čelobek)

o PIE kwoi→koi→*ke gives ts (as Sla. tsená)

PIH Ch1C Ch2C Ch3C h1C- h2C- h3C- VHV CRHC