Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Rajesh Gupta
University of California, Irvine
rgupta@ics.uci.edu
Mani Srivastava
UCLA
mbs@ee.ucla.edu
T Y• O F•
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2
“Anytime Anywhere Anyform” Information Systems
mani <1>
UCLA
Wireless Sensors
Multimedia wireless LANs & PBXs
in offices, schools, hospitals, homes Networked sensors everywhere
40
Nominal Capacity
(Watt-hours / lb)
NiMH
30
20
NiCd
10
0
65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Year
4
Where does the Battery Power go?
Laptop + Personal
Cellular
Laptop Wireless Wireless
Phone
Adapter Terminal
Microprocessor 1-4 W 1-4 W
Memory 1W 1W
Logic 2W 2W 0.3 W
Hard Disk 1W 1W
Display 2-6 W 2-6 W 0.185 W
Programmable DSP 0.5 W
RF Transceiver 2/4W 0.6 / 1.8 W 0.6 / 1.8 W
Commn. Processing 2.5 W 2.5 W
Sound/Audio I/O ? ? 0.085 W
● Typical laptop: 30% display, 30% CPU + memory, 30% rest
● Wireless devices: increasing communication & multimedia processing
Low power VLSI are a key to wireless
5
6
Building a Wireless System on a Chip
RF & IF Transceiver
Baseband Processing
Wireless
Network Protocol RAM
Processor ROM
(Microcontroller) DRAM
Application RAM/ROM
Processor DRAM
Network/Host/Peripheral Interface
Wireless
reusable communication &
Network Protocol RAM multimedia modules
Processor ROM
(Microcontroller) DRAM
8
Tutorial Goals
Tutorial Outline
10
Part 1:
Wireless Spectrum
Frequency in Hz
104 106 108 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 1020 1022 1024
Radio
46 49 824-849 869-894 902-928 1850-1990 2400-2483 5.15 - 5.35 & 5.725 - 5.825 GHz
Cordless Cellular ISM PCS ISM U-NII
(CT-1) (AMPS, IS-136,
IS-95) Frequency in MHz
12
Diversity of Applications in Wireless Communications
Information
Content (Mbps)
Video teleconferencing
Interactive Data
100.0
Wireless
ATM
10.0
Wireless
LAN: IEEE 802.11
1.0
0.01
Wireless Data: Mobitex, CDPD, pACT, GPS
13
● Wireless
- limited bandwidth, high latency
- variable link quality (noise, disconnections, other users) more
- heterogeneous air interfaces signal
processing
- easier snooping necessitates encryption
● Mobility
- user and terminal location dynamically changes more
- speed of terminal mobility impacts wireless bandwidth protocol
- easier spoofing necessitate authentication processing
● Portability
higher
- limited battery capacity, computing, and storage energy
- small dimensions efficiency
14
Time Varying Wireless Environment
LOS
R
No LOS!
S
D D
15
Source antenna
Coder
Sources
carrier fc transmitted
symbol stream
antenna
Destinations
Source
Decoder
Multiple Channel Demodulator RF
Demultiplex Access Decoder & Equalizer Filter
Source
Decoder
carrier fc
16
Propagation of Radio Waves
● Diffraction
- radio path obstructed by an impenetrable surface with edges
- secondary waves “bend” around the obstacle (Huygen’s principle)
- explains how RF energy can travel even without LOS, a.k.a “shadowing”
● Scattering (diffusion)
- when medium has large number of objects < λ (30 cm @ 1 GHz)
- similar principles as diffraction, energy reradiated in many directions
- rough surfaces, small objects (e.g. foliage, lamp posts, street signs)
17
18
Example Link Budget Calculation
Solution:
N = -174 dBm + 10 log 30000 + 10 dB = -119 dBm
For SNR > 25 dB, we must have Pr > (-119+25) = -94 dBm
Pt = 0.6W = 27.78 dBm
This allows path loss PL(d) = Pt - Pr < 122 dB
λ = c/f = 1/3 m
Assuming d0 = 1 km, PL(d0) = 91.5 dB
For free space, n = 2, so that: 122 > 91.5 + 10*2*log(d/(1 km))
or, d < 33.5 km
Similarly, for shadowed urban with n = 4, 122 > 91.5 + 10*2*log(d/(1 km))
or, d < 5.8 km
19
Small-Scale Fading
20
Error Bursts due to Raleigh Flat Fading
Good In Fade
BER = 10-5 BER = 10-1
21
● GSM example
- with its equalizer, GSM can tolerate up to 15 µs of delay spread
- otherwise, with 15 µs of delay spread, GSM would be limited to 7 kbps
22
Combating the Wireless Channel Problems
● (Adaptive) Equalization
- compensates for intersymbol interference
23
Source antenna
Coder
Multiple Channel Power
Multiplex Access Coder Modulator Amplifier
Source
Coder
carrier fc transmitted
symbol stream
antenna
Destinations
Source
Decoder
Multiple Channel Demodulator RF
Demultiplex Access Decoder & Equalizer Filter
Source
Decoder
carrier fc
24
Evolution of Mobile & RF Wireless Systems
25
Tutorial Outline
26
Part 2-A:
Basics
Source antenna
Coder
Sources
carrier fc transmitted
symbol stream
antenna
Destinations
Source
Decoder
Multiple Channel Demodulator RF
Demultiplex Access Decoder & Equalizer Filter
Source
Decoder
carrier fc
28
Digital Modulation & Demodulation - A “User’s View”
S1
S2
Set S = {S1, S2,... SM} of M waveforms of length TS
e.g. obtained by distinctively modifying the phase
and/or frequency and/or amplitude of a carrier
M=2 is “binary modulation”
Otherwise, M-ary modulation
n = floor(log2 M)
SM
t=0 t=TS
29
Coherent Non-Coherent
Phase-shift keying (PSK) FSK
Frequency-shift keying (FSK) ASK
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK) Differential PSK (DPSK)
Continuous phase modulation (CPM) CPM
Hybrids Hybrids
30
Selecting a Modulation Schemes
● Provides low bit error rates (BER) at low signal-to-noise ratios (SNR)
● Occupies minimal bandwidth
● Performs well in multipath fading
● Performs well in time varying channels (symbol timing jitter)
● Low carrier-to-cochannel interference ratio
● Low out of band radiation
● Low cost and easy to implement
● Constant or near-constant “envelope”
- constant: only phase is modulated
may use efficient non-linear amplifiers
- non-constant: phase and amplitude modulated
may need inefficient linear amplifiers
31
● Bandwidth Efficiency η B
- ratio of throughput data rate to bandwidth occupied by modulated signal
η B = R ⁄ B bps/Hz
- measures ability to accommodate data within a given bandwidth
32
Choice of a Modulation Scheme
● BPSK and QPSK has the same energy efficiency but QPSK has two times
more bandwidth efficiency (bit rate gain factor) than BPSK.
● The drawback of using QPSK is in the poor achievable energy efficiency
in practice => use GMSK to achieve a bandwidth efficiency of 1.25 with
BT = 0.3.
33
φ 1(t) = 2 ⁄ T b cos ( 2π f c t )
s 1(t) = E b φ 1(t)
s 2(t) = – E b φ 1(t)
34
The Constellation Space
I
– Eb Eb
35
Some Examples...
● M-ary QAM
Q
d
I
6
d 2 = --------------E s
M–1
M=16
● M-ary PSK
Q
I
d
π
d = 2 E s sin -----
M=4 M
36
Comparison of Several Modulation Methods
37
Source antenna
Coder
Sources
carrier fc transmitted
symbol stream
antenna
Destinations
Source
Decoder
Multiple Channel Demodulator RF
Demultiplex Access Decoder & Equalizer Filter
Source
Decoder
carrier fc
38
Multiple Access
● Fundamental problem
Time
39
Basestation Peer-to-Peer
(infrastructure - centralized) (ad hoc network - fully-connected vs. multihop)
40
Approaches to Wireless Multiple Access
Slotted-time
vs. Non-slotted time
Controlled Random
“Packet Oriented” Access
41
f2
f 2’ f1 f2’
Frequency
f1’
f1’
f2
f1
Time
42
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
● Multiple users share frequency band via cyclically repeating “time slots”
- “channel” == particular time slot reoccurring every frame of N slots
- transmission for any user is non-continuous: buffer-and-burst
digital data & modulation needed, lower battery consumption
- adaptive equalization is usually needed due to high symbol rate
- larger overhead - synchronization bits for each data burst, guard bits
guard bits for variations in propagation delay and in delay spread
- usually combined with either TDD or FDD for duplexing
TDMA/TDD: half the slots in a frame used for uplink, half downlink
TDMA/FDD: identical frames, with skew (why?), on two frequencies
Sync Data Guard
slot 2
slot 6 slot 1
Frequency
slot 5
1 2 56
frame i-1 frame i frame i+1
Time
43
● GSM handles time dispersion widths up to 18-20 µs... i.e. 5 bits of ISI
- transmission bandwidth >> channel coherence bandwidth
● Need equalization indoors at rates > 2 Mbps (DECT is only 1.152 Mbps)
44
Hybrid FDMA/TDMA
● “Pure” TDMA with single frequency band is undesirable
- require tight timing tolerances
(f5, t1)
t1 t2 t3 t4
(f1, t1) f6
f5
(f3, t4) Frequency
f4
f3
(f2, t3) f2
f1
45
c1
c5
c3
c2
46
Spread Spectrum Signalling
47
frequency
fspread
TRANSMIT RECEIVE
Spreading Code run-
ning at f spread .
Wide Band
Anti-jam -> high capacity CDMA f spread
Combats multipath -> diversity PG = ---------------------
LPI -> Privacy
f bit
LPD -> low power density
48
CDMA Using Direct Sequence (DS) Spread Spectrum
● Spread the narrowband data by multiplying with a wideband pseudo-
random code sequence
- bits sampled, or “chipped”, at a higher frequency (e.g. 1.228 Mcps in IS-95)
- signal energy is “spread” over a wider frequency (e.g. 1.25MHz in IS-95)
- code sequences have little cross-correlation (orthogonal)
- code sequences have little correlation with shifted versions of self
X =
transmitted signal
01101011 01101011 Recovered signal
PN Sequence (code)
Intended receiver
X
X =
Chip 10110010
Noise - can be low pass filtered
digital data Other receivers
49
● Fast frequency hopping: more than one hop during each transmitted symbol
● Slow frequency hop: one or more symbols transmitted in a hop
channel #2 channel #1
f6
f5
Frequency
f4
f3
f2
f1
50
Contention-based Multiple Access
Transmitter # 2 Packet A
One Packet
Time (τ) Time
Vulnerable Period (2τ)
51
52
IEEE 802.11 MAC
● Support for multiple PHYs: ISM band DSSS and FHSS, IR @ 1 and 2 Mbps
● Efficient medium sharing without overlap restrictions
- multiple networks in same area and channel space
- Distributed Coordination Function: using CSMA /CA
- based on carrier sense mechanism called Clear Channel Assessment (CCA)
● Robust against interferers (e.g. co-channel interference)
- CSMA/CA+ACK for unicast frames with MAC level retransmission
● Protection against Hidden Terminal problem: Virtual Carrier Sense
- via parameterized use of RTS/CTS frames with duration information
● Provision for Time Bounded Services via Point Coordination Function
● Configurations: ad hoc & distribution system connecting access points
● Mobile-controlled hand-offs with registration at new basestation
ad hoc network distribution system
infrastructure network
53
54
Cellular Systems
MSC PSTN
Pre-Cellular Post-Cellular
● Replace single high power transmitter covering the entire service area
with lots of low power transmitters (basestations) each covering a
fraction of the service area (cell)
- mobiles in sufficiently distant basestations may be assigned identical
channel (frequency, time slot, & code)
- system capacity may be increased without adding more spectrum
55
56
Part 2-B:
Wireless Communications
Automotive Monitoring
- IVHS - AMR
- GPS - Control
58
Evolution of PCS Technologies, Systems, and Services
Macro-cellular Satellites?
Cellular
Micro-cellular
High-tier PCS
Messaging ?
Paging
Phone point
Cordless PABX
Low-tier PCS
? Grand
Cordless Unification?
Macro-cells ?
59
BS
60
GSM System (Second Generation Digital)
● Two 25 MHz bands: 890-915 MHz upstream, 935-960 MHz downstream
● Divided into 200 KHz frequency bands - 125 in each direction
● FDD+TDMA+FH: 8 slots/4.615 ms frame, 270.833333 kbps raw, 22.8 kbps/user
● Frequency hopping to combat multipath problems
● Two types of logical channels: traffic channels and control channels
● Mobile assisted handoff - BSC reduce the load on MSC
● Features: subscriber identity module and on-air privacy
● Services: telephone, data or bearer, short messaging
GSM Radio
Air interface
BTS
OMC MSC
(MTSO)
BSC
BTS
MS MSC
BTS (MTSO) PSTN
BTS
BSC
BTS HLR VLR AUC
BTS Abis Interface A Interface databases SS7
61
MD-BS
MD-IS MD-IS
MD-BS IS IS M-ES
M-ES mobility connection-less
management router
Data n/w
MD-BS
(internet)
MD-BS F-ES
62
Designing Mobile Wireless Multimedia Systems
PSTN
BASE STATION
WIRED NODE
PHONE
WIRELESS http://www.
N
NODE
http://www.
N
modem
• antenna ethernet
• RF + A/D transceiver
• digital transmitter/receiver
• channel codec
• source codec
• network protocols ETHERNET
63
Partitioning
Application & Services Source Coding & DSP
Context Adaptation
Disconnection Mgmnt.
OS & Middleware Power Management
QoS Management
Rerouting
Network Impact on TCP
Location Tracking
Multiple Access
Data Link Link Error Control
Channel Allocation
Modulation Schemes
Radio, IR Channel Coding
RF/Optical Circuits
64
Radio Design Challenges
Partition
65
● Advantages
allows for adaptability with little component replacements
achieves Eb/N0 performance close to optimum (coherent BPSK)
parameterizable to provide ease of redesign and upgrade
● Challenges
digital circuits operate at IF signal rate rather than baseband rate
digital implementation can be more complex to minimize loss in Eb/N0
66
A Direct-Sequence Spread-Spectrum Radio Modem
CODE PROCESS
SELECT GAIN Carrier Detect TX Data
POWER CONTROL
PN Spread Data
PN TX
Acquisition LPF VGA AMP
GENERATOR
LOOP
BPF
FREQ CNTRL
FREQUENCY
SYNTHESIZER
CLOCK CARRIER
RECOVERY RECOVERY AGC LPF LNA
A/D
LOOP LOOP 6
Decision
Ack.: C. Chien & R. Jain, UCLA
To SIR Est. Recv. Data
67
68
Costas Loop Filter Optimization
25
−20
10 dB
−40 20
9 dB 0 dB
N2
−60
15
−80
40
10
30 -10 dB
N2 20
35 5
10 25 30
15 20
0
0 5 10 N1
5 10 15 20 25 30 N1
Coefficient as powers of two shifts:
–N 1
C1 = 2 C1
–N 2
C2 = 2
C2
D
Optimization Criteria:
min ( max ( N 1, N 2 ) ), E b ⁄ N 0 ≥ 10 ± 0.5
Ack.: C. Chien &
R. Jain, UCLA
69
IF Wordlength Optimization
40 300 150 Multiplier Sample Rate (MHz)
10 dB
Complexity Increase (%)
0 0 0
0 5 10 15 4 8 12 16
IF Input Quantization Size (Bits) IF Input Quantization Size (Bits)
min ( N ), E b ⁄ N 0 ≥ 10 ± 0.5 N
70
PN-Acquisition: Complexity/Performance Trade-off
Serial Acquisition
PN-Code
Generator
Timing
Nif = IF Quantization
❥ 10 000 Gates with Nc =
127 and Nif = 6
71
DATA DIFFERENTIAL
SPREAD
INPUT ENCODER
DATA
GOLD CODE
GENERATOR
(PNGEN)
DIGITAL IF RECEIVER
IF SAMPLING CLK
INTEGRATE INTEGRATE
DUMP Q1 DUMP Q2
COSTAS LOOP
Performance
INTEGRATE
DUMP I1 + ❥ Low Complexity -- 51 K Transistors
CHIP LOOP
DELAY
INTEGRATE
-
FILTER NCO
❥ High Power Efficiency -- 21.7 mJ/MSample
DUMP Q1
72
Integration of Radio into a System
Custom Frame
Grabber Video Codec
Camera
FPGA
DT Frame
Grabber
CPU
Proxim
Keyboard RangeLAN2
Single-chip DSSS
Modem IC
Memory and Mass
Storage
Adaptive Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum Radio
73
Video
Capture
Compressed Host
Data Interface Interface
PC-104 Bus
74
Example 2: Bell Labs’ SWAN Wireless ATM System
BusInterface
Bus Interface mani <1>
Host Interface Host Interface
FAWN
Peripheral
Interface
Peripheral
Interface
Peripheral
Peripheral
Flexible
Interface
Interface
CPU
CPU Adapter
MAC BACKBONE CPU For CPU
Lucent
ATM Wireless
PHY ADAPTER Networking Personal
XCVRInterface
XCVR Interface
CARD XCVR Interface XCVR Interface Multimedia
FHSSRFRFXCVR
FHSS XCVR Terminal
FHSS RF XCVR FHSS RF XCVR
To Antenna
Personal
Communicator
ATM SWITCH
75
to host ARM
processor CPU
Peripheral
PCMCIA Interface
PCMCIA RF Modem
Interface
ADC
Dual Port Dimensions 10.8 cm (W) x 1.9 cm (H)
RAM
Modem
x 11.4 cm (D)
Controller Power Consumption 2.0 W
SRAM of FAWN
UART
Power Consumption 0.6 W (receive)
Control
of radio transceiver 1.8 W (transmit)
PAL Firmware resources 20 MIPS, 4 MByte
Reconfigurable 10000 Gates equivalent
hardware resources
76
Example 3: Personal Mobile Terminal
microphone
SCANNER
↓ PRESS TO SCAN ↓
● Simple hardware
- peripheral card + FAWN adapter
● Multimedia interface
- audio, graphics, soft keys, bar code
77
78
Infopad Terminal Architecture
250 Kbps
Subsystem mW
Proxim
Uplink Radios 1490
Radio
RX/TX ARM
Interface Subsystem ARM 877 - 2475
1 Mbps Plessey
Downlink Custom H/W 137 - 297
Radio
B&W LCD 550 - 3800
Low Power Infopad Bus
Color LCD 3900
Pen Digitizer 150
LCD PEN AUDIO VIDEO
IF IF IF IF Codec 50
ucb <1>
Voltage Converters 2411
Color Crystals 75
Infopad
Test H/W 629
● References: Total 9.9W - 15W
1. http://infopad.eecs.berkeley.edu/research/terminal
2. [Narayanaswamy96] Narayanaswamy et. al., “Application and
Network Support for Infopad,” in IEEE Personal Communications, April ‘96
79
Tab Basestation
80
Design Trade-offs in Wireless Nodes
Laptops
Terminal Complexity
Notebooks
ge Palmtops
ra
Sto
PDAs
n Terminals
tio
uta
mp
Co
81
Design Issues
82
Adaptive Process Gain Improves Throughput
100
Desired PG = 12 dB
80
Throughput (kbps)
60
PG = 15 dB
40 Achieved
20 PG = 21 dB
0
−15 −10 −5 0 5
83
Top Bottom
Transmit
Control
Freq. Synth.
84
IF/Baseband Processing: Power Dissipation
Top Bottom
DSSS
Analog IF
Note: Power budget figures includes power dissipation from regulation inefficiencies.
85
Transversal
equalizer
10-1 Mobile
} Wireless
1
0 Linear
feedback Channel
2 5 equalizer
3
t Transversal
0 t0 t2 t1 t3
Linear equalizer
2
τ feedback
equalizer
Probability of error
10-2
• τ > Its / 10 ⇒ ISI causes degradation in BER and will
require equalization 5
10-4 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
SNR, db (10 log γ)
86
Bit Rate Limited by Equalizer Complexity
MlSE simulation
10-1
Probability of error
Destination-feedback
10-2 equalizer
Correct bits
fed back
10-4
0 5 10 15 20 25
87
capture-time accumulates
Theader is protocol dependent in multihop networks
• TCP/IP header
• ATM header
• MAC/link layer header
88
Understanding Energy Efficiency
P = α C V2 f
“Event-Driven”
“Continuous” Latency is Important
Only Throughput is (Burst throughput)
Important
89
5.0 5.0
Speedup
3.0 3.0
1.0 1.0
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Supply Voltage, V Parallelism, N
● Increased parallelism & reduced voltage can increase energy efficiency
- more processors or functional units or pipelining
- compiler techniques are the key
● Architectural bottlenecks:
- degradation of speed-up
- capacitance overhead due to increased communication
90
Energy Efficiency is not just an Architecture Issue!
91
µProc
Link Layer
Protocols
DSPs
MAC Layer
Protocols
Radio
Modem
92