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THEME PARKS

LEISURE CENTRES
ZOOS & AQUARIA
THEME PARKS
LEISURE CENTRES
ZOOS & AQUARIA
THEME PARKS
LEISURE CENTRES
ZOOS & AQUARIA

PREFACE

Leisure provides an opportunity to widen the experience of everyday life, from


simple relaxation and non-competitive sport, to the appreciation of a
significant issue presented in an approachable format.

Within the context of the theme park, zoo or visitor attraction, opportunity is
provided for visitors to enjoy facilities in an undemanding ambience. As
opposed to entertainment and sports buildings, leisure facilities provide for
individuals to choose their own level of experience, relaxation or activity. The
facilities range from situations based on caricature and good humor, to
serious informative subjects centred on the world of nature, cultural and
historic landscape surroundings are of prime importance.

A high quality of surroundings can not only enhance time devoted to


relaxation but can also influence attitudes towards domestic and working
conditions. The quality of the environment has become an important factor in
attracting employment opportunities to a particular location. At the same time,
provision for leisure is not only a force to improve the built environment but
also encourages the conservation or cultural roots and natural world.

Concern for endangered habitats of our fellow creatures is conveyed in the


leisure ambience of zoos and marine animal parks where the environmental
needs for animals can be expressed. Similarly, the appreciation of man’s
historic or cultural roots, otherwise endangered by progress and change, is
evident in visitor attractions and theme parks either in a popular idiom or
realistically re-created.

Although the enclosed park or leisure centre setting provides an escape from
daily pressures, with features and facilities that provide non-competitive
activity in a social context, there is a dependence on commercial viability. The
projects must be attractive to potential visitors and efficient in running costs.
They must be carefully planned for the numbers of visitors anticipated and
designed to secure a unique magic or convincing realism.
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As retirement years, leisure time, money available for leisure and desire for
therapeutic or healthy activities all increase, the need to provide an extensive
range of leisure facilities becomes a matter of concern for both the private and
public sect.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

LEISURE PARKS AND VISITORS


• Tivoli Gardens, Copenhagen
• Knotts Berry Farm
• Buena Park, California
• Parks and Recreations Department, San Antonio, Texas
• Ford Powell and Carson, San Antonio, Texas
• Baltimore Economic Development Association, Baltimore, Maryland
• Zeidler Roberts Partnership, Toronto, Ontario
• Busch Entertainment Organization, Tampa, Florida
• Fleishman Hillard Inc., St Louis, Missouri and London
• Parc Asterix, Plailly, France
• Duell Corporation, Los Angeles, California
• De Efteling, Kaatsheuvel, The Netherlands
• Europa Park, Rust, Germany
• Granada Studios Tour, Manchester, England
• La Villete, Paris
• Commonwealth of Virginia Jamestown - Yorktown Foundation
• Jamestown Settlement, Williamsburg, Virginia
• Sung Dynasty, Hong Kong
• Ocean Park Corporation, Aberdeen, Hong Kong
• Leigh and Orange, Hong Kong
• Polynesian Cultural Centre, Laie, Hawaii
• Tang Dynasty, Singapore
• Jorvik Centre, York, England
• A.R.C. York, England
• Sarner International, London
• Bracknell Forest Borough Council, Bracknell, England
• Andrews, Downie and Partners, London
• Sargent and Potiriadis, London
• The Dome, Doncaster, England
• The Walt Disney Company
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• FaulknerBrowns, Killingworth, England

ZOOS
• Safari Parks International, Hawkhurst, Kent, David Hunt
• The Arizona-Sonora Museum, Tucson, David Hancocks
• London Zoo
• Regents Park, London
• San Diego Zoo, California, USA
• Marquis Associates, San Francisco, USA
• Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust
• Central Park Zoo, New York
• Dinkeloo and Associates, Connecticut, USA
• Emmen Zoo, Holland
• Potomac Group, Washington DC, USA
• Apenheul, Apeldoorn, Holland
• Brookfield Zoo, Chicago, USA
• Drusillas Zoo Park, Alfriston, Sussex
• Los Angeles Zoo, California, USA
• Grist Associates, Pasadena, California, USA
• Riener Nielsen Jnr
• Larson Company, Tucson, Arizona
• Art and Technology Inc. Burbank
• Cologne Zoo, Germany
• Krefeld Zoo, Germany
• Woodland Park Zoo, Seattle, USA
• Jones and Jones Seattle, USA
• Zoo Atlanta, Georgia, USA
• Robinson Roesch, Philadelphia, USA
• Singapore Zoo
• The Bronx Zoo, New York
• Burgers’ Bush, Arnhem, Holland
• The Zoological Society of London
• The American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquaria
• Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland
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MARINE ANIMAL PARKS AND AQUARIA


• Ocean World, Aberdeen, Hong Kong
• Sea Life Park, Waimanalo, Hawaii
• John Graham and Company, Seattle, Washington, USA
• Reynolds Polymer Technology Inc., Seattle, Washington, USA
• Sea Life Centre Technical Ltd
• Thorn Lightning Ltd., Borehamwood, England
• Sea Life Centres, Wimborne, Dorset
• Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California
• Dodge and Davis, San Francisco, California
• Great Barrier Reef Aquarium, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
• Joseph A. Wetzel Associates, Boston, Massachusetts
• National Aquarium Baltimore, Maryland
• Cambridge Seven, Boston, Massachusetts
• James R. Grieves, Baltimore, Maryland
• The Aquarium of The Americas, New Orleans, Louisiana
• Safari Parks International, Hawkhurst, England

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

The structures concerned with leisure have provided significant architectural


forms through the centuries. In Europe, traditions include the great Roman
baths and country villas, the exclusive leisure gardens or Renaissance,
Georgian spa facilities, the Victorian ballrooms, restaurants and seaside piers,
the exclusive clubs of Pall Mall and the leisure centres of today.

The Islamic view of paradise included a garden of pleasure with cool springs
and fountains. Ecology sensitive Chinese Taoism led to a close association
between building and naturalistic landscape. Ancient cities of China included
an extensive leisure content. The Japanese created pleasure gardens with a
naturalistic atmosphere of wildlife, running water, groves of trees, carefully
designed rock formations and pavilions. The development of the Tea Ceremony
with pavilion and a garden space provided guests with an opportunity to
dissociate from the mundane world.
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THE ECLECTIC AND EVOCATIVE

The desire to re-construct a favoured environment has also historic roots


throughout the world. For Hadrian, the villa Tivoli provided an opportunity to
simulate buildings that had been visited during his travels and conquests.
The development of the Japanese garden was an interpretation or revered
Chinese landscape, the components of the landscape having significant
meaning. The romantic tradition in architecture, with its origins in
eighteenth-century England, provided an avenue for caprice and fantasy.
Eclectic architecture became the exercise of distinguished architects who
designed theme residences, gardens and follies.

For ordinary people, elation through the evocative was conveyed in the grandeur
of imposing nineteenth-century ballrooms, pavilions, theatres and hotels.
There was a response to an increase in wealth and leisure time and a desire to
provide an escape from the inhuman mundane environment of the industrial
urban world. In more recent times, the Italianesque village of Portmeirion in
Wales was developed by Clough William-Ellis as a contrast to
contemporaneous suburban sprawl.

Through the period of two world wars, changes in social attitudes and the rise
of popular images and music through record, radio and film provided a new
escape. The cinema created the visual fantasy which to indulge, including the
fantasy of cartoons and characters. The California theme park, Knotts Berry
Farm, encapsulated a “wild west” made evocative by film. The first Disney
theme park, in Anaheim, transformed the cartoon film experience into themed
rides with animated characters, film sets, reassuring commentary and
evocative music.

In the years following World War II, contrary to the purist attitude encouraged
by the modern movement (to dissociate from historic styles),the commercial
appeal and esteem status conveyed by eclectic design continued.
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Revivalism and stylistic pluralism are now playing a significant part in


contemporary architecture. The Mediterranean holiday town of Port Grimaud
conveys a humanity and sense of enjoyment not normally associated with the
austere lines of the modernist movement or the engineering dexterity of
high-tech design. The Getty Museum at Malibu, USA, a copy of the Villa of the
Papyri, Herculaneum, provides a sympathetic ambience for the antiques
displayed.

The desire to communicate diverse cultures or visual images of other countries,


cultures or history, either as a caricature in a theme park or re-created in a live
museum, is a justifiable indulgence in historic simulation. The modern day
techniques for reproducing landscape, buildings and artefacts can create a
reality that has been previously the preserve of film and theatre.

From the end of the nineteenth century, concurrent with the establishment of
amusement parks and leisure attractions, the technology of experiential
presentations, mechanical rides and feature structures were developed with the
opportunities provided by the World Expositions.

EXPOSITIONS

For the international community, Expositions and World Fairs have provided
not only an exhibition of world-wide commerce and industry, with diverse
design styles juxtaposed, but also experience in managing large numbers of
visitors. Theming was adopted to convey national character and, in recent
decades, to achieve a cohesive idea for each Exposition.

Automation and electro-mechanical devises were adopted and developed into


thrill rides and transportation systems. Audio-visual techniques have been
used imaginatively to communicate information, to display features and to
provide a vivid experience. Innovative leisure buildings of many Expos have
been retained as a nucleus to subsequent development. Paris, Montreal,
Seattle, San Francisco, San Antonio, Okinawa and Toronto have all
benefited.
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CULTURAL ROOTS

The themed environment endeavours to capture an experience otherwise not


available, or to interpret the fantasy world of a childhood enchantment. In
recent years, with the traditional cultures being over-shadowed by all
embracing social-economic patterns, an attempt has been made to preserve or
re-capture essential historic and ethnic cultural qualities in theme parks.
These parks are not a fantasy but an educational experience; not an escape but
an aim to provide a contact with cultural roots. This is illustrated by the
Polynesian Cultural Centre in Hawaii and the Chinese culture parks in Hong
Kong and Singapore.

At the same time, actual historical locations or buildings have been skillfully
re-created to convey a historic image nearing reality. The interpretation is
placed in a popular format not dissimilar to a theme park, to make the subject
more approachable. Reference is made later to Jorvik, York and Jamestown,
Virginia.

PRESERVING THE NATURAL WORLD

The changing world wishes to preserve that which is vulnerable to extinction;


cultural roots, moments in time from childhood fantasy to significant
moments in history. This wish to preserve applies with even greater importance
to the natural world which is at the mercy of Man’s expanding dominance of
limited terrestrial space and natural resources. The nature reserves, safari
parks, zoos, marine animal parks and bio-parks share the responsibility of
preserving endangered species and habitats, making people aware of the right
of existence that is due to animals and terrestrial wildlife.

The menagerie and restricted cages have been gradually superseded by a


respect for animals and the habitats concerned. The need to respect and preserve
the ecology of an animal in its natural habitat is the message of the modern
zoo. A bio-park which relates animals to their territorial space, with compatible
landscaping, ground surfaces, water space or rock formation, provides the
complete picture of the animal in a natural context. Endangered species are
preserved, allowed to breed and are then rehabilitated. Endangered habitats are
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clearly identified to make the public more sensitive to the continuous loss of
the space that is vital to bio-diversity.

The built environment for themed areas or animal enclosures has been
radically improved by the quality of rock simulation, replica artefacts, and
landscaping techniques. Environmental control and life support systems have
advanced with new techniques in air-conditioning, water treatment and
methods of maintaining water clarity. Conveying the experience and
information has been improved through audio-visual techniques utilized in
World Expositions.

Space standards for animals have been related to the free and natural
movement of the individual species and their territorial criteria. A complete
ecological entity, a biode, is the objective of some zoological and aquatic
enclosures. The techniques for ecological re-interpretation are sufficiently
comprehensive to encourage such major experiments as Biosphere 2 in Arizona,
which aims to provide a complete and independent ecological system to support
human existence.

FEATURES AND ATTRACTIONS

Transportation around a park or attraction provides not only a feature in


itself, but also a means of controlling the flow of visitors. To provide a feature
interest or a diversion, hard and wet rides are consistently being made more
attractive by innovative engineering. Standards of public safety have
responded to the new complexity of rides. New materials and the numbers of
visitors involved.

Transportation within a park can provide a visual feature, an overview of the


park, a means of reducing footwork and a method of controlling the movement
of visitors. Transport must allow for the handicapped, elderly and small
children.

At the same time, a particular transportation system can transform an


existing location into an adventure ride such as a system dedicated to convey
tourists through a historic or conservation area, or a ride through a safari park.
The trams in San Francisco, on a grid plan that defies topography provide a
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tourist attraction as well as a civic amenity. The graceful bateaux mouches on


the Seine in Paris, the “dining” barges on the Paseo del Rio in San Antonio,
the gondolas in Venice and the Bluebell Train in Sussex all compound an
existing tourist attraction with a pleasurable experience. In Bendigo,
Victoria, Australia, historic Biney trams have been preserved, to enhance
visitors’ enjoyment of the legacy of Victorian buildings in the city.

TRADITIONAL LEISURE PARKS AND ZOOS αρχιτεκτονική της ευτυχίας

In Europe, the development of popular pleasure parks reflected the move towards
humanizing urban life. The aristocracy and wealthy took pleasure in
exclusive private gardens and parkland. By the eighteenth century, leisure
(and subsequently health) had become a fashionable pursuit, resulting in a
range of permanent buildings designed for entertainment, fantasy and
relaxation: theatres, opera houses, pleasure gardens, assembly rooms and coffee
houses. Malls and avenues were created for elegant promenading.

The style of the elaborate public pleasure gardens that were initiated in
London, such as Vauxhall, Ranelagh and Cremone, became a popular feature
throughout Europe. The parks included pavilions, walks, facilities for
orchestral music, dining and entertainment. Some included botanical or
zoological displays.

The Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew started as a pleasure garden with a small
botanical collection. In the mid nineteenth century, the Botanical Gardens
were handed over to the State, the gardens were extended and new buildings
were added. The new buildings, which included the Palm House and the
Temperate House, both designed by Decimus Burton, were early examples of
buildings in which interior conditions were specifically controlled for the
inhabitant plant species.

The development by Nash of Regents Park provided a location for the


Zoological Gardens. The gardens included terraces, aviaries, dens and ponds,
where the animals could be inspected by the learned fellows of the Zoological
Society. Many of the features were designed by Decimus Burton.
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Regents Park also provided entertainment buildings that included innovative


leisure buildings. A Colosseum, with its dome roof structure and a giant
panoramic representation of London were viewed from galleries within the
dome. In another building, a Diorama illusion was provided by two landscapes
each 40ft wide. The spectators were slowly rotated on mechanical turn-table
which gave the impression that the scenery itself was moving. This type of
visitor attraction pre-empted the imaginative visual effects adopted in Expos.
In the 1840s, Madame Tussaud, who had experienced imprisonment in Paris
during the French Revolution when her wax work skills were used to make
death masks of freshly executed heads, and having toured Britain for 33 years
with her collection of wax work models, established a permanent exhibition in
Baker Street, London.

RESORTS AND LEISURE

The elegant eighteenth-century spa towns had established a style for relaxing
and socializing with facilities for promenading, assembly rooms, buildings
for concerts and amusement, which were emulated by the nineteenth-century
seaside resorts.

With the advent of mass transport by packet boat and eventually the railway,
access was provided to the resorts for the more gregarious working class public.
The resorts changed from the “spa” character to become places for fun and
enjoyment. The refined ambience succumbed to the provision of popular
facilities and the beach and promenade were turned into seasonal fairgrounds
adopting the character of popular pleasure gardens. Permanent structures
catered for the new requirements and aspirations: prestigious hotels, winter
gardens, piers and pavilions. Buildings such as the Tower at Blackpool
provided several facilities in one building.

In the USA, themed resorts such as Coral Gables and Palm Beach with
Venetian style canals, boulevards and Spanish architecture were developed in
the early part of this century. These provided Americans with an escape into a
more exotic atmosphere.
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TIVOLI GARDENS, COPENHAGEN

Although some seaside resorts have survived, few Regency and Victorian style
pleasure parks remain. However Tivoli Gardens in Copenhagen retain the
essentially European pleasure garden character. Tivoli Gardens were started in
1843 by Georg Cartensen on open land acquired from the military authorities
outside the walled city by the west gate. The site included part of the ancient
fortifications, the pattern of which remains evident in the present layout of the
gardens.

Cartensen had seen the “Vauxhalls” in England and the Tivoli Gardens
developed as a centre of daytime and lavishly illuminated evening dining
and entertainment. Over the years the original character has been respected
and some of the nineteenth-century buildings remain: the Peacock
(Pantomine) Theatre (1874), the original Grand Bazaar was opened in 1863,
the Pagoda or Chinese Tower (1900) and the later Moorish “Bazaar”.

Rich landscaping, floral displays and mature trees (with some hawthorns now
more than 200 years old), the central avenue, the lake, pools and fountains all
convey the original ambience. Although the park suffered severe damage
during World War II new buildings have been constructed and features added
that maintain the original character and scale. The park, which covers 8.3 ha,
has 25 major attractions and 29 restaurants. Copenhagen has expanded well
beyond the historic city walls leaving Tivoli in a central position to provide a
human counterpart to the commercial hub of the city.

USA AMUSEMENT PARKS

In the USA the family amusement park achieved particular significance.


Developing from picnic areas built by the transport companies (as an
attraction at the end of a trolley line) to the Conley Island style park with
extravagant rides and garish mechanical amusements. The names were
indicated: “Wonderland”, “Dreamland”, “Luna Park”. The parks provided an
artificial life, placing the mechanical qualities of everyday life in a more
exciting context.
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In recent decades, the American amusement park has become a market for
investment. Improved highways, increased spending power and an improved
image provided by new and imaginative theme parks have reinforced the role of
regional parks. Patronage has been drawn from an extensive catchment area,
such as those established by Six Flags and Anheuser-Busch. Some parks have
achieved a wide reputation by identifying a particular theme or subject such as
Knotts Berry, Magic Mountain, the Disney parks, Opryland, and the Sea
World marine animal parks. The theme park format has been adopted by
countries outside the USA, competing with traditional leisure resorts.

KNOTTS BERRY FARM, CALIFORNIA

Knotts Berry Farm, Buena Park, California, originated in 1920 from a


boysenberry stand on the 4 ha of Walter Knott, which was extended to include
a chicken dinner restaurant in the 1930s. In the 1940s, the first buildings of
the Old West Town were constructed to provide a diversion to entertain the
queuing dinner guests. The buildings were constructed from authentic stores
and saloons of the period, and were developed to replicate a prosperous gold
town. The structures included a mine, traditional craft buildings, stores,
printers, assayer’s office, laundry, barber, saloon, Sheriff’s office, town jail,
blacksmith, post office, church and chapel, with the addition of stagecoaches
and a western style railway train centered on Calico Square. In 1966, an
exact replica of the Independence Hall, Philadelphia, was built, and visitors can
hear presentations of the historic debates. In 1970 “Fiesta Village” was
completed, based on traditional Spanish settlements in California. In 1975,
the “Roaring 20s” section of the Park was added which included a thrill
corkscrew ride with Theatre and a Sky Tower. More recently a “Snoopy
Corner”, a themed area geared to small children was added.

Walter Knott wanted to preserve the historic buildings of America’s pioneering


days and many of the buildings continue both to be used (within the theme
park context) for their original function and to maintain crafts. The original
Old West Town continues to convey the American character of self-reliance
and independence, tempered by some law abiding behavior. It is not only
re-created an historic town (that would have been worthy conservation) but also
captures an important element of western cine culture. However, as a theme
park it is necessary continually to replenish Knotts Berry Farm with new
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attractions. The park has become a sequence of themed areas conveying


cultural and historic images familiar to the American Visitor.

THE DISNEY ORGANIZATION

The Disney Organization was generated around the skill and imaginative
genius of Walt Disney with his capacity to initiate and exploit new
techniques. These included not only film techniques and the mastery of
cartoon images, but also animation using audio-animatronics. Animatronics
consist of electronically operated figures that move and speak; a technique
that has played an important part in the development of theme park‚ “story”
rides.

In 1955, Disneyland, Anaheim, California was created as a new concept in


family entertainment based on the principle that the public should not see the
real world from within the park and that they should have the sensation of
being in another world.

The Disneyland ‚ “Magic Kingdom” theme park was developed with an initial
“Main Street, USA”‚ leading to themed ‚”lands”. ”Main Street” endeavours to
capture the friendly main street of a small home town at the turn of the
nineteenth century. The areas with themes include ‚ ”Adventureland”, which
incorporates an adventurous boat ride “Jungle Cruise”; “New
Orleans Square” which represents that characterful city in the 1850s, and
includes a story ride "The Pirates of the Caribbean”; “Frontierland” conveying
the pioneering spirit of the USA; “Fantasyland” which includes fairy tale and
cartoon characters and the themed boat ride ‚”It’s a small world”;
"Tomorrowland” looking to the future and incorporating a variety of visitor
transport systems; and ‚ “Space Mountain”, a dark thrill ride journey through
space.

Disneyland added a new perspective to the leisure park concept. It initiated


cleanliness, attractiveness, the use of college students trained in Disney style
hospitality, themed attractions and strategically located rides. The park
includes food and merchandising facilities. The general ambience of the park
is animated by familiar and engaging Disney characters.
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In planning leisure parks, the commercial consideration is to provide


attractions that will justify the entrance charge and to create an environment
in which visitors will spend money on food, merchandise and special
attractions. Features and facilities will have to be continually replenished to
maintain public interest. In the larger parks, the movement of visitors from car
park or public transport through the various features is not unlike a viscous
system except that obstructions to the flow must be intentional and revenue
earning.

Space designed for leisure, from passive theme parks to activity based leisure
centres, from the preservation of cultural images to the preservation of animal
species, allows visitors to choose their own degree of activity, involvement or
simple relaxation. At the same time, economic and social development has
extended leisure to a wider proportion of the community, with the family group
predominant. Although specific leisure facilities are now more selective in
terms of activity, age or income groups, theme and leisure parks are socially
cohesive, aiming to provide facilities for participation and interaction.

CHAPTER II
THEME PARKS AND
LEISURE CENTERS

In describing existing parks and attractions, it would be difficult to do justice


to the wide range that are in operation. There are situations in which the leisure
facility achieves a high quality of environmental design or contributes to be
the improvement of the existing urban environment. Thera are also projects in
which a significant human experience is conveyed either as a light-hearted
evocation or as a serious historical, scientific or cultural subject. The themed
environment is also used to enhance leisure activities based on non-competitive
sport.

The following sections are divided into projects relating to urban renewal, fun
and fantasy, visitor attractions and activity centers.
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URBAN RENEWAL

The need to generate urban renewal is particularly relevant to recent decades.


Downtown industrial and residential land has been rendered redundant
through changes in transportation technology and social attitudes. Historic
locations are often inaccessible to the new scale of road and maritime transport
required by new industry and commerce, and historic buildings worthy of
conservation are not always adaptable to new business practice.

The current interest in urban space for leisure and the use of leisure as a
generator for adaptation and renewal is significant In marketing urban
locations for new investment the quality of life is becoming identified with the
quality of the leisure environment. Few cities have the close proximity of a
leisure park such as Tivoli Gardens in the centre of Copenhagen, or the Zoo at
Emmen, Holland.

Many historic locations have a strong architectural character and existing


redundant buildings can be adapted to leisure uses. At the same time, urban
renewal has been initiated by Trade Expositions with a predetermined legacy of
community buildings and leisure facilities. The Hemisfair at San Antonio
contributed to the enhancement of the Paseo del Rio river corridor space. The
preservation of this section of the San Antonio River as a leisure based area,
utilizing the historic ambience, has created a remarkable asset for central San
Antonio.

The restoration of the redundant inner harbor at Baltimore, Maryland as a


water space surrounded principally by leisure issues, had provided a unique
counterpart to the commercial centre of the city. The use of a lakeside site at
Toronto has provided a popular leisure park that gives identity to the waterfront
area. The disused abattoir and meat market complex at la Villette, Paris has
been transformed into an urban leisure park combining the exploration of
science and industrial technology with facilities of music.
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PASEO DEL RIO, SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS

The story of the Paseo del Rio, the characterful river bend in downtown San
Antonio, is an impressive example of the realization of a potential amenity.
That has also been instrumental in generating urban renewal. For the tourist,
the Riverside walk is a leisure location, cool in the hot summer, a landscaped
river corridor that echoes the Hispanic history of San Antonio. A place for
sight-seeing, dining, listening to music and cruising slowly along the
various waterways. The difference in level from the busy commercial streets
results in a temperature at river level 10 F cooler than the streets above. For the
city it has achieved an environmental quality that has generated improvement
to the adjacent urban areas.

The city of San Antonio grew up on the banks of the meandering San
Antonio River. The periodic flooding of the river caused havoc particularly in
the downtown section, Paseo del Rio. The reaction was to remove the bend and to
re-route the river through a straight channel. However, the idea of loosing the
historic tree-lined horseshoe bend was unacceptable to many in the city. A
flood control project was adopted that provided a bypass channel, with flood
gates and river drains to protect the Paseo del Rio during high water periods.
The channel was completed in 1926.

In the late 1930s, the aesthetic potential of the downtown river was recognized.
The river gained walkways, staircases down from street level and graceful
arched footbridges. An outdoor theatre was created close to the now restored
eighteenth-century Spanish village, “La Villita”. The texture and Hispanic
character of the riverside buildings reflecting the history of San Antonio
became subject to preservation.

In the early 1960s ordinances were established to protect the river walks from
over-commercialization. A commission was formed to review proposed
construction and appearance, colour and texture of materials, architectural
design as well as signs and lighting arrangements of the proposed projects.
The commission also promoted the preparation of a master plan for continued
development.
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Improvements and activity from the private sector followed, to realize the
growing tourist potential.

San Antonio’s World Fair, Hemisfair '68, encouraged new business activity,
a permanent Convention Centre complex and a river linkage were created.

In 1973 a San Antonio River corridor Development and Management study


considered the possibilities of an attractive river corridor acting as the
generator of urban renewal. The study asserted the feasibility of realizing
many river based opportunities.

THE PASEO DEL ALAMO

The Paseo del Alamo provides a link between two major landmarks in
downtown SanAntonio, the Alamo Mission Compound and the River
Walk.

The Paseo del Alamo, the watergarden that links the Alamo with the river,
begins at street level at Alamo Plaza and includes a waterway descending
from a fountain through a series of small falls and acequias, to a pool in the
atrium of the riverside Hyatt Hotel. This pool appears to be part of the river.

Overlooking the waterway there is a large indoor space for restaurants and
cafes, a landscaped plaza and terraces for outdoor seating.

The Hyatt Hotel facing towards the river is planned in a curve around an
atrium space, with the side overlooking the river, enclosed by a glass wall.
Interior spaces and terraces can view through the glass wall to the activities
and ambience of the San Antonio River.

The watergarden of the Paseo del Alamo represents both the original reasons for
siting the Alamo mission (a location with its abundant springs used for
irrigation) and the actual technique of using aqueducts and small ditches or
“acequias” for irrigation. The passage of water through the gardens, which
starts with an impoundment at the upper level, is via an aqueduct to supply
further impoundments alongside the landscaped walkways, and to feed
acequias that water the terraces. The aqueduct near the upper end of the
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watergarden extends across the main “stream” just as the Spanish aqueducts
extended across the San Antonio River over 200 years ago.

RIVER CENTRE

The River Center, a mixed use shopping, dining, entertainment and hotel
complex completed in February 1988 incorporates as a centre feature a
cul-de-sac extension of the San Antonio River with space for boats to turn. The
City of San Antonio, through a $15.8 million Urban Development Action
Grant, created the river extension from Riverwalk, the new Commerce Street
Bridge and the pumping system for the turning basin at the head of the river
extension.

The River Center is the first example in which the river has been extended as an
integral part of a shopping, dining and entertainment experience. The Center
also includes more than 125 speciality shops and restaurants, a 42-storey
1000 room Marriott Hotel, Imax Theatre and two parking garages. At river
level, there are five full-service restaurants and 11 river cafes. The 500 ft long
extended River Walk winds under a steel truss bridge at Commerce Street and
continues the landscaping character of the historic Paseo del Rio. The extended
river terminates in an “outdoor garden room” and basin (in which cruise boats
can turn) which provides space for public gatherings. The space focuses on an
entertainment platform and terraced floral displays.

INNER HARBOUR, BALTIMORE, MARYLAND

The Inner Harbour, Baltimore, has become a symbol of successful urban


renewal. The old harbour that had been made redundant (becoming
inaccessible to new large tankers and container vessels) has been converted
into a water space which combines leisure and commercial activities. It has
been transformed into a focal point in the life of the city and a major tourist
attraction.
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In 1959, urban renewal started with the Charles Centre project which drew
attention to the potential of the historic harbour basin. A redevelopment plan
was prepared in 1964 for the 240 acres around the harbour with the objective to
establish the waterspace as a “dramatic gateway to the Central Business
District”. The plan proposed deflecting a freeway that separated the waterfront
from the city to “return the shoreline to the people”. In addition, the
redevelopment of McKedlin Square, a major point of access into Inner Harbour
provided a bridge over the freeway. The bridge is structured with waterfalls,
pools and cascades. The development, a continued combination of private and
public investment, has achieved a waterspace with an extensive waterside
promenade providing access to a variety of inter-related activities. The historic
focal point is Federal Hill, named after the celebrations in 1788 in honour of
the Maryland’s General Assembly’s ratification of the Frigate Constitution.
The Harbour itself provides a dock for the three-masted US Frigate
Constellation, a submarine and light ship, as well as marina space. A tall
structure, the Trade Center, acts as an architectural fulcrum, with the
distinctive National Aquarium building located on finger piers projecting
into the waterspace.

The Harborplace Pavilions with balconies and galleries overlooking the water
dominate one corner of the water space. Other new buildings include the
Maryland Science Center, the performing arts tent and the Rusty Scupper
Restaurant. A few remaining historic buildings have been adapted to new
uses: the Custom House, the Power Plant (intended for a family entertainment
centre) and the Sewage Pumping Station (opened in 1982 as a Public Works
Museum). The historic finger piers projecting into the waterspace are linked by
foot bridges protected by awnings.

The parking capacity for the Inner Harbour is 15,324 and there were 7 million
visitors in 1988. The commercial buildings of the city centre form an
enclosing backdrop to the waterspace. By focusing renewal on the old harbour,
the direction of urban improvement from water to hinterland reflects the
original development of the city.
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ONTARIO PLACE, TORONTO

Ontario Place waterside pleasure park was developed to revitalize the Toronto
City waterfront, utilizing the former National Exhibition grounds.

The project consists of a lagoon enclosed by 46 acres of man-made islands and


a marina village. On the west side of the lagoon, the west island marina is
centred around an entertainment plaza. On the east side of the lagoon, one
island has a Children's Village and water play area, and a second island has
the main forum for spectator entertainment. On the lake side of the lagoon, a
marina harbour provides for quayside restaurants.

Within the lagoon the five exhibition buildings or “pods” interconnected by box
lattice bridges are constructed on piles. The exhibition buildings are raised
11m (35ft) above the water to allow small craft to sail under the 25 m (85 ft)
square pavilions. The buildings are supported by central column structures
built up from caissons set into the lake and the columns extend through and
rise above the structures to provide masts for flags and lighting. The raised
exhibition buildings allow views at water level from islands and the shore. The
structure also permits visitors to walk at various levels, including at roof level,
to view the coast and lake.

The number of visitors to Ontario Place has reached a maximum of 3 million


in one year.

FUN AND FANTASY

The light-hearted fun element that uses cartoon characters and caricature
architecture supplemented by food outlets and rides has deep-rooted origins
and a storehouse of images and forms. The leisure park, theme park or
destination attraction (supported by hotels) encapsulates the facilities of a
traditional resort promenade within a protected controlled zone, clean,
organized and with assured safety.
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Parks vary in size from Small regional operations with 200,000 visitors a
year to international parks supported by 2-8 million visitors a year.
In terms of the technology, management and marketing leisure parks, there
are close links with the experience gained from World Expositions. Expos have
been planned to handle vast numbers of visitors and to provide innovative and
themed attractions. Few resorts have developed the mega scale of the Walt
Disneyworld Resort and Epcot Center in Florida or the Euro Disney Resort in
Paris. The Euro Disney Resort will cover an area of 1943 ha(one-fifth the size
of Paris) and employs 12.000 cast members.

In creating Walt Disney World, Orlando, Florida, the Disney Organization


not only created an extensive family resort but also made a significant Impact
on the Orlando region by providing attractions and accommodation where
visitors can stay for several days to enjoy a wide range of leisure facilities.
The “Magic Kingdom” theme park with 45 adventures in a 100 acre site and
based on Disneyland, in Anaheim, California, was completed in 1971,
EPCOT, a 260 acre international exposition was opened in 1982 and Disney
MGM Studios Theme Park was opened in 1989.

These attractions are supported by extensive accommodation and recreational


facilities; a resort village with seven hotels (approximately 3500
rooms), Disney Village Resort with 576 villas, a 730 acre Camp ground and
further accommodation is planned. The recreation facilities include five PGA
championship golf courses and two large water theme parks, River Country
and Typhoon Lagoon.

Orlando also has many other major attractions such as Sea World and Wet’n
Wild and numerous resort hotels, that compound the tourist interest in the
region.

As there is an obvious commercial link between theme parks and accessible


hotels in the development of Euro Disney Resort, Paris, the Disney
Organization has built five hotels and a campground in phase I of the project.
The Disney Parks are based on an established and well marketed product,
familiar through successful cartoon and real-life films. The Florida complex
combines the innocent adventure rides “through cartoon film stories” of the
Magic Kingdom, with informed and educative rides through encyclopedic
subjects in the Epcot Center.
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There is a strong tradition of amusement and family parks in the USA


ranging from those featuring cohesive themed areas, such as the original
Knotts Berry Farm, to parks featuring mainly thrill rides and amusements,
such as Magic Mountain, Los Angeles. The Six Flags and Anheuser-Busch
parks combine rides and themed areas. With the popularity of music festivals
and the universal access to recorded music, the idea of a music theme park is
particularly appealing. Opryland at Nashville, Tennessee fulfills this role for
popular American Country music.

Similarly, in Europe, parks have been developed and convey a diversity of


characteristics. In Britain, Blackpool Pleasure Beach, operating since 1895 and
now receiving 6. 5 million visitors a year, provides mainly rides. Dobwells
Family Amusement Park, Cornwall includes an extensive “scaled down”
railway system. Flambards, Cornwall, has a Victorian village and a
representation of “Britain in the Blitz”, both conveying a re-creation of the
conditions of the time concerned. Chessington. with one million visitors a
year, formerly a zoo, has been re-established as theme park by the Tussauds
Group. A section of the original zoo has been retained and thrill rides are well
integrated into seven themed areas.

De Efteling, Holland, originated as a walk through a fairy story book, in


recent years has extended to thrill rides. In France, substantial parks have been
developed, some based on popular cartoon characters. Asterix, a Gaullic traveller
through Europe and through time, is able to generate a cohesive theme for the
areas within the Asterix Park near Paris. In contrast, Smurf is used at
Wallaby Smurf, Hadondage as a centre theme surrounded by a range of
independent and diverse concepts. In Germany, Europa Park, Rust, provides
caricature and re-creation of the architecture of various European countries in
a historic chateau setting.

Parks in Australia and Japan also use historical and European themes for
feature areas. Pioneer World at Armadale, Western Australia and Sovereign
Hill Goldmining Township, 70 miles from Melbourne, both demonstrate the
life of the gold-rush years of the 1850s. The themed communities operate with
crafts, shops and town transport as they would have been at the time,
conveying a picture of a significant episode of Australian history.
Wonderland near Sydney combines a leisure park of themed areas
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representing goldrush Australia and medieval England with water fun and a
10 acre wildlife park.

In japan, the Nikko Edo-Mora village near Tokyo, and close to Toshugu
Shrine, re-creates the buildings, culture and customs of the community that
preceded Tokyo over the Edo era (1603-1867). At the same time there are
several theme parks in Japan that convey aspects of European culture and
history. The Germany of the Grimm brothers is carefully reproduced in the
Gluck Kingdom theme park at Tokachi. The park, created by a German
immigrant farmer, Wilhelm Grabow, re-creates the buildings associated with
the Grimm fairy tales and the two authors. including reproductions of the
statue of the Grimm brothers, the church of Saint Catherine in Steinan and
the Buckeburg Castle in Hessen. The appropriate skills, crafts, food and
merchandise are operated by German staff.

BUSCH GARDENS, WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA

The Busch Entertainment Corporation is the family entertainment subsidiary


of Anheuser-Busch Companies Inc. and is the second largest theme park
operator in the world, with ten parks in the USA. The Company’s family
entertainment activities began in 1959 with Busch Gardens in Tampa,
Florida, an animal park with an African theme. Since then it has established
the Busch Gardens, the European-themed park in Williamsburg, Virginia;
“Sesame Place” in Philadelphia, a children’s play park; “Adventure Island” in
Tampa, a tropical themed water fun park; in 1989 the Company acquired the
four Sea World marine life parks and Cypress Gardens and in 1992
Anheuser-Busch purchased Water Country USA, a water fun park in
Williamsburg, Virginia. For all the parks, Anheuser-Busch receives 19 million
visitors per year and employs 15,000 people at peak season. They are also
involved in projects in Spain and Japan.

Busch Gardens, Williamsburg is a 360 acre family entertainment theme park


with both thrill rides and featured areas. It opened in 1975 within a 360 acre
tract of wooded Virginia countryside owned by the company. The location is
well supported with hotel accommodation and other tourist attractions nearby.
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Within the park, the nine feature areas representing European hamlets relate to
England (Banbury Cross and Hastings), France (Aquitaine), Germany
(Rhinefeld and Oktoberfest), Scotland (Heatherdowns), Italy (San Marco and
Festa Italia) and Canada (New France). The buildings in each area are grouped
to enclose a space embracing a cohesive ambience. The entertainment and food
service within each area is compatible with the country portrayed.

The English section, “Banbury Cross”, which is the point of entry into the
park, consists of tudoresque buildings with one building extending over the
circulation route. Entertainment is provided in a replica “Globe Theatre”. There
is also a pastry shop, an animal petting zoo with miniature animal breeds,
and a “Big Ben” clock tower. The Scottish section “Heatherdowns” provides one
of the park's roller-coaster rides, the “Loch Ness Monster”. It also houses the
world-famous Anheuser-Busch Clydesdale dray horses. Hastings, the second
English area, has motion picture entertainment, audio animation and flight
simulator. There is a stage show and “The Enchanted Laboratory”, a computer
animated show. Nearby, there is “Threadneedle Faire”, a medieval games area
where visitors can test their skill at thirteenth-century games of crossbow,
Jacob’s ladder and slingshot.

The French style “Aquitaine” captures the character of a small town “centre
ville” with appropriate delicatessen food outlets and a doll shop. The ride
associated with this area is “Le Mans Raceway”. The Royal Palace Theatre, an
adjacent open air concert theatre, can accommodate 5000 guests.

In contrast, “New France” captures the character of a Canadian fun trapper


village with aromatic barbecues and restaurants serving smoked meats. Theme
are country music shows and a log flume ride. There are also craft shops,
pottery, wood carving and leatherwork, blacksmith and a tintype photography
studio.

Rhinefeld features an antique carousel manufactured in 1819. There are


cruises on the “River Rhine”, a children’s play area (“Grimms Hollow”), and
German confectionery, beer and gift shops. The German spirit is further
captured in the “Festhaus”, a 2000 seat German style festivity hall with band,
dancers and Burgermeister. The associated rides include a suspended roller
coaster “Big Bad Wolf “ that travels through a “Bavarian” village and plunges
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80 ft to skim the river below, a wave swing ride and bumper cars. Also located
is the Drachen Fire roller coaster with looping spirals and corkscrews.

San Marco develops the Italian theme with Italian food, wine and gifts. The
“Da Vinci’s Garden of Inventions” with five rides relating to the artist’s work
is based on the fertile imagination of Leonardo. “Bel Canto Italiano” provides
an enclosed piazza with terraces for dining overlooking a stage with a
classical structure. The Festa Italia area re-creates an old Italian street carnival
with rides including “Roman Rapids”, a white water rapids ride with rafts.

The major roller coaster rides are located on the periphery of the park and are
directed through mature woodland. This is particularly effective, both in
reducing the visual intrusion of the substantial structures, and also providing
an experience of the landscape as part of the ride.

Within The themed areas, costumed street characters perform and intermingle
with visitors. The merchandise is relevant and in most cases imported from the
countries featured. There are displays of European artists/crafts such as the
work of sculptors and painters. The food outlets are also appropriately themed.

Transportation around the park is provided by an “Aeronaut Skyride” with


gondolas, a stream locomotive that Circles the complete complex on a 1.5 mile
course and a computer operated sky bus that link the park with the Anheuser-
Busch Hospitality Center.

The location of the theme park within the heavily wooded rolling environment
in which streams, lakes and the river appear all part of the natural landscape,
provides the park with a separateness that encourages enjoyment. Each of the
featured areas, some with an authentic quality, others strictly a caricature of
the country concerned, self-contained. The objective is entertainment, but there
is also an element of education in the different European themed areas, the
high-tech games, and the display of craft skills.
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PARC ASTERIX, PARIS

Parc Asterix is a substantial theme park in France geared to family


amusement. It is located at Picardie on one of the principal north-south routes
for holiday traffic 30 km north of Paris and 180 km south of Lille.

Parc Asterix has been designed as a French theme park based on the famous
comic strip of Gauls and Romans created by Rene Gosciny and Albert Uderzo,
with areas of the park identified with particular situations. The originator
Uderzo was involved in the design and development of the park.

The Los Angeles design company, Duell Corporation was retained by Parc
Asterix in April 1985 to guide their team of French architects and engineers
through the illustrations, planning and development process. The company
was also responsible for negotiation contracts for all the rides. A feasibility
study projected revenues, annual attendance, maximum capacity and a
programme of activities, including the number and type of rides, shows,
attractions, food, merchandise and service facilities. French architects
developed the project.

The overall size of the development area in the 155 ha was established at 20 ha
(50 acres). The minimum size for projected attendance was established at 1.8
million visitors per year. During the first 2 years (1989 and 1990) the
attendances were 1.35 and 1.45 million respectively.

The park is geared to 24,000 visitors a day, which could represent an in-flow of
3000 per hour. The total capacity of the rides and shows is 23,500 visitors per
hour, and the percentage of rides to shows is 60:40. The restaurant capacity
(45 food outlets) is 4000 seats and there are 20 retail outlets. Staffing is 800
with a permanent staff in winter of 130.

The plan of the park is based on a loop configuration with a “main street” as
the lead-in. The main street, “Via Antiqua”, provides for snacks and for
window shopping by visitors when they enter the park, and for buying
merchandise as they leave. Via Antiqua also provides a holding area for guests
arriving prior to the opening of the rest of the park.
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The theming and building facades in Via Antiqua are derived exclusively
from the Asterix comic books, representing the many countries visited by
Asterix. Merchandise matches the theme. The street and sequence of spaces
created by the irregular layout of buildings forms a caricature of architecture
of all ages which conveys a light-hearted mood and humor, preparing visitors
for the atmosphere of the park. The street is overlooked by a figure of Asterix
elevated on a rocky pinnacle 43 m high.

The second area, Cite Romaine, represents antique Rome using classical
motifs. A humorous touch is achieved by playing with the scale of the elements
making small things big and vice versa. The area includes a themed carousel
or merry-go-round, an area for gladiatorial shows, chariot rides, a river ride
and a “Roman camp” transformed into a children’s adventure play area. The
galleries and towers within the camp provide structures for slides, climbing
nets, bridges, catwalks and climbing ropes. The structure appears consistent
with the military outpost theme and the children can play out the legions’
activities.

The primary theme area is the centrally located Village d’Asterix which
conveys recognizable images from the Asterix books. The 16 huts were
designed by Uderzo, each one portraying an animated episode - the
fishmonger’s house, the blacksmith, the chief 's house - with figures setting the
particular scene. As the area is directed towards children, the scale of the
structures is kept small. The village is surrounded by a river which provides a
river ride. The sides of the river have 27 Asterix scenes with 64 animated
figures - three-dimensional representations of pages in the comic strip.

The themed areas continue with the Rue de Paris which represents post-Gaullic
Paris from the middle ages through to the nineteenth century. The total
sequence of sets is over 200 m long. The street spaces are approached through a
caricature medieval gateway. Some sections of the street are totally roofed over
to provide protection from the weather so that a series of theatrical performances,
with controlled lighting, can be performed. Lighting techniques draw out the
interior of the shops and the side alleyways in a particularly effective way. A
dozen permanent artisans demonstrate old-time crafts and trades and practise
their skills in the Rue de Paris.
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Returning to the rocky pinnacle statue of Asterix, visitors pass a curved


building representing the Paris Exhibition of 1900, and then through the Place
de Georgovie which includes a roller coaster and a log flume ride.

Throughout the park there are entertainment areas and thrill rides. The
spectator entertainment includes a dolphin show (2000 seats) and a
gladiatorial “slap stick” (1200 seats) theatrical. The roller coaster and other
rides are kept on the periphery of the park to avoid an intrusion on the character
of the various themed areas.

The food facilities include six large restaurants with cuisine related to the
themed areas in which they are located. One restaurant, “Arcimbolo”, is covered
in giant fruit and vegetables. The largest restaurant seats 1000. There are also
sandwich shops, food stalls, two pubs and a pastry shop.

The general facilities include tourist information of the Region, group


reception area, a bank with foreign exchange, multi-lingual hostesses and
school monitors, provision for left luggage, pushchairs for children and
wheelchairs for the handicapped. There is a rest area for coach drivers, a medical
centre and telephones. There are also kennels for dogs.

Asterix is an attractive theme park in which the good humor of the characters
on which the park is based is conveyed through the design and the
entertainment. Although the park is not limited to one theme, the principal
Asterix theme is predominant and provides a strong cohesive element.

DE EFTELING, HOLLAND

The initial construction of de Efteling as a nature park took place in the early
1950s and it has since developed into a major theme park with family
attractions. A central area is a “fairy tale” forest with animated sets showing
popular fairy tale episodes. The work of the artist Anton Pieck, familiar to
many children, was transformed into life-sized, three- dimensional characters
and settings. De Efteling contains 42 fairy tales. In the 1980s, roller coasters,
river rides, a bob sleigh and other thrill rides including dark rides were added.
The park has 2.5 million visitors per year (of whom 22% are from outside
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Holland). It has parking spaces for 7000 cars and 200 coaches, and a themed
hotel.

The latest themed area, the Laaf People, was created by the Artistic Director Ton
Van de Ven. The area consists of buildings, displaying the activities of the
Laaf People. The sets are animated and are supported by synchronized sounds
and music. The creative idea started with “a land of milk and honey” with a
gourmet theme. This developed into the indulgent Laaf People. The episodes
include a Laaf nursery, school room, brewery and bakery.

Visitors can be directed around the Village of the Laaf People by cassette tape
summary and they can travel by elevated cycle monorail. The illustrations
show the transformation from design concept to actual buildings. The total
area has a cohesive ambience that animates a fairy tale with fantasy
characters.

EUROPA PARK, RUST, GERMANY

Europa Park in the Black Forest, Germany, was opened in 1975, developed
adjacent to and including the historic Balthasar Castle built in 1442. The
park benefits from the mature trees and landscaping of the historic chateau.

The castle in now used as a 450 seat restaurant. The adjacent gardens include
a gentle water ride along a 200 m canal lined by colorful indigenous plants
and through a 45 m long conservatory full of exotic plants and animal
caricatures. The themed areas of the park each capture the character of a
particular European country: Italy, France, Switzerland, Holland, England
(Victoria Square) as well as Chocoland, Wickieland and Adventureland.

The Italian market square is formed of Italianesque buildings, including a


800 seat baroque style theatre with ceiling frescoes and walls covered with
damask. There is also a fairy tale gondola ride through Schlaraffia
Land,which consists of four seated gondolas moving past sets with mobile
puppets, and it can handle 1400 people per hour. The Italian area also has a 400
seat electronic bird show.
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The French quarter is designed around a 7 m long lake with bridges and
waterside seating. The quarter combines traditional “metropolitan” buildings
with the high-tech spherical form of the “Eurosat” capturing the present-day
mood of Parisienne “Grands Projets” the Eurosat 45 m high globe
accommodates a roller coaster dark ride conveying visitors through space,
complete with images of space stations and space travel. The French Quarter
also includes a 75 m high panorama observation tower which allows views of
the Rhine Valley. The cabin is fully glazed with an elevating speed of 1.5 m s
and rotates when ascending and descending.

The Swiss area includes a 500 m long bobsleigh ride. The station, with a
granite slab roof, is built in the style of the Swiss Wallis region.

Victoria Square includes a glazed mall with restaurant and shooting gallery.
also a 150 m ride representing a Formula 1 Monza Track. There is a
carousel and a three-dimensional cinema for 500.

The Dutch Village incorporates characteristic buildings including a round


tower and windmill. A central roofed space provides for the “Whirling Coffee
Cups” ride, a last moving carousel with 12 large Delft patterned cups that move
around a large coffee pot. There is also a 300 seat electronic theatre, a
Euromouse show enacted with electronically controlled puppets. The Dutch
Village includes many areas for children and a dark ride that explores a
historic Dutch colony, Batavia. Visitors ride in boats through the harbour and
canal areas, lined by animated sets. The building housing the ride covers
6000 sq. m. Each of the 20 boats carries 16, and the overall capacity of the ride
is 2500 visitors per hour.

Adventureland is centred on a lake with Mississippi style paddle boats and


“Finnish” rafts to take visitors on rides. A 500 m long flume passes through a
cave of simulated stalactites and prehistoric animals.

The Grottenblitz Mountain Coaster is a 70 km/h railway coaster that moves


through rocky scenery, trees and caves.
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Lila Chocoland has a central 35m high conical building (a monorail station)
and a shopping mall with a chocolate laboratory where children can experiment
with chocolate. The “Milka Express” monorail carries visitors around the park
on a 700 m long track. A 900 seat electronic revolving theatre the “Lila Secret”
combines a six segment auditorium revolving around six stages on which
production of chocolate is imaginatively demonstrated.

Wickieland is an adventure area for children including a Viking Ship and


Viking Village, an extensive playground with towers, slides, tunnels and play
facilities.

A new area concerned with Scandinavia is centred on an authentic Stav


Church, carefully re-created by Norwegian craftsmen. The Scandinavian area
overlooks a rapids river ride.

The total park includes seven restaurants seating 4500 visitors and various
snack bars. Parking includes 6000 cars and 300 coach places. The park is
operated by 800 staff in season and 150 during winter. The environmental
quality is of particular importance to Europa Park. To reduce pollution, power
for the park is generated by a turbine operated by the Elz Rive (which passes
through the park) to provide 120 KVA.

VISITOR ATTRACTIONS - SCIENTIFIC, CULTURAL AND HISTORIC

Theme parks based on scientific, cultural or historical subjects move towards


the role of a museum, but animate the subjects by simulating original
artefacts. This is achieved by the use of audio-visual presentations and
interactive devices.

An explanation of modern technology is necessary in order to understand both


its application, such as television and computers, as well as the more academic
principles. As the younger generation become more attuned to computer
technology and animated visual interpretations, visitor attractions require
more imaginative and innovative features to secure interest and approval.
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The technology of film and television production is the basis of several film
studio theme parks in Florida and California. At the Granada Studios Tour,
Manchester, England, both the techniques of television and the sets for
popular serial productions are there to be explored.

At La Cite des Sciences et Industrie, La Villette, Paris, the techniques used to


convey scientific information (hands-on devices and audio-visual
techniques) provide a vivid educational experience.

At Futuroscope, Poitiers, the close association between research technology and


leisure techniques is being developed using innovative presentations to cover a
wide range of audio-visual techniques. These include Kaleidoscope
presentation with 10 screens of various sizes (one is spherical): Showspan,
70mm film shown at 60 frames per second (more than twice the normal speed
of projection); 70mm onto a 6500 sq.ft. screen; Cinema Dynamique using
the “Dynamic Cinema” technique developed by Intamin; Cinema Circulaire,
circular cinema with nine 35 mm projectors; Omnimax, 70mm projection onto
a semi-spherical screen; and Cinema in Relief, 70mm projectors with visitors
wearing polarized glasses to experience an illusion of three-dimensional
images. The park is part of a more extensive development which includes an
industrial complex based on telecommunications and a research centre for
innovative development.

It is not always possible to retrieve a historic town from the ravages of time
(achieved at Williamsburg in Virginia, USA), but it is possible to simulate
historic cultural image. The Knotts Berry Farm re-creation of the West, with
costumed characters carrying out the “ordinary lives” of a small goldbrush
town, aims to transport visitors in time to another era.

The “Chinese” cultural parks in Hong Kong and Singapore (Middle


Kingdom, Sung Dynasty and Tang Dynasty) aim to convey a living
interpretation of historic China to people who have lost contact with their
cultural roots. Equally, the Polynesian in Hawaii can find a representation of
the various traditions in the Polynesian Cultural Centre, while his or her
aspirations may be geared to the modern American way of life.
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The re-construction of a historic location as a tourist attraction or ‚”Heritage


Centre” in a realistic way that transports visitors in time and makes them
aware of the contingencies of another age, is an interesting way of sustaining
conservation. Techniques for creating a vivid experience range from static
scenes, to sets animated by interpreters or by audio-visual techniques. The
archaeological dig at York, revealing the Viking World, could have remained
as a few exposed foundations and timbers supplemented by showcases of
artefacts. In fact, a living everyday scene is simulated at the Jorvik Centre to
interpret the reality revealed in the excavated remains of the Viking Town. The
simulated Viking settlement has pioneered an imaginative approach to the
display and explanation of archaeology.

The Jamestown Settlement in Virginia is a re-creation of a historic settlement


that captures an important episode in the history of the New World. The
vulnerable existence of the seventeenth-century settlement is conveyed by the
fort, buildings, jetty and boats, all attended by “interpreters” in costume. The
Jamestown Settlement is not an archaeological excavation or a renovation, but
a re-creation based on the best information available.

History and mythology can also be conveyed by audio-visual and sensory


techniques in the form of dramatized presentations. The Last Labyrinth,
Lands End, Cornwall, is an audio-visual experience that conveys the character
of an important geographical location, the south-west of England, exposed to
the mercy of the Atlantic.

GRANADA STUDIOS TOUR, MANCHESTER

The inquisitiveness of the public in what was visible from the street of the
“Coronation Street” television set, led Granada Television Company to explore
the idea of allowing the public into the studios. The television theme park that
has been created provides a comprehensive explanation of the television process
and access into the scenery sets of popular television dramas. Visitors can
walk through the familiar surroundings of fiction to make them more
recognizable when the sequel is next seen on TV. The exhibits have been
expanded to include both historic and advanced cinematographic techniques.
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The tour entrance is formed with a tension canopy enclosing information and
ticketing points. This leads to a free flow area consisting of a paved forecourt,
part of which is a set of “downtown New York”.

The organized tour starts in the production control room, and continues
through a typical TV studio with special effects, stage, make-up, wardrobe
departments and props room. A free walk-about provides access to “Coronation
Street”‚ “Baker Street”‚ “Downing Street”, the “House of Commons”, a room
furnished with giant scale furniture, and a simulated tropical forest. Each
conveys the familiar setting for a popular TV programme and the visitor
relives the programme ambience. The scenery is extended beyond a mere
backcloth and has depth of construction and spaces, such as the shops in

Baker Street used as cafes and for retail. The visitor can participate in a House
of Commons debate in a set made for “First Among Equals”. On Mondays the
sets are used for filming and no visitors are allowed in the studios.

The later features include “Projections”, which explores the history of cinemas
starting with the reconstructed entrance foyer of the Granada Cinema at
Tooting, a record of early cinema opulence.

In the foyer there is cinematographic memorabilia including cameras,


projectors and a Wurlitzer organ. The cinema techniques start with a classic
black and white movie of the 1930s and move on to the Motionmaster cinema
with 70 mm projection, six channel sound, and computer controlled seats that
move, synchronized with the screen action. Further cinemas have been added:
Imax and 3D projection.

Adaptation and innovation continue. The Baker Street set is being


transformed to house a Sherlock Holmes Museum of Criminology. A new 300
seat theatre will accommodate live shows. There is a masterplan for a 15 acre
media city which would extend the complex to include further leisure, retail
and business facilities.

The 3 acre site for the studios had been a derelict railway goods yard and
included 50,000 sq.ft of existing buildings to be utilized for the tour facilities.
The studio areas are supplemented with restaurants, food outlets and retail
space.
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Each feature within the tour takes 7 minutes. The total guided tour takes one-
and-a-half hours and the six free flow attractions each take about half an
hour. Thus the visit to all the feature areas will take from 4 ½ to 5 hours
(excluding refreshments and shopping) to a full length stay which could be 7
hours, representing a full day’s outing.

The overall “park” is designed for 1 million visitors a year with a capacity for
3500 visitors daily. The total investment has been £13 million. Total staffing
is approximately 250 to allow for shift work with 22 guides available at peak
times.

LA CITE DES SCIENCES ET DE L’ INDUSTRIE, LA VILLETE, PARIS

La Villete is one of the Grand Projects of Paris that utilizes otherwise


redundant urban land for a significant public use. The 35 ha of former
abattoir and cattle market, at the intersection of the Canal de to l’ Oureg and
the Canal St Denis, has been developed as a cultural centre and leisure park,
with new buildings, landscaping (with themed areas) and play areas. The
main new buildings are the massive Cite des Sciences et de L’ lndustrie, an
extensive “discovery” exposition of Science and Industry; a Music Faculty; the
Zenith, a concert hall to seat 6400; the Geode housing an Omnimax theatre;
the House of La Villette, a study centre of local history; and several red painted
follies or facility buildings. The main market building has been renovated to
provide a Great Hall.

The park has a lineal walk that includes a bridge over the Canal de l’ Oureg to
link the market building section with the Cite des Sciences et de l’ lndustrie,
and the Geode. The Geode and Cite have water surrounding each building. The
themed gardens include two central meadows, water gardens, energy and
experiential gardens. The follies or facility buildings that punctuate the area
include a restaurant and a bar.

When completed and when the trees are mature it will form a major urban park
in Paris accommodating facilities combining arts and sciences.
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La Cite des Sciences et de l'Industrie is a centre of exhibitions, documentation,


communication and research. It is not a museum of static artefacts, but
includes Explora, an exposition of scientific exploration and experience
achieved through inter-active displays. The displays are to be developed and
changed as techniques change.

Multimedia displays, interactive computer exhibits and informative models


are designed for visitors to explore the world of science, technology and
industry, and aim to promote discovery and reflection

The floors devoted to Explora are concerned with subjects relating to the
universe, life, matter and communications. The examples are based on
familiar things from daily life; entertainment, games, sensations are all used
as a means of exploring, understanding and appreciating the world.

The Inventorium is geared to 3-6 year olds (hands-on sensorial experience)


and 6-12 year olds, to discover such topics as light, water, machines, the body,
in motion and communication.

The many sections include mathematics with games, hand-on exhibits and
audio-visual presentations such as geometry, dynamics, caustics; sound with
particular reference to the human voice and hearing; expression and behavior
concerned with gestures, expressions, reactions and rituals; computer science
concerned with the storage, sorting and use of information and computer
languages; space; images, concerned with the structure of films,
videos and photographs; materials from natural materials to plastics
technology; energy, showing energy sources from wind to the technology of
nuclear fusion; ”Cultivate the Earth”, concerned with farming techniques;
“Aquaculture”, concerned with farming the seas and rivers; “Meteovision”,
concerned with weather; “Planetarium”; the ocean including a life-sized
submarine; space, rocks and volcanoes; stars and galaxies; the “Secrets of Life”
including genetic engineering, general biology, a small aquarium and mini-
zoo; microbes; a family evolution from Neolithic to today; the “Image of Man”;
“Light games”; robots; “Air and Wings”; and agricultural biotechnology.
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HERITAGE CENTRES

The preserve of man includes the preservation and reconstruction of historic


artefacts that convey cultural roots and origins. The major cities of North
America have developed almost with a disregard for history, the entrepreneurial
spirit motivating innovation and renewal. However, there is an interest in
cultural connections displayed in the architectural caricatures of European
buildings included in major theme parks, and the more protective
reconstruction of historic locations of significance. The historical connection
of the west coast and south is retrieved in the conservation of Hispanic
traditions as at San Francisco, Monterey, San Diego and San Antonio. The
French connection is retained in the close-knit streets of downtown New
Orleans. The British interaction with the east coast, from Boston to Savannah,
has been the subject of particular conservation and replication. The location of
the first settlement, Jamestown, and nearby Williamsburg in Virginia, have
received careful attention.

JAMESTOWN AND WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA

Jamestown and Williamsburg represent the establishment of a British


community and eventual independence of North American States from
British colonial rule.

The Jamestown Settlement resulted from three small British sailing vessels,
“Susan Constant”, “Godspeed” and “Discovery” (sponsored by the Virginia
Company of London) sailing from England and arriving on the North
America coast in 1607. It was a 5 months’ journey for the 39 ships’ crew and
105 colonists, and they created the first permanent British colony. The settlers
constructed homes within a triangular protective palisade. After many
tribulations, the colony was saved by the establishment of tobacco plantations,
and the colony expanded. Jamestown served as the capital of Virginia until
1699, to be superseded by Williamsburg.

Williamsburg served as the capital of the colony based until 1784, and
during that period it was a cultural and political centre ranking in
importance with Boston, New York, Charleston and Annapolis.
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The two locations, Jamestown and Williamsburg have been preserved as a


historic record of initial colonial settlement and eventual independence.

The “James Fort” and the three ships moored at the landing are re-creations of
the originals based on the best available historical and archaeological
information. The mooring and fort are not on the exact sites, which have been
lost with the changes in the shore line, but suggest the relationship of sea,
settlement, and hinterland.

The palisade fort with its protective wall of spiked log posts conveys the
isolation of the settlement. The simple thatched structures within the fort
accommodate restructured artefacts of the day. The site is staffed by people in
Jacobean costume and armor who are informative, interpreting the way of life
of the settlers. Some carry out actual skills of the day. There is also an area
outside the fort with reconstructed Indian huts to represent the indigenous
community with whom the settlers had to come to terms. Again costumed staff
interpret the traditions and culture of the Powhatan Indians in the Indian
village.

The wattle and daub buildings within the fort are based on sixteenth and
seventeenth-century English construction techniques, using pegs and adz in
place of nails and modern saws. The storehouse was constructed of white and
red oak with pine roof rafters. To secure the tenons, wooden pegs were made out
of oak and locust. Framing posts were sunk into the ground and thatching
has been carried out by English thatchers. The Indian village houses are reed or
bark covered. Other structures have a frame consisting of white oak posts set in
the ground, but are tied together at the top, the frames being covered with reed
mats.

The three ships were carefully selected for the seventeenth-century expedition:
the larger ones for cargo capacity and the small boat for maneuverability in
coastal waters. The life-size replicas are a tacit reminder of the courage of the
crew and passengers of the day. Archaeological excavations of sixteenth- and
seventeenth-century shipwrecks and sixteenth-century records of shipbuilding
provided valuable information about ships constructed at the time and
served as a basis for the replica vessels.
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A vivid impression is conveyed of human endurance and practical resolve. In


addition the records and the historic context of both British and Indian
communities are exhibited in a museum and film show located in a nearby
building; the museum building and vehicle car park are also well screened
from the settlement by trees so as not to impose on the isolation and integrity
of the settlement site.

Williamsburg is a community frozen in time and is referred to as a “live


museum”. However, a similarity to the best cultural theme parks makes it of
particular interest in that context. Until his death in 1960, John D. Rockefeller
devoted his personal attention and resources to the development of Colonial
Williamsburg as a Foundation. It is a non-profit educational organization
concerned with the restoration and interpretation of the historic sections, the
conduct of an extensive educational and cultural programme arising from the
historic significance of Williamsburg, the operation of visitor accommodation
and supportive services, and the maintenance of particular historic and
exhibition buildings.

The historic area of Williamsburg covers 173 acres of the original town,
including the streets as devised in 1699 with its mile-long tree-lined Duke of
Gloucester Street that extends from the College of William and Mary (based on
a design by Sir Christopher Wren) to the Capitol or council offices. The area
includes 88 original houses, shops, taverns and public buildings. An
additional 50 major buildings and many small structures have been rebuilt
on original sites. More than 90 acres of gardens and greens have been restored
to their eighteenth-century form. The preparation for restoration included
removing incompatible buildings, telegraph poles and cables.

The animation is provided by 20 historic trade shops where costumed artisans


employ manual techniques and tools of the eighteenth century, to make
articles similar to those produced at the time. These include apothecary, basket
making, blacksmith, bookbinder, shoemaker, cabinetmaker, cooper, founder,
gunsmith, harnessmaker, miller, milliner, printer, post office, silversmith,
spinner, weaver, wheelwright and wigmaker crafts. The taverns are hosted by
degree student maidens and swash-buckling attendants.
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The scale of Williamsburg compared with the Jamestown Settlement has not
permitted the exclusion of the motor vehicle. Visitors arrive into the centre of
Williamsburg by coaches, and the periphery of the historic area is accessible to
motor traffic. Although there are informative displays of military procedure,
and the occasional horse or horse-drawn vehicle, the encapsulated historic
monument appears incomplete without the continuous sound, smell and sight
of horses and livestock. The buildings are immaculate, the vegetable gardens
are precise and the trade shops convey the self-sufficiency of a pre-
industrialized service to the consumer.

For the British visitor, Williamsburg is more disciplined in layout than the
average small country town in England, more in the character of Winchelsea,
Sussex. But Williamsburg conveys a cohesive cultural character that is
distinctly traditional English. There is a “village” green and the front
gardens are fenced.

CULTURAL EVOCATION

The “Chinese” theme parks of Singapore and Hong Kong do not relate to a
specific historic location, but aim to convey a picture of a culture, significant
in relation to other overriding traditions. They endeavor to establish root
connections for a community in which the cultural identity has been
overshadowed.

Theme parks based on the classic Chinese history show enclosed and protected
worlds of articulate design, highly developed craft skills and sophisticated
social life. For the multifarious nationalities that have settled in Singapore
and Hong Kong, the cultural links with China are important both to the
Chinese communities and to visitors. To the visitor, Singapore and Hong
Kong appear to be totally modern cities with few historic connections with
China apart from Chinatown in Singapore and the traditional Chinese boat s
in Hong Kong harbour.

In a not dissimilar context, the Polynesian cultural Centre in Hawaii aims to


reinforce Polynesian traditions in a community that has become subject to a
totally different way of life
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THE SUNG DYNASTY, HONG KONG

The Sung Dynasty (960-1279 AD) represents a high point in Chinese history
Although the capital had to be removed from K'ai-feng to the lakeside Hang-
chou due to invaders from the north, the artistic skills of porcelain, sculpture
and painting matured to exceptional finesse. The Sung were finally overrun
by the Monguls, and the last Sung Emperor fled to a small village which is
now part of Hong Kong.

The connection with Hong Kong inspired the creation in 1979 of a


representative Sung Village in Kowloon. The project was developed by Mr
Deacon Chiu and the village re-creates the buildings and spatial character
depicted in the famous Sung Dynasty scroll painting “Spring Festival by the
River”.

The village modeled on the Sung Dynasty capital Bian Jing occupies an area
of 60,000 sq. ft and the construction costs were 15 million Hong Kong
dollars. Artisans and craftsmen were brought in from China to work on the
woodcarving and details of the village.

The village is enclosed by a high wall and access is through an imposing


archway with heavy doors. The visitor is then confronted with a village street
space. A river passes under an impressive bridge that links the entrance
forecourt with the street space, and winds down between the street and small
craft buildings. The sequence continues with a small Er-lang Shen temple
that can be used by Buddhists, and which is open to visitors, and the street
terminates with a manor house. The manor, which provides a picture of well
endowed domestic life, has an entrance courtyard and an enclosed garden.

A gateway separates the “market” street of craft buildings from the forecourt
in front of a large two-storey building, the Restaurant of Plentiful Joy, which
has wide steps leading down to the street. The pillars and beams of the
restaurant building are carved and painted in Sung style. Chinese food and
drink are served, with classical Chinese music played in the background.
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The detail of the buildings, the carved timbers, eaves and roof construction
convey the quality and skill of the original historic architecture. The small
spaces, the forecourt and garden of the manor house and the alley leading
down to the wax work display, convey the more intimate scale that endorses the
“living” quality of the village. The attendants and craftsmen dressed in the
costumes of the age provide the animation. A segment of historic China is
encapsulated to provide an informative experience for the tourist.

TANG DYNASTY CITY, SINGAPORE

Tang Dynasty City is a 12ha theme park in Jurong Singapore near the
Chinese/Japanese Garden with its array of bridges and pagodas. Tang
Dynasty City is a recreation of Chang-An (Xian), the capital of the
Tang Dynasty 618 An. Chang-An contained the Imperial Palace, Imperial
City and Open City.

The theme park is the first major investment from Hong Kong by Far East
Holdings International in Singapore, inspired by the major shareholder of
FEHI, Deacon Chiu, who created the Sung Dynasty Village in Hong Kong and
also owns amusement parks in Indonesia.

The total investment for the park will be 100 million Singapore dollars. The
project combines three working film studios and a theme park with potential
use for incentive group gathering.

The theme park aims not only to convey the unique scenery, landscaping and
architecture of the Tang era, but also the life of the ordinary people, the romance
and intrigue of the Imperial Court, its wealth and glamour, the commercial
activities, cosmopolitan atmosphere and exciting night life, the latter reflecting
many of the qualities of present-day Singapore.

The park is enclosed by a massive wall, 0.66 km long and 10 m high, built in
bricks similar to those used in the Great Wall of China. The wall, with its
moat, gives a fortress appearance from the outside and separates the enclosed
restructured Chinese buildings from the surrounding modern city.
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Visitors enter through an impressive arched entrance within the enclosing wall
at a section where the width of the wall construction accommodates shops and
offices.

The forecourt is separated from the “market” buildings by a canalized river


lined with willow trees. The arch bridge over the river, based on the Zhaozhou
Bridge at Hebei, creates a vista oblique to the main axis of the park. The
scattered buildings and narrow streets of the “open city” or “market” contrast
with the main route that divides the open city from the large structures of
restaurant, theatre restaurant and film studios. In the open city, traditional
skills are displayed and there are tea houses, “medical” halls, fortune tellers
and ironmongers.

The main route passes through to an archway that leads to the “Emperor’s
Palace”. At the side of the entrance to the palace, there is to be a temple with a
10m high Buddha in one section and a Chinese Goddess of Mercy in another.
On the other side of the forecourt to the “palace” there is a Heng Yang Pagoda
with an underground display of terracotta warriors, horses and wagons. The
“Imperial Palace” complex, comprising six palaces, is enclosed by a high wall
with a large forecourt between the entrance gateway and the principal
building. This first palace is approached by an impressive stairway.

The “Imperial Palace” is a re-creation of Emperor Tang Tai Zong’s imperial


offices and household. Household exhibits and artefacts are on display to
exemplify the culture and art of the Tang Dynasty. The main building also
has a banquet/exhibition hall that can seat 2300 people for dining. There are
also smaller halls for entertaining.

Beyond the palace, there is a representation of the uHa Ching Pool which aims
to bring to life the countryside immortalized by Chinese painters and poets.

In the same section of the park, there is a Traveller’s “Inn”, a type of building
that would have provided accommodation to traveling merchants on their way
to the ancient capital. Nearby, there is a replica of the waterfall within the
famous Shui-Lian cave.
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Within the open spaces of the “city” there will be live entertainment, parades,
festivals and dramatized events: a wedding procession, stuntmen, the
“victorious general” returns to rousing celebrations, and the pomp and
pageantry associated with the life of the Emperor. In the theatre restaurant,
Chinese troupes perform authentic Tang Dynasty songs, dances and
acrobatics of the period. The theatre has a capacity to seat 450 diners.

The film studios at the side of the theme park provide a tour for visitors to see
how films are made. The working studios will be run by Tang Dynasty
Motion Pictures, a subsidiary company of the Theme Park.

The park plans to attract 1 million visitors annually of whom 50% would be
overseas tourists, and aims to increase the number of tourists to Singapore.
The project employed 100 experienced craftsmen from China to ensure that
details of construction were authentic. Building materials and planting were
imported from China including 2 million green bricks. Willow trees, granite
slab, slares, roof tiles and jade colored eaves were also imported from China.

MIDDLE KINGDOM, OCEAN PARK, HONG KONG

The “Middle Kingdom” theme park, located at Ocean Park, Hong Kong
overlooking Aberdeen Harbour, was completed in January 1990. The park
represents a time tunnel of Chinese history, covering a period of 13 dynasties
of 5000 years from 2900 BC to 1911 AD. From the beachside, entrance is
through an archway based on a memorial gate in the style of the Ming
Dynasty wooden arch at Fushan. The carved animals in front of the gateway
symbolize auspicious omens as well as providing decorative features.

The visitor then passes throng a series of spaces each identified with a
particular Dynasty. The Qin Dynasty building, displaying early cultural
development, is constructed from framework of columns and beams, clay
walls and thatched roof. The floor level is raised above ground level in the style
of palaces of the period. The Hang Dynasty, a time of particular prosperity, is
represented by nine Han style homes which surround an open plaza. The
buildings provide display spaces for craftsmen who are dressed in traditional
clothing, and who are concerned with the authentic presentation of making
paper‚ glass, pottery, wine, forging iron and weaving silk.
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The arrival of Buddhism into China is depicted by a functioning Buddhist


temple and a pagoda constructed in the style of the one at Songyue Temple,
Songshan.

The main central space represents the thriving commercial and artistic life of
the Sui and Tang Dynasties, with decorated buildings having intricately
carved timbers. In this section of Middle Kingdom, shops sell incense sticks
and musical instruments; skilled craftsmen demonstrate calligraphy, stone
carving and wood block printing. There are displays of grasshopper weaving,
clay doll making, wire puzzles, paper cutting and fortune telling. Tea
drinking became popular during the Tang Dynasty and there is a tea pavilion
located in the centre of the square.

A pavilion overlooking the sea conveys the progressive inventions of the Song
and Yuan Dynasties: advancements in agriculture, handicrafts, science and
culture, gunpowder and the compass. A special tableau portrays the arrival of
Marco Polo at the court of Kublai Khan. Using the space overlooking the sea to
convey the impression of a harbour, the Ming Dynasty is symbolized by a
replica ship of the explorer Admiral Zheng He.

The great Qing Dynasty, which lasted nearly 400 years up to 1911 AD, is
represented by the reproduction of a section of the Beijing Summer Palace. The
Emperor’s study room, reception room and bedroom with intricately carved
beams and columns, are surrounded by landscaped gardens with a pavilion.
Adjacent, and in the same ornate architectural character, there is a 500 seat
Chinese open-air theatre modeled on the Empress Theatre in Beijing. Planned
for live shows, the theatre is an open courtyard with a roofed stage on one side
and roofed seating on three other sides. The columns supporting the roof
construction are richly decorated. The main purlins are formed with highly
decorated beams, and the overhanging roof corners are supported by ornate
brackets. The walls are red and the roof tiles are yellow.

A large Tibetan-type building houses an Exhibition Hall Showing various


aspects of Chinese culture, main souvenir shop and restaurant.
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Middle Kingdom cost 70 million Hong Kong dollars. The architects Leigh and
Orange carried out extensive historic research and were advised by Cantonese
scholars on detailed design of the various periods. The design embodies the
Chinese concept of planning, consisting of a series of interlinked intimate
spaces with a variety of views and vistas.

The capacity of the park at any one time is approximately 1500 with 500 in the
theatre, 500 in the restaurant and 500 circulating through the buildings.

POLYNESIAN CULTURAL CENTRE, HAWAII

The Centre is located at Laie on the island of Ohau, the site of a Mormon
Temple and the Hawaii Campus of Brighton Young University. The Centre
was established for two reasons: to provide jobs close to the College campus for
young Polynesian students and to preserve the cultures of Polynesia, a group
of tropical islands scattered across 15 million square miles of the eastern and
south-eastern Pacific Ocean. The Polynesian Cultural Centre was opened in
1963. It presented the ancient arts and crafts and half forgotten songs and
dances embodying the spirit of the Polynesian islands before the explorers
changed way of life.

The park consists of a sequence of villages grouped around a landscaped


watercourse. Each Polynesian village represents the distinctive regional
character and traditions of a particular island: Hawaii, Samoa, Fiji, Aotearoa
(New Zealand), Tonga, Tahiti and the Marquesas. The individual traditions
include music, ceremonies, crafts and displays. Artisans were brought from
particular islands to carry out the timber carving, thatch and timber
structural work. The buildings are authentic with ohia logs for roof supports
and cut sugar cane for thatching; bamboo rafters lashed together with hand
rolled senate twine made from coconut fibers. Shutters were made from hand-
woven lauhala mats. The Hawaiian canoe shelters were roofed with pili grass
from Maui. The Maori wood carving is in Kao wood. Tongan craftsmen built a
replica of the summer home of Queen Salote in Tongatapu.
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The park covers 42 acres and features seven villages with a 2700 seat theatre,
Imax cinema, restaurant and retail outlets. The folk music of each tradition is
also expressed in two live shows: “The Pageant of the Long Canoes” (a series of
floating canoe stages), and a stage show “This is Polynesia”.

In the “Pageant of the Long Canoes” each tradition a is expressed in dance and
music with a group of dancers performing on the deck of a wide catamaran
type canoe. Each group comes forward into the water space and is then steered
back after its performance. There is also a small stage at the back of the water
space for musicians.

The attendance in the Cultural Centre averages 1 million per year with a
maximum daily capacity (allowing two evening shows) of 5400. The staffing
averages 1000 at any one time. All revenue is used to maintain and improve
the centre and to subsidize the education of deserving Polynesian students.

JORVIC CENTRE, YORK, ENGLAND

A thousand years ago, York, then known as Jorvik, was the Viking built
“capital” of the north of England. Jorvik had been established from the ruins of
a Roman city and the Norsemen made it one of Europe’s greatest trading
ports. In turn it was ravaged and burnt by the Normans, the remnants
submerging into and being preserved by the damp soils that exist under the
present City of York.

During the 1970s, when an area of York close to its two rivers was earmarked
for retail development as the Coppergate Centre, a dig was undertaken there by
the York Archaeological Trust. Although Viking material was anticipated, the
extent and quality of the remains uncovered - four rows of houses, workshops
and warehouses - was considerable and significant. The excavation lasted five
and a half years. The York Archaeological Trust was then confronted with
various options as to how to conserve these remains in a way that would convey
a picture of life in Jorvik 1000 years ago, a picture of pre-conquest England.

Setting aside conventional alternatives, it was decided to create an


interpretative exposition on the site itself, below the proposed Coppergate Centre.
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The York Archaeological Trust, a registered charity, was limited in funds.


Public finance was also limited. It was necessary to devise a commercially
viable scheme with a visitor potential (500,000 a year) consistent with other
history-based tourist attractions in the area. The project received a grant from
the English Tourist Board and a substantial loan from a consortium of banks
and the contractor. The Trust developed the Jorvik exposition within a basement
area of 1500 sq. m and leased two adjacent shops in the new shopping mall to
provide a ground-floor entrance.

Visitors enter the centre at the end of the shopping mall, through an arcaded
brick entrance passage. After passing through the admissions area, the visitors
move down a broad staircase lined with murals based on drawings of Viking
ships recovered from a Danish fjord, with the distinctive box-wood panpipe
Norse music as background music. From the bottom of the stairs, visitors
embark on a carefully programmed sequential experience, being transported
back in time to Viking York to a vivid picture of steer life of the time and an
explanation of the archaeological process that was necessary to reveal the facts
reconstructed.

The journey in a transportation “time car” leads through a tunnel of images


conveying the steps in time through the centuries to arrive at a street scene of
tenth-century Coppergate.

The re-creation of the Jorvik tenements is a three-dimensional interpretation of


the actual archaeological evidence. The sequence of buildings, naturalistic
figures, background voices and smells portray an everyday scene of Viking
town life. The scene includes craftsmen at work, domestic life and the activity
around a vessel unloading at a riverside wharf.

The next section of the tour represents the actual archaeological excavation, the
remains of buildings replaced (after preservation treatment) as near as
possible to their original layout. A visitor is then presented with the “dig” as it
would have been seen in 1980. The work of archaeology is explained, and the
tour then passes through a “finds” shed where recording processes are in
progress. The next space consists of a representation of laboratories for
conservation and environmental study, with walk-in displays, actual
equipment and models.
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The penultimate stage consists of a display of artefacts with graphical


explanations. The most important items are displayed nearest to the central
walkway with supporting artefacts and graphics in the alcoves behind. The
security of the artefacts is covered by surveillance systems.

The final stage is the shop selling reproduction artefacts, souvenirs, guides,
books and audio-visual aids. The visitor then returns to the ground level and
leaves through an exit that is independent from the entrance and incoming
public.

The general layout gives consideration to the range of interest from the average
layman to the expert interested in archeological details. For the average
layman, there is a limited number of “take-home” messages; for the expert it is
possible to linger at length amongst the display of artefacts.

The controlled time for participating in the Jorvik experience through the use of
“time cars” could be criticized. However, as a commercially viable project,
revenue is related to unobstructed throughput. Also the number of visitors
within the exhibition space at any one time was limited by fire safety
regulations. The expert can investigate the real excavated material in his own
time, independent of the time car transportation.

THE TIME CARS

The time cars consist of four-person battery-driven tracked vehicles that move
slowly and silently through the features. Each car has a synchronized low-
level commentary with a choice of languages.

A cable is fitted into a groove just under the floor surface. The cable carries a
signal which is picked up by close-loop sensing devices fitted under the front
and rear of the car. Cars leave the loading bay at intervals of 43 seconds.
Initially the time car travels backwards to convey the impression of passing
back through time. When it enters “Viking Coppergate” it stops at a set point,
and then drives forward. It continues to the unloading bay having passed
through Coppergate street and the reconstructed archaeological excavation. The
whole journey takes 12 minutes 40 seconds, a time calculated as a result of
research into human concentration periods, levels of understanding and fact
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absorption. After the unloading area, the car moves into a service area where it
stops and reverses out to start the journey again at the loading platform.

The time cars regulate the through-flow of visitors so that all visitors can see
the exhibits in a reasonable time, and also reducing the risk of damage by
giving the visitors a clear view without getting close enough for displays to be
actually touched. It also introduces a fun element of an adventure ride.

AUDIO AND TV EQUIPMENT AND EFFECTS

A commentary explaining the journey’s events is conveyed through speakers


located behind the passengers’ heads in each time car. The commentary is
played in English, French. German and Japanese. As the forward and rear
amplifiers and speakers are separate, it is possible to have the different
languages being played simultaneously. The village sounds come from
another sound system installed in the service area, with speakers positioned in
the exhibition area to give the most realism.

The buildings, the ship and the sculptured figures, background Norse
conservations, music and street smells were designed with specialist
supervision so that details appear authentic and accurate.

THE FIRE STANDARDS

The fire standards were as for a licensed public building, with the number of
visitors in the basement at any one time limited to 400, compatible with travel
distance to and the number of exit ways. Materials used in the display
required fire treatment and the basement spaces require compartmentation
with fire shutters. The fire shutters have infra-red sensors to avoid closing onto
obstacles. Emergency lighting is required over the time car route so that, in an
emergency, visitors can find their way to the emergency exits.
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PRESERVATION OF HISTORIC MATERIAL

The ventilation system had to allow for humidifIcation standards to ensure the
slow stabilizing process for the preserved historic timbers. After the timbers had
been extracted from the water-logged soil, they were subjected to immersion in
treatment tanks for periods between 6 and 18 months. The process of
conservation was a two-stage process: the partial baulking of the wood with a
range of PEG (polyethylene glycol) wax grades followed by a period of
controlled drying during which the remaining water was gradually released
until the water content of the wood fibers was in equilibrium with the display
environment.

At Jorvik, the parallel of re-created buildings and actual archaeological finds,


the realism of location and the presentation of artefacts, all convey a vivid
historical picture. The presentation is both educative and entertaining,
effectively using techniques associated with the popular world of theme parks
to educate the public in archaeology while providing a source of revenue to
further the work of York Archaeological Trust. The success of the Jorvik Viking
Centre is reflected in its continuing high visitor figures.

THE LAST LABYRINTH, LANDS END, CORNWALL

The Last Labyrinth Heritage Building has been designed as a centre piece for
the tourist location at Lands End, Cornwall. The location is a rocky
peninsular, the most south westerly point of England particularly exposed to
the Atlantic.

The project was developed by the Land Leisure Group. In addition to renovating
the existing hotel, a “Customs House” (to provide lavatories and administrative
offices), a Heritage Building, shop, exhibition area and children’s play and
adventure areas were built. The Heritage Building provides an all-year-round
attraction. The architects for the buildings were Andrews, Downie and Partners
and Sarner International developed the audio-visual experience based on the
legends and history of this part of Cornwall. Stage sets were by Brennen and
Whalley.
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The buildings were designed on traditional Cornish references using Simple


rendered and white-painted masonry walls and slate roofs. To speed up the
building period, construction on site was organized (using plywood
sheathing) to allow the interior fitting out to run concurrently with the work
on exterior cladding, and the preparation of sound tracks, film footage, stage
effects, computer equipment and software. The initial design work started in
October 1987, construction started in December, and the Heritage Building
was opened to the public in May 1988. The building and services cost £1.2
million and the fitting out including effects, sets, lighting, audio-visual
equipment, software and hardware cost $800,000.

The attraction had over half a million visitors in the first summer season and
has had over 10,000 visitors in one day. The building is tuned to 5000 visitors
per day with 600 per hour. At any one time there could be 150 in the exhibition
area, 300 in the holding area and up to 450 in the show area. There are up to
three performances per hour.

The Heritage Building houses the audio-visual experience. Apart from the show
space, particular attention is given to the exhibition and holding areas (that
visitors pass through prior to entering the show area). The basement holding
area where visitors congregate prior to entering the show is enclosed in rugged
stone walling and has a sand floor to convey the rocky sea coast ambience.

The main show space is a rectangular studio lined with acoustic material and
with a catwalk and open service grid at ceiling level. The space resembles a
rocky cove facing towards the sea. Three sides have simulated rocks and ledges
for particular sets, tableaux and props used in the performances. The third side
has cinema screens and the bow, mast and prow of a large boat.

The four screens at high level are serviced by four banks of three projectors. The
large screen has rear projection with 15 projectors that provide a 3 + 2 overlap
arrangement. There are also black drapes, gauze screen and cyclorama for
various effects. The projection ports are designed to be unobtrusive within the
rockwork. The 15 speakers are distributed around the space. and built into the
rockwork.
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The visitors stand in the central space or sit on barrels or rocks that are part of
the cove. The story lasts for 18 minutes and uses the surrounding wall sets
and overhead space. The centre of interest moves around the space as the story
unfolds, starting with a reference to the mariners and the sea around
Lands End, disasters and shipwrecks. Slides, in conjunction with multi-
channel sound conveying storms, are projected onto screens. False lights on the
clifftops mislead the mariners, the storm intensifies, the ship creaks and the
storm effects(provided by wind generators, fine water mist) and lightning
(strobed lighting) intensify. The ship hits the rocks, tilts, the prow snaps and
the rigging collapses. The storm subsides and the devastated ship is scavenged
by wreckers.

The story moves on to the 1979 Fastnet Race with weather bulletins and storm
effects. A helicopter (suggested by wind generators directed down on the
audience and a blinding roving search light) appears to fly over and hover
above the audience.

A calm sea returns. There is an introduction to the mythological background


of Cornwall (using a talking head of Merlin) and reference is made to
Excalibur. A blinding light is replaced by the illuminated image of the sword.
Interest moves to a tableau of the death of King Arthur on the right hand side,
and the tableau of the funeral of Arthur on the left.

The legendary land of Lyonesse is shown against an illuminated cyclorama.


Lyonesse descends into the sea, with earthquake and storm conveyed by
smoke effects and wind directed onto the audience. Lingering references to
Lyonesse transform into a panorama of the sea at Lands End, at night,
through the dawn to sunset.

Last Labyrinth conveys a historic pageant using scenery and audio-visual


techniques surrounding the audience to create a vivid and dramatic
experience.
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ACTIVITY CENTRES

The increasing interest in health as a leisure pursuit has supplemented


competitive sport with provision for physical activities in a relaxed context. The
Leisure Centre, with activity zones and relaxation areas, provides a socializing
environment for families or individuals without the disciplines or anxieties of
competitive sport. This is particularly true of Vacation villages, such as those
established by Club Mediterranee and Center Parcs, where facilities must cater
for total leisure time. It is in the interest of the owners to encourage the captive
community to spend their holiday money within the complex. Non-competitive
activities include such facilities as swimming, fitness programmes, skating
and miniature golf.

In recent decades, water fun in particular has provided a context for healthy
leisure that provides for all age groups. In the colder climates of northern
Europe, Leisure Centres are enclosed and planned for all-year-round activity.
Open-air water parks in southern Europe and the USA have a seasonal use.

The basic layout for “water fun” is concerned with entrance control, changing
and activity space, with ancillary storage space and plant rooms. The facilities
include wave pools, activity pools, canals and water rides. There are also the
architectural and technical aspects relating to the location of the water
treatment plant, access tower to flume rides and the character of the relaxation
areas.

In many parks the access tower to flume rides is used as a design element to be
seen from outside the park. In several Japanese waterparks, the tower and the
access platforms to flume rides is part of a central structure housing the plant
room. The route of the flumes and the location of splash pools or run-off
channels is important to the overall character of the park. Viewing the activity
of the various rides is a part of the enjoyment, to see what tides are available
and which are activated. In some centres, the relaxation area is a central
feature. At Adventure Island, Tampa, Florida, the relaxation area with stretches
of sand and palm trees is central, with the pools and facilities forming a
surrounding enclosure of rockwork interlaced with flume rides. In a project
designed by the author’s company, the restaurant area which is raised and
surrounded by a lazy canal, forms a central feature and a terrace from which
the surroundings activities can be viewed.
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ADVENTURE ISLAND, TAMPA, FLORIDA

Adventure Island, owned by Busch Entertainment Corporation, is a well


established water fun park that has retained its original tropical island
concept. The park covers 36 acres and the initial 13 acre park character
consisted of rock-scaped water activities planned around a sandy relaxation
island with palm trees.

The island is defined by a shallow flow pool. One side of the park is dominated
by an impressive rocky hill that both houses water treatment equipment and
supports five flume rides of various lengths. The long 300ft flume channels
descend 34 ft down through rockwork and cascades. The return path for the
riders is also through cascading streams and waterfalls.

There are two large activity pools; the 9000 sq. ft activities Paradise Lagoon,
and a 17,000 sq. ft surf pool. Provision is made for small children in
“Fabian’s Funport” play area with small slides and cascades.

In subsequent years, new rides and activities have been added including a
spiral “inner tube” ride, tube flume rides, a river ride through a man-made
rain forest with simulated fog, mist and monsoon rain, a 76 ft high free fall
slide, speed slides, a scaled down wave pool for small children, and a 12 court
championship volley ball complex.

Two cafes overlook the island and activities and there is a surf shop, electronics
games centre and picnic areas. There is parking for 1350 cars. The park can
accommodate 5500 visitors at any one time.

CENTER PARCS, NOTTINGHAMSHIRE AND SUFFOLK

Center Parcs have holiday villages in the UK, Holland, Belgium and France,
and the original objective was to provide short break holidays on a year-round
basis. Thus the villages provide an extensive range of indoor activities that
cater for seasonal and inclement weather (water fun and sports-hall), and
outdoor activities (lake for water sports, and outdoor tennis, bowls, croquet and
golf). The villages located in rural woodland are designed with particular
respect for their natural surroundings.
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The central areas of the UK Center Parc villages at Sherwood Forest,


Nottinghamshire and Elveden Forest, Suffolk, include subtropical themed
water fun and swimming areas. These areas are covered over with a
transparent dome (at Sherwood Forest) and a pyramidal structure (at
Elveden). In each case, the centre part of the roof can be opened in the hot
weather to allow free air flow. The buildings can each accommodate about 2000
visitors at one time. Pathways and flume rides interlace and wind down
between rocks and dense planting. There are bridges over the water channels.
Small relaxation areas located at the sides of the pools are defined by rocks and
planting. The pool at Elveden Forest has an ”island” bar and terrace projecting
into the water space. There are also exterior pools and rapids rides linked with
the water areas within the building. The theming conveys a luxuriant and
leisurely ambience.

CORAL REFF, BRACKNELL, BERKSHIRE

Coral Reef, located in the outskirts of Bracknell, is a public leisure facility


developed by the Bracknell Forest Borough Council to serve a catchment area of
570,000. The building designed by Sargent and Potiriadis was completed in
1989 at a cost of £8.5 million.

The coral reef ambience of protected “tropical” waters is well established, with a
series of linked pools and canals, suggesting a continuous water surface
interspersed with landscaping and rocks. There is a peripheral walk providing
access to the various pools and there are raised levels where visitors can overlook
the features.

The central area has three shallow pools: a children’s pool, a bubble pool, and the
main central pool with a two masted galleon in “full sail” forming a central
feature. In addition, there is a lazy river, spa pool and disco island. The water
in various locations is activated, a sequence that concentrates interest to a
particular zone at any one time.

The main pool has both geysers and a bubble burst as well as four 25 m lanes
for occasional serious swimmers. The “galleon” is between the main pool and
the children’s pool, its bows facing into the water. Sets of geysers on each side
of the bows provide the effect of a bow wave. The main deck has a water cannon
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which directs water into the pool below, and the deck provides access for a gentle
slide into the shallow water of the children’s pool. The prow of the ship provides a
safety officers' station.

At the side of the galleon, a menacing cloud of stainless steel mesh hangs
below the ceiling. At intervals of 12 minutes in every hour, it provides a shower
of “rain” into the pool below. Nozzles are arranged to give an even spread of
water over an area of 28 sq. ft. The “storm” starts as a light shower and
increases with a heavy downpour and additional effects of thunder and
lightning.

The “Little Corals” children’s pool consists of three shallow pools linked by
short slides. There are four “bubble bursts” created by a compressor driving
large air bubbles in sequence through four underwater outlets. There are also
fan sprays set into the surrounding artificial rocks.

The next feature, the Blue Lagoon, a quiet pool for older people, consists of a 23
ft in diameter underwater bubble lounger seat concealing compressed air
headers cast into the mass concrete lounger profile. Each header serves a series
of small diameter nozzles to give a “massage” effect. The water in the middle
of the Blue Lagoon is activated into violent bubbles by air being injected
through a floor grille.

The Coconut Grove, a two-level cafe terrace, overlooks the pools. Immediately
below the terraces, water cascades over a series of weirs to the pool below.

At the side of the main pools, a Greek-style structure standing in front of a


tall rocky pinnacle is periodically activated to represent the destruction of
Atlantis. A jet stream of water issues from the rocky pinnacle, through and
apparently destroying the structure. Adjacent to the “Atlantis disaster” a lazy
river extends through the exterior wall to an open air pool.

The next feature is a popular spa pool with access by a bridge from the peripheral
walk. The spa pool is in one of two islands set in a configuration of canal
channels that create a “wild water rapids” at the point where the two flowing
canals converge. The water in the canal is further activated by two geysers.
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Underwater lighting provides a chase sequence to give the impression that the
water is moving very fast. The second island is a Disco Island which is also
connected to the peripheral walk by a bridge. Rising serpents provide a location
for water jets.

Three flume rides and plunge pool are separated from the main group of pools.
The access deck to the flume rides (12 m higher than the plunge pool) is via a
corridor and tower. The main part of the flume tubes is external to the building.
There is a family ride, a rubber ring ride and a hydro-spiral speed ride.

STRUCTURE, AND WATER TREATMENT

The main structure over the pools consists of reinforced concrete columns
supporting an exposed laminated timber roof structure. The ceiling is formed
of white acoustic infill panels and the roof is covered with metal decking. The
natural materials used internally are consistent with the tropical ambience,
either suggesting the bold timber features of a tropical island structure, or
reflecting the maritime superstructure of the pirate galleon. The acoustic panels
and roof lights are visually unobtrusive.

The main pool has a capacity of 468,000 l with a turnover period of 1.85 h. The
Triogen ozone water treatment and effective air handling reinforce the
advantage of ozone over a chlorine dominated system. The water treatment
area is immediately below the cafe terrace, and there is a basement walkway
around the walls of the pools so that the majority of pump inlet points are
accessible for maintenance.

The complex has a water-sound-light system in which the water features, with
their individual ambient and underwater lighting, sound and effects are
controlled by a microprocessor programmed for five separate sequences. During
peak hours, all the features are used over a 30 minute repeating cycle. Off-peak
programmes use fewer features and this is reflected in off-peak entry charges.

In addition to the water features, there is a Japanese style sauna and fitness
area.
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The leisure centre has a capacity of 1050 persons. The sequence of pools,
intermittent planting, the succession of activated water and water-light-sound
synchronized effects convey an atmosphere of enjoyment that its name
implies.

THE DOME, DONCASTER

It was necessary to change the traditional image of Doncaster to attract new


investment and industry. The city had been dependent upon the coal
industry, being located over one of the largest coalfields in Europe. The leisure
industry was chosen as the front runner, the catalyst for development and
investment.

A 320 acre former aero club site on the edge of Doncaster was selected for a
forward-looking mixed-use park to offer a diversity of leisure and tourist
based activities. This site was near the established Doncaster racecourse (home
of the St Leger), the stadium of the Doncaster Rovers, and the Potteric Carr
nature reserve. The ultimate aim was to create a modern park that would act as
a stimulating extension of the city. The initial structures to be developed were a
leisure centre, the Dome, a supermarket, a tenpin bowling centre, and a two-
star hotel. A multi-screen cinema is also to be built. The Dome was opened in
the summer of 1989.

The architects FaulknerBrowns conceived the Doncaster Leisure Park as a


catalyst for the regeneration of the surrounding area. The main leisure centre
was sited to provide a focal point beside the racecourse and football stadium.
The actual design of the Dome did not follow the traditional one entrance and
control point with a tightly planned building, but aimed to create an “open”
building to encourage casual visitors, with an entrance leading to a mall
accessible to the public. From the public space, each activity has its own “front
door”. It was the objective of the Doncaster leading Metropolitan Borough
Council to integrate the social requirements of the area into a commercially
viable facility.
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The overall form of the building includes a roof access structure that
undulates and responds to the spatial fitness requirements below, with the
dome of a central forum identifying the junction between the two sections of
the building. The mall has leisure ice on one side and water fun areas on the
other side. The competitive sports areas lead off from the end of the mall. The
central forum was conceived as a destination in its own right. The total
concept aims to embody “an exuberant spirit of leisure”.

The entrance mall that extends between the water fun and leisure ice
terminates in a reception desk and the glazed cylindrical form that encloses a
spiral staircase access to the flume rides. The mall has a cafe and limited views
into the adjoining activity areas. Beyond the staircase and flume rides, a
bridge leads to the gallery of the central forum space. The various sports
functions of bowls, snooker, a sports hall and squash courts are accessible
from corridors leading from the gallery. Supplementary facilities (fitness
centre, health suite, and sauna) are dispersed. The health suite projects from the
curved form of the water fun area as a domed space with access via a bridge
over the swimming pools. The fitness area is close to the squash courts.

ICE AND WATER FUN

The 1500 sq. m leisure ice area consists of two levels of ice linked by two ice
ramps, with a central island originally designed as a cafe, with a disc jockey
enclosure. The solid enclosing balustrades around the island create a
dominant feature within the space. A few alpine trees have been used for
landscaping. The vertical emphasis of the conifers emphasizes the relatively
low ceiling structure.

The water fun section has a reception area and spectators’ gallery along one
side which is at the same level as the entrance mall. A bridge leads from this
level to the health suite. The water features include six free-form pools (ranging
from a large pool down to a toddlers’ pool), two water spas, a “river rapids” that
extends outside the building (and is operational throughout the year) and two
flume rides. The space is landscaped with tropical planting and simulated
rocks. Changing facilities are on the same level as the water features.
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It has been the objective to balance the energy demands of the warm areas by
the recovery of heat from the cooler areas. The heat gained from the ice
refrigeration is used to heat the water fun features. Internal temperatures
range from 29°C in the leisure ice section to 80°C in the water activity area. The
heating is coal-fired (in deference to the connection of Doncaster with the coal
industry) and particular attention is given to monitoring any resultant
pollution.

FORUM AND SPORTS

The sports section of the building is more concentrated with centralized


changing facilities and access by corridors. The indoor bowling green extends
along one side, and the multi-purpose sports hall along the other side. The hall
can take an audience of 2000 seated or 3000 standing, and provides for a
permutation of basketball, football and racquet sports. A line of five squash
courts extends from the end of the building like a curved tail enclosing space
for an outdoor forum.

The central forum is a glazed rotunda 30 m in diameter and 19 m high, with


four massive columns supporting the gallery. It forms a significant central
feature in the architectural massing. The space was planned as an interactive
hub of the building capable of accommodating shops, cafes and assorted
attractions, and also as a place for people to meet and gather. The interior has
banded masonry, a tiled floor precise indoor planting providing a dignified
atmosphere to the leisure centre.

WATERPARK, OCEAN WORLD, HONG KONG

This water fun park is part of the extensive Ocean Park complex which also
includes, amongst many features, a marine animal park, an amusement
park with mechanical rides, Chinese culture theme park, Japanese Garden and
a butterHy enclosure. Water World, located at sea level and occupying 3 ha,
can cater for 5000 people at any one time. The optimum capacity is 2500. It
was conceived as complementary to the initial marine animal park built in
1977, and was part of the reorganization implemented in 1984 to improve the
total leisure facility.
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The design for Water World by EBC of Hong Kong is pristine and geometric,
with distinctive forms and tiled surfaces. The main entrance is through a
landscaped forecourt with space for buses and cars to unload. The prominent
“seahorse” logo identifies the entrance leading to ticket booths, shops and
information office.

This first building includes changing rooms, a mezzanine level fast food
service with terraces overlooking the pools, and a first-floor full service
restaurant for 250 people. The roof level provides viewing and sun bathing
decks carpeted with synthetic turf. The main entrance brings visitors into
The park at a level that provides a view over the main pool. The terraces have
tables and chairs, umbrellas for shading, and a pergola roof.

The main 80 m X 40 m leisure pool occupies the site of a former lake. The pool
has a depth range of 200 mm to 3 m and there are two islands. One island
Provides a raised platform for water slides; the second island is linked to the
periphery of the pool by bridges and provides a platform for diving. Between the
main pool and flume ride splash pool, there is a large jacuzzi with 60 spa
nozzles and 12 water fountains.

The pool is separated from the wave pool by five body flumes from 120 m to 150
m in length with a 20 m descent, and river rides 170 m in length. The rides
are constructed on posts and columns as aerial serpentine forms, winding
through the topography and mature trees. The rides start from timber towers
located on high points on the site and the rides grouped; three flume rides
discharge into one splash pool: the river ride and two flume rides discharge into
a separate pool. The water through the river ride is discharged at 20,000 to
40,000 l per minute from a starting pool, through the various turns and
whirlpools. The ride is constructed of vinyl sprayed concrete.

Water filtration and the chlorine UV sterilizing system is located in a 500 sq.
m underground plant room under the body flume splash pools. Every 2.6
hours, 2.7 million l (0.6 million gallons) of pool water pass through the
system. This plant room is accessible from outside the park for service vehicles.
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The wave pool is 25 m wide and 2.5 m deep at the wave machine end, fanning
out to 40 m width at the beach end. The pool is 55 m long. The beach has sand
area with palm trees and sun chairs. Alongside the wave pool is a play
fountain providing safe water activity for visitors of all ages. The water flows
a distance of 60 m from a starter pool, through a stepped waterfall to a cascade.
The water is 150 mm deep and the feature is particularly suited to small
children.

A second 500 sq.m plant room houses the wave generator equipment and is
located underground to accommodate machinery noise. The plant circulates
1.87 million l of water every 4 hours.

Water World is designed for complete evening use with low level lighting
around the pools, lighting from masts over the wave pool, bollard lights and
tree lights. The circulation routes through the park are well defined and the
landscaped areas are protected by low retaining walls. Astra turf is used for the
relaxation areas. Materials for the buildings consist of structural concrete;
polyurethane paint finish; terrazzo and tiles in wet areas; exposed aggregate
planters and paving; and painted metal work.

CHAPTER III
ZOOS

The role of zoos has been under considerable scrutiny in recent years. The
relevance of enclosing and restricting animals is being questioned as people
are made more aware of the complexity and freedom of the animals in their
natural habitats. Field studies and excellent films have brought a close visual
contact with wildlife into the living room.

However, there is nothing that can take the place of real contact with the
animals: how they move, smell, behave and relate to their environment. Zoos
see the importance of this and relate their collections to educational
programmes, breeding endangered species and conservation. The designs of
the animal enclosures are based on the latest information regarding both the
physical and psychological requirements of each animal. The enclosures
encapsulate some of the diversity of the natural habitat.
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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The earliest animal collections or menageries were built up by individuals.


Some were Royal collections, others were travelling menageries. One private
collection, the Exeter Change in the Strand, London, was open to the public. The
animals’ cages were housed in the rooms of a three-storey building and exotic
scenes of jungle life were painted on the walls, the earliest method of linking
the animal to its natural habitat.

The first animal collection in a park setting was the Menagerie du Jardin des
Plantes in Paris. This scheme was to inliuence Sir Stamford Rafiies in his
concept for a Zoological Park in London. Raffles had returned from
Singapore with a collection of animals and plants and a desire to promote
research. The Zoological Society of London was founded in 1826 and the
Zoological Gardens opened in 1828. Both were to have a considerable influence
on the development of research and animal collections throughout the world.

The earliest animal enclosures were either cages or simple buildings designed
in the style of the animals' country of origin. Others, such as Decimus
Burton's giraffe house at London Zoo, were conventional buildings reflecting
contemporaneous architecture. Towards the end of the nineteenth century
greater freedom in the design of buildings was made possible by new
techniques. The use of steel gave greater flexibility. New developments in
heating provided opportunities for housing snakes and other reptiles.

A CHANGE IN EMPHASIS

At the beginning of this century, the idea of “reproducing the native haunts”
became the influencing factor behind the design of new zoo buildings. In
Germany, Carl Hagenbeck, an agent between the hunters and the collectors,
housed many of his animals where he lived at Hamburg. His concern for the
well-being of the animals in his care was instrumental to a whole new approach
to the welfare of animals in captivity. He discovered that many animals
brought to Europe from climates adapted to lower temperatures and were
healthier in outdoor enclosures.
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Hagenbeck also initiated the use of the moat as a barrier. By creating artificial
rockwork and the use of moats he was able to exhibit his animals in more
natural habitats and provide unobstructed viewing, in contrast to the
conventional caged enclosures. The Mappin Terraces at London Zoo, designed
by Joass and opened in 1914, followed the example of Carl Hagenbeck by
simulating rock formation and representing natural scenery in concrete.

Between me world wars the functionamist movement in architecture led to


designs such as the Penguin Pool and Gorilla House at London Zoo by
Lubetkin of the Tecton Partnership. The aim was to provide the best show to the
public and to reduse barriers between animals and humans.

In the 1950s and 1960s zoo projects provided architects with the opportunity to
create imaginative designs away from the strict space and cost standards
applied to other building types.

SPECIALIZATION AND EDUCATION

In the last 20 years, as well as rebuilding in existing zoos, a growing number


of new zoos and animal collections have been established. Some specialist
collections in Great Britain include the Woolly Monkey Sanctuary in
Cornwall, and Thrigby Hall Wild Life Gardens in Norfolk, which specializes
in Asian fauna. Others, such as John Aspinall’s Zoos at Howletts and Port
Lympne in Kent, have grown from small private collections.

Specialization and field research provided zoologists with more information on


the animals’ natural behaviour in the wild and this encouraged zoos to create
more stimulating environments. Animals were grouped naturally in families
and given visual contact with other species. This led to habitats being designed
as a whole complex relating several enclosures to the public walkways. For
example the Whittier Southeast Asian exhibit at San Diego Zoo, opened in
1982, connects the individual islands containing the orang-utans and
siamangs with bridges and two level viewing platforms.
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Within the last 15 years zoos have given a greater emphasis to education. By
helping children to understand each species, their habitat and the importance
of conservation, zoos aim to create a sense of awe and respect for the animals.
Exhibits are zoned within the specific subjects, which include behavioural
themes; nocturnal creatures set in day turned to night exhibits; predator-prey
themes; a particular habitat such as rainforest; positioning the animals in
geographic areas and bio-climatic zones.

Many zoos have implemented educational programmes, built teaching and


study areas and provided teaching aids. At the Primate Discovery Centre, San
Francisco Zoo, opened in 1984 (designed by Cathy Simon, formerly of
Marquis Associates), the multi-level structure of walkways and habitats
includes a discovery hall. This area provides a permanent exhibition relating to
the primates and incorporates various interactive devices.

CONSERVATION AND THE ZOO TODAY

The welfare of the animal is the first priority for most zoos, to provide a healthy
environment, combat boredom and to give each species a sense of dignity.
In 1980 the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust opened a gorilla environment
where the animals have choice and variety. The outside habitat has rocks, hills,
water, trees and logs. The gorilla house, which is also open to the public, has
ropes, shelves and other furniture. The gorillas are free to move from one to
another. Cologne Zoo has recently redesigned a cheetah exhibit. Within the
confines of a restricted city zoo the cheetahs have a semi-wild type enclosure. A
rocky hillock provides privacy or a dominant position where the cheetahs can
overview their surroundings.

As the population of the world increases, more land is being developed, and
concern for this was shown at the 1992 Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro. The
erosion of the rainforests, the natural habitat for many wild animals,
threatens the existence of many species including plant life.

To emphasize the necessity for conservation the most recent approach to the
design of enclosures has been to re-create whole habitats and encapsulate the
The fauna, flora and geological formation of a region where animal and plant
life are seen as interdependent, so that the public will relate each people
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species with its native environment. The aim is to create the sense of mystery
and excitement that is experienced when walking through a forest or
swimming near a coral reef. The visitor becomes an observer rather than a
spectator.

FUTURE PERSPECTIVE

Increasingly, zoos, animal parks and reserves will be the means of ensuring
the survival of many species. The larger animals may be kept in the more
spacious parks and zoos may become places for the more detailed study of a
particular species or environment.

The design of the animal enclosures will need the expertise of the specialist to
provide the most balanced habitats. A stimulating and unpredictable
environment encourages the natural behaviour characteristic of each animal.

This in turn will help public to appreciate each species and promote a concern
for its conservation.

THE CITY ZOO

The city zoo has an important part to play. For people who live in the city a zoo
may be the only means of having contact with animals. Therefore it is
important that animals are presented as part of a whole natural world that
exists and needs to be conserved.

Although situated in the heart of New York, Central Park Wildlife


Conservation Center is contained in a park atmosphere. ln contrast, Emmen
Zoo in Holland has its entrance in the centre of a busy shopping precinct and
is surrounded by residential streets. A continuation of the pedestrianized
paving provides outdoor cafe facilities at the main entrance to the zoo.
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CENTRAL PARK WILDLIFE CONSERVATION CENTER (formerly CENTRAL PARK ZOO) - NEW
YORK

Central Park Zoo, New York, was re-opened in 1988 having undergone a
complete renovation. In recent years the quality of the exhibits had deteriorated
and the New York Zoological Society (NYZS) were keen to take over the zoo
in their concern for the animals, as well as for the way in which they were
presented to the public.

The new scheme, designed by Kevin Roche John Dinkeloo Associates,


incorporated a few of the original buildings and features, but in essence it was
totally fresh concept resulting from extensive consultation with the General
Director of the Society, Dr William Conway, and Director of City Zoos Project,
Richard Lattis.

The NYZS operates, amongst other facilities, the International Wildlife


Conservation Park (formerly Bronx Zoo) and the New York Aquarium for
Wildlife Conservation where they have evolved principles concerning the
welfare and exhibiting of wildlife, together with conservation and education.

These principles were the basis of the brief for the design of the new scheme. The
site area was only 5.5 acres and the NYZS were prepared to include only those
animals that could have adequate surroundings and back up facilities. The
exhibits were to be housed moss in three different climatic zones. Other features
were to include a conservation centre, a school for educational courses, a
cafeteria and a shop. The original north-south access through the park was to be
maintained and the context for the landscaping within Central Park taken
into account.

The architects retained two of the original animal enclosures each side of the
existing brick Arsenal building facing Fifth Avenue. These now house a zoo
school, a shop and a gallery. The area to the west has been completely
redesigned around a central garden. A colonnaded covered way on three sides
gives emphasis to this central area and links the habitat zones as well as
providing a sheltered walkway. The three zones, Tropic Zone, Temperate
Territory and Polar Circle, together exhibit approximately 450 animals of over
100 species.
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THE TROPIC ZONE

From the entrance the arcade runs beside the the conservation centre, cafeteria
and an “intelligence garden” to the first of the climatic zones. The Tropic
Zone, an octagonal top lit building, captures the intensity of a tropical forest.
Huge fabricated trees, rocks, a 20 ft waterfall and a large variety of natural
tropical plants provide a realistic territory for the the mammals, birds and fish
being exhibited. The stratification of forest life can be explored from viewing
platforms at various levels and a mezzanine gallery provides interpretive
displays. Murals and moss disguise the surrounding walls and any
containing barriers have been constructed in glass or netting to retain a
visual continuity. A complex sprinkler system provides humidity for the
vegetation and enhances the tropical atmosphere. Each species has special
requirements within the scheme, such as the piranhas and crocodiles which
have heating pads beneath their beach areas.

THE TEMPERATE TERRITORY

This area lies to the west of the arcade and consists of a large lake and island
home for snow monkeys and waterbirds. Winding pathways take the visitor
behind the lake through a landscaped area featuring many species such as
Asian Red pandas, North American river otters and other animals from the
temperate zones. All barriers are unobtrusive and access for maintenance is
carefully screened with planting.

THE POLAR CIRCLE

A multi-level polar bear habitat to the north of the arcade introduces the Polar
Circle. A naturalistic habitat for the bears, comprising fabricated rockwork
and deep water for swimming, is viewed from ten different positions both above
and below water level. The “Edge of the Icepack” building, housing large groups
of penguins, is controlled at a temperature of 35°F. The habitat is formed with
artificial rocks and natural alpine plants to simulate a rookery site in the
Antarctic. Smaller environments include habitats for arctic foxes, snowy owls
and harbour seals.
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THE CENTRAL GARDEN

The enlarged and renovated sea-lion pool is the focal point for the Central
Garden. The glass sides to the pool allow for underwater viewing and the
fabricated rocks provide the sea-lions with basking platforms as well as areas
for retreat. The 250,000 gallons of water are filtered at over 200 gallons per
minute. Fabricated rocks were constructed from carved or cast concrete and
fibreglass reinforced concrete. Trees and vines were formed from cast epoxy
and latex on fibreglass and steel.

The architects have purposely designed the buildings in the zoo to be


unobtrusive. The brickwork blends with that of the Arsenal building and
planting provides screening. The central area has been laid out as an English
country garden. The colonnade, constructed of brick piers with bases and
capitals in grey granite and a glass canopy, is a strong and unifying
element in the design as a whole.

Artificial rocks and trees were constructed by Larson and Company, Tucson.
The total cost of the project was over $35 million, part provided by the City, and
part by the NYZS.

EMMEN ZOO, HOLLAND

Founded in 1935 as a family enterprise, Emmen Zoo based the design of


animal enclosures on the Hagenbeck tradition. The zoo continues to be run by
the family who have completely re-structured and re-designed it over the last
21 years. Half owned by the City and half privately, it now has approximately
1.5 million visitors a year. Of these, 50,000 families are Friends of the Zoo
and come regularly from many parts of northern Holland.

Emmen is a mixture between a zoo and a museum. The main policies being,
first, to educate and provide information to the public, and secondly to provide
an open air living museum about life on Earth. Besides the animal enclosures
the zoo has four museums, including a Natural History Museum, a Museum
of Cultural Anthropology and a Biochron. The Biochron, based on the theme of
the history of life on earth, provides an interesting introduction to the zoo,
being sited by the entrance.
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The exhibits in the Biochron start with the origins of the planet and then take
the visitor through the ages with a mixture of fossils, models, reconstructions
and many live animals and plants. The theme continues at a lower level with
an aquarium where a great variety of underwater life is exhibited. Part of the
Biochron experience is a walk- through tropical butterfly garden. Here, 1500
butterflies representing approximately 40 species fly freely amongst tropical
vegetation.

Every 2-3 years the zoo chooses a different theme to emphasize the inter-
relationships in nature, mankind with animals, plants, geology, water and
weather. The particular theme is conveyed to the public through exhibition areas
that are placed at Intervals between the animal enclosures.

The buildings housing the museums and other facilities throughout the zoo
have a sympathetic and unobtrusive style which creates a cohesive quality to
the general layout. The emphasis has been to provide a quality of space in
which to focus the visitors’ attention on the animal exhibits.

The approach to the design of the latest exhibits has been to keep the visitor
looking, as it were, through a window to the animals in their habitats. The
public is seen as observing, not intruding into the animals’ environment. The
enclosures have been grouped in geographical areas.

ASIAN AND AUSTRALIAN COMPLEX

As a city zoo within a built-up area, space is at a premium. The priority for the
future is to give the animals more spacious habitats. This is achieved by
constructing the holding areas underground and so providing further outdoor
space above. This principle has been adopted in the Asian and Australian
complex, which has a tiger enclosure at one end and a kangaroo enclosure at
the other end, with quarters for ten elephants located under the kangaroo
habitat. The tigers gain extra space by being able to walk , above the visitors’
path that divides their enclosure. Incorporated in the multi-level complex are
quarantine areas, food outlet facilities for the public, an exhibition area, as
well as the animal enclosures and holding areas.
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SPECIALIST ZOOS

A specialist zoo has a particular theme to convey. The theme is carried through
in the educational programmes they promote, the information provided and the
layout of the enclosures. One of the best known specialist collections is that at
Jersey. Initially the private collection of Gerald Durrell, it is now The Jersey
Wildlife Preservation Trust and concentrates on keeping endangered species
and focusing attention on conservation. Research, breeding and returning
animals to the wild are also an important part of the Trusts’ specialized and
valuable work.

Other zoos such as the Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, Tucson, have a


particular aim to promote interest in a specific region.

Apenheul Zoo is a specialist zoo for primates. It aims to give the animals the
maximum freedom and has been in the forefront for designing open habitats
in the Northern Hemisphere.

THE ARIZONA-SONORA DESERT MUSEUM, TUCSON, ARIZONA

To the casual visitor the Arizona-Sonora Museum appears to be no more than a


few low buildings set in a vast panorama of the Arizona Desert. This is
intentional. It was established at an early stage that the buildings and
enclosures for the new museum should be kept low so as not to interrupt the
desert profile.

William Carr, one of the founders of the museum, was stimulated by the
challenge to help the people of Arizona to become aware of the wealth of natural
life hidden in the desert landscape. The objective was to create, in a capsule of
the Sonora Desert, an interpretive centre and living desert museum - a centre
in which to study, discover and stimulate an interest in conserving the fauna,
flora and geology of the region. With sensitive publicity the local people
not only took an interest, but actively helped towards the opening of the
museum in 1952.
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THE MUSEUM TODAY

The horizontal roof line of the entrance to the museum provides a necessary
canopy of shade from which to enjoy the panoramic views. Paths winding
through the grounds make trails to the exhibits and encourage a study of the
clearly labelled planting and create a self-guided tour. At strategic intervals
Ramadas (trellised canopies) provide areas of shade and rest, and information
is displayed describing nearby exhibits.

The animal enclosures have been designed to give protection from the strong
afternoon sun, to provide a congenial environment for each species and to
emulate the natural habitat. Efficient service areas and regular maintenance
are given top priority.

The collection covers a wide range of species, from the fish and invertebrates of
the Gulf of California to the bears and lions of the mountain habitat of the
Desert Highlands. An Earth Sciences Center demonstrates the formation and
geology of the desert area. A Life Underground exhibit shows how animals
cope with the extremes of the desert environment by burrowing and
withdrawing into crevices. A walk-in aviary with over 40 species includes
birds from the Sonora Desert region, waterfowl and Southern Sonora
Parrotlets. Also, a demonstration Desert Garden shows how plants and shrubs
of the area can be used in landscaping.

The Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum pioneered some of the earliest designs that
simulated natural habitats for animal enclosures. Artificial rockwork,
relevant Planting, the provision of water, crevices for shade and withdrawal,
have been carefully considered. By visually relating an animal or plant to
its natural habitat, the visitor can be made aware of how that species has
adapted to its particular environment. Enclosures that have been constructed
simulate grottos for small cats (1973), the banks of the Santa Cruz River for
otters and beavers (1967-1971) and, more recently, a Mountain Habitat
exhibit (1986 Architects: Potomac Group Washington DC).

Education has been the underlying theme in the creation and subsequent
development of the museum. Lectures, demonstrations in schools, night
visits to the museum and a well organized outreach programme encourage
further interest and study.
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With the low profile of the buildings the saguaro punctuated desert landscape
is always within eyesight, a constant reminder of the relationship of each
animal and plant to its natural surroundings.

A NEW LONG RANGE PLAN

A very comprehensive study, initiated by Director David Hancocks and his


team, of the fundamental aims, the history, the existing exhibits and facilities
has provided the basis of a new Long Range Plan for the Desert Museum. This
has been designed by Jones and Jones of Seattle. The new plan is to provide the
visitor with a more conscious, informed and comprehensive experience, and to
demonstrate the interdependence of all natural components of the desert
including human involvement in the natural world.

To achieve this, the layout is to be divided into areas similar to those defined by
ecological subdivisions in the Sonoran Desert region, ranging from the high
mountain areas to the unique landscapes of southern Baja, California. The
landscape features of these ecological areas will be laid out as a framework for
future exhibits, and will be toured via a series of closed-loop pathways leading
from and to a central paved footpath. Each area or subdivision has its own
landforms creating the environment for the particular variety of fauna and
flora.

In the new plan some of the existing features will be incorporated, such as the
Earth Sciences Center and Mountain Habitat. These will be added to and
enlarged to create more comprehensive and ecologically based zones. In
addition, interpretative centres in each zone will create opportunity for detailed
investigation and exhibition of very small objects.

A walkway featuring a geologic time line will direct the visitor to the Earth
Sciences exhibit, which is an underground cave explaining the geology of the
region. From there the visitor will come up to the Mountain Island area and
then continue through each particular subdivision: Grassland, Arizona
Upland, Tropical Deciduous Forest, Lower Colorado Valley, Baja, and a separate
Night Zone. The Night Zone will be for nocturnal animals, astronomy
demonstrations, lectures, evening functions, illuminated gardens, dining
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and other activities appropriate to the mild and starry nights of Southern
Arizona.

APENHEUL, APELDOORN, HOLLAND

Apenheul is a specialist collection housing 19 species of primate in 8.5 ha of


natural forest, the whole centre occupying a further 5 ha. It is part of an
extensive park in the Northen outskirts of Apeldoorn.

The zoo, which is self-financing, has approximately 0.5 million visitors a year
and is open from April until the first of November. Apenheul has been a
forerunner in the open zoo concept. On the 19 species, 15 roam freely among
the visitors, with people and animals together. The animals are given an
opportunity to escape from the visitors either along the tree branches or
specially constructed ladders or walkways. The entire zoo is surrounded by an
unclimbable metal fence with a soft PVC overhanging flap over which no
monkeys can pass.

On entering the zoo, the visitor is given instructions on how to behave towards
the animals. Objects and bags of importance are handed in for safe
keeping and picnics are put in special zipped bags for taking to enclosed
picnic areas. The animals are often as interested in the visitors as the public are
interested in them and are always hopeful for some crumb in a pushchair or an
object to play with. No food outlets are in the fenced area. A restaurant is
provided near the main entrance.

A recommended walk takes the visitor through the zoo where the many varieties
of primate are free roaming. The few species that are enclosed are mainly kept
on islands. Apenheul has discovered that most tropical species can survive the
northern climate as long as they are provided with a small area of heated
housing. These do not need to be large but must be kept dry and free from
draughts and need to have nesting boxes or nesting material. A plastic flap
or hatch allows the animals to run in and out freely
without loss of heat from the den areas.
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GORILLA ISLANDS

The largest of the islands houses two groups of gorilla together with a small
group of Patas monkeys. The whole gorilla area covers 2 ha (5 acres).

A moat separates the two gorilla groups, each having its own island. A central
hillock on each island allows visual contact between the groups and space
for a gorilla to charge, according to its normal behaviour. This activity is
contained by a 2 m high barrier in the form of shrubs and electrified wires,
Some of the existing trees have been protected by plastic tubular sleeves which
have to be greased with a non-toxic grease. Alternatives, in the form of
climbing frames and old tree branches, have been supplied to add interest for
the gorillas.

The housing for the gorilla groups is simple and easy to run. A series of small
caged rooms are interlocking and linked by an overhead tunnel. Each
room area is supplied with shelves at various heights, ropes and other furniture.
Glass bricks have been set in the walls at varying heights to act as peep holes
for the gorillas to see what is going on outside. There is a small central visitors’
area for viewing when the weather is bad. The animals mix or remain
independent in the sleeping area and are free to go outside except when the
moats are frozen. Plastic hatches keep the temperature inside the building to
between 15-17°C. No other dens are provided as the animals are expected to be
outside most of the time.

The Director of Apenheul, W. B. Mager, has made extensive studies on the


primates and has prepared several papers on the breeding and husbandry of
gorillas, including “Gorilla Accommodation for New
Exhibits according to EEP Standards”

A CONTEXT FOR EDUCATION

Many zoos have made education a priority in their general philosophy and
programming. Drusillas Zoo, Alfriston, Sussex, has formulated programmes
and teaching aids designed to encourage a particular age group. Emmen Zoo,
previously referred to, has been a forerunner in this approach and being a
larger zoo is able to extend its facilities to a greater age range.
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Most zoos have their traditional children’s area. These are changing to include
interactive devices as well as housing domestic and other animals. Brookfield
Zoo, Chicago, has, in its Bird House a en large simulated bird that allows the
child to get the feeling of flying. The International Wildlife Conservation
Park, New York, has a nest and spider's web for children to sit in.

Los Angeles opened Adventure Island, a new children’s area, in 1989. This
exhibits a variety of wildlife in natural habitats and domestic animals in a
Spanish Hacienda, all interspersed with interactive devices.

DRUSSILAS ZOO PARK, ALFRISTON, SUSSEX

Drusillas Zoo is a family enterprise based on care and concern for animals
with a real sense of purpose to encourage and foster the same concern in others,
especially children.

The existing park, covering 20 acres, has developed in the last 20 years.
Director Michael Ann took over the zoo from his father in 1958. He has
gradually built up a collection of animals, and with the interest shown by the
many schools in the area, education and conservation have become the prime
motivation for the park. Teaching programmes have been developed for school
and family use to encourage children to learn about animals through
participation and activity. Drusillas is a specialist zoo, concentrating on the
smaller animals, especially those whose habitat is threatened.

The layout of the zoo takes the visitor along a specific route, partly under cover,
starting with an exhibition on ‚”Back to the beginning”, the evolution of
life. The individual habitats follow, interspersed with ‚ various interactive
devices to encourage children to have a greater understanding of each species.
The animals are housed in family groups and the habitats are designed to be
as naturalistic as possible. Exhibits have been designed to cater for children of
the 7-12 age group and descriptive notes are uncomplicated to encourage the
children to read for themselves.
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MEERKAT ENCLOSURE

An interesting development of the zoo’s emphasis on education culminated in


the opening of a Meerkat in enclosure in 1990. Entirely designed by a class of
10-to 11-year-olds from Western Road County Primary School in Lewes, it
gave the children a first-hand opportunity to be involved in the whole process of
considering environments for animals in captivity.

The children’s teacher, David Holland, formulated a programme based around


six weekly visits to the zoo. These started with a general introduction and
historical background to animals in captivity, stressing the importance of well
designed habitats to justify retaining zoos for educational and
conservationist purposes. After studying various animals in the zoo, they then
concentrated on the meerkats in particular. At first, through talks and films
they studied the meerkats' behaviour in the wild. By helping the keepers in
their daily tasks with the animals, they were able to list the requirements
necessary for the new habitat. The children then measured up the site and
prepared drawings and models of their schemes. The zoo’s designer put their
ideas together to finalize the design of the new habitat. Finally the children
helped with the demolition and clearance before watching their ideas
materialize on the site. These included the use of rocks, areas for the meerkats
to dig and acrylic domes for close viewing on the same level as the meerkats
within the enclosure.

BEAVER COUNTY

Although Drusillas is a small zoo, in 1987 it won the first award from the
UFAW (Universities Federation of Animal Welfare) for the best zoo enclosure
in the UK. This award was given for a recently opened beaver exhibit.

Beaver County was opened in 1986 to house a natural group of North


American beavers. The exhibit, designed by Martyn Williams the curator,
consists of two ponds, one which holds 30,250 l and the other 12,250 l, each
1 m deep and connected by a narrow chute.
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The entire site area of 350 sq. m was lined with heavy weldmesh. The ponds
were constructed in concrete blocks reinforced and rendered, the ground areas
covered with topsoil and grassed. The lodge, adjacent to a waterfall at the far
end of the upper pond, has an underwater entrance for the beavers and a service
door at the rent. Vegetation, rocks and tree stumps make up a realistic habitat.
Drain pipes buried into the ground provide holders for tree branches to be used
as browsing and building material by beavers.

Viewing is from a walkway down one side of the enclosure and under cover one
end where interpretive panels and a video presentation explain the animals’
characteristics.

ADVENTURE ISLAND, LOS ANGELES ZOO, CALIFORNIA

Los Angeles Zoo has a natural wooded valley site which is interesting and
impressive. It covers 113 acres but the hilly topography makes rebuilding
particularly expensive. There is a redevelopment plan for the zoo to be laid out
in bio-climatic zones and there have been some interesting new exhibits built
in recent years. The most recent area to be redesigned is the children’s zoo.

In the concept for the Adventure Island, education abd conservation were of
primary importance. Education has a positive, participatory approach, where
children can experience seeing animals in a representation of their natural
environment and leam to respect their habits as well as their habitat.

The majority of the zoo’s visitors are from local Califomia and a high
percentage from Los Angeles where there are large numbers of minority
groups. Many of the children from these groups rarely leave Los Angeles or
have an opportunity to see an animal except on television. Adventure Island
was designed with these families in mind, with children in the 7-11 age
range, to encourage them to understand and in respect animal life.

The focus is on local animals of the Pacific South West. The aim is to have
small exhibits so that the children can be as close as possible; to help the
children to develop a positive attitude to animals; to encourage and enjoy
learning by doing, using interactive devices based on the premise that
children retain information better when discovering it for themselves. These
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include comparing human vision with that of a bee, mountain lion and prairie
dog, and jumping on the footprints of a mountain lion to hear it roar.

Adventure Island is divided into five natural habitat zones. The visitor enters
by a bridge which overlooks a pool and rockwork depicting the shoreline, the
habitat for Californian sea-lions. A waterfall cascades down the mountain
rockwork into the pool and a continuous sound tape featuring crashing waves
and the calling of seagulls, helps to create a realistic setting.

The island is entered through the mountain rockwork into a cool damp cave
with stalagmites and stalactites. Various species of bat and other nocturnal
animals are exhibited and a video “pepper' s ghost” appears and describes the
barn owl’s characteristics. Other interactive devices make cave sounds and
create the illusion of bats swooping out at the viewer.

Coming out of the cave the visitor is in a desert environment with a desert-at-
dusk exhibit depicting the many nocturnal hunters in the desert areas. A
“pepper’ s ghost” again explains details.

A Spanish style hacienda brings the children close to domestic animals.


Although the sheep, goats and donkeys are in pens the children can be close
enough to touch the animals under supervision.

The meadow area behind the mountain includes a walk-through aviary and a
prairie dog exhibit, where the children can go under the burrow and put their
heads up into plexi-glass domes to be alongside the animals. A waterfall at the
top of the meadow drops step ha into a pool with Pacific pond turtles and a
badger exhibit.

The final zone brings the visitor back to the mountain and the entrance. This
area houses mountain lion, porcupines and black-billed magpies. Viewing is
either through glass or piano-wire. The exhibit rockwork follows the bends of the
mountain providing areas of privacy as well as many promentaries and
ledges for the animals to he on. A step has been placed at viewing positions to
allow younger children to look for themselves. An amphitheatre, animal
nursery and Mexican food outlet complete the scheme.
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Adventure Island was opened in April 1989 at a cost of $8.3 million. The
architects were Grist Associates Inc., the Project Manager was Riener Nielsen Jr
and rockwork was by The Larson Co. Tucson. Interactive devices were created
by Art and Technology Inc. Burbank.

CHAPTER IV
ANIMAL ENCLOSURES

Each zoo has different factors to consider in its approach to the design of
animal enclosures. Most have a great concern for the welfare of the animals in
their care and endeavour to inspire in the public that same respect. The
solutions are widespread and only some selected aspects can be included here.

With the threat to wildlife being a source of concern throughout the world, a
greater freedom of communication has developed between zoos. There is a
readiness to pool information and work together with breeding programmes
and other conservationist issues.

Four symposia on Zoo Design and Construction held at Paignton, Devon, have
taken place since 1975. Talks and films covering a wide range of topics were
contributed by delegates representing 19 different countries. A publication
records each of these symposia.

The Federation of Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland have


recently (1991) published the first of three of a series of management
guidelines for the welfare of zoo animals. These are an introduction and
guidelines on giraffe and ratites with sections on Biology and Field Data, as
well as Management in Captivity.

In the USA the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquaria have
published a book intitled Zoological Park and Aquarium Fundamentals,
which is a compilation of articles on the information necessary to construct
zoological facilities.
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GENERAL DESIGN APPROACH

Each zoo has different thresholds for developments. A new zoo can start with a
whole new concept, others are able to acquire further land and still others
decide to specialize in just a few species. The majority have to alter and extend
exhibits piecemeal. This is often executed within the framework of a
master plan for the whole zoo.

Finance is an important consideration as most zoos are at least partially self


supporting. The opening of a new exhibit at regular intervals helps to sustain
public interest. Changes have to be allowed for in the light of new research in
husbandry and environmental needs and this can put some restraint on the
amount spent on a particular project. Therefore within the framework of the
master plan a staged development plan is formed.

The design team is important, whether the zoo concerned is large or small.
Specialist knowledge is necessary to evaluate the requirements of each
particular animal. This includes not only the zoologist but also the keeper and
landscape designer, as well as the Director, Curator and other representatives of
the zoo staff. All members of the team have to be able to work together and learn
to understand the needs and characteristics of the animal concerned.

In habitat design the architect has to include most buildings sensitively


within the whole habitat to maintain the simulated natural environment.
Extensive research has to be carried out by the design team which can involve
travel to study the animals in the wild and to meet zoologists at work in the
field. The whole habitat and ecosystem is studied: the soil, rocks, insects,
vegetation, water and the use of each made by the animals, as well as the
interaction within family groups and between species. No exhibit can
completely emulate the wild environments but the closer it is to the natural
habitat the more the animals will respond with their natural behaviour.

Various other factors will affect these considerations including the existing
site situation and relevant regulations.
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THE EXISTING SITE

Each zoo has different restrictions. It may be a limited city site or governed by
a particular topography.

The city zoo has to economize in the use of space by building holding areas
under external habitats or by extending animal exhibits over pedestrian
walkways. Cologne Zoo have extended their lemur and black and white colobus
monkey environment over a walkway. The new enclosures not only provide
more space but, as in the wild, the animals are able to watch their
surroundings from above. Cologne has also redesigned the old bird house, a
listed building, to form a habitat for their South American monkeys. The
monkeys have the use of small external enclosures, an indoor area with
furniture, and the freedom of the central area with its tropical vegetation when
the visitors have left.

A naturally hilly site as at San Diego Zoo lends itself to imaginative schemes
such as Tiger River Trail, a simulated river valley. At Zoo Doue-La-Fontaine
in France, old disused quarries and caves have been utilized for animal
enclosures.

Existing vegetation and rockwork can be incorporated although trees may need
protection from some animals. Essential services such as water, drainage and
electricity may already exist. These will have to be extended for any new
complex and allowance made for the provision of heating or air
conditioning. Habitats with pools will require filtration and water treatment
equipment. Many of these aspects are covered in Chapter 6.

Climate can also provide limitations. A tropical zoo can house most of the
animals outside but has to cater for high humidity, strong sunlight and flood
water from heavy rainfall. Zoos in a temperate climate have to be aware of
which animals can cope with the lowest temperatures they are liable to be
subjected to, and which would have to spend most of their time in enclosed
exhibits.
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REGULATIONS

Concurrent with the general approach to design, the regulations regarding zoos
have to be considered and will have a bearing on more specific design details.

The EC is likely to propose recommendations for standards in the near future.


Australia has an Exhibited Animals Protection Act (1986). In the USA,
zoos have to apply to the Dept. of Agriculture for a licence. To be an Associate of
the American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums
application has to be made and inspections carried out at regular intervals. The
AAZPA have published a Manual of Federal Wildlife Regulations which is a
compilation of all US wildlife legislation and the animal entities involved.

The Zoo Licensing Act 1981 in Great Britain makes it unlawful to operate a
zoo without a local authority licence. Regular inspections have to be carried out
and the inspectors require to see any records. Within the Act standards relate
to animal care, welfare, health, hygiene, veterinary facilities, post mortem
facilities, safety and security, visitor facilities and a miscellaneous items.
Attention is also drawn to other legislation of possible relevance to the operation
of the zoo, concerned with responsibility for animals, a conserving the
environment of Great Britain and a protecting native species, animal health,
catering and retail services, employment, public health and related matters.

Each zoo design situation is different and has varying constraints and
possibilities. Within the general design approach the individual elements have
to be considered. Gerald Durrell, the author and zoologist, puts the order of
priority in the design of zoos as, first, the animal, secondly, the keeper, and te
then the public.
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THE ANIMAL

BEHAVIOURAL CHARACTERISTICS

Whether it is a mixed species exhibit or a single unit, each particular animal’s


characteristics and needs have to be studied as they exist in the wild. They
may be burrowers, climbers, swimmers; they may sleep on the ground, on a
ledge or up a tree; how and where they nest, rear their young and defaecate (e.g.
beavers always defaecate in the water); what they eat and how they eat it; how
they are occupied (e.g. primates can become particularly bored).

It is also necessary to establish their social groupings and attitudes to other


groups; the maximum height, weight, strength and jumping distance of the
animal concerned; its susceptibility to heat, cold and disease from humans
(gorillas can catch the human common cold). Also attention must be paid to
how each animal makes use of its environment, the soil, water, vegetation and
geology by playing, throwing, destroying or chewing. lt has been found that
natural materials for scratching against or for use in grooming are more
sensitive for the animals than artificial structures and more conducive to
normal behaviour.

Dr H. Hediger in his books on wild animals in captivity evaluated the


movements of animals within their natural habitat. Territorial limits, flight
distance and space patterns have to be considered to assess the requirements of
each species. The flight distance, the distance by which an animal will retreat
when approached by a man or predator, is important to all animals, but
particularly to those newly from the wild. Most zoo animals have now been
reared in captivity, but it is still considered necessary to allow them a
distance of retreat.

Dr Hediger’s studies show that an animal in the wild is considerably more


restricted than people realize. Within the rainforest or savanna an animal’s
actual territory may be very limited. One type of South American monkey
was found to limit its territory to two large trees. Within an animals’
territory, which is marked out by scent or sound, they have retreat areas and
dens to which to withdraw. Fixed reference points for scent markings
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are very important and should be at the right height for the particular animal.
These can be in the form of trees, twigs or stones.

As Dr Hediger points out, the animal should regard the zoo as an area that
corresponds in all significant points to its territory, and should feel that it is
the occupier of that territory.

Each animal has its own form of locomotion, whether horizontal or vertical,
and a method of overcoming obstacles. Safety for the animal and the public
requires that the total enclosure has to be designed beyond the limit of the
capacity of the species concerned.

PARTICULAR REQUIREMENTS

When animals are out of their natural environment their behaviour can become
stereotyped as used to be seen in many old traditional zoos. The animal in
the wild spends a great deal of its time and energy in hunting for food. For the
animal in captivity, other means of stimulus have been provided. In the last 15
years this has been studied in some detail, especially in relation to primates.

Professor Markowitz of San Francisco University carried our detailed studies


and experiments on behavioural enrichment in the zoo. Animals procure their
food and maintain their agility through manipulating various types of
apparatus. Following Jane Lawick-Goodall’s studies of chimpanzees in the
wild, many zoos provide artificial termite mounds where animals manipulate
sticks and stones to procure food for themselves.

Some zoos have found that providing frequent and scattered supplies of
browsing material helps to keep the animals occupied. As polar bears naturally
claw at the ice to obtain bood, some zoos give them their fish frozen in
containers to allow the bears to use this natural instinct. These many forms of
activity can absorb the animals and provide interest to the public and therefore
the feeding and activity areas should be planned to be within view of the
public.
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The use of natural vegetation, water and rock formation will vary according to
the species of animal concerned. Some will need extra climbing structures,
nesting areas of facilities for digging. At Jersey Zoo high nesting areas for
the orang-utans, which are arboreal animals, are provided.

The greatest stimulant to the animal is achieved in the most natural way by
mixing the species. Certain species combine happily; others can only be linked
visually.

BREEDING PROGRAMMES

As the animals are normally housed in family groups, the natural habits of
the particular species in giving birth and raising young, have to be
established. Some animals need to hide away at these times and require
special facilities; sometimes the female and young have to be separated from
the male.

With the concern for the preservation of wildlife, zoos have become increasingly
involved in breeding programmes. Coordinators representing breeding
programmes recommend husbandry guidelines and regulate the transfer of
animals between zoos. This means that each zoo participating may have
animals waiting for transfer. These animals, in waiting, who are not on view
to the public, have to have good standards of accommodation, both internal and
external habitats, and added interest if they are without companions. This also
applies to quarantine areas, and areas away from the public for mothers to rear
their young.

Natural groups can be very large, such as baboons which can number as many
as 90, made up of smaller sub-groups. When the groups become too large, one
of the sub-groups is transferred elsewhere and a transfer area will be required.
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EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL ENCLOSURES

In northern climates certain species, including the human public, need to be


enclosed from the extreme elements. The basic requirements for the animals
will be the same in the enclosed areas as in the external areas. The interior
habitat requires den retreat areas.

At Krefeld and Cologne Zoos the public enter the ape house through a “jungle
experience” to see the gorillas or orang-utans in their indoor exhibit. The
animals have climbing structures, branches and other objects of interest. At
Cologne the animals can pass through overhead tunnels to reach outdoor
enclosures.

Belfast Zoo has recently opened a new primate enclosure incorporating some of
these facilities.

KEEPER FACILITIES AND HOLDING AREAS

THE KEEPER

The needs of the keeper also have to be considered. He is the custodian of the
animal or animal group and will build up a close relationship with them. This
is an important element in the welfare of the animals and therefore affects the
successful establishment of the habitat. Facilities must allow for the keeper to
keep a calm control and sense of order.

The safety of the keeper and the animals can be helped with the use of closed
circuit television for viewing the animals in both their dens and habitat.
Barriers and doors have to allow for the largest, strongest and most agile of
each species. The jointing between frames and wall, fixings and locks are all
vulnerable to strong animals. Door swings have to be considered and corridors
must be wide enough to allow the keeper to pass with a wheelbarrow and out of
reach from any grasping limbs.
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The keeper will require an area for food preparation which should include
sinks, freezer, cutting areas, storage and a place in which to kelep records.
Provision has to be made for sick animals and veterinary requirements. Some
zoos provide laboratories for research purposes. Service areas and space are
needed to allow for vehicles to deliver food, for the collection of refuse, and also
to provide access for maintenance to the habitat area

THE HOLDING AREAS

As the animals spend quite long periods in their den areas, these must be seen
as an extension to the outdoor exhibit. For the animal, the two areas make up
their whole environment. Both areas need to incorporate features of interest as
well as basic requirements such as nesting boxes or nesting material, a shelf
or raised area for sleeping, climbing facilities, and maybe a pool.

Dens need to be a comfortable size for the animal and yet provide an element of
restraint. It is important that the housing is dry and draught-free with
adequate natural daylight and viewing panels, particularly for primates.
Every part of the holding area should be visible to the keeper. It may be
necessary to allow for quarantine, transfer areas and squeeze cages where the
animals are contained for injection and inspection purposes. Some primate
housing is a complete network of cages and connecting corridors giving great
flexibility.

Fire detectors are important as early warning is necessary to prevent panic.


Heating, lighting and ventilation have to be considered and will vary
according to the climate and according to the latest information on
husbandry. Gorillas in northern climates were always considered susceptible
to cold weather and disease, and were housed indoors behind glass. lt is now
realized that as long as their housing is kept between 11-15 °C (see Using
Outside Areas for Tropical Primates in the Northern Hemisphere by W. B.
Mager and Tine Griede) the animals can spend much more time in the open
air. They are much healthier and even enjoy playing with the snow.
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All the materials need to be strong and maintenance-free. Holding buildings


are usually constructed of brick or reinforced concrete, sometimes plastered
and sealed with an epoxy paint. Floors need to be easily washed down but
cannot be slippery, particularly for hoofed animals. Sloping floors should be
laid and require adequate drainage channel with strainers for waste. There
should be no protruding objects, and poisonous paints or preservatives must be
avoided. Divisions are often constructed of steel mesh which allows for cross
ventilation and ensures that the animals are in visual contact with each other.

THE PUBLIC

General facilities relating to visitors will be the same as for theme and leisure
parks, discussed in Chapter 6. Besides the general circulation routes a whole
system of service roads and areas have to be considered, particularly for zoos
because of regular feeding and cleaning out.

Adequate information and clear signs are very important to the public to
prevent confusion. General information should be clearly displayed giving
details of animals, times of feeding or any other special events. Some zoos
have an amphitheatre for special shows and talks. It should be clear to the
visitor exactly where the routes lead and what facilities they will find on those
routes. Well designed seating, refuse bins, lighting and other furniture give a
sense of order.

Food outlets, shops and toilets should be grouped together at intervals or


intersections on the main circulation routes, and generally away from
animals that might be fed. This allows for secondary routes leading to the
habitat zones to become encompassed by the vegetation and geological features
as a prelude to the habitat. The vegetation and screening also make it possible
to create a variety of viewing positions.

It may be necessary to provide shelter from rain or hot sun at strategic


positions without obscuring the views of the habitat. This has been achieved at
the Mountain Woodlands Habitat, Arizona-Sonora Museum, where ramada
shelter also incorporates a cage for birds of the region. Simple and clear
information can be positioned at these points so that full concentration can be
given to the animals and their habitats.
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A zoo will have achieved a great deal if it can stimulate the public to have a
sense of enquiry and to further their interest in wildlife and the environment.
If each habitat area presents an exciting and different environmental
experience, it will help the visitor to go from one to another with eager
anticipation.

THE COMPLETE ENVIRONMENT

It is the bringing together of all these factors that make up the complete
environment. The animals’ needs, the keeper's facilities, the public pathways
and viewing positions all have to be integrated within the structure of rocks,
vegetation and water that simulate the natural world.

In the wild, animals are contained by physical barriers such as mountains,


rivers and forests and also through their own territorial constraints. In the zoo
context, other forms of barrier have to be provided as the psychological barrier of
territorial restraint cannot be relied upon to contain the animals.

BARRIERS AND VIEWING

Barriers in zoos are usually in the form of a fence, wall, glass screen or wet
and dry moats.

Visitors’ viewing positions are usually related to the animal barriers. Designed
together with the vegetation, unobtrusive barriers create the illusions and
vistas that help to immerse the visitor in a particular habitat.

The one-sided dry moat can be used for the visitor to obtain an uninterrupted
viw across to the animals. The sloping side allows the animal to walk into the
moat. The walls can be treated as a river bank or rocky outcrop to soften the
edge.

The water moat can be the most acceptable visually, especially if it is planted
and designed to look like a river bank or stream. It has to be sloping on one
side and not so deep that an animal might drown.
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The two-sided dry moat first used by Carl Hagenbeck is an effective way of
dividing different species without a barrier being visible to the public. They do
however take up a great deal of space which can prejudice the size of the usable
space for the animal. The two-sided dry moat makes a good barrier when
dividing groups of animals that would naturally live in adjacent habitats in
the wild. These are best used away from the public and between enclosures.
Vegetation and planting can be used to reduce the effect of a straight-sided or
double moat.

A two-sided trench and fence can also be used in this context. It is best if
planted with natural thorny vegetation so that the animals do not stay down
in the trench. Electric wires and fences are used extensively to deter animals
from molesting vegetation and climbing rocky areas.

Mesh barriers are sometimes necessary for complete enclosures. Some woven
stainless steel mesh is fairly inconspicuous. Also unobtrusive piano wire may
be used for sections of enclosures.

Glass allows the visitor the closest proximity to the animal and prevents the
transfer of disease or objects. It does, however, have problems of
reflection and requires regular cleaning. This is particularly applicable to
marine animal exhibits, referred to in Chapter 5. Glass also denies the visitor
appreciation of sounds and smells which are part of the characteristics of the
animal. Domes can provide viewing from within a habitat such as the meerkat
enclosure at Drusillas Zoo Park.

The species of animal, its group size and the relationship to other groups in
adjacent habitats will help to decide on the nature of the barrier. The visitors’
viewing position will be governed by the animals' activity areas within the
habitat, where there are things to climb on or water to play in. Providing
heating under prominent rocks can encourage an animal to remain in view of
the public, or be brought close to the viewing area. It is important that a degree
of privacy and separateness from the public is maintained, through carefully
positioned screening, as this will encourage more natural behaviour among the
animal groups.
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In his development plan for Melbourne Zoo, David Hancocks, Director of the
Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum and an architect, gives general viewing
guidelines to help the visitor and animals to become immersed in the same
landscape. He suggests that by providing several selected viewing positions a
sense of anticipation is created for the visitor, and the animals are given areas
for retreat. The animals should not feel surrounded or looked down upon. The
public should not look across to other visitors or be aware of other parts of the
zoo.

VEGETATION, ROCKWORK AND WATER

The design and construction of the simulated rockwork is a specialist subject


and is covered in more detail in Chapter 6.

The rockwork, vegetation and water features all play an important part in the
creation of a naturalistic environment. Where possible, the relevant
landscaping should start at the approaches to the particular exhibit and be
continued into the various viewing areas. These considerations must never be
at the expense of the welfare of the animal. The most successful enclosures are
those that allow the animals the greatest scope to develop and lead healthy and
varied lives in the most natural way.

The use of natural vegetation within zoo enclosures is also a specialist field.
Each animal has different needs and habits and certain plants can be food to
one species, harmful to another and may be ignored by others. In an article on
zoo horticulture (IZYb 1990, No. 29, 3-6), Mark K. Wourms of The Bronx Zoo
explains the many roles played by zoo horticulture in the modern zoo,
including screening holding buildings and barriers.

Many zoos have carried out their own experiments and have compiled lists of
suitable plants; others have their own nurseries for the replacement of trees and
shrubs. Some have made a detailed analysis of the plants used in their exhibits
showing those that thrived and those that have not survived. The landscaping
and use of vegetation requires detailed study and will vary according to the
species of animal using the habitat. Some need open landscape, whilst others,
such as gorillas, need plenty of shade.
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Some trees within a habitat may need protection from destruction. Depending
on the size and reach of the animal, the lower part of a tree trunk can be
protected by such materials as wire mesh, electric fencing, or wrapped in
fibreglass to simulate natural bark.

The careful positioning of rocks, trees and vegetation can give illusions of
space and provide vistas and screening. It is important to allow for adequate
access for the removal or handling of large trees.

The use of water in waterfalls, streams and deep water pools all need to be
designed as part of the character of the natural habitat. A blending of artificial
and natural materials can be used. The edges of pools can be softened by the
use of gunite to simulate natural banks. Planter pockets within the bank can
hold natural vegetation. Each exhibit usually has its own separate recycled
supply of water. This is important to avoid the transmission of disease.

The otter enclosure at Krefeld Zoo provides a naturalistic environment


incorporating many of these features (see over).

PARTICULAR ENCLOSURES

Most zoos are concerned that their exhibits should reflect their care for the
welfare of the animals and that they should be seen as part of a habitat or
region.

It is not possible to give a complete survey of the many excellent exhibits that
have been built all over the world. The particular enclosures illustrated are a
selection of some of the ways in which zoos are aiming to promote a concern for
wildlife. Some are single species, others are mixed exhibits.

The majority of zoos aim to open a new exhibit every two to three years. This is
partly to maintain public interest and partly to upgrade habitats in the light
of new discoveries in animal behaviour and ideas in husbandry. The following
examples were built at different times and reflect the current ideas at the time.
Each zoo has different financial considerations, site conditions, philosophy
and existing buildings. Each has to be seen in the light of its own particular
circumstances.
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WOODLAND PARK ZOO, SEATTLE

In 1976 Woodland Park Zoo established their new zoo concept. The overall
plan for the zoo was to provide naturalistic habitats for the animals within
guidelines set out under education, conservation, research and recreation.

The plan was to divide the area into bioclimatic zones for animals and plants.
Under zoo director David Hancocks, two of the earliest projects to be carried out
were the African Savanna exhibit and a new gorilla enclosure. Both were to be
forerunners in the establishment of natural habitat enclosures.

THE ELEPHANT FOREST

The latest development at Woodland Park Zoo, a 5 acre Elephant Forest


Exhibit, was designed by architects Jones and Jones of Seattle. The project
architects travelled to Thailand to obtain first-hand information on the
animals’ needs in the wild as well as how they have been involved in 3000
years of Thai culture. The three aspects of the relationship of the Thai people
with the Asian elephant have been conveyed in the new exhibit. Three 11 ft high
posts, the maximum height of an Asian elephant, at each side of the entrance
represent the elephant in the wild, the elephant as a working animal and the
elephant in Thai religious culture.

A winding path through tropical foliage gives the visitor a sense of expectancy.
In Thai culture landscapes were designed to reveal vistas in stages. This
surprise element has been introduced in the overall plan. From the forest
vegetation, which has been made up of over 12,000 plants representing 159
species, including a large collection of bamboo, the visitor arrives to an
overview of a clearing. Elephants in the wild create clearings when destroying
vegetation for their food. A stream running into a waterfall feeds a 60,000
gallon pool where the elephants can bathe. A small amphitheatre overlooking
the pool allows the visitor to watch the elephants enjoying the water.
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Continuing around the circuitous path to the logging camp, the visitor is then
able to see the elephants at work. For over 3000 years Thai people have used
elephants to help in the logging of teak. Demonstrations are held to show the
relationship of the handler and elephant in displaying the techniques used in
logging.

Beyond the logging camp a group of buildings representing a Thai village


provide an interpretive centre and a pavilion for shelter. The steeply pitched
overlapping layers of roof, extended ridgepoles and decorative features of the
buildings have been designed in the mid-nineteenth-century tradition of
Northern Thailand.

The same traditional construction has been used in the House of Elephants, a
large structure in the form of a temple which houses the elephants. It is
designed as a place of honour for the elephants and their stewards. The design
conveys the respect and reverence the Thai people have for the elephant in their
culture.

The building includes holding areas where an individual animal can be


isolated, a bathing pool that is also used as a maternity ward, keepers’
facilities and a ventilation system allowing eight air exchanges an
hour. A cushioned floor surface reduces foot and joint problems for the
elephants. Bollards placed at strategic intervals keep the elephants within their
area and are designed to resemble those forming the royal elephant stockade in
Thailand.

The whole provides a spacious and well planned holding building for the
elephants, aiming to give the animal dignity in the eyes of the visitor as it
would in Thai culture. This exhibit opens a new concept in the design of
animal enclosures. It not only displays the elephant in its natural habitat to
the public but also shows the bond that can develop between man and an
animal from the wild.
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ZOO ATLANTA, GEORGIA

In 1984 the City of Atlanta Department of Parks, Recreation and Cultural


Affairs appointed Dr Terry L. Maple to consider possible improvements to the
zoo. Dr Maple's philosophy stressed the importance of relating the design of
exhibits to the animals’ natural habitat and behaviour.

The first stage in the new plan was for a new gorilla and orang-utan
enclosure. The architect and curator were sent to the West African rainforests
to make detailed studies of the gorilla’s wild habitat, to assess their needs, and
the type of environment necessary to keep them healthy and occupied. The aim
of Jon Coe, the architect, and the rest of the team was to provide a habitat that
encapsulated as closely as possible the total environment in which the animal
had evolved. A 4 acre wooded hillside area of the zoo provided an ideal site for
the new habitat.

THE GORILLAS OF CAMEROON

The exhibit contains four habitats for different family groups, divided by deep
moats. Each island habitat contains high points from which the gorillas can
view adjacent groups, or they can be used to retreat behind. Existing trees and
additional planting have created a simulation of the forests of Cameroon. It
was decided to keep the public viewing to the lower end of the site so that the
animals are in the superior position. The visitors are able to view from various
locations and have to look carefully for the animals, as they would if looking
for animals in the wild. An interpretative centre at the lower end of the site has
a large glass wall looking up to the habitat. Heating units have been placed
under the area outside this wall to encourage the animals to come close to the
visitors.

The four habitats, covering areas of 0.66, 0.33, 0.33 and 0.08 acre are divided
by moats 12 ft deep and 12 ft wide. Where two habitats are adjacent, a double
moat has been constructed. The moats have been lined with hot wire using
fibreglass rods 3 ft high with four strands evenly spaced. Exhibits have been
designed to be interconnecting to allow for the gorillas to be moved to a
different habitat.
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Initially, the large trees on the site were wrapped with chain link and hot wired
to 6 ft above ground so that the animals would not peel off the bark. Now all
trees are wrapped in fibreglass to simulate the natural tree. Simulated
rockwork around streams and waterfalls and outcropping on the sites together
with dead-tree climbers strapped to the ground give the gorillas a very realistic
environment.

The old feline and primate buildings at the top of the site have been renovated
and extended to provide indoor quarters for the gorillas and orang-utans and a
new research facility. The building has been camouflaged by rockwork and
murals which gives the appearance of a rock outcropping and natural
vegetation. The rockwork has been constructed to simulate the exact colours
and formation of that in the Cameroon.

The gorilla holding is 7700 sq. ft in area and consists of 15 rooms and two
day rooms of 360 sq-ft and 740 sq. ft. Three metabolic squeeze cages (each an
8 ft x 6 ft enclosure with a movable wall) are included and one for the
quarantine area. Transfer tunnels (3 ft x 3 ft) connect the cages and are above
the keeper routes. Numbered and colour coded hydraulic doors are fitted to all
rooms, transfers and habitats. Old bars to the cages were removed and replaced
by 2 in x 2 in steel welded wire mesh.

SAN DIEGO ZOO, CALIFORNIA

San Diego Zoo opened in 1916 when a group of friends formed the Zoological
Society of San Diego. They started the collection with the few remaining
animals from the menagerie of the 1915 Panama Pacific International
Exposition. The 100 acre hilly site provided an opportunity to enclose the
animals with moats and ravines. The natural scrub land was planted with
trees and shrubs which now provide very necessary shade to both visitors and
animals. The gardens are well known for their botanical collection. The
Society realized that many species of plants as well as animals were in danger
of becoming extinct.
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The zoo aims to encourage the visitor to see the importance of preserving the
rainforests and other environments by grouping animals, birds and reptiles
together to simulate their natural habitats. These are being grouped within ten
bio-climatic zones.

THE AFRICAN KOPJE

The habitat first to be constructed on these lines was the African Kopje
designed by Jones and Jones, Seattle, opened in 1986. It is a very realistic
simulation of one of these outcrops of volcanic lava which are regular features
in the grasslands of Africa. These rocky outcrops have developed their own
ecosystem with a variety of animal and plant life.

Sixty-four man-made boulders and 15 tons of natural stone were constructed


on the half-acre site. Planting has been carefully studied to re-create this
environment; many of the plants used were those indigenous to the African
grasslands. A rock basin providing water for the animals and simulated
termite mounds have helped to create a very realistic habitat for the
klipspringers, rock hyraxes and dwarf mongoose. Adjacent to the Kopje a large
aviary houses Verreaux’s eagles, the natural predators of these animals.

TIGER RIVER

An existing canyon was re-contoured to create an Asian tropical rainforest


exhibit. The visitor walks down a winding pathway simulating a dry river bed
with the banks constructed in sprayed concrete and surrounded with lush
tropical plants. The 3 acre site is a sequence of 10 exhibits interspersed with
pools, waterfalls and interpretative display areas. Each pool is serviced
independently with recirculated water. One hundred animals live in the
environment and include Sumatran tigers, tapirs, fishing cats and
tarsiers, with crocodiles, python and Chinese water dragons in the pool area.
Many varieties of birds make up the habitat.

A computerized irrigation system gives a very fine mist effect and provides a
rainforest humidity. Over 5000 plants have been used to create this exhibit.
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The viewing areas have been designed to provide protection from the hot sun.
The design of the timber canopied structures is based on traditional
Indonesian architecture. The architects for Tiger Trail were Jones and Jones,
Seattle.

SINGAPORE ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS

Singapore is a relatively new zoo which was opened in 1973. The government
allocated 90 ha of natural forest, enclosed on most sides by a reservoir, to be a
recreational and educational amenity for the people of Singapore, as well as for
the visiting tourist. Twenty-eight hectares of the land have been developed so
far, and the underlying philosophy is to display animals in breeding groups,
mixing species where practical and housing them in enclosures resembling
their natural habitat. Singapore Zoo is known as the open zoo. All barriers
used to enclose the animals are positioned discreetly, using wet or dry moats or
are concealed in some way using well placed planting. In this way the
animals appear to have little visible means of constraint in an uninterrupted
landscape.

In the layout of the zoo as a whole, planting has been an important element.
The natural forest trees and botanical plants provide an ideal setting for the
animals’ habitats.

To help the local population to understand something of rare and endangered


species and the threat to their environment, Singapore has a special enclosure
to house animals on loan for short periods. This helps to raise revenue for
conservation programmes.

The latest exhibits at Singapore Zoo are designed with more casual and wild
surroundings. The aim is to take the visitor through a “jungle” or to go on
“safari” to see animals in natural family groups. Because of dense foliage and
the careful placement of rockwork the animals can hide and visitors have to
look for the animals as they would in the wild. The Primate Kingdom for the
smaller primates, which opened in June 1991 has been designed on this
principle.
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Children's World, which includes a large range of domestic animals, contact/


petting, animal rides and play equipment was opened in November 1991.

SEA-LION AND PENGUIN ENCLOSURE

This exhibit, which was opened in March 1991, contains pools for sea-lions,
seals, pelican and penguins, an additional enclosed cool area for penguins, an
area of terraced seating and a selection of well defined informative panels and
devices. The whole provides a complete complex in which to study these aquatic
animals. Glass laminate, 1.75 in thick, has been used along one side of the
pools to allow for underwater viewing. The laminate consists of two layers of
glass with a plastic interlay.

INTERNATIONAL WILDLIFE CONSERVATION PARK, NEW YORK (formerly BRONX ZOO)

The New York Zoological Society operates numerous wildlife facilities,


including the International Wildlife Conservation Park, New York. The vision
of the Society is to preserve nature and wild creatures for future generations,
using research, education and environmental action to find viable alternatives
to extinction.

The centres under the auspices of the Society are sanctuaries for wildlife.
Breeding programmes for endangered species are carried out to build up
numbers in order to supply some animals to other zoos (with the same vision)
and also to return other animals to the wild.

In 265 acres of undulating parkland the International Wildlife Conservation


Park provides the people of New York with the opportunity to see over 4000
animals in very spacious surroundings. In recent years exhibits have been
designed to simulate natural habitats, to encourage visitors to associate
certain species with specific environments.
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JUNGLEWORLD

In 1985 an indoor exhibit was opened to house four habitats, an Indonesian


scrub forest, a mangrove forest, a lowland rainforest and mountain forest
from South Asia. This ambitious scheme covering nearly 1 acre and rising to
a height of 55 ft, was designed to take visitors on raised walkways through the
different environments. Mammals, birds and fish are grouped together as in
the wild without any apparent means of restraint. Natural barriers, moats,
ravines, water and glass are used to contain the animals without restricting
vision for visitors or animals.

On the visitor path through Jungleworld each habitat is preceded by a gallery


giving information on the particular habitat and which displays its smaller
creatures in individual exhibits.

The design of the features in the habitats has resulted from detailed studies of
the natural environments. Rockwork, constructed in concrete and fibreglass
reinforced concrete, simulates sandstone, limestone, lava and granite. Large
trees (one 50 ft high and 8 ft in diameter) and vines have been formed from
carved and cast epoxy and latex on fibreglass and steel. Each landscape has
been planted with a variety of natural vegetation relating to the
specific habitats. Hundreds of species of tropical plants have been used. Some
of the man-made tree trunks provide planters for the natural growth, so
that each habitat is a careful blending of natural and man-made features.
Five waterfalls, one 40 ft high, a system of streams and pools that circulates
2000 gallons of water per minute, help to create these replicas of the natural
world.

The habitats provide environments for many species of Asian animals,


including Indian gharials, langurs, gibbons, Malayan tapir, black leopards,
hornbills and laughing thrushes. Throughout the exhibit the structure of the
building has been de-emphasized by careful sight lines, planting, rockwork
or large naturalistic murals. The visitor is unaware of any enclosing walls,
beams or glazing. Two separate systems are used to create cloud effects and
provide the necessary humidity. The visitor wanders along 783 ft of pathway
and is able to experience a very realistic impression of wildlife in tropical
settings. Signs and displays encourage study and emphasize the importance
of preserving the rainforests and their wealth of wildlife.
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Education is at primary goal throughout Jungleworld-along the public


walkways and in particular behind the scene areas. Junglelab, a unique
observation post classroom, has been constructed above the level of the walkway.
This research area is approached from a staircase concealed in the artificial rock
cliffs and the whole lab is screened by planting. Regular classes are held in the
room where studies are carried out on the animals and their behaviour, both
within their family groupings and their interaction with other species

Jungleworld covers an area of 37.380 sq. ft, the rainforest area covering half
an acre. The overall scheme was designed by William Cornway and the staff of
the New York Zoological Society. Murals were painted by Nick Wilson and
David Rock. Simulated rockwork, trees and other man-made elements were
constructed by Larson and Company, Tucson. The total cost of the project was
$9.5 million ($4.1 million donated by a trustee).

THE ETHIOPIAN BABOON RESERVE

The most recent exhibit to be opened has continued the Society’s policy to
exhibit groups of animals within naturalistic habitats. These are linked with
others from the same geographical area. The Ethiopian baboon reserve was
opened in 1990, and together with the existing Serengeti plains exhibit, makes
up 22 acres of the Africa section. The idea is to immerse people in a replicated
wild landscape.

The new exhibit, on a 5 acre hillside site, is made up of three sections. The first
is approached along a path and over a stream through simulated rolling
grassland to a thatched roofed field station from which the visitor can look up
the grassy slope of the spacious hillside site. lt is the largest primate exhibit in
an American Zoo and is large enough for the animals to disappear from sight
and then reappear. Telescopes are provided for viewing and interactive graphics
explain the characteristics of the two troops of gelada baboons, rock hyrax,
African waterfowl and Nubian Ibex, which live together in the enclosure as they
would in the wild. The rocky outcrops which conceal the animal night holding
areas, create a very realistic setting in which to study these endangered
species.
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From the held station a winding path takes the visitor through ornamental
grasses, African wild flowers and shrubs to a re-created archeological dig.
Explanatory panels show the simultaneous evolution of the baboons and
humans for over 3 million years.

The path continues to the third section, the African market. This is a
reconstruction of a Somba village in West Africa. The buildings have been
constructed to simulate the circular mud houses with thatched roofs. The walls
have been decorated with traditional West African geometric designs as
decorative features. The buildings in the market house a shop, dining facilities
and a classroom laboratory. The latter has a unique position overlooking the
stream and hillside reserve where the animals can be observed and studied.

BURGERS BUSH-ARNHEM ZOO, HOLLAND

Arnhem Zoo has recently opened a large enclosed re-creation of tropical


rainforest. The temperature and atmosphere simulate the rainforest in such
detail that it encourages the visitor to study the complex as a whole ecosystem.

Burgers Bush was opened in June 1988 as a total habitat to house a complete
ecosystem. The concept of Director A. J. Van Hooff was for visitors to be able to
experience being in a tropical rainforest, and also to study how each component
of a rainforest interacts with another. The enclosure is 150 m long, 100 m wide
and 20 m high and covers an area of 1.5 ha. The temperature is kept within a
range of 20-30 °C.

The habitat was established as part of a larger complex to provide an attraction


for visitors in winter and to be able to include all animals and plants that
need heat in the cold months. Its purpose is also to be educational and show a
habitat where animals, birds and plants are interdependent. It includes a
waterfall, “river” and 1600 species of plants and 70 species of animals which
include birds, insects, fish, reptiles, amphibians and mammals but excludes
large animals as they would destroy the vegetation and require barriers. Most
of the animals, which are fruit- or insect-eating varieties, are free roaming.
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The area is divided into three regions: South America, Africa and South East
Asia, incorporating trees, plants and animals of each region. The system was
built up slowly to see how each species fitted into the system. The whole requires
expert management and control. As the vegetation grows taller and the plants
start to flower at a greater height a raised walkway will be added so that the
diversity of a complete forest stratification will be appreciated. At present three
routes take the visitor through the environment. A 6 m wide road to allow for
trucks and wheelchairs, a secondary more circuitous route 3.5 m wide and a
tertiary road on sand which takes the visitor over rocks and fallen trees and
through a bog.

As in the wild, the visitor has to look and listen and wait to discover all that is
to be found at Burgers Bush. It is a place in which to study and explore.

THE BUILDING

The rainforest is completely enclosed in one large tent-like structure.

The canopy is made up of three layers of Hostaflon ET film (texlon panels)


constructed by Texlon Company of Bremen, West Germany. Each layer of
plastic is separated by constantly circulated air. The air is pumped by a low
pressure pneumatic system, with a working pressure regulated automatically
between 300 and 500 Pa according to the time of year. The outer layer of the
Hostaflon is 150 microns thick, the middle 50 microns and the bottom 100
microns. The material is very strong and will withstand a snow load. It allows
for high transmission of light, provides very good insulation and no algae or
fungi can adhere to it.

The 765 3 m X 6 m roofing panels, some of which can be opened, make up the
canopy. The ends of the panels are held to the roofing structure by means of a
patented aluminium section. The framework of suspended lattice girders is
held in tension by external pylons and cables.

Within the building six separate water systems control the waterfall, rivers
and pools. The heavy showers necessary for the vegetation are provided by 64
sprinkler points. These are at present fitted to high poles, but are going to be
moved and will be fixed under the roof.
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Designed by architect Buro Wiegerinck Architecten Co, Arnhem. Design


Engineers: ABT Adviesbureau voor Bouwtechniek Co. Steel Construction Co:
Bouw's Staalbouw Co, Barneveld. Main Contractor: BAM de Kinkelder
Aanneming Mij., Arnhem. The rockwork: by Boem Company, Germany.

CHAPTER V
MARINE ANIMAL PARKS AND AQUARIA

It is the objective of the aquarist to reveal the marine life of a particular location
and the amazing range of marine animals, from small colourful tropical fish
to massive predator sharks, from basking seals to active otters and dolphins.
The methods of water treatment, heating and cooling, circulation, water
analysis and the simulation of underwater scenery have all reinforced the idea
of re-creating a particular underwater habitat. The most important technical
problem in marine animal enclosures is the water element which provides the
life support media for the animals. The improvement in glass and acrylic used
for enclosing aquaria tanks and marine animal pools in the form of panels,
domes and acrylic tunnel construction, has enabled the visitor to have a close
experience of aquatic life.

Marine animal parks such as Sea Life Park (Hawaii), Ocean Park (Hong
Kong) and the Sea World parks in the USA can attract visitors (and thus
revenue) by a display of marine animals being fed, of their aquatic skills
and the interaction between man and mammal. The costs of creating an
independent aquarium are more difficult to finance. Many of the larger
aquaria have been established, fortunately, through generous sponsorship or
public funding, whereas commercial enterprises such as the Sea Life Centres
located in seaside towns in Britain are dependent on successful marketing to
satisfy investment conditions.
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WATER MANAGEMENT

Most marine animal parks or aquaria are located near the sea to gain the
advantage of an unlimited supply of sea water. The quality of the water in the
tanks is maintained by an “open system” in which sea water is passed
through the tanks and returned to the sea. However, some establishments,
either because of their inland location or because the sea water is not usable,
resort to a “closed system” in which the same water is circulated. The water is
passed through the tanks and a filtration/cleansing system. Additional water
is added to allow for evaporation and loss through routine maintenance.

Water treatment must remove animal wastes, prevent the growth of harmful
micro-organisms, provide an environment relatively free of toxic chemicals
and maintain water clarity for viewing. It is necessary to control salinity,
hardness, pollutants and algal growth. It is also necessary to manage
turbidity, colour and light levels.

Filter systems include sand and gravel filters, high rate sand filters,
diatomaceous earth filters, biological and ultra-violet filters, all of which have
a role in water management. Treatment to eliminate micro organisms and
algae include chlorine, ozone, ultra violet radiation, copper salts and protein
skimmers. Each species requires a specialist designed system. For example, to
achieve the high level of reduction in nutrients required for corals, algae are
used as a filter system at the Great Barrier Reef Aquarium.

VIEWING PANELS

Viewing Panels are constructed from thick acrylic or laminated tempered


glass. Sizes are limited by the manufacturing process.

Acrylic is versatile and can be shaped into dome and cylindrical sections.
Dome windows that project into the tank provide an intimate fish-eye view of
the aquaria; cylindrical tanks can provide attractive features, particularly
effective when housing shoaling fish; tunnel forms provide an underwater
experience. Acrylic can be scratched by pinipeds and turtles but it is a good
insulator to cope with temperature differentials (such as hot humid or cold
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water exhibits) that would otherwise promote condensation. Acrylic can be


assembled with mullions, sealant joints or with bonded joints. The latter can
create an almost invisible joint, but the lack of structural mullions would
require the panels being designed to a high degree of safety. Panel sizes range
from window panels 24 ft long by 8 ft high and 8 in thick (at the Living Sea,
Epcot), seamless cylindrical tanks 6 ft in diameter (Monterey Bay) to
tunnels 65 ft long, 5 ft in radius (Great Barrier Reef). Manufacturers of
acrylic components include Reynolds Polymer Technology Inc. (California),
Mitsubishi (Japan) and Sea Life Centres Technical Ltd (UK).

Glass panels can be assembled in mullions or sealant joints. Glass exhibits


require colour filtration to compensate for the greenish tinge. Where there is
the likelihood of condensation, glass panels have to incorporate an
intermediate space filled with inert gas or the space should be subjected to air
movement to remove condensation.

Both glass and acrylic are affected by fire. Acrylic is flammable, and glass
will crack. It is important to keep the materials away from flames and high
temperature sources such as floodlights and heaters.

AQUARIA

As the range of marine life that can be exhibited is extensive, it would be


difficult to refer to aquaria requirements of each species. However, most
modern aquaria, rather than being a series of remote display tanks, endeavour
to provide a close view of of the animals and to include relevant waterscaping.
The tanks need to be regularly replenished with new stock. More recent designs
endeavour to re-create a complete aquatic ecosystem in which there would be
natural replenishment.

In an aquarium complex with several display areas, the sequence of exhibits


and information must be easily understood by visitors. The sequence may
combine large tank displays housing a variety of animals, with small tanks
showing aspects of marine life in detail. Biological information can be
provided by interactive devices. The selection of exhibits may be devoted to the
marine life of the immediate coast or a more abstract theme such as “life
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dependent on water”. Each arrangement requires a cohesive theme or “story


line” to assist the visitor.

The colours of tropical marine life including fish and coral; the effervescent
sparkle of shoaling fish; the rockwork necessary for fish to escape predators, to
accommodate eels and to support vegetation; the scale of predator sharks that
require space for a continuous swim-glide existence - each situation requires
specific water conditions and temperature as well as the appropriate water
clarity and lighting to enhance viewing.

The method of viewing varies from individual dome windows projecting into
the water spare, to large acrylic panels as at Monterey Bay Okinawa. There are
also walk-through tunnels (constructed of acrylic), and underwater
observation areas, as the domed space at the Seattle Aquarium. The display of
supplementary or introductory information using life-size models, graphics
or multi-media shows requires correct planning to relate to the live displays.

At the same time there is an opportunity to explore the sea shore. Some animals,
including ray fish, are not unwilling to be touched by humans. Touch
(tanks) pools are an important source of information and provide (supervised)
contact with marine life for young visitors.

Aquaria range in size from a gallery of delicate picture window displays of


colourful tropical fish as at Ocean Park, Hong Kong, where each display is like
an exquisite Japanese print, to the extensive display of marine life as shown at
the John Shedd aquarium in Chicago or the Aquarium of the Americas in New
Orleans. Marine animals require adequate space to avoid stress, to provide
territorial space and to allow normal physical movement. The oval tank at
Baltimore and the hourglass tank at Monterey allow space for the swim-glide
activity of the sharks. The size of aquaria tanks is governed by factors
including cost, range of species accommodated and water treatment system.
The walk-through predator tank in Shark Encounter, Sea World, Florida holds
660,000 gallons and includes a 125 ft long acrylic tunnel. The walk-through
tank at Sea Life Centre, Hastings, is approximately 38 ft x 25 ft; the massive
aquarium tank at Epcot, Florida is 200 ft in diameter and 2'7ft deep.
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AQUARIUM LIGHTNING

The lighting of aquaria requires particular attention. Obtrusive light sources


and glare can destroy the vision of an exclusive underwater world. The light
should be hidden and directed away from the viewing of visitors. For tanks
combining underwater tunnel viewing with side panel viewing lighting is
more complex. If it is the intention to suggest a natural underwater habitat, the
appearance through the water of other visitors, or the reflection of signs and
light sources will destroy the impression.

In re-lighting the two deep water tanks at the Sydney Aquarium, Thorn
Lighting, with lighting consultants Richard Curtis, compiled a new lighting
brief. The fittings selected were Thorn 1 kW sealed beam sword light with a
marine grade diecast aluminium body, and a compact source daylight (CID)
lamp with a colour temperature of 5500 K. Over the shark tank, eight
floodlights were mounted 4 m above the water, and were angled to optimize
light penetration, and a combination of prismatic front lens attachments were
used. By locating the floodlights at the opposite end of the tank from the public
entrance (the best position for maintenance), the lighting gives the impression
of a great volume and depth of water with shafts of light penetrating to the sea
bed, also providing a variety of intensity of light on the sharks.

In the large fish tank, three floodlights with prismatic lens were mounted 2 m
above a (maintenance) pier located immediately over the public entrance, and
five floodlights were positioned at the opposite end of the tank. The
illumination projects through the slats of the pier decking, producing a pattern
of thin lines of light. The water movement also reflects the lighting off the
curved underwater tunnel, splitting the beams into the full spectrum.

Since the Brighton Aquarium designed by Phillip Gosse was established,


techniques for displaying and explaining marine life have developed to provide
a vivid experience. ln Britain, Sea Life Centres provide an informative picture
of marine animal life for tourists and school parties visiting some principal
coastal resorts. The Monterey Bay Aquarium, California and the Great Barrier
Reef Aquarium, that Queensland are both closely associated with and
represent the marine life of the immediate coast. The Texas Aquarium
concentrates on the marine life of the Bay of Texas including new habitats
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created from the base of oil rigs. The National Aquarium at Baltimore,
Maryland conducts the visitor on a journey through various aspects of the
water habitat, from mountain stream to deep water fish. A marine mammal
pavilion has been added. The Aquarium of the Americas at New Orleans has a
theme embracing the marine life of the two Oceans surrounding the Americas.

SEA LIFE CENTRES, BRITAIN

Sea Life Centres (Holdings) is a British company that has established


commercially funded and operated sea life aquaria in many seaside resort
locations in Britain. The first centre was opened in Loch Creran, Oban on the
west coast of Scotland in 1979 by Golden Sea Produce Ltd, a fish farming
company.

Since 1979, the company has grown from attracting 60,000 visitors to one
centre in the first year to a total of 1. 75 million visitors in 1990 to the eight
centres then established.

The centres are directed towards the tourists in seaside holiday towns and
emphasize the opportunity for visitors and children to explore the world of the
sea. Most are concerned with coldwater fish but the centres at Oban and St
Andrews are also concerned with rescuing and rehabilitating seals. Displays
re-create natural marine environments and most centres have acrylic tunnels
to provide underwater viewing.

In the case of Brighton, Sea Life Centres had the task of refurbishing a historic
and listed Victorian aquarium, originally one of the first aquaria in Britain.
Sea Life Centre at Hastings is located close to the beach harbour and the net
houses of the old town. The sequence of the tour through the aquarium starts
with a lobby (with gift shop and restaurant) leading to the first exhibits
showing marine life in shallow pools and tidal water. Visitors then pass into a
central space with a touch pool lined on two sides with raked seating to allow
for educational presentations. Visitors then move down to an underwater
tunnel that passes through a tank with shark and ray fish. The final space
has further displays before visitors return to the entrance hall, shop and
restaurant.
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The Sea Life Centre at Scarborough located at the north end of North Bay is
some distance from the popular area of the harbour and castle. The location
encouraged the adoption of a distinctive building profile. The three white
pyramid roof forms rising above a flat beach site are clearly identifiable.

The visitor enters a spacious foyer with a gift shop at one side. The sequence of
the tour is not dissimilar to the Hastings Centre, however, the 30 ft height of
the building permits a first-floor restaurant and multi-level viewing over the
ray fish touch tank, the education corner and the large pool with tunnel
viewing. The space creates an atmosphere of observation and enquiry and
provides a view of other visitors involved in exploring the touch pool.

Sea Life Centres has also extended its activities to technical services,
supplying acrylic tunnels, viewing windows, preformed tanks and biological
services (concerned with life support systems), marine life
supply and educational services.

MONTEREY BAY AQUARIUM, CALIFORNIA

Cannery Row, Monterey, gained fame though its spectacular harvests of


sardines which peaked in 1945. The harvests subsequently failed leaving a
line of disused waterfront cannery buildings. In 1978 the large Hovden
Cannery was demolished, making way for the construction of an aquarium,
devoted to the unique marine life of Monterey Bay. Offshore lies the extensive
Monterey Canyon, deeper than Grand Canyon, Arizona. The bay’s cold
nutrient-filled water nourishes plankton that supports a rich array of marine
plants and animals.

The new aquarium building, designed by Esherick Homsey, Dodge and Davis
of San Francisco, maintains the architectural character of the canneries, but
with the addition of rock pools and terraces that interlock the aquarium use
with the natural seashore. The building preserves the old Hovden canning
factory pump house and boilers, the original smokestacks have been
reconstructed and internal services are exposed in an industrial manner. These
qualities preserve the connection with the original industrial waterfront
buildings.
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The aquarium exhibits were designed based on the philosophy of the marine
biologist Ed Ricketts. Instead of using isolated tanks for individual species,
habitat zones are created, each an arena in which groups of animals can co-
exist.

The aquarium devotes separate areas to each of several Monterey Bay habitats,
and includes a centrepiece live kelp forest in a tank equivalent to three storeys
in height; an array of bay habitats from deep granite reefs to encrusted wharf
pillars housing a range of animals from sharks to ocean sea fish; octopus and
related animals; sea otters in a two-storey habitat; models of marine mammals
of the bay; touch pools; and the sandy shore, an artificially created shore with
slough, dunes and beach. A freshwater stream, surrounded by aspens, cotton
woods and filled with steel head trout and salmon, meanders through the
building and out onto the deck overlooking the bay.

The kelp forest tank, open to the sky, is visible from three levels. Giant kelp is
one of the fastest growing plants on earth and requires an abundance of
nutrient-rich sea water, sunlight and a steady wave motion. The kelp moves
gently in the “tidal” surges. The tank receives up to 2000 gallons of sea water
a minute providing a turnover of water every 79 minutes. The kelp tank is 28
ft high, 66 ft long and holds 335,000 gallons of water. The viewing windows
are 7 in thick acrylic panels. The surge water movement is implemented by a
purpose made machine that creates suction (drawing water) and then releases
the water, creating 8 in high waves across the top of the tank.

The “Monterey Bay Habitats” 90 ft tank populated by sharks, rays and


salmon has two circular windows each 6 ft across, and several rectangular
viewing panels. The tank depicts four aspects of life in the Bay: the sandy sea
floor; the Monterey shale habitat; the granite reef and, at the shallow end of the
tank, a man-made habitat represented by tall wooden pier pilings as removed
from a nearby wharf and encrusted with 50 years of accumulated sea life. The
hourglass shape of the tank allows sharks a wide turning radius in the
continuous swim-glide activity. The tank holds more than 1/3 million
gallons of water exchanged every 40 minutes.
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At night the aquarium tanks are filled with unfiltered sea water to provide
necessary nutrients, whereas during the daytime the water is filtered so that
viewing into the tanks is through clear water. A heat exchanger uses only
ocean water to warm and cool the building. Plastic materials are used
throughout to prevent corrosion in the extreme salty environment. The steel
reinforcing is epoxy coated. The tanks are designed to contain no exposed
metal parts. Most invertebrates and fish find heavy metals toxic, and sharks
are highly sensitive to the electrical currents which can be inadvertently
created by light fixtures or other metal parts on a tank.

The Great Tidal Pool, which lies between the aquarium building and the sea, is
enclosed on three sides by the aquarium and on the fourth by artificial rocks
that blend with the surrounding granite outcrops. This man-made tide pool
forms a natural habitat for the bay’s intertidal life. Seals and otters visit the
tidal pool to feed or rest. The pool also serves as a release point for sea otters in
the aquarium’s sea otter rescue and care programme.

The otter tank in the Marine Mammal Hall is split level, 30 ft by 14 ft and
open to the sky. It contains 40,000 gallons of continually circulating filtered
sea water to provide the animals with clean water that would not affect the
otters’ fur. The sea otters are particularly expensive to feed in that they
consume 25% of their body weight each day, which at the time the aquarium
opened cost $10,000 a year in seafood for each otter.

The main exhibits of the aquarium are supported by audio-visual displays


explaining marine life and the effect of weather conditions.

The plant room houses six large filters that strain the sea water pumped in
through 16 in diameter pipelines 980 ft long, drawing 2050 gallons of sea
water per minute from a depth of 55 ft in the bay. The system allows
flexibility regarding the number of times the water is filtered and also allows a
closed system to be operated (usable for 2 weeks) in the event of an oil spill or
algae bloom in the bay.

The aquarium has two classrooms, a research laboratory, ocean view


restaurant, an auditorium, gift shop and bookstore.
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The aquarium project took 7 years of planning and cost $55 million donated
by David and Lucile Packard of the Hewlett Packard computer empire. The site
area is 2.2 acres and the aquarium totals 216,000 sq. ft. The aquarium has in
the order of 1.7 million visitors per year. The immediacy between the aquarium
and the bay is realistically conveyed. The Monterey Bay Aquarium has
fulfilled a dual role of providing a centre for the display of marine life and
also maintaining the interesting historic character of Cannery Row
buildings. The future of other redundant Cannery Row buildings has been
affected by the success of the aquarium. lt is the intention of the Californian
Coastal Commission to achieve uses that are compatible with the heritage of the
coastline.

THE GREAT BARRIER REEF AQUARIUM, TOWNSVILLE, QUEENSLAND

The Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland, and stretching for half the
length of the east coast of Australia, is the world’s largest marine park. To
introduce the public to the immense treasures of the reef, an aquarium has been
established at Townsville.

The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) is responsible for
the care and development of the marine park. In his foreword to the publication
concerned with the development of the aquarium, the Chairman of GBRMPA,
Graeme Kelleher outlines the policy for the aquarium as “providing an
excellent educational centre to support management of the Marine Park”.

Successful management of the park depends to a large extent on visitors


voluntarily adopting a responsible code of behaviour. The objective for the
aquarium is to create a living coral reef in a land based facility to enable the
public (at low cost and in comfortable surroundings) to see and appreciate the
wonders of the Great Barrier Reef. By visiting the aquarium. visitors are better
prepared to enjoy and understand the reef itself, sustaining the GBRMPA goal
“to provide for the protection, wise use, understanding and enjoyment of the
Great Barrier Reef “.
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CULTIVATED CORAL REEF

The primary requirement in the design and construction of the Great Barrier
Reef Aquarium (Opened in 19871 was to simulate the environmental
conditions found around a coral reef. Corals are particularly difficult marine
animals to keep in captivity. They require large quantities of sunlight, wave
action and a virtually nutrient free water environment. Thus, the tank is open
to natural sunlight; tides, currents and waves are produced mechanically. An
efficient water treatment system to reduce the nutrient content using algae is
used.

To provide for public viewing, the principle was adopted to use a small number
of large viewing panels rather than numerous small panels. The panels are 114
mm thick, 8 m square acrylic, each with a central steel mullion. There is also a
3 m diameter, curved 65 mm thick acrylic tunnel. The tunnel extends between
the coral reef tank and a separate predator (shark) tank to give an underwater
experience. The tunnel is also designed with a bend so that the exit cannot be
seen from the point of entry.

TANK CONSTRUCTION

The tanks are constructed of reinforced concrete. The massive structure of


tanks holding 4 million litres of water is supported on 11 m long foundation
piles. The concrete specification for the tanks required that they withstand the
effect of sea water for 50.

To avoid the cost of galvanizing the reinforcing steel, the quality of the
concrete became a priority and the reinforcing has 100 mm cover. However, an
additional non-toxic epoxy paint protection was applied to the walls and floor.
This coating was also to protect the concrete from being eaten by marine
organisms, to facilitate cleaning and to stop free lime from leaching into the
aquarium water. To reduce cracking, liquid nitrogen was added to the concrete
mix prior to pouring to cool the concrete. Fibreglass and PVC are used for the
water treatment algal turf farm trays. Where metals are unavoidable, and
there is contact with the salt water, marine grade stainless steel is used.
Painted galvanized steel and aluminium are used elsewhere.
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On completion of the tank construction, the tanks were filled with fresh water
to commission and test the mechanical systems and to promote autogenous
healing of the cracks that occurred in the reinforced concrete walls of the tanks.
The acrylic panels are regularly monitored for movement or distortion.

The full length and width of the tank is serviced by a gantry system. A dual
standby diesel generator is provided to power all essential services when mains
power fails.

WATER MECHANICS AND TREATMENT

The coral reef and predator tanks are “closed systems”. All sea water is
recirculated through the algal turf treatment system. Original sea water and
make-up water for losses due to spills and filter back washes are collected at
least 20 km offshore near the inner line of reefs of the Great Barrier Reef.

To achieve water movement, pumping systems are used to create tides and
currents; wave machines are also used to generate waves. Reverse osmosis is
used for both the production of pure fresh water from the municipal supply for
topping up during the dry season (evaporation) and for moving surplus fresh
water (rain) during the wet season. The turbulence caused by waves crashing
on the crest of natural coral reefs is provided by an air operated wave machine.
This was selected as there are no moving parts or metal in contact with the
aquarium water, thus reducing maintenance and eliminating contamination
problems.

To create currents to provide the natural mixing processes on the coral reefs,
three circulating pumps draw water at the rate of 1000 cu.m per hour from
the tunnel end of the tank and deliver it at the wave machine end, generating
a net flow across and along the reef. The water turnover rate to the algal turf
farm is once every 24 hours.
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The quality of the water in the tank is carefully monitored, for light,
temperature, salinity, oxygen, pH, nutrients and trace metal contaminants.
Water temperatures exceeding 30 °C are not tolerated by most Great Barrier
Reef corals. The relatively small volume of the tank and consequently small
heat capacity compared with the Great Barrier Reef means the tank temperature
responds rapidly to changes in air temperature and the intensity of sunlight.
The algal turf farm acts as a solar absorber and to reduce the heat absorbed, the
algal turf farm is partly shaded in the summer. The problem of unacceptably
high temperatures is resolved by cooling the water in the holding tank. Fans
over the turf farm area also provide evaporative cooling.

The biological water treatment for both coral tank and predator tank is the
algal turf system. The problem of reducing nutrient content, vital to the
survival of the coral, is dealt with by the use of filamentous turf algae (or
algal turf scrubber) as a filter to remove the animal nutrients. High intensity
1000 W lights are used effectively to extend the day length to 18 hours,
increasing the productivity of the system. The removal of excess nitrogen and
phosphorus, which would otherwise build up due to the activity of the animals
and the decomposition of detritus by bacteria, is the primary concern.
Multimedia sand filters are used to ensure water clarity and to remove the fine
sediment generated on reefs by mechanical and biological erosion.

The algal turf scrubbers are the principal method of nutrient control, taking
up surplus nitrogen and phosphorus. Harvesting and discarding the turf
algae removes nutrients incorporated in the plant tissue from the system.
While the reef tank is not “fed”, periodic additions of plankton are made to
simulate natural reef processes together with supplementary aeration.
Similarly, the carbon dioxide balance is maintained by the photosynthesis
occurring on the algal turf scrubbers and algae in the coral reef tank. This
keeps the pH of the water between 8.0 and 8.3.
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ESTABLISHING THE CORAL

The programme for establishing the complex ecosystem of a live coral reef in the
tank took 5 months prior to and 18 months following the opening of the
aquarium. The objective was to allow all the animals in the food web to feed as
on a natural reef, starting by establishing algae on the reef rocks.

In constructing the live coral reef within the tank, it was necessary to build up
a large limestone substratum for the veneer of living coral. For this, 700
tonnes of carbonate rock and 200 tonnes of sand were used. The rocks were
arranged according to a “landscape” plan to create a base for a typical mid
shelf reef, complete with reef front, algal crest, back reef slope, lagoon and
bommies. The plan also took into account orientation, areas of shading caused
by the walls, location of viewing windows and water movement patterns.
Species of coral were then added, followed by rocks containing small animals
that are eaten by “grazing animals”, fish and invertebrates. The fish and other
marine animals were then added.

As the reef community was established. there was a process of “fine tuning” as
the corals were increasing to form a coral reef ecosystem.

PREDATOR TANK

The 750,000l predator tank houses a collection of reef sharks and other
predators as well as green turtles and numerous non-predatory fishes. The reef
tank is not large enough to support sharks as part of an ecosystem, and the
sharks would produce large amounts of waste that would increase the nutrient
content above that tolerated by coral. The predator tank is separated from the
coral reef tank by the acrylic tunnel and overhead beams. This means that
visitors can be aware of both tropical coral reef fish and predator sharks at the
same time. The shark tank has its own algal turf scrubber water treatment
system, and additional aeration is normally not required.

Due to the high water quality maintained by the algal turf system, few
animal diseases have been experienced.
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SMALL TANKS AND INFORMATION

The Great Barrier Reef Aquarium also has smaller display tanks to show
small creatures that would be otherwise difficult to see in the larger reef tank.
The small tanks are constructed in glass. They range from 350 l to 1600 l in
capacity. Each tank has its own filtration system combining an in-tank
under gravel filter and an external percolating filter. The water in the tanks is
subject to regular monitoring of temperature, salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen,
ammonia concentration and nitrate concentration.

To make further information available to visitors there is an informative


orientation area, an audio-visual display and special exhibits that interpret
aspects of reef ecology. The 12-projector audio-visual programme introduces
and explains the origin and the ecosystem of the reef. There is a display of reef
community themes, and the small tanks allow visitors to examine some of the
intricate relationships in the reef community.

The touch pool provides first-hand contact with the animals, and visitors can
explore the shapes and textures of a variety of reef creatures. The 16,000 l
touch pool is 300 mm deep. The water is treated as a separate closed system with
algal scrubbers, sand filter, and an activated carbon filter to remove
contaminants which might find their way into the water on the hands of
visitors. The touch pool houses some of the hardier corals. A Discovery Room
Presents in-depth information about the coral reef ecosystem.

Skilled guides, education personnel and volunteers make up the staff of the
aquarium. The guides answer enquiries from individual visitors and also
present special talks for students and other groups. The education staff are
concerned with programmes for visits by schools and other educational groups.
Volunteers assist permanent staff in most of these activities.
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THE TEXAS STATE AQUARIUM, CORPUS CHRISTI, TEXAS

It is the objective of the State Aquarium to highlight features unique to the


marine life of the Texas Coast and the Gulf of Mexico. The total aquarium is to
be built in four phases. The architects to the first stage, the Gulf of Mexico
Exhibit Building, were Phelps, Garza and Bomberger of San Antonio, and the
exhibit designers were Joseph A Wetzel Associates Inc, Boston, Massachusetts.

The story line starts with the estuaries and the important part played by
marshes and sea grass. A sea star “Discovery Pool” provides the opportunity to
touch animals of the Texas Coast. Displays explain the changing nature of the
barrier islands, the power of wind and waves and the effect on marine life of an
impending hurricane. The next area for discovery is the waters between
estuaries and the deep sea, the crowded jetties and reef. Particularly relevant to
the gulf, the marine life that has made a habitat from the sub-aqua structures
of oil production platforms is displayed in a major 132,000 gallon viewing
tank. The tank also houses predators such as shark and rays.

Audio-visual displays explain ocean technology and mariculture (deep sea


exploration and research). The second major viewing tank is simulated Flower
Garden Coral Reef. Finally a special Exhibits gallery refers to ancillary and
topical issues.

VIDEO DISC

The video disc exhibits combine the visual appeal of television, the information
handling ability of computers and the presentation of experts. These
provide positive interaction between visitor and information. While video-tapes
can provide information in a predetermined order for large audiences, the video
disc can respond to the individual visitor’s interest by being moved from one
topic to another, or back tracking to repeat information at the viewer’s request.
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A request sequence of operation starts with the visitor pushing “Touch to start”
revealing a “menu” frame giving visitors a choice of learning experiences.
Having chosen one topic, the video reveals either still photography or running
footage of the subject with an accompanying vocal description. The visitor can
either continue with the topic or return to the main “menu” to choose another
topic.

THE NATIONAL AQUARIUM IN BALTIMORE

The revival of the Inner Harbour at Baltimore has been a particular success
story for urban renewal.

The National Aquarium buildings located on finger piers project into the water
space. The distinctive profile of the aquarium and the marine animal pavilion
indicates the sequence of internal spaces. The aquarium has a glazed
pyramidic roof form housing a rainforest which is raised over the cylindrical
form that represents the race-track shape of the shark and coral reef tanks. The
total water capacity of the Aquarium building is 1 million gallons with 7000
marine and freshwater animals.

The story-line, which represents the unity of life through water, starts at the top
level in the dense foliage of a South american rainforest with river fish and
free flying birds, the sequence leads to the two main oval tanks,
circumscribing a descending ramp. The upper tank, 335,000 gallons in
capacity and 13 ft deep, displays a coral reef and tropical fish. The lower tank
houses sharks, rays and other game fish including sand tiger sharks 8.5 ft
long. The tank has a capacity of 200,000 gallons and the oval profile allows
for the continuous swim-glide movement of the sharks.

On the first floor a large 260,000 gallon water housed beluga whales. The open
atrium space of the vertical circulation rises above the water with views from
bridges, ramps, galleries (with small tank displays) and escalators to the
water below. The tray tank has side panels to provide underwater viewing. It is
now used as a ray tray and houses species of stingrays and common rays.
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The ground floor houses the water treatment plant system. Externally, there is
a marine animal pool adjacent to the entrance. Visitors approach the building
from the deck of the pier, past the marine animal pool up an escalator to the
entrance lobby, gift shop and introductory displays.

The initial aquarium was designed by Cambridge Seven Associates,


Cambridge, Massachusetts. The financing was mainly funded by the City of
Baltimore and construction costs totalled $21.3m. The aquarium was opened
in 1981.

In 1990, a $35 million Marine Mammal Pavilion was added, designed by


Grieves, Warrall, Wright and O’Hathick of Baltimore. The Pavilion is located
on the adjoining pier and it is connected to the aquarium by an enclosed
skywalk. The Pavilion features a 1300 seat amphitheatre to demonstrate
“natural of the Marine Mammals”, a gallery of interactive exhibits and an
Aquatic Education Research Center. A complex of four pools (with a total
capacity of 1.3 million gallons of salt water) accommodates dolphins
and beluga whales. The main tank is 100 ft long and 22 ft deep, holding
728,000 gallons of water. There are two smaller holding tanks totalling
350,000 gallons (where the animals can rest when not on display). A fourth
pool holds 14,000 gallons and the pool is shallow enough to be used for medical
care duties. At night, the animals are free roaming through all the tanks. The
pools are fed by municipal water mixed with salt.

The design has had three principal objectives: to create a healthy environment
for marine mammals, dolphins and whales, to provide visitors with an exciting
exhibit, and to develop an atmosphere that encourages interaction between
animals and visitor. The project was funded from various sources: $16.5
million provided by the City and State, $6.9 million by gifts and grants,
$8.5 million from Aquarium funds and $3.1 million from other sources.

The aquarium has a $9.6 million operating budget of which 75% is revenue
from admission and remainder is raised separately, through membership,
grants, donations and retail/food sales. It is run by a non-profit corporation
with a volunteer 21 member Board of Governors and a full-time staff of 150.
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The economic impact of the aquarium on the Inner Harbour was identified in
1984. People visiting the aquarium generated a total of $88.3 million in
income to the region, and created nearly 3000 jobs.

The average annual attendance is 1.4 million visitors and it is anticipated


that the additional pavilion will increase attendance to 1.6 million visitors a
year. Seventy per cent of visitors come from outside the State of Maryland,
50% are adults, 19% children, 14% students, 7% senior citizens and 2%
military personnel. The aquarium provides an important educational facility.

THE AQUARIUM OF THE AMERICAS, NEW ORLEANS

The Aquarium at New Orleans is part of the revitalization of the Mississippi


waterfront. The aquarium has five major exhibit areas of which two have
distinctive architectural forms. The South American-Amazon River-
Caribbean Ocean exhibit is housed in a large truncated cylindrical structure,
and the Mississippi River-Gulf of Mexico is housed in a “cube” structure, both
faced externally in coloured porcelain, enamel and glass panels.

With the location of New Orleans as a geographical fulcrum of the two


American continents, and with its cultural and mercantile connections with
the two continents, the designers have developed the exhibits around a theme
based on “The Americas”. Exhibits explore the aquatic environments of the
North and South American continents and their adjacent seas and oceans.
The basis for the exhibits is concerned with the large scale living
representations of the various bio-geographical provinces of the Americas, with
close-up views of the various plants and animals that inhabit those regions.
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MARINE MAMMALS

In housing marine mammals, allowance must be made so that the species


involved have adequate water space and haul-out space. The principal animals
concerned in marine animal parks are cetaceans (whales, porpoises and
dolphins), pinnipeds (seals, walruses and sea-lions) and smaller water-
dependent mammals such as the otter. They are all animals with distinctive
skills and intelligence. They all have qualities that can attract the interest of
the public.

SPACE STANDARDS

Minimum pool sizes are regulated in the USA by the United States
Department of Agriculture, Marine Mammals Standards and Regulations
under the Animal Welfare Act. There is also protection of captive cetaceans
under the Marine Mammal Protection Act 1972 administered by the National
Marine Fisheries Service.

In Europe, a Directive is being prepared for the concerned European Parliament.


Recommendations as to space standards are provided by the European
Association for Aquatic Mammals (EAAM). In Britain, the care of animals is
covered by the Zoo Licensing Act. A 1986 report by Dr M. Killowska and Dr S.
Brown, “A Review of Dolphinaria”, prepared for the Department of the
Environment, summarized recommendations that have been applied to
existing British marine animal parks. Many fell below the standard and have
closed down. The Report drew particular attention to the construction and
layout of dolphin aria that have “nothing in common with the requirements
for performances”, making an important distinction between basic approaches
to enclosure design.

Water space is required for the natural energetic movement of the animals;
their agility in the water is of particular interest to the public. It is also
compatible with current zoological practice to keep social groups of animals
with a view to breeding. The EAAM standards take this into account.
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Marine mammals naturally and spontaneously jump, breach, spin and


climb. Some require haul-out space to allow social behaviour that involves
dominance. Subordinate animals require provision of escape routes and retreat
areas. Marine mammals are adapted to thermoregulate in water. As long as
the water remains within a suitable range, the ambient air temperature is not a
major concern.

It would be difficult to simulate the natural habitat of a killer whale or dolphin.


Those in captivity are displayed to show their physical skills, character and
intelligence, and to identify their value as a species at risk of extinction. The
rapport between marine mammal and trainer appears inexplicable, and the
mammals are sufficiently at home in spacious pools to fulfil a normal
breeding programme.

SHOWPOOLS

The most popular shows and exhibitions display the skill of the animals, and
allow the public to have close contact with them. Showpools are designed to
standards that achieve a water depth and space appropriate to the number and
size of animals concerned. Transparent panels on the front of the pool permit
underwater viewing. This is particularly important where animals have
underwater agility or gain momentum under water to leap into the air.
Showpools require holding pools to separate animals that are not performing or
that require medical care. A compere’s stage, platform and haul-out areas are
also required. Some pools have “stage props” to provide a setting for the
performance but the “circus” approach to animals has been replaced by a
demonstration of their natural skills.

Arena seating is required with viewing orientated away from the sun; and
with shading or weather protection as necessary for the location. Seating can
be splashed. For example, at large arenas such as those used by Sea World for
the killer whale “Shaum” shows, which can accomodate 5000 visitors. part of
the act entails the front rows of the audience being splashed (knowingly) by
the whale falling forcefully back into the water.
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WAVE COVE, OCEAN PARK, HONG KONG

It is easier to simulate the habitat of pinnipeds (sea-lions, seals, walruses),


which spend more time at the water's edge. The Wave Cove at Ocean Park. Hong
Kong, completed in 1977, set a new image in accommodation for sea-lions.
Wave Cove, formed out of the wide trench of a redundant gun emplacement
set high on a headland above sea level, was designed to exhibit sea mammals
and sea birds in a naturalistic setting. This includes a considerable stretch of
water, the use of a wave machine to activate the water, rocky islands and a
beach area.

The tank was constructed from concrete walls and base. A sloping beach, rocky
haul-out areas and islands sections were formed. A long gallery at one side of
me pool provides viewing at three levels: the lowest level for underwater viewing;
other levels provide for feeding and an overview of the animals.

The pneumatic wave machine was arranged to produce a suitable wave length
in relation to the rocky islands, the features and the profile of the tank.
The final tank shape and location of features was a compromise between the
science of wave propagation and the need to introduce irregularities to provide a
pleasing overall aspect to visitors. The effect simulates an authentic habitat for
the animals, with rocky islands and beach subject to calm water with
intermittent periods of breaking waves.

SEA LIFE PARK, HAWAII

Sea Life Park, opened in 1964, is located in a 62 acre site on Makapuu in an


exotic Hawaiian setting in the island of Oahu. Hills rise up on the landward
side of the park and the Pacific Ocean is close enough to relate the water
surfaces of the park to the sea. The park, designed by John Graham and
Company, Seattle, was initially a research facility with three major exhibits,
an aquarium, an ocean theatre and a lagoon.
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The public section of the park is a simple loop plan with Reef Tank
(aquarium), sea-lion show, Ocean Theatre (dolphins and penguins), monk
seal care centre, bird sanctuary, Whalers’ Cove (showpool), seal and sea-lion
pools, restaurants, touch pool, penguin habitat and Kaupo falls, a central
landscaped area and a whaling museum.

The administration and education buildings, animal care and holding tanks
are at one side of the park and have an independent service access. The animal
care area has rest tanks, breeding tanks and touching areas for dolphins.

FEATURES

The public entrance leads into a terrace overlooking the park, and visitors start
the tour either passing the Hawaiian Reef Tank or down a ramp into the main
circulation pathway.

The Hawaiian Reef Tank is designed to duplicate life in a Hawaiian Coral


Reef. There are 4000 marine animal specimens (including sharks, rays and
moray eels) in the 300,000 gallon tank. A spiral ramp takes visitors from
surface level down to a depth equivalent to 3 fathoms. The water pumped in
from the wells located on the beach at Motapiru Point (through 24 in diameter
pipes), provides an hourly water change for the tank. At regular times, scuba
divers descend into the tank feed the sea creatures, and provide a commentary
and information about the animals concerned. The tank has a central rock
and coral structure. Fish require escape and retreat areas from predators.

The Hawaiian Ocean Theatre is a circular structure with a circular tank and
tiered seating for display and explanation of dolphins. The surrounding tiered
seating area is roofed over to provide shade and the ceiling allows for at least a
15 ft leap by the dolphins. The sides of the pool are constructed of transparent
panels for underwater viewing. The dolphins remain in the pool between
performances.

The monk seal care centre provides a refuge for injured or stranded monk seal
pups. Monk seals are an endangered species. Sea Life Park provides care to
these seals until they are well enough to be returned to their native habitat.
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The bird sanctuary provides an open habitat for native ocean birds, some of
which have adopted the sanctuary as a permanent home.

The Whalers’ Cove is the main show pool and dolphin/killer whale exhibit. On
recent years a cross between dolphin and whale, wholphin, was born at Sea Life
Park, and is an exhibit of particular interest. Close to one side of the Cove, at
5/8 full-size replica whaler is moored which provides both underwater viewing
(glazed panels in the hull), a setting for the dolphin show (that relates to the
whaling days of Hawaii) and the enclosing structure to holding pools,
Whalers’ Cove has tiered seating for spectators and, from the seating, the water
surface relates visually to the sea beyond.

The seal pool and sea-lion feeding pool are overlooked by viewing terraces and
also the terraces of the restaurant. Visitors are able to feed the animals from
feeding bays that project into the enclosure with fish food supplied.

A Pacific Whaling Museum includes artefacts of former Hawaiian whaling


days and includes a carefully restored skeletal system of a giant whale.

The touch pool exhibits a range of invertebrates for close inspection. The
penguin habitat houses Humboldat penguins, an endangered species, native to
South America. The central landscaped area with Kaupo Falls is used for imu
culinary ceremonies during evening hours, and for island wedding.

There is one snack bar inside the park. The restaurant, cafe, shops and rest
rooms are outside, the ticket controlled area. The restaurant terrace
overlooks the park but does not intrude.

The number of visitors a year averages 700,000 including school children and
the marine animal park has a capacity of 1500-2000 visitors at one time.
There are 140 staff (including shift work).

As a marine life park, Sea Life Park serves both to display animals to tourists
to Hawaii, and acts as refuge for endangered species; it provides an
educational facility, and is a centre for research and observation of marine
animals. The character and concern for the animals is consistent with
Hawaii’s traditional close association with dependence on the sea.
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CHAPTER VI
PLANNING, FACILITIES AND TECHNIQUES

Many theme parks provide a harmless fantasy illusion and the and a safe
environment in which visitors can relate to a significant subject, whether
scientific, zoological, historical or cultural. A restatement or caricature of
traditions, presented. in the context of leisurely fun, provides meaningful
information in an enjoyable atmosphere. Educative subjects such as zoos
(Chapter 3), can be presented with realism as well as adopting theming
techniques. In all cases the theme must be marketable, preferably with an
identity, attractive to the relevant age and social group, and conveyed in a
popular idiom. A dominant theme can also provide design cohesion for the total
park.

Similarly, visitor attractions are conceived to convey information within an


entertaining and experiential context. Visitors leave having gained a vivid
impression through simulated images and through audio-visual and sensory
techniques.

The design objective for a theme park or attraction is primarily concerned with
creating an environment in which people are prepared to pay to enjoy the
entertainment and facilities provided. The facilities will include the principal
features expressing the theme and the main exhibits, supplemented by thrill
rides, shows, stage or incidental entertainment, displays of cultural, historic
or scientific features, animal habitats, play equipment, in-park
transportation, and food and merchandise outlets. For most leisure parks, it is
necessary continually to improve or add to the facilities to maintain the
interest of the visiting public.

The majority of visitors could be local people, and the park could provide a days’
outing for na average family. Some larger parks will represent a destination
for vacations, and will be supplemented by hotel accommodation.
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PROJECT DEVELOPMENT

The design process may consist of establishing a basic concept or masterplan


(providing a perspective of objectives) followed by a market survey and
feasibility study, to establish the potential demand and the level of revenue it
could sustain, as well as consideration of management and operating
procedures.

INITIAL STUDIES

Before launching into a detailed feasibility study it is usually necessary to


carry out a market survey to establish the potential demand for such a facility
and the level of revenue that it could secure, and the cost of running and
sustaining it. To perform a market study on an idea that is imaginative but
unfamiliar to the public concerned can be difficult. Audio-visual
presentations can be used to create the impression of the “experience” or feature
to be displayed, in a way that conveys the quality of the potential enjoyment.
They can also relate the idea to known experience.

The market analysis measures the level of effective support for a park in a
specific site whether it is serving a local market or providing a vacation
destination. The analysis should identify the spending characteristics of
potential visitors, seasonal limitations and reliability of the weather, as well as
as ancillary facilities such as provisions for educational services, the
availability of essential elements within the project and the availability of
staff. It is important to project the attendance levels over a period of years as
well as within a one year period, to establish optimum and maximum
attendance for which the project is to be designed. The projected attendance
will provide the basis for a financial analysis showing revenue, operating
costs, cash flow and the justifiable investment that the project can support.

The process of developing a project continues with a feasibility study to


establish the scale and menu of facilities and the revenue in relation to an
investment target. The study aims to identify the market strategy, the age
groups of potential visitors and the catchment area. The study should identify
the suitability of the site for the park or building. It will also assist in
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exploring the sources of finance for the project and whether the proposals are
financially viable.

If the project is a commercial scheme, zoning, land costs, access and visibility
from major thoroughfares, area of usable land, topography, ground conditions,
vegetation, availability of services and necessary supplies, and compatibility
with neighbouring uses are fundamental to the initial considerations.

DESIGN STUDY

The feasibility study, if showing the project to be worth pursuing, should


conclude with basic recommendations that initiate a design study and, if
the site has not yet been selected, the basis for site selection. The land must be
zoned for the appropriate leisure use.

The design team may include architects, designers, project management


consultants, engineers, quantity surveyors, as well as specialist consultants
(safety officer, zoologist, marine biologists, landscape designer, historian,
graphics and audio-visual creative designers) and specialist suppliers.

Common to theme parks, leisure centres, zoos and aquaria is the basic design
process. This ranges from initial planning considerations, relating the
number of visitors circulating in the park or attractions with the features
displayed, to techniques concerned with simulating reality or fantasy and
techniques for conveying information either as graphics or through audio-
visual equipment. The creative input will vary from securing the authenticity
of a fantasy world, to the restructured landscaping in a zoo that provides a
sympathetic environment for the animals.

For the proposals, parking standards and manoeuvring of cars, adequate


space for future facilities and relevant safety and health standards should be
identified. The provision of services, electricity, water and drainage, gas and
energy must be ascertained. Energy and water demand should be assessed at
an early stage.
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The provision of water for a water fun park, marine animal park or aquarium
may be from the sea or taken from the municipal supply. Where marine
animals are involved, the service and quality of the water could be crucial to
the feasibility of the project. A natural source of water requires careful
analysis over a period of at least a year to achieve an accurate chemical and
biological profile of the water. An extensive amount of water storage may be
required.

It is also necessary to consider the effect of emptying tanks or pools in


emergencies or for maintenance. The method of dealing with backwash
when filters are cleaned requires early consideration. The municipal drainage
and sewerage system may be able to cope with outflow backwash, but
frequently leisure park locations are not provided with public drainage and are
in environmentally sensitive areas.

An overall plan and model for the site development showing phasing will
provide the opportunity to focus on issues such as access, parking, overall
design objectives, theming, visual impact, movement of guests through the
park and spaces for future attractions. The individual features are then
considered by the design group in more detail with the cooperation of specific
technical specialists. Descriptions and specifications of specialist items are
prepared for pricing, and for establishing terms of s reference with suppliers.

CIRCULATION THROUGH THE PARK

A design process then elaborates on the features and techniques to be adopted.


A simple park layout consists of a loop plan or a star plan with entry through
a range of ticket counters (relative to the number and in-flow of visitors); an
orientation space to capture the mood and to include retail outlets, information
and guests services; a circuit or radiating pattern of features and an exit space
to linger and shop at will.

The ticketing and in-park purchasing must be relevant to local purchasing


patterns. Methods of ticketing vary from a single ticket for all features in the
park, to voucher tickets relating to particular rides.
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The sequence and relationship of features is important to avoid congestion in


any one part of the park. To avoid disappointment there should be obvious
alternatives to rides or principal attractions that could become over-subscribed.

The method of conveying people through the park, widths of routes and
intersections are significant. The rate of in-flow must be accommodated to
avoid bottlenecks. Cul-de-sac spaces should be avoided and particular attention
should be given to intersections. A crossing of main pedestrian routes should
have the route clearly signposted and there should be sufficient space to allow
people to intermingle. An intersection could be a feature area taking
advantage of a concentration of visitors.

It is advisable to avoid queues extending into intersections. Lines of visitors


waiting can be contained by railed queues in a zig-zag layout, which can also
promote socializing.

Some projects, such as Jorvik, move the visitors by conveyor to maintain the
rate of flow and to avoid overcrowding the exhibit space. Visitors are then able to
move at their own speed in the specialist display space and book/gift shop. In
other parks, visitors have a choice of walking or (if distances are significant)
being conveyed by mechanical transportation designed with a relevant theme.

MANAGEMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION

The cost of the project is monitored against the feasibility budget. Also, parallel
with the design process, a management and implementation study should be
made taking into account the number and standard of personnel, training
and requirements for seasonal staff. In zoos, marine animal parks and
aquaria, the acquisition of animals must be considered. A period of
acclimatization for new animals may require temporary enclosures or holding
tanks.

Landscaping may require early acquisition of plants and space for nursery
cultivation. Acquisition of furniture and equipment may require early
storage facilities. Subsequent phased development of future features would be
located to allow access for construction without it being detrimental to areas of
:h the park in use.
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The construction programme should allow time for commissioning and


tuning equipment as well as allowing a period of acclimatization by the
animals. Time is required for training staff. As many attendants are
seasonal employees, allowance should be made for training programmes at the
start of each season.

Time is also required for pre-opening marketing, and for developing a logo
and “housestyle” which will act as a cohesive element in visual displays.
Allowance should be made for obtaining uniforms and dealing with a range
of management issues including the ticketing, cash management, supplies,
merchandise, menus, maintenance contracts and refuse disposal. On
completion of the construction, the operator will require operating manuals
and certification of specialist equipment, emergency procedures and
insurance coverage.

LOGO GRAPHICS AND INFORMATION

An early consideration will be the “logo” housestyle. This will act as a cohesive
element in visual displays, from graphics providing general information
within the park, to stationery, sculptural forms, display and staff uniforms.
Graphics and signage are not only a means of conveying information but
also convey character to the park.

Although a simple loop plan will reveal all features if a visitor keeps to the
route, there will be cross-circulation and minor routes that must be identified
clearly. Once the feature appears on a signs top, it should be consistently
“signed” until it is located. Displayed park plans or models, identifying
strategic lead points that relate routes to principal landmarks, can
assist visitors to understand the park layout. With growing inter-community
travel within Europe, signage in a selection of European languages or use of
standardized symbols would be beneficial.
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FOOD, ENTERTAINMENT AND RETAIL

The design for stage entertainment, restaurants and food outlets are well
covered in technical literature. In theme and leisure parks the design will be
related to the theme of the particular location. For example, European themes at
Busch Gardens and Europa Park create a particular national ambience with
the appropriate cuisine. At Asterix a restaurant space is enclosed in giant
replica fruit and vegetables.

As park restaurants are usually designed to seat a large number of people and
the kitchens are sometimes also used to prepare food for other food outlets in the
park, a discreet service access and service area is important. In animal parks,
the location of food outlets should aim to avoid food being passed to animals.
In an open zoo such as Apenheul, Arnhem, the restaurant is away from the
animal enclosures.

The style for food outlets and dining will respect local custom. For young
people, the rides or features are the reason for visiting the park and thus a
method of limiting the time spent on eating is appealing. Fast-food outlets are
becoming universal with variations as to whether payment is made prior to or
after the point of collecting food. A fast-food service should avoid the
compounding of delay time caused by visitors choosing from menu or display
boards, time spent in handling money and time spent preparing the food. The
majority of parks would also have a range of beverage, ice cream and light
snack outlets, as well as self-service and waiter service restaurants.

However, more leisurely dining and quality food is part of the outing for
many Europeans, with the diversity of food representing various national
cultures. This provides an opportunity for imaginative cuisine, themes and
design.

Similarly, show entertainment can be enclosed to give the appropriate


ambience. The entertainment area at Middle Kingdom, Hong Kong, is based
on the Empress Theatre of Beijing. The Oktoberfest at Busch Gardens conveys
the Bavarian character.
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Space is required for outdoor shows that animate a park. Whether located on
equipment, on a bandstand or moving through the park, an outdoor event can
add colour and a shared experience to the visitors. At Europa Park, there are
promenading ladies in eighteenth-century costumes and promenading
uniformed bands; there are music groups located in bandstands and trapeze
artists, all of which give the park a corporate enjoyment in contrast to the more
individual or family experience of the rides.

The range of cinema projection techniques to convey a vivid experience is


extensive. Omnimax, Imax, 3D, 70 mm, circular cinema, multi-projection
and auditoria with full audio-visual and sensatorial effects may be used. At
Futuroscope near Poitiers, France the different cinematographic techniques
include the use of a dynamic motion simulator cinema as developed by
Intamin. The auditorium has hydraulically operated seats with movement
synchronized with the events of the film. The projection system is Showscan
(K) 70 mm with sound on five camera. A designed auditorium seats 45 people
and the show cycle is 4-5 minutes, providing an hourly capacity for the
cinema of 600 persons. The auditorium requires a space 13 m x 19 m and 6 m
high.

At Last Labyrinth, Lands End, Cornwall, multi-screen projection is used with


stage scenery type effects to provide an audio visual drama.

Retail outlets are an important source of revenue. A circulation system


through a park or building would direct visitors through a retail area before
they leave. Access by the public (not actually visiting the park) to retail outlets
is advantageous.

CHILDREN’ S PLAY

Children’ s play areas are necessary for small children and are appropriate to
all parks including animal parks. In zoos it is interesting to relate children’ s
play activity to the animal play activity. Primates are particularly curious as
to children’ s behaviour. Play equipment is well covered in technical and trade
literature, but the theme element can further the experience of the park. At
Asterix, the play area is formed within the “Roman Camp”.
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FACILITIES

Park facilities usually include information desks, and a guest relations


office. Some parks include lockers for luggage at the entrance.

Lavatory accommodation Will DC governed by local standards, but particular


consideration should be given to baby care, to the normal parental role with
small children. to the handicapped and to the elderly. Vandalism could be a
problem, in which case the fittings and protection of and access to services
should be appropriately designed.

In activity parks provision must be made for changing into sports clothing.
Changing facilities and the storage of clothes and possessions are provided
by various systems, from traditional male and female changing rooms (with
back-up lockers or supervised storage) to a more open arrangement where
Individual and family changing cubicles are available; clothes are then
secured in lockers. There should also be showers for use before entering and
after using the pools or sports facilities.

Allowance should he made for conveying small children (strollers), the


handicapped or the elderly. Provision should be made for medical attention and
dealing with injuries and providing access for ambulances, in particular
where there are thrill rides.

Car parking should relate to the optimum capacity of the park at any one time,
with provision for coach unloading and loading, turning and parking. The
parks where visitors are delivered by coach should have a rest room for drivers.
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MANAGEMENT AND SAFETY

Public safety and fire precautions are usually a matter of local standards. Fire
standards will be concerned with flammability of materials, fire lighting
equipment, access for fire appliances, means of escape, crowd control and the
definition of escape routes. The safety of thrill rides is covered by various local
codes such as DIN and TUF in Germany. Water parks will have their own
safety routine with safety officers’ aware of the alarm system and safety drill.

With fast-food and self-service restaurants provision must be made for the
disposal of refuse. “Trash” or rubbish containers require careful design and
regular emptying. The standard of cleanliness achieved in the Disney Park is
significant characteristic of successful leisure parks. An efficient refuse
system that keeps the public areas continuously clean and free from clutter
and rubbish is essential. Visitors respond to an environment they appreciate
with good behaviour.

Staff and service access should be independent of visitor circulation. Shift


staff require canteens and space for rest or relaxation. Service areas should be
well screened. Allowance should be made for the accommodation of in-park
service vehicles. Also provision is required for maintenance workshops and
storage. In animal parks there will be animal care space and holding areas
away from public view.

TRANSPORTATION AND RIDES

Mechanical transportation can control the rate at which people move through an
area. The alternatives range from passenger conveyors and escalators,
independently powered vehicles (including horsedrawn carriages), to vehicles
on rails, boats on water, cable cars and suspended rides.

Amongst the manufacturers of park transportation and thrill rides are Arrow
Dynamics Ltd. (USA), Vekoma International (Holland), Huss
Maschinenfabrik (Germany), Heinrich Mack (Germany) and Intamin
(Switzerland), Big Country Motioneering (USA) and Chance Rides Inc.
(USA). The categories of transportation illustrated are not limited to the
manufacturer represented.
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In-park transportation systems are either at ground level, elevated above


normal pedestrian level or are used to raise visitors up to a particular activity
level. In many parks, there is a peripheral transportation system at ground
level, and systems extending across the park are raised or bridged over by
pedestrian routes.

The speeds of in-park systems vary from a controlled boat that would move at
3 km/h to an elevated monorail that could travel at 11 km/h. With close
proximity of the public the avoidance of noise and fumes is critical. Electrical
power is particularly unobtrusive. The overhead monorail can have live cables
at the sides of the tracks; whereas on-ground transport needs to be operated by
battery, magnetic transfer technology or by overhead power cables.

The Inductran transport system of the Inductran Corporation, Berkeley,


California, is based on magnetic power transfer technology which excludes
live electrical contact other than the vehicle’s tyres. The vehicles are powered,
guided and controlled by an inductor that is installed in the roadway.

Monorails elevate in-park transportation above normal pedestrian circulation


and provide a scenic view of the park. The German company Mack recommend
an average height above ground of 3-6 m for their monorail systems which can
handle 800-2500 people per hour. The cars use non-service friction wheel drive
through three phase short circuit motors and one driver can take up to three
trailers. The Swiss Company Intamin manufacture a Panorama Electro Train
consisting of battery operated traction with a capacity for pulling two coaches
providing for 48 persons, achieving a speed of 12 km/h. The Intamin Expo
battery powered train, which operates on a 600 m track, provides for 120
persons using four coaches.

Purpose-built reproductions and themed vehicles can add authenticity to a


fantasy or re-created historic setting. The illustration shows a period
locomotive as manufactured by Chance Rides Inc. Of Kansas. Horse-drawn
carriages and wagons provide a popular tour of a park and contribute to the
atmosphere.
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Travelators and escalators can achieve controlled and efficient conveyance of


visitors. Cable car systems can also provide aerial viewing.

Ocean Park, Hong Kong is served by both a cable car system that rises over the
hilly terrain of one side of the headland (180 m above the sea) and by
impressive escalators that ascend the other side of the headland.

The cable car system, designed, supplied and erected by Agudio (Nuova
Agudio, Milan), consists of two parallel ropeways in which the track and
hauling rope of each ropeway forms a loop running continuously between the
opposite terminals. Each ropeway has 126 cars which travel at 14.5 km/h, and
can achieve a maximum capacity of 5000 passengers per hour in each
direction. The ropes, the supporting tressels and cars had to be designed for the
excessive wind speeds of the location exposed to the South China Sea. Also
safety and rescue operations had to be carefully considered. The door of the cars
cannot be opened from the inside when the car is in transit. Some cars are
equipped with facilities for invalid people in wheelchairs.

However, the original cable cars were vulnerable to high wind conditions and
were not permitted for evening use. A new policy for the park focused on
additional use including evening activities, and escalators were selected. The
two track escalator system rises 115 m in four sections with a maximum
single rise of 34 m. An intermediate level of the escalators provided a site for
new attractions including a boat flume ride. A suitable 30° route was
established so that the escalators were set close to the natural ground surface.
The total length of the escalators is 252 m and they can carry 4500 people
per hour in each direction. The location of the escalators provides panoramic
views.

VIEWING TOWERS

Panoramic views can also be provided by viewing, towers and elevator


platforms. These structures can also form a landmark feature for a park. The
range of installations manufactured by Intamin and Huss include
observation towers, fixed platforms and gyro towers with elevating and
rotating observation cars.
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THRILL RIDES

Thrill rides have a universal appeal but the degree of apparent danger must be
related to experience. Visitors learn to cope with new experiences and in due
course will seek more adventurous rides. There is a two-way interaction of
designing to suit the visitors’ anticipation and capabilities, and at the same
time educating people to enjoy the park. In order to maintain the interest of the
public, there is also a need to add new features in a systematic programme.

“HARD” RIDES

Fun and thrill rides include track rides, bobsleigh rides, rides on horizontal or
vertical axes and combination rides. The thrill of the ride comes from the “G”
force (or gravitational pull) it exerts on the body and the apparent dangers. The
trough of a “big dipper” might produce 3 G; a civil aircraft produces about 1. 5
G on take-off; a fighter plane could exert 9 G. The axis in which the ride moves,
the speed and the time taken for the ride are all significant to the experience. A
28 m high freefall can produces a force of 5 G. The majority of rides do not
exceed 4.5 G (not more than 4 G where riders are travelling upsidedown), or
maximum speed of 80 km/h. A consensus would suggest that a statutory
limit of 5 G would be appropriate but this has yet to be determined.

Some rides have warning notices for pregnant women, people suffering from
heart conditions and those suffering from back problems. Also access to
thrill rides is usually controlled by a height limit to avoid young children, or
children who would not be properly restrained by safety gear, from using the
vehicles.

The safety standards adopted in the design of rides, DIN 4112 (German Code
for Amusement Rides) and the TUV rules (German Inspection Authority for
Amusement Rides), and the VED Standards for electrical components are
acknowledged throughout Europe and many States in the USA as being a
sound basis for public safety. Local standards must also be observed.
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TRACK RIDES

Track rides range from simple themed vehicle rides for small children and
gentle track rides such as the Cycle Monorail, to the intricate roller coaster and
speed rides. The roller coaster is a priority for a “thrill ride” park geared to all
age groups. The structures range from the traditional evocative timber-framed
“big dipper” to the column supported ride with twists, loops, butterflies, side
winders, boomerangs and corkscrews.

The Magnum XL200 roller coaster in Cedar Point, Ohio, created by Arrow
Dynamics, has three hills of which the highest is 201 ft and the ride is 5106 ft
long and reaches speeds of 73 mph. A recent version of track ride is a
suspended coaster such as the Vampire Ride (by Arrow Dynamics) at
Chessington, where the cars are suspended below the track and they swing out
from the track on the bends.

The designs of thrill rides by CAD computer system assess the dynamic loads
from the train on the track and onto the support structure. The actual “G”
forces are also estimated. The dimensions of rail pipes, support pipes, columns,
foundations of anchors are calculated. The “G” forces are measured during test
runs when the train is loaded with sand bags. Braking systems and
emergency simulated tests are also carried out.

DARK RIDES

Fast moving coaster rides and leisurely boat rides are incorporated in “story”
or indoor themed adventure rides such as the space journey of Space Mountain
and the more leisurely boat ride in “It’s a Small World” (Arrow Dynamics),
both at Disneyland. In conjunction with moving visitors along a set route,
automatic guided vehicle systems can be adopted to rotate the seating of each
car, so that the attention of the visitors is directed towards particular views
during the journey.

A standard dark coaster “Nightmare” uses a Vekoma Mark 700 track system
which permits the tight radius turns suited to a coaster in a small area of 25m
X 30m. The track length is 350 m and one train operates with 12 coaches of
two passengers each. A three point track gripping wheel configuration holds
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the train to 4 in rail pipes. The wheels are covered with polyurethane to reduce
friction and vibration. Passengers are held into the seats with a lap bar
adjustable to accommodate one or two people.

An innovative combination of audio-visual techniques and coaster ride is the


Vekoma “illusion”. This consists of an indoor ride with a theme which can be
changeable but suited to the particular location. The building consists of a
nucleus and an exterior ring. Parabolic film screens of 20 m diameter extend
from the ground to the ceiling. Seventy millimetre films are projected onto the
screens creating the imagery, which is combined with synchronized 4 channel
sound effects. The train rises within the nucleus and then descends through
the exterior ring. Both spaces are surrounded by the projected images. The Mini
Mission, a later development, combines laser (by Laser Fantasy Company)
and film (by Midland Productions).

CAROUSELS

The horizontal rotating rides or carousels include traditional “roundabouts”,


and more complex arrangements where the rotating section is also rotating or
moving horizontally or vertically. Formats vary from the traditional
American Dentzel style carousel with jumping horses (as made by Chance), to
complex rides with themed boats, planes and science fiction features. The rides
provide a simple and even rotation, or include swinging out, wave-like motion,
switchback action and intricate arrangements where the cars are individually
rotating. The “Happy Spider” (Intamin) combines three movements to give
passengers the experience of quick changes in acceleration and direction. The
Flight Trainer (Intamin) simulates solo flying and passengers can pilot the
movement of their cabins. Of the level rides an interesting example is the
”coffee-cup” ride at Europa Park (Mack) in which the cars are designed as Delft
cups rotating around a coffee pot.

Rides with horizontal movement include the traditional “dodgem car” format.
In the “Mega Ball” (Intamin) which represents a pin ball machine, the cars
move down the “board” hitting and bouncing against various obstacles.
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WHEELS AND FREEFALL

The vertical rotating rides such as the original Ferris wheel have increased in
scale and complexity. The variations based on wheel, boom and swing devices
provide rides such as the Giant Wheel (Intamin) that can rise up to 53 m in
height. The 27 m high Giant Gondola Wheel (Chance Rides Inc.) has 20
gondolas and a total capacity of 120-160 passengers. The ride is decorated
with 6000 multi-coloured incandescent lamps and 16 computerized
programmes create kaleidoscopic effects providing a light show feature within
the park. The gondolas have high back seats for safety and automatic closing
doors. The gondolas remain horizontal, whereas in another format, the “Sky
Diver” (Chance Rides Inc.), the passenger cars are secured to the wheel so that
the passengers move into an upside-down position as the wheel rotates.

There is a range of swing boats, such as the Sea Dragon (Chance Rides Inc.)
with a 65° swing and the Looping Starship (Intamin) which passes through a
complete loop. The "Top Swing” (Huss) is a variation on the swingboat. The car
is supported at either end by booms that rotate; the car itself is also rotated.
The “Sky flyer” (Vekoma) consists of two boats working on the same pivoted
axis, each gondola carrying 16 passengers. The booms and gondolas
rotate in opposite directions. The “Canyon Trip” ride has the ends of a boat
suspended from two rotating arms; the boat itself consists of two sliding parts
providing a lineal movement. The “Freefall” (Intamin) takes riders to a height
of 39 m and they drop in a gondola through a height of 29.5 m reaching a
speed of 88 km/h.

WATER RIDES

Rides based on water are either ”dry” rides where users are out of the water (but
may be splashed), or “wet rides” where they are in swim wear, and are
occasionally immersed in the water.
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“DRY” RIDES

The “dry” rides include log flumes, consisting of boats moving through
channels and chutes: rapid river rides, with rafts moving down through
turbulent water; and more sedate controlled boat rides. Manufacturers in the
USA and Europe include Intamin, Arrow Dynamics, Big Country
Motioneering, and Heinrich Mack.

In the fast moving log flumes, users sit in a boat-shaped “log” or themed boat
that is manoeuvred through a circuit. The circuit includes raising the boat to a
high level, the boat then speeds down a chute into a channel. The ride requires a
loading station, a chain lift (to haul boats up an inclined plane), a reservoir of
water and substantial pumping to keep the water flowing through the flume.
Rides are usually designed to wind through themed or landscaped areas. The
“Spill Water” chute ride (Intamin) achieves a speed of 61 km/h as the boat hits
the “run out” water and the “Shoot-the-chute” (Arrow Dynamics) plunges the
20 passenger boats 60 ft down a chute that has a camel back dip to add to the
experience.

The rapids ride is based on rafts moving down a turbulent river. The ride starts
with a revolving platform where riders can clamber onto a raft as rafts
continue to move in the flow of the water. The raft usually consists of a large
circular tyre (approx 2.5 to 4 metres in diameter) with a ring of seats (6-12
persons) and a central grab rail. Each ride is purpose designed to a course with
the water activated by pumps and obstacles. An adventurous ride would also
include additional water features (cascades, geysers, jets), synchronized with
the movement of the rafts. The difference in levels between access platform and
the base of lift could be 2-4 m.

“CONTROLLED” BOATS

The relaxed movement of the controlled boats is operated by cable or by the speed
of the water in the channel. In the Towboat Ride, boats are driven by an
underwater cable system which is installed in the floof of the water area.
Access to the boats is from a revolving platform as the boats are continuously
moving. The boats travel at around 3 km/h. The speed and quiet operation
provide a particular characteristic to the ride. A similar controlled boat ride can
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be achieved by creating a flow of water through a channel, the boats moving


with the current. The channel is as wide as is necessary to contain the boats
whereas the water area can be more extensive. Towboats are used in conjunction
with themed, educational, dark and adventure rides.

Examples of slowboat rides are the Batavia Ride at Europa Park and the boat
ride around the Asterix Island.

WET WATER RIDES AND WATER FUN

The development of non-competitive enjoyment of water has led to an extensive


range of water rides and features that aim to provide excitement or leisurely
indulgence. The main groups consist of activity pools including wave pools
and play pools; channel rides and slides; jacuzzis; toboggan rides, (including
mechanical towing systems) and overwater aerial rides. Features include water
jets, wave generators, fountains, geysers, cascades and water canon. There is
an extensive range of suppliers, the majority of which are members of the World
Waterpark Association, Kansas, USA.

WAVE POOLS

The pleasure of wave pools ranges from the enjoyment of lying or swimming
in the wave movement, the pleasures associated with waves breaking on a
“beach”, to the expertise of surfing on substantial breaking waves. Wave
generators such as those developed by Imhof (Germany), Biwater (UK)
A Wavetek (now Aquatic Amusements Associates, USA) that are pneumatic,
avoid contact between machinery and water. The generator has a series of
chambers that take in water from the pool and then release the water either all at
one time or in a sequence to achieve a desired wave profile. The normal
pneumatic wave machine can be operated to create parallel or diamond wave
patterns with a maximum wave height of approximately 90 cm (3 ft). The
typical original pools were fan-shape with dimensions of 25 m at the wave
machine end to 41 m at the “beach” end, with an overall length of 55 m. The
maximum depth was 2.4 m (8 ft). The profile of the pool would be designed to
avoid undertow. More recently wave machines are used with free form pools to
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provide an exciting configuration of water movement against vertical


surfaces, sloping and curved sides, and surging into adjoining pools.

For surf riding, the large surf pool “Big Surf” at Tampa Arizona, discharges
1.8 m (6 ft) high waves across the full 48.8 m (160 ft) width of the pool to
travel 131 m to the beach. This is achieved by large pumps filling a reservoir
tank at one end of the pool. When the reservoir is full and providing a 3.7 m
(12 ft) head of water, gates open and the water is released to pass over a “reef” to
form a “singular translatory wave of the spilling breaker type” moving the
length of the pool to dissipate at the beach end. A similar system called
“Tsunami” was developed by Wavetek in the USA, and several pools have been
built to achieve a surfing wave. The “Surf King” wave machine by Barr and
Wray can produce an 2.4m (8 ft) high wave in controlled conditions. There are
also wave machines that use an extensive paddle or hinged flap to generate
wave movement.

ADVENTURE POOLS

Adventure and playpools include equipment relevant to the age concerned.


Adventure pools present a range of challenging activities. A typical
arrangement includes: slides and tube rides down into the pool; raised levels
for divers; a cable trolley over the water allowing a person to glide over and drop
into the water; and “lily pads” consisting of rubber rafts chain anchored to the
floor of the pool forming an insecure sequence of stepping stones. The lily pads
have an overhead rope net to assist the crossing. There are also water jets and
water cannon.

Playpools may be designed for small children with sitting space for
supervising adults and should be located away from areas used by more
vigorous older children. The water should be shallow with play features such as
small slides, chutes, water cannon, sprays and fountains and climbing
structures. Many parks adopt a theme such as a galleon, shipwreck or
caricature animals, to provide a central structure incorporating slides,
climbing nets and water cannon.
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FLUME RIDES

Channel “flume” rides like mechanical thrill rides are continually subject to
innovative ideas. The current aspects for innovation are speed, “freefall”, twists
and turns, switchback experience and opportunities for socializing. A new
form of flume ride is a switch back with the ride rising as well as running
horizontally and descending to the splashpool.

The single person channel is constructed either as a half round channel 21 in


to 54 in (with sides raised at bends), or a complete tube ride 30 in or more in
diameter. The open ride is particularly suited to landscaped locations or where
the expression and performance of the users are visible to provide interest and
entertainment to other people. The complete tube ride is particularly suited to
tight turns and the cold weather situation where rides extend outside
temperature controlled leisure space. The inherent rigidity of the tube section
can reduce frequency of ground support.

Flume rides are supported direct on the ground, weaving through landscape or
rocks caped topography, or supported on timber, steel or concrete posts. The
architecture of flume structures, discharge platforms or towers, the
superstructures, access walks, stairs and discharge pools can dominate the
visual character of a water fun park. The complex forms of interweaving
multiple flumes are often used to express the fun activity as seen from outside
the park area.

In addition to normal flume rides, there are speed slides and “freefall” slides.
The freefall is a near vertical drop with an extensive runoff channel. The speed
slides have a series of dips which provide a sensation of being airborne.

If visitors go down the ride in an inflated tube it is necessary for users to be


able to collect a tube prior to entering the ride. This means either that potential
users must pass a point where tubes can be deposited by previous users of the
ride, or a mechanical conveyor is used to transport the tubes up to the discharge
platform. Rides are supervised at the point where users enter the ride and at the
splash pool or runout. The splash pool is consistent with the water fun park
character but runout or aqua catch arrangements are being recommended as
being less dangerous. The very fast rides tend towards runout channels to
avoid collision between riders. Some speed flume rides are monitored by speed
indicators so that riders can record their speed down the ride.
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Flume or canal rides up to 12 ft in diameter that provide for socializing are


particularly popular. “Rapid river rides” and “lazy canal” provide a wide
channel and either a simple continuous flow (as in the case of the lazy canal)
or a series of flumes or chutes with intermediate whirlpool situations that
require negotiating. The congestion and spills are pan of the experience.
Overhead cascades and jets or water cannon at the sides add to the adventure.

The majority of proprietary water rides are constructed in fibreglass. Particular


attention should be given to the architectural appearance of the supporting
structure. The choice of steel or timber is determined by the site’s topography
and space allowances. Handrails and launch platforms are designed in
relation to the flumes, and can be planned to provide potential riders an
opportunity to view others using the ride.

Most equipment suppliers provide a design and engineering service. The


German Standard (DIN 7637) has been used by designers and
manufacturers in Europe as a basis for design. In the UK standards of safety
are issued by the Sports Council and the SHO, the Safety in Leisure Research
Unit and the Institute of Baths and Recreation Managers.

A report by the Safety in Leisure Research Unit makes recommendations for


the design and management of waterslides in the UK. These recommendations
include attention to the need for non-slip surfaces along access and exit
routes, separation between those queuing for a particular slide and other
visitors, heigh restriction (as age limits are difficult to enforce) and disallow
non-swimmers from using flume rides unless the slide is designed with
runout or aqua catch. Regarding the slide path, sharp changes in the direction,
particularly where there is an increase in acceleration by the rider, should be
avoided. The end section of the ride should be designed to reduce speed and eject
the rider in a manner that is controlled (with an angle of entry parallel with
the surface of the water). Favoured end sections are those involving hydrostatic
braking or aquacatches in preference to splash pools, to prevent riders from
hitting the base of the splash pool. Splash pools should have clearly indicated
exit points. Where a splash pool is part of a larger pool, there should be some
form of physical separation.
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The World Waterpark Association. Kansas, USA publish comprehensive


recommendations regarding water park design and management. The
Association also represents a comprehensive range of equipment suppliers.

TECHNIQUES

In addition to maintaining natural landscaping, techniques necessary to


achieve a high quality of environment, using simulated landscaping or
artefacts, are important to leisure parks, zoos and aquaria. Authentic features
for zoos can provide a naturalistic setting for animals and can convey the
specific habitat that could been endangered. Also it is possible to benefit from
the close proximity to animals in a zoo by audio-visual and tactile techniques
which can convey particular qualities of natural life and animals. Simulated
surroundings are open to comparison with TV coverage of natural habitats.
Techniques are also used to create essential themed features. Re-created
artefacts must be convincing and methods can be used to convey dramatized
presentations of historical or scientific subjects.

The artistry of simulated rockwork and reconstructed artefacts has benefited


from mould techniques and new lightweight glassfibre-based materials.
Audio-visual techniques have benefited from the advance in cinematographic,
video, lighting, holography, laser and sound technology, electronic systems,
animatronics and innovative arrangements, many of which have their origins
in Exposition exhibits.

ROCKWORK AND FEATURES

The skill and techniques of experienced rock and art work contractors can
provide a high degree of realism and a basis for natural planting or water
features. Also skill has been devoted to reproducing historical or scientific
artefacts and elements of fantasy. The rockwork shown in previous chapters
includes work by the US companies Larson of Tucson, Arizona, Cost of
Wisconsin and David L. Manwarren of Plancentia, California.
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Design work is developed in three-dimensional model form which can express


the proposed massing and textural character. The techniques involved are
cement based (ranging from conventional cast or sprayed concrete), textured
plaster finish, to lighter weight glass reinforced concrete which is cast in
moulds. For more detailed work, glassfibre or expandable urethane foam with
an acrylic finish is used. The less expensive techniques are suitable for items
seen at a distance.

CEMENT BASED TECHNIQUES

The rock forms are created on a metal armature which is sprayed or plastered
with cement or concrete, and hand carved to the appropriate shape and texture,
or latex moulds are applied to form an imprint on the wet surface. Sprayed
concrete techniques include gunite and shotcrete.

The format of the armature steel is related to the character of the rockwork. A
release agent is used so that the concrete can be imprinted. As the concrete
sets, the three-dimensional cracks and crevices can be carved.

An economic technique used by the US Company David L. Manwarren


employs tin-foil. After applying the concrete to the armature, the surface or an
applied thin coat of cement plaster is imprinted with heavy-duty foil to achieve
the surface texture. A plastic wrap is used to provide smooth areas. The foil is
removed when the concrete is nearly hard, and the concrete can be carved to
achieve the final definitions. The surface is imprinted with latex skins of the
relevant rock character.

GLASS REINFORCED CONCRETE

Glass reinforced concrete is sprayed into rubber moulds, cured and installed
as castings onto a structural backing. The castings can be made in a
workshop and then assembled on site, and the technique can provide an
accurate reproduction of natural surfaces. When the castings are installed on
site the junctions between the castings are filled and sculptured to provide
continuous surface. The GRC technique is relatively expensive and is
appropriate for rockwork, trees or artefacts seen at close range. (up to 6 metres)
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GLASSFIBRE AND EPOXY

The realism achieved in trees and coral rockwork dependent on the skill and
artistry of the sculptor. Trees as constructed by the US firm Larson and
Company are built up around the main trunk consisting of a layered
fibreglass skin coated with epoxy for hardness. Textured and painted lichens
dabbed on with paint. Branches are made separately, formed with a long steel
pipe bent into the desired shape and secured into the tunk. The exposed pipe is
sprayed with a quick drying, expandable urethane foam. The hardened foam
is then carved into branch-like forms. After being covered with epoxy, the
branch is textured and finished.

Leaves on the trees are usually real plants bedded in hidden pockets within the
artificial tree structure, or are real vines growing around the artificial trunk,
Where vegetation is planted into rockwork, non-toxic, non-dissolvable acrylic
paint is used.

AUDIO-VISUAL AND ANIMATION

The creative and technical skills concerned with presenting information or


conveying imagery, communicating through experiential or interactive
devices, audio-visual or electronic equipment are highly specialized. The
techniques include mechanical equipment such as the hydraulics and
pneumatics used in animatronics, computerized games that provide a
sequence of situations to explore a subject, audio-visual monitors or three-
dimensional projection holography, video disc or laser scanning, computer
graphics, infinity optics, speech synthesis, etc. These techniques are in the
forefront of entertainment, trade shows and commercial presentations; they
are used in themed adventure rides, museum display and visitor attractions.

Projects combine the skills of creative design with systems engineering. The
“story line” is used as a basis to develop the interpretive presentation. The
technology is selected so that the subject, experience and unique ambience
remain predominant. Obvious equipment that one would associate with the
everyday domestic or work environment could compromise the effect.
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The interactive exhibits at Adventure Island, Los Angeles, the audio-visual


techniques uses at Last Labyrinth, Cornwall, have been referred to in previous
chapters. Multi-media representations, such as 16 projector show linked to
lighting, video and mechanical effects, have been utilized by the creative
designers Event (London) to elucidate the story of cellulose in the “Thread of
Life” exhibition at Kew Gardens, London. At Museum of Children, Halifax,
children are encouraged to question their knowledge of their own physical
make-up. The fully interactive exhibition “Me and My Body”, designed and
installed by Imagination (London), consists of a number of themed areas
with hands-on exhibits that focus on different aspects of a child’s mind and
body.

At the Natural History Museum, London, animatronics has been used to


provide realism to an exhibition on dinosaurs. The presentation by
Imagination aims to make a prehistoric species as credible as familiar living
animals, by using computer graphics, animated full-size models, audio-
visual, fibre optics, visual project and a range of other visual techniques. The
four life-size dinosaurs are moved by pneumatically powered cylinders built
into the body of each dinosaur. The outer skin of the animals is made of a
flexible but durable silicone rubber.

The Tussauds Group attraction, the Rock Circus in Piccadilly, London,


combines audio/animatronics with a revolving auditorium split into three
sectors, each seating around 120. The figures are animated by a series of
computer controlled movements and activators with precision valves fed by
high pressure air; acrylic body shells surround the working electronics, while
the faces and hands are made from a rubber-based artificial skin.

Animatronics, audio-visual, video and three-dimensional techniques have


been used by Media Projects (London) in both the visitor attraction in
Sicily, the Sicilian Carousel, and the Pirate Dark ride in the Gardaland theme
park, Italy.
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The systems engineers for the Rock Circus, the Museum of the Moving Image,
the Dinosaurs Gallery, Granada Studios Tour, and many pavilions at Expo
92, were Electronics (Dartford), who have designed and provided audio, laser,
video, video disc, animation, lighting and mechanical effects, systems and
equipment.

The technology in both static re-created artefacts and landscaping, and


animation techniques involving electronics and mechanical systems, are
highly specialized, creative and innovative. The possibilities for
communicating, educating and entertaining are extensive; nevertheless, each
project has a limited financial budget and a unique character that have to be
respected.

With the increase in leisure time and disposable income, leisure facilities are
providing not only relaxation, but also a positive contribution to the quality
and experience of life.

The economic significance of leisure is reflected in Governments concern.


Governments are compelled to focus upon both leisure facilities available to the
community and the encouragement of the tourist industry as a source of
employment and tax revenue. There is intergovernment and inter-city
competition to attract major tourist activity, world games, international
expositions or investment by proven leisure companies.

Within Europe alone, the changing structure has yet to be expressed in the
leisure market. The cultural tradition and history of the East European
countries have yet to be fully explored.

Leisure as a force to improve the environment will continue to regenerate urban


surroundings as urban life continues to be compared with the quality of the
vacation environment. Historic locations, which would otherwise fall into
disuse, can be re-used in a leisure context.

There could be a constructive interaction between theme park operations and the
presentation of historical location or cultural issues. The capacity to attract
and manage millions of visitors to Walt Disney World makes tourist figures
to some historic cities, rich with inherent attractions, look unenterprising.
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Tourism can promote a greater understanding and respect between people of


different nationalities.

The value of the leisure environment can also be assessed in relation to the
quality of life, the widening of human experience and understanding, aided
by the quality of architecture and artefacts produced.

Within normal social life, leisure attractions have a cohesive effect underlying
the value of interdependence. Parks aim to provide attractions that span across
age and ability, compensating for social stratification that is part of modem
life. Family life is continually threatened. If it is to remain a cornerstone of
our social structure then provision for family enjoyment is essential.

The quality of life is enhanced by humour and understanding. Many theme


parks present basic values in a caricature or humorous situation. These
values are endorsed by the quality of the establishment.

Visitor attractions convey serious subjects in a popular idiom to make them


easier to understand. There is no pressure to learn and the subject is explored at
will. These facilities are all constructive to human learning and
understanding. There is value added to “knowledge” in the context of leisure
and choice. Equally, activity centres provide sporting facilities in a non-
competitive context, which promote the desire to maintain good health and
longevity, a universal objective.

The health of the natural world is also becoming of supreme importance.


Destructive pollution and relentless consumption of nature’s resources are
becoming universally condemned. The role of the zoo and animal park is vital
to underline the significance of animals, their habitat and ecological
continuity. Bio-diversity underlines the interdependence of man with the
natural world.

The association of leisure with education and research is particularly evident


in animal and botanical parks. The ability to re-create ecosystems is
interesting. The bio-park zoo, an ecological balanced habitat for animals, will
provide a life-support structure for animals, the human equivalent of which is
also being seriously researched so that man can exist in space.
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The advancement of techniques enriches leisure pursuits, provides more


exciting rides, greater realism in re-created artefacts, architecture and
landscaping, and more experiential substance conveyed by audio-visual and
sensatory techniques.

Theme parks and leisure attractions will continue in the commercial context,
competing with each other to attract visitors. But there would be a case for
regionalized parks that focus on local historical, cultural and mythological
issues as well as animal parks that concentrate on local fauna and flora. These
would exist alongside the major leisure attractions that include large zoos,
marine animal parks and theme parks. The regional theme parks would
illustrate matters of local relevance, an extension of the museum or historical
location. They would act as leisure centres as well as part of the educational
facility. Likewise, the bio-park would help people to understand and appreciate
their immediate natural environment.

Man has a capacity for enjoyment and it is important that this is not exercised
at the expense of the environment or humane values. Leisure enjoyment can be
used as a force to improve the urban environment, human experience and
understanding, and our regard for the natural world.

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