M ANUFACTURING P ROCESS OF C HEESE

A Written Report
ORDONIO, Mark Angelo A. ChE 41 - B January 8, 2010
DEFINITION Cheese is a solid or semisolid food product prepared from the milk of
cows, ewes, goats, or other mammals. Most cheese today is made from cows' milk.
Cheese has been made since prehistoric times—it is one of the world’s oldest food p
roducts—for thousands of years, people have raised animals for milk, turning their
surplus milk into cheese. It is an important item in the diet of almost all peo
ples, because it is relatively easy to make and can be preserved for fairly long
periods of time. According to the National Dairy Council, "All cheese is made f
rom milk, but different manufacturing and aging processes are used to produce th
e array of cheese available today. Cheese is made by coagulating or curdling mil
k, stirring and heating the curd, draining off the whey (the watery part of milk
), collecting and pressing the curd, and in some cases ripening. Cheese can be m
ade from whole, 2%, low fat, 1 % low fat or fat-free milk, or combinations of th
ese milks. About one third of all milk produced each year in the United States i
s used to make cheese. In 1998, 9.7 billion pounds of natural and processed chee
ses were produced." Cheese can be broadly categorized as acid or rennet cheese,
and natural or process cheeses. Acid cheeses are made by adding acid to the milk
to cause the proteins to coagulate. Fresh cheeses, such as cream cheese or ques
o fresco, are made by direct acidification. Most types of cheese, such as chedda
r or Swiss, use rennet (an enzyme) in addition to the starter cultures to coagul
ate the milk. The term ―natural cheese is an industry term referring to cheese that
is made directly from milk. Process cheese is made using natural cheese plus ot
her ingredients that are cooked together to change the textural and/or melting p
roperties and increase shelf life. ETYMOLOGY The word cheese ultimately comes fr
om Latin caseus from which the modern word casein is closely derived. The earlie
st source is from the proto-IndoEuropean root kwat-, which means "to ferment, be
come sour". When the Romans began to make hard cheeses for their legionaries su
pplies, a new word started to be used: formaticum, from caseus formatus, or "mol
ded cheese" (as in "formed", not "moldy"). It is from this word that we get the
French fromage, Italian formaggio, Catalan formatge, Breton fourmaj and Provençal
furmo. Cheese itself is occasionally employed in a sense that means "molded" or
"formed".
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HISTORY It was believed that the first cheese was produced inadvertently, probab
ly through the practice of carrying milk in pouches made from animal stomachs. B
acteria in milk and digestive juices from the stomach worked together to form a
curd and then crude cheese. Cheesemaking may originate from nomadic herdsmen who
stored milk in vessels made from the sheep’s and goats stomachs. Because their
stomach linings contained an ideal mix of lactic acid, wild bacteria as milk con
taminants and rennet, the milk would ferment and coagulate. A product reminiscen
t of yogurt would have been produced, which, through gentle agitation and the se
paration of curds from whey would have resulted in the production of cheese; the
cheese being essentially a concentration of the major milk protein, casein, and
milk fat. The whey proteins, other minor milk proteins, and the lactose are all
removed in the cheese whey. Cheesemaking artifacts dating from 2000 BC have bee
n found. Romans developed a large cheese industry, and later cheesemaking became
a specialty of monasteries. Many European abbeys developed secret recipes, and
particular varieties began to be developed in certain region of Europe. NUTRITIO
NAL IMPORTANCE Milk conversion to cheese is an excellent method because virtuall
y all the fat and most of the protein are retained, and the latter is partially
digested. However, nearly all the sugar (lactose) and some of the minerals, prot
ein, and vitamins escape into the whey. Today, cheese whey is condensed or dried
and used for animal feeds or special dietary human foods. Because cheese is a h
igh-protein food, it is an ideal nutritional replacement for meat in a vegetaria
n diet. It is rich in the essential amino acids, calcium, protein, phosphorus, o
ther minerals and vitamins, and has a high calorific value. A 30gram (1.1 oz) se
rving of Cheddar cheese contains about 7 grams (0.25 oz) of protein and 200 mill
igrams of calcium. Nutritionally, cheese is essentially concentrated milk: it ta
kes about 200 grams (7.1 oz) of milk to provide that much protein, and 150 grams
(5.3 oz) to equal the calcium. Cheese is valued for its portability, long life,
and high content of fat, protein, calcium, and phosphorus. Cheese is more compa
ct and has a longer shelf life than milk. Cheesemakers near a dairy region may b
enefit from fresher, lowerpriced milk, and lower shipping costs. The long storag
e life of some cheese, especially cheese that encased in a protective rind, allo
ws selling when markets are favorable.
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RAW MATERIALS USED There are four components that are used in making cheese: mil
k, starter cultures, coagulants and rennet, and finally salt and other additives
. MILK The main ingredient in cheese is milk. Cheese is made using cow, goat, sh
eep, or a blend of these milks. Milk, can be broken down into its essential part
s that play a role in making cheese. Milk contains fat, protein, enzymes, vitami
ns, lactose, and ash. The fat in milk helps to provide flavor even when cheese i
s made from skim milk which has only one percent of fat. The protein in milk exi
sts in two forms: as a suspension/colloidal (casein) and in a soluble form (whey
proteins). However, consider the first type of protein as a densely woven mesh
rather like a string vest suspended freely in the aqueous phase of milk. As long
as the milk remains sweet, this structure is unaffected and the milk remains to
tally fluid. If the milk acidifies (i.e. goes sour) without the presence of coag
ulating enzymes, the structure changes quite suddenly at the iso-electric point
and a fragile curd is formed that collapses with the slightest agitation into
tiny fragments. A typical example is the fine mass we see when milk sours natura
lly. By adding rennet, at just the right time before the milk would go completel
y sour, the structure of the casein is changed radically to form a solid curd ca
lled para-casein. This can then be cut with knives and saved to be collected as
grains of curd for subsequent processing. The enzymes in milk come from the cow
and have an effect on the quality of raw milk and the ripening of cheese. Milk a
lso contains important vitamins that promote growth such as A, B, D, E, and K. T
he lactose in milk is the main sugar and provides the energy for the started cut
lers. Ash in milk is made up of metallic components such as sodium, potassium, c
alcium, manganese, iron, and copper; the most important of these is calcium whic
h helps with the growth of bones. Cheese can be made using pasteurized or raw mi
lk. Cheese made from raw milk imparts different flavors and texture characterist
ics to the finished cheese. For some cheese varieties, raw milk is given a mild
heat treatment (below pasteurization) prior to cheese making to destroy some of
the spoilage organisms and provide better conditions for the cheese cultures. Ch
eese made from raw milk must be aged for at least 60 days to reduce the possibil
ity of exposure to disease causing microorganisms (pathogens) that may be presen
t in the milk.
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STARTER CULTURES Cultures for cheese making are called lactic acid bacteria (LAB
) because their primary source of energy is the lactose in milk and their primar
y metabolic product is lactic acid. There is a wide variety of bacterial culture
s available that provide distinct flavor and textural characteristics to cheeses
. Starter cultures are used early in the cheese making process to assist with co
agulation by lowering the pH prior to rennet addition. The metabolism of the sta
rter cultures contribute desirable flavor compounds, and help prevent the growth
of spoilage organisms and pathogens. Typical starter bacteria include Lactococc
us lactis subsp. lactis or cremoris, Streptococcus salivarius subsp. thermophilu
s, Lactobacillus delbruckii subsp. bulgaricus, and Lactobacillus helveticus. The
acid-producing bacteria can directly suppress disease-producing bacteria under
normal conditions. This is why fermented milk products are among the safest food
s to take in their natural state. COAGULANTS AND RENNET Coagulants and rennet ar
e used to coagulate milk. To coagulate milk is to change it from a fluid to a th
ickened mass. The type of coagulant used depends on the type of cheese desired.
For acid cheeses, an acid source such as acetic acid (the acid in vinegar) or gl
uconodeltalactone (a mild food acid) is used. For rennet cheeses, calf rennet or
, more commonly, rennet produced through microbial bioprocessing is used. Rennet
is a natural complex of enzymes produced in any mammalian stomach to digest the
mother s milk, and is often used in the production of cheese. Rennet contains m
any enzymes, including a proteolytic enzyme (protease) that coagulates the milk,
causing it to separate into solids (curds) and liquid (whey). The active enzyme
in rennet is called chymosin or rennin but there are also other important enzym
es in it, e.g., pepsin or lipase. There are non-animal sources for rennet that a
re suitable for vegetarian consumption. One form of rennet is called vegetable
rennet which is derived from certain strains of fungi and bacteria. Today, this
type of rennet is very popular, reflecting a move towards organic foods, and th
e manufacture of vegetarian cheese . Substantial amounts are now used at the fa
rmhouse and creamery level. Recently, due to world shortage of calf rennet, reco
mbinant or genetically-engineered pure chymosin derived from different microorga
nisms is available on the market, and is currently used by many cheesemakers in
different countries.
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SALT AND OTHER ADDITIVES The last ingredient of cheese is salt. It is used to cr
eate different types of cheese including hard-pressed cheese, brine-salted chees
e, soft cheese salting, and blueveined cheese salting. Salt ads flavor and acts
as a natural preservative. The following additives may also be added to the chee
se milk: Calcium chloride is added to replace calcium redistributed during paste
urization. It improves the coagulation properties of the milk. Milk coagulation
by rennet during cheese making requires an optimum balance among ionic calcium a
nd both soluble insoluble calcium phosphate salts. Because calcium phosphates ha
ve reverse solubility with respect to temperature, the heat treatment from paste
urization causes the equilibrium to shift towards insoluble forms and depletes b
oth soluble calcium phosphates and ionic calcium. Near normal equilibrium is res
tored during 24 - 48 hours of cold storage, but cheese makers can t wait that lo
ng, so CaCl2 is added to restore ionic calcium and improve rennetability. The ca
lcium assists in coagulation and reduces the amount of rennet required. Sodium o
r potassium nitrate is added to the milk to control the undesirable effects of C
lostridium tyrobutyricum in cheeses such as Edam, Gouda, and Swiss. Because milk
color varies from season to season, color may be added to standardize the color
of the cheese throughout the year. Annatto, Betacarotene, and paprika are used.
The addition of hydrogen peroxide is sometimes used as an alternative treatment
for full pasteurization. Lipases, normally present in raw milk, are inactivated
during pasteurization. The addition of kid goat lipases is common to ensure pro
per flavor development through fat hydrolysis.

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MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Figure 1. Cheese production.
There is no standard method of cheese making; limitless variations exist for all
stages of the process: milk treatment, curdling, addition of artificial ingredi
ents and salt for flavor, and aging. This variation in processing accounts for t
he wide range of cheeses commercially available, differing in texture and flavor
. Although hundreds of specialized techniques lend different types of cheese the
ir distinct flavors and characteristics, three basic steps are common to all che
ese making. First, proteins in milk are transformed into solid lumps called curd
s. Second, the curds are separated from the milky liquid, called whey, and shape
d or pressed into molds. Finally, the shaped curds are ripened using a variety o
f different aging and curing techniques.
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TREATMENT OF MILK Like most dairy products, cheesemilk is often standardized bef
ore cheese making to optimize the protein to fat ratio to make a good quality ch
eese with a high yield. The milk may then be subjected to a sub-pasteurization t
reatment of 63-65° C for 15 to 16 sec. This thermization treatment results in a re
duction of high initial bacteria counts before storage. It must be followed by p
roper pasteurization. While high temperature – short time pasteurization (72° C for
16 sec) is often used, an alternative heat treatment of 60° C for 16 sec may also
be used. This less severe heat treatment is thought to result in a better final
flavor cheese by preserving some of the natural flora. If used, the cheese must
be stored for 60 days prior to sale, which is similar to the regulations for raw
milk cheese. Raw milk cheeses must be aged for at least 60 days to reduce the p
ossibility of exposure to disease causing microorganisms (pathogens) that may be
present in it. Milk is then cooled after pasteurization or heat treatment to 90°F
(32°C) to bring it to the temperature needed for the starter bacteria to grow. If
raw milk is used the milk must be heated to 90°F (32°C). The acidification can be a
ccomplished directly by the addition of an acid like vinegar in a few cases (pan
eer, queso fresco), but usually starter bacteria are employed instead. The basis
of cheesemaking relies on the fermentation of lactose by LAB. LAB produce lacti
c acid which lowers the pH and in turn assists coagulation, promotes syneresis (
extraction or expulsion of a liquid from a gel), helps prevent spoilage and path
ogenic bacteria from growing, contributes to cheese texture, flavor and keeping
quality. LAB also produce growth factors which encourage the growth of non-start
er organisms, and provides lipases and proteases necessary for flavor developmen
t during curing. Industrially, the lactic acid level in the milk is increased by
adding a starter culture of Streptococci, Lactococci, or Lactobacilli to the mi
lk and fermenting at 32ºC for 10 to 75 minutes. Swiss starter cultures also includ
e Propionibacter shermani, which produces carbon dioxide gas bubbles during agin
g, giving Swiss cheese its holes. In addition to biologically converting the lac
tose present in the milk to lactic acid, these strains of microorganisms also gr
eatly affect the eventual flavor of the final product. Thus, the selection of a
suitable strain, the amount of starter culture, and the length of pre-ripening,
is of the utmost importance in creating the subtle differences in the final colo
r and aroma that distinguishes an expensive cheese from a cheap one. The starter
cultures and any non-starter adjunct bacteria are added to the milk and held at
90°F (32°C) for 30 minutes to ripen. The ripening step allows the bacteria to grow
and begin fermentation, which lowers the pH and develops the flavor of the chees
e.
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After inoculation with the starter culture, the milk is held for 45 to 60 min at
25 to 30° C to ensure the bacteria are active, growing and have developed acidity
. This stage is called ripening the milk and is done prior to renneting. Homogen
ization is not usually done for most cheesemilk. It disrupts the fat globules an
d increases the fat surface area where casein particles adsorb. This results in
a soft, weak curd at renneting and increased hydrolytic rancidity. COAGULATION C
oagulation is essentially the formation of a gel by destabilizing the casein mic
elles, causing them to aggregate and form a network which partially immobilizes
the water and traps the fat globules in the newly formed matrix. Curds are forme
d when an enzyme called rennin is stirred into milk. Rennin encourages casein, o
ne of the proteins in milk, to solidify and clump together, or coagulate. Rennet
contains the enzyme chymosin which converts k-casein to para-kappa-caseinate (t
he main component of cheese curd) and glycomacropeptide, which is lost in the ch
eese whey. Rennin or chymosin is found in rennet, and it aids coagulation only i
f the milk is slightly acidic, as it is when it becomes sour. Rather than waitin
g for milk to sour, cheesemakers speed up the process by warming the milk and ad
ding specialized bacteria that convert the sugars found in milk to lactic acid,
creating the acidic environment necessary for casein coagulation. As the casein
clumps together, it traps fat globules and some of the milky liquid inside the c
lumps, forming moist, nutritious curds. CURDLING A required step in cheesemaking
is separating the milk into solid curds (the thick precipitate) and liquid whey
(the thin watery residue). At this point, the cheese has set into a very moist
gel. When the curds have reached the desired moisture and acidity, they are sepa
rated from the whey. The whey may be removed from the top or drained by gravity.
The curd-whey mixture may also be placed in moulds for draining. Some soft chee
ses are now essentially complete: they are drained, salted, and packaged. For mo
st of the rest, the curd is cut into small cubes. This allows water to drain fro
m the individual pieces of curd as well as it shortens the distance and increase
s the available area for whey to be released. The curd pieces immediately begin
to shrink and expel the greenish liquid called whey. This syneresis process is f
urther driven by a cooking stage. The increase in temperature causes the protein
matrix to shrink due to increased hydrophobic interactions, and also increases
the rate of fermentation of lactose to lactic acid. The increased acidity
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also contributes to shrinkage of the curd particles. The final moisture content
is dependant on the time and temperature of the cook stage. This is important to
monitor carefully because the final moisture content of the curd determines the
residual amount of fermentable lactose and thus the final pH of the cheese afte
r curing. Some hard cheeses are then heated to temperatures in the range of 35–55 °C
(95– 131 °F). This forces more whey from the cut curd. It also changes the taste of
the finished cheese, affecting both the bacterial culture and the milk chemistr
y. Cheeses that are heated to the higher temperatures are usually made with ther
mophilic starter bacteria which survive this step—either lactobacilli or streptoco
cci. FLAVOR ADDITION After the curd is separated from the whey, salt, seasoning,
and other curing and flavoring ingredients are added. Flavor addition aids in c
uring the cheese. The curd is wrapped in cheese cloth and pressed for 12 to 18 h
ours to remove the additional whey soaked in the curd. The curd hardens and form
s a cheese block in the shape of the press as the whey is squeezed out. Finally,
the cheese block is dried for 6 hours. Salt has roles in cheese besides adding
a salty flavor. It preserves cheese from spoiling, draws moisture from the curd,
and firms the cheese’s texture in an interaction with its proteins. Some cheeses
are salted from the outside with dry salt or brine washes. Most cheeses have the
salt mixed directly into the curds. These techniques may influence a cheese s t
exture and flavor. Some examples: Stretching: (Mozzarella, Provolone) The curd i
s stretched and kneaded in hot water, developing a stringy, fibrous body. Chedda
ring: (Cheddar, other English cheeses) The cut curd is repeatedly piled up, push
ing more moisture away. The curd is also mixed (or milled) for a long time, taki
ng the sharp edges off the cut curd pieces and influencing the final product s t
exture. Washing: (Edam, Gouda, Colby) The curd is washed in warm water, lowering
its acidity and making for a milder-tasting cheese.

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COMPRESSION OF CURD Compressing the curd shapes the cheese and eliminates more w
hey. Most cheeses achieve their final shape when the curds are pressed into a mo
ld or form. The harder the cheese, the more pressure is applied. The pressure dr
ives out moisture—the molds are designed to allow water to escape—and unifies the cu
rds into a single solid body. Curds of nearly all cheeses are salted by stirring
the salt directly into the curds or by rubbing salt or a saltwater solution, ca
lled brine, onto the curd surface. Salt pulls moisture from the cheese, but more
importantly, it acts as a preservative and slows down the final step of cheese
making—the ripening. AGING During the ripening process, microbes such as bacteria
slowly change the composition of the curds, creating cheeses with distinct flavo
rs, textures, and aromas. The kinds of microbes used, the temperature and humidi
ty conditions of the ripening environment, and the duration of the ripening proc
ess, all contribute to the final characteristics of the cheese. Some cheeses hav
e additional bacteria or molds intentionally introduced before or during aging.
In traditional cheesemaking, these microbes might be already present in the agin
g room; they are simply allowed to settle and grow on the stored cheeses. More o
ften today, prepared cultures are used, giving more consistent results and putti
ng fewer constraints on the environment where the cheese ages. In some cheeses,
the bacteria added to create the acidic environment necessary for curd formation
continue to ripen the cheese as well. In Swiss cheese, for example, these bacte
ria produce gas bubbles during ripening, creating its characteristic holes, or e
yes. In other cases, microbes are added to the shaped curd. For example, a blue-
green mold called Penicillium roqueforti is used to ripen cheeses such as Roquef
ort and Gorgonzola. This special mold creates bluish-green veins in the cheese a
nd a characteristic sharp flavor and creamy texture. Other cheeses, such as Brie
and Camembert, are ripened by bacteria rubbed on the outer surface of the chees
e. The bacteria slowly work their way into the interior of the cheese, creating
a soft, pungent interior and leaving a powdery, edible white rind on the outside
. Ripening usually takes place in carefully controlled environments. Conditions
are often designed to mimic the natural environments of the ripening microbes. T
he moisture-laden air prevents the cheese from drying out as it ripens. Temperat
ures are kept cool, not only to encourage the activity of the ripening bacteria
but to
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inhibit the growth of harmful bacteria that could spoil the cheese. The amount o
f time that cheeses are allowed to ripen, or age, also contributes to their fina
l character. Generally, longer curing or aging process gives more pronounced fla
vor, color, and texture of the finished product. FINISHED CHEESE A newborn chees
e is usually salty yet bland in flavor and, for harder varieties, rubbery in tex
ture. These qualities are sometimes enjoyed—cheese curds are eaten on their own—but
normally cheeses are left to rest under controlled conditions. This aging period
lasts from a few days to several years. As a cheese ages, microbes and enzymes
transform texture and intensify flavor. This transformation is largely a result
of the breakdown of casein proteins and milk fat into a complex mix of amino aci
ds, amines, and fatty acids. Although a higher temperature promotes faster curin
g, there is also a higher chance of spoilage due to undesirable microbial activi
ties at elevated temperatures. Prior to aging, the cheese block is usually wrapp
ed tightly to exclude air and microbial contaminants from entering and spoiling
the cheese. One way to accomplish this is to dip the cheese block in a pot of me
lted wax. During the aging process, many complicated microbial and chemical acti
ons continue to take place in the cheese block. Thousands of techniques exist to
develop various distinctive flavors. These reactions are not well characterized
; thus, cheese making is still an art rather than a science. Depending on the te
chnique employed, this final aging process takes anywhere from 2 weeks to 6 mont
hs. Cheese maybe cut and packaged into blocks or it may be waxed.
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