Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CHAPTER: 1
INTRODUCTION
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Introduction
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Jatropha curcas or psychic nut has become a new source of biodiesel. It is native to central
America but is now found in tropical regions of Asia and Africa. Various banks and government
agencies offer several incentives for Jatropha cultivation.
Compared to other vegetable oils like palm oil and sunflower oil, which are expensive, non-
edible oil from Jatropha curcas is cheaper. The plant can be grown on arid waste lands. It was
earlier used for fencing as the seeds are poisonous (contain toxalbumin curcin) to human beings,
most animals and birds. The plants can grow on any type of oil.
The Jatropha seeds are black in color ad two centimeters long. If you purchase Jatropha
seeds, not all seeds will germinate. Jatropha plants can also grow from cuttings. The Jatropha
curcas plant is a small tree or a large shrub which can grow to up to 6 m in height. The rate of
growth and yield of seeds depends to a large extent on the rainfall and temperature variations. If
the rainfall is plentiful, the plant will start yielding seeds within a year. On an average a plant has
a life of about 50 years. The flowers are usually pollinated by moths at night which are attracted
by the scent of the plant.
Jatropha curcas is mainly cultivated for extraction of biodiesel and is one of the best sources
of biofuels. In studies of various biofuels, one hectare of Jatropha Curcas yields 6-8 MT
of seeds . One ton of Jatropha Curcas seeds yields 300kg oil products and 700 kg oil cake .
Before Jatropha oil is mixed with diesel, it has transesterified. This results in production of
glycerin, and disposal of this glycerin is a problem. In India, Jatropha oil is used for powering
farm equipment and diesel generator. Southern Railway also uses the biofuels Jatropha oil.
Jatropha oil is also used for making candles and soap. The seed fruit shell is used as a fuel for
burning. The seed cake that remains after extraction of Jatropha can be used as organic fertilizer
or for animal feed. The government plans to reduce the import of petro products by selling a
mixture of diesel with 5% biodiesel. Jatropha seeds which cost Rs 6 a kg a few years ago cost Rs
26 per kg due to increased demand. (as of September 2006)
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CHAPTER: 2
LITERATURE SURVEY
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HISTORY OF JATROPHA
Jatropha Curcas is resistant to drought and can be planted even in the desert climates, and it
thrives on any type of soil, grows almost anywhere; in sandy, gravelly and saline soils.
Jatropha Curcas quickly establishes itself and will produce seeds round the year if
irrigated. Other than extracting Bio diesel from Jatropha Curcas plant, the leaf and the bark are
used for various other industrial and pharmaceutical uses.
Approximately 31 to 37 % of oil extracted from the Jatropha Curcas seed. It can be used
for any diesel engine without modification.
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Jatropha curcas is a large coarse annual shrub or small short lived tree which can grow
3.5 to 4.5 meters (8-15 feet) tall. It has thin, often greenish bark which exudes copious amounts
of watery sap when cut.
HABITAT
Curcin is unable to penetrate cell walls; this has been indicated by the fact that these
proteins do not affect protein synthesis by Ehrlich as cites cells. This is thought to be because
they lack a carrier moiety or at least the galactose-binding groups by which racin binds to cell
membranes. This was discovered when it was found that the activity of Curcin in cell-free
systems is not increased by treatment with 2-mercaptoethanol, which greatly enhances the
inhibitory effect of racin and abrin by splitting their molecules into an effecter and a carrier
moiety.
TOXICITY
Poisoning from ingestion of the seeds of the Jatropha plant is well known in veterinary
practice and autopsy findings include, severe gastro-enteritis, nephritis, myocardial
degeneration, haemagglutination, and subepicardial and subendocardial hemorrhages as well as
renal subcritical and sub pleural bleeding.
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One study found a high mortality rate in mice fed 50% and 40% J. curcas. The important
symptoms of poisoning included diarrhea, inability to keep normal posture, depression and
lateral recumbence. The degree of the pathological changes observed in the small intestines,
liver, heart, kidneys, and lungs was related to the level of Jatropha in the diet. The most marked
pathological changes were catarrhal enteritis, erosions of the intestinal mucosa, congestion and
hemorrhages in small intestines, heart and lungs and fatty changes in the liver and kidneys.
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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Sulphur % 0.13 %
Pour point 8 °C
Color 4.0
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This paper describes the botanical features and potential uses of Jatropha curcas for the
future. Uses of Jatropha Curcus:
1. Non-edible vegetable oil of Jatropha curcas has the requisite potential of providing a
promising and commercially viable alternative to diesel oil since it has desirable
physicochemical and performance characteristics comparable to diesel. Cars could be run
with Jatropha curcas without requiring much change in design.
2. The oil is used as an illuminant without being refined and it burns with clear smoke-free
flame.
3. Oil has a very high saponification value and is being extensively used for making soap in
some countries.
4. The latex of Jatropha contains an alkaloid known as "jatrophine" which is believed to
have anti-cancerous properties.
5. It is also used as an external application for skin diseases and rheumatism and for sores
on domestic livestock. In addition, the tender twigs of the plant are used for cleaning
teeth, while the juice of the leaf is used as an external application for piles. Finally, the
roots are reported to be used as an antidote for snake-bites.
6. The bark of Jatropha curcas yields a dark blue dye which is used for coloring cloth,
fishing nets and lines.
7. Jatropha oil cake is rich in nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium and can be used as
organic manure.
8. Jatropha leaves are used as food for the tusser silkworm.
Jatropha curcus or “Ratanjyot” can prove itself a miracle plant by turning waste land into a
moneymaking land. It can help to increase rural incomes, self-sustainability and alleviate poverty
for women, elderly, children and men, tribal communities, small farmers.
SOAP PRODUCTION
The glycerin that is a by-product of biodiesel can be used to make soap, and soap can be
produced from Jatropha oil itself. It will produce a soft, durable soap, and the rather simple soap
making process is well adapted to household or small-scale industrial activity.
OTHER USES
Jatropha oil is also used to soften leather and lubricate machinery.
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Jatropha is being heralded as a tree crop for biodiesel production and increasing incomes
of small farmers on marginal lands; however, when you plant crops on marginal lands/soils, you
can expect to get marginal yields. Plants mine nutrients from the soil, and to maintain yields,
these nutrients need to be replaced. This often means applying chemical fertilizers that even if
available, are not affordable to many small farmers. When doing realistic planning on the “real”
economics of a Jatropha project, one must also calculate that fact that optimal seed yield of
Jatropha won’t be obtainable for several years. Furthermore, marginal farmers most often have
access to only a minimal amount to land for food crop production; therefore, what will they have
to eat until a sound market for Jatropha oil is developed?
The jury is still out on the actual seed and oil yields one can count on from Jatropha
plantings. IPGRI concludes that “The low yields revealed in several projects may have been
caused by the fact that unadapted provenances had been used. If investigation of its genetic
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diversity and its yield potential had been covered by adequate scientific research, this problem
could have been overcome.”
Furthermore from the literature it is extremely difficult to determine what actual per
hectare yield of nuts one can rely upon when growing Jatropha. Most figures cited were
projections that often are inflated and over optimistic in order to procure funding for
projects. Also, the estimated oil content of the nuts cited in the literature varies considerably,
which adds to the difficulty of calculating the profitability of growing Jatropha. Furthermore,
optimizing oil extraction from the seeds requires expensive machinery. One can find on page 36
of the IPGRI study a list of yields cited by a number of sources.
In the literature, the reports of yields vary greatly and are confusing. This can be
attributed to one or a combination of the following factors including: yields are sometimes given
in terms of fruits, seeds, nuts, or kernels; confusing terminology used in making yield estimates,
e.g., some are made in tons (t) while others are in metric tons (MT); variance in germplasm;
unstipulated spacing between plants; no specific data on soils (ranging from marginal to fertile,
and if fertilizer was applied); no information on rainfall and other climatic conditions, and if
irrigation is being used
Reports on yields include that from plantations (mostly projected yields), but it is not
mentioned if they were established by vegetative propagation or by direct seeding, on fertile or
marginal soils, and if the plantations were irrigated or not. When irrigated, Jatropha trees are said
to produce seeds throughout the entire year. Often, there is no mention of the age of the
trees/shrubs, nor is the variety/cultivar given. Jatropha trees are said to begin producing a
measurable amount of nuts at 18 months, but are not expected to reach maturity and optimal
yields until after 6 years.
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MECHANICAL PROCESS
Besides the time needed to collect the seeds needed for the production of the oil, the oil
extraction process is a key element in the economic calculation of the production process of
Jatropha oil.
TRADITIONAL WAYS
In the north of Madagascar, in the village of Ankiaka Be near Andapa in the SAVA
region, needed 3 hours of time to produce a bit less than 0.25 liters of oil, i. e. about 12 hours of
manual work for 1 liter of Jatropha oil.
To produce Jatropha oil the traditional way, the seeds have to be shelled. Than the pure
white kernels are roasted and then ponded to get a paste. This paste is mixed with water and
boiled for about 20 minutes. The oil is floating up and is scimmed with a spoon. This oil is
boiled again to get rid of the surplus water. This oil is then filtered to get rid of the particles.
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SCREW PRESSES
In the screw press, a round plate is forced upon a oil containing biomass in a metal
cylinder with holes by turning the screw by long levers. The oil runs out of the holes.
From its design and the experiences so far screw presses are working well for the
extraction of oil from soft seeds, like from oil palms.
The screw presses are relatively easy to produce, but they are difficult to manipulate (see
the photos below) and the spare parts, like the screw, are difficult to be produced in small
workshops in developing countries. For the Bielenberg Ram Press this is different: It doesn’t
have parts which are difficult to produce.
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HYDRAULIC PRESSES
In the hydraulic presses, the pressure on the cage is effectively produced by a hydraulic
crick, which is usually used to change wheels of Lorries.
This system works perfectly, because it is very easy to produce the necessary pressure.
But the crick is not designed for this work, and soon the technology shows problems: The seals
of the hydraulic pump have to be placed soon, and the crick itself gets fine cracks, where the
hydraulic oil sorts.
This can be explained by the fact, that for a lorry, the crick hasto work perhaps 3 or 4
times a year, whereas for oil extraction, the crick was used about 10 to 15 times a day. The
material just could not stand the heavy work.
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The Sayari expeller is the same design as the Sundhara expeller, but it is produced in
Tanzania to extract sunflower seed. 2 private workshops produced the press in Morogoro for a
price of about 3 000 USD per unit. The engine (electric motor or Indian diesel engine) was
included in this price. About 40 units of this expeller were produced. To introduce the production
of this expeller in Tanzania, a project of “Bread for the World” sent 2 of the engineers to
Tanzania to train the people in the workshops. An important part is the maintenance of the
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expeller, because the worm has to be reestablished regularly (after a defined amount of seeds
extracted, usually two times per year.
MODERN CONCEPTS:
Methods like ultrasonication have been discovered to be effective in increasing the
percentage of Jatropha oil that can be extracted using chemical methods like aqueous enzymatic
treatment. The optimum yield for such methods has been discovered to be around 74%. Jatropha
oil extraction methods are still being researched. The goal of such researches is to discover
methods to extract a greater percentage of Jatropha oil from the seeds than the current procedures
allow.
TRANSESTERIFICATION
Is the process of chemically reacting a fat or oil with an alcohol in a presence of a catalyst
Alcohol used is usually methanol or ethanol
Catalyst is usually sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide
The main product of transesterification is biodiesel and the co-product is glycerin
SEPARATION
After transesterification, the biodiesel phase is separated from the glycerin phase, both
undergoes purification.
Look at the financial costs of commercial Jatropha growing for Biodiesel Look at the
financial costs of commercial Jatropha growing for Biodiesel.
Jatropha is seen by many to be the perfect biodiesel crop. It can be grown in very poor
soils actually generating top soil as it goes, is drought and pest resilient, and it has seeds with up
to 40% oil content. Here are some facts and figures about Jatropha relating to its growth as an oil
product.
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1. Vitale Nandan Bio-pharma Sciences Pvt. Ltd, a joint venture company floated by
Hyderabad-based Nandan Biometrix Ltd and Ahmedabad-based V Worldwide, has been
allotted 5,000 acres of wasteland in Patan and Surendranagar districts for the cultivation
of Jatropha to produce bio-diesel.
3. SBI, Chennai signs MOU with D1 Mohan Bio for Jatropha cultivation: The State Bank of
India has signed a memorandum of understanding with D1 Mohan Bio, to finance an
estimated Rs 130 Crore for Jatropha cultivation in Tamil Nadu (excluding Nilgiris) by
farmers through contract farming of nearly 1 lakh acres in the first year. The MOU was
signed last Saturday in the city by the two organizations.
7. Eight Philippine companies have pledged more than $350 million towards biofuels
production investment. The companies include:
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1. Van Der Horst also agrees to join forces in the development of a 6,000 hectare Jatropha
plantation in India, enabling the rapid ramp up of large scale Jatropha production.
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Jatropha curcas is a multipurpose plant with many attributes and considerable potential. It
is a tropical plant that can be grown in low to high rainfall areas and can be used to reclaim land,
as a hedge and/or as a commercial crop. Thus, growing it could provide employment, improve
the environment and enhance the quality of rural life. The establishment, management and
productivity of Jatropha under various climatic conditions are not fully documented. This is
discussed and the gaps in the knowledge elucidated, especially its fertilizer requirements. The
plant produces many useful products, especially the seed, from which oil can be extracted; this
oil has similar properties to palm oil.
The costs and returns of growing the plant and producing the plant oil are discussed and
tabulated. Because it can be used in place of kerosene and diesel and as a substitute for fuel
wood, it has been promoted to make rural areas self sufficient in fuels for cooking, lighting and
motive power. This strategy is examined and found not viable. Oil for soap making is the most
profitable use. It is concluded that all markets for Jatropha products should be investigated. If the
full potential of the plant is to be realized, much more research is required into the growing and
management of Jatropha curcas and more information is needed on the actual and potential
markets for all its products.
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Cetane number and even better engine performance than the diesel fuel suggesting that
Jatropha oil can be used as an ignition-accelerator additive for diesel fuel.
Lipase Catalyzed Preparation of Biodiesel from Jatropha Oil in a Solvent Free System
The monoethyl esters of the long chain fatty acids (biodiesel) were prepared by
alcoholysis of Jatropha oil, a non-edible oil, by a lipase. The process optimization consisted of
(a) screening of various commercial lipase preparations, (b) pH tuning, (c) immobilization, (d)
varying water content in the reaction media, (e) varying amount of enzyme used, and (f) varying
temperature of the reaction. The best yield 98% (w/w) was obtained by using Pseudomonas
cepacia lipase immobilized on celite at 50 °C in the presence of 4–5% (w/w) water in 8 h. It was
found that yields were not affected if analytical grade alcohol was replaced by commercial grade
alcohol. This biocatalyst could be used four times without loss of any activity.
Use of Jatropha curcus L. roots in the treatment of diarrheal is a common ethno botanical
practice in Konkan, a part of the Western coastal area of India. Roots of this species were
undertaken for pharmacognostic studies and evaluation of antidiarrhoeal activity in albino mice.
Successive solvent extraction was carried out using petroleum ether (60–80°C) and methanol.
The methanol extract showed activity against castor oil induced diarrheal and intraluminal
accumulation of fluid. It also reduced gastrointestinal motility after charcoal meal administration
in albino mice. The results indicate that action of J. curcus root methanol extract could be
through a combination of inhibition of elevated prostaglandin biosynthesis and reduced
propulsive movement of the small intestine.
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ADVANTAGES:
DISADVANTAGES:
The Jatropha Curcas nut and oil are inedible, but its price is not distorted by competing
food uses.
Potential gender conflicts.
Second income to make soap
If there is too little water, the plant will not produce the nut.
Jatropha needs at least 600mm (23in) of rain a year to thrive. However, it can survive
three consecutive years of drought by dropping its leaves.
It is excellent at preventing soil erosion, and the leaves that it drops act as soil-enriching
mulch.
The plant prefers alkaline soils.
The cost of 1,000 Jatropha saplings (enough for one acre) in Pakistan is about £50, or 5p
each.
The cost of 1kg of Jatropha seeds in India is the equivalent of about 7p.
Eachjatropha seedling should be given an area two meters square.
20% of seedlings planted will not survive.
Jatropha seedlings yield seeds in the first year after plantation.
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CHAPTER: 3
PROCESS SELECTION
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EXPERIMENTAL SET–UP:
STAGE: 1 (STEAMING)
Take 100gm of Jatropha seeds and crushed it by using hand crusher. After crushed; we do
steaming for removing moisture contain in seeds.
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STEAM OUT
FUNNEL
TUBE
CRUSH SEEDS
RUBER COCK
STEAM
ROUND FLASHK
STAND
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BURNER
STAGE: 2 (EXTRACTION)
Figure (2) illustrates a schematic diagram of a bench scale extraction set–up which consists
mainly of a double necked flask (500 ml) with a round bottom.
The large neck in the middle of the flask was connected to a reflux condenser; a thermometer
was placed in one side necks.
Now, dry crushed seeds and 150ml Hexane are added in two necked flask. Properly immerge dry
crushed seeds in hexane.
Before starting heating start flow of water in reflux condenser, now start the heating for 25 mints
and maintain it at 59C.
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COLD WATER
OUT
CONDENSER
STAND
COLD WATER IN
THERMOMETE
R
THERMOCOUPEL
RUBER COCK
HEXANE & CRUSH SEEDS
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STAND
BURNER
STAGE: 3 (FILTRATION)
Figure-3
As above, first prepared closed filtration system for filtration of mixture of seeds and hexane.
After the extraction, the mixtures pour in closed filtration system to filtration.
After the filtration at the top remaining cake and bottom is mixture of oil and hexane.
For the separating oil and hexane to carry out distillation step.
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CRUSH SEEDS
AFTER EXTRACTION
FUNNEL
RUBER COCK
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STAGE: 4 (DISTILLATION)
Mixture takes in double necked flask (500 ml) with a round bottom. The large neck in the
middle of the flask was connected to a reflux condenser; a thermometer was placed in one side
necks.
Now, start to heat the mixture up to 65 C. Sometimes after completely distilled in hexane
in other side of bottle and oil remaining in flask
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RUBER COCK
COLD WATER IN
CONDENSER
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CONICAL FLASHK
BURNER
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RAW MATERIALS:-
1. JATROPHA SEEDS
2. HEXANE
In a nutshell, the extraction process consists of treating the raw material with hexane and
recovering the oil by distillation of the resulting solution of oil in hexane called miscella.
Evaporation and condensation as also from the distillation of miscella recover the hexane
absorbed in the material. The hexane thus recovered is reused for extraction. The low boiling
point of hexane (67°C) and the high solubility of oils and fats in it are the properties exploited in
the solvent extraction process.
The entire extraction process can be divided into the following stages.
Because of the highly inflammable character of the normal hexane, those stages of
process which involve high speed machineries, such as material preparation, finishing and
bagging are carried out at least 50 feet away from the main extraction plant wherein the
remaining processing stages involving handling of the solvent are carried out. The typical flow-
chart illustrates the various processing steps.
For thorough and efficient extraction, it is necessary that each and every oil-bearing cell of
the material be brought in contact with the solvent. Therefore, proper preparation of materials
prior to extraction is very important to ensure this contact. The smaller the material size, the
better is the penetration of the solvent into the oil-bearing cells; but too fine a size will prevent
the solvent form percolating through the mass. Therefore an optimum size is to be maintained for
best extraction. Hence material preparation methods vary from material to material depending on
its oil content, size and physical properties. For high oil content materials (oil content 15% or
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more), the following steps of preparation are recommended to make the material suitable for
penetration of the solvent into the oil cells as well as for best percolation.
(a) Passage of the seed through corrugated roller mills with 3 mm flutes to reduce the Size to
about 3mm.
(b) Heating the broken material to about 80°C with open steam in temperor & humidifying the
material to raise the moisture content to about 11 to 12%.
(c) Flaking of the humidified material between a pair of plain rolls to 0.25 mm thickness or
below.
(d) Conveying the flakes to the extraction system after crisping them firm.
Rice bran is a fine floury material and therefore is bound to obstruct the percolation. The best
preparation of rice bran for extraction is found to be pelletizing the same after tempering with
open steam. The pelletized bran is then crisped in a current of air while conveying to the
extractor. Some oilseeds can be directly extracted e.g. cottonseed, soybean, etc. But they are to
be decorticated by special equipment to separate the oil-bearing meats from the hulls. The
decorticating equipment varies from seed to seed (see our pamphlets on cottonseed & soya bean
processing). The decorticated meats are tempered, flaked and the flakes are sent to extractor after
crisping.
PROCESS OF EXTRACTION
The prepared material enters the extractor through the rotary air seal. The extractor
consists mainly of a very slow moving articulated band conveyor inside a totally enclosed
chamber. The band is lined with perforated sheets and porous stainless steel cloth. The mass of
the material moving on this band forms a slow moving bed. During the movement of the bed
through the extractor it is washed continuously at various points with miscella of decreasing
concentrations and finally with a fresh solvent in a counter current manner by means of sprayers
kept in a line over the meal bed. The miscella percolates through the perforated bottom and
collects in various hoppers kept below the bed. The miscella from the last hopper, which is
concentrated, is taken off for distillation.
After the fresh solvent wash the material is discharged from the band conveyor into an
airtight chain conveyor, which conveys it to the Desolventiser. In the Desolventiser the material
is heated to about 100°C by jacketed steam, and thus the absorbed solvent is evaporated into
vapors (B.Point. of hexane 67-70°C). Finally, the material, which is now completely
desolventised, is continuously discharged through airtight seal into a pneumatic conveyor, which
carries into the bagging section. The vapors evolved in the Desolventiser are led through a dust
catcher wherein they are washed with hot water, to a condenser.
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Some materials, such as cottonseed and soya bean extractions, are toasted after de-
solventisation. In these cases both the steps of de-solventisation and toasting can be combined
into one operation by the use of Desolventiser - Toaster (D. T.) Instead of the tubular jacketed
Desolventiser.
The D.T. consists of a vertical cylindrical vessel with horizontal jacketed compartments
and a central rotating vertical shaft on which are mounted sweeps in each compartment. The
Material to be desolventised and toasted is fed in to the top compartment of D.T and heated with
open steam. Open steam condenses a lot of moisture in the material at the same time evaporating
the solvent. The moisture up to 14 to 15% is condensed. The material then flows to lower
compartment. In lower compartments the material is gradually heated to 115 to 120° C thus
evaporating all the solvent, cooking the material and driving away extra moisture. The cooking
in presence of moisture destroys undesirable enzymes.
High temperature attained toasts the material. The solvent and water vapors from various
compartments are led first to a dust catcher wherein they are scrubbed with hot water spray to
remove fine dust and then led to a condenser to condense the vapors. The de-seventies and
toasted meal from bottom-most compartment discharges into a redler conveyor.
DISTILLATION OF MISCELLA
The final miscella (solution of oil in hexane) obtained from the extractor is collected in a
tank form where it is pumped to the distillation column kept under vacuum by means of a series
of steam ejectors. The miscella is heated by jacket steam in the distillation column and thus the
hexane is turned into vapor immediately. The vapors are led to another condenser through an
entrainment separator.
The concentrated miscella from the evaporator is pumped into a similar secondary
distillation unit to raise the temperature to about 100 - 110° C and then into the final stripper kept
under high vacuum. Open steam is injected in the latter to strip the last traces of hexane from the
oil. The vapor both from the secondary still and the stripper are condensed in a third condenser.
The oil freed from solvent is pumped from the stripper to the storage.
All the condensers are of floating head type with tube-bundles to carry the cooling water.
The cooled water at 30°C or below is circulated inside the tubes in all the condensers and the
vapors are passed outside the tubes. Thus the vapors are cooled and condensed into liquid. The
uncondensed vapors from each condenser are sucked by a series of ejectors and pushed through
the last condenser to a contact cooler where they are washed with cold-water spray. All the
condensate liquid hexane water from these condensers and contact cooler is led to a solvent
water separator wherein the pure solvent is separated from water by settling the difference in
densities of water and the solvent and their immiscibility accomplishes complete separation. The
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fresh pure solvent from this tank is pumped to the extractor continuously for the final washing of
the meal bed.
The vapor and gases from the contact cooler are led to absorber where they come into
intimate contact with absorbing oil (vegetable oil or mineral oil). The solvent vapors if any, are
absorbed in this oil and non-condensable gases are let out into the atmosphere. While
theoretically these gases leaving the plant are expected to be free from hexane, in practice, a
small amount of the solvent is lost with these gases.
The oil containing the absorbed solvent is led into an evaporator kept under vacuum and
heated to 100°C. The solvent is vaporized and these vapors are led into one of condensers and
recovered.
The hot oil from the evaporator is passed through a cooler to cool to room temperature,
and having been freed from hexane it is sprayed back into the absorber.
The redler conveyor carries the desolventised meal form the DT to bagging section. The
meal is not only conveyed but also cooled to about 45-50°C by means of cold air draft induced in
the conveyor by a blower. The meal drops to a humidifier from the redler. In the humidifier the
meal is mixed with enough moisture to bring up the moisture content, thus replacing the amount
of water lost during the extraction and de-solventisation steps. The humidified meal is then
bagged at the discharge of the humidifier.
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 41
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
CHAPTER: 4
MATERIAL BALANCE
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 42
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
Wt of seeds= 50gm
Wt of crushed seed=49.72gm
Time for crushing=3 minute
{2} STEAMING
{4} FILTRATION
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 43
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
Therefore,
{6} DRYING
Initial wt = 163.39gm
Final wt = 157.43gm
Therefore Hexane evaporated=5.87gm
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 44
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
{2} STEAMING
{4} FILTRATION
Filtration time=17min
Wt of M.L =263.60gm
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 45
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
{6} DRYING
Therefore
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 46
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
Wt of seeds =38.77gm
Total volume of Hexane=150ml
Volume of fresh Hexane=100ml
Volume of recovered Hexane = 50ml
Heating time of (seeds + hexane)=25min at 58 to 59 ˚C
{4} FILTRATION
Filtration time=10min
Wt of seeds=37.08gm
Wt of M.L =264.94gm
Volume of M.L=116ml
Further steaming is not required because hexane recovered is low compare to given
energy. so, energy cost increase.
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 47
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
FOR STEP
(2) 30 30 35
EXTRACTION 20 30 25
DISTILLATION 15 17 10
FEED 25 28 20
18 6.4 2.8
OIL RECOVERED
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 48
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 49
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 50
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
Where,
Therefore,
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 51
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
4.2 NOTATIONS:
A=Mass of solvent;
C= Mass of oil
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 52
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
Therefore,
Actual wt. of oil in seeds (C) = 0.36×1000
C = 360 Kg/day
Therefore,
Mass of solvent in Kg (A) = 3000× Density
= 3000 × 0.672
A = 2016 Kg/day
Total insoluble’s, oil free basis, (B) = (oil+ hexane) free seeds + moisture
= 1000 – oil
= 1000 – 360
B = 640 Kg/ day
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 53
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
RNP+1 = (2016 + 0)
= 2016 Kg/day
Therefore,
M = 1000+ 2016
M = 3016 Kg/day
But we assume we recover 96% oil therefore remaining 4% goes with solvent
yF = xF = 1
We have,
M = F + RNP+1 Kg/ day
XM = YM = 0.358
Now , NM = B / A+C)
= (640)/ (2016 +360)
= 0.269 ≈ 0.27
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 54
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
NF = B / A+C)
= (640)/ (2016 +360)
= 0.269 ≈ 0.27
NF = NM = 0.27
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 55
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
N X Y
4.5 0 0
Where,
N-X data refer for raffinate layer in which N = 0.
N-Y data refer for extract layer.
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 56
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
X Y
0.40 0.34
0.35 0.32
0.295 0.28
0.25 0.235
0.21 0.17
Overall balance:
F=1000kg E4 =99.77kg
Overall balance
R1=2916.23kg R5=2016kg
INPUT = OUTPUT
Therefore, F + R5 = E4 + R1
1000+2016 = E4 +R1
E4 +R1 = 3016 …………. {1}
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 57
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 58
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
STAGE – 1
F=1000kg E1=7770.92kg
R1=2916.23kg
STAGE - 1 R2=9687.15kg
INPUT = OUTPUT
F + R 2 = E 1 + R1
1000 + R2 = E1 + 2916.23
E1 - R2 = 1916.23….. {3}
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 59
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
STAGE -2:
E1=7770.92kg E2 = 7543.57kg
STAGE - 2
R2=9687.15kg R3 = 9459.8kg
INPUT = OUTPUT
E1 + R3 = E2 + R2
1000 + R3 = E2 + 9687.15
R3- E2 = 1916.23 …….. {5}
E2 = 7543.57 Kg/day
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 60
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
STAGE – 3:
E2 = 7543.57kg E3 = 7363.43kg
R3 = 9459.8kg
STAGE - 3 R4 = 9279.66kg
INPUT = OUTPUT
E2 + R4 = E3 + R3
7543.57 +R4 = 9459.80 + E3
1916.23 = R4 – E3………. {7}
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 61
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
STAGE – 4:
STAGE - 4
R4 = 9279.66kg R5 = 2016kg
E 3 + R5 = R 4 + E 4
R5 = R4 + E4 – E3
= 9279.66 + 99.77 – 7363.43
Therefore,
E3 + R5 = R4 + E4
7363.43 + 2016 = 9779.66 + 99.77
9379.43 = 9379.43
INPUT = OUTPUT
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 62
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
The insoluble’s (seeds + oil + hexane) miscella are then fed to the desolventizer unit from where
pure hexane is recovered along with the solid cake from reuse.
Therefore,
Oil loss (left in seed) = 1544040 – 1482062 = 61.78 Kg/day
Hexane loss =10080 – 9273.66 = 806.4 Kg/day
Now, 40% hexane is recovered from Desolventiser (DT) unit
Hexane recovered from DT unit = 0.40 × 804.40
= 332.56 Kg/day
This hexane obtained at 65°C from DT unit is then fed to the economizer (shell side) to increase
the temperature of (oil + hexane) miscella at tube side from 55°C to 65°C.
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 63
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
1) ECONOMIZER :-
The hexane from DT to economizer used for heating then goes to jet condenser as pure
hexane which is then recycled back to the extractor.
2) FLASHER -1 :-
Flasher is used for the recovery of hexane from the (oil + hexane) miscella.
Amount of hexane recovered from (oil + hexane) miscella = 85% of 9273.60 Kg/day
= 0.85 × 9273.60 Kg/day
= 7882.56 Kg/day
3) HEATER-1 :-
Heater is used to increase the temperature of hexane because hexane recovery increases with
increasing temperature. Steam is used as a heating media at 100°C. The temperature of
(Oil + hexane) increase to 75°C.
Amount of (oil + hexane) miscella coming out from heater-1 = 2873.66 Kg/day
(At increase temperature)
4) FLASHER- 2:-
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 64
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
All the hexane recovered from Flasher-1 and Flasher-2 is then sand to a common condenser.
The hexane from jet condenser is also sand to this common condenser which is the total amount
of hexane recovered. This recovered hexane is reused as solvent in the extractor.
5) HEATER- 2:-
Amount of (oil + hexane) miscella fed into Heater-2 = 1482.56+ (1391.04 – 1043.28)
= 1830.32 Kg/day
The temperature of (oil + hexane) miscella is increased to 85°C using steam heating
media at 100°C.
Amount of (oil + hexane) miscella coming out from Heater-2 = 1830.32 Kg/day
6) STRIPPER:-
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 65
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
Wt
recover of
ed
cak
wt of wt of (hexane wt of
seeds hexane (seeds+ + wt of wt of cake e
Sr for for Time Time hexane) oil) cake cake after afte
. extracti extracti for for after after after after 10 r 2
N on on extracti extracti extracti filtratio filtrati filtra mint day
o (gm) (ml) on on on n on tion s s
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 66
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
CHAPTER: 5
PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 67
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 68
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
HOT STEAM °C °K
ts2 65 338
ts3 50 323
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 69
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
=467.9167 Kg/hr
467 . 9167
Feed rate (Wf) =
3600
=0.129977 Kg/sec
61 . 77333
Initial concentration of oil =
467 . 9167
=0.132018%
406 . 1433
Initial concentration of hexane=
467 . 9167
=0.867982%
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 70
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
=345.2218Kg/hr
=122.6948Kg/hr
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 71
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
Due to the equilibrium the vapor of hexane is fed in to the tube side of the evaporator at same
temp (650C)
Oil in feed=61.77333Kg/hr
Hexane in feed=122.6948-61.77333
=60.9215Kg/hr
=50.34713%
60.9215
Hexane in feed in second evaporator = ( 122.6948 )
=49.65287%
Now, we assume 75% of Hexane evaporated from second effect evaporator at 50 0C and
385mmHg.
=45.69113 Kg/hr
=77.00371Kg/hr
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 72
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
Due to the equilibrium the vapors of hexane is fed in to the tube side of the evaporator at 35 0C
temperature.
=15.23038Kg/hr
( 61.77333∗100
Wt of oil in feed =
77.00371 )
=80.22124%
=19.77876%
Now, we assume 100% of Hexane evaporated from third effect evaporator at 35 0C and
230mmHg.
=15.23038Kg/hr
¿ 61.77333 Kg/hr
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 73
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
= ( 345.2218+ 45.69113+15.23038 )
= 406.1433Kg/hr
=50°C
=15°C
=15°C
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 74
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
U1=1100 W/m²*°C
U2=900 W/m²*°C
U3=800 W/m²*°C
We design the triple effect evaporator such that the heating area in all three is the same,
A1=A2=A3
2∗U 1 900
(
( ∆t 1)= ∆ t
U2
= )( )
1100
=0.818182
2∗U 2
(
( ∆t 3)= ∆ t
U3 )
=1.125
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 75
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
( ∆ t 2∗U 1
U2 )
+∆ t 2+ ( ∆ t
2∗U 2
U3 )
=80
U1 U2
∆ t 2∗ (( ) ( ))
U2
+1+
U3
=80
∆ t 2∗2.943184=80
80
∆ t 2= ( 2.943184 )=27.18147°C
So, ∆ t 1=¿22.23938°C
∆t2= 27.18147°C
∆ t 3=¿30.57915°C
∆t1 22.23938°C
∆t2 27.18147°C
∆t3 30.57915°C
1st EFFECT:-
T1¿ ( Ts−∆ t 1 )
¿ ( 115−22.23938 )
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 76
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
¿ 92.76062°C
2nd EFFECT
¿ ( 92.76062−0−27.18147 )
¿ 65.57915°C
3rd EFFECT
¿ ( 65.57915−0−30.57915 )
¿ 35°C
1ST EFFECT
61.77333
Mass fraction of oil¿ =0.132018
467.9167
406.1433
Mass fraction of hexane¿ =0.867982
467.9167
Cp of oil ¿ 0.5
Cp of Hexane¿ 0.54
¿ ( 0.132018∗0.5+0.867982∗0.54 )
¿ 0.534719
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 77
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
KJ
¿ 62.58355
Kg
KJ
H2s=Enthalpy of steam at 100 C¿ 2699.36
Kg
KJ
( Cp ) steam=2257
Kg
¿ 2699.36+2257∗0
KJ
¿ 2699.36
Kg
( t 1 ) =92.76062C
¿ Cp1∗4.18∗( t 1−0 )
¿ 242.6611
Ws∗2699.36−23.40591=W 1∗2456.699
W 1∗2456.699+23.40591
Ws=
2699.36
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 78
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
2nd EFFECT
W1*L1 + (Wf-W1)*h1=W2*H2+(Wf-W1-W2)*h2
KJ
h2s ¿ 490
Kg
KJ
H3s=Enthalpy of steam at 65 C¿ 2638.36
Kg
KJ
( Cp ) steam=2257
Kg
¿ 2638.36+2257∗0
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 79
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
KJ
¿ 2638.36
Kg
KJ
( Cp 2 )=0.5345
Kg
( t 2 ) =65.57915C
¿ Cp 2∗4.18∗( t 2−0 )
KJ
¿ 146.5176
Kg
W 1∗2113.2165+12.49645
SoW 2 ¿
2491.8424
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 80
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
3rd EFFECT
W2*L2 + (Wf-W1-W2)*h2=W3*H3+(Wf-W1-W2-W3)*h3
KJ
h2s ¿ 301.76
Kg
KJ
Hs=Enthalpy of steam at 35 C¿ 2580
Kg
KJ
( Cp ) steam=2257
Kg
¿ 2580+2257∗0
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 81
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
KJ
¿ 2580
Kg
KJ
( Cp 3 )=0.5345
Kg
( t 3 )=35 C
¿ Cp3∗4.18∗( t 3−0 )
KJ
¿ 78.1974
Kg
W 2∗L 2+(Wf −W 1−W 2)∗h 2=W 3∗H 3+(Wf −W 1−W 2−W 3)∗h 3
−W 1∗1855.2999+W 3∗2501.8046=20.2557
W 3∗2501.8046=20.2557+ W 1∗1855.2999
20.2557+W 1∗1855.2999
W3¿
2501.8046
W 3=0.0080964+W 1∗0.7416¿ ( 4)
W 1∗0.03843=0.006034
0.006034 Kg
W1¿
0.03843 sec
Kg
W 1=0 . 157
sec
Similarly:
Kg
Ws=0 . 152
sec
Kg
W 2=0. 138
sec
Kg
W 3=0 .119
sec
Now, Q1=Ws*Ls
Q 1=0.152∗2699.36
KJ
¿ 410.3027
sec
But, Q1=U1*A1*∆t1
Q1
A1¿
U 1∗∆ t 1
410.3027
¿
1100∗22.2394
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 83
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
A 1=16 . 77 m ²
Q2=W1*L1
Q 2=0.157∗2209.36
KJ
¿ 346.87
sec
But, Q2=U1*A2*∆t2
Q2
A2¿
U 2∗∆ t 2
346.87
¿
900∗27.18147
A 2=14 .18 m ²
Q3=W2*L2
Q 3=0.138∗2336.6
KJ
¿ 322.4508
sec
But, Q3=U3*A3*∆t3
Q3
A3¿
U 3∗∆ t 3
322.4508
¿
800∗30.5715
A 3=13 . 18 m²
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 84
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
Total Oil
Collected
122.6948Kg/hr 77.00371Kg/hr 61.77333Kg/hr
61.77Kg/Hr
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 86
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
CHAPTER: 6
COST ESTIMATION
Acceptable plant design must present a process that is capable of operating under
conditions, which will yield profit. Since net profit equals total value minus all expenses, it is
essential that the chemical engineer be aware of the many different types of cost involved in the
manufacturing processes. Capital must allocate for the direct, plant expenses, such as those for
raw material, labor and equipment. Besides direct expenses many others indirect expenses are
incurred, and these must be included if a complete analysis of the total cost is to be obtained.
Some examples of these indirect expenses are administrative salary, product distribution cost and
cost for interplant communication.
When the cost for any type of commercial process is to be determined, sufficient
accuracy has to be provided for reliable decision. There are many factors affecting investment
and production cost. These are;
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 87
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
1. Source of equipment
2. Price fluctuation
3. Company policies
4. Operating and rate of production
5. Governmental policies
Before an industrial plant can be put into operation, a large sum of money must be
supplied to purchase and install the necessary machinery and equipment. Land and service
facilities must be obtained, and the plant must be erected completely with all piping, controls and
services. The capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities is called
the fixed-capital investment, while that necessary for the operation of plant is termed the
working capital.
The sum of the fixed capital investment and the working is known as the total capital
investment. Generally, the working capital amounts 10-20% of the total capital investment.
Following is the breakdown of the fixed capital investment for a chemical process.
1. Purchased equipments
2. Purchased equipment installation
3. Instrumentation and control
4. Piping
5. Electrical equipment and material
6. Building (including services)
7. Yard improvement
8. Land
6. 2 INDIRECT COST:
1. Engineering supervision
2. Construction expenses
3. Contractor’s fee
4. Contingency
Order of magnitude estimate (ratio estimate) based on similar cost data; probable
accuracy of this estimate over ± 30%.
Detailed estimate based on complete engineering drawing, specifications and site survey,
probable accuracy of this estimate within ± 10%.
¿ 0.02219∗800 0
¿ 177.52 Kg
Price of one stage with fabrication ¿ 250 Kg
¿ ( 177.52∗250 )
¿ 44,380 Rs
Cost of 10 stage=44,380∗10
¿ 4,43,800 Rs
Cost of Belt=13,000 Rs
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 89
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
41,56,800∗25
1) Total Purchased Equipment Cost (25 % of FCI )=
25
¿ 41,56,800 Rs
41,56,800∗10
2) Installation Cost ( 25 % of FCI ) ¿
25
¿16, 62,720 Rs
41,56,800∗8
3) Instrument & Control Installed( 8 % of FCI ) = 25
¿ 13,30,176 Rs
41,56,800∗18
4) Piping Installation Cost ( 18 % of FCI )=
25
¿ 29,92,896 Rs
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EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
41,56,800∗6
5) Electrical Installation Cost ( 6 % of FCI ) =
25
¿ 9,97,632 Rs
41,56,800∗5
6) Building Process & Auxiliary ( 5 % of FCI )=
25
¿ 8,31,360 Rs
41,56,800∗1
7) Service Facilities ( 1 % of FCI )=
25
¿ 1,66,272 Rs
41,56,800∗1.5
8) Yard Improvement( 1.5 % of FCI )=
25
¿ 2,49,408 Rs
41,56,800∗1.5
9) Land( 1.5 % of FCI )=
25
¿ 2,49,408 Rs
41 ,56 , 800∗76
TOTAL DIRECT COST ( 76 % of FCI ) =
25
Expenses which are not directly involved with material and labour of actual installation or
complete facility.
4) Contingency:( 7 % of D . C ) =1,26,36,672∗0.07
¿ 8,84,357.04 Rs
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 91
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
FCI=DC + IC
¿ 1 ,56 ,69 , 47 3 . 28 Rs
FIXED CHARGES:
C) Insurance:( 1 % of TCI )
¿ 1,80,19,894.27∗0.01
¿ 1,80,198.9 Rs
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 92
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
¿ 16,21,790.5 Rs
¿ 41,44,575.682 Rs
¿ 41,44,575.682∗0.1
¿ 4,14,457.5682 Rs
DIRECT PRODUCTION:
¿ 414457.5682∗0.05
¿ 20 , 722. 88 Rs
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 93
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
¿ 4,14,457.5682+ 41,44,575.682+20,722.88
¿ 45 , 79 , 756 .13 Rs
GENERAL EXPENSES:
Assume 55%
¿ 93,250.3∗0.55
¿ 51287.67 Rs
¿ 1 ,25 , 890 . 04 Rs
¿ 45,79,756.13+1,25,890.04
¿ 47 ,05 , 646 . 17 Rs
Kg Days Rs
(
Total Income ¿ 5000
Days )(
∗ 300
Year
∗(36 )
Kg
)
¿ 5,40,00,000 Rs
¿ 5,40,00,000+47,05,646.17
¿ 4,92,94,353.83 Rs
TAX =50 %
Rs
¿ 2 , 46 , 47 , 177
Year
NET PROFIT
RATE OF RETURN¿
TOTALCAPITALCOST
2,46,47,177
¿
1,80,19,894
¿ 1 .37 %
The breakeven point occurs when the total annual production cost equals the total annual sales.
The total annual product cost is the sum of fixed costs (including fixed charges, overhead, and
general expenses) and the direct production of units and the selling price per unit.
Kg
(
Annual Rate¿ 5000
Days )
∗( 300 Days )
¿ 15 , 00 , 000 Kg
51,287.67
Product cost¿
1500
Rs
¿ 35
Kg
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 95
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
¿ 42 , 91 ,188 . 602 Rs
Kg
n=42 , 91 ,188 . 602
Year
Kg
Thus, Break-even point is 42 , 91 , 188. 602
Year
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 96
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
CHAPTER: 7
INSTRUMENT AND CONTROL
The primary objective of the designer when specifying instrumentation and control schemes are:
(b) Product Quality: To maintain the product composition within the specified quality
standards.
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EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
(c) Cost: To operate at the lowest production cost commensurate with the objective but
sometimes it may be better strategy to produce a better quality at a higher cost.
In a typical chemical plant, these objectives are achieved by combination of automatic control,
manual monitoring and laboratory analysis.
Flow control is usually associated with inventory control in a storage tank or other
equipment; there must be a reservoir to tank up the change in flow rate. To provide flow
control as a compressor pump running at a fixed speed and supplying near constant volume
output by a bypass control is used.
(D) Heat Exchanger
In heat exchanger the temp, being controlled by varying the flow of the cooling or
heating medium.
(E) Condenser Control
Temperature control is unlike to e effective for condenser unless the liquid steam
is sub- cooled.
Alarms are used to alert operations of serious and potentially hazardous deviations in
process conditions. Key instruments are fitted with switches and relays to operate audible and
visual alarm on the control panels lack of response by the operator is likely to land on the rapid
development of a hazardous situation, the instrument would be fitted with a trip system to take
action automatically to prevent the hazard, such as shutting down pumps, closing valves,
operating energy.
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EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
A sensor to monitor the control variable and provide an output signal when a
present value is exceeded instrument.
A link to transfer the signal to the actuator usually consisting of a system of
pneumatic or electric relays.
An actuator to carry out required action: Close or open value, switch off monitor.
CHAPTER: 8
UTILITY
The word utilities are not generally used for the ancillary service needed in the operation of
the any production process. These services will normally be supplied from a central site facility,
and will include:
(1) Electricity
(2) Steam for process heating
(3) Cooling water
(4) Water for general use
(5) Deminerlised water
(6) Refrigeration
(7) Effluent disposal facilities
8.1 ELECTRICITY
The power required for electro chemical processes , motor drives lighting and general use
may be generated on sight, but will more usually by purchased from the local supply company.
The voltage at which the supply is taken or generated will depend on the demand. For a large site
the supply will be taken at a very high voltage. Transformer will be used to step down the supply
voltage to the voltages used on site.
8.2 STEAM
The steam for heating is usually generated in water boiler using the most economical fuel
level available. The process temperature required can usually be obtained with low temperature
steam and steam distributed at relatively low pressure. High pressure or proprietary heat transfer
fluids, such as down therm will be needed for high process temperature.
Natural and forced draft cooling towers are generally used to provide the cooling water
required in a site; unless water can be drawn from a convenient river or lake in sufficient
quantity.
The water required for general purposes on a site will usually be taken from the local
mains supply, unless a cheaper source of suitable quantity water is available from a river, lake or
well.
Deminerlised water from which all the minerals have been removed by ion exchange, is
used where pure water is needed for process use, and as boiler feed water. Mixed and multiple
bed ion exchange units are used, one resin converting the cations to hydrogen and the other
removing the acid radicals. Water with less than one ppm of dissolved solids can be produced.
8.6 REFRIGERATION
It will be needed for processes that require temperatures below those that can be
economically obtained with cooling water. For temperatures down to around 100 C chilled water
can be used. For lower temperatures, down to -30 0C, salt brines are used to distribute the
“refrigeration” round the site from a central refrigeration machine.
Facilities will be required at all sites for the disposal of waste materials without creating a
public nuisance.
CHAPTER: 9
PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT
The location of the plant can have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project and the scope
for future expansion. Many factors must be considered when selecting a suitable site. The factors
to be considered are:
Marketing Area:
For materials that are produced in bulk quantities such as cement, mineral acids and
fertilizers where the cost of the product per ton is relatively low and the cost of transport a
significant fraction of the sales price, the plant should be located close to the primary market.
This consideration will be less important for low volume production, high-priced products, such
as pharmaceuticals.
Raw Materials:
The availability and price of suitable raw materials will often determine the location.
Plant producing bulk chemicals are best located close to the source of the major raw material:
where this is also close to the marketing area.
Transport:
The transport of materials & products to & from the plant will be an overriding
consideration in site selection. If practicable, site should be selected that is close to at least two
major forms of transport: road, rail, waterway (canal or river) or a sea port.
Road transport is being increasingly used, and is suitable for long-distance transport of
bulk chemicals. Air transport is convenient & efficient for the movement of personnel &essential
equipment & supplies & the proximity of the site airport should be considered.
Availability of labor:
Labor will be needed for construction of the plant & its operation. Skilled construction
workers will usually be brought in from outside the site area, but there should be an adequate
pool of unskilled labor available locally; & labor suitable for training to operate the plant. Skilled
tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance.
Local trade union customs & restrictive practices will have to be considered when
assessing the availability & suitability of the local labor for recruitment & training.
Utilities (Services)
Chemical processes invariably require large quantities of water for cooling & general
process use & the plant must be located near a source of water of suitable quantity. Process water
may be drawn from a river, from wells, or purchased from a local authority. At some sites the
cooling water required can be taken from a river or lake, or from the sea; at other locations
cooling tower will be needed.
Electrical power will be needed at all sites. Electrochemical processes that require large
quantities of power; for example, aluminum smelters need to be located close to a cheap source
of power. A competitive priced fuel must be available on site for steam & power generation.
All industrial processes produce waste products & full consideration must be given to the
difficulties & cost of their disposal. The disposal of toxic & harmful effluents will be covered by
local regulations & the appropriate authorities must be consulted during the initial site survey to
determine the standards that must be met. An environmental impact assessment should be made
for each new project or major modification or addition to an existing process.
The proposed plant must fit in with & be acceptable to the local community. Full
consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose a
significant additional risk to the community. On a new site, the local community must be able to
provide adequate facilities for the plant personnel: school, banks, housing & recreational &
cultural facilities.
Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed plant & for future expansion.
The land should ideally be flat, well drained & have suitable load bearing characteristics. A full
site evaluation should be made to determine the need of piling or other special formations.
Climate:
Adverse climate conditions at a site will increase cost. Abnormally low temperatures will
require the prohibition of additional insulation & special heating for equipment & pipe runs.
Stronger structures will be needed at locations subject to high winds (cyclone hurricane areas) or
earthquakes.
Capital grants tax concessions & other inducements are often given by the government to
direct renew investments to preferred locations, such as areas of high unemployment. The
availability of such grants can be the overriding consideration in site selection.
The process units & ancillary buildings should be laid out to give the most economical
flow of materials & personnel around the site. Hazardous processes must be located at a safe
distance from other buildings. Consideration must also be given to the future expansion of the
site. The ancillary buildings & services required on a site, in addition to the main processing
units will include:
1. Storages for raw materials & products: tank farms & warehouses.
2. Maintenance workshops.
3. Stores for maintenance & operating supplies.
4. Laboratories for process control
5. Fire stations & other emergency services.
6. Utilities: steam boilers, compressed air, power generation, refrigeration, transformer
Stations
7. Effluent disposal plant.
8. Offices for general administration.
9. Canteens & other amenity buildings, such as medical centers.
10. Car parks
When roughing out the preliminary site layout, the process units will normally be sited
first & arranged to give a smooth flow of materials through the various processing steps, from
raw material to final product storage.
Process units are normally spaced at least 30m apart; greater spacing may be needed for
hazardous processes. The location of the principal ancillary buildings should then be decided.
They should be arranged so as to minimize the time spent by personnel in travelling between
buildings. Administration offices & laboratories, in which a relatively large number of people
will be working, should be located well away from potentially hazardous processes.
Control rooms will normally be located be located adjacent to the processing units, but
with potentially hazardous processes may have to be sited at a safer distance. The sitting of the
main process units will determine the layout of the plant roads, pipe alleys & drains. Access
roads will be needed to each building for construction, & for operation & maintenance.
Utility buildings should be sited to give the most economical run of pipes to & from the
process units. Cooling towers should be sited so that under the prevailing wind the plume of
condensate spray drifts away from the plant area & adjacent properties.
The main storage area should be placed between the loading & unloading facilities & the
process units they serve. Storage tanks containing hazardous materials should be sited at least
70m from the site boundary.
The economic construction & efficient operation of a process unit will depend on how
well he plant & equipment specified on the process flow-sheet is laid out. The principal factors
to be considered are:
Costs
The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest
run of connecting pipe between equipment & the least amount of structural steel work. However
this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation & maintenance.
Process Requirements
An example of the need to take into account process considerations is the need to elevate
the base of columns to provide the necessary net positive suction head to a pump or the operating
head for a thermosyphon reboiler.
Operator
Equipment that needs to have frequent operator attention should be located convenient to
the control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at convenient
positions and heights. Sufficient working space and head room must be provided to allow easy
access to equipments.
Maintenance
Heat exchangers need to be cited so that the tube bundles can be easily withdrawn for
cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst or packing
should be located on the outside of buildings. Equipment that requires dismantling for
maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be placed under cover.
Safety
Blast walls maybe needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and confine the
effects of an explosion. At least two escape routes for operators must be provided from each
level in the process buildings.
Plant Expansion
Equipments should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future
expansion of the process. Space should be left on pipe alleys for future needs, and services pipes
over-sized to allow for future requirements.
In recent years there has been a move to assemble sections of plant at the plant
manufacturer’s site. These modules will include the equipment, structural steel, piping and
instrumentation. The modules are then transported to the plant site, by road or sea.
CHAPTER: 10
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET
SECTION 1. IDENTIFICATION:
Product name: Jatropha seed oil
Taxonomy Current name: Jatropha curcas
Common local names:
Afrikaans Purgeerboontjie
Chinese Yu-Lu-Tzu.
Dutch Purgeernoot
English Barbados Nut, Castor Oil, Chinese Castor Oil, Curcas, Fig Nut,
Physic Nut, Pig Nut, Purging Nut, Wild Oil Nut
Filipino Tubang-Bakod
Luganda Kiryowa
Nepali Kadam
Thai Sabudam
Family: Euphorbiaceous
SECTION 2. INGREDIENTS:
Product is supplied as a whole seed / kernel oil. It is a non-food grade material for
industrial use only.
Free fatty acid composition:
Myristic acid (14:0) 0-0.1 %
Palmitic acid (16:0) 14.1-15.3 %
Stearic acid (18:0) 3.7-9.8 %
Arachidic acid (20:0) 0-0.3 %
Behenic acid (22:0) 0-0.2 %
Palmitoleic acid (16:1) 0-1.3 %
Oleic acid (18:1) 34.3-45.8 %
Linoleic acid (18:2) 29.0-44.2 %
Linoleic acid (18:3) 0-0.3 %
Chemical parameters:
Diglycerides (% m/m): 2.7
Triglycerides (% m/m): 97.3
Water (% m/m): 0.07
Phosphorus (mg kg-1): 290
Calcium (mg kg-1): 56
Magnesium (mg kg-1): 103
Iron (mg kg-1): 2.4
Toxic ingredients:
VGEC, CHANDKHEDA 116
EXTRACTION OF OIL FROM JETROPHA SEEDS 2011
1. Phorbol esters:
Concentration (2-4 mg/g oil), co-carcinogenic to animals, mutagenic to
mammalian somatic cells, bacteria and yeast. Produce cathartic and degenerative changes
in gastrointestinal tract, liver, kidney, brain. Ingestion causes bloody diahorrea, collapse,
fall of blood pressure, trachycardia, coma and death (in rats). Repeated application on
skin leads to hyperplasia (in mice).
2. Jatropherol:
Is a phorbol type diterpenes (0.12-0.14 mg/g oil) found highly toxic to silk worm larvae
after ingestion with LC50 values 0.58, 0.22, 0.157 mg/ml at 48, 72, 120 h respectively. The oral
toxicity of jatropherol to mi e was found to be 82.198 mg/kg body weight.
Note: Since it is a natural product, the exact physical and chemical data may vary
from that mentioned in this sheet.
Eye contact:
Wear protective gloves, lab coat and safety glasses. Use vermiculite or another suitable
absorbent to clean up the spill. After cleanup, wash down the spill site with water containing
detergent and wash with water, ventilate the area. Prevent from entering drains, surface and
ground water. Place all contaminated materials in an appropriate waste container and dispose of
in accordance with federal, state and local regulations. III. Handling and Storage
The substance may be toxic to peripheral nervous system, skin, central nervous system
(CNS).Repeated or prolonged exposure to the substance can produce target organs damage.
Check for and remove any contact lenses. Immediately flush eyes with running water for
at least 15 minutes, keeping eyelids open. Get medical attention if irritation occurs.
Skin Contact:
Wash with soap and water. Cover the irritated skin with an emollient. Get medical
attention if irritation develops.
Serious Skin Contact:
Wash with a disinfectant soap and cover the contaminated skin with an anti-bacterial
cream. Seek medical attention.
Inhalation:
If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is
difficult, give oxygen. Get medical attention if symptoms appear.
Serious Inhalation:
Evacuate the victim to a safe area as soon as possible. Loosen tight clothing such as
collar, tie, belt or waistband. If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen. If the victim is not
breathing, perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. Seek medical attention.
Ingestion:
Extremely flammable liquid and vapor. Vapor may cause flash fire.
Absorb with an inert material and put the spilled material in an appropriate waste
disposal.
Large Spill:
Flammable liquid, insoluble in water. Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of
ignition. Stop leak if without risk. Absorb with DRY earth, sand or other non-combustible
material. Do not get water inside container. Do not touch spilled material. Prevent entry into
sewers, basements or confined areas; dike if needed. Call for assistance on disposal. Be careful
that the product is not present at a concentration level above TLV. Check TLV on the MSDS and
with local authorities.
Precautions:
Keep locked up.. Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Ground all
equipment containing material. Do not ingest. Do not breathe gas/fumes/ vapor/spray. Avoid
contact with skin. Wear suitable protective clothing. In case of insufficient ventilation, wear
suitable respiratory equipment. If ingested, seek medical advice immediately and show the
container or the label. Keep away from incompatibles such as oxidizing agents.
Storage:
Store in a segregated and approved area. Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area.
Keep container tightly closed and sealed until ready for use. Avoid all possible sources of
ignition (spark or flame).
Engineering Controls:
Personal Protection:
Safety glasses, Lab coat. Vapor respirator. Be sure to use an approved/certified respirator
or equivalent, Gloves.
Splash goggles, Full suit, Vapor respirator, Boots, Gloves. A self contained breathing
apparatus should be used to avoid inhalation of the product. Suggested protective clothing might
not be sufficient; consult a specialist BEFORE handling this product.
Special Remarks on Reactivity: Hexane can react vigorously with strong oxidizers (e.g.
chlorine, bromine, fluorine)
Routes of Entry:
Toxicity to Animals:
May cause damage to the following organs: peripheral nervous system, skin, central
nervous system (CNS).
Skin:
May cause mild skin irritation. It can be absorbed through the skin in harmful amounts.
Eyes:
May cause mild eye irritation.
Inhalation:
May be harmful if inhaled. Inhalation of vapors may cause respiratory tract irritation.
Overexposure may affect, brain, spinal cord, behavior/central and peripheral nervous systems
(lightheadness, dizziness, hallucinations, paralysis, blurred vision, memory loss, headache,
euphoria, general anesthetic, muscle weakness, numbness of the extremities, asphyxia,
unconsciousness and possible death), metabolism, respiration, blood, cardiovascular system,
gastrointestinal system (nausea)
Ingestion:
May be harmful if swallowed. May cause gastrointestinal tract irritation with abdominal
pain and nausea. May also affect the liver, blood, brain, peripheral and central nervous systems.
Symptoms of overexposure by ingestion are similar to that of overexposure by inhalation.
Products of Biodegradation:
Possibly hazardous short term degradation products are not likely. However, long term
degradation products may arise.
The product itself and its products of degradation are not toxic.
Waste Disposal:
Waste must be disposed of in accordance with federal, state and local environmental
control regulations.
CHAPTER: 11
REFRENCES
CHAPTER: 12
APPENDIX
Appendix-1
VAPOR PRESSURE DATA
APPENDIX-2
CONVERSION FACTOR