Duke University

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

CE 131L. Matrix Structural Analysis
Henri P. Gavin
Fall, 2009

Review of Strain Energy Methods and

Introduction to Stiffness Matrix Methods
of Structural Analysis

1 Strain Energy

Strain energy is stored within an elastic solid when the solid is deformed under load. In the
absence of energy losses, such as from friction, damping or yielding, the strain energy is equal
to the work done on the solid by external loads. Strain energy is a type of potential energy.

Consider the work done on an elastic solid by a single point force F . When the elastic solid
carries the load, F , it deforms with strains (ǫ and γ) and the material is stressed (σ and τ ).

D is a displacement in the same location and in the same direction as a point force, F . D and
F are colocated. The work done by the force F on the elastic solid is the area under the force
vs. displacement curve.

Z
W = F dD (1)
This work is stored as strain energy U within the elastic solid.
1Z
U= (σxx ǫxx + σyy ǫyy + σzz ǫzz + τxy γxy + τxz γxz + τyz γyz ) dV. (2)
2 V
2 CE 131L. Matrix Structural Analysis – Duke University – Fall 2009 – H.P. Gavin

This is a very general expression for the strain energy, U , and is not very practical for structural
elements like bars, beams, trusses, or frames.

1.1 Bars

For a bar in tension or compression, we have internal axial force, N , only,

so σyy = 0, σzz = 0, τxy = 0, τxz = 0, and τyz = 0, and

1Z
U= σxx ǫxx dV ,
2 V

where σxx = N/A and ǫxx = N/EA. Substituting dV = A dx we get

1Z N (x)2
U= dx , (3)
2 L E(x) A(x)

and if N , E, and A are constant

1 N2 L
U= .
2 EA

Alternatively, we may express the strain as a function of the displacements along the bar ux (x),
ǫxx = ∂ux (x)/∂x, and σxx = E ∂ux (x)/∂x. Again substituting dV = A dx ,

!2
1Z ∂ux (x)
U= E(x) A(x) dx , (4)
2 L ∂x

and if E, A and ∂ux /∂x = (u2 − u1 )/L are constants,

1 EA
U= (u2 − u1 )2
2 L
Strain Energy and Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis 3

1.2 Beams

For a beam in bending we have internal bending moments, M , and internal shear forces, V . For
slender beams the effects of shear deformation are usually neglected.

As in the axially loaded bar, σyy = 0, σzz = 0, τxy = 0, τxz = 0, and τyz = 0, and

1Z
U= σxx ǫxx dV .
2 V

For bending, σxx = M y/I and ǫxx = M y/EI. Substituting dV = dA dx,

1 Z Z M (x)2 y 2
U= dA dx ,
2 L A E(x) I(x)2

where y 2 dA = I, so
R
A

1Z M (x)2
U= dx . (5)
2 L E(x) I(x)

Alternatively, we may express the moment in terms of the curvature of the beam, φ ≈ ∂ 2 uy /∂x2 ,

∂ 2 uy (x)
M (x) = E(x) I(x) ,
∂x2

from which σxx = E (∂ 2 uy /∂x2 ) y and ǫxx = (∂ 2 uy /∂x2 ) y, so that

!2
1Z Z ∂ 2 uy (x)
U= E(x) y 2 dA dx
2 L A ∂x2

where, again, y 2 dA = I, so
R
A

!2
1Z ∂ 2 uy (x)
U= E(x) I(x) dx . (6)
2 L ∂x2
4 CE 131L. Matrix Structural Analysis – Duke University – Fall 2009 – H.P. Gavin

1.3 Summary

External work is done by a set of forces, Fi , on a linear elastic solid, producing a set of
displacements, Di , in the same locations and directions.

The work done by these forces is

1 1 1
W = F1 D1 + F2 D2 + F3 D3 + · · ·
2 2 2
The external forces are resisted by internal moments, M , and axial forces, N . The total strain
energy stored within the solid is

1 Z M2 1 X Nj2 Lj
U= dx + (7)
2 LEI 2 j Ej Aj

where the first term is the integral over all lengths of all the beams and the second term is the
sum over all the bars. If torsion and shear are included, then two additional terms are

1 Z T2
dx
2 LGJ
and
1Z V2
dx .
2 L G A/α

Alternatively, we can think of external forces producing curvatures (∂ 2 uy /∂x2 ) by bending, and
axial stretches (∂ux /∂x). In this case
!2
1Z ∂ 2 uy 1 X Ej Aj
U= EI dx + (u2j − u1j )2 (8)
2 L ∂x2 2 j Lj
Strain Energy and Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis 5

If torsion and shear are included, then two additional terms are
!2
1Z ∂uxθ
GJ dx ,
2 L ∂x
and !2
1Z ∂uy
G A/α dx ,
2 L ∂x
where uxθ is the torsional rotation about the x-axis, ∂uxθ /∂x is the torsional shear strain, γxθ ,
(on the face perpendicular to the x-axis and in the θ-direction) and ∂uy /∂x is the shear strain,
γxy , (on the face perpendicular to the x-axis and in the y-direction).

Analyses using expressions of the form of equations (3), (5), or (7) are called force method or
flexibility method analyses.

Analyses using expressions of the form of equations (4), (6), or (8) are called displacement
method or stiffness method analyses.

2 Castigliano’s Theorems

The idea of strain energy allows us to analyze all kinds of statically determinate or statically
indeterminate problems. Three examples of this follow.

If there is a single external force, F , and the system is statically determinate, and the displace-
ment, D, or force F , at the loading point is desired, then the expression
1
F D=U
2
is enough to solve for the unknown force or displacement in the problem. This is called the
method of real work.

For systems with multiple external forces, distributed loads, Castigliano’s theorems may be
used.
6 CE 131L. Matrix Structural Analysis – Duke University – Fall 2009 – H.P. Gavin

2.1 Castigliano’s Theorem - Part I

Z
U= F dD ... strain energy

∆U ∂U
Fi = =
∆Di ∂Di
A force, Fi , on an elastic solid is equal to the derivative of the strain energy with respect to
the displacement, Di , in the direction and location of the force, Fi .

2.2 Castigliano’s Theorem - Part II

Z
U∗ = D dF ... complementary strain energy

∆U ∗ ∂U ∗
Di = =
∆Fi ∂Fi
A displacement, Di , on an elastic solid is equal to the derivative of the complementary strain
energy with respect to the force, Fi , in the direction and location of the displacement, Di .

If the solid is linear elastic, then U ∗ = U .

Strain Energy and Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis 7

3 Superposition

Superposition is an extremely powerful idea that helps us solve problems that are statically
indeterminate. To use the principle of superposition, the system must behave in a linear elastic
fashion.

The principle of superposition states:

Any response of a system to multiple inputs can be represented as the sum of the responses to
the inputs taken individually.

By “response” we can mean a strain, a stress, a deflection, an internal force, a rotation, an

internal moment, etc.

By “input” we can mean an externally applied load, a temperature change, a support settlement,
etc.
8 CE 131L. Matrix Structural Analysis – Duke University – Fall 2009 – H.P. Gavin

4 Detailed Example of Castigliano’s Theorem and Superposition

Recall the strain energy method formulation for a statically indeterminate system with three
redundant forces: The redundant forces are: RB , RC , and RD . Note that in this problem the

reaction forces do not move (or settle) in the direction of the reaction forces. The reactions are
fixed.

From the principle of superposition:

M (x) = Mo (x) + m1 (x)RB + m2 (x)RC + m3 (x)RD (9)

N = N o + n1 R B + n2 R C + n3 R D (10)
Strain Energy and Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis 9

The total strain energy, U , in systems with bending strain energy and axial strain energy is,

1 Z L M (x)2 1 X N2 H
U= dx + (11)
2 0 EI 2 EA
We are told that the displacements at points B, C, and D are all zero and we will assume the
structure behaves linear elastically, therefore, from Castigliano’s Second Theorem,

∂U ∗ ∂U
Di = = ,
∂Fi ∂Fi
we obtain three expressions for the facts that DB = 0, DC = 0, and DD = 0.

∂U
DB = 0 =
∂RB

∂U
DC = 0 =
∂RC
∂U
DD = 0 =
∂RD
Inserting equation (11) into the three expressions for zero displacement at the fixed reactions,
noting that EI and EA are constants in this problem, and noting that the strain energy, U ,
depends on the reactions R, only through the internal forces, M and N , we obtain

1 ZL ∂M (x) H ∂N
DB = 0 = M (x) dx + N
EI 0 ∂RB EA ∂RB

1 ZL ∂M (x) H ∂N
DC = 0 = M (x) dx + N
EI 0 ∂RC EA ∂RC
1 ZL ∂M (x) H ∂N
DD = 0 = M (x) dx + N
EI 0 ∂RD EA ∂RD
Now, from the superposition equations (9) and (10), ∂M (x)/∂RB = m1 (x), ∂M (x)/∂RC =
m2 (x), ∂M (x)/∂RD = m3 (x), ∂N (x)/∂RB = n1 , ∂N (x)/∂RC = n2 , and ∂N (x)/∂RD =
n3 . Inserting these expressions and the superposition equations (9) and (10) into the above
equations for DB , DC , and DD ,

1 ZL H
DB = 0 = [Mo + m1 RB + m2 RC + m3 RD ] m1 dx + [No + n1 RB + n2 RC + n3 RD ] n1
EI 0 EA
1 ZL H
DC = 0 = [Mo + m1 RB + m2 RC + m3 RD ] m2 dx + [No + n1 RB + n2 RC + n3 RD ] n2
EI 0 EA
1 ZL H
DD = 0 = [Mo + m1 RB + m2 RC + m3 RD ] m3 dx + [No + n1 RB + n2 RC + n3 RD ] n3
EI 0 EA
These three expressions contain the three unknown reactions RB , RC , and RD . Everything else
in these equations (m1 (x), m2 (x) ... n3 ) can be found without knowing the unknown reactions.
10 CE 131L. Matrix Structural Analysis – Duke University – Fall 2009 – H.P. Gavin

By taking the unknown reactions out of the integrals (they are constants), we can write these
three equations in matrix form.
 RL m1 m1 n1 n1 H RL m1 m2 n1 n2 H RL m1 m3 n1 n3 H L Mo m1
+ NoEA
n1 H
   R 
0 dx + 0 dx + 0 dx + RB 0 dx
R L mEI EA
R L mEI EA
R L mEI EA EI
2 m1 n2 n1 H 2 m2 n2 n2 H 2 m3 n2 n3 H  R  = − L
+ NoEA
n2 H  Mo m2
    R


0 dx + 0 dx + 0 dx +  C   0 dx
R L mEI EA
R L mEI EA
R L mEI EA EI
 
3 m1 n3 n1 H 3 m2 n3 n2 H 3 m3 n3 n3 H RL Mo m3
0 EI
dx + EA 0 EI
dx + EA 0 EI
dx + EA
+ NoEA
RD n3 H
0 EI
dx
(12)
This 3-by-3 matrix is called a flexibility matrix, F. The values of the terms in the flexibility
matrix depend only on the responses of the structure to unit loads placed at various points
in the structure. The flexibility matrix is therefore a property of the structure alone, and
does not depend upon the loads on the structure1 . The vector on the right-hand-side depends
on the loads on the structure. Recall that this matrix looks a lot like the matrix from the
three-moment equation. All flexibility matrices share several properties:

• All flexibility matrices are symmetric.

• No diagonal terms are negative.

• Flexibility matrices for structures which can not move or rotate without deforming are
positive definite. This means that all of the eigenvalues of a flexibility matrix describing
a fixed structure are positive.

• The unknowns in a flexibility matrix equation are forces (or moments).

• The number of equations (rows of the flexibility matrix) equals the number of unknown
forces (or moments).

1
There are some fascinating cases in which the behavior does depend upon the loads, but that is a story for
another day!
Strain Energy and Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis 11

It is instructive to now examine the meaning of the terms in the matrix, F

Z L m1 m1 n1 n1 H
F11 = dx + = δ11
0 EI EA

Z L m2 m1 n2 n1 H
F21 = dx + = δ21
0 EI EA

Z L m1 m2 n1 n2 H
F12 = dx + = δ12
0 EI EA

Z L m3 m1 n3 n1 H
F31 = dx + = δ31
0 EI EA

The fact that F12 = F21 is called Maxwell’s Reciprocity Theorem.

12 CE 131L. Matrix Structural Analysis – Duke University – Fall 2009 – H.P. Gavin

5 Introductory Example of the Stiffness Matrix Method

In this simple example, elements are springs with stiffness k. A spring with stiffness k > 0
connecting point i to point j, will have a force f = k(dj − di ) where di is the displacement of
point i and dj is the displacement of point j. (Tension is positive so di points “into” the spring
and dj points “away” from the spring.)

The stiffness matrix for this structure can be found using equilibrium and force-deflection
relationships (f = kd) for the springs.

#1: Fx = 0 : f1 − k1 d1 + k2 (d2 − d1 ) = 0
P

#2: Fx = 0 : f2 − k2 (d2 − d1 ) − k4 d2 + k3 (d3 − d2 ) = 0

P

#3: Fx = 0 : f3 − k3 (d3 − d2 ) − k5 d3 = 0
P

In matrix form these three equations may be written:

    
k1 + k2 −k2 0 d1 f1
    
k2 + k3 + k4   d2  =  f2 
 −k −k3     
 2
0 −k3 k3 + k5 d3 f3

The displacements are found by solving the stiffness matrix equation for d, d = K−1 f .
Strain Energy and Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis 13

• The matrix K is called a stiffness matrix.

• All stiffness matrices are symmetric.

• All diagonal terms of all stiffness matrices are positive.

• Stiffness matrices are diagonally dominant. This means that the diagonal terms are
usually larger than the off-diagonal term.

• If the structure is not free to translate or rotate without deforming, then the stiffness
matrix is positive definite. This mathematical property guarantees that the stiffness
matrix is invertible, and a unique set of displacements, d, can be found by solving K d = f .

• The total potential energy, U , in this system of springs is

1 1 1 1 1
U = k1 d21 + k2 (d2 − d1 )2 + k3 (d3 − d2 )2 + k4 d22 + k5 d23 .
2 2 2 2 2
You should be able to confirm that this is equal to
1 T
U= d Kd
2
Also, note that no matter what the values of the displacements, d, may be, the energy U
is always positive. The statement 21 dT Kd > 0 ∀d 6= 0 is another way of saying that K is
positive-definite.

• The set of forces required to deflect coordinate “i” by a deflection of “1 unit” equals the
“i-th” column of the stiffness matrix. For example consider the case in which d1 = 1,
d2 = 0, and d3 = 0,
    
k1 + k2 −k2 0 1 k1 + k2
    
 −k
 2 k2 + k3 + k4 −k3   0  =  −k2 
   
 ,
0 −k3 k3 + k5 0 0

which is equal to the first column of the stiffness matrix.

14 CE 131L. Matrix Structural Analysis – Duke University – Fall 2009 – H.P. Gavin

This fact may be used to derive the stiffness matrix:

d1 = 1, d2 = 0, d3 = 0

f1 = k1 + k2 , f2 = −k2 , f3 = 0 ... 1st column

d1 = 0, d2 = 1, d3 = 0

f1 = −k2 , f2 = k2 + k3 + k4 , f3 = −k3 ... 2nd column

d1 = 0, d2 = 0, d3 = 1

f1 = 0 , f2 = −k3 , f3 = k3 + k5 ... 3rd column

Strain Energy and Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis 15

6 Basic Concepts of the Stiffness Matrix Method:

The previous example illustrates some of the basic concepts needed to apply the stiffness matrix
method to structures made out of bars and beams. There are, however, a few additional com-
plications. Displacements in structures can be vertical, horizontal, or rotational, and structural
bars and beams have a more complicated force-displacement relationships than those of simple
springs.

In applying the matrix stiffness method of structural analysis, structures are described in terms
of elements that connect nodes which can move in certain coordinate directions.

6.1 Elements

In the stiffness matrix method, structures are modeled as assemblies of elements such as bars,
beams, cables, shafts, plates, and walls. Elements connect the nodes of the structural model.
Like the simple springs in the previous example, structural elements have clearly defined, albeit
more complicated, stiffness relationships. The stiffness properties of structural elements can be
determined from equilibrium equations, Castigliano’s Theorems, and/or the principle of virtual
work. Structural elements can be mathematically assembled with one another (like making a
structural system using a set of tinker-toys), into a system of equations for the entire structure.

6.2 Nodes

The force-displacement relationship of a structural element is defined in terms of the forces and
displacements at the nodes of the element. Nodes define the points where elements meet. The
nodes in the model of a truss are at the joints between the truss bars. The nodes in the model
of a beam or a frame are at the reaction locations, at locations at which elements connect to
each other, and possibly at other intermediate locations.

6.3 Coordinates

Coordinates describe the location and direction at which forces and displacements act on an
element or on a structure. Trusses are loaded with vertical and horizontal forces at the joints.
The joints of a 2D truss can move vertically and horizontally; so there are two coordinates per
node in a 2D truss. Beams and frames carry vertical and horizontal loads as well as bending
moments. The nodes of a 2D frame can move vertically, horizontally, and can rotate; so there
are three coordinates per node in a 2D frame.
16 CE 131L. Matrix Structural Analysis – Duke University – Fall 2009 – H.P. Gavin

6.4 Element Nodes and Coordinates

Planar (2D) truss bar elements have two nodes and four coordinates, two at each end.

Space (3D) truss bar elements have two nodes and six coordinates, three at each end.

Planar (2D) frame elements have two nodes and six coordinates, three at each end.

Space (3D) frame elements have two nodes and twelve coordinates, six at each end.
Strain Energy and Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis 17

6.5 Structural Nodes and Coordinates

Planar (2D) truss nodes and coordinates

Planar (2D) frame nodes and coordinates

18 CE 131L. Matrix Structural Analysis – Duke University – Fall 2009 – H.P. Gavin

7 Relate the Flexibility Matrix to the Stiffness Matrix

• Column “j” of the stiffness matrix: The set of forces at all coordinates required to produce
a unit displacement at coordinate “j”

• Column “j” of the flexibility matrix: The set of displacements at all coordinates resulting
from a unit force at coordinate “j”

• Stiffness matrix equation:

    

K11 K12 K13 · · · K1n 
d1  
f1 

 K21 K22 K23 · · · K2n 
 d2 


 f2 

    

 K31 K32 K33 · · · K3n 
 d3 =
  f3 


.. .. .. ... .. 
..  
.. 
. . . . . .
    
    
    
Kn1 Kn2 Kn3 · · · Knn dn fn

• Flexibility matrix equation:

    

F11 F12 F13 · · · F1n 
f1  
d1 

 F21 F22 F23 · · · F2n 
 f2 


 d2 

    

 F31 F32 F33 · · · F3n 
 f3 =
  d3 


.. .. .. ... .. 
..  
.. 
. . . . . .
    
    
    
Fn1 Fn2 Fn3 · · · Fnn fn dn

• K = F−1 and K−1 = F

• A useful fact for 2-by-2 matrices ...

 −1  
a b  1 d −b 
 = 
c d ad − bc −c a

... you should be able to prove this fact to yourself.