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To successfully study this subject it is essential that you grasp 3 vital concepts, as early as possible.
Types of Matter
Atoms
All matter, whether Element, Compound or Mixture, is
made of atoms.
Mixtures
Structure
Pure Substances All substances can be of an -
classified into just a few ATOM
electron (-)
different types...
Metals, States
Methods for
Non-MMetals & Properties
Separating
Elements, Mixtures & Semi-M
Metals
Compounds &
Mixtures... Usage Depends
a Comparison on Properties
Gravimetric
Analysis THE ELEMENTS Atomic Number
&
Mass Number
Covalent Bonding
in
BONDING Elements & Compounds
DETERMINES PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES &
CHEMICAL Names & Formulas
CHANGES for
Ionic Compounds
Physical
&
Chemical Names & Formulas
Properties Energy Particle for
& Theory Covalent Compounds
Change
Bonding in
Ionic Lattices
Covalent Lattices
Metals & Case Study:
Boiling Lewis Formulas
Covalent Molecules v
Decomposition &
Electrolysis
Reactions of Water Writing Equations
Bonding Determines
Properties & Uses
Identical atoms
joined in pairs Example:
Oxygen (O2)
Different “particles” within the mixture It is important that you can identify the “Difference in
Properties” (D.I.P.) which allows each process to separate
the fractions of the mixture.
Using a sieve.
Fine material
(sand) falls
through the
mesh.
divide in 2
You need to be able to interpret, and to construct, similar
flow charts of procedures. DRY
Gravimetric Analysis involves separating the parts of a 2. Add pure water & stir
mixture and accurately measuring the masses along the way, well. (Salt dissolves,
so that you can calculate the composition of the mixture. sand doesn’t)
Residue Filtrate
Don’t forget to wash the residue
with small amounts of extra pure 4. DRY the residue and
water, to wash all salt through. weigh accurately. Mass of
(Subtract the mass of Sand = 1.27 g
the filter paper)
For maximum accuracy, you should
weight it, dry it more and re-weigh.
Repeat, until the mass does not change;
then you know it’s fully dried.
5. EVAPORATE the
water from the filtrate
until completely dry.
Dry the evaporating basin in
the oven and weigh it
accurately first!
2. THE ELEMENTS
H Seriously Position of
Weird element. Metals, Non-Metals & Semi-Metals
See note below on the
Periodic Table
B
Si Non-Metals
Ge As
Metals Sb Te
Se
are all soft,
m
with low
i-
Br Kr
This “block” of metals includes all the familiar, typical
M
melting
et
metals such as copper, nickel, iron, gold and silver.
al
points, and
s
Xe
are highly
chemically
reactive Hg Rn
These metals are very rare, and some exist only when made artificially by
nuclear reactions.
The atoms of each element have different numbers of These “Mass Numbers” are the relative masses of these
Protons, Neutrons and Electrons. atoms... obviously one atom has a very small value when
Examples: measured in grams (1 hydrogen atom ≅ 1.7 x 10-27 kg).
Ar
Zinc
30 protons Chemical Symbol
30 electrons
35 neutrons Argon Element Name
(full detail not shown
in diagram) 39.95 “Atomic Weight”
NOT the “Mass Number”
Notice that no matter how many In this example, Argon atoms have:
particles there are; • Atomic Number = 18 ∴18 protons and 18 electrons
This number is the ATOMIC NUMBER Try the WORKSHEET at end of section
The electrons are not just whizzing around the nucleus in Most atoms do not have the correct number of electrons
any old orbits... they are precisely organized into tightly for this to occur automatically. However, atoms will readily
defined “energy levels”, or “shells”. lose or gain electrons in order to achieve this. An atom
which has gained or lost electron(s) is called an ION.
The 1st energy level,
or “inner shell”, 2 Example 1: Formation of a Fluoride Ion
can only hold 2 electrons.
An atom of Fluorine has
9 protons (+)
10 neutrons
9 electrons (-)
Electron
The 2nd energy level can hold 2 7 Configuration = 2.7
a maximum of 8 electrons. Gains
2 8 symbol
1 extra
F electron
2 7 2 7
8
2 Fluorine atoms
2 2 8 Each one accepts an electron from the
magnesium atom
Fluoride Ion
-
The magnesium loses 2 electrons, so it will now have 2
Sodium Ion F more (+) protons than electrons. The magnesium ion has a
2+
double +ve charge... Mg
Na+
Opposite electrical charges attract, so these ions
Two fluoride ions are formed, each one with an extra
must now stick together... this is the -
electron... F
COMPOUND Sodium Fluoride (NaF)
Ionic Lattices The formula for magnesium fluoride is MgF2
In fact, of course, you don’t just get 1 sodium atom reacting because the ratio between the ions is 1: 2
with 1 fluorine atom. In real situations there are billions of
atoms. After all the ions have formed, each positive sodium
ion is attracted to every nearby fluoride ion, and vice versa. Ionic Compounds
form when atoms gain, or lose, electrons
The result is that you don’t just get pairs of opposite ions, creating ions
but huge, 3-dimensional lattices of +ve and -ve ions.
Na+ F- Na+ F- Na
+
NON-METALS
These lines represent
group
Ions and the Periodic Table gain electrons to fill the
outer shell to 8 electrons.
1 Ions are negative group
8
+1 group Main Group Numbers group grp
2 grp grp grp 0
correspond to the number of 3 4 5 6 7
electrons in the outer shell -4
+1 +2 ions 0
rare -3 -2 -1
+1 +2 +3 -2 -1 0
It is not easy to predict the charge on ions of these metals.
Sn
+1 You should memorize the common ones.
+2 +3 +4 -1 0
Many of these can “shuffle” electrons from one shell to
another, and can have more than one possible ion. Pb v. rare
+1 +2 +3 +4 +5 ignore -1 0
+1 +2
Group 3 Metals
all have 3 electrons in Group 8
outer shell, and lose them. Semi-M
Metals all have FULL outer shell.
Group 2 Metals do not normally form ions Do NOT form ions.
all have 2 electrons in Do NOT react chemically.
outer shell, and lose them. INERT GASES
Chemistry contains many details to learn,
but there are nearly always patterns involved.
Group 1 Metals Learn the few, simple patterns,
all have 1 electron in outer
shell, and lose it rather than memorizing masses of detail.
ion, and can join with other ions forming compounds and
ionic crystal lattices. Working out a chemical formula is done exactly as before,
-2 except • names do NOT change
One common example is the “sulfate” ion, SO4 and • brackets are needed when 2 or more
polyatomic groups are involved.
Somewhere within this -2
2
group of 5 atoms there O Example:
are 2 extra electrons, in ion
excess of the total O S O Iron Note the use of
protons these atoms Valency = +3 Fe+3 the brackets
contain. The ion has a
valency of -2. O Combined with Fe(NO3)3
ion
Nitrate ion
Other examples are: Valency = -11 NO3- Iron(III) nitrate
-
• Nitrate (NO3 ) ion (valency -1)
-
• Hydroxide (OH ) ion (valency -1) Try the WORKSHEET at end of section
-2
• Carbonate (CO3 ) ion (valency -2), and many more.
A Table Summarizing Symbols &
Valencies is at the end of these notes
Formulas & Names for Ionic Compounds Naming Compounds of Simple Ions
Summary • Name the (+ve) ion (metal) first.
Its name is always identical to the element name.
• Add the name of the (-ve) ion (non-metal).
Its name is the element name, but altered to
Formulas end in -IDE.
• Determine the (+ve) and (-ve) ion involved. e.g. lithium + oxygen = “lithium oxide”
• Work out the minimum number(s) of each ion sodium + phosphorus = “sodium phosphide”
which will give equal amounts of (+ve) and (-ve)
charge. Example: you need 3x(-1) to match (+3) Naming Compounds of
• Write the symbol for the (+ve) ion first, always. Metals with Multiple Valencies
• Use sub-script numbers to show the ratio of ions. As above, but (in brackets) write the Roman numeral
Number “1” is not written. e.g. FeBr2 corresponding to the valency number of the metal ion.
• If a polyatomic ion is involved; e.g. FeBr2 is “iron(II) bromide” (Fe+2 ion)
- brackets MUST be used e.g. Mg(NO3)2 [speak “iron-2-bromide”]
if more than one polyatomic ion. e.g. FeBr3 is “iron(III) bromide” (Fe+3 ion)
- bracket must NOT be e.g. NaNO3 [speak “iron-3-bromide”]
used if only one polyatomic ion.
Naming Compounds Including Polyatomic Ions
Note: The symbols for an ion must contain electric • Name the (+ve) ion first.
charge, written as a super-script. e.g. Fe+3 • Add the name of the (-ve) ion.
The formula for a compound The name of a polyatomic ion does NOT change.
must NOT contain electric charges. e.g. Fe(NO3)2 is “iron(II) nitrate”
( NH4)2SO4 is “ammonium sulfate”
Carbon
atom, C 4
2 C A Lewis Formula is not very useful for showing simple
positive ions, but for the record...
Nitrogen
atom, N 1 Lewis Formula
5
N Sodium atom
2 Na 8
After 4 electrons, begin
Na
making pairs.
(electrons do “pair up” in their
2
Oxygen orbits)
atom, O Only outer electron
6 O shown
2
Neon
atom, Ne 8
Ne
2 Outer electron lost
(Since Li atoms have 1 electron in their outer shell, they must lose
Note that in ALL cases the total amount of electric it to form the normal ion with (+1) charge
charge on each side of the equation is equal.
However, in a real situation where lithium is reacting with
oxygen, each O2 molecule needs 4 electrons. Therefore, it
Formation of Magnesium Fluoride from its Elements: will take 4 lithium atoms to supply them...
The last 2 equations can be simply added together to Previous Equation Multiplied by 4
describe the formation of the ionic compound Magnesium
fluoride (formula MgF2) from its elements. 4 Li 4 Li+ + 4 e-
F2 + 2e- 2 F- 4 Lithium atoms 4 Lithium ions + 4 electrons
add these together
Mg Mg+2 + 2e-
Now add together the equations for lithium and oxygen:
- +2 - -
Mg + F2 + 2e Mg +2e + 2F
notice how 2 electrons occur on both sides, so they cancel out. O2 + 4e- 4 O-2
add these together
Mg + F2 MgF2 4Li 4Li+ + 4e-
These equations show how for each magnesium ion there
needs to be 2 fluoride ions, so that everything “balances”. 4Li + O2 + 4e- 4Li+ +4e- + 2O-2
There are 4 electrons on both sides, so they cancel out.
Not only do many compounds form this way, but many However, hydrogen atoms can also share electrons
elements exist as 2 or more atoms covalently bonded covalently. Elemental hydrogen is always H2 molecules:
together. Don’t forget that the 1st
orbit holds a maximum of 2
Example: the element Fluorine, F2 electrons, so both atoms
1p+ 1p+ achieve a full outer shell by
7 7 sharing.
2 2
Hydrogen, and all the non-metals and semi-metals, not only
bond with atoms of the same type in the the element state,
but will share electrons with different atoms to form
covalent compounds.
Two atoms of fluorine will always bond
together by sharing a pair of electrons
(As always, leave Group 8 out of this...
Each atom can count the the “Inert Gases” have full outer shells already)
shared electron pair as A covalent bond
part of its outer shell, is always the sharing of A Note About “Molecules”
making a total of 8. a pair of electrons You need to be aware of the precise definition of the
word “molecule”.
Definition: A molecule is the smallest particle of a
substance that can have a separate existence, and
can move around independently of other particles.
6 2 2 Examples:
2 6
Inert gases have “molecules”
of just one atom.
These atoms must remain tightly attached to each other in Lattice structures (ionic or covalent) are not molecules.
order to share the electrons... they are bonded together very
strongly, forming a molecule of F2. A Covalent Lattice Element; Silicon
Atoms of all the non-metals and the semi-metals, (except Si Si Si Si
Sulfur S8 Si Si Si Si
A covalent bond is always a pair of electrons being shared Everyone knows that water is H2O. You now need to
between 2 atoms. In a Lewis Formula the shared pair are understand exactly how this compound forms.
usually emphasized by drawing a little oval around them.
1 Oxygen atom 1 molecule of H2O
H
Example: Fluorine molecule 2 Hydrogen atoms
F2 O H O
H
Lewis formula H
6 2 2 2 6 Structural formula
H O Model
H
Look carefully at the Lewis formula above to see how all
the atoms involved have achieved full outer shells of
electrons by sharing pairs in covalent bonds.
Lewis Formula F F
Another well known covalent molecular compound is
carbon dioxide CO2
Carbon atom
Shared pair of electrons CO2 molecule
O
C
O C O
O
The F2 Fluorine molecule could also be represented by a
2 Oxygen atoms
simple structural formula, showing that it contains 2 atoms
of fluorine which are connected by a single covalent bond.
The CO2 molecule contains double covalent bonds.
Molecular Lewis Structural These involve atoms sharing 2 pairs of electrons. The
Formula Formula Formula structural formula for this would be: O=C=O
F2 F F F F
It’s also possible to have a triple covalent bond; 3 pairs=6
electrons being shared between 2 atoms. This occurs in the
This represents a single covalent bond nitrogen (N2) molecule N N
(Remember this involves sharing 2 electrons) as well as some compounds.
Predicting Formulas
Model of the molecule for Covalent Compounds
The formulas of the examples above are quite predictable
You need to be able to interpret, and construct, all of these if you know how many electrons are in each atom’s outer
different ways to represent atoms and molecules. shell, and understand how sharing electrons can achieve a
full outer shell.
Study this Lewis Formula and you’ll see that the “rule of 8
Try the WORKSHEET at end of section electrons” has NOT been followed for the sulfur atom!
Ammonia NH3 H N H To re-write this in chemical symbols, you must recall that
both oxygen and hydrogen occur as diatomic molecules.
(Not to be confused H
with the Symbol Equation
+ H2 + O2 H2O
ammonium polyatomic ion (NH4 )
These elements always The formula for water is
Methane CH4 H occur as molecules of 2 one you need to memorize
atoms
(This is the simplest H C H
of a huge range of The equation now shows all the correct formulas, but is
covalent compounds of NOT balanced... to be fully correct a chemical equation
H must show the same number of atoms of every element,
carbon... more in later topics)
on both sides of the arrow. Each atom you start with must
More Than One Compound be accounted for in the products.
The second problem is that, quite often, there is more than
one possible compound formed from the same elements in A common error is to change a formula to make it balance:
a covalent compound. Some examples:
H2 + O2 H2O2 Wrong!
Elements Different Compounds Possible H2O2 is NOT water!
Sulfur & oxygen SO2 and SO3
NEVER BALANCE EQUATIONS BY CHANGING A
FORMULA
Carbon & oxygen CO and CO2
To cope with this, a naming system has developed which The key is to realize that, since you start with 2 oxygen
uses prefixes to state how many atoms of each element are atoms, you must end up with 2 molecules of water. To do
in one molecule. this you must begin with 4 atoms of hydrogen.
The Prefixes ( i.e. 2 molecules of H2)
1= mono 2= di 3= tri
4= tetra 5=penta 6= hexa Balanced Equation
2 H2 + O2 2 H2O
How to Name a Simple Covalent Compound
From its Molecular Formula This can be visualized by atom models...
Worksheet 3
All atoms are composed of 3 types of particles: Generally, metallic elements v).........................
in the centre of the atom is the a)..........................., electrons and form w)..................................... ions.
containing b)............................ and ........................... Non-metals always form x)....................................
In orbit around this are the c)................................... ions when they y)...................... electrons. Once
ions form, the opposite electric charges
d)................................... have a positive electric z)........................................... each other, so the ions
charge. Neutrons are e)......................................., become “bonded” together. In the solid state, all
while f)..................................... have a negative ionic compounds form aa).......................................
electric charge. lattices of billions of ions.
The atoms of one element are Generally, the position of an element in the
g)............................... as each other, but differ from Periodic Table allows easy prediction of the
atoms of h)...................................... in the numbers ab)........................... on its ion. This value
of i)......................................., ........................... and (including charge) is also known as the
....................................... they contain. “ac).....................................” of the element, and
indicates its “combining ratio”. Metals of the
In any atom there are always the same number of “ad)....................................” block are not easily
j).................................. and ......................................... predicted, and many can produce more than one
This number is called the “k)............................. ae).......................... Polyatomic ions are
..............................” and this defines the order of af)............................... of bonded atoms which
the elements in the l).............................................. carry electric charges and act like a single ion.
Table.
ag)...................................... bonding occurs when
The weight or mass of an atom is due to the atoms ah)........................................... electrons to
m)................................ and ......................................... achieve full outer shells, and the best energy state.
(The n)........................................... can be ignored All the non-metals and the ai)..................-
because their mass is insignificant) The sum of ................................ elements will form covalent
protons + neutrons is called the bonds, except (as usual) the gases of group
“o)....................................................................” aj)................
Electrons orbit the nucleus in different Many non-metals in their elemental state are
p).............................. levels. When an atom’s made up of covalent ak)............................... of 2 or
q).............................. orbit contains r)........... more atoms joined. Some form covalent
electrons (or 2 electrons in the 1st shell) it al)............................................. of billions of atoms.
achieves maximum stability. All atoms attempt to
achieve this “best energy state” by Covalent compounds form when atoms of
s)................................. or ................................ different elements bond covalently. A single
electrons to form ions, or by covalent bond always involves
t)..................................... electrons. The exception am)................................................................................
are the elements of Group 8 (the
“u).................................... Gases”) which already
have complete outer shells.
27 32
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
5 4
11 23 K Ca
What pattern is apparent in the vertical
35 80 columns?
b) Use the Periodic Table to identify each element in the REFER TO THE “VALENCY TABLE”
table above. (AT THE END OF THE NOTES)
c) Find each of the following elements in the Periodic TO HELP WITH THE FOLLOWING
Table, (Boron, Iodine, Strontium, Iron, Xenon) then
state how many protons, electrons & neutrons in an atom 4. Simple Ionic Compounds
of each. Write the name, and predict the formula, for a compound
formed from ions of:
2. Electron Configuration
a) The first 20 elements of the Periodic Table are shown a) potassium and chlorine
below by their symbol, and relative position in the table. b) magnesium and sulfur
For each, write its electron configuration. c) oxygen and lithium
b) Describe the pattern apparent in each vertical column. d) bromine and zinc
H He e) calcium and fluorine
f) iodine and aluminium
g) beryllium and oxygen
Li Be B C N O F Ne h) silver and phosphorus
i) hydrogen and sulfur
j) fluorine and sodium
At a certain temperature, (we call it the “melting point”) the • The molecules are now very far apart;
vibration of the molecules becomes strong enough to that’s why gases are easy to compress.
overcome the inter-molecular forces, and the molecules • They fly rapidly in all directions;
begin moving around, colliding with each other and so gases always totally fill the container.
bouncing off again. • The high speed collisions occurring cause gas pressure,
which increases as temperature rises, because they get
...we say the solid has melted to become a liquid. faster and faster.
In all of these physical changes, no new substances are ... and many other examples.
created. In terms of the particles present, nothing has really
changed. In all these chemical changes new substances and new
particles are formed. The atoms present are still the same,
For example, if you melt some ice and then boil the water but they have been rearranged into new molecules and/or
to vapour, the “particles” within it are still the same H2O ion combinations.
molecules... there’s nothing new been formed.
For example, consider what happens if an active metal such
Imagine the particles within a mixture: as sodium, is dropped into water.
Atoms of Sodium
Molecules
of Water H2O
+
-
- +
molecules of H2 gas
but notice that these are + are given off
still exactly the same
particles. Ions of sodium (Na+)
and hydroxide (OH-)
dissolve in the water
The 2 different kinds were
mixed together, and now
are separated, but they are Sodium + Water Hydrogen + Sodium
still exactly the same hydroxide
particles. 2 Na + 2 H2O H2 + 2 NaOH
Chemical Changes
Physical Changes do NOT Create New Substances,
Create any New Substances, by
or Rearranging the Same Atoms
any New Particles into New Combinations
of Molecules and/or Ions
Oxygen
Similarities &
Hydrogen
Both these processes gases
collecting
• Start with the same
substance... water
Electrodes
• add energy to the
water...
heat in one case, Power
electricity in the supply
other
• In both cases,
bubbles of gas are
formed in the liquid
Differences
The bubbles are water vapour forming within the liquid. You may have collected the gases produced at each
electrode and carried out simple flame tests on each. This
The result is a change of state. would clearly establish that the gases are hydrogen (H2) and
oxygen (O2).
H2O(l) H2O(g)
liquid water gaseous water 2 H2O(l) 2 H2(g) + O2(g)
liquid water hydrogen oxygen
No new substances have been produced. gas gas
The particles (molecules of H2O) remain unchanged. No new atoms have been formed, but the molecules of
water have been broken up to form molecules of the
elements hydrogen and oxygen.
You may have built models to visualize what happened during electrolysis
1 Molecule 2 Molecules
2 Molecules
of
of
Oxygen
+ of
Hydrogen
Water
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Energy & Chemical Reactions Decomposition Reactions - Practical Work
When chemical reactions occur there is often a large energy You will have carried out some practical work to investigate
change, either released or absorbed For example: the decomposition of carbonate compounds.
• when substances burn, there is a lot of light and heat Delivery tube
energy (flames!) produced.
• in a battery, electricity is produced by chemical reactions. Limewater
• to extract the metal from a mineral ore, large amounts of
heat or electricity must be applied.
• To cook food (a chemical change) you apply heat.
Energy
absorbed by
chemicals
during
reaction
chemicals • that the limewater became cloudy (“milky”) when the gas
during bubbled through it.
reaction
Examples are given on this page. Try the WORKSHEET at end of section
Examples of Physical Changes include changes of For each of the following decompositions, write a word
p)............................ (e.g. melting) or separating the parts of a equation AND a balanced, symbol equation.
mixture. New substances q)............................ (are/are not)
formed and new particles r)............................ (are/are not) 1. When calcium carbonate is heated, it decomposes into
created. carbon dioxide and calcium oxide.
There are many other properties, such as density and Magnesium oxide: brittle, powdery, white, non-
colour, but the three above are by far the most useful when conducting solid.
surveying and classifying matter in a general way (and using
the K.I.S.S Principle!). Consider the compound sucrose (table sugar) and the
elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen it is made from.
Chemical Properties include things like
• how reactive the substance is. Carbon: black, brittle solid.
• whether it is acidic, basic or neutral. Hydrogen: colourless, explosive gas.
• which types of reactions it will undergo. Oxygen: colourless, odourless gas
(e.g. whether it will burn or corrode)
Sucrose: clear, crystalline solid, with a sweet taste.
Chemical properties are not so important when surveying
and classifying matter in a general way, but will become You may have examined and considered many other
important in later topics. examples. The general conclusion is:
Ionic Compounds
are a lattice of (+ve) and (-ve) ions. Covalent Lattice Substances
Some elements (e.g. Carbon and Silicon) and some covalent
compounds (e.g. silicon dioxide, SiO2) form a lattice of atoms
covalently bonded, in a 3-dimensional crystal structure.
These elements have full outer shells of electrons, so they Salt is an ionic compound. Each crystal contains billions of
do not normally form ions, nor share electrons covalently. sodium and chloride ions, but they are in the ratio of 1:1.
Therefore, they always exist as single-atom molecules. The formula is NaCl, which is an empirical formula. It does
(Remember the exact definition of a “molecule”, p19) not describe molecules (there aren’t any!) but gives the
simplest ratio of the elements present.
Similarly, silicon dioxide has the formula SiO2, but there are
no molecules. This compound is a covalent lattice of
billions of atoms bonded together. The atoms are in the
ratio of 1 silicon atom to every 2 oxygen atoms. SiO2 is an
empirical formula.
The forces get stronger as the atoms get bigger, but even
so, all the elements of Group 8 are gases at room
temperature because of very low m.p.’s and b.p.’s. Conductivity testing
Metals
(e.g. Iron, Lead) Medium High Good Good N/A Most hard, malleable &
to High ductile
Ionic Compounds
(e.g. Salt NaCl Medium High Poor Good Good Hard & brittle
Sodium hydroxide) to High
Covalent Lattices
(e.g. Silicon dioxide Very High Very High Poor * Poor N/A Hard* & brittle
diamond (carbon) (Si, Ge are semi-conductors)
Covalent Molecules
(e.g. water Low Low Poor Poor Poor Solids often soft & waxy
carbon dioxide) to medium If hard, then brittle.
(e.g. water ice)
Exceptions & Anomalies:
* Carbon, in the form of graphite, is a good conductor, and is soft and slippery.
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TM
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Explaining Electrical Conductivity Properties Determine Usefulness
The melting and boiling points, and the hardness and It is the properties of a substance that make it useful for a
flexibility properties of the different categories was particular purpose.
explained previously in “Bonding Within Substances”. (p32)
Copper is used for electrical wiring, because it is
How can the electrical conductivity be explained? a good conductor of electricity, and is
ductile, so can be made into wire easily.
Any substance will conduct electricity if it contains
• electrically charged particles which can Diamond (a form of carbon, a covalent lattice element)
• move independently of each other. is used for drill bits and high-speed saw blade tips
because it
Metals is extremely hard and has an
contain metal ions and a mobile “sea” of free electrons. extremely high melting point
When a voltage is applied, electrical current is carried
readily by the electrons flowing among the metal ions. Plastics (covalent molecular compounds)
are used for electrical insulation, packaging, etc
Metals are good conductors in both solid and liquid states. because they are
non-conductors of electricity
Covalent Lattices and Covalent Molecules soft and flexible
do NOT contain any charged particles that can separate not soluble in water (and waterproof)
from each other and move independently..
Copper sulfate (an ionic compound)
These substances are generally poor conductors whether is used in the purification of copper metal
solid, liquid or in water solution. because, when dissolved in water
(Exceptions: Graphite is a good conductor. The “semi- it conducts electricity to allow the electrical
metal” elements (notably Si & Ge) are semi-conductors) process to occur.
+ - + - +
Many ionic compounds are soluble in water. When they • Ionic and covalent bonds are not stick-like structures, but
dissolve, the lattice disintegrates and the ions can move are invisible forces of attraction.
freely.. (This will be explained fully in a later topic) • Real atoms and ions are not solid balls.
• The proportional sizes of our models are often all wrong.
+ - - • We often use colours to distinguish parts of the models,
+ + but this is quite unrealistic.
Ionic compounds
- -
become good
+ - OK, so our models are not very realistic and far from
conductors in the perfect. Despite these limitations, they remain valuable as
liquid state, and in
+ - + ways to help us visualize and understand the “particles” of
solution. + + matter which are beyond our direct vision and often
- - beyond the “common sense” of the everyday world.
Worksheet 5
It is the a)............................................ of substances The electrical attraction between the ions and this
that allow us to identify and classify them. “aa)................... of electrons” holds the metal
Physical properties include together quite strongly and gives it a fairly
b).................................... and ...................................... ab)............................... (high/low) melting point,
points, c)............................................. conductivity, but also allows flexibility. This is why metals have
and the hardness and flexibility of each the properties of ac)................................................
substance. and ............................................................
THE ELEMENTS
THE COMPOUNDS
Ionic & Covalent
CHEMICAL Bonding
EARTH
BONDING
DETERMINES PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES &
CHEMICAL
CHANGES
Practice Questions 6.
These are not intended to be "HSC style" questions, but to An element is described as: “solid at SLC, with a shiny
challenge your basic knowledge and understanding of the appearance. It is hard and brittle and conducts electricity
topic, and remind you of what you NEED to know at the slightly.” This element is probably a member of the:
K.I.S.S. principle level. A. metals B. semi-metals
C. non-metals D. inert gases
When you have confidently mastered this level, it is
strongly recommended you work on questions from past 7.
exam papers. Atoms of silver contain 47 protons, 47 electrons and 61
neutrons. The Atomic Number and the Mass Number,
Part A Multiple Choice respectively, would be:
A. 47 & 94 B. 61 & 108
1. C. 47 & 108 D. 47 & 155
The diagram shows
the particles within 8.
a substance. The electron configuration of a certain element is 2.8.6
You would expect that this element would:
Which of the A. form ions with charge +2
following is the B. form ions with charge -2
best description of C. be unlikely to form ions
this substance? D. form ions with charge +6
A. a pure mixture of 2 elements.
B. a pure compound of 2 elements. 9.
C. an impure mixture of 2 elements. Which of the following is a correct formula for an ionic
D. an impure compound of 2 elements. compound?
A. AlBr3 B. CaCl3
2. C. MgO2 D. KSO4
The Earth’s atmosphere is predominantly:
A. mixture of elements. 10.
B. a mixture of compounds. The correct name for the compound CuCO3 is
C. a compound of oxygen and nitrogen. A. copper carbon trioxide
D. unbonded atoms. B. copper carbonate
C. copper(I) carbonate
The following information refers to Q3 & Q4.
A dry mixture of pebbles, sand and salt was separated as D. copper(II) carbonate
follows:
Step 1: Dry mix was shaken in a sieve 11.
Step 2: The material that passed through the sieve was Which of the following chemical species (A, B, C or D) has
stirred into water. exactly the same electron configuration as a chloride ion?
Step 3: The water mixture was filtered. A. an atom of argon
Step 4: Part of the filtrate was evaporated B. a fluoride ion
Step 5: The remainder of the filtrate was distilled. C. a sodium ion
D. an atom of chlorine
3.
The material collected at Step 4 would have been:
12.
A. water only. B. sand only.
C. a mixture of sand & salt. D. salt only. A “double covalent bond” involves:
A. the transfer of 2 electrons from one atom to another.
4. B. the sharing of an electron between 2 atoms.
The “difference in properties” which allows a separation to C. the sharing of 2 electrons.
occur at step 3 and at step 4, respectively, is: D. the sharing of 4 electrons.
A. particle size and boiling point.
B. solubility and melting point. 13.
C. melting point and boiling point. A molecular compound with formula N2O4 would be best
D. particle size and melting point. named as:
A. dinitrogen 4-oxide
5.
B. nitrogen(II) tetra-oxide
The elements which are found uncombined in nature are:
A. mostly metals from the left of the Periodic Table. C. dinitrogen tetra-oxide
B. mainly semi-metals such as silicon. D. nitrogen tetroxide
C. mostly elements of low chemical activity.
D. mainly non-metals which need to gain electrons.
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1 2 5.
a) i) copper(I) chloride ii) copper(II) chloride
iii) iron(II) oxide iv) iron(III) oxide
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 v) tin(II) bromide vi) tin(IV) bromide
b)
i) iron(II) sulfide, FeS ii) lead(IV) chloride, PbCl4
iii) copper(I) oxide, Cu2O iv) tin(IV) fluoride, SnF4
2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 2.8.4 2.8.5 2.8.6 2.8.7 2.8.8 v) iron(III) nitride, FeN
6.
a) i) magnesium sulfate, Mg+2, SO4
-2
2.8.8.1
+2 -2
2.8.8.2 ii) zinc carbonate, Zn , CO3
iii) silver nitrate, Ag+, NO3
-
continued...
Magnesium Mg 2 +2
Calcium Ca 2 +2 Nitrogen N 5 -3
Barium Ba 2 +2 Phosphorus P 5 -3
• Zinc Zn 2 +2
Carbon C 4 -4
Polyatomic Ion
• Ammonium NH4
+
+1