GRISTLE YOUR GRAMMAR

What are Verbs?

The verb is king in English. The shortest sentence contains a verb. You can make a one-
word sentence with a verb, for example: "Stop!" You cannot make a one-word sentence
with any other type of word.

Verbs are sometimes described as "action words". This is partly true. Many verbs give
the idea of action, of "doing" something. For example, words like run, fight, do and work
all convey action.

A verb always has a subject. (In the sentence "John speaks English", John is the subject
and speaks is the verb.) In simple terms, therefore, we can say that verbs are words that
tell us what a subject does or is; they describe:

• action (Ram plays football.)

• state (Anthony seems kind.)

Verb Classification

We divide verbs into two broad classifications:

1. Helping Verbs

Imagine that a stranger walks into your room and says:

• I can.
• People must.
• The Earth will.

Do you understand anything? Has this person communicated anything to you? Probably
not! That is because these verbs are helping verbs and have no meaning on their own.
They are necessary for the grammatical structure of the sentence, but they do not tell us
very much alone. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. They "help" the main
verb. (The sentences in the above examples are therefore incomplete. They need at least a
main verb to complete them.) There are only about 15 helping verbs.

2. Main Verbs

Now imagine that the same stranger walks into your room and says:

• I teach.
• People eat.

The Earth rotates.

Do you understand something? Has this person communicated something to you?
Probably yes! Not a lot, but something. That's because these verbs are main verbs and
have meaning on their own. They tell us something. Of course, there are thousands of
main verbs.

In the following table, we see example sentences with helping verbs and main verbs.
Notice that all of these sentences have a main verb. Only some of them have a helping
verb.

helping verb main verb

John likes coffee.

You lied to me.

They are happy.

The children are playing.

We must go now.

Gerunds (-ing)

When a verb ends in -ing, it may be a gerund or a present participle. It is important to

understand that they are not the same.

When we use a verb in -ing form more like a noun, it is usually a gerund:

• Fishing is fun.

When we use a verb in -ing form more like a verb or an adjective, it is usually a present
participle:

• Anthony is fishing.
• I have a boring teacher.
 What are Nouns?

The simple definition is: a person, place or thing. Here are some examples:

• person: man, woman, teacher, John, Mary

• place: home, office, town, countryside, America
• thing: table, car, banana, money, music, love, dog, monkey

The problem with this definition is that it does not explain why "love" is a noun but can
also be a verb.

Another (more complicated) way of recognizing a noun is by its:

1. Ending
2. Position
3. Function

1. Noun Ending

There are certain word endings that show that a word is a noun, for example:

• -ity > nationality

• -ment > appointment
• -ness > happiness
• -ation > relation
• -hood > childhood

However, this is not true for the word endings of all nouns. For example, the noun
"spoonful" ends in -ful, but the adjective "careful" also ends in -ful.

2. Position in Sentence

We can often recognise a noun by its position in the sentence.

Nouns often come after a determiner (a determiner is a word like a, an, the, this, my,
such):

• a relief
• an afternoon
• the doctor
• this word
• my house
• such stupidity
Nouns often come after one or more adjectives:

• a great relief
• a peaceful afternoon
• the tall, Indian doctor
• this difficult word
• my brown and white house
• such crass stupidity

3. Function in a Sentence

Nouns have certain functions (jobs) in a sentence, for example:

• subject of verb: Doctors work hard.

• object of verb: He likes coffee.
• subject and object of verb: Teachers teach students.

But the subject or object of a sentence is not always a noun. It could be a pronoun or a
phrase. In the sentence "My doctor works hard", the noun is "doctor" but the subject is
"My doctor".

Countable Nouns

Countable nouns are easy to recognize. They are things that we can count. For example:
"pen". We can count pens. We can have one, two, three or more pens. Here are some
more countable nouns:

• dog, cat, animal, man, person

• bottle, box, litre
• coin, note, dollar
• cup, plate, fork
• table, chair, suitcase, bag

Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns are substances, concepts etc that we cannot divide into separate
elements. We cannot "count" them. For example, we cannot count "milk". We can count
"bottles of milk" or "litres of milk", but we cannot count "milk" itself. Here are some
more uncountable nouns:

• music, art, love, happiness

• advice, information, news
• furniture, luggage
• rice, sugar, butter, water
• electricity, gas, power
• money, currency
We usually treat uncountable nouns as singular. We use a singular verb. For example:

• This news is very important.

• Your luggage looks heavy.

Nouns that can be Countable and Uncountable

Sometimes, the same noun can be countable and uncountable, often with a change of
meaning.

Countable
There are two hairs in my coffee!
There are two lights in our bedroom.
Shhhhh! I thought I heard a noise.
Have you got a paper to read? (=
newspaper)
Our house has seven rooms.
We had a great time at the party.
Macbeth is one of Shakespeare's
greatest works.
Uncountable
hair I don't have much hair.
light Close the curtain. There's too much light!
It's difficult to work when there is too
noise
much noise.
I want to draw a picture. Have you got
paper
some paper?
room Is there room for me to sit here?
time Have you got time for a coffee?
work I have no money. I need work!
 ENGLISH TENSE SYSTEM

Simple Present Tense

I sing

How do we make the Simple Present Tense?

subject + auxiliary verb + main verb
do base

There are three important exceptions:

1. For positive sentences, we do not normally use the auxiliary.

2. For the 3rd person singular (he, she, it), we add s to the main verb or es to the
auxiliary.
3. For the verb to be, we do not use an auxiliary, even for questions and negatives.

Look at these examples with the main verb like:

subject auxiliary verb main verb

I, you, we, they like coffee.

+
He, she, it likes coffee.

I, you, we, they do not like coffee.

-
He, she, it does not like coffee.

Do I, you, we, they like coffee?

?
Does he, she, it like coffee?

Look at these examples with the main verb be. Notice that there is no auxiliary:

subject main verb

+ I am French.
 You, we, they are French.

He, she, it is French.

I am not old.

- You, we, they are not old.

He, she, it is not old.

Am I late?

? Are you, we, they late?

Is he, she, it late?

How do we use the Simple Present Tense?

We use the simple present tense when:

• the action is general

• the action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and future
• the action is not only happening now
• the statement is always true

John drives a taxi.

past present future

It is John's job to drive a taxi. He does it every day. Past, present and future.

Look at these examples:

• I live in New York.

• The Moon goes round the Earth.
• John drives a taxi.
• He does not drive a bus.
• We do not work at night.
• Do you play football?

Note that with the verb to be, we can also use the simple present tense for situations that
are not general. We can use the simple present tense to talk about now. Look at these
examples of the verb "to be" in the simple present tense—some of them are general,
some of them are now:

Am I right?
Tara is not at home.
You are happy.

past present future

The situation is now.

I am not fat.
Why are you so beautiful?
Ram is tall.

past present future

The situation is general. Past, present and future.

How do we use the Present Continuous Tense?

We use the present continuous tense to talk about:

• action happening now

• action in the future

Present continuous tense for action happening now

a) for action happening exactly now

I am eating my lunch.

past present future

The action is happening

now.
b) for action happening around now

The action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just before and just
after now, and it is not permanent or habitual.

Look at these examples:

• Muriel is learning to drive.

• I am living with my sister until I find an apartment.

Present continuous tense for the future

We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the future—if we add a future
word!! We must add (or understand from the context) a future word. "Future words"
include, for example, tomorrow, next year, in June, at Christmas etc. We only use the
present continuous tense to talk about the future when we have planned to do something
before we speak. We have already made a decision and a plan before speaking.

I am taking my exam next month.

past present future

!!!

A firm plan or programme

The action is in the future.
exists now.

Look at these examples:

• We're eating in a restaurant tonight. We've already booked the table..

• They can play tennis with you tomorrow. They're not working.
• When are you starting your new job?

In these examples, we have a firm plan or programme before speaking. The decision
and plan were made before speaking.

How do we use the Present Perfect Tense?

This tense is called the present perfect tense. There is always a connection with the past
and with the present. There are basically three uses for the present perfect tense:

1. experience
2. change
3. continuing situation
1. Present perfect tense for experience

We often use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from the past. We are not
interested in when you did something. We only want to know if you did it:

I have seen ET.

He has lived in Bangkok.
Have you been there?
We have never eaten caviar.

past present future

!!!

The action or state was in In my head, I have a

the past. memory now.
Connection with past: the event was in the past.
Connection with present: in my head, now, I have a memory of the event; I know
something about the event; I have experience of it.

2. Present perfect tense for change

We also use the present perfect tense to talk about a change or new information:

I have bought a car.

past present future

- +

Last week I didn't have a

Now I have a car.
car.

John has broken his leg.

past present future

+ -

Yesterday John had a good

Now he has a bad leg.
leg.
 Has the price gone up?

past present future

+ -

Was the price $1.50

Is the price $1.70 today?
yesterday?

The police have arrested the killer.

past present future

- +

Yesterday the killer was

Now he is in prison.
free.

Connection with past: the past is the opposite of the present.

Connection with present: the present is the opposite of the past.

3. Present perfect tense for continuing situation

We often use the present perfect tense to talk about a continuing situation. This is a state
that started in the past and continues in the present (and will probably continue into the
future). This is a state (not an action). We usually use for or since with this structure.

I have worked here since June.

He has been ill for 2 days.
How long have you known Tara?

past present future

The situation started in the (It will probably continue

It continues up to now.
past. into the future.)

Connection with past: the situation started in the past.

Connection with present: the situation continues in the present.

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

I have been singing

How do we make the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?

The structure of the present perfect continuous tense is:

subject + auxiliary verb + auxiliary verb + main verb

have
been base + ing
has

Here are some examples of the present perfect continuous tense:

subject auxiliary verb auxiliary verb main verb

+ I have been waiting for one hour.

+ You have been talking too much.

- It has not been raining.

- We have not been playing football.

? Have you been seeing her?

? Have they been doing their homework?

Contractions

When we use the present perfect continuous tense in speaking, we often contract the
subject and the first auxiliary. We also sometimes do this in informal writing.

I have been I've been

You have been You've been

He has been He's been

She has been She's been
It has been It's been
John has been John's been
The car has been The car's been

We have been We've been

They have been They've been

Here are some examples:

• I've been reading.

• The car's been giving trouble.
• We've been playing tennis for two hours.

How do we use the Present Perfect Continuous Tense?

This tense is called the present perfect continuous tense. There is usually a connection
with the present or now. There are basically two uses for the present perfect continuous
tense:

1. An action that has just stopped or recently stopped

We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in the past
and stopped recently. There is usually a result now.

I'm tired because I've been running.

past present future

!!!

Recent action. Result now.

• I'm tired [now] because I've been running.

• Why is the grass wet [now]? Has it been raining?
• You don't understand [now] because you haven't been listening.

2. An action continuing up to now

We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in the past
and is continuing now. This is often used with for or since.

I have been reading for 2 hours.

past present future

Action started in past. Action is continuing now.

• I have been reading for 2 hours. [I am still reading now.]

• We've been studying since 9 o'clock. [We're still studying now.]
 • How long have you been learning English? [You are still learning now.]
• We have not been smoking. [And we are not smoking now.]

For and Since with Present Perfect Continuous Tense

We often use for and since with the present perfect tense.

• We use for to talk about a period of time—5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years.

• We use since to talk about a point in past time—9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday.

for since

a period of time a point in past time

20 minutes 6.15pm

three days Monday

6 months January

4 years 1994

2 centuries 1800

a long time I left school

ever the beginning of time

etc etc

Here are some examples:

• I have been studying for 3 hours.

• I have been watching TV since 7pm.
• Tara hasn't been feeling well for 2 weeks.
• Tara hasn't been visiting us since March.
• He has been playing football for a long time.
• He has been living in Bangkok since he left school.

How do we use the Simple Past Tense?

We use the simple past tense to talk about an action or a situation—an event—in the past.
The event can be short or long.
Here are some more examples:

• I lived in that house when I was young.

• He didn't like the movie.
• What did you eat for dinner?
• John drove to London on Monday.
• Mary did not go to work yesterday.
• Did you play tennis last week?
• I was at work yesterday.
• We were not late (for the train).
• Were you angry?

Note that when we tell a story, we usually use the simple past tense. We may use the past
continuous tense to "set the scene", but we almost always use the simple past tense for the
action. Look at this example of the beginning of a story:

"The wind was howling around the hotel and the rain was pouring down. It was cold. The
door opened and James Bond entered. He took off his coat, which was very wet, and
ordered a drink at the bar. He sat down in the corner of the lounge and quietly drank
his..."

How do we use the Past Continuous Tense?

The past continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the past. The
action started before that moment but has not finished at that moment. For example,
yesterday I watched a film on TV. The film started at 7pm and finished at 9pm.

When we use the past continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what
time we are talking about. Look at these examples:

• I was working at 10pm last night.

• They were not playing football at 9am this morning.
• What were you doing at 10pm last night?
• What were you doing when he arrived?
• She was cooking when I telephoned her.
• We were having dinner when it started to rain.
• Ram went home early because it was snowing.

How do we use the Past Perfect Tense?

The past perfect tense expresses action in the past before another action in the past. This
is the past in the past. For example:

• The train left at 9am. We arrived at 9.15am. When we arrived, the train had left.
How do we use the Past Perfect Continuous Tense?

The past perfect continuous tense is like the past perfect tense, but it expresses longer
actions in the past before another action in the past. For example:

• Ram started waiting at 9am. I arrived at 11am. When I arrived, Ram had been
waiting for two hours.

How do we use the Simple Future Tense?

No Plan

We use the simple future tense when there is no plan or decision to do something before
we speak. We make the decision spontaneously at the time of speaking. Look at these
examples:

• Hold on. I'll get a pen.

• We will see what we can do to help you.
• Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight.

In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is made at the
time of speaking.

We often use the simple future tense with the verb to think before it:

• I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow.

• I think I will have a holiday next year.
• I don't think I'll buy that car.

Prediction

We often use the simple future tense to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is
no firm plan. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples:

• It will rain tomorrow.

• People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century.
• Who do you think will get the job?

Be

When the main verb is be, we can use the simple future tense even if we have a firm plan
or decision before speaking. Examples:

• I'll be in London tomorrow.

 • I'm going shopping. I won't be very long.
• Will you be at work tomorrow?

How do we use the Future Continuous Tense?

The future continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the future. The
action will start before that moment but it will not have finished at that moment. For
example, tomorrow I will start work at 2pm and stop work at 6pm

How do we use the Future Perfect Tense?

The future perfect tense expresses action in the future before another action in the future.
This is the past in the future. For example:

• The train will leave the station at 9am. You will arrive at the station at 9.15am.
When you arrive, the train will have left.

How do we make the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?

The structure of the future perfect continuous tense is:

auxiliary verb auxiliary verb auxiliary

subject + + + + main verb
WILL HAVE verb BE

past present
invariable invariable
participle participle

will have been base + ing

How do we use the Future Perfect Continuous Tense?

We use the future perfect continuous tense to talk about a long action before some point
in the future. Look at these examples:

• I will have been working here for ten years next week.
• He will be tired when he arrives. He will have been travelling for 24 hours.
 Adjectives

An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. (By "noun" we include pronouns
and noun phrases.) An adjective "qualifies" or "modifies" a noun (a big dog). Adjectives
can be used before a noun (I like Chinese food) or after certain verbs (It is hard). We can
often use two or more adjectives together (a beautiful young French lady).

Determiners

Determiners are words like the, an, my, some. They are grammatically similar. They all
come at the beginning of noun phrases, and usually we cannot use more than one
determiner in the same noun phrase.

Articles:

• a, an, the

Possessives:

• my, your, his, her, our, their

Other determiners:

• each, every
• either, neither
• any, some, no
• much, many; more, most
• little, less, least
• few, fewer, fewest
• what, whatever; which, whichever
• both, half, all
• several
• enough

Determiners: A, An or The?
When do we say "the dog" and when do we say "a dog"? (On this page we talk only
about singular, countable nouns.)

The and a/an are called "articles". We divide them into "definite" and "indefinite" like
this:

Articles
Definite Indefinite
the a, an

We use "definite" to mean sure, certain. "Definite" is particular.

We use "indefinite" to mean not sure, not certain. "Indefinite" is general.

When we are talking about one thing in particular, we use the. When we are talking about
one thing in general, we use a or an.

Think of the sky at night. In the sky we see 1 moon and millions of stars. So normally we
would say:

• I saw the moon last night.

• I saw a star last night.

Look at these examples:

the a, an
• The capital of France is Paris.
• I was born in a town.
• I have found the book that I lost.
• John had an omelette for lunch.
• Have you cleaned the car?
• James Bond ordered a drink.
• There are six eggs in the fridge.
• We want to buy an umbrella.
• Please switch off the TV when you
• Have you got a pen?
finish.

Of course, often we can use the or a/an for the same word. It depends on the situation,
not the word. Look at these examples:

• We want to buy an umbrella. (Any umbrella, not a particular umbrella.)

 • Where is the umbrella? (We already have an umbrella. We are looking for our
umbrella, a particular umbrella.)

Adjective Order

There are 2 basic positions for adjectives:

1. before the noun

2. after certain verbs (be, become, get, seem, look, feel, sound, smell, taste)

adj. noun verb adj.

1 I like big cars.
2 My car is big.

Comparative Adjectives

When we talk about two things, we can "compare" them. We can see if they are the same
or different. Perhaps they are the same in some ways and different in other ways. We can
use comparative adjectives to describe the differences.

We can use comparative adjectives when

talking about two things (not three or more
things).

In the example below, "bigger" is the comparative form of the adjective "big":

A1 A2

A1 is bigger than A2.

Superlative Adjectives

A superlative adjective expresses the extreme or highest degree of a quality. We use a

superlative adjective to describe the extreme quality of one thing in a group of things.

In the example below, "biggest" is the superlative form of the adjective "big":

A B C

A is the
biggest.
 English Pronouns

Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a pronoun instead of
a noun. Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours, themselves, some, each... If we didn't
have pronouns, we would have to repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like:

• Do you like the president? I don't like the president. The president is too
pompous.

With pronouns, we can say:

• Do you like the president? I don't like him. He is too pompous.

Personal Pronouns

This summary of personal pronouns includes possessive adjectives for convenience and
comparison.

pronouns
possessive
number person gender* subject object possessive reflexive adjectives

1st m/f I me mine myself my

2nd m/f you you yours yourself your

singular m he him his himself his

3rd f she her hers herself her

n it it its itself its

1st m/f we us ours ourselves our

plural 2nd m/f you you yours yourselves your

3rd m/f/n they them theirs themselves their

* m=male f=female n=neuter

Examples:
pronoun subject She likes homework.

object The teacher gave me some homework.

possessive This homework is yours.

reflexive John did the homework himself.

possessive adjective The teacher corrected our homework.

Pronoun Case

Pronouns (and nouns) in English display "case" according to their function in the
sentence. Their function can be:

• subjective (they act as the subject)

• objective (they act as the object)
• possessive (they show possession of something else)

The following table shows the different forms for pronouns depending on case.

possessive
subjective case objective case
case
personal pronouns singular 1st I me my, mine
2nd you you your, yours
3rd he him his
she her her, hers
it it its
plural 1st we us our, ours
2nd you you your, yours
3rd they them their, theirs
relative/interrogative
who whom whose
pronouns
whoever whomever
which/that/what which/that/what
indefinite pronouns everybody everybody everybody's
A problem of case: Mary and I or Mary and me?

1. Mary and I are delighted to be here today. (NOT Mary and me)
2. The letter was addressed to Mary and me. (NOT Mary and I)

In 1, Mary and I are subjects, which is why the pronoun takes the subjective case ("I").
In 2, Mary and I are objects, which is why the pronoun takes the objective case ("me").
An easy way to check the correct case is to try the sentence without Mary. Would you say
"I am delighted to be here" or "Me am delighted to be here"? Would you say "The letter
was addressed to me" or "The letter was addressed to I"?

English Prepositions

A preposition is a word governing, and usually coming in front of, a noun or pronoun
and expressing a relation to another word or element, as in:

• She left before breakfast.

• What did you come for?

(For what did you come?)

English Preposition Rule

There is one very simple rule about prepositions. And, unlike most rules, this rule has no
exceptions.

Rule
A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a verb.

By "noun" we include:

• noun (dog, money, love)

• proper noun (name) (Bangkok, Mary)
• pronoun (you, him, us)
• noun group (my first job)
• gerund (swimming)

A preposition cannot be followed by a verb. If we want to follow a preposition by a verb,

we must use the "-ing" form which is really a gerund or verb in noun form.

Quick Quiz: In the following sentences, why is "to" followed by a verb? That should be
impossible, according to the above rule:

• I would like to go now.

• She used to smoke.
Here are some examples:

Subject + verb preposition "noun"

The food is on the table.

She lives in Japan.

Tara is looking for you.

The letter is under your blue book.

Pascal is used to English people.

She isn't used to working.

I ate before coming.

English Prepositions List

• aboard
• about
• above
• across
• after
• against
• along
• amid
• among
• anti
• around
• as
• at

• before
• behind
• below
• beneath
• beside
• besides
• between
• beyond
• but
• by
• concerning
• considering

• despite
• down
• during

• except
• excepting
• excluding

• following
• for
• from

• in
• inside
• into

• like

• minus

• near

• of
• off
• on
• onto
• opposite
• outside
• over

• past
• per
• plus

• regarding
• round

• save
• since

• than
• through
• to
 • toward
• towards

• under
• underneath
• unlike
• until
• up
• upon

• versus
• via

• with
• within
• without

Prepositions of Place: at, in, on

In general, we use:

• at for a POINT
• in for an ENCLOSED SPACE
• on for a SURFACE

at in on

POINT ENCLOSED SPACE SURFACE

at the corner in the garden on the wall

at the bus stop in London on the ceiling

at the door in France on the door

at the top of the page in a box on the cover

at the end of the road in my pocket on the floor

at the entrance in my wallet on the carpet

at the crossroads in a building on the menu

at the entrance in a car on a page

Look at these examples:

 • Jane is waiting for you at the bus stop.
• The shop is at the end of the street.

Notice the use of the prepositions of place at, in and on in these standard expressions:

at in on

at home in a car on a bus

at work in a taxi on a train

at school in a helicopter on a plane

at university in a boat on a ship

at college in a lift (elevator) on a bicycle, on a motorbike

at the top in the newspaper on a horse, on an elephant

at the bottom in the sky on the radio, on television

at the side in a row on the left, on the right

at reception in Oxford Street on the way

Prepositions of Time: at, in, on

We use:

• at for a PRECISE TIME

• in for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG PERIODS
• on for DAYS and DATES

at in on

PRECISE MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and LONG

DAYS and DATES
TIME PERIODS

at 3 o'clock in May on Sunday

at 10.30am in summer on Tuesdays

at noon in the summer on 6 March

at dinnertime in 1990 on 25 Dec. 2010

at bedtime in the 1990s on Christmas Day

on Independence
at sunrise in the next century
Day

at sunset in the Ice Age on my birthday

at the moment in the past/future on New Year's Eve

Look at these examples:

• I have a meeting at 9am.

• The shop closes at midnight.

Notice the use of the preposition of time at in the following standard expressions:

Expression Example

at night The stars shine at night.

at the weekend I don't usually work at the weekend.

at Christmas/Easter I stay with my family at Christmas.

at the same time We finished the test at the same time.

at present He's not home at present. Try later.

Notice the use of the prepositions of time in and on in these common expressions:

in on

in the morning on Tuesday morning

in the mornings on Saturday mornings

in the afternoon(s) on Sunday afternoons

in the evening(s) on Monday evening

When we say last, next, every, this we do not also use at, in, on.

• I went to London last June. (not in last June)

• He's coming back next Tuesday. (not on next Tuesday)
 • I go home every Easter. (not at every Easter)
• We'll call you this evening. (not in this evening)

Conjunctions

A conjunction is a word that "joins". A conjunction joins two parts of a sentence.

Here are some example conjunctions:

Coordinating Conjunctions Subordinating Conjunctions

and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so although, because, since, unless

We can consider conjunctions from three aspects.

Form

Conjunctions have three basic forms:

• Single Word
for example: and, but, because, although

• Compound (often ending with as or that)

for example: provided that, as long as, in order that

• Correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)

for example: so...that

Function

Conjunctions have two basic functions or "jobs":

• Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are
grammatically equal. The two parts may be single words or clauses, for example:
- Jack and Jill went up the hill.
- The water was warm, but I didn't go swimming.

• Subordinating conjunctions are used to join a subordinate dependent clause to a

main clause, for example:
- I went swimming although it was cold.
Position

• Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they
join.

• Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the subordinate

clause.

Coordinating Conjunctions

The short, simple conjunctions are called "coordinating conjunctions":

• and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so

A coordinating conjunction joins parts of a sentence (for example words or independent

clauses) that are grammatically equal or similar. A coordinating conjunction shows that
the elements it joins are similar in importance and structure:

Look at these examples - the two elements that the coordinating conjunction joins are
shown in square brackets [ ]:

• I like [tea] and [coffee].

• [Ram likes tea], but [Anthony likes coffee].

Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.

When a coordinating conjunction joins independent clauses, it is always correct to place a

comma before the conjunction:

• I want to work as an interpreter in the future, so I am studying Russian at

university.

However, if the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is not really
essential:

• She is kind so she helps people.

When "and" is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional:

• He drinks beer, whisky, wine, and rum.

• He drinks beer, whisky, wine and rum.

Subordinating Conjunctions

The majority of conjunctions are "subordinating conjunctions". Common subordinating

conjunctions are:
 • after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till,
until, when, where, whether, while

A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinate (dependent) clause to a main

(independent) clause:

Active Voice, Passive Voice

There are two special forms for verbs called voice:

1. Active voice
2. Passive voice

The active voice is the "normal" voice. This is the voice that we use most of the time.
You are probably already familiar with the active voice. In the active voice, the object
receives the action of the verb:

subject verb object

active >

Cats eat fish.

The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the
verb:

subject verb object

passive <

Fish are eaten by cats.

The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive verb:

subject verb object

active Everybody drinks water.

passive Water is drunk by everybody.

Passive Voice
The passive voice is less usual than the active voice. The active voice is the "normal"
voice. But sometimes we need the passive voice. In this lesson we look at how to
construct the passive voice, when to use it and how to conjugate it.

Construction of the Passive Voice

The structure of the passive voice is very simple:

The main verb is always in its past participle form.

Look at these examples:

auxiliary verb (to main verb (past

subject
be) participle)

Water is drunk by everyone.

100 people are employed by this company.

I am paid in euro.

We are not paid in dollars.

Are they paid in yen?

Use of the Passive Voice

We use the passive when:

• we want to make the active object more important

• we do not know the active subject

subject verb object

give importance to
active object President Kennedy was killed by Lee Harvey Oswald.
(President Kennedy)

active subject
My wallet has been stolen. ?
unknown

Note that we always use by to introduce the passive object (Fish are eaten by cats).
Conjugation for the Passive Voice

We can form the passive in any tense. In fact, conjugation of verbs in the passive tense is
rather easy, as the main verb is always in past participle form and the auxiliary verb is
always be. To form the required tense, we conjugate the auxiliary verb. So, for example:

• present simple: It is made

• present continuous: It is being made
• present perfect: It has been made

Here are some examples with most of the possible tenses:

infinitive to be washed

present It is washed.

past It was washed.

simple
future It will be washed.

conditional It would be washed.

present It is being washed.

past It was being washed.

continuous
future It will be being washed.

conditional It would be being washed.

present It has been washed.

past It had been washed.

perfect simple
future It will have been washed.

conditional It would have been washed.

present It has been being washed.

past It had been being washed.

perfect continuous
future It will have been being washed.

conditional It would have been being washed.