Crop Protection Review

EDITO B. SUMILE, Ph. D.

Plant Pathology
 Deals with the study of nature, causes and control of plant
disease

 Art of dealing with the application of knowledge gained from

studying science which include disease diagnosis,
assessment, forecasting, recommendation and appropriate
control and field application of suitable control

 The ultimate objective of Plant Pathology is to prevent or

minimize plant diseases not only to increase food production
but also to maintain quality and quantity of harvested
commodity until it reaches to the consumers.
Economic Importance of Plant
diseases
 Men and other forms of animals exist solely on
earth as guests of the Plant kingdom because
only the green plants can produce their own food

 Plants are the only source of food, clothing,

shelter and numerous luxuries, drug, etc.

 When disease kills plant, all forms of life will be

adversely affected
Types of Crop Losses
 Reduction in yield

 Deterioration of harvested produce during storage, marketing

or transport

 Reduction in quality of the produce

 Production of toxins

 Predispose the plants to other infection

 Diseases increase production cost

Development of Plant Pathology in the
Philippines
 Coffee rust and coconut bud rot were the first disease being studied in the
country

 Coffee rust was first noted in Batangas in 1885 and in 1890, coffee
plantations in that area were totally devastated

 Coconut bud rot was reported by Dr. Copeland the first dean of Agriculture
in UPLB established in 1908.

 B. Robinson (1911) reported occurrence of leafblight in corn

 Baker (1912) reported downy mildew of corn and published his book “The
lower Fungi in the Philippines Islands” in 1914

 Reinking (1918) published the “ Philippine Economic Plant Diseases”

Unit 2
Concepts of Plant Disease
 Whetzel (1912)- defined disease as malfunctioning caused by animate agents; physiogenic disease
caused by inanimate agents

 Stakman and Harar (1957)- any deviation from normal growth or structure of plants that is sufficiently
pronounced and permanent to produce visible symptoms or to impair quality or economic value

 Horsefall and Dimond (1959)- malfunctioning process caused by a continued irritation

 National Academy of Science (1968)- harmful alteration of the normal physiological and biochemical
development of plants.

 Merril- dynamic interaction between an organism and its environment which result in abnormal
physiological and morphological or neurological changes in the organism

 Agrios (1978)- any disturbance brought about by a pathogen or an environmental factor which interferes
with manufacture, translocation or utilization of food, mineral nutrients and water in such a way that the
affected plant changes in appearance or a decrease in yield
Definition and Terminologies in Plant
Pathology
 Pathogen- any agent that causes the disease

 Parasite – an organism which depends wholly or partly on another organism

 Obligate parasite- organism that is restricted to subsist on living organism and attacks only living tissues.

 Facultative parasite- organism which subsist on no-living materials (saprophytes)

 Host- refers to the plant that is being attacked by a parasite

 Pathogenesis- refers to the chain of events leading to disease development in plant

 Pathogenicity- the capacity of a pathogen to cause disease.

 Symptoms- expression of the plant of a pathologic condition

 Signs- expression of the pathogen causing the disease.

continuation
 Primary symptoms- immediate and direct results of the causal agent’s activities on
the invaded tissues

 Localized symptoms- distinct and limited expression

 Histological symptoms- expression that are observed only under a microscope

examination

 Hypoplastic symptoms- inhibition or failure in the development of some aspect of

plant growth as in stunting

 Hyperplastic symptoms- overdevelopment of plant tissues as in gall formation

 Plant disease diagnosis- is the identification of specific plant disease through their
characteristics symptoms and signs including factors related to disease development
Classification of Plant Diseases

 Classification according to the affected plant

organ- root diseases, leaf disease, fruit diseases,
etc
 According to symptoms – leaf spot, rust, smuts,
etc.
 According to type of affected plants – vegetable
disease, field crop diseases
 According to type of pathogen- infectious, non-
infectious
Unit 3
Non-parasitic agent of Plant Diseases
 Common non-parasitic agent:
 Excessive low temperature
 Too high temperature
 Lack of oxygen
 Too much /little oxygen
 Adverse meteorological conditions
 Air pollutants
 Mineral deficiencies
 Mineral excesses
 Unfavorable soil pH
 Excessive pesticide levels
 Improper agricultural practices
 Lack/excess soil moisture
 Naturally occurring toxic chemical
 Disease caused by too low temperature
 Freezing injuries
 Chilling injuries
 Diseases caused by too high temperature
 Sunscald
 Heat necrosis
 Disease caused by lack of oxygen
 Black heart of potato
 Too much/ too little sunlight
 Etiolation
 Scorching
 Adverse meteorological condition
 Strong winds
 Heavy rains
 lightning
 Air pollution
 Ethylene
 Nitrogen oxides
 Peroxyacetyl nitrates
 Ozone
 Particulates
Parasitic agents of Plant Disease
 Viruses and Virus-like pathogens
 Very small particles
 With several shapes; spherical, rigid rod
 Consist of nucleic acid surrounded by protein coat
 Symptoms of virus infection
 Reduction in growth
 Reduction in vitality
 Color deviation
 Water shortage
 Tissue and plant death
 Malformation
 Anatomical abnormalities
Virus Transmission

 Transmission by vegetative propagation

 Transmission through sap
 Seed transmission
 Insect transmission
 Mite transmission
 Nematode transmission
 Fungal transmission
 Dodder transmission
Symptoms of virus infections
 Reduction in growth- stunting or dwarfing
 Reduction in vitality-increase susceptibility to
other pathogens
 Color deviation
 Mosaic- shades of green and yellow are usually irregular
angular but sharply delimited
 Flecking or spotting- if discolored part is sharply bordered
but circular
 Mottling- diffusely delineated variegation
 Chlorosis-less chlorophyll is produce (yellowing)
Symptoms of virus infection

 Water shortage
 Wilting-due to excessive transpiration or impeded supply
 Withering-irreversible desiccation of tissues and implies death
 Tissue and plant death
 Malformation-imbalanced development (leaf rolling, curling,
distortion)
 Rugosity-retarded growth of veinal tissue
 Rosetting-shortening of internodes
 Epinasty-curling or turning of leaves downward
 Enation-outgrowth of leaves, veins, stems
 Swellings/tumors-enlargement of stem or roots
Symptoms of virus infection
 Anatomical abnormalities
 Hypotrophy-decrease in cell size
 Hypoplasia-decrease in cell number
 Hypertrophy-increase in cell size
 Hyperplasia-increase in cell number
Control of Plant Viruses
 Exclusion-systems of quarantine, inspection and
certification
 Eradication of infected plants or plant parts
 Controlling of insect vectors and removal weeds
serving as host
 Soil fumigation for soil infested with nematode
 Use of virus-free planting materials
 Use of resistant varieties
 Tissue culture
Bacteria as Plant Pathogen
 Unicellular organism reproduce asexually by binary fission
 Absence of chlorophyll
 Genera of Pathogenic Bacteria
 Acetobacter Curtobacterium Rhizobacter
 Acidovorax Enterobacter Sphingomonas
 Arthrobacter Erwinia Rhodococcus
 Bacillus Gluconobacter Serratia
 Breneria Nocadia Spiroplasma
 Burkholderia Pantoea Streptomyces
 Clavibacter Pectobacterium Xanthomonas
 Clostridium Pseudomonas Xylella
 Corynebacterium Ralstonia Xylophilus
Common examples of plant disease
caused by bacteria
 Pectobacterium carotovorum - soft rot of
vegetables
 Ralstonia solanacearum - bacterial wilt of
solanaceous crops
 Xanthomonas citri - citrus canker
 Xanthomonas oryzea - bacterial leaf streak of rice
 Agrobacterium tumefaciens - crown gall of plants
 Pectobacterium chrysanthemi - stalk rot of corn
 Streptomyces scabies - potato scab
Symptoms of disease cause by bacteria
 Leafspot
 Soft rot
 blight,
 Gall
 Canker
 wilting
Mycoplasma as Plant pathogen
 Non-motile, non-spore-forming, polymorphic
microorganism that lack cell walls and are
bounded by triple-layered unit membrane
 Sensitive to tetracycline but resistant to
penicillin
 Reproduce through transverse binary fission
 Three families: Mycoplasmatacea,
acholeplasmatacea, spiroplasmatacea
 Common vectors: leafhoppers, planthoppers,
treehoppers, aphid, mite and psyllids
Symptoms and diseases caused by
Mycoplasma
 Aster yellow-general chlorosis and stunting
of plants
 Spiroplasma citri- stubborn disease of
citrus; plants affected exhibit an upright
bunchy growth of twigs and branches with
shortened internodes and numerous
shoots. Fruits and leaves are small and
deformed; diseased fruits have bitter taste
and disagreeable flavor and smell.
Fungi as Plant Pathogen
 Spore-forming organism
 Chorophyllous with filamentous vegetative
structures known as mycelium
 The True Fungi
 Phylum Chytridiomycota
 Phylum Zygomycota
 Phylum Ascomycota
 Phylum Basidiomycota
Diseases caused by fungi
 Pythium debaryanum – cause damping off
 Phytophtora infectans – causes leaf bight of potato
 Phytophthora palmivora – coconut bud rot
 Albugo candida – white rust of crucifers
 Plasmopara viticola – downy mildew of grapes
 Peronosclerospora philippinensis – downy mildew of corn
 Bremia lactucae – downy mildew of lettuce
 Pseudoperonospora cubensis – downy mildew of cucurbits
 Olpidium brassicae – parasitic in roots of cabbage
 Physoderma maydis – brown spot of corn
 Synchytrium psopocarpii – orange galls of winged beans
 Rhizopus nigricans – soft rot of fruits and vegetables
 Choanephora cucurbitarum – soft rot of squash
 Eryphe graminis – powdery mildew of grasses
Nematodes as Plant Pathogen
 Thread-like organism, non-segmented, bilaterally symmetrical and are usually
elongated and cylindrical in shape
 Groups of parasitic nematode
 Semi –endoparasites
 Rotylenchus reniformis – reniform nematodes
 Tylenchulus semipenetrans – citrus nematodes
 Endoparasite
 Pratylenchus – lession nematode feeding on the root cortex
 Radopholus similis – burrowing nematode of banana
 Hoplolaimus – lance nematode
 Helicotylenchus – spiral nematode
 Meloidogyne – the root-knot nematode
 Heterodera/Globodera – the cyst nematode
 Ectoparasite
 Belonolaimus – string nematode
 Paratylenchus – pin nematode
 Trichodorus – stubby root nematode of field crops and vegetables
 Xiphinema – dagger nematode of trees and many annuals
Inoculum, Inoculum Survival and
Inoculation
 Inoculum – any part of the pathogen that
could initiate infection
 Infection court – any part of the plant where
the inoculum could initiate infection
 Types of inoculum
 Fungi – spore , mycelia, sclerotial bodies
 Bacteria – bacterial cells, ooze
 Nematode – eggs, larvae, adult
Different Sources of Inoculum
 Infected living plants
 Plant debris
 Infected soil
 Infected seed/vegetative propagating
materials
 Contaminated containers, storage areas,
equipment
 Insects, nematode and other living agents
Dissemination
 Transfer of inoculum to an infection court
 Steps in dissemination
 Take-off – getting the inoculum into the air
 Flight – moving the inoculum from one place to the other
 Deposition – settling of the inoculum from the atmosphere
 Types of dissemination
 Wind dissemination
 Rain dissemination
 Insect dissemination
 Seed and planting materials
 Man dissemination
Disease Cycle
 Is the sequence of events that leads to and is involved in
disease production
 Parts of the disease cycle
 Inoculation-deposition of inoculum
 Penetration-entry of pathogen inside the host
 Passive-pathogen plays no active role
 Active- pathogen directly participate in the penetration
 Infection-when pathogen established and obtain food from the host
 Colonization-growth of the pathogen to the host tissues
 Incubation-from inoculation to the production of visible symptoms
 Dissemination-spread or transfer of the inoculum
 Survival-the tiding over of the pathogen on adverse condition
Plant defense mechanism
 Defense mechanism to penetration
 The cuticle offers physical and chemical barriers
 Closed or partially closed stomates
 Chemical barriers
 Cutin of citrus contains acid toxic to organism
 Colored onion contains catechol and
protocatechuic acid
Passive defense mechanism
 Unavailability of nutrients in the host and
inadequate enzyme potential of the pathogen
 Pre-formed toxic substances inside the cell
 Tannins and phenolic cpds-caffeic acid, chlorogenic acids
and hydroquinones have fungitoxic properties
 Osmotic pressure and parasitism-plants with high
osmotic pressure and reduced permeability would
make it difficult for invading organism to obtain
water and nutrients from them, thus rendering
them more resistant
Active defense mechanism
 Mechanical barriers to pathogenenis
 Hypersensitivity and phytoalexins
 Hypersensitibity-the rapid localized death of host cells
around the pathogen
 Phyto-alexins-subtances formed by the host not only in
response to pathogenic invasions but also to injury and
foreign inanimate and animate agents
 Post-insfectional toxic substances
 detoxification
Other terminologies
 Epidemiology – study of disease development in population
 Epidemic – widespread, explosive disease outbreaks
 Epiphytotics – refers to the epidemics of plant disease
 Endemic disease - native or indigenous to a particular place
 Exotic disease – introduced from some other areas
 Pandemic disease- worldwide or widespread occurrence
throughout the continent or region
 Sporadic disease – occur at irregular intervals
 Disease forecasting – predicting when a disease will occur and how
severe it will be for farmers to be guided properly in making
decisions on disease control
 Disease assessment – appraisal on the amount of disease present
and relate these to yield loss
Factors affecting the development of
epidemics
 Susceptible plants
 Practice of monocropping
 Predisposition of plant to infection due to
excessive use of N fertilizer
 Presence of abundant inoculum and
efficient vectors
Principles of Plant Disease Control
 Exclusion – prevention of new pathogen from
being introduce into a locality
 Protection – involves the prevention of infection
by putting a barrier between the pathogen and the
host
 Eradication – measure that eliminate, inhibit or kill
the pathogens that have become established
within the plant or area
 Immunization – modifying certain physiological
features or physical features of the host so that it
can repel infection
Terms related to Immunization
 Resistance – the relative ability of the plant to overcome the effects of the
pathogen

 Tolerance- the ability of the suscept to undergo severe infection without

serious reduction in yield.

 Klenduscity – the lack of infection in a susceptible plant due the suscept’s

effect on something other than the pathogen

 Escape – the suscept is not infected due to certain circumstances as

unfavorable environmental condition or luck of inoculum

 Virulence – a measure of the degree of infection or pathogenicity

 Aggressiveness- a measure of the rate at which virulence is expressed

Types of resistance
 Vertical resistance-controlled by one or few
genes and is effective only against one or
few races of the pathogen
 Horizontal resistance-controlled by several
genes and is theoretically effective against
all races/strains of pathogen.
Methods of plant Disease Control
 Sanitation
 Cultural methods-crop rotation, concept on sustainable agriculture,
fallowing, tissue culture
 Physical methods-heat treatment, low temperature storage,
irradiation
 Chemical method-seed treatment, fumigation of soil/warehouse,
control of insect vectors
 Biological method-use of microorganism that compete with,
parasitize or are antagonistic to the pathogen
 Cross protection-protection by a mild pathogen virus strain against infection
by another strain of the same virus which is more virulent
 Interference-mycorrhizae interfere with pathogen
 Use of bacteriophages
 Use of parasites
 Use of resistant varities
Entomology
 Study of insect, their nature, effects and control
 Insect Classification
 Super class Hexapoda – six legged organism
 Class Parainsecta –designates small, wingless, soil-dwelling
arthropods of the order Protura and Collembola
 Class entognatha- small wingless, soil dwelling arthropods
that have their mouthparts retracted in the head.
 Class insecta- insects do not have their mouthparts
retracted in the head
Basic Concept of Entomology
 Insects –derived from the latin “insecare” meaning “to cut into”
refering to the bodies of some insects that are almost cut in half by
constriction of the neck and waist
 Subclass Apterygota-insects without wings
 Subclass Pterygota – insects with wings
 Infraclass Paleoptera-winged insects that unable to fold their wings
flat over their bodies
 Infraclass Neotera-meaning “modern type of wings” insects that can
fold their wings flat over their backs
 Division Exopterygota-wings developed externally and are visible
on the youngs as small wing pods
 Division Endopterygota-have wings rudimentary that develop
internally during the early life of the insects. Life history is divided
into two groups that are strikingly different forms and habits
Characteristics of Insects
 More or less elongate and cylindrical in form
 Bilaterally symmetrical
 Segmented body regions
 Paired segmented appendages
 Chitinous exoskeleton
 Tubular alimentary canal with mouth and anus
 Open circulatory system
Insect Body Parts
Insect body regions
 Head
 One pair of antenna
 Compound eyes and ocelli
 One pair of mandible
 One pair of maxilla
 A hypopharynx
 A labium
Front Head
The mouthparts
 Labrum-upper lip
 Hypopharynx-tongue
 Pair of mandible-jaws
 Pair of maxillaserve as accesory jaws
aiding in the holding and chewing of food
 Labium-lower lip
Insect mandible
Insect Labium
Insect Maxilla
Types of mouthparts
 Mandibulate/chewing mouthparts
 Adapted for chewing
 Haustellate/sucking mouthparts
 Adapted for sucking
Position of mouthparts
 Hypognathous-the mouthparts hang
ventrally from the head capsule
 Prognathous-anteriorly directed position of
the mouthparts
 Opisthognathous-mouthparts are directed
ventroposteriorly relative to the head
capsule
The thorax
 Three pairs of legs
 Often one or two pairs of wings, borne by
the second and/or third of the three thoracic
segments
The abdomen
 The gonophore at the posterior end of the
abdomen
 No locomotor appendages on the abdomen
of the adult
The body wall
 Covered by exoskeleton
 It serve not only as covering of the body but
as a supporting structure, muscle
attachment and reception of external stimuli
The insect antenna
 Are paired segmented appendages located
on the head usually between or below the
compound eyes
 It acts as organ of taste, organ of smell and
in some cases organ of hearing
Parts of the insect antenna
 Scape-the basal segment
 Pedicel-second segment
 Flgellum-remainder
Forms of antenna
 Setaceous-bristlelike, the segment becoming more slender distantly. Ex.
Dragonfly, damselfly and hoppers
 Filiform-threadlike, the segments nearly uniform in size, and usually
cylindrical. Ex. Ground beetle, tiger beetle
 Moniliform-like string beads, the segments are similar in size and more or
less spherical in shape
 Serrate-sawlike, the segment, particularly those in the distal half or two
thirds of the antenna more or less triangular. Ex. Click beetle
 Pectinate-comblike, most segment with long slender, lateral processes
 Clubbed-the segments increasing in diameter distantly
 Clavate-increase is gradual
 Capitate-if the terminal segments are rather suddenly enlarge
 Lamellate- if the terminal segments are expanded laterally to form rounded or oval
platelike lobes
 Flabellate-where the terminal segments have long, parallel-sided sheetlike, or
tongue-like lobes extending laterally
Continuation……
 Geniculate-elbowed, with the first segment long
and the following segments are small
 Plumose-feathery, most segments with whort of
long hairs. Ex. Male mosquitoes
 Aristate-the last segment usually enlarged and
bearing a conspicous dorsal bristle, the artista; Ex.
Housefly
 Stylate-the last segment bearing an elongate
terminal styletlike or fingerlike process the style.
Ex. Robber fly
Some Insect Antennae
The thorax
 The middle region of the body and bears the legs
and the wings (functionally, it is the locomotory
tagma)
 Composed of the three segments, the prothorax,
mesothorax and the metathorax
 Each segments bear a pair of legs
 Meso and the metathorax bear the pairs of wings.
If there is only one pair of wings they usually
borne from the mesothorax
The legs
 Six segments
 Coxa-basal segment
 Trochanter-small segment following the coxa
 Femur-first long segment of the leg
 Tibia-second long segment of the leg
 Tarsus – segmented
 Pretarsus-may consist of a single claw
Modification of the legs
 Apodous-lacking legs
 Ambulatory-adapted for walking
 Cursorial-adapted for running
 Fossorial-adapted for digging
 Raptorial-adapted for grabbing and holding prey
 Saltatorial-adapted for jumping
 Natatorial-adapted for swimming
Specialized structures
 Corbiculum-legs of honey bees as pollen
basket
 Tympana- auditory organ
 Pulvilli-found in the lower surface of each
tarsal segments as in the several members
of the orthoptera
The wing
 Modified to:
 Membranous-wings that are transparent
 Tegmina-thickened, leathery wing of
grasshopper
 Elytra-hardened forewings of beetles
 Hemilytra-base of the forewing harden while the
remaining are membranous
 Halteres-a pair of highly modified, club-shaped
structure important in the stability of flight
Wing-coupling mechanism
 Hamuli - tiny hook found among
hymenopterans
 Frenulum - spinelike found in moths
 Jugum - lobelike found in lepidopterans
The abdomen
 11 segments
 Terminal segment bears a pair of appendages,
the cerci
 Spiracles, the external ventilatory organ in each
segments
 Female gonophore usually in the 8th or 9th
segment
 Male copulatory organ-aedeagus found in the 9th
segment
Types of metamorphosis
 Metamorphosis-is a process of change in size,
shape and form of insects
 Ametabola- no metamorphosis. No difference in
appearance as in adults except size. Egg – young- adult
 Hemimetabola – incomplete metamorphosis- egg – naiad
– adult
 Paurometabola- gradual metamorphosis- changes in form
are simple ; egg – nymph – adult
 Holometabola- complete metamorphosis – egg – larva –
pupa - adult
Complete Metamorphosis of Insect
Incomplete Metamorphosis
Insect Reproduction
 Bisexual reproduction – both male and
female required
 Parthenogenesis- there is no fertilization
hence there is no male needed
 Paedenogenesis- the larva is capable of
reporduction
Mode of giving birth
 Viviparity- live young are born
 Oviparity – eggs are laid, and left or
attended to hatch
Physical and behavioral adaptation of
insects to the environment
 Protective coloration - camouflage or blending
with the color of the surroundings
 Mimicry – copying of other species for protection
 Batesian mimicry – palatable insects resembles the
appearance of a distasteful or poisonous insect
 Mullerian mimicry – several distasteful insect species, often
in unrelated families resemble each other
 Wasmannian mimicry – mimics by being guest within the
nest of other insects
Importance of insect to man and
agriculture
 Beneficial Insects
 Pollination
 Industrial products
 Food
 Scavenger
 Predators
 Use in medical and scientific research
 Injurious Insects
 Damage crop directly or by transmitting diseases
 Destroy agri-products during storage
 Attack, parasitize and annoy and transmit diseases to domestic
animals and reduce theirs values
Why insects so successful
 Body structures
 Exoskeleton
 Terrestrial forms- wax coating prevents desiccation
 Metamorphosis – immature insects and adults of a single species often exploit
different habitat
 Small size
 Individual requires little food
 Escape from enemies
 dispersal
 Adult flight
 Dispersal
 Escape from enemies
 Utilize new/different habitat
 Reproductive capacity
 High reproductive capacity
 Short generation time
Different Insect Orders
 Order Archeognathans – bristletails
 Order Zygentoma/thysanura – silverfish
 Order Ephemeroptera – mayflies
 Order Odonata – dragonflies and damselflies
 Order Blattodea – cockroaches
 Order mantodea – mantids
 Order Isoptera – termites
 Order Grylloblatodea – mole crickets
 Order Dermaptera – earwigs
 Order Plecoptera – stoneflies
 Order Embiidina – webspinners
 Order Orthoptera – grasshoppers and crickets and katydids
 Order Phasmatodea – sticks insects
Continuation….
 Order Zoraptera –
 Order Psocoptera – psocid and booklice
 Order Phthiraptera – lice
 Order Hemiptera – bug and leafhoppers
 Order thysanoptera – thrips
 Order Megaloptera – dobsonfly, alderfliy
 Order Raphidioptera – snakefly
 Order Neuroptera – lacewing, antlion
 Order Coleoptera – beetles
 Order Sterpsiptera
 Order Mecoptera – scorpionfly
 Order Diptera – flies
 Order Lepidoptera – butterflies and moth
 Order Trichoptera – caddisflies
 Order Hymenoptera - bees , wasp and ants
Crop Rotation Entomology
 Economic injury – the amount of injury which will give
significant loss once the economic plant part is affected
 Injury – effect of the pest activities on the host physiology that
is usually deleterious
 Damage – measurable loss of the host utility, most often
including yield, quantity, quality and or aesthetics
 Economic damage – the amount of the injury which will justify
the cost of artificial measures
 Economic injury level (EIL) – lowest number of insect that
will cause economic damage, or the minimum number of
insects that would reduce yield equal to the gain threshold
 Economic threshold level (ETL)- number of insects that
should trigger management action.
Kinds of Pest
 Subeconomic pests – pest in the true sense even if they
cause significant losses. The General Equilibrium Population
(GEP) is far below
 Occasional Pest – GEP substantially below the EIL – more
often does not cause economic damage though they are
present in the field
 Potential and Severe Pest – cause most serious and difficult
problems in the field – key pest that attack the commodity
directly mostly in numbers
 Perennial pest – the GEP is below the ETL, but so close to
the economic damage occurs more years than not
 Severe Pest – have a GEP that is actually above the EIL,
making them a constant problem
Biological Control
 Pest management tactics involving purposeful
natural enemy manipulation to obtain a reduction
in a pest status
 The use of living organism for the control of
another organism
 Natural enemies – living organism found in nature
that kill insects outright, weaken them and thereby
contribute to their premature death or reduced
their reproductive potential
Nature of Biological control
 Disadvantages
 Slow action
 Ecological problems
 Specificity
 Regulation and registration
 Advantages
 Longer effect
 Effective
 Cheap
 specific
Agents of Biological Control
 Parasites – animal that lives on or within a larger animal.
Requires one host to complete its cycle
 Insect orders considered parasitoid
 Coleoptera Lepidoptera
 Neuroptera Strepsiptera
 Diptera Hymenoptera
 Predators – are free living organism that feed on the other
animals, their prey sometime devouring them completely and
usually rapidly
 Major predators of insects
 Birds Fish
 Amphibians Reptiles
 Mammals Arthropods
Levels of Feeding
 Monophagous – narrow prey range, feeding
almost exclussively on a single species
 Oligophagous – narrow host range, feeding
only few prey species
 Polyphagous – tend to feed on a wide host
range
Examples of Parasitoids and Predators
and their host
 Cotesia plutellae – Diamond backmoth larvae
 Diadegma sp. – Diamond Backmoth larvae
 Trichogramma evanescens – cornborer eggs
 Trichogramma chilones – earworm eggs
 Apanteles sp. Eggplant shootborer larvae
 Chelonus sp. – eggplant shootborer pupae
 Oencyrfus comperie – gren soldier bug eggs
 Telenomus pacificus – geen soldier bug eggs
 Ageniapsis citricola – citrus leafminer larvae
 Eucanthecona sp. – lepidopterous larvae
 Lady beetle – aphids adults and nymphs
 Tachinid fly – aphis adult and nymps
 Euboriella annulata – cornborer larvae
 Lycosa psuedoannulata – aphid, planthoppers, leafhoppers
Pathogenic Microorganism

 Bacteria
 Bacillus popillae and B. lentimorbus – cause milky disease
of japanese beetle
 B. thuriengensis – causing disease in many species of
lepidopterous pest, mosquitoes and beetles
 Viruses
 Nuclear polyhedrosis virus and Granulosis Virus cuase
death of leppidopterous insect pest
 Fungi
 Beauveria, Nomurea, Metarhizium, Entomopthora and
Zoophthora
Chemical Control
 Pesticide – any chemical use to control pest
 Advantages
 Effective and rapid curative action
 Economical
 Ease of application
 Adaptable in most situation
 Disadvantages
 Insecticide resistance
 Pest resurgence
 Negative impact to non-target organism
 Risks to users
Specific Pestcides
 Acaricide/miticide – mites, ticks and spiders
 Algaecide – algae
 Arboricide – trees, shrubs, bushes
 Avicide – birds
 Fungicide – fungi
 Herbicide – weeds
 Insecticide – insects
 Molluscicide – mollusks
 Nematicide – nematodes
 Pissicide – fish
 Predacide – vertebrate pest
 Rodenticide - rodents
Some insecticides that do not end with
cide and not necessarily killing the
pest
 Attractants – attracts insects
 Chemosterilant – sterilized insects to prevent
reproduction
 IGR – stimulate or retard growth of insects
 Pheromone – release by one individual and affect the
physiology of others
 Repellant – repel insects
Classification of insecticide
 According to the nature and sources
 Inorganic – lacking carbon
 Arsenic
 Cyanide
 Mercury
 Boric acid
 Sodium arsenate
 Sodium chlorate
 Copper sulfate
 Organic- with carbon atom
 Natural – produce by refining natural substances
 Synthetic – manufactured by chemically joining elements or simple
compounds
Continuation….
 According to the mode of entry
 Stomach – enters insect body through the gut
 Systemic – are taken up and translocated by
plants
 Contact – they usually enters the body when an
insect usually crawls with it. Absorbed through the
body wall
 Fumigants – insecticide that becomes gas and
enters insect body through tracheal system,
circulate and subsequently absorbed by the body
tissue
Classification according to the
chemical composition
 Chlorinated hydrocarbons/Organochlorines
 DDT
 Lindane
 Cyclodienes
 polychloroterpenes
 Organophosphates
 Malathion
 Dimethoate
 Disolfoton
 Dicrotophos
 Trichloroform
 Mathamidophos
 Acephate
 Parathion
 phosmet
 Methidathion
 Diazinon
 chlorpyriphos
Continuation ….
 Pyrethroid – resemblance of natural product cenerin from
pyrethrum
 Allethrin
 Resmethrin
 Fenvalerate
 Permithrin
 Cypermthrin
 Deltamethrin
 Lamda-cyhalothrin
 Carbamates
 Carbaryl
 Carbofuran
 Aldicarb
 Methomyl
 propoxur
Continuation…
 Neonicotinoids resembles the natural products of
nicotine
 Botanical insecticides
 Pyrethrum – from petals of chrysanthemum
 Azadiractina – neem tree
 Nicotine - tobacco
 Limonene – citrus peel
 Rotenone – Derris sp.
 Ryania – stems and roots of Ryania speciosa
 Sabadilla – seeds of Schoenocaulon officinale
Chemicals used with insecticides
 Synergist- enhanced toxicity of insecticide used
 Solvent – enhance solubility in water
 Diluents – carriers and are necessary to obtain proper
coverage of treated surface
 Surfactants - improves emulsifying, dispersing, spreading,
wetting and other modifying properties of the liquid
 Emulsifier – promote suspension of one liquid with the other
 Inert ingredient – inactive part of the pesticide
 Safener – counteract phytotoxicity effect of chemicals
 Spreader – facilitate creeping or spreading over a surface
 Sticker – increase adhesion
Types of insecticide formulation

 Aqueous solution (AC) – homogenous mixture of 2 solution

 Emulsifiable concentrate (EC) – dissolved in small amount of
organic solvent when shaken with water emulsion is formed
 Water Soluble powders (WSP) – readily dissolve in water
 Wettable powders (WP) formulated as finely ground powder which
when mixed with water in the presence of a dispersing agent will
form a suspension
 Granules or pellets – active ingredients are combined with inert
materials formed into particles. They are applied in dry form
 Dust –
 Aerosols – active ingredient is suspended in a container under
pressure
 Flowable – the ingredients and deluent are ground to near colloidal
dimension, suspended a small amount of liquid
Host Plant Resistance
 Property of the plant that enables the plant to avoid, tolerate or recover from injury by insect population
that would cause greater damage to other plants of the same species under similar condition
 Advantages
 First line of defense
 Singular effective
 No serious disruptive effects on the environment
 Compatible with other control measures
 Inexpensive
 Safe
 Practical at low value crops
 Disadvantages
 Development of resistant varieties is tedious, expensive and long process
 Resistant cultivars may not be adoptive to certain localities
 Cultivars may be resistant to one but susceptible with other pest
 Resistant cultivars may easily breakdown
 Some resistant cultivars may have small effects
Mechanism of Resistance

 Nonpreference – characteristic that lead away

from a particular hosts for food, oviposition, or
shelter (Antixenosis)
 Allelochemic nonpreference – presence of
chemicals
 Morphological nonpreference – plant structural
charateristics that disrupt physical condition of the
pest
 Antibiosis – refers to the deleterious effects on
insects survival of life history resulting from
feeding on a resistant host
Symptoms of insects affected by
antibiosis
 Death of youngs
 Reduced growth rate
 Increase mortality in pupal stage
 Small adults
 Shortened life span
 Morphological malformation
 Restlessness and other abnormal behaviour
Tolerance
 Refers to the ability of a host to grow and
reproduce normally while supporting a pest
population that would be damaging to a
susceptible host.
 Advantage
 Places no selective pressure on insect population.
Without selection pressure, variants do not develop that
can overcome the resistance
 Disadvantage
 Insect population may be allowed to sustain epidemics in
the area, causing problems in other crops
Other forms of resistance
 Ecological resistance – relies more heavily on environmental
condition
 Host evasion – the plant passes through a susceptible stage
quickly or at a time such that its exposure to potentially
injurious insect is reduced
 Induced resistance – form temporary resistance derived from
plant condition or the environment
 Host escape – lack of infestation of susceptible plants in a
population of otherwise infested plants
 Vertical resistance – refers to cultivars with resistance limited
to one or few pest genotypes
 Horizontal resistance – describes cultivars that express
resistance against a broad range of genotype
Weed Science
 The study of weeds, and their control,
whether it is manual, mechanical, cultural,
biological, chemical or ecological
 Main goal – formulate the most satisfactory,
most efficient yet least expensive method of
controlling weeds
 Weed – a plant out place in time and space
Characteristics of Noxious Weed
 Rapid vegetative growth and profuse root
production
 Reproduce early and efficiently
 Have the ability to survive and adapt to adverse
condition
 Seeds posses dormancy
 Cause significant damage even at low density
 Resistant to herbicide
 Adapted to competition
Importance of Weed
 Negative
 Reduce yield of crops
 Increase costs for insect and diseases control
 Reduced quality of products
 Increases cost of production
 Reduces land value
 Exude chemicals that are harmful to other plants
 Imposed hazard to health
 Positive
 Reduce soil erosion
 Food for animals and humans
 Prevent leaching of nutrients
 Important sources of useful drugs
 Sources of possible pesticides
 Provide germplasm for crop improvement
 Provide habitat for insect predator
 Authentic values
Classification of Weeds
 Based on morphological characteristics
 Gross morphology
 Grasses – round and hollow stem, leaves aligned
in two rows
 Sedges – leaves aligned in three rows, stems are
solid and triangular
 Broadleaves – leaves may have various shapes
and arrangement of veins, leaves are wider than
those of grasses and sedges
 Body texture
 Herbaceous – soft, succulent
 Woody – hard texture
 Based on life span
 Annual
 Biennial
 Perennial
 Based on growth habit
 Vine
 Shrubs
 Trees
 Based on habitat
 Terrestrial
 aquatic
Longevity of weed seeds
 Longevity – length of life or viability of weed
seed or vegetative propagules
 Highly affected by soil type, sunlight
exposure, cultural practices and moisture
content
Seed dormancy
 Dormancy – is the inability of the seed or any
vegetative organ or tissue to germinate under
favorable condition
 Primary dormancy –inherent property of the mature seed
as it leaves the parent plant
 Secondary dormancy – induced through encounter with
unfavorable condition
 Induced dormancy – develops when a non-dormant seed
becomes dormant after exposure to such specific
environment condition
 Enforced dormancy – limitations of the habitat or
environment prevent seeds from germinating
Mechanism of dormancy
 Physical dormancy – impermeability of
water and or oxygen
 Physiological dormancy – immature embryo
or presence of inhibitors
Methods of breaking dormancy
 Microbial action or abrasive treatments:
sulfuric acid, stratification
 Passage through alimentary tract of
livestock
 Dehulling (physical dormancy)
 Alternate wet and dry conditions
 KNO3, GA3, cytokinins , Auxins
 Light and temperature treatment
Concept of Weed Germination
 Germination – resumption of growth by the
embryo in the seed or of the young plantlet in a
tuber, bulb or rhizome
 Phases of Germination
 Imbibition
 Period of rapid metabolic activity
 Root or root – like elongation phase
 Period of independent growth
 Cultural factors affecting weed germination
 Water management
 Cultivation and light
Factors affecting seedling growth
condition
 Soil factor
 Light
 Adaptation to growing condition
 Competitive power of weed
Seed reporduction and dispersal
 Sexual reproduction
 Annual weeds, usually reproduce by seed production
 Factors affecting flowering and seed production
 Photoperiod
 Vegetative growth
 Temperature
 Growth regulators
 Magnitude of seed production
 Asexual/ Vegetative propagation
 Principal means of propagation by most perennial weeds
 Vegetative propagules
 Tubers
 Bulb
 Rhizome
 Stolon
 Runner
 Offshoot/suckers
Factors influencing asexual
reproduction
 Soil texture
 Daylength
 Light intensity
 Mineral sufficiency
Dispersal of weed propagules
 Methods
 Dispersal unit – refer to the structure, usually
single-seeded or multiple seeded together with
accessory parts, that is disperse or separated
from the mother plant asnd whose function is to
perpetuate its kind in other areas
 Agents of weed dispersal
 Wind , water , animals/man, explosive mechanism
of weed
Definition of terms on weed
interference
 Competition – struggle for the limited
resources in the environment
 Critical period of competition – the length of
time wherein the crop is very sensitive to
weed competition
 Critical threshold level – the density of
weeds above which yield reductions could
be incurred
 Types of competition
 intra- specific competition
 Inter specific competition
 Factors affecting competition
 Weed species, density and duration of competition
 Seeding rate
 Crop variety or selection
 Level of nutrition
 Major factors for competition
 Nutrients
 Water
 light
Methods of weed control
 Main purpose of weed management is to reduce
weed population to levels that will not significantly
reduce crop yield
 Methods of weed control
 Cultural
 use of quality, disease and weed seed - free planting
materials
 Controlling weeds before reproductive stage
 Multiple cropping
 Water management
 Use of competitive crops
 Manual
 Proper land preparation
 Handweeding/slashing
 Hoe weeding
 Interrow cultivation
 Mulching
 burning
Biological control method
 Deliberate use of weed natural enemies
such as insects and pathogens
 Types of biological control
 Inoculative approach – use of imported living
organism
 Inundative or augmentative approach – use of
very large numbers of existing and locally
occurring natural enemies
Some bioherbicide
 De Vine – the first fungal pathogen
commercially made available in 1981 made
of liquid formulation of Phytophthora
palmivora
 Collego – mycoherbicide commercially
made available in the US in 1982 a dry
powder of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
Classification of Herbicide
 Based on time of application
 Preplant herbicide – after land preparation but before planting
 Preemergence herbicide – applied after crop planting but before crop
emergence
 Postemergence – after emergence of the crop and weed
 Based on movement in plants
 Contact herbicide – phytotoxicity is manifested on location where droplets
of herbicide are deposited
 Systemic or translocated herbicide – phytotoxicity is manifested at and
away from the site where droplets are deposited
 Based on selectivity
 Non-selective herbicide – with broad spectrum activity that kills all
 Selective herbicide – kill some plants leaving practically others unharmed
Pesticide Calculation
Recommended rate (a.i/ha)
Amount of Pesticide x 100
a.i in the formulation

Herbadox 330E is applied at the rate of 1.25 kg a.i/ha to effectively

kill R. exaltata. How many liters of Herbadox 330E do you need/ha?

Furadan 3G is applied at the rate of 0.5kg a.i./ha to control corn

borer. How many kilograms of Furadan 3G do you need for 2,500
square meters?