Professional Documents
Culture Documents
COMMITMENT
For the Scheme to work it is essential that all those involved should approach it
with a serious commitment to success.
DEVELOPMENT
- appraisers will be asked at their own appraisal about the development of their
appraisees
- Heads of Department will be asked at their appraisal about the extent to which
they have fostered the development of the staff in their department.
- Heads of Department will be invited by the STD Office to suggest areas where
training and development might be made generally available.
These initiatives will lead to a wide range of outcomes including informal groups
within or between departments, attendance at external conferences and courses,
STD workshops, and ongoing work with individuals or small groups.
TRAINING
There are links with promotion, and hence to assessment, but these are limited in
scope and should not be seen as central to the scheme. There can be no
presumption that a series of favourable appraisals will ensure promotion. Links
with discipline, except to the extent of allowing appraisees to adduce appraisal
material to contest disciplinary proceedings, are excluded from the scheme.
The stages of the process are shown in the Scheme. These comments highlight
particularly important features of those stages.
APPOINTMENT OF APPRAISERS
The Head of Department will circulate a List of Appraisers to all appraisees. Any
appraisee will be able to indicate, in confidence to the Head of Department, any
individual they would not wish to be appraised by. The Head of Department will
try to respect these views when deciding who is appraised by whom. Objections
to the appointment of appraiser are to be negotiated with the Head of
Department or the Conciliation Officer. Departments will need to take care to
have an adequate number of trained appraisers. It is recommended that normally
no appraiser should appraise more than ten members of staff.
Both the appraisee and the appraiser should spend some time preparing for the
interview. The Report on Activities should be given to the appraiser some days
before the interview and this should be read carefully and form the basis for the
completion of the Appraiser's Checklist.
Appraisers of research staff should discuss the context of the appraisees work
with the Project Supervisor before the interview. In this way it should be possible
for the Action Plan and Training Needs Statements to be realistic given the time
and financial constraints of the project supporting the appraisees salary.
Appraisees and appraisers must work together to set aside an adequate amount
of uninterrupted time for the interview. Secretaries will need to be clearly briefed
about the importance of preventing interruptions. It is recommended that
appraisers should not undertake more than two appraisal interviews in a single
day. The time allocated for the interview should be not less than one hour. In
some cases it may be sensible to adjourn the interview - to allow the collection of
further information or to confer with other staff - before arriving at the action plan.
APPRAISER'S STATEMENT
This should be written after discussion has taken place. It should be long enough
to comment usefully on each area of the appraisee's activity. Bland generalities
are entirely inappropriate.
APPRAISEE'S COMMENT
The appraisee should be free to comment in any way that seems appropriate.
ACTION PLAN
This is a joint action plan; the appraisee will usually be the key figure, but action
by the appraiser is likely to be needed too. If the appraiser is not the Head of
Department then this plan will be commented on by the Head of Department. In
some cases it may make sense to consult the Head of Department before
finalising the plan.
In tandem with the construction of the Action Plan training and development
needs may be identified. If there are likely to be costs associated with these
needs the Head of Department should be consulted before finalising the
statement.
FOLLOW UP
It is not sufficient to agree an action plan and then to wait until the next appraisal
to discuss its implementation. All those involved should seek - through informal
conversations or more structured discussions - to monitor the success of the
plan. One method of monitoring is the requirement for the appraisee and
appraiser to hold a follow up meeting within six months of the appraisal interview.
The meeting should review progress on the Action Plan and Training Needs
Statement. If either party is unhappy with the progress to date or can see
obstacles in the future the Head of Department should be asked to attend the
meeting.
Monitoring beyond this meeting is also important and arrangements for this
should be described in the notes of the meeting.
3 Departmental Responsibilities
Departments have considerable control over the operation of the Scheme. The
responsibility for this rests with Heads of Department, but they will want to ensure
the widest acceptance of their proposals by their departmental colleagues. It may
be appropriate to convene a special departmental meeting to consider these
issues, and there will need to be periodic revision of the Departmental
Guidelines.
SCHEDULING
Departments are free to make their own decisions about the scheduling of
appraisal interviews as long as they conform to the requirements stipulated by
the Staff Review Committee. For the purpose of monitoring the appraisal scheme
year shall be the calendar year.
Departments are required to embody their key objectives, and the main
indicators to be used in appraisal interviews, in broad-brush written statements of
policy referred to as Departmental Guidelines. These objectives and indicators
should be specific enough to be meaningful and must be acceptable within the
department. Great care should be devoted to their production. They will form the
basis for the conduct of appraisal interviews and for the formulation of action
plans.
APPRAISERS
It is expected that the Head of Department will consult senior staff on the
identification of appraisers.
FOLLOW UP ACTIONAction plans, if they are to be meaningful, may have
resource and management implications. Departments must address these
implications.
So, why ISD? Simply stated, this process provides a means for sound decision
making to determine the who, what, when, where, why, and how of training. The
concept of a system approach to training is based on obtaining an overall view of
the training process. It is characterized by an orderly process for gathering and
analyzing collective and individual performance requirements, and by the ability
to respond to identified training needs. The application of a systems approach to
training insures that training programs and the required support materials are
continually developed in an effective and efficient manner to match the variety of
needs in an ever rapidly changing environment.
There are four inputs necessary in every system to produce a product or service:
People
+
Material
+
Technology
+
Time
----------
OUTPUT
Every system must also have at least one output in order to survive. The output
can be a material product, such as a television or computer software; or a
service, such as a protection agency or an insurance policy. The output of a
particular system in an organization may be the final product, a service sold to its
customers, or a product or service to aid or enhance the organization in its goal
to produce a marketable product or service.
This process could have been an haphazard creation, which generally waste
time and money; a planned action; or a combination of both. A Systems
Approach to Training is a planned creation of a training program. It is a
development program that uses step-by-step processes to solve problems.
A large company may have several systems, which are generally broken down
into departments or groups, while a small company may only have one system.
All of these systems have three basic functions:
Notice that in these examples there is always a customer and a supplier. These
can either be internal or external. Parts are received from vendors and then
moved from various stages throughout the production line. The final process
would be the completed computers going from the warehouse or showroom to
outside customers (the sales process). Lets look at a training department, which
can also be viewed as a system:
o Registration: people who want to learn -> registration forms completed -> people
who are now registered for class.
o Development: training need -> develop courseware -> a training program.
o Computer Training Class: students who need to learn MS Word -> learning
program -> trained employees.
Being able to break an organization into systems and process will help you in
your training development. By identify a process within a system, you will be able
to concentrate on a small chunk of a very large piece. For example, when you
are analyzing a job, you break it into duties, tasks, and steps to make your task
more manageable.
Tr a i n i n g D e f i n e d
Before trying to understand system type training, we must first understand what
training is. We need to clarify the definition of training and then do the same for
human resource development.
Notice that the last part of the definition states that training is provided for the
present job. This includes training new personnel to perform their job, introducing
a new technology, or bringing an employee up to standards.
Earlier it was stated that there are four inputs to a system: people, material,
technology, and time. Training is mainly concerned with the meeting of two of
these inputs -- people and technology. That is, having people learn to master a
given technology.
If you don't know where you are going, any road will take
y o u t h e r e . - Lewis Carroll in Alice's Adventure in Wonderland (1865).
Human Resource Development
Defined
The second part of the definition, conducted in a definite time period, means that
the amount of time the learner will be away from work must be determined and
specified at the onset of the training program.
The last part of the statement, to increase the possibility of improving job
performance and growth, is basically the definition of training. By possibility, it
means that although a organization can provide tools to help the learner
succeed, such as education and training specialists, counselors, coaches, and
state-of-the-art training materials, the ultimate responsibility for success belongs
to the learner.
Tr a i n i n g , D e v e l o p m e n t , a n d
Education
HRD programs are divided into three main categories: Training, Development,
and Education. Although some organizations lump all learning under "Training" or
"Training and Development," dividing it into three distinct categories makes the
desired goals and objects more meaningful and precise.
Also, do not confuse development with change. Change refers to alterations that
occur over time in the learners' internal cogitative or affective characteristics
(Learner, 1986). This change may be quantitative or qualitative and it implies no
directionality, encompassing both regression and progression. Development is
always progressive.
T h e Tr a i n i n g S y s t e m
When some people see or hear the word system, they think of mega-
methodologies that require several bookcases and intense training to use. A
System Approach to Training is not that difficult or complicated. The Instructional
System Development (ISD) Model was designed to solve training problems
(Pamphlet 350-30, 1975). Figure 2, shown below, is a flowchart of the ISD model.
It was first established by the Department of Defense, but can now be found in
almost any type of organization. It grew out of the "systems analysis" concepts
that became popular after World War II. It is probably the most extensively used
instructional design model in use today.
o Analyze the system in order to completely understand it, and then describe the
goals you wish to achieve in order to correct any shortcomings or faults within the
system.
o Design a method or model to achieve your goals.
o Develop the model into a product (in training, this product is called courseware).
o Implement the courseware.
o Evaluate the courseware and audit-trail throughout the four phases and in the
field to ensure it is heading in the right direction and achieving the desired results.
The flowchart model used in Figure 2 (shown above), shows the five phases with
their basic steps listed below them. Although the above model shows the
processes, it does not really show the dynamics of the ISD model. For that
purpose, Figure 3 is used.
This figure highlights the importance of evaluation and feedback throughout the
entire training program. It also stresses the importance of gathering and
distributing information in each of the five phases and shows the training process
is NOT a static (waterfall) model, but a iterative flow of activities (dynamic or
spiral).
The five phases are ongoing activities that continue throughout the life of a
training program. After building a training program, the other phases do not end
once the training program is implemented. The five phases are continually
repeated on a regular basis to see if further improvements can be made.
1. Analyze
o Analyze system (department, job, etc.) to gain a complete understanding of it.
o Compile a task inventory of all tasks associated with each job (if needed).
o Select tasks that need to be trained (needs analysis).
o Build performance measures for the tasks to be trained.
o Choose instructional setting for the tasks to be trained, e.g. classroom, on-the-job,
self study, etc.
o Estimate what is going to cost to train the tasks.
2. Design
o Develop the learning objectives for each task, to include both terminal and enabling
objectives.
o Identify and list the learning steps required to perform the task.
o Develop the performance tests to show mastery of the tasks to be trained, e.g.
written, hands on, etc.
o List the entry behaviors that the learner must demonstrate prior to training.
o Sequence and structure the learning objectives, e.g. easy tasks first.
3. Develop
o List activities that will help the students learn the task.
o Select the delivery method such as tapes, handouts, etc.
o Review existing material so that you do not reinvent the wheel.
o Develop the instructional courseware.
o Synthesize the courseware into a viable training program.
o Validate the instruction to ensure it accomplishes all goals and objectives.
4. Implement
o Create a management plan for conducting the training.
o Conduct the training.
5. Evaluate
o Review and evaluate each phase (analyze, design, develop, implement) to ensure it
is accomplishing what it is supposed to.
o Perform external evaluations, e.g. observe that the tasks that were trained can
actually be performed by the learner on the job.
o Revise training system to make it better.
One important point must be made. The ISD model is a system to aid in the
design and development of a training program. It is a valuable toolbox that
provides a proven method of building a viable training program. But, the people
in the organization must control the training system, the system should not
control the people. Immediate problems often arise that require rapid solutions.
Don't get hung up in the system model by refusing to bypass a step, switch
steps, modify a step, or include steps of your own. Managers and supervisors
often need quick and ingenious solutions, not another bureaucracy. In other
words, the training department's motto should be: "We provide training solutions!"
Not, "We follow the ISD model."
The steps in each phase should not be thought of as concrete in nature. That is,
one step does not have to be completed before the next one is started. For
example, some training designers will have to complete part of the work in the
design phase before they can complete the estimate step in the analysis phase.
In the development phase, the first three steps, list learner activity, select delivery
system, and review existing material, might be combined into one step by many
developers. Every training project will develop its own rhythm. The developers
must find the natural flow of the steps required to produce a successful training
program. Although the SAT process is a formal one, in that the five phases
should be performed as shown in the flowchart, it requires both art and science in
its implementation.
At work, the potter sits before a lump of clay on the wheel. Her mind is on
the clay, but she is also aware of sitting between her past experiences and
her future prospects. She knows exactly what has and has not worked for
her in the past. She has an intimate knowledge of her work, her
capabilities, and her markets. As a craftsman, she senses rather than
analyzes these things; her knowledge is 'tacit.' All these things are working
in her mind as her hands are working the clay. The product that emerges on
the wheelis likely to be in the tradition of her past work, but she may break
away and embark on a new direction. Even so, the past is no less present,
projecting itself into the future. - Henry Mintzberg, "Crafting Strategy",
H a r v a r d B u s i n e s s R e v i e w , July-August 1987, pp. 66-75.
To make a training program usable, the following activities must take place in its
development:
o An early focus on the clients must be maintained. This is done by direct contact
with the clients through interviews, observations, surveys, and participatory design
and development methods. You must ensure that the clients are made owners of
the training program throughout the entire SAT process. If they feel the program is
being shoved down their throats or their turf is being invaded, the program will fail.
o The five phases - analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation
should be under one management team to ensure that a symmetrical program is
constructed.
o The design must be an empirical one. This requires observation, measurement of
behavior, careful evaluation of feedback, and a strong motivation to make design
changes when needed.
o The process of implementation, testing, feedback, evaluation, and change must be
repeated throughout the training system's life to improve upon it. Do NOT fall into
the old adage, "If it ain't broke don't fix it." Make it better before your competitors
do!
o Records must be maintained. The audit trail should contain the data gathered in
the analysis, the reasons for developing a piece of courseware, and documents
that explain why certain decisions were made. This information could prove
invaluable in the future when changes are needed or when a similar program must
be built.
On the other hand, the ISD model has been criticized because it is frequently
presented in flowchart form, as shown in figure 2, leaving the impression that it is
mechanistic and linear in its approach. I have tried to point out that it is not a
mechanical, algorithmic, step-by-step procedure, but rather a exploratory
problem solving technique that uses evaluation and feedback to improve
performance (heuristic) by showing Figure 3 and describing the dynamics of it.
It is this heuristic design that has been criticized by others because it tells training
designers what to do, but not how to it. This argument is not valid because there
is a considerable body of educational, learning, and training literature that tells
how to implement the various steps in the ISD model. I have touched upon these
methods throughout this guide and have included several examples in the
appendixes. To include all the body of research is beyond the scope of this
training manual.
A frequent criticism is that it is too time-consuming to be practical in the real
world. Yet, not knowing the basic procedures for building a learning program
leads many novices down the wrong path which wastes more resources. Once
designers are comfortable then many of the steps can be skimmed over.
Some say that systematic models take a "top-down" behaviorist and subject-
matter-expert approach to learning instead of championing a constructivist
approach. But, training has traditionally been task driven by discovering how
experts performs their jobs and then mirroring this performance in the learning
environment. Also, nothing says a constructivist method cannot be used for
learning the task.
Prototyping and the ISD model are both directly linked. But many
developers have the wrong picture of ISD. The traditional ISD
model, which advocates evaluation throughout its entire life cycle,
has often been thought of as a linear process (step-by-step, static,
or waterfall), when in reality, it is more iterative (dynamic or spiral)
due to the constant updating.
Evolutionary Model
An evolutionary approach includes both deterministic and incremental systems,
in contrast to the systems approach, which is entirely deterministic. This means
that in an evolutionary approach, tentative or short term goals may be specified.
This approach is particularly appropriate for situations where there is limited past
experience from which to draw guidance. A major benefit is that it enables a
designer to test new ideas without making a long term commitment. A major
disadvantage is that it lacks a defined set of steps. Also, it is difficult to specify in
advance the amount of time and money that will be needed to complete
significant events and it is logically impossible to specify the outcome of an
evolutionary process.
In the 1960's, the PLATO system for Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) was
developed. A systems approach was implemented at the time. In 1972, the
National Science Foundation funded the University of Illinois to implement a new
version of the PLATO system and to develop courseware for schools and
colleges. An evolutionary approach was used to design the courseware. The
evolutionary approach was apparent in all facets of the new PLATO system and
its accompanying courseware. Although many outstanding lessons were made
using this approach, when time for production was limited due to constraining
resources, such as time or money, quality lessons could not be produced unless
the authors took a systematic approach (Steinberg et. al., 1977).
Rapid Prototyping Design (RPD) uses a more formative model that is based on
usability testing of prototypes. Results of usability tests on the prototypes is used
to modify and improve the product. This model shares many attributes in
common with the ISD model, and stresses the importance of iterative analysis
and evaluation. For a model see RPD
So, when are you using RPD and when are you using ISD? If you know the
subject, how learners best learn that subject, or have build similar training
programs, then you will perform less prototyping, thus your development will fall
more into the what is pictured as the traditional (dynamic) ISD method. When the
subject is new, controversial, etc., then more prototypes are going to be built,
hence you are more into RPD. If you know exactly what you are doing and
exactly what needs to be built, then you are using the ISD (static or waterfall)
method (however, this rarely happens in the real training world).
The Analysis Phase
The analysis phase is the building block of a training program. The basis for who
must be trained, what must be trained, when training will occur, and where the
training will take place are accomplished in this phase. The product of this phase
is the foundation for all subsequent development activities.
Business Outcome
The Business Outcome or Business Linkage is used to spell out how a learning
initiative supports the organization's initiatives, strategies, or goals (Garnevale,
Gainer, & Villet, 1990).
Shown below is a chart that shows the average percent of time for creating a
learning program (USMC Multimedia Guideline for Percentage of Development).
As shown, most training activities spend little if none in showing their clients how
their efforts add value to their clients.
To ensure you capture the business outcome or linkage, begin with the end in
mind -- any learning or performance initiative should be a means to an end. Thus
learning initiatives should show how they will increase revenue or reduce costs.
For example, training salespeople in order to reduce the percentage that fail to
make sales will both increase revenue through more sales and reduce turnover
costs.
Mapping the pathway of a good training and development program would look
something like this (Wick, Pollock, Jefferson, Flanagan, 2006):
Successful training and development ---> More effective and efficient
actions or behaviors ---> Improved business terms.
Since the flow of causality of the above pathway is from left to right, training must
be planned in the opposite direction -- from right to left:
1. Analysis Phase: Determine the business outcome -- How does it link to the
business unit(s)?
2. Design Phase: Determine required changes in the learner's performance.
3. Development Phase: Create the experiences that will change the learner's
performance.
Define:
The Business Outcome or Business Linkage should be one of the first things to
determine during the analysis phase. However, to fully understand it you might
have to perform many of the other analysis steps listed below. In any case it must
be spelled out by the end of the analysis phase.
Needs Assessment
Training Needs Assessments (TNA) share several similarities with the labyrinth.
For just as a labyrinth has a path to follow, a TNA has a "gap" that must be
"bridged" (followed). This "gap" is what is between what is currently in place and
what is needed, now and in the future. While some labyrinths have one path that
must strictly be followed, others have a multitude of ways to reach the end or
exit. TNAs are like this second group, for there is normally more that one way to
bridge the gap. While following the path of a labyrinth brings one inner-peace,
building the bridge across a performance gap allows designers to have inner-
peace by knowing that they can visualize an appropriate learning and
performance structure.
There are two main methods to discover learning needs. The first method takes
the proactive approach. This is when a training analyst goes into the system or
process and searches for problems or potential problems. The goal is to make
the system more efficient and to prevent future problems from occurring. When a
new employee is needed, the required Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes (KSA) of
the candidate are known, and the KSA the candidate must be trained on are also
known.
To decide if training is the answer, one basic question needs to be asked, "Does
the employee know how to meet the required performance standards for an
accountable task?" If the answer is "No," then training is needed. If the answer is
"Yes" then a different action is needed. Some of these other actions might be
counseling, job redesign, process improvement, or organizational development.
Often, the employee does not perform to standards due to time factors, working
conditions, or a misunderstanding of the required standards. Management must
recognize and consider other factors which impact performance that may not be
corrected with training. Factors such as quality of procedures, human factors,
management style, and the work environment also affect performance. For some
more detailed help in solving performance problems see Big Dog's Performance
Coaching Page.
The performance problem chart shown below can be used to help solve training
problems (Laird, 1985, p63).
Click chart to enlarge
When looking for training needs, or when problems arise, there are several
instruments that may be used to locate the actual symptoms:
o Literature research: Analyze budget documents, quality control documents, goal
statements, evaluation reports, scheduling and staffing reports, or other
documents for existing problems.
o Interviews: Talk to supervisors, managers, Subject Matter Experts (SME), and
employees.
o Observations: Watch the job or task being performed.
o Surveys: Send out written questioners.
o Group discussions: Lead a group discussion composed of employees and their
supervisors.
Regardless of which method you choose and what questions you ask, the data
gathered must accurately reflect the specific tasks now being performed. The
information gathered will be used as the basis to select the tasks that need to be
trained.
Note that this step be not have to be performed if the training activity is already in
close contact with the client. Many training departments work with their clients or
departments on a day-to-day basis, so they are already quite familiar with their
clients. While other training departments are organized quite different and only
come in contact with clients on an as-needed basis. Your familiarity with the
clients will determine the scope of the System Overview that will need to be
performed.
The purpose of this activity is to aid in the decision making process by defining all
the elements, issues, facts, and features taking place in the client's system or
process. The information gathered in this step provides a basic background for
training developers, consultants, contractors, etc. Training programs have failed
in the past and will continue to fail because the training activity did not
understand the needs or wants of its clients. This step allows the training activity
to understand the technical, non-technical, political, social, and cultural aspects
of the client's system.
This phase allows the client to understand the training activity and its purpose.
Clients often view outside activities as meddlers who interrupt their daily flow of
work. These clients are often on the defensive and hide their true feelings and
facts. During this initial phase you must bring the clients in on the training
development activities and make them a part of the solution. It is universally
advised that the clients of a proposed system be extensively involved in the
construction of any new project (Bowsher, 1998, pp.64-88; Trolley, 2006; Wick,
Pollock, Jefferson, Flanagan, 2006). Besides introducing the clients and the
training activity to each other, other benefits include that the clients will accept
and benefit from a system that they themselves helped to define. Also, nobody
knows the system's requirements better than the people who own it.
The SME (Subject Matter Experts) who are sent to help with a new project are
often the ones who have developed Band-Aids that keep the system running.
This is not a put down, but rather a compliment. For without them the entire
system would have collapsed into absolute chaos. These people often become
frustrated with the pace of the analysis process, not understanding why
development of the project cannot begin immediately. They often jump ahead to
design and development far too soon. Ensure you capture such suggestions in
the form of design notes attached to the analysis documents for later
consideration. This allows team members to feel their inputs are considered
important and will not be forgotten.
You should also understand the scope of the system or process. The scope of a
system is the system's boundaries. For example, you are analyzing a production
department. You notice that it takes many supplies to keep it operating, such as
raw material to make the product, cleaning supplies, maintenance supplies, etc.
Don't get led off into studying the inventory control department. They are
probably two entirely different systems or processes. Stay within one process at
a time until you thoroughly understand it. A process is a planned series of actions
that advances a material or procedure from one stage of completion to the next.
The beginning of a process starts with a trigger that causes a specific action to
be taken by a person, another process, or work group. The ending occurs when
the results get passed on to another person, process, or work group.
Knowing the basics of a system enables you to better understand the tasks that
lay ahead. Although you are interested in the system as a whole, so that you may
understand its purpose and goals, the main emphasis of this initial research
should be on the people within the system. You need to learn as much about the
proposed learners (target population) as possible. The target population data is
essential and most useful when making decisions about the proposed learning
program. You must understand the people issues! This is the biggest variable in
a training program...and one of the hardest parts of a training program to account
for. Statisticians can tell you every fact you want to know about the "average"
person...but I dare you to find a real live a v e r a g e person. Listed below are
some of the aspects you should be looking for:
Invite the client manager and supervisors to lunch or meet on a regular basis.
Guide them into them discussing their problems and frustrations. Managers do
have time for short encounters, and most of them actually like the opportunity to
discuss their issues. However, they do not have the time or resources to tackle a
training needs analysis project. That is the designer's job.
During the meeting, do not mention training or methods for solving performance
problems. Your job is to guide, listen, and interpret. Once the lunch or meeting is
over, reflect on what was said and use that information in your analysis. When it
is time to brief them on your initial analysis project, show how the training
department can help with some of their problems.
Depending upon the requirements of the project, Compile Task Inventory, Job
List, Job Description, and Task Inventory may not have to be performed. These
are normally only performed once in an organization and then updated on an as
needed basis. Performing them every time a client needs training would be a
waste of time and money. But, when you are tackling performance problems, the
pertinent parts should be reviewed so that you know what the job and task
requirements are, and then updated so that anyone who follow you will have
valid material to work with.
C o m p i l e Ta s k I n v e n t o r y
If you are doing a full scale analysis, then you might be asked to compile a Job
list, Job Descriptions, and Task Inventory for each job. These three assignments
are not normally performed every time you research a performance problem. But
they are essential to anyone involved in HRD, management, or performance as
they set the standards for how a job is to be performed.
If the job and task inventories have already been compiled, then you should
review and update them before moving on to the task analysis or needs analysis.
Job List
A job list is a compilation of all job titles associated with the system. Jobs are
collection of tasks and responsibilities. A job is generally associated with the
worker's title. Secretary, welder, and bookkeeper are jobs. A job consists of
responsibilities, duties, and tasks that are defined and can be accomplished,
measured, and rated. It is used as an employment tool for classifying work and
for selecting employees.
Job Description
When writing the Job Description, try to create a picture of the job that shows
what will be expected of anyone fulfilling the position. Also, prepare a job
description for each position. That is, you might have two sales positions, but
some tasks may be different or are included in one position but not the other.
Ta s k I n v e n t o r y
The task inventory consists of all the tasks that a jobholder requires to perform
the job to standards. Each and every task performed by the job incumbent must
be listed on the task inventory. It provides vital information about the skills,
knowledge, and abilities required to perform a job. This information is valuable for
developing employee selection procedures and training programs. For hiring, it
informs the selection committee and applicant of what the job entails. For training
purposes, it tells the developer what the job requires. It is also valuable for
setting standards in performance appraisals and evaluating jobs to determine the
correct pay level. Again, this document may already have been created. You
should ensure that it truly represents the tasks being performed by the job holder,
and that all the tasks are listed.
When writing the task, start each task with a verb, indicate how it is performed,
and state the objective. For example: "Loads crates using a forklift." One way of
getting a comprehensive list is to have the employees prepare their own list,
starting with the most important tasks. Then, compare these lists with yours.
Finally, discuss any differences with the employees, and make changes where
appropriate. This helps to ensure that you have accounted for all tasks and that
they are accurate. It also gets them involved in the analysis activity.
S e l e c t Ta s k s
At this point you should fairly well understand the system or process you are
researching. You should know the purpose of the system, the people within the
system, and the main goals they are trying to achieve. You should also know the
jobs and the associated tasks the system requires.
You and the clients are now ready to select the tasks to be trained. The
information gathered in the systems overview, i.e., surveys, interviews, etc., will
aid in your decision making process. Two processes are used in the identification
of areas to be trained - Task Analysis and Needs Analysis.
Ta s k A n a l y s i s
When deciding which tasks to train, two guiding factors must be used -- effective
and efficient. Seek the best program within acceptable costs while meeting the
learning intents. Often it helps to select tasks for training by dividing them into
three groups:
1. Those that are to be included in a formal learning program.
2. Those that are to be included in On-the-Job-Training (OJT).
3. Those for which no formal or OJT is needed (i.e., job performance aids or self
study packets).
Construct performance measures for each task to be trained and the critical
steps for achieving the performance measures. If your organization has the
resources, then all tasks, including the ones that were not selected for training,
should also be included. This information provides documentation for the correct
performance of tasks.
Performance measures are the standards for how well a task must be performed.
There are four basic analysis techniques used to ensure that all performance
measures associated with a task are recorded (Wiggs, 1984):
o Observation Task Analysis: Observe the task under actual working conditions and
record each step for performing the task and the standards of performance.
o Simulated Task Analysis: Observe skilled individuals or groups performing the task
under simulated working conditions. The working conditions should match the job
environment as closely as possible. Record each step and standards of
performance with inputs from the skilled performers.
o Content Analysis: Analyze the operating or technical manual to determine the
steps and standards of performance.
o Interview Analysis: Consult with a SME to determine the required steps and
standards of performance. This is normally used to validate the data gathered by
other techniques. This method should not be used alone. Experts often leave out
vital steps as they have performed the task so often that some of the steps
become so internalized that they fail to acknowledge doing so!
This step selects the appropriate delivery system or media. What has to be
decided is how and where the training will take place. The instructional setting is
the major medium of a training program, for example, a Job Performance Aid
(JPA) for operating a piece of equipment, classroom training, or elearning.
The instructional setting has minor media within it. Minor media are the learning
strategies that instruct the learning points or steps. For example a JPA
instructional setting might have two - a decal for starting the equipment and a
manual for performing the various operations. The classroom setting could have
fishbowls for teaching observation, in-baskets for teaching time management,
and lectures for introducing new information. CBT could use video, self-tests, and
simulations. The learning strategies (minor media) will be discussed in detail in
the next chapter - Design.
If you have successfully trained similar tasks in the past, then you probably have
a pretty good idea of the required delivery system. If not, then there are several
options to consider when selecting the delivery system:
o Feedback: Simple, yet effective, and often overlooked with today's high
technology! Sometimes your job is not to train the workers who cannot perform the
task, but to train their supervisors or managers in effective coaching and
supervision methods.
o Lockstep: This is normally viewed as the traditional (classroom) type of training. It
is best used when you have lectures or team training. Its main disadvantage is
that no one learns at the same pace.
o Self-Paced: This allows the learners to proceed at their own pace but it requires
more development time and coordination.
o Job: This includes Job Performance Aids (JPA) such as decals and manuals and
On-the-Job training (OJT). JPA are normally the cheapest method to implement
while OJT can provide high quality, cost effective training. The disadvantages are
the interruptions that take place in the workplace with OJT, while JPA provide no
supervision or coaching.
o Blended: Best-Of-Class Model (hybrid or modular) are a combination of various
media that provides the learners with the best type of instruction - this should be
the goal of any training program.
One of the fallacies that many trainers fall into is to build every training program
the same way. At one company I worked with, their favorite training model was to
create a learning guide and then have the learners take turns reading the book in
a lockstep training session. While a friend of mine reported that her organization
would not consider doing a training program unless they could turn it into a full
scale multimedia computer training production. Trainers often fall into these
training traps, they have a number of success with a certain medium, so they do
not consider other options in the future.
Although most learning objectives and concepts can be taught using almost any
media, most have an ideal medium in a given learning situation. To help with the
major media selection process, it often helps to run it through a flowchart:
When selecting training media, you have to consider your learner needs,
resources, experience, and training goals. Also, do not take a complete training
program through the chart, but rather each module of your training program. The
goal of a good training effort is to build a viable and efficient program. That is, it
should provide the best learning environment at the lowest possible cost.
Selecting the best medium for each module and incorporating it into your course
allows you to build a Best-Of-Class program.
The guidelines for selecting the instructional setting are simple - you want the
learners to master the new or existing technology in a professional, effective, and
efficient manner.
This phase insures the systematic development of the training program. This
process is driven by the products of the analysis phase and ends in a model or
blueprint of the training program for future development.
o Entry behaviors
o Learning objectives
o Learning steps (performance steps)
o Performance test
o Structure and sequence program outline
The entry behaviors describe what a learner must know before entering into the
training program. Just as a college requires certain standards to be met in order
to enroll, a training program should require a base level of knowledge, skills, and
attitudes (KSA).
The learning objectives tell what tasks the learners will be able to perform after
the training, while the learning steps tell how to perform the tasks, while the
performance test tells how well the tasks must be met.
Finally, the learning objectives are sequenced in an orderly fashion that provides
the best opportunity for learning, such as arranging the learning objective from
easy to hard or in the order they are performed on the job.
Mr. Spock from Star Trek had a great training
technique called "the Vulcan mind meld." Spock
placed his fingertips on another person's head,
which in turn, transferred knowledge, vivid images,
and memories from their brain to his, or vice
versa.
Develop Objectives
In the analysis phase, you discovered what needs to be trained. In this phase,
writing clear learning objectives answers the question, "What will the learners be
able to do when they finish the training program?" Of all the activities within the
ISD process, this is normally one of the more critical
steps. For without well constructed learning objectives,
instructors don't know what is to be taught, learners
don't know what they are supposed to learn, and
managers don't know what they are investing their
training dollars in. Learning objectives form the basis for
what is to be learned, how well it is to be performed,
and under what conditions it is to be performed.
Specific terminal learning objectives (Mager, 1975) must be developed for each
of the tasks selected in the learning program. A terminal learning objective is at
the highest level of learning (KSA) appropriate to the human performance
requirements a student will accomplish.
Notice that learning objectives look a lot like tasks. A task analysis itemizes each
discrete skill found in a job, but it provides only end goal statements. While
learning objectives spell out the prerequisite skills and makes them the course
objectives.
U si ng t he C o r r e ct Ve r b
The type of verb that is used in the task statement, determines the level or of
learning (or degree of difficulty) that must achieved. For example, being able to
criticize a process shows a much more complex behavior than simply being able
to identify a process. Bloom's Taxonomy (also know as "Learning Domains") can
assist you in choosing the correct verb for the task you want to train.
For more information and examples, see
Objectives. For a handy training tool, see a
Quick Guide to Learning Objectives.
Once the final outcome is known - the learning objective, then the steps needed
to perform the objective are identified and compiled. These are also constructed
from the Appendix C - Task Performance Measures - Training Form 1-6. The
learning steps are compiled into a list that specifies each activity that must be
performed in order to successfully complete the task.
For example, the learning steps for the objective "Given a cash register and at
least ten products, calculate the exact total for the purchase transaction," might
read like this:
1. Enter the sales price and the department key for each product.
2. Repeat step one until all products have been entered.
3. After all items have been entered, press the subtotal key.
4. Press the Tax key.
5. Press the Total key.
D e v e l o p Te s t s
Construct tests to evaluate the learner's mastery of the learning objective. You
might wonder why the tests are developed so soon in the design phase, instead
of in the development phase after all of the training material has been built. In the
past, tests were often the last items developed in an instructional program. This
is fine, except that many of the tests were based on testing the instructional
material, nice to include information, items not directed related to the learning
objectives, etc. The major purpose of the test is to promote the development of
the learner. It ascertains whether the desired behavior changes have occurred
following the training activities. It performs this by evaluating the learner's ability
to accomplish the learning objective. It also is a great way to provide feedback
to both the learner and the instructor.
Using this development order, the focal point of the ISD model is the objective.
The objective specifies what behavior must be displayed to perform the task to
standards. Training is then developed to teach the steps that will best lead to the
desired behavior. This is what training is all about!
Te s t i n g Te r m s
Tests are often referred to as "evaluations" or "measurements". In order to avoid
confusion we will define the terms used in evaluating learners:
P l a n n i n g t h e Te s t
Before plunging directly into test item writing, a plan should be constructed.
Without an advance plan, some test items will be over represented while others
may stay untouched. Often, it is easier to build test items on some topics than on
others. These easier topics tend to get over-represented. It is also easier to build
test items that require the recall of simple facts, rather than items calling for
critical evaluation, integration of different facts, or application of principles to new
situations. A good test or evaluation plan has a descriptive scheme that states
what the learners may or may not do while taking the test. It includes behavioral
objectives, content topics, the distribution of test items, and what the learner's
test performance really means.
Ty p e s o f Te s t s
There are several varieties of tests. The most commonly used in training
programs are Criterion Referenced Written Tests, Performance Tests, and
Attitude Surveys. Although there are exceptions, normally one of the three types
of test are given to test one of the three learning domains (Krathwohl, et. al.,
1964) (see the first section in chapter IV, Development Phase, for more
information on the learning domains). Although most tasks requires the use of
more than one learning domain, there is generally one that stands out. The
dominant domain should be the focal point of one of the following evaluations:
o Criterion Referenced Test: Evaluates the cognitive domain which includes the
recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve
in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. The testing of these abilities
and skills are often measured with a written test or a performance test. Note: A
criterion referenced evaluation focuses on how well a learner is performing in
terms of a known standard or criterion. This differs from a norm referenced
evaluation which focuses on how well a learner performs in comparison with other
learners or peers.
o Performance Test: Evaluates the psychomotor domain which involves physical
movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Measured in terms of
speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. Can also be
used to evaluate the cognitive domain. A performance test is also a criterion
referenced test if it measures against a set standard or criterion. A performance
test that evaluates to see who can perform a task the quickest would be a norm
referenced performance test.
o Attitude Survey: Evaluates the affective domain which addresses the manner in
which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation,
enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. Attitudes are not observable; therefore a
representative behavior must be measured. For example, we cannot tell if a
worker is well motivated by looking at her or testing her. But we can observe some
representative behaviors, such as being on time, working well with others,
performing tasks in an excellent manner, etc.
W r i t t e n Te s t s
Multiple Choice
Poor example:
Better example:
1. The written objectives statement should
reflect the identified needs of the
_____a. learner and developer
_____b. learner and organization
_____c. developer and organization
_____d. learner and instructor
In the above example, all the distracters were simply chosen at random. A better
example with believable distracters and numbers in sequence would be:
That is, they are adding a 1 to the total number of scores. We could change the
first distracter (a) as follows:
Although a new item analysis might show that the learners are not choosing the
new distracter, because the myth is adequately being dispelled by the trainer, it
could still be left in as a distracter to let the instructor know if the myth is properly
being dispelled. If a plausible distracter cannot be found, then go with a fewer
number of distracters. Although four choices are considered the standard for
multiple-choice questions as they only allow a 25% chance of the learner
guessing the correct answer, go with three if another believable distracter cannot
be constructed. A distracter should never be used just to provide four choices as
it wastes the learner's time reading through the possible choices.
Also, notice that the layout of the above example question makes an excellent
score sheet for the instructor as it gives all the required information for a full
review of the evaluation.
True and false questions provide an adequate method for testing learners when
two or more distracters cannot be constructed for a multiple-choice question or to
break up the monopoly of a long test. Multiple-choice questions are generally
preferable as a learner who does not know the answer has a 25 percent chance
of correctly guessing a question with four choices or approximately 33 percent for
a question with three choices. With a true-false question their odds get better
with a 50 percent chance of guessing the correct answer.
Better example:
Placing the blank at or near the end of a statement allows the learner to
concentrate on the intent of the statement. Also, the overuse of blanks tends to
create ambiguity. For example:
Poor example:
Better example:
P e r f o r m a n c e Te s t s
A performance test allows the learner to demonstrate a skill that has been
learned in a training program. Performance tests are also criterion referenced in
that they require the learner to demonstrate the required behavior stated in the
objective. For example, the learning objective "Calculate the exact price on a
sales using a cash register" could be tested by having the learners ring up the
total with a given number of sales items by actual using a cash register. The
evaluator should have a check sheet to go by that lists all the performance steps
that the learner must perform to pass the test. If the standard is met, then the
learner passes. If any of the steps are missed or performed incorrectly, then the
learner should be given additional practice and coaching and then retested.
o The learner must know what behaviors (actions) are required in order to pass the
test. This is accomplished by providing adequate practice and coaching sessions
throughout the learning sessions. Prior to the performance evaluation, the steps
required for a successful completion of the test must be understood by the learner.
o The necessary equipment and scenario must be ready and in good working
condition prior to the test. This is accomplished by prior planning and a
commitment by the leaders of the organization to provide the necessary
resources.
o The evaluator must know what behaviors are to be looked for and how they are
rated. The evaluator must know each step of the task to look for and the
parameters for the successful completion of each step
Attitude Surveys
Once you have tested their present KSAs, then the tasks to be taught should be
tested on a small sample of personnel who have mastered the tasks previously
to ensure the proposed test is correct. Finally, a sample of the proposed learners
are tested to see if they can pass any portions of the test without any instruction.
The last step in the design phase is to determine program sequence and
structure to ensure the learning objectives are met. A proper sequence provides
the learners with a pattern of relationship so that each activity will have a definite
purpose. The more meaningful the content, the easier it is to learn and,
consequently, the more effective the instruction.
o Job Performance Order: The learning sequence is the same as the job
sequence
o From Simple to Complex: Objectives may be sequenced in terms of increasing
complexity
o Critical Sequence: Objects are ordered in terms of their relative importance
o Known to Unknown: Familiar topics are considered before unfamiliar ones
o Dependent Relationship: Mastery of one objective requires prior mastery of
another
o Supportive relationship: Transfer of learning takes place from one objective to
another, usually because common elements are included in each objective. These
should be placed as close together as possible so that the maximum transfer of
learning can take place
o Cause to Effect: Objectives are sequenced from cause to effect
If there are a lot of objectives, then they should be organized into clusters which
are conductive to learning. The sequencing performed earlier is the basis for
breaking the objectives down into clusters based on the class relationship
between them.
If the training program is long, then reinforcement also has to be accounted for.
One of the behavioral characteristics of learners indicates that not only the rate of
which people learn must be accounted for, but also the rate of decay that takes
place after an objective is mastered must also be accounted for. To account for
this decay factor, reinforcement loops must be built into the instructional process.
The decay factor also has to be considered once the learner graduates from the
program. If a task is taught in the instructional program and then is not used for
some time after the learners return to their duties, then some decay is likely to
take place. The remedy for this is to coordinate with the learner's supervisor to
ensure the learners perform their newly acquired skills as soon as possible upon
returning to the job.
In any instructional program, there is usually a wide variety of abilities among the
learners. Some will have extensive experience, while others are somewhat
limited. The educational background may extend from high school dropout to
college graduate. Many other variables will affect the progression and
productivity of the learners. Provisions must be made to compensate for these
differences. In a self-paced course, extra modules can help the learners that are
having difficulties. In a lock-step course, additional instruction, reading
assignments, or study halls may be required to keep the slower learners on pace
with the other learners.
The product of the sequencing step should be a learning map which shows the
proposed layout of the objectives. An example is shown below.
This phase elaborates and builds on the Learning Objectives that were produced
in the design phase. Development is simply diagramming or outlining the
necessary activities that will assist the learners in reaching the course goals. The
end result is the completed instructional courseware.
Development begins with specifying the learning activities that will best assist in
the learning process. The main instructional setting and media was chosen in the
analysis phase. In this phase, the learning strategies and supporting media that
will assist the learners in mastering the objectives will be chosen. To assist you,
use the Media and Strategy Dictionary to learn about the many forms of learner
activities.
To select the proper activities, it helps to know what learning is and what
activities enhance a particular form of learning.
Defining Learning
Learning has been defined as a relatively permanent change in behavioral
potentiality that occurs as a result of reinforced practice (Kimble, 1961). The
following elaborates on this basic definition:
Learning has also be defined as "the process by which people acquire new skills
or knowledge for the purpose of enhancing performance" (Rosenberg, 2001).
Thus, you have Freeman Dyson "social" learning from Richard Feynman and
Julian Schwinger. However, Feynman was such a genius that he learned from
when ever he came across information, such as books and lectures. Einstein is
another example -- people learned a lot from being around him, yet he learned
from what ever was available.
In addition, there is more than one type of learning. A committee of colleges and
universities studied learning behaviors and broke learning into three main
domains or Taxonomies(Krathwohl, at. el., 1964). Knowing the type of
knowledge, skill, or attitude that is discussed in the taxonomy will assist you in
determining the instructional strategy. Also, the media selection flowchart is
helpful for choosing instructional strategies based upon needs.
Learning Styles
Just as every person is unique, so is every learner. But how much this
uniqueness matters has been a great debate among educators, trainers, and
psychologists. A learning style is a studentís consistent way of responding to and
using stimuli in the context of learning. Some say that each student learns best
using a learning strategy or method that best matches his or her need. While
others say that what matters the most is the learning process, not the style. The
research tends to favor the latter group. Achieving a solid learning environment
that meets the student's need, rather than their styles seems to be the most
important key for effective learning.
The instructional and support material that provides the most effective learning
stimulus are specified in this step. Care should be taken not to select materials
just because they are available. For example, there are probably several
thousand instructional tapes floating around that were developed, not because it
was the best media or method for the instruction to be presented, but because a
camera and VCR were readily available. The purpose in this step is not to show
your mastery of the latest whiz-bang technology, but rather to select learning
methods and the media that support them in order to best magnify the learning
process. When determining the media best suited to train the objective consider:
o Job Performance Aid: Do people just need simple reminders or a list of steps for
performing a task? How big should it be? What color? Where exactly must it be
placed? Must a briefing or instructions be given to use it correctly?
o Technical manual: Is the manual already available? If so, must additional
material be developed to enhance the manual for instructional purposes?
o Flowcharts and schematics: Should these be decals? Where must they be
placed so that people will use them?
o Self Teaching Package: Are books and manuals available? Are they geared to
the students' educational level? Are the workers motivated to learn on their own?
o Programmed text:At what level must it be? Is additional instruction needed?
o Multimedia computer programs: This type of instruction takes a great deal of
time and resources to develop. What must be done to complete it in time and
within budget? After it is developed, for how long of a time period will it be valid?
o Computer Aided Instruction: Do we have the authoring tools available? Do we
have training specialist who can develop the instruction with the authoring tools or
must they be instructed in the new media?
o Personalized Instruction: Are coaches readily available to aid the learners. What
goals need to be established and how will the learners obtain them?
o On-The-Job Training: Are the supervisors ready to take on the task of providing
training and coaching? Must they be instructed in On-The-Job learning packages?
Do they have the time? Are trainers needed for this type of training? If so, what will
be their role?
o Resident Instruction: in-house: Do we have instructors who can perform this
type of training? Contract Training: Will it be given at our location or a separate
location? What sort of time frame is involved?
o Lockstep or self pace: Self pace is generally consider better in most cases
because it allows each learner to proceed at her or his own pace, but it is more
difficult to manage than lockstep and usually requires more instructors because of
the wide range of variables that take place within the learning environment.
Also, see
Media.
Develop Instruction
Synthesize
When developing the training material and media, ensure that it is synthesized
into an integrated program. It should flow as naturally as possible, with each
lesson block building the foundation for the next one. Provide variety that is
conductive to learning. Break practice periods up with instructional periods,
rather than having all the instruction in the beginning followed by nothing but
practice.
Time will have to be consider when synthesizing the complete learning program.
For example, if you have five, 3 hour blocks of instruction, how do you break
them down to run smoothly in two days? Which one gets chopped to two hours
one day and one hour the next day. Will it have an effect on learning? Must the
blocks run in order or can you switch them so the least difficult block gets broken
apart. Will it be better to break the most difficult one apart so the learners get a
respite from the toils of hard learning? Since most workdays are eight hours and
your program totals 15 hours, what should be done with the one additional hour
that will best benefit the organization?
In the U.S. Army Artillery there is a firing method known as the
bracketing process. Fire and adjust! Fire and adjust! This process is
continued until there is fire for effect, and then adjusted again until
the target is hit!
Va l i d a t e I n s t r u c t i o n
The last step is to validate the material by using representative samples of the
target population and then revising the program as needed. The heart of the
systems approach to training is revising and validating the instructional material
until the learners meet the planned learning objectives. Also, it should not be
thought of as a single shot affair. Success or failure is not measured at a single
point.
The initial validation will depend upon the complexity of the training material and
your resources. Listed below is a procedure that provides an effective validation
of a large training program. Adjust it as needed to fit the size and complexity of
your program, but keep in mind that the closer your validation follows this one,
the less problems you will encounter during your training.
Select the participants that will be in the trials. The participants should be
randomly selected, but they must represent all strata of the target population,
bright, average, and slow learners. They should be clearly told what their roles
are in the validation process are. Let them know that they are helping to develop
and improve the lessons and that they should feel free to tell you what they think
about it. The participants should be pretested to ensure that the students learn
from the instructional material and not from past experience.
Conduct individual trials. This trial is performed on one learner at a time. The
instruction is presented to the learner. The separate pieces of instructions, tests,
practice periods, etc., should be timed to ensure they match the estimated times.
Do not tutor unless the learner cannot understand the directions. Whenever you
help or observe the learner having difficulty with the material, document it.
Revise instruction. Using the documents from the individual trials, revise the
material as needed. Closely go over any evaluations that were administered. A
large number of wrong answers for an item indicates a trouble area. Conversely,
a large number of correct answers for an item could indicate the learners already
knew the material, the test items were too easy, or the lessons over taught the
material.
Repeat individual trials until the lesson does what it is supposed to do. There is
no magical number for individual trials. From three to five times seems to be the
usual number. Also, if you are trialing a large course, you might only need to trial
specific troublesome areas of the course, rather than the whole course itself.
Conduct group trial. After you are satisfied with the results of the individual
tryouts, move on to the group tryouts. These can be of any size. It may consist of
several small groups, one large group, or a combination of both. The procedure
is the same as the individual tryouts except for one difference. At some point in
the trials you must determine if the program needs to be accepted or if it needs
major revision. Usually a minimum of two successful tryouts are conducted to
ensure the program teaches. Minor problems should not hold up implementing
the program. As was stated earlier in this section, revisions do not stop upon the
first implementation of the program, but are performed throughout the life of the
program.
Implementation Phase - Chapter V
In the Field
To some, this may sound like the easy part, but it is actually the hardest part of
the system. Good trainers can make a poorly developed program work well and a
well developed program work great...bad trainers can make neither work.
Management Plan
Instructor Preparation
o Course is five days or less - 3 hours of preparation for each hour of training.
o Course is between five and ten days - 2.5 hours of preparation for each hour of
training
o Course is over 10 days - 2 hours of preparation for each hour of training
One of the items that comes out of this phase is the Training Management Plan
(TMP), sometimes called the Course Management Plan (CMP). No matter what it
is called, it should contain the following information:
The TMP informs the trainers of all factors related to a particular training
program. If a new trainer studied the TMP, she should be able to implement the
instruction with little or no difficulties.
C o n d u c t Tr a i n i n g
Now, does all the above sound like your job description? If not, it should. For this
is what a trainer is and does. To keep it simple, this guide will use the term
trainer.
T h e A r t a n d S c i e n c e o f Tr a i n i n g
T h e T h r e e L e a r n i n g Fa c t o r s
There are three factors that must happen for a successful learning experience to
take place:
1. Knowledge: The trainer must know the subject matter. She also provides the
leadership, models behavior, and adapts to learning preferences.
2. Environment: The trainer must have the tools to transfer the subject matter to the
learners, i.e. computers and software for computer classes, adequate classroom
space, courseware such as lesson plans and training aids, etc. The trainer must
fuse these training tools with the learning preferences of the learners.
3. Involvement Skills: The trainer must know the learners. Easy enough, you say, "I
have a student roster that lists their names, departments for which they work, and
I always ask them to give a short introduction about themselves at the beginning
of the class." But, do you really k n o w your learners? What are their real goals for
being in the classroom? What are their learning styles? What tools do they need to
help them succeed? What are some of the affective-tools that will help you to help
your learners succeed in the learning environment you have been charged with?
You must also coach the learners to become self-directed, intrinsically motivated,
goal oriented, and open to learning.
Involvement Skills
Flexibility
Adapting the training program to meet the learners' needs by analyzing and
responding to individual learner needs. For example, you have a outstanding
word processing class that includes creating multiple columns, but little about
inserting tables. If the Abacus Corporation inquired about the class, and informed
you that their workers needed instruction in inserting tables, could you change
your class to fit their needs? How about if it only involved one student? Not only
must you be prepared to change a course before it starts, but also on-the-fly. You
must consistently monitor and evaluate your learners' needs throughout the
course of instruction. Do not be afraid to change your instructional steps to meet
the needs of your learners.
Spontaneity
Empathy
This was coined in the 20th century from the German word "einfuhling" (to feel
with), which comes from the Greek word "empatheia" (empathes = emotional &
pathus = feelings). This is the ability to perceive another person's view of the
world as though that view were your own.
Compassion
Alleviate stress when it is not conducive to the training program. Some stress is
good...it helps to motivate us (see Arousal). Without some stress in life there is
no need to accomplish a task, reach for the stars, go where no person has gone
before... However, too much stress places an additional burden on most people.
Questioning
Trainers tend to ask questions in the "knowledge" category 80% to 90% of the
time. These questions are not bad, but using them all the time is! Try to utilize
higher order level of questions that require much more "brain power" (thought)
and more extensive and elaborate answers.
Getting feedback
This is the ability of the receiver to change and alter the message so the intention
of the communicator or sender is understood. This should be done by
paraphrasing the words or restating the sender's feelings or ideas in your own
words, rather than just repeating their words. Your words should be saying, "This
is what I understand your feelings to be. Am I correct?" It not only includes verbal
responses, but also nonverbal ones. Nodding your head or squeezing their hand
to show agreement, dipping your eyebrows shows you don't quite understand the
meaning of their last phrase, or sucking air in deeply and blowing it hard shows
that you are also exasperated with the situation.
Carl Rogers listed five main categories of feedback. They are listed in the order
in which they occur most frequently in daily conversations (notice that we make
judgments more often than we try to understand):
Counseling
Our brain is divided into two hemispheres - the left brain and the right brain. The
left side of a brain is the Dr. Spock of Star Trek (the logical side), while our right
side is our Henry David Thoreau (the creative side).
o Time orientation
o Language skills
o Mathematics
o Sequential processing
o Analysis
o Detail
o Emotion
o Visuo-Spatial orientation
o Art and pattern awareness
o Intuition
o Kinesthetic
o Synthesis of information
o Interpersonal
Learning should be orchestrated so that the left and right sides of the brain
cooperate. You must combine the technical step-by-step side of the learning
objective with interpersonal and experimental activities so that both sides of the
brain become involved in mastering the subject matter. Using both sides of the
brain to learn a new skill aids us in learning it faster and retaining it longer. Note
that the left and right brain theory is quite similar to the Three Representational
Modes (linguistic, nonlinguistic, and affective).
1. The learner starts the training as a beginner. She is very enthusiastic to learn a
new skill. She may be somewhat apprehensive because she is about to enter a
c h a n g e p r o c e s s . She needs clear instructions because the task is new, and
just a little bit of support to calm the stress of change.
2. The level of guidance from the trainer becomes somewhat less so that the learner
may experiment with the learning style that works best for her. She has now
reached failure a few times in the process. Although the trainer still provides a lot
of technical support, emotional support must increase to help keep her confidence
high. This normally becomes one of the toughest time for the trainer as he has to
provide technical support and emotional support. Technical support is needed so
that the failures do not become learned. Emotional support is required so that the
learner does not give up. The emotional feedback needs to be specific, such as:
"You did an excellent job with the..., now you need to..."; not: "You are doing just
fine. Keep trying."
3. At this point, the learner has become capable in performing her new skill. The
amount of guidance drops to just a few pointers so that the learner can experiment
with her new skill. But she is still not sure of herself! The amount of emotional
support stays high to help build up her confidence.
4. The learner now returns to her job. Her supervisor provides little direction and less
support so that she can begin to take ownership of her new tasks and
responsibilities. She is allowed to perform. She is also encouraged to take on new
responsibilities and new assignments...the learning cycle now repeats itself.
Other
There are two major groups of human needs: basic needs and meta
needs.
Basic needs are physiological, such as food, water, and sleep; and
psychological, such as affection, security, and self-esteem. These basic
needs are also called deficiency needs because if they are not met by
an individual, then that person will strive to make up the deficiency.
The higher needs are called meta needs or being needs (growth
needs). These include justice, goodness, beauty, order, unity, etc.
Basic needs normally take priority over growth needs. For example, a
person who lacks food or water will not normally attend to justice or
beauty needs.
These needs are listed below in hierarchical order. The basic needs on
the bottom of the list (1 to 4) must normally be met before the meta
or being needs above them can be met. The four meta needs (5 to 8)
can be pursued in any order, depending upon a person's wants or
circumstances, as long as the basic needs have all been met.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow posited that people want and are forever striving to meet
various goals. Because the lower level needs are more immediate and
urgent, then they come into play as the source and direction of a
person's goal if they are not satisfied,.
Tr a n s e g o i c
Maslow later theorized that this level does not stop, it goes on to self-
transcendence, which carries us to the spiritual level, e.g.. Gandhi,
Mother Theresa, Dalai Lamao, or even poets, such as Robert Frost.
Maslow's self-transcendence level recognizes the human need for
ethics, creativity, compassion and spirituality. Without this spiritual or
transegoic sense, we are simply animals or machines.
Herzberg's Hygiene
and Motivational
Fa c t o r s
o Working conditions
o Policies and administrative practices
o Salary and Benefits
o Supervision
o Status
o Job security
o Co-workers
o Personal life
Motivators or Satisfiers:
o Recognition
o Achievement
o Advancement
o Growth
o Responsibility
o Job challenge
Hygiene factors must be present in the job before motivators can be
used to stimulate that person. That is, you cannot use motivators until
all the hygiene factors are met. Herzberg's needs are specifically job
related and reflect some of the distinct things that people want from
their work as opposed to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs which reflect all
the needs in a persons life.
Theory X
o People have an inherent dislike for work and will avoid it whenever
possible.
o People must be coerced, controlled, directed, or threatened with
punishment in order to get them to achieve the organizational
objectives.
o People prefer to be directed, do not want responsibility, and have little
or no ambition.
o People seek security above all else.
Theory Y
Existence/Relatedness/Growth
(ERG)
Clayton Alderfer's Existence/Relatedness/Growth (ERG) Theory of
Needs (Alderfer, 1969) postulates that there are three groups of
needs:
Alderfer's ERG theory states that more than one need may be
influential at the same time. If the gratification of a higher-level need
is frustrated, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need will increase. He
identifies this phenomenon as the "frustration & shy aggression
dimension." Its relevance on the job is that even when the upper-level
needs are frustrated, the job still provides for the basic physiological
needs upon which one would then be focused. If, at that point,
something happens to threaten the job, the person's basic needs are
significantly threatened. If there are not factors present to relieve the
pressure, the person may become desperate and panicky.
While there has not been a whole lot of research on Alderfer's theory,
most contemporary theories do tend to support it.
Expectancy Theory
O r, H o w W e G o Fr o m t h e
U n k n o w n To t h e K n o w n
A learning style is a studentís consistent way of responding to and using stimuli in the
context of learning. There are various instruments used to determine a student's
learning style. The first style to be discussed is VAK (Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic),
which is derived from the accelerated learning world, and seems to be about the most
popular model nowadays. Its main strength is that it is quite simple, which appeals to
a lot of people. Its main weakness, is that the research does not really support it.
Kolb's learning inventory describes a learning process and a style, which makes it
quite interesting. It can be thought of as a simpler version of the MBTI which is
based upon determining the personality type. Kolb's version uses two dimensions,
while the MBTI uses two similar dimensions, plus two additional ones.
WARNING: These various learning styles or intelligences are points along a scale
that help us to discover the different forms of mental representation; they are not
good characterizations of what people are (or are not) like. We should not divide the
population into a set category (e.g. visual person, extrovert). What these various
instruments are doing is allocating the person along some point on a continuum
(similar to measuring height or weight). In other words, do not pigeon-hole people as
we are all capable of learning under any style or intelligence no matter what our
preference is.
VA K L e a r n i n g S t y l e s
The VAK learning Style uses the three main sensory receivers -
Vision, Auditory, and Kinesthetic (movement) to determine the
dominate learning style.
During the early 1900s, Carl Jung established a field identifying distinct
personality patterns. Many theorists have since broken these patterns into
categories attempting to make them easier to understand. Carl Jung was a
contemporary of Sigmund Freud and a leading exponent of Gestalt
personality theory. Jung developed a ground-breaking personality theory
that introduced two attitudes - extraversion and introversion (1933a).
Later he described human behavior as a combination of four psychic
functions - thinking/feeling and intuition/sensation (1933b). Thinking and
feeling are said to be rational functions because they both require acts of
judgments. Sensation and intuition involve immediate experiences. The
MBTI, Kolb's Learning Style Inventory, Managerial Grid, and a number
of other instruments all use a form of extraversion/introversion. His four
other functions are also closely tied with these instruments.
The most widely used personality survey instrument is the Myers Briggs
Type Indicator (MBTI), followed closely by the DiSC assessment (Carlson
Learning). The MBTI can be an aid in understanding the individual
differences. This is why it is more complicated than the other models
discussed here, since they are strictly learning models why the MBTI is a
personality model. However, our personality does play an important part
in determining our learning style. And it does tie in within the other
models so we will discuss its part in the the learning process.
Extroverts find energy in things and people. They prefer interaction with
others, and tend to be action-oriented. They also tend to think on their feet.
They talk more than listen. Extroverted learners learn by teaching others.
They do not normally understand the subject until they try to explain it to
themselves or others (working in groups). Problem Based Learning and
Collaborative Learning are good teaching techniques for this group.
Sensing people choose to rely on their five senses. They are detail-
oriented, they want facts, and they trust them. Sensing learners prefer
organized, linear, and structured lectures (systematic instruction or step-
by-step learning).
Intuitive people seek out patterns and relationships among the facts they
have gathered. They trust hunches ("sixth" sense) and their intuition and
look for the "big picture." They also value imagination and innovation.
Intuitive learners prefer various forms of discovery learning and must have
the big picture (metaphors and analogies), or an integrating framework in
order to understand a subject. They like concept maps or and often
compare and contrast tables.
This indicates how the learner makes decisions, either through logic or by
using fairness and human values.
This indicates how the learner views the world, either as a structured and
planned environment or as a spontaneous environment.
MBTI Model
The MBTI model would have two dimensions - height and width, similar
to Kolb's and other models, but it would also a third dimension - depth.
Extroversion/Introversion would be on the horizontal axis, while
Feeling/Thinking would be on the vertical axis. This is represented by the
model below.
MBTI Model
P u t t i n g t h e S t y l e s To g e t h e r
First, it should be noted that no single measurement of style ensures that a learner's needs will be
met. It is perhaps more important to build an adaptable learning environment that presents the
material in a variety of methods than try to determine each learners personal style. Likewise,
recognizing your own style will help to ensure you do not unintentionally force one learning
style upon the learners. The more styles you address, the easier the instruction will be received
by the learners. This is because you will be striving to reach their needs, not yours. Also, material
presented in a variety of methods keeps the learners interested and reinforces itself.
Learning styles come from three schools of thought: Perceptual Modality, Information
Processing, and Personality Patterns (Conner & Hodgins, 2000).
The second part of Kolb's Learning Style Inventory in which he describes individual learning
styles.
MBTI.
Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences.
All of these models can be thought of as a Mandala - a Sanskrit word for "magical circle." It is
one of the oldest religious symbols and is found throughout the world. Although it is normally
circular in appearance, it can take on a variety of forms.
Jung found the mandala symbol occurring spontaneously in the dreams and images of his
patients. He thought of it as a symbol of wholeness that can aid us in integrating our personality.
While several of the styles presented here are represented by various forms of crosses and circles,
all the styles and models have one thing in common, they are an attempt to minimalize the
complexity of an extremely multifaceted subject. It is only by slicing through behaviors one step
at a time, such as how we learn through these simple models, will we ever have a chance of
understanding our whole learning styles.
This is why these models do not fully explain how we learn and at the same time are both right
and wrong. Learning is an extremely complex process. These models tend to simplify the process
(which is a starting point in understanding a complex process). Also, each one tends to tackle
something different in the learning environment by taking a small slice out of it. It is only by
looking at these various slices and others will we ever begin to understand the whole learning
process.
Transfer of Learning
F a r Tr a n s f e r
Presentation Skills
Introduction
T h e Vo i c e
The voice is probably the most valuable tool of the presenter. It carries
most of the content that the audience takes away. One of the oddities
of speech is that we can easily tell others what is wrong with their
voice, e.g. too fast, too high, too soft, etc., but we have trouble
listening to and changing our own voices.
There are four main terms used for defining vocal qualities:
o Volume: How loud the sound is. The goal is to be heard without
shouting. Good speakers lower their voice to draw the audience in, and
raise it to make a point.
o Tone: The characteristics of a sound. An airplane has a different sound
than leaves being rustled by the wind. A voice that carries fear can
frighten the audience, while a voice that carries laughter can get the
audience to smile.
o Pitch: How high or low a note is. Pee Wee Herman has a high voice,
Barbara Walters has a moderate voice, while James Earl Jones has a
low voice.
o Pace: This is how long a sound lasts. Talking too fast causes the words
and syllables to be short, while talking slowly lengthens them. Varying
the pace helps to maintain the audience's interest.
o Color: Both projection and tone variance can be practiced by taking the
line "This new policy is going to be exciting" and saying it first with
surprise, then with irony, then with grief, and finally with anger. The key
is to o v e r - a c t . Remember Shakespeare's words "A l l t h e w o r l d ' s a
s t a g e " -- presentations are the opening night on Broadway!
2. To really listen to your voice, cup your right hand around your right
ear and gently pull the ear forward. Next, cup your left hand around
your mouth and direct the sound straight into your ear. This helps you
to really hear your voice as others hear it...and it might be completely
different from the voice you thought it was! Now practice moderating
your voice.
The Body
Active Listening
Good speakers not only inform their audience, they also listen to them.
By listening, you know if they are understanding the information and if
the information is important to them. Active listening is NOT the
same as hearing! Hearing is the first part and consists of the
perception of sound.
Nerves
First, do not fight nerves, welcome them! Then you can get on
with the presentation instead of focusing in on being nervous. Actors
recognize the value of nerves...they add to the value of the
performance. This is because adrenaline starts to kick in. It's a left
over from our ancestors' "fight or flight" syndrome. If you welcome
nerves, then the presentation becomes a challenge and you become
better. If you let your nerves take over, then you go into the flight
mode by withdrawing from the audience. Again, welcome your nerves,
recognize them, let them help you gain that needed edge! Do not go
into the flight mode! When you feel tension or anxiety, remember that
everyone gets them, but the winners use them to their advantage,
while the losers get overwhelmed by them.
o Before the presentation: Lie on the floor. Your back should be flat on the
floor. Pull your feet towards you so that your knees are up in the air.
Relax. Close your eyes. Fell your back spreading out and supporting
your weight. Feel your neck lengthening. Work your way through your
body, relaxing one section at a time - your toes, feet, legs, torso, etc.
When finished, stand up slowly and try to maintain the relaxed feeling
in a standing position.
o If you cannot lie down: Stand with you feet about 6 inches apart, arms
hanging by your sides, and fingers unclenched. Gently shake each part
of your body, starting with your hands, then arms, shoulders, torso, and
legs. Concentrate on shaking out the tension. Then slowly rotate your
shoulders forwards and the backwards. Move on to your head. Rotate it
slowly clockwise, and then counter-clockwise.
o Mental Visualization: Before the presentation, visualize the room,
audience, and you giving the presentation. Mentally go over what you
are going to do from the moment you start to the end of the
presentation.
o During the presentation: Take a moment to yourself by getting a drink
of water, take a deep breath, concentrate on relaxing the most tense
part of your body, and then return to the presentation saying to your
self, "I can do it!"
o You do NOT need to get rid of anxiety and tension! Channel the energy
into concentration and expressiveness.
o Know that anxiety and tension is not as noticeable to the audience as it
is to you.
o Know that even the best presenters make mistakes. The key is to
continue on after the mistake. If you pick up and continue, so will the
audience. Winners continue! Losers stop!
o Never drink alcohol to reduce tension! It affects not
only your coordination but also your awareness of
coordination. You might not realize it, but your
audience will!
Questions
Always allow time at the end of the presentation for questions. After
inviting questions, do not rush ahead if no one asks a question. Pause
for about 6 seconds to allow the audience to gather their thoughts.
When a question is asked, repeat the question to ensure that everyone
heard it (and that you heard it correctly). When answering, direct your
remarks to the entire audience. That way, you keep everyone focused,
not just the questioner. To reinforce your presentation, try to relate the
question back to the main points.
Make sure you listen to the question being asked. If you do not
understand it, ask them to clarify. Pause to think about the question as
the answer you give may be correct, but ignore the main issue. If you
do not know the answer, be honest, do not waffle. Tell them you will
get back to them...and make sure you do!
Answers that last 10 to 40 seconds work best. If they are too short,
they seem abrupt; while longer answers appear too elaborate. Also, be
sure to keep on track. Do not let off-the-wall questions
sidetrack you into areas that are not relevant to the
presentation.
If someone takes issue with something you said, try to find a way to
agree with part of their argument. For example, "Yes, I understand
your position..." or "I'm glad you raised that point, but..." The idea is
to praise their point and agree with them. Audiences sometimes tend
to think of "us verses you." You do not want to risk alienating them.
Next, comes the body of the presentation. Do NOT write it out word for
word. All you want is an outline. By jotting down the main points on a
set of index cards, you not only have your outline, but also a memory
jogger for the actual presentation. To prepare the presentation, ask
yourself the following:
A 45 minutes talk should have no more than about seven main points.
This may not seem like very many, but if you are to leave the audience
with a clear picture of what you have said, you cannot expect them to
remember much more than that. There are several options for
structuring the presentation:
You want to include some visual information that will help the audience
understand your presentation. Develop charts, graphs, slides,
handouts, etc.
After the body, comes the closing. This is where you ask for questions,
provide a wrap-up (summary), and thank the participants for
attending.
Notice that you told them what they are about to hear (the objective),
told them (the body), and told them what they heard (the wrap up).
And finally, the important part - practice, practice, practice. The main
purpose of creating an outline is to develop a coherent plan of what
you want to talk about. You should know your presentation so well,
that during the actual presentation, you should only have to briefly
glance at your notes to ensure you are staying on track. This will also
help you with your nerves by giving you the confidence that you can
do it. Your practice session should include a "live" session by practicing
in front of coworkers, family, or friends. They can be valuable at
providing feedback and it gives you a chance to practice controlling
your nerves. Another great feedback technique is to make a video or
audio tape of your presentation and review it critically with a
colleague.
Habits
We all have a few habits, and some are more annoying than others.
For example, if we say "uh," "you know," or put our hands in our
pockets and jingle our keys too often during a presentation, it distracts
from the message we are trying to get across.
After the presentation, the audience should agree on the worst two or
three habits that take the most away from the presentation. After
agreement, each audience member should write these habits on a 8
1/2" x 11" sheet of paper (such as the word "Uh"). Use a magic
marker and write in BIG letters.
The next time the person gives her or his talk, each audience member
should wave the corresponding sign in the air whenever they hear or
see the annoying habit. For most people, this method will break a
habit by practicing at least once a day for one to two weeks.
T i p s a n d Te c h n i q u e s F o r G r e a t
Presentations
Eleanor Roosevelt was a shy young girl who was terrified at the
thought of speaking in public. But with each passing year, she
grew in confidence and self-esteem. She once said, "No one can
make you feel inferior, unless you agree with it."
o If you have handouts, do not read straight from them. The audience
does not know if they should read along with you or listen to you read.
o Do not put both hands in your pockets for long periods of time. This
tends to make you look unprofessional. It is OK to put one hand in a
pocket but ensure there is no loose change or keys to jingle around.
This will distract the listeners.
o Do not wave a pointer around in the air like a wild knight branding a
sword to slay a dragon. Use the pointer for what it is intended and then
put it down, otherwise the audience will become fixated upon your
"sword", instead upon you.
o Do not lean on the podium for long periods. The audience will begin to
wonder when you are going to fall over.
o Speak to the audience...NOT to the visual aids, such as flip charts or
overheads. Also, do not stand between the visual aid and the audience.
o Speak clearly and loudly enough for all to hear. Do not speak in a
monotone voice. Use inflection to emphasize your main points.
o The disadvantages of presentations is that people cannot see the
punctuation and this can lead to misunderstandings. An effective way of
overcoming this problem is to pause at the time when there would
normally be punctuation marks.
o Use colored backgrounds on overhead transparencies and slides (such
as yellow) as the bright white light can be harsh on the eyes. This will
quickly cause your audience to tire. If all of your transparencies or
slides have clear backgrounds, then tape one blank yellow one on the
overhead face. For slides, use a rubber band to hold a piece of colored
cellophane over the projector lens.
o Learn the name of each participant as quickly as possible. Based upon
the atmosphere you want to create, call them by their first names or by
using Mr., Mrs., Miss, Ms.
o Tell them what name and title you prefer to be called.
o Listen intently to comments and opinions. By using a l a t e r a l t h i n k i n g
t e c h n i q u e (adding to ideas rather than dismissing them), the
audience will feel that their ideas, comments, and opinions are
worthwhile.
o Circulate around the room as you speak. This movement creates a
physical closeness to the audience.
o List and discuss your objectives at the beginning of the presentation.
Let the audience know how your presentation fits in with their goals.
Discuss some of the fears and apprehensions that both you and the
audience might have. Tell them what they should expect of you and
how you will contribute to their goals.
o Vary your techniques (lecture, discussion, debate, films, slides, reading,
etc.)
o Get to the presentation before your audience arrives; be the last one to
leave.
o Be prepared to use an alternate approach if the one you've chosen
seems to bog down. You should be confident enough with your own
material so that the audience's interests and concerns, not the
presentation outline, determines the format. Use your background,
experience, and knowledge to interrelate your subject matter.
o When writing on flip charts use no more than 7 lines of text per page
and no more than 7 word per line (the 7 7 rule). Also, use bright and
bold colors, and pictures as well as text.
o Consider the time of day and how long you have got for your talk. Time
of day can affect the audience. After lunch is known as the graveyard
section in training circles as audiences will feel more like a nap than
listening to a talk.
o Most people find that if they practice in their head, the actual talk will
take about 25 per cent longer. Using a flip chart or other visual aids also
adds to the time. Remember - it is better to finish slightly early
than to overrun.
What Can I Do To Increase the Effectiveness of the Learning
Experience?
Affective Behaviors
Getting someone to change their affective behavior is one of the hardest tasks to
accomplish. That is because the training often threatens the learners' self-image.
So, it becomes important to affirm the learner's core values, such as moral,
social, religious, family, political, etc. Learners who attend training in which their
beliefs or values are supported are much more likely to "let down their guard"
and accept the learning points.
If you confront the learners with learning points that suggests they may have
acted in a foolish or in a dangerous manner, they become resistant to change.
No one wants to be told that they did something stupid. Thus, it is important to
remind them of their "goodness" in order to make the various learning points
easier to digest. The learning will not be so threatening because thinking about
an important value will have affirmed each learner’s image of himself or herself
as a smart and capable person. This also points out the invalid concept of a
learner as an empty vessel. You have to "draw" them into the learning, not simply
"pour" the learning into them.
Getting someone to act safely requires that they not only gain the required
knowledge and skills, but that they also change their attitude (affective domain).
Otherwise, they will know how to act, but will not do so as their self-systems kick
in and convince them to do it the fast and easy way.
We all perform calculated risks (which in reality are unsafe acts to various
degrees), e.g., I might never use gasoline to start a barbecue (unless I was
starving and had no means to get fluid), but I might cross the street outside of the
crosswalk if it was not busy.
This is why organizations have safety class after safety class - they never getting
around to changing the attitudes of the learners. They hope that drilling the same
old knowledge and skills into the learners with various methods will eventually
pay off and produce safe learners. However safety requires that we know the
rules (knowledge), know how to act (skills), and have a proper attitude for it
(affective).
One Solution
A learning program might go something like this (I am keeping this simple so that
you can add, remove, or adjust the steps for other behaviors):
Have each learner explain three or four safety rules or principles that they
value dearly and why. Also, have them record their selections on a flip chart.
This helps to internalize the belief that they are "good" persons, which makes
them more receptive to change. This is best done in small groups (mix the
groups up throughout the various activities).
Note that changing affective behaviors is generally not a one shot activity. But,
going to the core of the matter is better than repeating the same old skills and
knowledge that they already understand. Building a wide variety of these
"cheerleading" activities will give you the three required building blocks of
learning difficult behaviors:
KNOWLEDGE SHARING
Do you know people (acquaintances, friends or even relatives) who fail to inform
you when something joyous occurs, such as a wedding or the birth of a child or a
sudden financial gain, but who do not fail to call you when misfortune strikes,
expecting you to wallow in their grief and offer support? This is a bit what
happens between Managers and the people they manager (department heads,
supervisors, rank-and-file employees).
During these holidays, it would serve managers well to dedicate 2-4 hours for
some deep thought about what they share with employees and how they are
perceived by employees ("employees" here also stands for their Department
Heads or Supervisors).
When owners and managers do not share information with their employees, they
let imaginations run wild, lead to frustration, lack of motivation and involvement,
and even pave the way to employee theft and fraud.
Employee turnover occurs because many managers fail to discover and show
their appreciation of the value of employees. The biggest acknowledgment of
their value is when you treat them as intelligent adults, share information with
them and listen to their input.
He prepared data on a flip chart, showing them the department's yearly budget,
with itemized figures for payroll, purchases and replacement purchases for items,
comparing with actual expenses incurred due to negligence. It was presented as
a lesson. They asked questions, which he answered. It was the first time ever
that they learned what a burden their department was on the entire hotel
operation. He offered them an incentive right there and then "If we succeed in
cutting down these losses by 50% in six months, each employee will receive a
bonus of $X"; and "If we succeed in totally eliminating loss and breakage, we will
be in a position to increase the salaries of employees in this department by $Y or
would not have to lay off employees". They got excited.
He offered some more general figures. It was the first time they realized that the
operation's gross income got drained along the way leading to a low net income.
They saw how all details added up to expenses. They began understanding the
reasons for dismissals and layoffs. Their mindset was being changed. They now
wanted to learn more. They wanted to hear how they could improve
performance. Actually, from a totally robotic group they were turning into an
involved team in one meeting around midnight and none of them seemed
anxious to go home.
He used the opportunity to go over some correct work procedures with them,
explaining why certain detergents had to be used in certain ways and in certain
quantities, why floors should be kept clean and safe from hazards. How electric
equipment should be maintained.
At the end of the meeting they asked: "When is our next lesson?"
We both saw at this meeting how involved you could get even the almost illiterate
people when you treat them as equals. We also heard intelligent questions and
suggestions. They made suggestions which could definitely improve
departmental performance.
The above style and results repeated themselves in different departments. Each
department required its custom-tailored "communications meeting". Since I
began with past examples, I will give one more: When I selected a Supervisor or
Department Head to attend a paid course or seminar, that person was expected
to share the information and knowledge gained with others in the organization:
upper management ( verbally or through a written report), peers, and employees
of his (or her) department. The knowledge spread throughout the organization.
We did not pay good money for a person to be able to draw only personal benefit
- it was a strategic plan. The person who attended the course or seminar was
expected to improve his (or her) management style accordingly (if the lesson was
found valuable).
Department Heads and employees began viewing the Hotel as their "University"
and wouldn't leave it for any offer by competitors. They would also never dream
of "cheating the employer" or arousing discontent among others. Their focus was
elsewhere: it was towards the acquisition of added knowledge and know-how.
They wanted to prove to themselves and to their employer that they could make
the company succeed and that they themselves could reach new heights.
Since everyone got so motivated and didn't leave we had to create some
opportunities. We created quite a large number of "in-house" Management
Trainee positions to allow for a slight turnover in positions. Investing in the
salaries of promising Management Trainees was far less costly than having
uncontrollable costs in turnover, theft, breakage, accidents, lawsuits, loss of
customers and business.
At a Quality trade show, I met with the person in charge of the ISO 9000 program
(Internal ISO Auditor) of IBM in Canada. He told me that they shared ALL
company information with employees: they put immobile computer terminals with
no "outgoing mail" or manipulation possibility in certain areas. Any employee
could access any company information he wanted by calling it up on the monitor.
Some companies can do likewise while others cannot. Some companies do not
want to give exact financial data but they can definitely give averages, explaining
what these averages represent. Despite the help of technology, personal face-to-
face meetings, exchange of information and feedback are vital for the effective
management of people.
The internet has enabled many people who have computers to access sources of
knowledge. Again, I remind you to urge your people to share with others in your
organization what they discover and learn. Many do so during work hours and
seem to forget that the employer has a reason for allowing them to spend paid
time researching the net.
Three months later, in October 1994, six million citizens of Bogota decided that
his unusual approach to crowd control deserved a wider forum -- they elected the
philosopher-mathematician to govern one of the most violent cities in Latin
America. The new mayor of Bogota had no political experience. He didn't even
bother to campaign.
While Mockus has made many an improvement with the city, perhaps his most
interesting is within the streets of Bogota. Cars used to zoom
through red lights whenever they felt like it and used the sidewalks
for parking. This forced the pedestrians to walk in the streets and dodge traffic,
injuries and deaths were quite frequent. His solution -- he hired a lot of "Marcel
Marceau" mimes to walk the streets and sidewalks and model an effective way
for pedestrians to stand up for their rights. The white-faced and white-gloved
mimes would approach a vehicle breaking a law and point at the car, and mimic
the correct procedures for the hapless driver. Once the driver performs correctly,
the mime expresses exaggerated thanks. Also, the mime always ensures there is
an audience and encourages the crowd to applaud loudly. This has helped the
drivers to correct mistakes without feeling embarrassed and without invoking a
machismo test of wills. Drivers and pedestrians have learned how to
communicate in a civil way.
Mockus has also introduced soccer-style red cards to motorists in a city where
traffic lights are considered largely decorative and road rage is an all too
common. He hopes they will replace fists and other weapons as a form of
reprimanding fellow drivers.
Self-confidence
Psychological superiority alone could explain why Australia has won every rugby
league World Cup since 1975. Researchers suspect that psychological
differences could be solely responsible for Australia's success. They found that
the players who had learned to play rugby in Australia had the highest levels of
self-confidence. And this alone could explain Australia's continuing domination of
the sport. It seems as if the Australian team is convinced they are going to win
whenever they step onto the field.
Good coaching uses the correct dose of both results (expectation to win) and
processes (obtaining skills and knowledge through training in order to win). This
relates to organizational training and coaching -- trainers expect the learners to
obtain the objectives (results) at the end of the training session (process).
I f L e a r n e r s E x p e c t t o Fa i l , T h e y
Fa i l
Note that in winning, there is a positive feedback loop at work, with winning
leading to higher confidence. Self-confidence, in turn, can be boosted through
role playing situations, where players are asked to imagine certain successful
situations (winning, not losing).
In training, we can use the same technique, or something similar, such as the
learners obtaining a number of small victories (enabling learning objectives), this
in turn leads them to being able to perform the more difficult task (terminal
learning objective).
Situational Leadership
We should not de-emphasizing results, but instead, as the Australia rugby team
shows, the results needs to be accentuated on the correct scale and time frame
within the process. This is probably one of the harder parts of training -- knowing
when to emphasize results over the process.
Notes
Process and results are equally important, it is just a matter of knowing the
correct amount to inject into various training, coaching, or facilitation sessions.
Imagine, your learners are better able to rate you than your fellow instructor
(Dancer, & Dancer, 1992)…
Donnelly and Woolliscroft (1989) reviewed student ratings, using 12 descriptive
items over a period of a year and concluded that the learners’ evaluations were
reliable and that their judgements were sophisticated and well thought-out.
Part of the problem is that we do not always know what to ask. These types of
questions produce the most reliable results (Abrami, 1989 & Cashin, 1992):
Do not ask questions on teaching methods -- one might get high marks on "how
much the learners have learned" (which tend to be valid) and low marks on "the
course was carefully planned and well organized" (which tend not to be valid).
Even if these "Method or Process" questions were valid, they do not tell us
anything that the "Result" questions cannot.
In the questions above, note that the word "rating" and not "evaluation" is used.
Rating implies a source of data, while evaluation implies that we have an answer.
That is, the learners provide us information and then we combine it with other
sources of information to arrive at a total evaluation. Learners are not always on
target, thus their ratings can provide valuable information, but they cannot always
tell evaluators everything needed in order to make a valid assessment of the
training.
Perhaps the most unreliable question is, "How much did you enjoy the class?"
Learners generally enjoy courses that are the most intellectually challenging and
meaningful. Yet, they will also report that they may enjoy a class that contributes
little to their learning. Nevertheless, when the same learners are asked to assess
their learning, provide a rating of the instructor and/or course, or to assess its
intellectual contributions, the students, as a whole, are able to distinguish "fluff"
from "substance" (Kaplan, 1974; Naftulin, 1973).
Learner Bias
Prior learner interest in a subject does influence the outcome of student ratings of
effectiveness (Marsh & Dunkin, 1992). For example, a trainer taking a train-the-
trainer class will probably give a higher rating, than if she was taking a class in
which she had no real interest.
Also, learners do not give higher ratings to classes in which they receive the
highest grade (Howard & Maxwell, 1980). Again, the highest marks often go to
the most challenging courses. However, a learner’s ratings tend to be slightly
higher if a learner "expects" to receive higher grades -- the research suggests
that the differences is due to the learner being highly "motivated" and he or she is
"learning more" and can thus expect to get higher grades (Howard G. & Maxwell,
1982).
I m m e d i a t e Fe e d b a c k
To collect immediate feedback, end the session five minutes early and ask: 1)
What major conclusion did you draw from today's session? 2) What major
questions remain in your mind? (The Searle Center for Teaching Excellence
Northwestern University).
Also, learners who have no previous experience have the most inconsistent
feedback. This is partially because they have nothing to base their initial
feedback on. By using the two questions above in multiple training sessions, you
help them in "scaffolding" their feedback so that they may improve upon it (same
principle as in scaffolding instruction).
Self-Assessment
Traditional testing methods do not fit well with such goals as lifelong learning,
reflective thinking, being critical, the capacity to evaluate oneself, and problem-
solving (Dochy & Moerkerke, 1997). For these, self-assessment plays an
important role. Self-assessment refers to the involvement of learners in making
judgements about their own learning, particularly about their achievements and
the outcomes of their learning (Boud & Falchikov, 1989). It increases the role of
learners as active participants in their own learning (Boud, 1995), and is mostly
used for formative assessment in order to foster reflection on one's own learning
processes and results.
Weaker learners often overrate themselves. Adams & King (1995) identified a 3
step framework to help develop self-assessment skill: 1) Learners work on
understanding the assessment process, such as: discussing good and bad
characteristics of sample work, discussing what was required in an assessment,
and critically reviewing the literature. 2) Learners work to identify important
criteria for assessment. 3) Learners work towards playing an active part in
identifying and agreeing on assessment criteria and being able to assess peers
and themselves competently.
Tr a i n e r B i a s
"Negative attitudes toward student ratings are especially resistant to change, and
it seems that faculty and administrators support their belief in student-rating
myths with personal and anecdotal evidence, which [for them] outweighs
empirically based research evidence" (Cohen - reported in Cashin, 1992).
The learner’s rating will serve their purpose if 1) you learn something new from
them, 2) you value the information, 3) you understand how to make
improvements, 4) you are motivated to make the improvements (Centra, 1993).
Changing Behaviors
Experts have long suggested that school and community programs can bring
down the smoking rates, so they set up a textbook example. The Hutchison
Smoking Prevention Project ran from September 1984 through August 1999 in
several Washington state school districts. The researchers used the most up-to-
date methods to try to persuade kids, starting at age 9, not to smoke. They
helped them practice saying no to cigarettes, bombarded them with information
about how dangerous and addictive smoking is and even had high-school
students reenact tobacco lawsuit trials.
Still, about a quarter of the teens who completed the program smoked by the
time they were 18 -- the same percentage as anywhere else in the country (24.7
percent of girls and 26.7 percent of boys said they smoked daily in 12th grade).
The project's lead investigator, Arthur V. Peterson Jr., Ph.D., said "The teachers
did their darndest, and the educational materials were top-notch. The inability of
the program to affect change in smoking behavior comes down, in our judgment,
to one thing: the failure of the social-influences strategy of the last 25 years. It
simply didn't work."
Part of the reason for the failure may be that the learners (the school children)
had no say in the design of the program. Changing affective behaviors is more
complicated than bringing about changes in skills or knowledge. But by using
two techniques 1) cheerleading their good behaviors, and 2) involving them in
the design of the program; you will have a solid foundation to bring about the
desired changes.
Introduction
The second way is to correct performance problems that arise within the organization.
This is accomplished by first, identifying the root cause and secondly, implementing
a plan of action to correct the problem. Although people are our are most important
asset, sometimes it seems as if they are our biggest headache.
Knowledge or Skills - The employee does not know how to perform the process
correctly - lack of skills, knowledge, or abilities.
Process - The problem is not employee related, but is caused by working
conditions, bad processes, etc, etc.
Resources - Lack of resources or technology.
Motivation or Culture - The employee knows how to perform, but does so
incorrectly.
The Performance Analysis Quadrant (PAQ) is a tool to help in the identification. By
asking two questions, "Does the employee have adequate job knowledge?" and "does
the employee have the proper attitude (desire) to perform the job?" and assigning a
numerical rating between 1 and 10 for each answer, will place the employee in 1 of 4
the performance quadrants:
10 ----------------------------------
High | | |
| A | B |
| | |
| Motivation | Resource/ |
| | Environment |
Does the Employee | | |
have adequate job ----------------------------------
knowledge? | | |
| C | D |
| | |
| Selection | Training |
| | |
1 | | |
Low ----------------------------------
1 10
Low High
Also note that the fix does not have to be the same as the cause. For example, you can
often fix a process problem with training or maybe fix a motivation problem with
attitude or (affective domain) training .
Coaching Skills
NOTE: Mentor comes from the age of Homer, in whose Odyssey, Mentor is the
trusted friend of Odysseus left in charge of the household during Odysseus's
absence. Athena, disguised as Mentor, guides Odysseus's son Telemachus in his
search for his father. FÈnelon in his romance TÈlÈmaque (1699) emphasized
Mentor as a character, and so it was that in French (1749) and English (1750)
mentor, going back through Latin to a Greek name, became a common noun
meaning "wise counselor." Mentor is an appropriate name for such a person
because it probably meant "adviser" in Greek.
Training is
about teaching a particular skill or knowledge.
Process or Environmental
Problems (Not Related to
Employees)
Many performance problems are due to bad process, that is, the
process does not support the desired behavior. It has often been said
that people account for 20% of all problems while bad processes
account for the rest. See the Continuous Process Improvement Page
for tracking down inefficient processes.
Resources
Motivation
Although many jobs have problems that are inherent to the position,
it is the problems that are inherent to the person that cause us to
loose focus from our main task of getting results. These
motivational problems could arrive from family pressures,
personality conflicts, a lack of understanding how the behavior
affects other people or process, etc.
Once you know the problem, then work with the employee to solve
it. Most employees want to do a good job. It is in your best interest
to work with the employee as long as the business needs are met
and it is within the bonds of the organization to do so.
Causes of problems
Lack of motivation.
Shift in focus
How has the job changed and what are the new responsibilities?
Why the job was restructured. Is it part of a longer overhaul?
How will their performance be evaluated and by whom?
Do they need to learn new skills?
Can the old responsibilities be delegated?
How will their career benefit from this transition?
What new skills or training do they need to perform
successfully?
Will this make them more marketable in the future?
By keeping them informed, you help to eliminate some of the fear
and keep them focused on what must be performed.
P er form a nc e Fee dba ck
Ve r s e s C r i t i c i s m
Receiving Feedback
Being able to give good feedback should not be the only goal; we
also need to be aware of the need to receive and act upon
feedback, even if it is delivered in a critical manner. That is, we
need to develop skills that help us extract useful information,
even if it is delivered in a critical tone.
Using Feedback
By bringing them into the process, they understand the problems and have a say in the
commitment. This engages their hearts, minds, and hands...the greatest motivators of all!
A Few Good Learning Theories
All information that is perceived via the senses passes through three
processors that encode it as l i n g u i s t i c , n o n l i n g u i s t i c , or a f f e c t i v e
representations. This is how we learn.
NOTE: This work only goes into the major part of TRiM. For a more
detailed work, see Marzano (1998) (note that he does not use this
acronym).
For example, if you go to a football game for the first time you encode
information linguistically such as rules; retain mental images
nonlinguistically, such as mental images of the players positioning
themselves and then getting set (pose); and finally, you have various
sensations that are encoded affectively, such as the excitement during
a touchdown. Each representation can be thought of as a record that is
encoded and then filed away.
Discussions and theories around the linguistic mode can get quite
complex so I am keeping this fairly simple. Basically, the linguistic
processor encodes our experiences as abstract propositions.
These two networks are the main channels for interacting with each
other (communication). Communication is the main functions of
language. Language symbols are used to represent things in the world.
Indeed, we can even represent things that do not even exist.
Communication does not imply a language, for example using hand
signals. But a language does imply communication, that is, when we
use language, we normally use it to communicate.
In t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a l g r a m m a r , the meaning of a
sentence is its d e e p s t r u c t u r e , and that meaning is
transformed into the s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e , which is the
actual sentence itself. The deep structure of language is
the meaning, and the surface structure is the means by
which that meaning is expressed. The rules that translate
the meaning into the deep structure are the phrase rules,
and the rules that translate the deep structure into the
surface structure are the transformational rules.
o Mental images can be generated from two sources - the eyes (e.g., the
after image of a light bulb) and from permanent memory (picturing a
tiger that has squares instead of dots).
o Mental images are an essential aspect of nonlinguistic thought and play
an important part in creativity.
o Due to the fragmented and constructed nature of mental images, they
are not always accurate pictures of whole thought as compared to
prepositionally-based linguistic information. However, they can have a
powerful effect on our thoughts due to their intensive and vivid nature,
e.g. the power of storytelling, the images we create in our mind when
reading a powerful novel, metaphors, imagination, creativity, etc.
This is our feeling, emotions, and mood (Stuss & Benson, 1983):
LINGUISTIC MODE
The linguistic mode provides the way to the most accurate method of
learning, hence the reason for its impact upon the education and
training world. There are a number of ways for increasing linguistic
retention.
N o t e Ta k i n g
Note taking has a positive impact on this mode since it involves the
learners in the subject matter that is transpiring in class, it cause us to
reflect on the subject and then record our thoughts, it helps us in
interpreting the subject matter, and it provides an additional linguistic
reinforcer. You can help them with the note taking by providing rough
outlines and fill-in-the-blanks. But do not just rely on one method. For
example, fill-in-the-blanks can also be concept or semantic maps
(mapping) - you provide the lines and circles, while the learners fill
them in.
Also, note that while mapping might seem "graphic", we can learn
linguistically from visual representations (e.g. learning rules and
various strategies by watching a game, the procedures for picking up a
load with a forklift). Use visual outlines to fit the subject, for example,
give them an outline of a pyramid when discussing Maslow's hierarchy
of needs.
Vary the methods to fit the subject - e.g. give them a rough draft,
then a fill-in-the-blank, then a mapping outline.
Pascarella and Terenzini (1991, p.98) reported that the greater the
learner's involvement or engagement (which includes note-taking) is in
the learning process, the greater the knowledge acquisition. Marzano
(1998) reported the following effects:
Cueing
Also, do NOT cover each line and then show it when you are about to
speak about it -- this defeats the whole purpose of cueing by taking
away the skeleton outline that the learners need in order to build
upon.
Teachers will recognize this concept as a miniature scaffold
(building upon a framework)
Note that when we learn, we build upon what we previously
know
Models
Active Learning
Placing the learners in small groups allows them to not only receive
and express linguistic information, but to also manipulate it in various
forms to gain a full understanding of it.
Pascarella & Terenzini (1991, page 98) reported that the greater the
learner's involvement or engagement is in the learning process, the
greater the knowledge acquisition.
NONLINGUISTIC MODE
Mental Images
Also, do not forget the other senses. VAK would tell us to let the
learners play with a koosh ball, however, I believe this has more to do
with personal satisfaction than with actual learning. What really needs
to happen is to allow them to touch, move, listen and/or smell the
subject mater if at all possible. . . sort of what Zen is built upon --
become one with the subject matter.
AFFECTIVE MODE
Provide them with explicit feedback on how well the goals or objectives
were met. You want to keep the feedback positive as the goal is to
reinforce their drive to perform better, not to beat them down in utter
defeat.
Learning Objectives
Arousal
S e l f, M e t a c o g n i t i o n , C o g n i t i o n ,
Knowledge (SMCK)
NOTE: Again, this work only goes in to the major part of TRiM. For a
more detailed work and set of references on TRiM and SMCK, see
Marzano (1998) (note that he does not use the two acronyms).
How TRiM fits in with SMCK
Click for larger picture
o Self-System - What value do we place upon the presenting task (we will
do it or not)?
o Metacognitive System - Designs strategies for accomplishing the
presenting task. How do we go about solving a complicated task?
o Cognitive System - Process the presenting task so that we may learn it.
o Knowledge Domain - The cognitive domain draws upon our knowledge
domain for information that helps us to solve the presenting task.
Self-System
The first domain the presenting task passes through is our self-
system. If we consider the presenting task or information of high
value, then we will put some effort into learning it. Otherwise, we will
steer our efforts to other interests (Harter, 1980 & Markus & Ruvulo,
1990). This self-system is an interconnected network of beliefs that
helps one makes sense of the world and decides what goals to pursue.
If the presenting goal or task is judged as important and doable, then
the learner is motivated to engage in the presenting goal or task.
However, if the task is presented as low-relevance or a low probability
of success, then a negative effect is generated and motivation for task
engagement is low.
Metacognitive System
Next, the presenting task goes through the metacognitive system. This
system helps us to plan, set time lines, allocate resources (Schank &
Abelson, 1977). It also designs strategies for accomplishing goals once
they have been set. Its main categories are:
Cognitive System
The presenting task next passes through the cognitive system, which
processes the information that is essential to learning the task
(Anderson, 1995). This process includes the effective execution of
steps for solving problems. It creates novel ideals for the construction
of new concepts. It also:
Knowledge Domain
The knowledge domain consists of i n f o r m a t i o n , m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s ,
and p s y c h o m o t o r processes.
Information
Notice that in the information domain, each element builds upon the
other. For example, you must understand the vocabulary terms before
you can understand a fact. At the top of the domain are C o n c e p t s ,
which are the most difficult elements for a learner to extrapolate.
Mental Processes
Psychomotor Process
Feedback
Practice
Guthrie's (1952) study breaks skills into acts. Acts are defined as
complicated behavior patterns usually involving some goal
accomplishment. Acts are made up of many individual movements.
Movements are specific responses to specific stimuli. Acts are
composed of muscular contractions that are the response to specific
stimulus and are not dependent upon practice. But the learning of an
act does depend on practice. Learning an act requires practice so that
the proper movement is associated with its own cues.
Distributed Practice
Hull (1943) discovered that when practice periods are spaced apart
(distributed practice), performance is superior to what it is when
practice periods are close together (massed practice). Also, during
practice periods, the learners' performance will gradually improve until
some asymptotic (maximal) level is reached. If the learners are
allowed to rest, and then resume practice, their performance will tend
to exceed their previous asymptotic level (reminiscence effect).
Learners that are provided rest or some other form of diversion
between practice periods will reach higher levels of performance than
learners who practice straight through without rest or diversion.
Cognition
T r a n s f e r o f L e a r n i n g o r Tr a i n i n g
Learning Environment
o The Gestalt point of view emphasizes that the whole is more than the
sum of the parts. For example, the whole (producing a document) is
more than the individual acts:
1. Turn on the computer
2. Start the word processor
3. Type information into the word processor
4. Check the spelling
5. Look up customers' names and addresses
6. Insert columns into the document
7. Print a letter
8. Print envelopes
The above eight steps are meaningless unless the learner can
put all of them together to produce a whole document ready for
mailing. Help the learner to see that facts and ideas are part of a larger
concept. Learners who are able to recite facts without seeing their
interrelationship is meaningless.
The most exiting place in teaching is the gap between what the
teacher teaches and what the student learns. This is where the
unpredictable transformation takes place, the transformation
that means that we are human beings, creating and dividing
our world, and not objects, passive and defined - Alice Reich
(1983).
Formative
Thus, formative evaluations are basically done on the fly. They permit
the learner and the instructor to monitor how well the instructional
objectives are being met. Its main purpose is to catch deficiencies so
that the proper intervention can take place. This allows the learner to
master the required skills and knowledge.
Summative
Revise System
Once a training deficiency has been noted, the ISD process is repeated
to correct the deficiency. This does not mean that the entire training
program is rebuilt -- just the portions that had deficiencies or will be
affected by the changes.
T h e F o u r L e v e l s o f Tr a i n i n g
Evaluation
Perhaps the best known training methodology is K i r k p a t r i c k ' s F o u r
L e v e l E v a l u a t i o n M o d e l (1994) of reaction, learning, performance,
and impact. The chart below shows how the evaluation process fits
together:
This is the final results that occur. It measures the training program's
effectiveness, that is, "What impact has the training achieved?" These
impacts can include such items as monetary, efficiency, moral,
teamwork, etc.
Each evaluation level should be used to provide a cross set of data for
measuring training program.
Note the difference in "information" and "returns." That is, the first
three-levels give you "information" for improving the learning package.
While the fourth-level gives you "impacts." A hard result is generally
given in dollars and cents, while soft results are more informational in
nature, but instead of evaluating how well the training worked, it
evaluates the impact that training has upon the organization. There
are exceptions. For example, if the organizational vision is to provide
learning opportunities (perhaps to increase retention), then a level-two
or level-three evaluation could be used to provide a soft return.
Item Analysis
The upper (U) and lower (L) criterion groups are selected from the
extremes of the distribution. The use of very extreme groups, say the
upper and lower 10 percent, would result in a sharper differentiation,
but it would reduce the reliability of the results because of the small
number of cases utilized. In a normal distribution, the optimum point
at which these two conditions balance out is 27 percent (Kelly, 1939).
NOTE: With the large and normally distributed samples used in the
development of standardized tests, it is customary to work with the
upper and lower 27 percent of the criterion distribution. Many of the
tables used for the computation of item validity indices are based on
the assumption that the "27 percent rule" has been followed. Also, if
the total sample contains 370 cases, the U and L groups will each
include exactly 100 cases, thus preventing the necessity of computing
percentages. For this reason it is desirable in a large test item analysis
to use a sample of 370 persons.
Because item analysis is often done with small classroom size groups,
a simple procedure will be used here. This simple analysis uses a
percentage of 33 percent to divide the class in three groups, Upper
(U), Middle (M), and Lower (L). An example will be used for this
discussion. In a class of 30 students we have chosen 10 students (33
percent) with the highest scores and 10 students (33 percent) with the
lowest scores. We now have three groups: U, M, and L. The test has
10 items in it.
Reviewing the table reveals five test items (marked with an *) that
require closer examination.
o Item 2 show a low difficulty level. It might be too easy, having been
passed by 29 out of 30 learners. If the test item is measuring a valid
performance standard, then it could still be an excellent test item.
o Item 4 shows a negative value. Apparently, something about the
question or one of the distracters confused the U group, since a greater
number of them marked it wrong than the L group. Some of the
elements to look for are: wording of the question, double negatives,
incorrect terms, distracters that could be consider right, or text that
differs from the instructional material.
o Item 5 shows a zero discriminative value. A test item of this nature with
a good difficulty rating might still be a valid test item, but other factors
should be checked. i.e. Was a large number of the U group missing
from training when this point was taught? Was the L group given
additional training that could also benefit the U group?
o Item 7 show a high difficulty level. The training program should be
checked to see if this point was sufficiently covered by the trainers or if
a different type of learning presentation should be developed.
o Item 9 shows a negative value. The high value of the negative number
probably indicates a test item that was incorrectly keyed.
As you can see, the item analysis identifies deficiencies either in the
test or in the instruction. Discussing questionable items with the class
is often sufficient to diagnose the problem. In narrowing down the
source of difficulty, it is often helpful to carry out further analysis of
each test item. The table below shows the number of learners in the
three groups who choose each option in answering the particular
items. For brevity, only the first three test items are shown. The
correct answers are marked with an *.
This analysis could be done with just the items that were chosen for
further examination, or the complete test. You might wonder why
perform another analysis for the complete test if most of the test items
proved valid in the first one. The answer is to see how well the
distracters performed their job. To illustrate this, look at the distracters
chosen for item 1. Although the first analysis showed this the be a
valid test item, of the distracters chosen by the learners, only A and B
we used. Nine learners choose distracter B, seven learners choose
distracter C, while none choose distracter D. This distracter needs to
be made more realistic or eliminated from the test item. This type of
analysis helps us to further refine the testing instrument.
AA - Abbreviated Analysis
AAMOF - As A Matter Of Fact
AAR - After Action Review
ADDIE - Analysis, Design, Development, Implement, Evaluate (SAT or
ISD)
AFAIK - As Far As I Know
AL - Accelerated Learning
ALARA - As Low As Reasonably Achievable
ASAP - As Soon As Possible
ASTD - American Society for Training and Development
A/V - Audio Visual
JA - Job Aid
JITT - Just-In-Time Training
KA - Knowledge Acquisition
KAS (KSA) - Knowledge, Attitudes, Skills
KISS - Keep It Simple Stupid
KITA - Kick In The Ass (a motivational method)
KM - Knowledge Management
L
LB - Leaky Bucket
LCMS - Learning & Content Management System
LMS - Learning Management System
LG - Lecture Guide
LMS - Learning Management System
LO - Learning Objective
LRC - Learning Resource Center
LTM - Long Term Memory
NA - Needs Assessment
NBL - Not Bloody Likely
NDI - Non Developmental Item
NIS - Not In Specification
NLP - Neuro-Linguistic Programming
NSPI - National Society for Performance and Instruction
QA - Quality Assurance
QAR - Quality Assurance Evaluator
QC - Quality Control
QI - Quality Improvement
QM - Quality Management
QVT - Quality Verification Test
R
R&D - Research and Development
RAD - Rapid Application Development
RBM - Rational Behavioral Model
RESA - Research, Evaluation, and Systems Analysis
RFI - Request For Information
RFP - Request For Proposal
RFT - Ready For Training
RGL - Reading Grade Level
RLO - Reusable Learning Object
ROTFL, ROTFLMAO - Rolling On The Floor Laughing My Ass Off
RTFM - Read The F****** Manual
SA - Situational Awareness
SAT - Systems Approach to Training
SCI - Student Centered Instruction
SCORN - Sharable Content Object Reference Model
SCORM - Sharable Content Object Reference Model
SDLRS - Self Directed Learning Readiness Scale (developed by
Gugliamino)
SGI - Small Group Instruction
SGL - Small Group Leader
SIM - Simulator
SIMTECH - Simulation Technology
SITD - Still In The Dark
SKA - Skills, Knowledge, Attitude
SMART - Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time based
(objective and goal setting)
SMARTER - Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Timely,
Exciting, Recorded (see DUMBER)
SME - Subject Matter Expert
SN - Sequence Number
SOO - Statement Of Objectives
SOS - Save Our Ship
SOW - Statement Of Work
SP - Start Point
SPEC - Specification
SQ3R - Survey the material to be learned, develop Questions about
the material, Read the material, Recall the key ideas, Review the
material (learning strategy)
SQT - Skills Qualification Test
SS - Student Station
STD - Standard
STM - Short Term Memory
STRAP - System Training Plan
STX - Situational Training Exercise
SWAG - Scientific Wild Ass Guess
UI - User Interface
V
ZD - Zero Defects
Karl Popper's the T h r e e W o r l d s o f K n o w l e d g e
Maturana & Varela wrote that the observers' cognition is a process involving the
entirety of their interactivity, not just abstract thinking; thus, cognition cannot be
segregated from what they actually put into practice.
One of the most popular epistemology models (except for perhaps in the
behavioral sciences) is Sir Karl Popper's writings on the Three Worlds of
Knowledge. The behavioral sciences (knowledge/learning/management
professions) seem to prefer and stay within the realm of Michael Polanyi's
concept of personal and tacit knowledge. However, Polanyi's epistemology is
narrower and has a limited basis for understanding knowledge as compared to
Popper's work, which provides a broader epistemological foundation.
And of course, there are various relationships between these three worlds:
o World 1 drives and enables world 2 to exist, while world 2 tries to control and
regulate world 1.
o World 2 produces world 3, while world 3 helps in the recall and the
training/education/development/learning of world 2.
o World 3 describes and predicts world 1, while world 1 is the inferred logic of world
3.
In addition, since world 2 is composed of people, we can use our senses to cut
across boundaries and observe and test the exchanges and relationships of
worlds 1 and 2.
Thus, knowledge surrounds us (world 1), becomes a part of us (world 2), and is
then stored in historical contents and contexts by us (world 3 artifacts).
While the first is personal, the second is totally independent of anybody's claim to
know -- it is knowledge without a knowing subject.
A T T H E F I S H H O U S E S
by Elizabeth Bishop
It is like what we imagine knowledge to be: dark, salt, clear moving, utterly free,
drawn from the cold hard mouth of the world, derived from the rocky breasts
forever, flowing and drawn, and since our knowledge is historical, flowing, and
flown.