FRINGE THOUGHT

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Contents
Articles
Crank (person) 1
Quackery 5
Pseudoscience 14
Flat Earth Society 25
Cryptozoology 32
Phrenology 35
Anthroposophical medicine 41
Magnet therapy 50
Urine therapy 55
Dianetics 60
Perpetual motion 68
Alfred Lawson 78
Dihydrogen monoxide hoax 80
Flying Spaghetti Monster 85
Intelligent falling 95
Fringe science 97
List of cryptids 102
Pseudohistory 119
Conspiracy theory 123
Mind control 135
Pseudoarchaeology 142
Catastrophism 152
Psychohistory 156
Priory of Sion 163
Searches for Noah's Ark 173
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion 179
Holocaust denial 193
Ancient astronauts 224
Lost lands 232
Shakespeare authorship question 236
'pataphysics 265
Indiana Pi Bill 269
Eccentricity (behavior) 272
Donna Kossy 274
 Francis E. Dec 281
Fortean Times 295
Heaven's Gate (religious group) 305
Voluntary Human Extinction Movement 310
Hollow Earth 312
Henry H. Goddard 317
Trepanning 320
Devolution (biology) 326
Stanisław Szukalski 330
The Beginning Was the End 332
Helena Blavatsky 337
Francis Galton 346
Elaine Morgan (writer) 354
Aquatic ape hypothesis 357
Claude Vorilhon 365
The Urantia Book 372
George Van Tassel 388
Ivan Stang 390
Aggressive Christianity Missionary Training Corps 393
Discordianism 397
Kerry Wendell Thornley 407
Bob Black 412
Church of the SubGenius 416

References
Article Sources and Contributors 425
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 438

Article Licenses
License 442
Crank (person) 1

Crank (person)
"Crank" is a pejorative term used for a person who unshakably holds a belief that most of his or her contemporaries
consider to be false.[1] A "cranky" belief is so wildly at variance with commonly accepted belief as to be ludicrous.
Cranks characteristically dismiss all evidence or arguments which contradict their own unconventional beliefs,
making rational debate an often futile task.
Common synonyms for "crank" include crackpot and kook. A crank differs from a fanatic in that the subject of the
fanatic's obsession is either not necessarily widely regarded as wrong or not necessarily a "fringe" belief. Similarly,
the word quack is reserved for someone who promotes a medical remedy or practice that is widely considered to be
ineffective; this term however does not imply any deep belief in the idea or product they are attempting to sell.
Crank may also refer to an ill-tempered individual or one who is in a bad mood, but that usage is not the subject of
this article.
Although a crank's beliefs seem ridiculous to experts in the field, cranks are sometimes very successful in convincing
non-experts of their views. A famous example is the Indiana Pi Bill where a state legislature nearly wrote into law a
crank result in geometry.

Relativity of crank beliefs

The term crank is often applied to persons who contradict rigorously proven mathematical theorems, such as the
impossibility of squaring the circle by ruler and compass, or who deny extremely well established physical theories,
such as the special theory of relativity or a round earth (See Flat Earth Society). More engineer-minded cranks may
claim to have invented a magic compression algorithm or a perpetual motion / free energy machine.
In the latter case, when scientific paradigms are overthrown, a belief previously considered cranky could in principle
later be considered mainstream. Examples are rare, but they do exist; for example, the notion of continental drift
proposed by Alfred Wegener was widely considered by contemporary geologists to be cranky, but was eventually
dramatically vindicated, albeit by plate tectonics, a mechanism of which Wegener had never dreamed.
It appears to be even more unlikely that the opinion of the mathematical community might change concerning
whether some proven theorem is true, despite nineteenth and twentieth century discoveries in mathematical logic
which are often popularly misunderstood as having overthrown theorems previously regarded as true. It would be
more correct to say that mathematicians have gradually become aware of subtle issues which had previously been
overlooked. That is, previous mathematical knowledge has been enriched, not overthrown, by such discoveries as
non-Euclidean geometry or Gödel's incompleteness theorems.
Nonetheless, since the nature of mainstream opinion can change over time, it is useful to define crankery in terms of
characteristics which are independent of the allegedly cranky belief. Indeed, it is widely accepted that the true
hallmark of the crank is not so much asserting that, for example, the Earth is flat as making this assertion in the face
of all counterarguments and contrary evidence. Certain authors (see the references) who have studied the
phenomenon of crankery agree that this is the essential defining characteristic of a crank: No argument or evidence
can ever be sufficient to make a crank abandon his belief.

Common characteristics of cranks

The second book of the mathematician and popular author Martin Gardner was a study of crank beliefs, Fads and
Fallacies in the Name of Science. More recently, the mathematician Underwood Dudley has written a series of books
on mathematical cranks, including The Trisectors, Mathematical Cranks, and Numerology: Or, What Pythagoras
Wrought. And in a 1992 UseNet post, the mathematician John Baez humorously proposed a "checklist", the
Crackpot index, intended to "diagnose" cranky beliefs regarding contemporary physics.[2]
Crank (person) 2

According to these authors, virtually universal characteristics of cranks include:

1. Cranks overestimate their own knowledge and ability, and underestimate that of acknowledged experts.
2. Cranks insist that their alleged discoveries are urgently important.
3. Cranks rarely, if ever, acknowledge any error, no matter how trivial.
4. Cranks love to talk about their own beliefs, often in inappropriate social situations, but they tend to be bad
listeners, and often appear to be uninterested in anyone else's experience or opinions.
Some cranks exhibit a lack of academic achievement, in which case they typically assert that academic training in
the subject of their crank belief is not only unnecessary for discovering "the truth", but actively harmful because they
believe it "poisons" the minds by teaching falsehoods. Others greatly exaggerate their personal achievements, and
may insist that some achievement (real or alleged) in some entirely unrelated area of human endeavor implies that
their cranky opinion should be taken seriously.
Some cranks claim vast knowledge of any relevant literature, while others claim that familiarity with previous work
is entirely unnecessary; regardless, cranks inevitably reveal that whether or not they believe themselves to be
knowledgeable concerning relevant matters of fact, mainstream opinion, or previous work, they are not in fact
well-informed concerning the topic of their belief.
In addition, many cranks:
1. seriously misunderstand the mainstream opinion to which they believe that they are objecting,
2. stress that they have been working out their ideas for many decades, and claim that this fact alone entails that
their belief cannot be dismissed as resting upon some simple error,
3. compare themselves with Galileo or Copernicus, implying that the mere unpopularity of some belief is in itself
evidence of plausibility,
4. claim that their ideas are being suppressed, typically by secret intelligence organizations, mainstream science,
powerful business interests, or other groups which, they allege, are terrified by the possibility of their
revolutionary insights becoming widely known,
5. appear to regard themselves as persons of unique historical importance.
Cranks who contradict some mainstream opinion in some highly technical field, such as mathematics or physics,
almost always:
1. exhibit a marked lack of technical ability,
2. misunderstand or fail to use standard notation and terminology,
3. ignore fine distinctions which are essential to correctly understand mainstream belief.
That is, cranks tend to ignore any previous insights which have been proven by experience to facilitate discussion
and analysis of the topic of their cranky claims; indeed, they often assert that these innovations obscure rather than
clarify the situation.[3]
In addition, cranky scientific "theories" do not in fact qualify as theories as this term is commonly understood within
science. For example, crank "theories" in physics typically fail to result in testable predictions, which makes them
unfalsifiable and hence unscientific. Or the crank may present their ideas in such a confused manner that it is
impossible to determine what they are actually claiming.
Perhaps surprisingly, many cranks may appear quite normal when they are not passionately expounding their cranky
belief, and they may even be successful in careers unrelated to their cranky belief. Others can (charitably) be
characterized as underachievers in all walks of life.
Crank (person) 3

Internet cranks
The rise of the Internet has given another outlet to people well outside the mainstream who may get labeled cranks
through internet postings or websites promoting particular beliefs. There are a number of websites devoted to listing
people as cranks. Community-edited websites like Wikipedia have been described as vulnerable to cranks.[4] [5]
Science fiction author and critic Bruce Sterling noted in his essay in CATSCAN 13:
Online communication can wonderfully liberate the tender soul of some well-meaning personage who,
for whatever reason, is physically uncharismatic. Unfortunately, online communication also fertilizes
the eccentricities of hopeless cranks, who at last find themselves in firm possession of a wondrous
soapbox that the Trilateral Commission and the Men In Black had previously denied them.[6]
There are also newsgroups which are nominally devoted to discussing (alt.usenet.kooks) or poking fun at (alt.slack,
alt.religion.kibology) supposed cranks.

Etymology
Old English cranc- is preserved only in crancstæf "a weaver's instrument". It is from a Proto-Germanic stem *krank-
meaning "bend". German krank has a modern meaning of "sick, ill", evolved from a former meaning "weak, small".
English crank in its modern sense is first recorded 1833, and cranky in a sense of "irritable" dates from 1821. The
term was popularised in 1872 for being applied to Horace Greeley who was ridiculed during his campaign for the
U.S. presidency. In 1882, the term was used to describe Charles Guiteau who shot U.S. president James Garfield.
In 1906, Nature offered essentially the same definition which is used here:
A crank is defined as a man who cannot be turned.
– Nature, 8 Nov 1906, 25/2
The term "crank" (or "krank") was once the favored term for spectators at sporting events, a term later supplanted by
"fans". By implication, the "kranks in the bleaching boards" think they know more about the sport than do its
participants. There is more discussion of this term in The Dickson Baseball Dictionary, by Paul Dickson.
The word crackpot apparently also first appeared in 1883:
My aunty knew lots, and called them crack-pots.
– Broadside Ballad, 1883
As noted in Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, the terms "crackpot", "crackbrain" and "cracked" are synonymous,
and suggest a metaphorically "broken" head. The terms "crazy" and "crazed" also originally meant "broken" and
derive from the same root word as "cracked". The dictionary gives no indication that "pate" and "pot" have the same
root, despite their apparent similarity, and implied colloquial use of "pot" to mean "head" in the word "crackpot".
However, the term "craze" is also used to refer to minute cracks in pottery glaze, again suggesting the metaphorical
connection of cracked pots with questionable mental health.
The term kook appears to be much more recent. The adjectival-form, kooky, was apparently coined as part of
American teen-ager (or beatnik) slang, which derives from [7] the pejorative meaning of the noun cuckoo. In late
1958, Edd Byrnes first played a hair-combing parking lot attendant called "Kookie" on 77 Sunset Strip. The
noun-form kook, may have first appeared in 1960 in Britain's Daily Mail newspaper:
A kook, Daddy-O, is a screwball who is 'gone' farther than most
– Daily Mail, 22 Aug 1960, 4/5
Crank (person) 4

Notes
[1] Crank (http:/ / www. m-w. com/ cgi-bin/ dictionary?book=Dictionary& va=crank) at Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
[2] John Baez, s22qv$in9$1@pravda.ucr.edu New improved crackpot index (news:6) (an update to the 1992 list, 26 August 1998, sci.physics (
archived message (http:/ / groups. google. com/ group/ sci. physics/ msg/ 5312a801e0785e66) on Google Groups).
[3] Hodges, Wilfrid (1998). "An Editor Recalls Some Hopeless Papers" (http:/ / www. math. ucla. edu/ ~asl/ bsl/ 0401/ 0401-001. ps). The
Bulletin of Symbolic Logic 4 (1): 1–16. doi:10.2307/421003. JSTOR 421003. . A paper describing several attempts at disproving Cantor's
diagonal argument, looking at the flaws in their arguments and reasoning.
[4] " Fact or fiction? Who contributes to Wikipedia? Despite ... (http:/ / www. accessmylibrary. com/ coms2/ summary_0286-32770712_ITM)",
Global Agenda, March 12, 2007, Retrieved 23 April 2010
[5] "Wikipedia.(Brief Article)" (http:/ / www. accessmylibrary. com/ coms2/ summary_0286-26188052_ITM). Booklist. September 15, 2002. .
[6] CATSCAN 13: "Electronic Text" (http:/ / www. eff. org/ Misc/ Publications/ Bruce_Sterling/ Catscan_columns/ catscan. 13) (Bruce Sterling,
SF Eye)
[7] http:/ / www. etymonline. com/ index. php?term=kooky

References
• Dudley, Underwood (1987). A Budget of Trisections. New York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-96568-8.
• Dudley, Underwood (1992). Mathematical Cranks. Washington, D.C.: Mathematical Association of America.
ISBN 0-88385-507-0.
• Dudley, Underwood (1996). The Trisectors. Washington, D.C.: Mathematical Association of America.
ISBN 0-88385-514-3.
• Dudley, Underwood (1997). Numerology: Or, What Pythagoras Wrought. Washington, D.C.: Mathematical
Association of America. ISBN 0-88385-524-0.
• Dudley, Underwood (2008). On Jargon: How to Call a Crank a Crank (and Win If You Get Sued) (http://ns.
comap.com/wwwdev.comap.com/pdf/999/On-Jargon-How-Call-Crank-Crank.pdf). The UMAP Journal,
29.1.
• Eves, Howard (1972). Mathematical Circles Squared; A Third Collection of Mathematical Stories and Anecdotes.
Boston: Prindle, Weber & Schmidt. ISBN 0-87150-154-6.
• Gardner, Martin (1957). Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. New York: Dover. ISBN 0-486-20394-8.
LCCN 57-3844
• Williams, William F. (Editor) (2000). Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy
Facts on File ISBN 0-8160-3351-X

Further reading
• Kossy, Donna. Kooks: A Guide to the Outer Limits of Human Belief, Los Angeles: Feral House, 2001 (2nd ed.
exp. from 1994). (ISBN 978-0-922915-67-5)
• Kruger, Justin; David Dunning (1989). "Unskilled and Unaware of It: How Difficulties in Recognizing One's
Own Incompetence Lead to Inflated Self-Assessments" (http://www.apa.org/journals/features/psp7761121.
pdf) (PDF). J. Pers. And Soc. Psych. 71: 1121–1134.
Quackery 5

Quackery
Quackery is a derogatory term used to describe the
promotion[1] of unproven or fraudulent medical
practices. Random House Dictionary describes a
"quack" as a "fraudulent or ignorant pretender to
medical skill" or "a person who pretends,
professionally or publicly, to have skill, knowledge, or
qualifications he or she does not possess; a
charlatan."[2]

The word "quack" is an onomatopoeia used for the

noise made by many ducks.[3] In the Middle Ages the
word quack meant "shouting". The quacksalvers sold
their wares on the market shouting in a loud voice.[4]
"Health fraud" is often used as a synonym for
quackery, but quackery's salient characteristic is
aggressive promotion ("quacks quack!") rather than
fraud, greed or misinformation.[1] "Pseudo-medicine" is
a term for treatments known to be ineffective,
regardless of whether their advocates themselves
believe in their effectiveness.
WPA poster, 1936-38

Definition
Since there is no exact standard for what constitutes quackery, and
how to differentiate it from experimental medicine, protoscience,
religious and spiritual beliefs, etc., accusations of quackery are
often part of polemics against one party or other, and sometimes in
polemic exchanges.
In determining whether a person is committing quackery, the
central question is what is acceptable evidence for the efficacy and
safety of whatever treatments, cures, regimens, or procedures the
alleged quack advocates. Because there is some level of
uncertainty with all medical treatments, it is common ethical
William Hogarth: Marriage à-la-mode: The Visit to the
Quack Doctor practice (and in some cases, a legal requirement) for
pharmaceutical companies and many medical practitioners to
explicitly state the promise, risks, and limitations of a medical choice.
Since it is difficult to distinguish between those who knowingly promote unproven medical therapies and those who
are mistaken as to their effectiveness, U.S. courts have ruled in defamation cases that accusing someone of quackery
or calling a practitioner a quack is not equivalent to accusing that person of committing medical fraud. To be both
quackery and fraud, the quack must know they are misrepresenting the benefits and risks of the medical services
offered (instead of, for example, promoting an ineffective product they honestly believe is effective).
Quackery 6

In addition to the ethical problems of promising benefits that can not reasonably be expected to occur, quackery also
includes the risk that patients may choose to forego treatments that are more likely to help them, in favor of
ineffective treatments given by the "quack".
Stephen Barrett, who runs the alternative medicine watchdog website, Quackwatch, a consumer information
organization with several websites dedicated to exposing quackery, defines the practice this way:
To avoid semantic problems, quackery could be broadly
defined as "anything involving overpromotion in the field of
health." This definition would include questionable ideas as
well as questionable products and services, regardless of the
sincerity of their promoters. In line with this definition, the
word "fraud" would be reserved only for situations in which
deliberate deception is involved.[1]

The quacksalver
Unproven, usually ineffective, and sometimes dangerous
medicines and treatments have been peddled throughout human
history. Theatrical performances were sometimes mixed with
purported medicine to enhance credibility.
Quack medicines often had no effective ingredients, while others,
such as morphine and the like, made the patient feel better without
Pietro Longhi: The Charlatan, 1757
curative properties. Many of them were emetics, laxatives or
diuretics. Some did have medicinal effects; for example mercury,
silver and arsenic compounds may have helped some infections, willow bark contained salicylic acid (substance very
similar to aspirin), and quinine from bark was an effective treatment for malaria. Knowledge of appropriate use and
dosage was poor. Revalenta Arabica was sold in the 18th century as an empirical diet for invalids, extraordinary
restorative virtues being attributed to it.

History of quackery in Europe and the United States

With little understanding of the causes and mechanisms of illnesses, widely marketed "cures" (as opposed to locally
produced and locally used remedies), often referred to as patent medicines, first came to prominence during the 17th
and 18th centuries in Britain and the British colonies, including those in North America. Daffy's Elixir and
Turlington's Balsam were among the first products that used branding (e.g., using highly distinctive containers) and
mass marketing to create and maintain markets.[5] A similar process occurred in other countries of Europe around the
same time, for example with the marketing of Eau de Cologne as a cure-all medicine by Johann Maria Farina and his
imitators. Patent medicines often contained alcohol or opium.
The number of internationally marketed quack medicines increased in the later 18th century; the majority of them
originated in Britain[6] and were exported throughout the British Empire. These treatments were so popular that by
1830, British parliamentary records list over 1,300 different "proprietary medicines,"[7] the majority of which were
"quack" cures by modern standards.
Quackery 7

In 1909, in an attempt to stop the sale of such

medicines, the British Medical Association published
Secret Remedies, What They Cost And What They
Contain. The publication was composed of 20 chapters,
organising the work by sections according to the
ailments the medicines claimed to treat. Each remedy
was tested thoroughly, the preface stated: “Of the
accuracy of the analytical data there can be no question;
the investigation has been carried out with great care by
a skilled analytical chemist.” The book did lead to the
end of some of the quack cures, but some survived the
book by several decades. For example, Beecham's Pills
Dalbys Carminative, Daffy's Elixir and Turlingtons Balsam of Life
(identified as containing only aloes, ginger and soap,
bottles dating to the late 18th and early 19th centuries. These
"typical" patent or quack medicines were marketed in very different, but claiming to cure 31 medical conditions) were still
and highly distinctive, bottles. Each brand retained the same basic on sale in 1997.[8]
appearance for over 100 years.
British patent medicines started to lose their dominance
in the United States when they were denied access to the American market during the American Revolution, and lost
further ground for the same reason during the War of 1812. From the early 19th century "home-grown" American
brands started to fill the gap, reaching their peak in the years after the American Civil War.[6] [9] British medicines
never regained their previous dominance in North America, and the subsequent era of mass marketing of American
patent medicines is usually considered to have been a "golden age" of quackery in the United States. This was
mirrored by similar growth in marketing of quack medicines elsewhere in the world.

The Dutch Society Against Quackery was established in 1880. Within a short time the Society grew to more than
1,100 members. Initially, quackery mainly consisted of the unauthorized practice of medicine and the peddling of
"secret remedies". By the 1950s, their energy mostly shifted to magnetizers. Since the 1980s the society fights
against so-called alternative medicine. Their primary targets are Chinese acupuncture, homeopathy, manipulative
therapy, anthroposophical medicine, and naturopathy.[10]
In the United States, false medicines in this era were often denoted by the
slang term snake oil, a reference to sales pitches for the false medicines that
claimed exotic ingredients provided the supposed benefits but also an actual
brand sold by the Rockafellers that made them considerable money. Those
who sold them were called "snake oil salesmen," and usually sold their
medicines with a fervent pitch similar to a fire and brimstone religious
sermon. They often accompanied other theatrical and entertainment
productions that traveled as a road show from town to town, leaving quickly
before the falseness of their medicine was discovered. Not all quacks were
restricted to such small-time businesses however, and a number, especially in
the United States, became enormously wealthy through national and
international sales of their products.

One among many examples is that of William Radam, a German immigrant

to the USA who, in the 1880s, started to sell his "Microbe Killer" throughout
the United States and, soon afterwards, in Britain and throughout the British
colonies. His concoction was widely advertised as being able to "Cure All
Clark Stanley's Snake Oil
Quackery 8

Diseases" (W. Radam, 1890) and this phrase was even embossed on the glass bottles the medicine was sold in. In
fact, Radam's medicine was a therapeutically useless (and in large quantities actively poisonous) dilute solution of
sulfuric acid, coloured with a little red wine.[9] Radam's publicity material, particularly his books (see for example
Radam, 1890), provide an insight into the role that pseudo-science played in the development and marketing of
"quack" medicines towards the end of the 19th century.
Similar advertising claims[11] to those of Radam can be found throughout the 18th, 19th, 20th and 21st centuries.
"Dr." Sibley, an English patent medicine seller of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, even went so far as to claim
that his Reanimating Solar Tincture would, as the name implies, "restore life in the event of sudden death". Another
English quack, "Dr. Solomon" claimed that his Cordial Balm of Gilead cured almost anything, but was particularly
effective against all venereal complaints, from gonorrhoea to onanism. Although it was basically just brandy
flavoured with herbs, it retailed widely at 33 shillings a bottle in the period of the Napoleonic wars, the equivalent of
over $100 per bottle today.
Not all patent medicines were without merit. Turlingtons Balsam of Life, first marketed in the mid-18th century, did
have genuinely beneficial properties. This medicine continued to be sold under the original name into the early 20th
century, and can still be found in the British and American Pharmacopoeias as "Compound tincture of benzoin". It
can be argued that for some of these medicines this is an example of the infinite monkey theorem in action.
The end of the road for the quack medicines now considered grossly fraudulent in the nations of North America and
Europe came in the early 20th century. February 21, 1906 saw the passage into law of the Pure Food and Drug Act in
the United States. This was the result of decades of campaigning by both government departments and the medical
establishment, supported by a number of publishers and journalists (one of the most effective of whom was Samuel
Hopkins Adams, whose series "The Great American Fraud" was published in Colliers Weekly starting in late 1905).
This American Act was followed three years later by similar legislation in Britain, and in other European nations.
Between them, these laws began to remove the more outrageously dangerous contents from patent and proprietary
medicines, and to force quack medicine proprietors to stop making some of their more blatantly dishonest claims.
Medical quackery and promotion of nostrums and worthless drugs were among the most prominent abuses that led to
formal self-regulation in business and, in turn, to the creation of the NBBB.[12]

Quackery in contemporary culture

"Quackery is the promotion of false and unproven health schemes for a profit. It is rooted in the traditions of the
marketplace", with "commercialism overwhelming professionalism in the marketing of alternative medicine".[13]
Considered by many an archaic term, quackery is most often used to denote the peddling of the "cure-alls" described
above. Quackery continues even today; it can be found in any culture and in every medical tradition. Unlike other
advertising mediums, rapid advancements in communication through the Internet have opened doors for an
unregulated market of quack cures and marketing campaigns rivaling the early 1900s. Most people with an e-mail
account have experienced the marketing tactics of spamming—in which modern forms of quackery are touted as
miraculous remedies for "weight-loss" and "sexual enhancement," as well as outlets for unprescribed medicines of
unknown quality.
While quackery is often aimed at the aged or chronically ill, it can be aimed at all age groups, including teens, and
the FDA has mentioned[14] some areas where potential quackery may be a problem: breast developers, weight loss,
steroids and growth hormones, tanning and tanning pills, hair removal and growth, and look-alike drugs.
In a 1992 article in the journal Clinical Chemistry, then president of The National Council Against Health Fraud,
William T. Jarvis, wrote:
"The U.S. Congress determined quackery to be the most harmful consumer fraud against elderly people.
Americans waste $27 billion annually on questionable health care, exceeding the amount spent on biomedical
research. Quackery is characterized by the promotion of false and unproven health schemes for profit and does
Quackery 9

not necessarily involve imposture, fraud, or greed. The real issues in the war against quackery are the
principles, including scientific rationale, encoded into consumer protection laws, primarily the U.S. Food,
Drug, and Cosmetic Act. More such laws are badly needed. Regulators are failing the public by enforcing laws
inadequately, applying double standards, and accrediting pseudomedicine. Non-scientific health care (e.g.,
acupuncture, ayurvedic medicine, chiropractic, homeopathy, naturopathy) is licensed by individual states.
Practitioners use unscientific practices and deception on a public who, lacking complex health-care
knowledge, must rely upon the trustworthiness of providers. Quackery not only harms people, it undermines
the scientific enterprise and should be actively opposed by every scientist."[15]
For those in the practice of any medicine, to allege quackery is to level a serious objection to a particular form of
practice. Most developed countries have a governmental agency, such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
in the US, whose purpose is to monitor and regulate the safety of medications as well as the claims made by the
manufacturers of new and existing products, including drugs and nutritional supplements or vitamins. The Federal
Trade Commission (FTC) also participates in some of these efforts.[16] To better address less regulated products, in
2000, US President Clinton signed Executive Order 13147 that created the White House Commission on
Complementary and Alternative Medicine. In 2002, the commission's final report made several suggestions
regarding education, research, implementation, and reimbursement as ways to evaluate the risks and benefits of
each.[17] As a direct result, more public dollars have been allocated for research into some of these methods.
Individuals and non-governmental agencies are active in attempts to expose quackery. According to Norcross et al.
(2006) several authors have attempted to identify quack psychotherapies; (e.g., Carroll, 2003; Della Sala, 1999;
Eisner, 2000; Lilienfeld, Lynn, & Rohr 2003; Singer and Lalich 1996). The evidence based practice (EBP)
movement in mental health emphasizes the consensus in psychology that psychological practice should rely on
empirical research. There are also "anti-quackery" web sites, such as Quackwatch,[18] which help consumers
evaluate particular claims.[19] Quackwatch's information is relevant to both consumers and medical professionals.[20]

People's Republic of China

Zhang Wuben, a quack who posed as skilled in traditional Chinese medicine in the People's Republic of China,
based his operation on representations that raw eggplant and mung beans were a general cure-all. Zhang, who has
escaped legal liability as he portrayed himself as a nutritionist, not a doctor, appeared on television in China and
authored a best-selling book, Eat Away the Diseases You Get from Eating. Zhang, who charged the equivalent of
$450 for a 10 minute examination, had a two-year waiting list when he was exposed. Investigations, launched after
the popularity of his theories resulted in a run on mung beans, revealed that, contrary to his representations, he did
not come from a family of accomplished traditional practitioners (中医世家) and never had the medical degree from
Beijing Medical University he claimed to have. His only education was a brief correspondence course completed, or
night school course, after he was laid off from a textile factory. Zhang, despite negative publicity on the national
level, continues to practice, but has committed himself to finding a cheaper cure-all than mung beans. His clinic,
Wuben Hall, adjacent to Beijing National Stadium, was torn down as an illegal structure. Much of Zhang Wuben's
success was due to the efforts of Chinese entrepreneurs, including one government-owned company, who promoted
him.[21] [22] [23]
Hu Wanlin, who did hold himself out as a doctor, was exposed in 2000 and sentenced to 15 years in prison. He
adulterated his concoctions with sodium sulphate, Glauber's salt, a poison in large doses. That case resulted in
creating a system of licensing medical doctors in China.[23]
Quackery 10

Presence and acceptance

Opponents of quackery have suggested several reasons why quackery is accepted by patients in spite of its lack of
effectiveness:
• Ignorance: Those who perpetuate quackery may do so to take advantage of ignorance about conventional
medical treatments versus alternative treatments, or may themselves be ignorant regarding their own claims.
Mainstream medicine has produced many remarkable advances, so people may tend to also believe groundless
claims.
• The placebo effect: Medicines or treatments known to have no pharmacological effect on a disease can still
affect a person's perception of their illness, and this belief in its turn does indeed sometimes have a therapeutic
effect, causing the patient's condition to improve. This is not to say that no real cure of biological illness is
effected—though we might describe a placebo effect as being "all in the mind"", we now know that there is a
genuine neurobiological basis to this phenomenon.[24] People report reduced pain, increased well-being,
improvement, or even total alleviation of symptoms. For some, the presence of a caring practitioner and the
dispensation of medicine is curative in itself.
• The regression fallacy: Certain "self-limiting conditions", such as warts and the common cold, almost always
improve, in the latter case in a rather predictable amount of time. A patient may associate the usage of alternative
treatments with recovering, when recovery was inevitable.
• Distrust of conventional medicine: Many people, for various reasons including the risk of side effects, have a
distrust of conventional medicines (or of the regulating organizations themselves such as the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) or the major drug corporations).
• Conspiracy theories: Anti-quackery activists ("quackbusters") are accused of being part of a huge "conspiracy"
to suppress "unconventional" and/or "natural" therapies, as well as those who promote them. It is alleged that this
conspiracy is backed and funded by the pharmaceutical industry and the established medical care system -
represented by the AMA, FDA, ADA, CDC, WHO, etc. - for the purpose of preserving their power and increasing
their profits. In the case of chiropractic, the case for a conspiracy was supported by a court decision, ruling that
the AMA had engaged in an unlawful conspiracy in restraint of trade "to contain and eliminate the chiropractic
profession."[25] [26] [27]
• Fear of side effects: A great variety of pharmaceutical medications can have very distressing side effects, and
many people fear surgery and its consequences, so they may opt to shy away from these mainstream treatments.
• Cost: There are some people who simply cannot afford conventional treatment, and seek out a cheaper
alternative. Nonconventional practitioners can often dispense treatment at a much lower cost.
• Desperation: People with a serious or terminal disease, or who have been told by their practitioner that their
condition is "untreatable," may react by seeking out treatment, disregarding the lack of scientific proof for its
effectiveness, or even the existence of evidence that the method is ineffective or even dangerous.
• Pride: Once a person has endorsed or defended a cure, or invested time and money in it, they may be reluctant to
admit its ineffectiveness, and therefore recommend the cure that did not work for them to others.
• Fraud: Some practitioners, fully aware of the ineffectiveness of their medicine, may intentionally produce
fraudulent scientific studies and medical test results, thereby confusing any potential consumers as to the
effectiveness of the medical treatment.
Quackery 11

Notable historical persons accused of quackery

• Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815), born Friedrich Anton Mesmer, was a German physician and astrologist,
who invented what he called magnétisme animal.
• Thomas Allinson (1858–1918), founder of naturopathy. His views often brought him into conflict with the Royal
College of Physicians of Edinburgh and the General Medical Council, particularly his opposition to doctors'
frequent use of drugs, his opposition to vaccination and his self promotion in the press.[28] His views and
publication of them led to him being labeled a quack and being struck off by the General Medical Council for
infamous conduct in a professional respect.[29] [30]
• Lovisa Åhrberg (1803–1866), the first Swedish female doctor. Åhrberg was met with strong resistance from
male doctors and was accused of quackery. During the formal examination she was acquitted of all charges and
allowed to practice medicine in Stockholm even though it was forbidden for women in the 1820s. She later
received a medal for her work.
• Johanna Brandt (1876–1964), a South African naturopath who advocated the "Grape Cure" as a cure for
cancer.[31]
• Hulda Regehr Clark (1928–2009), was a controversial naturopath, author, and practitioner of alternative
medicine who claimed to be able to cure all diseases and advocated methods that have no scientific validity.[32]
• Samuel Hahnemann (1755–1843), founder of homeopathy. Hahnemann believed that all diseases were caused
by "miasms," which he defined as irregularities in the patient's vital force.[33] He also said that illnesses could be
treated by substances that in a healthy person produced similar symptoms to the illness, in extremely low
concentrations, with the therapeutic effect increasing with dilution and repeated shaking.[34] [35] [36]
• Lawrence B. Hamlin (in 1916), was fined under the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act for advertising that his
Wizard Oil could kill cancer.[37]
• L. Ron Hubbard (1911–1986), was the founder of the Church of Scientology. He was an American science
fiction writer, former United States Navy officer, and creator of Dianetics.[38] [39] [40]
• John Harvey Kellogg (1852–1943), was a medical doctor in Battle Creek, Michigan, USA who ran a sanitarium
using holistic methods, with a particular focus on nutrition, enemas and exercise. Kellogg was an advocate of
vegetarianism, and is best known for the invention of the corn flake breakfast cereal with his brother, Will Keith
Kellogg.[41]
• D.D. Palmer (1845–1913), was a grocery store owner that claimed to have healed a janitor of deafness after
adjusting the alignment of his back. He founded the field of chiropractic based on the principle that all disease and
ailments could be fixed by adjusting the alignment of someone's back. His hypothesis was disregarded by medical
professionals at the time and despite a considerable following has yet to be scientifically proven.[42] D.D. Palmer
established a magnetic healing facility in Davenport, Iowa, styling himself ‘doctor’. Not everyone was convinced,
as a local paper in 1894 wrote about him: "A crank on magnetism has a crazy notion that he can cure the sick and
crippled with his magnetic hands. His victims are the weak-minded, ignorant and superstitious, those foolish
people who have been sick for years and have become tired of the regular physician and want health by the
short-cut method…he has certainly profited by the ignorance of his victims…His increase in business shows what
can be done in Davenport, even by a quack."[43]
• Ignac Semmelweis (1818–1865), was a Hungarian physician described as the "savior of mothers".[44] Despite
discovering the importance of what later became hand disinfection thus reducing the incidence of puerperal fever,
his theory was regarded with suspicion by many fellow scientists, including his supervisor in the Vienna General
Hospital and later his peers in Budapest as well. Since it happened several decades before the explanation of the
germ theory of disease, many of Semmelweis' contemporaries viewed his theories as unscientific, baseless
speculation not unlike of those of earlier decades.[45] He did not gain recognition in his life (for which he became
rather bitter) nor his death: hardly any medical periodicals took note of his death, only a few people attended his
Quackery 12

funeral and the Hungarian Association of Physicians and Natural Scientist has failed to even mention his
death.[46] He was vindicated only after the confirmation of the germ theory of disease by Pasteur and others.
• Louis Pasteur (1822–1895), was a French chemist best known for his remarkable breakthroughs in
microbiology. His experiments confirmed the germ theory of disease, also reducing mortality from puerperal
fever (childbed), and he created the first vaccine for rabies. He is best known to the general public for showing
how to stop milk and wine from going sour - this process came to be called pasteurization. His hypotheses
initially met with much hostility, and he was accused of quackery on multiple occasions. However, he is now
regarded as one of the three main founders of microbiology, together with Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch.[47]
• Linus Pauling (1901–1994), a Nobel Prize winner in chemistry, Pauling spent much of his later career arguing
for the treatment of somatic and psychological diseases with orthomolecular medicine. One of his most famous
claims was that the common cold could be cured with massive doses of vitamin C. Together with Ewan Cameron
he wrote the 1979 book "Cancer and Vitamin C", which was again more popular with the public than the medical
profession, which continued to regard claims about the effectiveness of vitamin C in treating or preventing cancer
as quackery."[48] A biographer has discussed how controversial his views on megadoses of Vitamin C have been
and that he was "still being called a 'fraud' and a 'quack' by opponents of his 'orthomolecular medicine'".[49]

Footnotes
[1] Quackery: How Should It Be Defined? (http:/ / www. quackwatch. org/ 01QuackeryRelatedTopics/ quackdef. html)
[2] "Quack" (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ quack) - Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 7 February 2007.
[3] quacksalver (http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 61/ 60/ Q0006000. html)- American Heritage Dictionary
[4] German-English Glossary of Idioms (http:/ / accurapid. com/ journal/ german-glossary. htm) - Accurapid.com at "quacksalber"
[5] Styles, J (2000) "Product innovation in early modern London." In: Past & Present 168, 124 – 169.
[6] Griffenhagen, George B.; James Harvey Young, "Old English Patent Medicines in America," Contributions from the Museum of History and
Technology (U.S. National Museum Bulletin 218, Smithsonian Institution: Wash., 1959), 155-83.
[7] House of Commons Journal, [[8 April (http:/ / www. british-history. ac. uk/ report. asp?compid=16220)] 1830]
[8] British Medical Association, Secret Remedies. What They Cost And What They Contain, 1909
[9] Young, J. H. (1961) The Toadstool Millionaires: A social history of patent medicines in America before federal regulation. Princeton
University Press. 282pp.
[10] Renckens CN (Dec 2009). "In the interest of all who value their purse and their health: a brief history of the Vereniging tegen de
Kwakzalverij--Society Against Quackery--of the Netherlands". Eval Health Prof 32 (4): 343–8. doi:10.1177/0163278709346814.
PMID 19926608.
[11] Hulda Regehr Clark, The Cure For All Diseases
[12] Ladimer, Irving "The Health Advertising Program of the National Better Business Bureau" (http:/ / www. pubmedcentral. nih. gov/
picrender. fcgi?artid=1256406& blobtype=pdf) A.J.P.H. Vol. 55, No. 8. August 1965
[13] Jarvis WT (Nov 1999). "Quackery: the National Council Against Health Fraud perspective". Rheum Dis Clin North Am 25 (4): 805–14.
doi:10.1016/S0889-857X(05)70101-0. PMID 10573757
[14] " Quackery Targets Teens. (http:/ / www. cfsan. fda. gov/ ~dms/ wh-teen2. html)" U.S. FDA
[15] Jarvis, WT (Aug 1992). "Quackery: a national scandal". Clinical Chemistry 38 (8B Pt 2): 1574–86. ISSN 0009-9147. PMID 1643742.
[16] FTC: Operation Cure-All (http:/ / www. ftc. gov/ cureall/ ). Federal Trade Commission.
[17] Final report (http:/ / www. whccamp. hhs. gov/ ) of the White House Commission on Complementary and Alternative Medicine (http:/ /
www. presidency. ucsb. edu/ ws/ index. php?pid=61640)
[18] Barrett, Stephen. "Quackwatch" (http:/ / www. quackwatch. org/ ). Your Guide to Quackery, Health Fraud, and Intelligent Decisions
(Quackwatch). . Retrieved 2007-10-13.
[19] Baldwin, Fred D. "If It Quacks Like a Duck ..." (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080206060833/ http:/ / www. medhunters. com/ articles/
ifItQuacksLikeADuck. html). MedHunters. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. medhunters. com/ articles/ ifItQuacksLikeADuck. html)
on 2008-02-06. . Retrieved 2007-10-13.
[20] Nguyen-Khoa, Bao-Anh (July 1999). "Selected Web Site Reviews — Quackwatch.com" (http:/ / www. ascp. com/ publications/ tcp/ 1999/
jul/ access. shtml). The Consultant Pharmacist. . Retrieved 2007-01-25.
[21] "Rampant Fraud Threat to China’s Brisk Ascent" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2010/ 10/ 07/ world/ asia/ 07fraud. html) article by Andrew
Jacobs in The New York Times October 6, 2010, accessed October 7, 2010
[22] "Zhang Wuben and the traditional Chinese medicine racket" (http:/ / www. danwei. org/ health_care_diseases_and_pharmaceuticals/
from_laid-off_worker_to_tcm_ma. php) post by Eric Mu on Danwei.org June 18, 2010 11:37 AM, accessed October 7, 2010
[23] "Popular diet guru exposed as fraud" (http:/ / china. globaltimes. cn/ society/ 2010-05/ 536844. html) article in Global Times May 31, 2010,
accessed October 7, 2010
Quackery 13

[24] Benedetti, Fabrizio. Placebo effects: understanding the mechanisms in health and disease. Oxford University Press 2009.
ISBN 978-0-19-955912-1.
[25] Johnson C, Baird R, Dougherty PE et al. (2008). "Chiropractic and public health: current state and future vision" (http:/ / jmptonline. org/
article/ PIIS0161475408001784/ fulltext). J Manipulative Physiol Ther 31 (6): 397–410. doi:10.1016/j.jmpt.2008.07.001. PMID 18722194. .
[26] Cherkin D (1989). "AMA policy on chiropractic". Am J Public Health 79 (11): 1569–70. doi:10.2105/AJPH.79.11.1569-a. PMC 1349822.
PMID 2817179.
[27] Cooper RA, McKee HJ (2003). "Chiropractic in the United States: trends and issues". Milbank Q 81 (1): 107–38.
doi:10.1111/1468-0009.00040. PMID 12669653.
[28] Scott CJ (1999). "The Life and Trials of TR Allinson ex L.R.C.P.ED 1858-1918". Proc. R. Coll. Physicians Edinb. 29 (3): 258–261.
PMID 11624001
[29] "Diet advice 1893 style lost doctor his job" (http:/ / www. express. co. uk/ posts/ view/ 30137/ Diet-advice-1893-style-lost-doctor-his-job).
Daily Express. 2 January 2008. .
[30] Janet Smith (27 January 2005). The Shipman Inquiry (http:/ / www. the-shipman-inquiry. org. uk/ 5r_page. asp?id=4717). Department of
Health.
[31] The Grape Cure (http:/ / www. quackwatch. org/ 01QuackeryRelatedTopics/ Cancer/ grape. html). Quackwatch.
[32] The Bizarre Claims of Hulda Clark (http:/ / www. quackwatch. org/ 01QuackeryRelatedTopics/ Cancer/ clark. html). Quackwatch.
[33] Samuel Hahnemann. "Organon, 5th edition, para 29" (http:/ / www. homeopathyhome. com/ reference/ organon/ 10. html). Homeopathy
Home.com.. . Retrieved 2007-10-22.
[34] "The Life and Letters of Dr Samuel Hahnemann" (http:/ / homeoint. org/ books4/ bradford/ chapter20. htm). . Retrieved 2007-12-24.
[35] Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. (1842). Homoeópathy and its kindred delusions: Two lectures delivered before the Boston Society for the
Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Boston, reprinted in Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. (1861). Currents and Counter-currents in Medical Science
(http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=c8MNAAAAYAAJ). Ticknor and Fields. pp. 72–188. .
[36] Michael Emmans Dean (2001). "Homeopathy and the "Progress of Science" (http:/ / shpltd. co. uk/ dean-homeopathy. pdf) (PDF). Hist. Sci.
xxxix. doi:0073-2753/01/3903-0255. .
[37] E.C. Alft. "Chapter 7: Good Old Days" (http:/ / www. elginhistory. com/ dgb/ ch07. htm). Elgin: Days Gone By. Elgin History. . Retrieved
2009-09-25.
[38] FBI files on L Ron Hubbard (http:/ / www. xenu. net/ archive/ FBI/ fbi-80. html), Operation Clambake
[39] Virginia Linn (July 24, 2005). "L. Ron Hubbard" (http:/ / www. rickross. com/ reference/ scientology/ scien515. html). Pittsburgh
Post-Gazette.
[40] David S. Touretzky. Secrets of Scientology: The E-Meter (http:/ / www. cs. cmu. edu/ ~dst/ Secrets/ E-Meter/ ). Computer Science
Department & Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University.
[41] "John Harvey Kellogg" (http:/ / www. museumofquackery. com/ amquacks/ kellogg. htm). Museum of Quackery. .
[42] Carl Cleveland (July 1952). History of Chiropractic
[43] Colquhoun, D (Jul 2008). "Doctor Who? Inappropriate use of titles by some alternative "medicine" practitioners" (http:/ / www. nzma. org.
nz/ journal/ 121-1278/ 3158/ ). The New Zealand medical journal 121 (1278): 6–10. ISSN 0028-8446. PMID 18670469. .
[44] Hanninen, O.; Farago, M.; Monos, E. (September–October 1983). "Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis, the prophet of bacteriology" (http:/ / web.
archive. org/ web/ 20080404214853/ http:/ / www. general-anaesthesia. com/ semmelweis. htm). Infection Control 4 (5): 367–370.
PMID 6354955. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. general-anaesthesia. com/ semmelweis. htm) on April 4, 2008. . Retrieved October
26, 2009. "Only the clinical facts proved him right during his lifetime; the triumph of bacteriology which began after his death made him not
only the "savior of mothers" but also a genial ancestor of bacteriology."
[45] From his Collected Papers on Scientific Medicine Virchow, Rudolf (1856). Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur wissenschaftlichen Medicin.
(Frankfurt am Main: Meidinger and Sohn. pp. 737. quoted in Semmelweis (1861):228 (translator Carter's note 75)
[46] Carter, K. Codell; Carter, Barbara R. (February 1, 2005). Childbed fever. A scientific biography of Ignaz Semmelweis. Transaction
Publishers. ISBN 9781412804677
[47] John W. Campbell, Jr., ed (June 1964). Louis Pasteur, Medical Quack. Analog
[48] Dunitz, Jack D. (November 1996). "Linus Carl Pauling, 28 February 1901–19 August 1994" (http:/ / www. nap. edu/ readingroom.
php?book=biomems& page=lpauling. html). Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 42: 316–338.
doi:10.1098/rsbm.1996.0020.
[49] Thomas Blair. Linus Pauling: Nobel Laureate for Peace and Chemistry 1901-1994 (http:/ / www. harvardsquarelibrary. org/ unitarians/
pauling. html)
Quackery 14

References
• Carroll, 2003. The Skeptics Dictionary (http://skepdic.com/). New York: Wiley.
• Della Sala, 1999. Mind Myths: Exploring Popular Assumptions about the Mind and Brain. New York: Wiley.
• Eisner, 2000. The Death of Psychotherapy; From Freud to Alien Abductions. Westport; CT: Praegner.
• Lilienfeld, SO., Lynn, SJ., Lohr, JM. 2003; Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology. New York.
Guildford
• Norcross, JC, Garofalo.A, Koocher.G. (2006) Discredited Psychological Treatments and Tests; A Delphi Poll.
Professional Psychology; Research and Practice. vol37. No 5. 515-522
• Radam, W. (1890) Microbes and the microbe killer. New York: The Knickerbocker Press. 369pp.

External links
Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). "Quack". Encyclopædia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press.
• Quackery (http://www.dmoz.org//Society/Issues/Health/Fraud/Quackery//) at the Open Directory Project
• Medline Plus - entry on Health Fraud (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthfraud.html)
• How to Spot Health Fraud (http://www.fda.gov/Fdac/features/1999/699_fraud.html) Article from the Food
and Drug Administration
• 'Miracle' Health Claims: Add a Dose of Skepticism (http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/edu/pubs/consumer/health/
hea07.shtm) Article at the Federal Trade Comiision
• Museum of Questionable Medical Devices (http://www.museumofquackery.com) - Science Museum of
Minnesota
• " Quackery (http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/smm04)." Handbook of Texas.

Pseudoscience
Pseudoscience is a claim, belief, or practice which is presented as scientific, but which does not adhere to a valid
scientific method, lacks supporting evidence or plausibility, cannot be reliably tested, or otherwise lacks scientific
status.[1] Pseudoscience is often characterized by the use of vague, exaggerated or unprovable claims, an
over-reliance on confirmation rather than rigorous attempts at refutation, a lack of openness to evaluation by other
experts, and a general absence of systematic processes to rationally develop theories.
Distinguishing scientific facts and theories from pseudoscientific beliefs such as those found in astrology, medical
quackery, and occult beliefs combined with scientific concepts, is part of science education and scientific literacy.[2]
The term pseudoscience is often considered inherently pejorative, because it suggests that something is being
inaccurately or even deceptively portrayed as science.[3] Accordingly, those labeled as practicing or advocating
pseudoscience normally dispute the characterization.[3]

Etymology
The word "pseudoscience" is derived from the Greek root pseudo meaning false and the Latin word scientia meaning
knowledge. Although the term "pseudoscience" has been in use since at least the late 18th century (used in 1796 in
reference to alchemy,[4] [5] ) the concept of pseudoscience as distinct from real or proper science appears to have
emerged in the mid-19th century. Among the first recorded uses of the word "pseudo-science" was in 1844 in the
Northern Journal of Medicine, I 387: "That opposite kind of innovation which pronounces what has been recognized
as a branch of science, to have been a pseudo-science, composed merely of so-called facts, connected together by
misapprehensions under the disguise of principles". An earlier recorded use of the term was in 1843 by the French
physiologist François Magendie.[6]
Pseudoscience 15

Overview
While the standards for determining whether a body of knowledge,
methodology, or practice is scientific can vary from field to field, there
are a number of basic principles that are widely agreed upon by
scientists. The basic notion is that all experimental results should be
reproducible, and able to be verified by other individuals.[8] These
principles aim to ensure that experiments can be measurably
reproduced under the same conditions, allowing further investigation to
determine whether a hypothesis or theory related to given phenomena
is both valid and reliable. Standards require that the scientific method
will be applied throughout, and that bias will be controlled for or
eliminated through randomization, fair sampling procedures, blinding
of studies, and other methods. All gathered data, including the
experimental or environmental conditions, are expected to be
documented for scrutiny and made available for peer review, allowing
further experiments or studies to be conducted to confirm or falsify A typical 19th century phrenology chart. In the
results. Statistical quantification of significance, confidence, and 1820s, phrenologists claimed that the mind was
located in areas of the brain, and were attacked
error[9] are also important tools for the scientific method.
for doubting that mind came from the
non-material soul. Their idea of reading "bumps"
In the mid-20th century Karl Popper put forth the criterion of in the skull to predict personality traits was later
falsifiability to distinguish science from non-science.[10] Falsifiability [7]
discredited. Phrenology was first called a
means that a result can be disproved. For example, a statement such as pseudoscience in 1843 and continues to be
[6]
considered so.
"God created the universe" may be true or false, but no tests can be
devised that could prove it either way; it simply lies outside the reach
of science. Popper used astrology and psychoanalysis as examples of pseudoscience and Einstein's theory of
relativity as an example of science. He subdivided non-science into philosophical, mathematical, mythological,
religious and/or metaphysical formulations on the one hand, and pseudoscientific formulations on the other, though
he did not provide clear criteria for the differences.[11]

In 1978, Paul Thagard proposed that pseudoscience is primarily distinguishable from science when it is less
progressive than alternative theories over a long period of time, and its proponents fail to acknowledge or address
problems with the theory.[12] In 1983, Mario Bunge has suggested the categories of "belief fields" and "research
fields" to help distinguish between science and pseudoscience, where the first is primarily personal and subjective
and the latter involves a certain systematic approach.[13]
Philosophers of science such as Paul Feyerabend have argued from a sociology of knowledge perspective that a
distinction between science and non-science is neither possible nor desirable.[14] [15] Among the issues which can
make the distinction difficult is variable rates of evolution among the theories and methodologies of science in
response to new data.[16] In addition, specific standards applicable to one field of science may not be employed in
other fields.
Larry Laudan has suggested that pseudoscience has no scientific meaning and is mostly used to describe our
emotions: "If we would stand up and be counted on the side of reason, we ought to drop terms like 'pseudo-science'
and 'unscientific' from our vocabulary; they are just hollow phrases which do only emotive work for us".[17]
Likewise, Richard McNally states that "The term 'pseudoscience' has become little more than an inflammatory
buzzword for quickly dismissing one’s opponents in media sound-bites" and that "When therapeutic entrepreneurs
make claims on behalf of their interventions, we should not waste our time trying to determine whether their
interventions qualify as pseudoscientific. Rather, we should ask them: How do you know that your intervention
works? What is your evidence?"[18]
Pseudoscience 16

Identifying pseudoscience
A field, practice, or body of knowledge might reasonably be called pseudoscientific when (1) it is presented as
consistent with the norms of scientific research; but (2) it demonstrably fails to meet these norms.[19]
Karl Popper stated that it is insufficient to distinguish science from pseudoscience, or from metaphysics, by the
criterion of rigorous adherence to the empirical method, which is essentially inductive, based on observation or
experimentation.[20] He proposed a method to distinguish between genuine empirical, non-empirical or even
pseudo-empirical methods. The latter case was exemplified by astrology which appeals to observation and
experimentation. While it had astonishing empirical evidence based on observation, on horoscopes and biographies it
crucially failed to adhere to acceptable scientific standards.[20] Popper proposed falsifiability as an important
criterion in distinguishing science from pseudoscience. To demonstrate this point, Popper[20] gave two cases of
human behavior and typical explanations from Freud and Adler's theories: "that of a man who pushes a child into the
water with the intention of drowning it; and that of a man who sacrifices his life in an attempt to save the child."[20]
From Freud's perspective, the first man would have suffered from psychological repression, probably originating
from an Oedipus complex whereas the second had attained sublimation. From Adler's perspective, the first and
second man suffered from feelings of inferiority and had to prove himself which drove him to commit the crime or,
in the second case, rescue the child. Popper was not able to find any counter-examples of human behavior in which
the behavior could not be explained in the terms of Adler's or Freud's theory. Popper argued[20] that it was that the
observation always fitted or confirmed the theory which, rather than being its strength, was actually its weakness. In
contrast, Popper[20] gave the example of Einstein's gravitational theory which predicted that "light must be attracted
by heavy bodies (such as the sun), precisely as material bodies were attracted."[20] Following from this, stars closer
to the sun would appear to have moved a small distance away from the sun, and away from each other. This
prediction was particularly striking to Popper because it involved considerable risk. The brightness of the sun
prevented this effect from being observed under normal circumstances, so photographs had to be taken during an
eclipse and compared to photographs taken at night. Popper states, "If observation shows that the predicted effect is
definitely absent, then the theory is simply refuted."[20] Popper summed up his criterion for the scientific status of a
theory as depending on its falsifiability, refutability, or testability.
Paul R. Thagard used astrology as a case study to distinguish science from pseudoscience and proposed principles
and criteria to delineate them.[21] First, astrology has not progressed in that it has not been updated nor added any
explanatory power since Ptolemy. Second, it has ignored outstanding problems such as the precession of equinoxes
in astronomy. Third, alternative theories of personality and behavior have grown progressively to encompass
explanations of phenomena which astrology statically attributes to heavenly forces. Fourth, astrologers have
remained uninterested in furthering the theory to deal with outstanding problems or in critically evaluating the theory
in relation to other theories. Thagard intended this criterion to be extended to areas other than astrology. He believed
that it would delineate pseudoscientific practices as witchcraft and pyramidology, while leaving physics, chemistry
and biology in the realm of science. Biorhythms, which like astrology relied uncritically on birth dates, did not meet
the criterion of pseudoscience at the time because there were no alternative explanations for the same observations.
The use of this criterion has the consequence that a theory can at one time be scientific and at another
pseudoscientific.[21]
Science is also distinguishable from revelation, theology, or spirituality in that it offers insight into the physical
world obtained by empirical research and testing.[22] For this reason, the teaching of creation science and intelligent
design has been strongly condemned in position statements from scientific organisations.[23] The most notable
disputes concern the evolution of living organisms, the idea of common descent, the geologic history of the Earth,
the formation of the solar system, and the origin of the universe.[24] Systems of belief that derive from divine or
inspired knowledge are not considered pseudoscience if they do not claim either to be scientific or to overturn
well-established science. Moreover, some specific religious claims, such as the power of intercessory prayer to heal
the sick can be tested by the scientific method, though they may be based on non-testable beliefs.
Pseudoscience 17

Some statements and commonly held beliefs in popular science may not meet the criteria of science. "Pop" science
may blur the divide between science and pseudoscience among the general public, and may also involve science
fiction.[25] Indeed, pop science is disseminated to, and can also easily emanate from, persons not accountable to
scientific methodology and expert peer review.
If the claims of a given field can be experimentally tested and methodological standards are upheld, it is not
"pseudoscience", however odd, astonishing, or counter-intuitive. If claims made are inconsistent with existing
experimental results or established theory, but the methodology is sound, caution should be used; science consists of
testing hypotheses which may turn out to be false. In such a case, the work may be better described as ideas that are
not yet generally accepted. Protoscience is a term sometimes used to describe a hypothesis that has not yet been
adequately tested by the scientific method, but which is otherwise consistent with existing science or which, where
inconsistent, offers reasonable account of the inconsistency. It may also describe the transition from a body of
practical knowledge into a scientific field.[26]
An example of characterization as pseudoscience by a national scientific body is provided by the US National
Science Foundation (NSF), whose statements are generally recognized to harmonize with the scientific consensus in
the United States.[27] In 2006 the NSF issued an executive summary of a paper on science and engineering which
briefly discussed the prevalence of pseudoscience in modern times. It said that "belief in pseudoscience is
widespread" and, referencing a Gallup Poll,[28] stated that belief in the ten commonly believed examples of
paranormal phenomena listed in the poll were "pseudoscientific beliefs". The ten items were: "extrasensory
perception (ESP), that houses can be haunted, ghosts, telepathy, clairvoyance, astrology, that people can
communicate mentally with someone who has died, witches, reincarnation, and channelling."[27]
The following are some of the indicators of the possible presence of pseudoscience.

Use of vague, exaggerated or untestable claims

• Assertion of scientific claims that are vague rather than precise, and that lack specific measurements.[29]
• Failure to make use of operational definitions (i.e. publicly accessible definitions of the variables, terms, or
objects of interest so that persons other than the definer can independently measure or test them).[30] (See also:
Reproducibility)
• Failure to make reasonable use of the principle of parsimony, i.e. failing to seek an explanation that requires the
fewest possible additional assumptions when multiple viable explanations are possible (see: Occam's razor)[31]
• Use of obscurantist language, and use of apparently technical jargon in an effort to give claims the superficial
trappings of science.
• Lack of boundary conditions: Most well-supported scientific theories possess well-articulated limitations under
which the predicted phenomena do and do not apply.[32]
• Lack of effective controls, such as placebo and double-blind, in experimental design.

Over-reliance on confirmation rather than refutation

• Assertions that do not allow the logical possibility that they can be shown to be false by observation or physical
experiment (see also: falsifiability)[33]
• Assertion of claims that a theory predicts something that it has not been shown to predict.[34] Scientific claims
that do not confer any predictive power are considered at best "conjectures", or at worst "pseudoscience" (e.g.
Ignoratio elenchi)[35]
• Assertion that claims which have not been proven false must be true, and vice versa (see: Argument from
ignorance)[36]
• Over-reliance on testimonial, anecdotal evidence, or personal experience. This evidence may be useful for the
context of discovery (i.e. hypothesis generation) but should not be used in the context of justification (e.g.
Statistical hypothesis testing).[37]
Pseudoscience 18

• Presentation of data that seems to support its claims while suppressing or refusing to consider data that conflict
with its claims.[38] This is an example of selection bias, a distortion of evidence or data that arises from the way
that the data are collected. It is sometimes referred to as the selection effect.
• Reversed burden of proof. In science, the burden of proof rests on those making a claim, not on the critic.
"Pseudoscientific" arguments may neglect this principle and demand that skeptics demonstrate beyond a
reasonable doubt that a claim (e.g. an assertion regarding the efficacy of a novel therapeutic technique) is false. It
is essentially impossible to prove a universal negative, so this tactic incorrectly places the burden of proof on the
skeptic rather than the claimant.[39]
• Appeals to holism as opposed to reductionism: Proponents of pseudoscientific claims, especially in organic
medicine, alternative medicine, naturopathy and mental health, often resort to the "mantra of holism" to explain
negative findings.[40]

Lack of openness to testing by other experts

• Evasion of peer review before publicizing results (called "science by press conference").[41] Some proponents of
theories that contradict accepted scientific theories avoid subjecting their ideas to peer review, sometimes on the
grounds that peer review is biased towards established paradigms, and sometimes on the grounds that assertions
cannot be evaluated adequately using standard scientific methods. By remaining insulated from the peer review
process, these proponents forgo the opportunity of corrective feedback from informed colleagues.[42]
• Some agencies, institutions, and publications that fund scientific research require authors to share data so that
others can evaluate a paper independently. Failure to provide adequate information for other researchers to
reproduce the claims contributes to a lack of openness.[43]
• Appealing to the need for secrecy or proprietary knowledge when an independent review of data or methodology
is requested.[43]

Absence of progress
• Failure to progress towards additional evidence of its claims.[44] Terence Hines has identified astrology as a
subject that has changed very little in the past two millennia.[45] (see also: Scientific progress)
• Lack of self correction: scientific research programmes make mistakes, but they tend to eliminate these errors
over time.[46] By contrast, theories may be accused of being pseudoscientific because they have remained
unaltered despite contradictory evidence. The work Scientists Confront Velikovsky (1976) Cornell University, also
delves into these features in some detail, as does the work of Thomas Kuhn, e.g. The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions (1962) which also discusses some of the items on the list of characteristics of pseudoscience.
• Statistical significance of supporting experimental results does not improve over time and are usually close to the
cutoff for statistical significance. Normally, experimental techniques improve or the experiments are repeated and
this gives ever stronger evidence. If statistical significance does not improve, this typically shows that the
experiments have just been repeated until a success occurs due to chance variations.
Pseudoscience 19

Personalization of issues
• Tight social groups and authoritarian personality, suppression of dissent, and groupthink can enhance the adoption
of beliefs that have no rational basis. In attempting to confirm their beliefs, the group tends to identify their critics
as enemies.[47]
• Assertion of claims of a conspiracy on the part of the scientific community to suppress the results.[48]
• Attacking the motives or character of anyone who questions the claims (see Ad hominem fallacy).[49]

Use of misleading language

• Creating scientific-sounding terms in order to add weight to claims and persuade non-experts to believe
statements that may be false or meaningless. For example, a long-standing hoax refers to water by the rarely used
formal name "dihydrogen monoxide" (DHMO) and describes it as the main constituent in most poisonous
solutions to show how easily the general public can be misled.
• Using established terms in idiosyncratic ways, thereby demonstrating unfamiliarity with mainstream work in the
discipline.

Demographics
The National Science Foundation stated that, in the USA, "pseudoscientific" beliefs became more widespread during
the 1990s, peaked near 2001 and have declined slightly since; nevertheless, pseudoscientific beliefs remain common
in the USA.[50] As a result, according to the NSF report, there is a lack of knowledge of pseudoscientific issues in
society and pseudoscientific practices are commonly followed. Bunge states that "A survey on public knowledge of
science in the United States showed that in 1988 50% of American adults [rejected] evolution, and 88% believed
astrology is a science."[51] Other surveys indicate that about a third of all adult Americans consider astrology to be
scientific.[52] [53] [54]

Psychological explanations
Pseudoscientific thinking has been explained in terms of psychology and social psychology. The human proclivity
for seeking confirmation rather than refutation (confirmation bias),[55] the tendency to hold comforting beliefs, and
the tendency to overgeneralize have been proposed as reasons for the common adherence to pseudoscientific
thinking. According to Beyerstein (1991), humans are prone to associations based on resemblances only, and often
prone to misattribution in cause-effect thinking.
Lindeman argues that social motives (i.e., "to comprehend self and the world, to have a sense of control over
outcomes, to belong, to find the world benevolent and to maintain one’s self-esteem") are often "more easily"
fulfilled by pseudoscience than by scientific information.[56] Furthermore, pseudoscientific explanations are
generally not analyzed rationally, but instead experientially. Operating within a different set of rules compared to
rational thinking, experiential thinking regards an explanation as valid if the explanation is "personally functional,
satisfying and sufficient", offering a description of the world that may be more personal than can be provided by
science and reducing the amount of potential work involved in understanding complex events and outcomes.[56]

Boundaries between protoscience, science, and pseudoscience

The boundary lines between the science and pseudoscience are disputed and difficult to determine analytically, even
after more than a century of dialogue among philosophers of science and scientists in varied fields, and despite some
basic agreements on the fundaments of scientific methodology.[19] [57] The concept of pseudoscience rests on an
understanding that scientific methodology has been misrepresented or misapplied with respect to a given theory, but
many philosophers of science maintain that different kinds of methods are held as appropriate across different fields
and different eras of human history. According to Imre Lakatos, the typical descriptive unit of great scientific
Pseudoscience 20

achievements is not an isolated hypothesis but "a powerful problem-solving machinery, which digests anomalies and
even turns them into positive evidence."[58] Paul Feyerabend disputes whether any meaningful boundaries can be
drawn between pseudoscience, "real" science, and what he calls "protoscience", especially where there is a
significant cultural or historical distance.

Impacts and concerns

Political implications
The term pseudoscience can also have political implications that eclipse any scientific issues. Imre Lakatos, for
instance, points out that the Communist Party of the Soviet Union at one point declared that Mendelian genetics was
pseudoscientific and had its advocates, including well-established scientists such as Nikolai Vavilov, sent to a
Gulag,[59] and that the "liberal Establishment of the West" denies freedom of speech to topics it regards as
pseudoscience, particularly where they run up against social mores.[60]
The term is used frequently in political, policy-making discourse in allegations of distortion or fabrication of
scientific findings to support a political position.[61] [62]
Pseudoscience can be used to erode public support for scientific research and development[63]

Health and education implications

Distinguishing science from pseudoscience has practical implications in the case of health care, expert testimony,
environmental policies, and science education.[64] Treatments with a patina of scientific authority which have not
actually been subjected to actual scientific testing may be ineffective, expensive, and dangerous to patients, and
confuse health providers, insurers, government decision makers, and the public as to what treatments are
appropriate.[64] Claims advanced by pseudoscience may result in government officials and educators making poor
decisions in selecting curriculum, for example, Creation Science may replace evolution in studies of biology.[64]
The book Trick or Treatment records several occasions where patient's faith in medical pseudoscience has led to
complications, further injury and death.[65]
Pseudoscientific explanations and concepts acquired by students outside of school can be obstacles in science
education.[2]

References
[1] "Pseudoscientific - pretending to be scientific, falsely represented as being scientific", from the Oxford American Dictionary, published by
the Oxford English Dictionary; Hansson, Sven Ove (1996).“Defining Pseudoscience”, Philosophia Naturalis, 33: 169–176, as cited in "Science
and Pseudo-science" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ pseudo-science/ #NonSciPosSci) (2008) in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
The Stanford article states: "Many writers on pseudoscience have emphasized that pseudoscience is non-science posing as science. The
foremost modern classic on the subject (Gardner 1957) bears the title Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. According to Brian Baigrie
(1988, 438), “[w]hat is objectionable about these beliefs is that they masquerade as genuinely scientific ones.” These and many other authors
assume that to be pseudoscientific, an activity or a teaching has to satisfy the following two criteria (Hansson 1996): (1) it is not scientific, and
(2) its major proponents try to create the impression that it is scientific".
• For example, Hewitt et al. Conceptual Physical Science Addison Wesley; 3 edition (July 18, 2003) ISBN 0-321-05173-4, Bennett et al.
The Cosmic Perspective 3e Addison Wesley; 3 edition (July 25, 2003) ISBN 0-8053-8738-2; See also, e.g., Gauch HG Jr. Scientific
Method in Practice (2003).
• A 2006 National Science Foundation report on Science and engineering indicators quoted Michael Shermer's (1997) definition of
pseudoscience: '"claims presented so that they appear [to be] scientific even though they lack supporting evidence and plausibility"(p. 33).
In contrast, science is "a set of methods designed to describe and interpret observed and inferred phenomena, past or present, and aimed at
building a testable body of knowledge open to rejection or confirmation"(p. 17)'.Shermer M. (1997). Why People Believe Weird Things:
Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our Time. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0716730901. as cited by
National Science Board. National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Statistics (2006). "Science and Technology: Public
Attitudes and Understanding" (http:/ / www. nsf. gov/ statistics/ seind06/ c7/ c7s2. htm). Science and engineering indicators 2006. .
Pseudoscience 21

• "A pretended or spurious science; a collection of related beliefs about the world mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method
or as having the status that scientific truths now have," from the Oxford English Dictionary, second edition 1989.
[2] Hurd, P. D. (1998). "Scientific literacy: New minds for a changing world". Science Education, 82, 407–416.
doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-237X(199806)82:3<407::AID-SCE6>3.0.CO;2-G
[3] "Science and Pseudoscience" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ pseudo-science/ #SciPse) in. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy;
Laudan, Larry (1983). “The demise of the demarcation problem”, in R.S. Cohan and L. Laudan (eds.), Physics, Philosophy, and
Psychoanalysiss: Essays in Honor of Adolf Grünbaum, Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science , 76, Dordrecht: D. Reidel, pp. 111–127.
ISBN 90-277-1533-5
[4] " pseudoscience (http:/ / oed. com/ search?searchType=dictionary& q=pseudoscience)". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
2nd ed. 1989.
[5] Andrews, James Pettit; Henry, Robert (1796). History of Great Britain, from the death of Henry VIII to the accession of James VI of Scotland
to the Crown of England (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=QIUUAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA87& dq="pseudo-science"#v=onepage&
q="pseudo-science"& f=true). II. London: T. Cadell and W. Davies. p. 87. . Retrieved 2010-10-11.
[6] Magendie, F (1843) An Elementary Treatise on Human Physiology. 5th Ed. Tr. John Revere. New York: Harper, p 150. Magendie refers to
phrenology as "a pseudo-science of the present day" (note the hyphen).
[7] Bowler, Peter J. (2003). Evolution: The History of an Idea (3rd ed.). University of California Press. ISBN 0-52023693-9. p. 128
[8] e.g. Gauch, Hugh G., Jr. (2003), Scientific Method in Practice, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-01708-4, (http:/ / books. google.
com/ books?id=iVkugqNG9dAC) 435 pages, 3-5 ff
[9] Gauch (2003), 191 ff, especially Chapter 6, "Probability", and Chapter 7, "inductive Logic and Statistics"
[10] Popper, KR (1959) "The Logic of Scientific Discovery". The German version is currently in print by Mohr Siebeck (ISBN 3-16-148410-X),
the English one by Routledge publishers (ISBN 0-415-27844-9).
[11] Karl R. Popper: Science: Conjectures and Refutations. (http:/ / philosophyfaculty. ucsd. edu/ faculty/ rarneson/ Courses/ popperphil1. pdf)
Conjectures and Refutations (1963), p. 43–86;
[12] Paul R. Thagard " Why Astrology is a Pseudoscience (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 192639)" in PSA: Proceedings of the Biennial
Meeting of the Philosophy of Science Association, Vol. 1978, Volume One: Contributed Papers (1978), pp. 223-234, The University of
Chicago Press on behalf of the Philosophy of Science Association 223 ff.
[13] Bunge M (1983) "Demarcating science from pseudoscience" Fundamenta Scientiae 3:369-388
[14] Feyerabend, P. (1975) Against Method: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge ISBN 0860916464 Table of contents and final
chapter (http:/ / www. marxists. org/ reference/ subject/ philosophy/ works/ ge/ feyerabe. htm)
[15] For a perspective on Feyerabend from within the scientific community, see, e.g., Gauch (2003) at p.4: "Such critiques are unfamiliar to most
scientists, although some may have heard a few distant shots from the so-called science wars."
[16] Thagard PR (1978) "Why astrology is a pseudoscience" (1978) In PSA 1978, Volume 1, ed. Asquith PD and Hacking I (East Lansing:
Philosophy of Science Association, 1978) 223 ff. Thagard writes, at 227, 228: "We can now propose the following principle of demarcation: A
theory or discipline which purports to be scientific is pseudoscientific if and only if: it has been less progressive than alternative theories over
a long period of time, and faces many unsolved problems; but the community of practitioners makes little attempt to develop the theory
towards solutions of the problems, shows no concern for attempts to evaluate the theory in relation to others, and is selective in considering
confirmations and non confirmations."
[17] Laudan L (1996) "The demise of the demarcation problem" in Ruse, Michael, But Is It Science?: The Philosophical Question in the
Creation/Evolution Controversy pp. 337-350.
[18] McNally RJ (2003) Is the pseudoscience concept useful for clinical psychology? (http:/ / www. srmhp. org/ 0202/ pseudoscience. html) The
Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice, vol. 2, no. 2 (Fall/Winter 2003)
[19] Cover JA, Curd M (Eds, 1998) Philosophy of Science: The Central Issues, 1-82
[20] Popper, Karl (1963) Conjectures and Refutations.
[21] Thagard PR (1978) "Why astrology is a pseudoscience" (1978)
[22] Stephen Jay Gould, "Nonoverlapping magisteria" (http:/ / www. stephenjaygould. org/ library/ gould_noma. html), Natural History, March,
1997
[23] (http:/ / ncse. com/ media/ voices/ science) National Center for Science Education. Retrieved on 21-05-2010.
[24] Royal Society statement on evolution, creationism and intelligent design http:/ / www. royalsoc. ac. uk/ news. asp?year=& id=4298
[25] Popular Science Feature - When Science Fiction is Science Fact (http:/ / www. popularscience. co. uk/ features/ feat20. htm)
[26] Popper KR op. cit.
[27] National Science Board (2006). "Chapter 7: Science and Technology: Public Attitudes and Understanding" (http:/ / www. nsf. gov/ statistics/
seind06/ c7/ c7s2. htm#c7s2l3). Science and Engineering Indicators 2006. National Science Foundation. Belief in Pseudoscience (see
Footnote 29). . Retrieved 3 March 2010.
[28] Gallup Poll: Belief in paranormal phenomena: 1990, 2001, and 2005 (http:/ / www. nsf. gov/ statistics/ seind06/ c7/ fig07-08. htm). Gallup
Polls, Gallup's original report (http:/ / www. gallup. com/ poll/ 16915/ three-four-americans-believe-paranormal. aspx)
[29] e.g. Gauch (2003) op cit at 211 ff (Probability, "Common Blunders")
[30] Paul Montgomery Churchland, Matter and Consciousness: A Contemporary Introduction to the Philosophy of Mind (1999) MIT Press. p.90
(http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=ISBN0262530740& id=_7CBvggqOE4C& pg=PA90& lpg=PA90& dq="operational+ definitions. "+
pseudoscience& sig=hEPrs8b_et10WtXYwX2t3C2ubLg). "Most terms in theoretical physics, for example, do not enjoy at least some distinct
Pseudoscience 22

connections with observables, but not of the simple sort that would permit operational definitions in terms of these observables. [..] If a
restriction in favor of operational definitions were to be followed, therefore, most of theoretical physics would have to be dismissed as
meaningless pseudoscience!"
[31] Gauch HG Jr. (2003) op cit 269 ff, "Parsimony and Efficiency"
[32] Hines T (1988) Pseudoscience and the Paranormal: A Critical Examination of the Evidence Buffalo NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN
0879754192
[33] Lakatos I (1970) "Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes." in Lakatos I, Musgrave A (eds) Criticism and the
Growth of Knowledge pp 91-195; Popper KR (1959) The Logic of Scientific Discovery
[34] e.g. Gauch (2003) op cit at 178 ff (Deductive Logic, "Fallacies"), and at 211 ff (Probability, "Common Blunders")
[35] Macmilllan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Vol 3, "Fallacies" 174 ff, esp. section on "Ignoratio elenchi"
[36] Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Vol 3, "Fallacies" 174 'ff esp. 177-178
[37] Bunge M (1983) Demarcating science from pseudoscience Fundamenta Scientiae 3:369-388, 381
[38] Thagard (1978)op cit at 227, 228
[39] Lilienfeld SO (2004) Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology Guildford Press (2004) ISBN 1-59385-070-0
[40] Ruscio J (2001) Clear thinking with psychology: Separating sense from nonsense, Pacific Grove, CA: Wadsworth
[41] Peer review and the acceptance of new scientific ideas (http:/ / www. senseaboutscience. org. uk/ PDF/ peerReview. pdf); Gitanjali B. Peer
review -- process, perspectives and the path ahead. J Postgrad Med 2001, 47:210 PubMed (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/
11832629); Lilienfeld (2004) op cit For an opposing perspective, e.g. Chapter 5 of Suppression Stories by Brian Martin (Wollongong: Fund
for Intellectual Dissent, 1997), pp. 69-83. (http:/ / www. uow. edu. au/ arts/ sts/ bmartin/ dissent/ documents/ ss/ ss5. html)
[42] Ruscio (2001) op cit.
[43] Gauch (2003) op cit 124 ff"
[44] Lakatos I (1970) "Falsification and the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes." in Lakatos I, Musgrave A (eds.) Criticism and the
Growth of Knowledge 91-195; Thagard (1978) op cit writes: "We can now propose the following principle of demarcation: A theory or
discipline which purports to be scientific is pseudoscientific if and only if: it has been less progressive than alternative theories over a long
period of time, and faces many unsolved problems; but the community of practitioners makes little attempt to develop the theory towards
solutions of the problems, shows no concern for attempts to evaluate the theory in relation to others, and is selective in considering
confirmations and disconfirmations."
[45] Hines T, Pseudoscience and the Paranormal: A Critical Examination of the Evidence, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY, 1988. ISBN
0-87975-419-2. Thagard (1978) op cit 223 ff
[46] Ruscio J (2001) op cit. p120
[47] Devilly GJ (2005) Power therapies and possible threats to the science of psychology and psychiatry Australia and New Zealand Journal of
Psychiatry 39:437-445(9)
[48] e.g. archivefreedom.org (http:/ / archivefreedom. org/ ) which claims that "The list of suppressed scientists even includes Nobel Laureates!"
[49] Devilly (2005) op cit. e.g. (http:/ / philosophy. lander. edu/ logic/ person. html)
[50] (http:/ / www. nsf. gov/ statistics/ seind06/ c7/ c7s2. htm) National Science Board. 2006. Science and Engineering Indicators 2006 Two
volumes. Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation (volume 1, NSB-06-01; NSB 06-01A)
[51] "The popular perception of science in North America". Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada. V IV: 269–280. 1989.
[52] National Science Board (PDF). Science and Engineering Indicators 2006 (http:/ / www. nsf. gov/ statistics/ seind06/ pdf/ volume2. pdf). 2.
p. A7-14. . Retrieved 2009-05-03
[53] FOX News (June 18, 2004). Poll: More Believe In God Than Heaven (http:/ / www. foxnews. com/ story/ 0,2933,99945,00. html). Fox
News Channel. . Retrieved Apr. 26, 2009
[54] Taylor, Humphrey (February 26, 2003). "Harris Poll: The Religious and Other Beliefs of Americans 2003" (http:/ / www. harrisinteractive.
com/ harris_poll/ index. asp?pid=359). . Retrieved Apr. 26, 2009
[55] (Devilly 2005:439)
[56] Lindeman M (December 1998). "Motivation, cognition and pseudoscience" (http:/ / www. blackwell-synergy. com/ openurl?genre=article&
sid=nlm:pubmed& issn=0036-5564& date=1998& volume=39& issue=4& spage=257). Scandinavian journal of psychology 39 (4): 257–65.
doi:10.1111/1467-9450.00085. PMID 9883101. . Retrieved 2008-10-13.
[57] Gauch HG Jr (2003)op cit 3-7.
[58] Imre Lakatos, Science and Pseudoscience (1973 Lecture Transcript) Fall/Winter (http:/ / www2. lse. ac. uk/ philosophy/ About/ lakatos/
scienceAndPseudoscience. aspx)
[59] Mendelian genetics was later rehabilitated, but not until after Vavilov died in the camps
[60] as in debates concerning the relationship of race and intelligence. Imre Lakatos, Science and Pseudoscience (1973 Lecture Transcript)
[61] Gray, Louise (15 July 2010). "The Prince of Wales accuses sceptics of peddling 'pseudo science'" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ earth/
earthnews/ 7890783/ The-Prince-of-Wales-accuses-sceptics-of-peddling-pseudo-science. html). The Daily Telegraph (London: TMG).
ISSN 0307-1235. OCLC 49632006. . Retrieved March 13, 2011.
[62] Makgoba, M. W. (19 May 2000). "Perils of Pseudoscience" (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ content/ 288/ 5469/ 1171. citation). Science 288.
. Retrieved March 13, 2011. Reprinted here. (http:/ / www. scienceinafrica. co. za/ perils. htm)
[63] Meyer, David I. (30 January 2011). "Pseudoscience plagues the health of our nation" (http:/ / www. dailybreeze. com/ opinions/
ci_17244810). Torrance Daily Breeze. .
Pseudoscience 23

[64] Hansson, Sven Ove (September 3, 2008). "Science and Pseudo-Science" (http:/ / plato. stanford. edu/ entries/ pseudo-science/ #PurDem).
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. . Retrieved April 16, 2011. "From a practical point of view, the distinction is
important for decision guidance in both private and public life. Since science is our most reliable source of knowledge in a wide variety of
areas, we need to distinguish scientific knowledge from its look-alikes. Due to the high status of science in present-day society, attempts to
exaggerate the scientific status of various claims, teachings, and products are common enough to make the demarcation issue pressing in many
areas."
[65] Singh S, Ernst E (2008). "The truth about chiropractic therapy". Trick or Treatment: The Undeniable Facts about Alternative Medicine.
W.W. Norton. pp. 145–90. ISBN 978-0-393-06661-6.

Further reading
• Bauer Henry H (2000). Science or Pseudoscience: Magnetic Healing, Psychic Phenomena, and Other
Heterodoxies. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0252026010.
• Charpak, Georges; Broch, Henri; Translated from the French by Bart K. Holland (2004). Debunked: Esp,
telekinesis, other pseudoscience (http://books.google.com/books?id=DpnWcMzeh8oC&printsec=frontcover&
dq="Debunked"&hl=en&ei=ADzgTIXeKIfRcfrejZkM&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&
ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false). Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801878675. Retrieved
14 November 2010  Originally published 2002 by Odile Jacob as Devenez sorciers, devenez savants
• Cioffi, Frank (1998) (trade paperback). Freud and the Question of Pseudoscience. Chicaco and La Salle, Illinois:
Open Court, division of Carus. pp. 314. ISBN 0-8126-9385-X.
• Derksen AA (1993). "The seven sins of pseudo-science" (http://www.springerlink.com/content/
x618564113015377/). J Gen Phil Sci 24: 17–42. doi:10.1007/BF00769513. Retrieved 14 November 2010.
• Derksen AA (2001). "The seven strategies of the sophisticated pseudo-scientist: a look into Freud's rhetorical
toolbox". J Gen Phil Sci 32: 329–350. doi:10.1023/A:1013100717113.
• Gardner M (1990). Science – Good, Bad and Bogus. Prometheus Books. ISBN 0879755733.
Little, John (October 29, 1981), "Review and useful overview of Gardner's book" (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=Gfh9AnIDxS8C& pg=PA320& dq="Science+ –+ Good,+ Bad+ and+ Bogus"& hl=en&
ei=_kDgTN2mAs_CcZOUzJcM& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=3&
ved=0CDEQ6AEwAg#v=onepage& q="Science – Good, Bad and Bogus"& f=false), New Scientist 92
(1277): 320, retrieved 14 November 2010
• Gardner, Martin (1957), Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science (http://books.google.com/
books?id=TwP3SGAUsnkC&printsec=frontcover&dq="fads+and+fallacies"&hl=en&
ei=YzHgTNoKytBx1J_Rlww&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&
ved=0CCgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false) (2nd, revised & expanded ed.), Mineola, New York: Dover
Publications, ISBN 0-486-20394-8, retrieved 14 November 2010  Originally published 1952 by G.P. Putnam's
Sons, under the title In the Name of Science
• Hansson, Sven Ove (1996). "Defining pseudoscience". Philosophia naturalis 33: 169–176.
• Hansson, S.O (September 3, 2008), "Science and Pseudo-Science" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/
pseudo-science/), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, retrieved 14 November 2010
• Martin M (1994). "Pseudoscience, the paranormal, and science education" (http://www.springerlink.com/
content/g8u0371370878485/). Science & Education 3: 1573–901. doi:10.1007/BF00488452.
• Schadewald Robert J (2008). Worlds of Their Own - A Brief History of Misguided Ideas: Creationism,
Flat-Earthism, Energy Scams, and the Velikovsky Affair. Xlibris. ISBN 978-1-4363-0435-1.
• Shermer M, Gould SJ (2002). Why People Believe Weird Things – Pseudoscience, superstition, and other
confusions of our time. New York: Holt Paperbacks. ISBN 0805070893.
• Pratkanis, Anthony R (July/August 1995). "How to Sell a Pseudoscience" (http://www.positiveatheism.org/
writ/pratkanis.htm). Skeptical Inquirer 19 (4): 19–25. Retrieved 2007-11-24.
• Wilson F (2000). The Logic and Methodology of Science and Pseudoscience. Canadian Scholars Press.
ISBN 155130175X.
Pseudoscience 24

• Wolpert, Lewis (1994), The Unnatural Nature of Science (http://books.google.com/

books?id=67Mr-fhfZmQC&printsec=frontcover&dq="the+unnatural+nature+of+science"&hl=en&
src=bmrr&ei=dUngTKndIIqecJfN3JcM&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&
ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false), Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-92980-2, retrieved 14
November 2010  Paperback ISBN 0-674-9281-0 First published 1992 by Faber & Faber, London.

External links
• Checklist for identifying dubious technical processes and products (http://www.umtec.ch/fileadmin/
user_upload/umtec.hsr.ch/Dokumente/Doku-Download/Publikationen/
Checklist_for_identifying_dubious_technical_processes_and_products.pdf) - Rainer Bunge, PhD
• Skeptic Dictionary: Pseudoscience (http://skepdic.com/pseudosc.html) - Robert Todd Carroll, PhD
• Distinguishing Science from Pseudoscience (https://webspace.utexas.edu/cokerwr/www/index.html/
distinguish.htm) - Rory Coker, PhD
• Pseudoscience. What is it? How can I recognize it? (http://www.chem1.com/acad/sci/pseudosci.html) -
Stephen Lower
• Science and Pseudoscience (http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/lakatos/scienceAndPseudoscience.htm) -
transcript and broadcast of talk by Imre Lakatos
• Science and Pseudo-Science: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/
pseudo-science/)
• Science Needs to Combat Pseudoscience (http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/russian.
html) - A statement by 32 Russian scientists and philosophers
• Science, Pseudoscience, and Irrationalism (http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/pscindx.htm) - Steven Dutch
• Skeptic Dictionary: Pseudoscientific topics and discussion (http://www.skepdic.com/tiscience.html) - Robert
Todd Carroll
• Why Is Pseudoscience Dangerous? (http://www.csicop.org/si/show/why_is_pseudoscience_dangerous/) -
Edward Kruglyakov
Flat Earth Society 25

Flat Earth Society

The Flat Earth Society (also known as the International Flat Earth
Society or the International Flat Earth Research Society) is an
organization that seeks to further the belief that the Earth is flat, instead
of an oblate spheroid. The modern organization was founded by
Englishman Samuel Shenton in 1956,[1] and later led by Charles K.
Johnson, who based the organization in his home in Lancaster,
California. The formal society was inactive after Johnson’s death in
2001, but was recently resurrected by its new president Daniel
Shenton.[2]

Origins - the Zetetic societies

The Flat Earth model depicts Antarctica as an ice
The belief that the Earth was flat was typical of ancient cosmologies wall surrounding a disk shaped Earth
until about the 4th century BC, when the Ancient Greek philosophers
proposed the idea that the Earth was a sphere, or at least rounded in shape.[3] Aristotle was one of the first thinkers to
propose a spherical Earth in 330 BC. By the early Middle Ages, it was widespread knowledge throughout Europe
that the Earth was a sphere.[4]
Modern hypotheses supporting a flat Earth originated with English inventor Samuel Rowbotham (1816–1884).
Based on his incorrect interpretation of experiments on the Bedford Level, Rowbotham published a 16-page
pamphlet, called "Zetetic Astronomy", which he later expanded into a 430-page book, Earth Not a Globe,
expounding his views. According to Rowbotham's system, the earth is a flat disc centered at the North Pole and
bounded along its southern edge by a wall of ice (Antarctica), with the sun and moon 3000 miles (4800 km) and the
"cosmos" 3100 miles (5000 km) above earth.[5] He also published a leaflet entitled "The inconsistency of Modern
Astronomy and its Opposition to the Scriptures!!" which argued that the "Bible, alongside our senses, supported the
idea that the earth was flat and immovable and this essential truth should not be set aside for a system based solely
on human conjecture".[6]
Rowbotham and his followers, like William Carpenter who continued his work, gained attention by engaging in
public debates with leading scientists of the day. One such debate, involving the prominent naturalist Alfred Russel
Wallace, concerned the Bedford Level experiment (and later led to several lawsuits for fraud and libel).[7] [8] [9]
Rowbotham created a Zetetic Society in England and New York, shipping over a thousand copies of Zetetic
Astronomy. Council members in New York included the US Consul to China and the superintendent of Baltimore
public schools. He also edited "The Zetetic and Anti-Theorist: a monthly journal of practical cosmography".[10]
After Rowbotham's death, Lady Elizabeth Blount, wife of the explorer Sir Walter de Sodington Blount, established a
Universal Zetetic Society, whose objective was "the propagation of knowledge related to Natural Cosmogony [the
creation of the world] in confirmation of the Holy Scriptures, based on practical scientific investigation". The
society published a magazine entitled The Earth Not a Globe Review, and remained active well into the early part of
the 20th century.[11] A flat Earth journal, Earth: a Monthly Magazine of Sense and Science, was published between
1901–1904, edited by Lady Blount.[12] In 1901, she repeated Rowbotham's Bedford Level Experiment and
photographed the effect, sparking a correspondence in the magazine English Mechanic with several counter-claims.
Later it achieved some notoriety by being involved in a scam involving dental practices.[13] After World War I, the
movement underwent a slow decline.
Flat Earth Society 26

Flat Earth Society

In 1956, Samuel Shenton, a signwriter by trade and a Fellow of the Royal Geographic Society created the
International Flat Earth Society as a successor to the Universal Zetetic Society and ran it as "organizing secretary"
from his home in Dover, in Britain.[11] Due to Shenton's interest in alternative science and technology, the emphasis
on religious arguments was less than in the predecessor society.[14]
This was just before the launch of the first artificial satellite and when satellite images taken from outer space
showed the Earth as a sphere rather than flat, the society was undaunted; Shenton remarked: "It's easy to see how a
photograph like that could fool the untrained eye."[15]
However it was not until the advent of manned spaceflight that Shenton managed to attract wide publicity, being
featured in the New York Times in January and June 1964, when the epithet "flat-earther" was also slung across the
floor of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom in both directions.
The society also took the position that the Apollo Moon landings were a hoax, staged by Hollywood and based on a
script by Arthur C. Clarke, a position also held by others not connected to the Flat Earth Society. On hearing this,
Clarke sent a facetious letter to NASA's chief administrator:
"Dear Sir, on checking my records, I see that I have never received payment for this work. Could you
please look into this matter with some urgency? Otherwise you will be hearing from my solicitors,
Messrs Geldsnatch, Geldsnatch and Blubberclutch".[16]
In 1969, Shenton persuaded Ellis Hillman, a Polytechnic lecturer, to become president of the Flat Earth Society, but
there is little evidence of any activity on his part until after Shenton's death, when he added most of Shenton's library
to the archives of the Science Fiction Foundation which he helped to establish.[17]
Shenton died in 1971 and Charles K. Johnson, inheriting part of Shenton's library from Shenton's wife, established
and became the president of the International Flat Earth Research Society of America and Covenant People's Church
in California. Under his leadership, over the next three decades, the Flat Earth Society grew in size from a few
members to about 3,000. Johnson distributed newsletters, flyers, maps, and other promotional materials to anyone
who asked for them, and managed all membership applications together with his wife, Marjory, who was also a
flat-earther. The most famous of these newsletters was Flat Earth News, which was a quarterly four page tabloid.
Johnson paid for this through annual dues of members, which ranged from $6 to $10 over the course of his
leadership.[18]
Some headlines from Flat Earth News during the '70s and early '80s:[19]
• "Whole World Deceived... Except the Very Elect" (Dec. 1977)
• "Australia Not Down Under" (May 1978)
• "Sun Is a Light 32 Miles Across" (Dec. 1978)
• "The Earth Has No Motion" (Jun. 1979)
• "Nikita Krushchev Father of NASA" (Mar. 1980)
• "Galileo Was a Liar" (Dec. 1980)
• "Science Insults Your Intelligence" (Sep. 1980)
• "World IS Flat, and That's That" (Sep. 1980)
• "The Earth Is Not a Ball; Gravity Does Not Exist" (Mar. 1981)
Flat Earth Society 27

The most recent world model propagated by the Flat Earth Society
holds that humans live on a disc, with the North Pole at its center and a
150-foot (45 m) high wall of ice at the outer edge.[20] The resulting
map resembles the symbol of the United Nations, which Johnson used
as evidence for his position.[21] In this model, the sun and moon are
each a mere 32 miles (52 km) in diameter.[22]

A newsletter from the society gives some insight into Johnson's

thinking:
United Nations flag
Aim: To carefully observe, think freely, rediscover forgotten fact
and oppose theoretical dogmatic assumptions. To help establish the United States...of the world on this flat
earth. Replace the science religion...with SANITY.
The International Flat Earth Society is the oldest continuous Society existing on the world today. It began with
the Creation of the Creation. First the water...the face of the deep...without form or limits...just Water. Then
the Land sitting in and on the Water, the Water then as now being flat and level, as is the very Nature of
Water. There are, of course, mountains and valleys on the Land but since most of the World is Water, we say,
"The World is Flat". Historical accounts and spoken history tell us the Land part may have been square, all in
one mass at one time, then as now, the magnetic north being the Center. Vast cataclysmic events and shaking
no doubt broke the land apart, divided the Land to be our present continents or islands as they exist today. One
thing we know for sure about this world...the known inhabited world is Flat, Level, a Plain World.
We maintain that what is called 'Science' today and 'scientists' consist of the same old gang of witch doctors,
sorcerers, tellers of tales, the 'Priest-Entertainers' for the common people. 'Science' consists of a weird,
way-out occult concoction of gibberish theory-theology...unrelated to the real world of facts, technology and
inventions, tall buildings and fast cars, airplanes and other Real and Good things in life; technology is not in
any way related to the web of idiotic scientific theory. ALL inventors have been anti-science. The Wright
brothers said: "Science theory held us up for years. When we threw out all science, started from experiment
and experience, then we invented the airplane." By the way, airplanes all fly level on this Plane earth.[23]
The Flat Earth Society recruited members by attacking the United States government and all of its agencies,
particularly NASA. Much of the society’s literature in its early days focused on interpreting the Bible literally to
mean that the Earth is flat, although they did attempt to offer scientific explanations and evidence.[18]
The group rose to about 2,000 members during its peak under Charles K. Johnson. The organization faced
overwhelming scientific evidence and public opinion that maintained that the Earth is a sphere. The term
"flat-earther" became commonly used to refer to an individual who stubbornly adheres to discredited or outmoded
ideas.
The society began to decline in the 1990s, and was further affected by a fire at the house of Charles K. Johnson
which destroyed all of the records and contacts of members of the Flat Earth Society. Johnson’s wife, who helped
manage the database, died shortly thereafter.[24] Charles K. Johnson himself died on March 19, 2001.
Flat Earth Society 28

Flat Earth Society of Canada

The Flat Earth Society of Canada was set up by Leo Ferrari (1927–2010), a philosophy professor at the St Thomas
University in 1970, together with Raymond Fraser and Alden Nowlan and was active till about 1984. Their aims
were quite different from other flat earth societies. They claimed a prevailing problem of the new technological age
was the willingness of people to accept theories "on blind faith and to reject the evidence of their own senses."'[25]
They published a newsletter, The Official Chronicle and promoted their ideas more widely through television and
press. Its primary aims were "to combat the fallacious deification of the circle," "to restore man's confidence in the
validity of his own perceptions", and "to spearhead man's escape from his metaphysical and geometrical prison."

Flat Earth Society today

In 2004, Daniel Shenton resurrected the Flat Earth Society, basing it
around a web-based discussion forum which continues to operate and
grow in size.[26] This eventually led to the official relaunch of the
society in October 2009,[27] and the creation of a new website,
featuring the largest public collection of Flat Earth literature in the
world and a user-edited encyclopaedia.[28] Moreover, the society began
accepting new members for the first time since 2001, with musician
Thomas Dolby becoming the first member to join the newly
reconvened society. As of May 2011, around 265 people have become
members.[29] Shenton has also conducted several interviews since the
society's relaunch, including in The Guardian newspaper.[2]

A related forum of the International Alliance of Flat Earth Groups is The logo of the modern Flat Earth Society

currently inactive.[30] The Flat Earth Society is also represented on

Twitter[31] and Facebook.[32]
Current proponents of the Flat Earth Society do not have a central alternative theory; different members have unique
ideas on how the Earth is constructed. Some claim that it is a finite plane of unknown extent accelerating upwards at
the speed of light, whilst others claim it is an infinite plane. Although Flat Earthers generally regard this as a
positive, undogmatic approach, attempts have been made to agree on a 'core' theory or set of attributes.[33]

The Flat Earth Society in popular culture

• English musician Thomas Dolby, who has released an album called The Flat Earth used the name Flat Earth
Society for his website forums, and has linked to information in regards to the flat earth myth in the past.
• In the film Hopscotch, Miles Kendig (Walter Matthau) jokes that he is bequeathing all his money to the Flat Earth
Society.
• In the 1980s, talk show host Wally George often sparred with and ridiculed members of the Flat Earth Society on
his show Hot Seat. Australian talk show host Don Lane also had Flat Earth Society advocates on his show.
• A tourism commercial for Newfoundland and Labrador states that the Flat Earth Society claimed that
Newfoundland and Labrador was one of the four corners of the world.[34]
• California-based punk rock band Bad Religion include a song entitled "Flat Earth Society" on their 1990 album
Against the Grain, as well as their compilation album All Ages and their live release 30 Years Live, written by
Brett Gurewitz. A prominent feature of the song is the refrain "lie, lie, lie," indicating a strong denunciation of the
society and its theories. The band has produced similar songs criticizing other movements it views as
pseudoscientific.
• English band Carter USM make reference to the Flat Earth Society in the song Senile Delinquent on their 1995
album Worry Bomb.
Flat Earth Society 29

• Klutz Press mention the Flat Earth Society in the book "Mother Nature Goes Nuts!" in a section about the
argument on global warming, saying how it is practically impossible to get everyone on earth to agree on one
thing.
• In the Stephen King novella The Mist, the main character uses the name Flat Earth Society to describe a group
that refuse to accept the presence of monsters in the mist outside.

References
[1] "Flat Earth Society" (http:/ / science. howstuffworks. com/ space-conspiracy-theory8. htm). howstuffworks.com. . Retrieved 2009-06-15.
[2] David Adam (February 23, 2010). "The Earth is flat? What planet is he on?" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ global/ 2010/ feb/ 23/
flat-earth-society). The Guardian. .
[3] "Wherefore he made the world in the form of a globe, round as from a lathe, having its extremes in every direction equidistant from the
centre, the most perfect and the most like itself of all figures..."Plato (c. 360 BC.), Timaeus (http:/ / classics. mit. edu/ Plato/ timaeus. html), ,
retrieved 2011-01-29
[4] O'Neill, Brendan (2008-08-04). "UK | Magazine | Do they really think the earth is flat?" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ uk_news/ magazine/
7540427. stm). BBC News. . Retrieved 2009-06-15.
[5] Schick, Theodore; Lewis Vaughn How to think about weird things: critical thinking for a new age Houghton Mifflin (Mayfield) (31 October
1995) ISBN 978-1559342544 p.197
[6] Garwood 2007, p. 46
[7] Nature April 7, 1870.
[8] "The Form of the Earth—A Shock of Opinions" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ mem/ archive-free/ pdf?_r=1&
res=9C00EFDF113EEE34BC4852DFBE66838A669FDE& oref=slogin) (PDF). New York Times. 1871-08-10. . Retrieved 2007-11-02.
[9] Hampden, John (1870): The Bedford Canal swindle detected & exposed. A. Bull, London.
[10] Garwood 2007, p. 133
[11] Sir Patrick Moore, Can You Speak Venusian?, 1972, ISBN 0352397764, Chapter 2: BETTER AND FLATTER EARTHS (http:/ / web.
archive. org/ web/ 20070927051349/ http:/ / www. theflatearthsociety. org/ docs/ better_and_flatter_earths. pdf)
[12] Garwood 2007, pp. 155–159
[13] Garwood 2007, pp. 182–6
[14] Garwood 2007, pp. 220–225
[15] Robert J. Schadewald. "Six "Flood" Arguments Creationists can't answer" (http:/ / ncse. com/ cej/ 3/ 3/
six-flood-arguments-creationists-cant-answer). ncse.com. . Retrieved 2010-04-24.
[16] Hill, Graham (2001-01-08). "Arthur C Clarke Looks To The Future" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ worldservice/ people/ highlights/
010104_arthur. shtml). BBC World Service. . Retrieved 2008-06-26.
[17] Garwood 2007, pp. 320
[18] Robert J. Schadewald. "The Flat-out Truth" (http:/ / www. lhup. edu/ ~dsimanek/ fe-scidi. htm). Lhup.edu. . Retrieved 2009-06-15.
[19] "Flat Earth Society Library" (http:/ / theflatearthsociety. org/ cms/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=47& Itemid=62).
[n.d.]. . Retrieved May 21, 2010.
[20] Voliva, Wilbur Glenn (Mar. 1979). "Is the Earth a Whirling Globe?" (http:/ / theflatearthsociety. org/ library/
Flat_Earth_Society_Newsletter_-_1979_March. pdf). Flat Earth News. Lancaster, CA: International Flat Earth Research Society. p. 2. .
Retrieved May 21, 2010.
[21] Johnson, Charles K. (Dec. 1978). "News of the World's Children" (http:/ / theflatearthsociety. org/ library/
Flat_Earth_Society_Newsletter_-_1978_December. pdf). Flat Earth News. Lancaster, CA: International Flat Earth Research Society. p. 2. .
Retrieved May 21, 2010.
[22] Johnson, Charles K. (Dec. 1978). "Sun is a Light 32 Miles Across" (http:/ / theflatearthsociety. org/ library/
Flat_Earth_Society_Newsletter_-_1978_December. pdf). Flat Earth News. Lancaster, CA: International Flat Earth Research Society. p. 1. .
Retrieved May 21, 2010.
[23] "Documenting the Existence of "The International Flat Earth Society"" (http:/ / www. talkorigins. org/ faqs/ flatearth. html). . Retrieved
2010-11-28.
[24] Author(s): John R. Cole, Contributing Editor (2001). "Flat Earth Society President Dies | NCSE" (http:/ / ncse. com/ rncse/ 21/ 3-4/
flat-earth-society-president-dies). National Center for Science Education. . Retrieved 2009-06-15.
[25] "UNB Archives" (http:/ / www. lib. unb. ca/ archives/ finding/ ferrari/ s2. html). . Retrieved 2010.
[26] "The Flat Earth Society forum" (http:/ / theflatearthsociety. org/ forum/ ). .
[27] "Relaunch of the Flat Earth Society (press release)" (http:/ / www. theflatearthsociety. org/ library/ flat_earth_society_press_release. pdf). .
[28] "The Flat Earth Society Homepage" (http:/ / theflatearthsociety. org/ cms/ ). .
[29] "Flat Earth Society Membership Register" (http:/ / theflatearthsociety. org/ cms/ index. php?option=com_content& view=article& id=56&
Itemid=73). .
[30] "www.theflatearthsociety.net/forum/" (http:/ / www. theflatearthsociety. net/ forum/ ). .
[31] http:/ / twitter. com/ FlatEarthToday
Flat Earth Society 30

[32] "Flat Earth Society" (http:/ / www. facebook. com/ #/ group. php?gid=23033272998). .
[33] "Flat Earth Society Forum Thread" (http:/ / www. theflatearthsociety. org/ forum/ index. php?topic=46458. 0). .
[34] "Newfoundland and Labrador Video Gallery" (http:/ / www. newfoundlandlabrador. com/ SightsAndSounds/ VideoClips. aspx?videoID=3).
NewfoundlandLabrador.com. . Retrieved 2009-06-15.

• Garwood, Christine (2007). Flat Earth: the History of an infamous idea. Macmillan.

Additional resources
• The Flat Earth Wiki (http://www.theflatearthsociety.org/tiki/tiki-index.php): A Flat Earth encyclopedia
actively maintained by the members of the Society.
• Archival documents (http://archiveshub.ac.uk/features/06101601.html): The Papers of the Flat Earth Society,
University of Liverpool Library, Special Collections and Archives, reference GB 141 FES. The collection
comprises in 31 boxes and folders the papers of the Flat Earth Society during Samuel Shenton's involvement with
the society (1956–1971). The material includes incoming and outgoing correspondence, promotional material
such as leaflets and posters, magazines, manuscripts, lecture material including maps and diagrams, photographs,
press cuttings, notes, books on astronomy and the Earth, and various other ephemera.
• the SF Hub (http://www.sfhub.ac.uk/flatearth.htm) links to archives - includes photos of Samuel Shenton
• Earth Not a Globe (http://www.sacred-texts.com/earth/za/) Online text of Samuel Birley Rowbotham's 1881
treatise on Zetetic (Flat Earth) Astronomy.
• $5,000 for Proving the Earth is a Globe (http://blog.modernmechanix.com/2006/05/19/
5000-for-proving-the-earth-is-a-globe/), Oct. 1931 article from Modern Mechanics and Inventions about Voliva
and his flat earth cosmology.
• The Flat Earth (http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/flat/flateart.htm) Professor Donald Simanek's web page on
the history of flat earth movements.
• The Flat-out Truth: Earth Orbits? Moon Landings? A Fraud! Says This Prophet (http://www.lhup.edu/
~dsimanek/fe-scidi.htm) by Robert J. Schadewald. Science Digest, July 1980. A very detailed look at the Society
and its leader. Schadewald was president of the National Center for Science Education and an expert on
alternative earth movements.
• Looking for Lighthouses (http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/litehous.htm) by Robert J. Schadewald,
Creation/Evolution #31 (1992). This article explains the use of lighthouse data by Samuel Rowbotham.
• Scientific Creationism, Geocentricity, and the Flat Earth (http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/crea-fe.htm) by
Robert J. Schadewald, from the Skeptical Inquirer, Winter 1981–1982. Describes the movements leading to the
Flat Earth Society and discusses parallels with creationism.
• The International Flat Earth Society (http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/flatearth.html). By Robert P. J. Day,
1993. Documents the full Flat Earth Society newsletter. Part of the Talk.Origins archive on the
Evolution/Creationism archive.
• Holding, James Patrick, 2000. Is the ’erets (earth) flat? (http://www.answersingenesis.org/tj/v14/i3/
flat_earth.asp) TJ 14(3):51–54.
• Russell, Jeffrey Burton, 1997. Inventing the Flat Earth : Columbus and Modern Historians ISBN 0-275-95904-X
• Russell, Jeffrey Burton, 1997. The Myth of the Flat Earth (http://id-www.ucsb.edu/fscf/library/russell/
FlatEarth.html) (No longer available) (summary of above book).
• Strickland, Jonathan, 2008. Top 10 Space Conspiracy Theories (http://science.howstuffworks.com/
space-conspiracy-theory8.htm)
Flat Earth Society 31

Further reading
• Raymond Fraser (2007). When The Earth Was Flat: Remembering Leonard Cohen, Alden Nowlan, the Flat Earth
Society, the King James monarchy hoax, the Montreal Story Tellers and other curious matters. Black Moss Press,
ISBN 978-0-88753-439-3
• Martin Gardner (1957). Fads & Fallacies in the Name of Science, Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-20394-8,
chapter 2, pg 16-27
• James Randi (1995). An Encyclopedia of claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural, St. Martin's
Press, ISBN 0-312-13066-X, pg 97-98. (Available online (http://www.randi.org/encyclopedia/))
• Robert Schadewald (1981). Scientific Creationism, Geocentricity, and the Flat Earth, Skeptical Inquirer, vol 6,
#2, Winter 1981-82, 41-48.
• Ted Schultz, editor. (1989). The Fringes of Reason: A Whole Earth Catalog, Harmony Books, ISBN
0-517-57165-X, pg. 86, 88, 166.
• William F. Williams, editor. (2000). Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience, Facts on File, ISBN 0-8160-3351-X, pg
114-115.
• Christine Garwood (2007) Flat Earth: The History of an Infamous Idea, Pan Books, ISBN 140504702X
• Robert Schadewald (2008). Worlds of Their Own - A Brief History of Misguided Ideas: Creationism,
Flat-Earthism, Energy Scams, and the Velikovsky Affair, Xlibris, ISBN 978-1-4363-0435-1, Part III, chapters
11,12 and 13, pg 85-126

External links
• Official website (http://http://www.theflatearthsociety.org/)
• http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/flat/flateart.htm The Flat Earth, by Donald E. Simanek a history of Flat
Earth movements
• http://www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/SciRefGuides/flatearth.html References to the Flat Earth Society by the
Library of Congress
• http://web.archive.org/web/20070927051349/http://www.theflatearthsociety.org/docs/
better_and_flatter_earths.pdf Book chapter on FES from Can You Speak Venusian?, 1972, by Sir Patrick Moore,
ISBN 0352397764
Cryptozoology 32

Cryptozoology
Cryptozoology (from Greek κρυπτός, kryptos, "hidden" + zoology;
literally, "study of hidden animals") refers to the search for animals
whose existence has not been proven. This includes looking for living
examples of animals that are considered extinct, such as dinosaurs;
animals whose existence lacks physical evidence but which appear in
myths, legends, or are reported, such as Bigfoot and Chupacabra;[1]
and wild animals dramatically outside their normal geographic ranges,
such as phantom cats or "ABCs" (an initialism commonly used by
cryptozoologists that stands for Alien Big Cats).
Reconstruction of an alleged Ogopogo sighting
The animals cryptozoologists study are often referred to as cryptids, a
term coined by John Wall in 1983.[2]
Cryptozoology is not a recognized branch of zoology or a discipline of science.[1] It is an example of pseudoscience
because it relies heavily upon anecdotal evidence, stories and alleged sightings.[3] [4]

Overview
The coining of the word cryptozoology is often attributed to zoologist
Bernard Heuvelmans, though Heuvelmans attributes coinage of the
term to the late Scottish explorer and adventurer Ivan T. Sanderson.[5]
Heuvelmans' 1955 book On the Track of Unknown Animals traces the
scholarly origins of the discipline to Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans and
his 1892 study, The Great Sea Serpent.[6] Heuvelmans argued that
cryptozoology should be undertaken with scientific rigor, but with an
open-minded, interdisciplinary approach. He also stressed that
attention should be given to local, urban and folkloric sources
regarding such creatures, arguing that while often layered in unlikely
and fantastic elements, folktales can have small grains of truth and
important information regarding undiscovered organisms. Phantom
cats (an example of living animals supposedly found outside of their
normal range) are a common subject of cryptozoological interest,[7]
largely due to the relative likelihood of existence in comparison to
fantastical cryptids lacking any evidence of existence, such as Dr. Karl Shuker is a prominent British zoologist
Mothman.[8] [9] who studies cryptids.

Another notable book on the subject is Willy Ley's Exotic Zoology (1959). Ley was best known for his writings on
rocketry and related topics, but he was trained in paleontology, and wrote a number of books about animals. Ley's
collection Exotic Zoology is of some interest to cryptozoology, as he discusses the Yeti and sea serpents, as well as
relict dinosaurs. The book entertains the possibility that some legendary creatures (like the sirrush, the unicorn or the
cyclops) might be based on actual animals, through misinterpretation of the animals and/or their remains. Also
notable is the work of British zoologist and cryptozoologist Karl Shuker, who has published 12 books and countless
articles on numerous cryptozoological subjects since the mid-1980s. Loren Coleman, a modern popularizer of
cryptozoology, has chronicled the history and personalities of cryptozoology in his books.[10]
Cryptozoology 33

Discoveries
Cryptozoologists claim there have been cases where species now
accepted by the scientific community were initially considered
superstition, hoaxes, delusions or misidentifications.[2] The popularly
reported European discovery of the okapi in 1901, earlier hinted at but
unseen by Henry Morton Stanley in his travelogue of exploring the
Congo, later became the emblem for the now defunct International
Society of Cryptozoology. The mountain gorilla,[11] giant squid[12] and
Hoan Kiem Turtle[13] [14] are other examples of extant species that
were brought to the attention of modern science but formerly thought
to be cryptids.
An Okapi at Walt Disney's Animal Kingdom,
The 2003 discovery of the fossil remains of Homo floresiensis was symbol of the defunct International Society of
cited by paleontologist Henry Gee, editor of the journal Nature as Cryptozoology
possible evidence that humanoid cryptids like the Orang Pendek and
yeti were "founded on grains of truth". "Cryptozoology", Gee said, "the study of such fabulous creatures, can come
in from the cold."[15]

Criticism
Cryptozoology has been criticised because of its reliance on anecdotal information[16] and because some
cryptozoologists do not follow the scientific method[17] [18] and devote a substantial portion of their efforts to
investigations of animals that most scientists believe are unlikely to have existed.[19]
According to Mike Dash, a welsh historian, few scientists doubt there are thousands of unknown animals,
particularly invertebrates, awaiting discovery; however, cryptozoologists are largely uninterested in researching and
cataloging newly-discovered species of ants or beetles, instead focusing their efforts towards "more elusive"
creatures that have often defied decades of work aimed at confirming their existence.[19] The majority of mainstream
criticism of cryptozoology is thus directed towards the search for megafauna cryptids such as Bigfoot, the Yeti, and
the Loch Ness Monster, which appear often in popular culture, but for which there is little or no scientific support.
Some scientists argue that megafauna cryptids are unlikely to exist undetected in great enough numbers to maintain a
breeding population,[20] and are unlikely to be able to survive in their reported habitats due to issues of climate and
food supply.[21]

References
[1] Simpson, George G. (1984). "Mammals and Crytozoology" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 986487). Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society (American Philosophical Society.) 128 (1): 1–19. . Retrieved September 2010.
[2] Coleman, Loren and Clark, Jerome.Cryptozoology A to Z: The Encyclopedia of Loch Monsters, Sasquatch, Chupacabras, and Other
Authentic Mysteries of Nature. New York: Fireside/Simon and Schuster, 1999
[3] Carroll, Robert T. (1994-2009). "The Skeptic's Dictionary" (http:/ / www. skepdic. com/ crypto. html). . Retrieved 26 August 2010.
[4] Shermer, Michael; Linse, Pat (2002). The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Gr4snwg7iaEC&
pg=PA71& dq=The+ Skeptic+ Encyclopedia+ of+ Pseudoscience+ cryptozoology& q). ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1576076539. .
[5] Heuvelmans, Bernard (1968). In the Wake of the Sea-Serpents. New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 0809058146.
[6] Bernard Heuvelmans (1965). On The Track Of Unknown Animals. New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 0710304986.
[7] Cryptozoology/Big Cats (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Science/ Anomalies_and_Alternative_Science/ Cryptozoology/ Big_Cats/ / ) at the Open
Directory Project
[8] "Big Cat evidence gets stronger, as society calls for government study" (http:/ / www. britishbigcats. org/ news. php). British Big Cats
Society. . Retrieved 2010-02-09.
[9] Brad Fear (2008). A Macabre Myth of a Moth-Man. ISBN 1438902646.
[10] Loren Coleman. Tom Slick: True Life Encounters in Cryptozoology. Fresno, California: Craven Street Books/Linden Press year=2002.
ISBN 0941936740.
Cryptozoology 34

[11] Krystek, Lee. "A Gallery of Cryptozoological Alumni" (http:/ / www. unmuseum. org/ found. htm). The Museum of UnNatural Mystery. The
UnMuseum. . Retrieved 20 December 2010.
[12] Countdowns, LiveScience. "Rumor or Reality: The Creatures of Cryptozoology" (http:/ / www. livescience. com/ animals/
top10_creatures_of_cryptozoology-1. html). Imaginova. LiveScience. . Retrieved 20 December 2010.
[13] Coleman, Loren; Patrick Huyghe (2003). The Field Guide to Lake Monsters, Sea Serpents, and other mystery denizens of the deep. Penguin
Books. ISBN 1-58542-252-5.
[14] News Service, Vietnam (May 28, 2006). "The legend of the Hoan Kiem Turtle" (http:/ / www. asianturtlenetwork. org/ library/
news_articles/ The_legend_of_the_Hoan_Kiem_Turtle. html). Asian Turtle Conservation Network. . Retrieved 20 December 2010.
[15] Henry Gee (2004). "Flores, God and Cryptozoology: The discovery poses thorny questions about the uniqueness of Homo sapiens" (http:/ /
www. bioedonline. org/ news/ news. cfm?art=1329). Nature. .
[16] Shermer, Michael (2003). "Show Me the Body" (http:/ / www. michaelshermer. com/ 2003/ 05/ show-me-the-body). Scientific American
(288(5)): 27. .
[17] Coleman, Loren; Huyghe, Patrick (April 1999). "Afterword". The Field Guide to Bigfoot, Yeti, and Other Mystery Primates Worldwide.
Trumbore, Harry. New York, New York: Avon Books. pp. 207. ISBN 0-380-80263-5.
[18] Coleman, Loren; Huyghe, Patrick; Trumbore, Harry; Rollins, Mark Lee (2003). The Field Guide to Lake Monsters, Sea Serpents, and Other
Mystery Denizens of the Deep. New York, New York: Penguin Group. pp. 358. ISBN 1-58542-252-5.
[19] Dash, Mike (2000). Borderlands: The Ultimate Exploration of the Unknown. Overlook Press. ISBN 0440236568.
[20] "Bigfoot hunting" (http:/ / home. clara. net/ rfthomas/ news/ bfhunting. html). . Retrieved December 2010.
[21] Sjögren, Bengt (1980). Berömda vidunder. Settern. ISBN 91-7586-023-6. (Swedish)

Further reading
• Arment, Chad. Cryptozoology: Science & Speculation. Landisville, Penn.: Coachwhip, 2004, ISBN
1-930585-15-2.
• Arnold, Neil. MONSTER! The A-Z Of Zooform Phenomena. Bideford: CFZ Press, 2007, ISBN 1905723172.
• Budd, Deena. The Weiser Field Guide to Cryptozoology . Redwheel, Weiser, 2010, ISBN 978-1-57863-450-7.
• Eberhart, George M. (2002). Mysterious Creatures: A Guide to Cryptozoology (http://www.ebook3000.com/
animals/Mysterious-Creatures--A-Guide-to-Cryptozoology_64383.html). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO.
pp. 722. ISBN 1-57607-283-5 accessdate=December 7, 2010. and at Google (http://books.google.com/
books?id=z9gMsCUtCZUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=eberhart,+george+m.+(2002).+mysterious+
creatures:+a+guide+to+cryptozoology&source=bl&ots=JSZnloke4Z&
sig=_a9X-oBTa_AqoToE8voqJIMhPVU&hl=en&ei=vHP-TOGTNMOSnweq24CxCw&sa=X&
oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=eberhart, george m.(2002).
mysterious creatures: a guide to cryptozoology&f=false) Books.
• Ley, Willy. Exotic Zoology ISBN 0517625458.
• North American BioFortean Review, Index to issues. (http://www.strangeark.com/nabr.html)
• Shuker, Karl. The Beasts That Hide From Man: Seeking the World's Last Undiscovered Animals. New York:
Paraview Press, 2003, ISBN 1931044613.

External links
• Cryptozoology (http://www.dmoz.org//Science/Anomalies_and_Alternative_Science/Cryptozoology//) at
the Open Directory Project
Phrenology 35

Phrenology
Phrenology (from Greek: φρήν, phrēn, "mind"; and
λόγος, logos, "knowledge") is a pseudoscience
primarily focused on measurements of the human skull,
based on the concept that the brain is the organ of the
mind, and that certain brain areas have localized,
specific functions or modules (see modularity of
mind).[1] Following the materialist notions of mental
functions originating in the brain, phrenologists
believed that human conduct could best be understood
in neurological rather than abstract terms. It is now
considered a pseudoscience. Developed by German
physician Franz Joseph Gall in 1796,[2] the discipline
was very popular in the 19th century, especially from
about 1810 until 1840. The principal British centre for
phrenology was Edinburgh, where the Edinburgh
Phrenological Society was established in 1820. In
1843, François Magendie referred to phrenology as "a
pseudo-science of the present day."[3]

Phrenological thinking was, however, influential in

An 1883 phrenology chart.
19th-century psychiatry and modern neuroscience.
Gall's assumption that character, thoughts, and
emotions are located in the brain is considered an important historical advance toward neuropsychology (see also
localization of brain function, Brodmann's areas, neuro-imaging, modularity of mind or faculty psychology).[4] [5]
Phrenologists believed that the mind has a set of different mental faculties, with each particular faculty represented
in a different area of the brain. These areas were said to be proportional to a person's propensities, and the
importance of the given mental faculty. It was believed that the cranial bone conformed in order to accommodate the
different sizes of these particular areas of the brain in different individuals, so that a person's capacity for a given
personality trait could be determined simply by measuring the area of the skull that overlies the corresponding area
of the brain.
As a type of theory of personality, phrenology can be considered to be an advance over the old medical theory of the
four humors. Phrenology, which focuses on personality and character, should be distinguished from craniometry,
which is the study of skull size, weight and shape, and physiognomy, the study of facial features.
Phrenology 36

History
The first philosopher to locate the mental abilities of the brain
was Aristoteles.[6] However, the first attempts to measure skull
shape scientifically, and its alleged relation to character, were
performed by the German physician Franz Joseph Gall
(1758–1828), who is considered the initiator of phrenology.
Gall was one of the first researchers to consider the brain to be
the source of all mental activity.

In 1809 Gall began writing his greatest[7] work "The Anatomy

and Physiology of the Nervous System in General, and of the
Brain in Particular, with Observations upon the possibility of
ascertaining the several Intellectual and Moral Dispositions of
Man and Animal, by the configuration of their Heads. It was
not published until 1819. In the introduction to this main work,
Gall makes the following statement in regard to his doctrinal
principles, which comprise the intellectual basis of
phrenology:

• That moral and intellectual faculties are innate

• That their exercise or manifestation depends on
organization
• That the brain is the organ of all the propensities,
sentiments and faculties
• That the brain is composed of as many particular organs as
A definition of phrenology with chart from Webster's
there are propensities, sentiments and faculties which differ
Academic Dictionary, circa 1895
essentially from each other.
• That the form of the head or cranium represents the form of the brain, and thus reflects the relative development
of the brain organs.
Through careful observation and extensive experimentation, Gall believed he had established a relationship between
aspects of character, called faculties, to precise organs in the brain. Gall's most important collaborator was Johann
Spurzheim (1776-1832), who disseminated phrenology successfully in the United Kingdom and the United States.
He popularized the term phrenology (from the Greek word "phrenos" meaning "brain": compare with the word
"schizophrenia").[8]
Other significant phrenologists included the Scottish brothers George Combe (1788–1858) and Andrew Combe
(1797–1847), who initiated the Phrenological Society of Edinburgh. This Edinburgh group included a number of
extremely influential social reformers and intellectuals, including the publisher Robert Chambers, the astronomer
John Pringle Nichol, the evolutionary environmentalist Hewett Cottrell Watson and asylum reformer William A.F.
Browne. George Combe was the author of some of the most popular works on phrenology and mental hygiene, e.g.,
The Constitution of Man (1828) and Elements of Phrenology.
The American brothers Lorenzo Niles Fowler (1811–1896) and Orson Squire Fowler (1809–1887) were leading
phrenologists of their time. Orson, together with associates Samuel Wells and Nelson Sizer, ran the phrenological
business and publishing house Fowlers & Wells in New York City. Meanwhile, Lorenzo spent much of his life in
England where he initiated the famous phrenological publishing house, L.N Fowler & Co., and gained considerable
fame with his phrenology head (a china head showing the phrenological faculties), which has become a symbol of
the discipline.
Phrenology 37

In the Victorian age, phrenology as a psychology was taken seriously and permeated the literature and novels of the
day. Many prominent public figures such as the Reverend Henry Ward Beecher (a college classmate and initial
partner of Orson Fowler) promoted phrenology actively as a source of psychological insight and self-knowledge.
Thousands of people consulted phrenologists for advice in various matters, such as hiring personnel or finding
suitable marriage partners. As such, phrenology as a brain science waned but developed into the popular psychology
of the 19th century and functioned in approximately the same way as psychoanalysis permeated social thought and
relationships a century later. Beginning during the 1840s, phrenology in North America became part of a
counter-culture movement evident in the appearance of new dress styles, communes, mesmerism, and a revival of
herbal remedies. Orson Fowler himself was known for his octogonal house.
Throughout, however, phrenology was rejected by mainstream academia, and was for instance excluded from the
British Association for the Advancement of Science. The popularity of phrenology fluctuated during the 19th
century, with some researchers comparing the field to astrology, chiromancy, or merely a fairground attraction, while
others wrote serious scientific articles on the subject. The last phrenology book in English to receive serious
consideration by mainstream science was The Brain and Its Physiology (1846) by Daniel Noble, but his friend,
William Carpenter, wrote a lengthy review article that initiated his realization that phrenology could not be
considered a serious science, and his later books reflect his acceptance of British psycho-physiology.
Phrenology was also very popular in the United States, where automatic devices for phrenological analysis were
devised. One such Automatic Electric Phrenometer is displayed in the Collection of Questionable Medical Devices
[9]
in the Science Museum of Minnesota in Saint Paul.
During the early 20th century, a revival of interest in phrenology occurred on the fringe, partly because of studies of
evolution, criminology and anthropology (as pursued by Cesare Lombroso). The most famous British phrenologist of
the 20th century was the London psychiatrist Bernard Hollander (1864–1934). His main works, The Mental Function
of the Brain (1901) and Scientific Phrenology (1902) are an appraisal of Gall's teachings. Hollander introduced a
quantitative approach to the phrenological diagnosis, defining a method for measuring the skull, and comparing the
measurements with statistical averages.
In Belgium, Paul Bouts (1900–1999) began studying phrenology from a pedagogical background, using the
phrenological analysis to define an individual pedagogy. Combining phrenology with typology and graphology, he
coined a global approach known as psychognomy.
Bouts, a Roman Catholic priest, became the main promoter of renewed 20th-century interest in phrenology and
psychognomy in Belgium. He was also active in Brazil and Canada, where he founded institutes for characterology.
His works Psychognomie and Les Grandioses Destinées individuelle et humaine dans la lumière de la
Caractérologie et de l'Evolution cérébro-cranienne are considered standard works in the field. In the latter work,
which examines the subject of paleoanthropology, Bouts developed a teleological and orthogenetical view on a
perfecting evolution, from the paleo-encephalical skull shapes of prehistoric man, which he considered still prevalent
in criminals and savages, towards a higher form of mankind, thus perpetuating phrenology's problematic racializing
of the human frame. Bouts died on March 7, 1999, after which his work has been continued by the Dutch foundation
PPP (Per Pulchritudinem in Pulchritudine), operated by Anette Müller, one of Bouts' students.
During the 1930s, Belgian colonial authorities in Rwanda used phrenology to explain the so-called superiority of
Tutsis over Hutus.
Empirical refutation induced most scientists to abandon phrenology as a science by the early 20th century. For
example, various cases were observed of clearly aggressive people displaying a well-developed "benevolent organ",
findings that contradicted the logic of the discipline. With advances in the studies of psychology and psychiatry,
many scientists became skeptical of the claim that human character can be determined by simple, external measures.
On Monday, October 1, 2007 the State of Michigan included phrenology in a list of personal services subject to sales
tax.[10]
Phrenology 38

Method
Phrenology was a complex process that involved feeling the bumps in the skull to determine an individual's
psychological attributes. Franz Joseph Gall first believed that the brain was made up of 27 individual 'organs' that
created one's personality, with the first 19 of these 'organs' believed to exist in other animal species. Phrenologists
would run their fingertips and palms over the skulls of their patients to feel for enlargements or indentations. The
phrenologist would usually take measurements of the overall head size using a caliper. With this information, the
phrenologist would assess the character and temperament of the patient and address each of the 27 "brain organs".
This type of analysis was used to predict the kinds of relationships and behaviors to which the patient was prone. In
its heyday during the 1820s-1840s, phrenology was often used to predict a child's future life, to assess prospective
marriage partners and to provide background checks for job applicants.
Gall's list of the "brain organs" was lengthy and specific, as he believed that each bump or indentation in a patient's
skull corresponded to his "brain map". An enlarged bump meant that the patient utilized that particular "organ"
extensively. The 27 areas were varied in function, from sense of color, to the likelihood of religiosity, to the potential
to commit murder. Each of the 27 "brain organs" was located in a specific area of the skull. As a phrenologist felt the
skull, he could refer to a numbered diagram showing where each functional area was believed to be located.

Phrenology as a pseudoscience
Phrenology has long been dismissed as a pseudoscience because of neurological advances. During the discipline's
heyday, phrenologists including Gall committed many errors. In his book The Beginner's Guide to Scientific Method
Stephen S. Carey explains that pseudoscience can be defined as "fallacious applications of the scientific method" by
today's standards. Phrenologists made dubious inferences between bumps in people's skulls and their personalities,
claiming that the bumps were the determinant of personality. Some of the more valid assumptions of phrenology
(e.g., that mental processes can be localized in the brain) remain in modern neuroimaging techniques and modularity
of mind theory. According to Karl Popper, phrenology is viewed as pseudoscience since it neither makes risky
predictions, nor provides the chance for others to prove if it is a real theory. Phrenology explains their diagnostic
examinee broadly. Unlike science, it does not have an exact answer to support their predictions. Also, through
advancements in modern medicine and neuroscience, scientists have universally concluded that feeling
conformations of the outer skull is not an accurate predictor of behavior.

Popular culture
• In Chapter XX of Mark Twain's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, The Duke pulls several printed handbills
out of his carpet-bag which were advertising past "performances" (scams and cons) he had been involved in: "One
bill said "The celebrated Dr. Armand de Montalban of Paris," would "lecture on the Science of Phrenology" at
such and such a place, on the blank day of blank, at ten cents admission, and "furnish charts of character at
twenty-five cents apiece." The Duke said that was "him"." (97) (Dover Thrift Edition)
• In Bram Stoker's Dracula, several characters make phrenological observations in describing other characters.
• Charlotte Brontë, as well as her sister Anne Brontë, display the belief in phrenology in their works.
• Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's fictional detective Sherlock Holmes makes occasional references to phrenology; namely
in The Adventure of the Blue Carbuncle where he deduces the intelligence of a hat's owner by the size of his head
and also regarding to his arch-nemesis Professor Moriarty, deeming that his highly domed forehead as a mark of
his superior intellect. Most importantly, in The Hound of the Baskervilles, Dr. Mortimer makes an examination of
Holmes' skull, remarking on the dolichocephalic features and the supra-orbital fossa.
• Popular Indian-English writer Amitav Ghosh's first novel The Circle of Reason (1986) has one of the main
characters, Balaram practice phrenology obsessively.
• The hip hop band The Roots have an album called Phrenology.
Phrenology 39

• Terry Pratchett, in his Discworld series of books, describes the practice of Retro-phrenology as the practice of
altering someone's character by giving them bumps on the head. You can go into a shop in Ankh-Morpork and
order an artistic temperament with a tendency to introspection. What you actually get is hit on the head with a
series of small hammers, but it keeps the money in circulation and gives people something to do.
• The comedy-musical play Heid (pronounced 'Heed', a Scottish inflection of the word 'Head') by Forbes Masson
alluded to the phrenology work of George Combe, citing the pseudoscience's influence on a young Charles
Darwin as an inspiration for writers.
• The film Pi depicts the main character, Max, outlining a portion of his skull according to a phrenology chart and
proceeding to drill into that section to destroy a part of his brain that contained important information of a
mathematical sequence that he thought nobody should know.
• In the film Men at Work, the character of Charlie Sheen claims to be a phrenologist to his love interest, unwilling
to confess his real profession (garbage collector). When she seems skeptical, he goes so far as to give her a
phrenology reading, offering hit or miss insights, including her love for mangos.
• Several literary critics have noted the influence of phrenology[11] (and physiognomy) in Edgar Allan Poe's
fiction.[12]
• In the novel The War of the End of the World from Latin American writer Mario Vargas Llosa, one of the main
characters is Galileo Gall, who is phrenologist and had adopted his new name because of Galileo Galilei and
Franz Joseph Gall, founder of the science of phrenology.
• In the novel Moby-Dick by Herman Melville many references are made to phrenology and the narrator identifies
himself as an amateur phrenologist.
• In NBC's hit series 30 Rock Kenneth the page mentions that he doesn't trust his superior, Pete Hornberger,
because he has a ridge on a section of his skull associated with deviousness.
• Dr. House has a white phrenology bust often seen in his office on House M.D.
• In The Simpsons episode "Mother Simpson" when Smithers mentions phrenology was dismissed as quackery 160
years ago Mr. Burns replies "Of course you'd say that...you have the brainpan of a stagecoach tilter!"

References
[1] Fodor, Jerry A. (1983). Modularity of Mind: An Essay on Faculty Psychology. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-56025-9 p.14, 23,
131 See also, Modularity of mind
[2] Graham, Patrick. (2001) Phrenology [videorecording (DVD)] : revealing the mysteries of the mind . Richmond Hill, Ont. : American Home
Treasures. ISBN 0-7792-5135-0
[3] Magendie, F (1843) An Elementary Treatise on Human Physiology. 5th Ed. Tr. John Revere. New York: Harper, p 150. (note the hyphen).
[4] Fodor, JA. (1983) The Modularity of Mind. MIT Press. p.14, 23, 131
[5] Simpson, D. (2005) Phrenology and the neurosciences: contributions of F. J. Gall and J. G. Spurzheim ANZ Journal of Surgery. Oxford.
Vol.75.6; p.475
[6] http:/ / www. phrenology. org/ intro. html
[7] 1833 "The American Journal of the Medical Sciences" Southern Society for Clinical Investigation
[8] Source of the term "Phrenology", by John van Wyhe, History & Philosophy of Science, Cambridge University (http:/ / www. victorianweb.
org/ science/ phrenology/ terms. html)
[9] http:/ / www. smm. org/ exhibitservices/ history/ collections/ gallery/ 9/
[10] Mlive.com blog (http:/ / blog. mlive. com/ michigan/ 2007/ 10/ extended_list_of_services_affe. html)
[11] Edward Hungerford. "Poe and Phrenology", American Literature 1(1930): 209-31.
[12] Erik Grayson. "Weird Science, Weirder Unity: Phrenology and Physiognomy in Edgar Allan Poe" Mode 1 (2005): 56-77. Also online (http:/
/ www. arts. cornell. edu/ english/ mode/ documents/ grayson. html).
Phrenology 40

External links
• The History of Phrenology on the Web (http://www.historyofphrenology.org.uk/) by John van Wyhe, PhD.
• Phrenology: an Overview (http://www.victorianweb.org/science/phrenology/phrenologyov.html) includes
The History of Phrenology by John van Wyhe, PhD.
• The Phrenology Pages (http://www.phrenology.org), a Belgian site advocating phrenology.
• Phrenology Today! (http://www.phrenology.by.ru) Russian portal, advocating phrenology. Articles on
so-called modern phrenology.
• Examples of phrenological tools can be seen in The Museum of Questionable Medical Devices in Minneapolis,
Minnesota, U.S.. (http://www.mtn.org/quack/)
• Joseph Vimont: Traité de phrénologie humaine et comparée. (Paris, 1832-1835) (http://www.nlm.nih.gov/
exhibition/historicalanatomies/vimont_home.html). Selected pages scanned from the original work. Historical
Anatomies on the Web. US National Library of Medicine.
• Jean-Claude Vimont: Phrénologie à Rouen, les moulages du musée Flaubert d'histoire de la médecine (http://
www.criminocorpus.cnrs.fr/article491.html)
• Phrenology: History of a Classic Pseudoscience (http://www.theness.com/articles.asp?id=40) - by Steven
Novella MD
• Historical Deadwood Newspaper accounts of C. R. Broadbent well known speaker on Phrenology and Physiology
visit Deadwood SD 1878 (http://deadwoodrichfamousnoteable.blogspot.com/#broadbent)
• The Skeptic's Dictionary (http://skepdic.com/phren.html) by Robert Todd Carroll
• Who Named It? Franz Joseph Gall (http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/1018.html) Biography of Franz
Joseph Gall and his creation: Phrenology.
• Phrenology by George Burgess (1829-1905) (http://www.nathanville.org.uk/web-albums/burgess/
phrenology1/contents.htm) George Burgess, Phrenologist in Bristol, England 1861-1901.
• History of the Phrenology Bust as developed by Spurzheim (http://amapedia.amazon.com/view/Phrenology+
Button/id=667883.htm)
• George Combe's Elements of Phrenology. (http://amapedia.amazon.com/view/Elements+of+Phrenology/
id=809849)
• Psychophysiognomy Today! (http://psychofizjonomika.pl) Polish portal, advocating psychophysiognomy.
Articles on modern psychophysiognomy and the current use of psychophysiognomy in the personal consultation
CVonVideo (http://cvonvideo.com)
• Phrenology Tools of the Trade. (http://amapedia.amazon.com/edit/asin=B001DESZBS)
• Early accounts of Phrenology practice (http://amapedia.amazon.com/view/Tales+of+Phrenology/
id=929183/ref=dp_amapedia_5)
• Brain and Mind (electronic magazine on Neuroscience) Modern Phrenology Offshoots of Phrenology:
Crainiology and Anthropometry (http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n01/frenolog/frenmod.htm)
• Florida State University College of Criminology and Criminal Justice. Course material. (http://www.
criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/week4.htm)
Anthroposophical medicine 41

Anthroposophical medicine
Anthroposophical medicine is a complementary medicine[1] that integrates theories and practices of modern
medicine[2] with alternative, nature-based treatments,[3] including the use of homeopathic medicaments and physical
and artistic therapies and biographical counseling.[4] The approach regards human wellness and illness as
biographical events connected to the body, soul and spirit of the individual.
Anthroposophical medicine uses a holistic approach ("salutogenesis") that focuses on factors that support human
health, rather than on factors that cause disease, and also focusing on strengthening both the patient's body and
individuality. The self-determination, autonomy and dignity of patients is a central theme;[5] therapies are believed to
enhance a patient's capacities to heal.[6]
The anthrosophical medical system was founded in the 1920s by Rudolf Steiner in conjunction with Ita Wegman as
an extension to conventional medicine based on the spiritual philosophy of Anthroposophy.[5] Conventional medical
treatments, including surgery and medications, are employed as necessary[6] and anthroposophical physicians must
have a conventional medical education, including a degree from an established and certified medical school, as well
as extensive post-graduate study.[5] [7] [8] There are currently anthroposophical medical practices in 80 countries
worldwide.[5]

Key Concepts
Co-founders of anthroposophical
medicine

Rudolf Steiner 
Anthroposophical medicine 42

Ita Wegman 

Anthroposophical medicine seeks to extend, not replace, mainstream Western medicine.[9] Its practitioners do not
regarded it as an "alternative", but as an extension, to conventional science-based medicine.[10]

Uniting science and spirituality

AltMD describes anthroposophical medicine as:

Anthroposophical medicine is based on Steiner's concept that spiritual

awareness is the foundation of individual health and of the health of
society. Steiner believed that many of the oldest systems of healing,
such as traditional Chinese medicine, Ayurvedic medicine, and Tibetan
medicine, were based on a spiritual perception of the world that modern
science has lost. Steiner wanted medicine to get back in touch with
spirituality, and at the same time keep and use wisely the gains that
science and technology have made. Thus, conventional medicine needed to
be extended beyond physical science to include a holistic spiritual
science.

—Anthroposophical medicine, AltMD , [11]

Theory
Anthroposophical medicine is based upon the anthroposophical view of the human being which considers the
patient's:[6]
• Physical constitution (what would be considered in a physical examination);
• The living organization (also called the "etheric body");
• The psychological organization (also called the astral body), understood as the bearer of both the emotional or
psychological state (affect), and of consciousness;
• And the 'ego', source of self-reflection and free will.
AltMD describes this as[5] -
"Human beings are made up of four levels ("fourfoldness") of being. The first level is the physical body. The
second level is the life or etheric body, which corresponds to the Chinese idea of chi and the Ayurvedic idea of
prana. The third level is the soul, or astral body, and the fourth level is the spirit. AM doctors believe that all
levels of being influence a patient's health."
Anthroposophical medicine 43

Biography
Health and illness are regarded as deeply related to the biography of a patient. Anthroposophic medicine raises the
question of a chronic or acute illness' significance in the biography of the patient: in what ways does the illness
express, or appear as a result of, what is happening in the patient's life; and in what way does it open up or close
down life paths? The approach emphasizes that, through overcoming an illness, a patient may develop aspects of his
or her being that he or she might not otherwise have achieved. The medical goal is then not necessarily to restore the
previous condition of the patient, which led to the illness, but rather to achieve a new and healthier condition. [12]
The events of an illness may be seen as decisive decision points in the patient's life. Biographical rhythms such as
seven-year phases of development are often considered in understanding the significance of an illness to a patient's
life. [13]

Doctrine of signatures
An example of anthroposophical medicine is described by the Physicians Association of Anthroposophical
Medince.[4]
"... plants that grow near water are usually heavy, with big, dark green leaves that wilt and break easily. An
exception is... the white willow, a tree that always grows near water and loves fight. However, unlike other
"watery" plants, the willow has fine, almost dry leaves and looks very light... Its branches are unbelievably
tough. They are elastic and cannot be broken. They bend easily and form "joints" rather than break. These few
signatures can give us the clue to what salix can be used for therapeutically: arthritis, deformation of joints,
swollen joints... "
Critics of the doctrine of signatures suggest that there is no evidence that the shape of plants has ever caused a new
medical property to be discovered.[14]

Circulatory system
Steiner suggested that "the blood was propelled with its own biological momentum, as can be seen in the embryo,
and boosts itself with induced momenta from the heart"; the discovery of a chick embryo that lived to term without a
heart has been taken to support this.[15] The American Heart Association claims, on the other hand, that “The normal
heart is a strong, muscular pump a little larger than a fist. It pumps blood continuously through the circulatory
system.” [16]

Spending time with patients

Anthroposophical medicine practitioners believe that spending time with a patient is important, and that patients are
typically rushed through medical treatment, so many important factors about the patient are overlooked, and aspects
of the patients well being are not helped by the rush.[5] Psychologists have found that stress impacts the immune
system, and many doctors are critical of their own field for rushing patients.[17]

Minimizing over-prescription of antibiotics and drugs

Anthroposophical medicine doctors try to minimize the use of antibiotics, drugs, and vaccinations.[5] Overuse of
antibiotics and over prescription of drugs driven by pharmaceutical industry profit making has been widely criticized
by both scientists and doctors.[18]
Anthroposophical doctors generally restrict the use of antibiotics, antipyretics, and have a differentiated individual
approach to vaccinations. Some children treated by anthroposophic doctors are vaccinated only against tetanus and
polio, and some vaccinations are given later than recommended by health authorities.[19]
Anthroposophical medicine 44

Studies of efficacy
In 2005, a Swiss government study identified 178 clinical studies of anthroposophical medicine.[20] For many
treatments used in anthroposophical medicine, however, proofs of efficacy have not been made through strictly
controlled medical testing.[21]

Mistletoe treatment for cancer

The use of mistletoe extracts in the treatment of cancer was first proposed by Rudolf Steiner and developed by
anthroposophical researchers;[22] it is now probably the best-known anthroposophic therapy.[5] Various forms of the
medication are widely available in Central Europe, where the treatment regimens of up to two-thirds of all oncology
patients includes mistletoe.[23] The extracts are generally no longer used to reduce or inhibit tumor growth, but to
improve the patients' quality of life and to reduce tumor-induced symptoms and the side-effects of chemotherapy and
radiotherapy; a wide array of clinical studies support the efficacy of the treatment regimen for the latter purposes.[5]
There are also phytotherapeutic preparations using non-homeopathic doses of mistletoe; these should not be
confused with the anthroposophical preparations.[5]
In the United States, mistletoe "holds interest as a potential anticancer agent because extracts derived from it have
been shown to kill cancer cells in vitro" but no forms of the extract have been approved by the FDA for any
indications. Mistletoe extracts may not be distributed in or imported into the US except for the purpose of clinical
research.[24]
Although preclinical (animal) studies suggested a potential role for mistletoe extracts in cancer therapies, no such
effects have been convincingly reported. Evidence for the efficacy of mistletoe as an anticancer drug from human
studies is weak. Though numerous cohort studies and case series have reported tumor remission and regression,[5]
double blinded studies have tended not to support this effect, and the cohort and case studies have been criticized as
biased due to their small size and lack of double-blinding.[23] Mistletoe extracts are also frequently used to treat
cancer patients in Holland,[25] and in Great Britain. The treatment has been approved as palliative therapy for
malignant tumors in Germany.[25] In the United States it is approved for clinical trial only, and numerous clinical
trials have evaluated its effectiveness.[26] Approximately 30 types of mistletoe extracts are used clinically;[27] the
most commonly used is known as Iscador. Though no serious side effects are normally found from mistletoe
treatments,[28] [29] in one case a patient allergic to mistletoe went into anaphylactic shock.[25] Minor side-effects of
injections reported include redness, pain or, in a few cases, subcutaneous inflammation.[30]
The National Cancer Institute (US) position on mistletoe is: "Extracts of mistletoe have been shown to kill cancer
cells in the laboratory and to boost the immune system (the complex group of organs and cells that defends the body
against infection or disease). For this reason, mistletoe has been classified as a type of biological response modifier
(a substance that stimulates the body's response to infection and disease). Extracts of mistletoe have also been shown
in the laboratory to prevent the growth of new blood vessels needed for tumors to grow....At this time, there is not
enough evidence to recommend the use of mistletoe as a treatment for cancer except in carefully designed clinical
trials. These trials will give more information about whether mistletoe can be useful in treating certain types of
cancer." [31]
Anthroposophical medicine 45

Reviews
• One review concluded: "Although there is laboratory evidence of biological activity that may be beneficial to
cancer patients, the evidence of clinical benefit from human studies remains weak and inconclusive. Because of
the absence of serious side effects and the limited evidence that mistletoe products may offer some therapeutic
advantages, further research is warranted."[32]
• The National Cancer Institute has concluded that mistletoe extract has been shown to kill cancer cells in the
laboratory and to boost the immune system in animals,[33] and that there is evidence that mistletoe can boost the
immune system in human beings. The Institute's review suggests that many studies done on human beings have
major weaknesses that raise doubts about the reliability of their findings;[34] in some studies without such
weaknesses no significant effect was found, while in others "Iscador proved safe and effective and also showed a
significant survival advantage over untreated controls."[35]
• According to the American Cancer Society, "A number of laboratory experiments suggest mistletoe may have the
potential to treat cancer, but these results have not yet been reflected in clinical trials. Available evidence from
well-designed clinical trials that have studied mistletoe did not support claims that mistletoe could improve length
or quality of life. Review of evidence from carefully conducted controlled human clinical studies indicates that
mistletoe does not have any significant anti-tumor activity. Most of the studies that have found positive results
from mistletoe extract in the treatment or prevention of cancer are not considered scientifically
dependable....Researchers are working to identify the most important components, which are thought to be the
lectins (proteins). Laboratory experiments also hint that mistletoe increases the activity of lymphocytes, which are
cells that attack invading organisms. "[25]
• A professor of Complementary Medicine, Edzard Ernst, has suggested that there is a danger that some patients
might choose to abandon other cancer treatments.[36]
Anthroposophical medicine 46

History
The first steps towards an anthroposophical approach to medicine
were made before 1920, when homeopathic physicians and
pharmacists began working with Rudolf Steiner, who recommended
new medicinal substances as well as specific methods for preparing
these. In 1921, Dr Ita Wegman opened the first anthroposophic
medical clinic, now known as the Ita Wegman Clinic,[37] in
Arlesheim, Switzerland. Wegman was soon joined by a number of
other doctors. They began to train the first anthroposophic nurses for
the clinic.

At Wegman's request, Steiner regularly visited the clinic and

suggested treatment regimes for particular patients. Between 1921
and 1925, he also gave several series of lectures on medicine. In
1925, Wegman and Steiner wrote the first book on the
anthroposophic approach to medicine, Fundamentals of Therapy.
The clinic expanded and soon opened a branch in Ascona. Wegman
lectured widely, visiting Holland and England particularly frequently,
and an increasing number of doctors began to include the
anthroposophic approach in their practices. A cancer clinic, the
Lukas Clinic,[38] opened in Arlesheim in 1963.

Modern history and prevalence of practice

There are about 28 anthroposophic hospitals, departments of Ita Wegman, co-founder of the medical approach,
hospitals, rehabilitation centers and sanatoria located in Germany, before 1900 in Berlin.

Switzerland, Sweden, the Netherlands, Great Britain, Italy, the USA

and Brazil, as well as over 140 outpatient clinics worldwide. Four of the German and Swiss anthroposophic hospitals
are state-sponsored; three are academic teaching hospitals under the aegis of nearby universities. Three European
universities (Bern, Hamburg and Witten/Herdecke) have professorships in anthroposophic medicine and other
universities offer courses on the field. Anthroposophic medicine is recognized in Germany as a "Special Therapy
System", along with homeopathy and herbal medicine,[39] under the Medicines Act and has its own committee at the
Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices.[5] Anthroposophical medical treatment has been a recognized
specialty within Swiss governmental health policy since 1999.[40] The International Federation of Anthroposophical
Medical Associations estimates that there are currently approximately 2,000 Anthroposophical doctors worldwide.
Based on the number of prescriptions it has been estimated that anthroposophic medicinal products are prescribed by
more than 30,000 physicians.[41]
Anthroposophical medicine 47

References
[1] Catherine Zollman, Andrew Vickers, ABC of Complementary Medicine, 2008, p. 1
[2] Rosslenbroich, B; Schmidt, S. and Mathiessen, P. F. (April 1994). "Unconventional medicine in Germany: A report on the situation of
research as basis for state research support". Complementary Therapies in Medicine 2 (2): 61–69.
[3] http:/ / www. med. umich. edu/ umim/ resources/ anthroposophic_medicine. htm
[4] What is Anthroposophically Extended Medicine? (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070202085424/ http:/ www. anthroposophy. org. nz/
Sections/ Medical/ AEM. htm)
[5] Kienle, Kiene and Albonico, Anthroposophic Medicine, Schattauer 2006 ISBN 3-7945-2495-0, Chapter 3 and 6
[6] Klotter, Jule (May 2006). Anthroposophical Medicine. Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients, 24(1):274.
[7] von Rohr et al., "Experiences in the realisation of a research project on anthroposophical medicine in patients with advanced cancer" (http:/ /
www. smw. ch/ docs/ pdf/ 2000_34/ 2000-34-245. PDF), Schweiz Med Wochenschr 2000;130:1173–84
[8] Cantor, I. S., and Rosenzweig, R. (December 1997). Anthroposophic perspectives in primary care. Primary Care, 24(4):867-87. PMID
9386260 Reprint copy (http:/ / jdc. jefferson. edu/ cgi/ viewcontent. cgi?article=1000& context=emfp)
[9] Girke, Matthias "Was ist Anthroposophische Medizin?", Komplementäre und Integrative Medizin, v. 49, nr. 9, 1 September 2008, pp. 10-12
[10] Gunnar Stollberg, "Heterodoxe Medizin, Weltgesellschaft und Glokalisierung: Asiatische Medizinformen in Westeuropa" (https:/ / www.
uni-bielefeld. de/ (en)/ soz/ iw/ pdf/ stollberg. pdf)
[11] http:/ / www. altmd. com/ Articles/ Anthroposophical-Medicine--Encyclopedia-of-Alterna
[12] Fintelmann, Volker (2007). Intuitive Medizin - anthroposophische Medizin in der Praxis (5th ed.). Stuttgart: Hippokrates. p. 72-73.
[13] Lievegoed, Bernard (1997). Phases. Forest Row, England: Sophia Books. ISBN 1855840561.
[14] Bennett, Bradley C. (2007). "Doctrine of Signatures: An Explanation of Medicinal Plant Discovery or Dissemination of Knowledge?" (http:/
/ www. bioone. org/ perlserv/ ?request=get-abstract& doi=10. 1663/ 0013-0001(2007)61[246:DOSAEO]2. 0. CO;2). Economic Botany 61 (3):
246–255 doi=10.1663/0013–0001. doi:10.1663/0013-0001. . Retrieved 2008-08-31.
[15] Marinelli, R., Fuerst, B., et al. "The Heart is not a Pump: A refutation of the pressure propulsion premise of heart function" (http:/ / www.
rsarchive. org/ RelArtic/ Marinelli/ ), Frontier Perspectives 5(1), Fall-Winter 1995
[16] http:/ / www. heart. org/ HEARTORG/ Conditions/ HeartFailure/ AboutHeartFailure/ About-Heart-Failure_UCM_002044_Article. jsp
[17] Guidelines for the Clinical Use of Electronic Mail with Patients, The Practice of Informatics, Journal of the American Informatics
Association, Beverley Kane, Daniel Z Sands, (http:/ / jamia. bmj. com/ content/ 5/ 1/ 104. abstract)
[18] Doctors Can “Just Say No”: The Constitutionality of Consumer-Directed Advertising of Prescription Drugs, 12 Hastings Comm. & Ent. L.J.
535 (1989-1990) , HeinOnline, Michelle D. Ehrlich, (http:/ / heinonline. org/ HOL/ LandingPage?collection=journals& handle=hein. journals/
hascom12& div=37& id=& page=)
[19] Alm, J. S., Swartz, J., Lilja, G., Scheynius, A., and Pershagen, G. (1999). Atopy in children of families with an anthroposophic lifestyle.
Lancet, 353(9163):1485-8. PMID 10232315 Reprint copy (http:/ / www. waldorflibrary. org/ journal_articles/ rb5103. pdf).
[20] Urban Wirz, review of "Anthroposophische Medizin in der klinischen Forschung", Schweizerische Ärztezeitung 2006;87: 37
[21] Healthwatch Award 2005: Edzard Ernst (http:/ / healthwatch-uk. org/ awardwinners/ edzardernst. html);
[22] Christine Murphy, Iscador: Mistletoe in Cancer Therapy, ISBN 193005176X, pp. 52-3
[23] Ernst E, Schmit K, Steuer-Vogt MK. Mistletoe for cancer? A systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Int J Cancer
2003;107:262-7, cited in BMJ 2006;333:1293-1294 (23 December) (http:/ / www. bmj. com/ cgi/ content/ full/ 333/ 7582/
1293?ijkey=56e55886cc53e0c478801e74001edc3bea1c322e& keytype2=tf_ipsecsha)
[24] National Cancer Institute, Mistletoe: General Information for Health Professionals (http:/ / www. cancer. gov/ cancertopics/ pdq/ cam/
mistletoe/ HealthProfessional/ page3)
[25] American Cancer Society website (2007) (http:/ / www. cancer. org/ docroot/ ETO/ content/ ETO_5_3X_Mistletoe. asp)
[26] National Institute of Health: Mistletoe, Human/Clinical Trials (http:/ / www. cancer. gov/ cancertopics/ pdq/ cam/ mistletoe/
HealthProfessional/ page6)
[27] Ernst, E. (2006). Editorial: Mistletoe as a treatment for cancer. British Medical Journal, 333(7582):1282-3. PMID 17185706 Reprint copy
(http:/ / www. bmj. com/ cgi/ content/ full/ 333/ 7582/ 1282)
[28] Elizabeth Kaegi, "Unconventional therapies for cancer: 3. Iscador" (http:/ / www. cmaj. ca/ cgi/ reprint/ 158/ 9/ 1157), p. 1158
[29] "Safety and Risk Aspects of Oncological Mistletoe Therapy" (http:/ / www. mistel-therapie. de/ wissenschaft/ index. php5?page=57&
lang=1)
[30] Finall, A.J., McIntosh, S. A., and Thompson, W. D. (2006). Subcutaneous inflammation mimicking metastatic malignancy induced by
injection of mistletoe extract. British Medical Journal, 333(7582):1293-4. PMID 17185712 Reprint copy (http:/ / www. bmj. com/ cgi/
content/ full/ 333/ 7582/ 1293)
[31] http:/ / www. cancer. gov/ cancertopics/ pdq/ cam/ mistletoe/ patient/ 8. cdr#Section_8
[32] Kaegi E, on behalf of the Task Force on Alternative Therapies of the Canadian Breast Cancer Research Initiative. Unconventional therapies
for cancer: 3. Iscador. Canadian Medical Association 1998;158:1157-59., cited in BCCA
[33] Overview of mistletoe findings, published by National Cancer Institute (2006). Article (http:/ / www. cancer. gov/ cancertopics/ pdq/ cam/
mistletoe/ patient)
[34] Questions and Answers About Mistletoe, published by National Cancer Institute (2006). Article (http:/ / www. cancer. gov/ cancertopics/
pdq/ cam/ mistletoe/ patient/ Page2)
Anthroposophical medicine 48

[35] (http:/ / www. cancer. gov/ cancertopics/ pdq/ cam/ mistletoe/ HealthProfessional/ page5)
[36] Ernst, Edzard, "Medicine man", The Guardian, December 21, 2004, Article (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ g2/ story/ 0,,1377721,00. html)
[37] Ita Wegman Klinik (http:/ / www. wegmanklinik. ch) (German). Accessed 2007-12-26.
[38] Lukas Clinic (http:/ / www. lukasklinik. ch/ cms. asp?IDN=133& H='106'& T=0& Sprache=en). Accessed 2007-12-26.
[39] http:/ / www. medsektion-goetheanum. org/ lang/ en/ ?p=11
[40] Anthrosana (http:/ / www. anthrosana. ch/ content/ 4_dialog/ 4_1_fragenantworten. htm)
[41] http:/ / www. ivaa. info/ ?p=72

Bibliography

Journal review articles

• Ernst, Edzard (2004). Anthroposophical medicine: A systematic review of randomised clinical trials. Wiener
Klinische Wochenschrift, 116(4):128-130, ISSN 0043-5325, PMID 15038403.
• Kienle, G. H., and Kiene, H. (2007). Complementary cancer therapy: A systematic review of prospective clinical
trials on anthroposophic mistletoe extracts. European Journal of Medical Research, 12:103-119, PMID
17507307. Reprint (http://wissenschaft.mistel-therapie.de/Dateien/Downloads/Studien/Kienle_2007_Mistel.
pdf) (accessed 10/29/2007).
• Mistletoe and Cancer (http://www.townsendletter.com/Oct_2002/mistletoecancer1002.htm), Townsend
Letter, October 2002

Books
• Bott, Victor, An Introduction to Anthroposophical Medicine, ISBN 1-85584-177-0
• Bott, Victor, Spiritual Science and the Art of Healing. ISBN 0-89281-636-8
• Denjean, Barbara and von Bonin, Dietrich, Anthroposophical Therapeutic Speech ISBN 0-86315-418-2
• Douch, Geoffrey, Medicine for the Whole Person: A Guide to Anthroposophical Treatment ISBN 0-86315-362-3
• Evans, Michael and Rodger, Iain, Complete Healing ISBN 0-88010-489-9
• Goebel, Wolfgang and Glöckler, Michaela, A Guide to Child Health, ISBN 0-86315-390-9
• Hauschka, Rudolf, The Nature of Substance ISBN 1-85584-122-3
• Hauschka, Rudolf, Nutrition ISBN 1-85584-117-7
• King, Francis X., Rudolf Steiner and Holistic Medicine, ISBN 0-89254-015-X.
• Leviton, Richard, Anthroposophic Medicine Today ISBN 0-88010-265-9.
• Mees, L. F. C., Blessed by Illness ISBN 0-88010-054-0
• Mees, L. F. C., Secrets of the Skeleton: Form in Metamorphosis ISBN 0-88010-087-7
• Murphy, Christine (ed.), Iscador: Mistletoe and Cancer Therapy ISBN 1-930051-76-X
• Murphy, Christine (ed.), Practical Home Care Medicine: A Natural Approach ISBN 1-930051-09-3
• Murphy, Christine, The Vaccination Dilemma ISBN 1-930051-10-7
• Renzenbrink, Diet and Cancer ISBN 0-85440-766-9
• Steiner, Rudolf and Wegman, Ita, Extending Practical Medicine. ISBN 1-85584-080-4
• also published as Fundamentals of Therapy, ISBN 0-7661-4688-X
• Steiner, Rudolf and Weisz, Paul B., Angiogenesis: Key Principles-Science-Technology-Medicine ISBN
0-8176-2674-3
• Wolff, Otto and Husemann, Friedrich, The Anthroposophic Approach to Medicine ISBN 0-88010-031-1.
• Wolff, Otto, Home Remedies: Herbal and Homeopathic Treatments for Use at Home ISBN 0-88010-362-0
• Zieve, Robert, Healthy Medicine ISBN 0-88010-560-7
• Zur Linden, Wilhelm, A Child is Born ISBN 1-85584-192-4
Anthroposophical medicine 49

Lectures by Rudolf Steiner

• Broken Vessels : The Spiritual Structure of Human Frailty, Michael Lipson (ed.). ISBN 0-88010-503-8.
• Fundamentals of Anthroposophical Medicine, ISBN 0-936132-80-9.
• Geographic medicine: The secret of the double. ISBN 0-936132-06-X
• The Healing Process : Spirit, Nature & Our Bodies, Catherine E. Creeger (ed.). ISBN 0-88010-474-0
• Introducing Anthroposophical Medicine (Foundations of Anthroposophical Medicine, v. 1). ISBN 0-88010-463-5
• Medicine: An Introductory Reader, Andrew Maendl (ed.). ISBN 1-85584-133-9
• Occult Physiology ISBN 1-85584-141-X
• Pastoral Medicine: The Collegial Working of Doctors and Priests. ISBN 0-88010-253-5

External links
• Medical Section at the Rudolf Steiner Archive, An Online Library (http://medicine.rsarchive.org)
• Anthroposophic Medical Library, An Online Resource (http://www.anthromed.org)
• International Federation of Anthroposophical Medical Associations (http://www.ivaa.info)
• Physician's Association for Anthroposophical Medicine (http://www.paam.net) (North America)
• European Federation of Patients' Associations for Anthroposophic Medicine (http://www.efpam.org)
• Anthroposophical Health and Social Care (http://www.ahasc.org.uk) (Great Britain and Ireland)
Magnet therapy 50

Magnet therapy
Energy therapy[1]
• Acupuncture
• Energy (esotericism)
• Energy medicine
• Polarity therapy
• Reiki
• Therapeutic touch
NCCAM classifications

1. Alternative Medical Systems

2. Mind-Body Intervention
3. Biologically Based Therapy
4. Manipulative Methods
5. Energy Therapy

See also

• Alternative medicine

Magnet therapy, magnetic therapy, or magnotherapy is an alternative medicine practice involving the use of
static magnetic fields. Practitioners claim that subjecting certain parts of the body to magnetostatic fields produced
by permanent magnets has beneficial health effects. Magnet therapy is considered pseudoscientific due to both
physical and biological implausibility, as well as a lack of any established effect on health or healing.[2] [3] [4]
Although hemoglobin, the blood protein that carries oxygen, is weakly diamagnetic and is repulsed by magnetic
fields, the magnets used in magnetic therapy are many orders of magnitude too weak to have any measurable effect
on blood flow.[5]

Methods of application
Magnet therapy is the application of the magnetic field of
electromagnetic devices or permanent static magnets to the body for
purported health benefits. Some practitioners assign different effects
based on the orientation of the magnet; under the laws of physics,
magnetic poles are symmetric.[6] [7] Products include magnetic
bracelets and jewelry; magnetic straps for wrists, ankles, knees, and the
back; shoe insoles; mattresses; magnetic blankets (blankets with
magnets woven into the material); magnetic creams; magnetic
supplements;[8] and water that has been "magnetized". Application is
Magnetite ring.
usually performed by the patient.[9]

Purported mechanisms of action

Perhaps the most common suggested mechanism is that magnets might improve blood flow in underlying tissues.
The field surrounding magnet therapy devices is far too weak and falls off with distance far too quickly to
appreciably affect hemoglobin, other blood components, muscle tissue, bones, blood vessels, or organs.[2] [10] A
1991 study on humans of static field strengths up to 1 T found no effect on local blood flow.[5] [11] Tissue
oxygenation is similarly unaffected.[10] Some practitioners claim that the magnets can restore the body's theorized
Magnet therapy 51

"electromagnetic energy balance", but no such balance is medically recognized. Even in the magnetic fields used in
magnetic resonance imaging, which are many times stronger, none of the claimed effects are observed.[12]

Efficacy
Several studies have been conducted in recent years to investigate what, if any, role static magnetic fields may play
in health and healing. Unbiased studies of magnetic therapy are problematic, since magnetisation can be easily
detected, for instance, by the attraction forces on ferrous (iron-containing) objects; because of this, effective blinding
of studies (where neither patients nor assessors know who is receiving treatment versus placebo) is difficult.[13]
Incomplete or insufficient blinding tends to exaggerate treatment effects, particularly where any such effects are
small.[14] Health claims such as longevity and cancer treatment are implausible and unsupported by any research.[15]
[10]
More mundane health claims, most commonly pain relief, also lack any credible proposed mechanism, and
clinical research is not promising.[9] [16] [17]

Pain
Effects of magnet therapy on pain relief beyond non-specific placebo response have not been adequately
demonstrated. A 2008 systematic review of magnet therapy for all indications found no evidence of an effect for pain
relief, with the possible exception of osteoarthritis.[16] It reported that small sample sizes, inadequate randomization,
and difficulty with allocation concealment all tend to bias studies positively and limit the strength of any
conclusions. In 2009 the results of a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled crossover trial on the use of
magnetic wrist straps (a leather strap with a magnetic insert) for osteoarthritis were published, addressing a gap in
the earlier systematic review. This trial showed that magnetic wrist straps are ineffective in the management of pain,
stiffness and physical function in osteoarthritis. The authors concluded that "[r]eported benefits are most likely
attributable to non-specific placebo effects".[18] [19]
Magnet therapy 52

Menstrual pain

A Korean study in 1994 came to the result of a

significant reduction in menstrual pain by applying
magnets of between 800 and 1299 gauss for 3 hours to
the suprapubic and other pelvic areas, compared to a
control group that wore devices without magnetic
property.[21] A purportedly randomized, double-blind,
controlled study in London in 2005[20] reported a
reduction in primary menstrual pain by applying a static
20mm x 5mm large neodymium magnet of 2700 gauss
(measured at surface) to the suprapubic area, with the
north pole inwards, throughout menstruation, as
compared to using an identical, weaker magnetic
placebo device of 140 gauss, with the McGill pain score
decreasing with a median of 17 points in the magnet
group, representing an average of 53% reduction in pain
score, compared to a median decrease of 5 points in the
placebo group (15% reduction), and resulting in a
statistically significant difference between the groups
(P-value < 0.02).[20] The study received 5 of maximum
5 points on the Jadad quality scale by the 2008 review,
but was considered rather small.[16] The items used in
this study, that is, the magnet attached to the outside of Basic placement of magnet as used in 2005 study of magnet therapy
on menstrual pain, in which a static 20mm x 5mm large neodymium
the underwear near belt-level by a metallic object on the
magnet of 2700 gauss (measured at surface) was applied to the
inside,[20] are sold from online sites that advertise its suprapubic area throughout menstruation.
[20]

medical effects at prices generally multiple times higher

than that of equivalent magnets and metal attachments in general retail stores.

Safety
These devices are generally considered safe in themselves, though there can be significant financial and opportunity
costs to magnet therapy, especially when treatment or diagnosis are avoided or delayed.[9] [16] [15]

Reception
The worldwide magnet therapy industry totals sales of over a billion dollars per year,[15] [10] including $300 million
dollars per year in the United States alone.[13]
A 2002 U.S. National Science Foundation report on public attitudes and understanding of science noted that magnet
therapy is "not at all scientific."[22] A number of vendors make unsupported claims about magnet therapy by using
pseudoscientific and new-age language. Such claims are unsupported by the results of scientific and clinical
studies.[17]
Magnet therapy 53

Legal regulations
Marketing of any therapy as effective treatment for any condition is heavily restricted by law in many jurisdictions
unless all such claims are scientifically validated. In the United States, for example, U.S. Food and Drug
Administration regulations prohibit marketing any magnet therapy product using medical claims, as such claims are
unfounded.[23]

References
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:Energy
[2] Park, Robert L. (2000). Voodoo Science: The Road from Foolishness to Fraud. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 58–63.
ISBN 0-19-513515-6. "Not only are magnetic fields of no value in healing, you might characterize these as "homeopathic" magnetic fields."
[3] Wanjek, Christopher (2003). Bad Medicine: misconceptions and misuses revealed from distance healing to vitamin O. Hoboken, New Jersey:
John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–253. ISBN 0-471-43499-X.
[4] National Science Foundation, Division of Resources Statistics (2006-02). Science and Engineering Indicators, 2006 (http:/ / www. nsf. gov/
statistics/ seind06/ c7/ c7s2. htm#c7s2l3). Arlington, VA. Chapter 7. .
[5] Stick C; Hinkelmann K, Eggert P, Wendhausen H (1991). "Do strong static magnetic fields in NMR tomography modify tissue perfusion?".
Nuklearmedizin 154: 326.
[6] Rawls, Walter C.; Davis, Albert Belisle (1996). Magnetism and Its Effects on the Living System. Acres U.S.A. ISBN 0-911311-14-9.
[7] Eccles Nyjon K. "The misery of Restless Legs Syndrome survey" (http:/ / www. magno-pulse. com/ restless_legs. php#introduction).
Magnopulse LTD. .
[8] link title (http:/ / www. rxmagnets. com) Magnets for a Better Life
[9] Singh, Simon; Edzard Ernst (2008-04-08). "Are we being hoodwinked by alternative medicine? Two leading scientists examine the evidence"
(http:/ / www. dailymail. co. uk/ health/ article-557946/ Are-hoodwinked-alternative-medicine-Two-leading-scientists-examine-evidence.
html). Daily Mail. . Retrieved 2009-08-18.
[10] Flamm, Bruce L. (2006-07). "Magnet Therapy: a billion-dollar boondoggle" (http:/ / www. csicop. org/ si/ show/
magnet_therapy_a_billion-dollar_boondoggle/ ). Skeptical Inquirer (Committee for Skeptical Inquiry). . Retrieved 2009-08-18.
[11] Polk, Charles; Elliot Postow (1996). Handbook of Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields. CRC Press. pp. 161. ISBN 0849306418.
[12] "Safety in Medical Imaging Procedures" (http:/ / www. radiologyinfo. org/ content/ safety/ mri_safety. htm). .
[13] Finegold L, Flamm BL (January 2006). "Magnet therapy". BMJ 332 (7532): 4. doi:10.1136/bmj.332.7532.4. PMC 1325112.
PMID 16399710.
[14] Altman, DG; KF Schulz, D Moher, M Egger, F Davidoff, D Elbourne, PC Gøtzsche, T Lang, CONSORT GROUP (Consolidated Standards
of Reporting Trials) (2001-04-17). "The revised CONSORT statement for reporting randomized trials: explanation and elaboration". Annals of
Internal Medicine 134 (8): 663–694. PMID 11304107.
[15] "Magnet therapies 'have no effect'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ health/ 4582282. stm). BBC. 2006-01-06. . Retrieved 2009-08-18.
[16] Pittler, Max H. (2008-03). "Static magnets for reducing pain" (http:/ / www. cmaj. ca/ cgi/ content/ full/ 177/ 7/ 736). Focus on Alternative
and Complementary Therapies 13 (1): 5. . Retrieved 2009-08-18.
[17] James D. Livingston. "Magnetic Therapy: Plausible Attraction?" (http:/ / www. csicop. org/ si/ 9807/ magnet. html). Skeptical Inquirer. .
[18] Richmond, S. J.; Brown, S. R.; Campion, P. D.; Porter, A. J. L.; Moffett, J. A. K.; Jackson, D. A.; Featherstone, V. A.; Taylor, A. J. (2009).
"Therapeutic effects of magnetic and copper bracelets in osteoarthritis: A randomised placebo-controlled crossover trial☆☆". Complementary
Therapies in Medicine 17 (5-6): 249. doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2009.07.002. PMID 19942103.
[19] "Copper bracelets and arthritis" (http:/ / www. nhs. uk/ news/ 2009/ 10October/ Pages/ Copper-bracelets-and-arthritis. aspx). NHS Choices.
2009-10-19. . Retrieved 2009-11-03.
[20] Eccles, N. K. (2005). "A Randomized, Double-Blinded, Placebo-Controlled Pilot Study to Investigate the Effectiveness of a Static Magnet
to Relieve Dysmenorrhea". The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 11 (4): 681–687. doi:10.1089/acm.2005.11.681.
PMID 16131292.
[21] Kim, K.; Lee, Y. (1994). "The effect of magnetic application for primary dysmenorrhea". Kanhohak t'amgu 3 (1): 148–173; discussion
173–9. PMID 7953879.
[22] National Science Board (2002). Science and Engineering Indicators – 2002 (http:/ / www. nsf. gov/ statistics/ seind02/ c7/ c7s5. htm).
Arlington, Virginia: National Science Foundation. pp. ch. 7. ISBN 978-016066579-0. . "Among all who had heard of [magnet therapy], 14
percent said it was very scientific and another 54 percent said it was sort of scientific. Only 25 percent of those surveyed answered correctly,
that is, that it is not at all scientific."
[23] "Magnets" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080424053751/ http:/ / www. fda. gov/ cdrh/ consumer/ magnets. html). CDRH Consumer
Information. Food and Drug Administration. 2000-03-01. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. fda. gov/ cdrh/ consumer/ magnets. html)
on 2008-04-24. . Retrieved 2008-05-02.
Magnet therapy 54

External links
• Magnetic Therapy: Can magnets alleviate pain? (http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a990618a.html) by
Cecil Adams — The Straight Dope
• Magnetic Therapy: Plausible Attraction? (http://www.csicop.org/si/show/
magnetic_therapy_plausible_attraction/) by James D. Livingston — Skeptical Inquirer
• Magnet therapy (http://skepdic.com/magnetic.html) in the Skeptic's Dictionary by Robert Todd Carroll
• Magnet therapy (http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/332/7532/4?ehom) — editorial in the British
Medical Journal
• Magnet Therapy: A Skeptical View (http://www.quackwatch.org/04ConsumerEducation/QA/magnet.html)
by Stephen Barrett — Quackwatch
Urine therapy 55

Urine therapy
Biologically based alternative
and complementary therapy[1]

• Chinese food therapy

• Herbalism
• Macrobiotic diet
• Natural health
• Orthomolecular medicine

NCCAM classifications

1. Alternative Medical Systems

2. Mind-Body Intervention
3. Biologically Based Therapy
4. Manipulative Methods
5. Energy Therapy

See also

• Complementary and alternative medicine

• Alternative medicine
• Complementary medicine
• Glossary of alternative medicine

In alternative medicine, the term urine therapy (also urotherapy, urinotherapy or uropathy) refers to various
applications of human urine for medicinal or cosmetic purposes, including drinking of one's own urine and
massaging one's skin with one's own urine. While there are no known scientifically-proven health benefits of such
therapeutic use for urine,[2] [3] [4] [5] [6] some chemical components of urine do have some well known commercial
and other uses, like urea and urokinase.[4] For instance, urea in urine has been found to be antibacterial to bacteria
causing urinary tract infections specifically, and ingestion of urea has been found to increase this antibacterial
activity in urine itself,[7] though no evidence was found for such an effect upon the actual ingestion or application of
urine.

History
Some of the earliest human cultures used urine as a medicine.

Rome
In Roman times, there was a tradition among the Gauls to use urine to whiten teeth. A famous poem by the Roman
poet Catullus, criticizing a Gaul named Egnatius, reads:[8] [9]

“
Egnatius, because he has snow-white teeth, / smiles all the time. If you're a defendant / in court, when the counsel draws tears, / he smiles: if
you're in grief at the pyre / of pious sons, the lone lorn mother weeping, / he smiles. Whatever it is, wherever it is, / whatever he's doing, he
smiles: he's got a disease, / neither polite, I would say, nor charming. / So a reminder to you, from me, good Egnatius./ If you were a Sabine or
Tiburtine / or a fat Umbrian, or plump Etruscan, / or dark toothy Lanuvian, or from north of the Po, / and I'll mention my own Veronese too, /
or whoever else clean their teeth religiously, / I’d still not want you to smile all the time: / there’s nothing more foolish than foolishly smiling. /
Now you’re Spanish: in the country of Spain / what each man pisses, he’s used to brushing / his teeth and red gums with, every morning, / so
the fact that your teeth are so polished / just shows you’re the more full of piss./ ”
Urine therapy 56

India
A religious Sanskrit text called the Damar Tantra contains 107 stanzas on the benefits of "pure water, or one's own
urine".[10] In this text, urine therapy is referred to as Sivambu Kalpa.[10] This ancient Indian text suggests, among
other uses and prescriptions, massaging one's skin with fresh, concentrated urine. In the Indian ayurvedic tradition,
urine therapy may be called amaroli.

Religious

Biblical reference
Some advocates believe that the Bible recommends urine therapy. A verse in Proverbs (Proverbs  5:15) advises:
"Drink waters from thy own cistern, flowing water from thy own well."[11] However, subsequent verses deal with
warnings against adultery, commanding the husband to stay with his wife and not pursue other women, hence a
likely interpretation of this verse is that of a literary device or analogy.[12]

Islam
In Sunni Islam, the Sahih Bukhari, which forms one of the six major Hadith collections quotes the Prophet
Muhammad advocating drinking camel's urine as a medicine in several verses.[13] [14] [15]
Sahih Bukhari Volume 7, Book 71, Number 590:

“ Narrated Anas: The climate of Medina did not suit some people, so the Prophet ordered them to follow his shepherd, i.e. his camels, and
drink their milk and urine (as a medicine).
[13]
”
Sahih Bukhari Volume 8, Book 82, Number 794:

“ Narrated Anas: Some people from the tribe of 'Ukl came to the Prophet and embraced Islam. The climate of Medina did not suit them, so the
Prophet ordered them to go to the (herd of milch) camels of charity and to drink, their milk and urine (as a medicine). They did so, and
after they had recovered from their ailment (became healthy) they turned renegades (reverted from Islam) and killed the shepherd of the
camels and took the camels away. The Prophet sent (some people) in their pursuit and so they were (caught and) brought, and the Prophets

and legs should not be cauterized, till they die.

[16] [17]
”
ordered that their hands and legs should be cut off and that their eyes should be branded with heated pieces of iron, and that their cut hands

Although it is recorded in the Bukhari that Prophet Muhammad advocated drinking camel urine as a medicine to his
followers, and did not describe it as dirty or demeaning, later commentators find urine to be something that is "filth
in an extreme degree" without denouncing its alleged medicinal properties.[17] Abū Ḥanīfa said that it's disliked, but
not forbidden, to drink the urine from camels.[17] Abu Yusuf said that urine from camels can be consumed for
medicinal purposes.[17]

Other cultures
In China, the urine of young boys has been regarded as a curative. In southern China, babies' faces are washed with
urine to protect the skin.[3]
The French customarily soaked stockings in urine and wrapped them around their necks in order to cure strep
throat.[3] Aristocratic French women in the 17th century reportedly bathed in urine to beautify their skin.
In Sierra Madre, Mexico, farmers prepare poultices for broken bones by having a child urinate into a bowl of
powdered charred corn. The mixture is made into a paste and applied to the skin.[18]
As in ancient Rome, urine was used for teeth-whitening during the Renaissance, though they did not necessarily
consume their own urine.
Urine therapy 57

John Henry Clarke

The homeopath John Henry Clarke wrote, "…man who, for a skin affection, drank in the morning the urine he had
passed the night before. The symptoms were severe, consisting of general-dropsy, scanty urine, and excessive
weakness. These symptoms I have arranged under Urinum. Urinotherapy is practically as old as man himself. The
Chinese (Therapist, x. 329) treat wounds by sprinkling urine on them, and the custom is widespread in the Far East.
Taken internally, it is believed to stimulate the circulation".[19]

Modern claims and findings

Urine's main constituents are water and urea; the latter of which has some well-known commercial and other uses.
Urine also contains small quantities of thousands of compounds, hormones and metabolites,[6] [20] including
corticosteroids.[21] Pregnant mare's urine has high amounts of estrogens, which are isolated and sold as Premarin.
There is no scientific evidence of a therapeutic use for untreated urine.[2] [3] [4] [5] [6]
It has been claimed that urine is similar to other body fluids, like amniotic fluid or even blood, but these claims have
no scientific basis.[5]
Urinating on jellyfish stings is a common folk remedy, but has no beneficial effect and may be counterproductive, as
it can activate nematocysts remaining at the site of the sting.
People who use Amanita muscaria as an intoxicating drug will sometimes drink their own urine in order to prolong
its effects, especially when there are shortages of the fungus.[22] [23]

Use as anti-cancer agent

Urine and urea have been claimed by some practitioners to have an anti-cancer effect. It has been hypothesized that
because some cancer cell antigens are transferred through urine, through "oral autourotherapy" these antigens could
be introduced to the immune system that might then create antibodies.[24] However, the American Cancer Society's
position is that scientific evidence does not support individual claims that urine or urea given in any form is helpful
for cancer patients, and that the safety of urine therapy has not been confirmed by scientific studies.[25]

Public figures
In 1978, the former Prime Minister of India, Morarji Desai, a longtime practitioner of urine therapy, spoke to Dan
Rather on 60 Minutes about urine therapy. Desai stated that urine therapy was the perfect medical solution for the
millions of Indians who cannot afford medical treatment.[26]
Cameroon's Health Minister Urbain Olanguena Awono warned people against drinking their own urine, believed in
some circles to be a tonic and cure for a number of ailments. "Given the risks of toxicity associated with ingesting
urine", he wrote, "the health ministry advises against the consumption of urine and invites those who promote the
practice to cease doing so or risk prosecution."[27]
Among other modern celebrities, the British actress Sarah Miles has drunk her own urine for over thirty years, in
claiming the belief that it immunizes against allergies, amongst other health benefits.[28] Major League Baseball
player Moisés Alou urinates on his hands to alleviate calluses, which he claims allows him to bat without using
batting gloves.[29] Madonna explained to talk show host David Letterman that she urinates on her own feet to help
cure her athlete's foot problem.[30]
Mixed martial arts fighter Lyoto Machida revealed in an interview that he drinks his own urine.[31] His father,
Yoshizo Machida, admitted he got Lyoto to start doing that after he couldn't get rid of his cough three years ago.[32]
MMA fighter Luke Cummo has been a long-time advocate of the practice.
Boxer Juan Manuel Marquez drank his own urine during a filmed training session for the HBO series 24/7
promoting the Marquez/Mayweather fight, he revealed that he believed the practice was of great nutritional benefit
Urine therapy 58

aiding his intensive workouts.[33]

Urine therapy was used as a plot line in the fifth-season episode "Crow's feet" of the popular television show CSI:
Crime Scene Investigation.
Author J.D. Salinger is also said to have been an adherent.[34]

Auto-urine drinking and meditation

Drinking one's morning urine ('amaroli') was an ancient yoga practise designed to promote meditation. The ancient
Hindu and yoga texts that mention auto-urine drinking, require it be done before sunrise and that only the mid-stream
sample be used.[35] The pineal hormone melatonin and its conjugated esters are present in morning urine in
significant quantities, the pineal gland secreting melatonin maximally at about 2 am, this secretion being shut off by
the eyes' exposure to bright sunlight.[35] Melatonin, when ingested or given intravenously, amongst other effects,
provokes tranquility and heightened visualisation.[35] There are high concentrations of melatonin in the first morning
urine, but not in a physiologically active form.[35] Mills and Faunce at Newcastle University Australia in 1991
developed the hypothesis that ingestion of morning urine into low pH gastric acid would cause deconjugation of its
esters back to the active form of melatonin. This, they suggested, might restore plasma night-time melatonin levels.
Thus, they argued, oral pre-dawn consumption of auto-exogenous melatonin, by either re-setting of the sleep-wake
cycle or enhancement of the physiological prerequisites for meditation (decreased body awareness (i.e. analgesia)
and claimed slowed brain wave activity, as well as heightened visualization ability), may be the mechanism behind
the alleged benefits ascribed to 'amaroli' or auto-urine drinking by ancient texts of the yogic religion.[35] Obvious
experimental difficulties (particularly in constructing a double-blind clinical trial) mean that this is a difficult
hypothesis to reliably test to any requisite evidence-based standard.

References
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ wiki/ Template:Biologically
[2] Christopher Middleton (2003-02-24). "A wee drop of amber nectar" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ health/ main. jhtml?xml=/ health/ 2003/
02/ 24/ hhel24. xml). The Daily Telegraph (London). .
[3] Gardner, Martin (2001). Did Adam and Eve Have Navels?: Debunking Pseudoscience. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 92–101.
ISBN 0-393-32238-6.
[4] "Taking The Piss: Is urine drinking a good idea?" (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ science/ correx/ archives/ piss. htm). Correx archives. .
[5] Robert Todd Carroll (2003). The skeptic's dictionary: a collection of strange beliefs, amusing deceptions, and dangerous delusions (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=6FPqDFx40vYC& pg=PA391& dq=urine+ drinking+ therapeutic) (illustrated ed.). John Wiley and Sons.
pp. 391–394. ISBN 0471272426, 9780471272427. . (also online version (http:/ / www. skepdic. com/ urine. html))
[6] Urine Therapy (http:/ / www. vanderbilt. edu/ AnS/ psychology/ health_psychology/ Urine_Therapy. htm), Jeff Lowe
[7] Donald Kaye. "Antibacterial activity of human urine" (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pmc/ articles/ PMC297400/ ). .
[8] Your Teeth!, to Egnatius (http:/ / www. adkline. freeuk. com/ Catullus. htm#_Toc531846764), poem by Catullus
[9] Aspects of Catullus' Social Fiction (http:/ / www. classics. und. ac. za/ reviews/ 0226nap. htm). Christopher Nappa, Frankfurt-am-Main: Peter
Lang, 2001. Pp. 180. ISBN 3-631-37808-4. SFr.56.00.
[10] Joseph S. Alter. Yoga in Modern India. Princeton University Press. pp. 144. ISBN 0691118744.
[11] The Independent: "Urine: The body's own health drink?" (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ life-style/ health-and-wellbeing/ health-news/
urine-the-bodys-own-health-drink-467303. html)
[12] Tyndale Concise Bible Commentary. By Robert B. Hughes, J. Carl Laney. p.233. Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., 2001 ISBN 0842354441
[13] Sahih Bukhari 7:71:590 (http:/ / www. usc. edu/ schools/ college/ crcc/ engagement/ resources/ texts/ muslim/ hadith/ bukhari/ 071. sbt.
html#007. 071. 590)
[14] Sahih Bukhari 8:82:796 (http:/ / www. usc. edu/ schools/ college/ crcc/ engagement/ resources/ texts/ muslim/ hadith/ bukhari/ 082. sbt.
html#008. 082. 796)
[15] CHRISTIAN APOLOGETICS & RESEARCH MINISTRY: Interesting quotes from the Hadith about Muhammad (http:/ / www. carm. org/
islam/ hadith_muhammad. htm)
[16] Sahih Bukhari Volume 8, Book 82, Number 794 (http:/ / www. usc. edu/ schools/ college/ crcc/ engagement/ resources/ texts/ muslim/
hadith/ bukhari/ 082. sbt. html#008. 082. 794)
[17] John Alden Williams (1994). The Word of Islam (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cbaZiqERLEQC& pg=PA103& vq=urine&
dq=islam+ urine+ prohibition). University of Texas Press. pp. 58, 98, 103. ISBN 0292790767, 9780292790766. .
Urine therapy 59

[18] Urine therapy (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m2843/ is_3_23/ ai_54600087/ pg_2?tag=artBody;col1), Martin Gardner, Skeptical
Inquirer, May–June 1999.
[19] A Dictionary of Practical Materia Medica, John Henry Clarke, London: Homoeopathic Pub. Co., 1900–1902.
[20] Clinical value of 24-hour urine hormone evaluations (http:/ / www. findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m0ISW/ is_246/ ai_112728018), Alan
Broughton, Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients, January 2004.
[21] Tompsett, SL (1953). "An investigation into the determination of corticosteroids in urine. I. The determination of corticosterone-like
substances.". Journal of clinical pathology 6 (1): 74–7. PMC 1023535. PMID 13034924.
[22] Charles Julius Hempel (1859). A new and comprehensive system of materia medica and therapeutics: arranged upon a
physiologico-pathological basis for the use of practitioners and students of medicine (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=d4ZNAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA1100& dq=urine+ drinking+ therapeutic). W. Radde. p. 1100. .
[23] unknown (1990). "unknown title". Karstenia (Mycological Society of Finland Suomen Sieniseura) 30-39.
[24] Urotherapy for patients with cancer (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0306-9877(97)90099-2) Article regarding "oral autourotherapy"
published in the unconventional journal Medical Hypotheses
[25] Urotherapy (http:/ / www. cancer. org/ docroot/ ETO/ content/ ETO_5_3X_Urotherapy. asp), fact sheet at the American Cancer Society.
[26] Chowdhury, Prasenjit (July 27, 2009). "Curative Elixir: Waters Of India" (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5qsj22uyt). The Times of India.
Archived from the original (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ articleshow/ 4822621. cms) on 2009-06-30. .
[27] Cameroon threatens to jail urine drinkers (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ main. jhtml?xml=/ news/ 2003/ 03/ 16/ wcamer16. xml&
sSheet=/ news/ 2003/ 03/ 16/ ixworld. html), Jane Flanagan, Daily Telegraph, on line, article dated March 15, 2003.
[28] 'I can't wait to get off this planet' (http:/ / www. independent. ie/ entertainment/ news-gossip/ i-cant-wait-to-get-off-this-planet-1081452.
html), interview with Sarah Miles in The Independent, September 2007
[29] ESPN.com: Page 2 : Pee is only a wee bit gross (http:/ / sports. espn. go. com/ espn/ page2/ story?page=caple/ 040511)
[30] The Straight Dope (http:/ / www. straightdope. com/ columns/ read/ 2700/ can-urinating-on-your-feet-in-the-shower-cure-athletes-foot)
[31] http:/ / tatame. com. br/ 2009/ 03/ 21/ O-segredo-do-sucesso-de-Lyoto-Machida
[32] http:/ / www. mmafighting. com/ 2010/ 05/ 05/ lyoto-machidas-father-talks-urine-drinking-then-does-it-himsel/
[33] Juan Manuel Marquez (September 17, 2009). "Juan Manuel Marquez's training diary" (http:/ / sports. espn. go. com/ sports/ boxing/ news/
story?id=4431484). ESPN.
[34] The Independent: Urine: The body's own health drink? (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ life-style/ health-and-families/ health-news/
urine-the-bodys-own-health-drink-467303. html)
[35] Mills MH and Faunce TA (November 1991). "Melatonin supplementation from early morning auto-urine drinking.". Medical Hypotheses 36
(3): 195–9. doi:10.1016/0306-9877(91)90129-M. PMID 1787809.

External links
• Urine therapy (http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2843/is_3_23/ai_54600087), Martin Gardner,
Skeptical Inquirer, May–June 1999.
• Urine Therapy: Skeptic's Dictionary entry (http://skepdic.com/urine.html)
• Urotherapy (http://www.cancer.org/docroot/ETO/content/ETO_5_3X_Urotherapy.asp), fact sheet at the
American Cancer Society
• Urotherapy for patients with cancer (http://www.csen.com/theory/cancer.htm), J. Eldor, MD; originally
published in Medical Hypotheses 48 (#4, April 1997), pp. 309–315.
• Urotherapy.com (http://urotherapy.com/), Exploration into Urine Therapy
Dianetics 60

Dianetics
Dianetics is a set of ideas and practices regarding the
metaphysical relationship between the mind and body that
was invented by the science fiction author L. Ron Hubbard
and is practiced by followers of Scientology. Hubbard coined
Dianetics from the Greek stems dia, meaning through, and
nous, meaning mind.

Dianetics explores the existence of a mind with three parts:

the conscious "analytical mind," the subconscious "reactive
mind", and the somatic mind.[1] The goal of Dianetics is to
remove the so-called "reactive mind" that scientologists
believe prevents people from becoming more ethical, more
aware, happier and saner. The Dianetics procedure to achieve
this is called "auditing".[2] Auditing is a process whereby a
series of questions are asked by the Scientology auditor, in an Hubbard conducting Dianetics seminar in Los Angeles in
1950
attempt to rid the auditee of the painful experiences of the past
which scientologists believe to be the cause of the "reactive
mind".

Dianetics grew out of Hubbard's personal experiences and experiments and has been described as a mix of "Western
technology and Oriental philosophy".[3] Hubbard stated that Dianetics "forms a bridge between" cybernetics and
General Semantics, a set of ideas about education originated by Alfred Korzybski that was receiving much attention
in the science fiction world in the 1940s.[4] [5] Hubbard claimed that Dianetics can increase intelligence, eliminate
unwanted emotions and alleviate a wide range of illnesses he believed to be psychosomatic. Among the conditions
purportedly treated against are arthritis, allergies, asthma, some coronary difficulties, eye trouble, ulcers, migraine
headaches, sex deviations and even death.[6]
Dianetics predates Hubbard's classification of Scientology as "applied religious philosophy". Early in 1951, he
expanded his writings to include teachings related to the soul, or "thetan".
Dianetics is also practiced by independent groups, collectively called the Free Zone. The Church of Scientology
disapproves of Free Zone activities and has prosecuted them in court for misappropriation of Scientology/Dianetics
copyrights and trademarks.[7]

History
Hubbard always claimed that his ideas of Dianetics originated in the 1920s and 1930s. By his own account, he spent
a great deal of time in the Oak Knoll Naval Hospital's library, where he would have encountered the work of Freud
and other psychoanalysts. In April 1950, Hubbard and several others established the Hubbard Dianetic Research
Foundation in Elizabeth, New Jersey to coordinate work related for the forthcoming publication. Hubbard first
introduced Dianetics to the public in the article Dianetics: The Evolution of a Science published in the May 1950
issue of the magazine Astounding Science Fiction.[8] Hubbard wrote Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental
Health at that time, allegedly completing the 180,000-word book in six weeks.[9]
The success of selling Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health brought in a flood of money, which Hubbard
used to establish Dianetics foundations in six major American cities. The scientific and medical communities were
far less enthusiastic about Dianetics, viewing it with bemusement, concern, or outright derision. Complaints were
made against local Dianetics practitioners for allegedly practicing medicine without a license. This eventually
prompted Dianetics advocates to disclaim any medicinal benefits in order to avoid regulation.
Dianetics 61

Hubbard explained the backlash as a response from various entities trying to co-opt Dianetics for their own use.
Hubbard blamed the hostile press coverage in particular on a plot by the American Communist Party. In later years,
Hubbard decided that the psychiatric profession was the origin of all of the criticism of Dianetics, as he believed it
secretly controlled most of the world's governments.[10]
By the autumn of 1950, financial problems had developed, and by November 1950, the six Foundations had spent
around one million dollars and were more than $200,000 in debt.[11] Disagreements emerged over the direction of
the Dianetic Foundation's work, and relations between the board members became strained, with several leaving,
even to support causes critical of Dianetics. One example was Harvey Jackins, founder of Re-evaluation
Counselling, originally a sort of discrete reworking of Dianetics, which L Ron Hubbard later declared suppressive to
Scientology.
In January 1951, the New Jersey Board of Medical Examiners instituted proceedings against the Hubbard Dianetic
Research Foundation in Elizabeth for teaching medicine without a licence.[12] The Foundation closed its doors,
causing the proceedings to be vacated, but its creditors began to demand settlement of its outstanding debts. Don
Purcell, a millionaire Dianeticist from Wichita, Kansas, offered a brief respite from bankruptcy, but the Foundation's
finances failed again in 1952.[13]
Because of a sale of assets resulting from the bankruptcy, Hubbard no longer owned the rights to the name
"Dianetics",[13] but its philosophical framework still provided the seed for Scientology to grow. Scientologists refer
to the book Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health as "Book One." In 1952, Hubbard published a new set
of teachings as "Scientology, a religious philosophy." Scientology did not replace Dianetics but extended it to cover
new areas. Where the goal of Dianetics is to rid the individual of his reactive mind engrams, the stated goal of
Scientology is to rehabilitate the individual's spiritual nature so that he may reach his full potential.
In 1978, Hubbard released New Era Dianetics (NED), a revised version supposed to produce better results in a
shorter period of time. The course consists of 11 rundowns and requires a specifically trained auditor.[14] It is run
(processed) exactly like Standard Dianetics (once very widely practiced before the advent of NED) except the
pre-clear (parishioner) is encouraged to find the "postulate" he made before the incident occurred.[15] ("Postulate" in
Dianetics and Scientology has the meaning of "a conclusion, decision or resolution made by the individual himself;
to conclude, decide or resolve a problem or to set a pattern for the future or to nullify a pattern of the past"[16] in
contrast to its conventional meanings.)
New Era Dianetics is really only a prelude to what is available at the high levels of the Bridge including the
incidents: New Era Dianetics for OTs also known as NOTS. It is available after Xenu and the now well known First
Wall of Fire. NOTS is also known as the Second Wall of Fire. Free Zone (Scientology) offers a version of it in the
Internet.[17]

Basic concepts
In the book, Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health, Hubbard describes techniques that he suggests can rid
individuals of fears and psychosomatic illnesses. A basic idea in Dianetics is that the mind consists of two parts: the
"analytical mind" and the "reactive mind." The "reactive mind" (or, "unconscious mind") acts as a record of shock,
trauma, pain, and otherwise harmful memories. Experiences such as these, stored in the "reactive mind" are dubbed
"engrams". Dianetics is a proposed method to erase these "engrams" in the "reactive mind" to achieve what is
referred to in Scientology as a state of "Clear". A "Clear" is one who is thought to no longer possess his reactive
mind.[3]
By his own admission, Hubbard made what he considered was one of the greatest mistakes of his life when he used
the biological definition of engram as a "trace on a cell". Science would eventually be able to debunk the false
definition in Biology.[18]
Dianetics 62

Hubbard described Dianetics as "an organized science of thought built on definite axioms: statements of natural laws
on the order of those of the physical sciences".[19] These Dianetic "axioms" can be found in Hubbard books such as
Scientology 0-8: The Book of Basics and Advanced Procedures and Axioms. Unlike conventional therapies, Hubbard
said, Dianetics would work every time if applied properly and "will invariably cure all psychosomatic ills and human
aberrations." In April 1950, before the public release of Dianetics, he wrote: "To date, over two hundred patients
have been treated; of those two hundred, two hundred cures have been obtained."[20]
In Dianetics, the unconscious or reactive mind is described as a collection of "mental image pictures," which contain
the recorded experience of past moments of unconsciousness, including all sensory perceptions and feelings
involved, ranging from pre-natal experiences, infancy and childhood, even the traumatic feelings associated events
from past lives and alien cultures. The type of mental image picture created during a period of unconsciousness
involves the exact recording of a painful experience. Hubbard called this phenomenon an engram, and defined it as
"a complete recording of a moment of unconsciousness containing physical pain or painful emotion and all
perceptions."[21]
Hubbard proposed that, via pain, physical or mental traumas caused "aberrations" (deviations from rational thinking)
in the mind, which produced adverse physical and emotional effects. The conscious or analytical mind, out of a
desire for survival, would instinctively shut down during moments of stress. The memories recorded during this
period would be stored as engrams in the unconscious or reactive mind. (In Hubbard's earliest publications on the
subject, engrams were variously referred to as "Norns",[8] "Impediments," and "comanomes" before "engram" was
adapted from its existing usage at the suggestion of Joseph Winter.)[22] Some commentators noted Dianetics' blend
of science fiction and occult orientations at the time.[8]
Dianetics claims that these engrams are the cause of almost all psychological and physical problems. In addition to
containing the experience of physical pain, engrams can also include words or phrases overheard by the patient while
he was unconscious. For instance, Winter cites the example of a patient with a persistent headache supposedly
tracing the problem to a doctor saying "Take him now" during the preclear's birth.[23] Hubbard similarly claims that
the cause of leukemia is traceable to "an engram containing the phrase 'It turns my blood to water.'"[24] While it is
sometimes claimed that the Church of Scientology no longer stands by Hubbard's claims that Dianetics can treat
physical conditions, it still publishes them: "... when the knee injuries of the past are located and discharged, the
arthritis ceases, no other injury takes its place and the person is finished with arthritis of the knee."[25] "[The reactive
mind] can give a man arthritis, bursitis, asthma, allergies, sinusitis, coronary trouble, high blood pressure ... And it is
the only thing in the human being which can produce these effects ... Discharge the content of [the reactive mind]
and the arthritis vanishes, myopia gets better, heart illness decreases, asthma disappears, stomachs function properly
and the whole catalog of ills goes away and stays away."[26]
Some of the psychometric ideas in Dianetics can be traced to Sigmund Freud, whom Hubbard credited as an
inspiration and was said to have used as a source.[27] Freud had speculated 40 years previously that traumas with
similar content join together in "chains," embedded in the unconscious mind, to cause irrational responses in the
individual. Such a chain would be relieved by inducing the patient to remember the earliest trauma, "with an
accompanying expression of emotion."[28] [29]
According to Bent Corydon, Hubbard created the illusion that Dianetics was the first psychotherapy to address
traumatic experiences in their own time, but others had done so as standard procedure.
One treatment method Hubbard drew from in developing Dianetics was abreaction therapy. Abreaction is a
psychiatric term that means bringing to consciousness, and thus adequate expression, material that has been
unconscious." It includes not only the recollection of forgotten memories and experience, but also their reliving with
appropriate emotional display and discharge of effect. This process is usually facilitated by the patient's gaining
awareness of the causal relationship between the previously undischarged emotion and his symptoms."[30]
According to Hubbard, before Dianetics psychotherapists may have been able to deal with very light and superficial
incidents (e.g. an incident that reminds you of a moment of loss), but with Dianetic therapy, the patient can actually
Dianetics 63

erase moments of pain and unconsciousness. He emphasizes: "The discovery of the engram is entirely the property
of Dianetics. Methods of its erasure are also owned entirely by Dianetics..."[31]
With the use of Dianetics techniques, Hubbard claimed, the reactive mind could be processed and all stored engrams
could be refiled as experience. The central technique was "auditing," a two-person question-and-answer therapy
designed to isolate and dissipate engrams (or "mental masses"). An auditor addresses questions to a subject, observes
and records the subject's responses, and returns repeatedly to experiences or areas under discussion that appear
painful until the troubling experience has been identified and confronted. Through repeated applications of this
method, the reactive mind could be "cleared" of its content having outlived its usefulness in the process of evolution;
a person who has completed this process would be "Clear".
The benefits of going Clear, according to Hubbard, were dramatic. A Clear would have no compulsions, repressions,
psychoses or neuroses, and would enjoy a near-perfect memory as well as a rise in IQ of as much as 50 points. He
also claimed that "the atheist is activated by engrams as thoroughly as the zealot".[32] He further believed that
widespread application of Dianetics would result in "A world without insanity, without criminals and without
war."[33]
According to the Scientology journal The Auditor, the total number of "Clears" as of May 2006 stands at 50,311.[34]

Scientific evaluation and criticisms

Dianetics sets forth the non-germ theory of disease, embracing, it has been estimated by competent physicians,
the explanation of some seventy percent of man's pathology.
– L. Ron Hubbard, Dianetics: The Evolution of a Science, [35]
Hubbard's original book on Dianetics attracted highly critical reviews from science and medical writers and
organizations. The American Psychological Association passed a resolution in 1950 calling "attention to the fact that
these claims are not supported by empirical evidence of the sort required for the establishment of scientific
generalizations."[36] [37] Subsequently, Dianetics has achieved no acceptance as a scientific theory and scientists cite
Dianetics as an example of a pseudoscience.[38] [39]
Few scientific investigations into the effectiveness of Dianetics have been published. Professor John A. Lee states in
his 1970 evaluation of Dianetics:
Objective experimental verification of Hubbard's physiological and psychological doctrines is lacking. To
date, no regular scientific agency has established the validity of his theories of prenatal perception and
engrams, or cellular memory, or Dianetic reverie, or the effects of Scientology auditing routines. Existing
knowledge contradicts Hubbard's theory of recording of perceptions during periods of unconsciousness.[40]
The MEDLINE database records two independent scientific studies on Dianetics, both conducted in the 1950s under
the auspices of New York University. Harvey Jay Fischer tested Dianetics therapy against three claims made by
proponents and found it does not effect any significant changes in intellectual functioning, mathematical ability, or
the degree of personality conflicts;[41] Jack Fox tested Hubbard's thesis regarding recall of engrams, with the
assistance of the Dianetic Research Foundation, and could not substantiate it.[42]
Hubbard claimed, in an interview with the New York Times in November 1950, that "he had already submitted proof
of claims made in the book to a number of scientists and associations." He added that the public as well as proper
organizations were entitled to such proof and that he was ready and willing to give such proof in detail.[43] In
January 1951, the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation of Elizabeth, NJ published Dianetic Processing: A Brief
Survey of Research Projects and Preliminary Results, a booklet providing the results of psychometric tests
conducted on 88 people undergoing Dianetics therapy. It presents case histories and a number of X-ray plates to
support claims that Dianetics had cured "aberrations" including manic depression, asthma, arthritis, colitis and "overt
homosexuality," and that after Dianetic processing, test subjects experienced significantly increased scores on a
standardized IQ test. The report's subjects are not identified by name, but one of them is clearly Hubbard himself
Dianetics 64

("Case 1080A, R. L.").[44]

The authors provide no qualifications, although they are described in Hubbard's book Science of Survival (where
some results of the same study were reprinted) as psychotherapists. Critics of Dianetics are skeptical of this study,
both because of the bias of the source and because the researchers appear to ascribe all physical benefits to Dianetics
without considering possible outside factors; in other words, the report lacks any scientific controls. J.A. Winter,
M.D., originally an associate of Hubbard and an early adopter of Dianetics, had by the end of 1950 cut his ties with
Hubbard and written an account of his personal experiences with Dianetics. He described Hubbard as "absolutistic
and authoritarian",[45] and criticized the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation for failing to undertake "precise
scientific research into the functioning of the mind".[46] He also recommended that auditing be done by experts only
and that it was dangerous for laymen to audit each other.[45] Hubbard writes: "Again, Dianetics is not being released
to a profession, for no profession could encompass it."[47]
Commentators from a variety of backgrounds have described Dianetics as an example of pseudoscience—that is,
information presented as scientific that fails to meet the basic criteria for science. For example, philosophy professor
Robert Carroll points to Dianetics' lack of empirical evidence:
What Hubbard touts as a science of mind lacks one key element that is expected of a science: empirical testing
of claims. The key elements of Hubbard's so-called science don't seem testable, yet he repeatedly claims that
he is asserting only scientific facts and data from many experiments. It isn't even clear what such "data" would
look like. Most of his data is in the form of anecdotes and speculations ... Such speculation is appropriate in
fiction, but not in science.[48]
W. Sumner Davis similarly comments that
Dianetics is nothing more than an example of pseudoscience trying to legitimize itself ... Hubbard, had he
indeed been a scientist, would have known that truth is not built on axioms, and facts cannot be found from
some a-priori knowledge. A true science is constructed on hypotheses, which are arrived at by the virtue of
observed phenomena. Scientific knowledge is gained by observation and testing, not believing from some
subconscious stipulation, as Hubbard would have us believe.[49]

Procedure in practice
The procedure of Dianetics therapy (known as auditing) is a
two-person activity. One person, the "auditor", guides the other
person, the "preclear". The preclear's job is to look at the mind and
talk to the auditor. The auditor acknowledges what the preclear
says and controls the process so the preclear may put his full
attention on his work.

The auditor and preclear sit down in chairs facing each other. The
process then follows in eleven distinct steps:[50]
1. The auditor assures the preclear that he will be fully
aware of everything that happens during the session. Scientologists promoting Dianetics at Union Station in
Washington, D.C.
2. The preclear is instructed to close his eyes for the session,
entering a state of "dianetic reverie", signified by "a tremble
of the lashes". During the session, the preclear remains in full possession of his will and retains full recall
thereafter.
3. The auditor installs a "canceller", an instruction intended to absolutely cancel any form of positive
suggestion that could accidentally occur. This is done by saying "In the future, when I utter the word
Dianetics 65

'cancelled,' everything I have said to you while you are in a therapy session will be cancelled and will have no
force with you. Any suggestion I may have made to you will be without force when I say the word 'cancelled.'
Do you understand?"
4. The auditor then asks the preclear to locate an exact record of something that happened to the preclear in his
past: "Locate an incident that you feel you can comfortably face."
5. The preclear is invited by the auditor to "Go through the incident and say what is happening as you go
along."
6a. The auditor instructs the preclear to recall as much as possible of the incident, going over it several times
"until the preclear is cheerful about it".
6b. When the preclear is cheerful about an incident, the auditor instructs the preclear to locate another incident:
"Let's find another incident that you feel you can comfortably face." The process outlined at steps 5 and 6a
then repeats until the auditing session's time limit (usually two hours or so) is reached.
7. The preclear is instructed to "return to present time".
8. The auditor checks to make sure that the preclear feels himself to be in "present time", i.e. not still recalling
a past incident.
9. The auditor gives the preclear the canceller word: "Very good. Cancelled."
10. The auditor tells the preclear to feel alert and return to full awareness of his surroundings: "When I count
from five to one and snap my fingers you will feel alert. Five, four, three, two, one." (snaps fingers)
Auditing sessions are kept confidential. This has come into question, though, that confidential information has been
used to blackmail possible defectors (see Fair Game Scientology) However, a few transcripts of auditing sessions
with confidential information removed have been published as demonstration examples. Some extracts can be found
in Dr. J.A. Winter's book Dianetics: A Doctor's Report. Other, more comprehensive, transcripts of auditing sessions
carried out by Hubbard himself can be found in volume 1 of the Research & Discovery Series (Bridge Publications,
1980). Examples of public group processing sessions can be found throughout the Congress Lecture series.
According to Hubbard, auditing enables the preclear to "contact" and "release" engrams stored in the reactive mind,
relieving him of the physical and mental aberrations connected with them. The preclear is asked to inspect and
familiarize himself with the exact details of his own experience; the auditor may not tell him anything about his case
or evaluate any of the information the preclear finds.
The validity and practice of auditing have been questioned by a variety of non-Scientologist commentators.
Commenting on the example cited by Winter, the science writer Martin Gardner asserts that "nothing could be
clearer from the above dialogue than the fact that the dianetic explanation for the headache existed only in the mind
of the therapist, and that it was with considerable difficulty that the patient was maneuvered into accepting it."[51]
Other critics and medical experts have suggested that Dianetic auditing is a form of hypnosis,[52] [53] [54] although the
Church of Scientology has strongly denied that hypnosis forms any part of Dianetics.[55] To the contrary, L. Ron
Hubbard expressedly warns not to use any hypnosis or hypnosis-like methods, because a person under hypnosis
would be receptive to suggestions. This would decrease his self-determinism instead of increasing it, which is one of
the prime goals of Dianetics.[56] Winter [1950] comments that the leading nature of the questions asked of a preclear
"encourage fantasy", a common issue also encountered with hypnosis, which can be used to form false memories.
The auditor is instructed not to make any assessment of a recalled memory's reality or accuracy, but instead to treat it
as if it were objectively real. Professor Richard J. Ofshe, a leading expert on false memories, suggests that the feeling
of well-being reported by preclears at the end of an auditing session may be induced by post-hypnotic suggestion.[57]
According to Hubbard: "Laughter is definitely the relief of painful emotion."[58]
Dianetics 66

Autocontrol
According to Hubbard, the majority of the people interested in the subject believed they could accomplish therapy
alone. "It cannot be done" and he adds: "If a patient places himself in autohypnosis and regresses himself in an effort
to reach illness or birth or prenatals, the only thing he will get is ill".[59]
• A Doctor's Report on Dianetics
• Co-counselling

References
[1] Encyclopedia of Religious Freedom, Catharine Cookson, Taylor & Francis, 2003, ISBN 0-415-94181-4.(page 430/431)
[2] Philosophers and Religious Leaders: An Encyclopedia of People Who Changed the World, Christian D. Von Dehsen & Scott L. Harris,
Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999, ISBN 1-57356-152-5. (page 90).
[3] James R. Lewis, "Clearing the Planet: Utopian Idealism and the Church of Scientology" in: Syzygy, Journal of Alternative Religion and
Culture, Vol.6:1-2, 1997, page 287; ISSN 1059-6860
[4] Hubbard, " Terra Incognita: The Mind (http:/ / www. dianetics. org/ en_US/ l-ron-hubbard/ articles/ terra/ )," The Explorers Journal, winter
1949 / spring 1950 (on the bridge between cybernetics and general semantics)
[5] M. Kendig, editor Alfred Korzybski: Collected Writings, 1920-1950, ch. 12, Institute of General Semantics, 1990 ISBN 0-910780-08-0.
(Presented at the First American Congress for General Semantics, May 1935).
[6] "Of Two Minds" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,812852,00. html). TIME Magazine. 1950-07-24. . Retrieved
2008-07-04.
[7] Copyright -- or wrong?, Salon.com, July 22, 1999 (http:/ / www. salon. com/ tech/ feature/ 1999/ 07/ 22/ scientology/ print. html)
[8] "The Creation of 'Religious' Scientology" (http:/ / www. solitarytrees. net/ pubs/ skent/ creation. htm?FACTNet#txtref02). Religious Studies
and Theology. . Retrieved 2006-05-08. Originally published by Stephen A. Kent in December, 1999.
[9] "L.R.H. Biography," Sea Org Flag Information Letter 67, 31 October 1977
[10] Hubbard, "Ron's Journal 67," taped message of 20 September 1967
[11] Dianetics and the Professions, A.E. van Vogt, 1953
[12] Bulletin of the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation, Elizabeth, NJ. January 1951
[13] Miller, Russell (1987). "11. Bankrolling and Bankruptcy" (http:/ / www. clambake. org/ archive/ books/ bfm/ bfm11. htm). Bare-faced
Messiah, The True Story of L. Ron Hubbard (http:/ / www. clambake. org/ archive/ books/ bfm/ bfmconte. htm) (First American Edition ed.).
New York: Henry Holt & Co. pp. 305–306. ISBN 0-8050-0654-0. .
[14] "New Era Dianetics Auditing" (http:/ / www. auditing. org/ 13-ned. htm). . Retrieved 2006-10-05.
[15] L. Ron Hubbard New Era Dianetics Series 7RA, HCOB 28 June 1978RA revised 15 September 1978, Hubbard Communications Office
(HCO).
[16] The Official Scientology and Dianetics Glossary (http:/ / www. scientology. ie/ p_jpg/ wis/ wiseng/ gloss. htm#p)
[17] Advanced level 5 (http:/ / www. cs. cmu. edu/ ~dst/ NOTs/ aa5b. html) - The NOTs(New Era Dianetics for Operating Thetans)Scholars
Home Page (Scientology) - Dave Touretzky's Page
[18] Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin The Ways and Power of Love, pp. 186-187, Templeton Foundation Press, 2002 ISBN 978-1-890151-86-7;
first edition 1954: Harvard Research Center in Creative Altruism
[19] Winter, J.A. Dianetics: A Doctor's Report, p. 18 (Julian Press, 1987 reprint)
[20] Hubbard, "Dianetics". Astounding Science Fiction, May 1950.
[21] Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health page 79 and Glossary
[22] Atack, Jon (1990). A Piece of Blue Sky. New York, NY: Carol Publishing Group. pp. 109. ISBN 0-8184-0499-X.
[23] Winter, Dianetics: A Doctor's Report, p. 165
[24] Hubbard, A History of Man, p.20. American Saint Hill Organization, 1968
[25] Hubbard, L. Ron. "The Discoveries of Dianetics" (http:/ / www. smi. org/ route/ page06. htm). Retrieved 22 April 2006.
[26] Hubbard, L. Ron. "What is the Reactive Mind?" (http:/ / www. dianetics. org/ en_US/ info/ 01/ pg003. html). Retrieved 28 April 2006.
[27] Letter from John W. Campbell, cited in Winter, p. 3 - "His approach is, actually, based on some very early work of Freud"
[28] Joseph Breuer and Sigmund Freud, "Studies in Hysteria", Vol II of the Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund
Freud. Hogarth Press, London (1955).
[29] L. Ron Hubbard A Critique of Psychoanalysis, PAB 92, 10 July 1956.
[30] Bent Corydon L. Ron Hubbard, Messiah or Madman?, pp. 283-4, Barricade Books Inc., 1992 ISBN 0-942637-57-7
[31] A Critique of Psychoanalysis, ibid. Pab 92
[32] Hubbard, "Dianetics and Religion," Dianetic Auditor's Bulletin vol. 1 no. 4, October 1950
[33] Hubbard, Science of Survival: Prediction of Human Behavior p. 1, Bridge Publications, 1990 (reissue).
[34] "The Auditor," The Monthly Journal of Scientology, published by the American Saint Hill Organization, 1413 L. Ron Hubbard Way, Los
Angeles, CA 90027, Issue 330, May 2006, page 7.
Dianetics 67

[35] Hubbard, L. Ron (1955). "Ch. 12: The Hope for the Future" (http:/ / www. dianetics-theevolutionofascience. org/ chapters/ eos_chp_12.
pdf). Dianetics: The Evolution of a Science (1989 ed.). Bridge Publications, Inc.. ISBN 0-88404-342-8. .
[36] "Psychologists Act Against Dianetics", New York Times, 9 September 1950
[37] "Tests & Poison" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,813284,00. html). TIME Magazine. 1950-09-18. . Retrieved
2008-02-10.
[38] See e.g. Gardner, Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science; Bauer, Scientific Literacy and the Myth of the Scientific Method and Science
Or Pseudoscience: Magnetic Healing, Psychic Phenomena, and Other Heterodoxies; Corsini et al., The Dictionary of Psychology.
[39] Ari Ben-Menahem (2009). "Demise of the Dogmatic Universe". Historical Encyclopedia of Natural and Mathematical Sciences. Springer
Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 4301–4302. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-68832-7. ISBN 978-3-540-68831-0.
[40] Lee, John A. Sectarian Healers and Hypnotherapy, 1970, Ontario
[41] Fischer, Harvey Jay. "Dianetic therapy: an experimental evaluation. A statistical analysis of the effect of dianetic therapy as measured by
group tests of intelligence, mathematics and personality." Abstract of Ph.D. thesis, 1953, New York University ( Excerpt (http:/ / home. snafu.
de/ tilman/ krasel/ dianetics_test2. html))
[42] Fox, J.; Davis, A.E.; Lebovits, B. "An experimental investigation of Hubbard's engram hypothesis (dianetics)". Psychological Newsletter,
New York University. 10 1959, 131-134
[43] "Psychologists Act Against Dianetics", New York Times, 9 September 1950
[44] Benton, Peggy; Ibanex, Dalmyra.; Southon, Gordon; Southon, Peggy. Dianetic Processing: A Brief Survey of Research Projects and
Preliminary Results, Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation, 1951
[45] "Departure in Dianetics" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,821638,00. html). TIME Magazine. 1951-09-03. .
Retrieved 2008-02-14.
[46] Winter, Dianetics: A Doctor's Report, p. 40
[47] L. Ron Hubbard Dianetics: the Modernd Science of Mental Health, p. 204, Bridge Publications Inc., 2007 ISBN 978-1-4031-4484-3; 1st ed.
1950
[48] Carroll, Robert T. "Dianetics" (http:/ / skepdic. com/ dianetic. html), Skeptics Dictionary
[49] Davis, W. Sumner. Just Smoke and Mirrors: Religion, Fear and Superstition in Our Modern World, Writers Club Press, 2001 (ISBN
0-595-26523-5)
[50] This description is based on " The Dianetics Procedure - 10 Simple Steps (http:/ / www. rehabilitatenz. co. nz/ pages/
dianetics-auditing-steps. html)"
[51] Gardner, Martin. Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. Dover, 1957
[52] "Never believe a hypnotist - An investigation of L. Ron Hubbard's statements about hypnosis and its relationship to his Dianetics.", Jon
Atack
[53] "Psychologist says church appeared to use hypnosis", Irish Times, 13 March 2003
[54] "The 'Scientology Organization' (SO) as of July 2003", chapter 2, Landesamt für Verfassungsschutz Baden-Wuerttemberg, 2003
[55] " What is auditing? (http:/ / www. scientology. org/ en_US/ news-media/ faq/ pg005. html)", Church of Scientology International
[56] "Science of Survival", L. Ron Hubbard, p. 461 (2007 edition).
[57] "A Very Brief Overview of Scientology", Richard E. Ofshe, Ph.D.
[58] Dianetics: the Modern Science of Mental Health, ibid. p. 147
[59] Dianetics: the Modern Science of Mental Health -5oth anniversary edition- pp. 443-4.

Further reading
• Atack, Jon: A Piece of Blue Sky, Lyle Stuart, London, 1988
• Benton, P; Ibanex, D.; Southon, G; Southon, P. Dianetic Processing: A Brief Survey of Research Projects and
Preliminary Results, Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation, 1951
• Behard, Richard: The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power, Time.com (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/
article/0,9171,972865-8,00.html)
• Breuer J, Freud S, "Studies in Hysteria", Vol II of the Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of
Sigmund Freud (Hogarth Press, London, 1955).
• Carroll, Robert T: 'Dianetics', Skepdics Dictionary (http://skepdic.com/dianetic.html)
• Fischer, Harvey Jay: "Dianetic therapy: an experimental evaluation. A statistical analysis of the effect of dianetic
therapy as measured by group tests of intelligence, mathematics and personality. " Abstract of Ph.D. thesis, 1953,
New York University
• Fox, Jack et al.: An Experimental Investigation of Hubbard's Engram Hypothesis (Dianetics) in Psychological
Newsletter, 1959, 10 131-134 (http://www.xs4all.nl/~kspaink/cos/essays/engrams.html)
• Freeman, Lucy: "Psychologists act against Dianetics", New York Times, 9 September 1950
Dianetics 68

• Gardner, Martin: Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science, 1957, Chapter 22, "Dianetics"
• Hayakawa, S. I.: "From Science-Fiction to Fiction-Science," in ETC: A Review of General Semantics, Vol. VIII,
No. 4. Summer, 1951 (http://learn-gs.org/library/etc/8-4-sih.pdf)
• Lee, John A.: Sectarian Healers and Hypnotherapy, 1970, Ontario
• Miller, Russell: Bare-Faced Messiah, 1987
• Miscavige, David: Speech to the International Association of Scientologists, 8 October 1993
• O'Brien, Helen: Dianetics in Limbo. Whitmore, Philadelphia, 1966
• Streissguth, Thomas: Charismatic Cult Leaders. The Oliver Press, Inc, 1995
• van Vogt, A.E.: Dianetics and the Professions, 1953
• Williamson, Jack: Wonder's Child: my life in science fiction. Bluejay Books, New York, 1984
• Winter, J.A.: A Doctors Report on DIANETICS Theory and Therapy, 1951

External links
• Official website of Dianetics (http://www.dianetics.org)

Perpetual motion
Perpetual motion describes hypothetical machines that operate or
produce useful work indefinitely and, more generally, hypothetical
machines that produce more work or energy than they consume,
whether they might operate indefinitely or not.
There is undisputed scientific consensus that perpetual motion would
violate either the first law of thermodynamics, the second law of
thermodynamics, or both. Machines which comply with both laws of
thermodynamics but access energy from obscure sources are
sometimes referred to as perpetual motion machines, although they do
not meet the standard criteria for the name.

Despite the fact that successful perpetual motion devices are physically
impossible in terms of our current understanding of the laws of
physics, the pursuit of perpetual motion remains popular.

Robert Fludd's 1618 "water screw" perpetual

Basic principles motion machine from a 1660 wood engraving.
This device is widely credited as the first
There is an undisputed scientific consensus that perpetual motion
recorded attempt to describe such a device in
violates either the first law of thermodynamics, the second law of order to produce useful work, that of driving
[1]
thermodynamics, or both. The first law of thermodynamics is millstones.
essentially a statement of conservation of energy. The second law can
be phrased in several different ways, the most intuitive of which is that heat flows spontaneously from hotter to
colder places; the most well known statement is that entropy tends to increase, or at the least stay the same; another
statement is that no heat engine (an engine which produces work while moving heat between two separate places)
can be more efficient than a Carnot heat engine.

Machines which comply with both laws of thermodynamics by accessing energy from unconventional sources are
sometimes referred to as perpetual motion machines, although they do not meet the standard criteria for the name.
By way of example, clocks and other low-power machines, such as Cox's timepiece, have been designed to run on
the differences in barometric pressure or temperature between night and day. These machines have a source of
Perpetual motion 69

energy, albeit one which is not readily apparent so that they only seem to violate the laws of thermodynamics.

Classification
One classification of perpetual motion machines refers to the particular law of thermodynamics the machines purport
to violate:[2]
• A perpetual motion machine of the first kind produces work without the input of energy. It thus violates the
first law of thermodynamics: the law of conservation of energy.
• A perpetual motion machine of the second kind is a machine which spontaneously converts thermal energy
into mechanical work. When the thermal energy is equivalent to the work done, this does not violate the law of
conservation of energy. However it does violate the more subtle second law of thermodynamics (see also
entropy). The signature of a perpetual motion machine of the second kind is that there is only one heat reservoir
involved, which is being spontaneously cooled without involving a transfer of heat to a cooler reservoir. This
conversion of heat into useful work, without any side effect, is impossible, according to the second law of
thermodynamics.
A more obscure category is a perpetual motion machine of the third kind, usually (but not always)[3] defined as
one that completely eliminates friction and other dissipative forces, to maintain motion forever (due to its mass
inertia). Third in this case refers solely to the position in the above classification scheme, not the third law of
thermodynamics. Although it is impossible to make such a machine,[4] [5] as dissipation can never be 100%
eliminated in a mechanical system, it is nevertheless possible to get very close to this ideal (see examples in the Low
Friction section). Such a machine would not serve as a source of energy but would have utility as a perpetual energy
storage device.
Perpetual motion 70

Use of the term "impossible" and perpetual motion

While the laws of physics are incomplete and stating that physical
things are absolutely impossible is un-scientific, "impossible" is
used in common parlance to describe those things which
absolutely cannot occur within the context of our current
formulation of physical laws.[6]
The conservation laws are particularly robust from a mathematical
perspective. Noether's theorem, which was proven mathematically
in 1915, states that any conservation law can be derived from a
corresponding continuous symmetry of the action of a physical
system.[7] This means that if the laws of physics (not simply the
current understanding of them, but the actual laws, which may still
be undiscovered) and the various physical constants remain
invariant over time — if the laws of the universe are fixed — then
the conservation laws must hold. On the other hand, if the
conservation laws are invalid, then much of modern physics would
be incorrect as well.[8]

Scientific investigations as to whether the laws of physics are
invariant over time use telescopes to examine the universe in the
distant past to discover, to the limits of our measurements, whether
ancient stars were identical to stars today. Combining different
measurements such as spectroscopy, direct measurement of the
speed of light in the past and similar measurements demonstrates
that physics has remained substantially the same, if not identical,
for all of observable history spanning billions of years.[9]
October 1920 issue of Popular Science magazine, on
perpetual motion. Although scientists have established
them to be impossible under the known laws of
physics, perpetual motion continues to capture the
imagination of inventors. The device shown is a "mass
leverage" device, where the spherical weights on our
right have more leverage than those on the left,
supposedly creating a perpetual rotation, but there are a
greater number of weights to our left, balancing the
device.

The principles of thermodynamics are so well established, both

theoretically and experimentally, that proposals for perpetual motion machines are universally met with disbelief on
the part of physicists. Any proposed perpetual motion design offers a potentially instructive challenge to physicists:
one is almost completely certain that it can't work, so one must explain how it fails to work. The difficulty (and the
value) of such an exercise depends on the subtlety of the proposal; the best ones tend to arise from physicists' own
thought experiments and often shed light upon certain aspects of physics.

The law that entropy always increases, holds, I think, the supreme position among the laws of Nature. If
someone points out to you that your pet theory of the universe is in disagreement with Maxwell's
equations — then so much the worse for Maxwell's equations. If it is found to be contradicted by
observation — well, these experimentalists do bungle things sometimes. But if your theory is found to
be against the second law of thermodynamics I can give you no hope; there is nothing for it but to
collapse in deepest humiliation. — Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington, The Nature of the Physical World
(1927)
Perpetual motion 71

Thought experiments
Serious work in theoretical physics often involves thought experiments that expand our understanding of physical
laws. Some thought experiments involve apparent perpetual motion machines, questioning why they either work or
do not work in compliance with the laws of physics.
• Maxwell's demon: A thought experiment which led to physicists considering the interaction between entropy and
information.
• Feynman's "Brownian ratchet": A "perpetual motion" machine which extracts work from thermal fluctuations and
appears to run forever but really only runs as long as the environment is warmer than the ratchet.

Techniques

“
One day man will connect his apparatus to the very wheelwork of the universe [...] and the very forces that motivate the planets in their orbits
and cause them to rotate will rotate his own machinery.
”
—Nikola Tesla

Some common ideas recur repeatedly in perpetual motion machine designs. Many ideas that continue to appear
today were stated as early as 1670 by John Wilkins, Bishop of Chester and an official of the Royal Society. He
outlined three potential sources of power for a perpetual motion machine, "Chymical Extractions", "Magnetical
Virtues" and "the Natural Affection of Gravity".[1]
The seemingly mysterious ability of magnets to influence motion at a distance without any apparent energy source
has long appealed to inventors. One of the earliest examples of a system using magnets was proposed by Wilkins and
has been widely copied since: it consists of a ramp with a magnet at the top, which pulled a metal ball up the ramp.
Near the magnet was a small hole that was supposed to allow the ball to drop under the ramp and return to the
bottom, where a flap allowed it to return to the top again. The device simply could not work: any magnet strong
enough to pull the ball up the ramp would necessarily be too powerful to allow it to drop through the hole. Faced
with this problem, more modern versions typically use a series of ramps and magnets, positioned so the ball is to be
handed off from one magnet to another as it moves. The problem remains the same.
Gravity also acts at a distance, without an apparent energy source. But
to get energy out of a gravitational field (for instance, by dropping a
heavy object, producing kinetic energy as it falls) you have to put
energy in (for instance, by lifting the object up), and some energy is
always dissipated in the process. A typical application of gravity in a
perpetual motion machine is Bhaskara's wheel in the 12th century,
whose key idea is itself a recurring theme, often called the
overbalanced wheel: Moving weights are attached to a wheel in such a
way that they fall to a position further from the wheel's center for one
half of the wheel's rotation, and closer to the center for the other half.
Since weights further from the center apply a greater torque, the result
is (or would be, if such a device worked) that the wheel rotates forever.
Perpetuum Mobile of Villard de Honnecourt
The moving weights may be hammers on pivoted arms, or rolling balls,
(about 1230).
or mercury in tubes; the principle is the same.

Yet another theoretical machine involves a frictionless environment for motion. This involves the use of diamagnetic
or electromagnet levitation to float an object. This is done in a vacuum to eliminate air friction and friction from an
axle. The levitated object is then free to rotate around its center of gravity without interference. However, this
machine has no practical purpose because the rotated object cannot do any work as work requires the levitated object
to cause motion in other objects, bringing friction into the problem.
Perpetual motion 72

To extract work from heat, thus producing a perpetual motion machine of the second kind, the most common
approach (dating back at least to Maxwell's demon) is unidirectionality. Only molecules moving fast enough and in
the right direction are allowed through the demon's trap door. In a Brownian ratchet, forces tending to turn the
ratchet one way are able to do so while forces in the other direction aren't. A diode in a heat bath allows through
currents in one direction and not the other. These schemes typically fail in two ways: either maintaining the
unidirectionality costs energy (Maxwell's demon needs light to look at all those particles and see what they're doing),
or the unidirectionality is an illusion and occasional big violations make up for the frequent small non-violations (the
Brownian ratchet will be subject to internal Brownian forces and therefore will sometimes turn the wrong way).

Invention history
The 8th century Bavarian "magic
wheel" was a disc mounted on an axle
powered by lodestones, claimed to be
able to rotate forever.[10]
Indian mathematician-astronomer,
Bhāskara II, described a wheel, dating
to 1150, that would run forever.[11]
Villard de Honnecourt in 1235
described, in a 33 page manuscript, a
perpetual motion machine of the first
kind. His idea was based on the Orffyreus Wheel. The device was designed by Johann Bessler.
changing torque of a series of weights
attached with hinges to the rim of a wheel. While ascending they would hang close to the wheel and have little
torque, but they would topple after reaching the top and drag the wheel down on descent due to their greater torque
during the swing. His device spawned a variety of imitators who continued to refine the basic design.

Following the example of Villard, Peter of Maricourt designed a magnetic globe which when mounted without
friction parallel to the celestial axis would rotate once a day and serve as an automatic armillary sphere.[11]
In 1607 Cornelius Drebbel in "Wonder-vondt van de eeuwighe bewegingh" [12] dedicated a Perpetuum motion
machine to James I of England. It was described by Heinrich Hiesserle von Chodaw [13] in 1621. Also in the 17th
century, Robert Boyle's proposed self-flowing flask purports to fill itself through siphon action and Blaise Pascal
introduced a primitive form of roulette and the roulette wheel in his search for a perpetual motion machine.[14]
In the 18th century, Johann Bessler (also known as Orffyreus) created a series of claimed perpetual motion
machines. In 1775 the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris issued the statement that the Academy "will no longer
accept or deal with proposals concerning perpetual motion".
In the 19th century, the invention of perpetual motion machines became an obsession for many scientists. Many
machines were designed based on electricity. John Gamgee developed the Zeromotor, a perpetual motion machine of
the second kind. Devising these machines is a favourite pastime of many eccentrics, who often devised elaborate
machines in the style of Rube Goldberg or Heath Robinson. Such designs appeared to work on paper, though various
flaws or obfuscated external energy sources are eventually understood to have been incorporated into the machine
(unintentionally or intentionally).
Perpetual motion 73

Patents
Proposals for such inoperable machines have become so common that the United States Patent and Trademark
Office (USPTO) has made an official policy of refusing to grant patents for perpetual motion machines without a
working model. The USPTO Manual of Patent Examining Practice states:
With the exception of cases involving perpetual motion, a model is not ordinarily required by the Office
to demonstrate the operability of a device. If operability of a device is questioned, the applicant must
establish it to the satisfaction of the examiner, but he or she may choose his or her own way of so
doing.[15]
And, further, that:
A rejection [of a patent application] on the ground of lack of utility includes the more specific grounds of
inoperativeness, involving perpetual motion. A rejection under 35 U.S.C. 101 for lack of utility should
not be based on grounds that the invention is frivolous, fraudulent or against public policy.[16]
The filing of a patent application is a clerical task, and the USPTO won't refuse filings for perpetual motion
machines; the application will be filed and then most probably rejected by the patent examiner, after he has done a
formal examination.[17] Even if a patent is granted, it doesn't mean that the invention actually works; it just means
that the examiner thinks that it works, or that he couldn't figure out why it wouldn't work.[17]
The USPTO maintains a collection of Perpetual Motion Gimmicks [18] as Digest 9 in Class 74
The USPTO has granted a few patents for motors that are claimed to run without net energy input. Some of these
are:

Howard R. Johnson, U.S. Patent 4,151,431

• Johnson, Howard R., U.S. Patent 4151431 [19] "Permanent magnet motor", April 24, 1979[17]
• Baker, Daniel, U.S. Patent 4074153 [20] "Magnetic propulsion device", February 14, 1978
• Hartman; Emil T., U.S. Patent 4215330 [21] "Permanent magnet propulsion system", December 20, 1977 (this
device is related to the Simple Magnetic Overunity Toy (SMOT)),
• Flynn; Charles J., U.S. Patent 6246561 [22] "Methods for controlling the path of magnetic flux from a permanent
magnet and devices incorporating the same", July 31, 1998
• Patrick, et al., U.S. Patent 6362718 [23] "Motionless electromagnetic generator" , March 26, 2002
• Green, Willie A., U.S. Patent 6526925 [24] "Piston Driven Rotary Engine", March 4, 2003 "Fluid driven device
utilizing a leveraged system with minimal displacement"
• Goldenblum, Halm, U.S. Patent 6962052 [25] "Energy generation mechanism, device and system", November 8,
2005 "A chamber with a partition which lets gas molecules flow one way and not the other. The pressure which
builds up on one side of the partition is used to drive a generator."
• Flynn, Joe, U.S. Patent 6246561 [22] "Methods for controlling the path of magnetic flux from a permanent magnet
and devices incorporating the same", June 12, 2001
Perpetual motion 74

• Gates; Glenn A., U.S. Patent 6523646 [26] "Spring driven apparatus", February 23, 2003 "Energy is stored in the
springs and power is generated by way of the various forces which cause the springs to wind and unwind."
• McQueen; Jesse, U.S. Patent 7095126 [27] "Internal energy generating power source", August 22, 2006 "An
external power source such as a battery is used to initially supply power to start an alternator and generator.
Once the system has started it is not necessary for the battery to supply power to the system. The battery can then
be disconnected. The alternator and electric motor work in combination to generate electrical power."
Examiners: Schuberg, Darren ; Mohandesi, Iraj A.
• Haisch, et al. U.S. Patent 7379286 [28] "Quantum vacuum energy extraction", May 27, 2008 "[...] converting
energy from the electromagnetic quantum vacuum available at any point in the universe to usable energy in the
form of heat, electricity, mechanical energy or other forms of power. [...] When atoms enter into suitable micro
Casimir cavities a decrease in the orbital energies of electrons in atoms will thus occur. Such energy will be
captured in the claimed devices. Upon emergence form such micro Casimir cavities the atoms will be
re-energized by the ambient electromagnetic quantum vacuum. [...] process is also consistent with the
conservation of energy in that all usable energy does come at the expense of the energy content of the
electromagnetic quantum vacuum."
In 1979, Joseph Newman filed a US Patent application for his "energy machine" which unambiguously claimed
over-unity operation, where power output exceeded power input; the source of energy was claimed to be the atoms
of the machine's copper conductor.[29] The Patent Office rejected the application after the National Bureau of
Standards measured the electrical input to be greater than the electrical output. Newman challenged the decision in
court and lost.[30]
Other patent offices around the world, such as the United Kingdom Patent Office, have similar practices. Section
4.05 of the UKPO Manual of Patent Practice states:
Processes or articles alleged to operate in a manner which is clearly contrary to well-established physical
laws, such as perpetual motion machines, are regarded as not having industrial application.[31]
Examples of decisions by the UK Patent Office to refuse patent applications for perpetual motion machines
include:[32]
Decision BL O/044/06, John Frederick Willmott's application no. 0502841[33]
Decision BL O/150/06, Ezra Shimshi's application no. 0417271[34]
The European Patent Classification (ECLA) has classes including patent applications on perpetual motion systems:
ECLA classes "F03B17/04: Alleged perpetua mobilia ..." and "F03B17/00B: [... machines or engines] (with closed
loop circulation or similar : ...Installations wherein the liquid circulates in a closed loop; Alleged perpetua mobilia
of this or similar kind ...".[35]

Recent examples
In the late 19th century the term "perpetual motion" increasingly became associated with fraud and since then
inventors have referred to perpetual motion devices using various alternatives such as "over-unity", "free energy",
"zero point energy". Here are some representative examples of contemporary proposed perpetual motion designs:
• Motionless Electromagnetic Generator, a device that supposedly taps vacuum energy.
• Perepiteia, a device that claims to utilize back EMF.
• There continue to be frequent claims of water powered cars, which purportedly work by converting water into
hydrogen and harnessing the energy of hydrogen combustion. The combustion process, in turn, reproduces water
vapor, thus qualifying the process as perpetual motion.
Perpetual motion 75

Apparent perpetual motion machines

Even though they fully respect the laws of thermodynamics, there are a few conceptual or real devices that appear to
be in "perpetual motion." Closer analysis reveals that they actually "consume" some sort of natural resource or latent
energy, such as the phase changes of water or other fluids or small natural temperature gradients. In general,
extracting large amounts of work using these devices is difficult to impossible.

Resource consuming
Some examples of such devices include:
• The drinking bird toy functions using small ambient temperature gradients and evaporation.
• A capillarity based water pump functions using small ambient temperature gradients and vapour pressure
differences.
• A Crookes radiometer consists of a partial vacuum glass container with a lightweight propeller moved by
(light-induced) temperature gradients.
• Any device picking up minimal amounts of energy from the natural electromagnetic radiation around it, such as a
solar powered motor.
• The Atmos clock uses changes in the vapor pressure of ethyl chloride with temperature to wind the clock spring.
• A device powered by radioactive decay from an isotope with a relatively long half-life; such a device could
plausibly operate for hundreds or thousands of years.

Low friction
• In flywheel energy storage, "modern flywheels can have a zero-load rundown time measurable in years."[36]
• Once spun up, objects in the vacuum of space—stars, black holes, planets, moons, spin-stabilized satellites,
etc.—continue spinning almost indefinitely with no further energy input. Tide on Earth is dissipating the
gravitational energy of the Moon/Earth system at an average rate of about 3.75 terawatts.[37] [38]
• In certain quantum-mechanical systems (such as superfluidity and superconductivity), dissipation-free "motion" is
possible.

Thought experiments
In some cases a thought (or "gedanken") experiment appears to suggest that perpetual motion may be possible
through accepted and understood physical processes. However, in all cases, a flaw has been found when all of the
relevant physics is considered. Examples include:
• Maxwell's Demon: This was originally proposed to show that the Second Law of Thermodynamics applied in the
statistical sense only, by postulating a "demon" that could select energetic molecules and extract their energy.
Subsequent analysis (and experiment) have shown there is no way to physically implement such a system that
does not result in an overall increase in entropy.
• Brownian Ratchet: In this thought experiment, one imagines a paddle wheel connected to a ratchet. Brownian
motion would cause surrounding gas molecules to strike the paddles, but the ratchet would only allow it to turn in
one direction. A more thorough analysis showed that when a physical ratchet was considered at this molecular
scale, Brownian motion would also affect the ratchet and cause it to randomly fail resulting in no net gain. Thus,
the device would not violate the Laws of thermodynamics.
Perpetual motion 76

Free energy suppression

Because perpetual motion claims have been around for some time, conspiracy theories are often invoked to explain
the lack of acceptance and/or availability of such technology.

Gallery
This is a gallery of some of the perpetual motion machine plans.

The "Overbalanced Wheel". It was
thought that the metal balls on the right
side would turn the wheel because of the
longer lever arm, but since the left side
had more balls than the right side, the
torque was balanced and the perpetual
movement could not be achieved.
The "Float Belt". The yellow blocks
indicate floaters. It was thought that the
floaters would rise through the liquid
and turn the belt. However pushing the
floaters into the water at the bottom
would require more energy than the
floating could generate.
The "Capillary Bowl". It was thought that the
capillary action would keep the water flowing
in the tube, but since the cohesion force that
draws the liquid up the tube in the first place
holds the droplet from releasing into the bowl,
the flow is not perpetual.

Notes
[1] Angrist, Stanley (January 1968). "Perpetual Motion Machines". Scientific American 218 (1): 115–122.
[2] Rao, Y. V. C. (2004). An Introduction to Thermodynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=iYWiCXziWsEC). Hyderabad, India:
Universities Press (India) Private Ltd.. ISBN 8173714614. . Retrieved August 2010.
[3] An alternative definition is given, for example, by Schadewald, who defines a "perpetual motion machine of the third kind" as a machine that
violates the third law of thermodynamics. See Schadewald, Robert J. (2008), Worlds of Their Own - A Brief History of Misguided Ideas:
Creationism, Flat-Earthism, Energy Scams, and the Velikovsky Affair, Xlibris, ISBN 978-1-4636-0435-1. pp55–56
[4] Wong, Kau-Fui Vincent (2000). Thermodynamics for Engineers (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=rEOMi-85v64C). CRC Press. p. 154.
ISBN 978-0-84-930232-9.
[5] Akshoy, Ranjan Paul; Sanchayan, Mukherjee; Pijush, Roy (2005). Mechanical Sciences: Engineering Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics
(http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=m07QzMlX47wC). Prentice-Hall India. p. 51. ISBN 978-8-12-032727-6.
[6] Barrow, John D. (1998). Impossibility: The Limits of Science and the Science of Limits. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0198518907.
[7] Goldstein, Herbert; Poole, Charles; Safko, John (2002). Classical Mechanics (3rd edition). San Francisco: Addison Wesley. pp. 589–598.
ISBN 0-201-65702-3
[8] "The perpetual myth of free energy" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ technology/ 6283374. stm). BBC News. 9 July 2007. . Retrieved 16
August 2010. "In short, law states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. Denying its validity would undermine not just little bits of
science - the whole edifice would be no more. All of the technology on which we built the modern world would lie in ruins."
[9] "CE410: Are constants constant?" (http:/ / www. talkorigins. org/ indexcc/ CE/ CE410. html), talkorigins
[10] Mark E. Eberhart:Feeding the fire: the lost history and uncertain future of mankind's energy,p.14
[11] Lynn Townsend White, Jr. (April 1960). "Tibet, India, and Malaya as Sources of Western Medieval Technology", The American Historical
Review 65 (3), p. 522-526.
[12] http:/ / www. drebbel. net/ Wondervondt. pdf
[13] http:/ / www. drebbel. net/ 1621%20PPM. pdf
[14] MIT, "Inventor of the Week Archive: Pascal : Mechanical Calculator" (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ invent/ iow/ pascal. html), May 2003. "Pascal
worked on many versions of the devices, leading to his attempt to create a perpetual motion machine. He has been credited with introducing
the roulette machine, which was a by-product of these experiments."
[15] "600 Parts, Form, and Content of Application - 608.03 Models, Exhibits, Specimens" (http:/ / www. uspto. gov/ web/ offices/ pac/ mpep/
documents/ 0600_608_03. htm). Manual of Patent Examining Procedure (8 ed.). August 2001.
Perpetual motion 77

[16] "700 Examination of Applications II. UTILITY - 706.03(a) Rejections Under 35 U.S.C. 101" (http:/ / www. uspto. gov/ web/ offices/ pac/
mpep/ documents/ 0700_706_03_a. htm). Manual of Patent Examining Procedure (8 ed.). August 2001.
[17] Pressman, David (2008). Nolo. ed. Patent It Yourself (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=5KGN1yPzPa8C& pg=PA99& dq=U. S. + Patent+
4,151,431) (13, illustrated, revised ed.). Nolo. p. 99. ISBN 1413308546. .
[18] http:/ / www. uspto. gov/ go/ classification/ uspc074/ sched074. htm#C074SDIG009
[19] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=4151431
[20] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=4074153
[21] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=4215330
[22] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=6246561
[23] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=6362718
[24] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=6526925
[25] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=6962052
[26] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=6523646
[27] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=7095126
[28] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=7379286
[29] Peterson, Ivars (1 June 1985). "A patent pursuit: Joe Newman’s ‘energy machine’ - inventor fights for patent on machine that generates more
energy than it takes in from external sources" (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m1200/ is_v127/ ai_3794102). Science News. .
[30] Peterson, Ivars (5 July 1986). "NBS Report Short Circuits Energy Machine" (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m1200/ is_v130/
ai_4305182). Science News. . Retrieved 8 May 2009.
[31] Manual of Patent Practice, Section 4 (http:/ / www. patent. gov. uk/ practice-sec-004. pdf). United Kingdom Patent Office.
[32] See also, for more examples of refused patent applications at the United Kingdom Patent Office (UK-IPO), UK-IPO gets tougher on
perpetual motion (http:/ / ipkitten. blogspot. com/ 2008/ 06/ uk-ipo-gets-tougher-on-perpetual-motion. html), IPKat, 12 June 2008. Consulted
on June 12, 2008.
[33] Patents Ex parte decision (O/044/06) (http:/ / www. patent. gov. uk/ patent/ p-decisionmaking/ p-challenge/ p-challenge-decision-results/
o04406. pdf)
[34] http:/ / www. patent. gov. uk/ patent/ p-decisionmaking/ p-challenge/ p-challenge-decision-results/ o15006. pdf
[35] ECLA classes F03B17/04 (http:/ / v3. espacenet. com/ eclasrch?ECLA=/ espacenet/ ecla/ f03b/ f03b17. htm?q=17-04) and F03B17/00B
(http:/ / v3. espacenet. com/ eclasrch?ECLA=/ espacenet/ ecla/ f03b/ f03b17. htm?q=17-00b). Consulted on June 12, 2008.
[36] WO application 2008037004 (http:/ / v3. espacenet. com/ textdoc?DB=EPODOC& IDX=WO2008037004), Kwok, James, "An energy
storage device and method of use", published 2008-04-03
[37] Munk, W.; Wunsch, C (1998). "Abyssal recipes II: energetics of tidal and wind mixing". Deep Sea Research Part I Oceanographic
Research Papers 45 (12): 1977. Bibcode 1998DSRI...45.1977M. doi:10.1016/S0967-0637(98)00070-3.
[38] Ray, R. D.; Eanes, R. J.; Chao, B. F. (1996). "Detection of tidal dissipation in the solid Earth by satellite tracking and altimetry". Nature 381
(6583): 595. Bibcode 1996Natur.381..595R. doi:10.1038/381595a0.

External links
• Perpetual motion (http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Technology/Energy/Unproven_Concepts/
Perpetual_Motion//) at the Open Directory Project
• The Museum of Unworkable Devices (http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/museum/unwork.htm)
• Vlatko Vedral's Lengthy discussion of Maxwell's Demon (http://xxx.lanl.gov/pdf/0707.3400) (PDF)
Alfred Lawson 78

Alfred Lawson
Alfred William Lawson

Born March 24, 1869London

Died November 29, 1954 (aged 85)San Antonio, Texas

Resting place Cremated

Nationality Born in the United Kingdom, emigrated to Canada, then the United States by 1872

Known for Baseball, Aviation, Philosophy

Alfred William Lawson (March 24, 1869 – November 29, 1954) was a professional baseball player, manager and
league promoter from 1887 through 1916 and went on to play a pioneering role in the US aircraft industry,
publishing two early aviation trade journals. In 1904, he also wrote a novel, Born Again, clearly inspired by the
popular Utopian fantasy Looking Backward by Edward Bellamy, an early harbinger of the metaphysical turn his
career would take with the theory of Lawsonomy. He is frequently cited as the inventor of the airliner and was
awarded several of the first air mail contracts, which he ultimately could not fulfill. He founded the Lawson Aircraft
Company in Green Bay, Wisconsin, to build military training aircraft and later the Lawson Airplane Company in
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to build airliners.[1] The crash of his ambitious "Midnight Liner" during its trial flight takeoff
on May 8, 1921, ended his best chance for commercial aviation success.

Baseball career

Al Lawson
Batted: Right Threw: Right 
MLB debut
May 13, 1890 for the Boston Beaneaters
Last MLB appearance
June 2, 1890 for the Pittsburgh Alleghenys
Career statistics
Win-Loss record     0-3
Earned run average   6.63
Strikeouts     3
Teams
• Boston Beaneaters (1890)
• Pittsburgh Alleghenys (1890)
Alfred Lawson 79

He made one start for the Boston Braves and two for the Pittsburgh Alleghenys during the 1890 season. His minor
league playing career lasted through 1895. He later managed in the minors from 1905-1907.
In 1908 he was involved in trying to start a new professional baseball league, the "Union Professional League"
which took the field in April but folded one month later.

Lawsonomy
In the 1920s, he promoted health practices including vegetarianism and claimed to have found the secret of living to
200. He also developed his own highly unusual theories of physics, according to which such concepts as
"penetrability", "suction and pressure" and "zig-zag-and-swirl" were discoveries on par with Einstein's Theory of
Relativity.[2] He published numerous books on these concepts, all set in a distinctive typography. Lawson repeatedly
predicted the worldwide adoption of Lawsonian principles by the year 2000.
He later propounded his own philosophy—Lawsonomy—and the Lawsonian religion. He also developed, during the
Great Depression, the populist economic theory of "Direct Credits", according to which banks are the cause of all
economic woe, the oppressors of both capital and labour. Lawson believed that the government should replace banks
as the provider of loans to business and workers. His rallies and lectures attracted thousands of listeners in the early
30s, mainly in the upper Midwest, but by the late 30s the crowds had dwindled.
In 1943, he founded the unaccredited University of Lawsonomy in Des Moines to spread his teachings and offer the
degree of "Knowledgian," but after various IRS and other investigations it was closed and finally sold in 1954, the
year of Lawson's death. Lawson's financial arrangements remain mysterious to this day, and in later years he seems
to have owned little property, moving from city to city as a guest of his farflung acolytes. In 1952, he was brought
before a United States Senate investigative committee.[3]
Martin Gardner devoted an entire chapter of Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science to Lawsonomy.
A farm near Racine, Wisconsin, is the only remaining university facility, although a tiny handful of churches may
yet survive in places such as Wichita, Kansas. The large sign, formerly reading "University of Lawsonomy", was a
familiar landmark for motorists in the region for many years and was visible from I-94 about 13 miles north of the
Illinois state line, on the east side of the highway. Although the sign still exists, the "of" has now been replaced by
the URL of their website. As of a storm in spring 2009, the sign is no longer there although the supporting posts are
still visible. Driving north on I-94 a sign on the roof of the building nearest the freeway says "Study Natural Law."

Quotation
When I look into the vastness of space and see the marvelous workings of its contents... I sometimes think I
was born ten or twenty thousand years ahead of time.
– Alfred Lawson

References
[1] Aviation Hall of Fame, Wisconsin - Alfred W. Lawson (http:/ / www. aviationhalloffamewisconsin. com/ inductees/ lawson. htm)
[2] Martin Gardner (1957). Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science. Dover Publications. pp. 69–79. ISBN 978-0-486-20394-2.
[3] "Education: Zigzag & Swirl" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,816203,00. html). Time. March 24, 1952. .
Alfred Lawson 80

Further reading
• Henry, Lyell, Jr. Zig-Zag-and Swirl: Alfred W. Lawson's Quest for Greatness (http://uipress.uiowa.edu/books/
pre-2002/henzig.htm), University of Iowa Press, 1991.
• Kossy, Donna. Kooks: A Guide to the Outer Limits of Human Belief, Los Angeles: Feral House, 2001 (2nd ed.
exp. from 1994). (ISBN 978-0-922915-67-5)
• Kuntz, Jerry. Baseball Fiends and Flying Machines: The Many Lives and Outrageous Times of George and Alfred
Lawson (http://www.mcfarlandpub.com/book-2.php?id=978-0-7864-4375-8), Jefferson, NC: McFarland
Publishing, Inc., 2009.

External links
• Gregg Hoffmann (2002-12-15). "What in the heck is the University of Lawsonomy?" (http://www.
onmilwaukee.com/sports/articles/lawson.html). OnMilwaukee.com. (an article about Lawson in a
Milwaukee-area magazine)
• The three volumes of Lawsonomy (http://www.lawsonomy.org/Lawsonomy11.html), written by Lawson
• Lawsonomy (http://home.pacifier.com/~dkossy/lawsonomy.html) at the Kooks Museum

Dihydrogen monoxide hoax

"Dihydrogen monoxide" redirects here. For the H2O molecule, see Properties of water.
In the dihydrogen monoxide hoax, water is called by an unfamiliar
name, "dihydrogen monoxide", followed by a listing of (real) negative
effects of this chemical, in a mock attempt to convince people that it
should be carefully regulated, labeled as hazardous, or banned. The
hoax is designed to illustrate how the lack of scientific literacy and an
exaggerated analysis can lead to misplaced fears.[1] "Dihydrogen
monoxide", shortened to "DHMO", is a name for water that is
consistent with basic rules of chemical nomenclature,[2] but is not
among the names published by IUPAC[3] and is almost never used.

A popular version of the hoax was created by Eric Lechner, Lars

Norpchen and Matthew Kaufman, housemates while attending
University of California, Santa Cruz in 1990,[4] revised by Craig
Jackson (also a UC Santa Cruz student) in 1994,[5] and brought to
Water consists of two hydrogen atoms and one
widespread public attention in 1997 when Nathan Zohner, a oxygen atom.
14-year-old student, gathered petitions to ban "DHMO" as the basis of
his science project, titled "How Gullible Are We?".[6]

"Dihydrogen monoxide" may sound dangerous to those with a limited knowledge of chemistry or who hold to an
ideal of a "chemical-free" life (chemophobia).[6] The only familiar common usage of the term "monoxide" is in the
highly toxic gas "carbon monoxide", and the simplified term "monoxide poisoning" is commonly used to refer to
poisoning by this colorless and odorless substance.[7]
The joke has been frequently extended over the years. For example, a material safety data sheet — a list of
information about potentially dangerous materials used in research and industry — has been created for it.[8]
Dihydrogen monoxide hoax 81

Original web appearance

The first appearance on the internet was attributed by the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette to the so-called Coalition to Ban
Dihydrogen Monoxide,[5] [9] a hoax organization started by Craig Jackson following the initial newsgroup
discussions. The site included the following warning:[10]
Dihydrogen monoxide:
• is called "hydroxyl acid", the substance is the major component of acid rain.
• contributes to the "greenhouse effect".
• may cause severe burns.
• is fatal if inhaled.
• contributes to the erosion of our natural landscape.
• accelerates corrosion and rusting of many metals.
• may cause electrical failures and decreased effectiveness of automobile brakes.
• has been found in excised tumors of terminal cancer patients.
Despite the danger, dihydrogen monoxide is often used:
• as an industrial solvent and coolant.
• in nuclear power plants.
• in the production of Styrofoam.
• as a fire retardant.
• in many forms of cruel animal research.
• in the distribution of pesticides. Even after washing, produce remains contaminated by this chemical.
• as an additive in certain "junk-foods" and other food products.

Public efforts involving DHMO

• In 1989, Eric Lechner, Lars Norpchen and Matthew Kaufman
circulated a Dihydrogen Monoxide contamination warning on the
University of California, Santa Cruz Campus via photocopied
fliers.[12] The concept originated one afternoon when Kaufman
recalled a similar warning about "Hydrogen Hydroxide" that had
been published in his mother's hometown paper, the Durand
[11]
(Michigan) Express, and the three then worked to coin a term that The logo of DHMO.org , primary current
residence of the dihydrogen monoxide hoax
"sounded more dangerous". Lechner typed up the original warning
flier on Kaufman's computer, and a trip to the local photocopying
center followed that night.
• In 1994, Craig Jackson created a web page for the Coalition to Ban DHMO.[10]
• The Friends of Hydrogen Hydroxide was created by Dan Curtis Johnson partly as a foil on the Coalition page, to
provide evidence of 'misguided' supporters of dihydrogen monoxide. This form of collaborative connivance is a
classic tool of internet spoofers.[13]
• In 1997, Nathan Zohner, a 14-year-old junior high student at Eagle Rock Junior High School in Idaho Falls,
Idaho, gathered 43 votes to ban the chemical, out of 50 people surveyed among his classmates. Zohner received
the first prize at Greater Idaho Falls Science Fair for analysis of the results of his survey.[6] In recognition of his
experiment, journalist James K. Glassman coined the term "Zohnerism" to refer to "the use of a true fact to lead a
scientifically and mathematically ignorant public to a false conclusion."[14]
• In 1998, drawing inspiration from Jackson's web page and Zohner's research, Tom Way created the website
DHMO.org, including links to some legitimate sites such as the Environmental Protection Agency and National
Institutes of Health.
Dihydrogen monoxide hoax 82

• On April 1, 1998 (April Fools' Day), a member of the Australian Parliament announced a campaign to ban
dihydrogen monoxide internationally.[15]
• The idea was used for a segment of an episode of the Penn & Teller show Penn & Teller: Bullshit!, in which an
actor (Kris McGaha) and a camera crew gathered signatures from people considering themselves "concerned
environmentalists" on a petition to ban DHMO.[16]
• In 2001 a staffer in New Zealand Green Party MP Sue Kedgley's office responded to a request for support for a
campaign to ban dihydrogen monoxide by saying she was "absolutely supportive of the campaign to ban this toxic
substance". This was criticised in press releases by the National Party , one of whose MP's fell for the very same
hoax six years later.[17]
• In March 2004, Aliso Viejo, California almost considered banning the use of foam containers at city-sponsored
events because dihydrogen monoxide is part of their production. A paralegal had asked the city council to put it
on the agenda; he later attributed it to poor research.[18] The law was pulled from the agenda before it could come
to a vote, but not before the city received a raft of bad publicity.[6]
• In 2006, in Louisville, Kentucky, David Karem, executive director of the Waterfront Development Corporation, a
public body that operates Waterfront Park, wished to deter bathers from using a large public fountain. "Counting
on a lack of understanding about water's chemical makeup," he arranged for signs reading: "DANGER WATER –
CONTAINS HIGH LEVELS OF HYDROGEN – KEEP OUT" to be posted on the fountain at public expense.[19]
[20]

• Several online petitions to the British Prime Minister on this subject have been correctly identified by the Prime
Minister's office as hoaxes, and rejected.[21]
• In 2007 Jacqui Dean, New Zealand National Party MP, fell for the hoax, writing a letter to Associate Minister of
Health Jim Anderton asking "Does the Expert Advisory Committee on Drugs have a view on the banning of this
drug?"[17] [22] [23]
• On April 1, 2010, the Dutch triathlon webzine Triathlonweb.nl stated in an April Fool's joke that WADA has put
DHMO on the banned substances list, as it is detrimental for your health (e.g. when inhaled or ingested in large
quantities) and improves sporting performance.[24]
• On April 1, 2010, Canadian Member of Parliament Andrew Scheer used the DHMO hoax as the basis for an April
Fool's Day "media release" on his web site, in which he claimed to have tabled a bill to ban the substance from all
federal government buildings.[25]

Terminology
The water molecule has the chemical formula H2O, meaning each molecule of water is composed of two hydrogen
atoms and one oxygen atom. Literally, the term "dihydrogen monoxide" means "two hydrogen, one oxygen",
consistent with its molecular formula: the prefix di- in dihydrogen means "two", the prefix mono- in monoxide means
"one", and an oxide is a compound that contains one or more oxygen atoms.[26]
Various names for water are commonly used within the scientific community. Some such names include hydrogen
oxide, as well as an alkali name of hydrogen hydroxide, and several acid names such as hydric acid, hydroxic acid,
hydroxylic acid, and hydroxilic acid. The term "hydroxyl acid" used in the original hoax is a non-standard name. An
additional name, μ-oxido dihydrogen, has been developed for this compound.[27]
Under the 2005 revisions of IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry, there is no single correct name for every
compound.[28] The primary function of chemical nomenclature is to ensure that each name refers, unambiguously, to
a single substance. It is considered less important to ensure that each substance should have a single name, although
the number of acceptable names is limited.[28] Water is one acceptable name for this compound, even though it is
neither a systematic nor an international name and is specific to just one phase of the compound. The other IUPAC
recommendation is oxidane.[29]
Dihydrogen monoxide hoax 83

The use of numerical prefixes is typical nomenclature for compounds formed by covalent bonds, which are present
in water.[30] [31] The prefix for the first named element is often dropped if the elements involved commonly form
only one compound, or even if the number of atoms of the first-named element is the same in all the compounds of
the two (or more) elements.[26] Thus H2S is often simply called hydrogen sulfide, and lithium oxide is a common
name for Li2O. However, the names dihydrogen sulfide,[32] dilithium oxide,[33] and dilithium monoxide[34] are also
commonly used both in industry and in universities, despite the fact that Li2O is ionic.
The mono- prefix is often dropped for the second-named element if it is the only common compound the elements
form.[35] Thus for instance the IUPAC name of H2S is hydrogen sulfide rather than hydrogen monosulfide.[36]
However, since carbon and oxygen can form several compounds (carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, tricarbon
dioxide, and dicarbon monoxide), the mono- prefix is kept, as it is with silicon monoxide and silicon dioxide. Indeed,
hydrogen and oxygen do form another common compound, H2O2 (hydrogen peroxide). Using prefix nomenclature,
H2O2 would be called dihydrogen dioxide. Thus, keeping the mono- in dihydrogen monoxide does serve to
distinguish it from another compound.

References
[1] Carder, L; Willingham, P.; Bibb, D. (2001), "Case-based, problem-based learning: Information literacy for the real world" (http:/ /
linkinghub. elsevier. com/ retrieve/ pii/ S0734331002000873), Research Strategies 18 (3): 181–190, doi:10.1016/S0734-3310(02)00087-3, .
[2] Leigh, G. J. et al. (1998), Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/
books/ principles/ principles_of_nomenclature. pdf), Blackwell Science Ltd, UK, pp. 27–28, ISBN 0-86542-685-6,
[3] Leigh, G. J. et al. (1998), Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/
books/ principles/ principles_of_nomenclature. pdf), Blackwell Science Ltd, UK, p. 34, ISBN 0-86542-685-6,
[4] Erich Lechner (February 23, 1990), Warning! Dangerous Contamination! (original usenet posting) (http:/ / groups. google. com/ group/ rec.
humor. funny/ browse_thread/ thread/ 3f985a069a2a19d8/ ), Usenet rec.humor.funny archive,
[5] Kruszelnicki, Karl S. (2006), Mysterious Killer Chemical (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ science/ k2/ moments/ s1631494. htm), Australian
Broadcasting Corporation, .
[6] Dihydrogen Monoxide (http:/ / www. snopes. com/ science/ dhmo. asp) from Urban Legends Reference Pages, accessed 25 September 2006.
[7] Knight, Bernard (1998), Lawyers Guide to Forensic Medicine (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=CMA4_NHHc8wC& pg=PA63&
lpg=PA63& dq="monoxide+ poisoning"+ -carbon), Routledge, pp. 280, ISBN 9781859411599,
[8] "DHMO Material Safety Data Sheet" (http:/ / improbable. com/ 2010/ 03/ 24/ dhmo-material-safety-data-sheet/ ). Improbable Research. .
[9] Roddy., Dennis B. (1997), Internet-inspired prank lands 4 teens in hot water, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette (published April 19, 1997)
[10] Craig Jackson (1994), Ban Dihydrogen Monoxide! (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 19961031232918/ http:/ / media. circus. com/
~no_dhmo/ ), Coalition to ban DHMO, archived from the original (http:/ / media. circus. com/ ~no_dhmo/ ) on 1996-10-31, . Coalition to ban
DHMO officers (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 19970125144038/ media. circus. com/ ~no_dhmo/ members. html), Coalition to ban DHMO, .
[11] http:/ / www. dhmo. org
[12] The original poster circulated at UC Santa Cruz (PDF) (http:/ / www. matthew. at/ dhm. pdf)
[13] http:/ / www. armory. com/ ~crisper/ DHMO/
[14] Glassman, James K (1997). "Dihydrogen Monoxide: Unrecognized Killer" (http:/ / www. junkscience. com/ news/ glassman. html). The
Washington Post. . Retrieved 2007-03-08.
[15] Campaign launched against dihydrogen monoxide, Deutsche Presse-Agentur, April 1, 1998.
[16] "Penn & Teller: Bullshit!" Environmental Hysteria (2003) (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0672528/ ), Internet Movie Database,
[17] Gnad, Megan (2007-09-14). "MP tries to ban water" (http:/ / www. nzherald. co. nz/ section/ 1/ story. cfm?c_id=1& objectid=10463579).
New Zealand Herald. .
[18] Local officials nearly fall for H2O hoax (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 4534017/ ), at MSNBC 15 March 2004, accessed 25 September
2006.
[19] Water without hydrogen would warrant warning (http:/ / www. courier-journal. com/ apps/ pbcs. dll/ article?AID=/ 20060717/ NEWS01/
607170372& SearchID=73251038596946), Louisville Courier-Journal, Monday, July 17, 2006 (link inactive as of Friday, May 18, 2007)
[20] Danger! H in H2O (http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ cen/ newscripts/ 84/ 8443newscripts. html), Chemical & Engineering News, October 23, 2006
webcite mirror (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5OwIq682q)
[21] search.petitions.number10.gov.uk/kbroker/number10/petitions/search.lsim?ha=1159&qt=dihydrogen (search result for "dihydrogen" among
rejected petitions on e-petition site at number10.gov.uk; not linked because of an over-general Wikipedia blacklist
[22] "Questions And Answers – Wednesday, 12 September 07" (http:/ / www. scoop. co. nz/ stories/ PA0709/ S00224. htm). Scoop. 2007-09-13.
.
[23] "PDF file of related correspondence" (http:/ / img. scoop. co. nz/ media/ pdfs/ 0709/ DeanDHMO. pdf) (PDF). Scoop. 2007-09-13. .
[24] "Doping hunt rampage: sports itself is in danger" (http:/ / www. triathlonweb. nl/ twn/ show. php?chapter=Nieuws& ID=10,057).
2010-04-01. .
Dihydrogen monoxide hoax 84

[25] "REGINA-QU'APPELLE MP TABLES LEGISLATION TO BAN DIHYDROGEN MONOXIDE" (http:/ / www. andrewmp. ca/
090401_release_dhmo. html). 2010-04-01. .
[26] Van Bramer, S.E. (1996), Chemical Nomenclature (http:/ / science. widener. edu/ svb/ pset/ nomen_b. html), .
[27] "/www.bluelaketec.com" (http:/ / www. bluelaketec. com/ awater. htm). Bluelake Technologies. . Retrieved 2 April 2010.
[28] IUPAC Report: General Aims, Functions and Methods of Chemical Nomenclature (March 2004) http:/ / www. iupac. org/ reports/
provisional/ abstract04/ RB-prs310804/ Chap1-3. 04. pdf
[29] Leigh, G. J. et al. 1998. Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/
books/ principles/ principles_of_nomenclature. pdf), p. 99. Blackwell Science Ltd, UK. ISBN 0-86542-685-6
[30] Leigh, G. J. et al. 1998. Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/
books/ principles/ principles_of_nomenclature. pdf), p. 28. Blackwell Science Ltd, UK. ISBN 0-86542-685-6.
[31] Nishiura, James, "Polar Covalent Bonds" (http:/ / academic. brooklyn. cuny. edu/ biology/ bio4fv/ page/ polar_c. htm), Biology 4, City
University of New York, .
[32] Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (PDF), Dihydrogen sulfide (http:/ / www. oehha. ca. gov/ air/ chronic_rels/ pdf/
7783064. pdf), California Environmental Protection Agency, .
[33] Diagnostics on calculations: Species with negative natural orbital occupation numbers (http:/ / cccbdb. nist. gov/ diagnostics. asp), National
Institutes of Health,
[34] Lithium oxide (http:/ / pubchem. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ summary/ summary. cgi?cid=82891& loc=ec_rcs), PubChem public chemical database,
[35] Leigh, G. J. et al. 1998. Principles of chemical nomenclature: a guide to IUPAC recommendations (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ publications/
books/ principles/ principles_of_nomenclature. pdf), p. 28. Blackwell Science Ltd, UK. ISBN 0-86542-685-6: "The multiplicative prefixes
may not be necessary if the oxidation states are explicit or are clearly understood."
[36] Hydrogen sulfide (http:/ / pubchem. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ summary/ summary. cgi?cid=402), PubChem public chemical database, .

External links
• Dihydrogen Monoxide website (http://www.dhmo.org)
• Ban Dihydrogen Monoxide! (http://www.netreach.net/~rjones/no_dhmo.html)
• Friends of Hydrogen Hydroxide (http://www.armory.com/~crisper/DHMO/)
• Some responses by college students (http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/dhmofoot.htm)
Flying Spaghetti Monster 85

Flying Spaghetti Monster

The Flying Spaghetti Monster (FSM) is the deity
of the parody religion[1] [2] the Church of the
Flying Spaghetti Monster or Pastafarianism.[3]
In 2005, Oregon State physics graduate Bobby
Henderson wrote an open letter about a "Flying
Spaghetti Monster" as a satirical protest against the
decision by the Kansas State Board of Education to
permit the teaching of intelligent design as an
alternative to evolution in public schools.[4] In the
letter, Henderson parodied the concept of Touched by His Noodly Appendage, a parody of The Creation of Adam by
Michelangelo, an iconic image of the Flying Spaghetti Monster
intelligent design by professing belief in a
supernatural creator that closely resembles
spaghetti and meatballs. Henderson further called for Flying Spaghetti Monsterism to be allotted equal time in
science classrooms alongside intelligent design and evolution.

After Henderson published the letter on his website, it rapidly became an internet phenomenon and a symbol for the
case against teaching intelligent design (and religion in general) in public schools. Pastafarian (a portmanteau of
pasta and Rastafarian) beliefs—generally satires of creationism—are presented both on Henderson's website (where
he is described as "prophet"), and in The Gospel of the Flying Spaghetti Monster (written by Henderson and
published by Villiard Press in 2006). The central belief is that an invisible and undetectable Flying Spaghetti
Monster created the universe. Pirates are revered as the original Pastafarians, and Pastafarians assert that a steady
decline in the number of pirates over the years has resulted in a significant rise in global temperature. The FSM
community currently congregates at Henderson's website to share ideas and crafts devoted to the Flying Spaghetti
Monster.

Due to its popularity and exposure, the Flying Spaghetti Monster is often used as a contemporary version of Russell's
teapot. While generally praised by the media and endorsed by members of the scientific community, the Flying
Spaghetti Monster has received criticism from the intelligent design community. Self-described Pastafarians have
engaged in religious disputes, including in Polk County, Florida, where they played a role in dissuading the local
school board from adopting new rules on teaching evolution.[5]

History
In January 2005,[6] Bobby Henderson, then a 24-year-old[7] Oregon State University physics graduate, sent an open
letter regarding the Flying Spaghetti Monster to the Kansas State Board of Education.[3] [8] [9] The letter was sent
prior to the Kansas evolution hearings as an argument against the teaching of intelligent design in biology classes.[3]
Henderson, describing himself as a "concerned citizen" representing more than ten million others, stated that both his
theory and intelligent design had equal validity.[3] In his letter, he noted,
I think we can all look forward to the time when these three theories are given equal time in our science
classrooms across the country, and eventually the world; one third time for Intelligent Design, one third time
for Flying Spaghetti Monsterism, and one third time for logical conjecture based on overwhelming observable
evidence.
—Bobby Henderson[10]
According to Henderson, since the intelligent design movement uses ambiguous references to a designer, any
conceivable entity may fulfill that role, including a Flying Spaghetti Monster.[2] Henderson explained, "I don't have a
Flying Spaghetti Monster 86

problem with religion. What I have a problem with is religion posing as science. If there is a god and he's intelligent,
then I would guess he has a sense of humor."[11] [12]
In May 2005, having received no reply from the Kansas State Board of Education, Henderson posted the letter on his
website, gaining significant public interest.[6] [13] Shortly thereafter, Pastafarianism became an internet
phenomenon.[2] [4] Henderson published the responses he then received from Board members.[14] Three board
members, all of whom opposed the curriculum amendments, responded positively; a fourth board member responded
with the comment "It is a serious offense to mock God."[15] Henderson has also published the significant amount of
hate mail, including death threats, that he has received.[16] [17] Within one year of sending the open letter, Henderson
received thousands of emails on the Flying Spaghetti Monster, eventually totaling over 60,000,[18] of which he has
said that "about 95 percent have been supportive, while the other five percent have said I am going to hell".[4] During
that time his site garnered tens of millions of hits.[18]
As word of Henderson's challenge to the Board spread, his website and cause received more attention and support.
The satirical nature of Henderson's argument made the Flying Spaghetti Monster popular with bloggers as well as
humor and Internet culture websites.[19] The Flying Spaghetti Monster was featured on websites such as Boing
Boing, Something Awful, Uncyclopedia, and Fark.com. Moreover, an International Society for Flying Spaghetti
Monster Awareness and other fan sites emerged.[20] As public awareness grew, the mainstream media picked up on
the phenomenon. The Flying Spaghetti Monster became a symbol for the case against intelligent design in public
education.[3] [21] [22] The open letter was printed in many large newspapers, including The New York Times, The
Washington Post, and Chicago Sun-Times,[18] and received "worldwide press attention" according to one
journalist.[23] Henderson himself was surprised by its success, stating that he "wrote the letter for [his] own
amusement as much as anything".[2]

Other developments
In August 2005, in response to a challenge from a reader, Boing Boing
announced a $250,000 prize—later raised to $1,000,000—of
"Intelligently Designed currency" payable to any individual who could
produce empirical evidence proving that Jesus is not the son of the
Flying Spaghetti Monster.[24] It was modeled after a similar challenge
issued by young-Earth creationist Kent Hovind, who promised
$250,000 to anyone who can prove evolution "is the only possible
way" that the Universe and life arose.[24] The challenge sparked
interest and popularity in the Flying Spaghetti Monster.[2] The FSM "fish" emblem, the symbol of the
Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster, is a
According to Henderson, newspaper articles on the Flying Spaghetti parody of the Christian Ichthys symbol

Monster attracted the attention of book publishers; he said that at one

point, there were six publishers interested in the Flying Spaghetti Monster.[18] In November 2005, Henderson
received an advance from Villard to write The Gospel of the Flying Spaghetti Monster with the subheading "Jackpot
for unemployed slot-machine engineer and heretic".[25]
In November 2005, the Kansas State Board of Education voted to allow criticisms of evolution, including language
about intelligent design, as part of testing standards.[26] On February 13, 2007, the Board voted 6–4 to reject the
amended science standards enacted in 2005. This was the fifth time in eight years that the Board had rewritten the
standards on evolution.[27]
Flying Spaghetti Monster 87

Beliefs
“With millions, if not thousands, of devout worshippers, the Church of the FSM is widely considered a legitimate religion, even by
its opponents—mostly fundamentalist Christians, who have accepted that our God has larger balls than theirs.”
[13]
–Bobby Henderson

Henderson proposed many Pastafarian tenets in reaction to common arguments by proponents of intelligent
design.[28] These "canonical beliefs" are presented by Henderson in his letter to the Kansas State Board of
Education,[10] the Gospel of the Flying Spaghetti Monster, and on Henderson's web site, where he is described as a
prophet.[29] They tend to satirize creationism.[2]
The central belief is that an invisible and undetectable Flying Spaghetti Monster created the universe "after drinking
heavily". According to these beliefs, the Monster's intoxication was the cause for a flawed Earth. Furthermore,
according to Pastafarianism, all evidence for evolution was planted by the Flying Spaghetti Monster in an effort to
test Pastafarians' faith—parodying certain biblical literalists.[30] When scientific measurements such as radiocarbon
dating are taken, the Flying Spaghetti Monster "is there changing the results with His Noodly Appendage".[10] The
Pastafarian belief of Heaven contains a beer volcano and a stripper factory.[29] The Pastafarian Hell is similar, except
that the beer is stale and the strippers have sexually transmitted diseases.[31]
Pastafarians' beliefs extend into religious ceremony. Pastafarians celebrate every Friday as a holy day.[2] Prayers are
concluded with a final declaration of affirmation, "R'amen"; the term is a parodic portmanteau of the Semitic term
"Amen" and the Sino-Japanese noodle dish, ramen.[4]

Pirates and global warming

According to Pastafarian beliefs, pirates are
"absolute divine beings" and the original
Pastafarians.[10] Furthermore, Pastafarians
believe that pirates' image as "thieves and
outcasts" is misinformation spread by
Christian theologians in the Middle Ages
and by Hare Krishnas. Instead, Pastafarians
believe that they were "peace-loving
explorers and spreaders of good will" who
distributed candy to small children, adding
that modern pirates are in no way similar to
"the fun-loving buccaneers from history". In
addition, Pastafarians believe that ghost A chart, included in the open letter, illustrating the relationship between pirates and
global temperature
pirates are responsible for all of the
mysterious lost ships and planes of the
Bermuda Triangle. Pastafarians celebrate International Talk Like a Pirate Day on September 19.[32]

The inclusion of pirates in Pastafarianism was part of Henderson's original letter to the Kansas State Board of
Education, in an effort to illustrate that correlation does not imply causation.[33] Henderson presented the argument
that "global warming, earthquakes, hurricanes, and other natural disasters are a direct effect of the shrinking numbers
of pirates since the 1800s."[10] A chart accompanying the letter (with numbers humorously disordered on the x-axis)
shows that as the number of pirates decreased, global temperatures increased. This parodies the suggestion from
some religious groups that the high numbers of disasters, famines and wars in the world is due to the lack of respect
and worship towards their deity. In 2008, Henderson interpreted the growing pirate activities at the Gulf of Aden as
additional support, pointing out that Somalia has "the highest number of pirates and the lowest carbon emissions of
any country."[34]
Flying Spaghetti Monster 88

Holidays

"Holiday"
Around the time of Christmas, Hanukkah, and Kwanzaa, Pastafarians celebrate a vaguely defined holiday named
"Holiday". Holiday does not take place on "a specific date so much as it is the Holiday season, itself". Because
Pastafarians "reject dogma and formalism", there are no specific requirements for Holiday. Pastafarians are
instructed to celebrate Holiday however they please.[35]
Pastafarians interpret the increasing usage of "Happy Holidays", rather than more traditional greetings (such as
"Merry Christmas"), as support for Pastafarianism.[35] In December 2005, George W. Bush's White House Christmas
greeting cards wished people a happy "holiday season",[36] leading Henderson to write the President a note of thanks,
including a "fish" emblem depicting the Flying Spaghetti Monster for his limousine or plane.[37] Henderson also
thanked Wal-Mart for its use of the phrase.[38]

Pastover
During the Jewish holiday of Passover, Pastafarians celebrate Pastover, a festival in which they eat great quantities
of pasta, primarily spaghetti, because it most resembles the Flying Spaghetti Monster. People also share short stories
of when the Flying Spaghetti Monster began touching people with His Noodly Appendage, and participate in The
Passing of the Eye Patch, a ritual in which everyone takes turns wearing an eyepatch and sharing stories of when
they were touched by His Noodly Appendage.[39] [40]

Ramendan
Ramendan is similar to the Islamic holiday of Ramadan. Instead of praying and fasting, participants spend a few
days eating nothing but ramen noodles, remembering their days as college students, and giving thanks for how far
they have come.[41]

Talk Like a Pirate Day

Although International Talk Like a Pirate Day was established before Bobby Henderson wrote his open letter to the
Kansas City School Board, Pastafarians have adopted it as one of their holidays. On 19 September, during
International Talk Like a Pirate Day, Pastafarians dress up and talk like pirates in order to celebrate the "pirate
origins" of their faith.[42]

Books

The Gospel of the Flying Spaghetti Monster

In December 2005 Bobby Henderson received a reported US$80,000 advance
from Villard to write The Gospel of the Flying Spaghetti Monster. Henderson
said he planned to use proceeds from the book to build a pirate ship, with which
he would spread the Pastafarian religion.[25] [43] The book was released on March
28, 2006,[44] and elaborates on Pastafarian beliefs established in the open
letter.[45] Henderson employs satire to present perceived flaws with evolutionary
biology and discusses history and lifestyle from a Pastafarian perspective. The
Gospel urges readers to try Pastafarianism for 30 days, saying, "If you don't like
us, your old religion will most likely take you back."[23] [46] Henderson states on The Gospel of the Flying Spaghetti
his website that more than 100,000 copies of the book have been sold.[47] Monster
Flying Spaghetti Monster 89

Scientific American described the Gospel as "an elaborate spoof on Intelligent Design" and "very funny". In 2006, it
was nominated for the Quill Award in Humor but was not selected as the winner.[47] Wayne Allen Brenner of The
Austin Chronicle characterized the book as "a necessary bit of comic relief in the overly serious battle between
science and superstition."[45] Simon Singh of The Daily Telegraph wrote that the Gospel "might be slightly
repetitive... but overall it is a brilliant, provocative, witty and important gem of a book."[23] Meanwhile, Casey
Luskin of the Discovery Institute, the hub of the Intelligent Design movement, labeled the Gospel "a mockery of the
Christian New Testament".[48]

The Loose Canon

In September 2005, before Henderson had received a grant to write the Gospel of the Flying Spaghetti Monster, a
Pastafarian member of the Venganza forums known as Solipsy announced the beginning of a project to collect texts
from fellow Pastafarians to compile into the Loose Canon, a Holy Book of the Church of the Flying Spaghetti
Monster, essentially analogous to the Bible.[49] The book was completed and made available for free download in
2010.[50]
Some excerpts from the Loose Canon include:
“I am the Flying Spaghetti Monster. Thou shalt have no other monsters before Me. (Afterwards is OK; just use protection.) The only
Monster who deserves capitalization is Me! Other monsters are false monsters, undeserving of capitalization.”

Suggestions 1:1
“"Since you have done a half-ass job, you will receive half an ass!" The Great Pirate Solomon grabbed his ceremonial scimitar and
struck his remaining donkey, cleaving it in two.”

Slackers 1:51–52

Influence

As a cultural phenomenon
The Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster now consists of thousands
of followers,[33] primarily concentrated on college campuses and in
Europe.[51] According to the Associated Press, Henderson's website
has become "a kind of cyber-watercooler for opponents of intelligent
design". On it, visitors track meetings of pirate-clad Pastafarians, sell
trinkets and bumper stickers, and sample photos that show "visions" of
the Flying Spaghetti Monster.[52]
Flying Spaghetti Monster contingent preparing
In August 2005, the Swedish concept designer Niklas Jansson created
for the 2009 Summer Solstice Parade and Pageant
an adaptation of Michelangelo's The Creation of Adam, superimposing in Fremont, Seattle, Washington
the Flying Spaghetti Monster over God. This became and remains the
Flying Spaghetti Monster's de facto brand image.[20] The Hunger Artists Theatre Company produced a comedy
called The Flying Spaghetti Monster Holiday Pageant in December 2006, detailing the history of Pastafarianism.[53]
The production has spawned a sequel called Flying Spaghetti Monster Holy Mug of Grog, performed in December
2008.[54] This communal activity attracted the attention of three University of Florida religious scholars, who
assembled a panel at the 2007 American Academy of Religion meeting to discuss the Flying Spaghetti Monster.[51]
Flying Spaghetti Monster 90

In November 2007, four talks involving the Flying Spaghetti Monster were
delivered at the American Academy of Religion's annual meeting in San
Diego.[55] The talks, with titles like Holy Pasta and Authentic Sauce: The Flying
Spaghetti Monster's Messy Implications for Theorizing Religion, examined the
elements necessary for a group to constitute a religion. Speakers inquired
whether "an anti-religion like Flying Spaghetti Monsterism [is] actually a
religion".[51] The talks were based on the paper, Evolutionary Controversy and a
Side of Pasta: The Flying Spaghetti Monster and the Subversive Function of
Religious Parody,[12] published in the GOLEM Journal of Religion and
Monsters.[30] The panel garnered an audience of one hundred of the 9,000
conference attendees, and conference organizers received critical e-mails from
A handmade Flying Spaghetti Christians offended by it.[56]
Monster sewing craft, San Diego,
California
Since October 2008, the local chapter of the Church of the Flying Spaghetti
Monster has sponsored an annual convention called Skepticon on the campus of
Missouri State University.[57] Atheists and skeptics give speeches on various topics, and a debate with Christian
experts is held. Organizers tout the event as the "largest gathering of atheists in the Midwest."[58]
On the non-profit microfinancing site, Kiva, the Flying Spaghetti Monster group is in an ongoing competition to top
all other "Religious Congregations" in the number of loans issued via their team on KIVA. The group's motto is
"Thou shalt share, that none may seek without finding."[59] As of 23 September 2010, it has funded more than
$380,000 in loans.[60]

Critical reception
According to Justin Pope of the Associated Press,
Between the lines, the point of the letter was this: there's no more scientific basis for intelligent design than
there is for the idea an omniscient creature made of pasta created the universe. If intelligent design supporters
could demand equal time in a science class, why not anyone else? The only reasonable solution is to put
nothing into sciences classes but the best available science.
—Justin Pope[51]
Justin Pope praised the Flying Spaghetti Monster as "a clever and effective argument".[52] Simon Singh of the Daily
Telegraph described the Flying Spaghetti Monster as "a masterstroke, which underlined the absurdity of Intelligent
Design," and applauded Henderson for "galvanis[ing] a defence of science and rationality."[23] Sarah Boxer of the
New York Times said that Henderson "has wit on his side".[3] In addition, the Flying Spaghetti Monster was
mentioned in an article footnote of the Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review as an example of evolution
"enter[ing] the fray in popular culture", which the author deemed necessary for evolution to prevail over intelligent
design.[61] The abstract of the paper, Evolutionary Controversy and a Side of Pasta: The Flying Spaghetti Monster
and the Subversive Function of Religious Parody, describes the Flying Spaghetti Monster as "a potent example of
how monstrous humor can be used as a popular tool of carnivalesque subversion".[30] Its author praised
Pastafarianism for its "epistemological humility".[12] Moreover, Henderson's website contains numerous
endorsements from the scientific community.[62] As Jack Schofield of The Guardian noted, "The joke, of course, is
that it's arguably more rational than Intelligent Design."[63]
Casey Luskin of the Discovery Institute, which promotes Intelligent Design, contested this, saying, "the problem for
their logic is that ID is not an arbitrary explanation, because we have much experience with intelligent agents
producing the type of informational complexity we see in nature."[64] Columnist Jeff Jacoby wrote in The Boston
Globe that Intelligent Design "isn't primitivism or Bible-thumping or flying spaghetti. It's science."[65] This view of
science, however, was rejected by the United States National Academy of Sciences.[66] Peter Gallings of Answers in
Flying Spaghetti Monster 91

Genesis, a Christian apologetics ministry, noted, "Ironically enough, [Pastafarians], in addition to mocking God
himself, are lampooning the Intelligent Design Movement for not identifying a specific deity—that is, leaving open
the possibility that a spaghetti monster could be the intelligent designer... Thus, the satire is possible because the
Intelligent Design Movement hasn’t affiliated with a particular religion, exactly the opposite of what its other critics
claim!" He concluded that "We are not worried that Flying Spaghetti Monsterism is going to lure away Christians...
Nevertheless, it reflects a growing attitude of mockery toward not just organized religion, but also toward any
suggestion that there is something—or Someone—'out there,' beyond ourselves and our fallen notions."[67] Mark
Coppenger, a pastor who teaches at the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, commented, "I'm happy to say I
think FSM hurts the evolutionists' program since, by mocking the Christian tradition... it reinforces the correct
impression that there is genuine contempt for biblical faith in that camp... Besides, the parody is lame, and there are
few things more encouraging than cheap shots from one's opponents."[2]
Due to its popularity and media exposure, the Flying Spaghetti Monster is often used as a modern version of
Russell's teapot.[68] [69] Proponents argue that, since the existence of the invisible and undetectable Flying Spaghetti
Monster—like other proposed supernatural beings—cannot be falsified, it demonstrates that the burden of proof rests
on those who affirm the existence of such beings. Richard Dawkins explains, "The onus is on somebody who says, I
want to believe in God, Flying Spaghetti Monster, fairies, or whatever it is. It is not up to us to disprove it."[68]
Furthermore, according to Lance Gharavi, an editor of The Journal of Religion and Theater, the Flying Spaghetti
Monster is "ultimately... an argument about the arbitrariness of holding any one view of creation", since any one
view is equally as plausible as the Flying Spaghetti Monster.[2] A similar argument was discussed in the books The
God Delusion and The Atheist Delusion.[70] [71]

Use in other religious disputes

In December 2007, the Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster was credited with spearheading successful efforts in
Polk County, Florida to dissuade the Polk County School Board from adopting new science standards on evolution.
The issue was raised after five of the seven board members declared a personal belief in intelligent design.
Opponents describing themselves as Pastafarians sent e-mails to members of the Polk County School Board
demanding equal instruction time for the Flying Spaghetti Monster.[72] Board member Margaret Lofton, who
supported intelligent design, dismissed the e-mail as ridiculous and insulting, stating, "they've made us the laughing
stock of the world." Lofton later stated that she had no interest in engaging with the Pastafarians or anyone else
seeking to discredit intelligent design. As the controversy developed, scientists expressed their opposition to the
claims of intelligent design. Hopes for a new campus focused on applied science at the University of South Florida
in northeast Lakeland were reportedly in question, but University Vice President Marshall Goodman expressed
surprise, stating, "[intelligent design is] not science. You can't even call it pseudo-science." While unhappy with the
outcome, Lofton chose not to resign over the issue. She and the other board members expressed a desire to return to
the day-to-day work of running the school district.[5]
In March 2007, Bryan Killian, a high school student in Buncombe County in North Carolina, was suspended for
wearing "pirate regalia" which he said was part of his Pastafarian faith. Killian protested the suspension, saying it
violated his first amendment rights to religious freedom and freedom of expression.[73] "If this is what I believe in,
no matter how stupid it might sound, I should be able to express myself however I want to," he said.[12] However,
the school denied that Killian's faith played a role in his suspension, instead citing classroom disruption and
insubordination as causes.[74] In March 2008, Pastafarians in Crossville, Tennessee, were permitted to place a Flying
Spaghetti Monster statue in a free speech zone on the Courthouse lawn, and proceeded to do so.[75] The display
gained national interest on blogs and internet news sites and appeared in Rolling Stone magazine. It was later
removed from the premises, along with all other long-term statues, due to an effort sparked mainly by controversy
over the statue.[76]
Flying Spaghetti Monster 92

Notes
[1] "The dangers of creationism in education" (http:/ / assembly. coe. int/ Main. asp?link=/ Documents/ WorkingDocs/ Doc07/ EDOC11375.
htm). Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly (http:/ / assembly. coe. int/ ). . Retrieved 2007-10-22.
[2] Vergano, Dan (2006-03-27). ""Spaghetti Monster" is noodling around with faith" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ tech/ science/
2006-03-26-spaghetti-monster_x. htm). USA Today Science & Space article. . Retrieved 2007-02-05.
[3] Boxer, Sarah (2005-08-29). "But Is There Intelligent Spaghetti Out There?" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2005/ 08/ 29/ arts/ design/ 29mons.
html?ex=1178251200). The New York Times Arts article. . Retrieved 2007-02-05.
[4] "In the beginning there was the Flying Spaghetti Monster" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ worldnews/ northamerica/ usa/ 1498162/
In-the-beginning-there-was-the-Flying-Spaghetti-Monster. html). The Daily Telegraph (London). September 11, 2005. . Retrieved
2009-12-19.
[5] Billy Townsend (2007-12-22). "Polk Needled, Noodled In Evolution Flap" (http:/ / www2. tbo. com/ content/ 2007/ dec/ 22/
na-polk-needled-noodled-in-evolution-flap/ ). The Tampa Tribune. . Retrieved 2007-12-23.
[6] "Discussion of the Open Letter" (http:/ / www. venganza. org/ about/ open-letter/ discussion/ ). Henderson, Bobby. . Retrieved 2007-04-07.
[7] Carole M. Cusack (15 September 2010). Invented Religions: Imagination, Fiction and Faith (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=EoduVhGsfp0C& pg=PA113). Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.. p. 113. ISBN 9780754667803. . Retrieved 8 May 2011.
[8] "Verbatim: Noodle This, Kansas" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2005/ 08/ 27/ AR2005082700019.
html?nav=most_emailed). The Washington Post. August 28, 2005. .
[9] Page, Clarence (November 15, 2005). "Keeping ID out of science classes" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080604052700/ http:/ / www.
dallasnews. com/ sharedcontent/ dws/ dn/ opinion/ balance/ stories/ 111505dnedicyberpage. b4d5bd9. html). The Dallas Morning News.
Archived from the original (http:/ / www. dallasnews. com/ sharedcontent/ dws/ dn/ opinion/ balance/ stories/ 111505dnedicyberpage.
b4d5bd9. html) on 2008-06-04. .
[10] Henderson, Bobby (2005). "Open Letter To Kansas School Board" (http:/ / www. venganza. org/ about/ open-letter/ ). . Retrieved
2007-01-09.
[11] "Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster" (http:/ / www. randi. org/ jr/ 200509/ 091605church. html#1). James Randi Educational
Foundation article September 16, 2005. . Retrieved 2007-02-05.
[12] Pitts, Russ (2005-09-16). "In His Name We Pray, Ramen" (http:/ / www. escapistmagazine. com/ articles/ view/ issues/ issue_142/
3048-In-His-Name-We-Pray-Ramen. 5). Escapist magazine. . Retrieved 26 November 2009.
[13] Henderson, Bobby. "About" (http:/ / www. venganza. org/ ?page_id=2). The Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster. . Retrieved
2009-09-20.
[14] "Kansas School Board Responses to the Open Letter" (http:/ / www. venganza. org/ about/ open-letter/ responses/ ). Henderson, Bobby. June
25 2005. . Retrieved 2006-01-09.
[15] "The Flying Spaghetti Monster" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ dna/ h2g2/ A18740559#back3). h2g2. BBC. 2007-02-01. . Retrieved 26
November 2009.
[16] Frauenfelder, Mark (2006-07-31). "FSM hate mail" (http:/ / www. boingboing. net/ 2006/ 07/ 31/ fsm-hate-mail. html). BoingBoing. .
Retrieved 31 December 2009.
[17] Scrivener, Leslie (2007-01-07). "In praise of an alternate creation theory: The Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster gains infamy and
faith" (http:/ / www. thestar. com/ sciencetech/ article/ 168629). Toronto Star. . Retrieved 31 December 2009.
[18] Henderson, Bobby (2006-08). "Comment on the Open Letter" (http:/ / www. venganza. org/ about/ open-letter-discussion/ ). Church of the
Flying Spaghetti Monster. . Retrieved 30 December 2009.
[19] "A Tangled Tale of a Pasta-based Prophet" (http:/ / www. spiegel. de/ international/ 0,1518,371205,00. html). Der Spiegel. 2005-08-24. .
Retrieved 2007-09-08. "[FSM] has certainly caught the imagination of the online community [...] Henderson receives over 150 emails from
supporters every day."
[20] Narizny, Laurel (October 2009). "HA HA, ONLY SERIOUS: A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF JOKE RELIGIONS" (https:/ / scholarsbank.
uoregon. edu/ xmlui/ handle/ 1794/ 9336). Department of Religious Studies And the Honors College of the University of Oregon. University of
Oregon. pp. 42–49. . Retrieved 25 November 2009.
[21] "The Flying Spaghetti Monster" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ backpage. ns?id=mg18725112. 800). New Scientist. August 6, 2005. .
[22] Rothschild, Scott (August 24, 2005). "Evolution debate creates monster" (http:/ / www2. ljworld. com/ news/ 2005/ aug/ 24/
evolution_debate_creates_monster/ ?education). Lawrence Journal-World. .
[23] Singh, Simon (2006-09-03). "Was the world created by god, evolution or pasta?" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ culture/ books/ 3655035/
Was-the-world-created-by-god-evolution-or-pasta. html). The Daily Telegraph (London). . Retrieved 28 November 2009.
[24] "Boing Boing's $250,000 Intelligent Design challenge" (http:/ / www. boingboing. net/ 2005/ 08/ 19/ boing_boings_250000_. html).
BoingBoing.net. August 19 2005. . Retrieved 2006-06-11.
[25] Wolff, Eric (November 16, 2005). "The Case For Intelligent Design: Spaghetti as the Creator" (http:/ / nymag. com/ nymetro/ news/ people/
columns/ intelligencer/ 15011/ ). New York. .
[26] Slevin, Peter (November 9, 2005). "Kansas Education Board First to Back "Intelligent Design"" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/
wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2005/ 11/ 08/ AR2005110801211. html). The Washington Post. . Retrieved 2010-05-02.
[27] "Kansas board boosts evolution education" (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 17132925/ ). MSNBC. February 14, 2007. .
Flying Spaghetti Monster 93

[28] Thierman, Jessica (September 18, 2005). "Touched by his Noodly Appendage" (http:/ / www. gelfmagazine. com/ mt/ archives/
touched_by_his_noodly_appendage. html). Gelf Magazine. .
[29] DuBay, Tim (2005). "Guide to Pastafarianism" (http:/ / www. venganza. org/ flash/ guidetopastafarianismpreloaded. swf) (Shockwave
Flash). . Retrieved 2006-08-26.
[30] Van Horn, Gavin; Lucas Johnston (2007). "Evolutionary Controversy and a Side of Pasta: The Flying Spaghetti Monster and the Subversive
Function of Religious Parody" (http:/ / www. golemjournal. org/ van horn spaghetti monsters. pdf). GOLEM: Journal of Religion and
Monsters 2 (1). . Retrieved 2009-12-19.
[31] The Gospel of the Flying Spaghetti Monster, p.83.
[32] The Gospel of the Flying Spaghetti Monster, p.124.
[33] Savino, John; Marie D. Jones (2007). "Wrath of the Gods" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=tSIa0VQn1NQC& pg=PT55&
dq=Flying+ Spaghetti+ Monster#v=onepage& q=& f=false). Supervolcano: The Catastrophic Event That Changed the Course of Human
History: Could Yellowstone Be Next. Career Press. p. 56. ISBN 9781564149534. . Retrieved 2009-11-25.
[34] "Somalia — Lots of pirates, low carbon emissions" (http:/ / www. venganza. org/ 2008/ 04/ 14/ somalia/ ). www.venganza.org. April 14,
2008. . Retrieved 10 December 2008.
[35] Henderson, Bobby (2006-12-01). "Happy Holiday Season Everyone" (http:/ / www. venganza. org/ 2006/ 12/ 01/
happy-holiday-season-everyone/ ). Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster. . Retrieved 25 November 2009.
[36] Cooperman, Alan (2005-12-07). "'Holiday' Cards Ring Hollow for Some on Bushes' List" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/
content/ article/ 2005/ 12/ 06/ AR2005120601900. html). The Washington Post. . Retrieved 25 November 2009.
[37] Henderson, Bobby (2006-12). "FSM Card for Bush" (http:/ / www. venganza. org/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2006/ 12/ fsm_card_for_bush. jpg).
Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster. . Retrieved 25 November 2009.
[38] The Gospel of the Flying Spaghetti Monster, p.125.
[39] "Questions on FSM Holidays" (http:/ / www. venganza. org/ forum/ viewtopic. php?p=203909). Venganza.org. 2008. . Retrieved
2011-03-29.
[40] "A question about Pastover" (http:/ / www. venganza. org/ forum/ viewtopic. php?f=15& t=14602). Venganza.org. 2010. . Retrieved
2011-03-29.
[41] "Ramendan" (http:/ / www. venganza. org/ forum/ viewtopic. php?p=357996). Venganza.org. 2008. . Retrieved 2011-03-29.
[42] "Talk Like a Pirate Day" (http:/ / www. venganza. org/ forum/ viewtopic. php?f=7& t=11081). Venganza.org. 2008. . Retrieved 2011-03-29.
[43] Craig, Katleen (December 22, 2005). "Passion of the Spaghetti Monster" (http:/ / www. wired. com/ politics/ law/ news/ 2005/ 12/ 69905).
Wired News. .
[44] "The Gospel of the Flying Spaghetti Monster" (http:/ / www. randomhouse. ca/ catalog/ display. pperl?isbn=9780812976564). Random
House. 2009. . Retrieved 2009-10-18.
[45] Brenner, Wayne (2006-04-14). "The Gospel of the Flying Spaghetti Monster" (http:/ / www. austinchronicle. com/ gyrobase/ Issue/
review?oid=oid:356663). The Austin Chronicle. . Retrieved 2009-10-18.
[46] The Gospel of the Flying Spaghetti Monster, p.xiv.
[47] Henderson, Bobby (2006). "The FSM Book" (http:/ / www. venganza. org/ worship/ fsm-book/ ). Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster.
Venganza.org. . Retrieved 2009-10-18.
[48] Luskin, Casey (2006-12-25). ""Celebrating" Christmas at the "Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster"" (http:/ / www. evolutionnews. org/
2006/ 12/ celebrating_christmas_at_the_c. html). Evolution News & Views (Discovery Institute). . Retrieved 26 November 2009.
[49] "The Big Announcement" (http:/ / www. venganza. org/ forum/ viewtopic. php?f=15& t=1899). Venganza.org. 2005. . Retrieved
2010-04-25.
[50] "Official Site of the Loose Canon" (http:/ / fsm-consortium. com/ official-site-of-the-loose-canon/ ). fsm-consortium.com. 2010. . Retrieved
2010-06-14.
[51] Pope, Justin (2007-11-16). "Pasta monster gets academic attention" (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 21837499/ / ). Associated Press.
MSNBC. . Retrieved 2009-10-25.
[52] "Religious Scholars to Discuss 'Flying Spaghetti Monster'" (http:/ / www. foxnews. com/ story/ 0,2933,311925,00. html). Associated Press.
Fox News. 2007-11-16. . Retrieved 26 November 2009.
[53] "The Flying Spaghetti Monster Holiday Pageant" (http:/ / www. hungerartists. com/ fsm. htm). Hunger Artists Theatre Company. December
2006. . Retrieved 2010-09-19.
[54] "Hunger Artists Theatre Company's 2008 Season" (http:/ / www. hungerartists. com/ season08. htm). Hunger Artists Theatre Company.
November 2007. . Retrieved 2010-09-19.
[55] "Flying Spaghetti Monster Inspires Wonky Religious Debate" (http:/ / www. wired. com/ culture/ education/ news/ 2007/ 11/
flying_spaghetti_monster). Associated Press. Wired. 2007-11-20. . Retrieved 4 May 2010.
[56] Dotinga, Randy (2007-11-20). "Flying Spaghetti Monster Inspires Wonky Religious Debate" (http:/ / www. wired. com/ culture/ education/
news/ 2007/ 11/ flying_spaghetti_monster). Wired Magazine (San Diego). . Retrieved 20 December 2009.
[57] "About the Event" (http:/ / broadcast44. com/ FSM/ about. htm). Skepticon Productions. Springfield, MO: Missouri State Church of the
Flying Spaghetti Monster. 2009. . Retrieved 21 December 2009.
[58] "Atheists to gather at MSU for Skepticon this weekend" (http:/ / www. news-leader. com/ article/ 20091119/ BREAKING07/ 91119022/
Atheists-to-gather-at-MSU-for-Scepticon-this-weekend). The News Leader. November 19, 2009. . Retrieved 21 December 2009
Flying Spaghetti Monster 94

[59] Jones, Brent (2009-07-31). "Atheists, 'Monster' fans say No to God, Yes to giving" (http:/ / content. usatoday. com/ communities/ religion/
post/ 2009/ 07/ 68495858/ 1). USA Today. . Retrieved 27 December 2009. "Sort by 'Religious Congregations' to find that, topping Kiva
Mormons ($57,425) and Kiva Catholics ($59,625) is the squadron devoted to The Flying Spaghetti Monster ($81,725) who sign on to give
because 'Thou shalt share, that none may seek without finding.'"
[60] "Kiva Lending Team: The Flying Spaghetti Monster" (http:/ / www. kiva. org/ team/ fsm). Kiva. 2009-12-26. . Retrieved 3 May 2010.
[61] Lee, Brendan (2006). "Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District: Teaching Intelligent Design in Public Schools" (http:/ / www. law. harvard.
edu/ students/ orgs/ crcl/ vol41_2/ lee. pdf). Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review (Harvard Law School) 41: 10. . Retrieved
2009-12-27.
[62] "Pass notes No 2,637 The Flying Spaghetti Monster" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ education/ 2005/ sep/ 01/ schoolsworldwide. world).
The Guardian (London). 2005-09-01. . Retrieved 28 December 2009.
[63] Schofield, Jack (2005-08-20). "'Intelligent Design' and Pastafarianism" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ technology/ blog/ 2005/ aug/ 20/
intelligentdes). The Guardian (London). . Retrieved 2010-09-19.
[64] Luskin, Casey (2008-08-13). "The Proper Rebuttal to the Flying Spaghetti Monster: Cartoon Satire on South Park" (http:/ / www.
evolutionnews. org/ 2008/ 08/ the_proper_rebuttal_to_the_fly. html). Evolution News & Views. Discovery Institute. . Retrieved 26 November
2009.
[65] Jacoby, Jeff (2005-10-02). "The timeless truth of creation" (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ globe/ editorial_opinion/ oped/ articles/ 2005/
10/ 02/ the_timeless_truth_of_creation/ ). The Boston Globe (Globe Newspaper Company). . Retrieved 26 November 2009.
[66] "Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences" (http:/ / www. nap. edu/ openbook. php?isbn=0309064066&
page=25). National Academy of Sciences. 1999. . "Creationism, intelligent design, and other claims of supernatural intervention in the origin
of life or of species are not science because they are not testable by the methods of science."
[67] Gallings, Peter (2008-01-22). "The Flying Spaghetti Monster: A harmless joke, a substantial misunderstanding, or a sacrilegious
quasi-caricature of the one true God?" (http:/ / www. answersingenesis. org/ articles/ 2008/ 01/ 22/ flying-spaghetti-monster). Answers in
Genesis. . Retrieved 23 December 2009.
[68] Wolf, Gary (November 14, 2006). "The Church of the Non-Believers" (http:/ / www. wired. com/ wired/ archive/ 14. 11/ atheism. html).
Wired News. .
[69] MacKenzie, Richard (2007). "Is Faith the Enemy of Science?". arXiv:0807.3670 [physics.pop-ph].
[70] Dawkins, Richard (2006). "The God Hypothesis" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=yq1xDpicghkC& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage& q=&
f=false). The God delusion. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-618-68000-9. . Retrieved 2009-11-24. "I have found it an amusing
strategy, when asked whether I am an atheist, to point out that the questioner is also an atheist when considering Zeus, Apollo, Amon Ra,
Mithras, Baal, Thor, Wotan, the Golden Calf and the Flying Spaghetti Monster. I just go one god further."
[71] Fernandes, Phil (2009). "The New, Militant Atheism" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Jz8NgPuMBLIC&
printsec=frontcover#v=onepage& q=& f=false). The Atheist Delusion. Xulon Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-60791-582-9. . Retrieved 2009-11-24.
"The new atheists have made their choice—apparently, no amount of evidence for God will change their minds. They claim that the existence
of God is as ridiculous as the existence of a flying spaghetti monster."
[72] John Chambliss (2007-12-11). "Satirical Monsters More Competition for Darwin" (http:/ / www. theledger. com/ article/ 20071211/ NEWS/
712110392/ 0/ FRONTPAGE). The Ledger. . Retrieved 2007-12-13.
[73] Schrader, Jordan (2007-03-29). "School: Pirates are not welcome" (http:/ / www. citizen-times. com/ apps/ pbcs. dll/
article?AID=200770328123). Citizen-Times. . Retrieved 26 November 2009.
[74] "Student punished for spaghetti beliefs" (http:/ / www. metro. co. uk/ weird/ 43272-student-punished-for-spaghetti-beliefs). Metro
(Associated Newspapers Ltd). 2007-03-29. . Retrieved 31 December 2009.
[75] "Flying Spaghetti Monster statue at Tennessee courthouse" (http:/ / www. news. com/ 8301-13772_3-9906870-52. html?tag=nefd. only).
CNET Networks,. April 2008. . Retrieved 2008-04-02.
[76] Nelson, Gary (2008-04-15). "Courthouse No Longer Hosting Free Speech Displays" (http:/ / www. crossville-chronicle. com/ cnhi/
crossvillechronicle/ homepage/ local_story_106193650. html?keyword=leadpicturestory). The Crossville Chronicle. . Retrieved 10 July 2008.

References
• Henderson, Bobby (2006). The Gospel of the Flying Spaghetti Monster. Villard Books. ISBN 0-8129-7656-8.

External links
• Website of the Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster, including Henderson's open letter to the Kansas Board of
Education (http://www.venganza.org/)
Intelligent falling 95

Intelligent falling
Intelligent falling (IF) is a parody of the intelligent design (ID) movement. IF is a pseudoscientific supernatural
explanation of the effects of gravity that has become a minor Internet phenomenon. It says free fall is being caused
by "the hand of God", as depicted in Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel fresco.[1] While the current incarnation of IF has
its roots in a satirical 2002 Usenet posting, religious explanations of gravity invoking the direct intervention of God
span several hundred years, including some of Isaac Newton's own writings.
IF proposes that the scientific explanation of gravitational force cannot explain all aspects of the phenomenon, so
credence should be given to the idea that things fall because a higher intelligence is moving them. Furthermore, IF
asserts that theories explaining gravity are not internally consistent nor mathematically reconcilable with quantum
mechanics, making gravity a "theory in crisis". IF also makes the claim that gravity is "only a theory", parodying the
claims made by creationists regarding the theoretical status of evolution. Pretend IF apologists advocate that IF
should be taught in school along with the theory of gravity so that students can make "an informed decision" on the
subject in accordance with demands to "teach the controversy". IF has found common ground with the Church of the
Flying Spaghetti Monster, a similar critique of intelligent design, and the two are often combined when mentioned in
discussions.

IF as an Internet phenomenon
Date Event

June 14, [2]

"Jeff Stubbs" posts a draft of a letter to the editor that mentions intelligent grappling to the alt.atheism and talk.origins usenet groups.
2002 "I don't like the theory of gravity, I feel personally insulted that engineers design structures only considering physical mass. What about
our souls? I propose that science classes also teach the theory of "Intelligent Grappling". There's no way a weak force such as gravity
can possibly hold everything onto the planet. It must be God, using our souls, to hold everything together."

June 18, [3]

Elf Sternberg posts a "FAQ on intelligent grappling" on the sci.skeptic usenet group.
2002

May 16, [4]

D. C. Simpson publishes an I Drew This comic strip titled "Teaching Gravity".
2005

May 26, [5]

Joshua Rosenau, a graduate student at the University of Kansas, presents the idea on his blog, citing Isaac Newton.
2005

August [6]
Intelligent falling is the subject of an article in The Onion.
17, 2005

January 4, Indian news satire website Faking News uses the concept to write a spoof news - Apple dropped from Burj Dubai to validate Newton’s
2010 [7]
laws disappears.

Pre-Internet sentiments resembling IF

Occasionalism in Islam
IF is a version of the philosophical and theological idea of occasionalism, which is a theory about causation which
says that created substances (matter and natural forces) cannot be efficient causes of events. Instead, all events are
taken to be caused directly by God himself.
Such a religious view was advocated by the 11th century Muslim philosopher Al-Ghazali in his work The
Incoherence of the Philosophers. He famously stated that when cotton comes into contact with fire, the cotton is not
burned by the fire, but directly burned by God or God through his angels:
Intelligent falling 96

...our opponent claims that the agent of the burning is the fire exclusively;’ this is a natural, not a
voluntary agent, and cannot abstain from what is in its nature when it is brought into contact with a
receptive substratum. This we deny, saying: The agent of the burning is God, through His creating the
black in the cotton and the disconnexion of its parts, and it is God who made the cotton burn and made it
ashes either through the intermediation of angels or without intermediation. For fire is a dead body
which has no action, and what is the proof that it is the agent? Indeed, the philosophers have no other
proof than the observation of the occurrence of the burning, when there is contact with fire, but
observation proves only a simultaneity, not a causation, and, in reality, there is no other cause but God.
The occasionalism of Al-Ghazali is an important concept in Islamic theology today, particularly in the Asharite
(Traditionalist) school of Muslim theology.

Isaac Newton
In a letter to the Reverend Dr. Richard Bentley in 1692, Isaac Newton wrote: "To your second query I answer that
the motions which the planets now have could not spring from any natural cause alone but were impressed by an
intelligent agent." This statement is referenced by Intelligent Design advocate Stephen C. Meyer in The Scientific
Status of Intelligent Design,[8] who refers to this statement as "Newton's famous postulation of special divine
intervention to stabilize the orbital motion in the solar system" in developing his argument of the methodological
equivalence of naturalistic and non-naturalistic (i.e. supernatural) theories.
In 1925, Rev. William Asbury Williams, D.D. wrote, in a book titled The Evolution of Man Scientifically
Disproved:[9]
The power of attraction, which we may call a property of matter, is really the power of God. The effects
are the results of power and intelligence..... Gravitation requires the computation of countless millions of
the most complex and difficult problems, every instant, by the divine mind.... These innumerable
calculations prove that God is everywhere. We are continually in the immediate awesome presence of an
Infinite God.

Charles Darwin's response

Charles Darwin clearly opted for the opposite point of view. In 1842, Darwin wrote his "pencil sketch" of his
theory[10] in which he set evidence of common descent against the doctrine of separate creation and asked:
What would the Astronomer say to the doctrine that the planets moved (not) according to the law of
gravitation, but from the Creator having willed each separate planet to move in its particular orbit?[11]

References
[1] http:/ / www. theonion. com/ content/ files/ images/ Evangelical-Scientists-C. jpg http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080709012533/ http:/ /
www. theonion. com/ content/ files/ images/ Evangelical-Scientists-C. jpg
[2] http:/ / groups. google. com/ group/ alt. atheism/ msg/ 92c36e6c5b4a8012?dmode=source& hl=en
[3] http:/ / groups. google. com/ group/ sci. skeptic/ msg/ 28ebb87902c8ecba?dmode=source& hl=en
[4] Simpson, D. C., "Teaching Gravity" (http:/ / www. idrewthis. org/ d/ 20050516. html), I Drew This
[5] "I've been thinking about this for a while, and I think it's time to discuss my theory of intelligent falling.

I was inspired to question the Newtonist dogma on "gravity" when I learned that science cannot explain the
movement of three things at once. Sure, Newton's "laws" can explain how two things move, but Newtonists can't
explain how a third object would affect that movement." http:/ / jgrr. blogspot. com (http:/ / jgrr. blogspot. com/
2005/05/inspiration.html)
[6] "'Traditional scientists admit that they cannot explain how gravitation is supposed to work,' Carson said. 'What the gravity-agenda scientists
need to realize is that gravity waves and gravitons are just secular words for God can do whatever He wants.' http:/ / www. theonion. com
(http:/ / www. theonion. com/ content/ node/ 39512)
Intelligent falling 97

[7] Apple dropped from Burj Dubai to validate Newton’s laws disappears | Faking News (http:/ / www. fakingnews. com/ 2010/ 01/
apple-dropped-from-burj-dubai-to-validate-newton-laws-disappears/ )
[8] "An example of theological plausibility functioning to limit design hypotheses can be found by examining the reception of Newton's famous
postulation of special divine intervention to stabilize the orbital motion in the solar system. Newton postulated the periodic and special
intervention of God to correct for an apparently accumulating instability in the orbits of the outer planets (Jupiter and Saturn) within the solar
system. While this episode is often cited to illustrate why divine action or design can never be considered as a scientific explanation, it
actually illustrates a more subtle point: how such inferences were constrained by considerations of theological plausibility." http:/ / www.
discovery. org (http:/ / www. discovery. org/ scripts/ viewDB/ index. php?command=view& id=1780)
[9] Williams, Rev. William A. (1925 & 1928). The Evolution of Man Scientifically Disproved, In 50 Arguments. Gutenberg Etext (http:/ / www.
gutenberg. org/ etext/ 8508)
[10] Darwin Online: Sketches of 1842 and 1844 (http:/ / darwin-online. org. uk/ EditorialIntroductions/ Freeman_Sketchesof1842and1844. html)
[11] Darwin, Francis ed. 1909. The foundations of The origin of species, a sketch written in 1842. Cambridge: University Press. p. 22 (http:/ /
darwin-online. org. uk/ content/ frameset?viewtype=text& itemID=F1555& pageseq=52)

External links
• Parody by The Onion (http://www.theonion.com/articles/
evangelical-scientists-refute-gravity-with-new-int,1778/)
• intelligentattraction.com (http://www.intelligentattraction.com)
• Intelligent Murderer Theory (http://monado2.blogspot.com/2005/10/new-legal-tactic-intelligent-murderer.
html) Paraphrase of the Intelligent Design argument into legal terms
• The Wrathful Dispersion Controversy (http://q-pheevr.livejournal.com/33337.html) Paraphrase of the
Intelligent Design argument into linguistic terms
• External Delivery the Future (http://www.edthefuture.com/), Santa delivering Christmas presents promoted as
science by the Delivery Institute

Fringe science
Fringe science is scientific inquiry in an established field of study that departs significantly from mainstream or
orthodox theories, and is classified in the "fringes" of a credible mainstream academic discipline. Mainstream
scientists typically regard fringe concepts as highly speculative or even strongly refuted.[1] On the other hand, the
history of science contains many instances of the eventual widespread acceptance of fringe sciences. This is because
in theory a fringe science will still maintain scientific rigor, plausibility, and integrity, though it is usually highly
disputed.
The term fringe science is sometimes loosely used to describe fields that are actually pseudosciences, or fields which
are referred to as sciences, but entirely lack scientific rigor or plausibility. Debunkers have coined the terms
pathological science, voodoo science, and cargo cult science to suggest inquiry lacking in scientific integrity. Junk
science is typically used politically to describe agenda-driven science. The general problem of where to properly
draw a boundary between science and non-science, when the objective actually is objectivity, is called the
demarcation problem. Unfortunately, the objective of some debunkers is debunking, not encouraging real scientific
objectivity. For this purpose, disparaging terms are often useful. They are almost always a clue that objectivity is not
the main objective.
It is important to distinguish between a science that has not yet been proven but follows the scientific method and
any science which does not follow the scientific method. This is the difference between fringe science and
pseudoscience. As above mentioned, some disciplines of fringe science have been or may, in the future, be proven to
be actually true. Pseudoscience, however would only be proven true by a coincidence between opinion and fact, as
the methods used are not logical proofs.
Fringe science 98

Description
Traditionally, the term fringe science is used to describe unusual theories and models of discovery that have their
basis in established scientific principle. Such theories may be advocated by a scientist who is recognized by the
larger scientific community (typically due to publication of peer reviewed studies by the scientist), but this is not
always the case. Despite notable instances of exploiting errors in mainstream science, a fringe science is normally in
accord with accepted standards. Through careful use of the scientific method, including falsificationism, the
scientific community comes to accept some fringe sciences.[2]
Some of today's widely-held theories (such as plate tectonics) had their origins as fringe science, and were held in a
negative opinion for decades.[3] It is noted that:
The confusion between science and pseudoscience, between honest scientific error and genuine scientific
discovery, is not new, and it is a permanent feature of the scientific landscape [...] Acceptance of new science
can come slowly.[4]
The categorical boundaries between fringe science and pseudoscience are often disputed. Fringe science is seen by
most scientists as rational, but unlikely. A valid fringe science may avoid recognition by a scientific consensus for a
variety of reasons, including incomplete or contradictory evidence.[5] Fringe sciences are thus potential
protosciences.
The phrase "fringe science" is sometimes considered pejorative. For example, Lyell D. Henry, Jr. wrote that "'fringe
science' [is] a term also suggesting kookiness."[6] This belief may be inspired by eccentric, groundbreaking
researchers on the fringe of science (colloquially known as mad scientists).[7]

Comparisons
Fringe science can be distinguished from other controversial fields of study as follows:
• A Pseudoscience is notably lacking in rigorous application of the scientific method, and reproducibility is
typically a problem. This is not so in fringe science.
• The term junk science is used to describe agenda-driven research that ignores certain standard methodologies and
practices in an attempt to secure a given result from an experiment. Fringe science, as in standard methodology,
proceeds from theory to conclusion with no attempt to direct or coax the result.

Examples

Historical
Some theories that were eventually refuted include:
• Wilhelm Reich's work with orgone, a physical energy he claimed to have discovered, contributed to his alienation
from the psychiatric community and eventually to his jailing. However, later questioning of Reich's mental health
and scientific rigour at the time might place orgone among the pseudo sciences rather than among fringe sciences.

Contemporary
Relatively recent fringe sciences include:
• Aubrey de Grey, featured in a 2006 60 Minutes special report, is working on advanced studies in human
longevity.[8] Many mainstream scientists believe that his research, especially de Grey's view on the importance of
nuclear (epi)mutations and his purported timeline for antiaging therapeutics, constitutes "fringe science".
• De Grey Technology Review controversy: In an article released in a 2006 issue of the magazine Technology
Review (part of a larger series), it was written that "SENS De Grey's hypothesis is highly speculative. Many of
its proposals have not been reproduced, nor could they be reproduced with today's scientific knowledge and
Fringe science 99

technology. Echoing Myhrvold, we might charitably say that de Grey's proposals exist in a kind of
antechamber of science, where they wait (possibly in vain) for independent verification. SENS does not
compel the assent of many knowledgeable scientists; but neither is it demonstrably wrong".[9]
• A nuclear fusion reaction called cold fusion occurring near room temperature and pressure was reported by
chemists Martin Fleischmann and Stanley Pons in March 1989. Numerous research efforts at the time were
unable to replicate these results.[10] Subsequently, a number of scientists with a variety of credentials have worked
on the problem or participated in international conferences on cold fusion. In 2004, the United States Department
of Energy decided to take another look at cold fusion to determine if their policies towards the subject should be
altered due to new experimental evidence, and commissioned a panel on cold fusion.
• The theory of abiogenic petroleum origin holds that natural petroleum was formed from deep carbon deposits,
perhaps dating to the formation of the Earth. The ubiquity of hydrocarbons in the solar system is taken as
evidence that there may be a great deal more petroleum on Earth than commonly thought, and that petroleum may
originate from carbon-bearing fluids which migrate upward from the mantle. Abiogenic hypotheses saw a revival
in the last half of the twentieth century by Russian and Ukrainian scientists, and more interest has been generated
in the West after the publication in 1999 of The Deep Hot Biosphere by Thomas Gold. Gold's version of the
hypothesis partly is based on the existence of a biosphere composed of thermophile bacteria in the Earth's crust,
which may explain the existence of certain biomarkers in extracted petroleum.

Responding to fringe science

Michael W. Friedlander suggests some guidelines for responding to fringe science, which he argues is a more
difficult problem to handle, "at least procedurally,"[11] than scientific misconduct. His suggested methods include
impeccable accuracy, checking cited sources, not overstating orthodox science, thorough understanding of the
Wegener continental drift example, examples of orthodox science investigating radical proposals, and prepared
examples of errors from fringe scientists.[12]
Though there are examples of mainstream scientists supporting maverick ideas within their own discipline of
expertise, fringe science theories and ideas are often advanced by individuals either without a traditional academic
science background, or by researchers outside the mainstream discipline,[13] although the history of science shows
that scientific progress is often marked by interdisciplinary and multicultural interaction.[14] Friedlander suggests
that fringe science is necessary for mainstream science "not to atrophy", as scientists must evaluate the plausibility of
each new fringe claim and certain fringe discoveries "will later graduate into the ranks of accepted" while others
"will never receive confirmation".[15] The general public has difficulty distinguishing between "science and its
imitators",[15] and in some cases a "yearning to believe or a generalized suspicion of experts is a very potent
incentive to accepting pseudoscientific claims".[16]

Controversies
Towards the end of the 20th century, religiously-inspired critics cited fringe science theories with limited support, or
else junk science. The goal was frequently to classify as "controversial" entire fields of scientific inquiry (notably
paleo-anthropology, human sexuality, evolution, geology, and paleontology) that contradicted literal or
fundamentalist interpretation of various sacred texts. Describing ongoing debate and research within these fields as
evidence of fundamental weaknesses or flaws, these critics argued that "controversies" left open a window for the
plausibility of divine intervention and intelligent design.[17] [18] [19] As Donald E. Simanek asserts, "Too often
speculative and tentative hypotheses of cutting edge science are treated as if they were scientific truths, and so
accepted by a public eager for answers," ignorant of the fact that "As science progresses from ignorance to
understanding it must pass through a transitionary phase of confusion and uncertainty."[20] The media also play a
role in the creation and propagation of the view that certain fields of science are "controversial". In "Optimising
public understanding of science: A comparative perspective" by Jan Nolin et al., the authors claim that "From a
Fringe science 100

media perspective it is evident that controversial science sells, not only because of its dramatic value but also since it
is often connected to high-stake societal issues."[21]

Notes
[1] Dutch, Steven I (January 1982). "Notes on the nature of fringe science". J Geol Ed 30 (1): 6–13. ISSN 0022-1368. OCLC 427103550. ERIC
EJ260409. (ed. Identifies three classifications of scientific ideas (center, frontier, fringe) and defines fringe as a region where ideas are highly
speculative or strongly refuted.)
[2] Friedlander, p. 172.
[3] Friedlander, p. 5.
[4] Friedlander, p. 161.
[5] Friedlander, p. 183.
[6] Henry Lyell D. (1981). "Unorthodox science as a popular activity". J Am Culture 4 (2): 1–22. doi:10.1111/j.1542-734X.1981.0402_1.x.
[7] Runco, Mark A; Pritzker, Steven R (1999). Encyclopedia of Creativity. i-z. p. 10.
[8] "The quest for immortality: Want to live 500 years? One scientist says it may be possible one day" (http:/ / www. cbsnews. com/ stories/
2005/ 12/ 28/ 60minutes/ main1168852. shtml). CBS News. 2005-12-28. .
[9] Pontin, Jason (2006-07-11). "Is defeating aging only a dream?" (http:/ / www. technologyreview. com/ sens/ ). Technology Review. .
(includes June 9, 2006 critiques and rebuttals)
[10] "A report from the American Physical Society spring meeting - 1–2 May 1989 Baltimore, MD Special session on cold fusion" (http:/ / www.
ibiblio. org/ pub/ academic/ physics/ Cold-fusion/ vince-cate/ aps. ascii). . Retrieved 2009-04-14.
[11] Friedlander, p. 174.
[12] Friedlander, p. 178-9.
[13] Friedlander, Michael W.. At the Fringes of Science. OCLC 42309381.p. 58
[14] Isaac Asimov (1980). Left Hand of the Electron. Bantam Books. ISBN 9780440947172.
[15] Friedlander, p. 173.
[16] Friedlander, p. 176.
[17] "The dangers of creationism in education" (http:/ / assembly. coe. int/ Main. asp?link=/ Documents/ WorkingDocs/ Doc07/ EDOC11297.
htm). Council of Europe. 2008-03-31. .
[18] "The Wedge" (http:/ / www. antievolution. org/ features/ wedge. pdf) (PDF). Discovery Institute. 1999. .
[19] "[[Edwards v. Aguillard (http:/ / www. talkorigins. org/ faqs/ edwards-v-aguillard/ amicus1. html)]"]. .: Amicus curiae brief of 72 Nobel
laureates, 17 state academies of science, and 7 other scientific organizations in support of appellees in 482 U.S. 578 (http:/ / supreme. justia.
com/ us/ 482/ 578/ case. html) (1987)
[20] Simanek, Donald. "Cutting edge science" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080319110815/ http:/ / alcor. concordia. ca/ ~vpetkov/ links4.
htm#cutting). Archived from the original (http:/ / alcor. concordia. ca/ ~vpetkov/ links4. htm#cutting) on 2008-03-19. . Retrieved 2008-04-01.
[21] Nolin, Jan; et al.. "Optimising public understanding of science: A comparative perspective" (http:/ / www. univie. ac. at/ virusss/ opus/
OPUS Report Final. pdf) (PDF). p. 632. .

References
• Brante Thomas; Fuller Steve; Lynch William (1993). Controversial science: from content to contention. Albany,
New York: State University of New York Press. OCLC 26096166.
• Brown George E Jr (23 October 1996). Environmental science under siege : fringe science and the 104th
Congress. Washington, DC: Democratic Caucus of the Committee on Science, U.S. House of Representatives.
OCLC 57343997.
• ed. by Sharon M. Friedman .... (1998). Communicating uncertainty: Media coverage of new and controversial
science. Mahwah, New Jersey; London: Lawrence Erlbaum. ISBN 0805827277. OCLC 263560777.
• Dutch Steven I (January 1982). "Notes on the nature of fringe science". J Geol Ed 30 (1): 6–13. ISSN 0022-1368.
OCLC 92686827.
• Frazier Kendrick (1981). Paranormal borderlands of science. Buffalo, New York: Prometheus Books.
ISBN 0879751487. OCLC 251487947.
• Friedlander Michael W (February 1995). At the fringes of science. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
ISBN 0813322006. OCLC 31046052.
• "CSICOP On-line: Scientifically Investigating Paranormal and Fringe Science Claims" (http://www.csicop.org/
).
Fringe science 101

Further reading
• Ben-Yehuda Nachman (1990). The politics and morality of deviance: moral panics, drug abuse, deviant science,
and reversed stigmatization. Albany: State University of New York Press. OCLC 19128625.
• Brooks M (2008). 13 Things That Don't Make Sense. New York: Doubleday. OCLC 213480209. Lay summary
(http://www.telegraph.co.uk/scienceandtechnology/science/sciencenews/5081751/
Why-science-doesnt-make-sense.html). - Summarised by the author in The Daily Telegraph, 31 Mar 2009,
Accessed 2 Apr 2009.
• Cooke RM (1991). Experts in uncertainty: opinion and subjective probability in science (http://books.google.
com/?id=4taZBr_nvBgC). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195064658. OCLC 22710786.
• de Jager Cornelis (March 1990). "Science, fringe science and pseudo-science" (PDF). QJR Astron Soc 31 (1):
31–45. Bibcode 1990QJRAS..31...31D. ISSN 0035-8738.
• Mauskopf SH (1979). The reception of unconventional science. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
ISBN 0891582975. OCLC 4495634.
• Mousseau Marie-Catherine (2003). "Parapsychology: Science or Pseudo-Science?" (http://www.
scientificexploration.org/journal/jse_17_2_mousseau.pdf) (PDF). J Sci Expl 17 (2): 271–282. ISSN 0892-3310.
• Truzzi Marcello (1998). "The Perspective of Anomalistics" (http://skepticalinvestigations.org/anomalistics/
perspective.htm). Anomalistics. Center for Scientific Anomalies Research. Retrieved 2009-04-14.

External links
• Genius Hall of Vindication (http://www.megafoundation.org/Genius/GeniusHall.html) or the Mainstream
Science Hall of Shame
• Rejecting Nobel class papers (http://www2.uah.es/jmc/nobel/nobel.html)
• The National Health Museum / Activities exchange: Teaching Controversial Science Issues Through Law Related
Education (http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/AEPC/WWC/1991/teaching_controversial.html)
List of cryptids 102

List of cryptids
The following is a list of cryptids and alleged relicts, those animals and plants studied under the field of
cryptozoology. Their presumptive existence has often been derived from anecdotal or other evidence, considered
insufficient by mainstream science.
Every animal or plant on this page is marked as one of the following:
• Unconfirmed – cryptids whose existence is alleged but not demonstrated.
• Discredited; [Explanation] – cryptids that have a body of evidence against their existence.
• Proposed [animal name] – cryptids with an alternative explanation accepted by the general scientific
community.
• Extinct – animals that are generally believed to be extinct, but which cryptozoologists believe may have an
extant relict population.
Animals no longer considered cryptids are marked:
• Confirmed [animal name or cause] – animals once classified as cryptids but whose existence has now been
confirmed.
• Hoax – cryptids once thought to be real but later conclusively proven to be hoaxes.
This list is incomplete.

Name Other names Status Description Location Pictures

Adjule Kelb-el-khela Proposed rare Unrecognized canine North Africa

isolated population form reported from
of African Wild Dog western part of Sahara
by local people, and live
in packs

Agogwe Agogure, agogue, Unconfirmed Small bipedal Eastern Africa

kakundakari,
kilomba, sehite

Ahool Unconfirmed; Flying animal, giant bat Indonesia

possibly a Brown
Wood-owl or a large
species of bat

Akkorokamui Unconfirmed; Cephalopod Japan and

possibly a giant Thailand
squid or octopus

Almas Abnauayu, almasty, Unconfirmed Primate or hominid Asia/Caucasus

albasty, bekk-bok,
biabin-guli,
golub-yavan,
gul-biavan, auli-avan,
kaptar, kra-dhun,
ksy-giik, ksy-gyik,
ochokochi,
mirygdy, mulen,
voita, wind-man,
Zana

Altamaha-ha Altie Unconfirmed River animal Georgia (United

States)
List of cryptids 103

"Ameranthropoides loysi" De Loys' ape Proposed spider Primate Near the Tarra The only
monkey – possible River, evidence of the
hoax Colombia animal is one
[1]
photograph
Amomongo Negros ape Unconfirmed Primate Negros,
Philippines

Andean Wolf Hagenbeck wolf, Extinct Canine High Andes,

Andean mountain South America
wolf, Dasycyon
hagenbecki

Appalachian Black Unconfirmed A large, black felid. A West Virginia,

[2] melanistic cougar Kentucky,
Panther
Pennsylvania,
Alabama, and
Virginia,
United States

Ayia Napa sea monster O filikos teras ("The Unconfirmed Speculated to be Cyprus
Friendly Monster"), something like a
Nappis [3]
crocodile or serpent

Barmanou Barmanu, Big Hairy Unconfirmed Primate Middle

One East/Asia

Batutut Ujit, Nguoi Rung Unconfirmed Hominid Vietnam, Laos,

and Borneo

Beaman Unconfirmed Primate Missouri

(United States)

Bear Lake Monster Unconfirmed Lake animal Idaho/Utah

(United States)

Beast of Bladenboro Vampire Beast Unconfirmed, may Blood-sucking North Carolina

be a cougar feline-like predator (United States)
Beast of Bodmin Moor Beast of Bodmin Unconfirmed Large felid England

Beast of Bray Road Michigan Dogman, Unconfirmed Carnivorous mammal Wisconsin

Wisconsin Werewolf, (United States)
Ohio Wolfman

Beast of Busco Churubusco turtle; Discredited Reptile/Dinosaur Churubusco,

Oscar Indiana

Beast of Dartmoor Lion-Pig Unconfirmed Boar-like mammal Dartmoor

National Park,
England

Beast of Dean Moose-pig Unconfirmed Boar-like mammal England

Beast of Exmoor Unconfirmed Big cat England

Beast of Gévaudan Bête du Gévaudan Unconfirmed; Carnivorous wolf-like Gévaudan

possibly an escaped mammal (Lozère),
hyena France

Bergman's Bear God bear; irkuiem Extinct Bear, proposed Arctodus Kamchatka
simus Peninsula,
Russia
List of cryptids 104

Bessie Unconfirmed Lake animal Lake Erie,

North America

Bigfoot Sasquatch, Skookum, Unconfirmed Hominid or primate Worldwide

Yeren, Yeti,
Mapinguari, Urayuli,
Almas, Batutut,
Hibagon, Ucumar,
Mulen, Xing-Xing

Big Cats (Irish) Unconfirmed Lion or Puma or Black Sperrin

Leopard Mountains,
Antrim Glens
Ireland

Black Shuck Old shuck Unconfirmed Carnivorous mammal Coast of East

Anglia,
England

Bloop Unconfirmed Gigantic South American

creature/Unconfirmed southwest coast
sound

Bondegezou Dingiso, Confirmed Tree-kangaroo New Guinea,

Dendrolagus mbaiso tree-kangaroo Indonesia

Bownessie Lake Windermere Unconfirmed Lake Monster Lake

Monster Windermere,
England, UK

British big cats Alien big cats Proposed escaped Carnivorous mammal Great Britain
(ABCs), phantom animals
cats, mystery cats,
English lions,
beast of Bodmin,
Beast of Exmoor

Brosno dragon Brosnya Unconfirmed Lake animal Lake Brosno,

Russia

Bukit Timah Monkey BTM Unconfirmed Forest-dwelling hominid Singapore

Man or primate

Bunyip Unconfirmed Lake and cave animal Australia

Burmese gray wild dog Unconfirmed Canine Burma

Buru Extinct Reptile or giant lungfish India

[4] Caddy, Unconfirmed Sea animal Pacific Coast of

"Cadborosaurus willsi"
"Cadborosaurus" North America

Canvey Island Monster Proposed anglerfish, Bipedal England

batfish, or Frogfish

Cardiff Giant Hoax Giant hominid made out Cardiff, New

of minerals York
List of cryptids 105

Champ "Champtanystropheus Unconfirmed Lake animal Lake

americansus", Champlain,
Champy North America

Cherufe Discredited Magma monster or Chile

drakonic hominid
Chessie (sea monster) Unconfirmed Sea animal Atlantic Coast
of the United
States, esp.
Chesapeake
Bay

Chickcharney Unconfirmed; Flightless bird Andros Island

believed to be in The Bahamas
holdovers of Tyto
pollens

Chupacabra Chupacabras Unconfirmed Reptile/Mammal/Canine, Mexico/Puerto

(Spanish for Goat possibly 2 species; Rico/Texas,
Sucker) thought by some to be a United
supernatural or States/Kerala,
extraterrestrial creature India

Con rit Many-finned Sea Unconfirmed Sea animal Southeast Asia

Serpent, Centipede, and the coast of
Great Sea-Centipede, Algeria
Cetioscolopendra
aeliana

Dingonek Jungle walrus Unconfirmed A walrus that reportedly Western Africa

lives in the heart of
Africa

Devil Bird Ulama Proposed Bird Sri Lanka

Spot-bellied
Eagle-owl or Sri
Lankan brown owl

Dobhar-chú Water Hound Unconfirmed Extra-large otter-like Ireland

carnivorous aquatic
mammal

Dover Demon Unconfirmed Bipedal, possible alien Dover,

Massachusetts,
United States

Ebu Gogo Homo floresiensis, Supposedly extinct, Small primate or Flores,

"Hobbit" but allegedly still possible early hominid Indonesia
seen by some
Elasmotherium Giant Rhinoceros Extinct Herbivorous mammal Asia

Elmendorf Beast Proposed Mexican Canid Elmendorf,

Hairless Dog Texas (United
States)

Elwedritsche Unconfirmed Mammal Germany

List of cryptids 106

Emela-ntouka Chipekwe, Irizima, Unconfirmed Reptile/Dinosaur or an Republic of the

Aseka-moke undiscovered aquatic Congo
rhinoceros

Enfield Horror Enfield monster Unconfirmed, but Unknown creature Illinois

probably a hoax
Ennedi tiger Hadjel, Gassingram, Extinct Carnivorous mammal Chad, Africa [5]
Sketches
Vossoko, Mourou
N'gou, Mamaimé,
Dilali, Saber-toothed
cat

Fear liath Am Fear Liath Mòr, Unconfirmed Primate; possible Scotland

The Big Grey Man of humanoid
Ben MacDhui,
Greyman

Flatwoods monster Green Monster, Unconfirmed Spade-headed West Virginia,

Braxton County extraterrestrial United States
Monster

Flying Rod Sky Fish, rod, sky Discredited as video Photographic artifact Worldwide
squid camera malfunction

Fouke Monster Boggy Creek Unconfirmed Primate; possible Arkansas

Monster humanoid (United States)

Fur-bearing trout Hoax Fish with hair; hairy North America

trout

Garou Loup Garou, Cajun Unconfirmed Wolf-like creature Louisiana

werewolf (United States)

Gazeka Discredited Mammal Papua New

Guinea
Gambo Unconfirmed Sea animal Africa

Giant anaconda Megaconda No specimens above Giant snake South America

the size of
10.5 metres (34 ft)
have been captured

Giant Snake of Mt. Unconfirmed Mythological snake said Japan

[6] to guard King Solomon's
Tsurugi
treasure

Giant Ground Sloth Megatherium, Extinct, Sightings in Large furry sloth- like Amazon
Mapinguari the South American creature with powerful Rainforest
Amazon presume. claws and a horrible
Thought to be stench.
confused with a
legendary spirit.

Giglioli's Whale "Amphiptera Unconfirmed Sea animal Off Chile,

pacifica" Scotland, and
France (in the
Mediterranean
Sea)
List of cryptids 107

Globster Blob Unconfirmed Decaying sea animal Australia, New

Zealand, and
the Caribbean
[7] Great Sea Serpent of Unconfirmed Sea serpent Massachusetts,
Gloucester Sea serpent
New England United States
Gnome of Gerona Goblin Unconfirmed Small humanoid Girona, Spain [8]
Photographs

Goatman The Maryland Unconfirmed Bipedal Wisconsin,

Goatman, Chevo Maryland, and
Man New York
(United States)

Grassman Kenmore Grassman, Unconfirmed Bigfoot-like; primate Kenmore,

Ohio Grassman Akron, Ohio,
United
States,Eastern
Iowa, United
States

Gremlin Mogwai (only in the Unconfirmed Reptile-like, scaly United States

Gremlins movie)

Gunni Hoax Antlered, wombat-like Marysville and

marsupial surrounding
area, Victoria,
Australia

Grootslang Unconfirmed Elephant with a serpent's Richtersveld,

tail South Africa

Hibagon Hinagon Unconfirmed Primate Japan

High-finned sperm whale [9] Cetacean Shetland

Unconfirmed
Islands
Hoan Kiem Turtle Confirmed Giant turtle Hanoi, Vietnam

Hodag The Dag; Nasobatilus Hoax Carnivorous Rhinelander,

mammal/lizard Wisconsin,
United States

Hokkaidō Wolf Ezo Wolf Originally Wolf Hokkaidō,

considered extinct; Japan
unconfirmed
sightings since its
supposed
[10]
extinction

"Homo gardarensis" Discredited Hominid (acromegalic Greenland

Homo sapiens?)

Hoop snake Discredited; may be Snake United

confused with the States/Australia
Sidewinder or the
Mud Snake which
often lies in a loose
hoop shape.
List of cryptids 108

Huay Chivo Huaychivo Mythical Carnivorous mammal Yucatán,

Campeche, and
Quintana Roo
(Mexico)

Hyote [11] Canine Maryland,

Discredited
United States

Igopogo "Kempenfelt Kelly" Unconfirmed Lake animal Lake Simcoe,

Ontario
(Canada)

Iliamna Lake Monster Unconfirmed Lake animal. It is most Lake Iliamna,

likely a giant white Alaska
sturgeon, though some
reports have compared it
to a shark or whale.

Inkanyamba Unconfirmed Lake animal Africa

Isshii Issie Unconfirmed Lake animal Japan

[12] Great Spider Unconfirmed Large spider-like Central Africa

J'ba fofi
creature

Jackalope Antelabbit, aunt Hoax, possibly Herbivorous mammal North America

benny, Wyoming influenced by
thistled hare, rabbits infected with
stagbunny the Shope papilloma
virus

Jersey Devil Leeds Devil Unconfirmed "Winged bipedal horse" United States,
esp. New Jersey

Japanese Wolf Extinct Carnivorous mammal Japan

Kaijin Unconfirmed Sea monster Japan

Kala Bandar Black Monkey, Unconfirmed Big black monkey India

Monkey-man of alleged to be the reason
Delhi of disaster in areas
around Old Delhi (India)

Kappa Gatarō, Kawako Unconfirmed, Bipedal Japan

Mythical
List of cryptids 109

Kasai Rex Discredited Reptile/Dinosaur, Africa The picture of

possibly the Kasai Rex
Carcharodontosaurus, that
reported to be a Johnson/Johanson
Tyrannosaurus rex allegedly took.
Some have said it
is fake, and
appears to be a
cut out of a
gecko perched on
[13]
top of a rock

Kawekawau/Kawekaweau Hoplodactylus Extinct/Unconfirmed Lizard New Zealand

delcourti

Kelpie Water horse Discredited Carnivorous equine Scottish and

Irish lakes and
rivers
[14] Unconfirmed Leopard-like creature Kenthurst,
Kenthurst Panther
Australia
[15] Unconfirmed Carnivore owl West Africa
Kikiyaon

Killer badger Undetermined Ratel Badger blamed for Basra province,

attacking people and Iraq
livestock

Kingstie Lake George Monster Unconfirmed Lake animal Lake Ontario,

North America

Kongamato Unconfirmed Pterosaur/Bird/Bat Kenya

Kraken Unconfirmed, Sea animal World's oceans

possibly a giant
squid

Kting Voar Holy Goat, Unconfirmed Herbivorous mammal Vietnam and

Snake-eating Cow, Cambodia
Khting Vor, Linh
Duong,
Pseudonovibos
spiralis

Kumi Lizard/Ngarara Extinct; Reptile: giant monitor New Zealand

unconfirmed lizard

Kusshii Unconfirmed Lake animal Japan

Lagarfljóts Worm lagarfljóts ormurinn Unconfirmed Lake animal Iceland

Lake Tahoe Monster Tahoe Tessie Unconfirmed Lake animal Lake Tahoe,
California, and
Nevada, United
States

Lake Tianchi Monster Lake Chonji Monster Unconfirmed Lake animal China and
North Korea

Lake Van Monster Monster of Lake Van Unconfirmed Lake animal Turkey
List of cryptids 110

Lake Worth monster Lake Worth Unconfirmed Carnivorous mammal Texas, United
Goatman, Texas States
Bigfoot

Lariosauro Como Lake Monster Unconfirmed Water reptile Italy

Lizard Man of Scape Ore Lizard Man of Lee Unconfirmed, Bipedal South Carolina,
Swamp County Probably Hoax United States

Lizard People Draconian, Reptoid, Unconfirmed Bipedal Worldwide

Dinosauroid,
Dragonoid, Reptilian

Loch Ness Monster Nessie, Nessiteras Unconfirmed Lake animal Loch Ness,
rhombopteryx (plesiosaur?) Scotland

Loveland Frog Loveland Lizard Unconfirmed Bipedal lizard or frog, Ohio, United
allegedly first seen in States
Loveland, Ohio

Lusca Gigantic octopus Unconfirmed Large octopus World's oceans

MacFarlane's Bear [16] Extinct Carnivorous mammal, Canada

Ursus inopinatus
possibly a grizzly-polar
bear hybrid

Mahamba Unconfirmed Giant crocodile Lake Likouala

swamp region,
Democratic
Republic of the
Congo

Maltese Tiger Blue Tiger Unconfirmed; Carnivorous mammal China

possible tiger with
abnormal coloration
due to mutation

Mamlambo Unconfirmed Lake animal South Africa

Manananggal Unconfirmed Humanoid Philippines

Manatee of Helena Unconfirmed Manatee Saint Helena

Mande Barung Mande Burung, Unconfirmed Humanoid North East

Indian Yeti India

Man-eating tree Discredited Carnivorous tree Various

Manipogo Winnipogo Unconfirmed Lake animal Lake Manitoba,

Canada

Mapinguari Unconfirmed Herbivorous mammal Amazon

Rainforest

Maricoxi Unconfirmed Primate South America

Marozi Spotted Lion, Unconfirmed, Lion-like felid Africa

Panthera leo possibly extinct
maculatus
List of cryptids 111

Marsupial Lion Thylacoleo, Extinct Carnivorous marsupial Australia

Thylacoleo carnifex mammal

Mbielu-Mbielu-Mbielu Unconfirmed Reptile/Dinosaur Republic of the

Congo
Megalania prisca Devil Dragon Extinct, considered Giant Australian Australia
[17] monitor lizard
by some to be
still alive, possibly
as the Kumi Lizard

Megalodon Carcharodon, Extinct; considered Giant shark World's oceans

Carcharocles [18]
by some to still
exist

Melon Heads Unconfirmed Humanoids with Allegan County woods

enlarged heads (Michigan, United States
Memphre Memphré, Lake Unconfirmed Lake animal Lake
Memphremagog Memphremagog
Monster (United States
and Canada)

Menehune Unconfirmed Primate Hawaii, United

States

Merpeople Mermaid/Merman Unconfirmed; many Human-Fish The Seven

hoaxes have been Oceans and
discredited several seas
[19] Lake Murray Unconfirmed Lake animal Lake Murray,
Messie
Monster South Carolina,
United States

Minhocão Big Earthworm Unconfirmed Caecilian South America

Minnesota Iceman "Homo pongoides" Unconfirmed Primate Minnesota,

United States

Mitla Fawcett's zorro or Unconfirmed Carnivorous mammal Bolivia

Fawcett's cat rainforest

Mngwa Nunda Unconfirmed Carnivorous mammal Tanzania

Moa Extinct Giant flightless bird New Zealand

Moehau/Maero The Hairy Moehau, Unconfirmed Primate New Zealand

The Moehau Monster

Mogollon Monster Mug-ee-yun Monster Unconfirmed; Primate, Bipedal Mogollon Rim,

possibly a black Arizona
bear, mountain lion,
or elk

Mokele-Mbembe Unconfirmed Reptile/Dinosaur Republic of the

Congo

MoMo Missouri Monster Discredited Primate Missouri,

United States

Mongolian Death Worm Allghoi (or orghoi) Unconfirmed Worm-like animal Gobi Desert
khorkhoi

Mono Grande Unconfirmed Hominid South America

List of cryptids 112

Montauk Monster Mounty Unconfirmed Probable partly Montauk, Long

decomposed and Island (United
mutilated raccoon States)
carcass

Morag Unconfirmed Lake animal Scotland

Mothman Often associated with Unconfirmed Winged bipedal West Virginia,
Indrid Cold, "The United States
Grinning Man" from
John A. Keels book
"The Mothman
Prophecies"

Mountain Fennec Unconfirmed Fox Southern

Algeria and
northern Chad,
in the central
Sahara
mountains

Muckie Unconfirmed Lake animal Lakes of

Killarney,
Ireland

Muc-sheilch Unconfirmed Lake animal Scotland

Muhuru Unconfirmed Reptile/Dinosaur Kenya

Mussie Unconfirmed Lake animal Ontario,

Canada

Muwa Unconfirmed Primate, forest-dwelling Eastern Samar,

hominid Philippines

Mylodon Extinct, though Giant ground sloth Southern

considered by some, Patagonian
for example forests
Florentino
Ameghino, to still
exist

Nabau [20] Giant snake Malaysia

Discredited

Naga Naga, Nak, Phaya Unconfirmed Legendary large snake Mekong river
Nak border between
Thailand and
Laos

Nahuelito Nahuel Huapi Lake Unconfirmed Lake animal Nahuel Huapi

Monster Lake, Argentina

Nandi Bear [21] Proposed hyena Carnivorous mammal Africa

Chemosit,
Chimiset, Chimisit,
Duba, Engargiya,
Gadett, Ikimizi,
Kerit, Kikambangwe,
Kikomba, Koddoelo,
Ngoloko, Sabrookoo,
Shivuverre
List of cryptids 113

[22] Unconfirmed Giant turtle Central Africa

Ndendeki

Neo-Giant Unconfirmed Primate Worldwide

[23] Unconfirmed Giant bird Republic of the
Ngoima
Congo
Ningen Ningyo Unconfirmed Sea monster with human Antarctic
features Ocean. Pacific
Ocean near
Japan

Ngoubou Unconfirmed Reptile/Dinosaur Cameroon

Nguma-monene Unconfirmed Reptile/Dinosaur Republic of the

Congo

Nyalmo Nyulmo Unconfirmed Primate-like Himalayas,

Asia

Ogopogo N'ha•a•itk, Naitaka Unconfirmed Lake animal Lake

Okanagan,
Canada

Old Yellow Top Unconfirmed Primate Canada

Olitiau Unconfirmed Winged animal: bat or Cameroon

flying reptile

Onza Unconfirmed Big felid: possibly a new Latin America

species of cougar

Orang-Bati Unconfirmed Bipedal Indonesia

Orang Mawas Mawa, Orang Dalam, Unconfirmed Primate Malaysia

hantu jerang gigi

Orang Pendek Unconfirmed Primate, has been Sumatra

associated with Homo
floresiensis

Oriental Yeti Unconfirmed; Likely a carnivore Sichuan, China

possibly a civet with
mange

Owlman Cornish Owlman, Unconfirmed Human-owl England

The Owlman of
Mawnan

Ozark Howler Unconfirmed Carnivorous mammal Arkansas,

Missouri,
Oklahoma, and
Texas (United
States)

Peluda Shaggy Beast, La Unconfirmed A dragon-like beast with La

Velue a porcupine-like body, a Ferté-Bernard,
snake's neck, head, and France
tail, large, tortoise-like
feet, and a green color

Phantom cat Alien Big Cats Proposed escaped Carnivorous mammal Worldwide
(ABCs) animals
List of cryptids 114

Phantom kangaroo Proposed escaped Marsupial Various

animals

Phaya Naga Unconfirmed Lake animal Laos, Thailand

Pinatubo lake monsters Discredited; groups Lake animal, giant eel Zambales,
of fish swarming Philippines
together, seeming
like an unknown
creature

Pogeyan Unconfirmed – Grey felid; possible Ghats, India [24]

Photographs
known to local leopard colour morph or
people, sighted by out-of-place Asian lion
Western naturalist

Popobawa Unconfirmed East Africa

Pope Lick Monster Unconfirmed Bipedal Kentucky,

United States

Poukai Pouakai Extinct Large carnivorous New Zealand

Haast's Eagle

Pukwudgie Unconfirmed Bipedal Massachusetts,

United States

Qilin Kirin (from Japanese) Unconfirmed Chimera China

or sometimes kyrin
and ki-lin, Chinese
unicorn

Quacker (sound) квакер Unconfirmed Marine animal; Military Atlantic Ocean,

sound-emitting technology; Arctic Ocean
objects Extraterrestrial

Queensland Tiger Yarri, the Beast of Unconfirmed, Carnivorous mammal Australia

Buderim possibly a thylacine

Rhinoceros Dolphin Unconfirmed Cetacean

Ropen Indava, duwas, Unconfirmed Flying animal/Pterosaur Papua New

seklo-bali, kundua, Guinea
wawanar
[25] Discredited Reptile New Guinea
Row
[26] Unconfirmed Sturgeon-like fish Japan
Ryugyo

Salawa Seth animal, Salaawa Unconfirmed Carnivorous mammal Egypt

Sea monk Discredited; Sea animal World's oceans

misidentifications of
known animals

Sea monsters Unconfirmed Sea animal World's oceans

Sea serpent Unconfirmed Sea animal World's oceans

List of cryptids 115

[27] Discredited A creature rumored to Malaysia

Setontot
exist in the dense
jungles of Malaysia. It is
described as
ground-dwelling and
slow-moving

Selma Seljordsormen Unconfirmed Lake animal Lake Seljord,

Telemark,
Norway

Sharlie Slimy slim, The Unconfirmed Lake animal Lake Payette,

twilight dragon of McCall, Idaho,
Payette lake United States

Shug Monkey Unconfirmed Primate Europe

Shunka Warakin Unconfirmed Carnivorous mammal; Western United

wolf-like, boar-like, States
hyena-like (especially
Montana)

Sigbin Unconfirmed Canine, cat-fox, civet Philippines

Sirrush Mushrushu Unconfirmed Reptile/Dinosaur Africa, Ancient

Babylon

Skunk Ape Swamp Ape Unconfirmed Primate Florida, United

States

Skvader "Tetrao lepus Hoax Mammal Sundsvall,

pseudo-hybridus Sweden
rarissimus L"

Slow Down Unidentified sound Sea creature Pacific Ocean

Smilodon Saber Tooth Tiger, Extinct, though Felid Deep jungles in

Saber-toothed cat considered by some Colombia and
to still exist southern
Argentina

Steller's Sea Ape Unconfirmed, Sea animal Pacific Ocean

possibly Northern
Fur Seal

Storsjöodjuret Unconfirmed Lake animal Sweden

Stronsay Beast Discredited; Sea animal Orkney,

identified as a Scotland
basking shark

Sucuriju Gigante Giant Bull Eater Unconfirmed Giant boa Amazonia

(Matatoro in
Spanish); Giant
Anaconda;
Megaconda
[28] Ved, Vedi Unconfirmed Hominid Croatia
Šumske dekle

T
List of cryptids 116

[29] Unconfirmed Giant fish Japan

Takitaro

Tapire-lauara Unconfirmed Lion/Pig Amazon

Rainforest

Tatzelwurm Unconfirmed Reptile/Amphibian European Alps

Thetis lake monster Hoax primate lizard Vancouver
Island,Canada

Thunderbird Native American Giant bird North America

legend

Thylacine Tasmanian Tiger, Extinct (rumored Carnivorous marsupial Tasmania,

Tasmanian Wolf extant); may be the Australia
Queensland Tiger
Tjutjuna Chuchunya, Unconfirmed Primate Russia
Chuchunaa

Toangians Unconfirmed Similar to New Zealand

Moehau/Maero and
Rapuwai, it is described
as an ape-man

Trinity Alps giant Unconfirmed Salamander California,

salamander United States

Trunko The Margate monster Discredited-Whale Whale carcass South Africa

[30]
blubber

Tsuchinoko Unconfirmed Snake Japan

Tsul 'Kalu Unconfirmed Primate American West

Turtle Lake Monster Unconfirmed Lake animal Saskatchewan,

Canada

Ucumar Ucu, Ucumar Zupai, Proposed spectacled Small primate or bear South America,
Ucumari, Devil-man bear with vicious habits especially
Brazil and
Argentina

Umdhlebi Unconfirmed Carnivorous tree Zululand, South

Africa

Urayuli Arulataq, Bushman, Unconfirmed Primate or hominid Southwest

Tent Monster, Alaska, near
Nant'ina, Woodsman Lake Iliamna

Vadakilla monster Unconfirmed Carnivorous mammal India

Veo Unconfirmed Carnivorous mammal Indonesia

Waheela Unconfirmed Carnivorous mammal Canada

Waitoreke Maori Otter, New Unconfirmed Carnivorous mammal South Island,

Zealand Otter; New Zealand
Waitoreki, Waitorete
List of cryptids 117

Wendigo Windiga, Witiko, Unconfirmed Legendary creature North Eastern

Wihtikow, Weendigo United States
[31]

Wild Man of the Navidad Wild Woman of the Unconfirmed Legendary creature South Texas
Navidad, Wildman of [32]
the Navidad
[33] Hoax Small, furry Scottish
Wild Haggis
4-(uneven)legged Highlands
creatures

Will-o'-the-wisp Hinkypunk, ignis Discredited; Ghostly light Wetlands

fatuus identified as swamp throughout
gas Canada,
Europe, and
USA

Wolpertinger "Crisensus Hoax Mammal Germany

bavaricus"

Wucharia Unconfirmed Canine Danakil [34]

Photographs
depression,
Eritrea

Xing-Xing Brown-Man, Unconfirmed Brown Yeti-like The Himalayan

Wildman Hominid Mountains

Ya-Te-Veo Man-Eating Tree, Hoax Large tree with an eye Central and
name means "I see and mouth; eats men South America
you"

Yeren Yiren, Yeh Ren, Unconfirmed Primate (possible China

Chinese Wildman hominin)

Yeti Abominable Unconfirmed Primate Himalayas

Snowman (Asia)

Yowie Unconfirmed Primate Australia

Zanzibar Leopard Panthera pardus Critically Feline Unguja Island,

adersi endangered or Zanzibar,
possibly extinct Tanzania

Ziphius The Water Owl Confirmed Cuvier's Cetacean Worldwide

Beaked Whale oceans

Zuiyō Maru creature New Nessie Originally Carcass Christchurch See main article
considered a coast of New
plesiosaur; possible Zealand
basking shark
carcass
List of cryptids 118

Notes
[1] http:/ / www. bigfootencounters. com/ images/ drfrancois. jpg
[2] Various reports from numerous sources on sightings (http:/ / www. velociworld. com/ Velociblog/ Oldvelocity/ 001106. html)
[3] Alethea Reynolds (28 October 2008). "Cyprus officials search for mystery 'monster'" (http:/ / www. famagusta-gazette. com/ default.
asp?sdetail=6085). Famagusta Gazette. . Retrieved 2009-12-29.
[4] Loren Coleman & Jerome Clark (1999). Cryptozoology A to Z: The Encyclopedia of Loch Monsters, Sasquatch, Chupacabras, and Other
Authentic Mysteries of Nature. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-684-85602-6.
[5] http:/ / www. kryptozoologie-online. de/ Kryptozoologie/ Saugetiere-Mammalia/ saebelzahnkatzen-in-afrika. html
[6] 1973 report of find (http:/ / blukor09. blogspot. com/ 2008/ 05/ seven-mysterious-creatures-of-japan. html)
[7] The Gloucester Seas Serpent at Museum of Hoaxes (http:/ / www. museumofhoaxes. com/ serpent. html)
[8] http:/ / www. anomalia. org/ perspectivas/ fotosets/ cochihumanos. htm
[9] The High-finned sperm whale is a supposed relative of the sperm whale that is said to live in the seas around Shetland. The difference
between this creature and other sperm whales is said to be the presence of a tall dorsal fin on its back, which the sperm whale lacks. Two such
stranded whales were apparently observed by Sir Robert Sibbald who described their dorsal fins as being similar to a "mizzen mast".Shuker,
Karl (1997) From Flying Toads to Snakes With Wings. Llewellyn.
[10] Hall, Jamie (2005). "The Cryptid Zoo: Japanese Dwarf Wolf (or Shamanu)" (http:/ / www. newanimal. org/ japwolf. htm). . Retrieved
2006-06-15.
[11] Hyote captured alive (http:/ / boingboing. net/ 2004/ 08/ 02/ hyote-captured-alive. html)
[12] "Eight-legged freaks". Fortean Times (191): '54–5. (November 2004).
[13] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071122132659/ http:/ / www. geocities. com/ capedrevenger/ kasairex. html
[14] Hunt for the Black Panther (http:/ / www. smh. com. au/ news/ National/ Hunt-for-the-black-panther/ 2005/ 02/ 26/ 1109180165887. html)
[15] Africa Dreaming (http:/ / www. africadreaming. co. uk/ terrible_creatures. htm)
[16] Ernest Thompson Seton (1937). Lives of game animals: an account of those land animals in America, north of the Mexican border, which
are considered "game," either because they have held the attention of sportsmen, or received the protection of law, Volume 2. Literary Guild
of America. pp. xi, 114.
[17] Harden, Bruce W. The Devil Dragon (http:/ / scienceray. com/ biology/ zoology/ the-devil-dragon/ ) October 2009
[18] A critical evaluation of survival (http:/ / web. ncf. ca/ bz050/ megalodon. html)
[19] Lake Murray Monster (http:/ / www. lakemurraymonster. com/ )
[20] NunoXEI; Photoshop is a wonderful thing. (http:/ / www. nunoxei. com/ LOAH/ 2009/ 02/ 25/
nabau-the-100ft-mythical-snake-is-a-fake-unfortunately/ )
[21] Occultopedia (http:/ / www. occultopedia. com/ c/ chemosit. htm)
[22] Eberhart, George M. (2002). Mysterious Creatures: A Guide to Cryptozoology. ABC-CLIO. p. 372. ISBN 1-57607-283-5.
[23] Eberhart, George M. (2002). Mysterious Creatures: A Guide to Cryptozoology. ABC-CLIO. p. 385. ISBN 1-57607-283-5.
[24] http:/ / scienceblogs. com/ tetrapodzoology/ 2009/ 01/ pogeyan_the_cat_in_the_ghat. php
[25] Eberhart, George M. (2002). Mysterious Creatures: A Guide to Cryptozoology. ABC-CLIO. p. 465. ISBN 1-57607-283-5.
[26] Caelocanth anyone? (http:/ / weirdopedia. com/ tiki-index. php?page=Ryugyo& highlight=ryugyo)
[27] Monster Wiki (http:/ / iejal. blogspot. com/ 2007/ 07/ setontot. html)
[28] Franklin, Anna (2005). Working with Fairies. New Page Books. ISBN 978-1564148247. "the Sumske Dekle [‘Woodland Maidens’] are fairy
girls, covered in hair."
[29] Report date 2009 (http:/ / www. sott. net/ articles/ show/ 198671-Japan-Takitaro-a-monstrous-snakehead-)
[30] Shuker, Karl P.N. (2010). Trunko - Two More Photographs!! (http:/ / karlshuker. blogspot. com/ 2010/ 09/ trunko-two-more-photographs.
html) 9 September
[31] http:/ / unknown-creatures. com/ wendigo. html
[32] http:/ / www. rootsweb. ancestry. com/ ~txrefugi/ WildManoftheNavidadTexasHandbook. htm
[33] "Wild Haggis Feature Page" (http:/ / www. undiscoveredscotland. co. uk/ usfeatures/ haggis/ wildhaggis. html). Undiscovered Scotland.
2000-2010. . Retrieved 2010-10-08.
[34] http:/ / www. wolf. com/ Info/ Newly_Discovered_Canid_Species. html
List of cryptids 119

References

External links
• British Columbia Scientific Cryptozoology Club (http://www.bcscc.ca/cryptidlist.htm)
• Strangeark (http://strangeark.com/checklist/guide.html)
• White Orca Newstory (http://www.farnorthscience.com/2008/03/06/marine-mammals/
scientists-spy-mythic-white-orca-in-the-aleutians/)
• Mystery Creatures: Mythical or Real (http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/46342/
mystery-creatures-mythical-or-real) - slideshow by Life magazine

Pseudohistory
Pseudohistory is a term applied to a type of historical revisionism, often involving sensational claims whose
acceptance would require rewriting a significant amount of commonly accepted history, and based on methods that
depart from standard historiographical conventions. Cryptohistory is a related term, applied to pseudo-historical
publications based on occult or irrational notions.

Definition and etymology

The term pseudo-history was coined in the early 19th century, which makes it somewhat older than
pseudo-scholarship, and somewhat younger than pseudo-science (although New Latin pseudo-historia had been in
use since at least the 1650s). It is attested in 1823 as referring to an early example of a historical novel.[1] Similarly,
in a 1815 attestation, it is used to refer to Certamen Homeri et Hesiodi, a fictional contest between two historical
poets.[2] The current pejorative sense, referring to a flawed or disingenious work of historiography, is found in
another 1815 attestation.[3]
Pseudohistory can be compared with pseudoscience in that they both consist of a methodology, belief, or practice
that is claimed to be historic, but which does not adhere to an appropriate historic methodology, and lacks supporting
evidence or plausibility.[4]
The definition of pseudohistory can be extended to varying contexts. Historian Douglas Allchin[5] contends that
history in science education can not only be false or anecdotal, but misleading ideologically, and that this constitutes
pseudohistory.
According to Michael Shermer, Alex Grobman, Pseudohistory is "the rewriting of the past for present personal or
political purposes".[6]

Description
Philosopher Robert Todd Carroll suggests the following criteria for a topic to warrant the term pseudohistory:
• That the work uncritically accepts myths and anecdotal evidence without skepticism.
• That the work has a political, religious, or other ideological agenda.
• That a work is not published in an academic journal or is otherwise not adequately peer reviewed.
• That the evidence for key facts supporting the work's thesis is:
• selective and ignores contrary evidence or explains it away; or
• speculative; or
• controversial; or
• not correctly or adequately sourced; or
• interpreted in an unjustifiable way; or
Pseudohistory 120

• given undue weight; or

• taken out of context; or
• distorted, either innocently, accidentally, or fraudulently.
• That competing (and simpler) explanations or interpretations for the same set of facts, which have been peer
reviewed and have been adequately sourced, have not been addressed.
• That the work relies on one or more conspiracy theories or hidden-hand explanations, when the principle of
Occam's razor would recommend a simpler, more prosaic and more plausible explanation of the same fact
pattern.[7]

Goodrick-Clarke's description of cryptohistory

One narrow description of 'cryptohistory' can be found in The Occult Roots of Nazism (1985) by the historian
Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke. This book examines the field of Ariosophy, an esoteric movement in Germany and
Austria 1890-1930, that Goodrick-Clarke himself describes as occult. The doctrines of Ariosophy strongly resemble
Nazism in important points (e.g. racism), however, the only cases of direct influences that Goodrick-Clarke could
find were the ones of Rudolf von Sebottendorf (and the Thule society) and Karl Maria Wiligut. While these cases did
exist, they are often exaggerated strongly by the modern mythology of Nazi occultism. Goodrick-Clarke defines this
genre as crypto-history, since its "final point of explanatory reference is an agent which has remained concealed to
previous historians."[8] When he debunks several crypto-historic books in Appendix E of The Occult Roots of
Nazism, he states, that these "were typically sensational and under-researched. A complete ignorance of the primary
sources was common to most authors and inaccuracies and wild claims were repeated by each newcomer to the genre
until an abundant literature existed, based on wholly spurious 'facts' concerning the powerful Thule Society, the Nazi
links with the East, and Hitler's occult initiation."[9] Here Goodrick-Clarke brings down the description of
cryptohistory to two elements: "A complete ignorance of the primary sources" and the repetition of "inaccuracies and
wild claims".

Examples
The following are some commonly cited examples of pseudohistory:
• Catastrophism
• Immanuel Velikovsky's book Worlds in Collision[10]
• alternative chronologies
• Anatoly Timofeevich Fomenko's theory New Chronology[11]
• Psychohistory The ill-fated attempt to merge psychology with history, replacing historical method.
• Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact
• Gavin Menzies's book 1421: The Year China Discovered the World, which argues for the idea that Chinese
sailors discovered America.[12]
• Religious history (see also scientific foreknowledge in sacred texts)
• Priory of Sion: works such as Holy Blood, Holy Grail, which conjecture that Jesus Christ may have married
Mary Magdalene, who later moved to France and gave birth to the line of Merovingian Kings[13]
• The writings of David Barton and others postulating that the United States of America was founded on
Christian religious beliefs.[14] [15] [16] [17]
• see also Searches for Noah's Ark[18]
• Ethnocentric pseudo-history (see also National mysticism)
• Most Afrocentric (i.e. Pre-Columbian Africa-Americas contact theories, Black Egypt) ideas have been
identified as pseudohistorical[19] [20]
• the Indigenous Aryans theories published in Hindu nationalism during the 1990s and 2000s.[21]
Pseudohistory 121

• the "crypto-history" of Germanic mysticism and Nazi occultism[22]

• British-Israelism (Anglo-Israelism).
• Anti-semitism inspired (see also Blood libel)
• The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion, a fraudulent work purporting to show a historical conspiracy for
world domination by Jews[23]
• Holocaust denial: claims of writers such as David Irving that the Holocaust did not occur or was exaggerated
greatly.[24]
• Ancient Astronauts, Archaeoastronomy and Lost lands (see also Atlantis location hypotheses)
• The theory of Lemuria and Kumari Kandam.[25]
• Chariots of the Gods? and other books by Erich von Daniken, which claim ancient visitors from outer space
constructed the pyramids and other monuments.[26]
• publications by Christopher Knight, such as Uriel's Machine (2000), claiming ancient technological
civilizations.[27] [28]
• The Shakespeare authorship question, which claims that someone other than William Shakespeare of Stratford
wrote the works traditionally attributed to him.[29] [30] [31] [32]

References
[1] Monthly magazine and British register, Volume 55 (February 1823), p. 449 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=q00oAAAAYAAJ&
pg=PA449& dq=pseudohistory& hl=en& ei=Sh9ETLGJOJKTjAfV0PQV& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1&
ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=pseudo-history& f=false), in reference to John Galt, Ringan Gilhaize: Or, The Covenanters, Oliver &
Boyd, 1823. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=7VYJAAAAQAAJ& printsec=frontcover& source=gbs_ge_summary_r&
cad=0#v=onepage& q& f=false)
[2] C. A. Elton, Remains of Hesiod the Ascraean 1815, p. xix (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=RcxfAAAAMAAJ& pg=PR19&
dq=pseudohistory& hl=en& ei=Sh9ETLGJOJKTjAfV0PQV& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4&
ved=0CDUQ6AEwAw#v=onepage& q=pseudo-history& f=false).
[3] The Critical review: or, Annals of literature, Volume 1 ed. Tobias George Smollett, 1815, p. 152 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=EsUPAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA152& dq=pseudohistory& hl=en& ei=Sh9ETLGJOJKTjAfV0PQV& sa=X& oi=book_result&
ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CCsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q=pseudo-history& f=false)
[4] Fritze, Ronald H,. (2009). Invented knowledge: false history, fake science and pseudo-religions. Reaktion Books. pp 7-18. ISBN
978-1861894304
[5] Allchin, D. 2004. Pseudohistory and pseudoscience (http:/ / www. tc. umn. edu/ ~allch001/ papers/ pseudo. pdf) Science & Education
13:179-195.
[6] Michael Shermer, Alex Grobman: Denying history: who says the Holocaust never happened and why do they say it?, University of California
Press, 2009, ISBN 9780520260986, p.2
[7] Carroll, Robert Todd. The skeptic’s dictionary (http:/ / www. skepdic. com/ pseudohs. html). Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons (2003), p. 305.
[8] Goodrick-Clarke 1985: 218
[9] Goodrick-Clarke 1985: 224,225
[10] Fritze, Ronald H,. (2009). Invented knowledge: false history, fake science and pseudo-religions. Reaktion Books. p. 169.
ISBN 978-1861894304.
[11] Novikov, S. P. (2000). "Pseudohistory and pseudomathematics: fantasy in our life". Russian Mathematical Surveys 55.
[12] Fritze, Ronald H,. (2009). Invented knowledge: false history, fake science and pseudo-religions. Reaktion Books. p. 11.ISBN
978-1861894304.
[13] Laura Miller (2006). Dan Burstein. ed. Secrets of the Code. Vanguard Press. p. 405. ISBN 978-1593152734.
[14] Specter, Arlen (Spring 1995). "Defending the wall: Maintaining church/state separation in America" (http:/ / connection. ebscohost. com/
content/ article/ 1027400469. html). Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy 18 (2): 575–590. .
[15] House Passes, Considers Evangelical Resolutions (http:/ / www. baltimorechronicle. com/ 2008/ 011508Leopold. shtml), Baltimore
Chronicle
[16] David Barton - Propaganda Masquerading as History (http:/ / www. pfaw. org/ media-center/ publications/
david-barton-propaganda-masquerading-history), People for the American Way
[17] Boston Theological Institute Newsletter Volume XXXIV, No. 17 (http:/ / www. bostontheological. org/ publications/ pdf/ 2004-2005/
jan252005. pdf), Richard V. Pierard, January 25, 2005
[18] Dietz, Robert S. "Ark-Eology: A Frightening Example of Pseudo-Science" in Geotimes 38:9 (Sept. 1993) p. 4.
[19] Sherwin, Elisabeth. "Clarence Walker encourages black Americans to discard Afrocentrism" (http:/ / dcn. davis. ca. us/ ~gizmo/ 2001/
clarence. html). Davis Community Network. . Retrieved 2007-11-13.
Pseudohistory 122

[20] Ortiz de Montellano, Bernardo & Gabriel Haslip Viera & Warren Barbour (1997). "They were NOT here before Columbus: Afrocentric
hyper-diffusionism in the 1990s". Ethnohistory (Duke University Press) 44 (2): 199–234. doi:10.2307/483368. JSTOR 483368.
[21] Nanda, Meera (January - March, 2005). "Response to my critics" (http:/ / physics. nyu. edu/ faculty/ sokal/ Nanda_SocEpist. pdf) (PDF).
Social Epistemology 19 (1): 147–191. doi:10.1080/02691720500084358. . Sokal, Alan (2006). "Pseudoscience and Postmodernism:
Antagonists or Fellow-Travelers?". In Fagan, Garrett. Archaeolological Fantasies: How pseudoarchaeology misrepresents the past and
misleads the public. Routledge. ISBN 0415305926
[22] Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke. 1985. The Occult Roots of Nazism: Secret Aryan Cults and Their Influence on Nazi Ideology: The Ariosophists of
Austria and Germany, 1890–1935. Wellingborough, England: The Aquarian Press. ISBN 0-85030-402-4. (Several reprints.) Expanded with a
new Preface, 2004, I.B. Tauris & Co. ISBN 1-86064-973-4
[23] United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia "Protocols of the Elders of Zion", last updated 4 May 2009. (http:/ /
www. ushmm. org/ wlc/ article. php?lang=en& ModuleId=10007058)
[24] Deborah E. Lipstadt, Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory, Plume, 1994, Page 215, ISBN 0452272742
[25] Fritze, Ronald H,. (2009). Invented knowledge: false history, fake science and pseudo-religions. Reaktion Books. p. 11.ISBN
978-1861894304.
[26] Fritze, Ronald H,. (2009). Invented knowledge: false history, fake science and pseudo-religions. Reaktion Books. p. 201. ISBN
978-1861894304.
[27] Merriman, Nick, editor, Public Archaeology, Routledge, 2004 page 260
[28] Tonkin, S., 2003, Uriel's Machine – a Commentary on some of the Astronomical Assertions. (http:/ / www. astunit. com/ astrocrud/ uriel.
htm)
[29] Hope, Warren and Kim Holston. The Shakespeare Controversy (2009) 2nd ed., 3: "In short, this is a history written in opposition to the
current prevailing view".
[30] Potter, Lois. “Marlowe onstage” in Constructing Christopher Marlowe, James Alan Downie and J. T. Parnell, eds. (2000, 2001), paperback
ed., 88-101; 100: “The possibility that Shakespeare may not really be Shakespeare, comic in the context of literary history and pseudo-history,
is understandable in this world of double-agents . . .”
[31] Aaronovitch, David. “The anti-Stratfordians” in Voodoo Histories (2010), 226-229: “There is, however, a psychological or anthropological
question to be answered about our consumption of pseudo-history and pseudoscience. I have now plowed through enough of these books to be
able to state that, as a genre, they are badly written and, in their anxiety to establish their dubious neo-scholarly credentials, incredibly tedious.
. . . Why do we read bad history books that have the added lack of distinction of not being in any way true or useful . . .”
[32] Kathman, David. Shakespeare Authorship Page (http:/ / shakespeareauthorship. com/ harpers. html): “. . . Shakespeare scholars regard
Oxfordianism as pseudo-scholarship which arbitrarily discards the methods used by real historians. . . . In order to support their beliefs,
Oxfordians resort to a number of tactics which will be familiar to observers of other forms of pseudo-history and pseudo-science.”

External links
• Pseudohistory (http://skepdic.com/pseudohs.html) entry at Skeptic's Dictionary
• "Pseudohistory and Pseudoscience" (http://www.tc.umn.edu/~allch001/papers/pseudo.pdf) Program in the
History of Science and Technology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis MN, USA.
• "The Restoration of History" (http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/orgs/american/skeptic-magazine/skeptic-13.
html) from Skeptic (U.S. magazine).
• The Hall of Ma'at (http://www.hallofmaat.com)
Conspiracy theory 123

Conspiracy theory
"Conspiracy theory" was originally a neutral descriptor for any claim of civil, criminal, or political conspiracy.[1]
However, it has become largely pejorative and used almost exclusively to refer to any fringe theory which explains a
historical or current event as the result of a secret plot by conspirators of almost superhuman power and cunning.[1]
Conspiracy theories are viewed with skepticism by many because they are rarely supported by any conclusive
evidence and contrast with institutional analysis. The former speculates on the motives and actions of secretive
coalitions of individuals while the latter studies people's collective behavior in publicly known institutions, as
recorded in scholarly material and mainstream media reports, to explain historical or current events.[1] Scholars
argue that conspiracy theory goes beyond the boundaries of rational criticism when it becomes nonfalsifiable. Such a
theory is a closed system of ideas which explains away contradictory evidence by claiming that the conspirators
themselves planted it.[1] The term “conspiracy theory” is therefore often used dismissively in an attempt to
characterize a belief as outlandishly false and held by a person judged to be a crank or a group confined to the lunatic
fringe.[2] Such characterization is often the subject of dispute due to its possible unfairness and inaccuracy.[2]
According to political scientist Michael Barkun, conspiracy theories once limited to fringe audiences have become
commonplace in mass media.[1] He argues that this has contributed to conspiracism emerging as a cultural
phenomenon in the United States of the late 20th and early 21st centuries, and the possible replacement of
democracy by conspiracy as the dominant paradigm of political action in the public mind.[1] According to
anthropologists Todd Sanders and Harry G. West, "evidence suggests that a broad cross section of Americans
today…gives credence to at least some conspiracy theories."[3] Belief in conspiracy theories has therefore become a
topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists and experts in folklore.

Terminology
The term "conspiracy theory" may be a neutral descriptor for any legitimate or illegitimate claim of civil, criminal or
political conspiracy. To conspire means "to join in a secret agreement to do an unlawful or wrongful act or to use
such means to accomplish a lawful end."[4] However, conspiracy theory is also used to indicate a narrative genre that
includes a broad selection of (not necessarily related) arguments for the existence of grand conspiracies.[5]
The word "theory" is, in this usage, sometimes considered to be more informal as in "speculation" or "hypothesis"
rather than mainstream scientific theory. Also, the term conspiracy is typically used to indicate powerful figures,
often of the Establishment, who are believed to be deceiving the population at large, as in political corruption.
Although some conspiracies are not actually theories, they are often labeled as such by the general populace.
The first recorded use of the phrase "conspiracy theory" dates from 1909. Originally it was a neutral term but during
the political upheaval of the 1960s it acquired its current derogatory sense.[6] It entered the supplement to the Oxford
English Dictionary as late as 1997.[7]
The term "conspiracy theory" is frequently used by scholars and in popular culture to identify secret military,
banking, or political actions aimed at "stealing" power, money, or freedom, from "the people". Less illustrious uses
refer to folklore and urban legend and a variety of explanatory narratives which are constructed with methodological
flaws.[8] The term is also used in a pejorative sense to automatically dismiss claims that are deemed ridiculous,
misconceived, paranoid, unfounded, outlandish or irrational. For example, the term "Watergate conspiracy theory"
does not refer to the generally accepted version in which several participants actually were convicted of conspiracy,
and others pardoned before any charges were filed, but to alternative and additional theories such as claims that the
source(s) of information called "Deep Throat" was a fabrication.[9]
Daniel Pipes, in an early essay "adapted from a study prepared for the CIA", attempted to define which beliefs
distinguish 'the conspiracy mentality' from 'more conventional patterns of thought'. He defined them as: appearances
deceive; conspiracies drive history; nothing is haphazard; the enemy always gains power, fame, money, and sex.[10]
Conspiracy theory 124

According to West and Sanders, when talking about conspiracies in the Vietnam era, Pipes includes within the fringe
element anyone who entertains the thought that conspiracies played a role in the major political scandals and
assassinations that rocked American politics in the Vietnam era. "He sees the paranoid style in almost any critical
historical or social-scientific analysis of oppression."[11]

Types
Political scientist Michael Barkun has categorized, in ascending order of breadth, the types of conspiracy theories as
follows:
• Event conspiracy theories. The conspiracy is held to be responsible for a limited, discrete event or set of events.
The conspiratorial forces are alleged to have focused their energies on a limited, well-defined objective. The
best-known example in the recent past is the Kennedy assassination conspiracy literature, though similar material
exists concerning the crash of TWA Flight 800, and the spread of AIDS in the black community.[1]
• Systemic conspiracy theories. The conspiracy is believed to have broad goals, usually conceived as securing
control of a country, a region, or even the entire world. While the goals are sweeping, the conspiratorial
machinery is generally simple: a single, evil organization implements a plan to infiltrate and subvert existing
institutions. This is a common scenario in conspiracy theories that focus on the alleged machinations of Jews,
Masons, and the Catholic Church, as well as theories centered on communism or international capitalists.[1]
• Superconspiracy theories. Conspiratorial constructs in which multiple conspiracies are believed to be linked
together hierarchically. Event and systemic are joined in complex ways, so that conspiracies come to be nested
together. At the summit of the conspiratorial hierarchy is a distant but all-powerful evil force manipulating lesser
conspiratorial actors. Superconspiracy theories have enjoyed particular growth since the 1980s, in the work of
authors such as David Icke, and Milton William Cooper.[1]

Conspiracism
A world view that centrally places conspiracy theories in the unfolding of history is sometimes termed
"conspiracism". The historian Richard Hofstadter addressed the role of paranoia and conspiracism throughout
American history in his essay The Paranoid Style in American Politics, published in 1964. Bernard Bailyn's classic
The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (1967) notes that a similar phenomenon could be found in
America during the time preceding the American Revolution. Conspiracism then labels people's attitudes as well as
the type of conspiracy theories that are more global and historical in proportion.[12] The term conspiracism was
popularized by academic Frank P. Mintz in the 1980s. Academic work in conspiracy theories and conspiracism
presents a range of hypotheses as a basis of studying the genre. Among the leading scholars of conspiracism are:
Hofstadter, Karl Popper, Michael Barkun, Robert Alan Goldberg, Daniel Pipes, Mark Fenster, Mintz, Carl Sagan,
George Johnson, and Gerald Posner.
According to Mintz, conspiracism denotes: "belief in the primacy of conspiracies in the unfolding of history":[13]
"Conspiracism serves the needs of diverse political and social groups in America and elsewhere. It
identifies elites, blames them for economic and social catastrophes, and assumes that things will be
better once popular action can remove them from positions of power. As such, conspiracy theories do
not typify a particular epoch or ideology".[14]
Throughout human history, political and economic leaders genuinely have been the cause of enormous amounts of
death and misery, and they sometimes have engaged in conspiracies while at the same time promoting conspiracy
theories about their targets. Hitler and Stalin would be merely the most prominent examples; there have been
numerous others.[15] In some cases there have been claims dismissed as conspiracy theories that later proved to be
true.[16] [17] The idea that history itself is controlled by large long-standing conspiracies is rejected by historian
Bruce Cumings:
Conspiracy theory 125

"But if conspiracies exist, they rarely move history; they make a difference at the margins from time to
time, but with the unforeseen consequences of a logic outside the control of their authors: and this is
what is wrong with 'conspiracy theory.' History is moved by the broad forces and large structures of
human collectivities."[18]
The term conspiracism is used in the work of Michael Kelly, Chip Berlet, and Matthew N. Lyons.
According to Berlet and Lyons, "Conspiracism is a particular narrative form of scapegoating that frames demonized
enemies as part of a vast insidious plot against the common good, while it valorizes the scapegoater as a hero for
sounding the alarm".[19]

Criticism
Conspiracy theories are the subject of broad critique by academics, politicians, and the media.
Perhaps the most contentious aspect of a conspiracy theory is the problem of settling a particular theory's truth to the
satisfaction of both its proponents and its opponents. Particular accusations of conspiracy vary widely in their
plausibility, but some common standards for assessing their likely truth value may be applied in each case:
• Occam's razor – does the alternative story explain more of the evidence than the mainstream story, or is it just a
more complicated and therefore less useful explanation of the same evidence?
• Logic – do the proofs offered follow the rules of logic, or do they employ fallacies of logic?
• Methodology – are the proofs offered for the argument well constructed, i.e., using sound methodology? Is there
any clear standard to determine what evidence would prove or disprove the theory?
• Whistleblowers – how many people – and what kind – have to be loyal conspirators? The more wide-ranging and
pervasive the conspiracy is alleged to be, the greater the number of people would have to be involved in
perpetrating it – is it credible that nobody involved has brought the affair to light?
• Falsifiability – would it be possible to determine whether specific claims of the theory are false, or are they
"unfalsifiable"?
Noam Chomsky, an academic critical of the United States establishment, contrasts conspiracy theory as more or less
the opposite of institutional analysis, which focuses mostly on the public, long-term behaviour of publicly known
institutions, as recorded in, for example, scholarly documents or mainstream media reports, rather than secretive
coalitions of individuals.[20]

Controversy
Aside from controversies over the merits of particular conspiratorial claims, the general discussion of conspiracy
theory is itself a matter of some public contention.
The term "conspiracy theory" is considered by different observers to be a neutral description for a conspiracy claim,
a pejorative term used to dismiss such a claim without examination, and a term that can be positively embraced by
proponents of such a claim. The term may be used by some for arguments they might not wholly believe but
consider radical and exciting. The most widely accepted sense of the term is that which popular culture and academic
usage share, certainly having negative implications for a narrative's probable truth value.
Conspiracy theorists on the internet are often dismissed as a "fringe" group, but evidence suggests that a broad cross
section of Americans today—traversing ethnic, gender, education, occupation, and other divides—gives credence to
at least some conspiracy theories.[21]
Given this popular understanding of the term, it can also be used illegitimately and inappropriately, as a means to
dismiss what are in fact substantial and well-evidenced accusations. The legitimacy of each such usage will therefore
be a matter of some controversy. Michael Parenti, in his 1996 essay which examines the role of progressive media in
the use of the term, "The JFK Assassination II: Conspiracy Phobia On The Left", states,
Conspiracy theory 126

"It is an either-or world for those on the Left who harbor an aversion for any kind of conspiracy investigation:
either you are a structuralist in your approach to politics or a 'conspiracist' who reduces historical
developments to the machinations of secret cabals, thereby causing us to lose sight of the larger systemic
forces."[22]
Structuralist or institutional analysis shows that the term is misused when it is applied to institutions acting in pursuit
of their acknowledged goals, for example, when a group of corporations engage in price-fixing to increase profits.
Complications occurs for terms such as UFO, which literally means "unidentified flying object" but connotes alien
spacecraft, a concept also associated with some conspiracy theories, and thus possessing a certain social stigma.
Michael Parenti gives an example of the use of the term which underscores the conflict in its use. He states,
"In most of its operations, the CIA is by definition a conspiracy, using covert actions and secret plans, many of
which are of the most unsavory kind. What are covert operations if not conspiracies? At the same time, the
CIA is an institution, a structural part of the national security state. In sum, the agency is an institutionalized
conspiracy."[22]
The term "conspiracy theory" is itself the object of a type of conspiracy theory, which argues that those using the
term are manipulating their audience to disregard the topic under discussion, either in a deliberate attempt to conceal
the truth, or as dupes of more deliberate conspirators.
When conspiracy theories are offered as official claims (for example, originating from a governmental authority,
such as an intelligence agency) they are not usually considered as conspiracy theories. For example, certain activities
of the House Un-American Activities Committee may be considered to have been an official attempt to promote a
conspiracy theory, yet its claims are seldom referred to as such.
Further difficulties arise from ambiguity regarding the term theory. In popular usage, this term is often used to refer
to unfounded or weakly based speculation, leading to the idea that "It's not a conspiracy theory if it's actually true".

Study of conspiracism
In 1936 American commentator H. L. Mencken wrote:
The central belief of every moron is that he is the victim of a mysterious conspiracy against his common
rights and true deserts. He ascribes all his failure to get on in the world, all of his congenital incapacity
and damfoolishness, to the machinations of werewolves assembled in Wall Street, or some other such
den of infamy.[23]
Belief in conspiracy theories has become a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists and experts in folklore
since at least the 1960s, when the assassination of US President John F. Kennedy eventually provoked an
unprecedented public response directed against the official version of the case as expounded in the Report of the
Warren Commission.

Psychological origins
According to some psychologists, a person who believes in one conspiracy theory tends to believe in others; a person
who does not believe in one conspiracy theory tends not to believe another.[24]
Psychologists believe that the search for meaning is common in conspiracism and the development of conspiracy
theories, and may be powerful enough alone to lead to the first formulating of the idea. Once cognized, confirmation
bias and avoidance of cognitive dissonance may reinforce the belief. In a context where a conspiracy theory has
become popular within a social group, communal reinforcement may equally play a part. Some research carried out
at the University of Kent, UK suggests people may be influenced by conspiracy theories without being aware that
their attitudes have changed. After reading popular conspiracy theories about the death of Diana, Princess of Wales,
participants in this study correctly estimated how much their peers' attitudes had changed, but significantly
underestimated how much their own attitudes had changed to become more in favor of the conspiracy theories. The
Conspiracy theory 127

authors conclude that conspiracy theories may therefore have a 'hidden power' to influence people's beliefs.[25]
Humanistic psychologists argue that even if the cabal behind the conspiracy is almost always perceived as hostile
there is, often, still an element of reassurance in it, for conspiracy theorists, in part because it is more consoling to
think that complications and upheavals in human affairs, at least, are created by human beings rather than factors
beyond human control. Belief in such a cabal is a device for reassuring oneself that certain occurrences are not
random, but ordered by a human intelligence. This renders such occurrences comprehensible and potentially
controllable. If a cabal can be implicated in a sequence of events, there is always the hope, however tenuous, of
being able to break the cabal's power – or joining it and exercising some of that power oneself. Finally, belief in the
power of such a cabal is an implicit assertion of human dignity – an often unconscious but necessary affirmation that
man is not totally helpless, but is responsible, at least in some measure, for his own destiny.[26]

Projection
Some historians have argued that there is an element of psychological projection in conspiracism. This projection,
according to the argument, is manifested in the form of attribution of undesirable characteristics of the self to the
conspirators. Richard Hofstadter, in his essay The Paranoid Style in American Politics, stated that:
...it is hard to resist the conclusion that this enemy is on many counts the projection of the self; both the
ideal and the unacceptable aspects of the self are attributed to him. The enemy may be the cosmopolitan
intellectual, but the paranoid will outdo him in the apparatus of scholarship... the Ku Klux Klan imitated
Catholicism to the point of donning priestly vestments, developing an elaborate ritual and an equally
elaborate hierarchy. The John Birch Society emulates Communist cells and quasi-secret operation
through "front" groups, and preaches a ruthless prosecution of the ideological war along lines very
similar to those it finds in the Communist enemy. Spokesmen of the various fundamentalist
anti-Communist "crusades" openly express their admiration for the dedication and discipline the
Communist cause calls forth.
Hofstadter also noted that "sexual freedom" is a vice frequently attributed to the conspiracist's target group, noting
that "very often the fantasies of true believers reveal strong sadomasochistic outlets, vividly expressed, for example,
in the delight of anti-Masons with the cruelty of Masonic punishments."[27]

Epistemic bias

“
Conspiracy theories are popular because no matter what they posit, they are all actually comforting, because they all are models of radical
simplicity.
”
[28]
—Novelist William Gibson, October 2007.

It is possible that certain basic human epistemic biases are projected onto the material under scrutiny. According to
one study humans apply a 'rule of thumb' by which we expect a significant event to have a significant cause.[29] The
study offered subjects four versions of events, in which a foreign president was (a) successfully assassinated, (b)
wounded but survived, (c) survived with wounds but died of a heart attack at a later date, and (d) was unharmed.
Subjects were significantly more likely to suspect conspiracy in the case of the 'major events'—in which the
president died—than in the other cases, despite all other evidence available to them being equal. Connected with
pareidolia, the genetic tendency of human beings to find patterns in coincidence, this allows the "discovery" of
conspiracy in any significant event.
Another epistemic 'rule of thumb' that can be misapplied to a mystery involving other humans is cui bono? (who
stands to gain?). This sensitivity to the hidden motives of other people may be an evolved and universal feature of
human consciousness.
Conspiracy theory 128

Clinical psychology
For some individuals, an obsessive compulsion to believe, prove, or re-tell a conspiracy theory may indicate one or a
combination of well-understood psychological conditions, and other hypothetical ones: paranoia, denial,
schizophrenia, mean world syndrome.[30]

Socio-political origins
Christopher Hitchens represents conspiracy theories as the 'exhaust fumes of democracy', the unavoidable result of a
large amount of information circulating among a large number of people. Other social commentators and
sociologists argue that conspiracy theories are produced according to variables that may change within a democratic
(or other type of) society.
Conspiratorial accounts can be emotionally satisfying when they place events in a readily understandable, moral
context. The subscriber to the theory is able to assign moral responsibility for an emotionally troubling event or
situation to a clearly conceived group of individuals. Crucially, that group does not include the believer. The believer
may then feel excused of any moral or political responsibility for remedying whatever institutional or societal flaw
might be the actual source of the dissonance.[31] Likewise, Roger Cohen, in an op-Ed for the New York Times
propounded that, "captive minds... resort to conspiracy theory because it is the ultimate refuge of the powerless. If
you cannot change your own life, it must be that some greater force controls the world."[32]
Where responsible behavior is prevented by social conditions, or is simply beyond the ability of an individual, the
conspiracy theory facilitates the emotional discharge or closure that such emotional challenges (after Erving
Goffman) require. Like moral panics, conspiracy theories thus occur more frequently within communities that are
experiencing social isolation or political dis-empowerment.
Sociological historian Holger Herwig found in studying German explanations for the origins of World War I:
Those events that are most important are hardest to understand, because they attract the greatest attention
from myth makers and charlatans.
This normal process could be diverted by a number of influences. At the level of the individual, pressing
psychological needs may influence the process, and certain of our universal mental tools may impose epistemic
'blind spots'. At the group or sociological level, historic factors may make the process of assigning satisfactory
meanings more or less problematic.
Alternatively, conspiracy theories may arise when evidence available in the public record does not correspond with
the common or official version of events. In this regard, conspiracy theories may sometimes serve to highlight 'blind
spots' in the common or official interpretations of events (Fenster, 1999).

Media tropes
Media commentators regularly note a tendency in news media and wider culture to understand events through the
prism of individual agents, as opposed to more complex structural or institutional accounts.[33] If this is a true
observation, it may be expected that the audience which both demands and consumes this emphasis itself is more
receptive to personalized, dramatic accounts of social phenomena.
A second, perhaps related, media trope is the effort to allocate individual responsibility for negative events. The
media have a tendency to start to seek culprits if an event occurs that is of such significance that it does not drop off
the news agenda within a few days. Of this trend, it has been said that the concept of a pure accident is no longer
permitted in a news item.[34] Again, if this is a true observation, it may reflect a real change in how the media
consumer perceives negative events.
Hollywood motion pictures and television shows perpetuate and enlarge belief in conspiracy as a standard
functioning of corporations and governments. Feature films such as Enemy of the State and Shooter, among scores
of others, propound conspiracies as a normal state of affairs, having dropped the idea of questioning conspiracies
Conspiracy theory 129

typical of movies of eras prior to about 1970. Shooter even contains the line, "that is how conspiracies work" in
reference to the JFK murder. Interestingly, movies and television shows do the same as the news media in regard to
personalizing and dramatizing issues which are easy to involve in conspiracy theories. Coming Home converts the
huge problem of the returning injured Vietnam War soldier into the chance that the injured soldier will fall in love,
and when he does, the strong implication is that the larger problem is also solved. This factor is a natural outcome of
Hollywood script development which wishes to highlight one or two major characters which can be played by major
stars, and thus a good way of marketing the movie is established but that rings false upon examination. Further, the
necessity to serve up a dubiously justified happy ending, although expected by audiences, actually has another effect
of heightening the sense of falseness and contrived stories, underpinning the public's loss of belief in virtually
anything any mass media says. Into the vacuum of that loss of belief falls explanation by conspiracy theory.
Too, the act of dramatizing real or fictional events injects a degree of falseness or contrived efforts which media
savvy people today can identify easily. "News" today is virtually always dramatized, at least by pitting "one side"
against another in the fictional journalistic concept that all stories must contain "both sides" (as though reality could
be reduced to two sides) or by using more intensive dramatic developments similar to feature movies. That is, by
obvious dramatizing, the media reinforces the idea that all things are contrived for someone's gain which could be
another definition of, at least, political conspiracies theories. --Dr. Charles Harpole in "History of American Cinema"
Scribner/U. Calif Press.

Fusion paranoia
Michael Kelly, a Washington Post journalist and critic of anti-war movements on both the left and right, coined the
term "fusion paranoia" to refer to a political convergence of left-wing and right-wing activists around anti-war issues
and civil liberties, which he claimed were motivated by a shared belief in conspiracism or anti-government views.
Social critics have adopted this term to refer to how the synthesis of paranoid conspiracy theories, which were once
limited to American fringe audiences, has given them mass appeal and enabled them to become commonplace in
mass media, thereby inaugurating an unrivaled period of people actively preparing for apocalyptic millenarian
scenarios in the United States of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. They warn that this development may not
only fuel lone wolf terrorism but have devastating effects on American political life, such as the rise of a
revolutionary right-wing populist movement capable of subverting the established political powers.[35]
Daniel Pipes wrote in a 2004 Jerusalem Post article titled Fusion Paranoia:
Fears of a petty conspiracy – a political rival or business competitor plotting to do you harm – are as old as the
human psyche. But fears of a grand conspiracy – that the Illuminati or Jews plan to take over the world – go
back only 900 years and have been operational for just two centuries, since the French Revolution. Conspiracy
theories grew in importance from then until World War II, when two arch-conspiracy theorists, Hitler and
Stalin, faced off against each other, causing the greatest blood-letting in human history. This hideous spectacle
sobered Americans, who in subsequent decades relegated conspiracy theories to the fringe, where mainly two
groups promoted such ideas.
The politically disaffected: Blacks (Louis Farrakhan, Cynthia McKinney), the hard Right (John Birch Society,
Pat Buchanan), and other alienated elements (Ross Perot, Lyndon LaRouche). Their theories imply a political
agenda, but lack much of a following.
The culturally suspicious: These include "Kennedy assassinologists," "ufologists," and those who believe a
reptilian race runs the earth and alien installations exist under the earth's surface. Such themes enjoy enormous
popularity (a year 2000 poll found 43 percent of Americans believing in UFOs), but carry no political agenda.
The major new development, reports Barkun, professor of political science in the Maxwell School at Syracuse
University, is not just an erosion in the divisions between these two groups, but their joining forces with
occultists, persons bored by rationalism. Occultists are drawn to what Barkun calls the "cultural dumping
ground of the heretical, the scandalous, the unfashionable, and the dangerous" – such as spiritualism,
Conspiracy theory 130

Theosophy, alternative medicine, alchemy, and astrology. Thus, the author who worries about the Secret
Service taking orders from the Bavarian Illuminati is old school; the one who worries about a "joint
Reptilian-Bavarian Illuminati" takeover is at the cutting edge of the new synthesis. These bizarre notions
constitute what Michael Kelly termed "fusion paranoia," a promiscuous absorption of fears from any source
whatsoever.[36]

Political use

“
Conspiracy theories exist in the realm of myth, where imaginations run wild, fears trump facts, and evidence is ignored. As a superpower,
the United States is often cast as a villain in these dramas.
”
[37]
—America.gov

In his two volume work The Open Society and Its Enemies Popper used the term "conspiracy theory" to criticize the
ideologies driving fascism, nazism, and communism. Popper argued that totalitarianism was founded on "conspiracy
theories" which drew on imaginary plots driven by paranoid scenarios predicated on tribalism, chauvinism, or
racism. Popper did not argue against the existence of everyday conspiracies (as incorrectly suggested in much of the
later literature). Popper even uses the term "conspiracy" to describe ordinary political activity in the classical Athens
of Plato (who was the principal target of his attack in The Open Society & Its Enemies).
In his critique of the twentieth century totalitarians, Popper wrote, "I do not wish to imply that conspiracies never
happen. On the contrary, they are typical social phenomena."[38] He reiterated his point, "Conspiracies occur, it must
be admitted. But the striking fact which, in spite of their occurrence, disproved the conspiracy theory is that few of
these conspiracies are ultimately successful. Conspirators rarely consummate their conspiracy."[38]
In a paper written in 2008, Cass Sunstein, legal scholar, and Administrator of the White House Office of Information
and Regulatory Affairs, wrote of appropriate government responses to conspiracy theories. In the paper he stated:
What can government do about conspiracy theories? Among the things it can do, what should it do? We can
readily imagine a series of possible responses. (1) Government might ban conspiracy theorizing. (2)
Government might impose some kind of tax, financial or otherwise, on those who disseminate such theories.
(3) Government might itself engage in counterspeech, marshaling arguments to discredit conspiracy theories.
(4) Government might formally hire credible private parties to engage in counterspeech. (5) Government
might engage in informal communication with such parties, encouraging them to help. Each instrument has a
distinctive set of potential effects, or costs and benefits, and each will have a place under imaginable
conditions. However, our main policy idea is that government should engage in cognitive infiltration of the
groups that produce conspiracy theories, which involves a mix of (3), (4) and (5).[39]

Fiction
Because of their dramatic potential, conspiracies are a popular theme in thrillers and science fiction. Complex history
is recast as a morality play in which bad people cause bad events, and good people identify and defeat them.
Fictional conspiracy theories offer neat, intuitive narratives, in which the conspirators' plot fits closely the dramatic
needs of the story's plot. As mentioned above, the cui bono? aspect of conspiracy theories resembles one element of
mystery stories: the search for a possibly hidden motive.
Dr. Strangelove was a 1964 comedy about modern nuclear warfare. The end of the world is precipitated by the
delusions of General Jack D. Ripper who happens to be in control of a SAC nuclear air wing. General Ripper
believes there is a Communist conspiracy which threatens to "sap and impurify" the "precious bodily fluids" of the
American people with fluoridated water.
Conspiracy theory 131

Conspiracy Theory is a 1997 thriller about a taxi driver (played by Mel Gibson) who publishes a newsletter in which
he discusses what he suspects are government conspiracies, and it turns out that one or more of them are true.
The X-Files was a popular television show during the 1990s and early 2000s, which primarily followed the
investigations of two FBI agents, Fox Mulder and Dana Scully, who were sometimes helped by a group of
conspiracy theorists known as The Lone Gunmen. Many of the episodes dealt with a plot for alien invasion overseen
by elements of the U.S. government, led by an individual known only as the Cigarette Smoking Man and an even
more mysterious international "Syndicate". The famous tag line of the series, "The Truth Is Out There", can be
interpreted as reference to the meaning-seeking nature of the genre discussed above.
Umberto Eco's novel Foucault's Pendulum is a broad satire on conspiracism in which the characters attempt to
construct an all-embracing conspiracy theory starting with the Templars and including the Bavarian Illuminati, the
Rosicrucians, hollow Earth enthusiasts, the Cathars, and the Jesuits.
The three-part novel Illuminatus! by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson (published in 1975) is a highly satirical,
psychedelic novel dealing with complex, Byzantine conspiracies nested within other larger conspiracies—with the
scale of the plots and the audacity of their plotters expanding to enfold more and more minds as the story progresses,
evolving to wrap itself around many extant conspiracy theories such as the ones revolving around the Bavarian
Illuminati, the Masons, the Vatican, the Mafia, governments large and small, and fringe groups of both left and
right-wing persuasions. Their plottings merge with the overarching plans of several fictitious organizations—and
also an actual "religion" which conceives of itself as a joke, the Discordians. In an ironic twist of fate, Illuminatus!
may have even caused the development of a real-world Discordian society (which manifests in loose clusters of
affiliation, rather than as any formalized group) when the novel's cult success as a countercultural mainstay brought
the "holy writ" of the Discordians, the Principia Discordia, out of obscurity over the final three decades of the
twentieth century. Shea and Wilson used witty quotes drawn from this comedic pamphlet glorifying Eris, the Greek
goddess of chaos and discord, as opening lines for chapters of the Illuminatus! books.
Conspiracy theories have even influenced video games. The critically acclaimed RPG/shooter Deus Ex, and its
sequel (albeit to a lesser degree), Deus Ex: Invisible War, draw upon current-day conspiracy theories such as
Majestic 12, Area 51, and the Illuminati.
Other novels, such as Dan Brown's 2000 controversial book "Angels and Demons" have also popularized the idea of
conspiracy theories. The book surrounds the quest of Robert Langdon, a fictional Harvard University symbologist
who is bent on uncovering the mysteries of a secret society known as the Illuminati. Brown's novel, and others alike,
harp on the ideas of the unknown, a life source for conspiracy theorists.
Michael Barkun, a political scientist specializing in the study of conspiracism in American culture, notes that a vast
popular audience has been introduced by the 1997 film Conspiracy Theory to the notion that the U.S. government is
controlled by a secret team in black helicopters – a view once confined to right-wing radicals.[1]

Notes
[1] Barkun, Michael (2003). A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. University of California Press; 1 edition.
ISBN 0520238052.
[2] Fenster, M. 1999. Conspiracy theories: Secrecy and power in American culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
[3] Harry G. West, Todd Sanders. (2003) Transparency and conspiracy: ethnographies of suspicion in the new world order. (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?hl=en& lr=& id=HeMdeV_LvAMC& oi=fnd& pg=PP9& dq="Transparency+ and+ conspiracy"& ots=XMzTBwz22s&
sig=qhknNptShaLbORX12dfheFpP6f8#v=onepage& q=& f=false) Duke University Press. p. 4.
[4] Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, p. 243 (8th ed. 1976).
[5] Ramsay, Robin (2006). Conspiracy Theories, Pocket Essentials. ISBN 1-904048-65-X.
[6] "20th Century Words" (1999) John Ayto, Oxford University Press, p. 15.
[7] Plots, paranoia and blame (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ programmes/ 6213226. stm) by Peter Knight, BBC News 7 December 2006.
[8] Johnson, 1983
[9] Slate Magazine (http:/ / www. slate. com/ id/ 2119989/ )
[10] Daniel Pipes, in Orbis, Winter 1992: "Dealing with Middle Eastern Conspiracy Theories".
Conspiracy theory 132

[11] Transparency and conspiracy: ethnographies of suspicion in the new world order. Harry G. West, Todd Sanders. pp 207.
[12] Bailyn, Bernard (1992) [1967=]. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution:. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
ISBN 978-0-674-44302-0. ASIN: B000NUF6FQ.
[13] Mintz, Frank P. (1985) [1985 =]. The Liberty Lobby and the American Right: Race, Conspiracy, and Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
p. 4. ISBN 0-313-24393-X.
[14] Mintz, Frank P. (1985) [1985]. The Liberty Lobby and the American Right: Race, Conspiracy, and Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
p. 199. ISBN 0-313-24393-X.
[15] Arendt, Hannah (1973) [1953]. The Origins of Totalitarianism. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. ISBN 0156078104.
[16] Fenster, Mark (1999). Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and Power in American Culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
ISBN 081663243X.
[17] Dean, Jodi (1998). Aliens in America: Conspiracy Cultures from Outerspace to Cyberspace. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
ISBN 0801484685.
[18] Cumings, Bruce (1999). The Origins of the Korean War, Vol. II, The Roaring of the Cataract, 1947–1950. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press.
[19] Berlet, Chip; Lyons, Matthew N. (2000). Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort. New York: Guilford Press.
ISBN 1572305622.
[20] Michael Albert, quoting from Zmagazine. "Conspiracy Theory" (http:/ / zena. secureforum. com/ znet/ ZMag/ articles/ oldalbert19. htm). .
Retrieved 2007-08-23.
[21] Transparency and conspiracy: ethnographies of suspicion in the new world order. Harry G. West, Todd Sanders. pp 4.
[22] questionsquestions.net (http:/ / www. questionsquestions. net/ documents2/ conspiracyphobia. html), "The JFK Assassination II: conspiracy
phobia on the left", Michael Parenti, 1996.
[23] H. L. Mencken, Baltimore Evening Sun, June 15, 1936
[24] Goertzel (1994). "Belief in Conspiracy Theories" (http:/ / www. crab. rutgers. edu/ ~goertzel/ conspire. doc). Political Psychology (Political
Psychology, Vol. 15, No. 4) 15 (4): 733–744. doi:10.2307/3791630. JSTOR 3791630. . Retrieved 2006-08-07.
[25] Karen Douglas and Robbie Sutton (in press). "The hidden impact of conspiracy theories: Perceived and actual influence of theories
surrounding the death of Princess Diana". Journal of Social Psychology.
[26] Baigent, Michael; Leigh, Richard; Lincoln, Henry (1987). The Messianic Legacy. Henry Holt & Co. ISBN 0805005684.
[27] Hofstadter, Richard. The Paranoid Style in American Politics. Harper's Magazine, November 1964, pp. 77–86.
[28] Beers, David (October 18, 2007). "William Gibson Hates Futurists" (http:/ / thetyee. ca/ Books/ 2007/ 10/ 18/ WillGibson/ ). The Tyee. .
Retrieved January 2, 2010.
[29] " Who shot the president? (http:/ / www. bps. org. uk/ media-centre/ press-releases/ releases$/ annual-conferences-1999-2004/
who-shot-the-president$. cfm)," The British Psychological Society, March 18, 2003 (accessed June 7, 2005).
[30] " Top 5 New Diseases: Media Induced Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (MIPTSD) (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050426081645/ http:/ /
www. columbia. edu/ ~kw96/ TopFive. html#Anchor-Media-54000)," The New Disease: A Journal of Narrative Pathology 2 (2004),
(accessed June 7, 2005).
[31] Vedantam, Shankar (2006-06-05). "Born With the Desire to Know the Unknown" (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/
article/ 2006/ 06/ 04/ AR2006060400618. html). The Washington Post (The Washington Post): p. A02. . Retrieved 2006-06-07. "Conspiracy
theories explain disturbing events or social phenomena in terms of the actions of specific, powerful individuals," said sociologist Theodore
Sasson at Middlebury College in Vermont. By providing simple explanations of distressing events—the conspiracy theory in the Arab world,
for example, that the September 11, 2001, attacks were planned by the Israeli Mossad—they deflect responsibility or keep people from
acknowledging that tragic events sometimes happen inexplicably."
[32] Cohen, Roger The Captive Arab Mind, The New York Times, December 20, 2010, (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2010/ 12/ 21/ opinion/
21iht-edcohen21. html?hp)
[33] Ivan Emke, " Agents and Structures: Journalists and the Constraints on AIDS Coverage (http:/ / www. cjc-online. ca/ viewarticle.
php?id=585& layout=html)," Canadian Journal of Communication 25, no. 3 (2000), (accessed June 7, 2005).
[34] "The Blame Game" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ magazine/ 4217024. stm). BBC News. 6 September 2005. . Retrieved 2007-08-23.
[35] Barkun, Michael. 2003. A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Berkeley: Univ. of California.
[36] Pipes, Daniel (2004). Fusion Paranoia (http:/ / pqasb. pqarchiver. com/ jpost/ access/ 525174951. html?dids=525174951:525174951&
FMT=ABS& FMTS=ABS:FT& date=Jan+ 14,+ 2004& author=DANIEL+ PIPES& pub=Jerusalem+ Post& edition=& startpage=13&
desc=Fusion+ paranoia). . Retrieved 2009-06-11.
[37] "Conspiracy Theories and Misinformation - America.gov" (http:/ / www. america. gov/ conspiracy_theories. html). U.S. Department of
State's Bureau of International Information Programs. . Retrieved 5 June 2010.
[38] "Extracts from "The Open Society and Its Enemies Volume 2: The High Tide of Prophecy: Hegel, Marx and the Aftermath" by Karl
Raimund Popper (Originally published 1945)" (http:/ / lachlan. bluehaze. com. au/ books/ popper_open_society. html). Lachlan Cranswick,
quoting Karl Raimund Popper. . Retrieved 2007-08-23.
[39] Sunstein, Cass R. and Vermeule, Adrian, Conspiracy Theories (January 15, 2008). Harvard Public Law Working Paper No. 08-03; U of
Chicago, Public Law Working Paper No. 199; U of Chicago Law & Economics, Olin Working Paper No. 387. http:/ / papers. ssrn. com/ sol3/
papers. cfm?abstract_id=1084585 (Accessed January 29, 2010) 15.
Conspiracy theory 133

References
• American Heritage Dictionary, "Conspiracy theory"
• Barkun, Michael (2003). A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Berkeley:
University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23805-2.
• Chase, Alston (2003). Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist. New York: W. W.
Norton. ISBN 0-393-02002-9.
• Fenster, Mark (1999). Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and Power in American Culture. Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-3243-X.
• Goldberg, Robert Alan (2001). Enemies Within: The Culture of Conspiracy in Modern America. New Haven &
London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09000-5.
• Hofstadter, Richard (1965). The Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf. ISBN 0-674-65461-7.
• Johnson, George (1983). Architects of Fear: Conspiracy Theories and Paranoia in American Politics. Los
Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher. ISBN 0-87477-275-3.
• McConnachie, James; Tudge, Robin (2005). The rough guide to conspiracy theories. ISBN 1843534452.
• Melley, Timothy (1999). Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America. Ithaca, New York:
Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8606-8.
• Mintz, Frank P. (1985). The Liberty Lobby and the American Right: Race, Conspiracy, and Culture. Westport,
CT: Greenwood. ISBN 0-313-24393-X.
• Pipes, Daniel (1997). Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes from. New York: The
Free Press. ISBN 0-684-87111-4.
• Pipes, Daniel (1998). The Hidden Hand: Middle East Fears of Conspiracy. New York: St. Martin's Press.
ISBN 0-312-17688-0.
• Popper, Karl R. (1945). The Open Society and Its Enemies. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
ISBN 0-691-01968-1.
• Posner, Gerald (1993). Case Closed: Lee Harvey Oswald and the Assassination of JFK. New York: The Random
House. ISBN 0-385-47446-6.
• Sagan, Carl (1996). The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. New York: The Random
House. ISBN 0-394-53512-X.
• Vankin, Jonathan; John Whalen (2004). The 80 Greatest Conspiracies of All Time. New York: Citadel Press.
ISBN 0-8065-2531-2.

Further reading
• "Conspiracy Theories" (http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/uploadedFiles/news/Conspiracy Theories.pdf). CQ
Researcher 19 (37): 885–908. October 23, 2009. ISSN 1056-2036.
• Aaronovitch, David (2010). Voodoo Histories: The Role of the Conspiracy Theory in Shaping Modern History.
Riverhead. ISBN 978-1-59448-895-5
• Conspiracism (http://www.publiceye.org/tooclose/conspiracism.html), Political Research Associates
• Cziesche, Dominik; Jürgen Dahlkamp, Ulrich Fichtner, Ulrich Jaeger, Gunther Latsch, Gisela Leske, Max F.
Ruppert (2003). "Panoply of the Absurd" (http://service.spiegel.de/cache/international/spiegel/
0,1518,265160,00.html). Der Spiegel. Retrieved 2006-06-06.
• Matthew Gray (2010). Conspiracy Theories in the Arab World: Sources and Politics. Routledge.
ISBN 978-0415-57519-5.
• Parsons, Charlotte (2001-09-24). "Why we need conspiracy theories" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/
americas/1561199.stm). BBC News – Americas (BBC). Retrieved 2006-06-26.
Conspiracy theory 134

• Meigs, James B. (2006). "The Conspiracy Industry" (http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/research/

4199607.html). Popular Mechanics. Hearst Communications, Inc.. Retrieved 2006-10-13.
• James McConnachie and Robin Tudge (2005). The Rough Guide to Conspiracy Theories. Rough Guides.
ISBN 978-1843534457.
• Barry Coward, ed (2004). Conspiracies and Conspiracy Theory in Early Modern Europe: From the Waldensians
to the French Revolution. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0754635643.
• Christopher L. Hodapp and Alice Von Kannon (2008). Conspiracy Theories and Secret Societies For Dummies.
Wiley. ISBN 0-470-18408-6.
• Peter Knight, ed (2003). Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia. ABC-Clio.
ISBN 1576078124.
• Gordon B. Arnold, ed (2008). Conspiracy Theory in Film, Television, and Politics. Praeger Publishers. p. 200.
ISBN 0275994627.
• Transparency and Conspiracy: Ethnographies of Suspicion in the New World Order. Durham, North Carolina:
Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-3024-0.
• Rudmin, Floyd (2003). "Conspiracy Theory As Naive Deconstructive History" (http://web.archive.org/web/
20080517055713/http://www.newdemocracyworld.org/conspiracy.htm). newdemocracy.org. Archived from
the original (http://www.newdemocracyworld.org/conspiracy.htm) on 2008-05-17. Retrieved 2008-04-18.

Conspiracist literature
• The Protocols of the Elders of Zion.
• Balsiger, David W.; Sellier, Jr., Charles E. (1977). The Lincoln Conspiracy. Los Angeles: Schick Sun Classic
Books. ISBN 1-56849-531-5.
• Bryan, Gerald B.; Talita Paolini, Kenneth Paolini (2000) [1940]. Psychic Dictatorship in America. Paolini
International LLC. ISBN 0-9666213-1-X.
• Cooper, Milton William (1991). Behold a Pale Horse. Light Technology Publications. ISBN 0-929385-22-5.
• Icke, David (2004). And the Truth Shall Set You Free: The 21st Century Edition. Bridge of Love.
ISBN 0-9538810-5-9.
• Levenda, Peter (2005). Sinister Forces: Trilogy. Trine Day. ISBN 0-9752906-2-2.
• Marrs, Texe (1996). Project L.U.C.I.D.: The Beast 666 Universal Human Control System. Living Truth
Publishers. ISBN 1-884302-02-5.
• Pelley, William Dudley (1950). Star Guests: Design for Mortality. Noblesville, Indiana: Soulcraft Press.
• Robertson, Pat (1992). The New World Order. W Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8499-3394-3.
• Wilson, Robert Anton (2002). TSOG: The Thing That Ate the Constitution. Tempe, Arizona: New Falcon.
ISBN 1-56184-169-2.
• Yallop, David A. (1984). In God's Name: An Investigation into the Murder of Pope John Paul I. New York:
Bantam. ISBN 0-553-05073-7.
• Mathias Bröckers. Conspiracies, Conspiracy Theories and the Secrets of 9/11. Sees conspiracy as a fundamental
principle between cooperation and competition. Proposes a new science of "conspirology."
Conspiracy theory 135

External links
• Conspiracy Theories and Misinformation (http://www.america.gov/conspiracy_theories.html), America.gov
• "The 31 Wildest Conspiracy Theories" (http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/33572/
the-31-wildest-conspiracy-theories). LIFE magazine – slideshow.
• Naomi Wolf. "Analysis of the appeal of conspiracy theories with suggestions for more accurate ad hoc internet
reporting of them" (http://www.guatemala-times.com/opinion/syndicated/the-next-wave/
483-a-conspiracy-so-immense.html).
• Stuart J. Murray (2009). "Editorial Introduction: 'Media Tropes'" (http://www.mediatropes.com/index.php/
Mediatropes/article/view/5342/2243). MediaTropes eJournal 2 (1): i–x.
• "Conspiracy Theory with Jesse Ventura: How Should Government Respond?" (http://blogcritics.org/politics/
article/conspiracy-theory-how-should-government-respond/) by Alan Kurtz (Blogcritics)
• Top 10 Right-Wing Conspiracy Theories: (http://www.alternet.org/news/147851/
top_10_right-wing_conspiracy_theories/?page=entire) by Alexander Zaitchik—Southern Poverty Leadership
Conference—Alternet August 15, 2010

Mind control
Mind control (also known as brainwashing, coercive persuasion, mind abuse, thought control, or thought
reform) refers to a process in which a group or individual "systematically uses unethically manipulative methods to
persuade others to conform to the wishes of the manipulator(s), often to the detriment of the person being
manipulated".[1] The term has been applied to any tactic, psychological or otherwise, which can be seen as
subverting an individual's sense of control over their own thinking, behavior, emotions or decision making.
Theories of brainwashing and of mind control were originally developed to explain how totalitarian regimes
appeared to succeed in systematically indoctrinating prisoners of war through propaganda and torture techniques.
These theories were later expanded and modified, by psychologists including Margaret Singer, to explain a wider
range of phenomena, especially conversions to new religious movements (NRMs). A third-generation theory
proposed by Ben Zablocki focused on the utilization of mind control to retain members of NRMs and cults to
convert them to a new religion. The suggestion that NRMs use mind control techniques has resulted in scientific and
legal controversy.

The Korean War and the origin of brainwashing

The Oxford English Dictionary records its earliest known English-language usage of brainwashing in an article by
Edward Hunter in New Leader published on 7 October 1950. During the Korean War, Hunter, who worked at the
time both as a journalist and as a U.S. intelligence agent, wrote a series of books and articles on the theme of Chinese
brainwashing.[2]
The Chinese term 洗腦 (xǐ năo, literally "wash brain")[3] was originally used to describe methodologies of coercive
persuasion used under the Maoist regime in China, which aimed to transform individuals with a reactionary
imperialist mindset into "right-thinking" members of the new Chinese social system.[4] To that end the regime
developed techniques that would break down the psychic integrity of the individual with regard to information
processing, information retained in the mind and individual values. Chosen techniques included dehumanizing of
individuals by keeping them in filth, sleep deprivation, partial sensory deprivation, psychological harassment,
inculcation of guilt and group social pressure. The term punned on the Taoist custom of "cleansing/washing the
heart" (洗心, xǐ xīn) prior to conducting certain ceremonies or entering certain holy places.
Hunter and those who picked up the Chinese term used it to explain why, unlike in earlier wars, a relatively high
percentage of American GIs defected to the enemy side after becoming prisoners-of-war. It was believed that the
Mind control 136

Chinese in North Korea used such techniques to disrupt the ability of captured troops to effectively organize and
resist their imprisonment.[5] British radio operator Robert W. Ford[6] [7] and British army Colonel James Carne also
claimed that the Chinese subjected them to brainwashing techniques during their war-era imprisonment.
After the war, two studies of the repatriation of American prisoners of war by Robert Jay Lifton[8] and by Edgar
Schein[9] concluded that brainwashing (called "thought reform" by Lifton and "coercive persuasion" by Schein) had
a transient effect. Both researchers found that the Chinese mainly used coercive persuasion to disrupt the ability of
the prisoners to organize and maintain morale and hence to escape. By placing the prisoners under conditions of
physical and social deprivation and disruption, and then by offering them more comfortable situations such as better
sleeping quarters, better food, warmer clothes or blankets, the Chinese did succeed in getting some of the prisoners
to make anti-American statements. Nevertheless, the majority of prisoners did not actually adopt Communist beliefs,
instead behaving as though they did in order to avoid the plausible threat of extreme physical abuse. Both researchers
also concluded that such coercive persuasion succeeded only on a minority of POWs, and that the end-result of such
coercion remained very unstable, as most of the individuals reverted to their previous condition soon after they left
the coercive environment. In 1961 they both published books expanding on these findings. Schein published
Coercive Persuasion[10] and Lifton published Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism.[11] More recent
writers including Mikhail Heller have suggested that Lifton's model of brainwashing may throw light on the use of
mass propaganda in other communist states such as the former Soviet Union.[12]
In a summary published in 1963, Edgar Schein gave a background history of the precursor origins of the
brainwashing phenomenon:
Thought reform contains elements which are evident in Chinese culture (emphasis on interpersonal
sensitivity, learning by rote and self-cultivation); in methods of extracting confessions well known in the
Papal Inquisition (13th century) and elaborated through the centuries, especially by the Russian secret
police; in methods of organizing corrective prisons, mental hospitals and other institutions for producing
value change; in methods used by religious sects, fraternal orders, political elites or primitive societies
for converting or initiating new members. Thought reform techniques are consistent with psychological
principles but were not explicitly derived from such principles.[13]
Mind-control theories from the Korean War era came under criticism in subsequent years. According to forensic
psychologist Dick Anthony, the CIA invented the concept of "brainwashing" as a propaganda strategy to undercut
communist claims that American POWs in Korean communist camps had voluntarily expressed sympathy for
communism. Anthony stated that definitive research demonstrated that fear and duress, not brainwashing, caused
western POWs to collaborate. He argued that the books of Edward Hunter (whom he identified as a secret CIA
"psychological warfare specialist" passing as a journalist) pushed the CIA brainwashing theory onto the general
public. He further asserted that for twenty years, starting in the early 1950s, the CIA and the Defense Department
conducted secret research (notably including Project MKULTRA) in an attempt to develop practical brainwashing
techniques, and that their attempt failed.[14]
The U.S. military and government laid charges of "brainwashing" in an effort to undermine detailed confessions
made by U.S. military personnel to war crimes, including biological warfare, against the Koreans. (The United States
and Biological Warfare: Secrets From the Early Cold War, by Stephen Endicott and Edward Hagerman at York
University, Toronto; Indiana University Press, 1998).

Cults and the shift of focus

After the Korean War, applications of mind control theories in the United States shifted in focus from politics to
religion. From the 1960s an increasing number of American youths started to come into contact with new religious
movements (NRM), and some who converted suddenly adopted beliefs and behaviors that differed greatly from
those of their families and friends; in some cases they neglected or even broke contact with their loved ones. In the
1970s the anti-cult movement applied mind control theories to explain these sudden and seemingly dramatic
Mind control 137

religious conversions.[15] [16] [17] The media was quick to follow suit,[18] and social scientists sympathetic to the
anti-cult movement, who were usually psychologists, developed more sophisticated models of brainwashing.[16]
While some psychologists were receptive to these theories, sociologists were for the most part skeptical of their
ability to explain conversion to NRMs.[19] In the years that followed, brainwashing controversies developed between
NRM members, various academic researchers, and cult critics.

Theories of mind control and religious conversion

Over the years various theories of conversion and member retention have been proposed that link mind control to
NRMs, and particularly those religious movements referred to as "cults" by their critics. These theories resemble the
original political brainwashing theories with some minor changes. Philip Zimbardo discusses mind control as "the
process by which individual or collective freedom of choice and action is compromised by agents or agencies that
modify or distort perception, motivation, affect, cognition and/or behavioral outcomes",[20] and he suggests that any
human being is susceptible to such manipulation.[21] In a 1999 book, Robert Lifton also applied his original ideas
about thought reform to Aum Shinrikyo, concluding that in this context thought reform was possible without
violence or physical coercion. Margaret Singer, who also spent time studying the political brainwashing of Korean
prisoners of war, agreed with this conclusion: in her book Cults in Our Midst she describes six conditions which
would create an atmosphere in which thought reform is possible.[22]
Approaching the subject from the perspective of neuroscience and social psychology, Kathleen Taylor suggests that
manipulation of the prefrontal cortex activates "brainwashing", rendering a person more susceptible to
black-and-white thinking.[23] Meanwhile, in Influence, Science and Practice, social psychologist Robert Cialdini
argues that mind control is possible through the covert exploitation of the unconscious rules that underlie and
facilitate healthy human social interactions. He states that common social rules can be used to prey upon the unwary.
Using categories, he offers specific examples of both mild and extreme mind control (both one on one and in
groups), notes the conditions under which each social rule is most easily exploited for false ends, and offers
suggestions on how to resist such methods.[24]

Deprogramming and the anti-cult movement

Both academic and non-academic critics of "destructive cults" have adopted and adapted the theories of Singer,
Lifton and other researchers from the inception of the anti-cult movement onwards. Such critics often argue that
certain religious groups use mind control techniques to unethically recruit and maintain members. Many of these
critics advocated or engaged in deprogramming as a method to liberate group members from apparent
"brainwashing". However the practice of coercive deprogramming fell out of favor in the West and was largely
superseded by exit counseling. Exit counselor Steven Hassan promotes what he calls the "BITE" model in his book
Releasing the Bonds: Empowering People to Think for Themselves (2000).[25] The BITE model describes various
controls over human behavior, information, thought and emotion.[25] Hassan claims that cults recruit and retain
members by using, among other things, systematic deception, behavior modification, the withholding of information,
and emotionally intense persuasion techniques (such as the induction of phobias). He refers to all of these techniques
collectively as "mind control".
Critics of mind control theories caution against the broader implications of these conversion models. In the 1998
Enquete Commission report on "So-called Sects and Psychogroups" in Germany, a review was made of the BITE
model. The report concluded that "control of these areas of action is an inevitable component of social interactions in
a group or community. The social control that is always associated with intense commitment to a group must
therefore be clearly distinguished from the exertion of intentional, methodical influence for the express purpose of
manipulation."[26] Indeed virtually all of these models share the notion that converts are in fact innocent "victims" of
mind-control techniques.[19] Hassan suggests that even the cult members manipulating the new converts may
themselves be sincerely misled people.[27] By considering NRM members innocent "victims" of psychological
Mind control 138

coercion these theories open the door for psychological treatments.

Sociologists including Eileen Barker have criticized theories of conversion precisely because they function to justify
costly interventions such as deprogramming or exit counseling.[28] For similar reasons, Barker and other scholars
have criticized mental health professionals like Margaret Singer for accepting lucrative expert witness jobs in court
cases involving NRMs.[28] Singer was perhaps the most publicly notable scholarly proponent of "cult" brainwashing
theories, and she became the focal point of the relative demise of those same theories within her discipline.[16]

Scholarly debate
James Richardson observes that if the NRMs had access to powerful brainwashing techniques, one would expect that
NRMs would have high growth rates, yet in fact most have not had notable success in recruitment. Most adherents
participate for only a short time, and the success in retaining members is limited.[29] For this and other reasons,
sociologists including David Bromley and Anson Shupe consider the idea that "cults" are brainwashing American
youth to be "implausible."[30] In addition to Bromley, Thomas Robbins, Dick Anthony, Eileen Barker, Newton
Maloney, Massimo Introvigne, John Hall, Lorne Dawson, Anson Shupe, Gordon Melton, Marc Galanter, Saul
Levine (amongst other scholars researching NRMs) have argued and established to the satisfaction of courts, of
relevant professional associations and of scientific communities that there exists no scientific theory, generally
accepted and based upon methodologically sound research, that supports the brainwashing theories as advanced by
the anti-cult movement.[31]
Some sociologists disagree with this consensus. Benjamin Zablocki sees strong indicators of mind control in some
NRMs and suggests that the concept should be researched without bias. Stephen A. Kent has also published several
articles about brainwashing.[32] [33] These scholars tend to see the APA's decision as one of no consensus, while what
Melton sees as a majority of scholars[34] may regard it as a rejection of brainwashing and of mind control as
legitimate theories.

Legal issues, the APA and DIMPAC

Since their inception, mind control theories have also been used in various legal proceedings against "cult" groups.
In 1980, ex-Scientologist Lawrence Wollersheim successfully sued the Church of Scientology in a California court
which decided in 1986 that church practices had been conducted in a psychologically coercive environment and so
were not protected by religious freedom guarantees. Others who have tried claiming a "brainwashing defense" for
crimes committed while purportedly under mind control, including Patty Hearst, Steven Fishman and Lee Boyd
Malvo, have not been successful.
In 1983, the American Psychological Association (APA) asked Margaret Singer to chair a taskforce called the APA
Task Force on Deceptive and Indirect Techniques of Persuasion and Control (DIMPAC) to investigate whether
brainwashing or "coercive persuasion" did indeed play a role in recruitment by such movements. Before the
taskforce had submitted its final report, the APA submitted on February 10, 1987 an amicus curiæ brief in an
ongoing court case related to brainwashing. The brief repudiated Singer's theories on "coercive persuasion" and
suggested that brainwashing theories were without empirical proof.[35] Afterward the APA filed a motion to
withdraw its signature from the brief, since Singer's final report had not been completed.[36] However, on May 11,
1987, the APA's Board of Social and Ethical Responsibility for Psychology (BSERP) rejected the DIMPAC report
because the brainwashing theory espoused "lacks the scientific rigor and evenhanded critical approach necessary for
APA imprimatur", and concluded that "after much consideration, BSERP does not believe that we have sufficient
information available to guide us in taking a position on this issue."[37]
Two critical letters from external reviewers Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi and Jeffery D. Fisher accompanied the rejection
memo. The letters criticized "brainwashing" as an unrecognized theoretical concept and Singer's reasoning as so
flawed that it was "almost ridiculous."[38] After her findings were rejected, Singer sued the APA in 1992 for
"defamation, frauds, aiding and abetting and conspiracy" and lost.[39] Benjamin Zablocki and Alberto Amitrani
Mind control 139

interpreted the APA's response as meaning that there was no unanimous decision on the issue either way, suggesting
also that Singer retained the respect of the psychological community after the incident.[40] Yet her career as an expert
witness ended at this time. She was meant to appear with Richard Ofshe in the 1990 U.S. v. Fishman Case, in which
Steven Fishman claimed to have been under mind control by the Church of Scientology in order to defend himself
against charges of embezzlement, but the courts disallowed her testimony. In the eyes of the court, "neither the APA
nor the ASA has endorsed the views of Dr. Singer and Dr. Ofshe on thought reform".[41]
After that time U.S. courts consistently rejected testimonies about mind control and manipulation, stating that such
theories were not part of accepted mainline science according to the Frye Standard (Anthony & Robbins 1992: 5-29)
of 1923.

An expanding concept
Mind control is a general term for a number of controversial theories proposing that an individual's thinking,
behavior, emotions or decisions can, to a greater or lesser extent, be manipulated at will by outside sources.
According to sociologist James T. Richardson, some of the concepts of brainwashing have spread to other fields and
are applied "with some success" in contexts unrelated to the earlier cult controversies, such as custody battles and
child sexual abuse cases, "where one parent is accused of brainwashing the child to reject the other parent, and in
child sex abuse cases where one parent is accused of brainwashing the child to make sex abuse accusations against
the other parent".[42] [43]
Stephen A. Kent analyzes and summarizes the use of the brainwashing meme by non-sociologists in the period
2000-2007, finding the term useful not only in the context of "New Religions/Cults", but equally under the headings
of "Teen Behavior Modification Programs; Terrorist Groups; Dysfunctional Corporate Culture; Interpersonal
Violence; and Alleged Chinese Governmental Human Rights Violations Against Falun Gong".[44]

References
[1] Langone, Michael. "Cults: Questions and Answers" (http:/ / www. csj. org/ studyindex/ studycult/ cultqa. htm). www.csj.org. International
Cultic Studies Association. . Retrieved 2009-12-27. "Mind control (also referred to as 'brainwashing,' 'coercive persuasion,' 'thought reform,'
and the 'systematic manipulation of psychological and social influence') refers to a process in which a group or individual systematically uses
unethically manipulative methods to persuade others to conform to the wishes of the manipulator(s), often to the detriment of the person being
manipulated."
[2] Marks, John (1979). "8. Brainwashing" (http:/ / www. druglibrary. org/ schaffer/ lsd/ marks8. htm). The Search for the Manchurian
Candidate: The CIA and Mind Control (http:/ / www. druglibrary. org/ schaffer/ LSD/ marks. htm). New York: Times Books.
ISBN 0-8129-0773-6. . Retrieved 2008-12-30. "In September 1950, the Miami News published an article by Edward Hunter titled "
'Brain-Washing' Tactics Force Chinese into Ranks of Communist Party." It was the first printed use in any language of the term
"brainwashing," which quickly became a stock phrase in Cold War headlines. Hunter, a CIA propaganda operator who worked under cover as
a journalist, turned out a steady stream of books and articles on the subject."
[3] Chinese English Dictionary (http:/ / www. mdbg. net/ chindict/ chindict. php?page=worddict& wdrst=0& wdqb=æ´—è ¦)
[4] Taylor, Kathleen (2006). Brainwashing: The Science of Thought Control (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=D3tYeMLc4hQC). Oxford: Oxford
University Press. p. 5. ISBN 9780199204786. . Retrieved 2010-07-02.
[5] Browning, Michael (2003-03-14). "Was Kidnapped Utah Teen Brainwashed?". Palm Beach Post (Palm Beach). ISSN 1528-5758. "During
the Korean War, captured American soldiers were subjected to prolonged interrogations and harangues by their captors, who often worked in
relays and used the "good-cop, bad-cop" approach, alternating a brutal interrogator with a gentle one. It was all part of "Xi Nao," washing the
brain. The Chinese and Koreans were making valiant attempts to convert the captives to the communist way of thought."
[6] Ford RC (1990). Captured in Tibet. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-581570-X.
[7] Ford RC (1997). Wind Between the Worlds: Captured in Tibet. SLG Books. ISBN 0-9617066-9-4.
[8] Lifton, Robert J. (1954-04). "Home by Ship: Reaction Patterns of American Prisoners of War Repatriated from North Korea" (http:/ / ajp.
psychiatryonline. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 110/ 10/ 732). American Journal of Psychiatry 110 (10): 732–739.
doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.110.10.732 (inactive 2008-06-25). PMID 13138750. . Retrieved 2008-03-30. Cited in Thought Reform and the
Psychology of Totalism
[9] Schein, Edgar (1956-05). "The Chinese Indoctrination Program for Prisoners of War: A Study of Attempted Brainwashing". Psychiatry 19
(2): 149–172. PMID 13323141. Cited in Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism
Mind control 140

[10] Schein, Edgar H. (1971). Coercive Persuasion: A Socio-Psychological Analysis of the "Brainwashing" of American Civilian Prisoners by
the Chinese Communists. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-00613-1.
[11] Lifton, RJ (1989) [1961]. Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism; a Study of "Brainwashing" in China. Chapel Hill: University of
North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-4253-2.
[12] Heller, Mikhail (1988). Cogs in the Soviet Wheel: The Formation of Soviet Man. Translated by David Floyd. London: Collins Harvill.
ISBN 0-00-272516-9. "Dr [Robert J.] Lifton draws attention to a fact of exceptional importance: the effect of 'brainwashing' and its methods is
felt even by those whom he calls the 'apparent resisters', those who seem not to succumb to the intoxication. This study showed that they do
assimilate what has been hammered into their brain but the effect comes only a certain time after their liberation, like the explosion of a
delayed-action bomb. It is not hard to imagine the effect which 'education' and 're-education' has upon the Soviet citizen, who is exposed from
the day he is born to 'brainwashing', bombarded every day, round the clock, by all the means of propaganda and persuasion." Heller's footnote
explains the phrase "the means of propaganda and persuasion" as "[t]he official name for the means of communication in the USSR. The
accepted abbreviation is SMIP [literally from the Russian phrase meaning 'means of mass information and propaganda']."
[13] Schein, Edgar Henry (1963). "Brainwashing". Encyclopædia Britannica. 4 (14th (revised) ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.. p. 91.
[14] Anthony, Dick (1999). "Pseudoscience and Minority Religions: An Evaluation of the Brainwashing Theories of Jean-Marie". Social Justice
Research 12 (4): 421–456. doi:10.1023/A:1022081411463.
[15] Melton, J. Gordon (1999-12-10). "Brainwashing and the Cults: The Rise and Fall of a Theory" (http:/ / www. cesnur. org/ testi/ melton.
htm). CESNUR: Center for Studies on New Religions. . Retrieved 2009-06-15. "In the United States at the end of the 1970s, brainwashing
emerged as a popular theoretical construct around which to understand what appeared to be a sudden rise of new and unfamiliar religious
movements during the previous decade, especially those associated with the hippie street-people phenomenon."
[16] Bromley, David G. (1998). "Brainwashing". In William H. Swatos Jr. (Ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Walnut Creek, CA:
AltaMira. pp. 61–62. ISBN 978-0761989561.
[17] Barker, Eileen: New Religious Movements: A Practical Introduction. London: Her Majesty's Stationery office, 1989.
[18] Wright, Stewart A. (1997). "Media Coverage of Unconventional Religion: Any 'Good News' for Minority Faiths?" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/
3512176). Review of Religious Research (Review of Religious Research, Vol. 39, No. 2) 39 (2): 101–115. doi:10.2307/3512176. .
[19] Barker, Eileen (1986). "Religious Movements: Cult and Anti-Cult Since Jonestown". Annual Review of Sociology 12: 329–346.
doi:10.1146/annurev.so.12.080186.001553.
[20] Zimbardo, Philip G. (November 2002). "Mind Control: Psychological Reality or Mindless Rhetoric?" (http:/ / www. icsahome. com/
infoserv_articles/ zimbardo_philip_mindcontrol. htm). Monitor on Psychology. . Retrieved 2008-12-30. "Mind control is the process by which
individual or collective freedom of choice and action is compromised by agents or agencies that modify or distort perception, motivation,
affect, cognition and/or behavioral outcomes. It is neither magical nor mystical, but a process that involves a set of basic social psychological
principles. Conformity, compliance, persuasion, dissonance, reactance, guilt and fear arousal, modeling and identification are some of the
staple social influence ingredients well studied in psychological experiments and field studies. In some combinations, they create a powerful
crucible of extreme mental and behavioral manipulation when synthesized with several other real-world factors, such as charismatic,
authoritarian leaders, dominant ideologies, social isolation, physical debilitation, induced phobias, and extreme threats or promised rewards
that are typically deceptively orchestrated, over an extended time period in settings where they are applied intensively. A body of social
science evidence shows that when systematically practiced by state-sanctioned police, military or destructive cults, mind control can induce
false confessions, create converts who willingly torture or kill 'invented enemies,' and engage indoctrinated members to work tirelessly, give
up their money—and even their lives—for 'the cause.'".
[21] Zimbardo, P (1997). "What messages are behind today's cults?" (http:/ / www. csj. org/ studyindex/ studycult/ study_zimbar. htm). Monitor
on Psychology: 14. .
[22] Cults in Our Midst: The Continuing Fight Against Their Hidden Menace (http:/ / www. refocus. org/ singerne. html), Margaret Thaler
Singer, Jossey-Bass, publisher, April 2003, ISBN 0-78796-741-6
[23] Taylor, Kathleen Eleanor (December 2004). [[Brainwashing: The Science of Thought Control|Brainwashing: The Dream of Mind Control
(http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=BIuju20yhDkC& dq)]]. Oxford University Press. p. 215. ISBN 9780192804969. . Retrieved 2009-07-30.
"Your susceptibility to brainwashing (and other forms of influence) has much to do with the state of your brain. This will depend in part on
your genes: research suggests that prefrontal function is substantially affected by genetics. Low educational achievement, dogmatism, stress,
and other factors which affect prefrontal function encourage simplistic, black-and-white thinking. If you have neglected your neurons, failed
to stimulate your synapses, obstinately resisted new experiences, or hammered your prefrontal cortex with drugs (including alcohol), lack of
sleep, rollercoaster emotions, or chronic stress, you may well be susceptible to the totalist charms of the next charismatic you meet. This is
why so many young people baffle their more phlegmatic elders by joining cults, developing obsessions with fashions and celebrities, and
forming intense attachments to often unsuitable role models."
[24] Cialdini, Robert B. (2007). Influence: the psychology of persuasion. London: Collins. pp. epilogue. ISBN 0-06-124189-X.
[25] Releasing the Bonds: Empowering People to Think for Themselves, Steven Hassan, Ch. 2, Aitan Publishing Company, 2000
[26] Final Report of the Enquete Commission on "So-called Sects and Psychogroups" New Religious and Ideological Communities and
Psychogroups in the Federal Republic of Germany (http:/ / www. agpf. de/ Bundestag-Enquete-english. pdf)
[27] Hassan, Steven (1988). Combatting cult mind control. Rochester, Vt: Park Street Press. ISBN 0-89281-243-5.
[28] Barker, Eileen (1995). "The Scientific Study of Religion? You Must Be Joking!" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 1386880). Journal for the
Scientific Study of Religion (Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, Vol. 34, No. 3) 34 (3): 287–310. doi:10.2307/1386880. .
Mind control 141

[29] Richardson, James T. (1985-06). "The active vs. passive convert: paradigm conflict in conversion/recruitment research" (http:/ / www. jstor.
org/ pss/ 1386340). Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion (Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, Vol. 24, No. 2) 24 (2): 163–179.
doi:10.2307/1386340. . Retrieved 2008-07-05.
[30] Brainwashing by Religious Cults (http:/ / www. religioustolerance. org/ brain_wa. htm)
[31] CESNUR - Brainwashing and Mind Control Controversies (http:/ / www. cesnur. org/ testi/ gandow_eng. htm)
[32] Brainwashing and Re-Indoctrination Programs in the Children of God/The Family (http:/ / www. nospank. net/ kent. htm)
[33] Dr. Stephen A. Kent (1997-11-07) (PDF). Brainwashing in Scientology's Rehabilitation Force (RPF) (http:/ / www. hamburg. de/ servlet/
contentblob/ 109286/ brainwashing-pdf/ data. pdf). . Retrieved 2008-08-16.
[34] Melton, J. Gordon (10 December 1999). "Brainwashing and the Cults: The Rise and Fall of a Theory" (http:/ / www. cesnur. org/ testi/
melton. htm). CESNUR: Center for Studies on New Religions. . Retrieved 5 September 2009. "Since the late 1980s, though a significant
public belief in cult-brainwashing remains, the academic community-including scholars from psychology, sociology, and religious
studies-have shared an almost unanimous consensus that the coercive persuasion/brainwashing thesis proposed by Margaret Singer and her
colleagues in the 1980s is without scientific merit."
[35] CESNUR - APA Brief in the Molko Case. [t]he methodology of Drs. Singer and Benson has been repudiated by the scientific community [...
the hypotheses advanced by Singer comprised] little more than uninformed speculation, based on skewed data [...] [t]he coercive persuasion
theory ... is not a meaningful scientific concept. [...] The theories of Drs. Singer and Benson are not new to the scientific community. After
searching scrutiny, the scientific community has repudiated the assumptions, methodologies, and conclusions of Drs. Singer and Benson. The
validity of the claim that, absent physical force or threats, "systematic manipulation of the social influences" can coercively deprive
individuals of free will lacks any empirical foundation and has never been confirmed by other research. The specific methods by which Drs.
Singer and Benson have arrived at their conclusions have also been rejected by all serious scholars in the field. (http:/ / www. cesnur. org/
testi/ molko_brief. htm)
[36] Motion of the American Psychological Association to Withdraw as Amicus Curiae (http:/ / www. rickross. com/ reference/ apologist/
apologist25. html)
[37] American Psychological Association Board of Social and Ethical Responsibility for Psychology (BSERP) (1987-05-11). "Memorandum"
(http:/ / www. cesnur. org/ testi/ APA. htm). CESNUR: APA Memo of 1987 with Enclosures. CESNUR Center for Studies on New Religion. .
Retrieved 2008-11-18. "BSERP thanks the Task Force on Deceptive and Indirect Methods of Persuasion and Control for its service but is
unable to accept the report of the Task Force. In general, the report lacks the scientific rigor and evenhanded critical approach necessary for
APA imprimatur."
[38] APA memo and two enclosures (http:/ / www. cesnur. org/ testi/ APA. htm)
[39] Case No. 730012-8 (http:/ / www. cesnur. org/ testi/ singer. htm) Margaret Singer v. American Psychological Association
[40] Amitrani, Alberto; Di Marzio R (2001). "Blind, or just don't want to see? Mind Control in New Religious Movements and the American
Psychological Association" (http:/ / www. csj. org/ infoserv_articles/ amitrani_alberto_apaandmindcontrol. htm). Cultic Studies Review. .
[41] Brainwashed! Scholars of Cults Accuse Each Other of Bad Faith, Lingua Franca, December 1998.
[42] Richardson, James T. Regulating Religion: Case Studies from Around the Globe, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers 2004, p. 16, ISBN
9780306478871.
[43] Oldenburg, Don (2003-11-21). "Stressed to Kill: The Defense of Brainwashing; Sniper Suspect's Claim Triggers More Debate" (http:/ /
www. crimlaw. org/ defbrief269. html), Washington Post, reproduced in Defence Brief, issue 269, published by Steven Skurka & Associates
[44] Kent, Stephen A. (2008). "Contemporary Uses of the Brainwashing Concept: 2000 to Mid-2007" (http:/ / www. icsahome. com/ logon/
elibdocview_new. asp?Subject=Contemporary+ Uses+ of+ the+ Brainwashing+ Concept:+ 2000+ to+ Mid-2007). Cultic Studies Review
(International Cultic Studies Association) 7 (2): 99–128. ISSN 1539-0152. . Retrieved 2010-02-09. "The brainwashing concept is sufficiently
useful that it continues to appear in a wide variety of legal, political, and social contexts. This article identifies those contexts by summarizing
its appearance in court cases, discussions about cults and former cult members, terrorists, and alleged victims of state repression between the
years 2000 and mid-2007. In creating this summary, we discover that a physiologist has examined the biochemical aspects of persons going
through brainwashing processes, and that (to varying degrees) some judges and others related to the judiciary have realized that people who
have been through these processes have impaired judgment and often need special counseling. Most dramatically, a new brainwashing
program may be operating in Communist China, a country whose political activities toward its own citizens in the late 1940s and 1950s
spawned so much of the initial brainwashing research.".
Mind control 142

Further reading
• Begich Nick (2006). Controlling the Human Mind. Anchorage, AK. ISBN 1-890693-54-5.
• Bowart, W.H. (1978). Operation Mind Control (http://www.scribd.com/doc/24531011/
Operation-Mind-Control). Dell.
• Esquerre Arnaud (2009) La manipulation mentale, Paris, Fayard.
• Langone MD (1993). Recovery from Cults: Help for Victims of Psychological and Spiritual Abuse. New York:
Norton. ISBN 0-393-31321-2.
• Lifton RJ (1989). Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism: A Study of "Brainwashing" in China. Chapel
Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-4253-2.
• Singer M et. al. (1986-11-01). "Report of the APA Task Force on Deceptive and Indirect Techniques of
Persuasion and Control (DIMPAC report)" (http://www.rickross.com/reference/apologist/apologist23.html).
American Psychological Association. Retrieved 2008-10-10.
• Streatfeild D (2008). Brainwash: The Secret History of Mind Control. New York: Picador. ISBN 0-312-42792-1.
• Zablocki, B (1997). "The Blacklisting of a Concept. The Strange History of the Brainwashing Conjecture in the
Sociology of Religion". Nova Religio 1 (1): 96–121. doi:10.1525/nr.1997.1.1.96.
• Zablocki, B (1998). "Exit Cost Analysis: A New Approach to the Scientific Study of Brainwashing" (http://
caliber.ucpress.net/doi/pdf/10.1525/nr.1998.1.2.216) (PDF). Nova Religio 2 (1): 216–249.
doi:10.1525/nr.1998.1.2.216. Retrieved 2008-10-10.
• Zimbardo P (2002-11-01). "Mind Control: Psychological Reality or Mindless Rhetoric?" (http://www.csj.org/
infoserv_articles/zimbardo_philip_mindcontrol.htm). Monitor on Psychology.

Pseudoarchaeology

Erich von Däniken (left) and Graham Hancock (right) are two of the most widely published exponents of pseudoarchaeology.

Pseudoarchaeology, also known as alternative archaeology, fringe archaeology, fantastic archaeology, or cult
archaeology, refers to interpretations of the past from outside of the academic archaeological community, which
typically also reject the accepted scientific and analytical methods of the discipline.[1] [2] [3] These pseudoscientific
interpretations involve the use of archaeological data to construct theories about the past that differ radically from
those of mainstream academic archaeology.
There is no one singular pseudoarchaeological theory, but many different interpretations of the past that are at odds
from those developed by academics. Some of these revolve around the idea that prehistoric and ancient human
societies were aided in their development by intelligent extraterrestrial life, an idea most notably propagated by
Swiss author Erich von Däniken in books such as Chariots of the Gods? (1968). Others instead hold that there were
human societies in the ancient period that were significantly technologically advanced, such as Atlantis, and this idea
has been propagated by figures like Graham Hancock in his Fingerprints of the Gods (1995).
Many alternative archaeologies have been adopted by religious groups. Fringe archaeological ideas such as
Pyramidology have been embraced by religions ranging from the British Israelites to the Theosophists. Other
alternative archaeologies include those that have been adopted by members of New Age and contemporary Pagan
Pseudoarchaeology 143

belief systems. These include the Great Goddess hypothesis, propagated by Marija Gimbutas, which argues that
prehistoric Europeans worshipped a single female monotheistic deity—and various theories associated with the Earth
mysteries movement, such as the concept of ley lines.
Academic archaeologists have heavily criticised pseudoarchaeology, with one of the most vocal critics, John R.
Cole, characterising them as relying on "sensationalism, misuse of logic and evidence, misunderstanding of scientific
method, and internal contradictions in their arguments."[4] The relationship between alternative and academic
archaeologies has been compared to the relationship between intelligent design theories and evolutionary biology by
some archaeologists.[5]

Etymology
Various different terms have been employed to refer to these non-academic interpretations of archaeology. During
the 1980s, the term "cult archaeology" was used by figures like John R. Cole (1980)[6] and William H. Stiebing Jr
(1987).[7] In the 2000s, the term "alternative archaeology" began to be instead applied by academics like Tim
Sebastion (2001),[8] Robert J. Wallis (2003),[9] Cornelius Holtorf (2006),[10] and Gabriel Moshenka (2008).[11]
Garrett F. Fagan and Kenneth L. Feder (2006) however claimed this term was only chosen because it "imparts a
warmer, fuzzier feel" that "appeals to our higher ideals and progressive inclinations."[12] They argued that the term
"pseudoarchaeology" was far more appropriate,[13] a term also used by other prominent academic and professional
archaeologists such as Colin Renfrew (2006).[14]
Other academic archaeologists have chosen to use other terms to refer to these interpretations. G. Daniel (1977) used
the derogative "bullshit archaeology",[15] and similarly the academic Willian H. Stiebing Jr. noted that there were
certain terms used for pseudoarchaeology that were heard "in the privacy of professional archaeologists' homes and
offices but which cannot be mentioned in polite society."[16]

Characteristics
William H. Stiebing Jr argued that despite their many differences, there were a set of core characteristics that almost
all pseudoarchaeological interpretations shared. He believed that because of this, pseudoarchaeology could be
categorised as a "single phenomenon." He went on to identify three core commonalities of pseudeoarchaeological
theories: 1) the unscientific nature of its method and evidence, 2) its tendency to "provide simple, compact answers
to complex, difficult issues," and 3) its tendency to present itself as being persecuted by the archaeological
establishment, accompanied by an ambivalent attitude towards the scientific ethos of the Enlightenment.[17] This
idea that there are core characteristics of pseudoarchaeologies is shared by other academics.[18]

Lack of scientific method

Academic critics have pointed out that pseudoarchaeologists typically neglect to use the scientific method. Instead of
testing the evidence to see what hypotheses it fits, pseudoarchaeologists "press-gang" the archaeological data to fit a
"favored conclusion" that is often arrived at through hunches, intuition, or religious or nationalist dogma.[19] [20]
Different pseudoarchaeological groups hold a variety of basic assumptions which are typically unscientific: the Nazi
pseudoarchaeologists for instance took the cultural superiority of the ancient Aryan race as a basic assumption,
whilst Judeo-Christian Fundamentalist pseudoarchaeologists conceive of the Earth as only being 10,000 years old
and Hindu Fundamentalist pseudoarchaeologists believe that the Homo sapiens species is much older than the
100,000 years old it has been shown to be by archaeologists.[21] Despite this, many of pseudoarchaeology's
proponents claim that they reached their conclusions using scientific techniques and methods, even when it is
demonstratable that they have not.[22] [23]
Academic archaeologist John R. Cole believed that most pseudoarchaeologists do not understand how scientific
investigation works, and that they instead believe it to be a "simple, catastrophic right versus wrong battle" between
Pseudoarchaeology 144

contesting theories.[24] It was because of this failure to understand the scientific method, he argued, that the entire
pseudoarchaeological approach to their arguments was faulty. He went on to argue that most pseudoarchaeologists
do not consider alternate explanations to that which they want to propagate, and that their "theories" were typically
just "notions", not having sufficient supporting evidence to allow them to be considered "theories" in the scientific,
academic meaning of the word.[25]
Commonly lacking scientific evidence, pseudoarchaeologists typically use other forms of evidence to support their
arguments. For instance, they often make use of "generalized cultural comparisons," taking various artefacts and
monuments from one society, and highlighting similarities with those of another to support a conclusion that both
had a common source—typically an ancient lost civilisation like Atlantis, Mu, or an extraterrestrial influence.[26]
This takes the different artefacts or monuments entirely out of their original contexts, something which is anathema
to academic archaeologists, for whom context is of the utmost importance.[27]
Another form of evidence used by a number of pseudoarchaeologists is the interpretation of various myths as
reflecting historical events, but in doing so these myths are often taken out of their cultural contexts.[28] For instance,
pseudoarchaeologist Immanuel Velikovsky claimed that the myths of migrations and war gods in the Central
American Aztec civilisation represented a cosmic catastrophe that occured in the 7th and 8th centuries BCE.[29] This
was criticised by academic archaeologist William H. Stiebing Jr., who noted that such myths only developed in the
12th to the 14th centuries CE, over a millennia after Velikovsky claimed that the events had occured, and that the
Aztec society itself had not even developed by the 7th century BCE.[30]

Opposition to the archaeological establishment

"[Academics] have formed a massive and global network through universities, museums, institutes, societies and foundations. And
this immense powerhouse and clearing-house of knowledge has presented their dogma of history to the general public totally
unhindered and unchallenged from the outside... On a more sinister note: now this "church of science" has formed a network of
watchdog organisations such as CSICOP and The Skeptical Society [sic] (to name but a few) in order to act as the gatekeepers of the
truth (as they see it), ready to come down like the proverbial ton of bricks on all those whom they perceive as "frauds," "charlatans,"
and "pseudo-scientists" - in short, heretics."
[31]
Pseudoarchaeologist Robert Bauval on his views of academia (2000)

Pseudoarchaeologists typically present themselves as being underdogs facing the much larger archaeological
establishment.[32] [33] [34] They often use language which disparages academics and dismisses them as being
unadventurous, spending all their time in dusty libraries and refusing to challenge the orthodoxies of the
establishment lest they lose their jobs. In some more extreme examples, pseudoarchaeologists have accused
academic archaeologists of being members of a widespread conspiracy to hide the truth about history from the
public.[35] When academics challenge pseudoarchaeologists and criticise their theories, many pseudoarchaeologists
see it as further evidence that their own ideas are right, and that they are simply being suppressed by members of this
academic conspiracy.[36]
The prominent English archaeologist Colin Renfrew admitted that the archaeological establishment was often "set in
its ways and resistent to radical new ideas" but that this was not the reason why pseudoarchaeological theories were
outright rejected by academics.[37] Garrett G. Fagan expanded on this, noting how in the academic archaeological
community, "New evidence or arguments have to be thoroughly scrutinised to secure their validity... and
longstanding, well-entrenched positions will take considerable effort and particularly compelling data to overturn."
Fagan noted that pseudoarchaeological theories simply do not have sufficient evidence to back them up and allow
them to be accepted by professional archaeologists.[38]
Conversely, many pseudoarchaeologists, whilst criticising the academic archaeological establishment, also attempt
to get support from people with academic credentials and affiliations.[39] At times, they quote historical, and in most
cases dead academics to back up their arguments; for instance prominent pseudoarchaeologist Graham Hancock, in
his seminal Fingerprints of the Gods (1995), repeatedly notes that the eminent physicist Albert Einstein once
Pseudoarchaeology 145

remarked positively on the theory of Earth Crustal Displacement (a theory that has been abandoned by the academic
community but which Hancock has adopted).[40] As Fagan noted however, the fact that Einstein was a physicist and
not a geologist is not even mentioned by Hancock, nor is the fact that the understanding of Plate tectonics (which
came to disprove Earth Crustal Displacement), only came to light following Einstein's death.[41]

Nationalist motivations
Pseudoarchaeology is frequently motivated by nationalism (cf. Nazi archaeology) or a desire to prove a particular
religious (cf. Intelligent design), pseudohistorical, political, or anthropological theory. In many cases, an a priori
conclusion is established, and fieldwork is undertaken explicitly to corroborate the theory in detail.
Archaeologists distinguish their research from pseudoarchaeology by pointing to differences in research
methodology, including recursive methods, falsifiable theories, peer review, and a generally systematic approach to
collecting data. Though there is overwhelming evidence of cultural connections informing folk traditions about the
past,[42] objective analysis of folk archaeology—in anthropological terms of their cultural contexts and the cultural
needs they respond to—have been comparatively few. However, in this vein, Robert Silverberg located the
Mormon's use of Mound Builder culture within a larger cultural nexus[43] and the voyage of Madoc and "Welsh
Indians" was set in its changing and evolving sociohistorical contexts by G. Williams.[44]

Religious Fundamentalism
Many pseudoarchaeological theories are designed to back up the beliefs of particular religious groups.
Academic archaeologist John R. Cole, who chose to refer to such pseudoarchaeological interpretations as "cult
archaeology", believed that pseudoarchaeology itself had "many of the attributes, causes, and effects of religion."[45]

Description
Pseudoarchaeology can be practised intentionally or unintentionally. Archaeological frauds and hoaxes are
considered intentional pseudoarchaeology. Genuine archaeological finds may be unintentionally converted to
pseudoarchaeology through unscientific interpretation. (cf. Confirmation bias)
Especially in the past, but also in the present, pseudoarchaeology has been motivated by racism, especially when the
basic intent was to discount or deny the abilities of non-white peoples to make significant accomplishments in
astronomy, architecture, sophisticated technology, ancient writing, seafaring, and other accomplishments generally
identified as evidence of "civilization". Racism can be implied by attempts to attribute ancient sites and artifacts to
Lost Tribes, Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact, or even extraterrestrial intelligence rather than to the intelligence
and ingenuity of indigenous peoples.
Pseudoarchaeology is frequently motivated by nationalism (cf. Nazi archaeology) or a desire to prove a particular
religious (cf. Intelligent design), pseudohistorical, political, or anthropological theory. In many cases, an a priori
conclusion is established, and fieldwork is undertaken explicitly to corroborate the theory in detail.
Practitioners of pseudoarchaeology often rail against academic archaeologists and established scientific methods,
claiming that conventional science has overlooked critical evidence. Conspiracy theories may be invoked, in which
"the Establishment" colludes in suppressing evidence.
Archaeologists distinguish their research from pseudoarchaeology by pointing to differences in research
methodology, including recursive methods, falsifiable theories, peer review, and a generally systematic approach to
collecting data. Though there is overwhelming evidence of cultural connections informing folk traditions about the
past,[46] objective analyses of folk archaeology, in anthropological terms of the cultural contexts from which they
emerge and the cultural needs to which they respond, have been comparatively few, but in this vein Robert
Silverberg located the Mormon's use of Mound Builder culture within a larger cultural nexus[47] and the voyage of
Madoc and "Welsh Indians" was set in its changing and evolving sociohistorical contexts by G. Williams.[48]
Pseudoarchaeology 146

Countering the misleading "discoveries" of pseudoarchaeology binds academic archaeologists in a quandary,

described by Cornelius Holtorf[49] as whether to strive to disprove alternative approaches in a "crusading" approach
or to concentrate on better public understanding of the sciences involved; Holtorf suggested a third, relativist and
contextualised[50] approach, in identifying the social and cultural needs that both scientific and alternative
archaeologies address and in identifying the engagement with the material remains of the past in the present in terms
of critical understanding and dialogue with "multiple pasts", such as Barbara Bender explored for Stonehenge.[51] In
presenting the quest for truths as process rather than results, Holtorf quoted Gottfried Lessing (Eine Duplik, 1778):
"If God were to hold in his right hand all the truth and in his left the unique ever-active spur for truth,
although with the corollary to err forever, asking me to choose, I would humbly take his left and say
'Father, give; for the pure truth is for you alone!"
"Archaeological readings of the landscape enrich the experience of inhabiting or visiting a place," Holtorf asserted.
"Those readings may well be based on science but even non-scientific research contributes to enriching our
landscapes."[52] The question for opponents of folk archaeology is whether such enrichment is delusional.
Participatory "public" or "community" archaeology offers guided engagement.

In history
Though the archaeological report given by the fifth-century Socrates of Constantinople, in his Ecclesiastical History,
of St Helena's discovery of the True Cross may make her the patron saint of pseudoarchaeology to skeptics, it is clear
that the manipulation of archaeological sites and "finds" to assist propaganda and pseudohistory is not a phenomenon
simply of modern historicist culture.
In the mid-2nd century, those exposed by Lucian's sarcastic essay Alexander the false prophet [53] prepared an
archaeological "find" in Chalcedon to prepare a public for the supposed oracle they planned to establish at
Abonoteichus in Paphlagonia (Pearse, 2001[54] ):
"[I]n the temple of Apollo, which is the most ancient in Chalcedon, they buried bronze tablets which said that
very soon Asclepius, with his father Apollo, would move to Pontus and take up his residence at Abonoteichus.
The opportune discovery of these tablets caused this story to spread quickly to all Bithynia and Pontus, and to
Abonoteichus sooner than anywhere else."
At Glastonbury Abbey in 1291, at a time when King Edward I desired to emphasize his "Englishness" a fortunate
discovery was made: the coffin of King Arthur, unmistakably identified with an inscribed plaque. Arthur was
reinterred at Glastonbury in a magnificent ceremonial attended by the king and queen.

Examples

Nationalistic pseudoarchaeology
• The belief, commonly held by European settlers, that the mound builders were a long vanished non-Native
American people.
• The Kensington Runestone of Minnesota, held to prove Nordic Viking primacy in discovery of the Americas.
• Nazi archaeology, the Thule Society, and expeditions sent by the Ahnenerbe to research the existence of a
mythical Aryan race.
• The Bosnian pyramids project, which has projected that natural geological hills in Visoko are ancient pyramids.
• The Hill of Tara in Ireland, excavated by British Israelists who thought that the Irish were part of the Lost Tribes
of Israel and that the hill contained the Ark of the Covenant.
• Piltdown man.
• Neolithic hyperdiffusion from Egypt being responsible for influencing most of the major ancient civilizations of
the world in Asia, the Middle East, Europe, and particularly the ancient Native Americans. This includes Olmec
Pseudoarchaeology 147

alternative origin speculations.

• Jovan I. Deretić's serbocentric claims in the ancient history of the Old World.

Religiously-motivated pseudoarchaeology
• Repeated claims of the discovery of Noah's Ark on Mount Ararat or neighboring mountain ranges.
• Insistence that questionable artifacts such as the Los Lunas Decalogue Stone represent proof of the presence of a
pre-Columbian Semitic culture in America.
• Numerous spurious claims regarding archaeological evidence to support statements in the Book of Mormon that
three lost tribes of Israel settled in the Americas during pre-historic times.
• Various New Age assertions about Atlantis, Lemuria, and ancient root races derived from the writings of authors
such as 19th-century channeller Helena Blavatsky.

General pseudoarchaeology
• The work of 19th and early 20th century authors such as Ignatius Donnelly, Augustus Le Plongeon, James
Churchward, and Arthur Posnansky.
• The work of contemporary authors such as Erich von Däniken, Barry Fell, Zecharia Sitchin, Robert Bauval,
Adrian Gilbert, Frank Joseph, Graham Hancock, Colin Wilson, Michael Cremo, Immanuel Velikovsky, and
David Hatcher Childress.
• Lost continents such as Atlantis, Mu, or Lemuria, which are all contested by mainstream archaeologists and
historians as lacking critical physical evidence and general historical credibility.
• The ancient astronaut theory regarding Mayan ruler Pacal II.
• Speculation regarding pre-Columbian contact between Egypt and the Maya.
• Mayanism and other New Age beliefs about ancient civilizations.

Works of pseudoarchaeology
• Chariots of the Gods?
• Fingerprints of the Gods
• From Atlantis to the Sphinx

Legitimate archaeological sites often subject to pseudoarchaeological speculation

• Stonehenge
• The Great Pyramid
• The Sphinx
• Etruscan inscriptions
• Easter Island
• Teotihuacan
• Palenque
• Chichen Itza
• The Nazca lines
• The stone spheres of Costa Rica
Pseudoarchaeology 148

Academic archaeological responses

Pseudoarchaeological theories have come to be heavily criticised by academic and professional archaeologists.
Prominent academic archaeologist Colin Renfrew stated his opinion that it was appalling that pseudoarchaeologists
treated archaeological evidence in such a "frivolous and self-serving way", something he believed trivialised the
"serious matter" of the study of human origins.[55] Academics like John R. Cole,[56] Garrett G. Fagan and Kenneth L.
Feder[57] have argued that pseudoarchaeological intepretations of the past were based upon sensationalism,
self-contradiction, fallacious logic, manufactured or misinterpreted evidence, quotes taken out of context and
incorrect information. Fagan and Feder characterised such interpretations of the past as being "anti-reason and
anti-science" with some being "hyper-nationalistic, racist and hateful".[58] In turn, many pseudoarchaeologists have
dismissed academics as being close minded and not willing to consider theories other than their own.[59]
Many academic archaeologists have argued that the spread of alternative archaeological theories is a threat to the
general public's understanding of the past. Fagan was particularly scathing of television shows that presented
pseudoarchaeological theories to the general public, believing that they did so because of the difficulties in making
academic archaeological ideas comprehensible and interesting to the average viewer.[60] Renfrew however believed
that those television executives commissioning these documentaries knew that they were erroneous, and that they
had allowed them to be made and broadcast simply in the hope of "short-term financial gain".[61]
Fagan and Feder believed that it was not possible for academic archaeologists to successfully engage with
pseudoarchaeologists, remarking that "you cannot reason with unreason". Speaking from their own experiences, they
thought that attempted dialogues just became "slanging matches in which the expertise and motives of the critic
become the main focus of attention."[62] Fagan has maintained this idea elsewhere, remarking that arguing with
supporters of pseudoarchaeological theories was "pointless" because they denied logic. He noted that they included
those "who openly admitted to not having read a word written by a trained Egyptologist" but who at the same time
"were pronouncing how academic Egyptology was all wrong, even sinister."[63]

Conferences and anthologies

At the 1986 meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, its organizers, Kenneth Feder, Luanne Hudson and
Francis Harrold decided to hold a symposium to examine pseudoarchaeological beliefs from a variety of academic
standpoints, including archaeology, physical anthropology, sociology, history and psychology.[64] From this
symposium, an anthology was produced, entitled Cult Archaeology & Creationism: Understanding
Pseudoarchaeological Beliefs about the Past (1987).
At the 2002 annual meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America, a workshop was held on the topic of
pseudoarchaeology. It subsequently led to the publication of an academic anthology, Archaeological Fantasies: How
Pseudoarchaeology Misinterprets the Past and Misleads the Public (2006), which was edited by Garrett G.
Fagan.[65]

Inclusive attitudes
Academic archaeologist Cornelius Holtorf believed however that critics of alternative archaeologies like Fagan were
"opinionated and patronizing" towards alternative theories, and that purporting their views in such a manner was
damaging to the public's perception of archaeologists.[66] Holtorf highlighted that there were similarities between
academic and alternative archaeological interpretations, with the former taking some influence from the latter. As
evidence, he highlighted archaeoastronomy, which was once seen as a core component of fringe archaeological
interpretations before being adopted by mainstream academics.[67] He also noted that certain archaeological scholars,
like William Stukeley (1687-1765), Margaret Murray (1863-1963) and Marija Gimbutas (1921-1994) were seen as
significant figures to both academic and alternative archaeologists.[68] He came to the conclusion that a constructive
dialogue should be opened up between academic and alternative archaeologists.[69]
Pseudoarchaeology 149

References

Footnotes
[1] Holtorf 2005. p. 544.
[2] Fagan and Feder 2006. p. 720.
[3] Williams 1987.
[4] Cole 1980. p. 02.
[5] Fagan and Feder 2006. p. 721.
[6] Cole 1980.
[7] Stiebing Jr. 1987.
[8] Sebastion 2001.
[9] Wallis 2003.
[10] Holtorf 2005.
[11] Moshenka 2008.
[12] Fagan and Feder 2006. p. 720.
[13] Fagan and Feder 2006. p. 720.
[14] Renfrew 2006.
[15] Daniel 1977.
[16] Stiebing Jr 1987. p. 01.
[17] Stiebing Jr. 1987 p. 02.
[18] Such as Cole 1980. p. 05.
[19] Fagan and Feder 2006. p. 721.
[20] Fagan 2006b. p. 27.
[21] Fagan 2006b. p. 28.
[22] Fagan and Feder 2006. pp. 721-728.
[23] Harrold and Eve 1987. p. x.
[24] Cole 1980. p. 03.
[25] Cole 1980. pp. 05-06.
[26] Stiebing Jr. 1987 p. 02.
[27] Fagan 2006b. p. 26.
[28] Stiebing Jr. 1987 p. 03.
[29] Velikovsky 1950. pp. 253-54, 269.
[30] Stiebing Jr. 1987 p. 03.
[31] Quoted in Fagan 2006b. pp. 32.
[32] Cole 1980. p. 02.
[33] Fagan and Feder 2006. p. 721.
[34] Stiebing Jr. 1987 p. 02.
[35] Fagan 2006b. pp. 31-32.
[36] Fagan 2006b. p. 32.
[37] Renfrew 2006. p. xii.
[38] Fagan 2006b. p. 26.
[39] Fagan 2006b. p. 33.
[40] Hancock 1995. pp. 9-11, 468 and 471.
[41] Fagan 2006b. p. 34.
[42] D. Lowenthal, The Past is a Foreign Country (Cambridge University Press) 1985.
[43] Silverberg, Moundbuilders of Ancient America (Greenwich: New York Graphics Society) 1968.
[44] Williams, Madoc (Oxford University Press) 1987.
[45] Cole 1980. p. 03.
[46] D. Lowenthal, The Past is a Foreign Country (Cambridge University Press) 1985.
[47] Silverberg, Moundbuilders of Ancient America (Greenwich: New York Graphics Society) 1968.
[48] Williams, Madoc (Oxford University Press) 1987.
[49] Holtorf, "Beyond Crusades: How (Not) to Engage with Alternative Archaeologies", World Archaeology 37.4, Debates in "World
Archaeology" (December 2005:544-551).
[50] "We might want to remind ourselves of the truism that every past is the construct of a particular present-day context" (p. 548.
[51] Bender, Stonehenge, vol. 1 Making Space (Materializing Culture) , 1998.
[52] Holtorf 2005:548.
[53] http:/ / www. tertullian. org/ rpearse/ lucian/ lucian_alexander. htm
Pseudoarchaeology 150

[54] Translated and notes by A.M. Harmon, 1936, Published in Loeb Classical Library, 9 volumes, Greek texts and facing English translation:
Harvard University Press. This extract transcribed by Roger Pearse, 2001.
[55] Renfrew 2006. p. xvi.
[56] Cole 1980. p. 02.
[57] Fagan and Feder 2006. p. 720.
[58] Fagan and Feder 2006. p. 720.
[59] Cole 1980. p. 02.
[60] Fagan 2003.
[61] Renfrew 2006. p. xii.
[62] Fagan and Feder 2006. p. 721.
[63] Fagan 2006a. p. xvii.
[64] Harrold and Eve 1987. p. xi.
[65] Fagan 2006a. p. xvii.
[66] Holtorf 2005. p. 545.
[67] Holtorf 2005. p. 547.
[68] Holtorf 2005. p. 547.
[69] Holtorf 2005. p. 550.

Bibliography
Academic books
• Fagan, Garett G. (1990). Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries: Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology. London:
McGraw Hill.
• Wallis, Robert J. (2003). Shamans/Neo-Shamans: Ecstasy, Alternative Archaeologies and Contemporary Pagans.
London: Routledge.
Alternative archaeological books
• Hancock, Graham (1995). Fingerprints of the Gods. New York: Doubleday.
• Velikovsky, Immanuel (1950). Worlds in Collision. Garden City, New York: Doubleday.
• Von Däniken, Erich (1968). Chariots of the Gods? Unsolved Mysteries of the Past. New York: Putnam.
Academic anthology articles
• Fagan, Garrett G. (2006a). "Preface". Archaeological Fantasies: How Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents the Past
and Misleads the Public (Ed: Garrett G. Fagan) (Abingdon, UK and New York: Routledge): pp. xvii-xix.
• Fagan, Garrett G. (2006b). "Diagnosing Pseudoarchaeology". Archaeological Fantasies: How
Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents the Past and Misleads the Public (Ed: Garrett G. Fagan) (Abingdon, UK and
New York: Routledge): pp. 23-46.
• Flemming, Nic (2006). "The Attraction of Non-Rational Archaeological Hypotheses: The Individual and
Sociological Factors". Archaeological Fantasies: How Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents the Past and Misleads
the Public (Ed: Garrett G. Fagan) (Abingdon, UK and New York: Routledge): pp. 47-70.
• Harrold, Francis B. and Eve, Raymond A. (1987). "Preface". Cult Archaeology & Creationism: Understanding
Pseudoarchaeological Beliefs about the Past (Iowa: University of Iowa Press): pp. ix-xii.
• Renfrew, Colin (2006). "Foreword". Archaeological Fantasies: How Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents the Past
and Misleads the Public (Ed: Garrett G. Fagan) (Abingdon, UK and New York: Routledge): pp. xii-xvi.
• Sebastion, Tim (2001). "Alternative archaeology: has it happened?". A Permeability of Boundaries?: New
Approaches to the Archaeology of Art, Religion and Folklore (Oxford: British Archaeological Reports.):
pp. 125-135.
• Schadla-Hall, Tim (2004). "The Comforts of Unreason: The importance and relevence of alternative
archaeology". Public Archaeology (Ed: N. Merriman) (London: Routledge Press): pp. 255-271.
Pseudoarchaeology 151

• Stiebing Jr., William H. (1987). "The Nature and Dangers of Cult Archaeology". Cult Archaeology &
Creationism: Understanding Pseudoarchaeological Beliefs about the Past (Iowa: University of Iowa Press):
pp. 01-10.
• Williams, S. (1987). "Fantastic archaeology: What should we do about it?". Cult Archaeology & Creationism:
Understanding Pseudoarchaeological Beliefs about the Past (Iowa: University of Iowa Press).
Academic journal articles
• Cole, John R. (1980). "Cult Archaeology and Unscientific Method and Theory". Advances in Archaeological
Method and Theory Vol. 3: pp. 01-33.
• Fagan, Garrett G. and Feder, Kenneth L. (2006). "Crusading against straw men: an alternative view of alternative
archaeologies: response to Holtorf". World Archaeology Vol. 38(4) (Abingdon, UK): pp. 718-729.
• Holtorf, Cornelius (2005). "Beyond crusades: how (not) to engage with alternative archaeologies". World
Archaeology Vol. 37(4) (Abingdon, UK): pp. 544-551.
• Moshenka, Gabriel (2008). "'The Bible in Stone': Pyramids, Lost Tribes and Alternative Archaeologies". Public
Archaeology Vol. 7(1): pp. 5-16.
Popular archaeological articles
• Daniel, R. (1977). "The forgotten milestones and blind alleys of the past". Royal Anthropological Society News
33: pp. 03-06.
• Fagan, Garrett G. (2003). "Seductions of Pseudoarchaeology: Far Out Television" (http://www.archaeology.
org/0305/abstracts/tv.html). Archaeology Vol. 56, No. 3.
Online sites
• Fitzpatrick-Matthews, Keith and Doeser, James (2009). "Bad Archaeology" (http://www.badarchaeology.net/).
Bad Archaeology. Retrieved 13 March 2010.

References
• Gregory, Timothy E., " Pseudoarchaeology (http://isthmia.osu.edu/teg/hist306/lec31.htm)".
• Carroll, Robert Todd, " Pseudohistory (http://skepdic.com/pseudohs.html)". The Skeptic's Dictionary.
• " The Territory of Pseudoarchaeology (http://web.archive.org/web/20040408021507/cgi.sfu.ca/~museum/
landarch/index.cgi?pseudo)" SFU museum of Archaeology and Ethnology.
• Feder, Kenneth L., " Archaeological Institute hosts workshop session on Combating Pseudoarchaeology (http://
www.worldagesarchive.com/Reference_Links/Combating_Pseudoarchaeology.htm)". Skeptical Inquirer, May,
2002.
• G. G. Lagan, ed (2006). Archaeological Fantasies. How Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents the Past and Misleads
the Public. London/New York: Routledge.
• West, John Anthony, " An Open Letter to the Editors of Archaeology (http://www.grahamhancock.com/forum/
westJohn_archeaologyMag.php)". Archaeology, May/June 2003. [Special Section]
• Zimmerman, Larry J., and Richard A. Fox, Jr., " Fantastic Archaeology (http://www.usd.edu/anth/cultarch/
cultindex.html)".
• " Hall of Maat (http://www.hallofmaat.com/maat/index.php)": Weighing evidence for Alternative History,
pseudohistory, and pseudoarchaeology. Ma'at is the ancient Egyptian principle of justice and balance.
• " Archaeological Fantasies: How pseudoarchaeology misrepresents the past and misleads the public (http://
www.hallofmaat.com/modules.php?name=Articles&file=article&sid=97)"
• " Bad Archaeology (http://www.badarchaeology.net)" Keith Fitzpatrick-Matthews and James Doeser provide
resources for debunking the claims of pseudoarchaeology.
Pseudoarchaeology 152

External links
• Alternative archeology (http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Social_Sciences/Archaeology/Alternative//) at the
Open Directory Project
• Archaeological/Skeptical Criticisms of popular archeology (http://www.ramtops.co.uk)
• Criticisms of alternative geology (http://members.cox.net/pyrophyllite/wildside.shtml) such as pole shifts
• The Hall of Ma'at (http://www.hallofmaat.com)
• Bad Archaeology (http://www.badarchaeology.net), common examples of pseudoarcheology

Catastrophism
Catastrophism is the idea that Earth has been affected
in the past by sudden, short-lived, violent events,
possibly worldwide in scope.[1]
The dominant paradigm of modern geology, in
contrast, is uniformitarianism (also sometimes
described as gradualism), in which slow incremental
changes, such as erosion, create the Earth's appearance.
This view holds that the present is the key to the past,
and that all things continue as they were from the
beginning of the world. Recently a more inclusive and
integrated view of geologic events has developed,
Mount St. Helens, 9:00 am, May 17, 1980.
changing the scientific consensus to accept some
catastrophic events in the geologic past.

History

Creationist interpretations
Until the 19th century the dominant scientific beliefs in Europe were founded on the biblical narratives of Creation
and the universal deluge. Other ancient deluge myths have been discovered since then, explaining why the flood
story was "stated in scientific methods with surprising frequency among the Greeks", an example being Plutarch's
account of the Ogygian flood.[2]
Earth's history was viewed as the result of an accumulation of catastrophic events over a relatively short time period,
before the depth of geological time was appreciated. In this way they were able to explain the observations of early
geologists within the framework of a short Earth history.

Cuvier and the natural theologians

The leading scientific proponent of catastrophism in the early nineteenth century was the French anatomist and
paleontologist Georges Cuvier. His motivation was to explain the patterns of extinction and faunal succession that he
and others were observing in the fossil record. While he did speculate that the catastrophe responsible for the most
recent extinctions in Eurasia might have been the result of the inundation of low lying areas by the sea, he never
made any reference to Noah's flood.[3] Nor did he ever make any reference to divine creation as the mechanism by
which repopulation occurred following the extinction event. In fact Cuvier, influenced by the ideas of the
Enlightenment and the intellectual climate of the French revolution, avoided religious or metaphysical speculation in
his scientific writings.[4] Cuvier also believed that the stratigraphic record indicated that there had been several of
Catastrophism 153

these revolutions, which he viewed as recurring natural events, amid long intervals of stability during the history of
life on earth. This led him to believe the Earth was several million years old.[5]
By contrast in England, where natural theology was very influential during the early nineteenth century, a group of
geologists that included William Buckland and Robert Jameson would interpret Cuvier's work in a very different
way. Jameson translated the introduction Cuvier wrote for a collection of his papers on fossil quadrapeds that
discussed his ideas on castastrophic extinction into English and published it under the title 'Theory of the Earth'. He
added extensive editorial notes to the translation that explicitly linked the latest of Cuvier's revolutions with the
biblical flood, and the resulting essay was extremely influential in the English speaking world.[6] Buckland spent
much of his early career trying to demonstrate the reality of the biblical flood with geological evidence. He
frequently cited Cuvier's work even though Cuvier had proposed an inundation of limited geographic extent and
extended duration, and Buckland, to be consistent with the biblical account, was advocating a universal flood of
short duration.[7] Eventually, Buckland would abandon flood geology in favor of the glaciation theory advocated by
Louis Agassiz who had briefly been one of Cuvier's students. As a result of the influence of Jameson, Buckland, and
other advocates of natural theology, the nineteenth century debate over catastrophism took on religious overtones in
Britain that were not nearly as prominent elsewhere.[8]

The rise of uniformitarianism in geology

Uniformitarian explanations for the formation of sedimentary rock and an understanding of the immense stretch of
geological time, or as the concept came to be known Deep time, were found in the writing of James Hutton,
sometimes known as the father of geology, in the late 18th century. The geologist Charles Lyell built upon Hutton's
ideas during the first half of 19th century and amassed observations in support of the uniformitarian idea that the
Earth's features had been shaped by same geological processes that could be observed in the present acting gradually
over an immense period of time. Lyell presented his ideas in the influential three volume work, Principles of
Geology, published in the 1830s, which challenged theories about geological cataclysms proposed by proponents of
catastrophism like Cuvier and Buckland.[9]
From around 1850 to 1980, most geologists endorsed uniformitarianism ("The present is the key to the past") and
gradualism (geologic change occurs slowly over long periods of time) and rejected the idea that cataclysmic events
such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or floods of vastly greater power than those observed at the present time,
played any significant role in the formation of the Earth's surface. Instead they believed that the earth had been
shaped by the long term action of forces such as volcanism, earthquakes, erosion, and sedimentation, that could still
be observed in action today. In part, the geologists' rejection was fostered by their impression that the catastrophists
of the early nineteenth century believed that God was directly involved in determining the history of Earth. Some of
the theories about Catastrophism in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were connected with religion and
catastrophic origins were sometimes considered miraculous rather than natural events.[10]

Immanuel Velikovsky's views

In the 1950s, Immanuel Velikovsky propounded catastrophism in several popular books. He speculated that the
planet Venus is a former "comet" which was ejected from Jupiter and subsequently 3,500 years ago made two
catastrophic close passes by Earth, 52 years apart, and later interacted with Mars, which then had a series of near
collisions with Earth which ended in 687 B.C., before settling into its current orbit. Velikovsky used this to explain
the biblical plagues of Egypt, the biblical reference to the "Sun standing still" for a day (Joshua 10:12 & 13,
explained by changes in Earth's rotation), and the sinking of Atlantis. Scientists rejected Velikovsky's theories, often
quite passionately.[11]
Catastrophism 154

Current application
Neocatastrophism is the explanation of sudden extinctions in the palaeontological record by high magnitude, low
frequency events, as opposed to the more prevalent geomorphological thought which emphasises low magnitude,
high frequency events.[12]

Luis Alvarez impact event hypothesis

Over the past 25 years, however, a scientifically based catastrophism has gained wide acceptance with regard to
certain events in the distant past. One impetus for this change came from the publication of a historic paper by
Walter and Luis Alvarez in 1980. This paper suggested that a 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) asteroid struck Earth 65 million
years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period. The impact wiped out about 70% of all species, including the
dinosaurs, leaving behind the so-called K–T boundary. In 1990, a 180 kilometres (110 mi) candidate crater marking
the impact was identified at Chicxulub in the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico.
Since then, the debate about the extinction of the dinosaurs and other mass extinction events has centered on whether
the extinction mechanism was the asteroid impact, widespread volcanism (which occurred about the same time), or
some other mechanism or combination. Most of the mechanisms suggested are catastrophic in nature.
The observation of the Shoemaker-Levy 9 cometary collision with Jupiter illustrated that catastrophic events occur
as natural events.

Comparison to uniformitarianism
One of the key differences between catastrophism and uniformitarianism is that to function, uniformitarianism
requires the assumption of vast time-lines, whereas catastrophism can function with or without assumptions of long
timelines.
Today most geologists combine catastrophist and uniformitarianist standpoints, taking the view that Earth's history is
a slow, gradual story punctuated by occasional natural catastrophic events that have affected Earth and its
inhabitants.[13]

Moon-formation
Modern theories also suggest that Earth's anomalously large moon was formed catastrophically. In a paper published
in Icarus in 1975, William K. Hartmann and Donald R. Davis proposed that a stochastic catastrophic near-miss by a
large planetesimal early in Earth's formation approximately 4.5 billion years ago blew out rocky debris, remelted
Earth and formed the Moon, thus explaining the Moon's lesser density and lack of an iron core.[14] The impact theory
does have some faults; some computer simulations show the formation of a ring or multiple moons post impact, and
elements are not quite the same between the earth and moon.[15] [16] [17]

Notes
[1] "The Mother of All Floods?" Turney, C.S.M. and Brown, H. (2007) "Catastrophic early Holocene sea level rise, human migration and the
Neolithic transition in Europe." Quaternary Science Reviews, 26, 2036–2041
[2] King, pg. 450.
[3] McGowan, 'The Dragon Seekers' pp 3-6
[4] Rudwick, 'The Meaning of Fossils' pp 133-134
[5] Rudwick, pp 131
[6] Rudwick, pp. 133-135
[7] Rudwick, pp 135
[8] Rudwick, pp. 136-138
[9] Rudwick pp. 174-175
[10] Rudwick, The meaning of Fossils pp 174-179
Catastrophism 155

[11] Krystek, Lee. "Venus in the Corner Pocket: The Controversial Theories of Immanuel Velikovsky" (http:/ / www. unmuseum. org/ velikov.
htm). The Museum of Unnatural Mystery. . Retrieved 2007-12-14.
[12] Encyclopedia of Geomorphology, Andrew Goudie, p709
[13] The Columbia Encyclopedia Sixth Edition, uniformitarianism (http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 65/ un/ uniformi. html) © 2007 Columbia
University Press.
[14] Belbruno, E.; J. Richard Gott III (2005). "Where Did The Moon Come From?". The Astronomical Journal 129 (3): 1724–1745.
arXiv:astro-ph/0405372. Bibcode 2005AJ....129.1724B. doi:10.1086/427539.
[15] a b "Moonwalk". Geological Society of London. September 2009. http:/ / www. geolsoc. org. uk/ webdav/ site/ GSL/ shared/ pdfs/
Geoscientist/ Download%20PDF%20copy%20of%20Geoscientist%2019. 9%20September%202009. pdf. Retrieved 2010-03-01.
[16] a b Binder, A.B. (1974). "On the origin of the Moon by rotational fission". The Moon 11 (2): 53–76. doi:10.1007/BF01877794. http:/ /
adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1974Moon. . . 11. . . 53B. Retrieved 2007-04-12.
[17] Stevenson, D. J. (1987). "Origin of the moon–The collision hypothesis". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 15: 271–315.
doi:10.1146/annurev.ea.15.050187.001415. http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1987AREPS. . 15. . 271S. Retrieved 2007-04-12.

References
• King, Clarence, Catastrophism and Evolution, The American Naturalist, Vol. 11, No. 8. (Aug., 1877),
pp. 449–470.
• Lewin, R. (1993). Complexity, Dent, London, p. 75.
• Palmer, T. (1994) Catastrophism, Neocatastrophism and Evolution. Society for Interdisciplinary Studies in
association with Nottingham Trent University. ISBN 0-9514307-1-8 (SIS) ISBN 0-905488-20-2 (Nottingham
Trent University)
• Rudwick, Martin J.S. The Meaning of Fossils. The University of Chicago Press: Chicago 1972. ISBN
0-226-73103-0
• McGowan, Christopher The Dragon Hunters. Persus Publishing: Cambridge MA 2001. ISBN 0-7382-0282-7

External links
• Catastrophism and Mass Extinctions (http://www.pibburns.com/catastro/extinct.htm)
• The Fall and Rise of Catastrophism (http://science.ntu.ac.uk/life/staff/tp/fallc.htm)
• "The origin of the moon'. (http://www.psi.edu/projects/moon/moon.html)
• Catastrophism! Man, Myth and Mayhem in Ancient History and the Sciences (http://www.catastrophism.com/)
• Answers In Creation - Catastrophism Article (http://www.answersincreation.org/catastrophism.htm)
• Dictionary of the History of Ideas: (http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv4-56)
"Uniformitarianism and Catastrophism"
Psychohistory 156

Psychohistory
Psychohistory is the controversial study of the psychological motivations of historical events.[1] It combines the
insights of psychotherapy with the research methodology of the social sciences to understand the emotional origin of
the social and political behavior of groups and nations, past and present. Its subject matter is childhood and the
family (especially child abuse), and psychological studies of anthropology and ethnology.

Description
Psychohistory derives many of its insights from areas that are
perceived to be ignored by conventional historians as shaping factors
of human history, in particular, the effects of childbirth, parenting
practice, and child abuse.
The historical impact of incest, infanticide and child sacrifice are
considered. Psychohistory holds that human societies can change
between infanticidal and non-infanticidal practices and has coined the
term "early infanticidal childrearing" to describe abuse and neglect
observed by many anthropologists. Lloyd deMause, the pioneer of
psychohistory, has described a system of psychogenic modes (see
below) which describe the range of styles of parenting he has observed
historically and across cultures. Many anthropologists concur that "the
science of culture is independent of the laws of biology and
psychology".[2] And Émile Durkheim, whose contributions were
instrumental in the formation of sociology and anthropology, laid
down the principle: "The determining cause of a social fact should be
sought among social facts preceding and not among the states of Rembrandt's painting of the sacrifice of Isaac,
[3] from the Old Testament.
individual consciousness". Psychohistorians, on the other hand,
suggest that social behavior such as crime and war may be a
self-destructive re-enactment of earlier abuse and neglect; that unconscious flashbacks to early fears and destructive
parenting could dominate individual and social behavior.[4] [5]

Psychohistory is related to historical biography. Notable examples of psychobiographies are those of Lewis Namier,
who wrote about the British House of Commons, and Fawn Brodie, who wrote about Thomas Jefferson.
Science fiction author and scientist/science writer Isaac Asimov popularized the term in his famous "Foundation"
series of novels, though in his works the term is used fictionally for a mathematical discipline that can be used to
predict the general course of future history.
Psychohistory 157

Areas of psychohistorical study

There are three inter-related areas of psychohistorical study.[6]
1.- The History of Childhood - which looks at such questions as:
• How have children been raised throughout history
• How has the family been constituted
• How and why have practices changed over time
• The changing place and value of children in society over time
• How and why our views of child abuse and neglect have changed
2.- Psychobiography - which seeks to understand individual historical people and their motivations in history.
3.- Group Psychohistory - which seeks to understand the motivations of large groups, including nations, in history
and current affairs. In doing so, psychohistory advances the use of group-fantasy analysis of political speeches,
political cartoons and media headlines since the fantasy words therein offer clues to unconscious thinking and
behaviors.[6]

Emergence as a discipline
Sigmund Freud's well known work, Civilization and Its Discontents (1929), included an analysis of history based on
his theory of psychoanalysis.
Wilhelm Reich combined his psychoanalytic and political theories in his book The Mass Psychology of Fascism in
1933.
The psychologist and philosopher Erich Fromm wrote about the psychological motivation behind political ideology,
starting with The Fear of Freedom in 1941.
Its first academic use appeared in Erik Erikson's book Young Man Luther (1958), where the author called for a
discipline of "psycho-history" to examine the impact of human character on history.
Lloyd deMause developed a formal psychohistorical approach from 1974 onwards, and continues to be an influential
theorist in this field.

Independence as a discipline
DeMause and others have argued that psychohistory is a separate field of scholarly inquiry with its own particular
methods, objectives and theories, which set it apart from conventional historical analysis and anthropology. Some
historians, social scientists and anthropologists have, however, argued that their disciplines already describe
psychological motivation and that Psychohistory is not, therefore, a separate subject. Others have dismissed
deMause's theories and motives arguing that the emphasis given by Psychohistory to speculation on the
psychological motivations of people in history make it an undisciplined field of study. Doubt has also been cast on
the viability of the application of post-mortem psychoanalysis by Freud's followers.[7]
Psychohistorians maintain that the difference is one of emphasis and that, in conventional study, narrative and
description are central, while psychological motivation is hardly touched on.[8] For deMause, child abuse takes the
center stage. Psychohistorians accuse most anthropologists and ethnologists of being apologists for incest,
infanticide, cannibalism and child sacrifice.[9] They maintain that what constitutes child abuse is a matter of
objective fact, and that some of the practices which mainstream anthropologists apologize for (e.g., sacrificial rituals)
may result in psychosis, dissociation and magical thinking: particularly for the surviving children who had a
sacrificed brother or sister by their parents. In a 1994 interview with deMause in The New Yorker, the interviewer
wrote: "To buy into psychohistory, you have to subscribe to some fairly woolly assumptions [...], for instance, that a
nations's child-rearing techniques affect its foreign policy".[10] Psychohistorians also believe that cultural relativism
is contrary to the letter and spirit of human rights.[11]
Psychohistory 158

Psychogenic mode
Psychohistorians have written much about changes in the human psyche through history; changes that they believe
were produced by parents, and especially the mothers' increasing capacity to empathize with their children. Key to
deMause's thought is the concept of psychoclass, which emerges out of a particular style of childrearing, and child
abuse, at a particular period in a society's development. The conflict of new and old psychoclasses is also highlighted
in psychohistorians' thought. This is reflected, for instance, in the clash between Blue State and Red State voters in
the contemporary United States.[12] [13]
Another key psychohistorical concept is that of group fantasy, which deMause regards as a mediating force between
a psychoclass's collective childhood experiences (and the psychic conflicts emerging therefrom), and the
psychoclass's behavior in politics, religion and other aspects of social life.[14]
A psychogenic mode in Psychohistory is a type of mentality (or psychoclass) that results from, and is associated
with, a particular childrearing style. The major psychogenic modes described by deMause are:[15] [16]

Mode Childrearing characteristics Historical manifestations

Infanticidal Early infanticidal childrearing: Child sacrifice and infanticide among tribal
Ritual sacrifice. High infanticide rates, incest, body mutilation, child rape and societies, Mesoamerica and the Incas; in Assyrian
tortures. and Canaanite religions. Phoenicians, Carthaginians
and other early states also sacrificed infants to their
gods.
Late infanticidal childrearing:
While the young child is not overly rejected by the mother, many newborn On the other hand, the relatively more enlightened
babies, especially girls, are exposed to death. Greeks and Romans exposed some of their babies
("late" infanticidal childrearing).

Abandoning Early Christians considered a child as having a soul at birth, although possessed
by evil tendencies. Routine infanticide was replaced by joining in the group
fantasy of the sacrifice of Christ, who was sent by his father to be killed for the
[16]
sins of others. Routine pederasty of boys continued in monasteries and
[14]
elsewhere, and the rape of girls was commonplace.
Infanticide replaced by abandonment. Those
children who survived the experience did not
internalize a completely murderous superego.
Longer swaddling, fosterage, outside wetnursing,
oblation of children to monasteries and nunneries,
and apprenticeship.

Ambivalent The 12th century saw the first child instruction manuals and rudimentary child
protection laws, although most mothers still emotionally rejected their
[16]
children. Children were often treated as erotic objects by adults.
The later Middle Ages ended abandonment of
children to monasteries. Enemas, early beating,
shorter swaddling, mourning for deceased children,
a precursor to empathy.

Intrusive The intrusive parent began to unswaddle the infant.

During the 16th century, particularly in England, parents shifted from trying to
stop children's growth to trying to control them and make them obedient.
Parents were prepared to give them attention as long as they controlled their
[16]
minds, their insides, their anger and the lives they led.
Early toilet training, repression of child's sexuality.
Hell threats turned into the Puritan child so familiar
from early modern childrearing literature. On the
other hand, the end of swaddling and wet-nursing
made possible the explosive modern takeoff in
scientific advance.

Socializing Beginning in the 18th century, mothers began to actually enjoy child care, and
[16]
fathers began to participate in younger children's development. The aim
remained instilling parental goals rather than encouraging individuation.
Psychological manipulation and spanking were used to make children obedient.
Hellfire and the harsher physical disciplinary actions using objects to beat the
[16]
child disappeared. The Socializing Mode remains the most popular model
of parenting in North America and Western Europe to the present day.
Use of guilt, "mental discipline", humiliation, rise
of compulsory schooling, delegation of parental
unconscious wishes. As parental injections
continued to diminish, the rearing of the child
became less a process of conquering its will than of
training it. The socializing psychoclass built the
[16]
modern world.

Helping Children's rights movement, deschooling and free

Beginning in the mid-20th century, some parents adopted the role of helping
children reach their own goals in life, rather than "socialize" them into fulfilling schooling, natural childbirth, Taking Children
Seriously and the abandonment of circumcision.
parental wishes. Less psychological manipulation, more unconditional love.
Children raised in this way are far more empathic towards others in society than
[16]
earlier generations.
Psychohistory 159

Psychohistorians maintain that the six modes of abusive childrearing (excluding the "helping mode") are related to
psychiatric disorders from psychoses to neuroses.
The chart below shows the dates at which these modes are believed to have evolved in the most advanced nations,
based on contemporary accounts from historical records. A black and white version of the chart appears in
Foundations of Psychohistory.[16]

The timeline doesn't apply to hunter-gatherer societies. It doesn't apply either to the Greek and Roman world, where
there was a wide variation in childrearing practices. It is notable that the arrival of the Ambivalent mode of
child-rearing preceded the start of the Renaissance (mid 14th century) by only one or two generations, and the arrival
of the Socializing mode coincided with the Age of Enlightenment, which began in the late 18th century.
Reports of selective abortion (and sometimes exposure of baby girls)[17] especially in China, Korea, Taiwan,
Singapore, Malaysia, India, Pakistan, New Guinea, and many other developing countries in Asia and North
Africa[18] explain why millions of women are "missing" in Asia.[19] From the psychohistorical view, this
demonstrates that the earlier forms of childrearing coexist with later modes, even in the most advanced countries.
However, the chart should not be regarded as an accurate representation of the relative prevalence of each mode in
the present day, as it is not based on large-scale, formal surveys.
According to psychohistory theory, each of the six psychoclasses co-exists in the modern world today, and,
regardless of the changes in the environment, it is only when changes in childhood occur that societies begin to
progress.
The Y-Axis on the above chart serves as an indicator of the new stage and not a measurement of the stage's size or
relation to the x-axis.

A psychoclass for postmodern times

According to the psychogenic theory, since Neanderthal man most tribes and families practiced infanticide, child
mutilation, incest and beating of their children throughout prehistory and history. Presently the Western socializing
mode of childrearing is considered much less abusive in the field, though this mode is not yet entirely free of abuse.
In the opening paragraph of his seminal essay "The Evolution of Childhood" (first article in The History of
Childhood), DeMause states:
The history of childhood is a nightmare from which we have only recently begun to awaken. The further
back in history one goes, the lower the level of childcare, and the more likely children are to be killed,
abandoned, beaten, terrorized and sexually abused.
Psychohistory 160

There is notwithstanding an optimistic trait in the field. Psychohistorians believe that when violence against children
disappears in the Muslim world, the murderous drive of Islamic terrorists will fade away.[20] In a world of "helping
mode" parents, deMause believes, violence of any other sort will disappear as well, along with magical thinking,
mental disorders, wars and other inhumanities of man against man.[21]

Criticism
There are no departments dedicated to psychohistory in any institution of higher learning, though some history
departments have run courses in it. Psychohistory remains a controversial field of study, and deMause and other
psychohistorians face criticism in the academic community.[22] [23] [24] [25] [26] DeMause's formulations have been
criticized for being insufficiently supported by credible research.[27] Psychohistory uses a plurality of methodologies,
and it is difficult to determine which is appropriate to use in each circumstance. The discipline has the advantage of
being able to deal with motive in history and is useful in developing narratives, but is forced to psychoanalyse its
subjects after the fact, which was not considered when the theory was developed and expanded. Recent
psychohistory has also been criticized for being overly-entangled with DeMause, whose theories do not speak for the
entire field.[28]
The 1974 book in which deMause included essays of nine professional historians, The History of Childhood, offers a
survey of the treatment of children through history.[29] Although critics generally spare these nine historians, they
see deMause as a strong proponent of the "black legend" view of childhood history (i.e. that the history of childhood
was above all a history of progress, with children being far more often badly mistreated in the past).[30] Similarly, his
work has been criticized for being a history of child abuse, not childhood.[31]
The History of Childhood, authored by ten scholars (including deMause), is often linked to Edward Shorter's The
Making of the Modern Family and Lawrence Stone's The Family, Sex and Marriage in England 1500-1800, because
of the common ground they share in agreeing with a grim perspective of childhood history. But deMause's work in
particular has attracted hostility from historian Hugh Cunningham.[32] Thomas Kohut went even further:
The reader is doubtless already familiar with examples of these psychohistorical "abuses." There is a
significant difference, however, between the well-meaning and serious, if perhaps simplistic and
reductionistic, attempt to understand the psychological in history and the psychohistorical expose that
can at times verge on historical pornography. For examples of the more frivolous and distasteful sort of
psychohistory, see The Journal of Psychohistory. For more serious and scholarly attempts to understand
the psychological dimension of the past, see The Psychohistory Review.[33]
DeMause and the psychohistorians respond that their detractors are not largely moved by evidence, but rather are
unconsciously motivated to attack those who would challenge the idea of "good parenting" even in very primitive
tribes or cultures.[9]

Organizations
The principal center for psychohistorical study is The Institute for Psychohistory founded by Lloyd deMause which
has 19 branches around the globe and has for over 30 years and published the The Journal of Psychohistory.
The International Psychohistorical Association founded by Lloyd deMause in 1977 is the professional organization
for the field of psychohistory. It publishes Psychohistory News and has a psychohistorical mail order lending library.
It hosts an annual convention.
A course in Psychohistory has been taught at a three universities at the undergraduate level. The following have
published course details: Boston University, City University of New York and Wesleyan University.[34] [35] [36]
The Psychohistory Forum [37], which publishes the quarterly journal Clio’s Psyche, was founded in 1983 by
historian and psychoanalyst Paul H. Elovitz. This organization of academics, therapists, and laypeople holds regular
scholarly meetings in New York City and at international conventions. It also sponsors an online discussion group.
Psychohistory 161

[38].

Notable psychohistorians
• Lloyd deMause, founder of The Institute for Psychohistory.
• Robert Jay Lifton, a psychiatrist specializing in psychological motivations for war and terrorism.
• Paul H. Elovitz, Historian, Psychoanalyst, founder of The Psychohistory Forum and editor of the psychohistory
journal "Clio's Psyche."

Notes
[1] http:/ / www3. interscience. wiley. com/ journal/ 119612862/ abstract?CRETRY=1& SRETRY=0
[2] Murdock, G.P. (1932). "The science of culture". American Anthropologist 34: 200. doi:10.1525/aa.1932.34.2.02a00020.
[3] Durkheim, Émile (1962). The Rules of the Sociological Method. IL: Free Press. pp. 110.
[4] Milburn, Michael A.; S.D. Conrad (1996). "The politics of denial". Journal of Psychohistory 23: 238–251.
[5] Rhodes, Richard (2000). Why They Kill: The Discoveries of a Maverick Criminologist. Vintage.
[6] "Lloyd deMause and Psychohistory" (http:/ / primal-page. com/ psyhis. htm). Primal Psychotherapy WebPages. . Retrieved 2008-03-11.
[7] (http:/ / www. cscs. umich. edu/ ~crshalizi/ reviews/ shrinking-history/ ) Review of Shrinking History on Freud and the Failure of
Psychohistory - Reviewed in 1980 by Cosma Shalizi

Note: The book under review criticizes the Freudian approach to psychohistory. It makes no mention of
deMause or The Institute for Psychohistory.
[8] Davis, Glenn (1976). Childhood and History in America. NY: Psychohistory Pr.
[9] deMause, Lloyd (1988). "On Writing Childhood History" (http:/ / www. psychohistory. com/ childhood/ writech1. htm). The Journal of
Psychohistory 16 (2) Fall. .
[10] "The talk of the town", The New Yorker, authored by Editors of the periodical (December 5, 1994), pp. 55-56.
[11] Godwin, Robert W. (2004). One cosmos under God. Minnesota: Paragon House. pp. 166–174.
[12] Dervin, Dan (2005). "George W. Bush's Second Term: Saving the World, Saving the Country". The Journal of Psychohistory 33: 117–124.
[13] deMause, Lloyd (2008). "[Book review of] Jonathan Schell's The Seventh Decade". The Journal of Psychohistory 35: 308–309.
[14] deMause, Lloyd (2002). The Emotional Life of Nations. NY/London: Karnak. pp. 104–109, 391, 430ff.
[15] The Evolution of Childrearing Modes (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20091026212029/ http:/ / www. geocities. com/ kidhistory/ modesw.
htm)
[16] deMause, Lloyd (January 1982). Foundations of Psychohistory. Creative Roots Publishing. pp. 61 & 132–146. ISBN 094050801X. (http:/ /
www. psychohistory. com/ htm/ p132x146. htm)
[17] Female Infanticide (http:/ / www. gendercide. org/ case_infanticide. html)
[18] A. Gettis, J. Getis, and J. D. Fellmann (2004). Introduction to Geography, Ninth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 200f.
[19] Goodkind, Daniel. (1999). Should Prenatal Sex Selection be Restricted?: Ethical Questions and Their Implications for Research and Policy
(http:/ / links. jstor. org/ sici?sici=0032-4728(199903)53:1<49:SPSSBR>2. 0. CO;2-D). Population Studies, 53 (1), 49-61.
[20] The land that developmental time forgot (http:/ / primal-page. com/ godwin) - Robert Godwin's critique of contemporary Islam from the
psychohistorical viewpoint.
[21] The evolution of psyche and society (http:/ / primal-page. com/ ps4. htm) - deMause's explanatory chapter of The Emotional Life of Nations
(op. cit.).
[22] Stannard, David E. (1982). Shrinking History: On Freud and the Failure of Psychohistory. Oxford University Press, USA.
ISBN 0-19-503044-3.
[23] Eysenck, Hans Jurgen (2005). "7 Psycho-babble and Pseudo-History" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=oFbO0EDgBikC& pg=PA171&
lpg=PA171& dq=anthropology+ psychohistory). Decline and Fall of the Freudian Empire. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 0765809451. .
[24] Pomper, Philip (1973). "Problems of a Naturalistic Psychohistory". History and Theory 12 (4): 367–388. doi:10.2307/2504699.
JSTOR 2504699.
[25] Hunt, Lynn (2002). "Psychology, Pschoanalysis and Historical Thought -The Misfortunes of Psychohistory" (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=E2eKDjo4B_IC& pg=PA339& lpg=PA339& dq=psychohistory+ is+ a+ pseudoscience). In Kramer Lloyd S. and Maza, Sarah C.. A
Companion to Western Historical Thought. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 337–357. ISBN 0631217142. .
[26] Paul, Robert A. (1982). "Review of Lloyd deMause's Foundations of Psychohistory". Journal of Psychoanalytic Anthropology 5: 469.
[27] Demos, John (1986). "Child Abuse in Context: An Historian's Perspective". In Past, Present and Personal: The Family and The Life Course
in American History. NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 68–91.
[28] Marc Comtois. "Historical Sources On Line - A weblography of Historical Sources on the Internet" (http:/ / users. ids. net/ ~marcom/
historint/ hi-methodnotes. html). . Retrieved March 2008.
[29] DeMause L; Lyman RB, McLaughlin, MM et al. (1995). The History of Childhood (The Master Work). Northvale, N.J: Jason Aronson.
ISBN 1-56821-551-7.
Psychohistory 162

[30] Aries, Philippe (1975). "De l'enfant roi a l'enfant martyr". Revue Psychologie 68: 6.
[31] Heywood, Colin (2001). A History of Childhood. Cambridge: Polity Press. pp. 41.
[32] Cunningham, Hugh (1995). Children and Childhood in Western Society since 1500. London: Longman. pp. 9.
[33] Kohut, Thomas A. (1986). "Psychohistory as History" (http:/ / jstor. org/ stable/ 1858137). The American Historical Review 91 (2): 341.
doi:10.2307/1858137. .
[34] Boston University has a Psychohistory Course. See (http:/ / www. bu. edu/ bridge/ archive/ 2003/ 10-31/ psycho. html) and CAS HI 503 at
(http:/ / www. bu. edu/ history/ crsinven. html)
[35] Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut has a course. See (http:/ / www. wesleyan. edu/ course/ hist251f. htm)
[36] City University of New York. See HIS 360 (http:/ / web. jjay. cuny. edu/ ~history/ cours. htm)
[37] http:/ / www. cliospsyche. org/
[38] http:/ / groups. google. com/ group/ cliospsyche

Bibliography
• deMause, Lloyd (1975). A Bibliography of Psychohistory. New York: Garland Pub. ISBN 0-8240-9999-0.
• deMause, Lloyd (1975). The New Psychohistory. New York: Psychohistory Press. ISBN 0-914434-01-2.
• deMause, Lloyd (1982). Foundations of Psychohistory (http://web.archive.org/web/20021020174919/http://
www.geocities.com/kidhistory/found/contents.htm). New York: Creative Roots. ISBN 094050801X.
Archived from the original (http://www.geocities.com/kidhistory/found/contents.htm) on 2002-10-20.
• deMause, Lloyd (1984). Reagan's America (http://web.archive.org/web/20021102035952/http://www.
geocities.com/kidhistory/reagan/rcontent.htm). New York: Creative Roots. ISBN 0-940508-02-8. Archived
from the original (http://www.geocities.com/kidhistory/reagan/rcontent.htm) on 2002-11-02.
• deMause, Lloyd (2002). The Emotional Life of Nations, Publisher: Other Press; ISBN 1-892746-98-0 (available
online (http://web.archive.org/web/20091027104413/http://geocities.com/kidhistory/childhod/chindex.
htm) at no cost)
• Ebel, Henry; deMause, Lloyd (1977). Jimmy Carter and American fantasy: psychohistorical explorations. New
York: Two Continents. ISBN 0-8467-0363-7.
• Lawton, Henry W., The Psychohistorian's Handbook, New York: Psychohistory Press, ISBN 0-914434-27-6
(1989)
• Loewenberg, Peter, Decoding the Past: The Psychohistorical Approach, Transaction Pub, ISBN 1-56000-846-6
(2002)
• Stannard, David E., Shrinking History, On Freud and the Failure of Psychohistory, Oxford University Press,
ISBN 0-19-503044-3 (1980). A critique of the Freudian approach to psychohistory.
• Szaluta, Jacques, Psychohistory: Theory and Practice, Publisher Peter Lang, ISBN 0-8204-1741-6 (1999)

External links
• The Institute for Psychohistory (http://www.psychohistory.com). This website contains over 1,500 pages of
psychohistorical articles and books.
• International Psychohistorical Association (http://www.psychohistory.us). The professional organization for the
field of psychohistory.
• German Society for Psychohistorical Research (http://www.psychohistorie.de/index.html) (in German).
• On-line repository of deMause' books (http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/
lookupname?key=DeMause, Lloyd)
• (http://www.cliospsyche.org). Clio's Psyche and The Psychohistory Forum: Psychological and Historican
Insight without jargon.
Priory of Sion 163

Priory of Sion
The Prieuré de Sion, translated from French as Priory of Sion, is a
name given to multiple groups, both real and fictitious. The most
notorious is a fringe fraternal organisation, founded and dissolved in
France in 1956 by Pierre Plantard. In the 1960s, Plantard created a
fictitious history for that organisation, describing it as a secret society
founded on Mount Zion in the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1099, which is
devoted to installing a secret bloodline of the Merovingian dynasty on
the thrones of France and the rest of Europe.[2] This myth was
expanded upon and popularised by the 1982 pseudohistorical book The
Holy Blood and the Holy Grail,[1] and later claimed as factual in the
preface of the 2003 conspiracy fiction novel The Da Vinci Code.[3]

After becoming a cause célèbre from the late 1960s to the 1980s, the
mythical Priory of Sion was exposed as a ludibrium created by
Plantard as a framework for his false pretension to the French throne.[4]
Evidence presented in support of its historical existence and activities
before 1956 was discovered to have been forged and then planted in The official emblem of the Priory of Sion is
partly based on the fleur-de-lis, which was a
various locations around France by Plantard and his accomplices.
symbol particularly associated with the French
Nevertheless, many conspiracy theorists still persist in believing that [1]
monarchy.
the Priory of Sion is an age-old cabal that conceals a subversive
secret.[5]

The Priory of Sion myth has been exhaustively debunked by journalists and scholars as one of the great hoaxes of
the 20th century.[6] Some skeptics have expressed concern that the proliferation and popularity of books, websites
and films inspired by this hoax have contributed to the problem of conspiracy theories, pseudohistory and other
confusions becoming more mainstream.[7] Others are troubled by the romantic reactionary ideology unwittingly
promoted in these works.[8]

History
The fraternal organisation was founded in the town of Annemasse, Haute-Savoie in eastern France in 1956. The
1901 French law of Associations required that the Priory of Sion be registered with the government; the registration
took place at the subprefecture of Saint-Julien-en-Genevois on 7 May 1956 and was noted on 20 July 1956 in the
Journal Officiel de la République Française. The founders and signatories inscribed with their real names and aliases
were Pierre Plantard, also known as "Chyren", and André Bonhomme, also known as "Stanis Bellas". André
Bonhomme was the President while Pierre Plantard was the Secretary General. The registration documents also
included the names of Jean Deleaval as the Vice-President and Armand Defago as the Treasurer. The offices of the
Priory of Sion and its journal Circuit were located at Plantard's apartment.[9] The choice of the name "Sion" was
based on a popular local feature, a hill south of Annemasse in France, known as Mont Sion, where the founders
intended to establish a retreat center.[10] The accompanying title to the name was "Chevalerie d'Institutions et Règles
Catholiques d'Union Indépendante et Traditionaliste": this subtitle forms the acronym CIRCUIT and translates in
English as "Knighthood of Catholic Rule and Institution and of Independent Traditionalist Union".
The statutes of the Priory of Sion indicate its purpose was to allow and encourage members to engage in studies and
mutual aid. The articles of the association expressed the goal of creating a Traditionalist Catholic chivalric order.[11]
Article 7 of the statutes of the Priory of Sion stated that its members were expected "to carry out good deeds, to help
the Roman Catholic Church, teach the truth, defend the weak and the oppressed". Towards the end of 1956 the
Priory of Sion 164

association had planned to forge partnerships with the local Catholic Church of the area which would have involved
a school bus service run by both the Priory of Sion and the church of Saint-Joseph in Annemasse.[12]
The bulk of the activities of the Priory of Sion, however, bore no resemblance to the objectives as outlined in its
statutes: Circuit, the official journal of the Priory of Sion, was indicated as a news bulletin of an "organisation for the
defence of the rights and the freedom of affordable housing" rather than for the promotion of chivalry-inspired
charitable work. The first issue of the journal is dated 27 May 1956, and, in total, twelve issues appeared. Some of
the articles took a political position in the local council elections. Others criticised and even attacked real-estate
developers of Annemasse.[11]
According to a letter written by Léon Guersillon the Mayor of Annemasse in 1956, contained in the folder holding
the 1956 Statutes of the Priory of Sion in the subprefecture of Saint-Julien-en-Genevois, Pierre Plantard was given a
six-month sentence in 1953 for fraud.[13]
The formally registered association was dissolved some time after October 1956 but intermittently revived for
different reasons by Plantard between 1961 and 1993, though in name and on paper only. The Priory of Sion is
considered dormant by the subprefecture because it has indicated no activities since 1956. According to French law,
subsequent references to the Priory bear no legal relation to that of 1956 and no one, other than the original
signatories, is entitled to use its name in an official capacity. André Bonhomme played no part in the association
after 1956. He officially resigned in 1973 when he heard that Plantard was linking his name with the association. In
light of Plantard's death in 2000, there is no one who is currently alive who has official permission to use the
name.[14]

Myth

Plantard's plot
Primarily motivated by grandiosity, a romantic reactionary ideology, and the prospect of fame and fortune,[15]
Plantard set out to have the Priory of Sion perceived as a prestigious esoteric Christian chivalric order, whose
members would be people of influence in the fields of finance, politics and philosophy, devoted to installing the
"Grand Monarch", prophesied by Nostradamus, on the throne of France. Plantard's choice of the pseudonym
"Chyren" was a reference to "Chyren Selin", Nostradamus's anagram for the name for this Great King.[16]
Between 1961 and 1984, Plantard contrived a mythical pedigree for the Priory of Sion claiming that it was the
offshoot of a real Roman Catholic religious order housed in the Abbey of Sion, which had been founded in the
Kingdom of Jerusalem during the First Crusade in 1099 and later absorbed by the Jesuits in 1617. The mistake is
often made that this Abbey of Sion was a Priory of Sion, but there is a difference between an abbey and a priory.[15]
Calling his original 1956 group "Priory of Sion" presumably gave Plantard the later idea to claim that his
organisation had been historically founded by crusading knight Godfrey of Bouillon on Mount Zion near Jerusalem
during the Middle Ages.[5]
Priory of Sion 165

Furthermore, Plantard was inspired by a 1960 magazine Les

The tomb inscribed with the cryptic phrase "Et in
Arcadia ego" in Nicolas Poussin's late 1630s painting
Arcadian Shepherds was appropriated for Priory of
Sion myth-making.
pretender.[19] [20]
Cahiers de l'Histoire to center his personal genealogical claims, as
found in the "Priory of Sion documents", on the Merovingian king
Dagobert II, who had been assassinated in the 7th century.[17] He
also adopted "Et in Arcadia ego ...", a slightly altered version of a
Latin phrase that most famously appears as the title of two
paintings by Nicolas Poussin, as the motto of both his family and
the Priory of Sion,[18] because the tomb which appears in these
paintings resembled one in the Les Pontils area near
Rennes-le-Château. This tomb would become a symbol for his
dynastic claims as the last legacy of the Merovingians on the
territory of Razès, left to remind the select few who have been
initiated into these mysteries that the "lost king", Dagobert II,
would figuratively come back in the form of a hereditary

To give credibility to the fabricated lineage and pedigree, Plantard and his friend, Philippe de Chérisey, needed to
create "independent evidence". So during the 1960s, they created and deposited a series of false documents, the
so-called Dossiers Secrets d'Henri Lobineau ("Secret Files of Henri Lobineau"), at the Bibliothèque nationale de
France in Paris. During the same decade, Plantard commissioned de Chérisey to forge a series of medieval
parchments. These documents contained encrypted messages that referred to the Priory of Sion. They adapted, and
used to their advantage, the earlier false claims put forward by Noël Corbu that a Catholic priest named Bérenger
Saunière had supposedly discovered ancient parchments inside a pillar while renovating his church in
Rennes-le-Château in 1891. Inspired by the popularity of media reports and books in France about the discovery of
the Dead Sea scrolls in the West Bank, they hoped this same theme would attract attention to their parchments.[21]
Their version of the parchments was intended to prove Plantard's claims about the Priory of Sion being a medieval
society that was the source of the "underground stream" of esotericism in Europe.[5]

Plantard then enlisted the aid of author Gérard de Sède to write a book based on his unpublished manuscript and
forged parchments,[21] alleging that Saunière had discovered a link to a hidden treasure. The 1967 book L'or de
Rennes, ou La vie insolite de Bérenger Saunière, curé de Rennes-le-Château ("The Gold of Rennes, or The Strange
Life of Bérenger Saunière, Priest of Rennes-le-Château"), which was later published in paperback under the title Le
Trésor Maudit de Rennes-le-Château ("The Accursed Treasure of Rennes-le-Château"), became a popular read in
France. It included copies of the found documents (the originals were of course never produced), though it did not
provide translations. One of the Latin texts in the documents was copied from the Novum Testamentum, an attempted
restoration of the Vulgate by John Wordsworth and Henry White.[22] The other text was copied from the Codex
Bezae.[23] Based on the wording used, the versions of the Latin texts found in the parchments can be shown to have
been copied from books first published in 1889 and 1895, which is problematic considering that de Sède's book was
trying to make a case that these documents were centuries old.
In 1969, English actor and science-fiction scriptwriter Henry Lincoln became intrigued after reading Le Trésor
Maudit. He discovered one of the encrypted messages, which read "À Dagobert II Roi et à Sion est ce trésor, et il est
là mort" ("To Dagobert II, King, and to Sion belongs this treasure and he is there dead"). This was possibly an
allusion to the tomb and shrine of Sigebert IV, a mythical son of Dagobert II which would not only prove that the
Merovingian dynasty did not end with the death of the king but that the Priory of Sion has been entrusted with the
duty to protect his relics like a treasure.[1] Lincoln expanded on the conspiracy theories, writing his own books on the
subject, and creating a series of BBC Two documentaries in the 1970s about the mysteries of the Rennes-le-Château
area. In response to a tip from Gérard de Sède, Lincoln claims he was also the one who discovered the Dossiers
Secrets, a series of planted genealogies which appeared to further confirm the link with the extinct Merovingian
Priory of Sion 166

bloodline. The documents claimed that the Priory of Sion and the Knights Templar were two fronts of one unified
organisation with the same leadership until 1188.[1]
Letters in existence dating from the 1960s written by Plantard, de Chérisey and de Sède to each other confirm that
the three were engaging in an out-and-out hoax. The letters describe schemes to combat criticisms of their various
allegations and ways they would make up new allegations to try to keep the hoax alive. These letters (totalling over
100) are in the possession of French researcher Jean-Luc Chaumeil, who has also retained the original envelopes.
Jean-Luc Chaumeil was part of the Priory of Sion hoax ring during the 1970s, and wrote books and articles about
Plantard and the Priory of Sion before leaving it during the late 1970s and exposing Plantard's past in French books.
A letter later discovered at the subprefecture of Saint-Julien-en-Genevois also indicated that Plantard had a criminal
conviction as a confidence trickster.[24] [25]

The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail

After reading Le Trésor Maudit, Lincoln persuaded BBC Two to devote three episodes in their Chronicle
documentary series to the topic. These became quite popular and generated thousands of responses. Lincoln then
joined forces with Michael Baigent and Richard Leigh for further research. This led them to the pseudohistorical
Dossiers Secrets at the Bibliothèque nationale de France, which though alleging to portray hundreds of years of
medieval history, were actually all written by Plantard and de Chérisey under the pseudonym of "Philippe Toscan du
Plantier". Unaware that the documents had been forged, Lincoln, Baigent and Leigh used them as a major source for
their 1982 controversial non-fiction book The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail,[1] in which they presented the
following myths as facts to support their hypotheses:[7]
• there is a secret society known as the Priory of Sion, which has a long history starting in 1099, and had illustrious
Grand Masters including Leonardo da Vinci and Isaac Newton;
• it created the Knights Templar as its military arm and financial branch; and
• it is devoted to installing the Merovingian dynasty, that ruled the Franks from 457 to 751, on the thrones of
France and the rest of Europe.
However, the authors re-interpreted the Dossiers Secrets in the light of their own interest in undermining the Roman
Catholic Church's institutional reading of Judeo-Christian history.[26] Contrary to Plantard's initial Franco-Israelist
claim that the Merovingians were only descended from the Tribe of Benjamin,[27] they asserted that:
• the Priory of Sion protects Merovingian dynasts because they may be the lineal descendants of the historical Jesus
and his alleged wife, Mary Magdalene, traced further back to King David;
• the legendary Holy Grail is simultaneously the womb of saint Mary Magdalene and the sacred royal bloodline she
gave birth to; and
• the Church tried to kill off all remnants of this bloodline and their supposed guardians, the Cathars and the
Templars, so popes could hold the episcopal throne through the apostolic succession of Peter without fear of it
ever being usurped by an antipope from the hereditary succession of Mary Magdalene.
The authors therefore concluded that the modern goals of the Priory of Sion are:
• the public revelation of the lost treasure of the Temple in Jerusalem, which supposedly contains genealogical
records that prove the Merovingian dynasty was of the Davidic line, to facilitate Merovingian restoration in
France;
• the re-institutionalization of chivalry and the promotion of pan-European nationalism;
• the establishment of a theocratic "United States of Europe": a Holy European Empire politically and religiously
unified through the imperial cult of a Merovingian sacred king who occupies both the throne of Europe and the
Holy See; and
• the actual governance of Europe residing with the Priory of Sion through a single-party European Parliament.
The authors also incorporated the antisemitic and anti-Masonic tract known as The Protocols of the Elders of Zion
into their story, concluding that it was actually based on the master plan of the Priory of Sion. They presented it as
Priory of Sion 167

the most persuasive piece of evidence for the existence and activities of the Priory of Sion by arguing that:
• the original text on which the published version of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion was based had nothing to
do with Judaism or an "international Jewish conspiracy". It issued from a Masonic body practicing the Scottish
Rite which incorporated the word "Zion" in its name;
• the original text was not intended to be released publicly, but was a program for gaining control of Freemasonry
as part of a strategy to infiltrate and reorganise church and state according to esoteric Christian principles;
• after a failed attempt to gain influence in the court of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, Sergei Nilus changed the
original text to forge an inflammatory tract in 1903 to discredit the esoteric clique around Papus by implying they
were Judaeo-Masonic conspirators; and
• some esoteric Christian elements in the original text were ignored by Nilus and hence remained unchanged in the
antisemitic canard he published.
In reaction to this memetic synthesis of investigative journalism with religious conspiracism, many secular
conspiracy theorists added the Priory of Sion to their list of secret societies collaborating or competing to manipulate
political happenings from behind the scenes in their bid for world domination.[28] Some occultists speculated that the
emergence of the Priory of Sion and Plantard closely follows The Prophecies by M. Michel Nostradamus (unaware
that Plantard was intentionally trying to fulfill them).[29] Fringe Christian eschatologists countered that it was a
fulfilment of prophecies found in the Book of Revelation and further proof of an anti-Christian conspiracy of epic
proportions.[30]
However, professional historians and scholars from related fields do not accept The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail
as a serious dissertation,[31] and regard it as one of the best examples of "counterknowledge".[32] French authors like
Franck Marie (1978),[33] Pierre Jarnac (1985),[34] (1988),[35] Jean-Luc Chaumeil (1994),[36] and more recently
Marie-France Etchegoin and Frédéric Lenoir (2004),[37] Massimo Introvigne (2005),[38] Jean-Jacques Bedu
(2005),[39] and Bernardo Sanchez Da Motta (2005),[40] have never taken Plantard and the Priory of Sion as seriously
as Lincoln, Baigent and Leigh. They eventually concluded that it was all a hoax, outlining in detail the reasons for
their verdict, and giving detailed evidence that the Holy Blood authors had not reported comprehensively.[41] They
imply that this evidence had been ignored by Lincoln, Baigent, and Leigh to bolster the mythical version of the
Priory's history that was developed by Plantard during the early 1960s after meeting author Gérard de Sède.[41]

The Messianic Legacy

In 1987, Lincoln, Baigent and Leigh published The Messianic Legacy, a sequel to The Holy Blood and the Holy
Grail. The authors assert that the Priory of Sion is not only the archetypal cabal but an ideal repository of the cultural
legacy of Jewish messianism that could end the “crisis of meaning” within the Western world by providing a
Merovingian sacred king as a messianic figure in which the West and, by extension, humanity can place its trust.
However, the authors are lead to believe by Plantard that he has resigned as Grand Master of the Priory of Sion in
1984 and that the organisation has since gone underground in reaction to both an internal power struggle between
Plantard and an “Anglo-American contingent” as well as a campaign of character assassination against Plantard in
the press and books written by skeptics.[42]
Although Lincoln, Baigent and Leigh remain convinced that the pre-1956 history of the Priory of Sion is true, they
confess to the possibility that all of Plantard's claims about a post-1956 Priory of Sion were part of an elaborate hoax
to build a cult of personality and cult of intelligence around himself in French esoteric circles.[42] In 1989, Plantard
tried but failed to salvage his reputation and agenda as a mystagogue in esoteric circles by claiming that the Priory of
Sion had actually been founded in 1681 at Rennes-le-Château, and was focused on harnessing the paranormal power
of ley lines and megaliths in the area as well as installing a Merovingian pretender on the abolished throne of
France.[43] [21]
Priory of Sion 168

Pelat Affair
In September 1993, while investigative judge Thierry Jean-Pierre was investigating the activities of multi-millionaire
Roger-Patrice Pelat in the context of the Pechiney-Triangle Affair, he was informed that Pelat may have once been
Grand Master of an esoteric society known as the Priory of Sion. Pelat's name had been on Plantard's list of Grand
Masters since 1989. In fact, Pelat had died in 1989, while he was being indicted for insider trading - "délit d'initié" in
French. Plantard may have been naive about financial terms and interpreted the word "initié" esoterically, to mean
"initiate". Following a long established pattern, Plantard "recruited" the "initiate" Pelat soon after his death and
included him as the most recent Priory of Sion Grand Master.[44] Plantard had first claimed that Pelat had been a
Grand Master in a Priory of Sion pamphlet dated 8 March 1989, then claimed it again later in a 1990 issue of
Vaincre, the revived publication of Alpha Galates, a pseudo-chivalric order created by Plantard in Vichy France to
support the "National Revolution".[45] [46]
Pelat had been a friend of François Mitterrand, then President of France, and at the centre of a scandal involving
French Prime Minister Pierre Bérégovoy. As an investigative judge, Thierry Jean-Pierre could not dismiss any
information brought to his attention pertaining to the case, especially if it might have led to a scandal similar to the
one implicating an illegal Masonic lodge named Propaganda Due in the 1982 Banco Ambrosiano bank failure in
Italy, Thierry Pierre ordered a search of Plantard's home. The search turned up a hoard of false documents, including
some proclaiming Plantard the true king of France. Plantard admitted under oath that he had fabricated everything,
including Pelat's involvement with the Priory of Sion.[44] [47] Plantard was threatened with legal action by the Pelat
family and therefore disappeared to his house in southern France. He was 74 years old at the time. Nothing more was
heard of him until he died in Paris on 3 February 2000.[48]

Sandri revival
On 27 December 2002, an open letter announced the revival of the Priory of Sion as an integral traditionalist esoteric
society, which stated that: "The Commanderies of Saint-Denis, Millau, Geneva and Barcelona are fully operative.
According to the Tradition, the first Commanderie is under the direction of a woman", claiming there were 9,841
members.[49] It was signed by Gino Sandri (who claims to be Plantard's former private secretary) under the title of
General Secretary,[50] and by "P. Plantard" (Le Nautonnier, G. Chyren). Sandri is a well-versed occultist who has
spent his life infiltrating esoteric societies only to get expelled from them.[50] After interviewing Sandri, independent
researcher Laurent Octonovo Buccholtzer wrote:
I’ve personally met this Gino Sandri on one occasion, and I had the opportunity to have a really good talk with
him, but I think that he's simply seeking attention. He seemed to me to be something of a mythomaniac, which
would certainly be an excellent qualification for being Secretary of the Priory of Sion. During our conversation
he said something in passing that I found quite extraordinary. He said, “Ultimately, what is the Priory of Sion?
It's nothing more than a well-known brand name, but with goodness knows what behind it?” He gave a good
brief account of the phenomenon of the Priory of Sion. Thanks to Dan Brown, hundreds of millions of people
now have “brand awareness”, and several million of them seem to take it seriously.[48]

The Da Vinci Code

As a result of Dan Brown's best-selling 2003 conspiracy fiction novel The Da Vinci Code and the subsequent 2006
film,[3] there has been a new level of public interest in the Priory of Sion. Brown's novel promotes the mythical
version of the Priory but departs from the ultimate conclusions presented in The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail.
Rather than plotting to create a Federal Europe ruled by a Merovingian sacred king descended from the historical
Jesus, the Priory of Sion initiates its members into a mystery cult seeking to restore the feminist theology necessary
for a complete understanding of early Christianity, which was supposedly suppressed by the Roman Catholic
Church. The author has presented this speculation as fact in his non-fiction preface, as well as in his public
appearances and interviews.
Priory of Sion 169

Furthermore, in their 1987 sequel The Messianic Legacy,[42] Lincoln, Baigent and Leigh suggested that there was a
current conflict between the Priory of Sion and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, which they speculated might
have originated from an earlier rivalry between the Knights Templar and Knights Hospitaller during the Crusades.
However, for the dramatic structure of The Da Vinci Code, Brown chose the controversial Roman Catholic prelature
Opus Dei as the Assassini-like nemesis of the Priory of Sion, despite the fact that no author had ever argued that
there is a conflict between these two groups.

The Sion Revelation

Further conspiracy theories were reported in the 2006 non-fiction book The Sion Revelation: The Truth About the
Guardians of Christ's Sacred Bloodline by Lynn Picknett and Clive Prince (authors of the 1997 non-fiction book The
Templar Revelation, the principal source for Dan Brown's claims about hidden messages in the work of Leonardo da
Vinci).[51] They accepted that the pre-1956 history of the Priory of Sion was a hoax created by Plantard, and that his
claim that he was a Merovingian dynast was a lie. However, they insist that this was part of a complex red herring
intended to distract the public from the hidden agenda of Plantard and his "controllers". They argue that the Priory of
Sion was a front organisation for one of the many crypto-political societies which have been plotting to create a
"United States of Europe" in line with French occultist Alexandre Saint-Yves d'Alveydre's synarchist vision of an
ideal form of government.

Bloodline movie
The 2008 documentary film Bloodline by Bruce Burgess, a filmmaker with an interest in paranormal claims, expands
on the "Jesus bloodline" hypothesis and other elements of The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail. Accepting as valid the
testimony of an amateur archaeologist codenamed "Ben Hammott" relating to his discoveries made in the vicinity of
Rennes-le-Château since 1999; Burgess claims Ben has found the treasure of Bérenger Saunière: a mummified
corpse, which they believe is Mary Magdalene, in an underground tomb they claim is connected to both the Knights
Templar and the Priory of Sion. In the film, Burgess interviews several people with alleged connections to the Priory
of Sion, including a Gino Sandri and Nicolas Haywood.[52] One of the main researchers involved in Bloodline, Rob
Howells, has published Inside the Priory of Sion: Revelations from the World's Most Secret Society - Guardians of
the Bloodline of Jesus, presenting the version of the Priory of Sion as given in the 2008 documentary.[53]

Alleged Grand Masters

The mythical Priory of Sion was supposedly led by a "Nautonnier", an Old French word for a navigator, which
means Grand Master in their internal esoteric nomenclature. The following list of Grand Masters is derived from the
Dossiers Secrets d'Henri Lobineau compiled by Pierre Plantard under the nom de plume of "Philippe Toscan du
Plantier" in 1967. All those named on this list had died before that date. All but two are also found on lists of alleged
“Imperators” (supreme heads) and “distinguished members” of the Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis which
circulated in France at the time when Plantard was in touch with this Rosicrucian Order. Most of those named share
the common thread of being known for having an interest in the occult or heresy.[15]
Priory of Sion 170

The Dossiers Secrets asserted that the Priory of Sion and the Knights
Templar always shared the same Grand Master until a schism occurred
during the "Cutting of the elm" incident in 1188. Following that event,
the Grand Masters of the Priory of Sion are listed in French as being:
1. Jean de Gisors (1188–1220)
2. Marie de Saint-Clair (1220–1266)
3. Guillaume de Gisors (1266–1307)
4. Edouard de Bar (1307–1336)
5. Jeanne de Bar (1336–1351)
6. Jean de Saint-Clair (1351–1366)
7. Blanche d'Évreux (1366–1398)
8. Nicolas Flamel (1398–1418)
9. René d'Anjou (1418–1480)
10. Iolande de Bar (1480–1483)
11. Sandro Filipepi (1483–1510)
12. Léonard de Vinci (1510–1519)
13. Connétable de Bourbon (1519–1527)
14. Ferdinand de Gonzague (1527–1575) Leonardo da Vinci, alleged to be the Priory of
Sion's 12th Grand Master
15. Louis de Nevers (1575–1595)
16. Robert Fludd (1595–1637)
17. J. Valentin Andrea (1637–1654)
18. Robert Boyle (1654–1691)
19. Isaac Newton (1691–1727)
20. Charles Radclyffe (1727–1746)
21. Charles de Lorraine (1746–1780)
22. Maximilian de Lorraine (1780–1801)
23. Charles Nodier (1801–1844)
24. Victor Hugo (1844–1885)
25. Claude Debussy (1885–1918)
26. Jean Cocteau (1918–1963)
A later document, Le Cercle d'Ulysse,[19] identifies François Ducaud-Bourget, a prominent Traditionalist Catholic
priest who Plantard had worked for as a sexton during World War II,[15] as the Grand Master following Cocteau's
death. Plantard himself is later identified as the next Grand Master.
When the Dossiers Secrets were exposed as a forgery by French researchers, Plantard kept quiet. During his 1989
attempt to make a comeback and revive the Priory of Sion, Plantard sought to distance himself from the discredited
first list, and published a second list of Priory Grand Masters,[54] which included the names of the deceased
Roger-Patrice Pelat, and his own son Thomas Plantard de Saint-Clair:
1. Jean-Tim Negri d'Albes (1681–1703)
2. François d'Hautpoul (1703–1726)
3. André-Hercule de Fleury (1726–1766)
4. Charles de Lorraine (1766–1780)
5. Maximilian de Lorraine (1780–1801)
6. Charles Nodier (1801–1844)
7. Victor Hugo (1844–1885)
8. Claude Debussy (1885–1918)
9. Jean Cocteau (1918–1963)
Priory of Sion 171

10. François Balphangon (1963–1969)

11. John Drick (1969–1981)
12. Pierre Plantard de Saint-Clair (1981)
13. Philippe de Chérisey (1984–1985)
14. Roger-Patrice Pelat (1985–1989)
15. Pierre Plantard de Saint-Clair (1989)
16. Thomas Plantard de Saint-Clair (1989)
In 1993 Plantard acknowledged that both lists were fraudulent when he was investigated by a judge during the Pelat
Affair.[44] [47]

Notes
[1] Henry Lincoln, Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh, The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail, Corgi, 1982. ISBN 0-552-12138-X.
[2] Pierre Plantard, Gisors et son secret..., ORBIS, 1961, abridged version contained in Gérard de Sède, Les Templiers sont parmi nous. 1961.
[3] Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code, Doubleday, 2003. ISBN 0-385-50420-9.
[4] Pierre Plantard, Gisors et son secret..., ORBIS, 1961, abridged version contained in Gérard de Sède, Les Templiers sont parmi nous. 1962.
[5] Bill Putnam, John Edwin Wood, The Treasure of Rennes-le-Château. A Mystery Solved, Sutton Publishers, 2003.
[6] The Secret of the Priory of Sion, '60 Minutes', 30 April 2006, presented by Ed Bradley, produced by Jeanne Langley, CBS News (http:/ /
www. cbsnews. com/ stories/ 2006/ 04/ 27/ 60minutes/ main1552009. shtml)
[7] Damian Thompson, " How Da Vinci Code tapped pseudo-fact hunger (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ main. jhtml?xml=/ news/ 2008/
01/ 12/ nrfact212. xml)", Daily Telegraph. 2008. Retrieved on 28 March 2008.
[8] David Klinghoffer, " The Da Vinci Protocols: Jews should worry about Dan Brown’s success (http:/ / article. nationalreview. com/
?q=NDY0YmNhMjc5YThmZWIxY2VjNmM3MWE0YjU1MDFhYTg=)", National Review Online, 2006. Retrieved on 28 March 2008.
[9] Bernardo Sanchez Da Motta, Do Enigma de Rennes-le-Château ao Priorado de Siao - Historia de um Mito Moderno, Esquilo, 2005, p. 322,
reproducing the Priory of Sion Registration Document showing the group was based in Plantard's apartment.
[10] Bradley, Ed (2006). The Priory Of Sion: Is The "Secret Organization" Fact Or Fiction? (http:/ / www. cbsnews. com/ stories/ 2006/ 04/ 27/
60minutes/ main1552009_page2. shtml). . Retrieved 16 July 2008.
[11] "Les Archives du Prieuré de Sion", Le Charivari, N°18, 1973. Containing a transcript of the 1956 Statutes of the Priory of Sion.
[12] J. Cailleboite, "A Sous-Cassan et aux pervenches un missionnaire regarde la vie ouvriere", Circuit, Numéro spécial, October 1956.
[13] The History of a Mystery, BBC 2, transmitted on 17 September 1996
[14] Pierre Jarnac, Les Archives de Rennes-le-Château, Tome II, Editions Belisane, 1988, p. 566.
[15] Introvigne, Massimo (2005). Beyond The Da Vinci Code: History and Myth of the Priory of Sion (http:/ / www. cesnur. org/ 2005/
pa_introvigne. htm). . Retrieved 16 July 2008.
[16] Marie-France Etchegoin & Frédéric Lenoir, Code Da Vinci: L'Enquête, p.61 (Robert Laffont, 2004).
[17] Jean-Luc Chaumeil, La Table d'Isis ou Le Secret de la Lumière, Editions Guy Trédaniel, 1994, p. 121–124.
[18] Madeleine Blancassall, "Les Descendants Mérovingiens ou l’énigme du Razès wisigoth" (1965), in: Pierre Jarnac, Les Mystères de
Rennes-le-Château, Mélanges Sulfureux, CERT, 1994.
[19] Jean Delaude, Le Cercle d’Ulysse (1977), in: Pierre Jarnac, Les Mystères de Rennes-le-Château, Mélanges Sulfureux, CERT, 1994.
[20] A photograph of a young Thomas Plantard de Saint-Clair standing next to the Les Pontils tomb was published in Jean-Pierre Deloux,
Jacques Brétigny, Rennes-le-Château - Capitale Secrète de l'Histoire de France, 1982.
[21] Jean-Luc Chaumeil, Rennes-le-Château – Gisors – Le Testament du Prieuré de Sion. Le Crépuscule d’une Ténébreuse Affaire, Éditions
Pégase, 2006.
[22] Bill Putnam, John Edwin Wood, The Treasure of Rennes-le-Château, A Mystery Solved, Sutton Publishing, revised 2005 paperback edition,
p.189–192. ISBN 0 7509 4216 9).
[23] Bill Putnam, John Edwin Wood, The Treasure of Rennes-le-Château, A Mystery Solved, Sutton Publishing, revised 2005 paperback edition
(ISBN 0 7509 4216 9). This book mentions Dr Wieland Willker’s identification of the smaller “parchment” with the Codex Bezae.
[24] The History of a Mystery, BBC 2, transmitted on 17 September 1996.
[25] The Secret of the Priory of Sion, CBS News '60 Minutes', transmitted on 30 April 2006, presented by Ed Bradley, produced By Jeanne
Langley.
[26] Conspiracies On Trial: The Da Vinci Code (The Discovery Channel); transmitted on 10 April 2005.
[27] Pierre Jarnac, Les Mystères de Rennes-le-Château: Mèlange Sulfureux (CERT, 1994).
[28] Doug Moench, Factoid Books. The Big Book of Conspiracies, Paradox Press, 1995. ISBN 1563891867.
[29] Marie-France Etchegoin & Frédéric Lenoir, Code Da Vinci: L’Enquête, p.61 (Robert Laffont; 2004).
[30] Barbara Aho, " The Merovingian Dynasty. Satanic Bloodline of the Antichrist and False Prophet (http:/ / www. watch. pair. com/
merovingian. html)", watchpair.com, 1997. Retrieved on 29 March 2008.
[31] Martin Kemp, Professor of Art History at Oxford University, on the documentary The History of a Mystery, BBC Two, transmitted on 17
September 1996, commenting on books like The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail: "There are certain historical problems, of which the Turin
Priory of Sion 172

Shroud is one, in which there is 'fantastic fascination' with the topic, but a historical vacuum - a lack of solid evidence - and where there's a
vacuum - nature abhores a vacuum - and historical speculation abhors a vacuum - and it all floods in...But what you end up with is almost
nothing tangible or solid. You start from a hypothesis, and then that is deemed to be demonstrated more-or-less by stating the speculation, you
then put another speculation on top of that, and you end up with this great tower of hypotheses and speculations - and if you say 'where are the
rocks underneath this?' they are not there. It's like the House on Sand, it washes away as soon as you ask really hard questions of it."
[32] Damian Thompson, Counterknowledge. How We Surrendered to Conspiracy Theories, Quack Medicine, Bogus Science and Fake History.
Atlantic Books, 2008. ISBN 1843546752.
[33] Franck Marie, Rennes-le-Château: Etude Critique (SRES, 1978).
[34] Pierre Jarnac, Histoire du Trésor de Rennes-le-Château (1985).
[35] Pierre Jarnac, Les Archives de Rennes-le-Château (Editions Belisane, 1988). Describing The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail as a "monument
of mediocrity".
[36] Jean-Luc Chaumeil,La Table d'Isis ou Le Secret de la Lumière (Editions Guy Trédaniel, 1994).
[37] Marie-France Etchegoin & Frédéric Lenoir, Code Da Vinci: L'Enquête (Robert Laffont, 2004).
[38] Massimo Introvigne, Gli Illuminati E Il Priorato Di Sion - La Verita Sulle Due Societa Segrete Del Codice Da Vinci Di Angeli E Demoni
(Piemme; 2005).
[39] Jean-Jacques Bedu, Les sources secrètes du Da Vinci Code (Editions du Rocher, 2005).
[40] Bernardo Sanchez Da Motta, Do Enigma de Rennes-le-Château ao Priorado de Siao - Historia de um Mito Moderno (Esquilo, 2005).
[41] Miller, Laura (22 February 2004). "The Last Word; The Da Vinci Con" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.
html?res=9B07E0DD103AF931A15751C0A9629C8B63). The New York Times. . Retrieved 16 July 2008.
[42] Baigent, Michael; Leigh, Richard; Lincoln, Henry (1987). The Messianic Legacy. Henry Holt & Co. ISBN 0805005684.
[43] Quoting Pierre Plantard: "If anyone can claim to be a descendant of Sigisbert IV in the direct line it can only be Otto von Habsburg, and he
alone. To all those people who write to me I have given this same reply." From Vaincre – Reprend le titre d'un périodique paru en 1942-1943,
Number 1, April 1990 (http:/ / jhaldezos. free. fr/ lespersonnages/ plantard/ images/ Vaincre avril 1990. pdf) The April 1989, June 1989,
September 1989, April 1990 issues of Vaincre were compiled together (with some of the articles modified) in 1992 and entitled Le Cercle:
Rennes-le-Château et le Prieuré de Sion, consisting of 86 pages. This material was published in December 2007 by Pierre Jarnac in Pégase,
No 5 hors série, Le Prieuré de Sion - Les Archives de Pierre Plantard de Saint-Clair - Rennes-le-Chateau - Gisors - Stenay (90 pages) (http:/ /
www. languedaude. fr/ REVUES/ PEGASE/ 2007 pegase hors serie 5. jpg)
[44] "Affaire Pelat: Le Rapport du Juge", Le Point, no. 1112 (8–14 January 1994), p. 11.
[45] Les Cahiers de Rennes-le-Chateau, Nr. IX, Éditions Bélisane, 1989.
[46] Jean-Jacques Bedu, Les sources secrètes du Da Vinci Code, Editions du Rocher, 2005.
[47] Philippe Laprévôte, "Note sur l’actualité du Prieuré de Sion", in: Politica Hermetica, Nr. 10 (1996), p. 140–151.
[48] Laurent "Octonovo" Buccholtzer, "Pierre Plantard, Geneviève Zaepfell and the Alpha-Galates", in: Actes du Colloque 2006, Oeil-du-Sphinx,
2007.
[49] Bulletin Pégase N°06, Janvier/Mars 2003.
[50] Laurent "Octonovo" Buccholtzer, Rennes-le-Château, une Affaire Paradoxale, Oeil-du-Sphinx, 2008.
[51] Lynn Picknett, Clive Prince, The Sion Revelation. The Truth About the Guardians of Christ's Sacred Bloodline, Touchstone, 2006. ISBN
0743263030.
[52] Cinema Libre Studio, " Tomb Discovered in France Considered Knights Templar - When Excavated, Findings May Challenge the Tenets of
Christianity (http:/ / www. earthtimes. org/ articles/ show/ tomb-discovered-in-france-considered,355964. shtml)", earthtimes.org, 2008.
Retrieved on 17 April 2008.
[53] http:/ / www. amazon. co. uk/ Inside-Priory-Sion-Revelations-Guardians/ dp/ 1780280173/ ref=sr_1_1?s=books& ie=UTF8&
qid=1303997716& sr=1-1
[54] The second list appeared in Vaincre No. 3, September 1989, p. 22.

External links
• Introvigne, Massimo. The Da Vinci Code FAQ, or Will the Real Priory of Sion Please Stand Up? (http://www.
cesnur.org/2005/mi_02_03d.htm). CESNUR. Retrieved on 2008-06-20.
• Netchacovitch, Johan. Chaumeil - Plantard (http://www.portail-rennes-le-chateau.com/
chaumeil_plantard_english.htm) in Gazette of Rennes-le-Château (12 April 2006). Retrieved on 2008-06-20.
• Netchacovitch, Johan. Sole survivor of the Priory of Sion (http://www.portail-rennes-le-chateau.com/
survivor_chaumeil.htm) in Gazette of Rennes-le-Château (4 November 2006). Retrieved on 2008-06-20.
• Polidoro, Massimo. The Secrets of Rennes-le-Château: Notes on a Strange World (http://www.csicop.org/si/
2004-11/strange-world.html). Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. Retrieved on 2008-06-20.
• Wilson, Robert Anton. The Priory of Sion: Jesus, Freemasons, Extraterrestrials, The Gnomes of Zurich, Black
Israelites and Noon Blue Apples (http://www.rawilsonfans.com/articles/priory.htm) in Gnosis Issue #6:
Priory of Sion 173

Secret Societies (Winter 1987-'88). Retrieved on 2008-09-22.

Searches for Noah's Ark

From at least the time of Eusebius (c. 275 –
339 AD) to the present day, the search for
the physical remains of Noah's Ark has
held a fascination for many people. Despite
many rumours, evidence, sightings and
expeditions, no scientific evidence of the ark
has been found.[1] [2]

Mount Ararat (39°42′N, 44°17′E), satellite image — a stratovolcano, 5137 metres

(16854 ft) above sea level, prominence 3611 metres (11847 ft), believed to have
erupted within the last 10,000 years. The main peak is at the centre of the image.

Antiquity
According to Genesis 8:4, the Ark came to rest "on the mountains of
Ararat." Early commentators such as Josephus, and authorities quoted
by him, Berossus, Hieronymus the Egyptian, Mnaseas, and Nicolaus of
Damascus, record the tradition that these "mountains of Ararat" are to
be found in the region then known as Armenia, roughly corresponding
to Eastern Anatolia.

Syrian and Armenian tradition of the early centuries AD had a tradition

of the ark landing at Mount Judi, where according to Josephus the
remains of the ark were still shown in the 1st century AD. The location
of the "Place of Descent" (αποβατηριον, i.e. Nakhchivan) described by
Josephus was some 100 km to the southeast of the peak now known as
Mount Ararat, in what is today Northern Iraq.

Middle Ages and early modern periods

A modern mausoleum marks the site in
Marco Polo (1254–1324) wrote in his book, The Travels of Marco
Nakhchivan City traditionally believed to be the
Polo: grave of Noah.
In the heart of the Armenian mountain range, the mountains peak
is shaped like a cube (or cup), on which Noah's ark is said to have rested, whence it is called the Mountain of
Noah's Ark. It [the mountain] is so broad and long that it takes more than two days to go around it. On the
summit the snow lies so deep all the year round that no one can ever climb it; this snow never entirely melts,
but new snow is for ever falling on the old, so that the level rises.
Searches for Noah's Ark 174

Sir Walter Raleigh, writing c. 1616, made a laborious argument taking up several whole chapters of his History of
the World, that the term "Mountains of Ararat" originally encompassed all the adjoining and taller ranges of Asia,
and that Noah's Ark could only have landed in the Orient — especially since Armenia is not technically east of the
plain of Shinar (or Mesopotamia), but more northwest.

19th century
• In 1829, Dr. Friedrich Parrot, who had
made an ascent of Greater Ararat, wrote
in his Journey to Ararat that "all the
Armenians are firmly persuaded that
Noah's Ark remains to this very day on
the top of Ararat, and that, in order to
preserve it, no human being is allowed to
approach it."[3]

• In 1876, James Bryce, historian,

statesman, diplomat, explorer, and
Professor of Civil Law at Oxford,
climbed above the tree line and found a
slab of hand-hewn timber, four feet long
and five inches thick, which he identified
The Structure claimed to be the Noah's Ark in Durupınar site, Agri, Turkey
as being from the Ark.[4] In 1883, the
(Türkiye)
British Prophetic Messenger and others
reported that Turkish commissioners
investigating avalanches had seen the Ark.[5]

Recent searches (1980 to present)

Many searches have been largely supported by evangelical and millenarian churches and sustained by ongoing
popular interest sometimes expressed through faith-based magazines and lecture tours, videos, occasional television
specials and more recently the Internet.
• Former astronaut James Irwin led two expeditions to Ararat in the 1980s, was kidnapped once, but found no
tangible evidence of the Ark. "I've done all I possibly can," he said, "but the Ark continues to elude us."[6]
• In the 1980s and 1990s the Durupınar site was heavily promoted by adventurer and former anesthesiologist Ron
Wyatt. It consists of a large boat-shaped formation jutting out of the earth and rock. It has the advantage over the
Great Ararat site of being approachable. It receives a steady stream of visitors and according to the local
authorities a nearby mountain is called "Mount Cudi" (or Judi), making it one of about five Mount Judis in the
land of Kurdistan. Geologists have identified the Durupınar site as a natural formation,[7] but Wyatt's Ark
Discovery Institute continues to champion its claims.[8]
21st century
• In 2004, Honolulu-based businessman Daniel McGivern announced he would finance a $900,000 expedition to
the peak of Greater Ararat in July of that year to investigate the "Ararat anomaly"—he had previously paid for
commercial satellite images of the site.[1] After much initial fanfare, he was refused permission by the Turkish
authorities, as the summit is inside a restricted military zone. The expedition was subsequently labelled a "stunt"
by National Geographic News, which pointed out that the expedition leader, a Turkish academic named Ahmet
Ali Arslan, had previously been accused of faking photographs of the Ark.[9]
Searches for Noah's Ark 175

• In June 2006, Bob Cornuke of the Bible Archeology Search and Exploration Institute took a team of 14 American
"business, law, and ministry leaders" to Iran to visit a site in the Alborz Mountains, purported to be a possible
resting place of the Ark. The team did not include any archaeologists or geologists among its members. The team
claimed to have discovered an "object" 13,000 feet above sea level, which had the appearance of blackened
petrified wooden beams, and was "about the size of a small aircraft carrier" [400 ft long (120 m)], and supposedly
consistent with the dimensions provided in Genesis of 300 cubits by 50 cubits.[10] The team also claimed to have
found fossilised sea creatures inside the petrified wood, and in the immediate vicinity of the site.[11] One member
of the team claimed that 'a Houston lab used by the Smithsonian' tested some beams and confirmed they were
petrified wood containing fossilised sea animals,[12] but the name of the laboratory was not given. No one outside
the expedition has offered independent confirmation, and apart from a few purported beams, no photographic
images of this supposed Ark in its entirety have been made available (though short video segments have been
made available).[13] The team's consensus on the "object" is not absolute; Reg Lyle, another expedition member,
described the find as appearing to be "a basalt dike".[11] It is the official position of the BASE Institute that Iran
was the logical resting place of the Ark.[14] Their website does not definitely claim the object to be the Ark, but
concludes that it is "a candidate".[15]
• In 2007, a joint Turkish-Hong Kong expedition including members of Noah's Ark Ministries International found
an unusual cave with fossilized wooden walls on Mount Ararat, well above the vegetation line.[16] The sample
was declared by the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Hong Kong to be petrified wood of the
Cyprus variety. However a former participant disclosed later that the wood was placed there under the team's
request.[17]
• In 2010, Noah's Ark Ministries International l (NAMI) released videos of their discovery of the wood
structures.[18] Members of Noah's Ark Ministries International reported carbon dating suggests the wood is
approximately 4,800 years old. It is unlikely that there was any human settlement at the site at altitude of 4,000
meters.[19]
Randall Price, a partner with Noah's Ark Ministries International from early 2008 to the summer of 2008, stated that
the discovery was a probably the result of a hoax, perpetrated by ten Kurdish workers hired by the Turkish guide
used by the Chinese, who planted large wood beams taken from an old structure near the Black Sea at the cave site.
Price noted that Kurdish workers had shown that they could haul substantial weight to that level.[20] He also pointed
out the cobwebs in the rafters, saying they were "something just not possible in these conditions." [21]
In a response to Price, Noah’s Ark Ministries International stated that they had terminated co-operation with Price in
early October 2008, and that he had never been in the location of the wooden structure they identified, and regretted
his absence in their find. On their website they say they asked for the opinion of Mr. Muhsin Bulut, the Director of
Cultural Ministries, Agri Province. The web site says that his response was that secretly transporting such an amount
of timber to the strictly monitored area and planting a large wood structure at an altitude of 4,000 meters would have
been impossible.[22] This was supported by Panda Lee, who was among the members of the Hong Kong expedition
at the time who went on TV.[23] A website dedicated to inform about the findings was created going in depth details
of the findings [24]
At the end of April 2010, it was reported that Turkey's culture minister ordered a probe into how NAMI brought its
pieces of wood samples from Turkey to China.[25]

Unsubstantiated Stories
• According to one story, Nicholas II of Russia sent an expedition to Mount Ararat in 1916-1918 to investigate the
Ark. The fact that Nicholas abdicated during the February Revolution at the beginning of March 1917 (Gregorian
calendar) makes the story unlikely. A few sources put the date of the expedition at 1916, ("the Russian imperial
air force ... is supposed to have sent 150 men up Mount Ararat in 1916 to explore a large object said to be as long
as a city block", reads one). No records of such an expedition have yet come to light.[26]
Searches for Noah's Ark 176

• On April 1, 1933, the Kölnische Illustrierte Zeitung of Cologne published a story about an expedition sponsored
by a Mrs. Putrid Lousey and including a "Prof. Mud" from "the Royal Yalevard University" in Massachusetts, the
other "Prof. Stoneass." The story was accompanied by pictures, including what looked like a giant boat on a
mountainside and also flintlock weapons, presumably for the explorers' protection in the wilderness. On April 8,
the paper admitted the article had been an April Fools Day hoax. Nevertheless, a refugee publication called Rubez
adapted and published the story. In turn, a White Russian refugee publication called Mech Gedeona ("Sword of
Gideon"), ran a Russian-language version. The names became garbled in transliteration, but the same pictures
were reprinted each time. In 1972, the Mech Gedeona article came into the hands of Charles Willis of Fresno,
California, who provided it to two Ark-search enthusiasts, Eryl Cummings and his wife. John Bradley, another
Ark searcher, quickly provided them with the original German text, but even after this, the Cummingses pursued
for nearly four more months making sure that the joke names were mistranscriptions into German rather than a
hoax.[27]
• In 1955, French explorer, Fernand Navarra, reportedly found a 5-foot wooden beam on Mount Ararat some 40
feet under the Parrot Glacier on the northwest slope and well above the treeline. The Forestry Institute of
Research and Experiments of the Ministry of Agriculture in Spain certified the wood to be about 5,000 years old
– a claim that is disputed by Radio Carbon dating – two labs have dated the 1969 samples, one at 650 C.E. ± 50
years, the other at 630 C.E. ± 95 years.[28] Navarra's guide later claimed the French explorer bought the beam
from a nearby village and carried it up the mountain.[26]
• In 1970 an Armenian, Georgie Hagopian, claimed to have visited the Ark twice around 1908/1910 (1902 in
another version, and 1906 according to a segment in the TV series Unsolved Mysteries) with his uncle. Hagopian
claimed that he had climbed up onto the Ark and walked along its roof and that some of his young friends had
also seen it. The online archive of the old USENET newsgroup talk.origins[29] notes that "[t]he apparent ease of
getting to the ark conflicts with the accounts of other explorers,"[30]
• Ed Davis,[31] a US army sergeant based at Hamadan in Iran during World War II, reported that he had climbed
Mt. Ararat with his driver's family in 1943. After three days' climbing, the group camped 100 feet above the Ark
and was able to look down into it but not to approach closely. According to Davis's description, it had broken into
two pieces, which had been pushed some distance apart by glaciers. Its description roughly matched Hagopian's,
judging by Elfred Lee's paintings. Lee also interviewed Ed Davis and created a painting based on Davis's
descriptions. The structures in the paintings appear to match.[32]
• In 1977, a documentary called "In Search of Noah's Ark" aired in theaters and on numerous television stations,
claiming that the Ark had been found on Mt. Ararat; it was based on a book of the same title by David Balsiger
and Charles Sellier, Jr. published in 1976. The entire movie is on Godtube, Google, and Youtube.
• In 1993, CBS aired a television special entitled "The Incredible Discovery of Noah's Ark," which contained a
section devoted to the claims of George Jammal, who showed what he called "sacred wood from the ark."
Jammal's story of a dramatic mountain expedition which took the life of "his Polish friend Vladimir" was actually
a deliberate hoax, and Jammal - who was really an actor - later revealed that his "sacred wood" was wood taken
from railroad tracks in Long Beach, California and hardened by cooking with various sauces in an oven.[33]
Searches for Noah's Ark 177

Notes and references

[1] Mayell, Hillary (27 April 2004). "Noah's Ark Found? Turkey Expedition Planned for Summer" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/
2004/ 04/ 0427_040427_noahsark. html). National Geographic Society. . Retrieved 29 April 2010.
[2] Noah's Ark Quest Dead in Water (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2004/ 09/ 0920_040920_noahs_ark. html) - National
Geographic
[3] Dr Friedrich Parrott (http:/ / www. home. earthlink. net/ ~arktracker/ ark/ Quotes. html#Dr. FriedrichParrot)
[4] James Bryce (http:/ / www. noahsarksearch. com/ BryceJames/ BryceJames. htm)
[5] British Prophetic Messenger and the Turkish Commissioners (http:/ / www. home. earthlink. net/ ~arktracker/ ark/ Sightings. html)
[6] James Irwin, from Arlington National Cemetery website (http:/ / www. arlingtoncemetery. net/ jbirwin. htm)
[7] bogus ark (http:/ / www. csun. edu/ ~vcgeo005/ bogus. html)
[8] Wyatt Archeological Research (http:/ / www. wyattmuseum. com/ noahs-ark. htm)
[9] McGivern expedition cancelled (http:/ / home. gwu. edu/ ~ehcline/ Noah's_Ark_Quest. html)
[10] Has Noah's Ark Been Found? (http:/ / articles. news. aol. com/ news/ _a/ has-noahs-ark-been-found/ 20060629173309990001?_ccc=3&
cid=842)
[11] "Noah's Ark? For Real" (http:/ / www. worldviewweekend. com/ secure/ cwnetwork/ article. php?& ArticleID=813). 2006-06-16. .
[12] Texans Part Of Possible Noah's Ark Discovery (http:/ / cbs11tv. com/ topstories/ local_story_177234625. html)
[13] Dialup (http:/ / www. worldviewweekend. com/ worldview-times/ ark_dialup. html) and broadband (http:/ / www. worldviewweekend. com/
worldview-times/ ark. html) video footage from BASE
[14] Ten Logical Reasons for The Ark of Noah Being in Iran (http:/ / www. baseinstitute. org/ Noah's_Ark_Iran_pg1. html)
[15] http:/ / www. baseinstitute. org/ noah6. html
[16] http:/ / www. noahsarksearch. net/ eng/ content05. php
[17] (http:/ / news. sina. com. hk/ cgi-bin/ nw/ show. cgi/ 3/ 1/ 1/ 1503503/ 1. html)
[18] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ user/ NoahsArkSearch
[19] Kelly, Cathal (2010-04-27). "Noah’s Ark found, researchers claim" (http:/ / www. thestar. com/ news/ world/ article/
801041--noah-s-ark-found-researchers-claim). Toronto Star (thestar.com). . Retrieved 19 December 2010.
[20] http:/ / www. worldofthebible. com/ news. htm
[21] Tigay, Chanan (29 April 2010). "Ex-Colleague: Expedition Faked Noah's Ark Find" (http:/ / www. aolnews. com/ world/ article/
noahs-ark-found-insider-randall-price-now-says-discovery-may-be-a-hoax/ 19459208). AOL News. AOL. . Retrieved 29 April 2010.
[22] http:/ / www. noahsarksearch. net/ eng/ randall. php
[23] (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=6U8PLviuvqQ)
[24] (http:/ / www. noahsarksearch. net/ eng/ )
[25] Chinese explorers stand by claim of Noah's Ark find in Turkey (http:/ / www. csmonitor. com/ World/ Global-Issues/ 2010/ 0430/
Chinese-explorers-stand-by-claim-of-Noah-s-Ark-find-in-Turkey), The Christian Science Monitor, 03 May 2010
[26] Ancient High Technology - Evidence of Noah's Flood? (http:/ / www. s8int. com/ noahsark1. html)
[27] April's Fools (http:/ / www. str. com. br/ English/ Atheos/ wild. htm)
[28] TalkOrigins "Navarra's Wood" (http:/ / www. talkorigins. org/ indexcc/ CH/ CH504_2. html)
[29] CH505.4: Hagopian and the Ark (http:/ / www. talkorigins. org/ indexcc/ CH/ CH505_4. html)
[30] Hagopian, however, claims that he visited during drought period and that only the mountain's peak was covered in snow
[31] Noah's Ark Search - Mount Ararat (http:/ / www. noahsarksearch. com/ ed-davis. htm)
[32] Mount Ararat Photo Album (http:/ / www. noahsarksearch. com/ LeeElfred/ LeeElfred. htm)
[33] George Jammal, Hoaxing The Hoaxers: or, The Incredible (phony) Discovery of Noah's Ark (http:/ / www. atheistalliance. org/ library/
jammal-hoaxing. php)

Further reading
• Cummings, Violet M., Noah's Ark: Fable or Fact?, (1972) ISBN 0-8007-8183-X

External links
• [[Unsolved Mysteries (http://www.tv.com/unsolved-mysteries/episode-180/episode/174227/summary.
html)] ] (NBC), April 29, 1992.
• Photographs of "Durupinar": aerial (http://www.arcimaging.org/GeisslerRex/Durupinar19591.jpg) and
ground level (http://www.arcimaging.org/GeisslerRex/Durupinar20001.jpg)
• The Skeptics' Dictionary (http://skepdic.com/noahsark.html)
• Index to Creationist Claims (http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CH/CH500.html)
Searches for Noah's Ark 178

• Bosch Hieronymus Noah's Ark on Mount Ararat Oil Painting - Master Works Art Gallery (http://www.
masterworksartgallery.com/Bosch-Hieronymus/Bosch-Hieronymus-Noah-s-Ark-on-Mount-Ararat.html)
• Noah's Ark Discovered in Iran? from National Geographic News of July, 2006 (http://news.nationalgeographic.
com/news/2006/07/060705-noahs-ark.html)
• (http://viewzone2.com/noahx.html)
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion 179

The Protocols of the Elders of Zion

The Protocols of the Elders of Zion

Cover of first book edition, The Great within the Minuscule and Antichrist
Author(s) Possibly Pyotr Rachkovsky; the author plagiarised from Hermann Goedsche and Maurice Joly

Original title Програма завоевания мира евреями (Programa zavoevaniya mira evreyami, "The Jewish Programme to Conquer the World")

Country Russian Empire

Language Russian, with plagiarism from German and French texts

Subject(s) Antisemetic conspiracy theory

Genre(s) Propaganda

Publisher Znamya

Publication date August—September 1903

Published in 1919
English

Media type Fraudulent political treatise

Pages 417 (1905 edition)

The Protocols of the Elders of Zion 180

The Protocols of the Elders of Zion is a fraudulent, antisemitic text

purporting to describe a Jewish plan for achieving global domination.
It was first published in Russia in 1903, translated into multiple
languages, and disseminated internationally in the early part of the
twentieth century. Henry Ford funded printing of 500,000 copies
which were distributed throughout the United States in the 1920s.

Adolf Hitler was a major proponent. It was studied, as if factual, in

German classrooms after the Nazis came to power in 1933, despite
having been exposed as fraudulent years before. In at least one
scholar's opinion, the Protocols was Hitler's primary justification for
initiating the Holocaust — his "warrant for genocide."[1]
The Protocols purports to document the minutes of a late 19th-century
meeting of Jewish leaders discussing their goal of global Jewish
hegemony by subverting the morals of Gentiles, and by controlling the
press and the world's economies. It is still widely available today, on
the Internet and in print, in numerous languages. A reproduction of the 1905 Russian edition by
Serge Nilus, appearing in Praemonitus
Praemunitus (1920).
Forgery and plagiarism
The Protocols is a fabricated document; its content is demonstrably fictional in its entirety. It was originally
produced in Russia between 1897 and 1903, possibly by Pyotr Ivanovich Rachkovsky, head of the Paris office of the
Russian Secret Police, and unknown others.[2] [3]
Source material for the forgery consisted of an 1864 novel by the French political satirist Maurice Joly entitled
Dialogue aux enfers entre Machiavel et Montesquieu or Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu,[4]
and a chapter from an 1868 book of fiction entitled "Biarritz" by the antisemitic German novelist Hermann
Goedsche, which had been translated into Russian in 1872.[5]

Literary forgery
The forgery contains numerous elements typical of what is known in literature as a "false document": a document
that is deliberately written to fool the reader into believing that what is written is truthful and accurate even though,
in actuality, it is not.[6] It is also one of the best-known and most-discussed examples of literary forgery, with
analysis and proof of its fraudulent origin going as far back as 1921.[7] The forgery is also an early example of
"Conspiracy Theory" literature.[8] Written mainly in the first person plural,[9] the text embodies generalizations,
truisms and platitudes on how to take over the world: take control of the media and the financial institutions, change
the traditional social order, etc. It does not contain specifics.

Maurice Joly
Elements of the Protocols were plagiarized from Joly's fictional Dialogue in Hell, a thinly-veiled attack on the
political ambitions of Napoleon III, who, represented by the non-Jewish character Machiavelli,[10] plots to rule the
world. Joly, a monarchist and legitimist, was imprisoned in France for 15 months as a direct result of his book's
publication. Ironically, scholars have noted that Dialogue in Hell was itself a plagiarism, at least in part, of a novel
by Eugene Sue, Les Mystères du Peuple (1849–1856).[11]
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion 181

Comparison between The Protocols and Maurice Joly's Dialogue in Hell

The Protocols 1–19 closely follow the order of Maurice Joly's Dialogues 1–17. For example:

Dialogue in Hell Between Machiavelli and Montesquieu The Protocols of the Elders of Zion

How are loans made? By the issue of bonds entailing on the
Government the obligation to pay interest proportionate to the
capital it has been paid. Thus, if a loan is at 5%, the State,
after 20 years, has paid out a sum equal to the borrowed
capital. When 40 years have expired it has paid double, after
60 years triple: yet it remains debtor for the entire capital sum.
— Montesquieu,  Dialogues, p. 209
A loan is an issue of Government paper which entails an obligation
to pay interest amounting to a percentage of the total sum of the
borrowed money. If a loan is at 5%, then in 20 years the
Government would have unnecessarily paid out a sum equal to that
of the loan in order to cover the percentage. In 40 years it will have
paid twice; and in 60 thrice that amount, but the loan will still
remain as an unpaid debt.
— Protocols, p. 77

Like the god Vishnu, my press will have a hundred arms, and These newspapers, like the Indian god Vishnu, will be possessed of
these arms will give their hands to all the different shades of hundreds of hands, each of which will be feeling the pulse of
opinion throughout the country. varying public opinion.
— Machiavelli,  Dialogues, p. 141 — Protocols, p. 43

Now I understand the figure of the god Vishnu; you have a Our Government will resemble the Hindu god Vishnu. Each of our
hundred arms like the Indian idol, and each of your fingers hundred hands will hold one spring of the social machinery of State.
touches a spring. — Protocols, p. 65
— Montesquieu,  Dialogues, p. 207

In addition to Vishnu, a highly improbable reference in any Jewish religious literature, and the absence of the
Talmudic citations that would be expected, multiple references to the "King of the Jews", the semi-messianic idea
associated with Jesus that has been avoided in Judaic tradition since the schism between Judaism and Christianity,
further suggest that the author was not well-versed in Jewish culture.[12]
Philip Graves brought this plagiarism to light in a series of articles in The Times in 1921, the first published evidence
that the Protocols was not an authentic document.[13]

Hermann Goedsche
"Goedsche was a postal clerk and a spy for the Prussian secret police. He had been forced to leave the postal work
due to his part in forging evidence in the prosecution against the Democratic leader Benedict Waldeck in 1849."[14]
Following his dismissal, Goedsche began a career as a conservative columnist, and wrote literary fiction under the
pen name Sir John Retcliffe.[1] His 1868 novel Biarritz (To Sedan) contains a chapter called "The Jewish Cemetery
in Prague and the Council of Representatives of the Twelve Tribes of Israel." In it, Goedsche (who was obviously
unaware that only two of the original twelve Biblical "tribes" remained) depicts a clandestine nocturnal meeting of
members of a mysterious rabbinical cabal that is planning a diabolical "Jewish conspiracy." At midnight, the Devil
himself appears to contribute his opinions and insight. The chapter closely resembles a scene in Alexandre Dumas,
père's The Queen's Necklace (1848) (ISBN 1-58963-209-5), in which Joseph Balsamo, Alessandro Cagliostro, and
company plot the Affair of the Diamond Necklace. By 1871, this fictional story was being recounted in France as
serious history. In 1872 a Russian translation of "The Jewish Cemetery in Prague" appeared in St. Petersburg as a
separate pamphlet of purported non-fiction. François Bournand, in his Les Juifs et nos Contemporains (1896),
reproduced the soliloquy at the end of the chapter, in which the character Levit expresses the wish that Jews be
"kings of the world in 100 years", as factual — crediting a "Chief Rabbi John Readcliff." Perpetuation of the myth of
the authenticity of Goedsche's story, in particular the "Rabbi's speech", facilitated later propagation of the equally
mythical authenticity of the Protocols.[1]
Fictional events in Joly's pamphlet, which appeared four years before Biarritz, may well have been the inspiration for
Goedsche's fictional midnight meeting, and details of the outcome of the supposed plot. Goedsche's chapter may, in
fact, have been an outright plagiarism of Joly, Dumas père, or both.[15] [16]
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion 182

Structure and content

The Protocols purports to document the minutes of a late nineteenth century meeting attended by world Jewish
leaders, the 'Elders of Zion', who are conspiring to take over the world.[17] The forgery places in the mouths of the
Jewish leaders a variety of plans, most of which derive from older antisemitic canards.[17] For example, the
Protocols includes plans to subvert the morals of the non-Jewish world, plans for Jewish bankers to control the
world's economies, plans for Jewish control of the press, and - ultimately - plans for the destruction of
civilization.[17] The document consists of twenty-four "protocols", which have been analyzed by Steven Jacobs and
Mark Weitzman, and they documented several recurrent themes that appear repeatedly in the 24 protocols,[18] as
shown in the following table:[19]

Protocol [20] [19]

Title Themes

1 The Basic Doctrine: "Right Lies in Might" Freedom and Liberty; Authority and power; Gold = money

2 Economic War and Disorganization Lead to International International Political economic conspiracy; Press/Media as tools
Government

3 Methods of Conquest Jewish people, arrogant and corrupt; Chosenness/Election; Public

Service

4 The Destruction of Religion by Materialism Business as Cold and Heartless; Gentiles as slaves

5 Despotism and Modern Progress Jewish Ethics; Jewish People's Relationship to Larger Society

6 The Acquisition of Land, The Encouragement of Speculation Ownership of land

7 A Prophecy of Worldwide War Internal unrest and discord (vs. Court system) leading to war vs
Shalom/Peace

8 The transitional Government Criminal element

9 The All-Embracing Propaganda Law; education; Masonry/Freemasonry

10 Abolition of the Constitution; Rise of the Autocracy Politics; Majority rule; Liberalism; Family

11 The Constitution of Autocracy and Universal Rule Gentiles; Jewish political involvement; Masonry

12 The Kingdom of the Press and Control Liberty; Press censorship; Publishing

13 Turning Public Thought from Essentials to Non-essentials Gentiles; Business; Chosenness/Election; Press and censorship;
Liberalism

14 The Destruction of Religion as a Prelude to the Rise of the Judaism; God; Gentiles; Liberty; Pornography
Jewish God

15 Utilization of Masonry: Heartless Suppression of Enemies Gentiles; Masonry; Sages of Israel; Political power and authority; King
of Israel

16 The Nullification of Education Education

17 The Fate of Lawyers and the Clergy Lawyers; Clergy; Christianity and non-Jewish Authorship

18 The Organization of Disorder Evil; Speech;

19 Mutual Understanding Between Ruler and People Gossip; Martyrdom

20 The Financial Program and Construction Taxes and Taxation; Loans; Bonds; Usury; Moneylending

21 Domestic Loans and Government Credit Stock Markets and Stock Exchanges

22 The Beneficence of Jewish Rule Gold = Money; Chosenness/Election

23 The Inculcation of Obedience Obedience to Authority; Slavery; Chosenness/Election

24 The Jewish Ruler Kingship; Document as Fiction

The Protocols of the Elders of Zion 183

History

Publication history
The Protocols appeared in print in the Russian Empire as early as 1903. The
anti-Semitic tract was published in Znamya, a Black Hundreds newspaper owned by
Pavel Krushevan, as a serialized set of articles. It appeared again in 1905 as a final
chapter (Chapter XII) of a second edition of Velikoe v malom i antikhrist (The Great
in the Small & Antichrist), a book by Serge Nilus. In 1906 it appeared in pamphlet
form edited by G. Butmi.[21]

These first three (and subsequently more) Russian language imprints were published
and circulated in the Russian Empire during 1903–1906 period as a tool for
scapegoating Jews, blamed by the monarchists for the defeat in the Russo-Japanese
War and the 1905 Russian Revolution. Common to all three texts is the idea that
Jews aim for world domination. Since The Protocols are presented as merely a 1905 ed., Facsimile of Title page
document, the front matter and back matter are needed to explain its alleged origin. in Praemonitus Praemunitus
The diverse imprints, however, are mutually inconsistent. The general claim is that (1920) by Harris A. Houghton

the document was stolen from a secret Jewish organization. Since the alleged
original stolen manuscript does not exist, one is forced to restore a purported original edition. This has been done by
the Italian scholar, Cesare G. De Michelis in 1998, in a work which was translated into English and published in
2004, where he treats his subject as Apocrypha.[6] [22] As fiction in the genre of literature the tract was further
analyzed by Umberto Eco in his novel Foucault's Pendulum in 1988 (English translation in 1989), in 1994 in chapter
6, "Fictional Protocols", of his Six Walks in the Fictional Woods and in his 2010 novel The Cemetery of Prague.

As the 1917 Russian Revolution unfolded, causing white Russians to flee to the West, this text was carried along and
assumed a new purpose. Until then The Protocols remained obscure;[23] it was now an instrument for blaming Jews
for the Russian Revolution. It was now a tool, a political weapon used against the Bolshevikis who were depicted as
overwhelmingly Jews, allegedly executing the "plan" embodied in The Protocols. The purpose was to discredit the
October Revolution, prevent the West from recognizing the Soviet Union, and bring the downfall of Vladimir
Lenin's regime.[6] [22]

First Russian language editions

Conspiracy references
According to Daniel Pipes,
The great importance of The Protocols lies in its permitting antisemites to reach beyond their traditional circles
and find a large international audience, a process that continues to this day. The forgery poisoned public life
wherever it appeared; it was "self-generating; a blueprint that migrated from one conspiracy to another."[24]
The book's vagueness — almost no names, dates, or issues are specified — has been one key to this
wide-ranging success. The purportedly Jewish authorship also helps to make the book more convincing. Its
embrace of contradiction — that to advance, Jews use all tools available, including capitalism and
communism, philo-Semitism and antisemitism, democracy and tyranny — made it possible for The Protocols
to reach out to all: rich and poor, Right and Left, Christian and Muslim, American and Japanese.[25]
Pipes notes that the Protocols emphasizes recurring themes of conspiratorial antisemitism: "Jews always scheme",
"Jews are everywhere", "Jews are behind every institution", "Jews obey a central authority, the shadowy 'Elders'",
and "Jews are close to success."[26]
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion 184

The Protocols is widely considered influential in the development of other conspiracy theories, and reappears
repeatedly in contemporary conspiracy literature, such as Jim Marrs' Rule by Secrecy. Some recent editions proclaim
that the "Jews" depicted in the Protocols are a cover identity for other conspirators such as the Illuminati,[27]
Freemasons, the Priory of Sion, or even, in the opinion of David Icke, "extra-dimensional entities."

Emergence in Russia
The chapter "In the Jewish Cemetery in Prague" from Goedsche's Biarritz, with its
strong antisemitic theme containing the alleged rabbinical plot against the European
civilization, was translated into Russian as a separate pamphlet in 1872.[5] In 1921
Princess Catherine Radziwill gave a private lecture in New York. She claimed that the
Protocols were a forgery compiled in 1904-1905 by Russian journalists Matvei
Golovinski and Manasevich-Manuilov at the direction of Pyotr Rachkovsky, Chief of the
Russian secret service in Paris.[3]

In 1944 German writer Konrad Heiden identified Golovinski as an author of the

Protocols.[27] Radziwill's account was supported by Russian historian Mikhail
Lepekhine, who published his findings in November 1999 in the French newsweekly The front piece of a 1912
[28] edition utilizing occult
L'Express. Lepekhine considers the Protocols a part of a scheme to persuade Tsar
symbols.
Nicholas II that the modernization of Russia was really a Jewish plot to control the
world.[29] Stephen Eric Bronner writes that groups opposed to progress,
parliamentarianism, urbanization, and capitalism, and an active Jewish role in these modern institutions, were
particularly drawn to the antisemitism of the document.[30] Ukrainian scholar Vadim Skuratovsky offers extensive
literary, historical and linguistic analysis of the original text of the Protocols and traces the influences of Fyodor
Dostoyevsky's prose (in particular, The Grand Inquisitor and The Possessed) on Golovinski's writings, including the
Protocols.[29]

In his book The Non-Existent Manuscript, Italian scholar Cesare G. De Michelis studies early Russian publications
of the Protocols. The Protocols were first mentioned in the Russian press in April 1902, by the Saint Petersburg
newspaper, Novoye Vremya (Новое Время - The New Times). The article was written by a famous conservative
publicist Mikhail Menshikov as a part of his regular series "Letters to Neighbors" ("Письма к ближним") and was
titled "Plots against Humanity". The author described his meeting with a lady (Yuliana Glinka, as it is known now)
who, after telling him about her mystical revelations, implored him to get familiar with the documents later known as
the Protocols; but after reading some excerpts Menshikov became quite skeptical about their origin and did not
publish them.[31]

Krushevan and Nilus editions

The Protocols were published at the earliest, in serialized form, from August 28 to September 7 (O.S.) 1903, in
Znamya, a Saint Petersburg daily newspaper, under Pavel Krushevan. Krushevan had initiated the Kishinev pogrom
four months earlier.[32]
In 1905, Sergei Nilus published the full text of the Protocols in Chapter XII, the final chapter (pages 305–417), of
the second edition (or third, according to some sources) of his book, Velikoe v malom i antikhrist, which translates as
"The Great within the Small: The Coming of the Anti-Christ and the Rule of Satan on Earth". He claimed it was the
work of the First Zionist Congress, held in 1897 in Basel, Switzerland.[33] When it was pointed out that the First
Zionist Congress had been open to the public and was attended by many non-Jews, Nilus changed his story, saying
the Protocols were the work of the 1902–1903 meetings of the Elders, but contradicting his own prior statement that
he had received his copy in 1901:
In 1901, I succeeded through an acquaintance of mine (the late Court Marshal Alexei Nikolayevich Sukotin of
Chernigov) in getting a manuscript that exposed with unusual perfection and clarity the course and
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion 185

development of the secret Jewish Freemasonic conspiracy, which would bring this wicked world to its
inevitable end. The person who gave me this manuscript guaranteed it to be a faithful translation of the
original documents that were stolen by a woman from one of the highest and most influential leaders of the
Freemasons at a secret meeting somewhere in France — the beloved nest of Freemasonic conspiracy.[34]

Stolypin's fraud investigation, 1905

A subsequent secret investigation ordered by Pyotr Stolypin, the newly appointed chairman of the Council of
Ministers, came to the conclusion that the Protocols first appeared in Paris in antisemitic circles around
1897–1898.[35] When Nicholas II learned of the results of this investigation, he requested: "The Protocols should be
confiscated, a good cause cannot be defended by dirty means."[36] Despite the order, or because of the "good cause",
numerous reprints proliferated.[32]

The Protocols in the West

In the United States The Protocols are to be understood in the context of the Red scare,
the First Red Scare (1917–1920). The text circulated in 1919 in American government
circles, specifically diplomatic and military, in typescript form, a copy of which is
archived by the Hoover Institute.[37] It also appeared in 1919 in the Public Ledger as a
pair of serialized newspaper articles. But all references to "Jews" were replaced with
references to Bolsheviki as an exposé by the journalist and subsequently highly respected
Columbia University School of Journalism dean Carl W. Ackerman.[38]

In 1923 there appeared an anonymously edited pamphlet by the Britons Publishing

Society, a successor to The Britons, an entity created and headed by Henry Hamilton
Beamish. This imprint was allegedly a translation by Victor E. Marsden, who died in
A 1934 edition by the
October 1920.[37] Patriotic Publishing
Most versions substantially involve "protocols", or minutes of a speech given in secret Company of Chicago.

involving Jews who are organized as Elders, or Sages, of Zion,[39] and underlies 24
protocols that are supposedly followed by the Jewish people. The Protocols has been proven to be a literary forgery
and hoax as well as a clear case of plagiarism.[40] [41] [42] [43] [44]

English language imprints

On October 27 and 28, 1919, the Philadelphia Public Ledger published excerpts of an English language translation
as the "Red Bible," deleting all references to the purported Jewish authorship and re-casting the document as a
Bolshevik manifesto.[45] The author of the articles was the paper's correspondent at the time, Carl W. Ackerman,
who later became the head of the journalism department at Columbia University. On May 8, 1920, an article[46] in
The Times followed German translation and appealed for an inquiry into what it called an "uncanny note of
prophecy". In the leader (editorial) entitled "The Jewish Peril, a Disturbing Pamphlet: Call for Inquiry", Wickham
Steed wrote about The Protocols:
What are these 'Protocols'? Are they authentic? If so, what malevolent assembly concocted these plans
and gloated over their exposition? Are they forgery? If so, whence comes the uncanny note of prophecy,
prophecy in part fulfilled, in part so far gone in the way of fulfillment?".[47]
Steed later retracted his endorsement of The Protocols after they were exposed as a forgery.
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion 186

United States

In the United States, Henry Ford sponsored the printing of 500,000 copies,
and, from 1920 to 1922, published a series of antisemitic articles titled "The
International Jew: The World's Foremost Problem", in The Dearborn
Independent, a newspaper he owned. In 1921, Ford cited evidence of a Jewish
threat: "The only statement I care to make about the Protocols is that they fit
in with what is going on. They are 16 years old, and they have fitted the world
situation up to this time."[48] In 1927, however, the courts ordered Ford to
retract his publication and apologize; he complied, claiming his assistants had
duped him. He remained an admirer of Nazi Germany, however.[49]

In 1934, an anonymous editor expanded the compilation with "Text and

Commentary" (pages 136–141). The production of this uncredited
compilation was a 300-page book, an inauthentic expanded edition of the
Title page of 1920 edition from Boston.
twelfth chapter of Nilus's 1905 book on the coming of the anti-Christ. It
consists of substantial liftings of excerpts of articles from Ford's antisemitic
periodical The Dearborn Independent. This 1934 text circulates most widely in the English-speaking world, as well
as on the internet. The "Text and Commentary" concludes with a comment on Haim Weizman's October 6, 1920
remark at a banquet: "A beneficent protection which God has instituted in the life of the Jew is that He has dispersed
him all over the world". Marsden, who was dead by then, is credited with the following assertion:

It proves that the Learned Elders exist. It proves that Dr. Weizmann knows all about them. It proves that
the desire for a "National Home" in Palestine is only camouflage and an infinitesimal part of the Jew's
real object. It proves that the Jews of the world have no intention of settling in Palestine or any separate
country, and that their annual prayer that they may all meet "Next Year in Jerusalem" is merely a piece
of their characteristic make-believe. It also demonstrates that the Jews are now a world menace, and that
the Aryan races will have to domicile them permanently out of Europe.[50]
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion 187

The Times exposes a forgery, 1921

In 1920-1921, the history of the concepts found in the Protocols was traced back to the
works of Goedsche and Jacques Crétineau-Joly by Lucien Wolf (an English Jewish
journalist), and published in London in August 1921. But a dramatic exposé occurred in
the series of articles in The Times by its Constantinople reporter, Philip Graves, who
discovered the plagiarism from the work of Maurice Joly.
According to writer Peter Grose, Allen Dulles, who was in Constantinople developing
relationships in post-Ottoman political structures, discovered 'the source' of the
documentation ultimately provided to The Times. Grose writes that The Times extended a
loan to the source, a Russian émigré who refused to be identified, with the understanding
the loan would not be repaid.[51] Colin Holmes, a lecturer in economic history of
Sheffield University, identified the émigré as Michael Raslovleff, a self-identified
antisemite, who gave the information to Graves so as not to "give a weapon of any kind
to the Jews, whose friend I have never been."[52]

In the first article of Graves' series, titled "A Literary Forgery", the editors of The Times
wrote, "our Constantinople Correspondent presents for the first time conclusive proof
that the document is in the main a clumsy plagiarism. He has forwarded us a copy of the
French book from which the plagiarism is made."[53] The New York Times reprinted the
articles on September 4, 1921.[54] In the same year, an entire book[55] documenting the
hoax was published in the United States by Herman Bernstein. Despite this widespread
The Times exposed the
and extensive debunking, the Protocols continued to be regarded as important factual
Protocols as a forgery on
evidence by antisemites. August 16–18, 1921

Middle East
A translation made by an Arab Christian appeared in Cairo in 1927 or 1928, this time as a book. The first translation
by an Arab Muslim was also published in Cairo, but only in 1951.[56]

Switzerland

The Berne Trial, 1934–1935

The selling of the Protocols (edited by German antisemite Theodor Fritsch) by the National Front during a political
manifestation in the Casino of Berne on June 13, 1933[57] led to the Berne Trial in the Amtsgericht (district court) of
Berne, the capital of Switzerland, on October 29, 1934. The plaintiffs (the Swiss Jewish Association and the Jewish
Community of Berne) were represented by Hans Matti and Georges Brunschvig, helped by Emil Raas. Working on
behalf of the defense was German anti-Semitic propagandist Ulrich Fleischhauer. On May 19, 1935, two defendants
(Theodore Fischer and Silvio Schnell) were convicted of violating a Bernese statute prohibiting the distribution of
"immoral, obscene or brutalizing" texts[58] while three other defendants were acquitted. The court declared the
Protocols to be forgeries, plagiarisms, and obscene literature. Judge Walter Meyer, a Christian who had not heard of
the Protocols earlier, said in conclusion:
I hope, the time will come when nobody will be able to understand how in 1935 nearly a dozen sane and
responsible men were able for two weeks to mock the intellect of the Bern court discussing the
authenticity of the so-called Protocols, the very Protocols that, harmful as they have been and will be,
are nothing but laughable nonsense.[32]
Vladimir Burtsev, a Russian émigré, anti-Bolshevik and anti-Fascist who exposed numerous Okhrana agents
provocateurs in the early 1900s, served as a witness at the Berne Trial. In 1938 in Paris he published a book, The
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion 188

Protocols of the Elders of Zion: A Proved Forgery, based on his testimony.

On November 1, 1937 the defendants appealed the verdict to the Obergericht (Cantonal Supreme Court) of Berne. A
panel of three judges acquitted them, holding that the Protocols, while false, did not violate the statute at issue
because they were "political publications" and not "immoral (obscene) publications (Schundliteratur)" in the strict
sense of the law.[58] The presiding judge's opinion stated, though, that the forgery of the Protocols was not
questionable and expressed regret that the law did not provide adequate protection for Jews from this sort of
literature. The court refused to impose the fees of defence of the acquitted defendants to the plaintiffs, and the
acquitted Theodor Fischer had to pay 100 Fr. to the total state costs of the trial (Fr. 28'000) that were eventually paid
by the Canton of Berne.[59] This decision gave grounds for later allegations that the appeal court "confirmed
authenticity of the Protocols" which is contrary to the facts. A view favorable to the pro-Nazi defendants is reported
in an appendix to Leslie Fry's Waters Flowing Eastward.[60] A more scholarly work on the trial is in a 139 page
monograph by Urs Lüthi.

The Basel Trial

A similar trial in Switzerland took place at Basel. The Swiss Frontists Alfred Zander and Eduard Rüegsegger
distributed the Protocols (edited by the German Gottfried zur Beek) in Switzerland. Jules Dreyfus-Brodsky and
Marcus Cohen sued them for insult to Jewish honor. At the same time, chief rabbi Marcus Ehrenpreis of Stockholm
(who also witnessed at the Berne Trial) sued Alfred Zander who contended that Ehrenpreis himself had said that the
Protocols were authentic (referring to the foreword of the edition of the Protocols by the German antisemite Theodor
Fritsch). On June 5, 1936 these proceedings ended with a settlement.[61]

Germany
The Protocols also became a part of the Nazi propaganda effort to justify persecution of the Jews. It was made
required reading for German students. In The Holocaust: The Destruction of European Jewry 1933–1945, Nora
Levin states that "Hitler used the Protocols as a manual in his war to exterminate the Jews":
Despite conclusive proof that the Protocols were a gross forgery, they had sensational popularity and
large sales in the 1920s and 1930s. They were translated into every language of Europe and sold widely
in Arab lands, the United States, and England. But it was in Germany after World War I that they had
their greatest success. There they were used to explain all of the disasters that had befallen the country:
the defeat in the war, the hunger, the destructive inflation.[62]
Hitler refers to the Protocols in Mein Kampf:
... To what extent the whole existence of this people is based on a continuous lie is shown incomparably
by the Protocols of the Wise Men of Zion, so infinitely hated by the Jews. They are based on a forgery,
the Frankfurter Zeitung moans and screams once every week: the best proof that they are authentic. [...]
the important thing is that with positively terrifying certainty they reveal the nature and activity of the
Jewish people and expose their inner contexts as well as their ultimate final aims.[63]
Hitler endorsed it in his speeches from August 1921 on, and it was studied in German classrooms after the Nazis
came to power. At the height of World War II, the Nazi Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels proclaimed: "The
Zionist Protocols are as up-to-date today as they were the day they were first published."[64] In Norman Cohn's
words, it served as the Nazis' "warrant for genocide".
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion 189

German language publications

The first and "by far the most important"[65] German translation was by Gottfried Zur Beek (pseudonym of Ludwig
Müller von Hausen). It appeared in January 1920 as a part of a larger antisemitic tract[66] dated 1919. After The
Times discussed the book respectfully in May 1920 it became a bestseller. "The Hohenzollern family helped defray
the publication costs, and Kaiser Wilhelm II had portions of the book read out aloud to dinner guests".[64]
Alfred Rosenberg's 1923 edition[67] "gave a forgery a huge boost".[64]

Modern era
See also: Contemporary imprints of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion and New World Order
The Protocols continue to be widely available around the world, particularly on the internet, as well as in print in
Japan, the Middle East, Asia, and South America.[68]
While there is continued popularity of The Protocols in nations from South America to Asia, since the defeat of Nazi
Germany and fascist Italy in WWII, governments or political leaders in most parts of the world have generally
avoided claims that The Protocols represent factual evidence of a real Jewish conspiracy.
The exception to this is the Middle East, where a large number of Arab and Muslim regimes and leaders have
endorsed them as authentic, including endorsements of The Protocols from Presidents Gamal Abdel Nasser and
Anwar Sadat of Egypt, one of the President Arifs of Iraq, King Faisal of Saudi Arabia, and Colonel Muammar
al-Gaddafi of Libya. The 1988 charter of Hamas, a Palestinian Islamist group, states that The Protocols of the Elders
of Zion embodies the plan of the Zionists.[69] Recent endorsements in the 21st century have been made by the Grand
Mufti of Jerusalem, Sheikh Ekrima Sa'id Sabri, and the education ministry of Saudi Arabia.[70] In 2010, Italian
philosopher Umberto Eco released his novel The Cemetery of Prague which contains a fictional account of the origin
of The Protocols.

References
[1] Norman Cohn, Warrant for Genocide: The Myth of the Jewish World-Conspiracy and the Protocols of the Elder of Zion (New York: Harper
& Row Publishers, 1966) 32–36.
[2] Speier, Hans "The Truth in Hell: Maurice Joly on Modern Despotism" Polity, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Autumn, 1977), pp. 18-32
[3] "Princess Radziwill Quizzed at Lecture; Stranger Questions Her Title After She Had Told of Forgery of "Jewish Protocols." Creates Stir at
Astor Leaves Without Giving His Name-- Mrs. Huribut Corroborates the Princess. Stranger Quizzes Princess. Corroborates Mme. Radziwill.
Never Reached Alexander III. The Corroboration. Says Orgewsky Was Proud of Work." (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ abstract.
html?res=9800EFDD133CE533A25757C0A9659C946095D6CF). New York Times. March 4, 1921. . Retrieved 2008-08-05.
[4] Jacobs, p 15
[5] Segel, Binjamin W. A Lie and a Libel: The History of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion (translated and edited by Levy, Richard S.), p. 97
(1996, originally published in 1926), University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-9245-7.
[6] The Non-Existent Manuscript, Cesare G. De Michelis, (Lincoln and London: University on Nebraska Press, 1998, 2004).
[7] A Hoax of Hate (http:/ / www. jewishvirtuallibrary. org/ jsource/ anti-semitism/ hoax. html)
[8] Svetlana Boym, "Conspiracy theories and literary ethics: Umberto Eco, Danilo Kis and The Protocols of Zion": Comparative Literature,
Spring 1999.
[9] The text contains 44 instances of the word "I" (9.6%), and 412 instances of the word "we" (90.4%). See The Protocols of the Learned Elders
of Zion, translated by VE Marsden, pub www.shoaheducation.com (http:/ / www. shoaheducation. com/ protocols. html)
[10] Ye'r, Bat: Miriam Kochan; David Littman Islam and Dhimmitude Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, U.S. (December 1, 2001) ISBN
978-0838639429 p. 142 Google Books Search (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=n4kTdYgwQPkC& pg=PA142& dq=The+ Protocols+
of+ the+ Learned+ Elders+ of+ Zion+ + forgery+ "Maurice+ Joly"& num=100& as_brr=3& ei=9nwdSpTFO6LuMpGs1dsO&
client=firefox-a)
[11] Eco, Umberto (1994). "Fictional Protocols". Six Walks in the Fictional Woods. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 135.
ISBN 0-674-81050-3.
[12] See INRI, Jewish Messiah, Judaism's view of Jesus
[13] Bein, Alex (1990). The Jewish question: biography of a world problem. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press. p. 339. ISBN 9780838632529. and
See "The Truth about the Protocols: A Literary Forgery", The Times, 16, 17 and 18 August 1921.
[14] Keren, David, Commentary on The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, 10 February 1993. (http:/ / ddickerson. igc. org/
The_Protocols_of_the_Learned_Elders_of_Zion. pdf) Republished as accompanying introduction to The Protocols of the Learned Elders of
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion 190

Zion translated by Victor E Marsden. The quotation is from page 4 of the pdf file.
[15] "The Jew in the modern world: a documentary history", by Paul R. Mendes-Flohr, Jehuda Reinharz, 1995, ISBN 019507453X, a footnote at
p. 363 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0Bu5GnLZCw0C& pg=PA360& dq="world+ domination"#v=onepage& q="world
domination"& f=false)
[16] This complex relationship was originally exposed by Graves in “The Source of The Protocols of Zion” published in The Times, August
16–18, 1921, and the exposure has since been elaborated in many sources.
• Chanes, p 58
• Shibuya, page 571
[18] Jacobs analyses the Marsden English translation. Some other less common imprints have more or less than 24 protocols
[19] Jacobs, pp 21-25
[20] Titles from Jacobs
[21] The Non-Existent Manuscript, Cesare G. De Michelis, (Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1998, 2004).
[22] Cohn, Norman: Warrant for Genocide, 1967 (Eyre & Spottiswoode), 1996 (Serif) ISBN 1-897959-25-7
[23] [2 Norman Cohn]
[24] Umberto Eco, Foucault's Pendulum (London: Picador, 1990), p.490
[25] Daniel Pipes (1997): Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From (The Free Press - Simon & Schuster) p.85.
ISBN 0-684-83131-7
[26] Daniel Pipes (1997): Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From (The Free Press - Simon & Schuster)
p.86–87. ISBN 0-684-83131-7
[27] Forging Protocols (http:/ / www. reason. com/ news/ show/ 27585. html) by Charles Paul Freund. Reason Magazine, February 2000
[28] (French) Éric Conan. Les secrets d'une manipulation antisémite (http:/ / www. phdn. org/ antisem/ protocoles/ origines. html) L’Express,
16 November 1999.
[29] Vadim Skuratovsky: The Question of the Authorship of "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion". (Judaica Institute, Kiev, 2001) ISBN
966-7273-12-1
[30] Stephen Eric Bronner, A Rumor About the Jews: Reflections on Antisemitism and the Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion (Oxford
University Press, 2003), p. ix (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=kkl-ZxE6h0oC& pg=PR9& dq=A+ rumor+ about+ the+ Jews+
modernity& hl=en& ei=Bd3tTKjkMcKt8Aa6_u3SDA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1&
ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=A rumor about the Jews modernity& f=false), p.56 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=kkl-ZxE6h0oC& pg=PA56& dq=A+ rumor+ about+ the+ Jews+ attack+ on+ liberalism& hl=en&
ei=WtvtTI3MOoK88gauzMGiDA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q& f=false), ISBN
0-19-516956-5
[31] (Russian) T. Karasova and D. Chernyakhovsky. Afterword to the Russian translation of Norman Cohn's Warrant for Genocide (http:/ /
www. vehi. net/ asion/ kon/ 08. html#_ftnref14)
[32] "The Fraud of a Century, or a book born in hell" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20051217032523/ http:/ / www. newtimes. ru/ eng/ detail.
asp?art_id=470). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. newtimes. ru/ eng/ detail. asp?art_id=470) on 2005-12-17. ., by Valery Kadzhaya .
Retrieved September 2005.
[33] De Michelis, Cesare G; Newhouse, Richard; Bi-Yerushalayim), Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism
(Universiṭah ha-ʻIvrit (2004-06-01). The non-existent manuscript: a study of the Protocols of the sages of Zion (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=9uG1jsrOenwC& pg=PA113& lpg=PA113& dq=first+ zionist+ congress+ nilus#v=onepage& q=first zionist congress nilus& f=false). U
of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9780803217270. . Retrieved 2009-09-15.
[34] Morris Kominsky, The Hoaxers, 1970. p. 209 ISBN 0-8283-1288-5
[35] (Russian) P. Stolypin's attempt to resolve the Jewish question (http:/ / www. fedorov. ru/ stolypin. html) by Boris Fyodorov
[36] (Russian) The Protocols of the Elders of Zion: A Proved Forgery (http:/ / www. jewniverse. ru/ RED/ Burtsev/ BPSM-1-4. htm) by
Vladimir Burtsev (Paris, 1938) p.106 (Ch.4)
[37] Singerman, Robert: "The American Career of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion", American Jewish History, Vol. 71 (1980), pp. 48–78
[38] Carl W. Ackerman.Singerman, Robert: "The American Career of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion", American Jewish History, Vol. 71
(1980), pp. 48–78
[39] Rivera, David Allen, Final Warning: A History Of The New World Order, Chapter 5 (http:/ / www. scribd. com/ doc/ 3930590/
The-Protocols-of-Zion-Chapter-5), self-published 1994, republished 1998 on www.silverbearcafe.com and www.scribd.com. For table of
contents, see www.silverbearcafe.com (http:/ / www. silverbearcafe. com/ private/ NWO/ nwotoc. html)
[40] Graves, Philip, The Truth about the Protocols: A Literary Forgery, The Times, 16-18 Aug 1921, Antisemitism: Documents Issue no. 1,
Posted 22 March 2000. (http:/ / www. h-net. org/ ~antis/ doc/ graves/ graves. a. html) This web-page is 1 of 6
[41] Handwerk, Brian, Anti-Semitic "Protocols of Zion" Endure, Despite Debunking, National Geographic News, 11 September 2006. (http:/ /
news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2006/ 09/ 060911-zion. html)
[42] United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Holocaust Encyclopedia "Protocols of the Elders of Zion", last updated 4 May 2009. (http:/ /
www. ushmm. org/ wlc/ article. php?lang=en& ModuleId=10007058)
[43] David, What's the story with the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion"?, The Straight Dope, 30 June 2000. (http:/ / www. straightdope. com/
columns/ read/ 1797/ whats-the-story-with-the-protocols-of-the-elders-of-zion)
[44] The Skeptics Dictionary Protocols of the Elders of Zion (http:/ / skepdic. com/ protocols. html)
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion 191

[45] Jenkins, Philip (1997). Hoods and Shirts: The Extreme Right in Pennsylvania, 1925-1950. UNC Press. p. 114. ISBN 0807823163.
[46] Henry Wickham Steed, "A Disturbing Pamphlet: A Call for Enquiry", The Times, May 8, 1920.
[47] Friedländer, Saul Nazi Germany and the Jews, New York : HarperCollins, 1997 page 95.
[48] Max Wallace, The American Axis St. Martin's Press, 2003
[49] Ford and GM Scrutinized for Alleged Nazi Collaboration (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-srv/ national/ daily/ nov98/ nazicars30.
htm) by Michael Dobbs. The Washington Post 1998-11-30; Page A01. Retrieved March 20, 2006.
[50] Introduction to English edition by Victor E. Marsden
[51] Peter Grose, in Gentleman Spy: The Life of Allen Dulles (Houghton Mifflin 1994)
[52] Poliakov, Leon (1997). "Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion". Encyclopedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. Cecil Roth.
Keter Publishing House. ISBN 965-07-0665-8
[53] "Jewish World Plot": An Exposure. The Source of "The Protocols of Zion". Truth at Last (http:/ / emperor. vwh. net/ antisem/ first.
pdf)PDF (1.08 MB) by Philip Graves published at The Times, August 16–18, 1921
[54] The New York Times, September 4, 1921. Front page, Section 7
[55] The History of a Lie (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 19200) at Project Gutenberg
[56] Lewis, Bernard (1986). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice (First ed.). W. W. Norton & Co..
ISBN 0-393-02314-1.
[57] The main speaker was the former chief of the Swiss General Staff Emil Sonderegger.
[58] Hafner, Urs (23 December 2005). "Die Quelle allen Übels? Wie ein Berner Gericht 1935 gegen antisemitische Verschwörungsphantasien
vorging" (http:/ / www. nzz. ch/ 2005/ 12/ 23/ fe/ articleDEYRW. html) (in German). Neue Zürcher Zeitung. . Retrieved 2008-10-11.
[59] Hadassa Ben-Itto, The Lie That Wouldn’t Die: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, Chapter 11.
[60] Fry, Leslie. "Waters Flowing Eastward, Appendix II: The Berne Trials" (http:/ / www. iamthewitness. com/ books/ Denis. Fahey/ Waters.
Flowing. Eastward/ Appendix. 2_The. Berne. Trials. htm). . Retrieved 2009-08-11.
[61] Zander had to withdraw his contention and the stock of the incriminated Protocols were destroyed by order of the court. Zander had to pay
the fees of this Basel Trial. Cf. Urs Lüthi:Der Mythos von der Weltverschwörung. Die Hetze der Schweizer Frontisten gegen Juden und
Freimaurer - am Beispiel des Berner Prozesses um die "Protokolle der Weisen von Zion".Helbing & Lichtenhahn, Basel/Frankfurt am Main
1992, p. 45 (ISBN 3-7190-1197-6).
[62] Nora Levin, The Holocaust: The Destruction of European Jewry 1933–1945. Quoting from IGC.org (http:/ / ddickerson. igc. org/
hitler-protokollen. html)
[63] Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf: Chapter XI: Nation and Race, Vol I, pp. 307–308.
[64] Daniel Pipes (1997): Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From (The Free Press - Simon & Shuster) p.95.
ISBN 0-684-83131-7
[65] Daniel Pipes (1997): Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From (The Free Press - Simon & Schuster) p.94.
ISBN 0-684-83131-7
[66] Geheimnisse der Weisen von Zion (Charlottesburg: Auf Vorposten, 1919).
[67] Alfred Rosenberg: Die Protokolle der Weisen von Zion und die jüdische Weltpolitik (Munich: Deutscher Volksverlag, 1923).
[68] Jacobs, pp xi-xiv, 1-4
[69] "Hamas Covenant 1988" (http:/ / avalon. law. yale. edu/ 20th_century/ hamas. asp). Yale.edu. . Retrieved May 27, 2010.

"Today it is Palestine, tomorrow it will be one country or another. The Zionist plan is limitless. After
Palestine, the Zionists aspire to expand from the Nile to the Euphrates. When they will have digested the
region they overtook, they will aspire to further expansion, and so on. Their plan is embodied in the "Protocols
of the Elders of Zion", and their present conduct is the best proof of what we are saying."
[70] Islamic Antisemitism in Historical Perspective (http:/ / www. adl. org/ anti_semitism/ arab/ Arab_Anti-Semitism. pdf)PDF (276 KB) at
Anti-Defamation League

Further reading
• Stephen Eric Bronner: A Rumor About the Jews: Reflections on Antisemitism and the Protocols of the Learned
Elders of Zion (Oxford University Press, 2003) ISBN 0-19-516956-5
• Chanes, Jerome A., Antisemitism: a reference handbook, ABC-CLIO, 2004
• Eisner, Will: The Plot: The Secret Story of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. ISBN 0393060454
• Hagemeister, Michael: "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion: Between History and Fiction - Hagemeister 35
(1103)" (http://ngc.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/35/1_103/83). Retrieved 2009-09-15.
• Hagemeister, Michael. The 'Protocols of the Elders of Zion' and the Myth of a Jewish Conspiracy in Post Soviet
Russia, in: Brinks, Jan Herman; Rock, Stella; Timms, Edward (ed.): Nationalist Myths and Modern Media.
Contested Identities in the Age of Globalization, London / New York 2006, pp. 243–255.
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion 192

• Jacobs, Steven Leonard and Weitzman, Mark: Dismantling the Big Lie: The Protocols of the Elders of Zion.
(2003) ISBN 0-88125-785-0
• Lüthi, Urs: Der Mythos von der Weltverschwörung: die Hetze der Schweizer Frontisten gegen Juden und
Freimaurer, am Beispiel des Berner Prozesses um die "Protokolle der Weisen von Zion" (Basel: Helbing &
Lichtenhahn, 1992), ISBN 3719011976 9783719011970, OCLC: 30002662
• Katz, Steven; Landes, Richard (eds.): Reconsidering 'The Protocols of the Elders of Zion': 100 Years After the
Forgery, New York 2008 (in print)
• Kis, Danilo: The Book Of Kings And Fools in The Encyclopedia of the Dead, 1989 (Faber and Faber)
• Goldberg, Isaac: The so-called "Protocols of the Elders of Zion": a Definitive Exposure of One of the Most
Malicious Lies in History (Girard, Kansas, Haldeman-Julius Publications, 1936).
• Shibuya, Eric, "The Struggle with Right-Wing Extremist Groups in the United States, in Countering terrorism
and insurgency in the 21st century, vol 3, Forest, James (Ed.), Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007
• Stauber, Roni; Webman, Esther (eds.): The Protocols of the Elders of Zion - The One-Hundred Year Myth and Its
Impact, Tel Aviv 2008 (in print)
• Timmerman, Kenneth R.: Preachers of Hate: Islam and the War on America (2003), Crown Forum. ISBN
1-4000-4901-6
• Wolf, Lucien: The Myth of the Jewish Menace in World Affairs or, The Truth About the Forged Protocols of the
Elders of Zion (http://books.google.com/books?id=6_IHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA15&dq=The+Protocols+and+
World+Revolution&as_brr=1&ie=ISO-8859-1#PPP7,M1) (New York, The Macmillan company, 1921).
• The truth about "The Protocols" : a literary forgery (1921) (http://www.archive.org/details/
truthaboutthepro00londiala) The original Times articles exposing the book collected in a contemporary pamphlet.
• Bernstein, Herman (1921): The History of a Lie (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/19200) at Project Gutenberg
As page images at archive.org Internet Archive: Details: The history of a lie, "The protocols of the wise men of
Zion"; a study (http://www.archive.org/details/historyofliethep00berniala) Archive.org. Retrieved on
2009-02-01

External links
• Public Statement (http://ajcarchives.org/AJC_DATA/Files/F-45.PDF) by The American Jewish Committee,
4p. A disclaimer published as a result of a conference held in New York City on November 30, 1920.
• Protocols of the Elders of Zion; a fabricated "historic" document; (http://web.archive.org/web/
20080528134535/http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/focus/antisemitism/pdf/senate-protocols.pdf) -
A report prepared by the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other
Internal Security Laws. From 88th Congress, 2d Session (document exhibited at the United States Holocaust
Museum). August 6, 1964
• The Protocols of the Elders of Zion: The Truth Story (http://www.e-mago.co.il/Editor/english-588.htm), by
Eli Eshed; December 13, 2005
• The Protocols of the Elders of Zion (http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/protocols.
html), Jewish Virtual Library.
• What's the story with the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion"? (http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/
1797/whats-the-story-with-the-protocols-of-the-elders-of-zion), The Straight Dope, June 30, 2000
• "A Hoax of Hate" (http://www.adl.org/special_reports/protocols/protocols_intro.asp) The Anti-Defamation
League, 2002
• The poisonous Protocols (http://books.guardian.co.uk/print/0,,4483026-110738,00.html) Umberto Eco, The
Guardian, August 17, 2002
• Antisemitic Propaganda: "The Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion", [[Ontario Consultants on Religious
Tolerance (http://www.religioustolerance.org/jud_blib4.htm)]], September 2004
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion 193

• Review by Eli Eshed of The Plot: The Secret Story of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion (http://www.notes.co.
il/eshed/13894.asp) (graphic novel) by Will Eisner, 2005
• Holocaust Encyclopedia - "A Dangerous Lie" (http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/index.
php?ModuleId=10007058), United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, April, 2006
• Exhibition Review of The Antisemitic Hoax That Refuses to Die (http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/21/arts/
design/21holo.html?_r=1&oref=slogin) by Edward Rothstein, The New York Times, April 21, 2006
• Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion (http://www.skepdic.com/protocols.html), Skeptic's Dictionary by
Robert Todd Carroll, 2006
• Audio: Talk (http://www.buworldofideas.org/shows/2006/08/20060813.asp) by Nobel Peace Prize winner,
Elie Wiesel, August 13, 2006
• History of the Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion (http://www.freemasonry.bcy.ca/texts/protocols.html)
- official Freemasonry website
• Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/480269/
Protocols-of-the-Learned-Elders-of-Zion) - Encyclopaedia Britannica
• Index of several resources (http://ddickerson.igc.org/protocols.html) at the Institute for Global
Communications
• Text of Marsden's English translation (http://ddickerson.igc.org/
The_Protocols_of_the_Learned_Elders_of_Zion.pdf)

Holocaust denial
Holocaust denial is the act of denying the genocide of Jews in World War II, usually referred to as the Holocaust.[1]
The key claims of Holocaust denial are: the German Nazi government had no official policy or intention of
exterminating Jews, Nazi authorities did not use extermination camps and gas chambers to mass murder Jews, and
the actual number of Jews killed was significantly (typically an order of magnitude) lower than the historically
accepted figure of 5 to 6 million.[2] [3] [4]
Holocaust deniers generally do not accept the term "denial" as an appropriate description of their activities, and use
the term "revisionism" instead.[5] Scholars use the term "denial" to differentiate Holocaust deniers from historical
revisionists, who use established historical methodologies.[6] The methodologies of Holocaust deniers are criticized
as based on a predetermined conclusion that ignores extensive historical evidence to the contrary.[7]
Most Holocaust denial claims imply, or openly state, that the Holocaust is a hoax arising out of a deliberate Jewish
conspiracy to advance the interest of Jews at the expense of other peoples.[8] For this reason, Holocaust denial is
generally considered to be antisemitic[9] denialism.[10]

Terminology and etymology

Persons engaged in Holocaust denial prefer to refer to their work as historical revisionism, and object to being
referred to as "deniers".[5] Scholars consider this to be misleading, since the methods of Holocaust denial differ from
those of legitimate historical revision.[6] Legitimate historical revisionism is explained in a statement released by
Duke University in response to an advertisement produced by Bradley R Smith's Committee for Open Debate on the
Holocaust:
That historians are constantly engaged in historical revision is certainly correct; however, what historians do is
very different from this advertisement. Historical revision of major events ... is not concerned with the
actuality of these events; rather, it concerns their historical interpretation – their causes and consequences
generally.[11]
Holocaust denial 194

In The Holocaust: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, Donald L. Niewyk gives some examples of how
legitimate historical revisionism—the re-examination of accepted history and its updating with newly discovered,
more accurate, or less-biased information—may be applied to the study of the Holocaust as new facts emerge to
change the historical understanding of it:
With the main features of the Holocaust clearly visible to all but the willfully blind, historians have turned
their attention to aspects of the story for which the evidence is incomplete or ambiguous. These are not minor
matters by any means, but turn on such issues as Hitler's role in the event, Jewish responses to persecution, and
reactions by onlookers both inside and outside Nazi-controlled Europe.[12]
In contrast, the Holocaust denial movement bases its approach on the predetermined idea that the Holocaust, as
understood by mainstream historiography, did not occur.[7] Sometimes referred to as "negationism", from the French
term négationnisme introduced by Henry Rousso,[13] Holocaust deniers attempt to rewrite history by minimizing,
denying or simply ignoring essential facts. Koenraad Elst writes:
Negationism means the denial of historical crimes against humanity. It is not a reinterpretation of known facts,
but the denial of known facts. The term negationism has gained currency as the name of a movement to deny a
specific crime against humanity, the Nazi genocide on the Jews in 1941–45, also known as the holocaust
(Greek: fire sacrifice) or the Shoah (Hebrew: disaster). Negationism is mostly identified with the effort at
re-writing history in such a way that the fact of the Holocaust is omitted.[14]

Examination of claims
The key claims of Holocaust deniers are:[3] [4]
• The Nazis had no official policy or intention of exterminating Jews.
• Nazis did not use gas chambers to mass murder Jews.
• The figure of 5 to 6 million Jewish deaths is a gross exaggeration, and the actual number is an order of magnitude
lower.
Other claims include the following:
• Stories of the Holocaust were a myth initially created by the Allies of World War II to demonize Germans.[4]
Jews spread this myth as part of a grander plot intended to enable the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine,
and now to garner continuing support for the state of Israel.[15]
• Documentary evidence of the Holocaust, from photographs to the Diary of Anne Frank, is fabricated.[4]
• Survivor testimonies are filled with errors and inconsistencies, and are thus unreliable.[4]
• Interrogators obtained Nazi prisoners' confessions of war crimes through the use of torture.[4]
• The Nazi treatment of Jews was no different from what the Allies did to their enemies in World War II.[16]
Holocaust denial is widely viewed as failing to adhere to rules for the treatment of evidence, principles that
mainstream historians (as well as scholars in other fields) regard as basic to rational inquiry.[17]
The Holocaust was well documented by the bureaucracy of the Nazi government itself.[18] [19] It was further
witnessed by the Allied forces who entered Germany and its associated Axis states towards the end of World War
II.[20] [21] [22]
According to researchers Michael Shermer and Alex Grobman, there is a "convergence of evidence" that proves that
the Holocaust happened. This evidence includes:[23]
1. Written documents—hundreds of thousands of letters, memos, blueprints, orders, bills, speeches, articles,
memoirs, and confessions.
2. Eyewitness testimony—accounts from survivors, Jewish Sonderkommandos (who helped load bodies from the
gas chambers into the crematoria in exchange for a chance of survival), SS guards, commandants, local
townspeople, and even high-ranking Nazis who spoke openly about the mass murder of the Jews.
Holocaust denial 195

3. Photographs—including official military and press photographs, civilian photographs, secret photographs
taken by survivors, aerial photographs, German and Allied film footage, and unofficial photographs taken by
the German military.
4. The camps themselves—concentration camps, work camps, and extermination camps that still exist in varying
degrees of originality and reconstruction.
5. Inferential evidence—population demographics, reconstructed from the pre–World War II era; if six million
Jews were not killed, what happened to them?
Much of the controversy surrounding the claims of Holocaust deniers centers on the methods used to present
arguments that the Holocaust allegedly never happened as commonly accepted. Numerous accounts have been given
by Holocaust deniers (including evidence presented in court cases) of claimed facts and evidence; however,
independent research has shown these claims to be based upon flawed research, biased statements, or even
deliberately falsified evidence. Opponents of Holocaust denial have documented numerous instances in which such
evidence was altered or manufactured (see Nizkor Project and David Irving). According to Pierre Vidal-Naquet, in
our society of image and spectacle, extermination on paper leads to extermination in reality.[24]

Attempts at concealment by perpetrators

Historians have documented evidence that as Germany's defeat became
imminent and the Nazi leaders realized they would most likely be
captured and brought to trial, great effort was made to destroy all
evidence of mass extermination. Heinrich Himmler instructed his camp
commandants to destroy records, crematoria, and other signs of mass
extermination.[25] As one of many examples, the bodies of the 25,000
mostly Latvian Jews whom Friedrich Jeckeln and the soldiers under his
command had shot at Rumbula (near Riga) in late 1941 were dug up
and burned in 1943.[26] Similar operations were undertaken at Belzec,
Members of a Sonderkommando 1005 unit pose
Treblinka and other death camps.[25] In the infamous Posen speeches
next to a bone crushing machine in the Janowska
of October 1943 such as the one on October 4, Himmler explicitly concentration camp in Poland. (Jun 1943 – Oct
referred to the murder of the Jews of Europe and further stated that the 1943)
murder must be permanently kept secret:

I also want to refer here very frankly to a very difficult matter.

We can now very openly talk about this among ourselves, and
yet we will never discuss this publicly. Just as we did not
hesitate on June 30, 1934, to perform our duty as ordered and put
comrades who had failed up against the wall and execute them,
we also never spoke about it, nor will we ever speak about it. Let
us thank God that we had within us enough self-evident fortitude
never to discuss it among us, and we never talked about it. Every
one of us was horrified, and yet every one clearly understood
that we would do it next time, when the order is given and when
April 12, 1945: Generals Eisenhower, Omar
it becomes necessary. I am now referring to the evacuation of the Bradley and George S. Patton inspect, at Ohrdruf
Jews, to the extermination of the Jewish people.[27] forced labor camp, an improvised crematory pyre.

In 1945, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, Supreme Allied Commander,

anticipated that someday an attempt would be made to recharacterize the Nazi crimes as propaganda and took steps
against it:
Holocaust denial 196

The same day[28] I saw my first horror camp. It was near the town of Gotha. I have never been able to describe
my emotional reactions when I first came face to face with indisputable evidence of Nazi brutality and ruthless
disregard of every shred of decency. Up to that time I had known about it only generally or through secondary
sources. I am certain however, that I have never at any time experienced an equal sense of shock.
I visited every nook and cranny of the camp because I felt it my duty to be in a position from then on to testify
at first hand about these things in case there ever grew up at home the belief or assumption that "the stories of
Nazi brutality were just propaganda". Some members of the visiting party were unable to go through with the
ordeal. I not only did so but as soon as I returned to Patton's headquarters that evening I sent communications
to both Washington and London, urging the two governments to send instantly to Germany a random group of
newspaper editors and representative groups from the national legislatures. I felt that the evidence should be
immediately placed before the American and the British publics in a fashion that would leave no room for
cynical doubt.[29]
Eisenhower, upon finding the victims of the death camps, ordered all possible photographs to be taken, and for the
German people from surrounding villages to be ushered through the camps and even made to bury the dead. He
wrote the following to General Marshall after visiting a German internment camp near Gotha, Germany:
The visual evidence and the verbal testimony of starvation, cruelty and bestiality were so overpowering as to
leave me a bit sick. In one room, where they [there] were piled up twenty or thirty naked men, killed by
starvation, George Patton would not even enter. He said that he would get sick if he did so. I made the visit
deliberately, in order to be in a position to give first-hand evidence of these things if ever, in the future, there
develops a tendency to charge these allegations merely to "propaganda."[30]

History and development after World War II

After World War II, many of the former leaders of the SS left Germany and began using their propaganda skills to
defend their actions (or, their critics contended, to rewrite history). Denial materials began to appear shortly after the
war.[31]

Harry Elmer Barnes

Harry Elmer Barnes, an American, was at one time a mainstream historian with liberal credentials; he assumed a
Holocaust-denial stance in the later years of his life.[32] Between World War I and World War II, Barnes became
well known as an anti-war writer and a leader in the historical revisionism movement, where he had worked closely
from 1924 onwards with Centre for the Study of the Causes of the War. This institute was a pseudo-historical
think-tank based in Berlin, secretly funded by the German government and headed by a former völkisch activist
named Major Alfred von Wegerer, whose sole purpose was to prove Germany was the victim of Allied aggression in
1914.[33] Following World War II, Barnes became convinced that allegations made against Germany and Japan,
including the Holocaust, were wartime propaganda used to justify U.S. involvement in World War II.
In his 1962 pamphlet, Revisionism and Brainwashing, Barnes claimed that there was a “lack of any serious
opposition or concerted challenge to the atrocity stories and other modes of defamation of German national character
and conduct”.[34] Barnes went on to write that in his view there was “a failure to point out the atrocities of the Allies
were more brutal, painful, mortal and numerous than the most extreme allegations made against the Germans”.[35]
Starting at this time, Barnes started to cite the French Holocaust denier Paul Rassinier, whom Barnes called a
“distinguished French historian” who Barnes claimed had exposed the “exaggerations of the atrocity stories".[35] In a
1964 article entitled “Zionist Fraud” published in the American Mercury, Barnes wrote that:
The courageous author [Rassinier] lays the chief blame for misrepresentation on those whom we must call the
swindlers of the crematoria, the Israeli politicians who derive billions of marks from nonexistent, mythical and
imaginary cadavers, whose numbers have been reckoned in an unusually distorted and dishonest manner”.[36]
Holocaust denial 197

Using Rassinier as his source, Barnes claimed that Germany was the victim of aggression in both 1914 and 1939,
and the Holocaust was just propaganda to justify a war of aggression against Germany.[35] Barnes took the view that
World War II had ended in disaster for the West with Germany divided and the United States locked into the Cold
War, made all the worse in Barnes’s eyes, as in his view Germany never wanted war.[37] Barnes claimed that in order
to justify the “horrors and evils of the Second World War”, the Allies were required to make the Nazis the
“scapegoat” for their own misdeeds.[37] Barnes claimed there were two false claims made about World War II,
namely that Germany started the war in 1939, and the Holocaust, which Barnes denied.[37]
Following the example of Barnes, a few other early libertarian writers also concerned with anti-war historical
revisionism began to take a Holocaust-denial stance, including James J. Martin. Most libertarians, however—even
those who otherwise hold Barnes' writings in high regard—reject his Holocaust denial.[38] Barnes' name has since
been appropriated by some modern Holocaust deniers in an attempt to lend credibility to their cause, most notably
Willis Carto.

The beginnings of the modern denial movement

In 1961, the American historian and a leading protégé of Barnes,
David Hoggan published Der Erzwungene Krieg (The Forced
War) in West Germany, which claimed that Germany had been the
victim of an Anglo-Polish conspiracy in 1939. Though Der
Erzwungene Krieg was primarily concerned with the origins of
World War II, it also down-played or justified the effects of Nazi
antisemitic measures in the pre-1939 period.[39] For an example,
Hoggan justified the huge one billion Reich-mark fine imposed on
the entire Jewish community in Germany after the 1938
Kristallnacht as a reasonable measure to prevent what he called
"Jewish profiteering" at the expense of German insurance
companies and alleged that no Jews were killed in the
Kristallnacht (in fact, 91 German Jews were killed in the
Kristallnacht).[39] Subsequently, Hoggan wrote one of the first
books denying the Holocaust in 1969 entitled The Myth of the Six
Million, which was published by the Noontide Press, a small Los
Angeles publisher specializing in antisemitic literature.[40] Hoggan
became one of the early stars of the Holocaust denial movement,
because he had a number of university professorships. The KKK: Nazi salute and Holocaust denial

In 1964, French historian Paul Rassinier published The Drama of the European Jews. Rassinier was himself a
concentration camp survivor (imprisoned in Buchenwald for his having helped French Jews escape the Nazis), and
modern-day deniers continue to cite his works as scholarly research that questions the accepted facts of the
Holocaust. Critics argued that Rassinier did not cite evidence for his claims and ignored information that
contradicted his assertions; he nevertheless remains influential in Holocaust denial circles for being one of the first
deniers to propose that a vast Zionist/Allied/Soviet conspiracy faked the Holocaust, a theme that would be picked up
in later years by other authors.[41]

The publication of Arthur Butz's The Hoax of the Twentieth Century: The case against the presumed extermination
of European Jewry in 1976; and David Irving's Hitler's War in 1977 brought other similarly inclined individuals into
the fold.[42] In December 1978 and January 1979, Robert Faurisson, a French professor of literature at the University
of Lyon, wrote two letters to Le Monde claiming that the gas chambers used by the Nazis to exterminate the Jews did
not exist. A colleague of Faurisson, Jean-Claude Pressac, who initially shared Faurisson's views, later became
convinced of the Holocaust's evidence while investigating documents at Auschwitz in 1979. He published his
Holocaust denial 198

conclusions along with much of the underlying evidence in his 1989 book, Auschwitz: Technique and operation of
the gas chambers.[43]
Henry Bienen, the former president of Northwestern University, has described Arthur Butz's view of the Holocaust
as an "embarrassment to Northwestern".[44] In 2006, sixty of Butz's colleagues from the Department of Electrical
Engineering and Computer Science faculty signed a censure describing Butz's Holocaust denial as "an affront to our
humanity and our standards as scholars".[45] The letter also called for Butz to "leave our Department and our
University and stop trading on our reputation for academic excellence."[45]

Institute for Historical Review

In 1978 Willis Carto founded the Institute for Historical Review (IHR) as an organization dedicated to publicly
challenging the commonly accepted history of the Holocaust.[46] The IHR sought from the beginning to attempt to
establish itself within the broad tradition of historical revisionism, by soliciting token supporters who were not from
a neo-Nazi background such as James J. Martin and Samuel Edward Konkin III, and by promoting the writings of
French socialist Paul Rassinier and American anti-war historian Harry Elmer Barnes to attempt to show that
Holocaust denial had a broader base of support besides just neo-Nazis. The IHR brought most of Barnes' writings,
which had been out of print since his death, back into print. While IHR included articles on other topics and sold
books by mainstream historians in its catalog, the majority of material published and distributed by IHR was devoted
to questioning the facts surrounding the Holocaust.[47] The IHR became one of the most important organizations
devoted to Holocaust denial. In recent years the IHR underwent an internal power struggle which ousted Willis Carto
and put Mark Weber in charge. Carto went on to found the Barnes Review magazine after his ouster from IHR, a
magazine which is also devoted to Holocaust denial.
In an "About the IHR" statement on their website, the IHR states that "The Institute does not 'deny the
Holocaust'."[48] The IHR journal, however, states:
There is no dispute over the fact that large numbers of Jews were deported to concentration camps and ghettos,
or that many Jews died or were killed during World War II. Revisionist scholars have presented evidence,
which "exterminationists" have not been able to refute, showing that there was no German program to
exterminate Europe's Jews, and that the estimate of six million Jewish wartime dead is an irresponsible
exaggeration. The Holocaust — the alleged extermination of some six million Jews (most of them by
gassing) — is a hoax and should be recognized as such by Christians and all informed, honest and truthful men
everywhere.[49]
Commentators and historians have noted the misleading nature of statements by the IHR that they are not Holocaust
deniers. Paul Rauber, a senior editor for the Sierra Club Magazine, writes that:
The question [of whether the IHR denies the Holocaust] appears to turn on IHR's Humpty-Dumpty word game
with the word Holocaust. According to Mark Weber, associate editor of the IHR's Journal of Historical
Review [now Director of the IHR], "If by the 'Holocaust' you mean the political persecution of Jews, some
scattered killings, if you mean a cruel thing that happened, no one denies that. But if one says that the
'Holocaust' means the systematic extermination of six to eight million Jews in concentration camps, that's what
we think there's not evidence for." That is, IHR doesn't deny that the Holocaust happened; they just deny that
the word 'Holocaust' means what people customarily use it for.[50]
According to British historian of Germany Richard J. Evans:
Like many individual Holocaust deniers, the Institute as a body denied that it was involved in Holocaust
denial. It called this a 'smear' which was 'completely at variance with the facts' because 'revisionist scholars'
such as Faurisson, Butz 'and bestselling British historian David Irving acknowledge that hundreds of thousands
of Jews were killed and otherwise perished during the Second World War as a direct and indirect result of the
harsh anti-Jewish policies of Germany and its allies'. But the concession that a relatively small number of Jews
were killed was routinely used by Holocaust deniers to distract attention from the far more important fact of
Holocaust denial 199

their refusal to admit that the figure ran into the millions, and that a large proportion of these victims were
systematically murdered by gassing as well as by shooting.[51]

Bradley Smith and the Committee for Open Debate on the Holocaust
In 1987, Bradley R. Smith, a former media director of the Institute for Historical Review,[52] founded the Committee
for Open Debate on the Holocaust (CODOH).[53] In the United States, CODOH has repeatedly tried to place
newspaper advertisements questioning whether the Holocaust happened, especially in college campus
newspapers.[54] Some newspapers have accepted the advertisements, while others have rejected them.[55] Bradley
Smith has more recently sought other avenues to promote Holocaust denial – with little success. On September 8,
2009, The Harvard Crimson school paper ran a paid ad from Bradley R Smith. It was quickly criticized and an
apology was issued from the editor, claiming it was a mistake.[56]
Bradley referred to his tactics as the CODOH campus project. Bradley says, “I don’t want to spend time with adults
anymore, I want to go to students. They are superficial. They are empty vessels to be filled.” “What I wanted to do
was I wanted to set forth three or four ideas that students might be interested in, that might cause them to think about
things or to have questions about things. And I wanted to make it as simple as possible, and to set it up in a way that
could not really be debated”.[57] Holocaust deniers have placed[…]“Full page advertisements in college and
university newspaper, including those of Brandeis University, Boston College, Pennsylvania State University, and
Queens College. Some of these ads arguing that Holocaust never happened ran without comment; others generated
op-ed pieces by professors and students.[58]

James Keegstra
In 1984, James Keegstra, a Canadian high-school teacher, was charged with denying the Holocaust and making
antisemitic claims in his classroom as part of the course material. Keegstra and his lawyer, Doug Christie, argued
that the section of the Criminal Code of Canada (now section 319{2}), is an infringement of the Charter of Rights
(section 9{b}). The case was appealed to the Supreme Court of Canada, where it was decided that the law he was
convicted under did infringe on his freedom of expression, but it was a justified infringement. Keegstra was
convicted, and fired from his job.[59]
Holocaust denial 200

The Zündel trials

The Toronto-based photo retoucher Ernst Zündel operated a
small-press publishing house called Samisdat Publishing, which
published and distributed Holocaust-denial material such as Did Six
Million Really Die? by Richard Harwood (a.k.a. Richard Verrall – a
British neo-Nazi leader). In 1985, he was tried in R. v. Zundel and
convicted under a "false news" law and sentenced to 15 months
imprisonment by an Ontario court for "disseminating and publishing
material denying the Holocaust."[60] The Holocaust historian Raul
Hilberg was a notable witness for the prosecution at the 1985 trial.
Zündel gained considerable notoriety after this conviction, and a
number of free-speech activists stepped forward to defend his right to
publish his opinions. After his conviction in 1985, Zündel was able to
have it overturned in an appeal on a legal technicality, leading to a
second trial in 1988, in which he was again convicted. The 1988 trial
was notable for the appearance of Fred A. Leuchter, David Irving and
Robert Faurisson as defense witnesses for Zündel, and for the
presentation of the pseudo-scientific Leuchter report as a defense Did Six Million Really Die? by Richard Harwood
document. The Leuchter report was published in Canada in 1988 by (also known as Richard Verrall). The Supreme
Court of Canada found in 1992 that the book
Samisdat Publishers and in Britain in 1989 by Irving's Focal Point
"misrepresented the work of historians,
Publishing. In both of his trials, Zündel was defended by Douglas misquoted witnesses, fabricated evidence, and
Christie and Barbara Kulaszka. His conviction was overturned in 1992 cited non-existent authorities."
when the Supreme Court of Canada declared the "false news" law
unconstitutional.[60]

Zündel has a website, web-mastered by his wife Ingrid, which publicizes his viewpoints.[61] In January 2002, the
Canadian Human Rights Tribunal delivered a ruling in a complaint involving his website, in which it was found to
be contravening the Canadian Human Rights Act. The court ordered Zündel to cease communicating hate messages.
In February 2003, the American INS arrested him in Tennessee, USA, on an immigration violations matter, and few
days later, Zündel was sent back to Canada, where he tried to gain refugee status. Zündel remained in prison until
March 1, 2005, when he was deported to Germany and prosecuted for disseminating hate propaganda. On February
15, 2007, Zündel was convicted on 14 counts of incitement under Germany's Volksverhetzung law, which bans the
incitement of hatred against a portion of the population, and given the maximum sentence of five years in prison.[62]

Ernst Nolte
The German philosopher and historian Ernst Nolte, starting in the 1980s has advanced a set of theories, which
though not denying the Holocaust, appeared to flirt with Holocaust denial as a serious historical argument.[63] In a
letter to the Israeli historian Otto Dov Kulka of December 8, 1986 Nolte criticized the work of the French Holocaust
denier Robert Faurisson on the ground that the Holocaust did occur, but went on to argue that Faurison’s work was
motivated by what Nolte claimed were the admirable motives of sympathy towards the Palestinians and opposition
to Israel.[64] In his 1987 book Der europäische Bürgerkrieg (The European Civil War), Nolte claimed that the
intentions of Holocaust deniers are "often honourable", and that some of their claims are "not obviously without
foundation".[63] [65] Nolte himself, though he has never denied the occurrence of the Holocaust, has claimed that the
Wannsee Conference of 1942 never happened, and that the minutes of the conference were post-war forgeries done
by "biased" Jewish historians designed to discredit Germany[66]
Holocaust denial 201

The British historian Ian Kershaw has argued that Nolte was operating on the borderlines of Holocaust denial with
his implied claim that the "negative myth" of the Third Reich was created by Jewish historians, his allegations of the
domination of Holocaust scholarship by “biased” Jewish historians, and his statements that one should withhold
judgment on Holocaust deniers, whom Nolte takes considerable pains to stress are not exclusively Germans or
fascists.[67] In Kershaw's opinion, Nolte is attempting to imply that perhaps Holocaust deniers are on to
something.[67] In a 1990 interview, Nolte implied that there was something to the Leuchter report: "If the revisionists
[Holocaust deniers] and Leuchter among them have made it clear to the public that even "Auschwitz" must be an
object of scientific inquiry and controversy then they should be given credit for this. Even if it finally turned out that
the number of victims was even greater and the procedures were even more horrific than has been assumed until
now."[68] In his 1993 book Streitpunkte (Points of Contention), Nolte praised the work of Holocaust deniers as
superior to "mainstream scholars".[69] Nolte wrote that "radical revisionists have presented research which, if one is
familiar with the source material and the critique of the sources, is probably superior to that of the established
historians of Germany".[69] [70] In a 1994 interview with Der Spiegel magazine, Nolte stated "I cannot rule out the
importance of the investigation of the gas chambers in which they looked for remnants of the [chemical process
engendered by Zyklon B]", and that “'Of course, I am against revisionists, but Fred Leuchter's "study" of the Nazi gas
ovens has to be given attention, because one has to stay open to "other" ideas.”[71]
The British historian Richard J. Evans in his 1989 book In Hitler's Shadow expressed the view that Nolte’s reputation
as a scholar was in ruins as a result of these and other controversial statements on his part[72] The American historian
Deborah Lipstadt in a 2003 interview stated:
Historians such as the German Ernst Nolte are, in some ways, even more dangerous than the deniers. Nolte is
an anti-Semite of the first order, who attempts to rehabilitate Hitler by saying that he was no worse than Stalin;
but he is careful not to deny the Holocaust. Holocaust-deniers make Nolte's life more comfortable. They have,
with their radical argumentation, pulled the center a little more to their side. Consequently, a less radical
extremist, such as Nolte, finds himself closer to the middle ground, which makes him more dangerous.[73]

The Mayer Controversy

In 1988, the American historian Arno J. Mayer published a book entitled Why Did the Heavens Not Darken?, which
did not deny the Holocaust, but appeared to lend support to Holocaust denial by stating that the majority of people
who died at Auschwitz were the victims of diseases rather than gassing.[74] In addition, critics of Mayer such as Lucy
Dawidowicz assailed him for listing the works of Arthur Butz and Paul Rassinier in his bibliography, and charged
his statements about Auschwitz were factually incorrect.[75] Holocaust expert Robert Jan van Pelt has noted that
Mayer's book is as close as a mainstream historian has ever come to supporting Holocaust denial.[76] Holocaust
deniers such as David Irving have often cited Mayer’s book as one reason for embracing Holocaust denial.[76]
Though Mayer has been often condemned for his statement about the reasons for the Auschwitz death toll, it should
noted that his book does not deny the Holocaust as Holocaust deniers often claim.[77]
Holocaust deniers have often quoted out of context Mayer’s sentence in Why Did the Heavens Not Darken? that
“Sources for the study of the gas chambers at once rare and unreliable”[78] as the authors Michael Shermer and Alex
Grobman have noted that the paragraph from which the sentence is taken states that the SS destroyed the majority of
the documention relating to the operation of the gas chambers in the death camps, which is why Mayer feels that
sources for the operation of the gas chambers are "rare" and "unreliable"[79]
The Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer wrote that Mayer "...popularizes the nonsense that the Nazis saw in Marxism and
Bolshevism their main enemy, and the Jews unfortunately got caught up in this; when he links the destruction of the
Jews to the ups and downs of German warfare in the Soviet Union, in a book that is so cocksure of itself that it does
not need a proper scientific apparatus, he is really engaging in a much more subtle form of Holocaust denial"[80]
Holocaust denial 202

Ken McVay and alt.revisionism

Ken McVay, an American resident in Canada, was disturbed by the efforts of organizations like the Simon
Wiesenthal Center to suppress the speech of the Holocaust deniers, feeling that it was better to confront them openly
than to try to censor them. On the Usenet newsgroup alt.revisionism he began a campaign of "truth, fact, and
evidence," working with other participants on the newsgroup to uncover factual information about the Holocaust and
counter the arguments of the deniers by proving them to be based upon misleading evidence, false statements, and
outright lies. He founded the Nizkor Project to expose the activities of the Holocaust deniers, who responded to
McVay with personal attacks, slander, and death threats.[81]

David Irving and the Lipstadt libel case

Deborah Lipstadt's 1993 book Denying the Holocaust was sharply
critical of questionable analytical methods used by various Holocaust
deniers, in particular British historian David Irving, whom she accused
of deliberately misrepresenting evidence to justify his preconceived
conclusions. In 1996 Irving filed a libel suit against Lipstadt and her
publisher, Penguin Books. American historian Christopher Browning,
an expert witness for the defense, wrote a comprehensive essay for the
court summarizing the voluminous evidence for the reality of the
Holocaust, and under cross-examination, effectively countered all of
Irving's principal arguments to the contrary.[82] Cambridge historian
Richard J. Evans, another defense expert witness, spent two years
examining Irving's writings, and confirmed his misrepresentations,
including evidence that he had knowingly used forged documents as
source material. The judge, Justice Charles Gray, ultimately delivered
a long and decisive verdict in favor of Lipstadt that referred to Irving
as a "Holocaust denier" and "right-wing pro-Nazi polemicist." [83]
Book cover: Denying the Holocaust.
In February 2006 Irving was arrested in Austria, where Holocaust
denial is illegal, for a speech he had made in 1989 in which he denied
the existence of gas chambers at Auschwitz.[84] Irving was aware of the outstanding arrest warrant, but chose to go to
Austria anyway "to give a lecture to a far-right student fraternity."[84] Although he pleaded guilty to the charge,
Irving said he had been "mistaken", and had changed his opinions on the Holocaust. "I said that then, based on my
knowledge at the time, but by 1991 when I came across the Eichmann papers, I wasn't saying that anymore and I
wouldn't say that now. The Nazis did murder millions of Jews."[85] Irving served 13 months of a 3 year sentence in
an Austrian prison, and was deported in early 2007.[84] The episode sparked intense international debate over the
limits of freedom of speech. Upon hearing of Irving's sentence, Lipstadt said, "I am not happy when censorship wins,
and I don't believe in winning battles via censorship...The way of fighting Holocaust deniers is with history and with
truth."[85]

According to CNN, upon Irving's return to the UK, he "vow[ed] to repeat views denying the Holocaust that led to his
conviction" stating he felt "no need any longer to show remorse" for his Holocaust views.[86]
Holocaust denial 203

Recent developments and trends

In Turkey, in 1996, the Islamic preacher Harun Yahya distributed thousands of copies of a book which was
originally published the previous year, entitled Soykırım Yalanı ("The Holocaust Lie") and mailed unsolicited texts to
American and European schools and colleges.[87] The publication of Soykırım Yalanı sparked much public
debate.[88] This book claims that “what is presented as Holocaust is the death of some Jews due to the typhus plague
during the war and the famine towards the end of the war caused by the defeat of the Germans.”[89] In March 1996, a
Turkish painter and intellectual, Bedri Baykam, published a strongly worded critique of the book in the Ankara daily
newspaper Siyah-Beyaz ("Black and White"). A legal suit for slander was brought against him. During the trial in
September, Baykam exposed the real author of the book as Adnan Oktar.[88] The suit was withdrawn in March
1997.[90] [91]
In France, Holocaust denial became more prominent in the 1990s as négationnisme, though the movement has
existed in ultra-left French politics since at least the 1960s, led by figures such as Pierre Guillaume (who was
involved in the bookshop La Vieille Taupe during the 1960s). Recently, elements of the extreme far right in France
have begun to build on each others' negationist arguments, which often span beyond the Holocaust to cover a range
of antisemitic views, incorporating attempts to tie the Holocaust to the Biblical massacre of the Canaanites, critiques
of Zionism, and other material fanning what has been called a "conspiratorial Judeo-phobia" designed to legitimize
and "banalize" antisemitism.[92]
In Belgium in 2001, Roeland Raes, the ideologue and vice-president of one of the country's largest political parties,
the Vlaams Belang (formerly named Vlaams Blok, Flemish Bloc), gave an interview on Dutch TV where he cast
doubt over the number of Jews murdered by the Nazis during the Holocaust. In the same interview he questioned the
scale of the Nazis' use of gas chambers and the authenticity of Anne Frank's diary. In response to the media assault
following the interview, Raes was forced to resign his position but vowed to remain active within the party.[93] Three
years later, the Vlaams Blok was convicted of racism and chose to disband. Immediately afterwards, it legally
reformed under the new name Vlaams Belang (Flemish Interest) with the same leaders and the same membership.[94]

Accusations of a Zionist conspiracy

Taking aim at Israel as a political enemy, since the 1960s, the Soviet Union promoted the allegation of secret ties
between the Nazis and the Zionist leaders. The thesis of 1982 doctoral dissertation of Mahmoud Abbas, a co-founder
of Fatah and president of the Palestinian National Authority, who earned his Ph.D. in history at the Moscow State
Institute of Oriental Studies, with Yevgeny Primakov as thesis advisor, was "The Secret Connection between the
Nazis and the Leaders of the Zionist Movement".[95] [96] In his 1983 book The Other Side: the Secret Relationship
Between Nazism and Zionism, based on the dissertation, Abbas wrote:
It seems that the interest of the Zionist movement, however, is to inflate this figure [of Holocaust deaths] so
that their gains will be greater. This led them to emphasize this figure [six million] in order to gain the
solidarity of international public opinion with Zionism. Many scholars have debated the figure of six million
and reached stunning conclusions—fixing the number of Jewish victims at only a few hundred thousand.[97]
[98] [99]

In his March 2006 interview with Haaretz Abbas stated:

I wrote in detail about the Holocaust and said I did not want to discuss numbers. I quoted an argument between
historians in which various numbers of casualties were mentioned. One wrote there were 12 million victims
and another wrote there were 800,000. I have no desire to argue with the figures. The Holocaust was a terrible,
unforgivable crime against the Jewish nation, a crime against humanity that cannot be accepted by humankind.
The Holocaust was a terrible thing and nobody can claim I denied it.[100]
A different version of this conspiracy theory claims that Nazis and Zionists had a shared interest or even cooperated
in the extermination of Europe's Jewry, as persecution would force them to flee to Palestine, then under British
Holocaust denial 204

Mandate administration. Similar claims are occasionally heard from Hezbollah[101] or Hamas sources.

Holocaust denial in the Arab world

Denials of the Holocaust have been regularly promoted by various Arab leaders and in various media throughout the
Middle East.[102] According to Robert Satloff writing in the Washington Post, "A respected Holocaust research
institution recently reported that Egypt, Qatar and Saudi Arabia all promote Holocaust denial and protect Holocaust
deniers."[103] Individuals from the Syrian government, the Palestinian Authority, and a number of Palestinian groups
have engaged in various aspects of Holocaust denial.[104] [105] The three most common positions on the historicity of
the Holocaust are: "it never happened; it was greatly exaggerated; the Jews deserved it anyway. On the last point,
some more enterprising writers add a rebuke to Hitler for not having finished the job."[106]
In August 2002, the Zayed Center for Coordination and Follow-Up, an Arab League think-tank whose Chairman,
Sultan bin Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, served as Deputy Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates, promoted a
Holocaust denial symposium in Abu Dhabi.[107] The government of the United Arab Emirates closed down the
Zayed Center as a result.[108]
Hamas leaders have also promoted Holocaust denial; Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi held that the Holocaust never occurred,
that Zionists were behind the action of Nazis, and that Zionists funded Nazism.[109] A press release by Hamas in
April 2000 decried "the so-called Holocaust, which is an alleged and invented story with no basis."[110] In August
2009, Hamas refused to allow Palestinian children to learn about the Holocaust, which it called "a lie invented by the
Zionists" and referred to Holocaust education as a "war crime."[111]
Holocaust denial has also been resisted by prominent intellectual figures in the Arab world; in 2001, an outcry led by
Palestinian poet Mahmoud Darwish, Lebanese writer Elias Khoury and others brought about the cancellation of a
conference the Holocaust denial organization Institute for Historical Review had planned to hold in Beirut.[112]
In 2005 the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood leader, Mohammed Mahdi Akef, denounced what he called "the myth of
the Holocaust" in defending Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's denial of the Holocaust.[113]
According to the Associated Press, "Ignorance and even denial of the Holocaust is widespread in Palestinian
society."[114] and "Holocaust denial is still common in the Palestinian territories".[115]
According to Aziz Abu Sarah, published in Haaretz, "...growing up I did not know much about the Holocaust. As
Palestinians, we simply did not learn about it. There was a stigma attached to it, an understanding that Israel would
use the Holocaust to lobby for sympathy, then turn and use the sympathy as a terrible weapon against the Palestinian
people."[116]
A private English-language school in western Beirut censored excerpts of the diary of Anne Frank out of a school
textbook after it caused uproar when Hezbollah learned the chapter was included in the textbook.[117]
Palestinian officials in the West Bank shut down a children's orchestra and banished its conductor in March 2009
after they performed for elderly Holocaust survivors. In August of that year, Palestinian officials in Gaza angrily
reacted against UN officials who suggested including information about the Holocaust at their schools. Views
toward the Holocaust among Palestinians – and around the Arab world – range from outright denial to diminishing
the full extent of the genocide. Few, if any, prominent Arabs from Mideast nations have made publicized visits to
Auschwitz – but Israel's Arab community is an exception. Two Arab-Israeli lawmakers previously visited the camp
in an effort to build bridges, as did a group of about 100 Arab-Israeli writers and clerics in 2003. Arab lawmaker
Mohammed Barakeh plans to attend a Holocaust memorial ceremony at Auschwitz along with a delegation of Israeli
politicians, and his visit has drawn fierce criticism against him among the Arab community.[118]
In a debate which aired on Al-Alam TV on May 5, 2010 (as translated by MEMRI), Ali Hatar of the Jordanian
Association against Zionism and Racism stated that "To this day, those who claim that [the Holocaust] did take place
have been unable to provide any evidence whatsoever to that effect." He claimed that a report by the Red Cross in
1949 "refutes the claim that anyone was killed in these camps, during the so-called Holocaust. It also mentions the
Holocaust denial 205

self-management [of the camps] by the Jews."[119]

Iranian President Ahmadinejad

Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad frequently denies the Holocaust,[120] although he has on occasion
confirmed his belief in it.[121] [122]
Holocaust denial is relatively new to the Middle East, as Kenneth Jacobson, assistant national director of the
Anti-Defamation League, said in an interview with Haaretz: "Adopting the theories of Holocaust denial of Western
scholars is a relatively new phenomenon in the Muslim world. The accepted attitude had been to say that whereas it
was true the Holocaust had taken place, the Palestinians should not have to pay the price. A look at Iranian President
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's statements shows that he has mixed the two approaches."[123]
In a December 2005 speech, Ahmadinejad said that a legend was fabricated and had been promoted to protect Israel.
He said,
They have fabricated a legend, under the name Massacre of the Jews, and they hold it higher than God
himself, religion itself and the prophets themselves...If somebody in their country questions God, nobody says
anything, but if somebody denies the myth of the massacre of Jews, the Zionist loudspeakers and the
governments in the pay of Zionism will start to scream.[124]
The remarks immediately provoked a blaze of international controversy as well as swift condemnation from
government officials in Israel, Europe, and the United States. All six political parties in the German parliament
signed a joint resolution condemning this Holocaust denial.[125]
Hamas political leader Khaled Mashaal described Ahmadinejad's comments as "courageous" and stated that
"...Muslim people will defend Iran because it voices what they have in their hearts, in particular the Palestinian
people."[126] In the United States, the Muslim Public Affairs Council condemned Ahmadinejad's remarks.[127]
On April 24, 2006, Ahmadinejad demanded a free evaluation of the real extent of the Holocaust "in order to find the
ultimate truth."[128] In a May 30, 2006 interview with Der Spiegel, Ahmadinejad again questioned the Holocaust
several times, insisting there were "two opinions" on it. When asked if the Holocaust was a myth, he responded "I
will only accept something as truth if I am actually convinced of it".[129]
On December 11, 2006, the "International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust" opened to
widespread condemnation.[130] The conference, called for by and held at the behest of Ahmadinejad,[131] was widely
described as a "Holocaust denial conference" or a "meeting of Holocaust deniers",[132] though Iran denied it was a
Holocaust denial conference.[133] A few months before it opened, the Iranian Foreign Ministry spokesman Hamid
Reza Asefi stated: "The Holocaust is not a sacred issue that one can't touch. I have visited the Nazi camps in Eastern
Europe. I think it is exaggerated."[134]
In September 2010, during a State visit to New York City, Ahmadinejad once again questioned the Holocaust,
saying it “has been exaggerated as a pretext for war.” In an interview with the editor of the magazine Atlantic
Monthly on September 28, he said, “The question is, why don't we allow this subject to be examined further ... It is
incorrect to force only one view on the rest of the world.” He added: “How come when it comes to the subject of the
Holocaust there is so much sensitivity?”[135]
Ahmadinejad made similar statements later that day during what was described by Agence France-Presse as a
“chaotic speech” at the United Nations summit on the Millennium Development Goals. He further charged that the
U.S. government "orchestrated" the World Trade Center attacks in order to reverse declines in the U.S. economy and
"save the Zionist regime." He broke off at one point during the speech to complain that his words were not being
accurately translated. (Organizers said they were translating from a prepared text submitted by the Iranian
delegation.)[136]
Ahmadinejad was praised by Syrian Author Muhammad Nimr Al-Madani, who said in an Iranian TV debate on
Holocaust denial, "I was very happy when the Iranian president denied the Holocaust. Since I am convinced of the
Holocaust denial 206

need to fight this lie, I was filled with admiration at the words of the Iranian president."[137]

Propaganda in the media

According to James Najarian, Holocaust deniers working for the Institute for Historical review are not trained in
history and "put out sham scholarly articles in the mock-academic publication, the Journal of Historical
Review".[138] They appeal to “our objectivity, our sense of fair play, and our distrust of figurative language”.[139]
Thus, they rely on facts to grab the readers’ attention. These facts, however, are strung by what Narjarian calls
“fabricated decorum” and are re-interpreted for their use. For example, they pay particular attention to inconsistencies
in numbers.[140]
Holocaust denial propaganda in all forms has shown to influence the audiences that it reaches. In fact, even the
well-educated—that is, college graduates and current university students alike—are susceptible to such propaganda
when it is presented before them. This stems from the growing disbelief that audiences feel after being exposed to
such information, especially since Holocaust witnesses themselves are decreasing in number.[141] Studies centered
on the psychological effects of Holocaust denial propaganda confirm this assertion. Linda M. Yelland and William
F. Stone, in particular, show that Denial essays decrease readers’ belief in the Holocaust, regardless of their prior
Holocaust awareness.[142]

Reactions to Holocaust denial

Types of reaction
Scholarly response to Holocaust denial can be roughly divided into three categories: Some academics refuse to
engage Holocaust deniers or their arguments at all, on grounds that doing so lends them unwarranted legitimacy.[143]
A second group of scholars, typified by the American historian Deborah Lipstadt, have tried to raise awareness of
the methods and motivations of Holocaust denial without legitimizing the deniers themselves. "We need not waste
time or effort answering the deniers' contentions," Lipstadt wrote. "It would be never-ending ... Their commitment is
to an ideology and their 'findings' are shaped to support it."[144] A third group, typified by the Nizkor Project,
responds to arguments and claims made by Holocaust denial groups by pointing out inaccuracies and errors in their
evidence.[145] [146]
Even scholarly responses, however, can trigger vigorous rebuttals. In 1996, the British historian David Irving
brought a civil defamation suit against Lipstadt and her publisher, stemming from Lipstadt's book Denying the
Holocaust, in which she named Irving as "one of the more dangerous" Holocaust deniers, because he was a
published author, and was viewed by some as a legitimate military historian. He was "familiar with historical
evidence," she wrote, and "bends it until it conforms with his ideological leanings and political agenda." Irving, who
appeared as a defense witness in Ernst Zündel's trial in Canada, and once declared at a rally of Holocaust deniers that
"...more women died in the back seat of Edward Kennedy's car than ever died in a gas chamber at Auschwitz",[147]
claimed that Lipstadt's allegation damaged his reputation. After a two-month trial in London, the trial judge issued a
333-page ruling against Irving.[148]

Public figures and scholars

No serious historian questions that the Holocaust took place.
—Governing council, unanimous declaration, American Historical Association[149]
A number of public figures and scholars have spoken out against Holocaust denial. The American Historical
Association, the oldest and largest society of historians and teachers of history in the United States, states that
Holocaust denial is "at best, a form of academic fraud."[150] Dr. William Shulman, director of the Holocaust
Research Center, described the denial "...as if these people [in the Holocaust] were killed twice",[151] a sentiment
echoed by literary theorist Jean Baudrillard, who argued that "Forgetting the extermination is part of the
Holocaust denial 207

extermination itself."[152] In 2006, UN Secretary General Kofi Annan said: "Remembering is a necessary rebuke to
those who say the Holocaust never happened or has been exaggerated. Holocaust denial is the work of bigots; we
must reject their false claims whenever, wherever and by whomever they are made."[153] Holocaust survivor and
Nobel Prize winner Elie Wiesel calls the Holocaust "the most documented tragedy in recorded history. Never before
has a tragedy elicited so much witness from the killers, from the victims and even from the bystanders—millions of
pieces here in the museum what you have, all other museums, archives in the thousands, in the millions."[154] He
made a similar statement on a special edition of The Oprah Winfrey Show after his final trip to Auschwitz, along
with host Winfrey.
In January 2007, the United Nations General Assembly condemned "without reservation any denial of the
Holocaust", though Iran disassociated itself from the resolution.[155]

Former SS members
Critics of Holocaust denial also include members of the Auschwitz SS. Camp physician and SS-Untersturmführer
Hans Münch considered the facts of Auschwitz "so firmly determined that one cannot have any doubt at all", and
described those who negate what happened at the camp as "malevolent" people who have "personal interest to want
to bury in silence things that cannot be buried in silence."[156] Zyklon-B handler and SS-Oberscharführer Josef
Klehr has said that anyone who maintains that nobody was gassed at Auschwitz must be "crazy or on the
wrong".[157] SS-Unterscharführer Oswald Kaduk has stated that he does not consider those who maintain such a
thing as normal people.[158] Hearing about Holocaust denial compelled former SS-Rottenführer Oskar Gröning to
publicly speak about what he witnessed at Auschwitz, and denounce Holocaust deniers,[159] stating:
I would like you to believe me. I saw the gas chambers. I saw the crematoria. I saw the open fires. I was on the
ramp when the selections took place. I would like you to believe that these atrocities happened because I was
there.[160]

Holocaust denial and antisemitism

Holocaust denial is generally viewed as antisemitic.[9] The Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity,
for example, defines Holocaust denial as "a new form of anti-Semitism, but one that hinges on age-old motifs".[161]
the Anti-Defamation League has stated that "Holocaust denial is a contemporary form of the classic anti-Semitic
doctrine of the evil, manipulative and threatening world Jewish conspiracy"[162] and French historian Valérie Igounet
has written that "Holocaust denial is a convenient polemical substitute for anti-semitism."[163] In 2005, the European
Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (now the Fundamental Rights Agency) published a "working
definition" of antisemitism which gave as an example of the way that antisemitism might manifest itself, "denying
the fact, scope, mechanisms (e.g. gas chambers) or intentionality of the genocide of the Jewish people at the hands of
National Socialist Germany and its supporters and accomplices during World War II (the Holocaust)".[164]
Some have argued that not all Holocaust deniers are necessarily antisemitic. In a defense of professor of literature
and Holocaust denier Robert Faurisson, and of having an essay of his included in the introduction of one of
Faurisson's books, linguist and political activist Noam Chomsky stated "I see no antisemitic implications in denial of
the existence of gas chambers, or even denial of the holocaust".[165] Chomsky would later elaborate:
...I was asked whether the fact that a person denies the existence of gas chambers does not prove that he is an
anti-Semite. I wrote back what every sane person knows: no, of course it does not. A person might believe that
Hitler exterminated 6 million Jews in some other way without being an anti-Semite. Since the point is trivial
and disputed by no one, I do not know why we are discussing it. In that context, I made a further point: even
denial of the Holocaust would not prove that a person is an anti-Semite. I presume that that point too is not
subject to contention. Thus if a person ignorant of modern history were told of the Holocaust and refused to
believe that humans are capable of such monstrous acts, we would not conclude that he is an anti-Semite.[166]
Holocaust denial 208

Similarly, in a defense of Holocaust denier Bishop Richard Williamson against the charge of being antisemitic, the
journalist and writer Kevin Myers argued "It is not anti-Semitic to make a fool of yourself in public about a historical
fact. It is anti-Semitic to preach or promote a dislike of Jews because they are Jews, which is what Bishop
Williamson has not done."[167]
According to Walter Reich, psychiatrist and then senior scholar at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for
Scholars, one-time director of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, and now professor of international
affairs at George Washington University:
The primary motivation for most deniers is anti-Semitism, and for them the Holocaust is an infuriatingly
inconvenient fact of history. After all, the Holocaust has generally been recognized as one of the most terrible
crimes that ever took place, and surely the very emblem of evil in the modern age. If that crime was a direct
result of anti-Semitism taken to its logical end, then anti-Semitism itself, even when expressed in private
conversation, is inevitably discredited among most people. What better way to rehabilitate anti-Semitism,
make anti-Semitic arguments seem once again respectable in civilized discourse and even make it acceptable
for governments to pursue anti-Semitic policies than by convincing the world that the great crime for which
anti-Semitism was blamed simply never happened – indeed, that it was nothing more than a frame-up invented
by the Jews, and propagated by them through their control of the media? What better way, in short, to make
the world safe again for anti-Semitism than by denying the Holocaust?[168]
The French historian Pierre Vidal-Naquet described the motivation of deniers more succinctly:
One revives the dead in order the better to strike the living.[169]

Laws against Holocaust denial

Holocaust denial is explicitly or implicitly illegal in 16 countries: Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, France,
Germany, Hungary, Israel, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania,
Slovakia, and Switzerland.[170] The European Union's Framework decision on Racism and Xenophobia states that
denying or grossly trivialising "crimes of genocide" should be made "punishable in all EU Member States".[171]
Slovakia criminalized denial of fascist crimes in general in late 2001; in May 2005, the term "Holocaust" was
explicitly adopted by the penal code and in 2009, it became illegal to deny any act regarded by an international
criminal court as genocide, implying Holocaust denial was still a crime, but excluding the term itself. The Parliament
of Hungary adopted the most recent legislation, which declared denial or trivialization of the Holocaust a crime
punishable by up to three years imprisonment, in February 2010.[172]
Such legislation remains controversial. In October 2007, a tribunal declared Spain's Holocaust denial law
unconstitutional.[173] In 2007 Italy rejected a denial law proposing a prison sentence of up to four years. In 2006 the
Netherlands rejected a draft law proposing a maximum sentence of one year on denial of genocidal acts in general,
although specifically denying the Holocaust remains a criminal offense there. The United Kingdom has twice
rejected Holocaust denial laws. Denmark and Sweden have also rejected such legislation.[174]
A number of deniers have been prosecuted under various countries' denial laws. French literature professor Robert
Faurisson, for example, was convicted and punished under the Gayssot Act in 1990. Some historians oppose such
laws, among them Vidal-Naquet, an outspoken critic of Faurisson, on the grounds that denial legislation imposes
"historical truth as legal truth."[175] Other academics favor criminalization. Holocaust denial, they contend, is "the
worst form of racism and its most respectable version because it pretends to be a research."[176] In the Belgian Senate
the Minister of Justice Laurette Onkelinx compared laws criminalizing Holocaust denial with those condemning
incitement to ethnic or racial hatred in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands.
Holocaust denial 209

Focus on Allied war crimes in Holocaust denial literature

The focus on supposed Allied atrocities during the war has also been a theme in Holocaust denial literature,
particularly in countries where outright denial of the Holocaust is illegal.[177] According to historian Deborah
Lipstadt, the concept of "comparable Allied wrongs" such as the post-war expulsions and alleged Allied war crimes
like the bombing of Dresden,[178] is at the center of, and a continuously repeated theme of, contemporary Holocaust
denial; phenomenon she calls "immoral equivalencies".[179] Pierre Vidal-Naquet pointed out the same phenomenon
in the earlier version of Les Assassins de la mémoire under the title Auschwitz et le tiers monde (Les Assassins de la
mémoire, Paris, 2005, pp. 170–180), and accurately about the declarations of Klaus Barbie's lawyer André Vergès.

Other genocide denials

Other acts of genocide have met similar attempts to deny and minimize. Gregory H. Stanton, formerly of the US
State Department and the founder of Genocide Watch, lists denial as the final stage of a genocide development:
"Denial is the eighth stage that always follows a genocide. It is among the surest indicators of further genocidal
massacres. The perpetrators of genocide dig up the mass graves, burn the bodies, try to cover up the evidence and
intimidate the witnesses. They deny that they committed any crimes, and often blame what happened on the
victims."[180]

Notable Holocaust deniers

[181] [182] [183] • Jürgen Graf • Otto Ernst Remer
• Mahmoud Ahmadinejad
• Mohammed Mahdi Akef • Nick Griffin • V. T. Rajshekar
[109] • Michael A. Hoffman II • Lady Michèle Renouf
• Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi
• Maurice Bardèche • David Hoggan • Manfred Roeder
[184] • Gerd Honsik • Germar Rudolf
• Harry Elmer Barnes
• Arthur Butz • David Irving • Rousas John Rushdoony
• Thies Christophersen • James Keegstra • Bernhard Schaub
• Doug Collins • Fred A. Leuchter • Gerald L. K. Smith
• Günter Deckert • Norman Lowell • Wilhelm Stäglich
• Léon Degrelle • Horst Mahler • Gerald Fredrick Töben
• David Duke • Carlo Mattogno [185]
• John Tyndall
• François Duprat • Carl O. Nordling • Siegfried Verbeke
• Robert Faurisson • Konstantinos Plevris • Richard Verrall
• Bobby Fischer • Roeland Raes • Udo Walendy
• Roger Garaudy • Ahmed Rami • Richard Williamson
• Hutton Gibson • Paul Rassinier • Ernst Zündel
• Dariusz Ratajczak
Holocaust denial 210

Notes
[1] Donald L Niewyk, The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, Columbia University Press, 2000, p.45: "The Holocaust is commonly defined as
the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by the Germans in World War II."
[2] "How many Jews were murdered in the Holocaust? How do we know? Do we have their names?" (http:/ / www1. yadvashem. org/ yv/ en/
holocaust/ resource_center/ faq. asp), The Holocaust Resource Center Faqs, Yad Vashem website. Accessed February 17, 2011. See also
appropriate section of the Holocaust article for the death toll.
[3] Key elements of Holocaust denial:
• "Before discussing how Holocaust denial constitutes a conspiracy theory, and how the theory is distinctly American, it is important to
understand what is meant by the term "Holocaust denial." Holocaust deniers, or "revisionists," as they call themselves, question all three
major points of definition of the Nazi Holocaust. First, they contend that, while mass murders of Jews did occur (although they dispute
both the intentionality of such murders as well as the supposed deservedness of these killings), there was no official Nazi policy to murder
Jews. Second, and perhaps most prominently, they contend that there were no homicidal gas chambers, particularly at
Auschwitz-Birkenau, where mainstream historians believe over 1 million Jews were murdered, primarily in gas chambers. And third,
Holocaust deniers contend that the death toll of European Jews during World War II was well below 6 million. Deniers float numbers
anywhere between 300,000 and 1.5 million, as a general rule." Mathis, Andrew E. Holocaust Denial, a Definition (http:/ / www.
holocaust-history. org/ denial/ abc-clio/ ), The Holocaust History Project, July 2, 2004. Retrieved December 18, 2006.
• "In part III we directly address the three major foundations upon which Holocaust denial rests, including... the claim that gas chambers and
crematoria were used not for mass extermination but rather for delousing clothing and disposing of people who died of disease and
overwork; ... the claim that the six million figure is an exaggeration by an order of magnitude—that about six hundred thousand, not six
million, died at the hands of the Nazis; ... the claim that there was no intention on the part of the Nazis to exterminate European Jewry and
that the Holocaust was nothing more than the unfortunate by-product of the vicissitudes of war." Michael Shermer and Alex Grobman.
Denying History: : who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and why Do They Say It?, University of California Press, 2000, ISBN
0-520-23469-3, p. 3.
• "Holocaust Denial: Claims that the mass extermination of the Jews by the Nazis never happened; that the number of Jewish losses has
been greatly exaggerated; that the Holocaust was not systematic nor a result of an official policy; or simply that the Holocaust never took
place." What is Holocaust Denial (http:/ / www1. yadvashem. org/ about_holocaust/ faqs/ answers/ faq_35. html), Yad Vashem website,
2004. Retrieved December 18, 2006.
• "Among the untruths routinely promoted are the claims that no gas chambers existed at Auschwitz, that only 600,000 Jews were killed
rather than six million, and that Hitler had no murderous intentions toward Jews or other groups persecuted by his government." Holocaust
Denial (http:/ / www. adl. org/ hate-patrol/ holocaust. asp), Anti-Defamation League, 2001. Retrieved June 28, 2007.
[4] "The kinds of assertions made in Holocaust-denial material include the following:
• Several hundred thousand rather than approximately six million Jews died during the war.
• Scientific evidence proves that gas chambers could not have been used to kill large numbers of people.
• The Nazi command had a policy of deporting Jews, not exterminating them.
• Some deliberate killings of Jews did occur, but were carried out by the peoples of Eastern Europe rather than the Nazis.
• Jews died in camps of various kinds, but did so as the result of hunger and disease. The Holocaust is a myth created by the Allies for
propaganda purposes, and subsequently nurtured by the Jews for their own ends.
• Errors and inconsistencies in survivors’ testimonies point to their essential unreliability.
• Alleged documentary evidence of the Holocaust, from photographs of concentration camp victims to Anne Frank’s diary, is fabricated.
• The confessions of former Nazis to war crimes were extracted through torture." The nature of Holocaust denial: What is Holocaust denial?
(http:/ / www. jpr. org. uk/ Reports/ CS_Reports/ no_3_2000/ index. htm), JPR report #3, 2000. Retrieved December 18, 2006.
[5] Refer to themselves as revisionists:
• "The deniers' selection of the name revisionist to describe themselves is indicative of their basic strategy of deceit and distortion and of
their attempt to portray themselves as legitimate historians engaged in the traditional practice of illuminating the past." Deborah Lipstadt.
Denying the Holocaust—The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory, Penguin, 1993, ISBN 0-452-27274-2, p. 25.
• "Dressing themselves in pseudo-academic garb, they have adopted the term "revisionism" in order to mask and legitimate their enterprise."
Introduction: Denial as Anti-Semitism (http:/ / www. adl. org/ holocaust/ theory. asp), "Holocaust Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing
and Combating Anti-Semitic Propaganda", Anti-Defamation League, 2001. Retrieved June 12, 2007.
• "Holocaust deniers often refer to themselves as ‘revisionists’, in an attempt to claim legitimacy for their activities. There are, of course, a
great many scholars engaged in historical debates about the Holocaust whose work should not be confused with the output of the
Holocaust deniers. Debate continues about such subjects as, for example, the extent and nature of ordinary Germans’ involvement in and
knowledge of the policy of genocide, and the timing of orders given for the extermination of the Jews. However, the valid endeavour of
historical revisionism, which involves the re-interpretation of historical knowledge in the light of newly emerging evidence, is a very
different task from that of claiming that the essential facts of the Holocaust, and the evidence for those facts, are fabrications." The nature
of Holocaust denial: What is Holocaust denial? (http:/ / www. jpr. org. uk/ Reports/ CS_Reports/ no_3_2000/ index. htm), JPR report #3,
2000. Retrieved May 16, 2007.
[6] Denial vs. "revisionism":
Holocaust denial 211

• "This is the phenomenon of what has come to be known as 'revisionism', 'negationism', or 'Holocaust denial,' whose main characteristic is
either an outright rejection of the very veracity of the Nazi genocide of the Jews, or at least a concerted attempt to minimize both its scale
and importance... It is just as crucial, however, to distinguish between the wholly objectionable politics of denial and the fully legitimate
scholarly revision of previously accepted conventional interpretations of any historical event, including the Holocaust." Bartov, Omer. The
Holocaust: Origins, Implementation and Aftermath, Routledge, pp.11–12. Bartov is John P. Birkelund Distinguished Professor of
European History at the Watson Institute, and is regarded as one of the world's leading authorities on genocide ( "Omer Bartov" (http:/ /
www. watsoninstitute. org/ contacts_detail. cfm?id=97), The Watson Institute for International Studies).
• "The two leading critical exposés of Holocaust denial in the United States were written by historians Deborah Lipstadt (1993) and Michael
Shermer and Alex Grobman (2000). These scholars make a distinction between historical revisionism and denial. Revisionism, in their
view, entails a refinement of existing knowledge about an historical event, not a denial of the event itself, that comes through the
examination of new empirical evidence or a reexamination or reinterpretation of existing evidence. Legitimate historical revisionism
acknowledges a "certain body of irrefutable evidence" or a "convergence of evidence" that suggest that an event_like the black plague,
American slavery, or the Holocaust—did in fact occur (Lipstadt 1993:21; Shermer & Grobman 200:34). Denial, on the other hand, rejects
the entire foundation of historical evidence..." Ronald J. Berger. Fathoming the Holocaust: A Social Problems Approach, Aldine
Transaction, 2002, ISBN 0-202-30670-4, p. 154.
• "At this time, in the mid-1970s, the specter of Holocaust Denial (masked as "revisionism") had begun to raise its head in Australia..."
Bartrop, Paul R. "A Little More Understanding: The Experience of a Holocaust Educator in Australia" in Samuel Totten, Steven Leonard
Jacobs, Paul R Bartrop. Teaching about the Holocaust, Praeger/Greenwood, 2004, p. xix. ISBN 0-275-98232-7
• "Pierre Vidal-Naquet urges that denial of the Holocaust should not be called 'revisionism' because 'to deny history is not to revise it'. Les
Assassins de la Memoire. Un Eichmann de papier et autres essays sur le revisionisme (The Assassins of Memory—A Paper-Eichmann and
Other Essays on Revisionism) 15 (1987)." Cited in Roth, Stephen J. "Denial of the Holocaust as an Issue of Law" in the Israel Yearbook
on Human Rights, Volume 23, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1993, ISBN 0-7923-2581-8, p. 215.
• "This essay describes, from a methodological perspective, some of the inherent flaws in the "revisionist" approach to the history of the
Holocaust. It is not intended as a polemic, nor does it attempt to ascribe motives. Rather, it seeks to explain the fundamental error in the
"revisionist" approach, as well as why that approach of necessity leaves no other choice. It concludes that "revisionism" is a misnomer
because the facts do not accord with the position it puts forward and, more importantly, its methodology reverses the appropriate approach
to historical investigation... "Revisionism" is obliged to deviate from the standard methodology of historical pursuit, because it seeks to
mold facts to fit a preconceived result; it denies events that have been objectively and empirically proved to have occurred; and because it
works backward from the conclusion to the facts, thus necessitating the distortion and manipulation of those facts where they differ from
the preordained conclusion (which they almost always do). In short, "revisionism" denies something that demonstrably happened, through
methodological dishonesty." McFee, Gordon. "Why 'Revisionism' Isn't" (http:/ / www. holocaust-history. org/ revisionism-isnt/ ), The
Holocaust History Project, May 15, 1999. Retrieved December 22, 2006.
• "Crucial to understanding and combating Holocaust denial is a clear distinction between denial and revisionism. One of the more insidious
and dangerous aspects of contemporary Holocaust denial, a la Arthur Butz, Bradley Smith and Greg Raven, is the fact that they attempt to
present their work as reputable scholarship under the guise of 'historical revisionism.' The term 'revisionist' permeates their publications as
descriptive of their motives, orientation and methodology. In fact, Holocaust denial is in no sense 'revisionism,' it is denial... Contemporary
Holocaust deniers are not revisionists — not even neo-revisionists. They are Deniers. Their motivations stem from their neo-nazi political
goals and their rampant antisemitism." Austin, Ben S. "Deniers in Revisionists Clothing" (http:/ / www. mtsu. edu/ ~baustin/ revision.
htm), The Holocaust\Shoah Page, Middle Tennessee State University. Retrieved March 29, 2007.
• "Holocaust denial can be a particularly insidious form of antisemitism precisely because it often tries to disguise itself as something quite
different: as genuine scholarly debate (in the pages, for example, of the innocuous-sounding Journal for Historical Review). Holocaust
deniers often refer to themselves as ‘revisionists’, in an attempt to claim legitimacy for their activities. There are, of course, a great many
scholars engaged in historical debates about the Holocaust whose work should not be confused with the output of the Holocaust deniers.
Debate continues about such subjects as, for example, the extent and nature of ordinary Germans’ involvement in and knowledge of the
policy of genocide, and the timing of orders given for the extermination of the Jews. However, the valid endeavour of historical
revisionism, which involves the re-interpretation of historical knowledge in the light of newly emerging evidence, is a very different task
from that of claiming that the essential facts of the Holocaust, and the evidence for those facts, are fabrications." The nature of Holocaust
denial: What is Holocaust denial? (http:/ / www. jpr. org. uk/ Reports/ CS_Reports/ no_3_2000/ index. htm), JPR report #3, 2000.
Retrieved May 16, 2007.
• "The deniers' selection of the name revisionist to describe themselves is indicative of their basic strategy of deceit and distortion and of
their attempt to portray themselves as legitimate historians engaged in the traditional practice of illuminating the past. For historians, in
fact, the name revisionism has a resonance that is perfectly legitimate – it recalls the controversial historical school known as World War I
"revisionists," who argued that the Germans were unjustly held responsible for the war and that consequently the Versailles treaty was a
politically misguided document based on a false premise. Thus the deniers link themselves to a specific historiographic tradition of
reevaluating the past. Claiming the mantle of the World War I revisionists and denying they have any objective other than the
dissemination of the truth constitute a tactical attempt to acquire an intellectual credibility that would otherwise elude them." Deborah
Lipstadt. Denying the Holocaust – The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory, Penguin, 1993, ISBN 0-452-27274-2, p. 25.
[7] Predetermined conclusion:
Holocaust denial 212

• "'Revisionism' is obliged to deviate from the standard methodology of historical pursuit because it seeks to mold facts to fit a preconceived
result, it denies events that have been objectively and empirically proved to have occurred, and because it works backward from the
conclusion to the facts, thus necessitating the distortion and manipulation of those facts where they differ from the preordained conclusion
(which they almost always do). In short, "revisionism" denies something that demonstrably happened, through methodological
dishonesty." McFee, Gordon. "Why 'Revisionism' Isn't" (http:/ / www. holocaust-history. org/ revisionism-isnt/ ), The Holocaust History
Project, May 15, 1999. Retrieved December 22, 2006.
• Alan L. Berger, "Holocaust Denial: Tempest in a Teapot, or Storm on the Horizon?", in Zev Garber and Richard Libowitz (eds), Peace, in
Deed: Essays in Honor of Harry James Cargas, Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998, p. 154.
[8] A hoax designed to advance the interests of Jews:
• "The title of App's major work on the Holocaust, The Six Million Swindle, is informative because it implies on its very own the existence
of a conspiracy of Jews to perpetrate a hoax against non-Jews for monetary gain." Mathis, Andrew E. Holocaust Denial, a Definition
(http:/ / www. holocaust-history. org/ denial/ abc-clio/ ), The Holocaust History Project, July 2, 2004. Retrieved May 16, 2007.
• "Jews are thus depicted as manipulative and powerful conspirators who have fabricated myths of their own suffering for their own ends.
According to the Holocaust deniers, by forging evidence and mounting a massive propaganda effort, the Jews have established their lies as
‘truth’ and reaped enormous rewards from doing so: for example, in making financial claims on Germany and acquiring international
support for Israel." The nature of Holocaust denial: What is Holocaust denial? (http:/ / www. jpr. org. uk/ Reports/ CS_Reports/
no_3_2000/ index. htm), JPR report #3, 2000. Retrieved May 16, 2007.
• "Why, we might ask the deniers, if the Holocaust did not happen would any group concoct such a horrific story? Because, some deniers
claim, there was a conspiracy by Zionists to exaggerate the plight of Jews during the war in order to finance the state of Israel through war
reparations." Michael Shermer & Alex Grobman. Denying History: : who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and why Do They Say It?,
University of California Press, 2000, ISBN 0-520-23469-3, p. 106.
• "Since its inception...the Institute for Historical Review (IHR), a California-based Holocaust denial organization founded by Willis Carto
of Liberty Lobby, has promoted the antisemitic conspiracy theory that Jews fabricated tales of their own genocide to manipulate the
sympathies of the non-Jewish world." Antisemitism and Racism Country Reports: United States (http:/ / www. tau. ac. il/ Anti-Semitism/
asw2000-1/ usa. htm), Stephen Roth Institute, 2000. Retrieved May 17, 2007.
• "The central assertion for the deniers is that Jews are not victims but victimizers. They 'stole' billions in reparations, destroyed Germany's
good name by spreading the 'myth' of the Holocaust, and won international sympathy because of what they claimed had been done to
them. In the paramount miscarriage of injustice, they used the world's sympathy to 'displace' another people so that the state of Israel could
be established. This contention relating to the establishment of Israel is a linchpin of their argument." Deborah Lipstadt. Denying the
Holocaust – The Growing Assault onTruth and Memory, Penguin, 1993, ISBN 0-452-27274-2, p. 27.
• "They [Holocaust deniers] picture a vast shadowy conspiracy that controls and manipulates the institutions of education, culture, the media
and government in order to disseminate a pernicious mythology. The purpose of this Holocaust mythology, they assert, is the inculcation
of a sense of guilt in the white, Western Christian world. Those who can make others feel guilty have power over them and can make them
do their bidding. This power is used to advance an international Jewish agenda centered in the Zionist enterprise of the State of Israel."
Introduction: Denial as Anti-Semitism (http:/ / www. adl. org/ holocaust/ theory. asp), "Holocaust Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing
and Combating Anti-Semitic Propaganda", Anti-Defamation League, 2001. Retrieved June 12, 2007.
• "Deniers argue that the manufactured guilt and shame over a mythological Holocaust led to Western, specifically United States, support
for the establishment and sustenance of the Israeli state — a sustenance that costs the American taxpayer over three billion dollars per
year. They assert that American taxpayers have been and continue to be swindled..." , "Holocaust Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing
and Combating Anti-Semitic Propaganda", Anti-Defamation League, 2001. Retrieved June 12, 2007.
• "The stress on Holocaust revisionism underscored the new anti-Semitic agenda gaining ground within the Klan movement. Holocaust
denial refurbished conspiratorial anti-Semitism. Who else but the Jews had the media power to hoodwink unsuspecting masses with one of
the greatest hoaxes in history? And for what motive? To promote the claims of the illegitimate state of Israel by making non-Jews feel
guilty, of course." Lawrence N. Powell, Troubled Memory: Anne Levy, the Holocaust, and David Duke's Louisiana, University of North
Carolina Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8078-5374-7, p. 445.
[9] Antisemitic:
• "Contemporary examples of antisemitism in public life, the media, schools, the workplace, and in the religious sphere could, taking into
account the overall context, include ... denying the fact, scope, mechanisms (e.g. gas chambers) or intentionality of the genocide of the
Jewish people at the hands of National Socialist Germany and its supporters and accomplices during World War II (the Holocaust)."
Working Definition of Antisemitism (http:/ / fra. europa. eu/ fraWebsite/ material/ pub/ AS/ AS-WorkingDefinition-draft.
pdf)PDF (33.8 KB), European Fundamental Rights Agency
• "It would elevate their antisemitic ideology — which is what Holocaust denial is — to the level of responsible historiography — which it
is not." Deborah Lipstadt, Denying the Holocaust, ISBN 0-14-024157-4, p. 11.
• "The denial of the Holocaust is among the most insidious forms of anti-Semitism..." Roth, Stephen J. "Denial of the Holocaust as an Issue
of Law" in the Israel Yearbook on Human Rights, Volume 23, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1993, ISBN 0-7923-2581-8, p. 215.
• "Contemporary Holocaust deniers are not revisionists — not even neo-revisionists. They are Deniers. Their motivations stem from their
neo-nazi political goals and their rampant antisemitism." Austin, Ben S. "Deniers in Revisionists Clothing" (http:/ / www. mtsu. edu/
~baustin/ revision. htm), The Holocaust\Shoah Page, Middle Tennessee State University. Retrieved March 29, 2007.
Holocaust denial 213

• "Holocaust denial can be a particularly insidious form of antisemitism precisely because it often tries to disguise itself as something quite
different: as genuine scholarly debate (in the pages, for example, of the innocuous-sounding Journal for Historical Review)." The nature of
Holocaust denial: What is Holocaust denial? (http:/ / www. jpr. org. uk/ Reports/ CS_Reports/ no_3_2000/ index. htm), JPR report #3,
2000. Retrieved May 16, 2007.
• "This books treats several of the myths that have made antisemitism so lethal... In addition to these historic myths, we also treat the new,
maliciously manufactured myth of Holocaust denial, another groundless belief that is used to stir up Jew-hatred." Schweitzer, Frederick M.
& Perry, Marvin. Anti-Semitism: myth and hate from antiquity to the present, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002, ISBN 0-312-16561-7, p. 3.
• "One predictable strand of Arab Islamic antisemitism is Holocaust denial..." Schweitzer, Frederick M. & Perry, Marvin. Anti-Semitism:
myth and hate from antiquity to the present, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002, ISBN 0-312-16561-7, p. 10.
• "Anti-Semitism, in the form of Holocaust denial, had been experienced by just one teacher when working in a Catholic school with large
numbers of Polish and Croatian students." Geoffrey Short, Carole Ann Reed. Issues in Holocaust Education, Ashgate Publishing, 2004,
ISBN 0-7546-4211-9, p. 71.
• "Indeed, the task of organized antisemitism in the last decade of the century has been the establishment of Holocaust Revisionism – the
denial that the Holocaust occurred." Stephen Trombley, "antisemitism", The Norton Dictionary of Modern Thought, W. W. Norton &
Company, 1999, ISBN 0-393-04696-6, p. 40.
• "After the Yom Kippur War an apparent reappearance of antisemitism in France troubled the tranquility of the community; there were
several notorious terrorist attacks on synagogues, Holocaust revisionism appeared, and a new antisemitic political right tried to achieve
respectability." Howard K. Wettstein, Diasporas and Exiles: Varieties of Jewish Identity, University of California Press, 2002, ISBN
0-520-22864-2, p. 169.
• "Holocaust denial is a convenient polemical substitute for anti-semitism." Igounet, Valérie. "Holocaust denial is part of a strategy" (http:/ /
mondediplo. com/ 1998/ 05/ 08igou), Le Monde diplomatique, May 1998.
• "Holocaust denial is a contemporary form of the classic anti-Semitic doctrine of the evil, manipulative and threatening world Jewish
conspiracy." Introduction: Denial as Anti-Semitism (http:/ / www. adl. org/ holocaust/ theory. asp), "Holocaust Denial: An Online Guide to
Exposing and Combating Anti-Semitic Propaganda", Anti-Defamation League, 2001. Retrieved June 12, 2007.
• "In a number of countries, in Europe as well as in the United States, the negation or gross minimization of the Nazi genocide of Jews has
been the subject of books, essay and articles. Should their authors be protected by freedom of speech? The European answer has been in
the negative: such writings are not only a perverse form of anti-semitism but also an aggression against the dead, their families, the
survivors and society at large." Roger Errera, "Freedom of speech in Europe", in Georg Nolte, European and US Constitutionalism,
Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-521-85401-6, pp. 39–40.
• "Particularly popular in Syria is Holocaust denial, another staple of Arab anti-Semitism that is sometimes coupled with overt sympathy for
Nazi Germany." Efraim Karsh, Rethinking the Middle East, Routledge, 2003, ISBN 0-7146-5418-3, p. 104.
• "Holocaust denial is a new form of anti-Semitism, but one that hinges on age-old motifs." Dinah Shelton, Encyclopedia of Genocide and
Crimes Against Humanity, Macmillan Reference, 2005, p. 45.
• "The stress on Holocaust revisionism underscored the new anti-Semitic agenda gaining ground within the Klan movement. Holocaust
denial refurbished conspiratorial anti-Semitism. Who else but the Jews had the media power to hoodwink unsuspecting masses with one of
the greatest hoaxes in history? And for what motive? To promote the claims of the illegitimate state of Israel by making non-Jews feel
guilty, of course." Lawrence N. Powell, Troubled Memory: Anne Levy, the Holocaust, and David Duke's Louisiana, University of North
Carolina Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8078-5374-7, p. 445.
• "Since its inception...the Institute for Historical Review (IHR), a California-based Holocaust denial organization founded by Willis Carto
of Liberty Lobby, has promoted the antisemitic conspiracy theory that Jews fabricated tales of their own genocide to manipulate the
sympathies of the non-Jewish world." Antisemitism and Racism Country Reports: United States (http:/ / www. tau. ac. il/ Anti-Semitism/
asw2000-1/ usa. htm), Stephen Roth Institute, 2000. Retrieved May 17, 2007.
• "The primary motivation for most deniers is anti-Semitism, and for them the Holocaust is an infuriatingly inconvenient fact of history.
After all, the Holocaust has generally been recognized as one of the most terrible crimes that ever took place, and surely the very emblem
of evil in the modern age. If that crime was a direct result of anti-Semitism taken to its logical end, then anti-Semitism itself, even when
expressed in private conversation, is inevitably discredited among most people. What better way to rehabilitate anti-Semitism, make
anti-Semitic arguments seem once again respectable in civilized discourse and even make it acceptable for governments to pursue
anti-Semitic policies than by convincing the world that the great crime for which anti-Semitism was blamed simply never happened –
indeed, that it was nothing more than a frame-up invented by the Jews, and propagated by them through their control of the media? What
better way, in short, to make the world safe again for anti-Semitism than by denying the Holocaust?" Reich, Walter. "Erasing the
Holocaust" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1993/ 07/ 11/ books/ erasing-the-holocaust. html?pagewanted=6), The New York Times, July 11,
1993.
• "There is now a creeping, nasty wave of anti-Semitism ... insinuating itself into our political thought and rhetoric ... The history of the
Arab world ... is disfigured ... by a whole series of outmoded and discredited ideas, of which the notion that the Jews never suffered and
that the Holocaust is an obfuscatory confection created by the elders of Zion is one that is acquiring too much, far too much, currency."
Edward Said, "A Desolation, and They Called it Peace" in Those who forget the past, Ron Rosenbaum (ed), Random House 2004, p. 518.
[10] Conspiracy theory:
• "While appearing on the surface as a rather arcane pseudo-scholarly challenge to the well-established record of Nazi genocide during the
Second World War, Holocaust denial serves as a powerful conspiracy theory uniting otherwise disparate fringe groups..." Introduction:
Holocaust denial 214

Denial as Anti-Semitism (http:/ / www. adl. org/ holocaust/ theory. asp), "Holocaust Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing and Combating
Anti-Semitic Propaganda", Anti-Defamation League, 2001. Retrieved June 12, 2007.
• "Before discussing how Holocaust denial constitutes a conspiracy theory, and how the theory is distinctly American, it is important to
understand what is meant by the term 'Holocaust denial.'" Mathis, Andrew E. Holocaust Denial, a Definition (http:/ / www.
holocaust-history. org/ denial/ abc-clio/ ), The Holocaust History Project, July 2, 2004. Retrieved December 18, 2006.
• "Since its inception...the Institute for Historical Review (IHR), a California-based Holocaust denial organization founded by Willis Carto
of Liberty Lobby, has promoted the antisemitic conspiracy theory that Jews fabricated tales of their own genocide to manipulate the
sympathies of the non-Jewish world." Antisemitism and Racism Country Reports: United States (http:/ / www. tau. ac. il/ Anti-Semitism/
asw2000-1/ usa. htm), Stephen Roth Institute, 2000. Retrieved May 17, 2007.
[11] "Historians Respond: Denial Denounced as Academic Fraud" (http:/ / www. adl. org/ holocaust/ academic. asp). adl.org. . Retrieved 12
January 2011.
[12] Niewyk, Donald L. (ed). The Holocaust: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation, D.C. Heath and Company, 1992.
[13] See Alain Finkielkraut, Mary Byrd Kelly, Richard J. Golsan. The Future of a Negation: Reflections on the Question of Genocide. (http:/ /
books. google. com/ books?id=bmB1PW7ySPQC& pg=PA125& vq=rousso& dq=the+ future+ of+ a+ negation+ reflections+ on+ the+
question+ of+ genocide& psp=1& source=gbs_search_s& sig=qlr0powY5DAkYjWWc_xFbL5akpY) University of Nebraska Press, 1998.
[14] Koenraad Elst. Chapter One – Negationism in General (http:/ / voiceofdharma. org/ books/ negaind/ ch1. htm), Negationism in India -
Concealing the Record of Islam, The Voice of India, 2002.
[15] A plot designed to garner support of Israel:
• "The central assertion for the deniers is that Jews are not victims but victimizers. They 'stole' billions in reparations, destroyed Germany's
good name by spreading the 'myth' of the Holocaust, and won international sympathy because of what they claimed had been done to
them. In the paramount miscarriage of injustice, they used the world's sympathy to 'displace' another people so that the state of Israel could
be established. This contention relating to the establishment of Israel is a linchpin of their argument." Deborah Lipstadt. Denying the
Holocaust – The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory, Penguin, 1993, p. 27. ISBN 0-452-27274-2.
• "Jews are thus depicted as manipulative and powerful conspirators who have fabricated myths of their own suffering for their own ends.
According to the Holocaust deniers, by forging evidence and mounting a massive propaganda effort, the Jews have established their lies as
‘truth’ and reaped enormous rewards from doing so: for example, in making financial claims on Germany and acquiring international
support for Israel." The nature of Holocaust denial: What is Holocaust denial? (http:/ / www. jpr. org. uk/ Reports/ CS_Reports/
no_3_2000/ index. htm), JPR report #3, 2000. Retrieved May 16, 2007.
• "Why, we might ask the deniers, if the Holocaust did not happen would any group concoct such a horrific story? Because, some deniers
claim, there was a conspiracy by Zionists to exaggerate the plight of Jews during the war in order to finance the state of Israel through war
reparations." Michael Shermer & Alex Grobman. Denying History: : who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and why Do They Say It?,
University of California Press, 2000, ISBN 0-520-23469-3, p. 106.
• "They [Holocaust deniers] picture a vast shadowy conspiracy that controls and manipulates the institutions of education, culture, the media
and government in order to disseminate a pernicious mythology. The purpose of this Holocaust mythology, they assert, is the inculcation
of a sense of guilt in the white, Western Christian world. Those who can make others feel guilty have power over them and can make them
do their bidding. This power is used to advance an international Jewish agenda centered in the Zionist enterprise of the State of Israel."
Introduction: Denial as Anti-Semitism (http:/ / www. adl. org/ holocaust/ theory. asp), "Holocaust Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing
and Combating Anti-Semitic Propaganda", Anti-Defamation League, 2001. Retrieved June 12, 2007.
• "The stress on Holocaust revisionism underscored the new anti-Semitic agenda gaining ground within the Klan movement. Holocaust
denial refurbished conspiratorial anti-Semitism. Who else but the Jews had the media power to hoodwink unsuspecting masses with one of
the greatest hoaxes in history? And for what motive? To promote the claims of the illegitimate state of Israel by making non-Jews feel
guilty, of course." Lawrence N. Powell, Troubled Memory: Anne Levy, the Holocaust, and David Duke's Louisiana, University of North
Carolina Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8078-5374-7, p. 445.
[16] Shermer & Grobman, 2002, pp. 103–14.
[17] "(H)istory is the attempt to describe events of the past and move from description to analysis, in accordance with certain agreed rules of
evidence, of analysis of language, and of logic." 'Yehuda Bauer, Historian of the Holocaust – Portrait of an Historian" — Online Dimensions,
a Journal of Holocaust Studies, Fall, 2004
[18] "... the German bureaucrats' collective actions are relatively well-documented for the historian..." Christopher R. Browning, The Path to
Genocide: essays on launching the final solution, Cambridge University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-521-55878-6, p. 125.
[19] "According to the historian Raul Hilberg, the United States alone captured forty thousand linear feet of documents on the murder of
European Jews... we can say that the Holocaust is a uniquely well-documented historical event." Deák, István. Essays on Hitler's Europe,
University of Nebraska Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8032-1716-1, p. 67
[20] Holocaust: The events and their impact on real people, DK Publishing in conjunction with the USC Shoah Foundation Institute for Visual
History and Education, p. 146. ""There our troops found sights, sounds, and stenches horrible beyond belief, cruelties so enormous as to be
incomprehensible to the normal mind."
[21] Kelly Oliver. Witnessing: beyond recognition, University of Minnesota Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8166-3627-3, p. 90.
[22] Shelley Hornstein and Florence Jacobowitz. Image and remembrance: representation and the Holocaust, 2003, Indiana University Press,
ISBN 0-253-34188-4, pp. 205–206.
[23] Shermer & Grobman, 2002, p. 33.
Holocaust denial 215

[24] Pierre Vidal-Naquet, French une tentative d'extermination sur le papier qui relaie l'extermination réelle in "Les assassins de la mémoire",
Un Eichman de papier, Postface de Gisèle Sapiro, Nouvelle édition revue et augmentée, La Découverte, Paris, 2005, ISBN 2-7071-4545-9.
[25] Arad, Yitzhak (1984). "Operation Reinhard: Extermination Camps of Belzec, Sobibor and Treblinka" (http:/ / www1. yadvashem. org/
odot_pdf/ Microsoft Word - 3576. pdf). Yad Vashem Studies XVI. pp. 205=239.
[26] Ezergailis, Andrew, The Holocaust in Latvia 1941–1944 – The Missing Center, pages 4–7, 239–270, Historical Institute of Latvia (in
association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum) Riga 1996 ISBN 9984-9054-3-8
[27] Nizkor Project page on Himmler Posen speech (http:/ / www. nizkor. org/ hweb/ people/ h/ himmler-heinrich/ posen/ oct-04-43/ ) Contains
both the IMT original transcription of the speech in German, a corrected Nizkor project transcription, original IMT and corrected Nizkor
project translation, recording and analysis of actual speech, and link to examples showing treatment of speech by Holocaust deniers.
[28] April 12, 1945
[29] Eisenhower, Dwight D., Crusade in Europe, pages 409–10, Doubleday, New York, 1948 (no ISBN for this edition)
[30] Eisenhower, Dwight D., Dear General: Eisenhower's Wartime Letters to Marshall, page 223, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999
[31] Martin Perry, Anti-Semitism, Palgrave: 2002
[32] HARRY ELMER BARNES: Zionist Fraud (http:/ / www. vho. org/ GB/ Books/ tmotsm/ A5. html)
[33] Herwig, Holger “Clio Deceived” pages 5–44 from International Security, Volume 12, Issue 2, Fall 1987 pages 22–23 & 26
[34] Lipstadt, Deborah Denying the Holocaust, Free Press: New York, 1993 pages 73–74.
[35] Lipstadt, Deborah Denying the Holocaust, Free Press: New York, 1993 page 74.
[36] Lipstadt, Deborah Denying the Holocaust, Free Press: New York, 1993 page 74.
[37] Lipstadt, Deborah Denying the Holocaust, Free Press: New York, 1993 page 75
[38] Phyllis B Gerstenfeld, Diana R Grant, Crimes of Hate. Sage Press, 2003, p 191
[39] Lipstadt, Deborah Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory, New York : Free Press ; Toronto : Maxwell
Macmillan Canada ; New York ; Oxford : Maxwell Macmillan International, 1993 page 71
[40] Gottfired, Ted: Deniers Of The Holocaust: Who They Are, What They Do, Why They Do It (Twenty-First Century Books, 2001). Page 29
[41] Deborah E. Lipstadt, History on Trial, Harcourt:2005 ISBN 0-06-059376-8
[42] Deborah Lipstadt, Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory 1994
[43] Pressac, Jean-Claude (1989). Auschwitz: Technique and operation of the gas chambers (http:/ / www. holocaust-history. org/ auschwitz/
pressac/ technique-and-operation/ ). New York: The Beate Klarsfeld Foundation. . Retrieved January 31, 2006.
[44] Bienen, Henry S. (February 6, 2006). "Message from President Bienen, Northwestern University" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/
20070501100921/ http:/ / www. northwestern. edu/ president/ arthurbutz. html). Northwestern University. Archived from the original (http:/ /
www. northwestern. edu/ president/ arthurbutz. html) on May 1, 2007. . Retrieved September 20, 2009.
[45] Elizabeth, Campbell (February 17, 2006). "Students, faculty oppose Butz with petitions" (http:/ / media. www. dailynorthwestern. com/
media/ storage/ paper853/ news/ 2006/ 02/ 17/ Campus/ Students. Faculty. Oppose. Butz. With. Petitions-1921007. shtml). The Daily
Northwestern. . Retrieved September 20, 2009.
[46] Chip Berlet & Matthew J. Lyons, Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort, New York: Guilford Press, 2000, p. 189.
[47] Richard J. Evans, Lying About Hitler: History, Holocaust, and the David Irving Trial, Basic Books, 2002 (ISBN 0-465-02153-0).
[48] Institute for Historical Review website, "About the IHR" page. Retrieved June 12, 2007.
[49] Journal for Historical Review, 1993, 13, 5, p. 32
[50] Paul Rauber, East Bay Express, January 17, 1992, page 4.
[51] Richard J. Evans. Telling Lies About Hitler: The Holocaust, History and the David Irving Trial, Verso, 2002, ISBN 1-85984-417-0, p. 151.
[52] Antisemitism and Xenophobia Today: United States of America (http:/ / www. axt. org. uk/ antisem/ archive/ archive2/ usa/ usa. htm)
[53] "Poisoning the Web – Committee for Open Debate on the Holocaust." (http:/ / www. adl. org/ poisoning_web/ codoh. asp) ADL. 2001. April
24, 2008.
[54] "Bradley Smith and the Committee for Open Debate on the Holocaust: The New College Try." (http:/ / www. adl. org/ holocaust/
bradley_smith. asp) ADL. 2001. April 24, 2008.
[55] "The 1999–2000 Bradley Smith Campus Newspaper Campaign." (http:/ / www. adl. org/ issue_holocaust/ BradleySmith2000. asp) ADL.
2001. April 24, 2008.
[56] Buxbaum, Evan (September 10, 2009). "Harvard Crimson says Holocaust denial ad published by accident" (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2009/
US/ 09/ 09/ massachusetts. harvard. holocaust/ index. html). CNN. . Retrieved September 10, 2009.
[57] (http:/ / www. adl. org/ learn/ ext_us/ smith_codoh/ words. asp?LEARN_Cat=Extremism& LEARN_SubCat=Extremism_in_America&
xpicked=2& item=10)
[58] Shermar, Michael; Alex Grobman (2000). Denying History: Who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and Why Do they Say It?. University
of California Press. ISBN 978-0520216129.
• Judgements of the Supreme Court of Canada. Her Majesty the Queen vs James Keegstra (http:/ / scc. lexum. umontreal. ca/ en/ 1990/
1990rcs3-697/ 1990rcs3-697. html). Retrieved June 27, 2007.
• "The trouble erupted when the teacher's anti-Jewish (and, incidentally, anti-Catholic) views attracted complaints from certain Eckville
parents, thereby inviting intervention from the district school superintendent, Robert David, in 1981. A train of events was launched that
finally led to Keegstra's dismissal and subsequent indictment." Alan Davies, "The Keegstra Affair", in Alan T. Davies, Antisemitism in
Canada: History and Interpretation, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1992, ISBN 0-88920-216-8, p. 228.
Holocaust denial 216

• "Far from arguing that Keegstra had a civil right to continue spreading his dreck at Eckville High, civil libertarians wonder (along with the
rest of Canada, we hope) why it took twelve years for the local school board to exercise its appropriate authority and fire him. But at least
Keegstra was finally fired, and was finally removed from his position as Mayor of Eckville." John Dixon, The Keegstra case: Freedom of
speech and the prosecution of harmful ideas (http:/ / www. bccla. org/ positions/ freespeech/ 85keegstra. html), British Columbia Civil
Liberties Association Position Paper, 1986. Retrieved June 27, 2007.
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Irving, Hitler and Holocaust Denial: Electronic Edition. . Retrieved 12 January 2011.
[179] Deborah Lipstadt, "Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory", Bt Bound, 1999, pg. 41
[180] Gregory Stanton, Eight Stages of Genocide Denial (http:/ / www. genocidewatch. org/ eightstages. htm), Genocide Watch
[181] Reacting against Iranian leader’s reported Holocaust denial, Annan points to facts (http:/ / www. un. org/ apps/ news/ story.
asp?NewsID=16869& Cr=iran& Cr1=)
[182] Ahmadinejad draws ire of Saudis, Iranians, West over Israel remarks (http:/ / www. dailystar. com. lb/ article. asp?edition_id=10&
categ_id=2& article_id=20665)
[183] Annan shocked at Ahmadinajad casting doubt about the Holocaust (http:/ / www. kuna. net. kw/ home/ story. aspx?Language=en&
DSNO=795240)
[184] Lipstadt, Denying the Holocaust, p. 85.
[185] John Tyndall: The "Holocaust" Racket (http:/ / www. spearhead. com/ 0007-jt2. html)

References

About Holocaust denial

• Richard J. Evans, In Defense of History, New York: Norton, 1999.
• Richard J. Evans, Lying About Hitler: History, Holocaust, and the David Irving Trial, Basic Books, 2002 (ISBN
0-465-02153-0). As well as the story of the Irving case, this is an excellent case study on historical research.
• Charles Gray, The Irving Judgment, Penguin, 2000 (ISBN 0-14-029899-1). Actual text of the judgment in the
Irving case.
• D.D.Guttenplan, The Holocaust on Trial, Norton 2002
• Deborah Lipstadt, Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory, Plume (The Penguin
Group), 1994. Debunking Holocaust revisionism.
• Donald L. Niewyk, ed. "The Holocaust: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation", D.C. Heath and Company,
1992.
• Robert Jan van Pelt, The Case for Auschwitz: Evidence from the Irving Trial (ISBN 0-253-34016-0).
• Michael Shermer and Alex Grobman, "Denying History: Who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and Why Do
They Say It?" University of California Press (ISBN 0-520-23469-3).
• Michael Shermer, "Why People Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our
Time", Freeman, New York 1997 (ISBN 0-8050-7089-3).
• Michael Shermer, “Holocaust Revisionism Update: David Cole Recants/David Irving Says Churchill Knew About
Pearl Harbor.” Skeptic 6, no. 1 (1998): 23–25
• Mr. Death, a documentary by Errol Morris.
• "Syrian Holocaust Denial" (http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/syrdenial.html) by
Mohammad Daoud, Syria Times September 6, 2000. Retrieved November 8, 2005.
• "Anti-Semitism and Holocaust Denial in the Iranian Media" (http://memri.org/bin/articles.
cgi?Page=countries&Area=iran&ID=SP85505) MEMRI Special Dispatch Series no 855, January 28, 2005.
Retrieved November 8, 2005.
• "Palestinian Holocaust Denial" (http://www.ict.org.il/articles/articledet.cfm?articleid=108) Reuven Paz,
Peacewatch April 21, 2000. Retrieved November 8, 2005.
• Abbot A., "Holocaust Denial Research Disclaimed", Nature, 368, 1994
• John C. Zimmerman, "Holocaust denial: demographics, testimonies, and ideologies" Lanham, Md., University
Press of America, 2000.
• John C. Zimmerman, “Holocaust Denial.” Los Angeles Times, January 16, 2000, M4
Holocaust denial 221

• Jean Claude Pressac: "Les carences et incohérences du Rapport Leuchter" «Jour J., la lettre télégraphique juive»,
12 Decembre 1988.
• Jean Claude Pressac, "Auschwitz: Technique and operation of the gas chambers", The Beate Klarsfeld
Foundation, New York 1989 (http://www.holocaust-history.org/auschwitz/pressac/technique-and-operation)
• Jean Claude Pressac "Les Crématoires d’Auschwitz: La Machinerie Du Meurtre De Masse", CNRS editions,
Paris, 1993.
• Pierre Vidal-Naquet, "Les assassins de la mémoire", Un Eichman de papier, Postface de Gisèle Sapiro, Nouvelle
édition revue et augmentée, La Découverte, Paris, 2005, ISBN 2-7071-4545-9.
• Pierre Vidal-Naquet, "Qui sont les assassins de la mémoire?" in "Réflexions sur le génocide. Les juifs, la mémoire
et le présent", tome III. La Découverte 1995.
• Brigitte Bailer-Galanda, Wilhelm Lasek, "Amoklauf gegen die Wirklichkeit. NS-Verbrechen und revisionistische
Geschichtsschreibung". Wien, 1992.
• George Wellers, "A propos du «Rapport Leuchter» et les chambres à gaz d’Auschwitz", "Le Monde Juif", 134,
1989.
• Till Bastian, "Auschwitz und die «Auschwitz-Lüge»". Massenmord und Geschichtsfälschung", Beck’sche Reihe
München, 1994.
• Francesco Germinario, "Estranei alla democrazia. Negazionismo e antisemitismo nella destra radicale italiana"
BFS Editore, Pisa, 2001.
• Francesco Rotondi,"Luna di miele ad Auschwitz. Riflessioni sul negazionismo della Shoah", Edizioni Scientifiche
Italiane, Napoli, 2005.
• Flores M., Storia, Verità e Giustizia, Mondadori, Milano, 2001.
• Valentina Pisanty, "L’irritante questione delle camere a gas. Logica del negazionismo", Bompiani, Milano, 1998.
• Ted Gottfried, "Deniers of the Holocaust: Who They Are, What They Do, Why They Do It", Brookfield Conn
Twenty-First Century Books, 2001.
• Henry Rousso, "Le dossier Lyon III: le rapport sur le racisme et le négationnisme à l’université Jean-Moulin",
Paris, 2004.
• Nadine Fresco "Les redresseurs de morts. Chambres à gaz: la bonne nouvelle. Comment on révise l'histoire", "Les
Temps Modernes", 407, Juin 1980.
• Nadine Fresco, "The Denial of the Dead On the Faurisson Affair" 1981.
• Georges Bensoussan "Négationnisme et antisionnisme: récurrences et convergences des discours du rejet",
"Revue d'histoire de la Shoah", 166, mai-août 1999. Centre de documentation juive contemporaine 1999.
• Valérie Igounet, "Dossier «Les terroirs de l'extrême-droite»: Un négationnisme stratégique",Le Monde
diplomatique (Mai 1998).
• Valérie Igounet, "Histoire du négationnisme en France", Paris, Le Seuil, 2000
• Pierre Bridonneau, "Oui, il faut parler des négationnistes", Éditions du Cerf 1997.
• Yehuda Bauer “A Past that Will Not Go Away.” In The Holocaust and History: The Known, the Unknown, the
Disputed, and the Reexamined. Ed. Michael Berenbaum and Abraham J. Peck. Bloomington: Published in
association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum by Indiana University Press, 1998, pp. 12–22.
• Alan L. Berger, “Holocaust Denial: Tempest in a Teapot, or Storm on the Horizon?” In Peace, in Deed: Essays in
Honor of Harry James Cargas. Ed. Zev Garber and Richard Libowitz. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1998, pp. 31–45.
• Joseph Dan, “Four Ways of Holocaust Denial.” In Bruch und Kontinuität: Jüdisches Denken in der europäischen
Geistesgeschichte. Ed. Eveline Goodman-Thau and Michael Daxner. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1995, pp. 39–46.
• Patrick Finney “Ethics, Historical Relativism and Holocaust Denial.” Rethinking History 2 (1998), pp. 359–369.
• Jan Markiewicz, WOJCIECH Gubala, JERZY Labedz, "A Study of the Cyanide Compounds Content in the Walls
of the Gas Chambers in the Former Auschwitz & Birkenau Concentration Camps", Z Zagadnien Sqdowych,
XXX, 1994.
Holocaust denial 222

• Wayne Klein, “Truth’s Turning: History and the Holocaust.” In Postmodernism and the Holocaust. Ed. Alan
Milchman and Alan Rosenberg. Amsterdam: Editions Rodopi, 1998, pp. 53–83.
• Jonathan Petropoulos, “Holocaust Denial: A Generational Typology.” In Lessons and Legacies III: Memory,
Memorialization, and Denial. Ed. Peter Hayes. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1999.
• Werner Wegner: "Keine Massenvergasungen in Auschwitz? Zur Kritik des Leuchter-Gutachtens", in: Die
Schatten der Vergangenheit. Impulse zur Historisierung der Vergangenheit, hg. v. Uwe Backes, Eckhard Jesse
und Rainer Zitelmann, Propyläen Verlag, Berlin 1990, S. pp. 450–476 (ISBN 3-549-07407-7).
• Jürgen Zarusky: "Leugnung des Holocaust. Die antisemitische Strategie nach Auschwitz. Bundesprüfstelle für
jugendgefährdende Schriften Aktuell – Amtliches Mitteilungsblatt". Jahrestagung 9./10. Nov.1999, Marburg.
Auch als Internet-Veröffentlichung (pdf-Dokument) erhältlich.
• Martin Finkenberger/Horst Junginger (Hrsg.): "Im Dienste der Lügen. Herbert Grabert (1901–1978) und seine
Verlage". Aschaffenburg: Alibri-Verl., 2004 (ISBN 3-932710-76-2).
• Thomas Wandres: "Die Strafbarkeit des Auschwitz-Leugnens". Berlin 2000 (ISBN 3-428-10055-7).
• "Holocaust Denial Literature: A Bibliography" (http://york.cuny.edu/~drobnick/holbib1.html). Retrieved
December 8, 2008.
• "Who Denies the Holocaust And Why Do They Deny It?" (http://www.jewishmag.com/115mag/
holocaustdeny/holocaustdeny.htm). Retrieved February 9, 2009.

By Holocaust deniers
• Arthur R. Butz, The Hoax of the Twentieth Century: The Case Against the Presumed Extermination of European
Jewry, Newport Beach: Institute for Historical Review, 1994 (ISBN 0-9679856-9-2).
• Faurisson, Robert, My Life As a Revisionist, The Journal of Historical Review, volume 9 no. 1 (Spring 1989), p. 5.
• Ernst Gauss (Ed.), Dissecting the Holocaust: The Growing Critique of 'Truth' and 'Memory', Alabama: Theses &
Dissertations Press, 2000 (ISBN 0-9679856-0-9). "Gauss" is a pseudonym for Germar Rudolf, the founder of
"Theses & Dissertations Press."
• Jürgen Graf, Der Holocaust auf dem Prüfstand, 1992.
• Richard E. Harwood, Did Six Million Really Die?" Noontide Press.
• Michael Hoffman II, The Great Holocaust Trial, (June 1985,2nd Edition) (ISBN 0-939484-22-6).
• Fred A. Leuchter, Robert Faurisson, Germar Rudolf, The Leuchter Reports: Critical Edition, Chicago, Theses &
Dissertations Press, 2005 (ISBN 1-59148-015-9).
• Germar Rudolf, The Rudolf Report: Expert Report on Chemical and Technical Aspects of the 'Gas Chambers' of
Auschwitz, Chicago: Theses & Dissertations Press, 2001 (ISBN 0-9679856-6-8).

External links

Examples of websites denying the Holocaust

• Institute for Historical Review (http://www.ihr.org/) A leading Holocaust denial organization
• VHO (http://www.vho.org) Vrij Historisch Onderzoek (Dutch for "Free Historical Research")
• David Irving's Action Report (http://www.fpp.co.uk/), Website of David Irving

Reports on and criticism of Holocaust denial

• The Nizkor Project (http://www.nizkor.org/) — responses to Holocaust denial
• The Holocaust History Project (http://www.holocaust-history.org/) — documents and essays on the Holocaust
and its denial
• Holocaust Education & Archive Research Team (HEART) (http://www.holocaustresearchproject.net)
Holocaust denial 223

• Holocaust Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing and Combating Anti-Semitic Propaganda (http://www.adl.org/
holocaust/introduction.asp) Published by the Anti-Defamation League
• Holocaust Denial on Trial (http://www.hdot.org/), Documents and resources relating to the David Irving vs.
Penguin Books and Deborah Lipstadt trial
• Iran Holocaust Denial – Rewriting history to suit their political ends (http://www.iranholocaustdenial.com)
Showcasing moral contempt and opportunities to take action
• An open letter by a group of Iranian academics, writers, and artists regarding the Tehran Conference on Holocaust
Denial (http://news.iran-emrooz.net/index.php?/news1/more/12081/) Scroll down for English text and
signatures.
• Holocaust Denial & The Big Lie (http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/biglie.html) –
Jewish Virtual Library
• Answers to the 66 Questions of Holocaust Deniers (http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/
denial1.html) – Jewish Virtual Library
• Holocaust Denial in Japan: Marco Polo Demonstrates Insensitivity (http://www.jpri.org/publications/critiques/
critique_II_3.html) – Japan Policy Research Institute, JPRI Critique Vol. II No. 3: March 1995. A revisionist
incident involving a major conservative Japanese media.

Audio testimony of Holocaust survivors

• Audio Testimony of Dr. Walter Ziffer, Recorded April 11, 2004 (http://www.krusch.com/bethisrael/) Dr.
Walter Ziffer, the last Holocaust survivor in Asheville, North Carolina as of April 11, 2004, discusses his
internment in several camps, as well as the idea of Holocaust revisionism.

Holocaust denial as state policy

• What Is Behind Iran's Advocacy Of Holocaust Denial?, (http://www.omedia.org/Show_Article.
asp?DynamicContentID=1930&MenuID=722&ThreadID=1014010)
• Holocaust denial and anti-Semitism – The Iranian case (http://www.omedia.org/Show_Article.
asp?DynamicContentID=2035&MenuID=722&ThreadID=1014010)
• Germany Moves to Silence Holocaust Deniers Across Europe (http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/
0,2144,2317216,00.html)
• Germany's Pursuit of Holocaust Denial Resolution Hits Skids (http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/
0,2144,2329693,00.html)
• German Holocaust Denial Case Proceeds as EU Moves on a Ban (http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/
0,2144,2328344,00.html)
• "A Fertile Ground: the Expansion of Holocaust Denial into the Arab World" (http://web.archive.org/web/
20080625215237/http://www.bc.edu/schools/law/lawreviews/meta-elements/journals/bctwj/23_2/
04_TXT.htm). Archived from the original (http://www.bc.edu/schools/law/lawreviews/meta-elements/
journals/bctwj/23_2/04_TXT.htm) on June 25, 2008. Retrieved February 7, 2009.
Ancient astronauts 224

Ancient astronauts
Certain authors theorize that intelligent extraterrestrial beings called ancient astronauts or ancient aliens have
visited Earth, and this contact is connected with the origins or development of human cultures, technologies, and
religions. A common variant of the idea include proposals that deities from most, if not all, religions are actually
extraterrestrials, and their technologies were taken as evidence of their divine status.[1] [2]
These proposals have been popularized, particularly in the latter half of the 20th century, by writers Erich von
Däniken, Zecharia Sitchin, Robert K. G. Temple, and David Icke.[3] Ancient astronauts have been widely used as a
plot device in science fiction, but the idea that ancient astronauts actually existed is not taken seriously by most
academics, and has received little or no credible attention in peer reviewed studies.[4]

Details
Proponents of ancient astronaut theories often maintain that humans are either descendants or creations of beings
who landed on Earth thousands of years ago. An associated idea is that much of human knowledge, religion, and
culture came from extraterrestrial visitors in ancient times, in that ancient astronauts acted as a “mother culture”.
Other proposals include the idea that civilization may have evolved on Earth twice, and that the visitation of ancient
astronauts may reflect the return of descendants of ancient humans whose population was separated from earthbound
humans.
Proponents argue that the evidence for ancient astronauts comes from supposed gaps in historical and archaeological
records, and they also maintain that absent or incomplete explanations of historical or archaeological data point to
the existence of ancient astronauts. The evidence is said to include archaeological artifacts that they argue are
anachronistic or beyond the presumed technical capabilities of the historical cultures with which they are associated
(sometimes referred to as "Out-of-place artifacts"); and artwork and legends which are interpreted as depicting
extraterrestrial contact or technologies.
Certain mainstream academics have responded that gaps in contemporary knowledge of the past need not
demonstrate that such speculative ancient astronaut ideas are a necessary conclusion to draw.[5] Francis Crick, the
co-discoverer of the double helix structure of DNA, however strongly believed in what he called panspermia, the
concept that earth was 'seeded' with life, probably in the form of bluegreen algae, by intelligent extraterrestrial
species, for the purpose of ensuring life's continuity. He believed that this could have been done on any number of
planets of this class, possibly using unmanned shuttles. He talks at length about this theory in his book Life Itself.
The television series Ancient Aliens on the History channel features the main proponents in the ancient astronaut
theory, and includes interviews with Giorgio A. Tsoukalos, Erich von Däniken, Dr. Steven Greer and Nick Pope.

Scientific consideration
In their 1966 book Intelligent Life in the Universe[6] astrophysicists I.S. Shklovski and Carl Sagan devote a chapter[7]
to arguments that scientists and historians should seriously consider the possibility that extraterrestrial contact
occurred during recorded history. However, Shklovski and Sagan stressed that these ideas were speculative and
unproven.
Shklovski and Sagan argued that sub-lightspeed interstellar travel by extraterrestrial life was a certainty when
considering technologies that were established or feasible in the late '60s;[8] that repeated instances of extraterrestrial
visitation to Earth were plausible;[9] and that pre-scientific narratives can offer a potentially reliable means of
describing contact with outsiders.[10] Additionally, Shklovski and Sagan cited tales of Oannes, a fishlike being
attributed with teaching agriculture, mathematics, and the arts to early Sumerians, as deserving closer scrutiny as a
possible instance of paleocontact due to its consistency and detail.[11]
Ancient astronauts 225

In his 1979 book Broca's Brain, Sagan[12] suggested that he and Shklovski might have inspired the wave of '70s
ancient astronaut books, expressing disapproval of "von Däniken and other uncritical writers" who seemingly built
on these ideas not as guarded speculations but as "valid evidence of extraterrestrial contact." Sagan argued that while
many legends, artifacts, and purported out-of-place artifacts were cited in support of ancient astronaut theories, "very
few require more than passing mention" and could be easily explained with more conventional theories. Sagan also
reiterated his earlier conclusion that extraterrestrial visits to Earth were possible but unproven, and perhaps
improbable.

Publication history
Paleocontact or "ancient astronaut" narratives first appear in early science fiction of the late 19th to early 20th
century. The idea was proposed in earnest by Harold T. Wilkins (1954) and it received some consideration as a
serious hypothesis during the 1960s, and has been mostly confined to the field of pseudoscience and pop culture
since the 1970s. Ancient astronauts appear as a feature of UFO religions beginning with the Space opera in
Scientology scripture (1967), followed by Raelism (1974).
Timeline of publications:
• 1897 – Garrett P. Serviss (book, Edison's Conquest of Mars)
• 1919 – Charles Fort (book, The Book of the Damned)
• 1928 – H.P. Lovecraft (short story, "The Call of Cthulhu")
• 1954 – Harold T. Wilkins
• 1955 – Morris K. Jessup
• 1957 – Peter Kolosimo (book, Il pianeta sconosciuto (The Unknown Planet))
• 1957 – George Hunt Williamson
• 1958 – Henri Lhote[13]
• 1959 – Matest M. Agrest
• 1959 – Jacques Bergier and Louis Pauwels (authors of The Morning of the Magicians)
• 1960 – Brinsley Le Poer Trench
• 1963 – Robert Charroux (book, One Hundred Thousand Years of Man's Unknown History)
• 1964 – W. Raymond Drake (book, Gods or Spacemen?)
• 1966 – Iosif Shklovsky and Carl Sagan (book, Intelligent Life in the Universe)
• 1967 – Brad Steiger (book, The Flying Saucer Menace)
• 1967 – John Michell (book, "The Flying Saucer Vision")
• 1968 – Erich von Däniken (book, Chariots of the Gods?)
• 1971 – Andrew Tomas (book, We are not the first: riddles of ancient science)
• 1972 – Thomas Charles Lethbridge (book, The Legend of the Sons of God: A Fantasy?)
• 1974 – Charles Berlitz (book, The Bermuda Triangle)
• 1974 – Josef F. Blumrich (book, The Spaceships of Ezekiel)
• 1974 – Claude Vorilhon aka Rael (book, Le Livre Qui Dit La Vérité (The Book Which Tells the Truth))
• 1976 – Robert K. G. Temple
• 1978 – Zecharia Sitchin (book, The 12th planet)
• 1984 – Don Elkins, James McCarthy, Carla Rueckert (book, The Ra Material: An Ancient Astronaut Speaks (The
Law of One , No 1))
• 1988 – Riley Martin
• 1993 – David Icke(book, --and the truth shall set you free)
• 1996 – Alan F. Alford (book, Gods of the New Millennium)
• 1996 – Murry Hope (book, The Sirius Connection: Unlocking the Secrets of Ancient Egypt)
• 1996 – Richard C. Hoagland (book, The Monuments of Mars: A City on the Edge of Forever)
Ancient astronauts 226

• 1998 – Lloyd Pye

• 1999 – Laurence Gardner (book, Genesis of the Grail Kings: The Explosive Story of Genetic Cloning)
• 2003 – Burak Eldem
• 2010 – Ancient Aliens (documentary television series)

Erich von Däniken

Erich von Däniken was a leading proponent of this theory in
the late 1960s and early 1970s, gaining a large audience
through the 1968 publication of his best-selling book Chariots
of the Gods? and its sequels.
Certain artifacts and monumental constructions are claimed
by von Däniken to have required a more sophisticated
technological ability in their construction than that which was
available to the ancient cultures who constructed them. Von
Däniken maintains that these artifacts were constructed either
directly by extraterrestrial visitors or by humans who learned
the necessary knowledge from said visitors. These include
Stonehenge, the Moai of Easter Island, the Great Pyramid of
Giza, and the ancient Baghdad electric batteries.

Von Däniken claims that ancient art and iconography

throughout the world illustrates air and space vehicles,
non-human but intelligent creatures, ancient astronauts, and
artifacts of an anachronistically advanced technology. Von
Däniken also claims that geographically separated historical
cultures share artistic themes, which he argues imply a
common origin. For one such example, is von Däniken's
interpretation of the sarcophagus lid recovered from the tomb
of the Classic-era Maya ruler of Palenque, Pacal. Von
Däniken claimed the design represented a seated astronaut, Sarcophagus lid of Pakal the great, which according to Von
Däniken represents an "ancient astronaut" ascending to the
whereas the iconography and accompanying Maya text
stars in his spaceship.
identifies it as a portrait of the ruler himself with the World
Tree of Maya mythology.

The origins of many religions are interpreted by von Däniken as reactions to encounters with an alien race.
According to his view, humans considered the technology of the aliens to be supernatural and the aliens themselves
to be gods. Von Däniken claims that the oral and written traditions of most religions contain references to alien
visitors in the way of descriptions of stars and vehicular objects travelling through air and space. One such is
Ezekiel's revelation in the Old Testament, which Däniken interprets as a detailed description of a landing spacecraft.
Von Däniken's theories became popularized in the U.S. after the NBC-TV documentary In Search Of Ancient
Astronauts hosted by Rod Serling and the movie Chariots of the Gods.
Critics argue that von Däniken misrepresented data, that many of his claims were unfounded, and that none of his
core claims has been validated.[14]
Ancient astronauts 227

Zecharia Sitchin
Zecharia Sitchin's series The Earth Chronicles, beginning with The 12th Planet, revolves around Sitchin's
interpretation of ancient Sumerian and Middle Eastern texts, megalithic sites, and artifacts from around the world.
He theorizes the gods of old Mesopotamia were actually astronauts from the planet "Nibiru", which Sitchin claims
the Sumerians believed to be a remote "12th planet" (counting the Sun, Moon, and Pluto as planets) associated with
the god Marduk. According to Sitchin, Nibiru continues to orbit our sun on a 3,600-year elongated orbit. Sitchin also
suggests that the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter is the shattered remains of the ancient planet "Tiamat",
which he claims was destroyed in one of Niburu's orbits through the solar system. Modern astronomy has found no
evidence to support Sitchin's claims.
According to Sitchin, the Sumerians relate how 50 Anunnaki, the inhabitants of Nibiru, came to Earth approximately
400,000 years ago with the intent of mining raw materials, especially gold, for transport back to Nibiru. With their
small numbers they soon tired of the task and set out to genetically engineer laborers to work the mines. After much
trial and error they eventually created homo sapiens sapiens: the "Adapa" (model man) or Adam of later mythology.
Sitchin claims the Anunnaki were active in human affairs until their culture was destroyed by global catastrophes
caused by the abrupt end of the last ice age some 12,000 years ago. Seeing that humans survived and all they had
built was destroyed, the Anunnaki left Earth after giving humans the opportunity and means to govern themselves.

Robert Temple
Robert K. G. Temple's 1976 book, The Sirius Mystery argues that the Dogon people of northwestern Mali preserved
an account of extraterrestrial visitation from around 5,000 years ago. He quotes various lines of evidence, including
supposed advanced astronomical knowledge inherited by the tribe, descriptions, and comparative belief systems with
ancient civilizations such as ancient Egypt and Sumer. His work draws heavily on the studies of cultural
anthropologists Marcel Griaule and Germaine Dieterlen.[15]
His conclusions have been criticized by scientists, who point out discrepancies within Temple's account, and
suggested that the Dogon may have received some of their astronomical information recently, probably from
European sources, and may have misrepresented Dogon ethnography.[16] [17] [18]

UFO religions
Various new religious movements including theosophy, Nation of Islam, Scientology, The Urantia Book, Raëlism,
and Heaven's Gate believe in ancient and present-day contact with extraterrestrial intelligence. Many of these faiths
see both ancient scriptures and recent revelations as connected with the action of aliens from other planetary
systems. Sociologists and psychologists have found that UFO religions have similarities which suggest that members
of these groups consciously or subliminally associate enchantment with the memes of science fiction.[19]

Evidence cited by proponents

Religious texts
Proponents cite ancient mythologies to support their viewpoints based on the idea that ancient creation myths of gods
who descend from the heavens to Earth to create or instruct humanity are actually representations of alien visitors,
whose superior technology accounts for their reception as gods. Proponents attempt to draw an analogy to
occurrences in modern times when isolated cultures are exposed to Western technology, such as when, in the early
20th century, "cargo cults" were discovered in the South Pacific: cultures who believed various Western ships and
their cargo to be sent from the gods as fulfillment of prophecies concerning their return.[20]
Flying machines are sometimes mentioned in ancient texts; one example is the Vimanas, mythological flying
machines found in the Hindu epics. These tales range from fantastic aerial battles employing various weaponry, to
Ancient astronauts 228

the mundane relating simple technical information, flight procedure, and flights of fancy. (See also Vaimanika
Shastra, a text on Vimanas supposedly "channeled" in the early 20th century.)[21]

Ezekiel
In the Biblical Old Testament, the Book of Ezekiel tells of a flying object seen as a fiery whirlwind which when
descended to the ground gave the appearance of being made of metal. It is described among other things as a wheel
within a wheel containing four occupants, "living creatures", whose likeness was that of man. The passage goes on to
say that wherever the wheels went the creatures went, and when the living creatures were lifted up the wheels were
lifted up.[22] In chapter 4 of Chariots of the Gods?, entitled, “Was God an Astronaut?” von Däniken refers to the
vision of Ezekiel, suggesting Ezekiel had seen a spaceship, a hypothesis Morris Jessup had put forward in 1956[23]
and Arthur W. Orton in 1961.[24] A detailed version of this hypothesis was described by Josef F. Blumrich in his
book The Spaceships of Ezekiel.[25]

Genesis
In the Book of Genesis, Genesis 6:1-4 states that "When men began to multiply on the face of the ground, and
daughters were born to them, the sons of God saw that the daughters of men were fair; and they took to wife such of
them as they chose... The Nephilim were on the earth in those days, and also afterward, when the sons of God came
in to the daughters of men, and they bore children to them." In the King James Version they are identified as
"giants".
The Nephilim are perhaps children of the fallen angels, although scholars are uncertain.[26] Erich von Däniken sees
an extraterrestrial connection in this passage, and suggests that here “we have the sons of God, who interbreed with
human beings.” [27]
Chuck Missler and Mark Eastman argue that UFOs carry the fallen angels, or offspring of fallen angels, the
Nephilim of Genesis, who have now returned. They believe it was this interbreeding between the angels and humans
that led to what they call “the gene pool problem.” Noah was perfect in his “generations,” that is “Noah’s genealogy
was not tarnished by the intrusion of fallen angels. It seems that this adulteration of the human gene pool was a
major problem on the planet earth.” [28]
Von Däniken also suggests that the two angels who visited Lot in Genesis 19 were not angels, but ancient astronauts.
They may have used atomic weapons to destroy the city of Sodom. In any case, the otherworldly beings acted as if
there was a time set for Sodom’s destruction. Von Däniken questioned why God would work on a timetable and why
an "infinitely good Father" would give "preference to ‘favorite children,’ such as Lot’s family, over countless
others."[29]

Other Old Testament passages

In several chapters of the Old Testament God is depicted as traveling as a column of smoke and/or fire[30] and
making the sound of a trumpet.[31] These descriptions also describe Yahweh as having a physical presence,[32] rather
than an abstraction. Yahweh is described raining lightning[33] and stones[34] down upon the enemies of the Hebrews.
However, descriptions of the Hebrew God have also featured protecting wings and outstretched arms in the Psalms,
features which may be considered contrary to theories of mechanical manifestations of God.[35]
Additionally, the characteristics of the Ark of the Covenant and the Urim and Thummim are identified as suggesting
high technology, perhaps from alien origins.[36]
Ancient astronauts 229

Apocryphal writings
The apocryphal Book of Enoch tells of similar flying objects and beings called "the Watchers" who have mutinied
from "heaven" and descended to earth, but goes further in that Enoch is taken on journeys to various corners of the
Earth in the object and at one point even travels to the heavens.[37]

Artifacts and artwork

Alleged physical evidence includes the discovery of artifacts in Egypt (the Saqqara Bird) and Colombia-Ecuador,
which are claimed to be similar to modern planes and gliders,[38] although these have been interpreted by
archaeologists as stylized representations of birds and insects.
More support of this theory draws upon what are claimed to be
representations of flying saucers in medieval and renaissance
art.[39] This is used to support the ancient astronaut theory by
attempting to show that the creators of humanity return to check
up on their creation throughout time.
Other artistic support for the ancient astronaut theory has been
sought in Palaeolithic cave paintings. Wondjina in Australia and
Val Camonica in Italy (seen above) are claimed to bear a
resemblance to present day astronauts. Supporters of the ancient
astronaut theory sometimes claim that similarities such as dome
shaped heads, interpreted as beings wearing space helmets, prove
that early man was visited by an extraterrestrial race.[40]

Nazca Lines

The ancient Nazca Lines comprise hundreds of enormous ground

drawings etched into the high desert landscape of Peru, which "The Baptism of Christ", 1710, by Aert de Gelder
consist primarily of geometric shapes, but also include depictions
of a variety of animals and at least one human figure. Many believers in ancient astronauts cite the Nazca lines as
evidence because the figures created by the lines are most clearly depicted or only able to be seen when viewed from
the air. Writing professor Joe Nickell of the University of Kentucky, using only technology he believed to be
available to people of the time, was able to recreate one of the larger figures with a reasonable degree of
accuracy.[41]

Monumental architecture
Evidence for ancient astronauts is claimed to include the existence of ancient monuments and megalithic ruins such
as the Giza pyramids of Egypt, Machu Picchu in Peru, or Baalbek in Lebanon, and the Moai of Easter Island.
Supporters contend these stone structures could not have been built with the technical abilities and tools of the
people of the time and further argue that many could not be duplicated even today. They suggest that the large size
of the building stones, the precision with which they were laid, and the distances many were transported leaves the
question open as to who constructed these sites. These contentions are categorically rejected by mainstream
archeology. Some mainstream archeologists have participated in experiments to move large megaliths. These
experiments have succeeded in moving megaliths up to at least 40 tons,[42] [43] and they have speculated that with a
larger workforce larger megaliths could be towed with ancient technology.[44] Such allegations are not unique in
history, however, as similar reasoning lay behind the wonder of the Cyclopean masonry walling at Mycenaean cities
in the eyes of Greeks of the following "Dark Age," who believed that the giant Cyclopes had built the walls.
Ancient astronauts 230

Reception
Despite the proponents' own interpretations of ancient writings and artifacts, there has yet to be found any hard
evidence to support the ancient astronaut hypothesis.
Alan F. Alford, author of Gods of the New Millennium (1996), was an adherent of the ancient astronaut theory. Much
of his work draws on Sitchin’s theories. However, he now finds fault with Sitchin’s theory after deeper analysis,
stating that: “I am now firmly of the opinion that these gods personified the falling sky; in other words, the descent of
the gods was a poetic rendition of the cataclysm myth which stood at the heart of ancient Near Eastern religions.”[45]
In a 2004 article in Skeptic magazine,[46] Jason Colavito argues that von Däniken plagiarized many of the book's
concepts from Le Matin des Magiciens, that this book in turn was heavily influenced by the Cthulhu Mythos, and
that the core of the ancient astronaut theory originates in H. P. Lovecraft's short stories "The Call of Cthulhu" and
"At the Mountains of Madness".

Notes
[1] Lieb, Michael (1998). Children of Ezekiel: Aliens, Ufos, the Crisis of Race, and the Advent of End Time. Duke University Press. pp. 250.
ISBN 0-8223-2268-4.
[2] Cithara. St. Bonaventure University. 1961. pp. 12.
[3] Von Däniken, Erich (1984). Chariots of the Gods. Berkley Pub Group. ISBN 0-4250-7481-1.
[4] Harrold,. Noah's ark and ancient astronauts: Pseudoscientific beliefs about the past among a sample of college students. The Skeptical
inquirer 11.1 1986: 61. Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal. 13 Dec 2010.
[5] Sagan, Carl. Broca's Brain. 1979
[6] Shklovski, I.S and Carl Sagan. Intelligent Life in the Universe. San Francisco: Holden-Day, 1966
[7] "The Possible Consequences of Direct Contact," authored mostly by Sagan, according to line-by-line indications of individual or
collaborative sections.
[8] "civilizations, aeons more advanced than ours, must be plying the spaces between stars." Shklovski and Sagan, p. 464
[9] Even allowing for millions of years between visits from a hypothetical "Galactic survey ship", Sagan calculated ~10ˆ4 such visits could have
occurred "during [Earth's] geologic time". Shklovski and Sagan, p. 461;
[10] Sagan cites the 1786 expedition of French explorer Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse, which made the earliest contact between
European and Tlingit cultures. This contact story was preserved as an oral tradition by the preliterate Tlingit, and was first recorded by
anthropologist George T. Emmons over a century after its occurrence. Though framed in a Tlingit cultural and spiritual paradigm, the story
remained an accurate telling of the 1786 encounter. According to Sagan, this proved how "under certain circumstances, a brief contact with an
alien civilization will be recorded in a reconstructable manner. The reconstruction will be greatly aided if (1) the account is committed to
written record soon after the event; (2) a major change is effected in the contacted society; and (3) no attempt is made by the contacting
civilization to disguise its exogenous nature." Shklovski and Sagan, p. 453
[11] "stories like the Oannes legend, and representations especially of the earliest civilizations on Earth, deserve much more critical studies than
have been performed heretofore, with the possibility of direct contact with an extraterrestrial civilization as one of many possible alternative
explanations". Shklovski and Sagan, p. 461
[12] Sagan, Broca's Brain, p. 67
[13] Lhote, Henri (1903-1991) (http:/ / www. daviddarling. info/ encyclopedia/ L/ Lhote. html)
[14] "Erich von Däniken's Chariots of the Gods: Science or Charlatanism?", Robert Sheaffer. First published in the "NICAP UFO Investigator",
October/November, 1974. http:/ / www. debunker. com/ texts/ vondanik. html
[15] Temple, Robert K. G., The Sirius Mystery, 1976. ISBN 0-09-925744-0
[16] Sagan, Carl, Broca’s Brain, published by Random House, Inc. in 1974
[17] Investigating the Sirius "Mystery" (http:/ / www. csicop. org/ si/ 7809/ sirius. html) - Skeptical Inquirer (1978) Ian Ridpath
[18] Walter E. A. van Beek: "Dogon Restudied: A Field Evaluation of the Work of Marcel Griaule." Current Anthropology, 32 (1991): 139-167.
[19] Partridge, C.H. (2003). UFO religions (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zHT8CeeiWlIC). Routledge. ISBN 9780415263245. .
[20] "http:/ / www. sjsu. edu/ faculty/ watkins/ cargocult. htm"
[21] "http:/ / www. main. org/ polycosmos/ glxywest/ vimanas. htm"
[22] King James Red Letter edition 1944, Ezekiel 1:1–28
[23] von Daniken, 38-9. Morris K. Jessup, UFO and the Bible (New York: Citadel Press, 1956) 56-59.
[24] Arthur W. Orton: "The Four-Faced Visitors of Ezekiel", Analog Science Fact & Fiction, March 1961, p. 99 (e-text at Project Gutenberg:
http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ ebooks/ 30252).
[25] Josef F. Blumrich: The Spaceships of Ezekiel, Corgi Books, 1974.
[26] James Orr says “it is not easy to be certain of the interpretation of this strange passage.” “Nephilim,” The International Standard Bible
Encyclopedia, James Orr, ed., (Chicago: Howard-Severance, 1930), Vol. IV, p. 2133.
Ancient astronauts 231

[27] von Daniken, 34.

[28] Missler, Chuck, and Mark Eastman, Alien Encounters: The Secret Behind the UFO Phenomenon (Coeur d’Alene, ID: Koinonia House,
1997), 207.
[29] von Däniken, 37. Le Poer Trench had previously speculated that a space vehicle had used nuclear weapons to destroy Sodom; Brinsley Le
Poer Trench, The Sky People (New York: Award Books, 1970; copyright 1960, London) 64-5.
[30] Exodus 13:21 (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Exodus 13:21;& version=31;)
[31] Exodus 19:16–19 (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Exodus 19:16-19;& version=31;)
[32] Numbers 35:34 (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Numbers 35:34;& version=31;)
[33] 2 Samuel 22:10–16 (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=2 Samuel 22:10-16;& version=46;)
[34] Joshua 10:10–11 (http:/ / www. biblegateway. com/ passage/ ?search=Joshua 10:10-11;& version=31;)
[35] God: a Biography, Jack Miles 1996 ISBN 0-679-74368-5
[36] FarShores.org AncientDimensions Mysteries: De-Coded: The Ark Of The Covenant (http:/ / farshores. org/ a06ark. htm)
[37] Book of Enoch Together with a Reprint of Greek Fragments (1912) ISBN 1-56459-523-4
[38] World Mysteries - Strange Artifacts, Ancient Flying Machines (http:/ / www. world-mysteries. com/ sar_7. htm)
[39] Art and UFO - Part 5 (http:/ / sprezzatura. it/ Arte/ Arte_UFO_5_eng. htm)
[40] UFO Evidence (http:/ / www. etcontact. net/ AncientAstronauts. htm)
[41] The Mysterious Nazca Lines (http:/ / www. onagocag. com/ nazca. html)
[42] http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ transcripts/ 2403stone. html
[43] http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wgbh/ nova/ egypt/ dispatches/ 990827. html
[44] History Channel "Mega Movers: Ancient Mystery Moves"
[45] Ancient Astronauts (http:/ / www. eridu. co. uk/ Author/ human_origins/ ancient_astronauts. html)
[46] http:/ / jcolavito. tripod. com/ lostcivilizations/ id26. html

References
• Charroux, Robert (1974). Masters of the world. Berkley Pub. Corp. ASIN B0006WIE1O.
• Colavito, Jason (2005). The Cult of Alien Gods: H. P. Lovecraft and Extraterrestrial Pop Culture. Prometheus
Books. ISBN 1-59102-352-1.
• Däniken, Erich von (1972). Chariots of the Gods. Berkley Publishing Group. ISBN 0-425-16680-5.
• Grünschloß, Andreas (June 2006). ""Ancient Astronaut" Narrations: A Popular Discourse on Our Religious Past"
(http://web.uni-marburg.de/religionswissenschaft/journal/mjr/pdf/2006/gruenschloss2006.pdf) (PDF).
Marburg Journal of Religion 11 (1). ISSN 1612-2941.
• Raël (1974). The Message Given by Extra-terrestrials. Nova Dist. ISBN 2-940252-20-3.
• Sitchin, Zecharia (1999). The 12th Planet (The Earth Chronicles, Book 1). Avon. ISBN 0-380-39362-X.

Further reading
• Avalos, Hector (2002) "The Ancient Near East in Modern Science Fiction: Zechariah Sitchin's The 12th Planet as
Case Study." Journal of Higher Criticism, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 49–70.
• Harris, Christie (1975) Sky Man on the Totem Pole? New York: Atheneum.

External links
• 'Fringe' or 'cult' archaeology examined by professional archaeologist Keith Fitzpatrick-Matthews (http://www.
kmatthews.org.uk/cult_archaeology/index.html)
Lost lands 232

Lost lands
Lost lands can be continents, islands or other regions supposedly existing during prehistory, having since
disappeared as a result of catastrophic geological phenomena or slowly rising sea levels since the end of the last Ice
Age. Lost lands, where they existed, are supposed to have subsided into the sea, leaving behind only a few traces or
legends. The term can also be extended to mythological lands generally, to underground civilizations, or even to
whole planets.
The classification of lost lands as continents, islands, or other regions is in some cases subjective; for example,
Atlantis is variously described as either a "lost island" or a "lost continent".
Lost land theories may originate in mythology or philosophy, or in scholarly or scientific theories, such as
catastrophic theories of geology.

Lost continents
As the study "Lost Continents" by L. Sprague de Camp seeks to show, many modern writers speculate about ancient
civilizations that dwelled on continents now deluged under sea level. According to de Camp, there is no real
scientific evidence for any lost continents whatsoever.
• The most famous lost continent is Atlantis. Atlantis, like Hyperborea and Thule, is ultimately derived from
ancient Greek geographic speculation.
• The name of hypothetical vanished continent Mu originated from the first attempted translation of the Madrid
Codex, one of only four remaining Maya codices.
• Something similar seems to have happened upon the discovery of the Sanskrit literature by Europeans. Louis
Jacolliot claimed to have learned from this literature about a sunken continent called Rutas. This in turn seems to
have influenced Madame Blavatsky and her speculations about Lemuria. Speculations about Kumari Kandam also
seem to be linked to this field. The name Lemuria originated from the hypothesis about a land bridge between
India and South Africa.

Other lost lands

In addition to these myths about lost continents there also are various regional legends about lost lands; see e.g.
Lyonesse, Cantref Gwaelod (also known as Lowland Hundred), or the legend about Lomea, located at the Goodwin
Sands. Unlike the lost continents mentioned above, whose location has been a matter of speculation, these lost lands
are associated with specified places.

Submerged lands
Although the existence of lost continents in the above sense is mythical, there are some places on earth that were
once dry land but are now submerged under the sea. Approximately listed by size, these are:
• Sundaland, the now submerged Sunda Shelf.
• Zealandia, a continent that is now 93% submerged under the Pacific Ocean.
• Kerguelen Plateau, a submerged micro-continent which is now 1–2 km below sea level.
• Beringia, connecting Asia and North America.
• Doggerland, the bed of the North Sea, inundated by rising sea level during the Holocene.
• The bed of the Persian Gulf.
• Maui Nui, once part of the Hawaii archipelago.
• Verdronken Land van Reimerswaal, most of this region in The Netherlands vanished in a storm in 1532; the town
of Reimerswaal survived as an island into the 17th century; the last bits of land vanished in the early 19th century.
Lost lands 233

• Strand, an island off the German coast with the town Rungholt, eroded away by storm surges before being washed
away by a final flood in 1634.
• Jordsand, once an island off the Danish coast, eroded away by storm surges before being washed away by a final
flood between 1998 and 1999.
• Ferdinandea, submerged volcanic island which has appeared at least four times in the past.
• Sarah Ann Island, now submerged guano island, located just north of the equator. Vanished between 1917 and
1932.

Mythological lands
• Avalon
• Shambhala
• Shangri-La, a fictitious valley in Tibet the idea of which may have been
inspired by the myth of Shambhala
• Quivira and Cíbola, also known as the Seven Cities of Gold. These were
suspected somewhere in America by the conquistadors.
• El Dorado, mythic city of gold.
Plato's Atlantis described in Timaeus and
• Atlantis Critias
• Lemuria (continent)
• Mu (lost continent)
• Ys; a mythical city built on the coast of Brittany, and later swallowed by the ocean. Most versions of the legend
place the city in the Douarnenez Bay.
• Cantre'r Gwaelod is the legendary ancient sunken realm said to have occupied a tract of fertile land lying between
Ramsey Island and Bardsey Island in what is now Cardigan Bay to the west of Wales.

Phantom islands
Phantom islands, as opposed to lost lands, are land masses formerly believed by cartographers to exist in the
historical age, but to have been discredited as a result of expanding geographic knowledge. Terra Australis is a
phantom continent. While a few phantom islands originated from literary works (an example is Ogygia from
Homer's Odyssey), most phantom islands are the result of navigational errors.

Hollow Earth theory

Also related to the theme of Lost lands is that of Hollow Earth, as some proponents of Hollow Earth theory have
claimed that the inner earth would be inhabited. Furthermore, using the concept of vast underground caves or even a
completely Hollow Earth, some authors try to explain how an ancient civilisation could continue to exist, even if its
former continent became deluged.
The most prominent lost land mentioned in Hollow Earth theory would be Agartha.
Lost lands 234

Accounts of a Hollow Earth

Some of these authors, such as H.P. Blavatsky and theosophist followers, believed in the existence of a number of
lost lands within the Hollow Earth and held many "fictional" accounts of these places and their peoples to be true.
Such accounts include:
• The Coming Race by Edward Bulwer-Lytton, published in 1871.
• Mission de l'Inde en Europeä by Alexandre Saint-Yves d'Alveydre, published in 1886.
• The Phantom of the Poles by William Reed, published in 1906.
• The Smoky God by Willis Emerson, published in 1908.
• Agartha - Secrets of the Subterranean Cities
• Journey to the Earth's Interior by Marshall B. Gardner, published in 1913.
• Le Roi du Monde by René Guénon, published in 1924.
• Beast, Men and Gods by Ferdinand Ossendowski Published in 1931.
• Amazing Stories magazine, which, beginning in 1943, published a plethora of material by Richard Shaver and
Raymond A. Palmer, detailing Shaver's experiences with the inhabitants of the Hollow Earth.
• The Hollow Earth - The Greatest Geographical Discovery in History Made by Admiral Richard E. Byrd in the
Mysterious Land Beyond the Poles - The True Origin of the Flying Saucers, by Raymond W. Bernard, published
in 1964.
• Flying Saucers from the Earth's Interior, by Raymond W. Bernard
• Agharta - The Subterranean World by Dr. Raymond Bernard.
• Nazisme et sociétés Secrètes by Jean-Claude Frère, published in 1974.
• World Beyond the Poles by Giannini
• Paradise Found by William F. Warren.
Diverse expeditions at diverse epochs and lands, have tried to find proof of the existence of a subterranean world,
from the Col. Fawcett notorious expeditions [1] to Third Reich sponsored attempts[2] and many private expeditions in
modern times, some sponsored by cultural foundations and even magazines as the 1978 Roncador Expedition to the
Roncador mountains in Matto Grosso, Brazil, sponsored by the magazine Noticias from Uruguay and led by pilot
and writer A. de Souza.[3] None have returned positive results.

Lost planets
Similar to the theme of lost continents is the theme of lost planets, planets thought to have existed during prehistory
only to be later destroyed by a global cataclysm. The disruption theory of the formation of the asteroid belt from a
hypothetical fifth planet has given birth to a number of these, including the doomed Phaeton, Tiamat, and the
apocalypse bringer Nibiru. Others such as Planet V, Theia, Planet X and Vulcan arose to explain irregularities in
planetary phenomena.

In literature and philosophy

The following individuals are known for having written on the subject of lost lands:
• H.P. Blavatsky
• Edgar Rice Burroughs
• James Churchward
• Ignatius L. Donnelly
• Arthur Conan Doyle, (The Lost World)
• Burak Eldem
• Warren Ellis
• Philip José Farmer
Lost lands 235

• H Rider Haggard
• Robert A. Heinlein in his novelette Lost Legacy
• James Hilton, (Lost Horizon)
• H. P. Lovecraft often invoked the names of lost lands of his own invention, a practice that subsequently gave birth
to the Cthulhu mythos.
• Plato
• Augustus Le Plongeon
• Zecharia Sitchin
• Samael Aun Weor
• J. R. R. Tolkien, (Middle-earth)
• Jack Vance describing the Elder Isles in his Lyonesse Trilogy
• Jules Verne used the idea of a partially hollow Earth in his 1864 novel, A Journey to the Center of the Earth.
• Lost lands figured prominently in the philosophy of the Nazi Thule society in regards to researchers of the occult
and Nazi mysticism such as Karl Maria Wiligut, Heinrich Himmler and Otto Rahn.
• A lost land (possibly the Garden of Eden) found at the center of the Earth is the site of the climatic battle between
Godzilla and Biollante in the novel Godzilla at World's End by Marc Cerasini.

In popular culture
• The Lost Land in the Turok comic book and video game series is a place cut off from the rest of the 19th century
world, where prehistoric creatures have not became extinct. In Turok, Son of Stone, the Lost Land was discovered
through the Carlsbad Caverns area in New Mexico; it is accessible through an anomaly and is, therefore, in its
own universe as portrayed the Valiant Comics adaptation, Turok: Dinosaur Hunter, as well as in Turok:
Evolution.
• The lost lands were referred to in the Torchwood episode "Small Worlds" when discussing the origin of the
chosen ones who become fairies. It was commented that many of the chosen ones go back millennia and come
from the lost lands.
• The TV series Lost features an island hidden from the outside world with possible traces of a lost civilization,
including a four-toed statue of an Egyptian figure, the ruins, the temple, and multiple appearances of Egyptian
hieroglyphs.

Further reading
• L. Sprague de Camp and Willy Ley, Lands Beyond, Rinehart & Co., New York, 1952.
• L. Sprague de Camp, Lost Continents: The Atlantis Theme in History, Science, and Literature, Dover
Publications, 1970.
• Raymond H. Ramsay, No Longer on the Map: Discovering Places that Never Were, Ballantine, 1972.

References
[1] Maclellan, Allan (1982). The Lost World of Agharti. Guernsey CI, U.K.: Souvenir Press. pp. 141–143. ISBN 0-285-633147.
[2] Maclellan, Allan (1982). The Lost World of Agharti. Guernsey CI, U.K.: Souvenir Press. pp. 111–115. ISBN 0-285-633147.
[3] "Expediciôn al centro de la Tierra". Noticias (Montevideo, Uruguay) Año/Year II (36): pp. 14–27. Sep 1978
Shakespeare authorship question 236

Shakespeare authorship question

The Shakespeare authorship question is the argument that someone
other than William Shakespeare of Stratford-upon-Avon wrote the
works attributed to him. Anti-Stratfordians—a collective term for
adherents of the various alternative-authorship theories—say that
Shakespeare of Stratford was a front to shield the identity of the real
author or authors, who for some reason did not want or could not
accept public credit.[1] Although the idea has attracted much public
interest,[2] all but a few Shakespeare scholars and literary historians
consider it a fringe belief and for the most part disregard it except to
rebut or disparage the claims.[3]

Shakespeare's authorship was first questioned in the middle of the 19th

century, when adulation of Shakespeare as the greatest writer of all
time had become widespread.[4] Shakespeare's biography, particularly
his humble origins and obscure life, seemed incompatible with his
poetic eminence and his reputation for genius,[5] arousing suspicion
Oxford, Bacon, Derby, and Marlowe (clockwise
that Shakespeare might not have written the works attributed to him.[6]
from top left, Shakespeare centre) have each been
The controversy has since spawned a vast body of literature,[7] and proposed as the true author. (Clickable
more than 70 authorship candidates have been proposed,[8] including image—use cursor to identify.)
Francis Bacon, the 6th Earl of Derby, Christopher Marlowe, and the
17th Earl of Oxford.[9]

Supporters of alternative candidates argue that theirs is the more plausible author, and that William Shakespeare
lacked the education, aristocratic sensibility, or familiarity with the royal court that they say is apparent in the
works.[10] Those Shakespeare scholars who have responded to such claims hold that biographical interpretations of
literature are unreliable in attributing authorship,[11] and that the convergence of documentary evidence for
Shakespeare's authorship—title pages, testimony by other contemporary poets and historians, and official
records—is the same as that for any other authorial attribution of the time.[12] No such supporting evidence exists for
any other candidate,[13] and Shakespeare's authorship was not questioned during his lifetime or for centuries after his
death.[14]

Despite the scholarly consensus,[15] a relatively small[16] but highly visible and diverse assortment of supporters,
including prominent public figures,[17] have questioned the conventional attribution.[18] They work for
acknowledgment of the authorship question as a legitimate field of scholarly inquiry and for acceptance of one or
another of the various authorship candidates.[19]
Shakespeare authorship question 237

Overview
The arguments presented by anti-Stratfordians share several characteristics.[20] They attempt to disqualify William
Shakespeare as the author and usually offer supporting arguments for a substitute candidate. They often postulate
some type of conspiracy that protected the author's true identity,[21] which they say explains why no documentary
evidence exists for their candidate and why the historical record supports Shakespeare's authorship.[22]
Most anti-Stratfordians say that the Shakespeare canon exhibits such breadth of learning and intimate knowledge of
the Elizabethan and Jacobean court and politics that no one but a highly educated nobleman or court insider could
have written them.[23] Apart from literary references, critical commentary and acting notices, the available data
regarding Shakespeare's life consist of mundane personal details such as vital records of his baptism, marriage and
death, tax records, lawsuits to recover debts, and real estate transactions. In addition, no document attests that he
received an education. No personal letters or literary manuscripts certainly written by Shakespeare of Stratford
survive. To sceptics, this suggests the profile of a person which differs markedly from that of the author of the plays
and poetry.[24] Some prominent public figures, including Mark Twain, Helen Keller, Henry James, Sigmund Freud,
Charlie Chaplin and Orson Welles, have found the arguments against Shakespeare’s authorship persuasive, and their
endorsements are an important element in many anti-Stratfordian arguments.[17]
At the core of the argument is the nature of acceptable evidence used to attribute works to their authors.[25]
Anti-Stratfordians rely on what they designate as circumstantial evidence: similarities between the characters and
events portrayed in the works and the biography of their preferred candidate; literary parallels with the known works
of their candidate; and hidden codes and cryptographic allusions in Shakespeare's own works or texts written by
contemporaries.[26] By contrast, academic Shakespeareans and literary historians rely on documentary evidence in
the form of title page attributions, government records such as the Stationers' Register and the Accounts of the
Revels Office, and contemporary testimony from poets, historians, and those players and playwrights who worked
with him, as well as modern stylometric studies. All these converge to confirm William Shakespeare's authorship.[27]
These criteria are the same as those used to credit works to other authors and are accepted as the standard
methodology for authorship attribution.[28]

Case against Shakespeare's authorship

Very little is known of Shakespeare's personal life, and conclusions based on the gaps in his biography are treated as
circumstantial evidence against his fitness for authorship.[29] Further, the lack of biographical information has
sometimes been taken as an indication of an organised attempt by government officials to expunge all traces of
Shakespeare from the historical record and to conceal the true author's identity.[30] For example, a lack of attendance
records for Stratford's grammar school is taken as suggesting that they may have been destroyed to hide proof that
Shakespeare did not attend.[31]

Shakespeare's background
John Shakespeare's house in Stratford-upon-Avon
is believed to be Shakespeare's birthplace.
Shakespeare was born, married, and buried in Stratford-upon-Avon, a
market town about 100 miles (160 km) northwest of London with a
population of around 1,500. The town was a centre for the slaughter,
marketing, and distribution of sheep, where hides were tanned, and
wool traded. Shakespeare maintained a household there throughout the
duration of his career in London. Proponents of other candidates often
portray the town as a cultural backwater lacking the environment
necessary to nurture a genius, and have depicted Shakespeare as
ignorant and illiterate.[32]
Shakespeare authorship question 238

Shakespeare's father, John Shakespeare, was a glover and town official. He married Mary Arden, one of the Ardens
of Warwickshire, a family of the local gentry. Both signed their names with a mark, and no other examples of their
writing are extant.[33] This is often used as an indication that Shakespeare was raised in an illiterate household. There
is also no evidence that Shakespeare's two daughters were literate, save for two signatures by Susanna that appear to
be "drawn" instead of written with a practised hand. His other daughter, Judith, signed a legal document with a
mark.[34]
Anti-Stratfordians consider Shakespeare's background incompatible with that attributable to the author of the
Shakespeare canon, which exhibits an intimacy with court politics and culture, foreign countries, and aristocratic
sports such as hunting, falconry, tennis, and lawn-bowling.[35] They find that the works show little sympathy for
upwardly mobile types such as John Shakespeare and his son, and that the author portrays individual commoners
comically, as objects of ridicule. Commoners in groups are said to be depicted typically as dangerous mobs.[36]

Education and literacy

Willm Shakp
Bellot-Mountjoy deposition
12 June 1612

William Shakspēr
Blackfriars Gatehouse
conveyance
10 March 1613

Wm Shakspē
Blackfriars mortgage
11 March 1616

William Shakspere
Page 1 of will
(from 1809 engraving)

Willm Shakspere
Page 2 of will

William Shakspeare
Last page of will
25 March 1616

Shakespeare's six surviving signatures have often been cited as evidence for his illiteracy.
Shakespeare authorship question 239

The lack of documentary proof for Shakespeare's education or literacy is often noted in the arguments for alternative
candidates. The free King's New School in Stratford, established 1553, was about 0.5 miles (0.8 km) from
Shakespeare's home.[37] Grammar schools varied in quality during the Elizabethan era, but the curriculum was
dictated by English law;[38] the school would have provided an intensive education in Latin grammar, the classics,
and rhetoric.[39] The headmaster, Thomas Jenkins, and the instructors were Oxford graduates.[40] No student rosters
of the period survive, so no documentation exists for the attendance of Shakespeare or any other pupil, nor did
anyone who taught at or attended the school ever record that they were his teacher or classmate. This lack of
documentation is taken by many anti-Stratfordians as evidence that Shakespeare had little or no education.[41]
Anti-Stratfordians also question how Shakespeare, with no record of the education and cultured background
displayed in the works bearing his name, could have acquired the extensive vocabulary found in the plays and
poems. The author's vocabulary is calculated to be between 17,500 and 29,000 words.[42] No letters or signed
manuscripts written by Shakespeare survive. Shakespeare's six authenticated signatures are written in secretary hand,
a style of handwriting that vanished by 1700, and he used breviographs to abbreviate his surname in three of
them.[43] The appearance of Shakespeare's surviving signatures, which they characterise as "an illiterate scrawl", is
interpreted as indicating that he was illiterate or barely literate.[44]

Name as a pseudonym
In his surviving signatures William Shakespeare did not spell his name as
it appears on most Shakespeare title pages. His surname was spelled
inconsistently in both literary and non-literary documents, with the most
variation observed in those that were written by hand.[45] This is taken as
evidence that he was not the same person who wrote the works, and that
the name was used as a pseudonym for the true author.[46]

Shakespeare's surname was hyphenated as "Shake-speare" or

"Shak-spear" on the title pages of 15 of the 48 individual quarto (or Q)
editions of Shakespeare's plays (16 were published with the author
unnamed) and in two of the five editions of poetry published before the
First Folio. Of those 15 title pages with Shakespeare's name hyphenated,
13 are on the title pages of just three plays, Richard II (Q2 1598, Q3
1598, Q4 1608, and Q5 1615), Richard III (Q2 1598, Q3 1602, Q4 1605,
Q5 1612, and Q6 1622), and Henry IV, Part 1 (Q2 1599, Q3 1604, Q4
1608, and Q5 1613).[47] The hyphen is also present in one cast list and in
Shakespeare's name was hyphenated on the six literary allusions published between 1594 and 1623. This hyphen use
cover of the 1609 quarto edition of the
is construed to indicate a pseudonym.[48] It is argued that fictional
Sonnets.
descriptive names (such as "Master Shoe-tie" and "Sir Luckless
Woo-all") were often hyphenated in plays, and pseudonyms such as
"Tom Tell-truth" were also sometimes hyphenated.[49]

Reasons proposed for the use of "Shakespeare" as a pseudonym vary, usually depending upon the social status of the
candidate. Aristocrats such as Derby and Oxford supposedly used pseudonyms because of a prevailing "stigma of
print", a social convention that restricted their literary works to private and courtly audiences—as opposed to
commercial endeavours—at the risk of social disgrace if violated.[50] In the case of commoners, the reason was to
avoid prosecution by the authorities: Bacon to avoid the consequences of advocating a more republican form of
government,[51] and Marlowe to avoid imprisonment or worse after faking his death and fleeing the country.[52]
Shakespeare authorship question 240

Lack of documentary evidence

Proponents of an alternative author say that nothing in the
documentary record explicitly identifies Shakespeare as a
writer,[53] and that the evidence instead supports a career as
a businessman and real-estate investor. Any prominence he
might have had in the London theatrical world (aside from
his role as a front for the true author) was as a result of his
money-lending activities, trading in theatrical properties,
and possibly a period as an actor. By this reasoning, all
evidence for his literary career was falsified as part of the
plan to shield the true author's identity.[54]

All the alternative authorship theories reject the surface

meanings of Elizabethan and Jacobean references to Ben Jonson's "On Poet-Ape" from his 1616 collected works is
Shakespeare as a playwright and instead look for taken by some anti-Stratfordians to refer to Shakespeare.
ambiguities and codes. They identify him with such
characters as the literary thief Poet-Ape in Ben Jonson's poem of the same name and the foolish poetry-lover Gullio
in the university play The Return from Parnassus. Such characters are taken as broad hints indicating that the
London theatrical world knew Shakespeare was a front for an anonymous author. Praises of "Shakespeare" the writer
are explained as references to the real author's pen-name, not the man from Stratford.[55]

Shakespeare's death
Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 in Stratford, leaving a signed will to direct the disposal of his large estate. The
language of the will is mundane and unpoetic and makes no mention of personal papers, books, poems, or the 18
plays that remained unpublished at the time of his death. Its only theatrical reference—monetary gifts to fellow
actors to buy mourning rings—was interlined after the will had been written, casting suspicion on the authenticity of
the bequests.[56]
Any public mourning of Shakespeare's death went
unrecorded, and no eulogies or poems memorialising his death
were published until seven years later as part of the front
matter in the First Folio of his plays.[57]
Oxfordians (supporters of the Oxfordian theory) think that the
phrase "our ever-living Poet" (an epithet that commonly
eulogised a deceased poet as having attained immortal literary
fame), included in the dedication to Shakespeare's sonnets that
were published in 1609, was a signal that the true poet had
The effigy of Shakespeare's Stratford monument as it was
portrayed in 1656 and as it appears today
died by then. Oxford had died five years earlier.[58]

Shakespeare's funerary monument in Stratford consists of a

half-bust effigy in his likeness with pen in hand and an attached plaque praising his abilities as a writer. The earliest
printed image of the figure, in Sir William Dugdale's Antiquities of Warwickshire (1656), differs greatly from its
present appearance. Authorship theorists argue that the figure originally portrayed a man clutching a sack of grain or
wool that was later altered to help conceal the identity of the true author.[59] Oxfordian Richard Kennedy proposes
that the monument was originally built to honour John Shakespeare, William's father, who by tradition was a
"considerable dealer in wool".[60]
Shakespeare authorship question 241

Case for Shakespeare's authorship

Nearly all academic Shakespeareans believe that the author referred to as "Shakespeare" was the same William
Shakespeare who was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564 and who died there in 1616. He became an actor and
shareholder in the Lord Chamberlain's Men (later the King's Men), the playing company that owned the Globe
Theatre, the Blackfriars Theatre, and exclusive rights to produce Shakespeare's plays from 1594 to 1642.[61]
Shakespeare was also allowed the use of the honorific "gentleman" after 1596 when his father was granted a coat of
arms.[62]
Shakespeare scholars see no reason to suspect that the name was a pseudonym or that the actor was a front for the
author: contemporary records identify Shakespeare as the writer, other playwrights such as Ben Jonson and
Christopher Marlowe came from similar backgrounds, and no contemporary is known to have expressed doubts
about Shakespeare's authorship. While information about some aspects of Shakespeare's life is sketchy, this is true of
many other playwrights of the time. Of some, next to nothing is known. Others, such as Jonson, Marlowe, and John
Marston, are more fully documented because of their education, close connections with the court, or brushes with the
law.[63] The argument that there is no evidence of Shakespeare's authorship is a form of fallacious logic known as
argumentum ex silentio, or argument from silence, since it takes the absence of evidence to be evidence of
absence.[64] Scholars employ the same methodology to attribute works to the poet and playwright William
Shakespeare as they use for other writers of the period: the historical record and stylistic studies.[65] They criticise
the methods used to identify alternative candidates as unreliable and unscholarly, and say these methods explain why
more than 70 candidates[8] have been identified as the "true" author.[66] They consider the idea that Shakespeare
revealed himself autobiographically in his work as a cultural anachronism: it has been a common authorial practice
since the 19th century, but was not during the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras.[67]

Historical evidence
The historical record is unequivocal in assigning the authorship of the
Shakespeare canon to William Shakespeare.[68] In addition to the name
appearing on the title pages of poems and plays, his name was given as that of a
well-known writer at least 23 times during his lifetime.[69] Several
contemporaries corroborate the identity of the playwright as the actor,[70] and
explicit contemporary documentary evidence attests that the actor was the
Stratford citizen.[71]

In 1598 Francis Meres named Shakespeare as a playwright and poet in his

Palladis Tamia, referring to him as one of the authors by whom the "English
tongue is mightily enriched".[72] He names twelve plays written by Shakespeare,
including four which were never published in quarto: The Two Gentlemen of Shakespeare's father was granted a
Verona, The Comedy of Errors, Love's Labour's Won, and King John, as well as coat of arms in 1596, which in 1602
ascribing to Shakespeare some of the plays that were published anonymously was contested by Ralph Brooke, who
identified Shakespeare as a "player"
before 1598—Titus Andronicus, Romeo and Juliet, and Henry IV, Part 1. He
(actor) in his complaint.
refers to Shakespeare's "sug[a]red Sonnets among his private friends" 11 years
before the publication of the Sonnets.[73]
Shakespeare authorship question 242

In the rigid social structure of Elizabethan England, William Shakespeare was

entitled to use the honorific "gentleman" after his father was granted a coat of
arms in 1596. This honorific was conventionally designated by the title "Master"
or its abbreviations "Mr." or "M." prefixed to the name.[62] The title was included
in many contemporary references to Shakespeare, including official and literary
records, and identifies William Shakespeare of Stratford as the author.[74]
Examples from Shakespeare's lifetime include two official stationers' entries, one
dated 23 August 1600 and entered by Andrew Wise and William Aspley: "Entred
for their copies vnder the handes of the wardens. Twoo bookes. the one called:
Muche a Doo about nothinge [Much Ado About Nothing]. Thother the second
parte of the history of kinge henry the iiijth [Henry IV, Part 2] with the humors
of Sr John ffalstaff: Wrytten by mr Shakespere. xij d";[75] and the other dated 26
November 1607 and entered by Nathaniel Butter and John Busby: "Entred for
Shakespeare's honorific "Master"
was abbreviated as "M", on the title their copie under thandes of Sr George Buck knight & Thwardens A booke
page of the first Quarto edition of called. Mr William Shakespeare his historye of Kynge Lear as yt was played
King Lear in 1608. before the kinges maiestie at Whitehall vppon St Stephans night at Christmas
Last by his maiesties servantes playinge vsually at the globe on the Banksyde vj
[76]
d", which appeared on the title page of King Lear Q1 (1608) as "M. William Shak-speare: HIS True Chronicle
Historie of the life and death of King Lear and his three Daughters".[77] Shakespeare's social status is also
specifically referred to by his contemporaries in Epigram 159 by John Davies of Hereford in his The Scourge of
Folly (1611): "To our English Terence, Mr. Will. Shake-speare";[78] Epigram 92 by Thomas Freeman in his Runne
and A Great Caste (1614): "To Master W: Shakespeare";[79] and in historian John Stow's list of "Our moderne, and
present excellent Poets" in his Annales, printed posthumously in an edition by Edmund Howes (1615), which reads:
"M. Willi. Shake-speare gentleman".[80]

After Shakespeare's death, Ben Jonson explicitly identified William Shakespeare, gentleman, as the author in the title
of his eulogy, "To the Memory of My Beloved the Author, Mr. William Shakespeare and What He Hath Left Us",
published in the First Folio (1623).[81] Other poets identified Shakespeare the gentleman as the author in the titles of
their eulogies, also published in the First Folio: "Upon the Lines and Life of the Famous Scenic Poet, Master
William Shakespeare" by Hugh Holland and "To the Memory of the Deceased Author, Master W. Shakespeare" by
Leonard Digges.[82]

Contemporary testimony
Both explicit testimony by his contemporaries and strong circumstantial evidence of personal relationships with
those who interacted with him as an actor and playwright support Shakespeare's authorship. Playwright and poet Ben
Jonson knew Shakespeare from at least 1598, when the Lord Chamberlain's Men performed Jonson's play Every Man
in His Humour at the Curtain Theatre with Shakespeare as a cast member. Scottish poet William Drummond
recorded Jonson's often contentious comments about his contemporaries: Jonson criticised Shakespeare as lacking
"arte" and for mistakenly giving Bohemia a coast in The Winter's Tale.[83] In 1641, four years after Jonson's death,
private notes written during his later life were published. In a comment intended for posterity (Timber or
Discoveries), he criticises Shakespeare's casual approach to playwriting, but praises Shakespeare as a person: "I
loved the man, and do honour his memory (on this side Idolatry) as much as any. He was (indeed) honest, and of an
open, and free nature; had an excellent fancy; brave notions, and gentle expressions. . ."[84]
Shakespeare authorship question 243

Actors John Heminges and Henry Condell knew and worked with
Shakespeare for more than 20 years. In the 1623 First Folio, they wrote
that they had published the Folio "onely to keepe the memory of so
worthy a Friend, & Fellow aliue, as was our Shakespeare, by humble
offer of his playes". Historian and antiquary Sir George Buc served as
Deputy Master of the Revels from 1603 and as Master of the Revels William Camden defended Shakespeare's right to
from 1610 to 1622. His duties were to supervise and censor plays for bear arms about the same time he listed him as
one of the great poets of his time.
the public theatres, arrange court performances of plays, and, after
1606, to license plays for publication. Buc noted on the title page of
George a Greene, the Pinner of Wakefield (1599), an anonymous play, that he had consulted Shakespeare on its
authorship. Buc was meticulous in his efforts to attribute books and plays to the correct author, and in 1607 he
personally licensed King Lear for publication as written by "Master William Shakespeare".[85]

In 1602, Ralph Brooke, the York Herald, accused Sir William Dethick, the Garter King of Arms, of elevating 23
unworthy persons to the gentry.[86] One of these was Shakespeare's father, who had applied for arms 34 years earlier
but had to wait for the success of his son before they were granted in 1596.[87] Brooke included a sketch of the
Shakespeare arms, captioned "Shakespear ye Player by Garter".[88] The grants, including John Shakespeare's, were
defended by Dethick and Clarenceux King of Arms William Camden, the foremost antiquary of the time.[89] In his
Remaines Concerning Britaine—published in 1605, but finished two years previous and before the Earl of Oxford
died in 1604—Camden names Shakespeare as one of the "most pregnant witts of these ages our times, whom
succeeding ages may justly admire".[90]

Recognition by other playwrights and writers

In addition to Ben Jonson, other playwrights wrote about Shakespeare, including some who sold plays to
Shakespeare's company. Two of the three Parnassus plays produced at St John's College, Cambridge near the
beginning of the 17th century mention Shakespeare as an actor, poet, and playwright who lacked a university
education. In The First Part of the Return from Parnassus, two separate characters refer to Shakespeare as "Sweet
Mr. Shakespeare", and in The Second Part of the Return from Parnassus (1606), the anonymous playwright has the
actor Kempe say to the actor Burbage, "Few of the university men pen plays well ... Why here's our fellow
Shakespeare puts them all down."[91]
An edition of The Passionate Pilgrim, expanded with an additional
nine poems written by prominent English actor, playwright, and author
Thomas Heywood, was published by William Jaggard in 1612 with
Shakespeare's name on the title page. Heywood protested this piracy in
his Apology for Actors (1612), adding that the author was "much
offended with M. Jaggard (that altogether unknown to him) presumed
to make so bold with his name." That Heywood stated with certainty
that the author was unaware of the deception, and that Jaggard
removed Shakespeare's name from unsold copies even though
Heywood did not explicitly name him, indicates that Shakespeare was The two versions of the title page of The
Passionate Pilgrim (3rd ed., 1612)
the offended author.[92] Elsewhere, in his poem "Hierarchie of the
Blessed Angels" (1634), Heywood affectionately notes the nicknames
his fellow playwrights had been known by. Of Shakespeare, he writes:

Our modern poets to that pass are driven,

Those names are curtailed which they first had given;
And, as we wished to have their memories drowned,
Shakespeare authorship question 244

We scarcely can afford them half their sound. ...

Mellifluous Shake-speare, whose enchanting quill
Commanded mirth or passion, was but Will.[93]
Playwright John Webster, in his dedication to The White Devil (1612), wrote, "And lastly (without wrong last to be
named), the right happy and copious industry of M. Shake-Speare, M. Decker, & M. Heywood, wishing what I write
might be read in their light", here using the abbreviation "M." to denote "Master", a form of address properly used of
William Shakespeare of Stratford, who was titled a gentleman.[94]
In a verse letter to Ben Jonson dated to about 1608, Francis Beaumont alludes to several playwrights, including
Shakespeare, about whom he wrote,
... Here I would let slip
(If I had any in me) scholarship,
And from all learning keep these lines as clear
as Shakespeare's best are, which our heirs shall hear
Preachers apt to their auditors to show
how far sometimes a mortal man may go
by the dim light of Nature.[95]

Shakespeare's death—the standard perspective

The monument to Shakespeare, erected in Stratford before 1623, bears
a plaque with an inscription identifying Shakespeare as a writer. The
first two Latin lines translate to "In judgment a Pylian, in genius a
Socrates, in art a Maro, the earth covers him, the people mourn him,
Olympus possesses him", referring to Nestor, Socrates, Virgil, and
Mount Olympus. The monument was not only referred to in the First
Folio, but other early 17th-century records identify it as being a The inscription on Shakespeare's monument
memorial to Shakespeare and transcribe the inscription.[96] Sir William
Dugdale also included the inscription in his Antiquities of Warwickshire (1656), but the engraving was done from a
sketch made in 1634 and, like other portrayals of monuments in his work, is not accurate.[97]

Shakespeare's will, executed 25 March 1616, bequeaths "to my fellows John Hemynge Richard Burbage and Henry
Cundell 26 shilling 8 pence apiece to buy them [mourning] rings." Numerous public records, including the royal
patent of 19 May 1603 that chartered the King's Men, establishes that Phillips, Heminges, Burbage, and Condell
were fellow actors in the King's Men with William Shakespeare; two of them later edited his collected plays.
Anti-Stratfordians have cast suspicion on these bequests, which were interlined, and claim that they were added later
as part of a conspiracy. However, the will was proved in the Prerogative Court of the Archbishop of Canterbury
(George Abbot) in London on 22 June 1616, and the original will was copied into the court register with the bequests
intact.[98]
John Taylor was the first poet to mention in print the deaths of Shakespeare and Francis Beaumont in his 1620 book
of poems The Praise of Hemp-seed.[99] Both had died, less than two months apart, four years earlier. Ben Jonson
wrote a short poem "To the Reader" commending the First Folio engraving of Shakespeare by Droeshout as a good
likeness. Included in the prefatory commendatory verses was Jonson's lengthy eulogy "To the memory of my
beloved, the Author Mr. William Shakespeare: and what he hath left us" in which he identifies Shakespeare as a
playwright, a poet, and an actor, and writes:
Sweet Swan of Avon! what a sight it were
To see thee in our waters yet appear,
Shakespeare authorship question 245

And make those flights upon the banks of Thames,

That so did take Eliza, and our James!
Here Jonson links the author to Stratford's river, the Avon, and confirms his appearances at the courts of Elizabeth I
and James I.[100]
Leonard Digges wrote the elegy "To the Memory of the Deceased Author Master W. Shakespeare" that was
published in the Folio, in which he refers to "thy Stratford Moniment". Raised on the outskirts of
Stratford-upon-Avon in the 1590s, Digges was the stepson of Shakespeare's friend, Thomas Russell, whom
Shakespeare in his will designated as overseer to the executors.[101] William Basse wrote an elegy entitled "On Mr.
Wm. Shakespeare" sometime between 1616 and 1623, in which he suggests that Shakespeare should have been
buried in Westminster Abbey next to Chaucer, Beaumont, and Spenser. This poem circulated very widely in
manuscript and survives today in more than two dozen contemporary copies; several of these have a fuller, variant
title "On Mr. William Shakespeare, he died in April 1616", which unambiguously specifies that the reference is to
Shakespeare of Stratford.[102]

Evidence for Shakespeare's authorship from his works

Shakespeare's are the most-studied secular works in history.[103] Contemporary comments and textual studies
support the authorship of someone with an education, background, and life span consistent with that of William
Shakespeare.[104]
There is no record that any contemporary of Shakespeare referred to him as a learned writer or scholar. In fact, Ben
Jonson and Francis Beaumont both refer to his lack of classical learning.[105] If a university-trained playwright wrote
the plays, it is hard to explain the many classical blunders in Shakespeare. Not only does he mistake the scansion of
many classical names, in Troilus and Cressida he has Greeks and Trojans citing Plato and Aristotle a thousand years
before their births.[106] Later critics such as Samuel Johnson remarked that Shakespeare's genius lay not in his
erudition, but in his "vigilance of observation and accuracy of distinction which books and precepts cannot confer;
from this almost all original and native excellence proceeds."[107]
Shakespeare's plays differ from those of the University Wits in that they avoid ostentatious displays of the writer's
mastery of Latin or of classical principles of drama, with the exceptions of co-authored plays such as the Henry VI
series and Titus Andronicus. Instead, his classical allusions rely on the Elizabethan grammar school curriculum. The
curriculum began with William Lily's Latin grammar Rudimenta Grammatices and progressed to Caesar, Livy,
Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Plautus, Terence, and Seneca, all of whom are quoted and echoed in the Shakespearean canon.
Almost unique among his peers, Shakespeare's plays are full of phrases from grammar school texts and pedagogy,
together with caricatures of schoolmasters. Lily's Grammar is referred to in a number of plays, including Titus
Andronicus (4.10), The Taming of the Shrew (1.1), Love's Labour's Lost (5.1), Twelfth Night (2.3), and The Merry
Wives of Windsor (4.1). Shakespeare alluded not only to grammar school but also to the petty school that children
attended at age 5 to 7 to learn to read, a prerequisite for grammar school.[108]
Shakespeare authorship question 246

Beginning in 1987, Ward Elliott, who was sympathetic to the Oxfordian theory,
and Robert J. Valenza supervised a continuing stylometric study that used
computer programs to compare Shakespeare's stylistic habits to the works of 37
authors who had been proposed as the true author. The study, known as the
Claremont Shakespeare Clinic, was last held in the spring of 2010.[109] The tests
determined that Shakespeare's work shows consistent, countable, profile-fitting
patterns, suggesting that he was a single individual, not a committee, and that he
used fewer relative clauses and more hyphens, feminine endings, and run-on
lines than most of the writers with whom he was compared. The result
determined that none of the other tested claimants' work could have been written
by Shakespeare, nor could Shakespeare have been written by them, eliminating
all of the claimants whose known works have survived—including Oxford,
Bacon, and Marlowe—as the true authors of the Shakespeare canon.[110] Title page of the 1634 quarto of The
Two Noble Kinsmen by John Fletcher
Shakespeare's style evolved over time in keeping with changes in literary trends. and Shakespeare

His late plays, such as The Winter's Tale, The Tempest, and Henry VIII, are
written in a style similar to that of other Jacobean playwrights and radically different from that of his Elizabethan-era
plays.[111] In addition, after the King's Men began using the Blackfriars Theatre for performances in 1609,
Shakespeare's plays were written to accommodate a smaller stage with more music, dancing, and more evenly
divided acts to allow for trimming the candles used for stage lighting.[112]

Dean Keith Simonton, who researches the factors involved in musical and literary creativity, especially
Shakespeare's, concludes "beyond a shadow of a doubt" that the consensus play chronology is roughly the correct
order, and that Shakespeare's works exhibit gradual stylistic development consistent with that of other artistic
geniuses.[113] Simonton's study, published in 2004, examined the correlation between the thematic content of
Shakespeare's plays and the political context in which they would have been written. When backdated two years, the
mainstream chronologies yield substantial correlations between the two, whereas the alternate chronologies proposed
by Oxfordians display no relationship regardless of the time lag.[114] Simonton, who declared his Oxfordian
sympathies in the article and had expected the results to support Oxford's authorship, concluded that "that
expectation was proven wrong".[115]
Shakespeare co-authored half of his last 10 plays, collaborating closely with other playwrights. Oxfordians claim that
those plays were finished by others after the death of Oxford. However, textual evidence from the late plays indicate
that Shakespeare's collaborators were not always aware of what Shakespeare had done in a previous scene, and that
they were following a rough outline rather than working from an unfinished script left by a long-dead playwright.
For example, in The Two Noble Kinsmen (1612–1613), written with John Fletcher, Shakespeare has two characters
meet and leaves them on stage at the end of one scene, yet Fletcher has them act as if they were meeting for the first
time in the following scene.[116]

History of the authorship question

Bardolatry and early doubt

Despite adulatory tributes attached to his works, Shakespeare was not considered the world's greatest writer in the
century and a half following his death.[117] His reputation was that of a good playwright and poet among many
others of his era.[118] Beaumont and Fletcher's plays dominated popular taste after the theatres reopened in the
Restoration Era in 1660, with Ben Jonson's and Shakespeare's plays vying for second place. After actor David
Garrick mounted the Shakespeare Stratford Jubilee in 1769, Shakespeare led the field.[119] Excluding a handful of
minor 18th-century satirical and allegorical references,[120] there was no suggestion in this period that anyone else
might have written the works.[121] The authorship question emerged only after Shakespeare had come to be regarded
Shakespeare authorship question 247

as the English national poet and a unique genius.[122]

By the beginning of the 19th century, adulation was in full swing,[4] with Shakespeare singled out as a transcendent
genius, a phenomenon for which George Bernard Shaw coined the term bardolatry in 1901.[123] By the middle of the
century his genius was noted as much for its intellectual as for its imaginative strength. Since what was known about
his life seemed to reveal Shakespeare as an untutored rustic,[124] however, uneasiness began to emerge over the
dissonance between Shakespeare's reputation and his biography.[5] Although still convinced that Shakespeare was
the author of the works, Ralph Waldo Emerson expressed this disjunction in a lecture in 1846 by allowing that he
could not reconcile Shakespeare's verse with the image of a jovial actor and theatre manager.[125] The rise of
historical criticism, which challenged the authorial unity of Homer's epics and the historicity of the Bible, also
fuelled emerging puzzlement over Shakespeare's authorship, which in one critic's view was "an accident waiting to
happen".[126] David Strauss's investigation of the biography of Jesus, which shocked the public with its scepticism of
the historical accuracy of the Gospels, influenced the secular debate about Shakespeare.[127] In 1848, Samuel
Mosheim Schmucker endeavoured to rebut Strauss's doubts about the historicity of Christ by applying the same
techniques satirically to the records of Shakespeare's life in his Historic Doubts Respecting Shakespeare, Illustrating
Infidel Objections Against the Bible. Schmucker, who never doubted that Shakespeare was Shakespeare, unwittingly
anticipated and rehearsed many of the later arguments for alternative authorship candidates.[128]

Open dissent and the first alternative candidate

Shakespeare's authorship was first openly questioned in the pages of Joseph C.
Hart's The Romance of Yachting (1848). Hart argued that the plays contained
evidence that many different authors had worked on them. Four years later Dr.
Robert W. Jameson published "Who Wrote Shakespeare" anonymously in the
Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, expressing similar views. In 1856 Delia Bacon's
unsigned article "William Shakspeare and His Plays; An Enquiry Concerning
Them" appeared in Putnam's Magazine.[129]

Since 1845, Bacon had theorised that the plays attributed to Shakespeare were
actually written by a group under the leadership of Sir Francis Bacon, with Sir
Walter Raleigh as the main writer, whose purpose was to inculcate an advanced
Delia Bacon was the first writer to political and philosophical system for which they themselves could not publicly
formulate a comprehensive theory assume responsibility.[130] Francis Bacon was the first single alternative author
that Shakespeare was not the writer proposed in print, by William Henry Smith, in a pamphlet published in
of the works attributed to him.
September 1856 (Was Lord Bacon the Author of Shakspeare's Plays? A Letter to
Lord Ellesmere).[131] The following year Delia Bacon published a book outlining
her theory: The Philosophy of the Plays of Shakspere Unfolded.[132] Ten years later, Judge Nathaniel Holmes of
Kentucky published the 600-page The Authorship of Shakespeare supporting Smith's theory,[133] and the idea began
to spread widely. By 1884 the question had produced more than 250 books, and Smith asserted that the war against
the Shakespeare hegemony had almost been won by the Baconians after a 30-year battle.[134] Two years later the
Francis Bacon Society was founded in England to promote the theory. The society still survives and publishes a
journal, Baconiana, to further its mission.[135]

These arguments against Shakespeare's authorship were answered by academics. In 1857 English critic George
Henry Townsend published William Shakespeare Not an Impostor, criticising what he called the slovenly
scholarship, false premises, specious parallel passages, and erroneous conclusions of the earliest proponents of
alternative authorship candidates.[136]
Shakespeare authorship question 248

Search for proof

In 1853, with the help of Ralph Waldo Emerson, Delia Bacon
travelled to England to search for evidence to support her
theories.[137] Instead of performing archival research, she
sought to unearth buried manuscripts, and unsuccessfully tried
to persuade a caretaker to open Bacon's tomb.[138] She
believed she had deciphered instructions in Bacon's letters to
look beneath Shakespeare's Stratford gravestone for papers
that would prove the works were Bacon's, but after spending
several nights in the chancel trying to summon the requisite
courage, she left without prising up the stone slab.[139]

Ciphers became important to the Baconian theory, as they Orville Ward Owen constructed a "cipher wheel" that he
would later to the advocacy of other authorship candidates, used to search for hidden ciphers he believed Francis Bacon
had left in Shakespeare's works.
with books such as Ignatius L. Donnelly's The Great
Cryptogram (1888) promoting the approach. Dr. Orville Ward
Owen constructed a "cipher wheel", a 1,000-foot strip of canvas on which he had pasted the works of Shakespeare
and other writers and mounted on two parallel wheels so he could quickly collate pages with key words as he turned
them for decryption.[140] In his multi-volume Sir Francis Bacon's Cipher Story (1893), he claimed to have
discovered Bacon's autobiography embedded in Shakespeare's plays, including the revelation that Bacon was the
secret son of Queen Elizabeth, thus providing more motivation to conceal his authorship from the public.[140]

Perhaps because of Francis Bacon's legal background, both

mock and real jury trials figured in attempts to prove claims
for Bacon, and later for Oxford. The first mock trial was
conducted over 15 months in 1892–93, and the results of the
debate were published in the Boston monthly The Arena.
Ignatius Donnelly was one of the plaintiffs, while F. J.
Furnivall formed part of the defence. The 25-member jury,
which included Henry George, Edmund Gosse, and Henry
Irving, came down heavily in favour of William
Shakespeare.[141] In 1916, Judge Richard Tuthill presided
over a real trial in Chicago. A film producer brought an action
against a Baconian advocate, George Fabyan. He argued that
Fabyan's advocacy of Bacon threatened the profits expected
A feature in the Chicago Tribune on the 1916 trial of from a forthcoming film about Shakespeare. The judge
Shakespeare's authorship. From left: George Fabyan; Judge
determined that ciphers identified by Fabyan's analysts proved
Tuthill; Shakespeare and Bacon; William Selig.
that Francis Bacon was the author of the Shakespeare canon,
awarding Fabyan $5,000 in damages. In the ensuing uproar,
Tuthill rescinded his decision, and another judge, Frederick A. Smith, dismissed the case.[142]

In 1907, Owen claimed he had decoded instructions revealing that a box containing proof of Bacon's authorship had
been buried in the River Wye near Chepstow Castle on the Duke of Beaufort's property. His dredging machinery
failed to retrieve any concealed manuscripts.[143] That same year his former assistant, Elizabeth Wells Gallup,
financed by George Fabyan, likewise travelled to England. She believed she had decoded a message, by means of a
biliteral cipher, revealing that Bacon's secret manuscripts were hidden behind panels in Canonbury Tower in
Islington.[144] None were found. Two years later, American humorist Mark Twain publicly revealed his long-held
anti-Stratfordian belief in Is Shakespeare Dead? (1909), favouring Bacon as the true author.[145]
Shakespeare authorship question 249

In the 1920s Walter Conrad Arensberg became convinced that Bacon had willed the key to his cipher to the
Rosicrucians. He thought this society was still active, and that its members communicated with each under the aegis
of the Church of England. On the basis of cryptograms he detected in the sixpenny tickets of admission to Holy
Trinity Church in Stratford-upon-Avon, he deduced that both Bacon and his mother were secretly buried, together
with the original manuscripts of Shakespeare's plays, in the Lichfield Chapter house in Staffordshire. He
unsuccessfully petitioned the Dean of Lichfield to allow him both to photograph and excavate the obscure grave.[146]
[147]
Maria Bauer was convinced that Bacon's manuscripts had been imported into Jamestown, Virginia in 1653, and
could be found in the Bruton Vault at Williamsburg. She gained permission in the late 1930s to excavate, but
authorities quickly withdrew her permit.[148] In 1938 Roderick Eagle was allowed to open the tomb of Edmund
Spenser to search for proof that Bacon was Shakespeare, but found only some old bones.[149]

Other candidates emerge

Towards the turn of the 20th century other candidates began to receive attention. In 1895 attorney Wilbur Gleason
Zeigler published the novel It Was Marlowe: A Story of the Secret of Three Centuries, whose premise was that
Marlowe did not die in 1593, but rather survived to write Shakespeare's plays.[150] German literary critic Karl
Bleibtreu supported the nomination of Roger Manners, 5th Earl of Rutland in 1907.[151] Anti-Stratfordians
unaffiliated to any specific authorship candidate also began to appear. British barrister George Greenwood sought to
disqualify William Shakespeare from the authorship in The Shakespeare Problem Restated (1908), but did not
support any alternative authors, thereby encouraging the search for candidates other than Bacon.[152] John M.
Robertson published The Baconian Heresy: A Confutation in 1913, refuting the contention that Shakespeare had
expert legal knowledge by showing that legalisms pervaded Elizabethan and Jacobean literature.[153] After the First
World War, Professor Abel Lefranc, an authority on French and English literature, argued the case for William
Stanley, 6th Earl of Derby as the author based on biographical evidence he had gleaned from the plays and
poems.[154]
With the appearance of J. Thomas Looney's Shakespeare Identified (1920),[155]
Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford, quickly ascended as the most popular
alternative author.[156] Two years later Looney and Greenwood founded the
Shakespeare Fellowship, an international organisation to promote discussion and
debate on the authorship question, which later changed its mission to propagate the
Oxfordian theory.[157] In 1923 Archie Webster published "Was Marlowe the Man?" in
The National Review, proposing that Marlowe wrote the works of Shakespeare and
that the Sonnets were an autobiographical account of his survival.[158] In 1932
Allardyce Nicoll announced the discovery of a manuscript that appeared to establish
James Wilmot as the earliest proponent of Bacon's authorship,[159] but recent
investigations have identified the manuscript as a forgery likely designed to revive
Baconian theory in the face of Oxford's ascendancy.[160]
J. Thomas Looney's
Another authorship candidate emerged in 1943 when writer Alden Brooks, in his Will Shakespeare Identified (1920)

Shakspere and the Dyer's hand, argued for Sir Edward Dyer.[161] Six years earlier made Edward de Vere, 17th
Earl of Oxford, the top
Brooks had dismissed Shakespeare as the playwright by proposing that his role in the authorship claimant.
deception was to act as an Elizabethan "play broker", brokering the plays and poems
on behalf of his various principals, the real authors. This view, of Shakespeare as a commercial go-between, was
later adapted by Oxfordians.[162] After the Second World War, Oxfordism and anti-Stratfordism declined in
popularity and visibility.[163] Copious archival research had failed to confirm Oxford or anyone else as the true
author, and publishers lost interest in books advancing the same theories based on alleged circumstantial evidence.
To bridge the evidentiary gap, both Oxfordians and Baconians began to argue that hidden clues and allusions in the
Shakespeare canon had been placed there by their candidate for the benefit of future researchers.[164]
Shakespeare authorship question 250

To try to revive flagging interest in Oxford, in 1952 Dorothy and Charlton Ogburn Sr. published the 1,300-page This
Star of England,[165] now regarded as a classic Oxfordian text.[166] They proposed that the "fair youth" of the sonnets
was Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton, the offspring of a love affair between Oxford and the Queen, and
that the "Shakespeare" plays were written by Oxford to memorialise the passion of that affair. This became known as
the "Prince Tudor theory", which postulates that the Queen's illicit offspring and his father's authorship of the
Shakespeare canon were covered up as an Elizabethan state secret. The Ogburns found many parallels between
Oxford's life and the works, particularly in Hamlet, which they characterised as "straight biography".[167] A brief
upsurge of enthusiasm ensued, resulting in the establishment of the Shakespeare Oxford Society in the US in
1957.[168]
In 1955 Broadway press agent Calvin Hoffman revived the Marlovian theory with the publication of The Murder of
the Man Who Was "Shakespeare".[169] The next year he went to England to search for documentary evidence about
Marlowe that he thought might be buried in his literary patron Sir Thomas Walsingham's tomb.[170] Nothing was
found.
A series of critical academic books and articles, however, held in check any appreciable growth of anti-Stratfordism,
as academics attacked its methodology as unscholarly and the conclusions as ridiculous.[171] American cryptologists
William and Elizebeth Friedman won the Folger Shakespeare Library Literary Prize in 1955 for a study of the
arguments that the works of Shakespeare contain hidden ciphers. The study disproved all claims that the works
contain ciphers, and was condensed and published as The Shakespeare Ciphers Examined (1957). Soon after, four
major works were issued surveying the history of the anti-Stratfordian phenomenon from a mainstream perspective:
The Poacher from Stratford (1958), by Frank Wadsworth, Shakespeare and His Betters (1958), by Reginald
Churchill, The Shakespeare Claimants (1962), by N. H. Gibson, and Shakespeare and His Rivals: A Casebook on the
Authorship Controversy (1962), by George L. McMichael and Edgar M. Glenn. In 1959 the American Bar
Association Journal published a series of articles and letters on the authorship controversy, later anthologised as
Shakespeare Cross-Examination (1961). In 1968 the newsletter of The Shakespeare Oxford Society reported that
"the missionary or evangelical spirit of most of our members seems to be at a low ebb, dormant, or
non-existent".[172] In 1974, membership in the society stood at 80.[173]

Authorship in the mainstream media

Freelance writer Charlton Ogburn Jr., elected president of The Shakespeare Oxford Society in 1976, promptly began
a campaign to bypass the academic establishment; he believed it to be an "entrenched authority" that aimed to
"outlaw and silence dissent in a supposedly free society". He proposed fighting for public recognition by portraying
Oxford as a candidate on equal footing with Shakespeare.[174] In 1985 Ogburn published his 900-page The
Mysterious William Shakespeare: the Myth and the Reality, and by framing the issue as one of fairness in the
atmosphere of conspiracy that permeated America after Watergate, he used the media to circumnavigate academia
and appeal directly to the public.[175] Ogburn's efforts secured Oxford the place as the most popular alternative
candidate. He also kick-started the modern revival of the Oxfordian movement by adopting a policy of seeking
publicity through moot court trials, media debates, television, and later the Internet, including Wikipedia.[176]
Shakespeare authorship question 251

Ogburn believed that academics were best challenged by

recourse to law, and on 25 September 1987 three justices of
the Supreme Court of the United States convened a one-day
moot court to hear the Oxfordian case. The trial was
structured so that literary experts would not be represented,
but the burden of proof was on the Oxfordians. The justices
determined that the case was based on a conspiracy theory,
and that the reasons given for this conspiracy were both
incoherent and unpersuasive.[178] Although Ogburn took the
verdict as a "clear defeat", Oxfordian columnist Joseph
Sobran thought the trial had effectively dismissed any other
A device from Henry Peacham's Minerva Britanna (1612) Shakespeare authorship contender from the public mind and
has been used by Baconians and Oxfordians alike as coded provided legitimacy for Oxford.[179] A retrial was organised
evidence for concealed authorship of the Shakespeare
[177] the next year in the United Kingdom to potentially reverse the
canon.
decision. Presided over by three Law Lords, the court was
held in the Inner Temple in London on 26 November 1988.
On this occasion Shakespearean scholars argued their case, and the outcome confirmed the American verdict.[180]

Due in part to the rising visibility of the authorship question, media coverage of the controversy increased, with
many outlets focusing on the Oxfordian theory. In 1989 the Public Broadcasting Service television show Frontline
broadcast "The Shakespeare Mystery", exposing the interpretation of Oxford-as-Shakespeare to more than 3.5
million viewers in the US alone.[181] This was followed in 1992 by a three-hour Frontline teleconference,
"Uncovering Shakespeare: an Update", moderated by William F. Buckley, Jr.[182] In 1991 The Atlantic Monthly
published a debate between Tom Bethell, presenting the case for Oxford,[183] and Irvin Leigh Matus, presenting the
case for Shakespeare.[184] A similar print debate took place in 1999 in Harper's Magazine under the title "The Ghost
of Shakespeare". Beginning in the 1990s Oxfordians and other anti-Stratfordians increasingly turned to the Internet
to promulgate their theories, including creating several articles on Wikipedia about the candidates and the arguments,
to such an extent that a survey of the field in 2010 judged that its presence on Wikipedia "puts to shame anything
that ever appeared in standard resources".[185]

On 14 April 2007 the Shakespeare Authorship Coalition issued an internet petition, the "Declaration of Reasonable
Doubt About the Identity of William Shakespeare", coinciding with Brunel University's announcement of a one-year
Master of Arts programme in Shakespeare authorship studies. The coalition intends to enlist broad public support so
that by 2016, the 400th anniversary of Shakespeare's death, the academic Shakespeare establishment will be forced
to acknowledge that legitimate grounds for doubting Shakespeare's authorship exist.[186] More than 1,200 signatures
were accumulated by the end of the year, and as of April 2011, there were 1,996 signatures, including those of 330
current or former academics. On 22 April 2007, The New York Times published a survey of 265 American
Shakespeare professors on the Shakespeare authorship question. To the question of whether there is good reason to
question Shakespeare's authorship, 6 percent answered "yes", and 11 percent "possibly". When asked their opinion of
the topic, 61 percent chose "A theory without convincing evidence" and 32 percent chose "A waste of time and
classroom distraction".[187]
Filmmaker Roland Emmerich announced in 2009 that his next film will be about Oxford-as-Shakespeare. The film,
Anonymous, starring Rhys Ifans and Vanessa Redgrave, is scheduled to be released on 30 September 2011. It
portrays Oxford as the illegitimate son of Queen Elizabeth who becomes the queen's lover as an adult and with her
sires his own half-brother/son, Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton, to whom he dedicates the Sonnets. In
2010 James S. Shapiro surveyed the authorship question in Contested Will: Who Wrote Shakespeare?, marking the
first time a recognised Shakespeare scholar has devoted a book to the topic. Approaching the subject sociologically,
Shapiro found its origins to be grounded in a vein of traditional scholarship going back to Edmond Malone, and
Shakespeare authorship question 252

criticised academia for ignoring the topic, which was, he argued, tantamount to surrendering the field to
anti-Stratfordians.[188]

Alternative candidates
More than 70 historical figures have been nominated at one time or another as the true author of the Shakespeare
canon, some less seriously than others.[8] However, only four have attracted a significant number of followers.[189]

Sir Francis Bacon

The leading candidate of the 19th century was one of the great intellectual
figures of Jacobean England, Sir Francis Bacon, a lawyer, philosopher, essayist
and scientist. Bacon's candidacy relies upon historical and literary conjectures, as
well as alleged cryptographical revelations.[190]
William Henry Smith was the first to propose Bacon as the author in 1856. He
compared passages such as Bacon's "Poetry is nothing else but feigned history"
with Shakespeare's "The truest poetry is the most feigning" (As You Like It,
3.3.19–20), and Bacon's "He wished him not to shut the gate of your Majesty's
mercy" with Shakespeare's "The gates of mercy shall be all shut up" (Henry V,
3.3.10).[191] Shortly afterwards Delia Bacon argued that there were hidden
Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626)
political meanings in the plays and parallels between those ideas and Bacon's
known works. She proposed him as the leader of a group of disaffected
philosopher-politicians who tried to promote republican ideas to counter the despotism of the Tudor-Stuart
monarchies through the medium of the public stage.[192] Later Bacon supporters found similarities between a great
number of specific phrases and aphorisms from the plays and those written by Bacon in his waste book, the Promus.
In 1883 Mrs. Henry Pott edited Bacon's Promus and found 4,400 parallels of thought or expression between
Shakespeare and Bacon.[193]

In a letter addressed to John Davies, Bacon closes "so desireing you to bee good to concealed poets", which
according to his supporters is self-referential.[194] Baconians argue that while Bacon outlined both a scientific and
moral philosophy in The Advancement of Learning (1605), only the first part was published under his name during
his lifetime. They say that his moral philosophy, including a revolutionary politico-philosophic system of
government, was concealed in the Shakespeare plays because of its threat to the monarchy.[195]
Baconians suggest that the great number of legal allusions in the Shakespeare canon demonstrate the author's
expertise in the law. Bacon became Queen's Counsel in 1596 and was appointed Attorney General in 1613. Bacon
also paid for and helped write speeches for a number of entertainments, including masques and dumbshows,
although he is not known to have authored a play. His only attributed verse consists of seven metrical psalters,
following Sternhold and Hopkins.[196]
Since Bacon was knowledgeable about ciphers,[197] early Baconians suspected that he left his signature encrypted in
the Shakespeare canon. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries many Baconians claimed to have discovered ciphers
throughout the works supporting Bacon as the true author. In 1881, Mrs. C. F. Ashwood Windle claimed she had
found carefully worked-out jingles in each play that identified Bacon as the author.[198] This sparked a cipher craze,
and probative cryptograms were identified in the works by Ignatius Donnelly,[199] Orville Ward Owen, Elizabeth
Wells Gallup,[200] and Dr. Isaac Hull Platt. Platt discovered that the Latin word honorificabilitudinitatibus, found in
Love's Labour's Lost, can be read as an anagram, yielding Hi ludi F. Baconis nati tuiti orbi ("These plays, the
offspring of F. Bacon, are preserved for the world.").[201]
Shakespeare authorship question 253

Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford

Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford and Lord Great Chamberlain of England,
followed his grandfather and father in patronising companies of players and
musicians.[202] Oxford was an important courtier poet,[203] praised as such and
named as a playwright by George Puttenham and Francis Meres, who included
him in a list of the "best for comedy amongst us". Some of his poetry survives,
but none of his theatrical works.[204]

The case for Oxford relies on historical inferences, literary parallels, and the
belief that the plots and characters portrayed in the plays reflect his personal
experiences. Schoolteacher J. Thomas Looney was the first to lay out a
comprehensive case for Oxford's authorship.[205] Looney identified personality
Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford characteristics in Shakespeare's works—especially Hamlet—that painted the
(1550–1604) author as an eccentric aristocratic poet, a drama and sporting enthusiast with a
classical education who had travelled to Italy.[206] He discerned putatively close
affinities between the poetry of Oxford and that of Shakespeare in the use of motifs and subjects, phrasing, and
rhetorical devices that enabled him to identify Oxford as the true author.[156] After Looney's Shakespeare Identified
was published in 1920, Oxford rapidly overtook Bacon to become the most popular alternative candidate, and
remains so to this day.[207]

According to Oxfordians, Shakespeare's works contain correspondences to Oxford's life and are read as coded
autobiography; literal readings of certain sonnets are taken to refer to incidents in Oxford's life.[208] Oxford died in
1604, before ten of the plays appeared. Oxfordians either date these works earlier or suggest that unfinished works
were completed by other playwrights and released after his death.[209] They argue that the publication of new plays
almost ceased around the time of Oxford's death and that the dedication to the 1609 sonnets implies that the author is
dead.[210]
No documentary evidence connecting Oxford to the authorship of the works has been found,[211] but purported codes
and ciphers discovered in the works have been used to support the theory. For example, more than 1,700 instances of
the anagram "E. Vere" are embedded in the Shakespeare canon in the words "ever", "every", and "never"; these same
veiled signatures have been found by Oxfordian George Frisbee in the works of Marlowe, George Gascoigne, Sir
John Harrington, Edmund Spenser, and others, identifying those authors as further pseudonyms of Oxford.[212] A
device from Henry Peacham's Minerva Britanna (1612) depicting a hand appearing from behind a curtain and
writing the Latin motto MENTE VIDEBOR ("By the mind I shall be seen") was first used to support Bacon's
candidacy, but is seen by Oxfordians as a clue to Oxford's hidden authorship. By interpreting the final full stop as the
beginning of an "I", the phrase becomes an anagram of TIBI NOM. DE VERE ("Thy Name is De Vere").[177]
Oxford's use of the "Shakespeare" pen name has been attributed to the stigma of print, a convention that aristocratic
authors could not take credit for writing plays for the public stage.[213] Another motivation given is the politically
explosive "Prince Tudor theory" that the youthful Oxford was Queen Elizabeth's lover; according to this theory,
Oxford dedicated Venus and Adonis, The Rape of Lucrece, and the Sonnets to their son, England's rightful Tudor
Prince Henry Wriothesley, who was raised as the 3rd Earl of Southampton.[166] This theory has deeply divided
Oxfordians, and even more so its variation, "Prince Tudor Part II", which states that not only was Southampton
Oxford's and Elizabeth's bastard, he was also Oxford's half-brother because Oxford himself was the Queen's son.
This theory suggests that at age 14 Elizabeth was made pregnant by her guardian Thomas Seymour, and their child
was placed with the House of Oxford.[214]
Shakespeare authorship question 254

Christopher Marlowe
Poet and dramatist Christopher Marlowe was born into the same social class as Shakespeare—his father was a
cobbler, Shakespeare's a glove-maker. Marlowe was the older by only two months, but spent six and a half years at
Cambridge University. He pioneered the use of blank verse in Elizabethan drama, and his works are widely accepted
as having greatly influenced those of Shakespeare.[215] Of his seven plays, all but one or two were first performed
before 1593.
The Marlovian theory argues that Marlowe's documented death on 30 May 1593 was faked. Thomas Walsingham
and others are supposed to have arranged the faked death, the main purpose of which was to allow Marlowe to
escape trial and almost certain execution on charges of subversive atheism.[216] The theory then argues that
Shakespeare was chosen as the front behind whom Marlowe would continue writing his highly successful plays.[217]
These claims are founded on inferences derived from the circumstances of his apparent death, stylistic similarities
between the works of Marlowe and Shakespeare, and hidden meanings found in the works and associated texts.
Marlovians note that, despite Marlowe and Shakespeare being almost exactly the same age, the first work linked to
the name William Shakespeare—Venus and Adonis—was on sale, with his name signed to the dedication, just 13
days after Marlowe's reported death,[218] having been registered with the Stationers' Company on 18 April 1593 with
no named author.[219] Lists of verbal correspondences between the two canons have also been compiled.[220]
Marlowe was initially suggested as a candidate in 1884, as a member of a group of authors. He was first proposed as
the sole author in 1895.[221] His candidacy was revived by Calvin Hoffman in 1955 and is now the nearest rival to
Oxford's.[222]

William Stanley, 6th Earl of Derby

William Stanley, 6th Earl of Derby, was first proposed as a candidate in 1891 by
James Greenstreet and later supported by Abel Lefranc and others.[223]
Greenstreet discovered that a Jesuit spy, George Fenner, reported in 1599 that
Derby "is busye in penning commodyes for the common players."[224] That same
year Derby was recorded as financing one of London's two children's drama
companies, Paul's Boys; he also had his own company, Derby's Men, which
played multiple times at court in 1600 and 1601.[225] Derby was born three years
before Shakespeare and died in 1642, so his lifespan fits the consensus dating of
the works. His initials were W. S., and he was known to sign himself "Will",
which qualified him to write the punning "Will" sonnets.[226]

Derby travelled in continental Europe in 1582, visiting France and possibly

William Stanley, 6th Earl of Derby Navarre. Love's Labour's Lost is set in Navarre and the play may be based on
(1561–1642)
events that happened there between 1578 and 1584.[227] Derby married Elizabeth
de Vere, whose maternal grandfather was William Cecil,[228] thought by some
critics to be the basis of the character of Polonius in Hamlet. Derby was associated with William Herbert, 3rd Earl of
Pembroke and his brother Philip Herbert, Earl of Montgomery and later 4th Earl of Pembroke, the "Incomparable
Pair" to whom William Shakespeare's First Folio is dedicated.[229] When Derby released his estates to his son James
around 1628–29, he named Pembroke and Montgomery as trustees. Derby's older brother, Ferdinando Stanley, 5th
Earl of Derby, formed a group of players, the Lord Strange's Men, some of whose members eventually joined the
King's Men, one of the companies most associated with Shakespeare.[230]
Shakespeare authorship question 255

Footnotes
The UK and US editions of Shapiro 2010 differ significantly in pagination. The citations to the book used in this
article list the UK page numbers first, followed by the page numbers of the US edition in parentheses.
[1] Prescott 2010, p. 273: " 'Anti-Stratfordian' is the collective name for the belief that someone other than the man from Stratford wrote the plays
commonly attributed to him."; McMichael & Glenn 1962, p. 56.
[2] Shapiro 2010, pp. 2–3 (3–4).
[3] Kathman 2003, p. 621: "...antiStratfordism has remained a fringe belief system"; Schoenbaum 1991, p. 450; Paster 1999, p. 38: "To ask me
about the authorship question ... is like asking a palaeontologist to debate a creationist's account of the fossil record."; Nelson 2004,
pp. 149–51: "I do not know of a single professor of the 1,300-member Shakespeare Association of America who questions the identity of
Shakespeare ... antagonism to the authorship debate from within the profession is so great that it would be as difficult for a professed
Oxfordian to be hired in the first place, much less gain tenure..."; Carroll 2004, pp. 278–9: "I have never met anyone in an academic position
like mine, in the Establishment, who entertained the slightest doubt as to Shakespeare's authorship of the general body of plays attributed to
him."; Pendleton 1994, p. 21: "Shakespeareans sometimes take the position that to even engage the Oxfordian hypothesis is to give it a
countenance it does not warrant."; Sutherland & Watts 2000, p. 7: "There is, it should be noted, no academic Shakespearian of any standing
who goes along with the Oxfordian theory."; Gibson 2005, p. 30: "...most of the great Shakespearean scholars are to be found in the
Stratfordian camp..."
[4] Sawyer 2003, p. 113.
[5] Shapiro 2010, pp. 87–8 (77–8).
[6] Bate 2002, p. 106.
[7] Shapiro 2010, p. 317 (281).
[8] Gross 2010, p. 39.
[9] Shapiro 2010, pp. 2–3 (4); McCrea 2005, p. 13.
[10] Dobson 2001, p. 31: "These two notions—that the Shakespeare canon represented the highest achievement of human culture, while William
Shakespeare was a completely uneducated rustic—combined to persuade Delia Bacon and her successors that the Folio's title page and
preliminaries could only be part of a fabulously elaborate charade orchestrated by some more elevated personage, and they accordingly
misread the distinctive literary traces of Shakespeare's solid Elizabethan grammar-school education visible throughout the volume as evidence
that the 'real' author had attended Oxford or Cambridge."
[11] Bate 1998, p. 90: "Their [Oxfordians'] favorite code is the hidden personal allusion ... But this method is in essence no different from the
cryptogram, since Shakespeare's range of characters and plots, both familial and political, is so vast that it would be possible to find in the
plays 'self-portraits' of, once more, anybody one cares to think of."; Love 2002, pp. 87, 200: "It has more than once been claimed that the
combination of 'biographical-fit' and cryptographical arguments could be used to establish a case for almost any individual ... The very fact
that their application has produced so many rival claimants demonstrates their unreliability." Shapiro 2010, pp. 304–13 (268–77);
Schoone-Jongen 2008, p. 5: "in voicing dissatisfaction over the apparent lack of continuity between the certain facts of Shakespeare's life and
the spirit of his literary output, anti-Stratfordians adopt the very Modernist assumption that an author's work must reflect his or her life.
Neither Shakespeare nor his fellow Elizabethan writers operated under this assumption."; Smith 2008, p. 629: "...deriving an idea of an author
from his or her works is always problematic, particularly in a multi-vocal genre like drama, since it crucially underestimates the heterogeneous
influences and imaginative reaches of creative writing."
[12] Wadsworth 1958, pp. 163–4: "The reasons we have for believing that William Shakespeare of Stratford-on-Avon wrote the plays and poems
are the same as the reasons we have for believing any other historical event ... the historical evidence says that William Shakespeare wrote the
plays and poems."; McCrea 2005, pp. xii–xiii, 10; Nelson 2004, p. 162: "Apart from the First Folio, the documentary evidence for William
Shakespeare is the same as we get for other writers of the period..."
[13] Love 2002, pp. 198–202, 303–7: "The problem that confronts all such attempts is that they have to dispose of the many testimonies from
Will the player's own time that he was regarded as the author of the plays and the absence of any clear contravening public claims of the same
nature for any of the other favoured candidates."; Bate 1998, pp. 68–73.
[14] Bate 1998, p. 73: "No one in Shakespeare's lifetime or the first two hundred years after his death expressed the slightest doubt about his
authorship."; Hastings 1959, pp. 486–8: "...no suspicions regarding Shakespeare's authorship (except for a few mainly humorous comments)
were expressed until the middle of the nineteenth century".
[15] Dobson 2001, p. 31; Greenblatt 2005: "The idea that William Shakespeare's authorship of his plays and poems is a matter of conjecture and
the idea that the 'authorship controversy' be taught in the classroom are the exact equivalent of current arguments that 'intelligent design' be
taught alongside evolution. In both cases an overwhelming scholarly consensus, based on a serious assessment of hard evidence, is challenged
by passionately held fantasies whose adherents demand equal time."
[16] Price 2001, p. 9: "Nevertheless, the skeptics who question Shakespeare’s authorship are relatively few in number, and they do not speak for
the majority of academic and literary professionals."
[17] Nicholl 2010, p. 3.
[18] Nicholl 2010, p. 3; Shapiro 2010, p. 2 (4).
[19] Shapiro 2010, pp. 246–9 (216–9); Niederkorn 2005.
[20] Prescott 2010, p. 273; Baldick 2008, pp. 17–18; Bate 1998, pp. 68–70; Wadsworth 1958, pp. 2, 6–7.
[21] Matus 1994, p. 15 note.
Shakespeare authorship question 256

[22] Wells 2003, p. 388; Love 2002, p. 198: "...those who believe that other authors were responsible for the canon as a whole ... have been
forced to invoke elaborate conspiracy theories."; Wadsworth 1958, p. 6: "Paradoxically, the skeptics invariably substitute for the easily
explained lack of evidence concerning William Shakespeare, the more troublesome picture of a vast conspiracy of silence about the 'real
author', with a total lack of historical evidence for the existence of this 'real author' explained on the grounds of a secret pact"; Shapiro 2010,
p. 255 (225): "Some suppose that only Shakespeare and the real author were in the know. At the other extreme are those who believe that it
was an open secret".
[23] Bate 2002, pp. 104–5; Schoenbaum 1991, pp. 390, 392.
[24] Shipley 1943, pp. 37–8; Bethell 1991, p. 36; Schoone-Jongen 2008, p. 5; Smith 2008, p. 622: "Fuelled by scepticism that the plays could
have been written by a working man from a provincial town with no record of university education, foreign travel, legal studies or court
preferment, the controversialists proposed instead a sequence of mainly aristocratic alternative authors whose philosophically or politically
occult meanings, along with their own true identity, had to be hidden in codes, cryptograms and runic obscurity."
[25] Nelson 2004, p. 149: "The Shakespeare authorship debate is a classic instance of a controversy that draws its very breath from a fundamental
disagreement over the nature of admissible evidence."; McCrea 2005, pp. 165, 217–8; Shapiro 2010, pp. 8, 48, 112–3, 235, 298 (8, 44, 100,
207, 264).
[26] Schoenbaum 1991, pp. 405, 411, 437; Love 2002, pp. 203–7.
[27] Shapiro 2010, pp. 253–95 (223–59); Love 2002, p. 198.
[28] Wadsworth 1958, pp. 163–4; McCrea 2005, pp. xii–xiii, 10; Nelson 2004, p. 149.
[29] Crinkley 1985, p. 517.
[30] Matus 1994, p. 47: "...on the mysterious disappearance of the accounts of the highest immediate authority over theatre in Shakespeare's age,
the Lord Chamberlains of the Household. Ogburn imagines that these records, like those of the Stratford grammar school, might have been
deliberately eradicated 'because they would have showed how little consequential a figure Shakspere cut in the company.'"
[31] Matus 1994, p. 32: "Ogburn gives voice to his suspicion that the school records disappeared because they would have revealed William's
name did not appear among those who attended it."
[32] Schoenbaum 1991, p. 6; Wells 2003, p. 28; Kathman 2003, p. 625; Shapiro 2010, pp. 116–7 (103); Bevington 2005, p. 9.
[33] Wells 2001, p. 122.
[34] Schoenbaum 1987, p. 295.
[35] Price 2001, pp. 213–7, 262; Crinkley 1985, p. 517: "It is characteristic of anti-Stratfordian books that they make a list of what Shakespeare
must have been—a courtier, a lawyer, a traveler in Italy, a classicist, a falconer, whatever. Then a candidate is selected who fits the list. Not
surprisingly, different lists find different candidates."
[36] Bethell 1991, p. 56.
[37] Baldwin 1944, p. 464.
[38] Baldwin 1944, pp. 164–84; Cressy 1975, pp. 28–9.
[39] Baldwin 1944; Quennell 1963, p. 18: "Tuition at Stratford was free."
[40] Honan 2000, pp. 49–51; Halliday 1962, pp. 41–9; Rowse 1963, pp. 36–44.
[41] Bethell 1991, p. 48.
[42] Nevalainen 1999, p. 336. The low figure is that of Manfred Scheler. The upper figure, from Marvin Spevack, is true only if all word forms
(cat and cats counted as two different words, for example), compound words, emendations, variants, proper names, foreign words,
onomatopoeic words, and deliberate malapropisms are included.
[43] Dawson & Kennedy-Skipton 1966, p. 9.
[44] Nelson 2004, p. 164: "...most anti-Stratfordians claim that he was not even literate. They present his six surviving signatures as proof."
[45] Kathman (1).
[46] Barrell 1940, p. 6: "The main contention of these anti-Stratfordians is that 'William Shakespeare' was a pen-name, like 'Molière,' 'George
Eliot,' and 'Mark Twain,' which in this case cloaked the creative activities of a master scholar in high circles".
[47] Matus 1994, p. 28.
[48] Shapiro 2010, p. 255 (225).
[49] Price 2001, pp. 59–62.
[50] Saunders 1951, pp. 139–64; May 1980, p. 11.
[51] Smith 2008, p. 621: "The plays have to be pseudonymous because they are too dangerous, in a climate of censorship and monarchical
control, to be published openly."
[52] Schoenbaum 1991, pp. 393, 446.
[53] Matus 1994, p. 26.
[54] Shapiro 2010, pp. 116–7 (103–4).
[55] McCrea 2005, pp. 21, 170–1, 217.
[56] Price 2001, pp. 146–8.
[57] Matus 1994, pp. 166, 266–7, cites James Lardner, "Onward and Upward with the Arts: the Authorship Question", The New Yorker, 11 April
1988, p. 103: "No obituaries marked his death in 1616, no public mourning. No note whatsoever was taken of the passing of the man who, if
the attribution is correct, would have been the greatest playwright and poet in the history of the English language."
[58] Bate 1998, p. 63; Price 2001, p. 145.
[59] Price 2001, p. 157; Matus 1991, p. 201.
Shakespeare authorship question 257

[60] Vickers 2006, p. 17.

[61] Bate 1998, p. 20.
[62] Montague 1963, pp. 123–4.
[63] Matus 1994, pp. 265–6; Lang 2008, pp. 29–30.
[64] Shipley 1943, pp. 37–8.
[65] Wadsworth 1958, pp. 163–4; Murphy 1964, p. 4: "For the evidence that William Shakespeare of Stratford-on-Avon (1564–1616) wrote the
works attributed to him is not only abundant but conclusive. It is of the kind, as Sir Edmund Chambers puts it, 'which is ordinarily accepted as
determining the authorship of early literature.'"; Nelson 2004, p. 149: "Even the most partisan anti-Stratfordian or Oxfordian agrees that
documentary evidence taken on its face value supports the case for William Shakespeare of Stratford-upon-Avon ... as author of the poems
and plays"; McCrea 2005, pp. xii–xiii, 10.
[66] Dawson 1953, p. 165: "...in my opinion it is the basic unsoundness of method in this and other works of similar subject matter that explains
how sincere and intelligent men arrive at such wild conclusions"; Love 2002, p. 200; McCrea 2005, p. 14; Gibson 2005, p. 10.
[67] Shapiro 2010, p. 305 (270); Bate 1998, pp. 36–7; Wadsworth 1958, pp. 2–3; Schoone-Jongen 2008, p. 5.
[68] Martin 1965, p. 131.
[69] Murphy 1964, p. 5.
[70] McCrea 2005, pp. 3–7.
[71] Martin 1965, p. 135.
[72] Montague 1963, pp. 93–4; Loomis 2002, p. 83.
[73] Loomis 2002, p. 85; Montague 1963, pp. 93–4.
[74] Montague 1963, pp. 71, 75.
[75] Montague 1963, p. 71; Loomis 2002, p. 104.
[76] Montague 1963, p. 71; Loomis 2002, p. 174.
[77] Loomis 2002, p. 183.
[78] Loomis 2002, p. 209.
[79] Montague 1963, p. 98; Loomis 2002, p. 233.
[80] Loomis 2002, p. 238.
[81] Montague 1963, pp. 77–8.
[82] Nelson 2004, p. 155: "Throughout the First Folio, the author is called 'Mr.' or 'Maister,' a title exactly appropriate to the social rank of
William Shakespeare."
[83] McCrea 2005, pp. 17–9.
[84] Shapiro 2010, pp. 272–3 (239–40).
[85] Shapiro 2010, pp. 254–5 (224–5); Nelson 1998, pp. 79–82.
[86] Schoenbaum 1987, p. 231.
[87] Schoenbaum 1987, pp. 227–8.
[88] Schoenbaum 1987, pp. 231–2; Matus 1994, p. 60.
[89] Schoenbaum 1987, p. 232.
[90] Pendleton 1994, p. 29: "...since he had, as Clarenceux King, responded less than three years earlier to Brooke's attack on the grant of arms to
the father of 'Shakespeare ye Player' ... Camden thus was aware that the last name on his list was that of William Shakespeare of Stratford. The
Camden reference, therefore, is exactly what the Oxfordians insist does not exist: an identification by a knowledgeable and universally
respected contemporary that 'the Stratford man' was a writer of sufficient distinction to be ranked with (if after) Sidney, Spenser, Daniel,
Holland, Jonson, Campion, Drayton, Chapman, and Marston. And the identification even fulfils the eccentric Oxfordian ground-rule that it be
earlier than 1616."
[91] McCrea 2005, pp. 7, 8, 11, 32; Shapiro 2010, pp. 268–9 (236–7).
[92] McCrea 2005, p. 191; Montague 1963, p. 97.
[93] Shapiro 2010, p. 271 (238); Chambers 1930, pp. 218–9.
[94] Shapiro 2010, p. 270 (238).
[95] Shapiro 2010, p. 271 (238–9); Chambers 1930, p. 224; Nicholl 2008, p. 80.
[96] Kathman (3); McMichael & Glenn 1962, p. 41.
[97] Price 1997, pp. 168, 173: "While Hollar conveyed the general impressions suggested by Dugdale's sketch, few of the details were
transmitted with accuracy. Indeed, Dugdale's sketch gave Hollar few details to work with ... As with other sketches in his collection, Dugdale
made no attempt to draw a facial likeness, but appears to have sketched one of his standard faces to depict a man with facial hair.
Consequently, Hollar invented the facial features for Shakespeare. The conclusion is obvious: in the absence of an accurate and detailed
model, Hollar freely improvised his image of Shakespeare's monument. That improvisation is what disqualifies the engraving's value as
authoritative evidence."
[98] Kathman (2).
[99] Kathman (4).
[100] Matus 1994, pp. 121, 220.
[101] Bate 1998, p. 72.
[102] McCrea 2005, p. 9; Bate 2002, pp. 111–2.
Shakespeare authorship question 258

[103] Eaglestone 2009, p. 63; Gelderen 2006, p. 178.

[104] McCrea 2005, pp. 105–6, 115, 119–24; Bate 2002, pp. 109–10.
[105] McCrea 2005, pp. 64, 171; Bate 1998, p. 70.
[106] Lang 2008, pp. 36–7.
[107] Johnson 1969, p. 78.
[108] McCrea 2005, pp. 62–72.
[109] The Shakespeare Clinic 2010.
[110] Elliott & Valenza 2004, p. 331.
[111] Shapiro 2010, p. 288 (253).
[112] Shapiro 2010, pp. 283–6 (249–51).
[113] Simonton 2004, p. 203.
[114] Simonton 2004, p. 210: "If the Earl of Oxford wrote these plays, then he not only displayed minimal stylistic development over the course
of his career (Elliot & Valenza, 2000), but he also wrote in monastic isolation from the key events of his day."
[115] Simonton 2004, p. 210, note 4: "For the record, I find the traditional attribution to William Shakespeare of Stratford highly improbable ... I
really would like Edward de Vere to be the author of the plays and poems ... Thus, I had hoped that the current study might strengthen the case
on behalf of the Oxfordian attribution. I think that expectation was proven wrong."
[116] Shapiro 2010, pp. 293–4 (258–9).
[117] Shapiro 2010, p. 30 (29).
[118] Shapiro 2010, pp. 30–3 (29–32).
[119] Finkelpearl 1990, pp. 4–5.
[120] Friedman & Friedman 1957, pp. 1–4 quoted in McMichael & Glenn 1962, p. 56; Wadsworth 1958, p. 10.
[121] Bate 1998, p. 73; Hastings 1959, p. 486; Wadsworth 1958, pp. 8–16; McCrea 2005, p. 13; Kathman 2003, p. 622.
[122] Schoenbaum 1991, pp. 99–110.
[123] Wells 2003, p. 329.
[124] Dobson 2001, p. 38.
[125] Wadsworth 1958, p. 19: "The Egyptian verdict of the Shakspeare Societies comes to mind; that he was a jovial actor and manager. I can
not marry this fact to his verse."
[126] Dobson 2001, p. 31.
[127] Shapiro 2010, pp. 83–9 (73–9).
[128] Gross 2010, p. 40; Shapiro 2010, pp. 86–9 (76–9).
[129] Wadsworth 1958, pp. 21–3, 29.
[130] Shapiro 2010, pp. 106–9 (95–7).
[131] Shapiro 2010, pp. 119–20 (105–6).
[132] McCrea 2005, p. 13.
[133] Halliday 1957, p. 176.
[134] Schoenbaum 1991, p. 404.
[135] Hackett 2009, p. 164.
[136] Schoenbaum 1991, p. 403.
[137] Wadsworth 1958, pp. 34–5.
[138] Shapiro 2010, pp. 113–4 (100–1); Wadsworth 1958, pp. 34–5.
[139] Schoenbaum 1991, pp. 391–2.
[140] Wadsworth 1958, p. 57; Schoenbaum 1991, p. 412; Hackett 2009, pp. 154–5.
[141] Wadsworth 1958, pp. 55–6.
[142] McMichael & Glenn 1962, p. 199; Wadsworth 1958, pp. 74–5; Niederkorn 2004, pp. 82–5.
[143] Shapiro 2010, pp. 144–5 (127); Wadsworth 1958, pp. 63–4.
[144] Shapiro 2010, p. 144 (127); Wadsworth 1958, p. 64.
[145] Shapiro 2010, pp. 149–58 (130–9).
[146] Wadsworth 1958, pp. 80–4.
[147] Schoenbaum 1991, pp. 422–425
[148] Wadsworth 1958, pp. 88–9; Garber 1997, p. 8.
[149] Wadsworth 1958, p. 86.
[150] Schoenbaum 1991, p. 446; Zeigler 1895, pp. v–xi.
[151] Wadsworth 1958, pp. 106–10.
[152] Greenwood 1908; Wadsworth 1958, pp. 99–100.
[153] Robertson 1913; Vickers 2005.
[154] Wadsworth 1958, pp. 101–2.
[155] Looney 1920.
[156] May 2004, p. 222.
[157] Shapiro 2010, p. 218 (192).
Shakespeare authorship question 259

[158] Webster 1923, pp. 81–6; Wadsworth 1958, p. 155.

[159] Nicoll 1932, p. 128.
[160] Shapiro 2010, pp. 11–4, 319–20 (11–3, 284).
[161] Brooks 1943.
[162] Wadsworth 1958, pp. 135, 139–42.
[163] Shapiro 2010, pp. 228–9 (200–1).
[164] Shapiro 2010, pp. 220–1 (194).
[165] Ogburn & Ogburn 1952.
[166] Wadsworth 1958, p. 127.
[167] Hackett 2009, p. 167.
[168] Shapiro 2010, p. 228 (201).
[169] Schoenbaum 1991, p. 445.
[170] Wadsworth 1958, p. 153.
[171] Shapiro 2010, p. 229 (202).
[172] Quoted in Shapiro 2010, pp. 228–9 (201).
[173] Shapiro 2010, p. 230 (202).
[174] Shapiro 2010, pp. 230–3 (202–5).
[175] Shapiro 2010, pp. 232–3 (204–5).
[176] Bethell 1991, p. 47; Gibson 2005, pp. 48, 72, 124; Kathman 2003, p. 620; Schoenbaum 1991, pp. 430–40; Shapiro 2010, pp. 229–49
(202–19).
[177] Ross (Oxfordian Myths).
[178] Shapiro 2010, pp. 242–3 (212–3).
[179] Shapiro 2010, pp. 234–6 (206–8).
[180] Shapiro 2010, pp. 236–7 (208–9).
[181] Shapiro 2010, p. 238 (209).
[182] Shapiro 2010, p. 238 (209–10).
[183] Bethell 1991.
[184] Matus 1991.
[185] Shapiro 2010, pp. 246–8 (216–8).
[186] Shapiro 2010, pp. 248–9 (218–9); Hackett 2009, pp. 171–2.
[187] Niederkorn 2007.
[188] Shapiro 2010, pp. 4, 42 (5, 39).
[189] Gibson 2005, p. 10.
[190] Wadsworth 1958, pp. 23–4.
[191] Shapiro 2010, pp. 119–20 (105–6); Halliday 1957, p. 175.
[192] Schoenbaum 1991, pp. 387, 389.
[193] Wadsworth 1958, p. 41; Gibson 2005, pp. 151–71; Halliday 1957, p. 177.
[194] Gibson 2005, pp. 57–63; Wadsworth 1958, p. 36.
[195] Halliday 1957, p. 174.
[196] Halliday 1957, p. 176 note.
[197] Bacon 2002, pp. 318, 693.
[198] Wadsworth 1958, pp. 42–50.
[199] Wadsworth 1958, pp. 53–7.
[200] Wadsworth 1958, pp. 62–4.
[201] Ruthven 2001, p. 102.
[202] Blackstone 2002, p. 199; Nelson 2003, pp. 13, 248, 444.
[203] May 1991, pp. 53–4.
[204] Nelson 2003, pp. 386–7.
[205] May 2004, p. 298.
[206] Schoenbaum 1991, pp. 431–2.
[207] Wadsworth 1958, p. 121; McMichael & Glenn 1962, p. 159; Shapiro 2010, p. 239 (210).
[208] Churchill 1958, pp. 47, 106–8.
[209] Schoenbaum 1991, pp. 433–4; Shapiro 2010, p. 294 (258).
[210] McCrea 2005, p. 187.
[211] Shapiro 2010, pp. 220–2 (193–5).
[212] Schoenbaum 1991, p. 438; Shapiro 2010, pp. 221–2 (194–6).
[213] Bethell 1991, p. 47.
[214] Shapiro 2010, p. 223 (196).
[215] Logan 2007, p. 8.
Shakespeare authorship question 260

[216] Schoenbaum 1991, pp. 445–6.

[217] Bate 1998, p. 132.
[218] Schoenbaum 1987, p. 131
[219] Prince 2000, p. xii
[220] Schoenbaum 1991, pp. 446–7.
[221] Schoenbaum 1991, p. 446.
[222] Shapiro 2010, p. 247 (217).
[223] Wadsworth 1958, p. 101.
[224] Gibson 2005, pp. 91–2; Shapiro 2010, p. 215 (189).
[225] Schoone-Jongen 2008, pp. 106, 164.
[226] Shapiro 2010, p. 215 (190).
[227] Lefranc 1918–19, pp. 2, 87–199; Wilson 1969, p. 128; Londré 1997, p. 327.
[228] McCrea 2005, p. 145.
[229] Gibson 2005, p. 274.
[230] McCrea 2005, p. 144.

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Shakespeare authorship question 262

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• Londré, Felicia Hardison (1997). "Elizabethan Views of the 'Other': French, Spanish and Russians in Love's
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2010.
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2010.
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Controversy. Odyssey Press. OCLC 2113359.
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Shakespeare authorship question 263

• Murphy, William M. (1964). "Thirty-six Plays in Search of an Author" (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/

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Quarterly (Folger Shakespeare Library) 49 (1): 74–83. doi:10.2307/2902208. ISSN 0037-3222.
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2010.
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Publishing) 5 (April): 618–32. doi:10.1111/j.1741-4113.2008.00549.x.
• Sutherland, John; Watts, Cedric T. (2000). Henry V, war criminal?: and other Shakespeare puzzles (http://
books.google.com/books?id=M_QGoTWMmMgC). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-283879-7.
Retrieved 16 February 2011.
• Vickers, Brian (19 August 2005). "Idle Worship" (http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/
arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/tls_selections/literature_and_criticism/article2305513.ece). Times Literary
Supplement (5342): p. 6. Retrieved 20 December 2010.
• Vickers, Brian (30 June 2006). "Stratford's wool pack man" (http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/
arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article2342666.ece). Times Literary Supplement (5387): p. 17. Retrieved 19
December 2010.
• Wadsworth, Frank (1958). The Poacher from Stratford: A Partial Account of the Controversy over the Authorship
of Shakespeare's Plays (http://books.google.com/books?id=mSkMAQAAIAAJ). University of California
Press. ISBN 978-0-520-01311-7. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
• Webster, Archie W. (September 1923). "Was Marlowe the Man?" (http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/webster.
htm). National Review LXXXII: pp. 81–6. Retrieved 20 December 2010.
• Wells, Stanley (2001). "Education". In Dobson, Michael; Wells, Stanley. Oxford Companion to Shakespeare.
Oxford Companions to Literature. Oxford University Press. pp. 122–4. ISBN 978-0-19-811735-3.
Shakespeare authorship question 265

• Wells, Stanley (2003). Shakespeare: For All Time (http://books.google.com/books?id=XMrZrA1vomQC).

Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-516093-2. Retrieved 20 December 2010.
• Wilson, J. Dover, ed (1969) [First published 1923]. Love's Labour's Lost (http://books.google.com/
books?id=GQ89AAAAIAAJ). The Cambridge Dover Wilson Shakespeare (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 978-0-521-07542-8. Retrieved 20 December 2010.
• Zeigler, Wilbur Gleason (1895). It Was Marlowe: A Story of the Secret of Three Centuries (http://www.archive.
org/details/itwasmarloweast00zeiggoog). Donohue & Henneberry. OCLC 228707660. Retrieved 13 December
2010.

External links
• The Shakespeare Authorship Page (http://shakespeareauthorship.com/)—a collection of information by David
Kathman and Terry Ross
• All Things Shakespeare (http://willyshakes.com/allshakes.htm)—essays and information by Irvin Leigh Matus
• Shakespeare Authorship Pages (http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~ahnelson/authorsh.html)—a collection of links
to information and research by Alan H. Nelson
• The Shakespeare Authorship Trust (http://www.shakespeareanauthorshiptrust.org.uk/)—an organisation
dedicated to promoting the Shakespeare authorship question

'pataphysics
'Pataphysics (French: 'pataphysique) is a philosophy dedicated to studying what lies beyond the realm of
metaphysics. The term was coined and the concept created by French writer Alfred Jarry (1873–1907), who defined
'pataphysics as "the science of imaginary solutions, which symbolically attributes the properties of objects, described
by their virtuality, to their lineaments." Jarry considered Hippocrates of Chios and Sophrotatos the Armenian as the
fathers of this "science". A practitioner of 'pataphysics is a 'pataphysician or a 'pataphysicist.

Etymology
'Pataphysics is a contraction of the pseudo-Greek term τὰ ἐπὶ τὰ
μετὰφυσικά (ta epi ta metaphusika – "that which is above
metaphysics"), which is a humorous variation of Aristotle's work
Metaphysics, in Greek "τὰ μετὰ τὰ φυσικά" (ta meta ta phusika –
"that which is after physics", meaning "the works after (Aristotle's)
Physics").[1] ) So literally, 'pataphysics means "that which is above that
which is after physics".
Jarry in Alfortville
Jarry mandated the inclusion of the apostrophe in the orthography "to
avoid a simple pun". The term 'pataphysics is a paronym (considered a kind of pun in French) of metaphysics. Since
the apostrophe in no way affects the meaning or pronunciation of 'pataphysics, the term may have been coined
specifically to bring to mind various humorous puns for the listener. These puns include patte à physique (leg of
physics), as interpreted by Jarry scholars Keith Beaumont and Roger Shattuck, pas ta physique (not your physics),
and pâte à physique (physics pastry dough).
'pataphysics 266

History
The term first appeared in print in the text of Alfred Jarry's play Guignol in the 28 April 1893, issue of L'Écho de
Paris littéraire illustré. Jarry later defined it as "the science of imaginary solutions, which symbolically attributes the
properties of objects, described by their virtuality, to their lineaments." (Gestes et opinions du Docteur Faustroll, II,
viii). Raymond Queneau has described 'pataphysics as resting "on the truth of contradictions and exceptions."
The Collège de 'pataphysique, founded on 11 May 1948 in Paris, is a group of artists and writers interested in the
philosophy of 'pataphysics. The motto of the college is Eadem mutata resurgo (I arise again the same though
changed), and its head is His Magnificence, Baron Jean Mollet. According to Warren Motte, noted members of the
college have included Noël Arnaud (Regent of General 'Pataphysics and Clinic of Rhetoriconosis, as well as Major
Confirmant of the Order of the Grand Gidouille), Luc Étienne also known as Luc Etienne Périn (Regent), Latis
(Private General Secretary to the Baron Vice-Curator), François Le Lionnais (Regent), Jean Lescure (Regent of
Anabathmology), and Raymond Queneau (Transcendent Satrap). As such, its members are linked with Oulipo.
Publications of the college include the Cahiers du Collège de 'Pataphysique and the Dossiers du Collège de
'Pataphysique.
The authors Raymond Queneau, Jean Genet, Eugene Ionesco, Boris Vian and Jean Ferry have described themselves
as following the 'pataphysical tradition. 'Pataphysics and 'pataphysicians feature prominently in several linked works
by science fiction writer Pat Murphy. The philosopher Jean Baudrillard is often described as a 'pataphysician and
identified as such for some part of his life.[2] One American writer, Pablo Lopez, has developed an extension of the
"science" called the pataphor.
Although France had been always the center of the 'pataphysical globe, there are followers up in different cities
around the world. In 1966 Juan Esteban Fassio was commissioned to draw the map of the Collège de 'Pataphysique
and its institutes abroad. In the 1950s, Buenos Aires in the Western Hemisphere and Milan in Europe were the first
cities to have 'pataphysical institutes. London, Edinburgh, Budapest, and Liege, as well as many other European
cities, caught up in the sixties. In the 1970s, Germany, Sweden, Switzerland, Canada, The Netherlands, and many
other countries showed that the internationalization of 'pataphysics was irreversible.
In the 1960s 'pataphysics was used as a conceptual principle within various fine art forms, especially pop art and
popular culture. Works within the 'pataphysical tradition tend to focus on the processes of their creation, and
elements of chance or arbitrary choices are frequently key in those processes. Select pieces from the artist Marcel
Duchamp and the composer John Cage characterize this. At around this time, Asger Jorn, a 'pataphysician and
member of the Situationist International, referred to 'pataphysics as a new religion. Rube Goldberg and Heath
Robinson were artists who contrived machines of a 'pataphysical bent.
During the Communist Era, a small group of 'pataphysicists in Czechoslovakia started a journal called PAKO, or
Pataphysical Collegium. Alfred Jarry's plays had a lasting impression on the country's underground philosophical
scene.

In music
• Perhaps the most famous mention of 'pataphysics remains The Beatles' 1969 song, "Maxwell's Silver Hammer",
from Abbey Road.[3]
• Reverend Fred Lane released two critically appreciated albums influenced by 'pataphysical theories as a part of
his involvement with the Raudelunas art collective in Tuscaloosa, Alabama.
• Professor Andrew Hugill, of De Montfort University, Leicester, is a practitioner of 'pataphysical music. He
curated Pataphysics, for the Sonic Arts Network's CD series.[4] A CD entitled 'Pataphysical Piano; the sounds
and silences of Andrew Hugill is available on the UHRecordings label, cat. no. 020011008.
• British progressive rock band Soft Machine has songs "Pataphysical Introduction" parts I and II on their 1969
album Volume Two.
'pataphysics 267

• Japanese psychedelic rock band Acid Mothers Temple refer to the topic on their 1999 release Pataphisical Freak
Out MU!!.
• Autolux, LA based noise pop band, have a song "Science Of Imaginary Solutions" in their second album Transit
Transit.
• The debut album by Ron 'Pate's Debonairs featuring Rev. Fred Lane (his first appearance on vinyl) was entitled
Raudelunas 'Pataphysical Revue (1977), a live theatrical performance. A review in The Wire magazine said, "No
other record has ever come as close to realising Alfred Jarry's desire 'to make the soul monstrous' – or even had
the vision or invention to try."[5]

In visual art
American artist Thomas Chimes developed an interest in Jarry's pataphysics, which became a lifelong passion,
inspiring much of the painter's creative work.
In 2010 the artist KCF Ferreira [6] began a visual exploration into the imaginary solutions for the constructs of reality
(pataphysics=pata art). The exhibit SpektrumMEK that resulted from this endeavor has been put into the book
"SpektrumMEK: a pataphysical gestation to the birth of Lil' t" [7]
The League of Imaginary Scientists, a Los Angeles-based art collective specializing in 'pataphysics-based interactive
experiments. In 2011 they exhibited a series of projects at Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles.

'Pataphor
The 'pataphor (Spanish: patáfora, French: pataphore), is a term coined by writer and musician Pablo Lopez ("Paul
Avion" [8]), for an unusually extended metaphor based on Alfred Jarry's "science" of 'pataphysics. As Jarry claimed
that 'pataphysics existed "as far from metaphysics as metaphysics extends from regular reality," a 'pataphor attempts
to create a figure of speech that exists as far from metaphor as metaphor exists from non-figurative language.
Whereas a metaphor is the comparison of a real object or event with a seemingly unrelated subject in order to
emphasize the similarities between the two, the 'pataphor uses the newly created metaphorical similarity as a reality
with which to base itself. In going beyond mere ornamentation of the original idea, the 'pataphor seeks to describe a
new and separate world, in which an idea or aspect has taken on a life of its own.[9] [10]
Like 'pataphysics itself, 'pataphors essentially describe two degrees of separation from reality (rather than merely one
degree of separation, which is the world of metaphors and metaphysics). The 'pataphor may also be said to function
as a critical tool, describing the world of "assumptions based on assumptions," such as belief systems or rhetoric run
amok. The following is an example.
Non-figurative:
Tom and Alice stood side by side in the lunch line.
Metaphor
Tom and Alice stood side by side in the lunch line; two pieces positioned on a chessboard.
'Pataphor
Tom took a step closer to Alice and made a date for Friday night, checkmating. Rudy was furious at losing to
Margaret so easily and dumped the board on the rose-colored quilt, stomping downstairs.
Thus, the 'pataphor has created a world where the chessboard exists, including the characters who live in that world,
entirely abandoning the original context.
'pataphysics 268

References
[1] http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ pataphysics?r=66
[2] The Jean Baudrillard Reader (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=PiQSLKqNr8oC). Redhead, Steve, Columbia University Press, 2008, pp. 6–7.
2008-03-01. ISBN 9780231146135. . Retrieved 6 June 2009.
[3] Beatles Complete Guitar, Hal Leonard Corporation, 1986
[4] Sonic Arts Network – News (http:/ / www. sonicartsnetwork. org) Archived (http:/ / www. webcitation. org/ 5TO8ovnZr) November 16, 2007
at WebCite
[5] Baxter, Ed (September, 1998). "100 Records That Set The World On Fire . . . While No One Was Listening". The Wire: pp. 35–36.
[6] http:/ / www. kcf. bz
[7] http:/ / www. blurb. com/ books/ 1892197
[8] http:/ / www. paulavion. com/ pata. html
[9] (Spanish) Luis Casado, 'Pataphors And Political Language (http:/ / www. elclarin. cl/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view&
id=5947& Itemid=1189), El Clarin: Chilean Press, 2007
[10] The Cahiers du Collège de 'Pataphysique, n°22 (December 2005), Collège de 'Pataphysique

Bibliography
• Beaumont, Keith (1984). Alfred Jarry: A Critical and Biographical Study. St. Martin's Press.
ISBN 0-3120-1712-X.
• Jarry, Alfred (1980) (in French). Gestes et opinions du Docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien. France: Gallimard.
ISBN 2070321983. ISBN.
• Schonberg, Bo (1986). Beatles Complete Guitar. Hal Leonard Corporation. ISBN 0-88188-605-X.
• Shattuck, Roger (1980). Roger Shattuck's Selected Works of Alfred Jarry: Ubu Cuckolded, Exploits and Opinions
of Doctor Faustroll. Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-5167-1.
• Taylor, Michael R. (2007). Thomas Chimes Adventures in 'Pataphysics. Philadelphia Museum of Art.
ISBN 978-0-87633-253-5.
• Clements, Cal (2002). Pataphysica. iUnivers, Inc.. ISBN 0-595-23604-9.

External links
• (French) Collège de ’Pataphysique (http://www.college-de-pataphysique.org/)
• (French) Philosophie pataphysique (http://perso.orange.fr/claude.ognois/)
• London Institute of 'Pataphysics (http://www.atlaspress.co.uk/theLIP/)
• 'Marcel Duchamp and 'Pataphysics' (http://www.toutfait.com/issues/issue_3/Articles/williams/williams.
html)
• (Italian) Istituto di Patafisica Partenopeo (http://www.xoftp.com/)
• (Czech) Patafyzický občasník Clinamen (http://www.clinamen.cz/)
• (Dutch) De Nederlandse Academie voor 'Patafysica (http://www.www.batafysica.nl/)
• (German) Institut für 'Pataphysik (http://pataphysik.org/)
• Dr. Andrew Hugill, 'Pataphysical Music (http://www.mti.dmu.ac.uk/~ahugill/)
• Pataphysics (http://www.ctheory.net/articles.aspx?id=569) by Jean Baudrillard (translated by Drew Burk)
• Jean Baudrillard's Pataphysics (http://www.ubishops.ca/BaudrillardStudies/vol4_1/nechvatal.htm) by Joseph
Nechvatal
Indiana Pi Bill 269

Indiana Pi Bill
The Indiana Pi Bill is the popular name for bill #246 of the 1897 sitting of the Indiana General Assembly, one of the
most famous attempts to establish scientific truth by legislative fiat. Despite that name, the main result claimed by
the bill is a method to square the circle, rather than to establish a certain value for π, although the bill does contain
text that appears to dictate various incorrect values of π, such as 3.2.
The bill never became law, due to the intervention of a mathematics professor who happened to be present in the
legislature.
The impossibility of squaring the circle using only compass and straightedge, suspected since ancient times, was
rigorously proved in 1882 by Ferdinand von Lindemann. Better approximations of π than those inferred from the bill
have been known since ancient times.

Legislative history
In 1897, Indiana physician and amateur mathematician Edwin J. Goodwin (ca. 1825 - 1902[1] ) believed that he had
discovered a correct way of squaring the circle. He proposed a bill to Indiana Representative Taylor I. Record, which
Record introduced in the House under the title A Bill for an act introducing a new mathematical truth and offered as
a contribution to education to be used only by the State of Indiana free of cost by paying any royalties whatever on
the same, provided it is accepted and adopted by the official action of the Legislature of 1897.
The text of the bill consists of a series of mathematical claims (detailed below), followed by a recitation of
Goodwin's previous accomplishments:
... his solutions of the trisection of the angle, doubling the cube and quadrature of the circle having been
already accepted as contributions to science by the American Mathematical Monthly ... And be it remembered
that these noted problems had been long since given up by scientific bodies as unsolvable mysteries and above
man's ability to comprehend.
Goodwin's "solutions" were indeed published in the AMM, though with a disclaimer of `published by request of the
author'.[2]
The Indiana House of Representatives referred the bill to the Committee on Swamp Lands (or on Canals, according
to some sources). It was transferred to the Committee on Education, which reported favorably, and the bill passed the
House unanimously. As this debate concluded, Purdue University Professor C. A. Waldo arrived in Indianapolis to
secure the annual appropriation for the Indiana Academy of Sciences. An assemblyman handed him the bill, offering
to introduce him to the genius who wrote it. He declined, saying that he already knew as many crazy people as he
cared to.[3]
The Indiana Senate had not yet completed final passage of the bill (which they had referred to the Committee on
Temperance) and Professor Waldo coached enough senators overnight that they postponed the bill indefinitely.
Indiana Pi Bill 270

The mathematics

Approximation of π
Although the bill has become known as the "pi bill", its text does
not mention the name pi at all, and Goodwin appears to have
thought of the ratio between the circumference and diameter of a
circle as distinctly secondary to his main aim of squaring the
circle. Towards the end of Section 2 appears the following
passage:

Furthermore, it has revealed the ratio of the chord and arc of

ninety degrees, which is as seven to eight, and also the ratio
of the diagonal and one side of a square which is as ten to
seven, disclosing the fourth important fact, that the ratio of
the diameter and circumference is as five-fourths to four[.]

Goodwin's model circle as described in section 2 of the

bill. It has a diameter of 10 and a circumference of 32;
the chord of 90° has length 7

[4]
This comes close to an explicit claim that , and that .

This quotation is often read as three mutually incompatible assertions, but they fit together well if the statement
about √2 is taken to be about the inscribed square (with the circle's diameter as diagonal) rather than the square on
the radius (with the chord of 90° as diagonal). Together they describe the circle shown in the figure, whose diameter
is 10 and circumference is 32; the chord of 90° is taken to be 7. Both of the values 7 and 32 are within a few percent
of the true lengths for a diameter-10 circle (which, of course, does not justify Goodwin's presentation of them as
exact).

Area of the circle

Goodwin's main goal was not to measure lengths in the circle but to square it, which he interpreted literally as
finding a square with the same area as the circle. He knew that Archimedes' formula for the area of a circle, which
calls for multiplying the diameter by one fourth of the circumference, is not considered a solution to the ancient
problem of squaring the circle. This is because the problem is to construct the area using compass and straightedge
only, and Archimedes did not give a method for constructing a straight line with the same length as the
circumference. Goodwin was clearly unaware of this central requirement; he believed that the problem with the
Archimedean formula is that it gives wrong numerical results, and that a solution of the ancient problem should
consist of replacing it with a "correct" formula. In the bill he proposed, without argument, his own method:
It has been found that a circular area is to the square on a line equal to the quadrant of the circumference, as
the area of an equilateral rectangle is to the square on one side.[4]
This appears needlessly convoluted, as "equilateral rectangle" can hardly mean anything different from a square. In
the rest of the bill, however, it is clear that the assertion is simply that area of a circle is the same as that of a square
with the same perimeter. For example, right after the above quote the bill goes on to say:
The diameter employed as the linear unit according to the present rule in computing the circle's area is entirely
wrong, as it represents the circle's area one and one-fifth times the area of a square whose perimeter is equal to
the circumference of the circle.
Indiana Pi Bill 271

In the model circle above, the Archimedean area (accepting Goodwin's values for the circumference and diameter)
would be 80, whereas Goodwin's proposed rule leads to an area of 64. Now, 80 exceeds 64 by one fifth of 80, and
Goodwin appears to confuse 64 = 80×(1−1/5) with 80 = 64×(1+1/5), an approximation that works only for fractions
much smaller than 1/5.
The area found by Goodwin's rule is π/4 times the true area of the circle, which in many accounts of the Pi Bill is
interpreted as a claim that π = 4. However, there is no internal evidence in the bill that Goodwin intended to make
such a claim; on the contrary, he repeatedly denies that the area of the circle has anything to do with its diameter.
The relative area error of 1−π/4 works out to about 21 percent, which is much more grave than the approximations
of the lengths in the model circle of the previous section. It is unknown what made Goodwin believe that his rule
could be correct. In general, figures with identical perimeters do not have identical area (see isoperimetry); the
typical demonstration of this fact is to compare a long thin shape with small enclosed area (approaching zero as the
width decreases) to one of the same perimeter that is approximately as tall as it is wide, obviously of much greater
area.

Notes
[1] Dudley 1992, p. 195, citing an obituary
[2] "Clearing the Misunderstanding Re My April Fool's `Joke'" (http:/ / www. math. rutgers. edu/ ~zeilberg/ mamarim/ mamarimhtml/ ClearAFJ)
[3] Indiana pi story (http:/ / www. agecon. purdue. edu/ crd/ Localgov/ Second Level pages/ Indiana_Pi_Story. htm) at a Purdue server
[4] Text of the bill (http:/ / www. agecon. purdue. edu/ crd/ Localgov/ Second Level pages/ indiana_pi_bill. htm)

References
• "Indiana's squared circle" by Arthur E. Hallerberg (Mathematics Magazine, vol. 50 (1977), pp. 136–140) gives a
good account of the bill.
• David Singmaster, in "The legal values of pi" (Mathematical Intelligencer, vol. 7 (1985), pp. 69–72) finds seven
different values of pi implied in Goodwin's work.
• Petr Beckmann, A History of π. St. Martin's Press; 1971.
• Mathematics: From the Birth of Numbers, published by W. W. Norton in 1997 (ISBN 039304002X ), by Jan
Gullberg
• Dudley, Underwood (1992), "Legislating Pi" (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HqeoWPsIH6EC&
pg=PA192), Mathematical cranks, MAA spectrum, Cambridge University Press, pp. 192 sq., ISBN 0883855070

External links
• Full text (http://www.agecon.purdue.edu/crd/Localgov/Second Level pages/indiana_pi_bill.htm) of the bill
• Indiana Pi (http://www.agecon.purdue.edu/crd/Localgov/Second Level pages/Indiana_Pi_Story.htm)
narrative about the near-passing of the bill
• The Straight Dope (http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a3_341.html) article
• Alabama Changes the Value of Pi (http://www.snopes.com/religion/pi.asp) related hoax
Eccentricity (behavior) 272

Eccentricity (behavior)
In popular usage, eccentricity refers to unusual or odd behavior on the
part of an individual. This behavior would typically be perceived as
unusual or unnecessary, without being demonstrably maladaptive.
Eccentricity is contrasted with "normal" behavior, the nearly universal
means by which individuals in society solve given problems and
pursue certain priorities in everyday life. People who consistently
display benignly eccentric behavior are labeled as "eccentrics".

Etymology
From Medieval Latin eccentricus, derived from Greek ekkentros, "out
of the center", from ek-, ex- "out of" + kentron, "center". Eccentric first
appeared in English in 1551 as an astronomical term meaning "a circle Madame de Meuron with her characteristic ear
trumpet and hat, a Swiss eccentric
in which the earth, sun, etc. deviates from its center." Five years later,
in 1556, an adjective form of the word was added. 129 years later, in
1685, the definition evolved from the literal to the figurative, and eccentric began being used to describe
unconventional or odd behavior. A noun form of the word – a person who possesses and exhibits these
unconventional or odd qualities/behaviors – didn't appear until 1832.

Depictions of eccentricity
Eccentricity is often associated with genius, intellectual giftedness, or creativity. The individual's eccentric behavior
is perceived to be the outward expression of their unique intelligence or creative impulse.[1] In this vein, the
eccentric's habits are incomprehensible not because they are illogical or the result of madness, but because they stem
from a mind so original that it cannot be conformed to societal norms. English utilitarian thinker John Stuart Mill
wrote that "the amount of eccentricity in a society has generally been proportional to the amount of genius, mental
vigour, and moral courage which it contained",[2] and mourned a lack of eccentricity as "the chief danger of the
time".[3] Edith Sitwell wrote that eccentricity is "often a kind of innocent pride", also saying that geniuses and
aristocrats are called eccentrics because "they are entirely unafraid of and uninfluenced by the opinions and vagaries
of the crowd".[4] Eccentricity is also believed to be associated with great wealth. What would be considered to be
signs of insanity in a poor person is generally accepted as eccentricity in these people.[5]

Comparison to considerations of normality

A person who is simply in a "fish out of water" situation is not, by the strictest definition, an eccentric since,
presumably, he or she may be ordinary by the conventions of his or her native environment.
Eccentrics may or may not comprehend the standards for normal behavior in their culture. They are simply
unconcerned by society's disapproval of their habits or beliefs. Many of history's most brilliant minds have displayed
many unusual behaviors and habits.
Some eccentrics are pejoratively considered "cranks", rather than geniuses. Eccentric behavior is often considered
whimsical or quirky, although it can also be strange and disturbing. Many individuals previously considered to be
merely eccentric, such as aviation magnate Howard Hughes, have recently been retrospectively-diagnosed as
actually suffering from mental disorders (obsessive–compulsive disorder in Hughes's case). Probably the best
example was Serbian physicist and inventor Nikola Tesla. Another famous eccentric was renowned theoretical
physicist Albert Einstein; his eccentricities included picking up discarded cigarette butts off the street in order to
Eccentricity (behavior) 273

circumvent his doctor's ban on buying tobacco for his pipe, piloting his sailboat on windless days ("for the
challenge"), and lecturing his 8-year-old nephew on physics (including a 2-hour exposition on the Newtonian
properties of soap bubbles).
Other people may have eccentric taste in clothes, or have eccentric hobbies or collections which they pursue with
great vigor. They may have a pedantic and precise manner of speaking, intermingled with inventive wordplay.
Many individuals may even manifest eccentricities consciously and deliberately, in an attempt to differentiate
themselves from societal norms or enhance a sense of inimitable identity; given the overwhelmingly positive
stereotypes (at least in pop culture and especially with fictional characters) often associated with eccentricity,
detailed above, certain individuals seek to be associated with this sort of character type. However, this is not always
successful as eccentric individuals are not necessarily charismatic. And the individual in question may simply be
dismissed by others as just seeking attention.
Extravagance is a kind of eccentricity, related to abundance and wastefulness; refer to description in hyperbole.

Characteristics
Psychologist Dr. David Weeks mentions people with a mental illness "suffer" from their behavior while eccentrics
are quite happy.[6] [7] He even states eccentrics are less prone to mental illness than everyone else.
According to studies, there are eighteen distinctive characteristics that differentiate a healthy eccentric person from a
regular person or someone who has a mental illness (although some may not always apply). The first five are in most
people regarded as eccentric:[6]
• Nonconforming attitude
• Idealistic
• Intense curiosity
• Happy obsession with a hobby or hobbies
• Knew very early in his or her childhood they were different from others
• Highly intelligent
• Opinionated and outspoken
• Unusual living or eating habits
• Not interested in the opinions or company of others
• Mischievous sense of humor
• Usually male, the eldest, youngest or an only child

References
[1] Stares, Justin (2005-11-06). "Einstein, eccentric genius, smoked butts picked up off street" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ worldnews/
europe/ belgium/ 1502358/ Einstein-eccentric-genius-smoked-butts-picked-up-off-street. html). The Daily Telegraph (London). . Retrieved
2006-09-27.
[2] "Mill, John Stuart quote – Eccentricity has always abounded when and where strength of character" (http:/ / quotationsbook. com/ quote/
11729/ ). Quotationsbook.com. 2007-07-30. . Retrieved 2010-03-12.
[3] "Famous John Stuart Mill Quotes" (http:/ / www. philosophyparadise. com/ quotes/ mill. html). Philosophy Paradise. . Retrieved 2010-03-12.
[4] "Quote by Edith Sitwell: "Eccentricity is not, as some would believe..."" (http:/ / www. goodreads. com/ quotes/ show/ 93314). Goodreads. .
Retrieved 2010-04-19.
[5] Battaglia, Debbora (1995-02-03). "On Eccentricity" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=zNL6_YSNv74C& pg=PA48). Rhetorics of
self-making. University of California Press. pp. 48–49. ISBN 9780520087996. . Retrieved 10 November 2010.
[6] Weeks, David and James, Jamie (1995) Eccentrics: A study of Sanity and Strangeness, Villiard, ISBN 0394565657
[7] "Interview with David Weeks – "Nutrition Health Review", Winter, 1996" (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m0876/ is_n75/
ai_18356303/ ). Findarticles.com. 2009-06-02. . Retrieved 2010-03-12.
Donna Kossy 274

Donna Kossy
Donna Kossy
Born Donna J. Kossy1957 (age 53–54)

Occupation writer, folklorist

Citizenship United States

Period since 1984 (zine)

since 1994 (book)

Subjects weird ideas and beliefs, "kooks", pseudoscience, fringe science, conspiracy theory, UFO, obscure books

Notable work(s) Kooks (1994)

Strange Creations (2001)

[1]

Donna J. Kossy (born 1957) is a U.S. writer, zine publisher, and online used book dealer based in Portland, Oregon.
Specializing in the history of "forgotten, discredited and extreme ideas",[2] which she calls "crackpotology and
kookology",[2] she is better known for her books Kooks: A Guide to the Outer Limits of Human Belief (1994,
featuring the first biography of Francis E. Dec) and Strange Creations: Aberrant Ideas of Human Origins from
Ancient Astronauts to Aquatic Apes (2001). Kossy was also the founder and curator of the Kooks Museum
(1996–1999, online), and the editor-publisher of the magazine Book Happy (1997–2002, about "weird and obscure
books"[3] ).
Described by Wired as "an expert on kooks [who] has a genuine, if sometimes uncomfortable, affection for her
subjects",[4] Kossy wrote books reviewed from Fortean Times to New Scientist. Journalist Jonathan Vankin named
her "the unchallenged authority on, well, kooks",[5] and writer Bruce Sterling noted that she "boldly blazes new trails
in the vast intellectual wilderness of American writers, thinkers and philosophers who were or are completely
nuts".[6]

Life

Early life
Donna J. Kossy was born in 1957.[7] She started doing zines in sixth grade,[3] co-editing Kid Stuff with a friend: "It
had gossip, fashions, poetry, jokes and even movie reviews. It sold for 5 cents. My mom typed it up and Xeroxed it
at work!"[3] After graduating college in 1979, Kossy became involved in punk culture via collage art, color xerox
postcards and mail art.
Kossy eventually became a computer programmer,[4] but also published zines because "Publishing is power, pure
and simple",[3] and turned "author and folklorist."[4]
Donna Kossy 275

Adult life
At one time, Kossy was the housemate of fellow zine maker Pagan Kennedy.[8] She attuned Chicago writer Dan
Kelly to cult "kook" Francis E. Dec.[9] In the early 1980s, she was part of the Processed World (PW) magazine, then
romantically involved with anti-PW and ex-SubGenius anarchist Bob Black[10] until 1987, moving with him to
Boston in 1985.
In 1989, research for her Kooks Magazine led Kossy to abandon much of her other work.[11] She is now married to
Ken DeVries (a.k.a. Orton Nenslo), also a member of the Church of the SubGenius and contributor to their books,
who provided some illustrations for her books and some articles for her website.

Works

False Positive (1984–1988)

In 1984, Kossy started publishing False Positive (1984–1988), a Xeroxed zine which ran for eleven issues. Each
issue focused on one topic (such as technology, sex, Japan, cars, crime, kooks, food & drugs) and featured related
book excerpts, satire, collages, drawings, etc.[3]
The zine and Kossy were quoted by Discordianism co-founder Kerry Thornley (alias Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst) in
his 1991 foreword to the 5th edition of the Principia Discordia,[12] reprinting the "Manifesto of the Artistic Elite of
the Midwest". Kossy said that her "career as a crackpotologist"[13] started there with the "Kooks Pages" within each
issue and the two special all-kooks issues.

Kooks Magazine (1988–1991)

In 1988, Kossy started publishing Kooks Magazine (1988–1991), now using offset printing and running for eight
issues. A spinoff of the kooks pages of her zine,[3] it was in line with the 1988 book High Weirdness by Mail[4] by
SubGenius co-founder Rev. Ivan Stang (who later praised[14] the collected book) and featured obscure "kooks" as
well as some better-documented "cranks" such as reclusive Spider-Man co-creator Steve Ditko[15] in its final issue
(#8, November 1991).
In Factsheet Five, the zine magazine, founder-editor Mike Gunderloy described it as "A collection of bizarre
literature and semi-scholarly research on kooks: those folks who have all the answers that science and the authorities
have been trying to suppress. This issue features [...] progress towards a theory of kookdom."[16] then reported one
year later that it "keeps getting better; you can spend hours lost in the worldviews here."[17] SubGenius and writer
Richard Kadrey described it as "indispensable for anyone interested in the real bleeding edge of thought."[18]
Research for the topic even led Kossy to attend a recruitment meeting of Heaven's Gate (when it was calling itself
Human Individual Metamorphosis),[19] the cult that ended in a 1997 mass suicide.

Kooks (1994)
In 1994, Feral House published Kossy's first book, Kooks: A Guide to the Outer Limits of Human Belief, an
anthology containing updated articles from her zine along with articles written exclusively for the book, with the
cover illustration painted by her husband. Organized into seven parts (Religion, Science, Metaphysics, Politics,
Conspiracy, Enigmas; plus Outtakes in the 2nd ed.), it documented the rants and ravings of "kooks" such as Richard
Brothers (Anglo-Israelism alias British Israelism), Charles E. Buon (God's Envoy to the U.S.A.), Ray Crabtree (The
Philosopher King), the first biography of Francis E. Dec (Your Only Hope against the Gangster Computer God),
Professor Arnold Ehret (Mucusless Diet Healing System), Joe Gould alias Professor Seagull (The Longest Book
Ever Written), Jim and Lila Green (Aggressive Christianity Missionary Training Corps), Hillman Holcomb (Well
Regulated Militia of Christian Technocracy), Les U. Knight (Voluntary Human Extinction Movement), alien
abductee artist Paul Laffoley (Third Generation Lunatic Fringe), Alfred Lawson (Lawsonomy: The Base for
Donna Kossy 276

Absolute Knowledge), David Linton (How Men Can Have Babies), Emil Matalik (World/U.S. Presidential
Candidate Since 1964), the MIT's crank files (The Archive of Useless Research), Rose Mokry (Jewish Poisoners Are
the Sole Producers of All the Diseases, Sudden Deaths and Birth Defects), Dr. Cyrus Teed (not Cyrus Tweed) alias
Koresh (Koreshanity: We Actually Live on the Inside of the Earth), black supremacist Dwight York alias Malachi Z.
York et al. (Ansaaru Allah Community of Nuwaubianism), etc.
The book was praised as "a rich compendium of looniness"[20] by the Los Angeles Times, "indispensable for anyone
interested in the real cutting edge of thought"[21] by the San Francisco Chronicle, and a "delight"[22] by Fortean
Times. In Factsheet Five, the new editor R. Seth Friedman recommended it with, "I've been anxiously awaiting this
book ever since Donna Kossy told me about her plans several years ago. [...] Don't miss out on this book."[11] Jay
Kinney, publisher of Gnosis Magazine, found it "Compulsively readable. The 'kooks' collected in this volume are our
true American originals and Donna Kossy chronicles their jaw-dropping messages with a rare mix of objectivity,
sympathy, and wit."[13] And a 1995 Wired review described Kossy as "an expert on kooks [who] has a genuine, if
sometimes uncomfortable, affection for her subjects."[4]

Kooks Outtakes (1995)

In 1995, Kooks Outtakes followed its namesake, being a 36-page supplement of material Kossy had left out for space
reason; it was later merged with the second edition of the book in 2001, which the editor of Ink 19 praised, noting
that "Kossy's style is direct and surprisingly unjudgemental. [...] Kossy is quite systematic in her research, and
margin comments abound, along with a lush bibliography. This is serious stuff."[23]

Kooks Museum (1996–1999)

In 1996, Kossy founded and curated on her web site the Kooks Museum (an online summary and extension of her
book Kooks, updated until mid-1999 when it was discontinued[13] and kept as an archive), explaining: "As curator
and founder of the first Kooks Museum in history I am fulfilling a half-life-long goal of housing kook ideas from all
over the world under one crumbling roof. [...] The point of all this excess is neither to debunk nor to proselytize.
Rather, my intent is to document and study the vast cornucopia of forgotten, discredited and extreme ideas, with all
due consideration to social and cultural context. Nor do I think all ideas are equally valid. Rather, I try to be both
open-minded to and skeptical of them."[2]
The Museum was listed in the MetroActive guide to "the most interesting, unusual, weird or otherwise alternative
sites on the World Wide Web" by journalist and writer on conspiracies Jonathan Vankin, who named Kossy "the
unchallenged authority on, well, kooks."[5]

Book Happy (1997–2002)

In 1997, Kossy started editing and publishing Book Happy (1997–2002), a printed magazine which ran for seven
issues. Written by Kossy and others (recurrent contributors includes Greg Bishop, Ken DeVries, Dan Howland, Dan
Kelly, John Marr, Chris Mikul, David C. Morrison, Chip Rowe, Brian Tucker, Robert Tucker), it was dedicated to
reviewing "weird and obscure books".[3]
The magazine was complemented by her web site (later becoming its domain name) and the formation of Book
Happy Booksellers ([13] ) an online used book business specializing in unusual and hard-to-find items, with inventory
listed on various book listing sites including Abebooks, Biblio, Alibris, Choosebooks and others. Book Happy was
reviewed positively by English artist Mark Pawson (creator of Die-Cut Plug Wiring Diagram Book) in a 1999 review
for the British cultural magazine Variant.[24]
Donna Kossy 277

Strange Creations (2001)

In 2001, Feral House published Kossy's second full-length book, Strange Creations: Aberrant Ideas of Human
Origins from Ancient Astronauts to Aquatic Apes (right after reprinting Kooks in an expanded edition). As of August
1998, Kossy had already announced the manuscript for her second book as being finished (with a tentative title
balancing between "Aberrant Anthropology" and "Nazis, Saucers and Aquatic Apes")[2] and its publication at Feral
House scheduled for "Fall, 1999";[2] it would however be two more years before the actual release.
Organized into seven parts (Extraterrestrial Origins, De-evolution, Race, Eugenics, Creationism, The Aquatic Ape
Theory, and Urantia/Szukalski/H.I.M.), the book documented the fringe and pseudoscientific theories of "crackpots"
such as David Barclay (mankind as dinosaurs pets), Helena Blavatsky (The Seven Root Races of Theosophy),
Darwin's cousin Francis Galton (inventor of eugenics against regression toward the mean), Henry H. Goddard
(inventor of moronism with The Kallikak Family), Madison Grant (Nordicism and scientific racism), Finnvald Hedin
(The Thorians), Brinsley Le Poer Trench (UFOs from Hollow Earth), slave trader Edward Long (Polygenism: Man
Comes From God, Negroes Come From Apes), Oscar Kiss Maerth (The Beginning Was the End: ape brain
cannibalism), Alfred W. McCann (creationism), Elaine Morgan (aquatic ape hypothesis), Raël (creation by
extraterrestrials), B. H. Shadduck (de-evolution), Zecharia Sitchin (ancient astronauts), Lothrop Stoddard
(Pan-Aryanism and racial purity), Stanisław Szukalski (Zermatism: post-deluge Easter Island vs. Yetis), the Urantia
Book (intelligent design by Life Carriers), George Van Tassel (Space Brothers aliens), Erich von Däniken (Ancient
Astronauts from the Chariots of the Gods?), etc.
The book was praised from Fortean Times[22] to Booklist[25] and from the Washington City Paper[19] to
Counterpoise.[20] In a mixed review, the New Scientist noted that "Donna Kossy's Strange Creatures [sic!] is about
people who have spent rather more time on these problems than most, visiting some of the weirder reaches of the
human imagination".[26] And Rev. Ivan Stang remarked: "To write entertainingly for 'nonkooks' about so-called
kooks, crackpots, and possible visionaries requires walking a tightrope between tolerant understanding of 'outsider'
psychology and graceful sarcasm, balancing both a solid grounding in the mainstream scientific paradigm, and a
healthy distrust of the status quo."[13]
Science-fiction writer Bruce Sterling, who also touched upon online cranks in his essay "Electronic Text",
commented that "Donna Kossy boldly blazes new trails in the vast intellectual wilderness of American writers,
thinkers, and philosophers who were or are completely nuts. Kooks ranks with such sociological classics as Mackay's
Extraordinary Popular Delusions and Dudley's Mathematical Cranks. This, for obvious reasons, is a book which
every science fiction writer should possess."[13] [6] In her own words, Kossy has stated, "I seek not to debunk strange
ideas, but to present them as a necessary segment of the full spectrum of human thought."[27]
Kossy is currently focused on her bookselling business and from November 2007 to September 2008 wrote a blog,
"The Cutthroat World of Book Scouting" (http:/ / bookhappy. easyjournal. com), which chronicled her experiences
in the book trade.
Donna Kossy 278

Bibliography

Magazines
• 1984–1988: False Positive #1–11 (aka False Positive Magazine)
#1 (1984), #2–4 (1985), #5–8 (1986), #9 (1987), #10–11 (1988). Allston, MA (Boston, MA for #1):
Out-of-Kontrol Data Korporation, no ISSN (OCLC 61886364). 8½" × 11", Xeroxed zine, about 20–52 p., was
$3.
• 1988–1991: Kooks Magazine #1–8 (alias The Original Donna Kossy's Kooks Magazine for #1–4)
#1 (1988), #2–4 (1989), #5–6 (1990), #7–8 (1991).[28] Allston, MA: Out-of-Kontrol Data Institute,
ISSN 1045-103X (OCLC 21343961). 8½" × 11", offset magazine (except #1, 5½" × 8½", Xeroxed), 20–40 p.,
was $3–$5. — The OCLC's start date is incorrect.
• 1997–2002: Book Happy #1–7 (aka Book Happy Magazine)
#1 (1997), #2–3 (1998), #4 (1999), #5 (2000), #6 (2001), #7 (2002).[29] By Donna Kossy (ed., reviews) &
various (reviews); Portland, OR: Book Happy, no ISSN (OCLC 39752380). 8½" × 11", offset magazine, total
232 p., was $6.

Books
• 1994: Kooks: A Guide to the Outer Limits of Human Belief
Portland, OR: Feral House. ISBN 0-922915-19-9 (1st ed. pbk., 254 p., May 1994, LCCN 96-195497) and
ISBN 0-922915-20-2 (1st ed. hbk., 254 p., May 1994). Reissued by Los Angeles: Feral House, ISBN
978-0-922915-67-5 (2nd exp. ed. pbk., 287 p., May 2001) — Collects material from her Kooks Magazine. The
2nd ed. was expanded with 1995's Kooks Outtakes.
• 1995: Kooks Outtakes [supplement]
8½" × 11", 36 p. — Material cut from Kooks due to space, later added to its 2nd edition.
• 1996: The Kooks Museum [online]
Web site (OCLC 77656278), updated 1996–1999 (archived mid-1999), formerly at
www.teleport.com/~dkossy, now a subsite of home.pacifier.com/~dkossy — Updated summary and extension
of Kooks.
• 2001: Strange Creations: Aberrant Ideas of Human Origins from Ancient Astronauts to Aquatic Apes
Los Angeles: Feral House. ISBN 978-0-922915-65-1 (1st ed. pbk., 264 (x, 253) p., June 2001).

References

Sources
Main sources used for this article:
• Bagato, Jeff (2002). "Kooks Chronicles: Strange Creations" (book review) [30], Washington City Paper, May
17–23, 2002 (Vol. 22, #20)
• Bennett, Colin (2001). "Strange Creations / Kooks" (book reviews) [31], Fortean Times Online, May 2001
• Feral House (2009). "Kooks" [32], feralhouse.com, consulted in March 2009
• Feral House (2009). "Strange Creations" [33], feralhouse.com, consulted in March 2009
• Gale Reference Team (2007). "Biography - Kossy, Donna J. (1957-)" [34], Contemporary Authors,
Thomson-Gale, December 16, 2007 (pay article via Amazon.com) — Not consulted, but title provides birth date
• Kossy, Donna (1998). "Introduction to the Kooks Museum" [35] (Archive.org copy of 1998), updated August 17,
1998, at the old teleport.com/~dkossy — The introduction text was probably written in 1996, but this is the oldest
snapshot.
Donna Kossy 279

• Kossy, Donna (1999). "The Kooks Museum Gift Shoppe" [36] (Archive.org copy of 1999), at the old
teleport.com/~dkossy — Holds pull quotes and bibliographical data.
• Kossy, Donna (2009). "Not Yet Asked Questions" [37], consulted in March 2009
• Kossy, Donna (2009). "Ordering Information" [38], consulted in March 2009 — Some bibliographical data.
• Turnaround (2009). "Kooks (2nd Edition)" [39], Turnaround Publisher Services, www.turnaround-uk.com,
consulted in March 2009
• Van Bakel, Rogier (1995). "Street Cred: A Guide to the Outer Limits of Human Belief" (book review) [40], Wired,
Issue 3.09, September 1995
• Vankin, Jonathan (1996). "The Kooks Museum" [41] (Archive.org copy of 1997), CyberScape: AlterNodes,
MetroActive (online version of Metro Silicon Valley), 1996
• Zines (1997). "Donna Kossy, Kooks" (interview) [42], The Book of Zines, www.zinebook.com, 1997[43]

Further reading
• Kossy, Donna (1995–1997). Curator's Corner #1-7 [44] (Archive.org copy of 1998, JavaScript required) –
Personal notes from the old Kooks Museum site, contains biographical data, including the Heaven's Gate cult
meeting.
• FOIA (2000). "Federal Bureau of Investigation - Freedom of Information Act - Case Log January, 2000 through
December 31, 2000" [45], The Memory Hole, www.thememoryhole.org, consulted in March 2009 — Shows that
Kossy was granted a FOIA from the FBI about Kenneth Goff (alias Oliver Kenneth Goff, 1909–1972;
self-alleged ex-member of the Communist Party, proponent of the water fluoridation conspiracy theory, and one
of the two possible authors, along Scientology founder L. Ron Hubbard, of the Brainwashing Manual).
• Gale Reference Team (2007). "Biography - Kossy, Donna J. (1957-)" [34], Contemporary Authors,
Thomson-Gale, December 16, 2007 (pay article via Amazon.com)

Notes
[1] http:/ / www. book-happy. com/
[2] Kossy 1998, "Introduction to the Kooks Museum".
[3] Zines 1997.
[4] Van Bakel 1995.
[5] Vankin 1996.
[6] Turnaround, "Kooks".
[7] Gale 2007.
[8] Blume, Harvey (1996). "Zine Queen: Pagan Kennedy on zines in the age of Web" (p. 2) (http:/ / www. wired. com/ wired/ archive/ 4. 01/
kennedy. html?pg=2), Wired, Issue 4.01, January 1996.
[9] Kelly, Dan (2005). "I've grown accustomed to your rants" (http:/ / www. chicagojournal. com/ main. asp?SectionID=1& SubSectionID=1&
ArticleID=123& TM=52420. 3), Chicago Journal, February 2, 2005
[10] Black, Bob (1989). "Bomb 'Em If They Can't Take a Joke" (http:/ / www. inspiracy. com/ black/ bomb. html), 1989, reprinted at
www.inspiracy.com/black (from the other side, also reprinted (http:/ / www. subgenius. com/ subg-digest/ v0/ 0189. html) and discussed
(http:/ / www. subgenius. com/ subg-digest/ v0/ 0197. html) at SubGenius.com)
[11] Friedman, R. Seth (1994). "Kooks: A Guide to the Outer Limits of Human Belief" (review), Factsheet Five, No. 52, July 1994,
ISSN 0890-6823, p. 44: "I've been anxiously awaiting this book ever since Donna Kossy told me about her plans several years ago. I was first
introduced to the intriguing phenomena of kooks in her first zine False Positive. In 1989 she abandoned much of her other work in order to
produce Kooks Magazine, completely devoted to documenting the ideas of people whose visions of the world don't correlate with the rest of
us. It will take most people months to get through this entire 253-page volume just as it took her years to create it. [...] Don't miss out on this
book. It's the one chance you'll get to find out how 'men can have babies' and if JFK is still alive."
[12] Thornley, Kerry (1991). "Fifth Edition Introduction" (http:/ / www. cs. cmu. edu/ ~tilt/ principia/ intro5. html), in Principia Discordia,
January 23, 1991, online copy at www.cs.cmu.edu/~tilt/principia
[13] Kossy, "Ordering Information".
[14] Stang, Ivan. "The Best Book on Real KOOKS" (http:/ / www. subgenius. com/ bigfist/ bulldada/ X0030_NT2LATE2. TXT. html),
www.subgenius.com
[15] Ditko Fever. "Kooks Magazine #8" (http:/ / www. ditko-fever. com/ magskooks. html), www.ditko-fever.com, consulted in March 2009
Donna Kossy 280

[16] Gunderloy, Mike (1989). "The Original Donna Kossy's Kooks Magazine #4" (notice), Factsheet Five, No. 32, October 1989,
ISSN 0890-6823, p. 45.
[17] Gunderloy, Mike (1990). "Kooks Magazine #6" (notice), Factsheet Five, No. 38, October 1990, ISSN 0890-6823, p. 34.
[18] Kadrey, Richard (1998). "Kooks" (review) (http:/ / www. streettech. com/ bcp/ BCPgraf/ CyberCulture/ kooks. htm), CyberCulture Zone:
Resources: Zines, Street Tech, www.streettech.com, copyright 1998 — Original date and place of publication unclear: issue #5 is mentioned
as if recent, which would be around 1990–1991.
[19] Bagato 2000.
[20] Feral House, "Kooks", citing this September 18, 1994 book review (http:/ / pqasb. pqarchiver. com/ latimes/ access/ 59614921.
html?dids=59614921:59614921& FMT=ABS& FMTS=ABS:FT& date=Sep+ 18,+ 1994& author=Tom+ Frick& pub=Los+ Angeles+ Times+
(pre-1997+ Fulltext)& desc=NONFICTION& pqatl=google).
[21] Powell's Books, "Kooks" (sale page) (http:/ / www. powells. com/ biblio/ 0922915199)
[22] Bennet 2001.
[23] Koss, Ian (2001). "Kooks, by Donna Kossy" (review) (http:/ / www. ink19. com/ issues/ august2001/ streaks/ kooks. html), Ink 19, August
2001, www.ink19.com
[24] Pawson, Mark (1999). "Comic and Zine reviews" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20040121180706/ http:/ / www. variant. randomstate. org/
9texts/ MarkPawson. html) (Archive.org copy of 2004), Variant magazine (Glasgow, Scotland), ISSN 0954-8815, vol. 2, no. 9 (Winter
1999/2000), online copy at www.variant.randomstate.org (www.variant.org.uk)
[25] Quoted in "Strange Creations" (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ dp/ 0922915652) at Amazon.com.
[26] Herbert, Roy (2001). "Where did we come from?" (book review) (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg17123075. 800), New Scientist
2307:49, September 8, 2001.
[27] Kossy in Strange Creations (2001).
[28] AbeBooks (2009). "Author: Donna Kossy, Title: Kooks Magazine" (search results) (http:/ / www. abebooks. com/ search/ sortby/ 7/ an/
Donna+ Kossy/ tn/ Kooks+ Magazine), www.abebooks.com, consulted in March 2009 — Bibliographical data of the full run (8 issues) for
sale.
[29] AbeBooks (2009). "Author: Donna Kossy, Title: Book Happy" (search results) (http:/ / www. abebooks. com/ search/ sortby/ 7/ an/ Donna+
Kossy/ tn/ Book+ Happy), www.abebooks.com, consulted in March 2009 — Bibliographical data of the full run (7 issues) for sale.
[30] http:/ / www. washingtoncitypaper. com/ display. php?id=23789
[31] http:/ / www. forteantimes. com/ reviews/ books/ 429/ strange_creations_kooks. html
[32] http:/ / feralhouse. com/ titles/ kulchur/ kooks. php
[33] http:/ / feralhouse. com/ titles/ kulchur/ strange_creations. php
[34] http:/ / www. amazon. com/ o/ asin/ B0007SJSJY/
[35] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 19981203074545/ http:/ / www. teleport. com/ ~dkossy/
[36] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 19990210112108/ www. teleport. com/ ~dkossy/ giftshop. html
[37] http:/ / home. pacifier. com/ ~dkossy/ NYAQ. html
[38] http:/ / home. pacifier. com/ ~dkossy/ orderinfo. html
[39] http:/ / www. turnaround-uk. com/ kooks-2nd-edition
[40] http:/ / www. wired. com/ wired/ archive/ 3. 09/ streetcred. html?pg=7
[41] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 19970617041907/ http:/ / www. metroactive. com/ cyber/ nod/ nd-kook. html
[42] http:/ / www. zinebook. com/ interv/ kooks. html
[43] Undated interview, 1997 assumed: the mention "age 39" implies 1996–1997 (added to birth year 1957); the mention "I recently started a
new zine now called Book Happy" implies 1997 (first issue).
[44] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 19981206080101/ http:/ / www. teleport. com/ ~dkossy/ curcor. html
[45] http:/ / www. thememoryhole. org/ foi/ caselogs/ fbi_2000. txt

External links
• Book-Happy.com (http://www.book-happy.com/) – Donna Kossy's official website (redirected to
pacifier.com/~dkossy (http://home.pacifier.com/~dkossy/))
• Book Happy Booksellers (http://www.abebooks.com/servlet/BooksBrowse?vendorclientid=837243) at
AbeBooks
• Donna Kossy (http://www.facebook.com/people/Donna-Kossy/1123794248) at Facebook
• (http://web.archive.org/web/20080215015348/http://www.pacifier.com/~dkossy/kooksmus.html) The
Kooks Museum (http://home.pacifier.com/~dkossy/kooksmus.html)
Francis E. Dec 281

Francis E. Dec
Francis E. Dec
Born Francis DecJanuary 6, 1926Hempstead Village, New York, U.S.

Died January 21, 1996 (aged 70)Queens, New York, U.S.

Ethnicity Polish American

Citizenship United States

Education Bachelor of Arts (1950), Law (1950–1954)

Alma mater St. John's University (New York), Brooklyn Law School

Occupation notary public, attorney at law

Years active ~1951–1959

Known for conspiracy theory rants

Title Esquire

Term 1954–1959

Francis E. Dec (January 6, 1926 – January 21, 1996) was a U.S. lawyer from Hempstead Village, New York,
disbarred for fraud in 1959, and later known for the bizarre socio-political tracts of conspiracy theories he
mass-mailed to the media. Often denouncing a "Worldwide Mad Deadly Communist Gangster Computer God"[1]
mind-controlling mankind, Dec is considered to have been a paranoid schizophrenic of the influencing-machine
delusion kind, and is often referred to as a "kook".[2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7]
Not unlike Ed Wood, Dec later became a cult figure referenced in underground culture. He was the subject of a 1994
book chapter, a 1998 comics, and a 1999 stage play; he also made his way into the folklores of the Discordians and
the Church of the SubGenius. His rants have been reprinted in a 1983 issue of Robert Crumb's magazine Weirdo and
circulated since 1986 from recordings by KROQ-FM host Doc Britton; they have been sampled in 1991 and 2004 by
Psychic TV, in 2004 by Venetian Snares, and inspired a Coldcut album in 2005; they have been archived as outsider
art by UbuWeb and WFMU; they spawned a fanclub and website; they have also been used as a gauge in 1994 for
"kook typography" and in 1998 for the entropy of the undeciphered Voynich manuscript.

Life

Early life
Francis E. Dec was born on January 6, 1926,[8] in the Nassau County, Long Island community of Hempstead
Village, New York (a Black and Latino majority neighborhood, accounting later for its frequent racist designations
in Dec's rants) and appears to have lived there for most of his life (except for his military service). His middle name
is not established: there is only "[+]*Francis [-]Frank Dec"[8] on his birth certificate, and "Dec Francis E"[9] on his
army's enlistment record.
He was the son of two Polish immigrants, butcher John F. Dec (John Frank Dec, June 23, 1893 – August, 1971; born
Jan Dec)[8] [10] and servant turned housewife Rose M. Dec (~1889/1890 – death unknown; born Rozalia Jaronek or
Rosalia Jronek).[8] [11] Both of Dec's parents were born in Poland (his mother from the Polish part of what was then
Galicia) and immigrated to the United States, his mother in 1910 and his father in 1912, and were married circa
1920–1921.[12]
Dec also had an older brother, Joseph I. Dec (born in 1921, was alive in 2006,[13] died in December 2010 [14] ),
whom he mentions in several of his rants as "his only brother".[15] Dec later wrote[16] of attending a Catholic
Francis E. Dec 282

grammar school taught by nuns, and appears to have completed at least three years of high school[9] before he
volunteered for military service in World War II.

Military life
Dec enlisted on April 13, 1944[9] as a private in the United States Army Air Forces, "for the duration of the War or
other emergency, plus six months".[9] After six weeks of basic training at Keesler Field near Biloxi, Mississippi, he
was enrolled in the Army Air Forces Technical School in Sioux Falls, South Dakota. He graduated from the Radio
Operator and Mechanics Course in January 1945. He subsequently was stationed at USAAF bases in Yuma, Arizona,
Lincoln, Nebraska, Dallas, Texas, and Fairfield, California. He was honorably discharged as a Private First Class in
May 1946.[17]

Professional life
Dec received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1950 from the College of Liberal Arts at St. John's University in
Brooklyn, New York. According to one of his rants, Dec then studied at Brooklyn Law School,[18] though it's not
established for how many years since completing a law degree wasn't mandatory in order to get a law license in New
York State.[19]
Dec then became a lawyer, an attorney at law. He was admitted to the New York state bar[20] on March 31, 1954 but
was disbarred on January 19, 1959.[21] Dec was also a notary public, at least during 1956–1957[22] for the Notary
Department in the Nassau County Clerk's Office.
After being convicted of fraud and larceny (see at right), Dec was disbarred as an attorney and "commanded to desist
and refrain from the practice of law in any form, either as principal or as agent, clerk or employee of another, and is
forbidden [...] to give to another an opinion as to the law or its application, or any advice in relation thereto",[21]
effectively ending any career related to law; along with the five-year prison sentence, this is probably why Dec later
referred to it as a "maximum-conviction"[23] sentence.
From 1959 to 1962, Dec tried unsuccessfully to have the case overturned on appeal. All appeals to the New York
courts were denied and the case, when it was filed in forma pauperis with the U.S. Supreme Court (featuring Dec
asking for a rehearing about his "gestapo like farce kangaroo court trial",[24] sic, and "the psychotically, sadistically,
wantonly, fraudulently altered Official Nassau County Court, New York State trial record of this petitioner's Gestapo
like farce trial",[25] sic), was denied certiorari twice. In spite of having lost his permission to practice law Dec did,
however, in his later correspondence persistently continue to refer to himself using the suffix "Esquire".

Later life
After his disbarment and denied appeals (around 1958–1962), Dec spent the rest of his life as a recluse, mailing his
tracts to various mass-media in the U.S. and over the world (see Works section).
Until 1966, Dec lived with his brother and pretended he was beaten and terrorized by him. In 1966, his brother
moved out and left Dec alone in the house;[16] at this time, Dec still went out "shopping two, three times a
month".[16] When removing the red wallpaper that there was in most of the rooms, he found "fresh red paint under
it"[16] that he considers the CIA's doing. In 1967 and 1968, thinking that "the entire house was a CIA death trap for
[him] set up while [he] was buying it",[16] he spent time chipping off all of the red paint "with hundreds of single
edge razor blades".[16]
In 1968, Dec said he had gained enough "insight of this deadly closed society"[16] to visit small stock brokerage
offices and invest some of his money[16] (from 1959 to 1968 his income had been "zero"[16] and Dec existed "on
much less than 1000 a year"[16] of his savings); from his investments he would eventually reach about "yearly
minimum wage income"[16] over the next decade.
Francis E. Dec 283

In 1969, Dec reported that a warrant was issued for his "incarceration in a maximum security insanity prison"[16]
(presumably committal to an asylum). From 1969 to around 1982,[26] Dec said he mostly lived hidden alone in his
house, ordering food to be delivered to him and hiding from his visitors.[16]
Around 1982,[26] after hiding "for over ten years",[16] Dec said he "can once again walk the streets solely as [he] did
before 1969"[16] because after he had "mailed worldwide thousands of [his] letters exposing"[16] the "Computer God"
conspiracy, his "testimony" was out and his "extermination" less necessary.
According to a rant presumed around 1981,[27] Dec seems to have been a vegetarian,[28] at least later in life. He
apparently never married nor had children.

Mental health
Due to the bizarre and earnest nature of Dec's claims (see Works section), it is usually believed that he suffered from
schizophrenia – most likely the kind referred to by Viktor Tausk as influencing-machine delusion[29] – though
without access to his medical records (Dec had at least two court-ordered psychiatric examinations in 1958 and
1961,[15] and possibly again at some point during his 1993–1996 last years at the Veteran Hospital) this remains
supposition.
It also seems likely that Dec's mental condition deteriorated after his 1958 conviction in the forgery case (cited
above), as his 1961 appeal brief[30] – although rambling, paranoia laden and disjointed at times – still manages to be
coherent and to present a fair representation of his perception of the errors in his conviction. On the other hand; his
"rants", produced later (such as the Spring 1984 "Gangster Computer God", see Worldview section), lack overall
coherence, are prone to word salad-like strings of words (such as "Computer God computerized brain thinking
SEALED ROBOT OPERATING ARMS SURGERY CABINET machine removal of [...]", see Worldview section),
and are heavily laden with paranoia as well as a highly developed conspiracy mindset.[31] As such, even though
some theories produced by Dec in his "rants" can be seen in germinal form in his appeal brief, they are not there
fully as developed as they would later come to be – possibly indicating the onset of mental illness after his
conviction. On January 16, 1961 (four months before his appeal brief), a court order was issued for committing Dec
to Pilgrim State Hospital (Pilgrim Psychiatric Center) for a 60-day mental examination;[15] one month later Dec is
"Released on own recognizance"[15] on February 17, 1961.
Because Dec was never committed and was able to stay in his home almost to his death, his writings from 1960 (his
appeals) to 1992 (his stroke) could provide an insight into the progress of advanced paranoia. The internally
self-consistent claims contained within his tracts and rants are also strongly in keeping with common definitions of
delusion as described by modern psychology. For example, it was drawn certain similarities between Dec's claims of
being "Frankenstein controlled" by the so-called "Worldwide Mad Deadly Communist Gangster Computer God"[1]
and the claims of 18th Century paranoiac James Tilly Matthews[29] of being "tortured-at-a-distance" by what he
termed the "Air Loom" gang.

Death
Dec apparently suffered a stroke in late 1992 and was transferred early 1993 to the St. Albans VA hospital in
Queens, New York[15] [32] by his brother Joseph I. Dec. He was still residing there in December 1995, at which time
he was visited by Forrest Jackson and two other fans who had come across tape recordings of some of his rants at
Dallas in 1993 (see Legacy section) and went to New York to ask him about their origin and meaning;[32] as far as is
currently known, these individuals were the only fans of Dec ever to have met or spoken to him at any length, and
videotaped the only documented encounter with Dec. Dec was entirely unresponsive to the presence or inquiries of
his visitors, and the visit produced no answers whatsoever.
Francis E. Dec died a few weeks later on January 21, 1996 (aged 70). The exact cause of death is not known. Francis
is interred in Calvary Cemetery, Queens, NY alongside his mother Rozalia Dec and his aunt Sophia Jaromek.[33] His
brother Joseph is buried in Calverton National Cemetery, Calverton, NY
Francis E. Dec 284

Legacy
Francis E. Dec was dubbed "one of the most mysterious characters in all kookdom"[34] by his 1994 biographer
Donna Kossy, "the most important paranoid schizophrenic kook of the century"[35] or "the Gnostic God of these End
Times"[32] by his 1995 interviewer Forrest Jackson, and it was stated that "his insane diatribes must truly be one of
the greatest comedic gems of the 20th century"[36] by his 2006 fanclub founder Peter Branting. Dec is often
compared or contrasted to William S. Burroughs[37] (for his prose style; some of Dec's rants would even have "found
their way to William S. Burroughs"[34] according to Donna Kossy[38] ), Philip K. Dick (for his later schizophrenic
worldview), and Jack T. Chick (for his conspiracy theory tracts).
Dec's publications are considered outsider art,[36] [39] circulated for their unintended humor, underground poetry,[40]
[41]
or both. They have been republished in a number of places. One of Dec's rants was reprinted on the back-cover
of Robert Crumb's Weirdo #8[42] (Summer 1983). A 2009 Washington City Paper art article listed Dec as one of
three outsider artists whose works ought to be adapted as iPhone app, though considering him not "that far afield
from the diatribes of today's talk radio."[43] An April 2010 article about Dec on the satirical website Encyclopædia
Dramatica features nine facsimiles of his flyers under the heading "Make Copies for Yourself".[44]
Dec also entered the folklore of the Church of the SubGenius, which contributed[32] to his underground
popularization since at least 1993: a Dec rant was broadcast at least twice on the weekly syndicated SubGenius radio
program Hour of Slack, in program #392 "Francis Dec & kooks"[45] (1993) and a rerun in program #555[46] (1996);
Dec is also regularly mentioned by Church users in their Usenet newsgroup alt.slack, from which messages
mentioning Dec or reprinting his rants were selected for the Church's official newsletter The Stark Fist of Removal.[7]
Additionally, he was canonized as "St. Francis the Incoherent"[47] [48] among Discordian Saints.
Dec's letters have been used as an example of "kook typography"[5] by graphic designer Steven Heller in a
same-titled 1994 article of the AIGA Journal of Graphic Design. There is also a 1998 mathematical analysis which
uses five Dec rants as a gauge of "schizophrenic language" for an entropic evaluation of the undeciphered Voynich
Manuscript[49] (concluding that schizophrenia alone could not account for the manuscript's puzzling nature).
In 1985, Boyd "Doc" Britton (then a newscaster for the radio station WZUU in Milwaukee, now the talk show host
"Doc on the ROQ" for KROQ-FM) received a stack of Dec's flyers mass-mailed to the media;[34] in 1986, he made a
spoken word recording of himself reading five of Dec's rants over various background music selected and mixed in
at random.[34] Ever since, these recordings have been circulated in underground circles, creating and building further
interest in Francis E. Dec: first as tapes, then CDs,[50] and now as MP3 files on the Internet, where they are torrented
as well as archived by literature site UbuWeb, Archive.org, and radio WFMU. In 1990, SubGenius co-founder Rev.
Ivan Stang gave Dallas artist Joe Riley such a Dec tape, which was eventually played at a 1993 party where Forrest
Jackson heard it,[51] inspiring Jackson to track down and meet Dec in 1995 (see Death section), videotaping the only
documented encounter with Dec. Psychic TV as Kitten Sparkles sampled Doc Britton reading Dec in "Saint Frances
E." (sic, on Ultrahouse The L.A. Connection, 1991, reissued as "Sir Frances E. Dec (Kitten Sparkle Mix)", sic, on
Origin of the Species, Volume Too,[52] 1999) and in "The Deadly Touch Taben"[53] (sic, on the compilation
Patchouli & Echoes, 2004). Venetian Snares also sampled Doc Britton in "Americanized" on Infolepsy EP (2004),
spreading Dec's prose on lyrics websites. Dec's rants inspired other artists: in 2005, the band Coldcut cited "the mad
deadly computer gangster godpoems of Francis E Dec, RIP"[54] as inspiration[55] for their CD Everything Is Under
Control; in 2007, "Saint Francis E. Dec, Esq." was credited as the co-creator of two MP3 singles called Worldwide
Living Death Frankenstein Slavery (vol. 1 and 2) by Alex Spalding et al.[56]
The delusions of Francis E. Dec have also been fictionalized. In 1998, his rants were adapted into the 8-page
comic-book story "Worldwide Gangster Robots" (script: Scott Cunningham; art: Danijel Zezelj), acknowledging Dec
in the opening credits as the basis for protagonist "Melchizedek" and his posters; the story was published in
anthology Gangland #3 from Vertigo at DC Comics.[57] In 1999, his rants were dramatized by Eric Dyer with the
theatre troupe Radiohole in A History of Heen: Not Francis E. Dec, Esq.,[58] a stage play starring Dec and large
excerpts of his rants;[58] selected for The Wooster Group's "Emerging Artist Series" and played then extended for
Francis E. Dec 285

two weeks at The Performing Garage in SoHo, New York City, it was reviewed positively by The Village Voice,[6]
CurtainUp,[59] and Playbill.[60]
While Doc Britton's recordings helped foster awareness of Dec's rants and his underground notoriety, little was
known about the man and his life; this came with Dec's immortalization in Donna Kossy's 1994 book Kooks (the first
biography of Dec, published by Feral House, also home to the book that spawned Tim Burton's biopic Ed Wood),
along with NY lawyer Jeff Sperber's investigations into Dec's legal past, and the Dec flyers donated by Tim
Maloney[34] to Kossy. Yet since the 1980s, only a few Dec rants were circulated (mostly the five recorded ones),
when more documents were known to exist. The next steps were achieved on the Internet, with wider dissemination
of the Doc recordings as MP3 files, as well as Kossy's online Kooks Museum in 1996.
In 2006 appeared the so-called "Official Francis E. Dec Fanclub" website founded by Peter Branting, a hub for
"Decologists" providing an extensive collection of old and new Francis E. Dec material unearthed by members,
including Dec's legal correspondence recovered by Decologist Ted Torbich, new biographical data dug up by
genealogist Steven Dhuey, scans of original tracts, along with a biographical timeline, a "Dectionary" of Decian
delusions, and humorous illustrations of the rants. In October 2008, such rants mentioned by Doc Britton to Kossy as
"Astrocism – The True Religion of the Slovene People" or "The Teddy Kennedy Letter" were donated to the
Club[61] together with other formerly unknown material, making possible further study into the beliefs and personal
history of Francis E. Dec

Works

Overview
Francis E. Dec produced and self-published a series of flyers containing rant-like essays with a paranoid outlook, all
of which contained a number of recurring themes and claims of a more or less delusional or paranormal nature.
Recurring themes and phrases[29] in Dec's rants include: an entity referred to by Dec as the "World Wide Communist
Gangster Computer God", its "Frankenstein Earphone Radio" and "Eyesight Television" (often preceded by
"Frankenstein" as well), along with allegations of political chicanery on the part of Presidents and Vice Presidents
throughout U.S. history. For example Dec alleges that Lyndon Johnson lured John F. Kennedy to Dallas in order to
have him killed and that Teddy Roosevelt did the same to William McKinley by luring him to New York. Dec also
incorporated into his rants one Frank Gulotta, ex-District Attorney Nassau County, who once acted as prosecution in
a trial which would eventually come to result in Dec's conviction and disbarment as a lawyer (see Professional life
section), as well as the Judge (one William Sullivan) who presided over the court case in question.
Other recurring themes include racism against black people, anti-Communism, anti-Semitism, anti-Catholicism, and
various other conspiracy theories, racial and otherwise. An analysis of Dec's written material suggests that he
thought he was also regularly abducted and operated upon by the so-called "Worldwide Mad Deadly Communist
Gangster Computer God"[1] as well as the subject of constant mind reading, mind control, and brainwashing via
various cranial implants (see Mental health section).

Worldview
Dec's later cult figure status came because a half-dozen of his tracts were turned into underground culture items (see
Legacy section), and to understand why requires some extended quotes. "Gangster Computer God Worldwide Secret
Containment Policy" (1984)[62] was a racist tract intended to denounce the longtime conspiracy of a "Gangster
Computer God" controlling mankind through cranial radios, causing the aging process through gradual surgeries, and
planning a worldwide race of mulatto slaves. Popularized early by Doc Britton's 1986 recordings, this compendium
of Decian concepts is also one of Dec's more outlandish rants; as such, three excerpts summarizing it can
consistently show both Dec's overall worldview and his writing style. They are reproduced in the original typewritten
typography (emphases and misspellings included).
Francis E. Dec 286

• The opening paragraph warns[29] that people are implanted with "Frankenstein radio controls" that constantly
brainwash them, while "Brain Bank Cities" on the far side of the Moon are housing their "Brain Bank brain"
which is their other real brain:
Gangster Computer God worldwide SECRET CONTAINMENT POLICY, made possible
SOLY by worldwide Computer God Frankenstein Controls, especially LIFELONG
CONSTANT THRESHOLD BRAIN WASH RADIO ( quiet and motionless, I can slightly
hear it; repeatedly this has saved my life on the streets ). FOUR BILLION
worldwide population ALL living have a Computer God CONTAINMENT POLICY
BRAIN BANK BRAIN, A REAL BRAIN, in the Brain Bank Cities on the far side
of the Moon, we never see. Primarily, based on your lifelong Frankenstein
radio controls, especially, your eyesight T.V. (sight, and sound) recorded
by your brain. YOUR Moon BRAIN of the Computer God, activates your
Frankenstein Threshold Brain Wash Radio LIFELONG, inculcating conformist
propaganda, even frightening you and mixing you-up and the USUAL, "DON'T
WORRY ABOUT IT." for your set backs, mistakes even when you receive deadly
injuries. THIS IS THE WORLDWIDE COMPUTER GOD SECRET CONTAINMENT POLICY.
– [Sic, per original tract.][62]
• The second paragraph explains[29] that people are regularly remote-controlled "as a Frankenstein slave" to
undergo surgeries performed by a "Robot Operating Cabinet", generating the aging process,[63] that he calls the
"Inevitability of Gradualness". (This last phrase usually refers to the gradualist philosophy of Fabian socialism.[64]
)
Worldwide, as a Frankenstein slave, usually, at nite, you go to nearby
hospital, or camouflaged miniature hospital van trucks. You strip naked,
lay on the operating table, which slides into the SEALED COMPUTER GOD
ROBOT OPERATING CABINET. [...] The Computer God operating cabinet has many
robot arms, with electrical and LASER BEAM knife robot arms, with Fly eye
T.V. cameras watching your whole body. Every part of you is monitored,
even through your Frankenstein Controls. Synthetic blood, synthetic
instant sealing flesh and skin, even synthetic electrical heart beat to
keep you alive, are some of the unbeleivable Computer God INSTANT PLASTIC
SURGERY SECRETS. YOU ARE THE HIGHEST MOST INTELLIGENT ELECTRICAL MACHINE
IN THE UNIVERSE. INEVITABILITY OF GRADUALNESS: Usually, in a few years,
you are made, string beam thin, or grotesquely deformed, crippled and
ugly, or even made over one foot shorter or one foot taller, as the
Computer God sees fit.
– [Sic, per original tract.][62]
• (The next paragraphs elaborate[29] how birth at the hospital helps implement those controls, and how medicine
helps enforce diseases and deaths.) The rest presents[29] Dec as the "only hope" against a future mankind reduced
to Jewish-Communist-Black slaves:
For your only hope for a future, do you know one word of pray for me.
Francis E. Dec. Computer God computerized brain thinking SEALED ROBOT
OPERATING ARMS SURGERY CABINET machine removal of most of the frontal
COMMAND LOBE of the brain, gradually during lifetime and OVERNITE IN ALL
INSANE ASSYLUMS, after C. God kosher bosher one month probation period,
creating helpless hopelsss Computer God Frankenstein Earphone Radio
parroting puppet BRAINLESS SLAVES, resulting in millions of hopeless,
Francis E. Dec 287

helpless, homeless derelicts in all JerUSAlem cities and Soviet slave work
camps. [...] Eventual Brain Lobotomization of the entire world population
for the worldwide deadly Gangster Communist Computer God Over-All Plan, an
ideal worldwide population of lite skin, low, hopeless and helpless JEW
mulattos, the Communist BLACK WAVE OF THE FUTURE.
– [Sic, per original tract.][62]
Dec's bizarre worldview and unique style are further explained through the list of his recurring themes in The
Dectionary (see Sources section).

Bibliography

Letters (1958–1962)
Available[65] documents from Dec's legal correspondence.
To the N.Y. Appeals Court
• 1961. "Notice of Appeal to the Court of Appeals of New York" aka "A Gestapo-Like Farce Trial" [66] (signed
April 26, 1961; filed June 20, 1961; denied July 7, 1961)
• 1961. "Reply Brief to the Court of Appeals of New York" aka "Felonious and Immoral" [67] (assumed 1961; no
known answer)
To the U.S. Supreme Court
• 1961. "Notice of Appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States" aka "The Maximum-Conviction Appeal
Brief" [68] (dated September 21, 1961)
• 1961. "Petition for a Writ of Certiorari in Forma Pauperis" [69] (dated September 20, 1961 for October 1961 term;
denied on January 15, 1962)
• 1962. "Petition for Rehearing of Petition for Writ Certiorari in forma pauperis" [70] (dated February 5, 1962;
denied on February 19, 1962)
• 1976. — see the flyer "To All Judges!"...

Flyers (1962–1992)
The rants on Dec's flyers and tracts didn't feature a title proper and have usually been named later from their first
words (common alternate titles and aliases are indexed below). Most of them being undated, they are listed
alphabetically.
Known flyers
• "Astrocism: The True Religion of the Slovene People!" [71] (estimated 1970s)
• "Evil Metric System Conspiracy!, The" [72] (after 1975, possibly 1980, updated 1982)[73]
• "Gangster Computer God Worldwide Secret Containment Policy" [74] (signed Spring 1984)
• "History of the Computer God, The" (unavailable, named by Kossy as owned by Britton)
• "Infrared Crusader Priests from Beyond Comprehension!" [75] (presumed 1992[76] )
• "Long Island Lunacy" (presumed around 1982,[26] transcript from audio is "Rant No. 4" [77] at the Kooks
Museum)
• "Master Race Frankenstein Radio Controls" (presumed 1970s,[78] transcript from audio is "Rant No. 5" [77] at the
Kooks Museum)
• "Pasteurized Milk Conspiracy, The" (unavailable, named by Kossy as owned by Britton)
• "Teddy Kennedy Letter, The" [79] (presumed around 1972, and its P.S. around 1974[80] )
• "To All Judges!" [81] (signed October 21, 1976)
• "Top Secret Dual Food Standard, The" [82] (presumed around 1981[27] )
Francis E. Dec 288

• "True History of Nazi Jewmany!!, The" [83] (signed Spring 1984, undated P.S.)
• "Worldwide Open Secret!!" [84] (after 1978[85] )
Common aliases
• All of the Gangster Scum on Top (first words) — see Teddy Kennedy...
• All Religions Are Untouchable Con Artist (first words) — see True History...
• A Terrible Prison Sentence! — not a flyer: the fanclub's "best of" [86] Dec's 1961 SC Appeal
• Communist Gangster Computer God Worldwide Systematic Destruction of All Standards (first words) — see Evil
Metric...
• Demanding a Re-Hearing (Finish Him!) (WFMU file) — see To All Judges...
• Dual Food Standard (from first sentence) — see Top Secret Dual Food...
• Empirical Scientific Agnostic Religion of Astrocism, The (first words) — see Astrocism...
• Frankenstein Radio Controls (from first sentence) — see Master Race...
• Frankenstein Radio Head (first words) — see Infrared Crusader...
• Hangman Rope Sneak Deadly Gangsterism (WFMU file) — see Long Island...
• In December 1965 When I returned (first words) — see Long Island...
• Look at the Picture!!! (first words) — see Master Race...
• Metric System Conspiracy, The (from title) — see Evil Metric...
• Nazi Jewmany (from title) — see True History...
• Rant 1 (UbuWeb file) — see Master Race...
• Rant 2 (UbuWeb file) — see To All Judges...
• Rant 3 (UbuWeb file) — see Gangster Computer God...
• Rant 4 (UbuWeb file) — see Long Island...
• Rant 5 (UbuWeb file) — see Worldwide Open Secret...
• Rant No. 1 (Kooks Museum transcript) — see Worldwide Open Secret...
• Rant No. 2 (Kooks Museum transcript) — see Gangster Computer God...
• Rant No. 3 (Kooks Museum transcript) — see To All Judges...
• Rant No. 4 (Kooks Museum transcript) — see Long Island...
• Rant No. 5 (Kooks Museum transcript) — see Master Race...
• Secret Containment Policy (from first sentence) — see Gangster Computer God...
• Secret to Save the Entire Human Race, The (WFMU file) — see Master Race...
• See the Skull (from second sentence) — see Master Race...
• Sneak Shameless Hangman Rope Gangsters (first words) — see Top Secret Dual Food...
• Three Young Seekers Consult Mr Dec Regarding Frankenstein Controls Before Being Dragged Away to
Extermination (WFMU file) — not a Dec flyer: the 1995 visit by Forrest Jackson
• True Slovene Religion: Astrocism, The (Kooks Museum mention) — see Astrocism...
• Undetectable Extermination (WFMU file) — see Worldwide Open Secret...
• Worldwide Secret Containment Policy (from first sentence) — see Gangster Computer God...
Francis E. Dec 289

References

Sources
Primary sources used
• Dec, Francis E. (~1982). "Long Island Lunacy" (transcript from audio is "Rant No. 4" [77], Kooks Museum),
presumed around 1982,[26] — Various autobiographical data for 1959–1982.
• Dec, Francis E. (1984). "Gangster Computer God Worldwide Secret Containment Policy" [74] (incl. facsimile [87]
with original typography), Spring 1984, now hosted at The Official Francis E. Dec Fanclub — Dec's main
worldview. Rant is complete (the text that can be seen through the facsimile is another rant).
• Jackson, Forrest (1996). "I Met Francis Dec!" [88], Kooks Museum, Schizophrenic Wing, www.book-happy.com,
copyright 1996, consulted February 2009 — The December 15, 1995 visit to Dec, with the only photo available.
• NARA (1944). "Army Serial Number 12089790: Dec Francis E" [89] (enlistment record), Electronic Army Serial
Number Merged File, ca. 1938 - 1946, World War II Army Enlistment Records, National Archives and Records
Administration's Access to Archival Databases, aad.archives.gov, April 13, 1944 (electronic record created 2002),
consulted February 2009 — Dec's 1944 WW2 enlistment record.[90]
• NYSCAD (1959). "Order of Disbarment in the Matter of Francis E. Dec" [91] (PDF file), New York Supreme
Court, Appellate Division, Second Department, presided by Justice Gerald Nolan, held January 19, 1959 —
Following his 1958 conviction.
• NYSCOA (1961). "Order of Affirmance of the Court of Appeals" [92], New York State Court of Appeals,
Respondent's Brief by Manuel W. Levine & Henry P. DeVine, July 7, 1961[93] — Last known argumented
response to Dec's appeals.
• NYSDOH (1926). "Certificate of Birth of Francis Dec" [94] (PDF file), New York State Department of Health,
filed January 11, 1926 — Copy "for genealogical research only". Note the updated "*Francis" next to the stricken
"Frank".
Secondary sources used
• Branting, Peter (2006). The Official Francis E. Dec Timeline [95], updated 2006, consulted February 2009 —
Chronological summary of the main biographical data known about Dec.
• Branting, Peter (2008). The Dectionary [96], updated 2008 (started 2006), consulted February 2009 —
Alphabetical list of the main Decian delusions, a good overview of his worldview.
• Bulhak, Andrew C. (1999). "Discordian Saints" [97] (Archive.org copy of 1999). — Compiled by a noted
Discordian.[98]
• Foster, Chuck (2008). "Losing My Mind With Francis E. Dec, Esq. and the Reverend Jim Jones" [99], The Big
Takeover, 13 June 2008 — Review of Doc Britton's Dec recordings.
• Heller, Steven (1994). "Kook Typography". AIGA Journal of Graphic Design, vol. 12, pp. 4–6 — With an
analysis of the design of Dec's tracts.
• Kossy, Donna (1994). Kooks: A Guide to the Outer Limits of Human Belief. Portland, OR: Feral House. ISBN
0-922915-19-9 (1st ed. pbk., 254 p.) and ISBN 0-922915-20-2 (1st ed. hbk., 254 p.). Reissued by Los Angeles:
Feral House, ISBN 978-0-922915-67-5 (2nd exp. ed. pbk., 287 p., 2001) — Collects material from her Kooks
Magazine. The 2nd ed. was expanded with Kooks Outtakes (1995, a 36 p. supplement of material cut due to
space).
• Kossy, Donna (1999). "Francis E. Dec, Esquire: Your Only Hope for a Future!" [77], Kooks Museum,
Schizophrenic Wing, www.book-happy.com, copyright 1999 with a 2006 addendum, consulted February 2009 —
Updated online summary of the Dec chapter in Kossy's book.
• Radiohole (1999). The History of Heen: Not Francis E. Dec, Esq. [100] — The stage play's reviews, full script,
photos.
Francis E. Dec 290

• Stallings, Dennis J. (1998). "Understanding the Second-Order Entropies of Voynich Text" [101] (Archive.org copy
of 2003), May 11, 1998 — Used Dec as a gauge of "schizophrenic language" against the Voynich manuscript.
• SubGenius, Church of the (1999). "Francis E. Dec kookrant" [102], in "Kooks" [103], The Stark Fist of Removal,
June 1999 "Mini-Fist" (also reprinted in issue #04-2000 [104]) — Reprints a Dec rant.

Endnotes
[1] See Dec's rant "Master Race Frankenstein Radio Controls".
[2] "Kook" in Stang 1993, "Francis Dec & kooks".
[3] "Kook" in Kossy 1994, Kooks.
[4] "Kook" in Kossy 1999, Kooks Museum.
[5] "Kook" in Heller 1994, "Kook Typography", p. 4: "You can always tell a letter written by a kook by the total absence of any border around
the page. With uncanny precision, the hand-scrawled, typewritten, or even word-processed kook epistle invariably begins flush left and ends
exactly the same way on the opposite side, without a millimeter to spare. [...] Many of these missives are not as typographically rant-driven as
say, those of Francis E. Dec, Esquire, a paranoid gentleman who, through tightly packed typewritten fliers and broadsheets, incoherently
invokes Frankenstein as both God and Satan and the linchpin in a world dominated by a computer god containment policy."
[6] "Kook" in The Village Voice 1999, "Garage Music" (http:/ / www. villagevoice. com/ 1999-07-13/ theater/ garage-music/ ).
[7] "Kook" in SubGenius 1999, "Kooks".
[8] NYSDOH 1926 (primary source), "Certificate of Birth of Francis Dec".
[9] NARA 1944 (primary source), "Army Serial Number 12089790: Dec Francis E".
[10] FamilySearch (2009 [2000]). "John DEC" (1893–1971) (http:/ / www. familysearch. org/ eng/ search/ SSDI/ individual_record.
asp?recid=066229916), U.S. Social Security Death Index, consulted in March 2009 — Confirms data and adds "Social Security Number:
066-22-9916". The downloadable "DEC-1893.ged" file has the same data in computer form, adding only "This data is only accurate as of 30
Sep 2000".
[11] Dec's mother Rose wasn't located in the FamilySearch database (contrary to Dec's father John). As of March 2009, searches with "exact
spelling" option off against last name alone with "Jaronek, Jaronec, Jaronic, Jronek, Jronec, Jronic, Jeronac" returned little or no hits. Searches
against "Rozalia, Rosalia, Rose, Rosie" plus "Dec" returned no relevant or conclusive results. It may be due to records not yet indexed online.
[12] – U.S. Department of Commerce and Labor, Immigration Service, List or Manifest of Alien Passengers for S.S. Hannover (sailing from
Bremen, November 11, 1909 to New York, November 25, 1909), list 17, p. A (http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ Rosalia_1909a.
jpeg) and B (http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ Rosalia_1909b. jpeg), item 20 "Jaronek Rozalia".
– U.S. Census, April 15, 1910, State of New York, County of Kings, City of New York (borough of Brooklyn), enumeration district 278, p.
10-B (http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ Rosie_1910_census. jpeg), family 181, item 63 "Jeronac Rosie" [sic].
– U.S. Census, January 1, 1920, State of New York, County of Kings, enumeration district 570, p. 4-A (http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/
dec/ Rose1920. jpg), family 174, item 20 "Jaronek Rose".
– U.S. Census, April 1, 1930, State of New York, County of Nassau, enumeration district 98, p. 18-B, family 431.
[13] In November 2006, the Dec Fanclub founder contacted Dec's brother then posted that "Joseph has reported that he does not want to talk to
anyone." (http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ forum/ YaBB. pl?num=1160590143)
[14] Death: Dec. 1, 2010 (http:/ / www. findagrave. com/ cgi-bin/ fg. cgi?page=gr& GRid=62400961)
[15] Branting 2006, The Official Francis E. Dec Timeline.
[16] Dec ~1982 (primary source), "Long Island Lunacy".
[17] National Personnel Records Center, Military Records Division. U.S. Army service record of Francis E. Dec.
[18] See flyers section: 1984, "True History of Nazi Jewmany!!, The".
[19] New York State allowed (and still allows as of 2009) so-called county-seat lawyers: to qualify to take the NY State bar examination, the
minimum required when "reading law" (personal study) was at least one successful academic year of law school study, followed by enough
years of work as a law clerk (as Dec did for Nassau County Police Force) to get a total of four years (see reading law). Thus, Dec could have
completed a single year at school followed by three years as law clerk (or two years at school and two years as clerk, etc.), and still qualify for
the bar in NY. Whichever way, Dec completed a BA in 1950 and was admitted to the bar in 1954, fulfilling this required 4-year span of law
study.
[20] Not to be confused with the New York State Bar Association. Unlike most states, lawyers in the state of New York are licensed by the New
York State Judiciary, not by the Bar Association.
[21] NYSCAD 1959 (primary source), "Order of Disbarment in the Matter of Francis E. Dec".
[22] NYSCOA 1961 (primary source), "Order of Affirmance of the Court of Appeals".
[23] See Flyers section: 1976, "To All Judges!".
[24] See Letters section: 1961, "Petition for a Writ of Certiorari in Forma Pauperis".
[25] See Letters section: 1962, "Petition for Rehearing of Petition for Writ Certiorari in forma pauperis"
[26] Assumed written during the Ronald Reagan 1981–1989 presidency (from the "now worse with Ronnie" paragraph), but only "for over ten
years" after "1969" (thus early in the presidency).
Francis E. Dec 291

[27] Assumed written early during the Ronald Reagan 1981–1989 presidency (from the claim "This Exposé Page Made Ronnie President")
though the original version may have been written late during the Jimmy Carter 1977–1981 presidency (and the Ronnie intro added to later
copies).
[28] See Dec's rant "Top Secret Dual Food Standards, The".
[29] Branting 2008, The Dectionary.
[30] "The Appeal Brief of Francis E. Dec" (http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ appeal. htm). The Official Francis E. Dec Fanclub. .
Retrieved 2007-08-12.
[31] "The Collected Rants of Francis E. Dec" (http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ rants. htm). The Official Francis E. Dec Fanclub. .
Retrieved 2007-08-12.
[32] Jackson 1996 (primary source).
[33] Burial: Calvary Cemetery (http:/ / www. findagrave. com/ cgi-bin/ fg. cgi?page=gr& GSln=dec& GRid=62966346& )
[34] Kossy 1999.
[35] Jackson, Forrest (2002). "Francis E. Dec and his Legal Woes" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20021216134423/ http:/ / www. heliophobe.
com/ decappeal. htm) (Archive.org of 2002), www.heliophobe.com (lawyer Jeff Sperber's site) — Original copy of NYSCOA 1961.
[36] Branting, Peter (2006). The Official Francis E. Dec F.A.Q. (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061103173022/ http:/ / www.
bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ faq. htm) (Archive.org of 2006).
[37] Foster 2008.
[38] The claim that Dec's rants reached Burroughs is found in a few other places but seems to repeat Kossy's claim without separate sources.
[39] UbuWeb filed Dec in their Outsiders section (http:/ / www. ubu. com/ outsiders/ ) for "Outsider music, art and literature".
[40] Peter Branting: "Dec's great epic poem" (http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ toalljudges. htm); "the (likely) unintentional poetry [...]
a genuine poetic touch" (http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ faq. htm); "UBUWEB have even considered the rants culturally
significant enough to include in their vast collection of audio poetry" (http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ about. htm).
[41] Autonoetic (2009). "The Poetic Insanity of Francis Dec" (http:/ / www. autonoetic. com/ 2009/ 01/ 28/ the_poetic_insanity_of_francis.
html), www.autonoetic.com, January 28, 2009
[42] Deppey, Dirk (2009). "We're not dying, we swear" (http:/ / archives. tcj. com/ journalista/ ?p=768), Journalista! (The Comics Journal's
blog), February 3, 2009 entry. (See also Weirdo #8 (http:/ / www. comics. org/ details. lasso?id=37535) at the Grand Comics Database.)
[43] Leitko, Aaron (2009). "Three More Outsider Artist iPhone Apps" (http:/ / www. washingtoncitypaper. com/ blogs/ artsdesk/ music/ 2009/
10/ 01/ five-more-outsider-artist-iphone-apps/ ). Arts Desk: News and Criticism on D.C. and Beyond. Washington City Paper,
www.washingtoncitypaper.com, October 1, 2009: "Possible iPhone App: Given the current tenor of political discourse in the United States,
Dec's rants no longer seem all that ranty. In fact, Dec's language, once considered the hysterical (albeit kind of hip-sounding) words of a total
loon, don't seem all that far afield from the diatribes of today's talk radio. A Francis E. Dec iPhone app could supply snippets from the author's
writings [...]"
[44] See article entitled "Francis E. Dec, Esq." at Encyclopædia Dramatica.
[45] Stang, Ivan (1993). "News from Stang" (http:/ / groups. google. com/ group/ alt. slack/ msg/ 3286226233d28b74), alt.slack (via Google
Groups), September 21, 1993: "Recommended Hour Of Slack Episodes: [...] 392 (Francis Dec & kooks), [...]".
[46] Stang, Ivan (1996). "Hour Of Slack #555 plus News" (http:/ / groups. google. com/ group/ alt. slack/ msg/ f9a8af336d8c5b29), alt.slack (via
Google Groups), November 25, 1996: "I let Side One be a Rerun [...] Side One (from HoS 394 [apparently a typo for 392]) Killer Joe Riley
audio collage/ Francis E. Dec [...]"
[47] Bulhak 2001.
[48] McElroy, Ruadhan J. (2008). Simple Man: the Autobiography of Peter West, Lulu.com, ISBN 1435721799, p. 11 (http:/ / books. google.
com/ books?id=SwS8wIQCy1cC& pg=PA11): "Jayne West is notorious only in circles which are morbidly fascinated with 'kooks' and it's
been rumoured for some time that she's up for Discordian 'sainthood', much like her anti-Semitic and racist fellow leaf-letting paranoid
schizophrenic, Francis E. Dec Esq. Of course, as Peter West points out, it's unfair to compare Jayne West to Valerie Solanas and Francis Dec,
because at least Solanas was articulate and Dec was imaginative, [...]".
[49] Stallings 1998.
[50] From the 1998 "Russell Media Underground Catalog" (http:/ / www. subgenius. com/ updates/ 5-99news/ X0018_Russell_Media_Underg.
html): "TRANCE FORMATION RECORDS label (more to come) Worldwide Living Death Frankenstein Slavery A dramatic reading of the
mind-shatteringly paranoid and schizophrenic conspiracy flyers of the late Francis E. Dec. A CD version of this extraordinarily sad and
hilarious classic was long overdue."
[51] Riley, Joe (2006). "Francis E. Dec, Esquire" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20061030144141/ http:/ / menooshea. blogspot. com/ 2006/ 08/
francis-e-dec-esquire. html) (Archive.org copy of 2006 – highlight text if displayed white on white), Riley's blog Men-Oo-She-A, August 19,
2006: "Rev. Ivang Stang, head honcho and Grand Pubah of the Church of the Subgenius, handed me the tape back in 1990 on the set of an
MTV film shoot we were on. [...] Jackson's meeting with Dec was a direct action from my having the cassette in hand. He heard the Dec Rants
at a party here in Dallas. One of the people attending the party was Jason Cohen. Jason had, at this time,(1993) borrowed my only cassette and
dubbed it, then apparently played it at this "Party". It all goes full circle."
[52] Origin of the Species, Volume Too (http:/ / www. discogs. com/ release/ 124244) at Discogs (alias Origin of the Species, Vol. 2)
[53] Patchouli & Echoes (http:/ / www. discogs. com/ release/ 700255) at Discogs
[54] Everything Is Under Control (http:/ / www. discogs. com/ release/ 567109) at Discogs
Francis E. Dec 292

[55] Micallef, Ken (2006). "Coldcut" (http:/ / remixmag. com/ mag/ remix_coldcut/ index. html), Remix Magazine, remixmag.com, January 1,
2006: "Inspired by the paranoid rants of Hempstead, N.Y.'s Francis E. Dec, the innovative DJ duo Coldcut produced “Everything Is Under
Control,” the first single from Sound Mirrors (Ninja Tune, 2006). “Dec wrote these dreadful polemics that are insane but also have a certain
spine-chilling truth,” Coldcut's Matt Black says, explaining the song's genesis. With Dec in mind, Black and his Coldcut partner, Jonathan
More, wrote lyrics [...]"
[56] Saint Francis E. Dec, Esq. (http:/ / www. discogs. com/ artist/ Saint+ Francis+ E. + Dec,+ Esq. ) discography at Discogs
[57] Ganglang #3 (http:/ / www. comics. org/ issue/ 62064/ ) at the Grand Comics Database. "Worldwide Gangster Robots" page (http:/ / www.
dzezelj. com/ wp-content/ themes/ dzezelj/ images-dz-art/ index. php?dir=a-work& subdir=2-comics-inside& img=b3-gangland-inside. jpg&
type=inside) at Danijel Zezelj's site.
[58] Radiohole 1999.
[59] "A History of Heen (Not Francis E. Dec, Esq.)" (http:/ / www. curtainup. com/ historyofheen. html) at CurtainUp.
[60] "Dyer's Heen Extends at Wooster Group's Garage" (http:/ / www. playbill. com/ news/ article/ 46898. html) at Playbill.
[61] "Official Francis E. Dec Fanclub Announces New Rants by Dec; New Era Opened in Research (press release)" (http:/ / www.
bentoandstarchky. com/ forum/ YaBB. pl?num=1225046865). The Official Francis E. Dec Fanclub. 2008-10-26. . Retrieved 2008-11-17.
[62] Dec 1984 (primary source), "Gangster Computer God Worldwide Secret Containment Policy".
[63] Also explicitly confirmed in the "Master Race" rant.
[64] E.g. see The Letters of Sidney and Beatrice Webb: Volume 3, page 174.
[65] Not listed are unavailable technical documents (as seen recapitulated in the Court of Appeal and Supreme Court briefs), namely: "Notice of
Appeal to the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court for the Second Judicial Department and appeal motions, namely, Motion for an Order
Commanding the Trial Stenographers to Produce the Trial Record in Accordance with Section 456 of the Code of Criminal Procedure"
(February 2, 1959); "Motion to Dispense with Printing" (February 2, 1959); "Motion for an Order of Settlement" (March 30, 1959); "Motion
to Extend Time to Amend the Trial Minutes" (May 8, 1959); "Motion to Extend Time to Perfect Appeal" (October 5, 1959); "Motion to
Reargue Motion to Dispense with Printing" (October 5, 1959); Appellant’s and prosecutions appeal briefs and Court Order of transference to
the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court for the First Judicial Department (October 11, 1960).
[66] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ appeal. htm
[67] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ reply. htm
[68] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ scappeal. htm
[69] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ pauperis. htm
[70] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ rehear. htm
[71] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ astrocism. htm
[72] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ metricsystem. htm
[73] Following the Metric Conversion Act of December 1975 (cf. the "decree" from "Congressmen" in the rant), the metric system was teached
in U.S. schools after 1976 and metrication in the United States was considering a global switch to metric, until the end of the United States
Metric Board in 1982; the original rant seems written between these dates. The sentences "already in 1982" and "Rewritten in 1982" show it
was updated then, at least for its first part. The second part's allusion to the "energy crisis" could refer to the 1979 energy crisis and date the
main, non-updated rant around 1980.
[74] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ containmentpolicy. htm
[75] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ crusaderpriests. htm
[76] Assumed after December 1991 from the "Ex. U.S.S.R." reference, and before his 1992 stroke.
[77] http:/ / home. pacifier. com/ ~dkossy/ dec. html
[78] Assumed during the 1970s period when Dec is in hiding (from "I HIDE in forced jobless poverty, isolated alone") because he still considers
himself a menace (from "now even you know I am a MENACE") that would be exterminated on the streets.
[79] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ teddykennedyletter. htm
[80] Assumed around 1972/1974: the main prose is presumed early 1970s from reference to being "now, years later" after the July 1969
Chappaquiddick incident; it also refers to old 1948 presidential events about Thomas E. Dewey (as "Tom Dewey") who retired in the 1960s
and died in March 1971 (bringing him back in the news and leading to Dec's usual integration of then-recent events into his rants), a date
consistent with presuming the main rant being around 1972. The rant's post-scriptum mentions Denis Dillon (misspelled "Dennis Dillon") as
being "Dis. Atty." (as Dillon was 1974–2005, hinting at the P.S. being added no earlier than 1974) as well as Louis Lefkowitz (misspelled
"Louie Lefkowitz") as being "Chief Atty. Gen. of the N.Y. State" (as Lefkowitz was 1957–1978, hinting at the P.S. being added no later than
1978), framing the P.S. inside 1974–1978; the P.S. also refers to Brendan Byrne (misspelled "Brenden Byrne") being "now governor of New
Jersey" (as Byrne was 1974–1982), hinting at the P.S. being added around 1974–1975 early inside the 1974–1978 timeframe. Independently,
such dates are seen by the Dec Fanclub as corroborated by the state of Dec's typewriter and writing. (http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/
forum/ YaBB. pl?num=1237873139/ 26#26)
[81] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ toalljudges. htm
[82] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ dualfoodstandard. htm
[83] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ nazijewmany. htm
[84] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ opensecret. htm
[85] Assumed written during or after the Jimmy Carter 1977–1981 presidency (named) and the John Paul II 1978–2005 papacy (named "Pope
John").
Francis E. Dec 293

[86] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ terribleprisonsentence. htm

[87] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ containmentpolicyrant. jpg
[88] http:/ / home. pacifier. com/ ~dkossy/ decvisit. html
[89] http:/ / aad. archives. gov/ aad/ record-detail. jsp?dt=893& mtch=2& cat=& tf=F& sc=24994& bc=sl,fd& txt_24994=12089790&
op_24994=0& nfo_24994=V,8,1900& rpp=10& pg=1& rid=544728& rlst=544728,549283
[90] The link is a direct database search against Dec's Army Serial Number (after a preliminary search on "Dec Francis" to locate him). Note that
it yields two records (see the "Next Record" link) that are identical except for the two last fields, which have been added later by the archive
about the microfilm storage (Box Number, Film Reel Number); it seems the original punchcard was microfilmed twice due to a clerical error,
since other records are not duplicated.
[91] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ decdisbarment. pdf
[92] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ respond. htm
[93] The date, not provided in this online copy, was retrieved from a mention in Dec's U.S. Supreme Court appeal brief (http:/ / www.
bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ scappeal. htm). The date and the document's very existence were independently confirmed with the last page of
"People v. Dec, 219 N.Y.S.2d 612, 10 N.Y.2d 764 (N.Y., 1961)" on Fastcase.com (https:/ / www. fastcase. com/ Google/ Start.
aspx?C=2a80af655da96134adfc41b510657ae7c800af168ced9036& D=070392357564391c622a6d652a2cce6b328d563812f47120), as well as
a search on FindACase.com (http:/ / ny. findacase. com/ research/ wfrmFindaCase. aspx) and its "Purchase Document" result on
VersusLaw.com (https:/ / websearch. versuslaw. com/ findacase/ wfrmCaseOnDemand. aspx?pp=\ny\ny4\1961\19610707_0045507. ny. htm&
zipcode=0).
[94] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ Dec_BC. pdf
[95] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ timeline. htm
[96] http:/ / www. bentoandstarchky. com/ dec/ dectionary. htm
[97] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 19990117002658/ http:/ / www. cs. monash. edu. au/ ~acb/ discordianism/ saints. html
[98] According to Discordianism, each Discordian is a Pope and can canonize saints (http:/ / jubal. westnet. com/ hyperdiscordia/
discordian_saints. html): list per Bulhak (author of the Postmodernism Generator, he is also referenced by Discordia.ch (http:/ / www.
discordia. ch/ principia/ ) and has an essay (http:/ / www. poee. org/ living/ GetPage. aspx?ID=168) hosted by the Discordian POEE).
[99] http:/ / www. bigtakeover. com/ reviews/ losing-my-mind-with-francis-e-dec-esq-and-the-reverend-jim-jones
[100] http:/ / www. radiohole. com/ show-heen. html
[101] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20031009153214/ http:/ / www. geocities. com/ ctesibos/ voynich/ mbpaper. htm
[102] http:/ / www. subgenius. com/ updates/ 5-99news/ X0020_Saint_Francis_E. . html
[103] http:/ / www. subgenius. com/ updates/ 5-99news/ 5-99news. html
[104] http:/ / www. subgenius. com/ bigfist/ FIST2000-4/ kooks/ X0004_Saint_Francis_E. . html

External links

General links
Texts
• FrancisEDec.com (http://www.francisedec.com/) – fanclub (with Timeline, Dectionary, Rants)
• Francis E. Dec (http://everything2.com/e2node/Francis%20E.%20Dec) at Everything2 – an essay by the
founder of the Dec Fanclub
• Francis E. Dec in Top Ten Visionaries (http://www.markallencam.com/toptennov2003.html) by Mark Allen
(from NY Times and WFMU)
• "I Met Francis Dec!" (http://home.pacifier.com/~dkossy/decvisit.html) (Dec visited in 1995 by Forrest
Jackson)
• "I Met Joseph I. Dec!" (http://www.bentoandstarchky.com/dec/josephletter/) (Dec's brother visited in 2001 by
Forrest Jackson)
• Dec-rant generator (http://pi.pihost.us/dec.shtml) (with Markov chains from the original rants)
Pictures
• Dec's face on his deathbed (http://home.pacifier.com/~dkossy/decface1.GIF) (in 1995)
• Dec's house at 29 Maple Ave (http://www.bentoandstarchky.com/dec/Dechouse1.jpg) (in 2001, as repainted
by Dec's brother)
• Dec's illustrated flyer "Frankenstein Radio Controls" (http://www.bentoandstarchky.com/dec/MRFRCrant.
jpg) (~1970s)
Francis E. Dec 294

• Dec's handwritten flyer "Dual Food Standard" (http://www.bentoandstarchky.com/dec/dualfoodstandard/

foodstandardrant.jpg) (~1981)
• Dec's typewritten flyer "Secret Containment Policy" (http://www.bentoandstarchky.com/dec/
containmentpolicyrant.jpg) (1984)
• Dec's flyers set (http://www.flickr.com/photos/teh_zer0/sets/72157625069384818/) at Flickr (scanned
originals)

Recordings links
The 1986 recordings by Doc Britton (the 5 rants)
• Recordings (MP3) (http://www.ubu.com/sound/dec.html) at UbuWeb
• Recordings (MP3) (http://www.archive.org/details/CYC-009) at Archive.org
The 1995 visit by Forrest Jackson (as "Rant 6" after the 5 rants)
• Recordings (MP3) (http://www.wfmu.org/onthedownload.php/album/5005) at WFMU's "On The Download"
• Recordings (MP3) (http://blog.wfmu.org/freeform/2005/05/gangster_comput.html) at WFMU's "Beware of
the Blog"
Other recordings
• Francis E. Dec (http://www.youtube.com/results?search_type=&search_query="Francis+E.+Dec"+
-Obama) at YouTube (fan readings or dramatizations of Dec rants)
Fortean Times 295

Fortean Times
Fortean Times

Editor David Sutton

Former editors Bob Rickard (Founder)

Paul Sieveking

Staff writers Jen Ogilvie

Categories Paranormal

Frequency every four weeks

(Was bi-monthly; quarterly; monthly)

Year founded 1973

First issue November 1973

(as The News)
June 1976
(as Fortean Times #16)

Company Dennis Publishing Ltd

Country United Kingdom

Language English

Website [1]
forteantimes.com

ISSN [2]
0308-5899

Fortean Times is a British monthly magazine devoted to the anomalous phenomena popularised by Charles Fort.
Previously published by John Brown Publishing (from 1991 to 2001) and then I Feel Good Publishing (2001 to
2005), it is now published by Dennis Publishing Ltd. As of February 2010, its circulation was approximately 19,500
copies per month.[3] The magazine's tagline is "The World of Strange Phenomena".
Fortean Times 296

History

Origin
The roots of the magazine that was to become Fortean Times can be traced back to Bob Rickard's discovering the
works of Charles Fort through the secondhand method of reading science-fiction stories:
"John Campbell, the editor of Astounding Science Fiction (as Analog was then titled), for example," writes
Rickard "encouraged many authors to expand Fort's data and comments into imaginative stories."[4]
In the mid-1960s, while Rickard was studying Product Design at Birmingham Art College he met several
like-minded science fiction fans, particularly crediting fellow-student Peter Weston's fan-produced Speculation 'zine
as helping him to "[learn] the art of putting together a fanzine," some years before he created his own.[4] Attending a
science fiction convention in 1968, Rickard obtained Ace paperback copies of all four of Fort's books from a stall
run by Derek Stokes (later to run Dark They Were, and Golden-Eyed and take a role in the day-to-day running of
The Fortean Times).[4]
After reading an advert in the underground magazine Oz (in 1969) for the "International Fortean Organisation"
(INFO), an American group "founded in 1966... by Paul and Ronald Willis," who had acquired material from the
original Fortean Society (started in 1931, but in limbo since the 1959 death of its founder Tiffany Thayer), Rickard
began to correspond with the brothers, particularly Paul. Rickard was instrumental in encouraging the Willises to
publish their own Fortean journal — the "INFO Journal: Science and the Unknown" began intermittent publication
in Spring, 1967 — and sent them many British newspaper clippings, although few saw print. Rickard later
discovered that the production was fraught behind-the-scenes as Ronald Willis had been seriously ill, Paul thus
finding it difficult to "keep up with things" on his own.[4] Ultimately, the Willises were instrumental in inspiring
Rickard to create his own periodical. Ron Willis succumbed to a brain tumour in March 1975.[4] [5] Bearing a date of
November 1973, the first issue of Rickard's self-produced and self-published The News was available directly from
him.

The News (1973–1976)

The magazine which was to continue Charles Fort's work documenting the unexplained was founded by Robert JM
"Bob" Rickard in 1973 as his self-published bi-monthly mail order "hobbyish newsletter" miscellany The News —
"A Miscellany of Fortean Curiosities".[4] The title is said to be "a contraction taken from Samuel Butler's The News
from Nowhere",[4] (although Rickard may be conflating/confusing Butler's Erewhon and William Morris' "News
from Nowhere"). The News saw fairly regular bi-monthly publication for 15 issues between November 1973 and
April 1976. Debuting at 35p (£1.80/$4.50 for a year of 6 issues[6] ) for 20 pages, The News was produced on
Rickard's typewriter, with headings created with Letraset, during (as Rickard says in #2) the late-'70s blackouts. The
first issue featured a cover (which would become briefly the unofficial logo of The News) drawn by Rickard from a
Selfridges advert originally created by Bernard Partridge.[7] From the second issue, pictures and photographs from
various newspapers were interpolated within the text. The price was raised slightly for #6 — which also saw the
page count upped to 24pg — due in large part to rising postal and paper costs.
Helping behind-the-scenes was Steve Moore, a kindred-spirit whom Rickard met at a comics convention when the
latter was a sub-editor at IPC. The two found they had much in common — including a love of Chinese mysticism
— and Moore helped inspire Rickard to publish The News.[4] The early issues featured some articles by different
individuals, but were "largely the work of Bob Rickard, who typed them himself with some help from Steve
Moore."[8]
Fortean Times 297

Key News-people
Moore and "Paul Screeton (then editor of The Ley Hunter), both urged on the first few uncertain issues" and Moore
would frequently join Rickard to "stuff envelopes and hand-write a few hundred addresses" to disseminate the early
issues.[4] Rickard also highlights amongst the key early Fortean Times advocates and supporters: Ion Alexis Will,
who discovered The News in 1974 and became a "constant [source] of valuable clippings, books, postcards and
entertaining letters"; Janet and Colin Bord, later authors of Mysterious Britain (Janet also wrote for Flying Saucer
Review and Lionel Beer's Spacelink, while it was Colin's Fortean article in Gandalf's Garden that is particularly cited
by Rickard as bringing him/them to his attention); Phil Ledger, a "peripatetic marine biologist", and The News' "first
enthusiastic fan"; Ken Campbell, Fortean playwright; John Michell; Richard Adams and Dick Gwynn, who both
helped with the evolving layout and typesetting of later issues; Chris Squire, who helped organise the first
subscription database; Canadian "Mr. X"; Mike Dash and cartoonist Hunt Emerson. Emerson was introduced to
Rickard in late 1974, when after seven issues, he "wanted to improve the graphics", which Emerson certainly did,
providing around 30 headings for use in issues #8 onwards. (Emerson's still-on-going monthly "Phenomenomix"
strip in FT had its prototype in #11's three-page "Fortean Funnies").[4]

Notable News content

Other early contributors included writer and researcher Nigel Watson (Chairman of the Scunthorpe UFO Research
Society 'SUFORS'), who wrote "Mysterious Moon" for The News #2. Watson would later write a regular column of
UFO commentary entitled Enigma Variations (from #29), and articles on the subject of UFO-related murders and
stories of sexual assault by aliens. Phil Grant wrote about Ley lines for #3 and Mary Caine who revised an earlier
article (from Gandalf's Garden) on The Glastonbury Zodiac for issue #4, which also saw the debut of the "Reviews"
section, beginning with comments on a book by John Michell, the Sphere reprint of Charles Fort's New Lands and
John Sladek's The New Apocrypha. Issues #2 and #3 noted that The News was published "with an arrangement with
INFO", this was revised from #4 to it being "affiliated to the International Fortean Organisation". From #5, Mark A.
Hall produced a section entitled "Fortean USA", continuing on from his earlier, discontinued, newsletter From My
Files; issue #5 also saw William Porter's article on Llandrillo printed, after being delayed from #4 for space
constraints. Janet Bord contributed "Some Fortean Ramblings" alongside William R. Corliss's "The Evolution of the
Fortean Sourcebooks" for #7, and issue #8 was the first issue of Vol. 2, after Rickard decided to end Volume 1 with
#7 (not #6 as fully bi-monthly titles do), since that issue was dated November '74, thereby attempting to keep each
Volume aligned with a year.[9]
Issue #8 (or, Volume 2, issue #1) saw the special "Christmas present" of headings by Hunt Emerson, after Rickard
was introduced to Emerson by Carol and Nick Moore as Hunt was working on Large Cow Comix. Described by
Rickard as "as much a disciple of George [Herriman]... and my [Rickard's] favourite artists from Mad (Bill Elder and
Wally Wood)" as Rickard was of Charles Fort, the two got on well, with Emerson producing not only a series of
headings, but later strips and covers for issues right up to the present day.[4] The death of INFO co-founder Ronald J
Willis was announced in #9, which described itself as providing "bi-monthly notes on Fortean phenomena", and an
index to the first year's issues (#1–7) became available. Colin Bord penned "Amazing Menagerie" for issue #10,
while Paul Devereux and Andrew York x=compiled an exhaustive study of Leicestershire in "Portrait of a Fault
Area", serialised in #11–12. Issue #11 featured Rickard and Emerson's first "Fortean Funnies" cartoon, while #12
saw a price rise to 50p/$1.25, a logo change (from Selfridges' herald-on-horseback to the more descriptive Fort's
face-encircled) and a tweaking of its tagline to "bi-monthly news & notes on Fortean phenomena." Issue #14 first
mentioned Rickard and Michell's then-in-production book Phenomena!, which would be more actively trailed from
#18. Issue #15 — now with 28 pages — announced that Rickard had decided to bow to popular opinion and retitle
his miscellany with a more descriptive title. Thus, with a subtitle of "Portents & Prodigies", Fortean Times was
born.[10]
Fortean Times 298

Fortean Times (since 1976)

After fifteen issues of The News, issue #16 (1976) saw the magazine renamed Fortean Times, which "new title
emerged from correspondence between Bob Rickard and Paul Willis" — the two having talked of creating a Fortean
version of The Times newspaper, "full of weird and wonderful news and read by millions worldwide".[8] Its cover
bore the descriptive text "Strange phenomena — curiosities — prodigies — portents — mysteries," while the inside
cover kept the 'Fort face' logo from later issues of The News but bore the revised legend "A Contemporary Record of
Strange Phenomena".[11] Included within was an offer for a "4-colour silk-screened poster" created by Hunt Emerson
for this landmark issue. From the start, this new format compounded earlier financial difficulties for Rickard,
following on from #14's plea: "we need more subscribers or we die!".[12] (Fortean Times issues #16–18 — as The
News #1–15 before them — were solely edited, published and in large part written & typed by Rickard himself.
Even by passing on rising postal and paper costs to the readership — which Rickard constantly reiterates that he is
loath to do, the early Fortean Times was constantly facing an uphill financial battle.) Early editorials of the new FT,
therefore (in fact beginning with The News #15) featured a notification of donations received, naming and thanking
the hardcore readership (which included many current and future-contributors) for monies received, which aided the
move towards higher production values. With donations helping to offset costs, the price was held at 50p up until
issue #20, whereupon the magazine dropped to a quarterly schedule from Spring 1977 (Issue #21) — but raised the
page count (and price) to continue producing the same amount of material for the same yearly fee (40pg, 75p ea. or
£3/year).
Issue #18 saw a new semi-regular feature entitled "Forteana Corrigenda," aimed at correcting "errors in the
literature" that had crept into various Fortean works through misquotation or other difficulties. After 18 more-or-less
solo-produced issues, long-term supporter and helper Steve Moore was credited as assistant editor for issues #19–21,
becoming co-contributing editor (with Phil Ledger, Stan Nichols and Paul J Willis) on issues #22–26 and 'associate
editor' from issue #27. He was joined by contributing editor David Fideler, and subsequently (also as co-associate
editor) by Paul Sieveking (#28— ) and Valerie Thomas (#31–32). Issue #20 announced that Kay Thompson (a staff
member of Ley Hunter magazine, then under the editorship of Paul Devereux, with whom FT shared an address for
several issues) would be helping to type parts of subsequent issues to further delegate the burden from Rickard. He,
Moore and Sieveking were also later joined editorially by author Mike Dash (who is mentioned as particularly
overseeing the publication of scholarly occasional papers), before Moore moved from full editorial to largely
correspondent duties for a dozen issues after #42, returning as a contributing editor in Autumn 1990 (#55). The four
— Rickard, Sieveking, Dash and Moore — are often collectively referred to as "The Gang of Fort," after the Gang of
Four.
Issue #21 saw the debut of FT semi-regular column "Strange Deaths" (later descriptively subtitled "Unusual ways of
shuffling off this mortal coil"), while issue #22 updated FT's to include (Ivan T. Sanderson's) The Society for the
Investigation of the Unexplained (SITU), alongside INFO. Issue #23 featured an article by Robert Anton Wilson on,
aptly, "The 23 Phenomenon"[13], made available a second Index (1975, to The News #8–13) and included a 12-page
'Review Supplement', issued as a separately bound supplement since the-then printers had difficulty binding more
than 40 pages. With #24, the printers were changed to Windhorse Press to overcome this difficulty, and FT became
officially 52 pages in length, the changes cemented in issue #25 with a new font for the title and a change of address
— c/o London-based "SF and cosmic" bookshop Dark They Were, and Golden-Eyed, run by Derek Stokes (who had
sold Rickard the four Fort books ten years previously). The same issue ran an obituary for Eric Frank Russell, of
whom Rickard was a considerable fan. He writes that Russell turned down an invitation to contribute material to The
News back in 1973, having "earned his rest" after 40 years as an active Fortean. Rickard further states that Russell
was one of the key Fortean-fiction writers he read in Campbell's Astounding Science Fiction and Analog, and the
author of "the first Fortean book I [Rickard] ever read": Russell's Great World Mysteries.[14] Issue #26 trailed "a
special series of 'Occasional Papers' in Fortean subjects" to be edited by Steve Moore, and #27 — the 5th
Anniversary issue — welcomed Michigan-native David Fideler (whose Anomaly Research Bulletin was then due to
cease publication, although its subscribers, FT promised, would be absorbed by them) as FT's "man in the New
Fortean Times 299

World".

Paul Sieveking and FT's format change

In 1978, mutual friend Ion Will introduced Rickard to Paul Sieveking, who recalls that "the Forteans used to meet
every Tuesday afternoon above the science-fiction bookshop Dark They Were And Golden-Eyed in Soho, a shop run
by Derek Stokes, to open post and interact. (Indeed, this was the semi-official address of FT until that shop closed.
With #35, Summer '81 the address was changed.) Sieveking joined the FT team with #28 as co-associate editor, and
writes, highlighting the intrinsic early difficulties in printing FT that that issue "was printed by an Israeli
entrepreneur in northern Greece and shipped to London."[15] That issue (#28), bearing a cover blurb of "Strange
Phenomena", featured an early advert for the bookshop Dark They Were And Golden-Eyed, drawn by Bryan Talbot,
while the editorial promised that the next issue would not only see the availability of Index 1976, but be in a "larger
and more professional format, typeset throughout, [with] better graphics, layout and legibility."[16]
Indeed #29, under a cover by Hunt Emerson,[17] was printed fully typeset in A4 (thanks to art director Richard
Adams of AdCo and, according to Rickard's preface to Yesterday's News Tomorrow, Dick Gwynn) and even
distributed on a limited basis through WH Smiths. The move away from production on Rickard's typewriter gave
"The Journal of Strange Phenomena," (as it was now subtitled) greater ability to produce longer, better laid-out
articles. These opened with a seven-page guide to "Charles Fort and Fortean Times" by Bob Rickard, explaining the
background and philosophy of FT as well as outlining the influence of Fort "who", writes Rickard, "is still largely
unknown",[18] and also included the first of Nigel Watson's "Enigma Variations" columns and Loren Coleman's
"Devil Names and Fortean Places" article sat alongside comments by Colin Bord, Tim Dinsdale, VGW Harrison and
Rickard on Anthony 'Doc' Shiels' 1977 "Nessie" photographs. The magazine itself dropped the description
'non-profitmaking' from its publication information, and ceased to name its stated-affiliations to INFO and SITU and
'other Fortean journals' in favour the more general aim to be a "friend to all groups and magazines continuing the
work of Charles Fort".[19] It also contained a considerably higher number of adverts, including both inside covers —
making the page count slightly higher than previous issues, which had previously counted the cover as page 1 — and
an early advert by Brian Bolland for Forbidden Planet (which would ironically begin to take off only after the
closure of Stokes's Dark They Were And Golden-Eyed).
Issue #30 announced that while "over the last couple of issues [the] subscriber list... nearly doubled," so too had the
"printing, production and postage bill," necessitating a price rise to 95p/$2.50 — albeit softened by another length
increase, to 68 pages. Now published not merely by Rickard, but by 'Fortean Times Ltd', it was typeset by
Warpsmith Graphics and printed by Bija Press. The cover was painted by Una Woodruff (whose Inventorum Natura
was reviewed within) to illustrate John Michell's article on "Spontaneous Images and Acheropites," drawing on his
1979 Thames & Hudson book dealing with — and titled — "Simulacra". Bob Rickard produced an article on one
"Clemente Dominguez: Pope, Heretic, Stigmatic;" Michael Hoffman speculated on the occult aspects of a serial
killer in "The Sun of Sam;" Robert J. Schadewald wrote about "The Great Fish Fall of 1859" while Hunt Emerson
produced the first cartoon strip under the title "Phenomenomix".
Sieveking took over full editorial duties from Rickard with #43, helming the subsequent four quarterly issues (to
#46) to give Rickard a chance to "revitalize",[20] which he did, returning with #46 to the position of co-editor.
Moore, Dash and Ian Simmons (and others) variously edited the magazine for the next 18+ years, and although main
editorship passed from Rickard and Sieveking to David Sutton in 2002, they both continue to contribute —
Sieveking continues as before, editing and writing most of the Strange Days news section and editing the letters
pages, and acting as the main quality-control proof-reader, as well as producing the occasional feature (while
Sieveking's wife edits the "Reviews" section).
During the 30 years of its publication, Fortean Times has changed both format and publishers on a couple of
occasions. Early issues (particularly of The News) were produced in black & white (for ease of photocopying), and
the whole was largely produced by typewriter until #29. Colour, professional printing (and wider distribution)
Fortean Times 300

followed and a 6.5 x 4.5in size held sway for several years before the magazine settled into its "normal" A4
(magazine) size in the 1980s, after which glossy covers followed. Several changes of logo and font have occurred
throughout its life.

General content
The identification of correct original sources by contributors is a defining feature of the magazine, as it was for
Charles Fort himself. However, the "objective reality" of these reports is not as important. The magazine "maintains
a position of benevolent scepticism towards both the orthodox and the unorthodox" and "toes no party line". The
range of subject matter is extremely broad, including but not limited to the following:
• General Forteana
• Anomalous phenomena
• Apparitions
• Bizarre deaths
• Conspiracy theories
• Crop circles
• Cryptozoology
• Cults and would-be Messiahs and prophets.
• Fringe science
• Hoaxes
• Millennialism, eschatology, and cases of mass hysteria.
• Mutants (human and animal)
• Parapsychology
• Religious phenomena (stigmata, appearances and simulacra and miracles, etc.)
• Natural simulacra
• UFOs
• Urban legends
Fortean Times also frequently covers the Ig Nobel Prizes, as well as unusual aspects of mainstream science and
research.

Current content
The magazine's current regular contents include:
• Three or four feature articles
• Strange Days, a wide-ranging overview of odd and interesting stories mostly culled from the world's newspapers.
Some feature in particular sections, including:
• Science
• Archaeology (usually by Paul Sieveking and Paul Devereux)
• Ghosts, in a column titled Ghostwatch
• Alien Zoo, Dr. Karl Shuker's regular discussion of cryptozoological matters
• Necrolog, obituaries of Fortean-relevant individuals
• Strange deaths, a long-running round-up of the odd manners in which some people meet their ends
• The UFO Files: "Flying Saucery", is Andy J. Roberts and Dr. David Clarke's "regular survey of the latest fads
and flaps from the world of ufology"; "UFOcal Points" is Jenny Randles' "round-up of sightings and hot-spots
from around the world"
Clippings for most of Strange Days' stories are requested from, and supplied by, the readers of FT
Fortean Times 301

• Mythconceptions, which debunks modern myths, old wives' tales, etc. (in a similar manner to, for example,
Snopes.com)
• Classical Corner, in which Barry Baldwin reviews Fortean events from ancient times
• Fortean Bureau of Investigation, which typically revisits and reassesses older Fortean cases
• Forum, featuring three or four shorter articles on diverse topics
• Reviews of Fortean, science fiction/fantasy and related books, films and computer games
• A letters page, incorporating:
• Simulacra Corner, photographs submitted by readers of (typically) naturally occurring objects which appear to
be in the shape of something else
• "it happened to me...", readers stories of strange personal occurrences
• Fortean Traveller, a guide to various sites of interest to the travelling Fortean
• Phenomenomix, a comic strip by Hunt Emerson

Praise and criticism

Most of the articles in Fortean Times are written in the style of objective journalism, but this is not a mandatory
requirement and some articles focus on a specific theory or point of view. Although such articles are presented as the
opinion of the author and not the editors (who claim to have no opinions), this has occasionally led to controversy.
One of the most famous examples occurred in January 1997, when the magazine ran an article by David Percy under
the headline "FAKE! Did NASA hoax the moon landing photos?". The article outraged many readers and led to the
magazine's "most vigorous postbag" up to that time. If the Percy article upset the "skeptics" among FT's readership,
it was the turn of the "believers" in August 2000, when the magazine's cover boasted what must have seemed to them
at first sight a very promising headline: "UFO? The shocking truth about the first flying saucers". However, the
article in question, by James Easton, proposed an extremely mundane explanation for Kenneth Arnold's sighting —
American White Pelicans. This suggestion so outraged ufologists that many of them still use the term "pelican" or
"pelicanist" as a pejorative term for a debunker.[21]
Praise from within the various Fortean communities almost goes without saying, and most Fortean researchers
contribute articles, criticism and/or letters to the magazine. It has also attracted more widespread coverage and praise
at times, however. Fortean Times #69 claims that "extracts from FT have featured in at least three publications used
for teaching English as a foreign language," perhaps in part because (as the editors also quote) Lynn Barber of The
Independent on Sunday newspaper calls FT "a model of elegant English."[22] [23]

Related projects
The magazine has organised an "UnConvention" (or UnCon), most years since 1994 (the "missing" years being
2001, 2005 and 2009), at various venues in London (the University of London Union, the Institute of Education, the
Commonwealth Institute and, in recent years, the London Friends Meeting House). Many "hot topics" of the day
have been discussed, such as the Ray Santilli "alien autopsy" film at the 1996 UnCon, and the death of Diana,
Princess of Wales at the 1998 event. On other occasions the organisers are well ahead of the trend, as was the case in
1998 when Lynn Picknett and Clive Prince discussed Templar conspiracies and hidden symbolism in the paintings of
Leonardo Da Vinci years before these were turned into mass media subjects by The Da Vinci Code. Besides the
formal lecture programme, UnCon normally features exhibits by organisations such as the Association for the
Scientific Study of Anomalous Phenomena and the Centre for Fortean Zoology. The event often ends with a panel
discussion, as was notoriously the case in 2002 when the subject was "Is Ufology Dead?". This was widely reported
in the British media as an "official" statement by Fortean Times that " Ufology is Dead".[24]
Fortean Studies, the magazines more-academic sister-publication published yearly volumes in the late 1990s, and is
still nominally ongoing, although when future volumes might see print is unknown. Publication stalled after the sale
of FT in 2000.
Fortean Times 302

Its website tracks Fortean news stories, holds a small archive of articles and photographs, and supports a busy
internet forum for discussion of Fortean topics.
The magazine has also occasionally published both academic and lighthearted books on various aspects of Forteana.

Collections and spin-off books

Many of the earliest issues of FT were collected in book format in the early 1990s. In recent years, the print volumes
have been overtaken by digital files, available on CD. In addition, several smaller collections have been compiled on
various themes and sold, or given away as 'free gifts' with the magazine. A more academic journal, Fortean Studies,
has also been printed and is an ongoing venture.

Fortean Tomes
Starting in the very early 1990s, Fortean Times produced a number of facsimile editions collecting the earliest issues
of the magazine, in their entirety, including advertisements. These collections, prepared and edited for print by Paul
Sieveking (including hand-corrections to early typographic errors) are now out-of-print. It further appears that
although demand was such to warrant reprints of several volumes, after collecting up to #77 it was decided that the
previous volumes had not sold well enough to continue completely up to date. (Concern over the likely cost of
reprinting issues in the new full colour format led to a publishing decision to stockpile 500 unbound run-on copies of
each number to provide the basis of future reprint editions, and this project resulted in one further collection —
"Snakes Alive!", collecting #93–97 — but the in-between issues #78–92 have not yet been collected in trade
format.)
(The early collections, like the earliest magazines, were published in smaller, 6.5 x 4.5in format)

• Yesterday's News Tomorrow: Fortean Times Issues 1–15 (John Brown Publishing, 1992 2nd ed. 1995) ISBN
1-870870-26-3
• Diary of a Mad Planet: Fortean Times Issues 16–25 (John Brown Publishing Ltd, 2nd ed. 1995) ISBN
1-870021-25-8
• Seeing Out the Seventies: Fortean Times Issues 26–30 (John Brown Publishing Ltd, 1990[25] ) ISBN
1-870021-20-7
• Gateways to Mystery: Fortean Times Issues 31–36 (John Brown Publishing Ltd, 1993) ISBN 1-870870-37-9
• Heaven's Reprimands: Fortean Times Issues 37–41 (John Brown Publishing Ltd, 1994) ISBN 1-870870-52-2
• If Pigs Could Fly: Fortean Times Issues 42–46 (John Brown Publishing Ltd, 1994) ISBN 1-870870-47-6
• Fishy Yarns[26] : Fortean Times Issues 47–51 (John Brown Publishing Ltd, 1994) ISBN 1-870870-48-4
• Bonfire of the Oddities: Fortean Times Issues 52–56 (John Brown Publishing Ltd, 1995) ISBN 1-870870-61-1
• Strange Attractors: Fortean Times Issues 57–62 (John Brown Publishing Ltd, 1996) ISBN 1-870870-73-5
(The later collections were of a larger — A4 — size)

• Plumber from Lhasa: Fortean Times Issues 63–67 (John Brown Publishing Ltd, 1996) ISBN 1-870870-79-4
• Memories of Hell: Fortean Times Issues 68–72 (John Brown Publishing Ltd, 1997) ISBN 1-870870-90-5
• Mouthful of Mysteries: Fortean Times Issues 73–77 (John Brown Publishing Ltd, 1998) ISBN 1-870870-66-2
• Snakes Alive!: Fortean Times Issues 93–97 (John Brown Publishing Ltd, 1998) ISBN 1-902212-04-5
• "Fortean Times" Index by Steve Moore (John Brown Publishing Ltd, Oct 1997) ISBN 1-870870-68-9
Fortean Times 303

CDs
In the mid 2000s, FT began to release a series of digital archives. Beginning with more recent issues (presumably for
reasons of ease — more recent issues would be more readily available as digital files), they have also begun to
re-release the earliest issues — it appears that the digital archive CD format has taken over from print collections.
• Issues 1–15 CD (The complete The News)
• Issues 16–25 CD
• Issues 26–30 CD
• Issues 1–30 3CD boxset
• 2001 CD Archive (Issues 142–153)
• 2002 CD Archive (Issues 154–165)
• 2003 CD Archive (Issues 166–178)
• 2004 CD Archive (Issues 179–191)
• 2005 CD Archive (Issues 192–204)
• 2006 CD Archive (Issues 205–217)
• 2002–2005 4CD Archive

Fortean Studies
A sister-publication Fortean Studies began in the mid-1990s and was edited by Steve Moore. In the words of
frequent-contributor Neil Nixon, it "compiled serious research and opinion on a range of paranormal and conspiracy
related issues," as was a more academic counterpart to FT.
• Rickard, Bob (producer) & Moore, Steve (ed.) Fortean Studies: Volume 1 (John Brown Publishing Ltd, 1994)
ISBN 1-870870-55-7
• Rickard, Bob (producer) & Moore, Steve (ed.) Fortean Studies: Volume 2 (John Brown Publishing Ltd, 1995)
ISBN 1-870870-70-0
• Rickard, Bob (producer) & Moore, Steve (ed.) Fortean Studies: Volume 3 (John Brown Publishing Ltd, 1996)
ISBN 1-870870-82-4
• Rickard, Bob (producer) & Moore, Steve (ed.) Fortean Studies: Volume 4 (John Brown Publishing Ltd, 1998)
ISBN 1-870870-96-4
• Rickard, Bob (producer) & Moore, Steve (ed.) Fortean Studies: Volume 5 (John Brown Publishing Ltd, 1998)
ISBN 1-902212-14-2
• Rickard, Bob (producer) & Moore, Steve (ed.) Fortean Studies: Volume 6 (John Brown Publishing Ltd, 1999)
ISBN 1-902212-20-7
• Simmons, Ian & Quin, Melanie (eds.) Fortean Studies: Volume 7 (John Brown Publishing Ltd, 2001) ISBN
1-902212-36-3

Other titles
• Wild Man: China's Yeti by Yuan Zhenxin and Huang Wanpo with Fan Jingquan and Zhou Xinyan, edited and
introduced by Steve Moore. Fortean Times Occasional Paper no.1, 1981. No ISBN or ISSN assigned
• Toad in the Hole: Source Material on the Entombed Toad Phenomenon selected and annotated by Bob Skinner.
Fortean Times Occasional Paper no.2, 1986. ISSN 0260-5856
• The Halifax Slasher: An Urban Terror in the North of England by Michael Goss. Fortean Times Occasional Paper
no.3, 1987. ISSN 0260-5856
• The World's Most Incredible Stories: The Best of Fortean Times by Adam Sisman and Hunt Emerson (May 1992)
• Fortean Times 1993 Diary by Paul Sieveking (Dec 1992)
Fortean Times 304

• "Fortean Times" Book of Strange Deaths compiled by Steve Moore, illustrated by Etienne (John Brown
Publishing Ltd 1994) ISBN 1-870870-50-6
• US edition: The Comedian Who Choked to Death on a Pie—and the Man Who Quit Smoking at 116: A
Collection of Incredible Lives and Unbelievable Deaths (Nov 1996)
• "Fortean Times" Book of Weird Sex (Sep 1995)
• "Fortean Times" Book of Life's Losers by Ian Simmons, illustrated by Geoff Coupland (Oct 1996)
• "Fortean Times" Book of Inept Crime compiled by Steve Moore, illustrated by Geoff Coupland (Oct 1996)
• US edition: The World's Stupidest Criminals (Jun 1998)
• "Fortean Times" Book of Exploding Pigs and Other Strange Animal Stories by Ian Simmons (Oct 1997)
• "Fortean Times" Book of Bizarre Behaviour by Ian Simmons (Oct 1998)
• "Fortean Times" Book of More Strange Deaths by Paul Sieveking (Oct 1998)
• "Fortean Times" Book of Unconventional Wisdom (1999)
• "Fortean Times" Book of Close Shaves by Steve Moore (John Brown Publishing Ltd Oct 1999) ISBN
1-902212-18-5
• "Fortean Times" Book of Medical Mayhem by Paul Sieveking and Ian Simmons (Oct 1999)
• "Fortean Times" Book of the Millennium by Kevin McClure (Sep 1996)
• "Fortean Times" Presents UFO: 1947–1997 — 50 Years of Flying Saucers by Dennis Stacy and Hilary Evans
(May 1997)
• Aliens Ate My Trousers: Crazy Comics from the Pages of "Fortean Times" by Hunt Emerson (Mar 1998)
• Weird Year 1996: The Best of Strange Days by James Wallis and Joe McNally (Nov 1995)
• Weird World 1999 by Mark Pilkington and Joe McNally (Nov 1998)
• (Barmy Sutra by David Sutton — planned for 2001; unpublished)

References and footnotes

[1] http:/ / www. forteantimes. com/
[2] http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ issn/ 0308-5899
[3] Audit Bureau of Circulations (UK) report
[4] Rickard, Bob; Sieveking, Paul (ed.), et al. (June 1992) (Preface). Yesterday's News Tomorrow: Fortean Times Issues 1–15 (Fortean Tomes,
2nd edition, 1995 ed.). John Brown Publishing. ISBN 1-870870-26-3.
[5] Rickard, Bob (April 1975). "Editorial". The News #9.
[6] Early advertisements promised a monthly, 12-issue subscription for the same price, but monetary and time constraints caused Rickard to
move to a bi-monthly schedule, and use any 'extra' monies to merely produce a greater number of pages
[7] Rickard, Bob (November 1973). "Editorial". The News #1.
[8] Sieveking, Paul; Rickard, Bob, Moore, Steve et al. (1991) (Preface). Diary of a Mad Planet: Fortean Times Issues 16–25 (2nd ed. 1995 ed.).
John Brown Publishing. ISBN 1-870021-25-8.
[9] Rickard, Bob (July 1974). "Editorial". The News #5.
[10] Rickard, Bob (April 1976). "Editorial". The News #15.
[11] Rickard, Bob (June 1976). "Editorial". The Fortean Times #16.
[12] Rickard, Bob (January 1976). "Editorial". The News #14.
[13] http:/ / forteantimes. com/ features/ commentary/ 396/ the_23_phenomenon. html
[14] Rickard, Bob (Spring 1978). "Obituaries cont.". Fortean Times #25, p. 43.
[15] Sieveking, Paul; Rickard, Bob, Moore, Steve et al. (April 1990) (Preface). Seeing Out the Seventies: Fortean Times Issues 26–30 (Fortean
Tomes 1990 ed.). John Brown Publishing. ISBN 1-870021-20-7.
[16] Rickard, Bob (Winter 1979). "Editorial". Fortean Times #28.
[17] The cover would later be used for the Yesterday's News Tomorrow collection of The News issues #1–15.
[18] Rickard, Bob (Summer 1979). "Charles Fort and Fortean Times". Fortean Times #29.
[19] Rickard, Bob (Summer 1979). "Editorial". Fortean Times #29.
[20] Rickard, Bob (Autumn 1984). "Editorial". The Fortean Times #42.
[21] Pelican Index (http:/ / www. magonia. demon. co. uk/ arc/ 90/ pelicanindex. htm)
[22] Rickard, Bob; Sieveking, Paul (June/July 1993). "Editorial". Fortean Times (69): p. 4.
[23] Barber, Lynn (25 April 1993). "[Unknown]". The Independent on Sunday.
Fortean Times 305

[24] Rickard, Bob; Sieveking, Paul (July 2002), "Saucers Smeared", Fortean Times (160): p. 4
[25] Copyright and Introduction date information imply that this was the first book to see publication, possibly followed by "Diary of a Mad
Planet", and then "Yesterday's News Tomorrow".
[26] Published as a hardback

External links
• Official website (http://www.forteantimes.com/)
• A Fortean Society site (http://www.frogboy.freeuk.com/iwfs1.html)
• Blather.net on Uncon 2006 (http://www.blather.net/blather/2006/05/fortean_times_uncon_2006.html)

Heaven's Gate (religious group)

Heaven's Gate was an American UFO religion based in
San Diego, California, founded and led by Marshall
Applewhite (1931–1997) and Bonnie Nettles
(1928–1985).[1] On March 26, 1997, in a period when
Comet Hale-Bopp was at its brightest,[2] police
discovered the bodies of 39 members of the group who
had committed suicide in order to reach an alien aircraft
which was supposedly following the aforementioned
comet.[3]

History
According to Jacques Vallée in his 1979 book
The logo used by the Heaven's Gate group
Messengers of Deception,[4] the group began in the early
1970s when Marshall Applewhite was recovering from a
heart attack during which he claimed to have had a near-death experience. He came to believe that he and his nurse,
Bonnie Nettles, were "the Two," that is, the two witnesses spoken of in the Book of Revelation 11:3 in the Bible.
After a brief and unsuccessful attempt to run an inspirational bookstore, they began traveling around the United
States of America giving talks about their belief system. As with some other New Age faiths[5] [6] they combined
Christian doctrine (particularly the ideas of salvation and apocalypse) with the concept of evolutionary advancement
and elements of science fiction, particularly travel to other worlds and dimensions.

Applewhite and Nettles used a variety of aliases over the years, notably "Bo and Peep" and "Do and Ti." The group
also had a variety of names. Before the name Heaven’s Gate was used and stuck, it was known as Human Individual
Metamorphosis. At the time Vallée studied the group, it was called HIM (Human Individual Metamorphosis). The
group re-invented and re-named itself several times and had a variety of recruitment methods.[7] [8] Marshall himself
believed he was directly related to Jesus, meaning he was an "Evolutionary Kingdom Level Above Human."

Belief system
Heaven's Gate members believed that the planet Earth was about to be recycled (wiped clean, renewed, refurbished
and rejuvenated), and that the only chance to survive was to leave it immediately. While the group was formally
against suicide, they defined "suicide" in their own context to mean "to turn against the Next Level when it is being
offered,"[9] and believed that their "human" bodies were only vessels meant to help them on their journey. In
conversation, when referring to a person or a person's body, they routinely used the word "vehicle;" when shown a
Heaven's Gate (religious group) 306

picture of his son in an interview, Rio Di Angelo commented, "Look, there's the little vehicle."
The group believed in several paths for a person to leave the Earth and survive before the "recycling," one of which
was hating this world strongly enough: "It is also possible that part of our test of faith is our hating this world, even
our flesh body, to the extent to be willing to leave it without any proof of the Next Level's existence".
The members of the group added "-ody" to the first names they adopted in lieu of their original given names, which
defines "children of the Next Level." This is mentioned in Applewhite's final video, "Do's Final Exit," that was
filmed on March 19-20, 1997, just days prior to the suicides.
They believed “to be eligible for membership in the Next Level, humans would have to shed every attachment to the
planet.” (Balch, 2002, p.211) This meant that all members had to give up all human-like characteristics such as their
family, friends, sexuality, individuality, jobs, money, and possessions (Balch, 2002, p.211).
These basic beliefs of the cult stayed generally consistent over the years however, “the details of their ideology were
flexible enough to undergo modification over time.” (Lewis, 2001, p.16) There are many examples of the cult adding
or slightly changing their beliefs over the years. This includes modifying the way one can enter the Next Level,
changing the way they describe themselves, placing more importance on the idea of Satan, and adding several other
New Age concepts. One of these concepts was the belief of extraterrestrial walk-ins. When the cult began,
“Applewhite and Nettles taught their followers that they were extraterrestrial beings. However, after the notion of
walk-ins became popular within the New Age subculture, the Two changed their tune and began describing
themselves as extraterrestrial walk-ins.” (Lewis, 2001, p.16) The idea of walk-ins is very similar to the concept of
being possessed by spirits. A walk-in can be defined as “an entity who occupies a body that has been vacated by its
original soul.” (Lewis, 2001, p.368) An extraterrestrial walk-in, which is what Heaven’s Gate came to believe, is “a
walk-in that is supposedly from another planet.” (Lewis, 2001, p.368) The concept of walk-ins actually aided
Applewhite and Nettles in starting from a clean slate personally. They no longer were the people they had been prior
to the start of the group, but had taken on a new life and this idea actually gave them a way to “erase their human
personal histories as the histories of souls who formerly occupied the bodies of Applewhite and Nettles.” (Lewis,
2001, p.368) Another New Age belief that Applewhite and Nettles adopted was “the ancient astronaut hypothesis.
The term ‘ancient astronauts’ is used to refer to various forms of the concept that ufonauts visited our planet in the
distant past.” (Lewis, 2001, p.16) Applewhite and Nettles took part of this concept and taught it as the belief that
“aliens planted the seeds of current humanity millions of years ago, and have to come to reap the harvest of their
work in the form of spiritual evolved individuals who will join the ranks of flying saucer crews. Only a select few
members of humanity will be chosen to advance to this transhuman state. The rest will be left to wallow in the
spiritually poisoned atmosphere of a corrupt world.” (Lewis, 2001, p.17) Only the individuals that chose to join
Heaven’s Gate and follow Applewhite and Nettle’s belief and make the sacrifices that membership required would be
allowed to escape human suffering.

Structure
Group members gave up their material possessions and lived a highly ascetic life devoid of many indulgences. The
group was tightly knit and everything was shared communally. Seven of the male members of the group, including
Applewhite, voluntarily underwent castration in Mexico as an extreme means of maintaining the ascetic lifestyle.[10]
The group funded itself by offering professional website development for paying clients under the name Higher
Source.[11]
Cultural theorist Paul Virilio has described the group as a cybersect, due to the group's heavy reliance on computer
mediated communication as a mode of communication prior to the group's collective suicide.[12]
Heaven's Gate (religious group) 307

Mass suicide and aftermath

On March 19-20, 1997, Marshall Applewhite taped himself speaking of mass suicide and asserted "it was the only
way to evacuate this Earth". The Heaven's Gate group was against suicide but they believed they had no choice but
to leave Earth as quickly as possible. After claiming that a space craft was trailing the comet Hale-Bopp, Applewhite
convinced 38 followers to commit suicide so that their souls could board the supposed craft. Applewhite believed
that after their deaths, a UFO would take their souls to another "level of existence above human", which Applewhite
described as being both physical and spiritual. This and other UFO-related beliefs held by the group have led some
observers to characterize the group as a type of UFO religion. In October 1996, the group purchased alien abduction
insurance to cover up to 50 members at a cost of $10,000.[13]
The cult rented a 9,200-sq.-ft. mansion, located at 18241 Colina Norte (later changed to Paseo Victoria), in a gated
community of upscale homes in the San Diego-area community of Rancho Santa Fe, California from Sam
Koutchesfahani, paying $7,000 per month in cash.[14] The thirty-eight Heaven's Gate members, plus group leader
Applewhite, were found dead in the home on March 26, 1997. In the heat of the California spring, many of the
bodies had begun to decompose by the time they were discovered. The corpses underwent autopsies, where cyanide
and arsenic were found. The bodies were later cremated.
The suicide was accomplished by ingestion of phenobarbital mixed with applesauce or pudding, washed down with
vodka. Additionally, plastic bags were secured around their heads after ingesting the mix to induce asphyxiation.
Authorities found the dead lying neatly in their own bunk beds, faces and torsos covered by a square, purple cloth.
Each member carried a five dollar bill and three quarters in their pockets. All 39 were dressed in identical black
shirts and sweat pants, brand new black-and-white Nike Windrunner athletic shoes, and armband patches reading
"Heaven's Gate Away Team" (one of many instances of the group's use of the Star Trek fictional universe's
nomenclature). The adherents, between the ages of 26 and 72, are believed to have died in three groups over three
successive days, with remaining participants cleaning up after each prior group's death.[15] Fifteen members died on
March 24, 15 more on March 25, and nine on March 26. Leader Applewhite was the third to last member to die; two
women remained after him and were the only ones found without bags over their heads. Among the dead was
Thomas Nichols, brother of Nichelle Nichols who is best known for her role as Uhura in the Star Trek television
series[16] .
One of the group's members did not kill himself: weeks before the suicides Rio Di Angelo agreed with Applewhite to
leave the group so he could ensure future dissemination of Heaven's Gate videos and literature. He videotaped the
mansion in Rancho Santa Fe; however, the tape was not shown to police until 2002, five years after the event.
The mass death of the Heaven's Gate group was widely publicized in the media as an example of cult suicide.[17]
Two former members of Heaven's Gate, Wayne Cooke and Charlie Humphreys, later committed suicide in a similar
manner to the group. Humphreys had survived a suicide pact with Cooke in May 1997, but successfully committed
suicide in February 1998.[18] [19]

Media coverage prior to suicide

Although not widely known to the mainstream media, Heaven's Gate was known in UFO circles as well as a series of
academic studies by sociologist Robert Balch. They also received coverage in Jacques Vallée's Messengers of
Deception, in which Vallée described an unusual public meeting organized by the group. Vallée frequently expressed
concerns within the book about contactee groups' authoritarian political and religious outlooks, and Heaven's Gate
did not escape criticism.[20]
In January 1994, the LA Weekly ran an article on the group, then known as The Total Overcomers.[21] Through this
article Rio DiAngelo, a surviving member of the group, discovered the group and eventually joined them. DiAngelo
was the subject of LA Weekly's 2007 cover story on the group.[22]
Heaven's Gate (religious group) 308

Louis Theroux contacted the Heaven's Gate group while making a program for his BBC Two documentary series,
Louis Theroux's Weird Weekends, in early March 1997. In response to his e-mail, Theroux was told that Heaven's
Gate could not take part in the documentary as "at the present time a project like this would be an interference with
what we must focus on".[23]

Notes
[1] Hexham, Irving; Poewe, Karla (7 May 1997). "UFO Religion - Making Sense of the Heaven's Gate Suicides" (http:/ / www. ucalgary. ca/
~nurelweb/ papers/ irving/ HGCC. html). Christian Century. pp. 439–440. . Retrieved 2007-10-06.
[2] AYRES Jr, B. DRUMMOND (March 29, 1997). "Families Learning of 39 Cultists Who Died Willingly" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/
fullpage. html?res=9400E7DB133AF93AA15750C0A961958260& sec=health& spon=& pagewanted=all). New York Times. . Retrieved
2008-11-09. "According to material the group posted on its Internet site, the timing of the suicides were probably related to the arrival of the
Hale-Bopp comet, which members seemed to regard as a cosmic emissary beckoning them to another world."
[3] "Mass suicide involved sedatives, vodka and careful planning" (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ US/ 9703/ 27/ suicide/ index. html). CNN. . Retrieved
2010-05-04.
[4] Vallee, Jacques, Messengers of Deception: UFO Contacts and Cults. Ronin, 1979.
[5] Partridge, Christopher, Introduction to World Religions (Fortress, 2005), entry on "UFO Religions, Human Potential and the New Age", p.
444.
[6] Wojik, Daniel, "Apocalyptic and Millenarian Aspects of American UFOism", in Partridge, Chistopher, ed., UFO Religions. Routledge, 2003,
p. 274.
[7] Ryan J. Cook, Heaven's Gate (http:/ / www. anthroufo. info/ un-hgate. html), webpage retrieved 2008-10-10.
[8] Steven Mizrach, Heaven's Gate? (http:/ / www. fiu. edu/ ~mizrachs/ heavensgate. html), Fortean look at facts vs. media hype.page found
2008-10-10.
[9] "Our Position Against Suicide" (http:/ / www. heavensgate. com/ misc/ letter. htm). Heaven's Gate Web Site. . Retrieved 2007-08-23.
[10] "Heaven's Gate" Suicides (http:/ / www. culteducation. com/ hgate. html) By Rick Ross, October 1999,The Rick A. Ross Institute
[11] Weise, Elizabeth (1997-03-28). "Internet Provided Way To Pay Bills, Spread Message Before Suicide" (http:/ / archives. seattletimes.
nwsource. com/ cgi-bin/ texis. cgi/ web/ vortex/ display?slug=2531080& date=19970328). Associated Press. Seattle Times. . Retrieved
2007-12-30.
[12] Paul Virilio, The Information Bomb (Verso, 2005), p. 41.
[13] (http:/ / www. artgomperz. com/ newse/ abd. html); By Edith Lederer; April 2, 1997; Associated Press; Retrieved March 12, 2008
[14] "The Marker We'Ve Been ... Waiting For", by Elizabeth Gleick, Cathy Booth and James Willwerth (Rancho Santa Fe); Nancy Harbert
(Albuquerque); Rachele Kanigal (Oakland) and Richard N. Ostling and Noah Robischon (New York) — Monday, April 7, 1997 (http:/ /
www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,986136-4,00. html)
[15] Ramsland, Katherine. "Death Mansion" (http:/ / www. crimelibrary. com/ notorious_murders/ mass/ heavens_gate/ 5. html). All about
Heaven's Gate cult (CourtTV Crime Library). . Retrieved 2006-09-20.
[16] "Some members of suicide cult castrated" (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ US/ 9703/ 28/ mass. suicide. pm/ ). CNN. .
[17] "First autopsies completed in cult suicide" (http:/ / www. cnn. com/ US/ 9703/ 28/ mass. suicide/ index. html). CNN. 28 March 1997. .
Retrieved 2007-10-06.
[18] "Heaven's Gate: A timeline" (http:/ / www. signonsandiego. com/ uniontrib/ 20070318/ news_lz1n18timelin. html). The San Diego Herald
Tribute. 18 March 2007. . Retrieved 2007-10-21.
[19] Purdum, Todd S. (May 7, 1997). "Ex-Cultist Dies In Suicide Pact; 2d Is 'Critical'" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.
html?res=9E06E7DD1E30F934A35756C0A961958260). New York Times. . Retrieved 2007-10-21. "A former member of the Heaven's Gate
cult was found dead today in a copycat suicide in a motel room near the scene of the group's mass suicide in San Diego County, and another
former member was found unconscious in the same room, the authorities said."
[20] Vallee, Jacques, Messengers of Deception: UFO Contacts and Cults. Ronin, 1979.
[21] Dave Gardetta (21 January 1994). "They Walk Among Us" (http:/ / www. laweekly. com/ general/ features/ they-walk-among-us/ 15922).
LA Weekly. . Retrieved 2007-08-23.
[22] Bearman, Joshuah (21 March 2007). "Heaven's Gate: The Sequel" (http:/ / www. laweekly. com/ 2007-03-22/ news/
heaven-s-gate-the-sequel/ ). LA Weekly. .
[23] "Louis Theroux's Weird Weekends: UFO" (http:/ / www. veoh. com/ videos/ v266439DxcWKyTx). .
Heaven's Gate (religious group) 309

Bibliography
• Lalich, Janja, Bounded Choice: True Believers and Charismatic Cults. University of California Press, 2004. ISBN
0-520-23194-5. 329 pp.
• Investigative Reports: Inside Heaven's Gate
• Balch, Robert W., "Bo and Peep: a case study of the origins of messianic leadership", In Roy Wallis, ed.
Millennialism and charisma. Belfast: Queens' University, 1982
• Balch, Robert W., "Waiting for the ships: disillusionment and revitalization of faith in Bo and Peep's UFO cult",
In James R. Lewis, ed. The Gods have Landed: New Religions from Other Worlds, Albany: SUNY, 1995
• Balch, Robert W., "When the Light Goes Out, Darkness Comes: A Study of Defection from a Totalistic Cult". in
Religious Movements: Genesis, Exodus and Numbers, Rodney Stark, (Ed), Paragon House Publishers, 1985, pp.
11–63
• Theroux, Louis, The Call of the Weird, Pan Macmillan, 2005, pp 207–221
• DiAngelo, Rio, "Beyond Human Mind-The Soul Evolution of Heaven's Gate", RIODIANGELO PRESS, 2007,
128p

External links
• Official Website (created in Dec. 1996, it continues to run, unchanged since the suicides) (http://www.
heavensgate.com)
• "How and When HEAVEN'S GATE May Be Entered" (the cult book) (http://www.press1.com/current/hgate/
mirror/book/book.htm)
• All about Heaven's Gate cult by Katherine Ramsland – The Crime Library (http://www.crimelibrary.com/
notorious_murders/mass/heavens_gate/1.html?sect=8)
• Some members of suicide cult castrated (http://www.cnn.com/US/9703/28/mass.suicide.pm/)
Voluntary Human Extinction Movement 310

Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

The Voluntary Human Extinction Movement, or
VHEMT (pronounced "vehement"), is a movement which
calls for the voluntary gradual self-extinction of the human
species through abstaining from reproduction.[2] [3]
VHEMT's motto is "May we live long and die out."[4]
Proponents of VHEMT concepts are characterized either as
supporters,[5] or as volunteers (extinctionists [6]). VHEMT's
founder, Les U. Knight, estimates there are millions of
volunteers worldwide.[2] [7]

History
Les U. Knight of Portland, Oregon is generally cited as
founding VHEMT in 1991[2] [3] although he does not take
credit for it.[8] Knight is the owner of vhemt.org and acts as The VHEMT logo shows an inverted Earth. Upside-down
[2] [3] [8] [1]
a spokesman for the movement. Knight became emblems are symbols of distress.

interested in the environmental movement in the 1970s after

returning from Vietnam, becoming a member of Zero Population Growth and choosing to have a vasectomy while in
his twenties.[2] [9]

Purpose
The primary motivation of VHEMT as a movement is the belief that the biosphere of the planet Earth would be
better off without humans.[3] [10] In VHEMT's view, the human race is akin to an "exotic invader", whose population
is out of control and threatens other species with extinction, and only removal of the human race can restore the
natural ecological order.[2] VHEMT's primary goals are to influence people to choose to not reproduce[11] and to
advocate ready access for all human beings to methods of birth control.[10]
VHEMT also questions why humans choose to breed, citing influences such as culture and religion.[10] The
organization does not advocate suicide, believing that extinctionists have value in discouraging reproduction,[2] nor
does it endorse mass compulsory sterilization or forced abortion.[11] According to Knight, VHEMT advocates
"whatever it takes to avoid creating a new human".[8] VHEMT also considers itself to be supportive of children,
believing that the lives of existing children will benefit from reductions in the rate of population growth.[3]
The movement does not have members in the usual sense and is very informal in structure.[8] There are participants
in the online forums, and recipients of a newsletter These Exit Times.[2] Anyone who decides not to procreate,
whether or not they are aware of VHEMT, is considered a volunteer.[10]

Criticism
VHEMT has been criticized as advocating a "lemming-like" approach to population control.[2] Criticism has also
been raised about the inevitability of human beings approaching a carrying capacity on the grounds that humans have
significantly more control and understanding of their environment and reproductive choices than most animal
species.[12] A spokesman for the Archdiocese of New York, Joseph Zwilling, stated that it is "absurd to suggest that
the world would be better off without the human race".[11]
Voluntary Human Extinction Movement 311

According to VHEMT, "...some people assume that VHEMT Volunteers and Supporters must hate people and [...]
want everyone to commit suicide or become victims of mass murder".[13] VHEMT replies to that assumption by
declaring, "The Movement is voluntary." [emphasis in original][14]

Interviews and media coverage

Knight has appeared on Hannity & Colmes to present VHEMT's ideology. During the program, he stated "...as long
as there is one breeding pair of humans, there's too great a threat to the biosphere" and "...voluntary human extinction
is unlikely, but it is the moral thing to do."[15]
Discovery Channel’s Planet Green hosted Bob Woodruff and Knight in the episode "Focus Earth: No More
Children"[16] and a follow-up episode "Focus Earth: Too Many People".[17]

References
[1] "Symbolism of the logo for the Voluntary Human Extinction Movement" (http:/ / vhemt. org/ logo. htm). . Retrieved 2010-12-03.
[2] Adams, Guy (2007-03-07). "How to save the planet" (http:/ / www. independent. co. uk/ environment/ green-living/
how-to-save-the-planet-445357. html). The Independent. . Retrieved 2010-04-27.
[3] Carlson, Tucker (Dec. 5, 2005). "Taking on the Human Extinction Movement" (http:/ / www. msnbc. msn. com/ id/ 10339030/ ). MSNBC. .
[4] "Motto Analysis" (http:/ / vhemt. org/ motto. htm). Voluntary Human Extinction Movement. . Retrieved 2011-05-12.
[5] "How to join VHEMT" (http:/ / vhemt. org/ join. htm). . Retrieved 2010-12-03.
[6] http:/ / en. wiktionary. org/ wiki/ extinctionist
[7] "About VHEMT" (http:/ / vhemt. org/ aboutvhemt. htm). . Retrieved 2010-12-01.
[8] Schilling, Chelsea (2008-05-11). "Wanna help planet? 'Let's all just die!'" (http:/ / www. wnd. com/ index. php?fa=PAGE. view&
pageId=63755). WorldNetDaily. . Retrieved 2010-04-30.
[9] Dicum, Gregory (2005-11-16). "GREEN Maybe None / Is having a child -- even one -- environmentally destructive?" (http:/ / articles. sfgate.
com/ 2005-11-16/ home-and-garden/ 17397333_1_two-billion-planet-human-population). SFGate.com. . Retrieved 2010-04-28.
[10] Savory, Eve (2008-09-04). "VHEMT: The case against humans" (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ technology/ story/ 2008/ 09/ 03/ f-savory-vhemt.
html). CBC News. . Retrieved 2010-04-26.
[11] Park, Michael (2001-07-29). "Anti-People Group Pushes for Man's Extinction" (http:/ / www. foxnews. com/ story/ 0,2933,30834,00. html).
Fox News (Fox). . Retrieved 2010-04-27.
[12] Keck, Kristi (2007-10-05). "Earth a gracious host to billions, but can she take many more?" (http:/ / edition. cnn. com/ 2007/ TECH/ science/
10/ 04/ pip. populationquestion/ index. html). CNN. . Retrieved 2010-04-29.
[13] "About the Movement: Are some people opposed to VHEMT?" (http:/ / vhemt. org/ aboutvhemt. htm#oppose). The Voluntary Human
Extinction Movement. . Retrieved 2011-01-24.
[14] "Is VHEMT Misguided? Perhaps so. We're only human" (http:/ / vhemt. org/ naysayer. htm). The Voluntary Human Extinction Movement. .
Retrieved 2011-01-24.
[15] Sean Hannity. Televised on Hannity & Colmes (Fox News Channel) "Should Humanity Let Itself Die Out?", August 14, 2001.
[16] "Focus Earth: No More Children" (http:/ / planetgreen. discovery. com/ videos/ focus-earth-no-more-children. html). Discovery
Communications. . – Bob Woodruff (Sept. 11, 2009) – VIDEO
[17] "Focus Earth: Too Many People" (http:/ / planetgreen. discovery. com/ videos/ focus-earth-too-many-people. html). Discovery
Communications. . – Bob Woodruff (Sept. 12, 2009) – VIDEO

External links
• Voluntary Human Extinction Movement (http://vhemt.org)
Hollow Earth 312

Hollow Earth
The Hollow Earth hypothesis proposes that the planet Earth is either wholly hollow or otherwise contains a
substantial interior space. The hypothesis has long been contradicted by overwhelming observational evidence, as
well as by the modern understanding of planet formation; the scientific community has dismissed the notion since at
least the late 18th century.
The concept of a hollow Earth still recurs in folklore and as the premise for subterranean fiction, a subgenre of
adventure fiction. It is also featured in some present-day scientific, pseudoscientific and conspiracy theories.

Hypotheses

Conventional hollow Earths

Early history

In ancient times, the idea of subterranean realms seemed arguable, and

became intertwined with the concept of "places" such as the Greek Hades, the
Nordic svartalfheim, the Christian Hell, and the Jewish Sheol (with details
describing inner Earth in Kabalistic literature, such as the Zohar and Hesed
L'Avraham).
Edmond Halley in 1692[1] put forth the idea of Earth consisting of a hollow
Edmond Halley's hypothesis.
shell about 800 km (500 miles) thick, two inner concentric shells and an
innermost core, about the diameters of the planets Venus, Mars, and Mercury.
Atmospheres separate these shells, and each shell has its own magnetic poles.
The spheres rotate at different speeds. Halley proposed this scheme in order
to explain anomalous compass readings. He envisaged the atmosphere inside
as luminous (and possibly inhabited) and speculated that escaping gas caused
the Aurora Borealis.[2]

De Camp and Ley have claimed (in their Lands Beyond) that Leonhard Euler
also proposed a hollow-Earth idea, getting rid of multiple shells and
postulating an interior sun 1000 km (600 miles) across to provide light to
advanced inner-Earth civilization but they provide no references; indeed, it
seems that if Euler did propose a hollow-Earth then it was as a thought Leonhard Euler's purported hollow-Earth
experiment.[3] thought-experiment, featuring openings
at the poles, with an internal star.
De Camp and Ley also claim that Sir John Leslie expanded on Euler's idea,
suggesting two central suns named Pluto and Proserpine (this was unrelated
to the dwarf planet Pluto, which was discovered and named some time later). Leslie did propose a hollow Earth in
his 1829 Elements of Natural Philosophy (pp. 449–453), but does not mention interior suns.

19th century
In 1818, John Cleves Symmes, Jr. suggested that the Earth consisted of a hollow shell about 1300 km (800 miles)
thick, with openings about 2300 km (1400 miles) across at both poles with 4 inner shells each open at the poles.
Symmes became the most famous of the early Hollow Earth proponents. He proposed making an expedition to the
North Pole hole, thanks to efforts of one of his followers, James McBride. United States president John Quincy
Adams indicated he would approve of this but he left office before this could occur. The new President of the United
Hollow Earth 313

States, Andrew Jackson, halted the attempt. It is possible this is the source of the later (untrue) "fact" that Jackson
believed in a Flat Earth, and was consequently the only United States president to do so.
Jeremiah Reynolds also delivered lectures on the "Hollow Earth" and argued for an expedition. Reynolds went on an
expedition to Antarctica himself but missed joining the Great U.S. Exploring Expedition of 1838–1842, even though
that venture was a result of his agitation.
Though Symmes himself never wrote a book about his ideas, several authors published works discussing his ideas.
McBride wrote Symmes' Theory of Concentric Spheres in 1826. It appears that Reynolds has an article that appeared
as a separate booklet in 1827: Remarks of Symmes' Theory Which Appeared in the American Quarterly Review. In
1868, a professor W.F. Lyons published The Hollow Globe which put forth a Symmes-like Hollow Earth hypothesis,
but failed to mention Symmes himself. Symmes's son Americus then published The Symmes' Theory of Concentric
Spheres in 1878 to set the record straight.

20th century
The Nazi era Thule Society reported much about Tibetan myths of openings into the Earth. There is even a theory
that Hitler ordered a research journey for such an opening in Antarctica, based on a speech of Admiral Dönitz in
front of a German submarine in 1944, when he claimed "The German submarine fleet is proud of having built an
invisible fortification for the Führer, anywhere in the world." During the Nuremberg Trials, Dönitz spoke of "an
invisible fortification, in midst of the eternal ice."[4]
An early twentieth-century proponent of hollow Earth, William Reed, wrote Phantom of the Poles in 1906. He
supported the idea of a hollow Earth, but without interior shells or inner sun.
Marshall Gardner (distinct from Martin Gardner, mentioned below) wrote A Journey to the Earth's Interior in 1913
and an expanded edition in 1920. He placed an interior sun in the hollow Earth. He even built a working model of
the hollow Earth and patented it (U.S. Patent 1096102 [5]). Gardner made no mention of Reed, but did take Symmes
to task for his ideas. In the same time Vladimir Obruchev wrote a fiction novel Plutonia, where the hollow Earth's
interior possessed one inner (central) sun and was inhabited by prehistoric species. The interior was connected with
the surface by a hole in the Arctic.
Other writers have proposed that "ascended masters" of esoteric wisdom inhabit subterranean caverns or a hollow
Earth. Antarctica, the North Pole, Tibet, Peru, and Mount Shasta in California, USA, have all had their advocates as
the locations of entrances to a subterranean realm referred to as Agartha, with some even advancing the hypothesis
that UFOs have their homeland in these places.
A book allegedly by a "Dr. Raymond Bernard" which appeared in 1964, The Hollow Earth, exemplifies this idea.
The book rehashes Reed and Gardner's ideas and ignores Symmes. Bernard also adds his own ideas: the Ring Nebula
proves the existence of hollow worlds, as well as speculation on the fate of Atlantis and the origin of flying saucers.
"Bernard" argued that the inhabitants of Atlantis took refuge in the Earth's interior before the city was destroyed in
great calamity.[6] It was Atlanteans who piloted the flying machines known in ancient India as vimanas and in the
modern world as flying saucers.[6] After the US bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Bernard claimed, the
Atlanteans became concerned that radioactive air might flow into the world's interior, and so some emerged in their
flying saucers in an act of self-defense.[6] An article by Martin Gardner revealed that Dr.Walter Siegmeister used the
pseudonym `Bernard', but not until the publishing of Walter Kafton-Minkel's Subterranean Worlds: 100,000 years of
dragons, dwarves, the dead, lost races & UFOs from inside the Earth, in 1989, did the full story of
Bernard/Siegmeister become well known.
The pages of the science fiction pulp magazine Amazing Stories promoted one such idea from 1945 to 1949 as "the
Shaver Mystery". The magazine's editor, Ray Palmer, ran a series of stories by Richard Sharpe Shaver supposedly
claimed as factual, though presented in the context of fiction. Shaver claimed that a superior pre-historic race had
built a honeycomb of caves in the Earth, and that their degenerate descendants, known as "Dero", live there still,
using the fantastic machines abandoned by the ancient races to torment those of us living on the surface. As one
Hollow Earth 314

characteristic of this torment, Shaver described "voices" that purportedly came from no explainable source.
Thousands of readers wrote to affirm that they, too, had heard the fiendish voices from inside the Earth.
Fantastic stories (supposedly believed as factual within fringe circles) have also circulated that Adolf Hitler and
some of his followers escaped to hollow lands within the Earth after World War II via an entrance in Antarctica. (See
also Hitler's supposed adherence to concave hollow-Earth ideas, below.)
Some writers have proposed building megastructures that have some similarities to a hollow Earth – see Dyson
sphere, Globus Cassus.

Concave hollow Earths

Instead of saying that humans live on the outside surface of a
hollow planet, sometimes called a "convex" hollow-Earth
hypothesis, some have claimed that our universe itself lies in the
interior of a hollow world, calling this a "concave" hollow-Earth
hypothesis. The surface of the Earth, according to such a view,
might resemble the interior shell of a sphere.

Purportedly verifiable hypotheses of a "concave hollow Earth"

need to be distinguished from a thought experiment which defines
a coordinate transformation such that the interior of the Earth
becomes "exterior" and the exterior becomes "interior". (For
example, in spherical coordinates, let radius r go to R²/r where R is
the Earth's radius.) The transformation entails corresponding
changes to the forms of physical laws. This is not a hypothesis but An example of a concave hollow Earth. Humans live
an illustration of the fact that any description of the physical world on the interior, with the universe in the center.
can be equivalently expressed in more than one way.[7]

Cyrus Teed, a doctor from upstate New York, proposed such a concave hollow Earth in 1869, calling his scheme
"Cellular Cosmogony". Teed founded a group called the Koreshan Unity based on this notion, which he called
Koreshanity. The main colony survives as a preserved Florida state historic site, at Estero, Florida, but all of Teed's
followers have now died. Teed's followers claimed to have experimentally verified the concavity of the Earth's
curvature, through surveys of the Florida coastline making use of "rectilineator" equipment.
Several twentieth-century German writers, including Peter Bender, Johannes Lang, Karl Neupert, and Fritz Braun,
published works advocating the hollow Earth hypothesis, or Hohlweltlehre. It has even been reported, although
apparently without historical documentation, that Adolf Hitler was influenced by concave hollow-Earth ideas and
sent an expedition in an, obviously unsuccessful, attempt to spy on the British fleet by pointing infrared cameras up
at the sky[8] (Wagner, 1999).[9]
The Egyptian mathematician Mostafa Abdelkader wrote several scholarly papers working out a detailed mapping of
the concave Earth model.[10] [11]
In one chapter of his book On the Wild Side (1992), Martin Gardner discusses the hollow Earth model articulated by
Abdelkader. According to Gardner, this hypothesis posits that light rays travel in circular paths, and slow as they
approach the center of the spherical star-filled cavern. No energy can reach the center of the cavern, which
corresponds to no point a finite distance away from Earth in the widely accepted scientific cosmology. A drill,
Gardner says, would lengthen as it traveled away from the cavern and eventually pass through the "point at infinity"
corresponding to the center of the Earth in the widely accepted scientific cosmology. Supposedly no experiment can
distinguish between the two cosmologies.
Gardner notes that "most mathematicians believe that an inside-out universe, with properly adjusted physical laws, is
empirically irrefutable". Gardner rejects the concave hollow Earth hypothesis on the basis of Occam's Razor.
Hollow Earth 315

Contrary evidence

Gravity
The best scientific argument against that of a hollow Earth or any hollow planet is gravity. Massive objects tend to
clump together gravitationally, creating non-hollow spherical objects we call stars and planets. The solid sphere is
the best way in which to minimize the gravitational potential energy of a physical object; having hollowness is
unfavorable in the energetic sense. In addition, ordinary matter is not strong enough to support a hollow shape of
planetary size against the force of gravity; a planet-sized hollow shell with the known, observed thickness of the
Earth's crust, would not be able to achieve hydrostatic equilibrium with its own mass and would collapse.
Someone on the inside of a hollow Earth would not experience a significant outward pull and could not easily stand
on the inner surface; rather, the theory of gravity implies that a person on the inside would be nearly weightless. This
was first shown by Newton, whose shell theorem mathematically predicts a gravitational force (from the shell) of
zero everywhere inside a spherically symmetric hollow shell of matter, regardless of the shell's thickness. A tiny
gravitational force would arise from the fact that the Earth does not have a perfectly symmetrical spherical shape, as
well as forces from other bodies such as the Moon. The centrifugal force from the Earth's rotation would pull a
person (on the inner surface) outwards if the person was traveling at the same velocity as the Earth's interior and was
in contact with the ground on the interior, but even the maximum centrifugal force at the equator is only 1/300 of
ordinary Earth gravity.
The mass of the planet also indicates that the hollow Earth hypothesis is unfeasible. Should the Earth be largely
hollow, its mass would be much lower and thus its gravity on the outer surface would be much lower than it is.

Visual evidence
The deepest hole drilled to date is the SG-3 borehole which is 12.3 km (7.6 miles)[12] deep, part of the Soviet Kola
Superdeep Borehole project; thus, visual knowledge of the Earth's structure extends that far.

In fiction
The idea of a hollow Earth is a very common element of fiction,
appearing as early as Ludvig Holberg's 1741 novel Nicolai Klimii iter
subterraneum (Niels Klim's Underground Travels), in which Nicolai
Klim falls through a cave while spelunking and spends several years
living on both a smaller globe within and the inside of the outer shell.
Other notable pre-20th century examples include Giacomo Casanova's
1788 Icosaméron, a 5-volume, 1,800-page story of a brother and sister
who fall into the Earth and discover the subterranean utopia of the
Mégamicres, a race of multicolored, hermaphroditic dwarfs; Symzonia:
A Voyage of Discovery by a "Captain Adam Seaborn" (1820) which A map of the Interior World, from The Goddess
of Atvatabar (1892).
reflected the ideas of John Cleves Symmes, Jr.; Edgar Allan Poe's 1838
novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket; Jules Verne's
1864 novel A Journey to the Center of the Earth, which described a prehistoric subterranean world; and George
Sand's 1884 novel Laura, Voyage dans le Cristal where unseen and giant crystals could be found in the interior of
the Earth.

The idea was used by Edgar Rice Burroughs, the creator of Tarzan, in the seven-novel "Pellucidar" series, beginning
with At the Earth's Core (1914). Using a mechanical drill, his heroes discover a prehistoric world, called Pellucidar,
500 miles below the surface, that is lit by an inner sun.
Hollow Earth 316

The idea has gradually become a staple of the science fiction and adventure genres, appearing in print, in film, on
television, in comics, in role-playing games, and in many animated works. The third season plot of Sanctuary (TV
series) deals with the idea of Hollow Earth and that a race of people built a city in it.
Final Fantasy XIII features the moon-like construct of "Cocoon" floating above the lower world of Gran Pulse;
although Pulse's structure is never explored, Cocoon is revealed to be a cross between a Dyson Sphere and a
Concave Hollow Earth where the inhabitants reside on the inside of an outer shell, with an artificial inner sun and
floating capital city at the centre.

Bibliography
• Seaborn, Captain Adam. Symzonia; Voyage of Discovery. J. Seymour, 1820.
• Kafton-Minkel, Walter. Subterranean Worlds. Loompanics Unlimited, 1989.
• Standish, David. Hollow Earth. Da Capo Press, 2006.

References
[1] Halley, Edmond, An Account of the cause of the Change of the Variation of the Magnetic Needle; with an Hypothesis of the Structure of the
Internal Parts of the Earth, Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London, No. 195, 1692, pp 563–578
[2] Halley, Edmond, An Account of the Late Surprizing Appearance of the Lights Seen in the Air, on the Sixth of March Last; With an Attempt to
Explain the Principal Phaenomena thereof;, Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London, No. 347 (1716), pp 406–428
[3] Euler and the Hollow Earth: Fact or Fiction? (http:/ / www. maa. org/ editorial/ euler/ How Euler Did It 42 Hollow earth. pdf)
[4] http:/ / www. hi-story. de/ themen/ schwab/ schwab. htm
[5] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=1096102
[6] Reece, Gregory L. (August 21, 2007). UFO Religion: Inside Flying Saucer Cults and Culture. I. B. Tauris. p. 17. ISBN 1845114515.
[7] On the Wild Side, 1992, Martin Gardner.\
[8] Kuiper, Gerard. P. (June, 1946). "German Astronomy during the War". Popular Astronomy 54: 263–286. Bibcode 1946PA.....54..263K. See
pages 277 - 278.
[9] William Yenne, “Adolf Hitler and the Concave Earth Cult,” Secret Weapons of World War II: The Techno-Military Breakthroughs That
Changed History (New York: Berkley Books, 2003), 271–272.
[10] Abdelkader, M. (1983). "A Geocosmos: Mapping Outer Space Into a Hollow Earth". Speculations in Science & Technology (6): 81–89.
[11] Notices of the American Mathematical Society, (Oct. 1981 and Feb. 1982).
[12] Eagleson, Mary (1994). Concise Encyclopedia Chemistry. Walter de Gruyter, p799. ISBN 3110114518

External links
• The Hollow Earth (http://www.unmuseum.org/hollow.htm) – from The UnMuseum
• At the Earth's Core (http://www.literature.org/authors/burroughs-edgar-rice/at-the-earths-core/), by Edgar
Rice Burroughs
• Steve Currey's journey (http://www.voyagehollowearth.com/index.html).
• The North Pole Inner Earth Expedition official website (http://www.phoenixsciencefoundation.org/APEX.
htm)
• Skeptic Dictionary: Hollow Earth (http://www.skepdic.com/hollowearth.html)
• What Curiosity in the Structure: The Hollow Earth in Science (http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/dgriffin/
Research/Griffin-HE_in_Science.pdf).
Henry H. Goddard 317

Henry H. Goddard
Henry Herbert Goddard (August 14, 1866 – June 18,
1957) was a prominent American psychologist and
eugenicist in the early 20th century. He is known
especially for his 1912 work The Kallikak Family: A
Study in the Heredity of Feeble-Mindedness, which he
himself came to regard as deeply flawed, and for being
the first to translate the Binet intelligence test into
English in 1908 and distributing an estimated 22,000
copies of the translated test across the United States; he
also introduced the term "moron" into the field.

He was the leading advocate for the use of intelligence

testing in societal institutions including hospitals,
schools, the legal system and the military. He played a
major role in the emerging field of clinical psychology,
in 1911 helped to write the first U.S. law requiring that
blind, deaf and mentally retarded children be provided
special education within public school systems, and in
1914 became the first American psychologist to testify
in court that subnormal intelligence should limit the
criminal responsibility of defendants.
Henry H. Goddard

Early life
Goddard was born in East Vassalboro, Maine, the fifth and youngest child – and only son – of farmer Henry Clay
Goddard and his wife Sarah Winslow Goddard, who were devout Quakers. (Two of his sisters died in infancy.) His
father was gored by a bull when the younger Goddard was a small child, and eventually lost his farm and had to
work as a farmhand; he died of his lingering injuries when the boy was nine. The younger Goddard went to live with
his married sister for a brief time, but in 1877 was enrolled at the Oak Grove Seminary [1], a boarding school in
Vassalboro.
During this period, Sarah Goddard began a new career as a traveling Quaker preacher; she married missionary Jehu
Newlin in 1884, and the couple regularly traveled throughout the United States and Europe. In 1878, Henry Goddard
became a student at the Friends School in Providence, Rhode Island. During his youth he began an enduring
friendship with Rufus Jones, who would go on to co-found (in 1917) the American Friends Service Committee,
which received the 1947 Nobel Peace Prize.
Goddard entered Haverford College in 1883, where he played on the football team, and graduated in 1887; he took a
year off from his studies to teach in Winthrop, Maine from 1885-1886. After graduating, he traveled to California to
visit one of his sisters, and stopped en route in Los Angeles to present some letters of introduction at the University
of Southern California, which had been established just seven years earlier. After seeking posts in the Oakland area
for several weeks, he was surprised to receive an offer of a temporary position at USC, teaching Latin, history and
botany. He also served as co-coach (with Frank Suffel) of the first USC football team in 1888, with the team winning
both of its games against a local athletic club.[2] But he departed immediately thereafter, returning to Haverford to
earn his master's degree in mathematics in 1889.
Henry H. Goddard 318

From 1889 to 1891 he became principal of the Damascus Academy, a Quaker school in Damascus, Ohio, where he
also taught several subjects and conducted chapel services and prayer meetings. On August 7, 1889, he married
Emma Florence Robbins, who became one of the two other teachers at the Academy. In 1891 he returned to teach at
the Oak Grove Seminary in Vassalboro, becoming principal in 1893. In 1896 he enrolled at Clark University,
intending to study only briefly, but he remained three years and received his doctorate in psychology in 1899. He
then taught at the State Normal School in West Chester, Pennsylvania until 1906.

Vineland
From 1906 to 1918 Goddard was the Director of Research at the Vineland Training School for Feeble-Minded Girls
and Boys in Vineland, New Jersey, which was the first known laboratory established to study mental retardation.
While there, he is quoted as stating that "Democracy, then, means that the people rule by selecting the wisest, most
intelligent and most human to tell them what to do to be happy." [Italics are Goddard's.][3]
At the May 18, 1910 annual meeting of the American Association for the Study of the Feeble-Minded, Goddard
proposed definitions for a system for classifying individuals with mental retardation based on intelligence quotient
(IQ). Goddard used the terms moron for those with an IQ of 51-70, imbecile for those with an IQ of 26-50, and idiot
for those with an IQ of 0-25 for categories of increasing impairment. This nomenclature was the standard of the field
for decades. A moron, by his definition, was any person with mental age between eight and twelve. Morons,
according to Goddard, were unfit for society and should be removed from society either through institutionalization,
sterilization, or both. What Goddard failed to see was that his bias against morons would greatly influence his data
later.
Goddard's best-known work, The Kallikak Family, was published in 1912. He had studied the background of several
local groups of people which were somewhat distantly related, and concluded that they were all descended from a
single Revolutionary War soldier. Martin Kallikak first married a Quaker woman. All of the children that came from
this relationship were "wholesome" and had no signs of retardation. Later it was discovered that Kallikak had an
affair with a "nameless feeble-minded woman[4] The result of this union led to generations of criminals. Goddard
called this generation "a race of defective degenerates". While the book rapidly became a success and was
considered to be made into a Broadway play, his research methods were soon called into question; within ten years
he came to agree with the critics, and no longer promoted the conclusions he had reached.
Goddard was a strong advocate of eugenics. Although he believed that "feeble-minded" people bearing children was
inadvisable, he hesitated to promote compulsory sterilization – even though he was convinced that it would solve the
problem of mental retardation – because he did not think such a plan could gain widespread acceptance. Instead he
suggested that colonies should be set up where the feeble-minded could be segregated.
Goddard established an intelligence testing program on Ellis Island in 1913. When he published the results in 1917,
Goddard stated that his results only applied to immigrants traveling steerage and did not apply to people traveling in
first or second class.[5]
This program has been misreported as rejecting an estimated 80% of immigrants as "feeble-minded" and resulting in
an exponential increase in deportations. In fact, Goddard wanted to test whether his classification system for mental
defectives was as accurate among immigrants as it was among native-born Americans. He therefore tested a
pre-selected group of 35 Jewish, 22 Hungarian, 50 Italian, and 45 Russian immigrants who had been identified
individually as falling between “feebleminded” and “obviously normal” in intelligence.
Goddard found that his tests successfully categorized better than 80% of these pre-selected groups, working about as
well as they did for native-born Americans, and equally well for all the tested groups (83% in Jewish people, 80% in
the Hungarian sample, 79% of Italians, and 80% of the Russians). Goddard never claimed that 80% of all Jewish
immigrants, or any other immigrant group, was “feebleminded”. Rather he claimed that feeblemindedness could be
detected in an unbiased and valid way using psychometric testing.
Henry H. Goddard 319

The Immigration Act of 1924 was strongly influenced by American eugenics' efforts. It restricted numbers of
immigrants from "undesirable" racial groups. Upon signing the bill into law, President Calvin Coolidge commented,
"America must remain American."
Goddard also publicized purported race-group differences on Army IQ tests (Army Alpha and Beta) during World
War I (the results were, even in their day, challenged as scientifically inaccurate, and later resulted in a retraction
from the head of the project, Carl Brigham) and claimed that the results showed that Americans were unfit for
democracy. He was one of the many scientists (including Francis Galton and Lewis Terman) whose work was used
to defend the scientific racism movement in Europe and the United States.

Later career
In 1918 he became director of the Ohio Bureau of Juvenile Research; in 1922 he became a professor in the
Department of Abnormal and Clinical Psychology at the Ohio State University, a position he held until his
retirement in 1938. His wife Emma died in October 1936; they had no children. He received an honorary law degree
from Ohio State in 1943, and an honorary degree from the University of Pennsylvania in 1946. In 1946 he was
among the supporters of Albert Einstein's Emergency Committee of Atomic Scientists.
By the 1920s, Goddard had come to candidly admit that he had made numerous errors in his early research, and
regarded The Kallikak Family as obsolete. It was also noted that Goddard was more concerned about making
eugenics popular rather than conduting actual scientific studies. He devoted the later part of his career to seeking
improvements in education, reforming environmental influences in childhood, and working toward better
child-rearing practices. But others continued to use his early work to support various arguments with which Goddard
did not agree, and he was constantly perplexed by the fact that later generations found his studies to be dangerous to
society. Henry Garrett of Columbia University was one of the few scientists to continue to use The Kallikak Family
as a reference.
Goddard moved to Santa Barbara, California in 1947. He died at his home there at age 90, and his cremated remains
were interred with those of his wife at the Vineland Training School.
In August 1977, NBC premiered a situation comedy called The Kallikaks [6], which depicted the comic
misadventures of an Appalachian family that moved to California and feuded with another family named the Jukes;
the series lasted only five episodes. A June 8, 1987 cartoon in The New Yorker provided a further update to the
concept, depicting "The Jukes and Kallikaks Today."

Publications
• The Kallikak Family: A Study in the Heredity of Feeble-Mindedness (1912)
• Standard method for giving the Binet test (1913)
• Feeble-Mindedness: Its Causes and Consequences (1914)
• School Training of Defective Children (1914)
• The Criminal Imbecile: An Analysis of Three Remarkable Murder Cases (1915)
• Psychology of the Normal and Subnormal (1919)
• Human Efficiency and Levels of Intelligence (1920) [7]
• Juvenile Delinquency (1921)
• Two Souls in One Body? (1927)
• School Training of Gifted Children (1928)
• How to Rear Children in the Atomic Age (1948)
Henry H. Goddard 320

Notes and references

[1] http:/ / www. state. me. us/ dps/ mcja/ about_acad/ facility. html
[2] In The Trojans: Southern California Football (1974; ISBN 0-8092-8364-6), author Don Pierson suggests that Goddard and Suffel each
coached one game. The fact that the games were played two months apart on November 14 and January 19, along with the fact that Goddard
was no longer teaching at USC in 1889, lends credibility to the suggestion.
[3] Goddard, Psychology of the Normal and Subnormal, page 237 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0i0FAQAAIAAJ&
printsec=frontcover& dq=Psychology+ of+ the+ Normal+ and+ Subnormal& source=bl& ots=clXMXzkSjM&
sig=vFTTBJcG6vKxiXJpbio7ba53C1U& hl=en& ei=6eS4TKXaPIO88gaVheXODg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1&
ved=0CBIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=democracy means that the people& f=false)
[4] Goddard, H. H. (1912). The Kallikak family: A study in the heredity of feeble mindedness. New York: MacMillan.
[5] Goddard, H. H. (1917). Mental tests and the immigrant. Journal of Delinquency, 2, 243–277.
[6] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0075521/
[7] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?q=Human+ efficiency+ and+ levels+ of+ intelligence& btnG=Search+ Books

• Zenderland, Leila (1998). Measuring Minds: Henry Herbert Goddard and the Origins of American Intelligence
Testing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44373-3.
• The Vineland Training School. Goddard and Eugenics. http://www.vineland.org/history/trainingschool/
history/eugenics.htm

External links
• About half of the text of 1913 edition of Goddard's Kallikak Family (http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Goddard/)

Trepanning
Trepanning, also known as
trephination, trephining or making a
burr hole, is a surgical intervention in
which a hole is drilled or scraped into
the human skull, exposing the dura
mater in order to treat health problems
related to intracranial diseases. It may
also refer to any "burr" hole created
through other body surfaces, including
nail beds. It is often used to relieve
pressure beneath a surface. A trephine
is an instrument used for cutting out a
round piece of skull bone.

Evidence of trepanation has been

found in prehistoric human remains
from Neolithic times onward. Cave
paintings indicate that people believed
the practice would cure epileptic
seizures, migraines, and mental
A detail from "The Extraction of the Stone of Madness", a painting by Hieronymus Bosch
disorders.[1] The bone that was depicting trepanation (c.1488-1516)
trepanned was kept by the prehistoric
people and may have been worn as a charm to keep evil spirits away. Evidence also suggests that trepanation was
Trepanning 321

primitive emergency surgery after head wounds[2] to remove shattered bits of bone from a fractured skull and clean
out the blood that often pools under the skull after a blow to the head. Such injuries were typical for primitive
weaponry such as slings and war clubs.[3]
There is some contemporary use of the term. In modern eye surgery a trephine instrument is used in corneal
transplant surgery. The procedure of drilling a hole through a fingernail or toenail is also known as trephination. It is
performed by a physician or surgeon to relieve the pain associated with a subungual hematoma (blood under the
nail); a small amount of blood is expressed through the hole and the pain associated with the pressure is partially
alleviated.

History

Prehistoric evidence
Trepanation is perhaps the oldest surgical procedure for which there is
forensic evidence,[4] and in some areas may have been quite
widespread. Out of 120 prehistoric skulls found at one burial site in
France dated to 6500 BC, 40 had trepanation holes.[5] Many prehistoric
and premodern patients had signs of their skull structure healing;
suggesting that many of those subjected to the surgery survived.

Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica
In pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, evidence for the practice of
Trepanated skull, Iron age. The perimeter of the
trepanation and an assortment of other cranial deformation techniques
hole in the skull is rounded off by ingrowth of
comes from a variety of sources, including physical cranial remains of new bony tissue, indicating that the patient
pre-Columbian burials, allusions in iconographic artworks and reports survived the operation.
from the post-colonial period.
Among New World societies, trepanning is most commonly found in
the Andean civilizations such as the pre-Incan culture such as the
Paracas Ica situated in what now is Ica located South of Lima. Its
prevalence among Mesoamerican civilizations is much lower, at least
judging from the comparatively few trepanated crania that have been
uncovered.[6]

The archaeological record in Mesoamerica is further complicated by

the practice of skull mutilation and modification carried out after the
death of the subject, to fashion "trophy skulls" and the like of captives
and enemies. This was a widespread tradition, illustrated in
pre-Columbian art that occasionally depicts rulers adorned with or
carrying the modified skulls of their defeated enemies, or of the
1525 engraving of trepanation by Peter Treveris
ritualistic display of sacrificial victims. Several Mesoamerican cultures (taken from Hieronymus Braunschweig's Buch
used a skull-rack (known by its Nahuatl term, tzompantli ), on which der Cirurgia. Hantwirckung der Wundartzny
skulls were impaled in rows or columns of wooden stakes. Even so, 1497

some evidence of genuine trepanation in Mesoamerica (i.e., where the

subject was living) has survived.
Trepanning 322

The earliest archaeological survey published of trepanated crania was a

late 19th-century study of several specimens recovered from the
Tarahumara mountains by the Norwegian ethnographer Carl
Lumholtz.[6] [7] Later studies documented cases identified from a range
of sites in Oaxaca and central Mexico, such as Tilantongo, Oaxaca and
the major Zapotec site of Monte Albán. Two specimens from the
Tlatilco civilization's homelands (which flourished around 1400 BC)
indicate the practice has a lengthy tradition.[8]

A study of ten low-status burials from the Late Classic period at Monte
Albán concluded that the trepanation had been applied
non-therapeutically, and, since multiple techniques had been used and
since some people had received more than one trepanation, concluded
it had been done experimentally. Inferring the events to represent
experiments on people until they died, the study interpreted that use of
Dr. John Clarke trepanning a skull, ca. 1664, in
trepanation as an indicator of the stressful sociopolitical climate that one of the earliest American portraits. Clarke was
not long thereafter resulted in the abandonment of Monte Alban as the allegedly the first physician to perform the
primary regional administrative center in the Oaxacan highlands. operation in the U.S.

Specimens identified from the Maya civilization region of southern

Mexico, Guatemala and the Yucatán Peninsula show no evidence of
the drilling or cutting techniques found in central and highland Mexico.
Instead, the pre-Columbian Maya apparently used an abrasive
technique that ground away at the back of the skull, thinning the bone
and sometimes perforating it, similar to the examples from Cholula.
Many skulls from the Maya region date from the Postclassic period
(ca. 950–1400), and include specimens found at Palenque in Chiapas,
and recovered from the Sacred Cenote at the prominent Postclassic site
of Chichen Itza in northern Yucatán.[9]

Pre-modern Europe
Trepanation was also practiced in the classical and Renaissance
periods. Hippocrates gave specific directions on the procedure from its
evolution through the Greek age, and Galen also elaborates on the
procedure. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, trepanation
was practiced as a cure for various ailments, including seizures and
skull fractures. Out of eight skulls with trepanations from the 6th to 8th
centuries found in southwestern Germany, seven skulls show clear
evidence of healing and survival after trepanation suggesting that the
survival rate of the operations was high and the infection rate was
18th century French illustration of trepanation
low.[2]

In the graveyards of pre-Christian (Pagan) Magyars archeologists found a surprisingly high, 12.5% frequency of
skulls with trepanation.[10] The trepanation was performed on adults only, with similar frequencies for males and
females, but increasing frequency with age and wealth. This custom suddenly disappears with the onset of Christian
era.

Modern medical practices

Trepanning 323

Trepanation is a treatment used for epidural and subdural hematomas, and for surgical access for certain other
neurosurgical procedures, such as intracranial pressure monitoring. Modern surgeons generally use the term
craniotomy for this procedure. The removed piece of skull is typically replaced as soon as possible. If the bone is not
replaced, then the procedure is considered a craniectomy. Trepanation instruments are now available with diamond
coated rims (Diamond Bone Cutting System), which are less traumatic than the classical trephines with sharp teeth.
They are smooth to soft tissues and cut only bone.

Voluntary trepanation
Although widely considered today to be pseudoscience, the practice of trepanation for other purported medical
benefits continues. Moreover, some proponents point to recent research on the increase in cranial compliance
following on trepanation, with resulting increase in blood flow,[11] as providing some justification for the practice.
Individuals have practiced non-emergency trepanation for psychic purposes. A prominent proponent of the modern
view is Peter Halvorson, who drilled a hole in the front of his own skull to increase "brain blood volume".[5]
The most prominent folk theory for the benefits of self-trepanation is offered by Bart Huges – alternatively spelled
Bart Hughes and sometimes called "Dr. Bart Hughes", although he did not complete his medical degree. Hughes
claims that trepanation increases "brain blood volume" and thereby enhances cerebral metabolism in a manner
similar to cerebral vasodilators such as ginkgo biloba. No published results have supported these claims.
In a chapter of his book, Eccentric Lives & Peculiar Notions, John Michell cites Huges as pioneering the idea of
trepanation in his 1962 monograph, Homo Sapiens Correctus, which is most often cited by advocates of
self-trepanation. Among other arguments, Huges contends that children have a higher state of consciousness and
since children's skulls are not fully closed one can return to an earlier, childlike state of consciousness by
self-trepanation. Further, by allowing the brain to freely pulsate Huges argues that a number of benefits will accrue.
Michell quotes a book called Bore Hole written by Joey Mellen. At the time the passage below was written, Joey and
his partner, Amanda Feilding, had made two previous attempts at trepanning Mellen. The second attempt ended up
placing Mellen in the hospital, where he was reprimanded severely and sent for psychiatric evaluation. After he
returned home, Mellen decided to try again. He describes his third attempt at self-trepanation:
After some time there was an ominous sounding schlurp and the sound of bubbling. I drew the trepan
out and the gurgling continued. It sounded like air bubbles running under the skull as they were pressed
out. I looked at the trepan and there was a bit of bone in it. At last!
Feilding also performed a self-trepanation with a drill, while Mellen shot the operation for the film Heartbeat in the
Brain, which has since been lost. Portions of the film can be seen, however, in the documentary A Hole in the Head.
Michell also describes a British group that advocates self-trepanation to allow the brain access to more space and
oxygen. Other modern practitioners of trepanation claim that it holds other medical benefits, such as a treatment for
depression or other psychological ailments. In 2000, two men from Cedar City, Utah were prosecuted for practicing
medicine without a license after they performed a trepanation on an English woman to treat her chronic fatigue
syndrome and depression.[12]
Trepanning 324

In popular culture
Films
• In the movie Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World a trepanation is performed on a crew member
by the ship's doctor, with the hole filled by using a coin.
• In the movie π, the protagonist Max Cohen cures his migraines by performing a trepanation on his right temple.
• In the movie Ghostbusters, Peter Venkman mentions that Egon Spengler had attempted self-trepanation prior to
the events of the movie. Peter notes that Egon "tried to drill a hole through [his] head," to which Egon replies,
"That would have worked if you hadn't stopped me."
Television
• In the episode Orison of the seventh season of The X-Files, reverend Orison is said to have drilled holes in his
skull to boost his mental capabilities and so he could perform certain mental tricks one of which is called
"stopping the world."
• In the television series Dead Like Me, the character Mason, played by Callum Blue, died in 1966 by drilling a
hole in his head to achieve "the permanent high."
• In the television series Bones, Dr. Brennan and Mr. Zack notice a skull with an abnormal hole in it. They realize
that the person had undergone trepanation before passing away.
• In the episode "Live Show" of 30 Rock, Dr. Leo Spaceman has an informational brochure entitled "Trepanation"
on his desk.
• In the episode "Demons" of Stargate SG-1, A villager on a planet visited by Jack O'Neill is about to perform a
trepanation on his niece.
• In an episode of Grey's Anatomy, Izzie makes some "burr-holes" to save a man's life
• In an episode of Rome, the character Titus Pullo requires the operation after a head injury sustained during a
barroom brawl.
• In an episode of House MD, Dr. House directs a mechanic at a research facility in Antarctica through the
procedure to relieve the internal swelling in the facility doctor's head.
• In an episode of Strangers with Candy, the character Jerri Blank uses a hand drill to "free the beasties" from the
head of her crazy stepfather, Stew by drilling into his temple.
Literature
• In the His Dark Materials series by Philip Pullman, trepanation is referenced as a method to draw Dust, the agent
of human consciousness and creativity, to the trepanned person in greater quantity. The character Jopari
underwent trepanation in becoming a shaman among the Tartars.
• Trepanning is featured in the 2011 novel Bible of the Dead by Tom Knox
Other
• In the video game Fable III, a poster promoting the benefits of trepanning explains that it can stop "unclean"
thoughts.
• The Dance Gavin Dance album Happiness contains a song entitled "Self-Trepanation".
• In the Japanese manga Homunculus, Susumu Nakoshi, the protagonist, has trepanation performed on himself for
money. Afterwards, he finds that when he covers or closes his eye he can see a person's homunculus.
• John Waters advocated trepanation in a 2011 interview, saying that it would be a "nice Christmas present" and a
way to be "high forever."[13]
Trepanning 325

References
Notes
[1] Brothwell, Don R. (1963). Digging up Bones; the Excavation, Treatment and Study of Human Skeletal Remains. London: British Museum
(Natural History). pp. 126. OCLC 14615536.
[2] Weber, J.; and A. Czarnetzki (2001). "Trepanationen im frühen Mittelalter im Südwesten von Deutschland - Indikationen, Komplikationen
und Outcome" (in German). Zentralblatt für Neurochirurgie 62 (1): 10. doi:10.1055/s-2001-16333.
[3] The Skull Doctors - www.trepanation.com (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20010202194200/ http:/ / www. trepanation. com/ master10. htm)
[4] Capasso, Luigi (2002) (in Italian). Principi di storia della patologia umana: corso di storia della medicina per gli studenti della Facoltà di
medicina e chirurgia e della Facoltà di scienze infermieristiche. Rome: SEU. ISBN 8887753652. OCLC 50485765.
[5] Restak, Richard (2000). "Fixing the Brain". Mysteries of the Mind. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. ISBN 0-792-27941-7.
OCLC 43662032.
[6] Tiesler Blos, Vera (2003) (PDF). Cranial Surgery in Ancient Mesoamerica (http:/ / www. mesoweb. com/ features/ tiesler/ Cranial. pdf).
Mesoweb. . Retrieved 2006-05-23.
[7] Lumholtz, Carl (1897). "Trephining in Mexico". American Anthropologist 10 (12): 389. doi:10.1525/aa.1897.10.12.02a00010.
[8] Romero Molina, Javier (1970). "Dental Mutilation, Trephination, and Cranial Deformation". In T. Dale Stewart (volume ed.). Handbook of
Middle American Indians, Vol. 9: Physical Anthropology. Robert Wauchope (series ed.) (2nd. edition (revised) ed.). Austin: University of
Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70014-8. OCLC 277126.
[9] Tiesler Blos, Vera (1999) (in Spanish). Rasgos Bioculturales Entre los Antiguos Mayas: Aspectos Culturales y Sociales. Doctoral thesis in
Anthropology, UNAM.
[10] http:/ / sirasok. blog. hu/ 2008/ 09/ 10/ agyafurt_magyarok_koponylekeles_a_honfoglalaskorban
[11] http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg20227121. 400-like-a-hole-in-the-head-the-return-of-trepanation. html?full=true
[12] Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press (2000) ABC ordered to hand over unedited head-drilling tapes (http:/ / www. rcfp. org/
news/ 2000/ 1016trepan. html)
[13] "This Much I Know: John Waters" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ lifeandstyle/ 2011/ may/ 15/ this-much-know-john-waters). The
Guardian. 15 May 2011. .

External links
• "Hole in the Head" - documentary on trepanation (http://www.holeintheheadmovie.com)
• WHO surgical instructions on burr holes (http://www.steinergraphics.com/surgical/006_17.6.html)
• Skeptic's Dictionary entry about Trepanation (http://skepdic.com/trepanation.html)
• An illustrated history of trepanation (http://scienceblogs.com/neurophilosophy/2008/01/
an_illustrated_history_of_trep.php)
• Interview with self-trepanner Heather Perry (http://scienceblogs.com/neurophilosophy/2008/08/
lunch_with_heather_perry.php)
Devolution (biology) 326

Devolution (biology)
In common parlance, "devolution", "de-evolution", or backward evolution is the notion that a species can change
into a more "primitive" form. It is associated with the idea that evolution is supposed to make species more
advanced, and that some modern species have lost functions or complexity and seem to be degenerate forms of their
ancestors. This view is rejected by modern evolutionary theory, in which adaptation arises from natural selection of
forms best suited to the environment, and so can lead to loss of features when these features are costly to maintain.
Thus for cave dwelling animals the loss of eyes arises because it is an advantage, not degeneracy.[1]
The idea of devolution can arise from thinking that "evolution" requires some sort of purposeful direction towards
"increasing complexity". Modern evolution theory accepts the possibility of decreasing complexity, as in vestigiality,
in the course of evolutionary change,[2] but earlier views that species are subject to "racial decay"or "drives to
perfection" or "devolution" have been rejected.[3] Early scientific theories of transmutation of species such as
Lamarckism and orthogenesis perceived species diversity as a result of a purposeful internal drive or tendency to
form improved adaptations to the environment, but in the modern evolutionary synthesis evolution through natural
selection comes about when random heritable mutations happen to give a better chance of successful reproduction in
the environment they arise in, while the many disadvantageous mutations are lost.

Concepts underlying ideas of devolution

Devolution presumes that there is somehow a preferred hierarchy of structure and function, and that evolution must
mean "progress" to "more advanced" organisms. For example, it could be said that "feet are better than hooves" or
"lungs are better than gills", so that change to the "less advanced" structure would be called "devolution". A modern
biologist sees all such changes as evolution, since for the organisms possessing the changed structures, each is a
useful adaptation to their circumstances. For example, hooves have advantages for running quickly on plains, which
benefits horses, and feet have advantages in climbing trees, which ancestors of humans did.[2]
The concept of devolution as regress from progress relates to the ancient idea that humans are the ultimate product or
goal of evolution. This belief is related to anthropocentrism, the idea that human existence is the point of all
universal existence. Such thinking can lead on to the idea that species evolve because they "need to" in order to adapt
to environmental changes. Biologists refer to this misconception as teleology, the idea of intrinsic finality that things
are "supposed" to be and behave a certain way, and naturally tend to act that way to pursue their own good. From a
biological viewpoint, when species evolve it is not a reaction to necessity, but rather that the population contains
variations with traits that favour their natural selection. This view is supported by the fossil record which
demonstrates that roughly ninety-nine percent of all species that ever lived are now extinct.[2]
People thinking in terms of devolution commonly assume that progress is shown by increasing complexity, but
biologists studying the evolution of complexity find evidence of many examples of decreasing complexity in the
record of evolution. The lower jaw in fish, reptiles and mammals has seen a decrease in complexity, if measured by
the number of bones. Ancestors of modern horses had several toes on each foot; modern horses have a single hooved
toe. Modern humans may be evolving towards never having wisdom teeth, and already have lost the tail found in
many other mammals - not to mention other vestigial structures, such as the vermiform appendix or the nictitating
membrane.[2]
Devolution (biology) 327

Dollo's law
Complex organs evolve in a lineage over many generations, and once lost they are unlikely to re-evolve. This
observation is sometimes generalized to a hypothesis known as Dollo's law, which states that evolution is not
reversible. This does not mean that similar engineering solutions cannot be found by natural selection. For instance
the tail of the cetacea—whales, dolphins and porpoises which are evolved from formerly land-dwelling
mammals—is an adaptation of the spinal column for propulsion in water. Unlike the tail of the mammal's marine
ancestor, the Sarcopterygii, and the other teleosts, which move from side to side, the cetacean's tail moves up and
down as it flexes its mammalian spine, but the function of the tail in providing propulsion is remarkably similar.

Degeneration theory
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach and other monogenists such as Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon were
believers in the "Degeneration theory" of racial origins the theory claims that races can degenerate into "primitive"
forms. Blumenbach claimed that Adam and Eve were white and that other races came about by degeneration from
environmental factors such as the sun and poor dieting. Buffon believed that the degeneration could be reversed if
proper environmental control was taken and that all contemporary forms of man could revert to the original
Caucasian race.[4]
Blumenbach claimed Negroid pigmentation arose because of the result of the heat of the tropical sun. The cold wind
caused the tawny colour of the Eskimos and the Chinese were fair skinned compared to the other Asian stocks
because they kept mostly in towns protected from environmental factors.[5]
According to Blumenbach there are five races all belonging to a single species: Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian,
American and Malay. Blumenbach however stated:
I have allotted the first place to the Caucasian because this stock displays the most beautiful race of
men.[6]
According to Blumenbach the other races are supposed to have degenerated from the Caucasian ideal stock.
Blumenbach denied that his "Degeneration theory" was racist, he also wrote three essays claiming non-white peoples
are capable of excelling in arts and sciences in reaction against racialists of his time who believed they couldn't.[7]

Use of the term by proponents of creationism

Creationism and intelligent design sometimes discuss a concept called devolution. Examples include Mastropaulo,[8]
who argues that "Change over time, 'definition one' of evolution, actually describes devolution to extinction, the
exact opposite of evolution.... actual epidemiological data from human genetic disorders and fatal birth defects,
identify 'natural selection,' the alleged 'primary mechanism' for evolution, as actually a mechanism for devolution to
extinction, the exact opposite of evolution." and elsewhere,[9] "Evolution is the development of an organism from its
chemicals or primitive state to its present state. Devolution is the sequence toward greater simplicity or
disappearance or degeneration."
The term was used in the play Inherit the Wind (a parable that fictionalizes the 1925 Scopes "Monkey" Trial), when
the character of Matthew Brady (representative of William Jennings Bryan) argued that "Ladies and gentleman,
devolution is not a theory but a cold fact ... the ape devolved from man",[10] mocking evolutionary theory by offering
an alternative he considers just as plausible. During the Scopes Trial itself, a report in The New York Times said
"After flocking to view the monkeys, Dayton has decided that it was not man who evolved from the anthropoid, but
the anthropoid which devolved from man; and it points now at the two chimpanzees and the "missing link" to prove
the assertion".[11] The suggestion of ape degenerating from "man" had already been brought up by the early
young-earth creationist George McReady Price in a work published before the trial:
Accordingly, by every just rule of comparison and analogy, we may well declare that if there is any blood
relationship between man and the anthropoid apes, it is the latter which have degenerated from the former,
Devolution (biology) 328

instead of the former having developed from the latter. I do not say that this is the true solution of this enigma;
but I do say that there is far more scientific evidence in favour of this hypothesis than there ever has been in
favour of the long popular theory that man is a developed animal.[12]
The Young Earth creationist Ken Ham claims Adam and Eve were made into a state of perfection, with perfect
DNA, no mistakes or mutations and that becuase of man sinning against God in Genesis of the Bible, that God
cursed the ground and animals and sentanced man to die, Ham claims this is where mutations come from, and the
incredible amount of genetic information that God had created at the beginning has been devolving ever since,
according to ham organisms in nature are losing genetic information.[13]
Creationists like Ham claim that mutations lead to a loss of genetic information and this is evidence for devolution.
Ken Ham for example has stated:
Observations confirm that mutations overwhelmingly cause a loss of information, not a net gain, as
evolution requires.[14]

Streamlining evolution
"Devolution", the verb "devolve" and the past participle "devolved" are all common terms in science fiction for
changes over time in populations of living things that make them less complex and remove some of their former
adaptations. The terminology used herein is nontechnical, but the phenomenon is a real but counter-intuitive one,
more accurately known as streamlining evolution. Since the development and maintenance of a feature such as an
organ or a metabolite has an opportunity cost, changes in the environment that reduce the utility of an adaptation
may mean that a higher evolutionary fitness is achieved by no longer using the adaptation, thus better using
resources. This requires a mutation that inactivates one or more genes, perhaps by a change to DNA methylation or a
methionine codon. Streamlining evolution allows evolution to remove features no longer of much/any use, like
scaffolding on a completed bridge.
However, "devolution" in practice typically refers to changes that occur from a problem no longer existing rather
than superior solutions existing. For instance, of the several hundred known species of animal that live their entire
lives in total darkness, most have non-functional eyes rather than no eyes. This is due, for instance, to deterioration
of the optic nerve. It occurs because mutations that prevent eye formation have low probability. However, several
eyeless animal species, such as the Kauai cave wolf spider, who live in total darkness, and whose ancestry mostly
had eyes, do exist. Together with gene duplication, streamlining evolution makes evolution surprisingly able to
produce radical changes, despite being limited to successive, slight modifications.

Notes and citations

[1] TalkOrigins Archive response to Creationist claims - Claim CB932: Evolution of degenerate forms (http:/ / www. talkorigins. org/ indexcc/
CB/ CB932. html)
[2] Michael J. Dougherty. Is the human race evolving or devolving? (http:/ / www. sciam. com/ article. cfm?id=is-the-human-race-evolvin)
Scientific American July 20, 1998.
[3] "Darwin's precursors and influences: Glossary" (http:/ / www. talkorigins. org/ faqs/ precursors/ glossary. html). . Retrieved 2010-01-18.
[4] Marvin Harris, The rise of anthropological theory: a history of theories of culture, 2001, p. 84.
[5] Marvin Harris, The rise of anthropological theory: a history of theories of culture, 2001, p. 84
[6] Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze, Race and the enlightenment: a reader, 1997, p. 79
[7] Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze, Race and the enlightenment: a reader, 1997, p. 79
[8] http:/ / www. csulb. edu/ ~jmastrop/ data3. html Biology vs Evolution, Joseph Mastropaolo, Creation Research Society Quarterly 38: 151-158,
2001
[9] Biology Eliminates Evolution and Confirms Genesis (pdf) (http:/ / www. kolbecenter. org/ Mastro_bioeliminates. pdf) (google cache (http:/ /
www. google. com/ search?q=cache:shlivKtxzpAJ:www. kolbecenter. org/ Mastro_bioeliminates. pdf+ devolve+ devolution+ biology+
fallacy& hl=en& client=safari))
[10] Raymond Weschler (2005). "Inherit the Wind (Drama) ( 1960)" (http:/ / www. eslnotes. com/ movies/ pdf/ inherit-the-wind. pdf) (PDF).
ESLnotes.com – The English Learner Movie Guides. p. 10. . Retrieved 2010-01-18.
Devolution (biology) 329

[11] Curator (1995). "The Scopes "Monkey Trial," or "A 1925 Media Circus"" (http:/ / www. borndigital. com/ scopes. htm). Borndigital. .
Retrieved 2010-01-18.
[12] George McReady Price, The Phantom of Organic Evolution, New York: New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1924, reprinted in Selected Works of
George McCready Price, ed. Ronald L. Numbers, New York: Garland Publishing, 1995, ISBN 0-8153-1808-1. volume 7 of the series
Creationism in Twentieth Century America. Chapter IX Section V, page 210-211 (pages 446-447 of reprint). Italics in original.
[13] Ken Ham, New Answer Book 2, Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 2008, p. 32
[14] Ken Ham, New Answer Book 2, Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 2008, p. 34
Stanisław Szukalski 330

Stanisław Szukalski
Stanisław Szukalski
Born December 13, 1893Warta, Poland

Died May 19, 1987 (aged 93)Burbank, California, U.S.

Nationality Polish

Influenced Józef Gosławski

Stanisław Szukalski (1893–1987) was a Polish-born painter and sculptor. He also developed the
pseudoscientific-historical theory of Zermatism, positing that all human culture was derived from post-deluge
Easter Island and that mankind was locked in an eternal struggle with the Sons of Yeti ("Yetinsyny"), the offspring
of Yeti and humans. He illustrated this theory in his works.

Overview
Szukalski immigrated to the United States in his teens,
where he joined the arts scene in Chicago. Ben Hecht,
who knew Szukalski in the 1920s, described him in his
1954 autobiography A Child of the Century as starving,
muscular, aristocratic and disdainful of lesser beings than
himself—traits Szukalski retained for the rest of his life.
In 1929 was a founder of an artistic movement called
Tribe of the Horned Heart (Szczep Rogate Serce) -
centered on Polish artists who sought inspiration in the
pagan or pre-Christian history of Poland.

Szukalski returned to Poland in 1934, when the

government proclaimed him their "Greatest Living Artist"
and built the Szukalski National Museum to house his
works. In 1939, the Nazi Siege of Warsaw resulted in the
destruction of the museum and his life's work. Szukalski Axeagle (Polish: Toporzeł) – A symbol designed by Stanislav
moved to Southern California, where he languished in Szukalski in 1935, as an emblem of Poland reborn
obscurity, supporting himself by drawing maps for an
aerospace company.

In 1971, Glenn Bray, a publisher who had previously specialized in the work of Mad Magazine artist Basil
Wolverton, befriended him and later published one book of Szukalski's art, Inner Portraits (1980), and another of his
art and philosophy, A Trough Full of Pearls / Behold! The Protong (1982). Bray and his wife Lena Zwalve maintain
Szukalski's estate and the great bulk of his existing art under the name "Archives Szukalski."
Zermatism, Szukalski's concept of world history, postulated that all human culture derived from post-deluge Easter
Island and that in all human languages one can find traces of the original, ancient mother-tongue of mankind. In his
view, humanity was locked in an eternal struggle with the Sons of Yeti ("Yetinsyny"), the offspring of Yeti and
humans, who had enslaved humanity from time immemorial. He claimed that the figures of the god Pan on Greek
vases depict creatures that actually existed, the product of Yeti apes raping human women. Szukalski used his
considerable artistic talents to illustrate his theories, which, despite their lack of scientific merit, have gained a cult
following largely on their aesthetic value. The irony of this would have likely infuriated the hyper-curmudgeonly
Szukalski. Among Szukalski's admirers are Leonardo DiCaprio, who sponsored a retrospective exhibition entitled
Stanisław Szukalski 331

"Struggle" at the Laguna Art Museum in 2000, the Church of the SubGenius, which incorporates the Yetinsyny
elements of Zermatism,[1] and the band Tool, who recommended[2] "any collection of works you can find by this
man is well worth the effort".
Szukalski's works are on permanent display at the Polish Museum of America in Chicago, as well as at the Polish
National Museum in Warsaw. In addition to the Laguna retrospective, notable exhibitions of his work include "The
Self-Born" at Varnish Fine Art, San Francisco, in 2005 and "Mantong and Protong," where Szukalski is paired with
another unorthodox theorist of earth history, Richard Sharpe Shaver, at Pasadena City College in 2009.
Following Szukalski's death in 1987, a group of his admirers spread his ashes on Easter Island, in the rock quarry of
Rano Raraku.

Notes
[1] Szukalski: God King of the Kook Nation (http:/ / boingboing. net/ stang_szukalski. html) - excerpt written by Rev. Ivan Stang from The Happy
Mutant Handbook (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Happy-Mutant-Handbook-Carla-Sinclair/ dp/ 1573225029)
[2] http:/ / toolshed. down. net/ community/ newsletter/ letter. fall. 94. html

External links
• Szukalski.com (http://www.szukalski.com/) – official website (English)
• Szukalski.pl (http://www.szukalski.pl/) – official website (Polish)
• Zermatism entry (http://www.paranormality.com/zermatism.shtml) at Paranormality.com
For info on Szukalski, Rabindranath Tagore and artist Mukul Dey visit:
• http://www.chitralekha.org/stanislav.htm
The Beginning Was the End 332

The Beginning Was the End

The Beginning Was the End

The cover of the UK First Edition of The Beginning Was the End. This particular copy has been signed by three members of Devo.

Author(s) Oscar Kiss Maerth

Original title Der Anfang war das Ende - Der Mensch entstand durch Kannibalismus

Translator Judith Hayward

Country Germany

Language German (translated later into English

Genre(s) Pseudoscience

Publication date Germany: 1971

United Kingdom/United States: January 1, 1974

Media type Hardcover

ISBN 0722157126

The Beginning Was the End is a 1971 pseudo-scientific book written by Oscar Kiss Maerth that claims that
humankind evolved from cannibalistic apes. Its premise:
One ape discovered that eating the fresh brain of one's own kind increases the sexual impulses. He and his
descendants became addicted to brains and hunted for them. It was not until later that they noticed that their
intelligence increased as a result. The outcome of this process is HOMO SAPIENS.
– The Beginning was the End, p. 37
The Beginning Was the End 333

Publication
It was first published in Germany as Der Anfang war das Ende - Der Mensch entstand durch Kannibalismus (Econ
Verlag GmbH, Düsseldorf und Wien, 1971), then translated by Judith Hayward and published in Great Britain by
Michael Joseph, Ltd, 1973 and re-issued by Sphere Books, Ltd, London in 1974, ISBN 0 7221 5712 6. It has been
translated into eight languages.

Synopsis
Maerth asserted that the eating of brain produces an aphrodisiac effect
(presumably due to the vast amount of hormones in it), and that this
initially caused apes to become addicted to them, organizing brain
hunts wherein the males of another tribe were eaten and the females
raped in a frenzy of brain-induced sex and violence.[1] However, this
diet also inadvertently increased brain size and intelligence[2] while
triggering the loss both of body hair[3] and of our innate psychic
abilities[4] . Thus man gradually came into being, remaining
cannibalistic until 50,000 years ago.[5] Modern humans, alienated from
their surroundings now that they've no telepathic contact with nature
and each other as animals do[6] , suffering from a distorted sexuality
resulting from hormonal imbalances[7] , and driven insane from the
constant pressure of their unnaturally large brains pressing on the
inside of their skulls[8] , are inevitably destroying themselves with
pollution, overpopulation[9] , racial integration[10] and ultimately,
nuclear war. He foresees a return to cannibalism in the near future[11] ,
and suggests that the reader should drop out of society[12] , embrace a
vegetarian diet, steep himself in the wisdom of the East[13] and perhaps
employ various wooden frames and wire devices to alter the shape of
his skull as some ancient cultures did, thus relieving the pressure on the "A Cipibo woman with her son wearing a
head-press."
brain and partially restoring psychic powers.[14]
The Beginning Was the End 334

Criticism
The book contains no references whatsoever, based alternately on
alleged conversations with present-day cannibals[15] , the eating of ape
brain by the author[16] and religious prophecy. Many parts have been
deemed by some as being outright racist, particularly the photographic
plates comparing various ethnic faces (primarily Arab and African) to
apes.[17] He says that blacks have smaller brains than whites[18] and
that contemporary cannibal tribes are seeking to remedy this
discrepancy by consuming brains in a frantic attempt to catch up,
though he estimates that it would take them roughly 100,000 years to
do so.[19]

Influences
The book was influential on new wave band Devo, bassist/synth
player/vocalist Gerald V. Casale claiming, "It's a better story than the
Bible as far as DEVO's concerned.".[20] The cover of the 1989 album
Now It Can Be Told is based on the cover of the US paperback edition.
In the early 2000s, Devo attempted to have the book reprinted with an
introduction by them. This met with no success. The book is now quite "The different human races developed from
different breeds of ape...the following eight pages
collectable.
show starling resemblances between types of ape
and different human races".

Notes
[1] Maerth (1974), page 37
[2] Maerth (1974), page 39
[3] Maerth (1974), page 90
[4] Maerth (1974), page 99
[5] Maerth (1974), page 54
[6] Maerth (1974), page 106-107
[7] Maerth (1974), page 63-64
[8] Maerth (1974), page 53:

Eating brain made his brain expand at such a fast rate that the skull was unable to keep up with this
growth. The over-sized brain was gradually subjected to increasing pressure, which over the course of
time became more and more dangerous. There were ever more numerous cases of a brain disease similar
to epilepsy and of extreme madness, and with no room for doubt man was able to trace these back to the
pressure on his over-large brain [...] Various attempts were first made at that time to ease the pressure of
the skull, mostly by altering its shape and if that did not help then by making an opening or a perforation
in the skull.
[9] Maerth (1974), page 230-231
[10] Maerth (1974), page 192-200
[11] Maerth (1974), page 199:

The period of cannibalism is by no means over and done with; on the contrary [...] before these times
come, man will live through alarming and inexplicable happenings. So-called civilized, well-brought up
people will eat their own fellow men, often their own friends, without being able to say why. Their
subconscious will cause them to do so, and humanity can be certain that this will be the precursor of a
new period of cannibalism which will recur for various reasons and to achieve various purposes.
The Beginning Was the End 335

[12] Maerth (1974), pages 235-6

[13] Maerth (1974), page 84, also 234
[14] Maerth (1974), page 128, also see the comments on page 148:

The only permissible intervention in the brain is one which was practised successfully countless
thousands of years ago: the formation of a dome on the top of the skull so that the physical defect is
reduced to some extent. Men who do this will not only partially regain the lost capacity for supersensory
perception, they will also recognize the philosophical truths capable of yielding a truly scientific basis
for the prolongation of mankind's existence.
This passage clearly inspired Devo's Energy Domes...
[15] Maerth (1974), page 47
[16] Maerth (1974), pages 52-53:

And a milder and permitted form of cannibalism still exists today in Africa, South East Asia, South
China, Taiwan and on some neighboring islands: the eating of fresh ape brain. In Asia this still occurs
even in public restaurants. When the brain is eaten in this way the same procedures are followed as
among cannibals who eat human brain. Here too the brain is only eaten when the moon is increasing [...]
The ape may likewise not come near metal objects because the rays emitted by metals have a prejudicial
influence on the nervous system and the brain. It is therefore kept in a wooden cage. Shortly before it is
killed it is offered a sip of an alcoholic drink and a handful of nuts to chew to stimulate the brain. The
skull is broken with a stone or wooden hammer [...] The brain is immediately scooped out with a china
or bamboo spoon and eaten as it is. The brain is tough and rubbery and can hardly be chewed. It is
devoid of flavour, yet on account of the blood rather sweet, not a delicacy by any standard; those eating
it themselves take alcoholic drinks with it. Only men partake of such repasts of ape brain [...] According
to my own experience, about twenty hours after such a repast there is a feeling of warmth in the brain,
like a gentle pressure. After about twenty-eight hours the body is flooded by vitality, with increased
sexual impulses. The milder forms of cannibalism described above are a residue of true cannibalism, as
a consequence of which a normal ape turned into an intelligent freak: which today calls itself HOMO
SAPIENS.
[17] Maerth (1974), 8-page photo supplement between pages 168-9
[18] Maerth (1974), page 180
[19] Maerth (1974), page 68:

Man did not educate woman imperfectly: he gave her no brain to eat. To bring female intelligence up to
the same level as that of man by education is just as impossible as to bring the intelligence of an
aboriginal of New Guinea up to the level of a Chinese by education. If a race become cannibals one
hundred thousand years later, then members of that race do not need education to raise their intelligence,
but a hundred thousand years of cannibalism. If someone wanted to commit the error of giving woman
man's intelligence, then woman would have to begin eating brain and continue doing so for several tens
of thousands of years [...] As, however, intelligence gained by cannibalism entails for human beings the
burden of delusions, there would be even greater chaos.
[20] * Acid Logic Interview with Gerald V. Casale (http:/ / www. acidlogic. com/ devo_int. htm)
The Beginning Was the End 336

References
• Maerth, Oscar Kiss The Beginning was the End, translated by Judith Hayward (Sphere Books Ltd., London, 1974)
ISBN 0 7221 5712 6.

External links
• Devo Brainwasher #01 featuring chapter headings from The Beginning was the End (http://web.archive.org/
web/20050412083028/http://www.clubdevo.com/blogs/brainwasher_01.htm)
• The Mystery of the Apple, an Italian comic book illustrating Maerth's theories (http://www.ilmisterodellamela.
it/)
• An excerpt from The Beginning was the End (http://web.mac.com/andrs1/Site/Oscar_Kiss_Maerth.html)
Helena Blavatsky 337

Helena Blavatsky
Helena Petrovna Blavatsky

Helena Blavatsky, co-founder of the Theosophical Society

Born 12 August 1831Yekaterinoslav, Russian Empire (now Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine)

Died 08 May 1891 (aged 59)London, Great Britain

Nationality American

Ethnicity German/Russian

Occupation Spiritualist
Author

Known for Theosophical Society

Occultism

Religion Buddhism, Theosophy

Spouse Nikifor Vassilievich Blavatsky

Helena Petrovna Blavatsky (Russian: Елена Петровна Блаватская, Ukrainian: Олена Петрівна Блаватська),
(born as Helena von Hahn (Russian: Елена Петровна Ган, Ukrainian: Олена Петрівна Ган); 12 August [O.S. 31 July]
1831, Yekaterinoslav, Yekaterinoslav, Russian Empire (today Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine) – died 8 May 1891,
London, Great Britain) was a founder of Theosophy and the Theosophical Society.[1]

Biography
Her parents were Colonel Peter von Hahn (Russian: Пётр Алексеевич Ган, 1798–1873) of the ancient von Hahn
family of German nobility (German: uradel) from Basedow (Mecklenburg) and Helena Fadeyeva (Russian: Елена
Андреевна Фадеева, 1814–1843), the author under the pen-name "Zeneida R-va", of novels. Described by Belinsky
as the "Russian George Sand", she died at the age of 28, when Blavatsky was 11. Blavatsky's sister Vera
Zhelikhovsky was a writer of occult/fantastic fiction. Blavatsky's first cousin was Sergei Witte, who was Russian
Minister, and then Prime Minister in the reign of Tsar Nicholas II. In his memoirs, Count Witte recalls his
encounters with Helena.
Blavatsky's maternal grandparents were Andrey Mikhailovich Fadeyev, Governor of Saratov, later of Tbilisi, and his
wife Princess Helene Dolgoruki, prominent figures of the age of Russian enlightenment. Blavatsky grew up amid a
culture rich in spirituality and traditional Russian mythologies, which introduced her to the realm of the supernatural.
Helena's great-grand nephew Boris de Zirkoff (Борис Цирков, 1902–1981) was an active member of the
Theosophical Society and editor of the Blavatsky Collected Writings.
Helena Blavatsky 338

First marriage
Blavatsky was married four weeks before she turned seventeen, on July 7, 1848, to forty-year old Nikifor (also
Nicephor) Vassilievich Blavatsky, vice-governor of Erivan. According to her account, they never consummated their
marriage,[2] and she remained a virgin her entire life. After three unhappy months, she rode by horse and escaped
back over the mountains to her grandfather in Tiflis.
Her grandfather decided that she should be shipped off immediately to her father, who was retired and living near
Saint Petersburg. Although her father travelled 2000 miles to meet her at Odessa, he did not find her there. She had
missed the steamer and had sailed away with the skipper of an English bark bound for Istanbul.

Wandering years
According to her own story as told to a later biographer, she spent the years 1848 to 1858 traveling the world. She
visited Egypt, France, Canada (Quebec), England, South America, Germany, Mexico, India, Greece and especially
Tibet, where she studied for two years with the ascetics, to whom she referred as Brothers. Blavatsky was initiated
for theosophical work while in Tibet.[3] She returned to Russia in 1858 and went first to see her sister Vera, a young
widow living in Rugodevo, a village left to her by her husband.

Agardi Metrovitch
During this time she began travelling with Agardi Metrovich, an Italian opera singer. While unconfirmed gossip of
that time referred to a child named Yuri whom she loved dearly, she stated in writing that Yuri was a child of her
friends the Metroviches. This view was supported by one of her many accusers, V. S. Solovioff.[4] [5] [6] Count
Witte, her first cousin on her mother's side, stated in his memoirs (as quoted by G. Williams), that her father read
aloud a letter in which Metrovich signed himself as "your affectionate grandson". This is evidence that Metrovich
considered himself Blavatsky's husband at this point. Yuri died at the age of five and Blavatsky stated that she
ceased to believe in the Russian Orthodox God. However, Theosophists claim that the Point Loma Theosophical
Society has a passport that shows that Yuri was not H.P. Blavatsky's child.[7]
Two different versions of how Agardi died are extant. G. Williams states that Agardi had been taken sick with a
fever and delirium in Ramleh and that he died in bed on April 19, 1870. In the second version, while bound for Cairo
on a boat, the Evmonia, in 1871, an explosion claimed Agardi's life and Blavatsky continued on to Cairo alone.[8]
During her stay in Cairo in the early 1870s, Blavatsky established herself as a medium and began to hold séances.[9]
Another unfounded account is that while in Cairo she formed the Société Spirité for occult phenomena with Emma
Cutting (later Emma Coulomb), which is said to have closed after dissatisfied customers complained of fraudulent
activities.
Helena Blavatsky 339

New York
In 1873 she emigrated to New York City.
Impressing people with her professed psychic
abilities, she was spurred on to continue her
mediumship. Mediumship (among other
psychical and spiritual sciences of the time),
based upon the belief known as spiritualism
which began at Rochester, NY, was a widely
popular and fast-spreading field upon which
Blavatsky based her career.[10]

Throughout her career she claimed to have

demonstrated physical and mental psychic feats
which included levitation, clairvoyance,
out-of-body projection, telepathy and Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott, a lawyer, agricultural expert, and journalist
clairaudience. Another claim of hers was who covered the Spiritualist phenomenon

materialization (producing physical objects out

of nothing), though in general, her interests were more in the area of 'theory' and 'laws' rather than demonstration.

In 1874 at the farm of the Eddy Brothers, Helena met Henry Steel Olcott, a lawyer, agricultural expert, and journalist
who covered the spiritualist phenomenon. Soon they were working together in the "Lamasery" (alternate spelling:
"Lamastery") where her book Isis Unveiled was written. Blavatsky married her second husband, Michael C.
Betanelly, a Philadelphia import-export dealer of Georgian descent, on April 3, 1875 in New York City. She
separated from Betanelly after a few months and their divorce was legalized on May 25, 1878. On July 8, 1878, she
became a naturalized citizen of the United States, but after leaving for India later that year she never returned to the
country.[9]

Theosophical Society
All this gave Madame Blavatsky great publicity, and her ideas on Occultism - a word she helped to make familiar to
the world - heightened the interest in The Theosophical Society. Men and women of note thronged her rooms in New
York.
A lecture by G.H. Felt on 7 September 1875 on 'The Lost Canon of Proportion of the Egyptians' led to the decision
to form a society for the study of such subjects. Thus, along with Henry Steel Olcott, William Quan Judge and others
she founded the Theosophical Society in September 1875. The Society was to be truly eclectic and without
distinctions. Several meetings were held to frame and pass Rules, and the present emblem was adopted. On 17
November 1875 Colonel Henry Steel Olcott gave his Inaugural Address, and this date was considered as the
Foundation Day of the Theosophical Society.
In 1877, H.P. Blavatsky published Isis Unveiled, which, she said, was 'the fruit of somewhat intimate acquaintance
with Eastern adepts and study of their science'. Its success was immediate throughout the world. Persons of note in
many countries were interested; some joined and became well known in the Society. Her writings connecting
esoteric spiritual knowledge with new science may be considered to be the first instance of a systematic attempt to
bridge the gap between science and spirituality.
Helena Blavatsky 340

India
She had moved to India, landing at Bombay on February 16, 1879,[11] where she first made the acquaintance of A. P.
Sinnett. In his book Occult World he describes how she stayed at his home in Allahabad for six weeks that year and
again the following year.[12] Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott arrived in Colombo, in what was then known
as Ceylon (now known as Sri Lanka) on May 16, 1880.
Blavatsky and Olcott took five precepts at the Wijayananda Viharaya located in Galle on May 19, 1880.[13] On that
day Olcott and Blavatsky were formally acknowledged as Buddhists, although Olcott noted that they had previously
declared themselves Buddhists, while still living in America.[14] During their time in Ceylon, Olcott and Blavatsky
strove to revive Buddhism within the country.
Sometime around December 1880, while at a dinner party with a group including A. O. Hume and his wife, she is
claimed to have been instrumental in causing the materialization of Mrs Hume's lost brooch.[15] By 1882 the
Theosophical Society became an international organization, and it was at this time that she moved the headquarters
to Adyar near Madras, India (now Chennai).
Blavatsky later went to Belgium, where she stayed at Ostend (July 15, 1886 – May 1, 1887) where she could easily
meet her English friends. She wrote a big part of the Secret Doctrine in Ostend[16] and there she claimed a revelation
during an illness telling her to continue the book at any cost. Finally she went to England. A disciple put her up in
her own house in England, where she lived until the end of her life.

Final years
In August, 1890 she formed the "Inner Circle" of 12 disciples: "Countess Constance Wachtmeister, Mrs Isabel
Cooper-Oakley, Miss Emily Kislingbury, Miss Laura Cooper, Mrs Annie Besant, Mrs Alice Cleather, Dr Archibald
Keightley, Herbert Coryn, Claude Wright, G. R. S. Mead, E. T. Sturdy, and Walter Old".[17] Blavatsky was a close
friend of John Watkins, and inspired him to open an esoteric bookshop in London. Watkins founded Watkins Books
a few years after her death.[18] Suffering from Bright's disease and complications from influenza, Blavatsky died in
her home at 19 Avenue Road, St Johns Wood, London, on May 8, 1891.[9]
Her last words in regard to her work were: "Keep the link unbroken! Do not let my last incarnation be a failure." Her
body was cremated at Woking Crematorium on May 11;[9] and the ashes were divided between Adyar, New York,
and London.[19] May 8 is celebrated by theosophists and is called White Lotus Day.

Criticism
Well-known and controversial during her life, Blavatsky was influential on spiritualism and related subcultures: "The
western esoteric tradition has no more important figure in modern times."[20] She wrote prolifically, publishing
thousands of pages and debate continues about her work. She taught about very abstract and metaphysical principles,
but also sought to denounce and correct superstitions that, in her view, had grown in different exoteric religions.
Some of these statements are controversial. For example, she wrote: "It is 'Satan who is the god of our planet and the
only god,' and this without any allusive metaphor to its wickedness and depravity."[21] In this reference Blavatsky
says that he whom the Christian dogma calls Lucifer originally was never the representative of the evil but, on the
contrary, was the light-bringer (which is the literal meaning of the name Lucifer). According to Blavatsky the church
turned him into Satan (which means the opponent) to fit him into the newly framed Christian dogmas. A similar
view is also shared by the Christian Gnostics, ancient and modern.
Throughout much of Blavatsky's public life her work drew harsh criticism from some of the learned authorities of
her day, as for example when she said that the atom was divisible[22] , that the Bodhisattvas choose to give up
Nirvana in order to help humanity [23] and other controversial statements that were later found true. There are,
however, many statements that remain to be verified.
Helena Blavatsky 341

Critics pronounced her claim of the existence of masters of wisdom to be utterly false, and accused her of being a
charlatan, a false medium, evil, a spy for the Russians, a smoker of cannabis, a spy for the English, a racist and a
falsifier of letters. Most of the accusations remain undocumented.[24] [25] [26] [27]
H. P. Blavatsky herself said, that one of the main reasons for the many attacks on her and on the Theosophical
Society, which she was a co-founder of was:
"you must bear in mind how many powerful adversaries we have aroused ever since the formation of our
Society. As I just said, if the Theosophical movement were one of those numerous modern crazes, as
harmless at the end as they are evanescent, it would be simply laughed at― as it is now by those who
still do not understand its real purport ― and left severely alone. But it is nothing of the kind.
Intrinsically, Theosophy is the most serious movement of this age; and one, moreover, which threatens
the very life of most of the time-honoured humbugs, prejudices, and social evils of the day ― those
evils which fatten and make happy the upper ten and their imitators and sycophants, the wealthy dozens
of the middle classes, while they positively crush and starve out of existence the millions of the poor.
Think of this, and you will easily understand the reason of such a relentless persecution by those others
who, more observant and perspicacious, do see the true nature of Theosophy, and therefore dread it." [28]
In The New York Times Edward Hower wrote, "Theosophical writers have defended her sources vehemently.
Skeptics have painted her as a great fraud."[29] The authenticity and originality of her writings were questioned.
Blavatsky was accused of having plagiarized a number of sources, copying the texts crudely enough to misspell the
more difficult words. See: The Sources of Madame Blavatsky's Writings by William Emmette Coleman from Modern
Priestess of Isis by Vsevolod Sergyeevich Solovyoff (author), Walter Leaf (translator).[30] However, the cosmogony
and anthropogenesis described in her major work, the Secret Doctrine, contains many important elements not to be
found in any other philosophy currently known.
In his 1885 report to the Society for Psychical Research (SPR), Richard Hodgson concluded that Blavatsky was a
fraud. However, in a 1986 press release to the newspapers and leading magazines in Great Britain, Canada and the
USA, the same SPR retracted the Hodgson report, after a re-examination of the case by the Fortean psychic Dr.
Vernon Harrison, past president of The Royal Photographic Society and formerly Research Manager to Thomas De
La Rue, an expert on forgery, as follows: "Madame Blavatsky, co-founder of the Theosophical Society, was unjustly
condemned, new study concludes."[31]

Racial theories
Blavatsky used the compounded word Root-race as a technical term to describe each of the seven successive stages
of human evolution that take place over large time periods in her cosmology. She called the current stage, the fifth
one, "Aryan".[32] This word was commonly employed by the scholars of the 19th century to refer to what today is
known as the Indo-European ethnic groups, although Blavatsky's description of the Aryan Root-race comprised the
entire humanity. This Root-race was preceded by the fourth one, which developed in Atlantis, while the third
Root-race is denominated "Lemurian". She described the Aryan Root-race in the following way:

“ The Aryan races, for instance, now varying from dark brown, almost black, red-brown-yellow, down to the whitest creamy colour, are yet all
of one and the same stock — the Fifth Root-Race — and spring from one single progenitor, (...) who is said to have lived over 18,000,000
years ago, and also 850,000 years ago — at the time of the sinking of the last remnants of the great continent of Atlantis.
[33]
”
Although the whole humanity belongs to the same Root-race, her evolutionary view naturally admits a difference in
development between various ethnic groups:

“ The occult doctrine admits of no such divisions as the Aryan and the Semite, accepting even the Turanian with ample reservations. The
Semites, especially the Arabs, are later Aryans — degenerate in spirituality and perfected in materiality."
[34]
”
Helena Blavatsky 342

She also states that:

“ There are, or rather still were a few years ago, descendants of these half-animal tribes or races, both of remote Lemurian and
Lemuro-Atlantean origin ... Of such semi-animal creatures, the sole remnants known to Ethnology were the Tasmanians, a portion of the
Australians and a mountain tribe in China, the men and women of which are entirely covered with hair.
[35]
”
It is important to notice, however, that her teachings talk about three separate levels of evolution: physical,
intellectual, and spiritual.[36] Blavatsky states that there are differences in the spiritual evolution of the Monads, in
their intellectual development of the souls, and in the physical qualities of the bodies. She also states that cultures
follow a cycle of rising, development, degeneration, and eventually disappear. But these three levels of evolution are
separate. In her teachings, the incarnating souls are beyond sex, nationality, religions, and other physical or cultural
characteristics. In its evolutionary journey, every soul has to take birth in every culture in the world, where it
acquires different skills and learns different lessons. [37] This means that ethnic groups do not have attached a
particular group of souls more or less evolved than those of other groups (except, perhaps, in the case of savages of
some tribes). Thus, even though she declares the Arabs are "later Aryans, degenerate in spirituality and perfected in
materiality" she also stated that there were wise and initiated teachers among the Jews and the Arabs.[38]
In Blavatsky's view, she was giving cold "scientific" facts (taught by what she called the "Occult Science") but her
thinking was not connected to any fascist or racist ideas as some of her critics say. The first aim of the Theosophical
Society she founded is "To form a nucleus of the Universal Brotherhood of Humanity, without distinction of race,
creed, sex, caste or colour" and her writings are full of references emphasizing the unity of humanity: "all men have
spiritually and physically the same origin" and that "mankind is essentially of one and the same essence".[39]
Also, the Theosophical teachings emphasize that a soul is less evolved than other simply because it is "younger".
There is no intrinsic difference in worth between souls of different degrees of evolution just as there is not between a
child and an adult.
Research into the history of the Theosophical Society shows that these teachings did not induce attitudes of racism
among its members and their activities. As an example, it can be pointed out that in the late 19th century India the
Theosophical Society was the only place where Hindus of different castes would share meals and discussions. The
same happened between white and black people in the Republic of South Africa during the apartheid.
Blavatsky does not claim that the present Aryan Root-race is the last and highest of them all. She prophecies the
destruction of the current races as the group of souls that comprise the current humanity appears in the future as
"higher races":

“ Thus will mankind, race after race, perform its appointed cycle-pilgrimage. Climates will, and have already begun, to change, each tropical
year after the other dropping one sub-race, but only to beget another higher race on the ascending cycle; while a series of other less favoured

”
groups — the failures of nature — will, like some individual men, vanish from the human family without even leaving a trace behind.
[40]
Such is the course of Nature under the sway of KARMIC LAW: of the ever present and the ever-becoming Nature.
Helena Blavatsky 343

Works
The books written by Madame Blavatsky included:
• Blavatsky, H P (1877), Isis unveiled [41], J.W. Bouton, OCLC 7211493
• Blavatsky, H P (1880), From the Caves and Jungles of Hindostan [42], Floating Press, ISBN 1775416038
• Blavatskaja, Elena Petrovna (1888), The secret doctrine [43], Theosophical Publ. Co, OCLC 61915001
• Blavatsky, H P (1933) [1889], The voice of the silence [44], Theosophy Co. (India) Ltd, OCLC 220858481
• Blavatsky, H P (1889), The key to theosophy [45], Theosophical Pub. Co, OCLC 612505
• Blavatsky, H P (1892), Nightmare tales [46], London, Theosophical publishing society, OCLC 454984121
• Blavatsky, H P; Neff, Mary Katherine (1937), Personal memoirs, London, OCLC 84938217
• Blavatsky, H P; Goodrick-Clarke, Nicholas (2004), Helena Blavatsky [47], Western esoteric masters series, North
Atlantic Books, ISBN 9781556434570
Her many articles have been collected in the Collected Writings of H. P. Blavatsky [48]. An alternative link is: http:/ /
collectedwritings.net This series has 15 numbered volumes including the index.

Books about Blavatsky

• Bleiler, Everett Franklin (1948), The checklist of fantastic literature; a bibliography of fantasy, weird and science
fiction books published in the English language, Chicago, Shasta Publishers, OCLC 1113926
• Caldwell, Daniel H (2000), The esoteric world of Madame Blavatsky : insights into the life of a modern sphinx
[49]
, Theosophical Pub. House, ISBN 9780835607940
• Cranston, S L (1994) [1993], HPB : the extraordinary life and influence of Helena Blavatsky, founder of the
modern Theosophical movement [50], Putnam, ISBN 9780874777697
• Guénon, René (2001), Theosophy : history of a pseudo-religion [51], Sophia Perennis, ISBN 9780900588808,
retrieved 2009-11-26
• Hanson, Virginia (1988), H.P. Blavatsky and The secret doctrine [52], A Quest book, Theosophical Pub. House,
ISBN 9780835606301, retrieved 2009-11-26
• Harrison, Vernon (1997), H.P. Blavatsky and the SPR : an examination of the Hodgson report of 1885 [53],
Theosophical University Press, ISBN 9781557001184, retrieved 2009-11-26
• Meade, Marion (1980), Madame Blavatsky, the woman behind the myth, Putnam, ISBN 9780399123764
• Ryan, Charles J; Knoche, Grace F, H.P. Blavatsky and the theosophical movement : a brief historical sketch [54],
Theosophical University Press, ISBN 9781557000903
• Solovyov, Vsevolod Sergyeevich, A Modern Priestess of Isis London [55]
• Symonds, John (2006) [1959], The lady with the magic eyes : Madame Blavatsky, medium and magician [56],
Kessinger Pub, ISBN 9781425487096
• Thibaux, Jean-Michel (1992) [1992], Héléna Blavatsky, les sept esprits de la révolte, Edition 1,
ISBN 2863915002
Helena Blavatsky 344

References
Notes
[1] 1891 England Census (http:/ / content. ancestry. com/ Browse/ view. aspx?dbid=6598& path=London. St+ Marylebone. St+ John. 13. 20&
fn=G R S& ln=Mead& st=r& pid=11803186& rc=& zp=75), showing a household including "Constance Wachtmeister Manager of Publishing
Office; G.R.S. Mead, Author Journalist; Isabel Oakley, Millener; Helena Blavatsky, Authoress; and others"
[2] Pearsall 1972, p. 211
[3] "Blavatsky and Buddhism" (http:/ / www. blavatsky. net/ forum/ taylor/ tibetanSources2. htm). Blavatsky.net. 1964-01-15. . Retrieved
2009-11-26.
[4] V. S. Solovioff: "A Modern Priestess of Isis", p. 141.
[5] Blavatsky Collected Writings, Vol. I p. xlvi–ii
[6] The Letters of HPB to APS p. 147
[7] Blavatsky Collected Writings, Vol. I. p. xlvi
[8] Blavatsky, Helena Petrovna; Algeo, John (2003), John Algeo, ed., The Letters of H.P. Blavatsky, Volume 1 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=mW3DLdgqpLIC), Quest Books, p. 43, ISBN 9780835608367,
[9] Davenport-Hines, Richard (2004), "Blavatsky, Helena Petrovna (1831–1891)" (http:/ / www. oxforddnb. com/ view/ article/ 40930)
(subscription required), Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, , retrieved 31 October 2009
[10] Blavatsky, Helena, Isis Unveiled, pg. xlv, Theosophical University Press: Pasadena, 1877.
[11] "Combined Chronology of The Mahatma Letters - Preface" (http:/ / www. theosociety. org/ pasadena/ mahatma/ ml-ccpre. htm).
Theosociety.org. . Retrieved 2009-11-26.
[12] Occult World, A. P. Sinnett. Boston, 1882. p 42
[13] Oliveira, Pedro. "BIO" (http:/ / www. cwlworld. info/ html/ bio. html). CWL World. .
[14] Olcott in Caldwell (2000)
[15] Occult World, A.P. Sinnett. Boston, 1882. p 80
[16] Letter to Mrs Kingsford from Ostend, Aug. 23, 1886: "I am hard at work now, for I am afraid not to be able to finish my Secret Doctrine if I
wait long."
[17] "Theosophy timeline" (http:/ / www. robotwisdom. com/ jaj/ theosophy. html). Robotwisdom.com. . Retrieved 2009-11-26.
[18] http:/ / www. watkinsbooks. co. uk/ history. html
[19] "H. P. Blavatsky and the Theosophical Movement" (http:/ / www. theosociety. org/ pasadena/ hpb-tm/ hpbtm-19. htm). Theosophical
University Press. 1975. .
[20] Johnson, K. Paul. The Masters Revealed: Madame Blavatsky and the Myth of the Great White Lodge. State University of New York Press,
Albany, USA
[21] The Secret Doctrine [VI], 1888, p. 215, 216, 220, 245, 255, 533
[22] The Secret Doctrine [I], 1888, p. 244
[23] The Voice of the Silence, Fragment II, "The Two Paths" 1889
[24] The Hodgson Report - The Society for Psychical Research, 1884
[25] The Letters by H. P. Blavatsky to A. P. Sinnett, by A. Trevor Barker, 1925, p. 134-139 etc.
[26] H. P. BLAVATSKY and the SPR - An Examination of the Hodgson Report of 1885 by Vernon Harrison, Ph.D.; 1997
[27] The Key to Theosophy, 2nd. ed. 1890, p. 39
[28] The Key to Theosophy, 2nd. ed. 1890, p. 271-272
[29] Hower, Edward (February 26, 1995), "The Medium With a Message" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1995/ 02/ 26/ books/
the-medium-with-a-message. html?sec=& spon=& pagewanted=print), The New York Times, , retrieved 31 October 2009
[30] "The Sources of Madame Blavatsky's Writings by William Emmette Coleman" (http:/ / www. blavatskyarchives. com/ colemansources1895.
htm). Blavatskyarchives.com. . Retrieved 2009-11-26.
[31] "Blavatsky text" (http:/ / www. blavatsky. net/ gen/ refute/ sprpress. htm). Blavatsky.net. 1986-05-08. . Retrieved 2009-11-26.
[32] The Secret Doctrine, the Synthesis of Science, Religion and Philosophy, Vol.II, p.249
[33] The Secret Doctrine, the Synthesis of Science, Religion and Philosophy, Vol.II, p.249
[34] Ibid., p.200
[35] Ibid., pp.195-6
[36] The Secret Doctrine, the Synthesis of Science, Religion and Philosophy, Vol.I, p.181
[37] The Key to Theosophy; 2nd ed. 1890, p. 39
[38] Blavatsky, H. P. The Theosophical Glossary, 1892, pp.271-273.
[39] The Key to Theosophy, Section 3
[40] Ibid., p.446
[41] http:/ / isisunveiled. net
[42] http:/ / www. virtuescience. com/ caves-and-jungles. html
[43] http:/ / secretdoctrine. net
[44] http:/ / voiceofthesilence. net
[45] http:/ / keytotheosophy. net
Helena Blavatsky 345

[46] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ nightmaretales01blavgoog

[47] http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 53992973
[48] http:/ / www. katinkahesselink. net/ blavatsky/
[49] http:/ / esotericworld. net
[50] http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 28666454
[51] http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 46364622
[52] http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 17477685
[53] http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 36565944
[54] http:/ / www. theosociety. org/ pasadena/ hpb-tm/ hpbtm-hp. htm
[55] http:/ / ia310817. us. archive. org/ 0/ items/ amodernpriestes00britgoog/ amodernpriestes00britgoog. pdf
[56] http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 122353386

Bibliography
• Pearsall, Ronald (1972), The Table-Rappers, Michael Joseph, ISBN 9780718106454

External links
• Tingley, Katherine (1921). Helene Petrovna Blavatsky (http://www.archive.org/stream/
helenapetrovnabl00tingrich). The Woman's International Theosophical League, Point Loma, California.
• The Blavatsky Study Center / Blavatsky Archives (http://blavatskyarchives.com)
• Early Theosophical Publications Online (http://blavatskyarchives.com/theosophypdfs/
early_theosophical_publications.htm)
• Upasika.com (http://www.upasika.com)
• Works by or about Helena Blavatsky (http://worldcat.org/identities/lccn-n79-32225) in libraries (WorldCat
catalog)
• Helena Petrovna Blavatsky (http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Esoteric_and_Occult/
Personalities/Blavatsky,_Helena_Petrovna//) at the Open Directory Project
Francis Galton 346

Francis Galton
Francis Galton

Born 16 February 1822Birmingham, England

Died 17 January 1911 (aged 88)Haslemere, Surrey, England

Residence England

Nationality English

Fields Anthropology and polymathy

Institutions Meteorological Council

Royal Geographical Society

Alma mater King's College London

Cambridge University

Doctoral advisor William Hopkins

Doctoral students Karl Pearson

Known for Eugenics
The Galton board
Regression toward the mean
Standard deviation
Weather map

Notable awards Linnean Society of London's Darwin–Wallace Medal in

1908.
Copley medal (1910)

Sir Francis Galton FRS (16 February 1822 – 17 January 1911), cousin of Douglas Strutt Galton, half-cousin of
Charles Darwin, was an English Victorian polymath: anthropologist, eugenicist, tropical explorer, geographer,
inventor, meteorologist, proto-geneticist, psychometrician, and statistician. He was knighted in 1909.
Galton had a prolific intellect, and produced over 340 papers and books throughout his lifetime. He also created the
statistical concept of correlation and widely promoted regression toward the mean. He was the first to apply
statistical methods to the study of human differences and inheritance of intelligence, and introduced the use of
questionnaires and surveys for collecting data on human communities, which he needed for genealogical and
biographical works and for his anthropometric studies.
He was a pioneer in eugenics, coining the term itself and the phrase "nature versus nurture". His book, Hereditary
Genius (1869), was the first social scientific attempt to study genius and greatness.[1] As an investigator of the
human mind, he founded psychometrics (the science of measuring mental faculties) and differential psychology. He
devised a method for classifying fingerprints that proved useful in forensic science.
Francis Galton 347

As the initiator of scientific meteorology, he devised the first weather map, proposed a theory of anticyclones, and
was the first to establish a complete record of short-term climatic phenomena on a European scale.[2] He also
invented the Galton Whistle for testing differential hearing ability.

Biography

Early life
Galton was born at "The Larches", a large house in the Sparkbrook area of Birmingham, England, built on the site of
"Fair Hill", the former home of Joseph Priestley, which the botanist William Withering had renamed. He was
Charles Darwin's half-cousin, sharing the common grandparent Erasmus Darwin. His father was Samuel Tertius
Galton, son of Samuel "John" Galton. The Galtons were famous and highly successful Quaker gun-manufacturers
and bankers, while the Darwins were distinguished in medicine and science.
Both families boasted Fellows of the Royal Society and members who loved to invent in their spare time. Both
Erasmus Darwin and Samuel Galton were founder members of the famous Lunar Society of Birmingham, whose
members included Boulton, Watt, Wedgwood, Priestley, Edgeworth, and other distinguished scientists and
industrialists. Likewise, both families were known for their literary talent: Erasmus Darwin composed lengthy
technical treatises in verse, and Aunt Mary Anne Galton wrote on aesthetics and religion, and her notable
autobiography detailed the unique environment of her childhood populated by Lunar Society members.
Galton was by many accounts a child prodigy — he was reading by the
age of 2, at age 5 he knew some Greek, Latin and long division, and by
the age of six he had moved on to adult books, including Shakespeare
for pleasure, and poetry, which he quoted at length (Bulmer 2003,
p. 4). Later in life, Galton would propose a connection between genius
and insanity based on his own experience. He stated, “Men who leave
their mark on the world are very often those who, being gifted and full
of nervous power, are at the same time haunted and driven by a
dominant idea, and are therefore within a measurable distance of
insanity” [3]

Galton attended King Edward's School, Birmingham, but chafed at the

narrow classical curriculum and left at 16.[4] His parents pressed him to
enter the medical profession, and he studied for two years at
Birmingham General Hospital and King's College, London Medical
School. He followed this up with mathematical studies at Trinity Portrait of Galton by Octavius Oakley, 1840

College, University of Cambridge, from 1840 to early 1844.[5]

A severe nervous breakdown altered Galton's original intention to try for honours. He elected instead to take a "poll"
(pass) B.A. degree, like his half-cousin Charles Darwin (Bulmer 2003, p. 5). (Following the Cambridge custom, he
was awarded an M.A. without further study, in 1847). He then briefly resumed his medical studies. The death of his
father in 1844 left him financially independent but emotionally destitute,[6] and he terminated his medical studies
entirely, turning to foreign travel, sport and technical invention.
In his early years Galton was an enthusiastic traveller, and made a notable solo trip through Eastern Europe to
Constantinople, before going up to Cambridge. In 1845 and 1846 he went to Egypt and travelled down the Nile to
Khartoum in the Sudan, and from there to Beirut, Damascus and down the Jordan.
In 1850 he joined the Royal Geographical Society, and over the next two years mounted a long and difficult
expedition into then little-known South West Africa (now Namibia). He wrote a successful book on his experience,
"Narrative of an Explorer in Tropical South Africa". He was awarded the Royal Geographical Society's gold medal
Francis Galton 348

in 1853 and the Silver Medal of the French Geographical Society for his pioneering cartographic survey of the
region (Bulmer 2003, p. 16). This established his reputation as a geographer and explorer. He proceeded to write the
best-selling The Art of Travel, a handbook of practical advice for the Victorian on the move, which went through
many editions and is still in print.
In January 1853 Galton met Louisa Jane Butler (1822–1897) at his neighbour's home and they were married on 1
August 1853. The union of 43 years proved childless.[7] [8]

Middle years
Galton was a polymath who made important contributions in many
fields of science, including meteorology (the anti-cyclone and the first
popular weather maps), statistics (regression and correlation),
psychology (synaesthesia), biology (the nature and mechanism of
heredity), and criminology (fingerprints). Much of this was influenced
by his penchant for counting or measuring. Galton prepared the first
weather map published in The Times (1 April 1875, showing the
weather from the previous day, 31 March), now a standard feature in
newspapers worldwide.[9]

He became very active in the British Association for the Advancement

Louisa Jane Butler
Society, and on the Meteorological Council.
of Science, presenting many papers on a wide variety of topics at its
meetings from 1858 to 1899 (Bulmer 2010, p. 29). He was the general
secretary from 1863 to 1867, president of the Geographical section in
1867 and 1872, and president of the Anthropological Section in 1877
and 1885. He was active on the council of the Royal Geographical
Society for over forty years, in various committees of the Royal

During this time, Galton wrote a controversial letter to the Times titled 'Africa for the Chinese', where he argued that
the Chinese, as a race capable of high civilization and (in his opinion) only temporarily stunted by the recent failures
of Chinese dynasties, should be encouraged to immigrate to Africa and displace the supposedly inferior aboriginal
blacks.[10]

Heredity, historiometry and eugenics

The publication by his cousin Charles Darwin of The Origin of Species
in 1859 was an event that changed Galton's life. He came to be gripped
by the work, especially the first chapter on "Variation under
Domestication" concerning the breeding of domestic animals. An
interesting fact, not widely known, is that Galton was present to hear
the famous 1860 Oxford evolution debate at the British Association.
The evidence for this comes from his wife Louisa's Annual Record for
1860.[11]

Galton devoted much of the rest of his life to exploring variation in

human populations and its implications, at which Darwin had only
hinted. In doing so, he eventually established a research programme
which embraced many aspects of human variation, from mental Galton in his later years
Francis Galton 349

characteristics to height, from facial images to fingerprint patterns. This required inventing novel measures of traits,
devising large-scale collection of data using those measures, and in the end, the discovery of new statistical
techniques for describing and understanding the data.
Galton was interested at first in the question of whether human ability was hereditary, and proposed to count the
number of the relatives of various degrees of eminent men. If the qualities were hereditary, he reasoned, there should
be more eminent men among the relatives than among the general population. He obtained his data from various
biographical sources and compared the results that he tabulated in various ways. This pioneering work was described
in detail in his book [12] in 1869. He showed, among other things, that the numbers of eminent relatives dropped off
when going from the first degree to the second degree relatives, and from the second degree to the third. He took this
as evidence of the inheritance of abilities. He also proposed adoption studies, including trans-racial adoption studies,
to separate the effects of heredity and environment.
The method used in Hereditary Genius has been described as the first example of historiometry. To bolster these
results, and to attempt to make a distinction between 'nature' and 'nurture' (he was the first to apply this phrase to the
topic), he devised a questionnaire that he sent out to 190 Fellows of the Royal Society. He tabulated characteristics
of their families, such as birth order and the occupation and race of their parents. He attempted to discover whether
their interest in science was 'innate' or due to the encouragements of others. The studies were published as a book,
English men of science: their nature and nurture, in 1874. In the end, it promoted the nature versus nurture question,
though it did not settle it, and provided some fascinating data on the sociology of scientists of the time.
Galton recognized the limitations of his methods in these two works, and believed the question could be better
studied by comparisons of twins. His method was to see if twins who were similar at birth diverged in dissimilar
environments, and whether twins dissimilar at birth converged when reared in similar environments. He again used
the method of questionnaires to gather various sorts of data, which were tabulated and described in a paper The
history of twins in 1875. In so doing he anticipated the modern field of behavior genetics, which relies heavily on
twin studies. He concluded that the evidence favored nature rather than nurture.
Galton invented the term eugenics in 1883 and set down many of his observations and conclusions in a book,
Inquiries into human faculty and its development.[13] He believed that a scheme of 'marks' for family merit should be
defined, and early marriage between families of high rank be encouraged by provision of monetary incentives. He
pointed out some of the tendencies in British society, such as the late marriages of eminent people, and the paucity of
their children, which he thought were dysgenic. He advocated encouraging eugenic marriages by supplying able
couples with incentives to have children.
Galton's study of human abilities ultimately led to the foundation of differential psychology and the formulation of
the first mental tests.
Galton also devised a technique called composite photography, described in detail in Inquiries in human faculty and
its development, which he believed could be used to identify types by appearance. He hoped his technique would aid
medical diagnosis, and even criminology through the identification of typical criminal faces. However, he was
forced to conclude after exhaustive experimentation that such types were not attainable in practice.

Joseph Jacobs
In the 1880s while the Jewish scholar Joseph Jacobs studied anthropology and statistics with Francis Galton, he
asked Galton to create a composite of a Jewish type.[14]

Pangenesis experiments on rabbits

Galton conducted wide-ranging inquiries into heredity which led him to challenge Charles Darwin's hypothetical
theory of pangenesis. Darwin had proposed as part of this hypothesis that certain particles, which he called
"gemmules" moved throughout the body and were also responsible for the inheritance of acquired characteristics.
Galton, in consultation with Darwin, set out to see if they were transported in the blood. In a long series of
Francis Galton 350

experiments in 1869 to 1871, he transfused the blood between dissimilar breeds of rabbits, and examined the features
of their offspring.[15] He found no evidence of characters transmitted in the transfused blood (Bulmer 2003,
pp. 116–118).
Darwin challenged the validity of Galton's experiment, giving his reasons in an article published in Nature where he
wrote:
"Now, in the chapter on Pangenesis in my Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication I have
not said one word about the blood, or about any fluid proper to any circulating system. It is, indeed,
obvious that the presence of gemmules in the blood can form no necessary part of my hypothesis; for I
refer in illustration of it to the lowest animals, such as the Protozoa, which do not possess blood or any
vessels; and I refer to plants in which the fluid, when present in the vessels, cannot be considered as true
blood." He goes on to admit: "Nevertheless, when I first heard of Mr. Galton's experiments, I did not
sufficiently reflect on the subject, and saw not the difficulty of believing in the presence of gemmules in
the blood."[16]
Galton explicitly rejected the idea of the inheritance of acquired characteristics (Lamarckism), and was an early
proponent of "hard heredity" through selection alone. He came close to rediscovering Mendel's particulate theory of
inheritance, but was prevented from making the final breakthrough in this regard because of his focus on continuous,
rather than discrete, traits (now known as polygenic traits). He went on to found the Biometric approach to the study
of heredity, distinguished by its use of statistical techniques to study continuous traits and population-scale aspects of
heredity.
This approach was later taken up enthusiastically by Karl Pearson and W.F.R. Weldon; together, they founded the
highly influential journal Biometrika in 1901. (R.A. Fisher would later show how the biometrical approach could be
reconciled with the Mendelian approach.) The statistical techniques that Galton invented (correlation, regression —
see below) and phenomena he established (regression to the mean) formed the basis of the biometric approach and
are now essential tools in all the social sciences.

Innovations in Statistics and Psychological theory

The Questionnaire
Galton's inquiries into the mind involved detailed recording of people's subjective accounts of whether and how their
minds dealt with phenomena such as mental imagery. In elicited this information, he pioneered the use of the
questionnaire.

Crowd Sourcing
Galton was a keen observer. In 1906, visiting a livestock fair, he stumbled upon an intriguing contest. An ox was on
display, and the villagers were invited to guess the animal's weight after it was slaughtered and dressed. Nearly 800
participated, but not one person hit the exact mark: 1,198 pounds. Galton's insight was to examine the mean of these
guesses from independent people in the crowd: Astonishingly the mean of those 800 guesses was 1,197 pounds:
accurate to fraction of a percent.[17] [18]
This insight presages the idea of crowd sourcing and the Wisdom of the crowd.
Francis Galton 351

Variance and Standard Deviation

Core to any statistical analysis, is the concept that measurements vary: they have both a central tendency or mean,
and a spread around this central value: variance. In the late 1860s, Galton conceived of a measure to quantify normal
variation: the standard deviation.[19]

Experimental Derivation of the Normal Distribution

Studying variation, Galton invented the Quincunx, a pachinko-like device, also known as the bean machine, as a tool
for demonstrating the law of error and the normal distribution (Bulmer 2003, p. 4).

Bivariate Normal Distribution

He also discovered the properties of the bivariate normal distribution and its relationship to regression analysis.

Correlation
After examining forearm and height measurements, Galton introduced the concept of correlation in 1888 (Bulmer
2003, pp. 191–196). Correlation is the term used by Aristotle in his studies of animal classification, and later and
most notably by Georges Cuvier in Histoire des progrès des sciences naturelles depuis 1789 jusqu'à ce jour (5
volumes, 1826–1836). Correlation originated in the study of correspondence as described in the study of
morphology. See R.S. Russell, Form and Function. Galton's later statistical study of the probability of extinction of
surnames led to the concept of Galton–Watson stochastic processes (Bulmer 2003, pp. 182–184). This is now a core
of modern statistics and regression.

Regression
Galton invented the use of the regression line (Bulmer 2003, p. 184), and was the first to describe and explain the
common phenomenon of regression toward the mean, which he first observed in his experiments on the size of the
seeds of successive generations of sweet peas. In the 1870s and 1880s he was a pioneer in the use of normal
distribution to fit histograms of actual tabulated data.

Theories of Perception
Galton went beyond measurment and summary to attempt to explain the phenomena he observed. Among such
developments, he proposed an early theory of ranges of sound and hearing, and collected large quantities of
anthropometric data from the public through his popular and long-running Anthropometric Laboratory. It was not
until 1985 that these data were analyzed in their entirety.

Fingerprints
In a Royal Institution paper in 1888 and three books (Fingerprints, 1892; Decipherment of Blurred Finger Prints,
1893; and Fingerprint Directories, 1895)[20] Galton estimated the probability of two persons having the same
fingerprint and studied the heritability and racial differences in fingerprints. He wrote about the technique
(inadvertently sparking a controversy between Herschel and Faulds that was to last until 1917), identifying common
pattern in fingerprints and devising a classification system that survives to this day.
The method of identifying criminals by their fingerprints had been introduced in the 1860s by Sir William James
Herschel in India, and their potential use in forensic work was first proposed by Dr Henry Faulds in 1880, but Galton
was the first to place the study on a scientific footing, which assisted its acceptance by the courts (Bulmer 2003,
p. 35). Galton pointed out that there were specific types of fingerprint patterns. He described and classified them into
eight broad categories. 1: plain arch, 2: tented arch, 3: simple loop, 4: central pocket loop, 5: double loop, 6: lateral
pocket loop, 7: plain whorl, and 8: accidental.[21]
Francis Galton 352

Final years
In an effort to reach a wider audience, Galton worked on a novel entitled Kantsaywhere from May until December
1910. The novel described a utopia organized by a eugenic religion, designed to breed fitter and smarter humans. His
unpublished notebooks show that this was an expansion of material he had been composing since at least 1901. He
offered it to Methuen for publication, but they showed little enthusiasm. Galton wrote to his niece that it should be
either “smothered or superseded”. His niece appears to have burnt most of the novel, offended by the love scenes, but
large fragments survive.[22]

Honours and impact

Over the course of his career Galton received many major awards, including the Copley medal of the Royal Society
(1910). He received in 1853 the highest award from the Royal Geographical Society, one of two gold medals
awarded that year, for his explorations and map-making of southwest Africa. He was elected a member of the
prestigious Athenaeum Club in 1855 and made a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1860. His autobiography also lists
the following:[23]
• Silver Medal, French Geographical Society (1854)
• Gold Medal of the Royal Society (1886)
• Officier de l'Instruction Publique, France (1891)
• D.C.L. Oxford (1894)
• Sc.D. (Honorary), Cambridge (1895)
• Huxley Medal, Anthropological Institute (1901)
• Elected Hon. Fellow Trinity College, Cambridge (1902)
• Darwin Medal, Royal Society (1902)
• Linnean Society of London's Darwin–Wallace Medal (1908)
Galton was knighted in 1909. His statistical heir Karl Pearson, first holder of the Galton Chair of Eugenics at
University College London, wrote a three-volume biography of Galton, in four parts, after his death (Pearson 1914,
1924, 1930). The eminent psychometrician Lewis Terman estimated that his childhood I.Q. was on the order of 200,
based on the fact that he consistently performed mentally at roughly twice his chronological age (Forrest 1974).
(This follows the original definition of IQ as mental age divided by chronological age, rather than the modern
distribution-deviate definition.)
The flowering plant genus Galtonia was named in his honour.

Notes
[1] Galton, F. 1869. Hereditary Genius. London: Macmillan.
[2] Francis Galton (1822–1911) – from Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography (http:/ / scienceworld. wolfram. com/ biography/ Galton.
html)
[3] Pearson, K. (1914). The life, letters and labours of Francis Galton (4 vols.). Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
[4] Oxford Dictionary of National Biography accessed 31 January 2010
[5] Galton, Francis (http:/ / venn. lib. cam. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ search. pl?sur=& suro=c& fir=& firo=c& cit=& cito=c& c=all& tex=GLTN839F&
sye=& eye=& col=all& maxcount=50) in Venn, J. & J. A., Alumni Cantabrigienses, Cambridge University Press, 10 vols, 1922–1958.
[6] citation?
[7] http:/ / galton. org/ cgi-bin/ searchImages/ search/ pearson/ vol2/ pages/ vol2_0320. htm
[8] http:/ / www. stanford. edu/ group/ auden/ cgi-bin/ auden/ individual. php?pid=I7570& ged=auden-bicknell. ged
[9] http:/ / www. galton. org/ meteorologist. html
[10] http:/ / galton. org/ letters/ africa-for-chinese/ AfricaForTheChinese. htm
[11] Forrest DW 1974. Francis Galton: the life and work of a Victorian genius. Elek, London. p84
[12] Hereditary Genius (http:/ / galton. org/ books/ hereditary-genius/ )
[13] Inquiries into human faculty and its development by Francis Galton (http:/ / galton. org/ books/ human-faculty/ )
[14] Daniel Akiva Novak. Realism, photography, and nineteenth-century (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=UeiMt7Yzb1MC& pg=PA100&
lpg=PA100& dq=Francis+ Galton+ jewish+ boys& source=bl& ots=Hj6o5LrTjj& sig=R4e5tBliXpezKQhnX2hgG1YGwjg& hl=en&
Francis Galton 353

ei=S-QBSo7oBpbisgOluOz8BQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1) Cambridge University Press, 2008 ISBN 0-521-88525-6
[15] Science Show — 25/11/00: Sir Francis Galton (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ rn/ science/ ss/ stories/ s216074. htm)
[16] http:/ / darwin-online. org. uk/ content/ frameset?itemID=F1751& viewtype=side& pageseq=1
[17] http:/ / adamsmithlives. blogs. com/ thoughts/ 2007/ 10/ experts-and-inf. html
[18] Schell, Barbara A Boyt (2007). Clinical And Professional Reasoning In Occupational Therapy. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 372.
ISBN 0781759145.
[19] Sir Francis Galton discovered the standard deviation (http:/ / www. sciencetimeline. net/ 1866. htm)
[20] Conklin, Barbara Gardner., Robert Gardner, and Dennis Shortelle. Encyclopedia of Forensic Science: a Compendium of Detective Fact and
Fiction. Westport, Conn.: Oryx, 2002. Print.
[21] Innes, Brian (2005). Body in Question: Exploring the Cutting Edge in Forensic Science. New York: Amber Books. pp. 32–33.
ISBN 1904687423.
[22] Life of Francis Galton by Karl Pearson Vol 3a : image 470 (http:/ / www. mugu. com/ browse/ galton/ search/ pearson/ vol3a/ pages/
vol3a_0470. htm)
[23] Galton, Francis (1909). Memories of My Life: (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=MvAIAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA331& dq=Galton+ awards+
and+ Degrees). New York: E. P. Dutton and Company. .

Further reading
• Bulmer, Michael (2003). Francis Galton: Pioneer of Heredity and Biometry. Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN 0-8018-7403-3
• Ewen, Stuart and Elizabeth Ewen (2006; 2008) "Nordic Nightmares," pp. 257–325 in Typecasting: On the Arts
and Sciences of Human Inequality, Seven Stories Press. ISBN 978-1-58322-735-0
• Forrest, D.W (1974). Francis Galton: The Life and Work of a Victorian Genius. Taplinger. ISBN 0-8008-2682-5
• Galton, Francis (1909). Memories of My Life: (http://books.google.com/?id=MvAIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA3&
dq=Samuel+"John"+Galton). New York: E. P. Dutton and Company.
• Gillham, Nicholas Wright (2001). A Life of Sir Francis Galton: From African Exploration to the Birth of
Eugenics, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514365-5
• Pearson, Karl (1914, 1924, 1930). "The life, letters and labours of Francis Galton (3 vols.)" (http://galton.org)
• Daniëlle Posthuma, Eco J. C. De Geus, Wim F. C. Baaré, Hilleke E. Hulshoff Pol, René S. Kahn & Dorret I.
Boomsma (2002). "The association between brain volume and intelligence is of genetic origin". Nature
Neuroscience 5 (2): 83–84. doi:10.1038/nn0202-83. PMID 11818967
• Quinche, Nicolas, Crime, Science et Identité. Anthologie des textes fondateurs de la criminalistique européenne
(1860–1930). Genève: Slatkine, 2006, 368p., passim.
• Stigler, Stephen M. (2010). "Darwin, Galton and the Statistical Enlightenment". Journal of the Royal Statistical
Society: Series A (Statistics in Society) 173: 469–482. doi:10.1111/j.1467-985X.2010.00643.x.

External links
• Francis Galton (http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=10454153) at Find a Grave
• Galton's Complete Works (http://galton.org) at Galton.org (including all his published books, all his published
scientific papers, and popular periodical and newspaper writing, as well as other previously unpublished work and
biographical material).
• Works by Francis Galton (http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Francis+Galton) at Project Gutenberg
• The Galton Machine or Board demonstrating the normal distribution. (http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=9xUBhhM4vbM)
• Portraits of Galton (http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?LinkID=mp01715) from the National
Portrait Gallery (United Kingdom)
• The Galton laboratory homepage (http://www.gene.ucl.ac.uk/) (originally The Francis Galton Laboratory of
National Eugenics) at University College London
• O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Francis Galton" (http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/
Biographies/Gillham.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.
Francis Galton 354

• Biography and bibliography (http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/data?id=per78) in the Virtual Laboratory

of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science
• History and Mathematics (http://urss.ru/cgi-bin/db.pl?cp=&page=Book&id=53184&lang=en&blang=en&
list=Found)
• Human Memory — University of Amsterdam (http://memory.uva.nl/testpanel/gc/en/) website with test
based on the work of Galton
• An 8-foot-tall (2.4 m) Probability Machine (named Sir Francis Galton) comparing stock market returns to the
randomness of the beans dropping through the quincunx pattern. (http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=AUSKTk9ENzg) from Index Funds Advisors IFA.com (http://www.ifa.com)
• Catalogue of the Galton papers held at LSE Archives (http://archives.lse.ac.uk/TreeBrowse.
aspx?src=CalmView.Catalog&field=RefNo&key=COLL MISC 0658)

Elaine Morgan (writer)

Elaine Morgan OBE (born November 7, 1920) is a Welsh writer for television and also the author of several books
on evolutionary anthropology, especially the aquatic ape hypothesis: The Descent of Woman, The Aquatic Ape, The
Scars of Evolution, The Descent of the Child, The Aquatic Ape Hypothesis, and The Naked Darwinist (2008), which
discusses the reception of aquatic scenarios in academic literature. She also authored Falling Apart and Pinker's List.

Personal life
Elaine Floyd was born and brought up in Hopkinstown, near Pontypridd, in Wales. She has lived for many years in
Mountain Ash, near Aberdare. She graduated from Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, with a degree in English. She
married Morien Morgan (d. 1997) and she has three sons.

Writing
Elaine Morgan began writing in the 1950s after winning a competition in Statesman, successfully publishing, then
joining the BBC when they began produce her plays for television.[1] Morgan's works include popular dramas,
newspaper columns, and a series of publications on biological anthropology.[2]
Morgan has written for many television series including the adaptations of How Green Was My Valley (1975) and
Testament of Youth (1979). Her other work includes episodes of Dr. Finlay's Casebook (1963–1970), the
biographical drama The Life and Times of David Lloyd George (1981) and contributions to the Campion series
(1989)
She has won two BAFTAs and two Writers' Guild awards. She also wrote the script for the Horizon documentary
about Joey Deacon, the disabled fund-raiser. This won the Prix Italia in 1975. She was honoured with the Writer of
the Year Award from the Royal Television Society for her series of Testament of Youth.[3]
In 2003 she started to write a weekly column for the Welsh national daily newspaper, The Western Mail.
She was awarded an honorary D.Litt. by Glamorgan University in December 2006,[4] an honorary fellow of the
University of Cardiff in 2007, and awarded the Letten F. Saugstad Prize for her "contribution to scientific
knowledge".[5]
Morgan was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2009 Birthday Honours for services
to literature and to education.[6] She was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature the same year.[7]
Her book Pinker's List is a response to Steven Pinker's The Blank Slate, in which she rejects his claim to objectivity
and argues that the "blank-slate" beliefs he caricatures have long been extinct.
Elaine Morgan (writer) 355

Aquatic ape hypothesis

Morgan first became drawn into scientific writing when reading popularizers of the savannah hypothesis of human
evolution such as Desmond Morris. She described her reaction as one of irritation because the explanations were
largely male-centered. For instance, she thought that if humans lost their hair because they needed to sweat while
chasing game on the savannah that did not explain why women should also lose their hair as, according to the
savannah hypothesis, they would be looking after the children. On re-reading Desmond Morris's The Naked Ape she
encountered a reference to a hypothesis that humans had for a time gone through a water phase, the so-called aquatic
ape hypothesis. She contacted Morris on this and he directed her to Alister Hardy. Her first book The Descent of
Woman (1972) was originally planned to pave the way for Hardy's more academic book, but Hardy never published
his book. Morgan's first publication was mentioned by E. O. Wilson in 1975, comparing it to other 'advocacy
approaches' such as The Imperial Animal[8] as an 'inevitable feminist' counter, but describing the method as less
scientific than other contemporary hypotheses.[9] She accepted this criticism and so her later books were written on
more scientific basis or more "po-faced" as she herself described it. As an outsider and a non-scientist she claims to
have encountered hostility from academics. Consequently many of her books seem to be written as much to counter
the many arguments put forth against the Aquatic Ape Theory as to advance its merits. Her position is summarised in
her website.[10] The story of Morgan's quest to have the aquatic ape hypothesis taken seriously was chronicled in the
1998 BBC documentary "The Aquatic Ape".
Morgan's version of the AAH has achieved much popular appeal, but has never achieved significant acceptance or
serious scrutiny within the scholarly community.[11] [12] [13] Despite this, Morgan continues to promote the theory,
with invitations to speak at universities[14] [14] and symposia[15] including a TED talk in 2009.[16]

Works
Morgans earlier works as a playwright include:[1]
• The Waiting Room: A Play for Women in One Act (Samuel French Ltd, 1958)
• Rest You Merry: A Christmas Play in Two Acts (Samuel French Ltd, 1959)
• Eli’r Teulu: Comedi Dair Act (Gwasg Aberystwyth, 1960)
• The Soldier and the Woman: A Play in One Act (Samuel French Ltd, 1961)
• Licence to Murder: A Play in Two Acts (Samuel French Ltd, 1963)
• A Chance to Shine: A Play in One Act (Samuel French Ltd, 1964)
• Love from Liz (Samuel French Ltd, 1967)
Morgan's later books on anthropology included:[1]
• The Aquatic Ape, 1982, Stein & Day Pub, ISBN 0-285-62509-8
• The Scars of Evolution, 1990, Souvenir Press, ISBN 0-285-62996-4
• The Descent of the Child: Human Evolution from a New Perspective, 1995, Oxford University Press, ISBN
0-19-509895-1
• The Aquatic Ape Hypothesis, 1997, Souvenir Press, ISBN 0-285-63377-5
• The Naked Darwinist, 2008, Eildon Press, ISBN 0-9525620-30
Other works:
• Falling Apart: The Rise and Decline of Urban Civilisation, 1976, Souvenir Press Ltd. ISBN 0-285-62234-X
• Pinker's List, 2005, Eildon Press, ISBN 0-9525620-2-2
Elaine Morgan (writer) 356

References
[1] "Elaine Morgan" (http:/ / www. academi. org/ list-of-writers/ i/ 130360/ ) (in Welsh/English). List Of Writers. The Academi. 2009. . Retrieved
2009-09-29.
[2] News Are we all Aquatic apes? (http:/ / www. cf. ac. uk/ news/ articles/ are-we-all-aquatic-apes. html)Cardiff University
[3] Citation for her honorary degree at Cardiff University in 2007 - accessed 2008-08-07 (http:/ / www. cardiff. ac. uk/ graduation/ fellows/ 2007/
index. html)
[4] Glamorgan Honours Wales' Finest (http:/ / news. glam. ac. uk/ news/ en/ 2006/ dec/ 18/ glamorgan-honours-wales-finest)
[5] My Cardiff, Cardiff University Elaine Morgan (http:/ / www. cardiff. ac. uk/ 125/ getinvolved/ mycardiff/ 080208. html): Writer Elaine
Morgan recalls the day she became an Honorary Fellow of the University
[6] London Gazette: (Supplement) no. 59090, p. 12 (http:/ / www. london-gazette. co. uk/ issues/ 59090/ supplements/ 12), 13 June 2009.
[7] "Royal Society of Literature All Fellows" (http:/ / www. rslit. org/ content/ fellows). Royal Society of Literature. . Retrieved 10 August 2010.
[8] Lionel Tiger and Robin Fox The Imperial Animal (1972)
[9] Wilson, Edward O. (2000 (1975)). "2. Elementary concepts of Sociobiology" (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=v7lV9tz8fXAC).
Sociobiology: The New Synthesis. Part 1 (25 ed.). Harvard University Press. pp. Reasoning in Sociobiology, p.27–30. ISBN 0-674-00089-7. .
[10] Elaine Morgan's web site (http:/ / www. elainemorgan. me. uk)
[11] Langdon, J. (1997). "Umbrella hypotheses and parsimony in human evolution: a critique of the Aquatic Ape Hypothesis". Journal of human
evolution 33 (4): 479–494. doi:10.1006/jhev.1997.0146. PMID 9361254.
[12] McNeill, D (2000). The Face: A Natural History. Back Bay. pp.  36–37 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=qcOvIc-LP_IC& pg=PA36).
ISBN 0316588121.
[13] Graham, JM; Scadding GK; Bull PD (2008). Pediatric ENT. Springer. pp.  27 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=laEQt_Vp3ngC&
pg=PA27). ISBN 3540699309.
[14] "Interview: The natural optimist" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ mg18624962. 000-interview-the-natural-optimist.
html?full=true). New Scientist. 2005-04-25. . Retrieved 2010-07-18.
[15] Human Evolution, publisher: Springer, ISSN 0393-9375 Volume 15, Numbers 3-4 / July, 2000
[16] "Elaine Morgan says we evolved from aquatic apes" (http:/ / www. ted. com/ talks/ elaine_morgan_says_we_evolved_from_aquatic_apes.
html). TED. 2009-07-01. . Retrieved 2010-07-18.

External links
• Elaine Morgan's own web site (http://www.elainemorgan.me.uk/)
• "Scars of Evolution", a BBC Radio 4 programme featuring Morgan. (http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/science/
scarsofevolution.shtml) David Attenborough hosts the series that chronicles the rising evidence in support of an
aquatic environment in human evolution.
• Elaine Morgan (http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0604634/) at the Internet Movie Database
• Biography (http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A5316860) at h2g2
• Elaine Morgan on TED (http://www.ted.com/talks/elaine_morgan_says_we_evolved_from_aquatic_apes.
html)
Aquatic ape hypothesis 357

Aquatic ape hypothesis

The aquatic ape hypothesis (AAH) is an alternative explanation of some characteristics of human evolution which
theorizes that the common ancestors of modern humans spent a period of time adapting to life in a partially-aquatic
environment. The theory is based on differences between humans and other great apes, and apparent similarities
between humans and some aquatic mammals. First proposed in 1942 and expanded in 1960, its greatest proponent
has been the writer Elaine Morgan, who has spent more than forty years discussing the AAH.
While it is uncontroversial that both H. neanderthalensis and early H. sapiens were better suited to aquatic
environments than other great apes,[1] [2] and there have been conjectures suggesting protohumans underwent some
adaptations due to interaction with water[3] the sort of radical specialization posited by the AAH has not been
accepted within the scientific community as a valid explanation for human divergence from related primates. It has
been criticized for possessing a variety of theoretical problems, for lacking evidentiary support, and for there being
alternative explanations for many of the observations suggested to support the theory. Morgan has also suggested
that her status as an academic outsider has hindered acceptance of the theory.

History
In a 1942 book, the German pathologist Max Westenhöfer published the idea of humans evolving in proximity to
water with the statement "The postulation of an aquatic mode of life during an early stage of human evolution is a
tenable hypothesis, for which further inquiry may produce additional supporting evidence."[4]
In 1930 marine biologist Alister Hardy theorised that humans may have had ancestors more aquatic than previously
imagined. Because it was outside his field and he was aware of the controversy it would cause, Hardy delayed
reporting his theory. After he had become a respected academic, Hardy finally voiced his thoughts in a speech to the
British Sub-Aqua Club in Brighton on 5 March 1960, not expecting any attention, but it was reported in a national
newspaper. This generated immediate controversy in the field of paleoanthropology. Consequently Hardy published
the theory in an article in New Scientist on 17 March 1960. He defined his idea:
My thesis is that a branch of this primitive ape-stock was forced by competition from life in the trees to
feed on the sea-shores and to hunt for food, shell fish, sea-urchins etc., in the shallow waters off the
coast. I suppose that they were forced into the water just as we have seen happen in so many other
groups of terrestrial animals. I am imagining this happening in the warmer parts of the world, in the
tropical seas where Man could stand being in the water for relatively long periods, that is, several hours
at a stretch.[5]
The idea received some interest after the article was published,[6] but was generally ignored by the scientific
community thereafter. In 1967, the hypothesis was briefly mentioned in The Naked Ape, a book by Desmond Morris
in which can be found the first use of the term "aquatic ape".[7] Writer Elaine Morgan read about the idea in Morris'
book and was struck by its potential explanatory power, becoming its main promoter and publishing six books over
the next 40 years.[8] The context of initial presentations of the idea (a popular work and a political text) prevented the
AAH from garnering serious interest or an exploration of its scientific merit.[9]
Despite maintaining some popular and scientific interest over several decades, the aquatic ape theory has not been
accepted by a large majority of researchers within the field of paleoanthropology.[10] A small but active number of
promoters working outside of mainstream paleoanthropology, non-anthropologists and the occasional professional
still cite and bring attention to the AAH but it has never been completely discredited to its adherents nor fully
explored by researchers.[9]
Aquatic ape hypothesis 358

The hypothesis
The AAH suggests that many of the features that distinguish humans from their nearest evolutionary relatives can be
explained through a period of aquatic adaptation in which protohumans spent time wading, swimming and feeding
on the shores of fresh, saline or brackish waters (though there has been disagreement and modification of the theory
regarding the salinity of the purported watery environment[11] [12] [13] ) and suggests comparisons with other aquatic
or semiaquatic species with similar characteristics. Some observations include:
• Bipedalism out of water causes considerable problems for the back, knees and organs, while water would support
the joints and torso and permit breathing[14] [15]
• Humans are relatively hairless compared to great apes, similar to the hairlessness of land-dwelling rhinoceros and
elephant which both have aquatic ancestors;[16] what body hair humans do have also follows water flow-lines[17]
• Increased subcutaneous fat for insulation, especially in human infants[5]
• A descended larynx[17] [18]
• A hooded nose, muscular nostril aperture control and the philtrum preventing water from entering the nostrils[17]
• Extensive coverage of the skin by sebaceous glands[19]
• The requirement of the human brain for certain nutrients including iodine[20] and some essential fatty acids[21]
which are most easily found and absorbed in seafood[22]
• Voluntary breath control which allows diving and swimming,[14] [23] and a more streamlined shape compared to
other apes[17]
• The mammalian diving reflex which occurs when the head is immersed in cold water[24]
• Vestigial webbing between the fingers[25]
• The waxy coating found on newborns[17]
• Certain morphological adaptations within the kidney[26]
The timelines hypothesized for a period of adjusting to aquatic living vary from the Miocene about 6 million years
ago,[5] to nearly 2 million years ago in the late Pliocene or early Pleistocene.[27] [28] It is also theorized that the
semi-aquatic phase occurred when protohumans migrated along the southern Asian coastline during a previous ice
age when sea levels were considerably lower; this is also proffered as a reason why human fossils are not found in
aquatic habitats, as those regions were inundated when the polar ice caps melted.[29]
Review of the individual claims used as evidence for the AAH generally does not support the hypothesis overall, and
most of these traits have an explanation within conventional theories of human evolution.[9] Other authors have
suggested that wading and other interactions with watery environments may have provided a less extreme but still
present role in human evolution.[3]

Criticisms
Several theoretical problems have been found with the AAH, and some claims made by the AAH have been
challenged as having explanations aside from a period of aquatic adaptation.[9]

Theoretical considerations
The AAH has been criticized for containing multiple inconsistencies and lacking evidence from the fossil record to
support its claims.[9] [30] It is also described as lacking parsimony, despite purporting to be a simple theory uniting
many of the unique anatomical features of humans.[9]
Though describing the theory as plausible, Henry Gee went on to criticize it for being untestable, as most of the
evolutionary adaptations described by Morgan would not have fossilized. Gee also stated that, while purely aquatic
mammals such as whales show strong skeletal evidence of adaptation to water, humans and human fossils lack such
adaptations; that there are many hypothetical and equally plausible scenarios explaining the unique characteristics of
human adaptation without involving an aquatic phase of evolution; and that proponents are basing arguments about
Aquatic ape hypothesis 359

past adaptations on present physiology, when humans are not significantly aquatic.[31] There is ultimately only
circumstantial evidence to suggest, and no solid evidence to support the AAH.[32] [33] ScienceBlogs author Greg
Laden has described the AAH as a "human evolution theory of everything" that attempts to explain all anatomical
and physiological features of humans and is correct in some areas only by chance. Laden also states that the AAH
was proposed when knowledge of human evolutionary history was unclear, while more recent research has found
that many human traits have emerged at different times over millions of years, rather than simultaneously due to a
single evolutionary pressure.[10]

Habitat
Morgan presented the AAH as an alternative to the "savanna model", which uses very vague descriptive statements
portraying protohumans as moving out from forested environments and into a hot dry savanna. However, this idea
has been called a caricature of the actual environments in which protohumans are thought to have evolved, and
presents a false dichotomy as more recent theories propose a tree or forest-based habitat providing the driving forces
for adaptation,[32] and a straw man of the actual theories and arguments used in the study of paleoanthropology.
Morgan further criticized scientists for admitting they were uncertain regarding the reasons for the development of
hairlessness, bipedalism, brain size and speech. This ignores the fact that science legitimately admits ignorance when
it is unclear and that a lack of "final answers" does not legitimize a competing theory by default.[9]
The belief that wading into shallow water would help proto-humans avoid dry-land predation discounts the risks
presented by aquatic animals such as crocodiles and hippopotamuses that present a current risk to Africans living
near bodies of water,[34] and that protohumans lacked the fangs, claws or size to defend themselves from these
threats.[35]
The susceptibility of humans to waterborne parasites have been suggested as evidence against the AAH,[35] though
the presence of certain parasites that appear to co-exist with humans has also been presented as evidence for the
AAH.[3] [36]

Anatomical and physiological claims

• Hairlessness – Most aquatic mammals that are comparably sized to humans are not hairless, but have dense,
insulating fur and swim very well, with fatty layers beneath the skin.[34] Aquatic mammals do not vary greatly in
their body hair, while humans do.[10] Hairless skin is also only an advantage for fully-aquatic mammals that dive,
swim quickly or migrate long distances such as whales and dolphins,[35] and only appears and is an advantage for
extremely large aquatic mammals who would overheat with large amounts of body hair, who are fully-aquatic and
have evolved as an aquatic species for millions of years. The loss of body hair is also explainable through a lower
parasite load, and maintenance through sexual selection.[37] Furthermore, while shaving human swimmers to
eliminate the little body hair that remains results in a minor decrease in drag,[38] [39] this cannot be extrapolated to
a beneficial effect of loss of a full coat of fur, which has been shown to have superior drag reduction ability.[40]
While relative hairlessness and hair direction is cited as an adaptation to swimming and diving, there is no
evidence of similar skeletal or soft tissue adaptations that are expected to accompany such adaptations.[9]
• Breath control – The position, evolutionary timing of changes, and size of the nerve openings in the vertebrae
suggest that breath control in humans improved because of the increased complexity and use of speech rather than
an aquatic phase of evolution.[41] In addition, breath control is thought to be preceded by bipedalism, which frees
the muscles around the upper torso from locomotion and allows breathing rates to occur independent of
locomotion. Voluntary speech is thought to be a sufficient evolutionary pressure to explain breath control,
independent of other explanations. The vocalizations of dolphins and other aquatic species are not thought to be
comparable to humans. In addition, certain birds have speech and breath control comparable to humans, without a
phase of aquatic adaptation.[9]
Aquatic ape hypothesis 360

• Diet – a broad terrestrial diet would ensure sufficient access to required essential fatty acids without a high
consumption of seafood[42] and the "best" fats found in fish are from cold water fish that did not occupy the same
coastal environments as humans. In addition, the requirements of these fats are very minimal, with no evidence
that extra fats would result in an evolutionary pressure towards a larger brain. Humans without access to shoreline
foods also develop normal brains.[9] [43]
• Diving reflex – the mammalian diving reflex is exhibited by terrestrial mammals as well as aquatic ones and
humans have not been compared to other living hominoids; there is not enough information on for this reflex for
it to be used to support the AAH.[9]
• Body fat – the subcutaneous fat distribution in humans is more similar to a domesticated animal than an aquatic
one, and is nearly identical to that of other primates. The subcutaneous fat of aquatic mammals and humans also
seems to serve different uses – it forms the streamlined shape of seals, while in humans it is used for sexual
selection.[44] In addition, the distribution of fat and blood vessels allows for improved thermoregulation, as hot
blood from the body can bypass the fat to radiate heat through the skin.[9]
• Bipedalism – the disadvantages cited for bipedalism within the AAH are often the result of comparing humans to
medium, terrestrial quadrupeds, but human evolution never included a period of quadrupedal locomotion. Instead,
human evolution features mainly brachiation, suspension and climbing as the primary method of transportation,
with a gradual increase in bipedal locomotion over time. In addition, the elongated lower limbs of humans, which
is explained as improving swimming speeds, appears only after the evolution of the Homo genus.[9]
• Descended larynx – the human larynx is not shaped like the larynxes of aquatic animals; it forms and descends as
an infant begins to speak, making it easier to aspirate water and drown. Additionally, a descended larynx is not
unique to aquatic animals, and permanently or temporarily descended larynxes are seen in dogs, pigs, goats,
monkeys,[45] big cats,[46] deer,[47] and young chimps.[48] Mainstream anthropology explain the descended larynx
as an adaptation to improve vocalizations by increasing the number of pronounceable vowels and improving the
ability of humans to control their speech.[9]
• Nose shape – the shape of the human nose is extremely variable within the species, and believed to be related to
climatic adaptations and the warming and moistening of air before it enters the respiratory tract, not to prevent
water entry while swimming. In addition, the muscles surrounding the nose show no evidence of having been
previously more developed, but are part of a complex of muscles that are specially developed in humans to show
emotion and aid in communication.[9]
• Interdigital webbing – Morgan's claims for syndactylism, the presence of webbing between the fingers, were
based on the purported "rareness" of birth defects "adding" features normally thought absent from an evolutionary
order. Interdigital webbing is not the "addition" of new tissue, it results from the failure to eliminate skin cells
connecting the fingers, a process common to all tetrapods.[9]
• Sebaceous gland – many aquatic animals have rudimentary or no sebaceous glands. In humans, sebaceous glands
become active during puberty with men having far more than women while women have much better scent
receptors. This suggests the glands are sexually dimorphic for sexual selection rather than waterproofing. In seals
that use sebaceous glands for waterproofing, the glands are active from birth and are secreted by hard, keratinized
skin that is very different from human skin.
• Swimming – modern humans are inefficient swimmers, with shapes that are not well suited to rapid travel
through water.[49] Swimming is also a learned trait, and though newborns are able to propel themselves
inefficiently through water, they are unable to lift their faces to breathe.[50]
Generally the evidence provided for the AAH is equally well accounted for by land-based adaptations without
needing to posit an aquatic phase of human development. In addition, the AAH is contradictory in several places; the
AAH theorizes humans developed some unique skin features due to adaptation to water, but other features emerged
after leaving the habitat, and the specialization that is hypothesized for an aquatic life are uneven, with humans
lacking many truly specialized features of aquatic species (such as head shape, repositioned nostrils and streamlining
of the body). Parallels made by proponents of the AAH between humans and the proboscis monkey, which shows
Aquatic ape hypothesis 361

mainly behavioral adaptations to a water-based habitat, contradicts any claims of anatomical evidence for the
theory.[9] Many species of modern primates demonstrate some sort of aquatic behaviors (such as swimming, wading
or diving) and use of aquatic environments (for thermoregulation, display behavior, range, diet and predation) but
many do not display the traits posited by AAH, suggesting the traits listed above facilitate aquatic behavior rather
than evolving as a result of it.[51]

Reception
The AAH has received little serious scrutiny from mainstream paleoanthropologists[52] and has been met with
significant skepticism.[53] The AAH is thought by some anthropologists to be accepted readily by popular audiences,
students and non-specialist scholars because of its simplicity.[9] In 1987 a symposium was held in Valkenburg, the
Netherlands, titled "Aquatic Ape: Fact or fiction?", which published its proceedings in 1991.[54] The chief editor
summarized the results of the symposium as failing to support the idea that human ancestors were aquatic, but there
is also some evidence that they may have swum and fed in inland lakes and rivers with the result that modern
humans can enjoy brief periods of time spent in the water.[55] The results of the conference were reported in the
anthropological press as having rejected the hypothesis.[9] A review of Morgan's book The Scars of Evolution stated
that it did not address the central questions of anthropology – how the human and chimpanzee gene lines diverged –
which was why it was ignored by the scholarly community. The review also stated that Morgan ignored the fossil
record and skirted the absence of evidence that australopithecine underwent any adaptations to water, making the
hypothesis impossible to validate from fossils.[30]
Morgan has claimed the AAH was rejected for a variety of reasons unrelated to its explanatory power: old academics
were protecting their careers, sexism on the part of male researchers, and her status as a non-academic intruding on
academic debates. Despite modifications to the theory and occasional forays into scientific conferences, the AAH
has neither been accepted as a mainstream theory nor managed to venture a genuine challenge to orthodox theories
of human evolution.[56] However, anthropologist Colin Groves has stated that Morgan's theories are sophisticated
enough that they should be taken seriously as a possible explanation for bipedalism.[57]
The appeal of the theory has been explained in several ways:[9]
1. The theory appears to offer absolute answers while orthodox science is qualified and reserved, a situation which
has great appeal to students and the public
2. Unusual ideas challenge the authority of science and scientists, which appeals to antiscience sentiments
3. The AAH as developed by Morgan has a strong feminist component, which particularly appeals to a specific,
feminist audience
4. The AAH can be explained simply and easily, lacking the myriad details and complicated theorizing involved in
dealing with primary sources and materials
5. The AAH uses negative arguments, pointing to the flaws and gaps in conventional theories; though the criticisms
of mainstream science and theories can be legitimate, in this case, as with Creationism and AIDS denialism the
flaws in one theory do not automatically prove a proposed alternative is true
6. The consensus views of conventional anthropology are complicated, require specialized knowledge and qualified
answers, and the investment of considerable time to understand.
Aquatic ape hypothesis 362

Footnotes
[1] Walter, R. C.; Buffler, R. T.; Bruggemann, J. H.; Guillaume, M. M. M.; Berhe, S. M.; Negassi, B.; Libsekal, Y.; Cheng, H. et al. (2000).
"Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the last interglacial". Nature 405 (6782): 65. doi:10.1038/35011048.
PMID 10811218.
[2] Stringer, C.; Finlayson, J.; Barton, R.; Fernández-Jalvo, Y.; Cáceres, I.; Sabin, R.; Rhodes, E.; Currant, A. et al. (Sep 2008). "Neanderthal
exploitation of marine mammals in Gibraltar" (http:/ / www. pnas. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=18809913) (Free full text).
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105 (38): 14319–14324. Bibcode 2008PNAS..10514319S.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0805474105. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 2567146. PMID 18809913. .
[3] Niemitz, C. (2010). "The evolution of the upright posture and gait--a review and a new synthesis.". Die Naturwissenschaften 97 (3): 241–263.
Bibcode 2010NW.....97..241N. doi:10.1007/s00114-009-0637-3. PMC 2819487. PMID 20127307.
[4] Westenhöfer, M. (1942). Der Eigenweg des Menschen. Mannstaedt & Co.
[5] Hardy, A. (1960). "Was man more aquatic in the past" (http:/ / www. riverapes. com/ AAH/ Hardy/ Hardy1960. pdf) (pdf). New Scientist 7:
642–645. .
[6] Sauer, C O. (1960). "Seashore – Primitive home of man?". Proceedings of the American Philosopical Society 106 (1): 41–47.
[7] Morris, Desmond (1967). The Naked Ape. McGraw-Hill. pp. 29. ISBN 0 09 948201 0.
[8] Morgan's books on the topic include:
• Morgan, Elaine (1972). The Descent of Woman. Souvenir Press. ISBN 0 285 62700 7.
• Morgan, Elaine (1982). The Aquatic Ape. Stein & Day Pub. ISBN 0-285-62509-8.
• Morgan, Elaine (1990). The Scars of Evolution. Souvenir Press. ISBN 0-285-62996-4.
• Morgan, Elaine (1994). The Descent of the child. Souvenir Press. ISBN 0-285-63377-5.
• Morgan, Elaine (1997). The Aquatic Ape Hypothesis. Penguin. ISBN 0-285-63518-2.
• Morgan, Elaine (2008). The Naked Darwinist. Eildon Press. ISBN 0-9525620-30.
[9] Langdon JH (1997). "Umbrella hypotheses and parsimony in human evolution: a critique of the Aquatic Ape Hypothesis". J. Hum. Evol. 33
(4): 479–94. doi:10.1006/jhev.1997.0146. PMID 9361254.
[10] Laden, G (2009-08-04). "Musings on the Aquatic Ape Theory" (http:/ / scienceblogs. com/ gregladen/ 2009/ 08/
musings_on_the_aquatic_ape_the. php). ScienceBlogs. . Retrieved 2009-09-02.
[11] Ellis DV (1993). "Wetlands or aquatic ape? Availability of food resources". Nutrition and health 9 (3): 205–17. PMID 8183488.
[12] Cunnane SC, Plourde M, Stewart K, Crawford MA (2007). "Docosahexaenoic acid and shore-based diets in hominin encephalization: a
rebuttal". Am. J. Hum. Biol. 19 (4): 578–81. doi:10.1002/ajhb.20673. PMID 17546620.
[13] Cunnane, S; Stewart K (2010). Environmental Influences on Human Brain Evolution. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-45268-4.
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[15] Verhaegen M (1987). "Origin of hominid bipedalism". Nature 325 (6102): 305–6. doi:10.1038/325305d0.
[16] Morgan, E (1982). The Aquatic Ape. Stein & Day Pub. ISBN 0-285-62509-8.
[17] Morgan, Elaine (1997). The Aquatic Ape Hypothesis. Souvenir Press. ISBN 0-285-63518-2.
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[24] Odent M (1996). We are All Water Babies. Celestial Arts. ISBN 0890877580.
[25] Roede M (1991). The aquatic ape: fact or fiction?: the first scientific evaluation of a controversial theory of human evolution. London:
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styled. doc. pdf) (pdf). Trends in Ecology & Evolution 17 (5): 212–217. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(02)02490-4. . Retrieved 2007-10-29.
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[45] Fitch, WT (2002). "Comparative Vocal Production and the Evolution of Speech: Reinterpreting the Descent of the Larynx"". In Wray A.
The Transition to Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.  21–45 (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=GpsboOj0qOwC& pg=PA21).
[46] Hauser, MD; Fitch WT (2003). "What Are the Uniquely Human Components of the Language Faculty?". In Christiansen MH Kirby S.
Language Evolution: The States of the Art. Oxford University Press. pp.  158–181 (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=OeN2Rhvfdn4C&
pg=PA158).
[47] McElligott, AG; Birrer M; Vannoni E (2006). "Retraction of the mobile descended larynx during groaning enables fallow bucks (Dama
dama) to lower their formant frequencies". Journal of Zoology 270 (2): 340–345. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00144.x.
[48] Nishimura T, Mikami A, Suzuki J, Matsuzawa T (June 2003). "Descent of the larynx in chimpanzee infants". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
100 (12): 6930–3. doi:10.1073/pnas.1231107100. PMC 165807. PMID 12775758.
[49] Vogel SK (1994). Life in moving fluids: the physical biology of flow. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-02616-5.
[50] McGraw, MB (1939). "Swimming behavior of the human infant" (http:/ / psycnet. apa. org/ psycinfo/ 1940-01122-001). Journal of
Pediatrics 15: 485–490. doi:10.1016/S0022-3476(39)80003-8. .
[51] Kempf, E. (2009). "Patterns of water use in primates". Folia primatologica; international journal of primatology 80 (4): 275–294.
doi:10.1159/000252586. PMID 19864919.
[52] McNeill, D (2000). The Face: A Natural History. Back Bay. pp.  36–37 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=qcOvIc-LP_IC& pg=PA36).
ISBN 0316588121.
[53] Graham, JM; Scadding GK; Bull PD (2008). Pediatric ENT. Springer. pp.  27 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=laEQt_Vp3ngC&
pg=PA27). ISBN 3540699309.
[54] Roede, Machteld (1991). Aquatic Ape: Fact of Fiction: Proceedings from the Valkenburg Conference. Souvenir Press. ISBN 0 285 63033 4.
[55] Reynolds, Vernon (1991). Cold and Watery? Hot and Dusty? Our Ancestral Environment and Our Ancestors Themselves: an Overview (in
Roede et al. 1991). Souvenir Press. pp. 340. ISBN 0 285 63033 4.
[56] Regal, B (2004). Human evolution: a guide to the debates. ABC-CLIO. pp.  208–212 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=S-bkQwPGY2YC& pg=PA208). ISBN 1851094180.
[57] Groves, Colin (with David W.Cameron) (2004). Bones, Stones and Molecules. Elsevier Academic Press. pp.  68 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=SwzHI1vesyIC& pg=PA68). ISBN 0 121 56933 0.
Aquatic ape hypothesis 364

External links
• Aquatic ape hypothesis (http://www.dmoz.org//Science/Biology/Evolution/Human/Aquatic_Ape_Theory//
) at the Open Directory Project
• Presentation (http://www.ted.com/talks/elaine_morgan_says_we_evolved_from_aquatic_apes.html) by
Elaine Morgan at TED July, 2009; Comment (http://scienceblogs.com/gregladen/2009/08/
my_critique_of_morgans_aquatic.php) on ScienceBlogs by paleoanthropologist Greg Laden
• Scuttling the Aquatic Ape Hypothesis (http://laelaps.wordpress.com/2007/08/29/
scuttling-the-aquatic-ape-hypothesis/) by Brian Switek
• Aquatic ape theory: Sink or Swim? (http://www.aquaticape.org/) – website critical of the AAH
Claude Vorilhon 365

Claude Vorilhon
Claude Vorilhon
Full name Claude Vorilhon

Born [1]
September 30, 1946Vichy, Allier, France

Era Modern era

Region Worldwide

School Raëlism

Main interests Auto racing,

Universal morality

Notable ideas Sensual Meditation,

Geniocracy,
Raëlian cosmology

Claude Maurice Marcel Vorilhon[2] (born September 30, 1946 in Vichy, Allier, France)[1] is the founder and
current leader of the UFO religion known as Raëlism.
Vorilhon began singing at a young age and soon became a sports-car journalist and test driver for his own car-racing
magazine, Auto Pop.[3] [4] Following what he said was an extraterrestrial encounter in December 1973, he formed the
Raëlian Movement and changed his name to Raël (allegedly meaning "messenger of the elohim"). He later published
several books, which detail his claims of an encounter with a being called Yahweh in 1973.[5] He traveled the world
to promote his books for over 30 years.[6]

Early life
Vorilhon was born in Vichy, France. He was raised in Ambert in the home of his maternal grandmother, who was
atheist.[7] He attended a Catholic boarding school with Le Puy-en-Velay and caused a scandal by taking part in
communion without being baptized. His parents withdrew him from the boarding school to put him in the school of
Ambert.[7]
At age 15, Vorilhon ran away from boarding school and hitchhiked to Paris, where he spent three years playing
music on the streets and in cafés and cabarets. He met with Lucien Morisse, the director of a national radio program,
who was scouting for young talent. Vorilhon signed a record contract and became a rising teen pop star on the radio.
He took on a new identity, assuming the name Claude Celler, and released six singles, including a minor hit song,
"Le miel et la cannelle" (Honey and Cinnamon).[8] Vorilhon had a passion for the songs of Belgian singer Jacques
Brel, and tried to imitate his singing style.[7] He was saving up his money to buy a racing car, a dream he had had
since he was a young boy, but his prospects as a singer came to an abrupt end when Morisse, his sponsor, committed
suicide in September 1970.[9]
Vorilhon decided to work as a sports journalist to gain access to the world of car racing. He met Marie-Paul Cristini,
a nurse.[9] They moved to Clermont-Ferrand, where Vorilhon began his own publishing house.[10] He created a
sports car magazine entitled Autopop, whose first issue was released in May 1971.[11] One of the tasks for his new
startup was the position of testing new automobiles, which enabled him to enter the motor racing world.[10]
Claude Vorilhon 366

The Raëlian messages

In the book Le Livre qui dit la vérité ("The Book Which Tells the Truth"), Vorilhon stated that he had an alien
visitation on December 13, 1973. According to Vorilhon, in a secluded area within a French volcanic crater, an
extraterrestrial being came out of a craft that had descended gently from the sky, and told him, in French, that he had
come for the sole purpose of meeting with him. Vorilhon said that he was given a message by this alien and told that
it was his mission to pass this message on to the people of Earth.[12]
The book states that advanced human scientists from another planet with 25,000 years of scientific advances created
all life on Earth through DNA manipulation.[13] [14] These scientists, Vorilhon said, were originally called Elohim or
"those who came from the sky".[15] He wrote that some forty[16] prophets in Earth's history were sent by Elohim,[17]
but their messages were distorted[18] by humans, largely because of the difference in the level of civilization between
the advanced race and Earth's primitive one.[19]
Vorilhon said he was given the mission of informing the world of humanity's origins in anticipation of the return of
these extraterrestrials by building a residential embassy in neutral territory.[20] He stated that certain mysteries were
explained to him based on new interpretations of sacred texts such as the Bible.[21] He said that, on October 7, 1975,
he was contacted by one of the Elohim, who took him to another planet to meet Buddha, Moses, Jesus and
Muhammad. He stated that his second book, Les extra-terrestres m'ont emmené sur leur planète ("Extraterrestrials
Took Me To Their Planet"), relates the teaching he received from these people. In this book, Vorhilhon describes
harmonious and peaceable beings, who were free of money, sickness, and war.[22]

Marriages
Vorilhon was married three times.[23]
In 1974, Vorilhon decided to give up his automobile magazine, Autopop.[3] That September, the last issue, number
34, was published.[11] Vorilhon then devoted himself to the task he said was given by his "biological father", an
extraterrestrial named Yahweh.[24] Shortly after a first public conference, Vorilhon founded MADECH - a group of
people interested in helping him in his task, which later became the International Raëlian Movement.[25] Sociologist
Susan J. Palmer said that Cristini, a nurse, diagnosed Vorilhon as clinically depressed after he appeared at her door
step in 1987, burnt out from the tasks he carried out within the movement.[26]
Vorilhon focused on spreading his message in Japan in the 1980s, and by 1987, he met Lisa Sunagawa. Sunagawa
soon began accompanying Vorilhon during his travels to Lima, Miami, Brazil, and Martinique. In a television
documentary, They're Coming! (1990) by Radio Canada, Vorilhon was seen with four women,[27] while Lisa, in
slow-motion, wore a pink tutu and held hands with him.[23]
Vorilhon separated from Sunagawa some time between 1990 and 1992. Around that time, Sophie de Niverville,
whose mother and aunt were both Raëlians, was convinced of the authenticity of the messages. Sophie received a
Raëlian baptism at age 15. When she turned 16, she married Vorilhon at Montreal's city hall. This was done with her
mother's permission. During a December 2001 interview with sociologist Susan J. Palmer, Sophie spoke positively
about Vorilhon despite their divorce the previous year.[28] In 2003, he was married to Sophie.[29] On August 6, 2003,
the Cybercast News Service said Vorilhon moved back to Canada with his wife Sophie after being escorted out of
South Korea by government officials.[29]

Racecar driver
In 1994, wealthy Japanese Raëlians rented a racecar and showed it to Vorilhon. They believed that if Vorilhon would
race it, it would generate publicity for the movement. Vorilhon accepted the offer on the condition that the funding
not come from member tithes or embassy funding. Funding for Vorilhon's races, which took place in the 1990s and
early 2000s, came mostly from well-funded European and Japanese people.[30] His best finishes included "a 3rd
place finish in GT 1 in Lime Rock with the Mosler Raptor in 1997, and a 7th place finish at Watkins Glen with a
Claude Vorilhon 367

Viper GTS R in the FIA GT 1999 race".[31] Vorilhon, under the name of Raël, participated in the 1999 BFGoodrich
Tires Trans-Am Series and the 2000 Speedvision GT Championship. According to Palmer, Vorilhon made an
announcement in November 2001 that he intended to retire from professional auto racing. She said that Vorilhon still
enjoyed automobile racing, albeit in the form of video games.[30]

1999 BFGoodrich Tires Trans-Am Series

Round Date Car Start Finish Laps Track Source

Two May 23, 1999 Chevrolet 21st 19th 35 out of 40 Mosport International Raceway Motorsport.com[32]

Three May 31, 1999 Chevrolet Camaro 32nd Lime Rock Park [33]
Motorsport.com

Four June 6, 1999 Chevrolet Camaro 32nd Mid-Ohio Sports Car Course [34]
Motorsport.com

Five July 10, 1999 Chevrolet Camaro 38th Road America [35]
Motorsport.com

Six July 25, 1999 Chevrolet Camaro 44th Road Atlanta [36]
Motorsport.com

Seven August 1, 1999 Chevrolet Camaro 45th Circuit Trois-Rivières [37]

Motorsport.com

Eight August 7, 1999 Chevrolet Camaro 47th Detroit street circuit [38]
Motorsport.com

September 4, 1999 Chevrolet Camaro 50th Molson Indy Vancouver [39]

Motorsport.com

Eleven September 25, 1999 Chevrolet Camaro 52nd Grand Prix of Houston [40]
Motorsport.com

2000 Speedvision GT Championship events

Round Date Car Start Finish Laps Track Source

One April 1, 2000 Lotus Esprit 29th 32nd 15 out of 29 Lowe's Motor Speedway [41]
Motorsport.com

Two May 21, 2000 Lotus Esprit 31st 18th 27 out of 27 Mosport International Raceway Motorsport.com[42]

Three May 27, 2000 Lotus Esprit 38th Lime Rock Park [43]
Motorsport.com

Eight October 15, 2000 Porsche 911 GT3 32nd 25th 25 out of 26 Laguna Seca Raceway [44]
Motorsport.com

Nine October 29, 2000 Porsche 911 GT3 25th 25th 29 out of 30 Las Vegas Motor Speedway [45]
Motorsport.com

Views on technology
Much of Vorilhon's advocacy concerning futuristic technology is described in his 2001 book, Yes to Human Cloning.
He supported human genetic engineering in order to avoid genetically inherited diseases and to reduce the economic
burden on society. He said that no distinctive emphasis needed to be allocated to a particular race or religion.[46] [47]
Elsewhere in the book, he stated that nanotechnology will make it possible to have micro-distributive power
generation (essentially a power plant in each house), fur-like furnishings that are self-cleaning with hair-like fibers
that move on their own,[48] and biological robots.[49] Nanostructures control biology, so Vorilhon expected that meat
and salads will someday be grown in a machine via molecular construction.[50] [51]
Vorilhon believed that genetically modified food is the only way to stop hunger everywhere in the world, and he saw
a future where qualities of different foods can be combined through direct genetic modification.[52] In Vorilhon's
book, Extraterrestrials took me to their planet (book number 2 in the volume Intelligent Design), he said that
animation of plant life was possible through nanotechnology and that he was presented genetically modified flowers,
that swayed and changed colors with music, while on another planet.[53]
Claude Vorilhon 368

Criticism

Appearances in the media

In 1992, Vorilhon appeared on Ciel mon Mardi, a French talk show hosted by journalist Christophe Dechavanne.
Toward the end of the show, Vorilhon’s liberal views on sex were critiqued by a priest, a social worker, and a
psychologist. A former Raëlian named Jean Parraga believed that his wife and children were being held as prisoners
and that Vorilhon attempted to break up his family. He thought they were being treated like criminals in activities
such as orgies and sacrifice involving children at the Sensual Meditation camp. Parraga also had a criminal record as
a drug dealer and car thief, and in August 1992, he attempted to shoot Vorilhon.[54]
Raëlians from around the world sent letters of protest to Dechevanne's TV station. Dechavanne felt that this was
"incitement to violence" and sued Vorilhon. The judge appointed to the case decided to question Vorilhon. Vorilhon
agreed to ask his members to stop sending letters if the station apologized publicly. The two parties agreed to drop
the feud.[54]
In 2004, Vorilhon appeared on the first airing of the Quebec version of the French talk show Tout le monde en parle,
hosted by Guy A. Lepage. During this appearance, Vorilhon upset panel members with his statements on democracy
and cloning. The situation reached its peak when caricaturist Serge Chapleau called Vorilhon a "farce" and a "nerd",
ridiculed his clothes, and grabbed him by the chignon. Vorilhon left the stage, followed by his disciples. A fellow
guest at the show, Parti Québécois Member of Quebec Legislative Assembly Pauline Marois, called Vorilhon
"insane". The Raëlian Movement asked Marois to apologize, which she refused.
A Swiss newspaper, who called Raëlians "rat heads", was sued for defamation. Another suit was brought against
journalist Stephane Baillargeon for writing in the Montreal daily Le Devoir that the Raëlians defended pedophiles
and that certain ex-Raëlians claimed the "gourou" liked very young girls. After some negotiation, Le Devoir
published a letter from Vorilhon condemning the charge as "ignominious defamation" and asserting that the Raëlian
Movement had "always condemned pedophilia and promoted respect for laws that justly forbid the practices that are
always the fault of unbalanced individuals".[54]

Appearances in court
In 1991, Vorilhon sued French journalist Jean-Yves Cashga for defamation; Vorilhon lost, however, and was ordered
to pay court costs. The judgment remains uncollected. Amidst growing legal problems in France, Vorilhon decided
to emigrate to Canada.
On two separate court dates of September 2, 1994 at the High Courts of Paris and October 1, 1996 at the Appeal
Court of Paris, journalists Jacques Cotta and Pascal Martin of Flammarion Publishing were found guilty of
attributing racist statements and distorted quotations to Vorilhon in their book Dans le secret des sectes. They were
fined 10,000FF in damages and 13,000FF in proceedings costs. They were also ordered to insert stickers mentioning
the sentence on copies not yet distributed, suppress of the passage in the next editions, and were told that they would
be fined 100FF for each non-conforming copy.[55]
On January 26, 1994, in emergency proceedings by the Appeal Court of Reims, Myriam Assan was accused of
defamation for claiming in his book that "Raël was often sentenced for corruption of minors". Assan was given a
provisional sentence of 10,000FF in damages and ordered to withdraw of the book. He was sentenced to pay a
penalty of 300FF per infringement and 5,000FF in proceedings costs and to publish the judgment in Le Monde and
Le Figaro.[55]
On December 13, 1994, Gérard Chol, director of Le Maine Libre, was declared guilty by the High Court of Le Mans
for public defamation for claiming that the Vorilhon's movement was laundering money coming from drug
trafficking, prostitution, arms dealing, and the sale of pornographic videotapes. Chol was ordered to pay 1FF in
damages and 3,000FF in proceedings costs and to publish the penal judgment in Le Maine Libre.[55]
Claude Vorilhon 369

In 2003, Vorilhon sued Ottawa columnist Denis Gratton and Le Droit newspaper for $85,000 in defamation damages
over a January 23, 2003 column; Vorilhon lost and was ordered to pay court costs by Quebec Superior Court on June
21, 2006.[56]

Government action against Vorilhon

In response to Vorilhon's association with Clonaid, South Korean immigration authorities at the airport denied him
entry into their country in 2003.[57] A planned Raëlian seminar continued, with Vorilhon making some brief "big
screen" video-camera appearances via the internet for the several hundred who attended. Raëlians of South Korea
were instructed by Raël to protest near the Ministry of Health and Welfare that ordered him to leave.[29] [57]
Officials detained Vorilhon for nine hours at Incheon International Airport before he and his wife, Sophie de
Niverville, left for Tokyo. From there, they took another plane back to Canada. Vorilhon responded by saying that
Korean officials treated him like a "North Korean" and that he would wait for an apology before coming back to
Korea.[29]
Raëlians say they encourage adult homosexual, bisexual, and heterosexual relationships and that society should
recognize them legally.[58] Government authorities, such as those in Switzerland, fear that Raëlians are a threat to
public morals for supporting liberalized sex education for children. The authorities believe that such liberalized sex
education teaches youth how to obtain sexual gratification, which would encourage sexual abuse of underage
children.[2] The Raëlians disagree with those fears and state that sex education done properly would involve
educating parents as well as children.[59]
In February 2007, Vorilhon, who wanted to start commercial activities with Swiss vintners, was denied residence in
the Swiss Canton Valais, in part for promoting the concept of sexual liberty and sexual education. Also cited was his
association with the Clonaid human cloning claim; Switzerland forbade human cloning. In a brief statement,
Vorhilon said he considered appeal at the European level.[2]

Discography
• 1966: "Sacrée sale gueule"[60]
• 1966: "Dans un verre de vin"[61]
• 1967: "Le Miel et la cannelle" (Honey and cinnamon)[62]
• 1967: "Madam' Pipi" (Mrs. Toilet attendant)[63]
• 1967: "Monsieur votre femme me trompe" (Mister, your wife is cheating on me)[64]
• 1967: "Quand on se mariera" (When we'll get married)[65]

Bibliography
• 1974: Le Livre qui dit la vérité ("The Book Which Tells the Truth")
• 1975: Les extra-terrestres m'ont emmené sur leur planète ("Extraterrestrials Took me to Their Planet")
• (collected in English as "The Message Given to Me by Extra-Terrestrials") ISBN 4900480053
• 1978: La géniocratie ("Geniocracy")
• 1979: Accueillir les extra-terrestres ("Let's Welcome the Extraterrestrials") ISBN 4900480061
• 1980: La méditation sensuelle ("Sensual Meditation") ISBN 1903571073
• 1992: Le racisme religieux financé par le gouvernement socialiste
• 1995: Vive le Québec libre!
• 2001: Oui au clonage humain ("Yes to Human Cloning") ISBN 1903571057
• 2003: Le Maitraya ("The Maitraya")
• 2006: Intelligent Design: Message from the Designers -recompiled English compilation of the 1974,1975 and
1979 books ISBN 2940252203
Claude Vorilhon 370

Notes
[1] Raël, Intelligent Design, p. 123.
[2] Cult leader Raël denied residence in Switzerland (http:/ / www. religionnewsblog. com/ 17537/ rael), Agence France-Presse. 19 February
2007. Retrieved 13 March 2007.
[3] AutoPop, la revue des pilotes (http:/ / www. rael. free. fr/ 75/ autopop. htm) Raël : Messie ou Menteur ?. Retrieved 20 June 2007.
[4] Raël, Intelligent Design, pp. 135-6.
[5] Raël's Bio Raëlian Official Website (http:/ / www. rael. org/ rael_content/ rael_bio. php?prophet)
[6] Raël, Intelligent Design, Photo Section
[7] Palmer, p. 32.
[8] Palmer, p. 32-33.
[9] Palmer, p. 34.
[10] Raël, Intelligent Design 135-6.
[11] AutoPop, la revue des pilotes (http:/ / www. rael. free. fr/ 75/ autopop. htm) Raël : Messie ou Menteur ?. Retrieved 20 June 2007
[12] Raël, Intelligent Design, 11-109.
[13] Raël, Intelligent Design, 90, 107, 113, 159.
[14] Harvey, Neil, AND NOW THIS A COMPENDIUM OF NEWS (http:/ / www. roanoke. com/ news/ roanoke/ wb/ wb/ xp-83888), The
Roanoke Times. 23 September 2006. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
[15] Raël, Intelligent Design, 11.
[16] Raël, Intelligent Design, 161-5.
[17] Segall, Rebecca, Close Encounter of the Raëlian Kind (http:/ / www. villagevoice. com/ news/ 0135,segall2,27678,1. html), The Village
Voice. 4 September 2001. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
[18] Raël, Intelligent Design, 11, 33, 88, 293, 332.
[19] Raël, Intelligent Design, 73.
[20] Raël, Intelligent Design, 101-104.
[21] Raël, Intelligent Design, 10-79.
[22] Raël, Intelligent Design 163-4.
[23] Palmer, p. 43.
[24] Raël, Intelligent Design; 290-1.
[25] Raël, Intelligent Design 139-40.
[26] Palmer, p. 54-5.
[27] Lewis, p. 127.
[28] Palmer, p. 43-5.
[29] Goodenough, Patrick, Cloning Cult Miffed About Treatment of Leader (http:/ / www. cnsnews. com/ ForeignBureaus/ archive/ 200308/
FOR20030806a. html), Cybercast News Service. 6 August 2007. Retrieved 3 June 2007.
[30] Palmer, p. 41.
[31] Raël to compete in Charlotte (http:/ / www. motorsport. com/ news/ article. asp?ID=40215& FS=SCCA-WC) Motorsport.com. 27 March
2007. Retrieved 7 October 2007.
[32] Mosport Race Report, Results and Points (http:/ / www. motorsport. com/ news/ article. asp?ID=27783& FS=TRANSAM), Motorsport.com.
23 May 1999. Retrieved 18 August 2007.
[33] Mosport Lime Rock Park Trans-Am Race Story, Results and Points (http:/ / www. motorsport. com/ news/ article. asp?ID=28140&
FS=TRANSAM), Motorsport.com. 31 May 1999. Retrieved 18 August 2007.
[34] Mid Ohio Race Story and Results (http:/ / www. motorsport. com/ news/ article. asp?ID=28397& FS=TRANSAM), Motorsport.com. 6 June
1999. Retrieved 18 August 2007.
[35] BFGoodrich Tires Trans-Am Road America Results (http:/ / www. motorsport. com/ news/ article. asp?ID=29904& FS=TRANSAM),
Motorsport.com. 10 July 1999. Retrieved 18 August 2007.
[36] Mosport Road Atlanta Trans-Am Story, Results, Points (http:/ / www. motorsport. com/ news/ article. asp?ID=30703& FS=TRANSAM),
Motorsport.com. 25 July 1999. Retrieved 18 August 2007.
[37] Trois-Rivieres Race Report (http:/ / www. motorsport. com/ news/ article. asp?ID=31007& FS=TRANSAM), Motorsport.com. 1 August
1999. Retrieved 18 August 2007.
[38] Detroit Race Report (http:/ / www. motorsport. com/ news/ article. asp?ID=31339& FS=TRANSAM), Motorsport.com. 7 August 1999.
Retrieved 18 August 2007.
[39] Vancouver Results, Points (http:/ / www. motorsport. com/ news/ article. asp?ID=32633& FS=TRANSAM), Motorsport.com. 4 September
1999. Retrieved 18 August 2007.
[40] Houston Trans-Am Series Race Story, Results and Points (http:/ / www. motorsport. com/ news/ article. asp?ID=33545& FS=TRANSAM),
Motorsport.com. 25 September 1999. Retrieved 18 August 2007.
[41] Charlotte GT Opener Race Results (http:/ / www. motorsport. com/ news/ article. asp?ID=40429& FS=SCCA-WC), Motorsport.com. 1
April 2000. Retrieved 18 August 2007.
Claude Vorilhon 371

[42] Mosport GT results (http:/ / www. motorsport. com/ news/ article. asp?ID=43424& FS=SCCA-WC), Motorsport.com. 21 May 2000.
Retrieved 18 August 2007.
[43] Lime Rock Park line up GT, Touring (http:/ / www. motorsport. com/ news/ article. asp?ID=43748& FS=SCCA-WC), Motorsport.com. 27
May 2000. Retrieved 18 August 2007.
[44] Laguna Seca Fitzgerald wins third straight in GT (http:/ / www. motorsport. com/ news/ article. asp?ID=54315& FS=SCCA*),
Motorsport.com. 15 October 2000. Retrieved 18 August 2007.
[45] Las Vegas GT results (http:/ / www. motorsport. com/ news/ article. asp?ID=55110& FS=SCCA*), Motorsport.com. 30 October 2000.
Retrieved 18 August 2007.
[46] Raël's press conference in London (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20030212220704/ www. rael. org/ int/ press_site/ english/ pages/
press_conference/ 050202. html), Archive.org: Raël Press File. 5 February 2002. Retrieved 6 August 2006.
[47] Raël, Yes to Human Cloning, p. 51-55.
[48] Raël, Yes to Human Cloning, p. 133-6.
[49] Raël, Yes to Human Cloning, p. 132.
[50] Brown, DeNeen L., The Leader of UFO Land (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ ac2/ wp-dyn?pagename=article& node=&
contentId=A4047-2003Jan16& notFound=true), Washington Post. 17 January 2003. Retrieved 3 May 2007.
[51] Raël, Yes to Human Cloning, p. 72.
[52] Raël, Yes to Human Cloning, p. 57-60.
[53] Raël, Intelligent Design, p. 138.
[54] Susan J. Palmer, The Raël Deal (http:/ / www. trincoll. edu/ depts/ csrpl/ RINVol4No2/ Rael. htm), Religion in the News, Summer 2001,
Vol. 4, No. 2.
[55] The Raëlian Movement (http:/ / www. hrwf. net/ religiousfreedom/ profiles/ ext/ raelianenglish. pdf), Human Rights Without Frontiers.
Retrieved 2 December 2006.
[56] Block, Irwin, Welcome to real world, judge tells head Raëlian (http:/ / canada. com/ montrealgazette/ news/ montreal/ story.
html?id=3367c989-4025-499f-b03b-fe266f81b526), Montreal Gazette. 3 July 2006. Retrieved on 5 July 2006.
[57] Ji-young, So, Raëlian Cult Leader Threatens to Sue Korea Over Denied Entry (http:/ / www. wwrn. org/ article. php?idd=12250& sec=42&
cont=4), Korea Times. 3 August 2003. Retrieved 12 March 2007
[58] Left Clones (http:/ / www. nationalreview. com/ kurtz/ kurtz010203. asp), National Review. Retrieved 9 September 2007.
[59] Pedophilia accusations are pure discrimination (http:/ / raelianews. org/ news. php?extend. 235), Raelianews.org. 23 August 2007. Retrieved
9 September 2007.
[60] Claude Celler - Sacrée sale gueule (http:/ / www. bide-et-musique. com/ song/ 4469. html), Bide&Musique. Retrieved 19 August 2007.
[61] Claude Celler - Dans un verre de vine (http:/ / www. bide-et-musique. com/ song/ 4469. html), Bide&Musique. Retrieved 19 August 2007.
[62] Claude Celler - Le Miel et la Cannelle (http:/ / www. bide-et-musique. com/ song/ 3495. html), Bide&Musique. Retrieved 19 August 2007.
[63] Claude Celler - Madam' Pipi (http:/ / www. bide-et-musique. com/ song/ 3359. html), Bide&Musique. Retrieved 19 August 2007.
[64] Claude Celler - Monsieur votre femme me trompe (http:/ / www. bide-et-musique. com/ song/ 3421. html), Bide&Musique. Retrieved 19
August 2007.
[65] Claude Celler - Quand on se mariera (http:/ / www. bide-et-musique. com/ song/ 3407. html), Bide&Musique. Retrieved 19 August 2007.

References
• Lewis, James R. The Gods Have Landed: New Religions from Other Worlds (http://books.google.com/
books?vid=ISBN0791423298) SUNY Press, 1995. ISBN 0791423298.
• Partridge, Christopher H. UFO Religions (http://books.google.com/books?output=html&id=1nsazah-mEQC&
pg=PA45&ots=Dbl3DMfIQm&dq=raelian&sig=9iTeeBowhtxt2OcytHUeLHswqOg#PPA59,M1). Routledge,
2003. ISBN 0415263239.
• Palmer, Susan J. Aliens Adored (http://books.google.com/books?output=html&vid=ISBN0813534763&
id=gmCCxUJGi70C&dq=susan+j+palmer+aliens+adored). Rutgers University Press, 2004. ISBN
0813534763.
• Raël, Intelligent Design - Message from the Designers (http://rael.org/download.php?view.1). Nova
Distribution, 2006. ISBN 2940252203.
• Raël, Yes to Human Cloning: Immortality Thanks to Science (http://rael.org/download.php?view.2). Tagman
Press, 2001. ISBN 1-903571-05-7; ISBN 1-903571-04-9.
The Urantia Book 372

The Urantia Book

The Urantia Book

Cover of the June 2008 paperback ed.

Author(s) Undetermined

Publisher Urantia Foundation, Uversa Press, others

Publication date October 1955

Media type Print (Hardback & Paperback)

ISBN ISBN 0-911560-02-5 (Urantia Foundation), ISBN 0-9651972-3-9 (Uversa Press)

OCLC Number [1]

49687706

Uversa Press Indexed

Edition

Author(s) Original Multiple Authors

The Urantia Book (sometimes called the Urantia Papers or The Fifth Epochal Revelation) is a spiritual and
philosophical book that discusses God, Jesus, science, cosmology, religion, history, and destiny.[2] It originated in
Chicago, Illinois, USA, sometime between 1924 and 1955. The circumstances surrounding its publication are
matters of speculation.[3] The authors introduced the word "Urantia" as the name of the planet Earth and state their
intent is to "present enlarged concepts and advanced truth" in an "endeavor to expand cosmic consciousness and
enhance spiritual perception." Among other topics, the book expounds on the origin and meaning of life,
humankind's place in the universe, the relationship between God and humankind, and the life of Jesus.
The Urantia Foundation, a U.S.-based non-profit group, first published The Urantia Book in 1955 in English. The
organization has translated it into fourteen other languages, with new translations in process.[4]
The Urantia Book 373

Overview
The Urantia Book claims to be a new revelation of truth to the peoples of our planet, written as if directly presented
by numerous celestial beings appointed to the task of providing an "epochal" spiritual revelation to humankind. It is
more than 2,000 pages long and consists of an introductory statement followed by 196 "papers," claimed to be
written by a number of different superhuman personalities, divided into four parts:
• Foreword
• Part I: The Central and Superuniverses
• Part II: The Local Universe
• Part III: The History of Urantia
• Part IV: The Life and Teachings of Jesus
The text begins its narration at what is considered the highest level of creation and then sequentially in the
subsequent three parts focuses its discussion on our Local Universe, planet Earth (Urantia), and on the life and
teachings of a single personality, Jesus of Nazareth. This thematic structure is consistent with one of the book's
process teachings: "The human mind would ordinarily crave to approach the cosmic philosophy portrayed in these
revelations by proceeding from the simple and the finite to the complex and the infinite, from human origins to
divine destinies. But that path does not lead to spiritual wisdom. Such a procedure is the easiest path to a certain
form of genetic knowledge, but at best it can only reveal man's origin; it reveals little or nothing about his divine
destiny."
The Foreword is presented as a guide to the terminology developed in greater detail in Part I, and provides an
explanation of the meanings which should be used for words that are "in designation of Deity and certain associated
concepts of the things, meanings, and values of universal reality."
Part I consists of 31 papers that address the origin of creation beginning with the "First Source and Center of all
things and beings", the eternal and infinite "Universal Father," his Trinity associates, the Eternal Son and Infinite
Spirit, and his Paradise dwelling place at the center of infinite reality.
Part II is composed of 25 papers pertaining to the origin, administration and myriad personalities of "local
universes," especially the Local Universe which is home to our planet. It presents narratives on the inhabitants of
local universes and their work as it is coordinated with a scheme of spiritual ascension and progression of different
orders of beings, including human beings. Subjects covered include: "The Life Carriers, The Celestial Artisans, The
Seven Mansion Worlds, Planetary Mortal Epochs, and The Lucifer Rebellion."
Part III includes 48 papers that address a broad history of the Earth, presenting an expanded explanation of the
origin, purpose, evolution, and destiny of our world and its inhabitants. An additional 15 papers cover various topics
such as "Religion in Human Experience, Seraphic Planetary Government, The Gift of Revelation, God the Supreme,
Deity and Reality", the concept of the God within, the Thought Adjuster, "The Adjuster and the Soul, Personality
Survival", and "The Bestowals of Christ Michael".
Part IV is presented in 77 papers and narrates "The Life and Teachings of Jesus". Included are papers about his
childhood, teenage years, family life, his work as a carpenter and fisherman before the commencement of his public
ministry, an exhaustive recital of his public ministry and the events that led to his crucifixion, death, and
resurrection. It continues with papers about appearances after he rose, Pentecost, and finally, "The Faith of Jesus".
Articulated using the story of Jesus' life, Part IV illustrates many of the concepts presented in the first three parts.
The authors claim that new epochal revelations of truth are given to the world’s inhabitants on a regular basis to
provide new potentials for spiritual growth as human minds evolve: “Truth is always a revelation…” The Urantia
Book is identified as the most recent of five revelations of epochal significance given to our world. In order to
connect the new teachings to past revelations, the authors assert that they chose to utilize human understanding and
expression when that understanding was adequate to reveal truth—-over one thousand such instances of human
expression were supposedly used in this manner in The Urantia Book. This assertion by the authors has led to the
The Urantia Book 374

claimed identification of a number of texts by human thinkers in the first half of the 20th century whose expressed
comprehension of previously-revealed truth has been found to parallel some of the teachings in The Urantia Book .

Authorship
The exact circumstances of the origin of The Urantia Book are
unknown. The book and its publishers do not name a human author:
instead it is written as if directly presented by numerous celestial
beings appointed to the task of providing an "epochal" spiritual
revelation to humankind. For each paper, either a name, or an order of
celestial being, or a group of beings is credited as its author.[5] [6] [7]

As early as 1911, William S. Sadler and his wife Lena Sadler,

physicians in Chicago and well known in the community, were
approached by a neighbor who was concerned because she would
occasionally find her husband in a deep sleep and breathing
abnormally.[3] [5] She reported that she was unable to wake him at
these times. The Sadlers came to observe the episodes, and over time,
the individual produced verbal communications that claimed to be
from "student visitor" spiritual beings.[3] This changed in early 1925
with a "voluminous handwritten document", which from then on
became the regular method of purported communication.[3] The Lena K. Sadler

Sadlers were both respected physicians, and William Sadler was a

debunker of paranormal claims, who is portrayed as not believing in the supernatural. In 1929, he published a book
called The Mind at Mischief, in which he explained the fraudulent methods of mediums and how self-deception leads
to psychic claims. He wrote in an appendix that there were two cases that he had not explained to his satisfaction.[8]

The other exception has to do with a rather peculiar case of psychic phenomena, one which I find myself
unable to classify, and which I would like very much to narrate more fully; I cannot do so here, however,
because of a promise which I feel under obligation to keep sacredly. In other words, I have promised not to
publish this case during the lifetime of the individual. I hope sometime to secure a modification of that
promise and be able to report this case more fully because of its interesting features. I was brought in contact
with it, in the summer of 1911, and I have had it under my observation more or less ever since, having been
present at probably 250 of the night sessions, many of which have been attended by a stenographer who made
voluminous notes.
A thorough study of this case has convinced me that it is not one of ordinary trance. While the sleep seems to
be quite of a natural order, it is very profound, and so far we have never been able to awaken the subject when
in this state; but the body is never rigid, and the heart action is never modified, though respiration is sometimes
markedly interfered with. This man is utterly unconscious, wholly oblivious to what takes place, and unless
told about it subsequently, never knows that he has been used as a sort of clearing house for the coming and
going of alleged extra-planetary personalities. In fact, he is more or less indifferent to the whole proceeding,
and shows a surprising lack of interest in these affairs as they occur from time to time.
Eighteen years of study and careful investigation have failed to reveal the psychic origin of these messages. I
find myself at the present time just where I was when I started. Psychoanalysis, hypnotism, intensive
comparison, fail to show that the written or spoken messages of this individual have origin in his own mind.
Much of the material secured through this subject is quite contrary to his habits of thought, to the way in which
he has been taught, and to his entire philosophy. In fact, of much that we have secured, we have failed to find
anything of its nature in existence. Its philosophic content is quite new, and we are unable to find where very
The Urantia Book 375

much of it has ever found human expression.

In 1924, a group of Sadler's friends, former patients, and colleagues began meeting for Sunday intellectual
discussions, but became interested in the strange communications when Sadler mentioned the case and read samples
at their request. Shortly afterwards, a communication reportedly was received that this group would be allowed to
devise questions and that answers would be given by celestial beings through the "contact personality".
Sadler presented this development to the group, and they generated hundreds of questions without full seriousness,
but their claim is that it resulted in the appearance of answers in the form of fully written papers. They became more
impressed with the quality of the answers and continued to ask questions, until all papers now collected together as
The Urantia Book were obtained. The group was known as the Forum. A smaller group of five individuals called the
Contact Commission, including the Sadlers, was responsible for gathering the questions from the Forum, acting as
the custodians of the handwritten manuscripts that were presented as answers, and arranging for proofreading and
typing of the material.[5]
The Sadlers and others involved, now all deceased, claimed[9] that the papers of the book were physically
materialized from 1925 until 1935 in a way that was not understood even by them, with the first three parts being
completed in 1934 and the fourth in 1935. The last Forum gathering was in 1942. Also documented are methods of
reception that Sadler denied as the way the papers were received.[6]
After all of the written material was received in 1935, an additional period of time supposedly took place where
requests for clarifications resulted in revisions. Sadler and his son William (Bill) Sadler, Jr. at one point wrote a draft
introduction and were told that they could not add their introduction because "A city can not be lit by a candle." [10]
[11]
The Foreword was then "received." Bill Sadler is noted to have composed the table of contents that is published
with the book.[12]
The communications purportedly continued for another two decades while members of the Forum studied the book
in depth, and according to Sadler and others, permission to publish it was given to them in 1955. The Urantia
Foundation was formed in 1950 as a tax-exempt educational society in Illinois,[13] and through privately raised
funds, the book was published under international copyright on October 12, 1955.
Only the members of the Contact Commission witnessed the activities of the sleeping subject, and only they knew
his identity.[3] The individual is claimed to have been kept anonymous in order to prevent undesirable future
veneration or reverence for him. Martin Gardner states that an explanation concerning the origin of the book more
plausible than celestial beings is that the Contact Commission, particularly William Sadler, was responsible.
Gardner's conclusion is that a man named Wilfred Kellogg was the sleeping subject and authored the work from his
subconscious mind, with William Sadler subsequently editing and authoring parts.[5] A statistical analysis using the
Mosteller and Wallace methods of stylometry indicates at least nine authors were involved, and by comparatively
analyzing the book against Sadler's The Mind at Mischief, does not indicate authorship or extensive editing by
Sadler, without ruling out the possibility of limited edits.[3]

Copyright status
In 2001, a jury in Oklahoma City found that the Urantia Foundation's 1983 renewal of the book's copyright was
invalid.[14] [15] This decision was upheld by the U.S. 10th Circuit Court of Appeals,[16] [14] and the English version
of the book is considered to have entered the public domain in the U.S. as of 1983.[3] In 2006, the international
copyright on the English text expired.[17] A print edition containing a topical index and an audio DVD has been
published by The Urantia Book Fellowship as Uversa Press since the 2001 decision.
The Urantia Book 376

Teachings

Nature of God
In The Urantia Book, God is the creator and upholder of all reality—an omniscient, omnipresent, omnipotent,
infinite, and eternal spirit personality; a loving Father, with whom all may have a personal relationship.
God is inherently kind, naturally compassionate, and everlastingly merciful. And never is it necessary that any
influence be brought to bear upon the Father to call forth his loving-kindness. The creature's need is wholly
sufficient to insure the full flow of the Father's tender mercies and his saving grace. Since God knows all about
his children, it is easy for him to forgive. The better man understands his neighbor, the easier it will be to
forgive him, even to love him.[18]
God is said to be a unapproachable to so many orders of beings only because he "dwells in a light which no material
creature can approach." The immensity and grandeur of the divine personality is beyond the grasp of the
unperfected mind of evolutionary mortals [19]
God, according to the book, is one Deity who functions on a range of different levels of reality, both personal and
impersonal. God is taught to exist in a Trinity of three perfectly individualized persons who are co-equal: God the
Father, God the Son, and God the Spirit. These persons are referred to by additional titles in the book, primarily as
the "Universal Father", "Eternal Son", and "Infinite Spirit". While stating that the concept of one God in three
persons is difficult to fully understand, the book says that the idea "in no manner violates the truth of the divine
unity. The three personalities of Paradise Deity are, in all universe reality reactions and in all creature relations, as
one".
The Father, Son, and Spirit are considered in existence from the eternal past to the eternal future. In addition, three
persons of Deity are described who are "experiential", or incomplete and in the process of actualizing: God the
Supreme, God the Ultimate, and God the Absolute. Of these three, God the Supreme, or "the Supreme Being", is
given the most explanation, as the person of Deity evolving in time and space to unify finite reality and the infinite.
The persons of God the Ultimate and God the Absolute are considered to be remote from the possibility of
comprehension and are covered on a limited basis.
Many types of celestial beings are enumerated in the book, and one of particular note is a joint "offspring" of the
Universal Father and Eternal Son called a "Creator Son". A divine Creator Son is considered the full representation
of the Universal Father and Eternal Son that is possible to people. Jesus of Nazareth is identified as a Creator Son
who incarnated on Earth and whose life and teachings are portrayed as the fullest revelation of the personality and
attitude of God ever given to humanity.
On following Jesus the book states:
To "follow Jesus" means to personally share his religious faith and to enter into the spirit of the Master's life of
unselfish service for man. One of the most important things in human living is to find out what Jesus believed,
to discover his ideals, and to strive for the achievement of his exalted life purpose. Of all human knowledge,
that which is of greatest value is to know the religious life of Jesus and how he lived it.[20]
The Urantia Book 377

God and the individual

God is described as the Father of each individual, and through the direct gift of a fragment of his eternal spirit is said
to be able to guide the individual toward an increased understanding of him. This fragment is called a "Thought
Adjuster", "Mystery Monitor," "inner voice," "divine spark," and "pilot light". The concept is in certain ways
comparable to the Hindu atman.
The Adjuster is the mark of divinity, the presence of God. The "image of God" does not refer to physical
likeness nor to the circumscribed limitations of material creature endowment but rather to the gift of the spirit
presence of the Universal Father in the supernal bestowal of the Thought Adjusters upon the humble creatures
of the universes.[21]
Each person receives one such fragment at the time of his or her first independent moral decision, on average around
the age of five years and ten months. The Adjuster then serves noncoercively as a divine partner for the rest of life,
and to the extent that a person consents with their free will to want to find God, it leads the person toward more
mature, spiritualized thinking. Through the practice of learning how to follow the inner leadings of the
Adjuster—choose "God's will"—the individual progresses to greater God consciousness and spiritual growth.
A person's Thought Adjuster is described as distinct from either the soul or the conscience. In The Urantia Book's
teachings, the degree to which a human mind chooses to accept its Adjuster's guidance becomes the degree to which
a person's soul "grows" and becomes a reality that can then survive death. The soul is in essence an embryonic
spiritual development, one parental factor being the divine Adjuster and the other being the human will.
The book many times links the biblical New Testament teachings of becoming like a little child in attitude of trust
and sincerity as being the stance each person should have toward God. It says the attitude of open-minded
teachability facilitates spiritual growth in liaison with the work of the Thought Adjuster and invariably leads a person
to love and serve other people. It also says, "But you yourself are mostly unconscious of this inner ministry. You are
quite incapable of distinguishing the product of your own material intellect from that of the conjoint activities of
your soul and the Adjuster". The book is strongly fideistic and teaches that neither science nor logic will ever be able
to prove or disprove the existence of God, arguing that faith is necessary to become conscious of God's presence in
human experience, the Thought Adjuster.
From Paper 101, "The Real Nature of Religion" [22]:
Religious experience, being essentially spiritual, can never be fully understood by the material mind; hence the
function of theology, the psychology of religion. The essential doctrine of the human realization of God
creates a paradox in finite comprehension. It is well-nigh impossible for human logic and finite reason to
harmonize the concept of divine immanence, God within and a part of every individual, with the idea of God's
transcendence, the divine domination of the universe of universes. These two essential concepts of Deity must
be unified in the faith-grasp of the concept of the transcendence of a personal God and in the realization of the
indwelling presence of a fragment of that God in order to justify intelligent worship and validate the hope of
personality survival. The difficulties and paradoxes of religion are inherent in the fact that the realities of
religion are utterly beyond the mortal capacity for intellectual comprehension.
Persistently embracing sin is the same as rejecting the leadings of the Adjuster, the same as rejecting the will of God.
Constant selfishness and sinful choosing lead eventually to iniquity and full identification with unrighteousness, and
since unrighteousness is unreal, it results in the eventual annihilation of the individual's identity. Personalities like
this become "as if they never were". The book says that "in the last analysis, such sin-identified individuals have
destroyed themselves by becoming wholly unreal through their embrace of iniquity". The concepts of Hell and
reincarnation are not taught.
From Paper 5, "God's Relation to the Individual" [23]:
The great God makes direct contact with mortal man and gives a part of his infinite and eternal and
incomprehensible self to live and dwell within him. God has embarked upon the eternal adventure with man. If
The Urantia Book 378

you yield to the leadings of the spiritual forces in you and around you, you cannot fail to attain the high
destiny established by a loving God as the universe goal of his ascendant creatures from the evolutionary
worlds of space.
The book says that a person ultimately is destined to fuse with his or her divine fragment and become one
inseparable entity with it, if the person chooses to accept the Adjuster's leadings and become self-identified with it.
The act of fusion is the moment when a human personality has successfully and unalterably won eternal life,
described as typically taking place in the afterlife, but also a possibility during earthly life. The result during human
life is a "fusion flash", with the material body consumed in a fiery light and the soul "translated" to the afterlife. The
Hebrew prophet Elijah being taken to heaven without death in "chariots of fire" is said to be a rare example in
recorded history of a person who attained fusion. Once fused with his or her fragment of God, a person continues as
an ascending citizen in the universe and travels through numerous worlds on a long, adventurous pilgrimage of
growth and learning that eventually leads to God and Paradise. Mortals who reach this stage are called "finaliters."
The book goes on to discuss the potential destinies of these "glorified mortals".
The Urantia Book places much emphasis on the idea that all individuals have the same opportunity to come to know
God, and it says nothing can hinder a human being's spiritual progression if he or she is sincerely motivated to be
spirit led. People are to actively work to understand each other and to seek to live in love and peace, being of help to
one another. The practice of the "religion of Jesus" is to love God the Father with a person's whole being, thereby
learning to love each person the way Jesus loves people; that is, recognizing others as brothers and sisters and being
of unselfish service to one another.

Cosmology
The Urantia Book presents a cosmological perspective on the universe and humankind's relation to it, but hedges its
bets by saying that it will be in need of revision as new discoveries emerge in science, and that its presentations are
not meant to be a substitute for science, because "human wisdom must evolve". It teaches that the universe is vastly
older than current scientific theories state, and that the universe is the product of intelligent and purposeful
organization.[5] [24] Unlike the currently (and then) accepted scientifc cosmology, that of the Urantia book is
non-isotropic, in that it has a center, which is ruled out by the generally accepted Cosmological principle.
The book uses the term "universe" to denote a number of different scales of organization, possibly because the book
was written at a time when galaxies outside of the Milky Way were still called "island universes". In the book, a
"superuniverse" is roughly the size of a galaxy in reality. A "local universe" is a sub-unit comprising approximately
10 million inhabited worlds when fully developed and accounts for 0.001% of the size of a "superuniverse". The
book uses the term "master universe" to refer to what modern usage would call the universe — all existing matter
and space taken as a whole. When the term "universe" is used alone, the type usually can be inferred from the
context.
The visualization of the cosmos presented from the center outward is
• The Isle of Paradise, "the most gigantic organized body of cosmic reality in all the master universe";
• The Sacred Spheres of Paradise, twenty-one enormous worlds, three circuits of seven worlds each—the Worlds of
the Father, the Worlds of the Son, and the Worlds of the Spirit orbiting in three processions on the inner margin of
space;
• Havona, one billion (1,000,000,000) perfect worlds across seven circuits, with "upwards of thirty-five million
worlds" in the first or inner circuit, "over two hundred and forty-five million worlds" in the seventh or
"outermost" circuit, and "proportional numbers" of worlds in the intervening circuits;
• Surrounding these are "dark gravity bodies" that "completely encircle and enshroud Havona" and whose
"multitudinous bodies" are "divided into two equal elliptical circuits by a unique space intrusion." The Isle of
Paradise, the twenty-one Sacred Spheres, the one billion worlds of Havona, and the orbiting dark gravity bodies
taken as a whole are interchangeably referred to as the "central universe", the "divine universe", and the
The Urantia Book 379

"Paradise-Havona system";
• The central universe is surrounded by a "relatively quiet midspace zone" of lessened motion and undisclosed
diameter; "Midspace zones" are the necessary transitions between the circuits of the universes, each successively
rotating around the central universe in alternating directions, clockwise and counter-clockwise;
• Beyond the first midspace zone, seven superuniverses swing counter-clockwise around the central universe and
have an approximate diameter of 400,000–500,000 light-years. These contain the evolutionary worlds of time and
space. The seven superuniverses are then immediately surrounded by another midspace zone "which varies in
width but averages 400,000 light-years". One of the stated purposes of the cosmos is to provide worlds where
intelligent life may be created or evolved from primitive life. Each of the seven superuniverses, when fully
developed, would have approximately one trillion inhabited worlds. Each divisional level has "architectural
worlds", including a headquarters sphere, which are worlds made to order and are independently lighted and
heated for the celestial and other life of those spheres. They are created to be administrative and educational
worlds and are said to be at the approximate, and sometimes exact, gravity center of their regions of inhabited
worlds and physical systems. A detailed organization of superuniverses is provided. Briefly, levels of
organization are
• Individual inhabited worlds such as Urantia (Earth);
• Local systems, 1,000 inhabited worlds;
• Constellations, 100 local systems;
• Local universes, 100 constellations;
• Minor sectors, 100 local universes;
• Major sectors, 100 minor sectors;
• Superuniverses, 10 major sectors.
• Beyond are enormous, uninhabited "outer space levels". The first outer space level is estimated to be over
twenty-five million light-years wide and surrounded by a midspace zone over fifty million light years wide;
• The second, third, and fourth outer space levels surround each previous level with greater and greater magnitude;
The book describes alternative explanations to then-current hypotheses in science regarding the universe's origin, and
suggests sources of error in then-current astronomical observations. For example, the concept of "space
respiration"—that all of space itself undergoes "two-billion-year expansion-contraction cycles"— is claimed to be
part of the explanation for astronomic redshift. The Urantia Book says we are currently almost half way through an
expansion cycle.

History and future of the world

Urantia is considered one inhabited sphere among trillions of others in the universe. The book's extensive teachings
about the history of the world include its physical development about 4.5 billions years ago, the gradual changes in
conditions that allowed life to develop, and the long ages of organic evolution that started with microscopic marine
life and led to plant and animal life in the oceans, later on land. The emergence of humans is presented as having
occurred about a million years ago from a branch of superior primates originating from a lemur ancestor.
The Urantia Book says "this story is graphically told within the fossil pages of the vast 'stone book' of world record
... the pages of this gigantic biogeologic record unfailingly tell the truth if you but acquire skill in their
interpretation". Unlike current scientific views, evolution is said to be orderly and controlled. Primordial life is
taught to have been intelligently planned, implanted, and monitored by "Life Carriers", instead of arising
spontaneously. The book says that "mortal man is not an evolutionary accident", and that the purpose of evolution on
a planet such as Urantia is to produce creatures of "will dignity" that can develop spiritual natures and survive
material existence, going on to have eternal spiritual careers.
The Urantia Book teaches not only biological evolution, but that human society and spiritual understandings evolve
by slow progression, subject both to periods of rapid improvement and the possibility of retrogression. Progress is
The Urantia Book 380

said to follow a divine plan that includes periodic gifts of revelation and ministry by heavenly teachers, which
eventually will lead to an ideal world status of "light and life" in the far distant future.
Though there is the ideal and divine plan, it is said to be fostered and administered by various orders of celestial
beings who are not always perfect. Through mistakes or deliberate rebellion, the plan can be wrecked, requiring long
spans of time to recoup lost progress. Urantia is said to be a markedly "dark and confused" planet that is "greatly
retarded in all phases of intellectual progress and spiritual attainment" compared to more typical inhabited worlds,
due to an unusually severe history of rebellion and default by its spiritual supervisors.

Comparisons

Christianity
Christianity is the religion most similar to The Urantia Book's teachings; but there are significant differences. In
particular, those who assert the Bible is the inerrant word of God cannot accept The Urantia Book, because it denies
some fundamental Christian doctrines.
Jesus is held in high regard by The Urantia Book. More than one third of the content of the book (Part IV), is
devoted to a narrative of his life and teachings, said to be a restatement based on a gathering of "superior concepts"
from over two thousand individuals who have lived since his times, as well as "superhuman" and "superplanetary
sources of information".
Just as in the Bible, Jesus [2] was the Son of God incarnate, born to Mary; both human and divine; lived a perfect life;
the bridge between God and man as "the way, the truth, and the life"; he performed miracles, taught, was crucified,
rose from the dead and will return to our world again some day. God is the creator of all reality; omniscient,
omnipresent, omnipotent, infinite, and eternal; a loving personality; a single deity that exists in a Trinity of three
persons.
In common with some versions of Christianity, those having faith in God survive death and Angels and divine
personalities exist and are sent to guard and minister to people throughout their lives.
Some differences with Christianity include:[5] [24] [25]
• Jesus' crucifixion is not considered an atonement for the sins of humanity. The crucifixion is taught to be an
outcome of the fears of religious leaders of the day, who regarded his teachings as a threat to their positions of
authority.
• God is never wrathful or angry. He is a personality entirely motivated by Father-like love.
• Jesus is the human incarnation of "Michael of Nebadon", one of more than 700,000 "Paradise Sons" of God, or
"Creator Sons". Jesus is not considered the second person of the Trinity as he is in Christianity. The book refers to
the Eternal Son as the second person of the Trinity.
• Jesus was born on earth through natural means of conception instead of a virgin birth.
• Jesus did not walk on water or perform some of the miracles that are attributed to him in the Bible.
• Jesus commissioned twelve women (and later more) as religious teachers, who traveled about with him and his
apostles on their preaching missions.
• Jesus rose from the dead in a "more glorified form", reflective of a transitional state between material and spiritual
existence known as "morontia". As with all mortals, his physical body was subject to decomposition, but celestial
beings removed his body from the tomb for the dissolution of his remains through a process of "accelerated time".
• The book states that Jesus may return to the world many times. This contrasts with traditional Christian
eschatology, in which Jesus returns only once.
The Urantia Book 381

Buddhism
The Urantia Book considers Buddhism one of the "great international, interracial faiths" and says it "has shown an
adaptability to the mores of many peoples that has been equaled only by Christianity."
Gautama Siddhartha is called a real prophet whose doctrines were "revolutionary and amazing" for their time. He is
credited with being one of the seven outstanding teachers in human history in the matter of combining
contemporaneous systems of ethical and religious teachings, a group that includes Moses, Laozi, and the Apostle
Paul.
The teaching that a divine nature—the Buddha-nature—resides in all people, and that through their own endeavors
people can attain a realization of this inner divinity, is cited as one of the clearest presentations of the concept of the
Thought Adjuster to be found in non-revelatory religion.
The book says Gautama's experience was tragic, however, in that he was an "orphan prophet" whose philosophy
failed early on to envision the reality of a spiritual God.
Despite this, the book states: "Buddhism is a living, growing religion today because it succeeds in conserving many
of the highest moral values of its adherents. It promotes calmness and self-control, augments serenity and happiness,
and does much to prevent sorrow and mourning. Those who believe this philosophy live better lives than many who
do not."

Miscellaneous world religions

Facets of other world religions are incorporated in the book, including from Islam, Taoism, Judaism, Hinduism,
Shinto, and Confucianism. For example, paper 131, "The World's Religions" [26], discusses in more depth those
aspects of different religions that have commonalities with what the book claims is the "religion of Jesus". There are
also numerous other references to the world's major religions throughout Part III, "The History of Urantia",
beginning with Paper 86, "Early Evolution of Religion" [27]. The perspective of The Urantia Book is that all religions
should be studied to take "the best" from each.

Consideration as literature
The Urantia Book has been enjoyed by some as a form of science fiction, historical fiction, or fantasy. The Urantia
Book is noted for its high level of internal consistency and an advanced writing style. Skeptic Martin Gardner, in a
book otherwise highly critical of The Urantia Book, writes that it is "highly imaginative" and that the "cosmology
outrivals in fantasy the cosmology of any science-fiction work known to me".[5]
Parts I, II, and III are chiefly written in expository language. The papers are informational, matter-of-fact, and
instructional. Part IV of the book is written as a biography of Jesus' life, and some feel it is a rich narrative with
well-developed characters, high attention to detail, woven sub-plots, and realistic dialogue. Considered as literature,
Part IV is favorably compared to other retellings of Jesus' life, such as The Gospel According to Jesus Christ by José
Saramago and Behold the Man by Michael Moorcock. Martin Gardner considers Part IV to be an especially
"well-written, impressive work", and says, "Either it is accurate in its history, coming directly from higher beings in
position to know, or it is a work of fertile imagination by someone who knew the New Testament by heart and who
was also steeped in knowledge of the times when Jesus lived."
The Urantia Book 382

Critical views

Criticisms of claims as a revelation

In Paper 92, "The Later Evolution of Religion", the authors make a reference to the papers as the fifth revelation of
"epochal significance" to humankind, the fourth epochal revelation having been the life of Jesus.
The claim of revelation in The Urantia Book has been criticized for various reasons. Skeptics such as Martin Gardner
say it is a product of human efforts rather than a revelation because some of its science is flawed. Because the book
does not support certain fundamental doctrines of Christianity, while at the same time presenting an account of parts
of Jesus' life absent in the Bible, those with a Christian viewpoint have argued it cannot be genuine.[25] Some have
thought it to be gnostic, but The Urantia Book is not associated with Gnosticism.
Other critics have felt that at over 2,000 pages, nearly twice the length of the King James Bible, it is too long,
complex, and bureaucratic.[13] [24] [28]

Claims and Criticism of science

Some believers maintain that the book has prophetically anticipated scientific advances.[29] They believe more of its
science, if not all of it, will be proven correct in the future. However, interpretation of this claim is complicated by
the delay between first use as "teachings" in 1935 and first publication in 1955. Science discovered during the two
intervening decades can be perceived as prophetic by believers, while skeptics think such facts were added prior to
publication. For instance, the catalytic role that carbon plays in the sun's nuclear reactions is described in the book.
Hans Bethe's announcement of the discovery was in 1938, well before publication. Whether it was present in the
original "teachings" cannot be verified.[5] Others, for example Meredith Sprunger, a liberal believer writes that
"research has revealed that virtually all of the scientific material found in The Urantia Book was the accepted
scientific knowledge of the period in which the book was written, was held by some scientists of that time, or was
about to be discovered or recognized." He argues against its literal infallibility and that fundamentalism over the
book is "just as untenable as Biblical fundamentalism".[5] The authors themselves seem to have no great faith in the
enduring truth of the science they describe and disclaim the cosmology from being "inspired", writing
within a few short years many of our statements regarding the physical sciences will stand in need of revision
in consequence of additional scientific developments and new discoveries. These new developments we even
now foresee, but we are forbidden to include such humanly undiscovered facts in the revelatory records. Let it
be made clear that revelations are not necessarily inspired. The cosmology of these revelations is not
inspired.[30]
Skeptics like Martin Gardner see the claim by the authors that no unknown scientific discoveries could be imparted
is seen as a ruse to allow mistakes to be dismissed later. That presentation of post-1955 scientific knowledge is
avoided is taken to be evidence it was written by humans and not by celestial beings with superior knowledge.
Examples of claims of science, and critical replies include:[5]
• The described formation of the solar system is consistent with the Chamberlin-Moulton planetesimal hypothesis.
Though popular in the early part of the 20th century, by the early 1940s it was discarded by Henry Russell's
argument that it was incompatible with the angular momentum of planets such as Jupiter.[31] The currently
accepted scientific explanation for the origin of the solar system is based on the nebular hypothesis.
• The age of our universe is stated to be more than 1,000,000,000,000 (one trillion) years old and the universe is
said to periodically expand and contract—respire—at 2-billion-year intervals. Such a Steady State Universe is not
supported by evidence. Current observations suggest that the age of the universe is approximately 13.7 billion
years.
• A fundamental particle called an "ultimaton" is proposed, with an electron being composed of 100 ultimatons.
The particle is not known to be described anywhere else and the concept is not supported by modern particle
The Urantia Book 383

physics.
• Some species are said to have evolved suddenly from single mutations without transitional species. The theory
originated with Dutch botanist Hugo De Vries, but was short-lived and is not now supported.
• According to The Urantia Book, multicolored human races originated suddenly in one generation and in one
family, producing brothers and sisters that variously turned blue, yellow, red, green, orange, and indigo when
exposed to sunlight. Their offspring subsequently favored the parent color. Later, Adam and Eve produced a
violet race. In the book's account, the blue, yellow, and red races were considered "primary", and the green,
orange, and indigo "secondary". The green and orange races were driven to extinction, and the rest mixed over
time. Modern evolutionary theory does not support this account.
• The book says that a solar eclipse was predicted in 1808 by the Native American prophet Tenskwatawa. The
eclipse was actually predicted in late April 1806 and occurred on June 16, 1806. However, the revision committee
of the book changed in 2008 the date of the prediction to 1806, because it was believed it was a keystroke mistake
in the transcription. [32]
Controversial statements about human races can be found in the book. Supporters state that criticism has arisen
mainly due to reading passages out of context. Gardner believes that William S. Sadler, who wrote some eugenicist
works, had a hand in editing or writing the book, and that this is how the ideas were included. Possibly controversial
statements about the sexes can also be found. While the book supports social and spiritual equality between men and
women, it states that they will always have distinctive "spheres" in society due to their biological differences.
The only apparent anticipation of science the book has made, in Gardner's opinion, is that it says the magnetic sense
that homing pigeons possess is "not wholly wanting as a conscious possession by mankind". In 1980, a British
zoologist, Robin Baker, published evidence that humans have a limited magnetic sense.
Mark McMenamin, a professor of geology, quotes a section of the book describing a billion-year-old supercontinent
that subsequently split apart, forming ocean basins where early marine life developed. He says, "This amazing
passage, written in the 1930s, anticipates scientific results that did not actually appear in the scientific literature until
many decades later." McMenamin also states, "Of course I am being selective here in my choice of quotations, and
there are reams of scientifically untenable material in The Urantia Book."[33]
The Urantia Book states that in the Tarim Basin (present-day Xinjiang, China) thousands of years existed cultural
centers of Caucasoid physical type of peoples, with red and blond hair. The Tarim mummies have been found in that
region since the twenties of last century but only in the eighties their Caucasoid origin has been discovered and later
finally proved by DNA testing. Paper 79, "Andite Expansion in the Orient" [34]
The book states that native Americans "were discovered by the white races of Europe" at "the end of the first
millennium of the Christian era." This statement was not proven until the year 1960, when the remains of Norse
village in Canada, from around AD 1000, were discovered. L'Anse aux Meadows Paper 79, "Andite Expansion in
the Orient" [34]
The existence of extrasolar planets, as described in The Urantia Book in the middle of last century, was first
confirmed in 1992.

Re-use of other sources

The Urantia Book states in its Foreword that more than one thousand "human concepts representing the highest and
most advanced planetary knowledge of spiritual values and universe meanings" were selected in preparing the
papers. The authors say that they were required to "give preference to the highest existing human concepts pertaining
to the subjects to be presented" and would "resort to pure revelation only when the concept of presentation has had
no adequate previous expression by the human mind."
In recent years, students of the papers have found that the free use of other sources appears to be true.[5] [24] None of
the material allegedly used from other sources are directly cited or referenced within the book, which could therefore
count as "plagiarism" by modern standards of scholarship.
The Urantia Book 384

In 1992, a reader of The Urantia Book, Matthew Block, self-published a paper that showed nineteen possible
examples of The Urantia Book utilizing material published earlier;[35] although Block describes his finding as a
synthesis of then-available information, in line with the authors' intent, and not direct plagiarism (see below). All of
the source authors identified in Block's paper were published in English between 1905 and 1943 by U.S. publishers
and are typically scholarly or academic works that contain concepts and wording similar to what is found in The
Urantia Book. Block has since claimed to have discovered over 125 source books and articles, written by over 90
authors, which were incorporated into the papers.[5]
The use of outside source materials was studied separately by Gardner and Gooch, and they concluded that the book
did use many of the sources noted by Block. Gardner found that at least one of the source book authors was quoted
in earlier works by Sadler, and most of the books purportedly would have been available to Sadler or Forum
members in Chicago prior to 1955.
For instance, Gardner and Block note that Paper 85 appears to have been taken from the first eight chapters of Origin
and Evolution of Religion by E. Washburn Hopkins, published by Yale University Press in 1923. Each section of the
paper corresponds to a chapter in the book, with several passages possibly used as direct material. Likewise, much of
The Urantia Book material relating to the evolution of mankind appears to have been directly taken from Henry
Fairfield Osborn, Man Rises to Parnassus: Critical Epochs in the Prehistory of Man published by Princeton
University Press in 1928.
In one example cited by Block, the original author discusses the periodicity of the chemical elements and concludes
that the harmony in the construction of the atom suggests some unspecified plan of organization. In conclusion from
this "plagiarism", the authors of The Urantia Book assert that this harmony is evidence of the intelligent design of the
universe. W. F. G. Swann writes on page 64 of The Architecture of the Universe (italics indicate edits as compared to
The Urantia Book, bolding indicates deletions):
Starting from any one of them [i.e., chemical elements], and noting some property such as the melting point,
for example, the property would change as we went along the row, but as we continued it would gradually
come back to the condition very similar to that which we started ... The eighth element was in many respects
like the first, the ninth like the second, the tenth like the third, and so on. Such a slate of affairs point[s] not
only to a varied internal structure, but also to a certain harmony in that variation suggestive of some
organized plan in building the atom.
Contrast with The Urantia Book's version:
Starting from any one element, after noting some one property, such a quality will exchange for six
consecutive elements, but on reaching the eighth, it tends to reappear, that is, the eighth chemically active
element resembles the first, the ninth the second, and so on. Such a fact of the physical world unmistakably
points to the sevenfold constitution of ancestral energy and is indicative of the fundamental reality of the
sevenfold diversity of the creations of time and space.
Block and many believers do not see the use of human source materials as plagiarism. Block writes:
One probable reason that the human sources were left undisguised was to enable students to discern, through
comparative analysis, how this coordination of planetary knowledge was actually effected. As mentioned
above, the initial analyses have already proved tremendously illuminating in this regard. Another reason was
to keep us aware of the book’s anchorage in a specific time and place. While a very large part of the book is of
timeless value and perennial applicability, some of its discussions directly address and respond to the world
situation of the early 20th century. Thus, every generation will have to determine the relevance and
applicability of certain of the book’s teachings to its own situation.
Emerging from all these discoveries is the gratifying realization that the Urantia Book is exactly what its
authors claim it to be.
The Urantia Book 385

Adherents
There is no way to gauge how many adherents there may be as there is no central organization to census. Informal
study groups "tend to sprout, ripen, then vanish or splinter" and have not been counted reliably.[24] Readers
sometimes join study groups after reading on their own for years or decades, others join them soon after developing
an interest in the book, while "for most, worship remains as individual as the act of reading."[24] Disagreements over
the legal ownership of the book, its interpretation, and the reception of new revelations have led to some splintering,
though these disagreements appear to have been settled to the satisfaction of most adherents.[36] The movement
generally incorporates a nonsectarian view, contending that individuals with different religious backgrounds can
receive the book's teachings as an enrichment rather than as a contradiction of their faiths.[37]
The book has been in print since 1955, but as compared to other religious or holy books that have a recent origin and
revelatory claims, such as the Book of Mormon, popularity of The Urantia Book has not grown as fast. The small
movement inspired by The Urantia Book has not developed clergy or institutions such as churches, reading rooms, or
temples, and has no membership by which a census of the number of followers can be taken.[24] [36] As of 2006, the
Urantia Foundation had one office in Chicago and five people on staff.[17]
Sarah Lewis notes that, "The Urantia Revelation is not securing legitimacy through historically known and accepted
means to any great degree, nor is it even using common language that would increase the likelihood of understanding
and therefore acceptance. It introduces new concepts and a new language, and this does not make acceptance any
easier." She assesses that the movement is uncontroversial compared to other ones, "lacking the zealous
proselytizing found within many other groups", and that it is therefore likely to remain small and unaffected by
opposing views.[3]
Urantia Foundation advocated a "slow growth" policy in the past and had not significantly marketed the book. Sales
by Urantia Foundation went from 7,000 in 1990 to 24,700 in 1997, and steadily increased to nearly 38,000 in 2000,
an "upturn that seems to represent a genuine trend rather than just some spike on a sales chart",[24] however by 2006
the foundation reported worldwide annual sales of 13,380 copies.[17] Approximately half of the books distributed by
Urantia Foundation are in languages other than English, particularly Spanish and Russian.[17] Since the book was
determined to be in the public domain in 2001, other organizations, such as The Urantia Book Fellowship under the
publishing name Uversa Press, have also published the book. They have sold over 15,000 copies since 2002. They
estimate that more than half a million free audio files have been downloaded from various Urantia websites in the
last few years.
The International Urantia Association had twenty-six reader associations worldwide as of 2002, and the Urantia
Book Fellowship (formerly the Urantia Brotherhood, founded in 1955 with Urantia Foundation as the original social
fraternal organization of believers) claimed roughly twelve hundred official members, with the highest
concentrations in the West of the United States and the Sun Belt, especially California, Colorado, Florida, and
Texas.[24] It appears an increasing number of people are forming study groups, participating in Internet discussion
groups, and hosting or visiting websites about it.[24] Reader conferences take place around the world.[38]

Symbols
One symbol described in The Urantia Book consists of three concentric azure circles on a
white background. The circles are said to have symbolized several trinity associations in the
history of humankind. The authors of The Urantia Book indicate its revealed meaning as
being "the infinity, eternity, and universality of the Paradise Trinity of divine maintenance
and direction."
The Urantia Book 386

Urantia Foundation, the original publisher, placed the concentric circles on the cover of The
Urantia Book and has a United States trademark. The circles are used to indicate other
organizations affiliated with the foundation.
The Urantia Association International, one of the main readership organizations in the
movement, has been licensed by Urantia Foundation to use the three azure concentric circles
on a white background.
Some other groups use the symbol in various altered forms. The Urantia Book Fellowship, an
independent reader organization established in 1955, uses a similar symbol in blue instead of
azure.

Popular culture
• Stevie Ray Vaughan (1954–1990), American blues-rock guitarist: "Stevie often brought along the book of Urantia
and read Lindi passages from the strange publication."[39]
• Robert Venosa, American artist-exhibited worldwide, represented in major collections, including noted museums,
rock stars & European aristocracy: "As is obvious in my work, The Urantia Book is very present as a main source
of inspiration. After my first reading of the book in 1968, I had a number of visions that, being an artist, I could
only make manifest through painting." [40]
• Kerry Livgren,:The influence of the teachings of the Urantia Book can be felt in the lyrics of Kansas' 1979 album
Monolith.
• In the book Six Feet Under: Better Living through Death, an in-universe companion piece to the television series
Six Feet Under, the Urantia Book is highlighted in a past correspondence held by one of the main characters.
• Karlheinz Stockhausen based his seven-opera cycle Licht on the cosmology of The Urantia Book.

References
[1] http:/ / worldcat. org/ oclc/ 49687706
[2] Urantia Foundation (1955). The Urantia Book. Urantia Foundation. ISBN 0-911560-02-5
[3] Lewis, James R. and Hammer, Olav (2007). The Invention of Sacred Tradition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-86479-8
[4] From the 2006 Urantia Foundation annual report ( PDF (http:/ / www. urantia. org/ pub/ AR2006. pdf)): "[The Italian translation] is the ninth
translation to be printed, joining French, Finnish, Spanish, Dutch, Russian, Korean, Lithuanian, and German. The Rumanian and Portuguese
translations are available on CD-ROM while undergoing final revision."
[5] Gardner, Martin (1995). Urantia: The Great Cult Mystery. Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-955-0
[6] "Notes For A History of The Urantia Movement" (http:/ / www. urantiabook. org/ archive/ history/ histumov. htm)
[7] "How The Urantia Book Came Into Existence" (http:/ / www. ubfellowship. org/ archive/ history/ wssjr1. htm) by William S. Sadler, Jr.,
February 18, 1962.
[8] Appendix to The Mind at Mischief (http:/ / www. ubfellowship. org/ archive/ history/ m_at_m. htm)
[9] Affidavit of Dr. Meredith Sprunger (http:/ / www. urantiabook. org/ mullinshistory/ sprunger_affidavit. htm) on October 24, 1998 regarding
the origin of The Urantia Book
[10] http:/ / urantiabook. org/ archive/ history/ h_timlin_3. htm
[11] http:/ / www. freeurantia. org/ Chapter6. htm Alternatively: "A candle cannot light the way to the sun."
[12] Ernest P. Moyer (February 16, 2000). "22". The Birth of a Divine Revelation : The Origin of the Urantia Papers. Moyer Pub. p. 312.
ISBN 9780967826400.
[13] Mather, George A. and Nichols, Larry A. (1993). Dictionary of Cults, Sects, Religions and the Occult. Zondervan Publishing House. ISBN
0-310-53100-4
[14] Thomas F. Cotter (March 2003). "Gutenberg's Legacy: Copyright, Censorship, and Religious Pluralism" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/
3481334). California Law Review 91 (2): 323–392. .
[15] Michael Foundation, Inc. v. Urantia Foundation v. Harry McMullan, III (http:/ / www. freeurantia. org/ judgmentUF. htm) US District
Court decision by jury that Urantia Foundation does not hold the copyright to The Urantia Book
[16] Michael Foundation, Inc. v. Urantia Foundation v. Harry McMullan, III (http:/ / ca10. washburnlaw. edu/ cases/ 2003/ 03/ 01-6347. htm)
US Court of Appeals affirms the jury decision that Urantia Foundation does not hold the copyright to The Urantia Book
[17] 2006 Urantia Foundation annual report ( PDF (http:/ / www. urantia. org/ pub/ AR2006. pdf))
[18] http:/ / www. urantia. org/ en/ urantia-book-standardized/ paper-2-nature-god Paper 2, "The Nature of God"
The Urantia Book 387

[19] http:/ / www. urantia. org/ en/ urantia-book-standardized/ paper-1-universal-father Paper 1, "The Universal Father"
[20] http:/ / www. urantia. org/ en/ urantia-book-standardized/ paper-196-faith-jesus Paper 196, "The Faith of Jesus"
[21] http:/ / www. urantia. org/ en/ urantia-book-standardized/ paper-108-mission-and-ministry-thought-adjusters Paper 108, "Mission and
Ministry of Thought Adjusters"
[22] http:/ / www. urantia. org/ en/ urantia-book-standardized/ paper-101-real-nature-religion
[23] http:/ / www. urantia. org/ en/ urantia-book-standardized/ paper-5-gods-relation-individual
[24] Gooch, Brad (2002). Godtalk: Travels in Spiritual America. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-679-44709-1
[25] House, Dr. H. Wayne (2000). Charts of Cults, Sects, and Religious Movements. Zondervan. ISBN 0-310-38551-2
[26] http:/ / www. urantia. org/ en/ urantia-book-standardized/ paper-131-worlds-religions
[27] http:/ / www. urantia. org/ en/ urantia-book-standardized/ paper-86-early-evolution-religion
[28] "Clergy Evaluate The Urantia Book – I" (http:/ / www. urantiabook. org/ archive/ mjs_archive/ mjs_clergy_evaluate_I. htm) by Meredith
Sprunger, January 1986.
[29] http:/ / www. ubthenews. com/ topics_summaries. htm UB the News
[30] Paper 101, "The Real Nature of Religion"
[31] http:/ / www. daviddarling. info/ encyclopedia/ C/ catashypoth. html
[32] http:/ / www. urantia. org/ en/ urantia-book/ text-standardization
[33] McMenamin, Mark A. S. The Garden of Ediacara: Discovering the Earliest Complex Life Columbia. University Press. New Ed edition
(October 15, 2000) ISBN 0-231-10559-2
[34] http:/ / www. urantia. org/ en/ urantia-book-standardized/ paper-79-andite-expansion-in-orient
[35] "Some Human Sources of The Urantia Book" (http:/ / www. squarecircles. com/ urantiabooksourcestudies/ 1992sources/
sourcesoftheurantiabook. htm) by Matthew Block, originally published in 1992. Describes suspected parallels Block found between The
Urantia Book and possible human sources of material.
[36] Partridge, Christopher (2004). New Religions: A Guide (2nd Edition). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-522042-0
[37] Melton, J. Gordon. 1990. New Age Encyclopedia (First Edition). Gale Research Inc.
[38] Urantia Book related Calendar of Events (http:/ / www. squarecircles. com/ events/ 2008/ 2008. htm)
[39] Stevie Ray Vaughan: Caught in the Crossfire ISBN 978-0-316-16069-8
[40] Theoquest | Vision Quest (http:/ / www. theoquest. com/ community/ vision/ )

External links
• Urantia Foundation (http://www.urantia.org/) website, the original publisher but now one of several copies of
the book available online
• The Urantia Book Historical Society (http://www.ubhistory.org/)
• Translations Portal (http://www.theuniversalfather.com/) Translations
• Perfecting Horizons (http://www.perfectinghorizons.org/) Online Study Group for beginners through advanced

Bibliography
• Malcolm Locke, The Urantia Revelation: the Structure and Meaning of the Universe Explained. Bascom Hill
Books, Minneapolis, MN, 2010. ISBN 978-1-935456-22-3. Summary of the story told in The Urantia Book.http:/
/www.amazon.com/Urantia-Revelation-Structure-Universe-Explained/dp/1935456229/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&
ie=UTF8&qid=1297112696&sr=1-1
George Van Tassel 388

George Van Tassel

George Van Tassel
Born March 12, 1910Jefferson, Ohio

Died February 9, 1978 (aged 67)

Occupation Ufologist

George Van Tassel (March 12, 1910 - February 9, 1978) was an American contactee, ufologist, and paranormal
research leader who commenced building the Integratron in 1958 in Landers, California.

History
Van Tassel was born in Jefferson, Ohio and grew up in a fairly prosperous middle-class family. He dropped out of
high school in the 10th grade and got a job at a Cleveland airport; he also got a pilot's license. At 20, he headed for
California, where at first he worked for a garage owned by an uncle.
While working at the garage he met Frank Critzer, an eccentric loner who claimed to be working a mine somewhere
near Giant Rock, a 7-story boulder near Landers, California. Frank Critzer was a German immigrant trying to make a
living in the desert as a prospector. During World War II, Critzer was under suspicion as a German spy and died
during a police siege at the Rock in 1942. Upon receiving news of Critzer's death, Van Tassel applied for a lease of
the abandoned airport near Giant Rock from the Bureau of Land Management, who managed the land, and was
eventually given a renewable Federal Government contract to develop the airstrip.
Van Tassel became an aircraft mechanic and flight inspector who at various times between 1930 and 1947 worked
for Douglas Aircraft, Hughes Aircraft, and Lockheed. While at Hughes Aircraft he was the Top Flight Inspector. He
finally left Southern California's booming aerospace industry for the desert in 1947. He and his family at first lived a
simple existence in the rooms Frank Critzer had dug out under Giant Rock. Van Tassel eventually built a home, a
cafe, a small airstrip, and a dude ranch beside the Rock.

Integratron
Meditating beside Giant Rock in 1951, Van Tassel claimed to have been transported astrally to a huge alien space
ship orbiting the earth, where he met the all-wise "Council of Seven Lights." In 1952 Van Tassel reported he had
been visited in the flesh by human-appearing, friendly space aliens from Venus, who suggested that he attempt to
build a structure aimed at extending human life, to help people take advantage of the wisdom acquired through age.
It was of course the Integratron, and it became his apparent obsession for the next 25 years. The structure actually
was finished by 1959, but seemed completely non-functional; Van Tassel tinkered with it fruitlessly for the rest of
his life.
It was supposedly a domed time/energy machine built partially upon the theories of Nikola Tesla. Created to
recharge and rejuvenate people’s cells, at the behest of an advanced entity with which Van Tassel communicated
telepathically, for a coming “Lord” from outer space, it was however not without its risks. According to Van Tassel's
theory, an overcharge could make a person spontaneously combust -- or even explode. The wood structure lacks a
rotating metal apparatus on the outside which was to be the functioning part. Now it is simply an empty all wood
dome, lacking even metal screws or nails. In recent times New Agers have declared the structure a power spot and
claim to be rejuvenated by staying there, and experiencing sound baths inside.
George Van Tassel 389

Conventions and organizations

Van Tassel was a classic 1950s contactee in the mold of George Adamski, Truman Bethurum, Orfeo Angelucci and
many others. He hosted The Giant Rock Spacecraft Convention annually beside the Rock, from 1953 to 1978, that
attracted at its peak in 1959 as many as 10,000 attendees. Guests trekked to the desert by car or landed airplanes on
Van Tassel's small airstrip, grandly called Giant Rock Airport.
Every famous contactee appeared personally at these conventions over the years, and many more not-so-famous
ones. References often state that the first and most famous contactee, George Adamski, pointedly boycotted these
conventions. In fact, however, Adamski attended the third convention, held in 1955, where he gave a 35-minute
lecture and was interviewed by Edward J. Ruppelt, once head of the Air Force Project Blue Book. It was the only
such convention Adamski attended.
Like most 1950s contactees, he founded a paranormal research organization calledThe Ministry of Universal
Wisdom, and The College of Universal Wisdom to codify the spiritual revelations he was now continually receiving
via "psychic resonance" with the Space Brothers.

Publications
Van Tassel's now-rare book, I Rode a Flying Saucer(1952, 1955), recounts some of the cosmic wisdom he received
from "Solgonda" and a large number of other god-like Space Brothers. Among his other works are The Council of
Seven Lights (1958), Into This World and Out Again, Religion and Science Merged, and When Stars Look Down.

References
• Lewis, James R., editor, UFOs and Popular Culture, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 2000. ISBN
1-57607-265-7.
• Story, Ronald D., editor, The Encyclopedia of Extraterrestrial Encounters, NY, NY: New American Library,
2001. ISBN 0-451-20424-7.

External links
• A witty reminiscence of Van Tassel (http://www.ufoevidence.org/documents/doc1904.htm) at UFO Evidence
• A planned (2006) revival of Van Tassel's Spacecraft Conventions (http://www.usatoday.com/printedition/
news/20060427/a_ufo27.art.htm), USA Today, April 27, 2006
Ivan Stang 390

Ivan Stang
Rev. Ivan Stang, born Douglass St. Clair Smith August 21, 1953 in
Washington, D.C., raised in Fort Worth, Texas, and attended the St.
Mark's School of Texas. He is best known as the author and publisher
of the first screed of the Church of the SubGenius. He is credited with
founding the Church with friend Philo Drummond in 1979, though
Stang himself denies this and claims the organization was founded in
1953 by J. R. "Bob" Dobbs. Since the publication of the first
SubGenius pamphlet in 1980, Stang has embarked on a worldwide
crusade (spanning at least three continents) to promote the Church. In
Reverend Stang
May 2006 he finished writing, editing and designing a new SubGenius
book for Thunder's Mouth Press, The SubGenius Psychlopaedia of
Slack: The Bobliographon. He has appeared on several national radio and television shows, including The Jon
Stewart Show on MTV. Stang is an instructor on the faculty of the Maybe Logic Academy.[1] Both he and J.R. "Bob"
Dobbs appear as characters in John Shirley's science fiction novel Kamus of Kadizar: The Black Hole of Carcosa.

SubGenius Foundation
Stang also founded the business entity of the Church, the SubGenius Foundation. The SubGenius Foundation was
located in Dallas, Texas for most of its life, though in 1999 Stang himself relocated to Cleveland Heights, Ohio. The
SubGenius Foundation is now based there, and the syndicated show The Hour of Slack is produced partially at
WCSB at Cleveland State University. His "Rants" are a regular feature at the Starwood Festival,[2] and WinterStar
Symposium[3] both produced by the Association for Consciousness Exploration (ACE). The Church has collaborated
with ACE on a number of projects, including CDs, DVDs and the Rant 'n Rave events in Cleveland, Ohio. He was
awarded Best Crack-Pot Preacher by the Cleveland Scene in 2000.[4] Stang himself continues to promote the Church,
and he is a prominent member of Cleveland's underground pop culture scene.

High Weirdness By Mail

In 1988, Stang compiled a book called High Weirdness By Mail – A Directory of the Fringe: Crackpots, Kooks &
True Visionaries. The book examined many non-mainstream or marginal cultural movements of the period, as well
as providing contact information for those wishing to interact directly with those driving these movements. The
modern offshoot of High Weirdness By Mail is "The High Weirdness Project",[5] which is part of the Subgenius
wiki.[6]

Filmmaking
Stang is a filmmaker and editor. In addition to creating several stop-motion short films with such titles as The
Reproduction Cycle of Martian Peen Worms and Let's Visit the World of the Future, he also edited the 1989
feature-length VHS video spoof-documentary Arise! for the Church of the SubGenius, as well as providing narration
and commentary for the 1999 documentary Grass. Commercial jobs have included a 60-second "Art Break"
animated short for MTV, animation in a Devo music video, as well as writing and editing the feature length
documentaries China Run and The Cu-Chi Tunnels.
Ivan Stang 391

Bibliography
• 1983 - The Book of the SubGenius (McGraw-Hill) ISBN 0-07-062229-9 / Reprinted 1987 (Simon &
Schuster/Fireside) ISBN 0-671-63810-6
• 1988 - High Weirdness by Mail (Simon & Schuster/Fireside) ISBN 0-671-64260-X
• 1990 - Three-Fisted Tales of "Bob" (Simon & Schuster/Fireside) ISBN 0-671-67190-1
• 1994 - Revelation X: The "Bob" Apocryphon – Hidden Teachings and Deuterocanonical Texts of J. R. "Bob"
Dobbs (Simon & Schuster/Fireside), with illustrations by St. Joe Riley et al., ISBN 0-671-77006-3
• 2006 - The SubGenius Psychlopaedia of Slack: The Bobliographon (Avalon/Thunder's Mouth Press), with
illustrations by St. Joe Riley et al., ISBN 1-56025-939-6

Discography
Partial discography includes:
• Starwood Slack! (recorded rant on cassette) (ACE)
• Invisible College Drop-Outs (recorded rant on cassette) (ACE)
• The Stupid Rant (recorded rant on cassette) (ACE)
• High Weirdness By Mail (recorded rant on cassette) (ACE)
• Rev. Stang Live at Starwood (recorded rant on CD + music) ISBN 1-59157-005-0 (ACE)
• I Was A Cultist For The A.T.F. [7] (radio drama starring Stang)
• The Once and Future Legend (panel discussion on cassette with Ariana Lightningstorm, Patricia Monaghan, Jeff
Rosenbaum, Robert Shea & Robert Anton Wilson) (ACE)
• What IS the Conspiracy, Anyway? (panel discussion on cassette with Anodea Judith, Jeff Rosenbaum, Robert
Shea and Robert Anton Wilson) (ACE)

Filmography
Partial filmography includes:
• 1973 - Let's Visit the World of the Future (Director, writer, & actor)
• 1978 - Reproduction Cycle Among Unicellular Life Forms Under the Rocks of Mars (Director, writer, & narrator)
• 1979 - Mono (Director & writer)
• 1987 - China Run (Video editor)
• 1989 - Arise!: The SubGenius Video (Island Records) (Director, writer, & appears as self)
• 1990 - The Cu Chi Tunnels (Video & script editor)
• 1992 - Arise!: The SubGenius Video (Polygram Records) ASIN 6302311616 (Director, writer, & appears as self)
• 1992 - Church of the Subgenius: Sect? Satire? Or Satanism? (Appears as self)
• 1999 - Grass (Narrator & does commentary)
• 2000 - Duelin' Firemen! (Actor)
• 2003 - Maybe Logic: The Lives and Ideas of Robert Anton Wilson (Appears as self)
• 2008 - God's Cartoonist: The Comic Crusade of Jack Chick (Appears as self)[8]
Ivan Stang 392

References
[1] Maybe Logic Academy (http:/ / www. maybelogic. org/ stangcrs. htm)
[2] Witchvox article on Starwood (http:/ / www. witchvox. com/ va/ dt_va. html?a=usma& c=festivals& id=10028)
[3] WinterStar 2001 Slackathon: Exhausting!! (http:/ / www. subgenius. com/ bigfist/ fun/ devivals/ Winterstar-01/ winterstar-01. html), article
by Rev. Ivan Stang
[4] "Best Crack-Pot Preacher of 2000" (http:/ / bestof. clevescene. com/ bestof/ award. php?award=20549), Cleveland Scene
[5] The High Weirdness Project (http:/ / www. modemac. com/ cgi-bin/ wiki. pl)
[6] Subgenius wiki (http:/ / www. modemac. com/ cgi-bin/ wiki. pl)
[7] http:/ / www. radiohorrorhosts. com/ cultist4ATF. html
[8] imdb.com entry on Douglass Smith (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0808028/ )

• Beale, Scott "SubGenius Reunion on Puzzling Evidence" (http://laughingsquid.com/

subgenius-reunion-on-puzzling-evidence/) (November 27, 2005)
• Gilboa, Netta "Getting Gray With Reverend Ivan Stang" (http://www.grayarea.com/subgenius.htm), interview
with Rev. Stang
• Gill, Michael (2005). "Circle of Ash" (http://www.freetimes.com/story/3493) Cleveland Free Times (July 7,
2005) Feature article includes Ivan Stang discussing Starwood
• Hermes, Will "Slack Is Back" (http://citypages.com/databank/17/791/article2495.asp) City Pages (January
31, 1996)
• Krassner, Paul (2005). "Life Among the Neopagans" (http://www.thenation.com/doc/20050829/krassner) in
The Nation, August 24, 2005 (web only).
• Niesel, Jeff "Slack Is Back: Quit Your Job! Make Waste! The Church of the SubGenius Has Come to Town!"
(http://www.clevescene.com/2000-04-06/news/slack-is-back/full) Cleveland Scene (April 6, 2000)

External links
• The Church of the SubGenius (http://www.subgenius.com/)
• The Return of High Weirdness By Mail (http://subgenius.com/hwbw.htm)
• The High Weirdness Project (http://www.modemac.com/wiki): Web-based sequel to High Weirdness By Mail
• Dogma Free America podcast interview with Ivan Stang (http://dogmafreeamerica.libsyn.com/index.
php?post_id=223055#)
• Douglass Smith (http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0808028/) at the Internet Movie Database
• THEY DON'T CALL IT SUBGENIUS FOR NOTHING (http://www.spunk.org/texts/writers/black/
sp001674.html)
Aggressive Christianity Missionary Training Corps 393

Aggressive Christianity Missionary Training

Corps
The Aggressive Christianity Missionary Training Corps (ACMTC, aka Free Love Ministries and Life Force
Team) is an American absolutist, military structured, intentional community. Founded in 1981 by "Generals" Jim
and Lila Green, (Lila also often known as Deborah Green) it is based in a remote area of Cibola County, New
Mexico where their lives will be changed in ways that may have not been clear to them when they were persuaded to
move there. The Greens have been heavily criticized over the years for being an isolationist cult.[1]

Background

Hippies
Jim Green was born in 1946, and had been raised in a Christian home in Kentucky. As a hippie, he moved to
California, and later Montana in the late 1960s. Lila/Deborah was born in 1945 - and was a young fan of Elvis
Presley and The Beatles, Lila confessed that,
The seeds of ROCK MUSIC were planted deep within me. Little did I realize that as the years passed and the
ROCK MUSIC got rockier, that my life would follow the trend and as the music which was to lead a
generation into rebellion, drugs, illicit sex, and bondage to sin, that I too would become one of many caught in
the web of mesmerizing sounds. [...] I seemed to flourish on wild, wanton music.[2]
Lila and Jim in the early 1970s joined a "radical, back-to-nature" group in Montana called the "Bear Tribe." Jim,
then known as "Buffalo Sun," was experimenting with "blood ceremonies" where he found "pleasure inside of pain."
He used to run around the mountains and live in teepees. Jim wore a loin cloth and howled at the moon." Jim
described this time with him on crank, throwing his hunting knife and screaming, "KILL, KILL, KILL." He said,
"the blaring HARD ROCK MUSIC provided inspiration to my insane frenzy."[2]
Lila attempted suicide at least three times, "the last time narrowly escaping death." She was addicted to marijuana,
and experimented with many other drugs. At 24, Lila claimed to have been a drug burnout, until,
Jesus Christ reached down His hands of mercy and brought me out of the captivity of sin, freeing me from a
life of drugs, free sex, and Rock Music.[2]

Free Love Ministries

After becoming Christians, Lila and James Green both served in Miami's Salvation Army in 1978, and credit them
for ACMTC's military structure. Like The Salvation Army, ACMTC's emphasis is on spiritual warfare against Satan
and his demons. ACMTC may have taken its name from a sermon by Salvation Army co-founder Catherine Booth
titled "Aggressive Christianity."[3] . Unlike members of the Salvation Army the Greens do not appear to do social
and charitable work.
The Greens then eventually established Free Love Ministries between 1979 and 1981 in Sacramento,[4] [5] which,
according to Schmierer, began as an "orthodox christian" ministry. Lila began to say that she was God's "number one
prophet" and Religious services began to include Lila's sermons and prophecies, chanting, writhing on the floor, and
speaking in tongues.[2]
According to one Sacramento resident, the ACMTC maintained a "very high profile." They appeared in public in
marine-style clothing with a golden winged logo on their jackets; male members donned short hair and polished
shoes. Most members at the time lived in their "training center". This communal type of arrangement consisted of
several adjacent houses which the group purchased and renovated with funds partially acquired from three art shops
which were staffed and run by members of the group. Jim and Lila Green started out as "Colonels" and later came to
Aggressive Christianity Missionary Training Corps 394

be considered "Brigedier Generals" and then "Generals" by their converts.[4]

Their show on KFIA, a Sacramento Christian radio station, regularly warned listeners to brace for war against
Satanic forces responsible for such modern scourges as homosexuality, psychoanalysis, fornication, rock 'n' roll and
pride. KFIA removed ACMTC from their airwaves in 1984.[2] They abruptly left Sacramento after a local television
station investigated claims that they were a cult and had intentionally damaged property as well as mistreating their
members. Abrupt departures would become a hallmark of their style of ministry.

Excommunication
In 1988, Maura Schmierer filed a lawsuit against Free Love Ministries, asking for $20 million in damages.[6] Maura
Schmierer claimed that the Greens had accused her of loving her husband more than God, brainwashed her, changed
her name to "Forsaken," and then forced her and another brainwashed member to stay in a 5 x12 foot wooden shed
with no bathroom or access to one for ten weeks, their only nourishment consisting of tiny peanut butter sandwiches.
Schmierer's 5-year-old son's name was changed to "Demon" when the Greens accused him of being possessed.[2]
The Greens never appeared in court. They lost the case by default and the court ordered ACMTC to pay Schmierer
$1.2 million. The Greens were unable to produce the money, so their compound was seized by the court.[7]
The ACMTC ministry states:
The slanderous lies and persecution generated against us is expected, just as the Lord said in John 15:20
"Remember the word that I said unto you, The servant is not greater than his lord. If they have persecuted me,
they will also persecute you; if they have kept my saying, they will keep yours also." The reason the media
looks at us in such a negative view is because we stand for the uncompromised truth, if we compromised
Biblical truth such as famous pastors and evangelists today, the world would favor us to an extent because we
would be of it; but because we're not of it, but of the Lord and His will, we are persecuted.

Life Force Team

Later, Free Love Ministries settled in Klamath Falls, Oregon. By then, ACMTC had dwindled to only about 19
people.[2] At this point, the Greens were focusing their printed articles on abortion, homosexuals, rap and rock
music, and other issues that they thought society needed to change. Lila began signing her articles, "Deborah L.
Green," and ACMTC now called itself by "Life Force Team" as well as ACMTC.[2]
In 1993, ACMTC bought an old school building in Berino, and established another camp in Gallup, New Mexico.[7]

Beliefs and practices

Main objectives
ACMTC believes in the subjective interpretation of the Bible and the doctrines therein to suit their purposes. Their
focus and mission is based upon Mark 16:15 in the Bible.
And Jesus said unto them, Go ye into all the world, and preach the gospel to every creature. He that
believeth and is baptized shall be saved; but he that believeth not shall be damned. And these signs shall
follow them that believe; In my name shall they cast out devils; they shall speak with new tongues; They
shall take up serpents; and if they drink any deadly thing, it shall not hurt them; they shall lay hands on
the sick, and they shall recover.
To align themselves with this scripture the group gets thousands of gospel tracts and literature printed each month
and sends out hundreds of pounds of literature for free. Another focus is evangelism and witnessing where they
claim to see hundreds of souls pray the prayer of Salvation to Jesus Christ monthly.
They also claim to see numerous healings and miracles but these are unconfirmed. [8]
Aggressive Christianity Missionary Training Corps 395

Most of ACMTC's printed matter is directed to teenagers and young adults, in the form of printed booklets boldly
illustrated with clip art; they also publish comics, drawn by Jim Green.[2]

Deliverance and demons

ACMTC has never believed or does believe now that a Christian can be possessed by a demon, but rather that
Christians may possess one or more demon(s) and it is the Christian’s responsibility to drive them out.[9] The basis
for the deliverance beliefs held by ACMTC is:
1. Jesus cast out Devils (Luke 11:20, 13:32 etc.)
2. Jesus' disciples cast out Devils (Luke 9:1, 10:17)
3. Jesus commands His Disciples to cast out Devils (Matthew 10:8, Mark 16:17)

Levels of Christianity
Consistent with their adherence to the manifest Sons of God teaching, they also hold the belief in three separate
levels of Christianity; that is, that there are thirtyfold Christians (justification), sixtyfold Christians (sanctification),
and hundredfold Christians (glorification). Or alternately, as one long-time member explained it, the thirtyfold
Christians are those who are merely saved, sixtyfold Christians are those who speak in tongues and have the Baptism
of the Holy Spirit, while hundredfold Christians are the Overcomers, the Manifest Sons of God.[4] The Greens
perceive themselves to be at the top level of Overcomers and uniquely "sealed" in this world.

Kingdom Now
ACMTC also holds a "Dominion" or "Kingdom Now" teachings theology. They hold to attempting to become
"Overcomers" or "Victorious". Like many other groups with similar beliefs, they believe that a devote Christian
group of people will move out of the Church and overcome all the enemies of Christ including even death itself. This
will include unheard of miraculous power as well as acts of judgment such as calling down fire on God's enemies.[4]

Opposition to Homosexuals and Islam

Publications of the group assert that homosexuality is "an abomination", that a Homosexual or Lesbian cannot be a
Christian unless giving up completely their sexual practices, and that Homosexuals and Lesbians who die without
"repenting" are doomed to eternal perdition. Accordingly, Churches which accept homosexuals as legitimate or
admit them as clergy are denounced as "false Christians". In some publications members take pride of having
confronted Homosexuality in the 1980s "even in the heart of Sodomite San Francisco".
The group has also taken a strongly anti-Islamic position, publishing several brochures which strongly denounce
Muhammad as a "False Prophet", direct questions about the accuracy of the Koran, and assert that Muslims are bent
on world conquest.

In the media
In 1989 Jodi Hernandez was part of a group of reporters that examined the Aggressive Christians from 3/89-9/89,
through KOVR-TV, CBS channel 13 Sacramento. She now works for NBC. Disturbing revelations of treatment by
the Greens against children and adults were graphically described in this report[10]
In December 1999, Darren White, former secretary of the Department of Public Safety for New Mexico, and then
reporter for KRQE, CBS channel 13, Albuquerque, reported on the questionable practices of the Greens.
On November 4, 2005, Jim Maniaci of the Gallup Independent of Grants reported on the co-leader of an isolated
religious group who was jailed on an aggravated battery with a deadly weapon charge named Jim Green. The article
reported that Green was booked into the Cibola County Detention Center on Oct. 29 after an altercation with two
other men at the Shim Ra Na Holy Tribal Nation farm near Fence Lake in the rural southwestern portion of the
Aggressive Christianity Missionary Training Corps 396

county.[11]
In June, 2006, Annie McCormick of KRQE, CBS channel 13, Albuquerque, NM , also investigated the Greens using
first hand reports from former members and families.[12]
The media has been consistent in reporting the Greens as a danger to society and a danger to the people under their
rule.

Notes
[1] Dr Phil. Cult confrontations. Generals for God. http:/ / www. drphil. com/ shows/ show/ 756
[2] Kossy, Donna (May 1994). Kooks: A Guide to the Outer Limits of Human Belief. Feral House. p. 254. ISBN 0-922915-19-9.
[3] http:/ / www. gospeltruth. net/ booth/ cath_booth/ agressive_christianity/ cbooth_1_agressive. htm
[4] "1987 Information Paper". Apologetics Resource Center.
[5] Bruce, Daniels (2005-11-07). ""Aggressive Christians" bury the hatchet in Cibola County". Albuquerque Journal.
[6] Trinda, Pasquet (1988-03-16). "Mother of 3 sues cult- tells of life in shed". The Sacramento Union.
[7] Dan, Williams (1995-06-25). ""Soldiers of God" have New Mexico town abuzz". El Paso Times.
[8] "Miracles In Our Midst" (http:/ / www. judgmentismercy. info/ Miracles. html). New Mexico Straight Record Center. . Retrieved 2007-11-01.
[9] "ACMTC Beliefs on Deliverance" (http:/ / www. judgmentismercy. info/ Deliverance. html). New Mexico Straight Record Center. .
Retrieved 2007-11-01.
[10] Jodi Hernandez http:/ / www. nbcbayarea. com/ station/ about-us/ Jodi_Hernandez. html
[11] Maniaci, Jim. "Religious leader bonds out, Green released from jail until court date on aggravated battery charge"], Independent, November
4, 2005. (http:/ / www. gallupindependent. com/ 2005/ nov/ 110405bndsout. html)
[12] http:/ / anniemccormick. com/

References
• Maniaci, Jim. "Religious leader bonds out, Green released from jail until court date on aggravated battery charge"
(http://www.gallupindependent.com/2005/nov/110405bndsout.html), Independent, November 4, 2005.

External links
• Official website (http://http://www.aggressivechristianity.net/)
• JudgmentIsMercy.info (http://www.judgmentismercy.info/) – sister site of ACMTC
• ACMTC (http://www.culthelp.info/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=62&Itemid=8) at the
Cult Awareness and Information Centre (more here (http://www.culthelp.info/index.
php?option=com_content&task=category&sectionid=3&id=6&Itemid=8))
• ACMTC (http://home.pacifier.com/~dkossy/ACMTC.html) at the Kooks Museum
Discordianism 397

Discordianism
Discordianism is a religion, or parody religion, that worships Eris
(also known as Discordia), the Greco-Roman goddess of chaos. It was
founded circa 1958–1959 by Malaclypse the Younger with the
publication of its principal text, the Principia Discordia.
Discordianism is a "Ha Ha, Only Serious" 'joke',[1] using humor to
subversively spread what its members regard as a valid philosophy. To
keep said beliefs from becoming dangerous fanaticism, they rely on
self-subverting Dada-Zen humor, with varying degrees of success. It is
regarded as a joke religion, though to what degree is disputed.[2]
It has been likened to Zen, based on similarities with absurdist
interpretations of the Rinzai school. Discordianism is centered on the
idea that chaos is all that there is, and that disorder and order are both
Eris, the goddess of Chaos
illusions that are imposed on chaos. These are referred to, respectively,
as the "Eristic" and "Aneristic" illusions. Discordianism recognizes the
positive aspects of chaos, discord, and dissent as valid and desirable qualities, in contrast with most religions, which
idealize harmony and order.

It is difficult to estimate the number of followers and correctly identify Discordian groups. There is an
encouragement to form schisms and cabals.[3] [4] Additionally, few adherents hold Discordianism as their only or
primary faith.[5]

Founding
The foundational document of Discordianism is the Principia Discordia, fourth edition, written by Malaclypse the
Younger, an alias of Greg Hill. This book contains many references to an earlier source, The Honest Book of Truth
(HBT). From the quotations, the HBT seems to be arranged like the Bible, consisting of verses grouped into chapters
grouped into books grouped into the HBT itself. The Principia includes a large portion of (or possibly all of) a
chapter of "The Book of Explanations" which recounts how the HBT was revealed to Lord Omar Khayyam
Ravenhurst.[6] The tale of the discovery of the HBT contains many similarities to the tale of the discovery of the
Book of Mormon, and that Ravenhurst had been a Mormon. It also includes part of the next chapter, telling how the
HBT was taken by a garbage collector, who refused to return it.[7]
Discordianism can be interpreted as a belief that disharmony and chaos are equally valid aspects of reality. The
Principia Discordia often hints that Discordianism was founded as a dialectic antithesis to more popular religions
based on order, although the rhetoric throughout the book describes chaos as a much more underlying impulse of the
universe. This may have been done with the intention of merely "balancing out" the creative forces of order and
disorder, but the focus is on the more disorderly aspects of the world — at times the forces of order are even vilified.
There are other religions that revere the principles of harmony and order in the Universe.[8] [9]
Discordianism 398

Organization
If organized religion is the opium of the masses, then disorganized religion is the marijuana of the lunatic
fringe.
—Kerry Thornley, The introduction to the Principia Discordia 5th Ed.
The very idea of a Discordian organization is something of a paradox. Nevertheless, some structure is indicated in
Principia Discordia. The most general group, presumably including all Discordians (and potentially others), is The
Discordian Society, whose definition is “The Discordian Society has no definition”.[10] Within the society are sects of
Discordianism, each under the direction of an “Episkopos” (overseer in Greek.)
Discordians who do not form their own sects, whether they belong to someone else's sect or not, make up the Legion
of Dynamic Discord, and may be referred to as Legionnaires. Would-be Discordians are told in the Principia
Discordia:
If you want in on the Discordian Society
then declare yourself what you wish
do what you like
and tell us about it
or
if you prefer
don't.
There are no rules anywhere.
The Goddess Prevails.
—Malaclypse the Younger, Principia Discordia, Page 00032

POEE
The sect of Discordianism founded by Malaclypse the Younger and Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst is known as the
Paratheo-Anametamystikhood Of Eris Esoteric (POEE), a Non-prophet Irreligious Disorganisation, and the
Principia Discordia tells about POEE in particular, as well as Discordianism in general.
For example, the Principia contains some details about the structure of POEE. In particular:
POEE has 5 DEGREES:
There is the neophyte, or LEGIONNAIRE DISCIPLE.
The LEGIONNAIRE DEACON, who is catching on.
An Ordained POEE PRIEST/PRIESTESS or a CHAPLAIN.
The HIGH PRIEST, the Polyfather.
And POEE POPE.
POEE LEGIONNAIRE DESCIPLES are authorized to initiate others as Discordian Society Legionnaires.
PRIESTS appoint their own DEACONS. The POLYFATHER ordains Priests. I don't know about the POPES.
—Malaclypse the Younger, Principia Discordia, Page 00022
According to the Principia Discordia, POEE is “a tribe of philosophers, theologians, magicians, scientists, artists,
clowns, and similar maniacs who are intrigued by Eris goddess of confusion and her doings.” Furthermore it states
that “POEE subscribes to the Law Of Fives of Omar's sect” and “POEE also recognizes the Holy 23.”
Paratheo-Anametamystikhood can be taken to mean "equivalent deity, reversing beyond-mystique". Loosely
interpreted, it basically states that "all deities are equivalent, there is no great mystery about that".
Discordianism 399

Episkopos
Some Episkoposes have a one-man cabal. Some work together. Some never do explain.
—Malaclypse the Younger, Principia Discordia, Page 00032
Episkoposes are the Overseers of sects of Discordianism, who have presumably created their own sect of
Discordianism. They speak to Eris through the use of their pineal gland. It is said in the Principia Discordia that Eris
says different things to each listener. She may even say radically different things to each Episkopos but, all of what
she says is equally her word (even if it contradicts another iteration of her word).
Most Episkoposes have an assumed name and/or title of bizarre nature and self-proclaimed 'mystic import', such as
Malaclypse the Younger, Polyfather of Virginity in Gold; Lord Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst, Bull Goose of Limbo;
Professor Mu-Chao; and Kassil the Erratic. Some Discordians choose their entire title by themselves, some turn to
random generators, others assimilate things from other people, and a few never really offer any explanation.

Popes
According to the Principia Discordia, a pope is “every single man, woman, and child on this Earth.”[11]
Included in the Principia Discordia is an official Pope card that may be reproduced and distributed freely to anyone
and everyone.[11] Papacy, however, is not granted through possession of this card; it merely informs people that they
are “a genuine and authorized Pope” of Discordia.
While the powers of a Pope are not enumerated in the Principia, the card states, “A Pope is someone who is not
under the authority of the authorities.” Some Discordians have also taken it upon themselves to further elaborate
upon the powers of a Pope. On the back of some Pope cards, the following message can be found:
The rights of a Pope include but are not necessarily limited to:
1. To invoke infallibility at any time, including retroactively.
2. To completely rework the Erisian church.
3. To baptise, bury, and marry (with the permission of the deceased in the latter two cases).
4. To excommunicate, de-ex-communicate, re-ex-communicate, and de-re-ex-communicate (no backsies!) both
him-/her-/it-/them-/your-/our-/Him-/Her-/It-/Them-/Your-/Our-self/selves and others (if any).
5. To perform all rites and functions deemed inappropriate for a Pope of Discordia.
The third right (requiring permission from the deceased in cases of burying or marriage, but not baptism) may be a
reference to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints practice of baptism for the dead, or it may just be a
witty conflation of marriage and death.
This understanding of the notion of Pope has far reaching consequences in Discordianism. For example, the
introduction to Principia Discordia says, “Only a Pope may canonize a Saint. … So you can ordain yourself — and
anyone or anything else — a Saint.” The last enumerated right of a Pope may be an allusion to the Necessary and
Proper Clause.
A female version, with the word Mome substituted for Pope, has also been promulgated.
Discordianism 400

Philosophy
There are as many interpretations of Discordianism as there are Discordians, centering around the words "Ancient
Greeks", "Chaos Worship" and "Anarchism". This is an extremely debatable assertion of what would define
Discordian philosophy as a whole. Indeed, it is a notion directly confronted by the concept of the Eristic Illusion, as
mentioned in the following passage, a summary of part of the Discordian philosophy which appears in the Principia
Discordia:
Here follows some psycho-metaphysics.
If you are not hot for philosophy, best just to skip it.
The Aneristic Principle is that of apparent order; the Eristic Principle is that of apparent disorder. Both order
and disorder are man made concepts and are artificial divisions of pure chaos, which is a level deeper than is
the level of distinction making.
With our concept-making apparatus called "the brain" we look at reality through the ideas-about-reality which
our cultures give us.
The ideas-about-reality are mistakenly labeled "reality" and unenlightened people are forever perplexed by the
fact that other people, especially other cultures, see "reality" differently.
It is only the ideas-about-reality which differ. Real (capital-T) True reality is a level deeper than is the level of
concept.
We look at the world through windows on which have been drawn grids (concepts). Different philosophies use
different grids. A culture is a group of people with rather similar grids. Through a window we view chaos, and
relate it to the points on our grid, and thereby understand it. The order is in the grid. That is the Aneristic
Principle.
Western philosophy is traditionally concerned with contrasting one grid with another grid, and amending grids
in hopes of finding a perfect one that will account for all reality and will, hence, (say unenlightened
westerners) be True. This is illusory; it is what we Erisians call the Aneristic Illusion. Some grids can be more
useful than others, some more beautiful than others, some more pleasant than others, etc., but none can be
more True than any other.
Disorder is simply unrelated information viewed through some particular grid. But, like "relation", no-relation
is a concept. Male, like female, is an idea about sex. To say that male-ness is "absence of female-ness", or vice
versa, is a matter of definition and metaphysically arbitrary. The artificial concept of no-relation is the Eristic
Principle.
The belief that "order is true" and disorder is false or somehow wrong, is the Aneristic Illusion. To say the
same of disorder, is the Eristic Illusion.
The point is that (little-t) truth is a matter of definition relative to the grid one is using at the moment, and that
(capital-T) Truth, metaphysical reality, is irrelevant to grids entirely. Pick a grid, and through it some chaos
appears ordered and some appears disordered. Pick another grid, and the same chaos will appear differently
ordered and disordered.
Reality is the original Rorschach. Verily! So much for all that.
—Malaclypse the Younger, Principia Discordia, Pages 00049–00050
And this from the Principia Discordia's very beginning, a Discordian koan:
Greater Poop: Is Eris true?
Malaclypse the Younger: Everything is true.
GP: Even false things?
M2: Even false things are true.
Discordianism 401

GP: How can that be?

M2: I don't know man, I didn't do it.

Chao
The word Chao (pronounced similarly to "cow") was a neologism coined as the singular of chaos. In Discordianism
the chao is a symbol of the 'pataphysical nature of reality; singular instances of chaos being at the center of
'pataphysical theory. The word is a pun that enables the following quatrain in the Principia Discordia:
To diverse gods
Do mortals bow;
Holy Cow, and
Wholly Chao.

Sacred Chao

The Sacred Chao is a symbol used by Discordians to illustrate the

interrelatedness of order and disorder. It resembles a Yin-Yang
symbol, but according to the Principia Discordia:
The Sacred Chao is not the Yin-Yang of the Taoists. It is the
Hodge-Podge of the Erisians. And, instead of a Podge spot on
the Hodge side, it has a pentagon which symbolizes the Aneristic
Principle, and instead of a Hodge spot on the Podge side, it
depicts the Golden Apple of Discordia to symbolize the Eristic
Principle.

The Sacred Chao symbolizes absolutely everything anyone need

ever know about absolutely anything, and more! It even
The Sacred Chao
symbolizes everything not worth knowing, depicted by the
empty space surrounding the Hodge-Podge.

—Malaclypse the Younger, Principia Discordia, Page 00049

The choice of the pentagon as a symbol of the Aneristic Principle is partly related to The Pentagon in Virginia near
Washington, D.C., partly a nod to the Law of Fives, partially for the Golden Ratio references associated with the
pentagon/apple allegory, and wholly for the five-sided pentagon from the "Starbuck's Pebbles" story in the
Discordia. The Golden Apple of Discordia is the one from the story of The Original Snub (below).

Law of Fives
The Law of Fives is summarized in the Principia Discordia:
The Law of Fives states simply that: All things happen in fives, or are divisible by or are multiples of five, or
are somehow directly or indirectly appropriate to 5
The Law of Fives is never wrong.
—Malaclypse the Younger, Principia Discordia, Page 00016
Like most of Discordianism, the Law of Fives appears on the surface to be either some sort of weird joke, or bizarre
supernaturalism; but under this, it may help clarify the Discordian view of how the human mind works. Lord Omar is
quoted later on the same page as having written, "I find the Law of Fives to be more and more manifest the harder I
look."
Discordianism 402

Appendix Beth of Robert Shea's and Robert Anton Wilson's The Illuminatus! Trilogy considers some of the
numerology of Discordianism, and the question of what would happen to the Law of Fives if everyone had six
fingers on each hand. The authors assert that the real Law of Fives is realizing that everything can be related to the
number five if you try hard enough. Sometimes the steps required may be highly convoluted. Incidentally, the
number five appears five times within the quote describing the Law of Fives, which is stated in 23 words.
Another way of looking at the Law of Fives is as a symbol for the observation of reality changing that which is being
observed in the observer's mind. Just as how when one looks for fives in reality, one finds them, so will one find
conspiracies, ways to determine when the apocalypse will come, and so on and so forth when one decides to look for
them. It cannot be proven wrong, because it proves itself reflexively when looked at through this lens.
At its basic level, the Law of Fives is a practical demonstration that perception is intent-sensitive; that is, the
perceiver's intentions inform the perception. To whatever extent one considers that perception is identical with
reality, then, it has the corollary that reality is intent-sensitive.
The Law of Fives may also be related to the significance of the number 23 or the 23 Enigma, as 2 plus 3 equals 5.

Original Snub
The Original Snub is the Discordian name for the events preceding the Judgment
of Paris, although more focus is put on the actions of Eris. Zeus believes that
Eris is a troublemaker, so he does not invite her to Peleus and Thetis's wedding.
This is “The Doctrine of the Original Snub”.[12]
Having been snubbed, Eris creates a golden apple with the word kallisti (Ancient
Greek: καλλίστῃ, to the prettiest one) inscribed in it.[12] This, the Apple of
Discord, is a notable symbol in Discordianism for its inclusion in the Holy Chao.
The apple is traditionally described as being made of gold,[13] but the Principia
Discordia notes a debate over whether the “gold” described was “metallic gold or
Apple of Discord
Acapulco.”[12] The story also relates that the first thing Eris did after throwing
the Apple of Discord into the wedding was to joyously partake of a hot dog[12]
which is meant to explain the Discordian prohibition against consuming hot dog buns.

When the female wedding guests disagree about who the apple is meant for, Zeus decides to leave the decision to
Paris of Troy. Aphrodite bribes Paris, leading to the Trojan War, which “is said to be The First War among men.”[12]
Some recent interpretations of the Original Snub place Eris as being not at all mischievous with her delivery of the
apple, but instead suggest that Eris was simply bringing the apple as a wedding present for Thetis. This interpretation
would see Eris as innocent and her causing of chaos as a by-product of the other wedding guests' reaction upon
seeing her at the wedding.[14]

Curse of Greyface
The Curse of Greyface is one of the most important parts of Discordianism. It features prominently on several pages
of the Principia Discordia.
According to the Principia, Greyface was a man who lived in the year 1166 BC and taught that life is serious and
play is sin. The curse is the psychological and spiritual imbalance that results from these beliefs, both individually
and within groups, nations, and civilizations.
Discordianism 403

Curse
Greyface encouraged his followers to "Look at all the order around you" (Principia Discordia page 00042), and
somehow convinced mankind to agree with his ideas about Serious Order. The Principia notes that it is something of
a mystery why Greyface gained so many followers when anyone could have looked at all of the disorder in the
world.
Greyface and his followers took the game of playing at life more seriously than they took life itself and were
known even to destroy other living beings whose ways of life differed from their own.
—Malaclypse the Younger, Principia Discordia, Page 00042

Order/disorder and constructive/destructive

By accepting that life is a serious, orderly matter, the followers of Greyface end up viewing things as either orderly
or disorderly. In this system, order is preferred to disorder at all costs.
An alternative is to view disorder as preferable at all costs. To quote: "To choose order over disorder, or disorder
over order, is to accept a trip composed of both the creative and the destructive. But to choose the creative over the
destructive is an all-creative trip composed of both order and disorder" -- Malaclypse the Younger, K.S.C.

Counteracting the curse

[M]ankind has […] been suffering from a psychological and spiritual imbalance. Imbalance causes frustration,
and frustration causes fear. And fear makes for a bad trip. Man has been on a bad trip for a long time now.
—Malaclypse the Younger, Principia Discordia, Page 00042
The human race will begin solving it's [sic] problems on the day that it ceases taking itself so seriously.
—Malaclypse the Younger, Principia Discordia, page 00074
In addition to the generic advice of cultivating your natural love of chaos and playing with Her, the Principia
Discordia provides "The Turkey Curse Revealed by the Apostle Dr. Van Van Mojo" to counteract The Curse of
Greyface.[15] The Turkey Curse is designed to counteract destructive order. It derives its name from the fact that the
incantation resembles the sounds of a turkey.

Law of Eristic Escalation

The Principia Discordia contains the Law of Eristic Escalation.[16] This law states that "Imposition of Order =
Escalation of Chaos". It elaborates on this point by saying that the more order is imposed the longer it takes for the
chaos to arise and the greater the chaos that arises. The idea is not new; it is mentioned in the Tao Te Ching: "the
more laws and orders are written, the more thieves there are".
This can be read as an argument against zero tolerance and hard security, or just a statement about the world and
human nature. It can also be seen as a parallel to the second law of thermodynamics which states that entropy (the
number of states a given system can occupy) never decreases over time. It is also reminiscent of Newton's Third
Law, where every action has an equal and opposite reaction. Incidentally, if you add those Laws together you get the
Law of Five, as discussed earlier.
Discordianism 404

Pentabarf
The Pentabarf is the doctrine of Discordianism. It is as follows:
1. There is no Goddess but Goddess and She is Your Goddess. There is no Erisian Movement but The Erisian
Movement and it is The Erisian Movement. And every Golden Apple Corps is the beloved home of a Golden
Worm.
2. A Discordian Shall Always use the Official Discordian Document Numbering System.
3. A Discordian is required to, the first Friday after his illumination, Go Off Alone & Partake Joyously of a Hot
Dog; this Devotive Ceremony to Remonstrate against the popular Paganisms of the Day: of Roman Catholic
Christendom (no meat on Friday), of Judaism (no meat of Pork), of Hindic Peoples (no meat of Beef), of
Buddhists (no meat of animal), and of Discordians (no Hot Dog Buns).
4. A Discordian shall Partake of No Hot Dog Buns, for Such was the Solace of Our Goddess when She was
Confronted with The Original Snub.
5. A Discordian is Prohibited from Believing What he reads.
The Pentabarf is the most fundamental of all Discordian catmas. ("Catma" is a general term for Discordian teachings,
sayings, quotations, explanations, jokes and illustrations, as distinguished from Discordian "dogma", which consists
of certain specific passages from The Honest Book of Truth, cited in Principia.)
The 5th law mirrors both the nature of Taoist sayings ("the Tao that can be spoken of is not the true Tao")[17] and
Zen koans ("If you meet the Buddha on your path, kill him").[18] It is also similar to the end of Wittgenstein's
Tractatus (where he essentially states that if his thesis is meaningful then it is worthless[19] the Epimenides paradox
("All Cretans are liars"), and several other paradoxes.

Five tons of Flax

In the Principia Discordia, "Five tons of flax" is given as the answer to the question, "Is there an essential meaning
behind POEE?" (This is a reference to a Zen story about "Three pounds of flax".) Discordians have taken "Five tons
of flax" as a slogan or as a universal answer to philosophical questions.
In the Illuminatus! Trilogy by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson, which draws heavily upon Discordianism,
"Flaxscrip" is depicted as a genuine form of scrip, serving to avoid the use of government-issued currency.

Pineal gland
"Consult your pineal gland" is a common saying in Discordianism. Although it has never been proven, the pineal
gland is believed by some, such as Rick Strassman, to produce trace amounts of DMT (dimethyltryptamine), a
psychedelic chemical which is believed to play a role in dreaming and other mystical states.[20] The pineal gland was
also used in Descartes's explanation of Cartesian Dualism as the "seat of the soul" and the connection between the
material and immaterial world. In some cases it is referred to as "the atrophied third eye". It has also been suggested
that the third eye (Ajna) physically resides at this location between the two hemispheres of the brain.

Discordian calendar
The Discordian or Erisian calendar is an alternative calendar used by some Discordians. It is specified on page 00034
of the Principia Discordia.[21] The Discordian year 1 YOLD is 1166 BC. Elsewhere in the Principia Discordia, it is
mentioned that the Curse of Greyface occurred in 1166 BC, so this is presumably the start-date of the calendar.[22]
As a reference, 2011 AD is 3177 YOLD (Year of Our Lady of Discord). While the abbreviation "YOLD" isn't used
in the Principia, and the phrase "Year of Our Lady of Discord" is only mentioned once,[23] it is a Discordian tradition
to use that designation. Most common Linux operating system-distributions have the command ddate to show the
current Discordian date.
Discordianism 405

Discordian-inspired works
• The Illuminatus! Trilogy, speculative fiction novels by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson, popularized
Discordianism with various quotes and references.
• Discordian texts and scriptures include Book 5 (The Zenarchist's Cookbook), The Book of the Apocalypso, The
Book of Eris, The Book of Inconveniences, The Honest Book of Truth (portions of which are used in Principia
Discordia), Jonesboria Discordia, Metaclysmia Discordia, Novus Ordo Discordia, Principia Harmonia, The
Wise Book of Baloney, and Summa Discordia. There is even A Discordian Coloring Book.
• The KLF used Discordian references and themes extensively throughout their oeuvre.
• The International Rubber Chicken Society, formed in New Fairfield, Connecticut published a zine and espoused a
philosophy of the absurd similar to Discordianism, (to the I.R.C.S. the absurd and silliness were sacred, and were
also a tool to access altered states of consciousness without need for ritual.)
• The game Illuminati and its CCG adaptation Illuminati: New World Order feature Discordianism as one of the
primary secret societies running the world, as does the GURPS supplement GURPS: Illuminati. (All three are
published by Steve Jackson Games.)
• On May 5, 2005 (5/5/5), roleplaying game author John Wick published Discordia!: A Little Game about a Lot of
Chaos under his Wicked Dead Brewing Company banner. Wick credits the game's inspiration to the Principia
Discordia and The Illuminatus! Trilogy. The game features the players as "Discordian Double Agents" infiltrating
various conspiracy groups such as the Bavarian Illuminati, the Hashashin, and others.
• The online game Lost Souls has a number of Discordian elements, including player-joinable Discordian groups
(the Paratheo-Anametamystikhood of Eris Esoteric, the Erisian Liberation Front, and the Legion of Dynamic
Discord).
• The game Grand Theft Auto:San Andreas has a few Discordian references, including Eris-branded clothing
whose symbol is the Five-fingered Hand of Eris, and the significance of the number 23.
• The Australian psychedelic trance artist Hedonix released an album entitled Order out of Chaos which includes
themes of Discordianism.

References
[1] Ha ha only serious (http:/ / www. catb. org/ jargon/ html/ H/ ha-ha-only-serious. html)
[2] "...It should on no account be taken seriously but is far more serious than most jokes" and "See … [also] ha ha only serious" The Jargon File
v4.4.7 (http:/ / www. catb. org/ ~esr/ jargon/ html/ D/ Discordianism. html) but present at least as far back as v4.0.0, (1996, July 24); The entry
for discordianism begins, "Somewhere between parody, social commentary, and religion…" Rabinovitch, Shelly & Lewis, James R. The
Encyclopedia of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism". Pp 75–76. Citadel Press. 2002. ISBN 0-8065-2406-5; "These organisations
[Discordianism & The Church of the Subgenius] are just two of a whole raft of mock religions…" Phillips, M. (2004, Sept. 14). Wizards of ID
cook up divine pile of spaghetti bolognese. The West Australian, p. Metro 18; "The explosion of the American counter-culture and the revival
of surrealism met Discordianism (1960's and 70's) and the result was a Neo-Pagan parody religion of mirth and laughter." (p. 3) E. K.
Discorida. (2005). The Book of Eris. Synaptyclypse Generator (http:/ / syngen. co. uk/ )
[3] "WitchVox Traditions Discordianism Article" (http:/ / www. witchvox. com/ va/ dt_va. html?a=usil& c=trads& id=7358). Witchvox.com. .
Retrieved 2009-08-31.
[4] Discordian Cabals - S23Wiki (http:/ / s23. org/ wiki/ Discordian_Cabals)
[5] Rabinovitch, Shelly & Lewis, James. The Encyclopedia of Modern Witchcraft and Neo-Paganism". Pp 75–76. Citadel Press. 2002. ISBN
0-8065-2406-5.
[6] Malaclypse the Younger, Principia Discordia, Page 00041
[7] Malaclypse the Younger, Principia Discordia, Page 00030
[8] "World Religions" (http:/ / www. worldreligions. psu. edu/ world_religions15. htm). Worldreligions.psu.edu. . Retrieved 2009-08-31.
[9] "Design Arguments for the Existence of God [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]" (http:/ / www. iep. utm. edu/ d/ design. htm#SSH2c. i).
Iep.utm.edu. 2009-04-12. . Retrieved 2009-08-31.
[10] Malaclypse the Younger, Principia Discordia, Page 00032
[11] Malaclypse the Younger, Principia Discordia, Page 00036
[12] Malaclypse the Younger, Principia Discordia, Pages 00017–00018
[13] The Judgement of Paris (http:/ / www. theoi. com/ Olympios/ JudgementParis. html)
[14] Liber Malorum Liber Malorum - Children Of the Apple - page 375
Discordianism 406

[15] Malaclypse the Younger, Principia Discordia, Page 64

[16] Malaclypse the Younger, Principia Discordia, Page 46
[17] from the Tao Te Ching 1:1
[18] A famous quotation from the Zen master Linji
[19] e.g., "he who understands me finally recognizes [my propositions] as senseless"), TLP 6.54 (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ catalog/ world/
readfile?fk_files=13249& pageno=58)
[20] Rick Strassman. "Chapter Summaries for DMT: The Spirit Molecule" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20060826175610/ http:/ / www.
rickstrassman. com/ dmt/ chaptersummaries. html). Archived from the original (http:/ / rickstrassman. com/ dmt/ chaptersummaries. html) on
2006-08-26. . Retrieved 2006-09-12.
[21] Malaclypse the Younger, Principia Discordia, Page 00034
[22] Malaclypse the Younger, Principia Discordia, Page 00042
[23] Malaclypse the Younger, Principia Discordia, Page 00053

External links
• PrincipiaDiscordia.com (http://principiadiscordia.com) – contains the Principia Discordia in HTML. Also has
Discordian message boards and other resources.
• Discordian.com – Chaos with a Clue (http://www.discordian.com/) Thorough Discordian information site.
• Discordianism/Erisianism (http://www.verthaine.sphosting.com/1.html) The history and philosophy of
Discordianism and Erisianism.
• The Semi-Official Quasi-Clandestine Bavarian Illuminati/Discordian Archives (http://appendix.23ae.com/
archives.html) An archive of early Discordian documents, photos and paraphernalia.
• Discordian Calendar Calculator (http://calendar.discordipedia.org/)
• HyperDiscordia (http://jubal.westnet.com/hyperdiscordia/) - hypertext Discordian encyclopedia.
• POEE.org (http://www.poee.org/) – "The Living Encyclopedia Chaotic" and "The Discordian Society Page"
• Discordian Pope Card (http://i44.tinypic.com/javskh.jpg/) - Discordian Pope Card
• Kristin Buxton's Discordianism site (http://www.kbuxton.com/discordia/) - long-standing Web repository of
Discordiana
• Discordian Quotes (http://discordianquotes.com/) - web site based around "Discordian Quotes"
• Discordian Saints (http://web.archive.org/web/19990117002658/http://www.cs.monash.edu.au/~acb/
discordianism/saints.html) - 1999 archive from Andrew C. Bulhak.
• The Discordian Saints (http://www.groovygravytrain.i8.com/Discordia2.htm) - compiles 4 lists (Andrew
Bulhak as anon.; Pope Icky Fundament, PZK; Tonisoa Postatis; Snorri Abrahamsem)
• Discordian Tarot with 'Reading' (http://www.elsewhere.org/ddeck/) - the free deck consists of 73 cards, incl.
23 Trumps (also as PDF (http://www.elsewhere.org/ddeck/v2/discocardsall.pdf), 0.7 MB)
• Discordia! Roleplaying Game (http://johnwickpresents.com/marketplace/index.
php?main_page=product_info&cPath=1&products_id=9)
Kerry Wendell Thornley 407

Kerry Wendell Thornley

Kerry Thornley
Born April 17, 1938California

Died November 28, 1998 (aged 60)Atlanta, Georgia

Pen name Lord Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst

Ho Chi Zen

Period 1950s–1990s

Genres Counterculture

Subjects Religion, Politics, Satire

Kerry Wendell Thornley (April 17, 1938–November 28, 1998[1] [2] ) is known as the co-founder (along with
childhood friend Greg Hill) of Discordianism,[1] [2] in which context he is usually known as Omar Khayyam
Ravenhurst or simply Lord Omar.[1] He and Hill authored the religion's seminal text Principia Discordia, Or, How
I Found Goddess, And What I Did To Her When I Found Her.
Thornley was highly active in the countercultural publishing scene, writing for a number of underground magazines
and newspapers, and self-publishing many one-page (or broadsheet) newsletters of his own. One such newsletter
called Zenarchy was published in the 1960s under the pen name Ho Chi Zen.[1] "Zenarchy" is described in the
introduction of the collected volume as "the social order which springs from meditation," and "A noncombative,
nonparticipatory, no-politics approach to anarchy intended to get the serious student thinking."
Raised Mormon, in adulthood Kerry shifted his ideological focus frequently, in rivalry with any serious
countercultural figure of the 1960s. Atheism, anarchism, objectivism, autarchism (attended Robert LeFevre's
Freedom School), neo-paganism, Buddhism, and the memetic inheritor of Discordianism, the Church of the
Subgenius, were all subject to close conceptual scrutiny throughout his life.

Military life
Having already been a US Marine Corps reservist for about two years, Thornley had been summoned to active duty
in 1958 at age 20, soon after completing his freshman year at the University of Southern California.[3] According to
Principia Discordia, it was around this time that he and Greg Hill—alias Malaclypse the Younger or Mal-2—shared
their first Eristic vision in a bowling alley in their hometown of Whittier, California.
In the spring of 1959, Thornley served for a short time in the same radar operator unit as Lee Harvey Oswald at
MCAS El Toro in Santa Ana, California.[3] Both men had shared a common interest in society, culture, literature and
politics, and whenever duty placed them together, had discussed such topics as George Orwell's famous novel
Nineteen Eighty-Four and the philosophy of Marxism, particularly Oswald's interest in the latter.[4]
While aboard a troopship returning to the United States from duty in Japan (some time after the two men parted
ways as a result of routine reassignment), Thornley read of Oswald's autumn 1959 defection to the Soviet Union in
the US military newspaper Stars and Stripes.
Kerry Wendell Thornley 408

1960s
Released from Marine Corps' active duty in September 1960, Thornley relocated with Greg Hill to New Orleans in
early 1961. Here he began to write about his experiences as a peacetime Marine both stateside and in Asia, in a book
which used Lee Harvey Oswald as the template for its main character, Johnny Shellburn. The aspiring novelist
viewed Oswald as the metaphorical embodiment of an intelligent peacetime GI: deeply dissatisfied with the
monolithic, totalitarian structure of military life which stood in distressingly sharp contrast to the professed
American ideals of individual liberty and free enterprise.
In February 1962 , Thornley completed The Idle Warriors,[5]
which has the historical distinction of being the only book written
about Lee Harvey Oswald before Kennedy's assassination in
1963.[1] Due to the serendipitous nature of Thornley's choice of
literary subject matter, he was called to testify before the Warren
Commission in Washington DC on May 18, 1964.[1] [5] The
Commission subpoenaed a copy of the book and stored it in the
National Archives. In 1965, Thornley published another book
titled Oswald, generally defending the "Oswald-as-lone-assassin"
conclusion of the Warren Commission, which met with dismal
sales. In his later years, Thornley became convinced that Oswald
had in truth been a CIA asset whose purpose was to ferret out
suspected Communist sympathizers serving in the Corps.

In January 1968, New Orleans district attorney Jim Garrison,

certain there had been a New Orleans-based conspiracy to
assassinate John F. Kennedy, subpoenaed Thornley to appear
before a grand jury once again, questioning him about his
relationship with Oswald and his knowledge of other figures
Epistle to the Paranoids
Garrison believed to be connected to the assassination.[1] Garrison
charged Thornley with perjury after Thornley denied that he had
been in contact with Oswald in any manner since 1959. The perjury charge was eventually dropped by Garrison's
successor Harry Connick, Sr.

Thornley claimed that, during his initial two-year sojourn in New Orleans, he'd had numerous meetings with two
mysterious middle-aged men named "Gary Kirstein" and "Slim Brooks". According to his account, they had detailed
discussions on numerous subjects ranging from the mundane to the exotic, and bordering sometimes on bizarre.
Among these was the subject of how one might assassinate President Kennedy, whose beliefs and policies the
aspiring novelist deeply disliked at the time. Later, the former Marine came to believe that "Gary Kirstein" had in
reality been senior CIA officer and future Watergate burglar E. Howard Hunt, and "Slim Brooks" to have been Jerry
Milton Brooks, a member of the 1960s right-wing activist group, "The Minutemen". Guy Banister, another
Minutemen member in New Orleans, had been accused by Garrison of involvement in the assassination and was
connected to Lee Harvey Oswald through the Fair Play for Cuba Committee leaflet.[6] [7] Thornley also claimed that
"Kirstein" and Brooks had accurately predicted Richard M. Nixon's accession to the presidency six years before it
happened, as well as anticipating the rise of the 1960s counterculture and the subsequent emergence of Charles
Manson and what became his cult following. This led Thornley to believe that the US government had somehow
been involved, directly or indirectly, in creating and/or supporting these events, personages and phenomena.
In the wake of this period, Thornley came to believe (among many other things) that he had been a subject of the
CIA's LSD experiments in the MK-ULTRA mind-control research program. While skeptics may dismiss as
conspiracy theory some of his later notions – such as having been a product of occult-based Nazi Vril selective
Kerry Wendell Thornley 409

breeding programs – his claims regarding participation in such highly-classified US government mind-control
programs and foreknowledge of the John F. Kennedy assassination are consistent with the time period, his
residences, and the nature and locations of his military service.

Later life and death

For the next 30 years, Thornley traveled and lived all over the United States and was involved in a variety of
activities, ranging from editing underground newspapers to attending graduate school. He spent most of the
remainder of his life in the Little Five Points neighborhood of Atlanta, Georgia,[1] During this time he maintained a
free series of fliers titled "Out of Order." This single page, double sided Xeroxed periodical was distributed in the
Little Five Points area. Thornley became increasingly paranoid and distrustful in the wake of his experiences during
the 1960s, both by his own accounts and those of personal acquaintances. For a time Thornley wrote a regular
column in the zine Factsheet Five, until editor Mike Gunderloy stopped publishing the magazine. Struggling with
illness in his final days, Kerry Thornley died of cardiac arrest in Atlanta on November 28, 1998, a Saturday, at the
age of 60.[1] The following morning, 23 people attended a Buddhist memorial service in his honor. His body had
been cremated and the ashes scattered over the Pacific Ocean. Shortly before his death, Thornley reportedly said he'd
felt "like a tired child home from a very wild circus," a reference to a passage by Greg Hill from Principia
Discordia:

“
And so it is that we, as men, do not exist until we do; and then it is that we play with our world of existent things, and order and disorder

”
them, and so it shall be that Non-existence shall take us back from Existence, and that nameless Spirituality shall return to Void, like a tired
child home from a very wild circus.

List of pen names and titles

List of pen names and self-awarded titles provided by Kerry himself on the role of Pope of the Discordian Society in
an affidavit to the California School Employees Association (CSEA), on a legal case concerning a member of the
society that refused to join the CSEA alleging that the Discordian religion forbade him from doing so[8] :
• co-founder of the Discordian Society and the Legion of Dynamic Discord thereof and co-author of Principia
Discordia
• Grand Ballyhoo of Egypt of the Orthodox Discordian Society
• Kerry Wendell Thornley, JFK Assassin
• Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst, President of the Fair-Play-for-Switzerland Committee
• Reverend Doctor Jesse Sump, Ancient Abbreviated Calif. of California and Sinister Minister of the First
Evangelical and Unrepentant Church of No Faith
• Ho Chi Zen (the Fifth Dealy Lama)
• Purple Sage, Pope
• "I further declare that there is no truth whatsoever to the charge that Kerry Wendell Thornley is a ficiticious (sic)
identity created by the Warren Commission for its own mysterious purposes (Vol. XI, pp. 80+, Commission
Exhibits and Testimony)"
• "I, Kerry Wendell Thornley, KSC, JFK Assassin, Bull Goose of Limbo, Recreational Director of the Wilhelm
Reich Athletic Club, Assistant Philosopher, President of the Universal Successionist Association (USA),
Chairperson of the Kronstadt Vengeance Committee, Poet Laureate of the Randolph Bourne Association for
Revolutionary Violets, Minister in the Church of Universal Life, Trustee for the Center for Mythographic Arts,
Correspondent for the Desperate Imperialist News Service (DIN), Vice President of the Generic Graffiti Council
of the Americas, CEO of the Umbrella Corporation and of the Spare Change Investment Corporation, Treasurer
of the Commercial Erisian Orthodox Tabernacle, Assistant Treasurer of the John-Dillinger-Died-For-You
Kerry Wendell Thornley 410

Society, Public Relations Director of Precision Psychedelics, Managing Editor of The Decadent Worker, Public
Security Committee Chief of the Revolutionary Surrealist Vandal Party (RSVP), Advisor to the Niccolo
Machiavelli University of Jesuit Ethics, Instructor of the Mullah Nasrudin Sufi Mime Troupe, Dean of
Bodhisattvas of the 12 Famous Buddha Mind School, Mail Clerk of Junk Mail Associates, Chaplaim of the Erotic
Terrorism Committee of the Fucking Communist Conspiracy (FCC, etc.), Deputy Counsel of the International
Brotherhood of Doom Prophets, Local 666, Alleged Founder of the Zenarchist Affinity Group (ZAG) and the
Zenarchist Insurgency Group (ZIG), Co-Founder of the Discordian Society, Grand Master of the Legion of
Dynamic Discord, Saint 2nd Class in the Industrial Church of the SubGenius, CEO of the Brooklyn Bridge
Holding Company, Executive Vice President of the Bank of Hell, Chief Engineer of the Southern Fascist Railway
("Our Trains Run On Time!"), Inspector for the Political Correctness Division of the Marta Batista Cola
Company, and Satanist Quaker of 3388 Homera Place, Decatur, Georgia do hereby swear (or affirm) on this day
of 13 October 1993 under penalty of perjury that to the best of my knowledge, all of the above and much of the
below is true in some sense, false in some sense, meaningless in some sense, true and false in some sense, true
and meaningless in some sense, false and meaningless in some sense, and true and false and meaningless in some
sense, as the Discordian Church (or Synagogue) holds as a central tradition (borrowed from Buddhism and, thus,
older than Christianity) tenet of its faith is true of all affirmations."

References
[1] Groover, Joel (1998-12-03). "Kerry Thornley, philosopher, writer, friend of Oswald" (http:/ / nl. newsbank. com/ nl-search/ we/
Archives?s_hidethis=no& p_product=AT& p_theme=at& p_action=search& p_maxdocs=200& s_dispstring=Kerry Thornley&
p_field_advanced-0=& p_text_advanced-0=(Kerry Thornley)& xcal_numdocs=20& p_perpage=11& p_sort=YMD_date:D&
xcal_useweights=no) (fee required). Atlanta Journal-Constitution (Atlanta, Georgia: Cox Enterprises): p. F8. . Retrieved 2008-03-24.
"[Thornley] moved to Atlanta in 1969 and became a fixture in Little Five Points, a merry prankster known for his chaos-inspired philosophy
and psychedelic conspiracy theories.... Co-author of 'The Principia Discordia,' a spoof of religion written in the 1970s, Mr. Thornley earned
international attention as a founding father of "Discordian" philosophy...."
[2] Staff writer (1999-01-02). "1998 Notable Deaths in Georgia, the South" (http:/ / nl. newsbank. com/ nl-search/ we/ Archives?s_hidethis=no&
p_product=AT& p_theme=at& p_action=search& p_maxdocs=200& s_dispstring=Kerry Thornley& p_field_advanced-0=&
p_text_advanced-0=(Kerry Thornley)& xcal_numdocs=20& p_perpage=11& p_sort=YMD_date:D& xcal_useweights=no) (fee required).
Atlanta Journal-Constitution (Atlanta, Georgia: Cox Enterprises): p. D6. . Retrieved 2008-03-24. "KERRY THORNLEY, 60, Atlanta;
founding father of Discordian philosophy whose early book on Lee Harvey Oswald became Warren Commission evidence"
[3] Warren Commission Hearings, Volume XI, p. 84
[4] Warren Commission Hearings, Volume XI, pp. 87–90
[5] Warren Commission Hearings, Volume XI, pp. 96–97; 109; 112–115
[6] 544 Camp Street and Related Events (http:/ / www. aarclibrary. org/ publib/ jfk/ hsca/ reportvols/ vol10/ html/ HSCA_Vol10_0066b. htm),
House Select Committee on Assassinations - Appendix to Hearings, Volume 10, 13, p. 128.
[7] Marrs, Jim. Crossfire: The Plot that Killed Kennedy, (New York: Carroll & Graf, 1989), p. 497. ISBN 0-88184-648-1
[8] Kerry Wendell Thornley signing as Lord Omar. "Lord Omar's Affidavit to the CSEA" (http:/ / jubal. westnet. com/ hyperdiscordia/
csea_affidavit. html). . Retrieved 2008-04-06.

• Biles, Joe G.; In History's Shadow: Lee Harvey Oswald, Kerry Thornley & the Garrison Investigation, Writers
Club Press, April 2002 (foreword by Robert Buras) ISBN 978-0595224555
• Gorightly, Adam; The Prankster and the Conspiracy: The Story of Kerry Thornley and How He Met Oswald and
Inspired the Counterculture, Paraview Press, November 2003 (foreword by Robert Anton Wilson) ISBN
978-1931044660
• "Testimony of Kerry Wendell Thornley" (http://www.history-matters.com/archive/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh11/
html/WC_Vol11_0046b.htm). Warren Commission Hearings, Volume XI. History Matters. May 18, 1964. pp.
82–115. Retrieved October 14, 2009.
Kerry Wendell Thornley 411

Bibliography
• Malaclypse the Younger (Greg Hill); Principia Discordia, or, How I found Goddess and what I did to Her when I
found Her, 5th Edition, September 1991, IllumiNet Press (Introduction by Kerry Thornley) ISBN 0-9626534-2-X
• Thornley, Kerry; Oswald, New Classics House, 1965
• Thornley, Kerry; Zenarchy, IllumiNet Press, June 1991 ISBN 0-9626534-1-1
• Thornley, Kerry; The Idle Warriors, IllumiNet Press, June 1991 ISBN 0-9626534-0-3

External links
• Introduction (http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~tilt/principia/intro5.html) by Kerry Thornley to the Fifth (IllumiNet
Press) Edition of Principia Discordia
• Impropaganda: Zenarchy (http://www.impropaganda.net/1997/zenarchy.html)
• Impropaganda: First 30 issues of Kultcha (http://www.impropaganda.net/1997/kultcha.html) broadsheet
newsletter
• 113 scanned and full-text issues of The Decadent Worker (http://www.decadentworker.com) broadsheet
newsletter
• "The Dreadlock Recollections" (http://www.ibiblio.org/ovo127/media/OVO017.pdf) (PDF). OVO Vol 20 #
17. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
• 23 Offerings of Prime Erisiana (http://sondralondon.com/attract/kerry/), Discordian enchantments as
described to Sondra London
• "In Defense of Libertarian Communism, with comments by Samuel Edward Konkin III" (http://freemania1.
com/thornley1.html). Strategy of the New Libertarian Alliance #2, May Day 1982-3. Retrieved 2008-03-25.
• Appendix 5 of Warren Commission Report (http://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/warren-commission-report/
appendix5.html#t) available at NARA (www.archives.gov)
• Orleans Parish Grand Jury Transcript, Testimony of Kerry W. Thornley (http://www.historymatters.com/
archive/jfk/garr/grandjury/Thornley/html/Thornley_0001a.htm)
• Impropaganda: 1991 NY Press article on Thornley - "Oswald's Other" (http://www.impropaganda.net/
thornley/thornley_nypress_1991.php)
• The Vril, the CIA, and Nazi Secret Societies (http://totse.totse2.com/en/conspiracy/institutional_analysis/
thornlet.html), correspondence of Kerry Thornley
• Official Obituary Announcement (http://www.subgenius.com/updates/X0012_Kerry_Thornley_R.I.P.html)
by Sondra London
• Confession to Conspiracy to Assassinate JFK (http://sondralondon.com/attract/thornley/confess/),
posthumous account of the events surrounding and leading up to Thornley's alleged involvement with the JFK
assassination, as told to Sondra London
• Excerpts from Gorightly's book The Prankster and the Conspiracy (http://www.steamshovelpress.com/
offlineillumination13.html) and Foreword (http://www.paraview.com/gorightly/gorightly_excerpt.htm) by
Robert Anton Wilson
• Hi-res scan of Thornley's Pope certificate (http://www.grouchogandhi.com/gg-discordian-certificate.php)
Bob Black 412

Bob Black
Robert Charles Black, Jr.

Bob Black seated at the Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed booth, attending the 2011 Bay Area Anarchist Bookfair.
Full name Robert Charles Black, Jr.

Born January 4, 1951

Era 20th-century philosophy

Region Western Philosophy

School Post-left anarchy

Main interests refusal of work, post-industrial society, Hunter-gatherer societies, History of anarchism

Notable ideas The abolition of work, play

Bob Black (born Robert Charles Black, Jr. on January 4, 1951) is an American anarchist and lawyer. He is the
author of The Abolition of Work and Other Essays, Beneath the Underground, Friendly Fire, Anarchy After Leftism,
and numerous political essays. Kenn Thomas hailed Black in 1999 as a "defender of the most liberatory tendencies
within modern anti-authoritarian thought".[1]

Writing
Beginning in the late 1970s, Bob Black was one of the earliest people to advocate what is now called post-left
anarchy. In his vociferously confrontational writing style he has criticized many of the perceived sacred cows of
leftist, anarchist, and activist thought. An unaffiliated New Leftist in his college years, Black became dissatisfied
with authoritarian socialist ideology and after discovering anarchism spent much of his energy analyzing
authoritarian tendencies within ostensibly "anti-authoritarian" groups. In his essay "My Anarchism Problem" he
writes: "To call yourself an anarchist is to invite identification with an unpredictable array of associations, an
ensemble which is unlikely to mean the same thing to any two people, including any two anarchists." Though not a
self-proclaimed anarcho-primitivist, he sometimes writes for and has strongly influenced anarcho-primitivist
publications.
Some of his work from the early 1980s (anthologized in The Abolition of Work and Other Essays) highlights his
critiques of the nuclear freeze movement ("Anti-Nuclear Terror"), the editors of Processed World ("Circle A Deceit:
A Review of Processed World"), radical feminists ("Feminism as Fascism"), and Libertarians ("The Libertarian As
Conservative").
Bob Black 413

The Abolition of Work

"To demonize state authoritarianism while ignoring identical albeit contract-consecrated subservient
arrangements in the large-scale corporations which control the world economy is fetishism at its worst ... Your
foreman or supervisor gives you more or-else orders in a week than the police do in a decade."
— Bob Black, The Libertarian As Conservative, 1984 [2]
The Abolition of Work, Black's most widely read essay, draws upon the ideas of Charles Fourier, William Morris,
Herbert Marcuse, Peter Kropotkin, Paul Goodman, and Marshall Sahlins. In it he argues for the abolition of the
producer and consumer-based society, where, Black contends, all of life is devoted to the production and
consumption of commodities. Attacking Marxist state socialism as much as market capitalism, Black argues that the
only way for humans to be free is to reclaim their time from jobs and employment, instead turning necessary
subsistence tasks into free play done voluntarily - an approach referred to as "ludic". The essay argues that "no-one
should ever work", because work - defined as compulsory productive activity enforced by economic or political
means - is the source of most of the misery in the world. Black denounces work for its compulsion, and for the forms
it takes - as subordination to a boss, as a "job" which turns a potentially enjoyable task into a meaningless chore, for
the degradation imposed by systems of work-discipline, and for the large number of work-related deaths and injuries
- which Black typifies as "homicide". He views the subordination enacted in workplaces as "a mockery of freedom",
and denounces as hypocrites the various theorists who support freedom while supporting work. Subordination in
work, Black alleges, makes people stupid and creates fear of freedom. Because of work, people become accustomed
to rigidity and regularity, and do not have the time for friendship or meaningful activity. Most workers, he states, are
dissatisfied with work (as evidenced by petty deviance on the job), so that what he says should be uncontroversial;
however, it is controversial only because people are too close to the work-system to see its flaws.
Play, in contrast, is not necessarily rule-governed, and is performed voluntarily, in complete freedom, as a gift
economy. He points out that hunter-gatherer societies are typified by play, a view he backs up with the work of
Marshall Sahlins; he recounts the rise of hierarchal societies, through which work is cumulatively imposed, so that
the compulsive work of today would seem incomprehensibly oppressive even to ancients and medieval peasants. He
responds to the view that "work," if not simply effort or energy, is necessary to get important but unpleasant tasks
done, by claiming that first of all, most important tasks can be rendered ludic, or "salvaged" by being turned into
game-like and craft-like activities, and secondly that the vast majority of work does not need doing at all. The latter
tasks are unnecessary because they only serve functions of commerce and social control that exist only to maintain
the work-system as a whole. As for what is left, he advocates Charles Fourier's approach of arranging activities so
that people will want to do them. He is also skeptical but open-minded about the possibility of eliminating work
through labour-saving technologies. He feels the left cannot go far enough in its critiques because of its attachment
to building its power on the category of workers, which requires a valorization of work.

Anarchy After Leftism, and the Bookchin controversy

Beginning in 1997, Black became involved in a debate sparked by the work of anarchist and founder of the Institute
for Social Ecology Murray Bookchin, an outspoken critic of the post-left anarchist tendency. Bookchin wrote and
published Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism: An Unbridgeable Chasm, labeling post-left anarchists and
others as "lifestyle anarchists" — thus following up a theme developed in his Philosophy of Social Ecology. Though
he does not refer directly to Black's work (an omission which Black interprets as symptomatic), Bookchin clearly has
Black's rejection of work as an implicit target when he criticises authors such as John Zerzan and Dave Watson,
whom he controversially labels part of the same tendency.
For Bookchin, "lifestyle anarchism" is individualistic and childish. "Lifestyle anarchists" demand "anarchy now",
imagining they can create a new society through individual lifestyle changes. In his view this is a kind of
fake-dissident consumerism which ultimately has no impact on the functioning of capitalism because it fails to
recognise the realities of the present. He grounds this polemic in a social-realist critique of relativism, which he
Bob Black 414

associates with lifestyle anarchism as well as postmodernism (to which he claims it is related). Ludic approaches, he
claims, lead to social indifference and egotism similar to that of capitalism. Against this approach, he advocates a
variety of anarchism in which social struggles take precedence over individual actions, with the evolution of the
struggle emerging dialectically as in classical Marxist theory. The unbridgeable chasm of the book's title is between
individual "autonomy" which for Bookchin is a bourgeois illusion — and social "freedom", which implies direct
democracy, municipalism, and leftist concerns with social opportunities. In practice his agenda takes the form of a
combination of elements of anarchist communism with a support for local-government and NGO initiatives which he
refers to as Libertarian Municipalism. He claims that "lifestyle anarchism" goes against the fundamental tenets of
anarchism, accusing it of being "decadent" and "petty-bourgeois" and an outgrowth of American decadence and a
period of declining struggle, and speaks in nostalgic terms of "the Left that was" as, for all its flaws, vastly —
superior to what has come since.
In response, Black published Anarchy After Leftism which later became a seminal post-left work.[1] The text is a
combination of point-by-point, almost legalistic dissection of Bookchin's argument, with bitter theoretical polemic,
and even personal insult against Bookchin (whom he refers to as "the Dean" throughout). Black accuses Bookchin of
moralism, which in post-left anarchism, refers to the imposition of abstract categories on reality in ways which twist
and repress desires (as distinct from "ethics", which is an ethos of living similar to Friedrich Nietzsche's call for an
ethic "beyond good and evil"), and of "puritanism", a variant of this. He attacks Bookchin for his Stalinist origins,
and his failure to renounce his own past affiliations with what he himself had denounced as "lifestylist" themes (such
as the slogans of May 1968). He claims that the categories of "lifestyle anarchism" and "individualist anarchism" are
straw-men. He alleges that Bookchin adopts a "work ethic", and that his favored themes, such as the denunciation of
Yuppies, actually repeat themes in mass consumer culture, and that he fails to analyze the social basis of capitalist
"selfishness"; instead, Black calls for an enlightened "selfishness" which is simultaneously social, as in Max Stirner's
work.
Bookchin, Black claims, has misunderstood the critique of work as asocial, when in fact it proposes non-compulsive
social relations. He argues that Bookchin believes labour to be essential to humans, and thus is opposed to the
abolition of work. And he takes him to case for ignoring Black's own writings on work, for idealizing technology,
and for misunderstanding the history of work.
He denounces Bookchin's alleged failure to form links with the leftist groups he now praises, and for denouncing
others for failings (such as not having a mass audience, and receiving favourable reviews from "yuppie" magazines)
of which he is himself guilty. He accuses Bookchin of self-contradiction, such as calling the same people
"bourgeois" and "lumpen", or "individualist" and "fascist". He alleges that Bookchin's "social freedom" is
"metaphorical" and has no real content of freedom. He criticizes Bookchin's appropriation of the anarchist tradition,
arguing against his dismissal of authors such as Stirner and Paul Goodman, rebuking Bookchin for implicitly
identifying such authors with anarcho-capitalism, and defending what he calls an "epistemic break" made by the
likes of Stirner and Nietzsche. He alleges that the post-left "disdain for theory" is simply Bookchin's way of saying
they ignore his own theories. He offers a detailed response to Bookchin's accusation of an association of
eco-anarchism with fascism via a supposed common root in German romanticism, criticising both the derivation of
the link (which he terms "McCarthyist") and the portrayal of romanticism itself, suggesting that Bookchin's sources
such as Mikhail Bakunin are no more politically correct than those he denounces, and accusing him of echoing
fascist rhetoric and propaganda. He provides evidence to dispute Bookchin's association of "terrorism" with
individualist rather than social anarchism. He points to carnivalesque aspects of the Spanish Revolution to
undermine Bookchin's dualism.
Black then rehearses the post-left critique of organization, drawing on his knowledge of anarchist history in an
attempt to rebut Bookchin's accusation that anti-organizationalism is based in ignorance. He claims among other
things that direct democracy is impossible in urban settings, that it degenerates into bureaucracy, and that
organizationalist anarchists such as the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo sold out to state power. He argues that
Bob Black 415

Bookchin is not an anarchist at all, but rather, a "municipal statist" or "city-statist" committed to local government by
a local state — smattering his discussion with further point-by-point objections (for instance, over whether New
York is an "organic community" given the alleged high crime-rate and whether confederated municipalities are
compatible with direct democracy). He also takes up Bookchin's opposition to relativism, arguing that this is
confirmed by science, especially anthropology - proceeding to produce evidence that Bookchin's work has received
hostile reviews in social-science journals, thus attacking his scientific credentials, and to denounce dialectics as
unscientific. He then argues point-by-point with Bookchin's criticisms of primitivism, debating issues such as
life-expectancy statistics and alleged ecological destruction by hunter-gatherers. And he concludes with a call for an
anarchist paradigm-shift based on post-left themes, celebrating this as the "anarchy after leftism" of the title.
Bookchin never replied to Black's critiques, which he continued in such essays as "Withered Anarchism," "An
American in Paris," and "Murray Bookchin and the Witch-Doctors." Bookchin later repudiated anarchism in favor of
a new form of libertarian socialism he called "Communalism".

Controversies

Church of the SubGenius controversy

According to two accounts by Black, he received a bomb in the mail at his street address on November 22, 1989.[3]
Black claimed it was a member of the Church of the SubGenius, John Hagen-Brenner, who sent him an "improvised
explosive device consisting of an audio cassette holder wired with four cadmium-type batteries, four flashbulbs, and
five firecrackers",[4] as described in the charging document filed in Federal District Court. According to Black, he
thought the package looked suspicious, then on impulse "threw it against the wall. There was a flash (the flashcubes)
and a puff of smoke, but the firecrackers did not go off."[4] Black turned the device in to the police. Black believes
that the device was sent to him because of criticism he had made of the Church, and he has repeatedly brought up the
incident in his writings concerning the Church.[3] Ivan Stang and other members of the Church have denied any
involvement in this incident, and no one else was charged. One of Black's texts was reposted and dismissed on the
SubGenius mailing-list.[3]

Hogshire Controversy
Three weeks after returning to his New York home from a visit to the Seattle apartment of drugs writer Jim Hogshire
during which Mr. Black, as Mr. Hogshire subsequently confirmed, was run out at gunpoint, Black sought revenge by
sending at least two letters to the Seattle police accusing Hogshire of running a drug lab in his apartment. Since the
publication of his book, Opium for the Masses, Hogshire had been getting harassed by the police, and Black
correctly guessed how they might use his "anonymous hot tip". When an investigation failed to provide police with
any other incriminating evidence, Black agreed to make his accusation on the record. A newly-minted SPD detective
used Black's letter as the centerpiece of warrant application and, on March 6, 1996 at around 7 pm, he and
approximately twenty other masked policemen stormed Hogshire's apartment armed with automatic rifles.
As Michael Pollan described in the cover story of the April 1997 issue of Harper's, the raid turned up no illegal
drugs, but prosecutors persisted in filing various charges against Hogshire — in apparent retaliation for his writings,
in particular Opium for the Masses. A year and two months later, as reported in the New York Times, prosecutors
backed down and dropped their original charges. Hogshire entered an Alford plea to the least serious misdemeanor
charge of "attempted possession of an incendiary device without a license in King County" — because of a flare
police took during the raid. Subsequently, Hogshire sued Seattle police in federal court for violating his
Constitutional rights under color of law and was represented by lawyers from the ACLU.
Bob Black 416

References
[1] Thomas, Kenn (1999). Cyberculture Counterconspiracy. Book Tree. p. 15. ISBN 1585091251.
[2] The Libertarian As Conservative (http:/ / www. inspiracy. com/ black/ abolition/ libertarian. html) by Bob Black, 1984
[3] Black, Bob (1989). "Bomb 'Em If They Can't Take a Joke" (http:/ / www. inspiracy. com/ black/ bomb. html), 1989 (post-November 22),
reprinted at www.inspiracy.com/black
[4] Black, Bob. "They Don't Call it SubGenius for Nothing" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080526145806/ http:/ / www. spunk. org/ library/
writers/ black/ sp001674. html). Spunk Library. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. spunk. org/ library/ writers/ black/ sp001674. html)
on 2008-05-26. . Retrieved 2008-10-28.

External links
• Bob Black (http://www.spunk.org/library/writers/black) at the Spunk Library
• The entire text of Bob Black’s 1986 collection The Abolition of Work and Other Essays at Inspiracy (http://
inspiracy.com/black/)
• The Abolition of Work (http://www.zpub.com/notes/black.html)
• Gerry Reith archive at Inspiracy (http://www.inspiracy.com/minitrue/index.html)
• Future Nexus (http://futurenexus.blogspot.com)
• Listen Anarchist! (http://www.seesharppress.com/listen.html) a critique by Chaz Bufe

Church of the SubGenius

The Church of the SubGenius is a religious organization, often seen
as a "parody religion", that satirizes religion, conspiracy theories,
UFOs, and popular culture. Originally based in Dallas, Texas, the
Church of the SubGenius gained prominence in the 1980s and 1990s
and maintains an active presence on the Internet. In 1996 the legal
entity SubGenius Foundation Inc became located in Cleveland, Ohio,
United States. The Foundation's president is Ivan Stang and the Vice
President is Dr. Philo Drummond (aka Steve Wilcox). Publicly
accessible cited figures from 1988 indicated a membership of 3,500,[1]
"more than 5,000" in 1990[2] and "close to 10,000" by 2003.[3]

History
The Church of the SubGenius claims to have been founded in the
1950s by the "world's greatest salesman" J. R. "Bob" Dobbs. "Bob"
Dobbs is depicted as a cartoon of a Ward Cleaver-like man smoking a
pipe, an image originally seen in one of the many "can you draw this"
J. R. "Bob" Dobbs
ads commonly found in the back of comic books in the 1950s and 60s.
The church really started with the publication of SubGenius Pamphlet
#1 in 1979. It found acceptance in underground pop-culture circles and has been embraced on college campuses, in
the underground music scene, and on the Internet.

Because of its similarities to the tenets of Discordianism, The Church of the SubGenius is often described as a
syncretic offshoot of that belief. However, its members state that the organization developed on its own with the
publication of SubGenius Pamphlet #1 (also known as The World Ends Tomorrow And You May Die!) by Reverend
Ivan Stang and Dr. Philo Drummond. A group that formed after Stang and Drummond began mailing their first
pamphlet to publishers, using such pseudonyms as "Puzzling Evidence", "Dr. Howl", "Susie the Floozie", "Palmer
Church of the SubGenius 417

Vreedeez", and "Pope Sternodox", helped forward the literature to a number of underground pop-culture figures such
as R. Crumb, Paul Mavrides, Harry S. Robins, the New Wave rock group Devo, and Erik Lindgren (producer and
president of indie label Arf! Arf! Records in Boston), who embraced it and incorporated it into their work. Crumb's
promotion of the Church through his comic book series Weirdo brought many new members into the fold, including
artists, musicians, and writers. Their efforts resulted in the publication of the Book of the SubGenius in 1983,
followed by Three-Fisted Tales of "Bob" in 1990, Revelation X: The "Bob" Apocryphon in 1994 and The SubGenius
Psychlopaedia of Slack: The Bobliographon in 2006. In the late 1980s, the video ARISE! was produced by Cordt
Holland and Ivan Stang, and narrated by "Dr. Hal" (Harry S. Robins), then distributed by Polygram.
The popularization of the Internet in the mid-1990s brought a new surge of interest in the Church, resulting in dozens
of home-made, elaborately decorated web sites and two Usenet newsgroups, alt.slack and alt.binaries.slack. A third
newsgroup, alt.binaries.multimedia.slack, was created later, in 2005. Ivan Stang currently maintains the official
SubGenius home page. The Church's weekly radio program, the Hour of Slack, is a staple of many college radio
stations. It draws from live broadcasts by Stang, his wife Princess Wei R. Doe and voice comic "Lonesome Cowboy
Dave" (comedian/musician Dave DeLuca), as well as from other SubGenius radio shows.[4] [5]
In 1996, Rev. Stang and Steve Bevilacqua worked together to manage the corporate entity of the Church, the
SubGenius Foundation Inc. Their efforts helped to bolster the Church's revival through the late 1990s and early
2000s, until Bevilacqua had to retire from Church management in order to support his wife, Rachel Bevilacqua (see
Legal matters). The first X-Day gathering also took place at Brushwood Folklore Center in Sherman, NY in 1996,
and the annual Church festival continued there until 2011, when it moved to Wisteria in Ohio.
The Church has received support from many in the entertainment industry. Paul Reubens ("Pee-wee Herman"),
Magic Mose & his Royal Rockers, featuring 'Blind Sam', David Byrne, Voodoo Loons, Mark Mothersbaugh, Penn
Jillette, Robert Anton Wilson, Rudy Rucker, John Shirley, and Bruce Campbell have become SubGenius ministers.
Composer Frank Zappa said in his autobiography The Real Frank Zappa Book that he agreed with many of the
beliefs of the church, but refrained from joining as a full member.[6] Comic book author Warren Ellis has stated the
influence of the Church on his writings. Patrick Volkerding, the founder and maintainer of Slackware Linux, is also a
SubGenius affiliate, and he has confirmed the Church and "Bob" inspired the name for Slackware.[7] Slackware
Linux's mascot is a modification of Tux, the normal Linux mascot, by having Tux clench a pipe in its beak, similar
to the one that "Bob", the SubGenius mascot, has.
It is claimed waggishly in church doctrine that Dobbs inspired L. Ron Hubbard to create his own cult when he
remarked to him that the general public may be pink, "but their money is green"[8] Ivan Stang also claims that in
1986, an official SubGenius ordainment for Hubbard was paid for and mailed to his address—only two weeks before
the Scientology founder's death. However, Hubbard and Scientology's history goes even farther back in time than the
SubGenius Church. The SubGenius Church likely used Scientology double-talk as a parodic springboard for the
double-talk in the mid-80s first edit of its groundbreaking "Arise" video and other Sub-genius productions.
A variety of other SubGenius videos have subsequently been produced, all available on the official Church of the
SubGenius web site. Most use film, video, clips and still images from a variety of sources: American and Japanese
science fiction movies of the 1950s, old newsreel footage, more modern TV news and cable show clips, atomic
bomb test footage, old civil defense films, silent movie footage, 1950s social etiquette films, industrial films, clips
from their various SubGenius events, self-created footage, and fan clips. Almost all these "found-footage" clips have
been heavily modified with additional post-production effects to make them legally a "new work" and are extremely
brief to avoid any legal copyright complications.
Church of the SubGenius 418

Overview of Philosophy
The Church describes its philosophy in the following manner:
The Church Of The SubGenius is an order of Scoffers and Blasphemers, dedicated to Total Slack, delving into
Mockery Science, Sadofuturistics, Megaphysics, Scatalography, Schizophreniatrics, Morealism, Sarcastrophy,
Cynisacreligion, Apocolyptionomy, ESPectorationalism, Hypno-Pediatrics, Subliminalism, Satyriology,
Disto-Utopianity, Sardonicology, Fascetiouism, Ridiculophagy, and Miscellatheistic Theology.
—The Book of the SubGenius, page 5
These terms, used in a manner that deliberately parodies Scientology and New Age terms, reflect the Church's
ideology. It portrays itself as an organization for "mutants, blasphemers, disbelievers, rebels, outcasts, hackers,
freethinkers,"[9] and people who generally consider themselves outside the "mainstream" of society. The
organization is widely seen as a satire that mocks organized religion, or as the church describes itself, "a
cynisacreligion." Its members are called a "SubGenius", the plural of which is "SubGenii".
In a manner that mocks the nature of many non-profit religious organizations, the Church is known for blatant
appeals for money from believers and non-believers alike. The Church is incorporated as a profit-making enterprise,
and declares itself to be "the only religion that is proud to pay its taxes." Anyone can become an ordained SubGenius
minister by paying a fee of US$30 for a lifetime membership; no other requirement is laid upon prospective
members. The charge for ordination separates the Church from the Universal Life Church and other paper churches
that offer ordination free of charge to all comers. The Church of the SubGenius is known for a standing offer that
stems from the ordainment fee: "Eternal Salvation or TRIPLE Your Money Back!" The organization claims that if an
ordained SubGenius minister dies and finds himself standing at the gates of "Normal" or "Boring" Hell, he will be
personally greeted by Church founder J. R. "Bob" Dobbs Himself and receive a refund check for $90, along with a
booklet titled, "How to Enjoy Hell for Five Cents an Eternity," which costs $89.95.[10]
The Church claims that true SubGenii are not actually human but descendants of the Yeti. According to Revelation
X: The 'Bob' Apocryphon (published in 1994), SubGenii are actually the mutant offspring of a forbidden sexual
union that took place millions of years ago between a resident of Atlantis and a human; at that time, humans were
little more than a slave race. The resulting offspring was the catalyst that led to the fall of Atlantis. SubGenii often
refer to one another as "Yeti" (or yetinsyny), though this origin story is generally not well known outside of the
Church itself. (The term yetinsyny was appropriated from the artist Stanisław Szukalski, whose Behold! the Protong
posited that Communists and other people Szukalski disliked were descendant from such unions.)
The Church has said that the name "SubGenius" has nothing to do with intelligence, of a level below genius or
otherwise. It appears to be an effort to repudiate pretentiousness. (However, in a purposely contradictory fashion,
they have also claimed that they are "SubGenius" because being a genius is not very fun.) The term may have
something to do with the general unhappiness and absolute slacklessness of self-proclaimed super-genius Wile E.
Coyote.

"Bob"
The central figurehead and symbol of the Church is the smiling, pipe-smoking face of J. R. "Bob" Dobbs, an image
based on 1950s styled clip art, and bearing a striking resemblance to 50s comic strip character Mark Trail. (In the
SubGenius film 'Arise', "Bob" is described at one point, quite aptly, as "A comicbook character who communicates
with space aliens and worships money".) "Bob" was considered to be the best salesman of all time. The Church
claims that "Bob" (the quotes are included when spelling his name, supposedly as a symbolic halo around his name)
founded the Church after he saw a vision of JHVH-1 (or "Jehovah-1") on his homemade TV.
"Bob" was killed in San Francisco in 1984 (though former Church members state this was just a publicity stunt).
Since that time, he has been killed and subsequently returned from the dead many times through a process known as
teledeportation. The Church, however, denies any similarity between this claim and the Biblical account of Jesus'
Church of the SubGenius 419

resurrection. The Church guards the trademark and copyright on "Bob's" image, though his face has been used by
many artistic figures, showing up on such places as albums by the rock band Sublime and George Clinton; the movie
The Wizard of Speed and Time by Mike Jittlov; in the graphical character set of the Atari ST computers; printed on
CDs for Slackware Linux (prior to Version 3); on the set of Pee-wee's Playhouse, in British comic 2000AD, inside
the strip Robo-Hunter, and in Devo's video for the song "Love Without Anger". "Bob" made an appearance in the
comic The Badger, his form having been taken by a demon who commented at one point "Do? I'm going to beat you
to death with this pipe." He also made a brief appearance in Marvel Comics' Slapstick as a coffee store clerk.

The Dobbs Icon

At the XXX-Day Drill in July of 2000, the Church unveiled and
adopted a new symbol called the "Dobbs Icon" (or sacred ikon), which
is a stylized cross with three bars and a pipe, placed in a pattern that
matches the eyes, nose, mouth, and pipe of "Bob"'s image. This symbol
resembles the patriarchal cross and it is possibly a parody of both the
Christian and the Scientologist cross.

Nothing is more central to "Bob" than his pipe, which is said to be

filled with the mysterious substance known as habafropzipulops or
"frop" which may contain either mystical, hallucinogenic, or Divine
powers. The pipe may also allude to surrealist painter Rene Magritte's
famous work, The Treachery of Images, which features an image of a
pipe and the words "Ceci n'est pas une pipe" (This is not a pipe).
According to the church, the image of "Bob" and his pipe are often
seen on random objects, possibly to herald things to come or as an
omen, or possibly for no reason at all.
The Dobbs Icon.
The number 13,013 (usually seen as "13013") is the Number of "Bob",
or the Mark of Dobbs.
In its January 1, 2000 issue, a Time magazine internet-based poll named J.R. "Bob" Dobbs the #1 "Phoney Or Fraud"
of the 20th century.[11] [12]

Slack
The central belief in the Church is the pursuit of Slack, which generally stands for the sense of freedom,
independence, and original thinking that comes when you stop worrying about personal goals. In essence, Slack is
about finding satisfaction with what you have and who you are, as opposed for searching for satisfaction in
accomplishment. The Church states that we are all born with Original Slack, but that Slack has been stolen from us
by a worldwide conspiracy of normal people, or "pinks".[13] The Church encourages originality and frowns on
actions seen as pinkness, which happens when one bows down to authority and the accepted limits of society. Slack
is also about doing nothing and getting what you want anyway. "Bob," being the center of the Slack plane, cannot
fail; even his failures are startling successes as a result of his absurdly high Slack. Popular Church phrases
supporting these goals are "Give Me Slack or KILL ME!", "The SubGenius Must Have Slack" and "Fuck 'Em If
They Can't Take A Joke".[14]
The GNU/Linux distribution Slackware is named for Slack.[15] The card game Chez Geek uses Slack to keep score;
the object of the game is to accumulate Slack counters until one player wins by reaching his or her Slack Goal. One
of the cards that a player can use within the game to gain Slack is the Book of the SubGenius. A well-known musical
reference comes from the album Panorama (1980) by The Cars, in which songwriter Ric Ocasek pleads repeatedly
for the listener to "Gimme Some Slack."[16]
Church of the SubGenius 420

Sense of humor
The Church encourages humor, comedy, parody, and satire far more than most religious faiths. This belief is
probably why the Church is seen on one level as an elaborate joke (the Church argues that if it is a joke, then it is "a
very serious joke," "a joke that you can believe in," or "the greatest joke ever told"), an arguably postmodern
mockery of organized religion, and a parody of controversial religious groups and cults, especially Scientology,
Mormonism, evangelicalism, fundamentalism, and televangelism.
In their book Religion Online: Finding Faith on the Internet, Lorne L. Dawson and Douglas E. Cowan characterize it
as a "sophisticated joke religion".[17] Almost nothing is considered off-limits to comedy in SubGenius circles, and
the group's jokes often veer into the realm of bad taste. The Book of the SubGenius says: "If you don't laugh, you
didn't get it, but if you ONLY laugh, you didn't get it." Church members frequently pull practical jokes on each
other, even as they are using their comedic talents to other ends. The Book of the SubGenius poses the question "Is
this a joke disguised as a religion, or a religion disguised as a joke in sensible shoes?"

Clenches
Church members living in the same geographic area are encouraged (though it is not mandatory) to form a group: a
local club or "clench".[18] These clenches are typically the ones who bind together in order to put on a Devival. Some
of these clenches position themselves as their own religion. This is encouraged by the Church, and is officially
known as a schism. Ivan Stang himself has been quoted as saying, "Quit the church and start your own damn
religion!" Paradoxically, one of the ways one can most fully embrace the philosophy of the Church of the SubGenius
is to ultimately declare oneself to no longer be a faithful member of the Church, but to instead have schismed and
formed one's own heretical sect or denomination, such as the Church of Don [19]. This dynamic embodies the nature
of the Church as fundamentally individualistic, and antithetical to the adherence and obedience-based ways of most
religions.

Devivals
SubGenius gatherings, or Devivals, can be seen as a combination of religious preaching, stand-up comedy, and rock
concerts. When the local members of the Church hold a Devival in their area, it typically occurs at a popular
nightclub, and it features SubGenius preachers such as Dr. Hal, Rev. Susie the Floozie, Priestess Pisces or Rev.
Stang, and backed by rock bands with such names as the Swingin' Love Corpses, Doktors 4 "Bob", Saint N and
Hellena Handbasket, Jehovah Hates Phred, Einstein's Secret Orchestra, The Mondo Retardo Band, The Amino
Acids, and the Kings of Feedback. Devivals have been held each year as part of both the Starwood Festival and
WinterStar Symposium since 1991. Attendees at Devivals are encouraged to bring money and spend it at the
ever-present sales table. Some Devivals have been known to veer out of control. In 1999, overly cautious officials of
the city of Cambridge, Massachusetts pressured owners of The Middle East nightclub to cancel the booked devival
because of a mistaken belief that the organizers were affiliated with the Trenchcoat Mafia (an organization which
was mistakenly accused of being responsible for the Columbine High School massacre).[20]

X-Day
An important SubGenius event occurred on July 5, 1998: X-Day. The Church had been predicting that on this day
the world would be destroyed by invading alien armies known as the X-ists (which is short for "Men from Planet
X"). Only the members of the Church of the SubGenius were expected to be saved from this SubGenius version of
the apocalypse, by being carried away in the spaceships of the Sex-Goddesses. When the promised cataclysm failed
to manifest, Rev. Stang was tarred and feathered by his fellow SubGenius. (Some claim the "tar" was actually honey
and that Stang himself bought the feathers.) Nevertheless, Stang was permitted to retain his position as Church
administrator, and although that day and each subsequent July 5 has passed without evidence of an alien invasion,
Church of the SubGenius 421

the faithful membership still gather for the "Rupture" at an outdoor campground to herald this SubGenius holiday.
The X-Day celebration took place at Brushwood Folklore Center until 2010; as of 2011 it has moved to Wisteria in
Pomeroy, Ohio.
[21]
Reverend Ivan Stang has given many excuses for the failure of the Rupture to happen, such as claiming that
"Bob" betrayed all SubGenii, that the scriptures were accidentally read upside down (hence the real year of the
Rupture will be 8661), or that due to calendrical error or sabotage it is not yet really 1998.[22] Some would argue that
it did happen, albeit in a metaphysical and/or allegorical manner requiring greater shift of paradigm to truly
understand. Others have suggested that the X-ists did visit Earth as predicted, but that the planet we know as Earth
was either secretly switched with Mars sometime during or shortly after World War II, or that the X-ists left with the
persuasion that mankind will do the job just as well, if not better.[22]
It scarcely needs mentioning that X-day is a parody of the popular christian notion of the rapture. The various
excuses for the apparent failure of the sex-goddesses to "rupture" the SubGenius faithful parody such events as the
Millerite Great Disappointment, and various other occasions when christian sects have confidently attached a date to
the public return of Jesus and the consequent destruction of earth.
Reverend Stang has argued that X-Day is a religious holiday for the Church, and members of the Church should take
the day of July 5 as vacation or holiday: "...if you can't get off the planet, at least get off from work."[23]

Other holy days

Besides X-Day, the Church of the SubGenius has six seasons as identified in The Book (Advert, Epicacophony,
Emaculation, Turnover, Passaround, and M'Moreal Day) and has also published a "Sacred Calendar of SubGenius
Saints" at the end of their most recent major publication, The SubGenius Psychlopaedia of Slack: The
Bobliographon. It assigns a feast day or holy day (sometimes several) to every day of the year. Many of these feast
days are rather unusual.
Additionally, in the e-mails sent out by the SubGenius foundation to confirm orders made at their online store,
mention is made of a holiday called "Xistlessnessmess", which falls on December 25. Furthermore, it has been
asserted that "Bob" has died and been reincarnated at least 366 times throughout history and prehistory in such a way
that every day is "Bob"'s birthday, and cause for celebration.

Mythology
See also a dictionary of entities in the #External links section.
Church mythology, or SubGenius Mythos, includes traditional
Christian entities such as:
• Jehovah 1 (aka JHVH-1 or Jehovah-One), a God-like wrathful
entity (a "wrathful alien space god from some corporate sin
galaxy").
• NHGH (aka Nhee Ghee or Eehg Eehn), a Satan-like smiling entity
(god of Bad Luck and Unfortunate Coincidences, cosmic
embodiment of Murphy's Law) designed by Joe Riley.

JHVH-1.
Church of the SubGenius 422

Legal matters

1989: Bob Black's bombing

According to two accounts he published and the charging document filed in Federal District Court, ex-SubGenius
anarchist Bob Black received a bomb in the mail in November 1989.[24] Black charged a Church member for the
deed, believing the device was sent to him because of criticism he had made of the Church.[25] Ivan Stang and other
members of the Church have denied any involvement in this incident, and no one else was charged.

2006: Rev. Magdalen's child custody troubles

In 2006, Rachel Bevilacqua, known as Rev. Magdalen in the SubGenius hierarchy, lost custody and contact with her
son after a district court judge took offense at her participation in the Church's X-Day festival. Judge James Punch
asked Bevilacqua to explain the humor of pictures from the event, and required that she produce a picture that would
"absolutely knock my socks off with the humor of it". Without identifying anything in her testimony as specifically
false, Punch pronounced her description of the church's activities as "clearly prevaricating" and "obviously so not
true from anybody who's looking at it from any normal perspective" and Bevilacqua herself as "mentally ill" and a
"pervert". (Ironically, the Official X-Day Video comes with a humorous instruction pamphlet that, among other
things, warns people not to show the film to "normals" because "they will think you are insane".) Punch
subsequently recused himself.[26] [27] Bevilacqua regained custody of her son in 2010. [28]

Publications

Books
• The Book of the SubGenius (1983, McGraw-Hill; 1987, Simon & Schuster)
• High Weirdness By Mail (1988, Fireside Books)
• "Bob's" Favorite Comics: The SubGenius Comic Book (1989, Rip Off Press)
• Three-Fisted Tales of "Bob" (1990, Fireside Books)
• Revelation X: The "Bob" Apocryphon (1994, Fireside Books; 2006, Thunder's Mouth Press)
• INWO: SubGenius (1997, Steve Jackson Games) (Illuminati New World Order game supplement)[29]
• The SubGenius Psyclopaedia of Slack: The Bobliographon (2006, Thunder's Mouth Press)

Periodicals
• The Stark Fist of Removal (OCLC 9908063, since ~1982,[30] online since 2000) - official newsletter

Videos
• Stang, Ivan; Holland, Cordt; Robins, Hal (2006) [1991] (DVD video), Arise! : the SubGenius video, SubGenius
Moving Pictures, OCLC 388112825

References
• Jargon File: Church of the SubGenius [31]
• Gilboa, Netta "Getting Gray With Reverend Ivan Stang" [32]
• Gill, Michael (2005). "Circle of Ash" in Cleveland Free Times, July 7, 2005 (Feature Article) Ivan Stang
discussing Starwood Festival appearance [33]
• Niesel, Jeff "Slack Is Back: Quit Your Job! Make Waste! The Church of the SubGenius Has Come to Town!"
(April 6, 2000) [34]
Church of the SubGenius 423

• Smith, Douglas St.Clair; Philo U Drummond (October 2006). The SubGenius Psychlopaedia of Slack: The
Bobliographicon. SubGenius Participants. Thunder's Mouth Press. ISBN 1560259396.
• Kopkind, Andrew (1993), "Slacking toward Bethlehem" [35], Grand Street (Jean Stein) 44: 176–188

Notes
[1] "membership figure" (http:/ / www. adherents. com/ Na/ Na_232. html#1112). adherents.com. . Retrieved 2008-08-13.
[2] "The Merry Pranksters And the Art of the Hoax; Mordantly funny, eerily Orwellian, media 'jammers' and billboard artists are challenging
reality". New York Times, pg. H1. December 23, 1990.
[3] Knight, Peter (2003), Peter Knight, ed., Conspiracy theories in American history: an encyclopedia, Volume 1 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=qMIDrggs8TsC), ABC-CLIO, p. 170, ISBN 9781576078129,
[4] WREK Atlanta, 91.1 FM (2008-11-22). "Sunday Shows | WREK Atlanta, 91.1 FM" (http:/ / www. wrek. org/ sundayshows). Wrek.org. .
Retrieved 2009-12-10.
[5] "Puzzling Evidence | KPFA 94.1 FM Berkeley: Listener Sponsored Free Speech Radio" (http:/ / kpfa. org/ puzzling-evidence). Kpfa.org. .
Retrieved 2009-12-10.
[6] Zappa, Frank; Peter Occhiogrosso. The Real Frank Zappa Book (First Touchstone Edition 1999 ed.). Touchstone. p. 234. ISBN 0671705725.
[7] "Replies from Slackware Founder Patrick Volkerding" (http:/ / slashdot. org/ interviews/ 00/ 03/ 17/ 1120205. shtml). Slashdot (http:/ / www.
slashdot. org/ ) Interview. . Retrieved 2007-08-27.
[8] SubGenius Foundation, The. The Book of the SubGenius. New York:Fireside (Simon & Schuster), 1987. 18th printing. p. 18.
[9] Chicago Tribune description of Church of the SubGenius by columnist Eric Zorn (http:/ / blogs. chicagotribune. com/
news_columnists_ezorn/ 2007/ 06/ now_everyone_ca. html)
[10] BobHellCard (http:/ / www. subgenius. com/ bigfist/ eyes/ stangart/ CARDSET/ cardsetTN/ _BobHellCard. html)
[11] August, Melissa; Barovick, Harriet; Castronovo, Val; Martens, Ellin; Philadelphia, Desa; Rawe, Julie; Taylor, Chris; Tyrangiel, Josh
(January 1, 2000). "Readers Speak: Down With Geraldo, Time Magazine, January 1, 2000, pg. 34" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/
article/ 0,9171,995817,00. html). . Retrieved April 30, 2010.
[12] "SubGenius Media Archive, Rev. Ivan Stang commentary on Time Magazine January 1, 2000 article" (http:/ / www. modemac. com/
media2/ 2000_time-magazine_1-1-00. html). .
[13] Press release posted on laughingsquid.com mentioning Original Slack being stolen by the Conspiracy (http:/ / laughingsquid. com/
avatars-of-slack-subgenius-book-release-at-city-lights/ )
[14] The Book of the SubGenius
[15] Slashdot | Replies from Slackware Founder Patrick Volkerding (http:/ / slashdot. org/ interviews/ 00/ 03/ 17/ 1120205. shtml)
[16] (http:/ / starling. rinet. ru/ music/ cars. htm)
[17] Dawson, Lorne (2004). Religion Online. New York: Routledge. p. 170. ISBN 0415970210.
[18] Clenches and Schisms page on subgenius.com (http:/ / www. subgenius. com/ websites3. htm)
[19] http:/ / neogenius. worldwarfive. net/
[20] "'Trenchcoat' comedy shows canceled in mix-up" (http:/ / www. modemac. com/ media2/ 1999_cambridge-chronicle_5-6. html)
[21] "Brushwood Folklore Center Yearly Event Schedule" (http:/ / www. brushwood. com/ schedule. htm). .
[22] "X-Day Drill Reports" (http:/ / www. subgenius. com/ bigfist/ fun/ devivals/ X-Day98/ POST-X-DAY/ X0060_STANGIAN_X-Day_Repor.
html). subgenius.com Archives. 1998. .
[23] "Stang at Starwood 99 Devival CD" (http:/ / www. subgenius. com/ scatalog/ audio. htm). 2000. .
[24] Black, Bob (1989). "Bomb 'Em If They Can't Take a Joke" (http:/ / www. inspiracy. com/ black/ bomb. html), 1989 (post-November 22),
reprinted at www.inspiracy.com/black
[25] Black, Bob. "They Don't Call it SubGenius for Nothing" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080526145806/ http:/ / www. spunk. org/
library/ writers/ black/ sp001674. html). Spunk Library. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. spunk. org/ library/ writers/ black/
sp001674. html) on 2008-05-26. . Retrieved 2008-10-28.
[26] ""Mother Pokes Fun at Religion, Loses Son", WROC TV News 8 Now, Rochester, New York, March 27, 2006, 6:00 PM" (http:/ / www.
rochesterhomepage. net/ content/ fulltext/ ?cid=1053). .
[27] Michael Gill (2006-05-31). "Perversion of Judgement:J.R. "Bob" Dobbs, Mary Magdelen, a Judge Named Punch and the Custody Battle
That Has Many Asking, Why a Goat?" (http:/ / www. freetimes. com/ stories/ 14/ 6/ perversion-of-judgement). Cleveland Free Times. .
[28] (http:/ / wildhunt. org/ blog/ tag/ rachel-bevilacqua)
[29] Steve Jackson Games (1997). "INWO: SubGenius Rules, v1.01" (http:/ / www. sjgames. com/ inwo/ rules/ subg. html), 1997, copy on
www.sjgames.com
[30] Apparently started directly with "volume 17" ca. 1982: the three earliest cites found include issue No. 39 Vol. 17 (1982), No. 40 Vol. 17
(1983), and No. 41 Vol. 17 (1984). (http:/ / www. kittyjoyce. com/ eric/ mpp/ MPP_2. html) (http:/ / www. thing. de/ projekte/ 7:9#/
tent_biblio. html)
[31] http:/ / catb. org/ jargon/ html/ C/ Church-of-the-SubGenius. html
[32] "Getting Gray With Reverand Ivan Stang" (http:/ / www. grayarea. com/ SubGenius. htm). Grayarea.com. 1989-03-02. . Retrieved
2009-12-10.
Church of the SubGenius 424

[33] "The Cleveland Free Times :: Archives :: Circle Of Ash" (http:/ / www. freetimes. com/ story/ 3493). Freetimes.com. 2005-07-06. .
Retrieved 2009-12-10.
[34] "Cleveland - News - Slack Is Back" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080112001119/ http:/ / www. clevescene. com/ 2000-04-06/ news/
slack-is-back/ full). Web.archive.org. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. clevescene. com/ 2000-04-06/ news/ slack-is-back/ full) on
2008-01-12. . Retrieved 2009-12-10.
[35] http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 25007625

External links
• subgenius.com (http://www.subgenius.com/) - Official website
• Pamphlet #1 (http://www.subgenius.com/pam1/pamphlet_p1.html)
• SubGenius newsgroups: [news://alt.slack alt.slack] and [news://alt.binaries.slack alt.binaries.slack]
• The Hour of Slack (http://www.subgenius.com/ts/hos.html) — The radio show hosted by Rev. Ivan Stang
• The Stark Fist of Removal (http://www.subgenius.com/thestarkfist.htm) — archives (2000–2005)
• Quivering Brain (http://www.quiveringbrain.com/) — Site of church co-founder Dr. Philo Drummond
• X-Day (http://www.modemac.com/x-day/)
• Papa Joe Mama (http://www.radiohorrorhosts.com/papajoemom.html) - Self proclaimed "de facto dictator" of
the controversial "Holocaustals"
• Classic SubGenius Rants (http://www.subgenius.com/bigfist/classic/classicrants/classicrants.html)
• Dictionary of the Gods: glossary of SubGenius Mythos entities (http://www.poee.org/documents/
Other_Religions/Church_of_the_SubGenius/Dictionary_of_the_Gods.htm) at the POEE
• Taphouse Cabal (http://www.taphouse.org/) — Official IRC chatroom for the Church of the SubGenius
• "Puzzling Evidence" radio show hosts (http://laughingsquid.com/puzzling-evidence/)
Article Sources and Contributors 425

Article Sources and Contributors

Crank (person)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=422517712  Contributors: .V., AI, Ahkond, Alex '05, Alksub, AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, Altenmann, Analsurgeon555,
Andrewa, Angr, Antonielly, Apokrif, Arnon Chaffin, Art LaPella, Asmodeus, Attilios, Auric, Azzarzurna, BD2412, Ben Standeven, Binadot, Bob A, Bradeos Graphon, Bryan Derksen, Bubba73,
BullRangifer, CSTAR, CesarB, Cfuhrman, Charles Matthews, Ciphergoth, Clovis Sangrail, Cometstyles, Congruence, Count Iblis, CronoDAS, DCDuring, DHeyward, Dachannien, DariuszT,
DarthVader, David Gerard, David Shay, Dbachmann, Dcoetzee, Delirium, Digwuren, Dominus, Dreftymac, Dysprosia, E23, Earthengine, Edgarde, Edward Z. Yang, EngineerScotty, Eric119,
Famspear, FeloniousMonk, Fredrik, FrostyBytes, Fubar Obfusco, Furby100, Furrykef, GeeAlice, GeeZee, Ghosts&empties, Glenn, Govin, Gzuckier, Hal Fisher, HalJor, Haldane Fisher, Hans
Adler, Hans Joseph Solbrig, Henning Makholm, Hillman, Hob Gadling, Holomorph, HominidMachinae, IVAN3MAN, Iantresman, Igodard, Ihcoyc, Illudin, Io, IreverentReverend, J04n, JDTC,
JIP, JNW, JRM, Jab843, James Arboghast, James Harris, Jbhood, Jefffire, Jim62sch, JoAnneThrax, John Carter, John Nevard, Jok2000, JoshuaZ, Juliancolton, Just plain Bill, Jyril, K, Kafziel,
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MastCell, Mattisse, Maunus, Mboverload, Mcsee, Mdf, MetaBohemian, Mhecht, Mhym, Michael C Price, Michael Hardy, Middle 8, Midgley, Modemac, Modify, Moorlock, Morton devonshire,
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Little Blue Frog, TheHerbalGerbil, Thivierr, TimVickers, TimothyJacobson, Timwi, Tobias Bergemann, Tregoweth, Tualha, Vacarme, Vaceituno, Vaisnavi, VanishedUser314159, Vonkje, WLU,
Wahkeenah, Weregerbil, William Ackerman, Wnt, Ws227, Xihr, Xxanthippe, Y o u a n d y o u r s p i f f y t a t o r b o t, ZacharyS, Zashaw, Ze miguel, Zenohockey, ‫ב לאינד‬., 151 anonymous
edits

Quackery  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=428688319  Contributors: 159753, 2over0, AED, Aaron Schulz, Abdull, Aboutmovies, Adoconeday, AgnosticPreachersKid,
Alansohn, Altenmann, Amorrow, AndreasPraefcke, Andrewpmk, Anizzah, Aranmore, Ariadoss, Arthena, Arthur Rubin, Asatiir, Audaciter, Avb, Backin72, Bdegfcunbbfv, BeeRunner, Ben Ben,
Bender235, Beno1000, Big Brother 1984, Black Jack, Bobby6610, Bobo192, Bobrayner, Bradeos Graphon, Branddobbe, BullRangifer, Bur, Burleigh2, C6541, CDN99, CIreland, Caiaffa,
Capricorn42, Chris G, Chrisvls, Cirt, Ckatz, Collinsb, Colonel Warden, ConfuciusOrnis, Consumed Crustacean, CoolKoon, Cornellrockey, Crohnie, Cyocum, DMacks, Danko Georgiev,
Dann3131, Das48, David Gerard, David Kernow, DavidOaks, Davidmack, Dbachmann, Dbenbenn, Deedeebee, Deep Sea, Deepestbluesea, Dematt, DevastatorIIC, Dforest, Diego, DigitalC,
Digwuren, Dillard421, Discospinster, DiverDave, Djinn112, Doc glasgow, DocJohnny, Docleaf, Dogface, Drsjpdc, Eastchester, EddieVanZant, Element16, Elhector, ElinorD, Ellywa, Enric
Naval, Entprasad, Epbr123, Epolk, Erich gasboy, Espenvh, Eubulides, Eurosong, Famousdog, Fgnievinski, Fibonacci, Fixblor, Fork me, Fred Bauder, FrozenUmbrella, Furrykef,
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JForget, JamesAM, Jefffire, Jgwlaw, John Paul Parks, JohnCD, Jokestress, K, Kameyama, Khym Chanur, Kimbombo, KnightRider, Kurowoofwoof111, Kusma, LadyLiz, Ladybee7, Lasneyx,
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TheDoctorIsIn, Themillofkeytone, Thepreacher, Thingg, TimVickers, Timwi, Topbanana, Toresbe, Tristanb, Ttogreh, User2004, Vald, Vanished user, Vanished user 03, Vegaswikian, Verbal,
Viajero, Vishnava, WBardwin, WLU, Wereon, Whaleto, WhatamIdoing, Whig, WhisperToMe, Whosnext148927, William Avery, Willking1979, Wisden17, Xact, ZakuSage, Zedla, Zigger, 273
anonymous edits

Pseudoscience  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=429583294  Contributors: 200.191.188.xxx, 213.253.39.xxx, 2over0, 6024kingedward1, A bit iffy, A young n***a from da
street, A. Parrot, A.t.bruland, AAMiller, ABCD, AED, AI, Aaarrrggh, Aalit4, Aaron Kauppi, Abc518, Abqwildcat, Abune, AceMyth, Achillu, Action potential, Adambrowne666, Adbatstone,
AdmN, Akrabbim, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alex '05, AlexChurchill, Alinor, Aliter, Amboo85, Analytikone, Ancheta Wis, Andre Engels, Andrew Kanaber, Andrewlp1991, Andromachi, Angela,
Anglais1, Angryxpeh, AnneFrankly, Ante Aikio, AnyFile, Apgeraint, Ardonik, ArmadniGeneral, Arne List, Arthena, Arthur Rubin, Ashmoo, AstroNomer, Atakdoug, Atfyfe, Athelwulf, Atlant,
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SIDIOUS 2, DJ Clayworth, Dabomb87, Dan100, Daniel J. Leivick, DanielCD, Danimoth, Danlibbo, Dave souza, DaveRight, David Little 99, David R. Ingham, David.Monniaux,
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Karuna8, Kaszeta, Katpatuka, Katsam, Kay Dekker, Kbk, Keldor, Kellen`, Kesaloma, Khendon, Khym Chanur, Kievite, KillerChihuahua, Kraftwerks, Kris Schnee, KrisBlueNZ,
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Magonus, Malcolmkass, Mani1, Mann jess, Manning Bartlett, Maprovonsha172, Mark Christensen, Mark t young, MarkThomas, Markbassett, Martinphi, MastCell, Master Deusoma, Matt
Crypto, Maurice Carbonaro, Maustrauser, Mav, MaxPont, Maxwyss, McDogm, McGregor91, McSly, Mccready, Metalunamutant, Metamagician3000, Miborovsky, Michael Courtney, Michael
Hardy, Michael Snow, Mieciu K, Mike Rosoft, Mike4ty4, Mindmatrix, Mindsight, Minglex, Mintguy, Mkweise, Modemac, Monedula, Moriori, Morton devonshire, Moshe Constantine Hassan
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Place4us, Plumbago, PlusDrawn, Polonium, Profg, Proofreader77, Prosfilaes, Psy guy, Psychologesetz, QuackGuru, R Lowry, RK, Ragesoss, Raigedas, Random user 39849958, Raul654, Raven
in Orbit, Ravensfan5252, Rbj, Rbonvall, Rdsmith4, Reaper Eternal, Reapermage1990, Reddi, Reinis, Reinyday, Rememberway, Resess, Rgamble, Rhanyeia, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Arthur
Norton (1958- ), Richard001, RichardF, RichardKingCEng, Rick Norwood, Rjwilmsi, Rktect, Rl, Robert Merkel, Robert Stevens, RonCram, Rossenglish, Rossnixon, RoyBoy, Rracecarr, Rtc,
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Someoneelse33, Somerset219, Sonic billy, Sophroniscus, Spacecat2, SpeakFree, SpeedyGonsales, Stefan Kruithof, Steinsky, Sterry2607, Steth, Steve B110, Steve Lowther, SteveWolfer, Steven
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TheresaWilson, Thorwald, Throbblefoot, Tiddly Tom, Tim Starling, TimVickers, Tito4000, Tjansen, Tobias Hoevekamp, Tom Butler, Tony1, Travis.Thurston, Trilobitealive, Trious, Trixon123,
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Wndl42, Woffie, WojPob, Wolfkeeper, Wotnow, Ww, Xaonon, Xxanthippe, Yerpo, Yk Yk Yk, Zandperl, Zemaiteska, Zoicon5, Zonbalance, ZuluPapa5, ΑΩ, Александър, 676 anonymous edits

Flat Earth Society  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=430085071  Contributors: 02browns, 1123roxy, 2toise, 69lolz11, 7&6=thirteen, Abjad, Addshore, Adl;flkdja;lksjd,
AeonicOmega, Aetheling, Agathoclea, Ahambly, Ajuk, Alansohn, Albanaco, Alethiophile, Alexf, Alexjohnc3, Aliciawoo, AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, Alphacron, Altenmann, Alvareo, Amalthea,
AnOddName, Andonic, Andrewpmk, AnonMoos, Antandrus, Antipode, Apples grow on pines, Aquila89, Arakunem, Ark25, Armchair info guy, AtticusX, Avillarrealpouw, Awolsoldier,
AxelBoldt, Axeman89, Babajobu, Backin72, BankyEdwards, Barbara Shack, Beach drifter, Bennybenny123, BigDunc, Bigbluefish, Bigwyrm, Blackmissionary, Bobblewik, Bobbylee105, Bobo
Fernandez, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, Borg punk, Brtkrbzhnv, Bryan Derksen, Bubba73, CWY2190, CWii, CalmCalamity, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Captain Disdain,
Carlfay1, Carnildo, Cbelhorn, Cdestroyer127, Cgingold, Chamal N, Chelman, Chemicalinterest, Chewi95, ChiragPatnaik, Chris55, CiudadanoGlobal, Ckatz, ClanCC, Clarityfiend, Closedmouth,
Clovis Sangrail, Coconut strangeness, ConfuciusOrnis, Conithegreat, Corpx, Coso, Crazymonkey1123, Cuchullain, Cunningham, Custodiet ipsos custodes, CyanideMessiah, CzarB, DJ
Article Sources and Contributors 426

Clayworth, DMacks, DSRH, DVdm, Da monster under your bed, DabMachine, DaiTengu, Dakart, Dan Witte, Dancingspring, Danielfes, Danski14, Dbachmann, Dbenbenn, Dbfirs, Dcoetzee,
Decagon, Delirium, Demong, Dialecticas, Discospinster, Dmmaus, Doczilla, Don Black, Doric Loon, Dougofborg, Dougweller, Dragons flight, Dreadstar, Drmies, Duncharris, Duriankundera,
Dwolsten, Dylan Lake, EamonnPKeane, Ebyabe, Ed Poor, Ed g2s, Editor2020, EditorInTheRye, Edwardbains, El C, ElMorador, Electronic Samurai, Eloquence, Emilfaro, End255, Entheta,
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great justice., Frencheigh, Fruckert, Fæ, GDallimore, Gabbe, Galatix27, Garik, Gary2863, George100, Gilgamesh, Gilliam, Glenn, Glennwells, Good Olfactory, Gotyear, Graft, GregorB, Grillo,
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Suri, Hmains, Holoner, Hotchips, Hut 8.5, Hydrargyrum, Iain.dalton, Ibn Battuta, IceyMollie, Igiffin, Ignacio Bibcraft, Ijon, Imran, Infrogmation, Intelligentsium, Iph, Iranian86Footballer,
Iridescent, Itai, Ixfd64, JForget, JFreeman, JJLeahy, JPX7, JaGa, Jacob1207, Jammycakes, Jarry1250, Javert, Jbarta, Jdorwin, Jeffq, Jemmy Button, Jersey Devil, Jerzy, Jidy123, Jnestorius,
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Pygmypony, Pyrogina, Pyrospirit, Qrk, Quadduc, Quantumobserver, Quase, Que, Quinsareth, QuiteUnusual, Qwertyus, Qwyrxian, Qxz, R Lee E, RWyn, Radeity, Radon210, RaiderTarheel,
RainbowOfLight, Random User 937494, Randomusername331, Randy Johnston, RaseaC, Ratso, Rave67890, Rdsmith4, Reaverdrop, RedHillian, RedSpruce, Redvulcan32, Reedbraden, Renamed
user 33, Renesis, RenniePet, Renyseneb, Rerun, Res2216firestar, Respice, Results may vary, RevRagnarok, Revolución, RexNL, ReyBrujo, Rhaas, Richard D. LeCour, Richard Ye, RichardLee,
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RxS, Ryan Norton, Ryan soton, Ryanjunk, SJP, SMC, SOLW101, SWAdair, Sagafg65675673, Salamurai, Salmar, Sam Korn, Samheard, Samrapaport, Samtakesall, Samtheboy, Sandwichbob,
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Seattlenow, SeiteNichtGefunden, Seldon1, Selket, Semper discens, Sezziesays, Shaddow777, Shadow1, Shagohod8877, ShakataGaNai, Shanel, Shanen, Sharkmster99, Shaunsomeone, Shawn in
Article Sources and Contributors 429

Montreal, Shearonink, Sheean, Sheepeh, Sherlockspock, Shii, Shimei, Shinpah1, Shirik, Shmget, Shoehorn, SidP, Sietse Snel, Silence, Silivrenion, Silly rabbit, Silverback, Simonn, Sin-man,
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TheTruthiness, Theadept, Thedeadlypython, Thefirstgolfoffer, Thegreyanomaly, Thehotcarl, Thernlund, Thestar92, Thetorpedodog, Thingg, Third, This can't go on, This.machinery, Thomas666,
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Wafulz, Walterstc, Wangry, Warfire, Warlog, WasistDas?, Wavelength, WaysToEscape, Weaponofmd, Weasel extraordinaire, Weregerbil, Whackamole7, Wheelz128, Where, WhisperToMe,
WhyBeNormal, Wiki alf, Wiki libs, Wikimam, Wikipelli, Wildie, Wildthing61476, William Avery, William Trevor Blake, Willking1979, Wimt, Winterdragon, Wisco, WitchNEO, Wknight94,
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Zypres, Zzyzx11, ^demon, Шизомби, 2926 anonymous edits

Intelligent falling  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=422273497  Contributors: A Quest For Knowledge, Abdullais4u, AeroIllini, Andreaskeller, Bdegfcunbbfv, Benwildeboer,
Betacommand, Brian Kendig, BrokenSegue, Burgercat, Calm, CalumH93, Capi, Clemwang, CyberSkull, Cymsdale, Darrylmoore, Dave souza, DaveHolland, David Kernow, DavidWBrooks,
Dcsimpson, Dfeuer, Donarreiskoffer, Duncharris, Długosz, Ec5618, Elphion, Epikouros, ErikWarmelink, Euyyn, Extremophile, FeloniousMonk, Fredrik, Gaius Cornelius, GeeJo, Geni,
Gigglesworth, GregorB, Groeck, Gwern, Hamiltondaniel, Hektor, Heron, Irene Ringworm, Jacob1207, Java13690, Jeff Silvers, Jivecat, JohnFlux, KConWiki, Kaydonyay, KingK327, Korakot,
Laurascudder, Leadwind, LeedsKing, LeilaniLad, Male1979, Mattbuck, Mdotley, Michael Hardy, Minestrone Soup, Monado, Moucis, Northfox, PhilipO, Pizza1512, ProveIt, Roo72, RoyBoy,
Scanime, Sciguy47, ScottAlanHill, Silly rabbit, Sparsefarce, Squiddy, The Anome, The Thing That Should Not Be, Tide rolls, Tothebarricades.tk, Twinsday, Vsmith, Z10x, ZayZayEM,
Zetawoof, 63 anonymous edits

Fringe science  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=429775232  Contributors: 2over0, Al.locke, Alan2012, Alexey Feldgendler, Anaxial, Atomic blunder, Aunt Entropy,
Azucar1223, Backslash Forwardslash, BlankVerse, Budhen, C6541, Cgingold, ColorfulNumbers, Consico, Cosmic Latte, Count Iblis, Crowsnest, D6, Dante Alighieri, Davidmack, Dbrisinda,
Drbreznjev, Dreadstar, DreamGuy, Epbr123, Eyu100, FeloniousMonk, Fradulent Ideas, Fram, Fubar Obfusco, Galoubet, Greenrd, GregVolk, Grm wnr, Gyrobo, Hamard Evitiatini, Hodja
Nasreddin, Holothurion, IPSOS, Iantresman, Icairns, Ignatiusboethius, ImperfectlyInformed, Istanbuljohnm, Jeroen, Jkaplan, Jmcc150, John M Baker, Jokestress, Jusdafax, Just plain Bill,
Jwrosenzweig, K, Kaiwhakahaere, Karada, Ketiltrout, Kim Bruning, Kurtan, LeadSongDog, Lycurgus, Malcolmkass, Maurreen, Maximus Rex, Mccowinja, Mccready, Mdd, Mgiganteus1,
Michael.gierasimiuk, Middle 8, Mindmatrix, Mitrius, NJGW, Nickptar, Noumenon, Ollj, Piano non troppo, Plutophanes, Professor marginalia, Pschelden, RainbowOfLight, Random user
39849958, Reddi, RekishiEJ, Rjwilmsi, Robert Stevens, Ronz, Rpab, Ruby2010, Ryulong, SDY, Salsb, Sam Hocevar, Scwlong, Seegoon, Sergris, SharkD, Sjscomicpromotions,
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Testarossa, Vsmith, WLU, Welsh, Wfaxon, Wikkidd, Will314159, 91 anonymous edits

List of cryptids  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=429827628  Contributors: !paradigm!, 80.255, A3RO, ABF, ALargeElk, Abce2, Acroterion, Adam the Stampede, Againme,
Aidep Ikiwe Tahi, Akrabbim, Alansohn, Alex Bakharev, Altenmann, Alxeedo, Amatulic, Amazon Warrioress, Amillar, An Edwardian Sunday, Andrew Levine, Andyroo316, Anonyminous,
Anticrash, Anubis3, Anubiz, ArielGold, Arisedrew, Arny, ArthurWeasley, AstroHurricane001, Athenslovesme, Auntof6, Auric, Autoerrant, Autumnstruck, BackspaceCloud, Bahudhara, Bakilas,
Beanies520, Ben MacDui, Benjamin Mako Hill, Benjit 69, Benplowman, Bento00, Berkana, Berniethomas68, Biglovinb, Bill Darwin, Biscuittin, Bishonen, Blamb85, Blanchardb, Bobo192,
Bope123, Bosoxnorx, BoundaryRider, Bradbarton, Bshubert, Bueller 007, Bulbasaur990, C-w-l, C.Fred, CFLeon, Calaschysm, Caliga10, Calliopejen, Caltas, Camw, CanadianMysteries, Caniche,
Cheguevara93, Chenzo23, Chris 73, ChromaM78, Cigarette man, Citotoons, Ckc1227, ClovisPt, Cocytus, Coelacan, CommonsDelinker, ConfuciusOrnis, ConstantineChernabog, Contributor777,
Corpse242, Coyoty, CptJessieHawk, Cryptid master, Cryptidmysteryman, Cryptidresearcher, Cryptod, Cryptozoologist123, Cucumberkvp, Cutiepiebabylover, CynderDragon, Czac, Czbiker,
DUBJAY04, Da monster under your bed, Damifb, Daniel J. Leivick, Danielos2, Dant2492, Daojie, Darthpineapple401, Dave.Dunford, DaveJ1974, Dawser124, Deltaforce5000, Deor, Destynova,
Dhfdsfgvjhc, Difluoroethene, DinoCraze, Disco Dance Monkey, Dmol, Docu, Doczilla, Download, DrOxacropheles, Dracontes, DragonflySixtyseven, Drakonicon, Dreamstohack, Drosev,
Drydic guy, Dutson, Dycedarg, Dysmorodrepanis, Eagor, East718, Edcoan, Ediug, Egocentrism04, El C, Elasmosaurus, Elfred, Enauspeaker, Ender Wiiggin, Endlessdan, Epbr123, Epers,
Ergonaut2001, ErikTheRed13, Erikun, ErrantX, Esquire0069, Everchanging02, Everyking, Ewlyahoocom, FF2010, Falcon8765, Faradayplank, Finneroo, Fiziker, Flailerpigs, Flapdragon,
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Glane23, Glenn, Glyphobet, Gobonobo, GoingBatty, Gomm, Gooch41, Gotiki, Grafen, Gtrmp, Gurch, Guthrie, Guydude154, Gwjordan, Gökhan, Haemo, Hamaryns, Harryboyles, Helixdq,
History Wizard, Hotguymike, Hq3473, Hundred-Man, I love rastus, IGeMiNix, Iamharryb, Iancarine, Iceman48906, Idon'texist, Ilovegrouptheory, Improbcat, Internoob, Invaderzimnut,
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Zachlechler, Zagalejo, Zalethon, Zalgt, Zami97, ZayZayEM, Zeige391, Zerokitsune, Zinc2005, Zxcvb8b, 2008 anonymous edits

Pseudohistory  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=429332727  Contributors: 2over0, A.J.A., AI, AKMask, Afasmit, Againme, AlmostReadytoFly, Altenmann, Angr, Arlesd,
Atomic blunder, Aunt Entropy, Ausir, BBiiis08, Bkmays, BladeStopper, Blanchardb, Bluerasberry, Bnynms, Bobrayner, Brunnock, By Little Old Me, Caerwine, CanOfWorms, Chimeric Glider,
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Eingangskontrolle, ElectricRay, Eleland, Eloquence, Emperorbma, Ergative rlt, Eriksen, Error, Ev, Faithlessthewonderboy, Falphin, Farseer, Ferdinand Pienaar, FinnWiki, Frozenfortress,
GRBerry, George127, Gilgamesh, Goregore, Han Solar de Harmonics, Happysailor, Harry Potter, Hede2000, Heyitspeter, Hodja Nasreddin, Hrafn, Humus sapiens, Hworost, Igiffin, Ihcoyc,
Ishmaelblues, J.delanoy, JQF, Jan1nad, John K, Jon Ascton, Joy, Jrtayloriv, KalevTait, Kalidasa 777, Kayobee, Kintetsubuffalo, Ksyrie, LGagnon, Leonard^Bloom, Leontios, LightGrenade04,
Lunar Dragoon, MagneticFlux, Malcolm Farmer, Mamalujo, Mild Bill Hiccup, Millosh, Mimihitam, MinorContributor, Modemac, Monguin61, Muhamed, Nate5713, Netkinetic, NickW557,
Niohe, Niteshift36, Nixdorf, Olinga, OlofE, Onco p53, Otolemur crassicaudatus, Paranoid, Pegship, Peterlewis, Phiwum, Pinko1977, Plantguy, Pooua, PotatoSamurai, Prosfilaes, Q Valda, RK,
Rangi42, Ravenhull, Raze78, Reinyday, Rich Farmbrough, Rjensen, Rjwilmsi, RudyB, Rursus, Rushey Platt, SamuelTheGhost, Scottandrewhutchins, Sfdan, Sheehan, SimonP, Sitenl,
Slatersteven, Smaines, Smatprt, Solicitr, Sophia, Squiddy, Sselbor, Steinsky, Summer Song, Taharqa, Terence, The Anome, The Rationalist, Theelf29, Tom Reedy, Tom harrison,
Tothebarricades.tk, Tox, ToxicInterior, Trilobyte07, Twilsonb, Twinsday, Utcursch, VanishedUser314159, Varano, Verbal, Verklempt, Vervin, Viator slovenicus, VivaEmilyDavies, WARRIOR
KNIGHTS ENGLAND, Waggers, Walkingcod, Why Not A Duck, Will Beback, Wilson44691, Woland37, Wtstar, Yasis, Zara1709, 160 anonymous edits
Article Sources and Contributors 430

Conspiracy theory  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=429612214  Contributors: ***Ria777, .V., 16@r, 2411VILLA, 29 dot 21 dot 87 dot 7, 2toise, 47b, 4twenty42o, 99th
Percentile, A Man In Black, A Quest For Knowledge, A3 nm, AMHR285, Abelson, Acebrock, Acedea9, Achero, Adagio Cantabile, Adam Keller, Adam keller, Adaxl, Adhib, Adreamsoul,
Ae597gmail, Aeonboom, Aeqea, Agamemnon2, Age Happens, Agge1000, Agusohyeah, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Ajo Mama, Ajraddatz, Alabama Moon, Alchemistoxford, Aleenf1, Alex Kennedy,
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Yerrick, Dan D. Ric, Dan Gluck, Dan100, Daniel J. Leivick, Daniellecoley88, Darkbreed, Dave8882008, DaveApter, Davenbelle, Daveyboy11, David Gerard, Davidizer13, Davidruben,
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Mind control  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=428985329  Contributors: 168..., 37 cent, AGToth, AI, Aaron Kauppi, Abdul747, AbsolutDan, AdSR, Aenar, Aeternus,
Aff123a, Alberto89m, Aldie, Altenmann, Anacapa, Anarchia, Andries, Andycjp, Anetode, Angie Y., Animeanonymous, Antaeus Feldspar, Anthere, AnthonyQBachler, AntiACM,
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DocWatson42, Dr01234, Drmies, EBlack, Earle Martin, Ed Poor, Edgar181, Eep², El C, Eloquence, EmmDee, Eshaler, Eudj, ExitControl, ExtraBold, Eyu100, Fahrenheit451, Farry, Farstriker,
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Article Sources and Contributors 431

Wayne Slam, Weaponbb7, Weazzel2828, WegianWarrior, Wenli, Werty892, Wiki alf, Wikiborg, Wikiguy1, WillOakland, Wilson2007, Wingover, Wiscados, Wizguru, Wmahan, Wn9mam,
Woodrow Buzard, Woohookitty, WpZurp, XA-9, Xbvca, Xmmann, Y0u, Yono, Yotcmdr, Z205e501p, Zappaz, Zooplah, Zzuuzz, ‫اناد زرمارف‬, 639 anonymous edits

Pseudoarchaeology  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426706291  Contributors: Adamsan, Againme, Ahoerstemeier, Allianceinmotion, Andre Engels, Andrea.gf, Andy Smith,
Arjuna909, Arlesd, Arthur Rubin, Asarelah, Ascorbic, Atomic blunder, Attilios, Auric, Blackmetalbaz, Blacksands, Bobby D. Bryant, Bobrayner, Bryan Derksen, CJLL Wright, CRGreathouse,
Caliga10, Centauri, Charlesdrakew, Clawson, ClovisPt, Conaughy, ConfuciusOrnis, Cyrius, David Gerard, DavidWBrooks, Dbachmann, Delphii, Dirk math, Dogface, Dougweller, Drpaule,
Duncharris, EamonnPKeane, Egil, ElectricRay, Equanimity, Ethan Mitchell, Eugene-elgato, Fences and windows, Florian Blaschke, Furrykef, Fuzzform, Gibbzmann, Gillharley, Grutter, Gtrmp,
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Jwhoopes, Jwrosenzweig, Kjmatthews, McKay, Mdockrey, Michael Hardy, Midnightblueowl, Modemac, Modulatum, Nilmerg, Niz, Ocelotl10293, Omegatron, Orangemarlin, Ours18, Paul H.,
Penfold, PhiloNysh, PiCo, Place4us, Psychonaut, RJFJR, Reddi, Rjwilmsi, Ronz, Salmanazar, SamuelTheGhost, Sannse, Scanlyze, Skatche, Slatibarfast, Strike Freedom Gundam, Susvolans,
Tesi1700, Thanos5150, Thaurisil, The Anome, The PIPE, Thomas Small, Titanium Dragon, TurabianNights, Twalls, Ukexpat, Vsmith, W guice, WLU, Waggers, Wavelength, Wernher, Wetman,
WikHead, Zazaban, Zhukora, Zoicon5, 102 anonymous edits

Catastrophism  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=429857666  Contributors: (jarbarf), 121a0012, Ajraddatz, Alcmaeonid, Amnon s, Anarkisto, Andre Engels, ArielGold, Aunt
Entropy, Awickert, BD2412, Bcasterline, Blueboar, Bobo192, Bobryuu, Brighterorange, Bryan Derksen, Bwrs, Capricorn42, Cardamon, Christian Skeptic, Closedmouth, Dave souza,
Davidng150, Dbachmann, Deglr6328, Deor, Dialectric, Doughboy100, Dougweller, Dysprosia, Eilthireach, Eliyyahu, Ewlyahoocom, First Base, Fordmadoxfraud, Gaeddal, Gedfan, Gniniv,
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bowen2000, Nopira, Novangelis, Paigeisright, Petri Krohn, Petter Bøckman, Phaedrus7, Philwelch, ProfessorPaul, Prunesqualer, Quintote, Ragesoss, Reddi, Rhobite, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi,
RobertFritzius, Romannew, RoyBoy, Rusty Cashman, Sapphic, Sarregouset, Shell Kinney, Snoyes, SpaceFlight89, Spellmaster, Stbalbach, The Thing That Should Not Be, Trabucogold,
Tritium6, Ultrogothe, Vanished User 0001, VanishedUser314159, Velikovsky, Vsmith, WIT09, Wetman, Wfward, Wiggles007, Wikkidd, William M. Connolley, ZS, 123 anonymous edits

Psychohistory  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=424371239  Contributors: 67.193.40.xxx, Aaron Kauppi, Aetheling, Alan Peakall, Antonielly, ArcticFrog, Arthur Rubin,
Avicennasis, Badagnani, Bookish, Brewcrewer, Catherine.r.lewis, Cesar Tort, Chris the speller, ChrisCork, Clarknova, Comicist, CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, Cotir2005, DSatz,
DanielCD, Datepalm17, Debresser, Docu, Doczilla, Dodo78, EuroTom, Evil saltine, Fayenatic london, Francisco Valverde, Francs2000, Frenchfriar, GabrielAPetrie, GeoGreg, Graham87,
Guanaco, HairyFotr, Harryboyles, Hmains, Ike9898, Ishmaelblues, JMS85, JYi, Jiang, John Broughton, John69, JohnInDC, JohnOwens, Johnkarp, Julia Rossi, Kai-Hendrik, Keeper76, Kizor,
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Vaceituno, Vaughan, Vicki Rosenzweig, WLU, WojPob, Yath, 53 anonymous edits

Priory of Sion  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=429770501  Contributors: A. B., Adkins, Ahoerstemeier, Airplaneman, Airwind HBKjr, Akamad, AlbertR, Ales Tosovsky,
Alex Kennedy, AlissonSellaro, Altayr, Altenmann, Andy Callan, Andypayne, Angusmclellan, Animephreak135, Ansell, Antaeus Feldspar, Aranherunar, Arasaka, ArchieHall, Axl, BCube,
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Searches for Noah's Ark  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=428537038  Contributors: Aaboelela, Aardvark92, Aelfthrytha, Aivazovsky, Algorithme, Allrgc2katz, Amybeam,
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The Protocols of the Elders of Zion  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=429185880  Contributors: .:Ajvol:., A Train, A bit iffy, A. Parrot, A.S. Brown, ADM, Aaron north,
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Holocaust denial  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=430158747  Contributors: -jkb-, .V., 00tink00, 1(Nazi)1, 2toise, 4wajzkd02, 999zzz, A.S. Brown, ABF, ABigBlackMan, AI,
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Vir4030, Viriditas, Visite fortuitement prolongée, Vizcarra, VolatileChemical, Vonsche, Vsmith, Vsosin, WCMencken, WTFWiki?!, WWGB, Wahica, Walkerb, Walla Walla, Wallie,
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Zero0000, Zh, Zhinker87, Zigger, Zillionaire2, Zionist agent, Zocky, 任, 2193 anonymous edits

Ancient astronauts  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=429463742  Contributors: ***Ria777, 2fort5r, A bit iffy, AI, Againme, Akriasas, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alex '05,
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Lost lands  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=419411087  Contributors: Alai, Alangdon86, AnonMoos, Appraiser, Auric, Bidgee, Booknut56, CALR, Cardamon, Chiqzik,
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TiffaF, Titanium Dragon, Tmonzenet, Uthanc, Valentinian, Vary, Ventifax, Verne Equinox, Volcanoguy, Wadysh, Wetman, Xanzzibar, Zara1709, 86 anonymous edits

Shakespeare authorship question  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=429797769  Contributors: 0x6D667061, 20coconuts, A. Colin Wright, ABF, Acroterion,
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Yossarian, Yoyoman704, Zafiroblue05, Zntrip, Zweigenbaum, Þjóðólfr, Δ, 1147 anonymous edits

'pataphysics  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=426789013  Contributors: 2over0, 7&6=thirteen, A cute little ruin, AdamFunk, Alvareo, AndrewSiskind, Andthebirds, AndyJ,
Anthony Appleyard, Auric, AxelBoldt, Bill Thayer, Bjørn som tegner, BlackShipsFilltheSky, CambridgeBayWeather, Chaosandvoid, Chris the speller, Coat of Arms, Cobra libre, Danthewhale,
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J, Freegris, Frequentlyfrequent, Generica, Ghettodude, Ghosts&empties, Good Olfactory, Goregore, Gregbard, Gubbubu, Gwern, Harry Potter, Hello32020, Heron, Hugobaron, Ian Pitchford, Itai,
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Nixdorf, Ohconfucius, Omphaloscope, Orz, OsvátA, Owen, P kusch, Parkwells, Pata1, Pcb21, PhilHibbs, Philwelch, Piolinfax, Pok148, Qqq, Quarl, Radagast, RandomCritic, Reisio,
RepublicanJacobite, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rutherfordlad, RyanEberhart, Saposcat, Savage4ever76, Scepia, Sethmahoney, Slark, Slarty2, Smartie2thaMaxXx, Some thing, Someone else,
Spamguy, Sparkit, Stemonitis, Stillnotelf, Theoldanarchist, Tkinias, Tolken, Tony1, Tothebarricades.tk, Vanguardiachilena, Verdy p, WendelScardua, Woland1234, Xezbeth, Zomphilmapster,
Zscout370, Zzo38, Δ, 176 anonymous edits

Indiana Pi Bill  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=427359130  Contributors: 5hin3, A Quest For Knowledge, Amire80, Anypodetos, Anythingyouwant, Barraki, Bedford, Bhny,
Bkell, BlowToad, BlueMoonlet, Bped1985, Calvero JP, Charles Edward, Christopher1968, CraigRNielsen, DavidWBrooks, Ddunx46135, Dextrose, Eastlaw, Ebehn, Edokter, Engineer Bob,
Falcorian, Father Goose, Ferred, Floaterfluss, Fredrik, George Leung, Henning Makholm, IGE, Icedemon, Jenks24, KBry, KSmrq, LafinJack, LegalBeagle, Leland McInnes, Lethe, LorenzoB,
Markjoseph125, Mindmatrix, Mx3, NTK, Norm mit, Omegatron, Pmanderson, Pol098, Rajakhr, RenniePet, Requiem18th, Reywas92, Rich Farmbrough, Runtime, StradivariusTV, Strobie,
Talkingtruth, Twilsonb, Tyler-willard, UnicornTapestry, Uvaduck, Vmenkov, Yonatan, 44 anonymous edits

Eccentricity (behavior)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=429200793  Contributors: 00666, A vivid dreamer, Aaron Kauppi, Adrian.M.Chapman, Agusk7, AlecSchueler,
AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, Andy Marchbanks, AndySimpson, Apokrif, Astadourian, Auric, Avanzare, Barbara Shack, Barticus88, Batterie-Energie, Bookinvestor, Brassmouth, Bullzeye, Can't
sleep, clown will eat me, Causa sui, Ccacsmss, Chavando, Christopher Connor, Cleduc, Codik, Coolv, Cs-wolves, D C McJonathan, DBaba, DCDuring, Darkahn, David Shankbone,
Discospinster, Docether, E.S. Blofeld, Earbox, Edwy, Eleassar, Elemesh, Elenseel, Eubulides, Evenmadderjon, Extransit, Ezrahilyer, Fishal, Frater Liberabit, Graham87, Gscshoyru, Harland1,
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Queenmomcat, Quux0r, Reddi, Reidlophile, Rigadoun, Silence, SimenH, Soliloquial, Sublime Satire, T L Miles, T. Anthony, Tassedethe, TheAdd, TheTechieGeek63, Tide rolls, Tired time, Tom
Lougheed, Tsumetai, WouterVH, Xen 1986, ZICO, 输寄请像, 207 anonymous edits

Donna Kossy  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=423235624  Contributors: Caerwine, Chowbok, Chrisfrost, David Gerard, ESkog, Eep², Leonard^Bloom, Malcolmxl5, Michal
Nebyla, Mikemoto, Misarxist, Modemac, Monkey Bounce, Nyttend, Pcap, PigFlu Oink, Rich Farmbrough, Robofish, Sandstein, Scribblingwoman, Shubinator, Tassedethe, The Little Blue Frog,
5 anonymous edits

Francis E. Dec  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=425986271  Contributors: A. Parrot, Agvulpine, Akerans, Alansohn, Allium, Anthony Appleyard, Arancaytar, Art LaPella,
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Xymmax, ²¹², Αναρχία, 107 anonymous edits

Fortean Times  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=428549323  Contributors: Alansohn, Ameliorate!, Ashmoo, AxelBoldt, Boredzo, Cardamon, Casliber, Ceyockey, Chris the
speller, Colonelnut, Courcelles, D-Notice, Darklilac, DaveGorman, David Gerard, DreamGuy, Emperor, Ferkelparade, Fitandhappy, Forteanajones, Forteanstaff, Georgefrancistrain, Grutness,
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Spellmaster, SquidSK, Stephenb, Tascio, Tassedethe, TheNeutroniumAlchemist, Tim!, Tony Sidaway, Totnesmartin, Tuckerresearch, VanishedUser314159, Woohookitty, WorthyDan, Zagalejo,
45 anonymous edits

Heaven's Gate (religious group)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=429586273  Contributors: ***Ria777, 29Palms.Marine, A. Nonymous, Action Jackson IV, Adamrush,
Adg1034, Aegith, Againme, Ahoerstemeier, Alakhriveion, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alexius08, Alpha Quadrant (alt), Anaxial, Andries, AndroidCat, Anna Frodesiak, Antaeus Feldspar,
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Article Sources and Contributors 435

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Devolution (biology)  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=429317653  Contributors: 68Kustom, ApostleJoe, Apostrophe, Armchair info guy, Ashmoo, Bdiscoe, Ben Standeven,
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The Beginning Was the End  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=429117342  Contributors: BorgQueen, Bryan Derksen, DarKrow, Econrad, Good Olfactory, Grilledegg, Jeandré
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Helena Blavatsky  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=429607889  Contributors: (jarbarf), 7even, A. Parrot, Acts17, Adriansrfr, Aecis, AhimsaJ, Al B. Free, Alan Liefting,
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Article Sources and Contributors 436

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The Urantia Book  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=427164980  Contributors: ***Ria777, ACW, Aaronbrick, Afterwriting, Ahoerstemeier, Alai, Aluvus, Anazgnos, Angr,
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Шизомби, 478 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 438

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Image:WPA quack poster.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WPA_quack_poster.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Max Plattner
File:William Hogarth 036.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:William_Hogarth_036.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Lar, Lew XXI,
Mattes, Millevache, Olivier2, PKM, SiGarb
File:Pietro Longhi 015.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pietro_Longhi_015.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AndreasPraefcke, Emijrp, G.dallorto
File:Three early medicine bottles.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Three_early_medicine_bottles.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was
Deepestbluesea at en.wikipedia
Image:Snake-oil.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Snake-oil.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Ihcoyc at en.wikipedia
Image:PhrenologyPix.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PhrenologyPix.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Not credited
Image:Flat Earth.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flat_Earth.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Trekky0623
Image:Flag of the United Nations.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_Nations.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Wilfried Huss /
Anonymous
Image:FESlogo.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FESlogo.gif  License: unknown  Contributors: Apples grow on pines, Usb10
File:Plesiosaur8.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Plesiosaur8.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Crypto-Researcher
at en.wikipedia
File:Dr Karl P. N. Shuker and Smilodon Skull.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dr_Karl_P._N._Shuker_and_Smilodon_Skull.jpg  License: GNU Free
Documentation License  Contributors: Dr Karl P. N. Shuker
File:Okapi2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Okapi2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Attis1979, Boivie, Raul654, 1 anonymous edits
Image:1895-Dictionary-Phrenolog.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1895-Dictionary-Phrenolog.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Davidlud, Man vyi,
Quasipalm, Red devil 666, Vmenkov, 2 anonymous edits
File:Steiner Berlin 1900 big.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Steiner_Berlin_1900_big.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: unknown
File:Ita Wegman 1899.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ita_Wegman_1899.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: unknown photographer
Image:Ita Wegman vor1900.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ita_Wegman_vor1900.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cedric5, Infrogmation, JdH, Lupo,
Polarlys, Wst
Image:MagnetiteRing.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MagnetiteRing.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: Steelerdon (talk). Original
uploader was Steelerdon at en.wikipedia
File:Magnet placement in magnet therapy study on menstrual pain.png  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnet_placement_in_magnet_therapy_study_on_menstrual_pain.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Mikael
Häggström
File:L. Ron Hubbard conducting Dianetics seminar in Los Angeles in 1950.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:L._Ron_Hubbard_conducting_Dianetics_seminar_in_Los_Angeles_in_1950.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Uncredited photographer for Los
Angeles Daily News
File:Dianetics demo at Union Station.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dianetics_demo_at_Union_Station.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5
 Contributors: Ben Schumin
Image:WaterScrewPerpetualMotion.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WaterScrewPerpetualMotion.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: George A. Bockler
Image:Perpetual Motion by Norman Rockwell.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Perpetual_Motion_by_Norman_Rockwell.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: Chetvorno, Kirtap
Image:Perpetuum mobile villard de honnecourt.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Perpetuum_mobile_villard_de_honnecourt.jpg  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: GDK, Kilom691
Image:OrffyreusWheel.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:OrffyreusWheel.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Reddi
Image:USPatent4151431-1.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USPatent4151431-1.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alansohn, Reddi, 3 anonymous edits
Image:USPatent4151431-2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USPatent4151431-2.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Reddi, 2 anonymous edits
Image:Perpetuum1.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Perpetuum1.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alno, Dims
Image:Prepex2.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Prepex2.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bkell, Blacklemon67, 8 anonymous edits
Image:Boyle'sSelfFlowingFlask.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Boyle'sSelfFlowingFlask.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Computerjoe, NH, Paradoctor,
Ragesoss, Ustas, WikipediaMaster, 8 anonymous edits
File:Lawson Alfred W.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lawson_Alfred_W.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Harris & Ewing, photographer
Image:Water molecule.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Water_molecule.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alan Liefting, Booyabazooka, Brianga,
Railwayfan2005, Razorflame, Stephenb, 5 anonymous edits
Image:DMRDlogo.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DMRDlogo.png  License: Attribution  Contributors: User:68.227.53.87, User:FairuseBot, User:Iamunknown,
User:MBisanz, User:Rolinator
Image:Touched by His Noodly Appendage.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Touched_by_His_Noodly_Appendage.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Amalthea,
Arcayne, Billpg, Bradv, Cirt, Dj lord, Explicit, Geniac, Lawrencekhoo, Mnation2, Moondigger, Nova77, Shanel, Slon02, Some jerk on the Internet, XavierAJones, 33 anonymous edits
Image:FSM Logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:FSM_Logo.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:INVERTED, User:Lawrencekhoo
File:PiratesVsTemp(en).svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PiratesVsTemp(en).svg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Mikhail Ryazanov,
User:RedAndr
File:The Gospel of the Flying Spaghetti Monster.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Gospel_of_the_Flying_Spaghetti_Monster.jpg  License: unknown
 Contributors: Bobby Henderson
File:Fremont Fair 2009 pre-parade 28.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fremont_Fair_2009_pre-parade_28.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License
 Contributors: User:Jmabel
File:Flying Spaghetti Monter Craft.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flying_Spaghetti_Monter_Craft.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/pockafwye/
Image:Symonds Yat Rock View.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Symonds_Yat_Rock_View.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:
Original uploader was Lemoncurd at en.wikipedia
Image:Gevaudanwolf.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Gevaudanwolf.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bearerofthecup, Kilom691
Image:Blackdog.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blackdog.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:Peacock
Image:Bloop.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bloop.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Sidious1701 at en.wikipedia
File:Buergers' Tree-kangaroo, Dendrolagus goodfellowi.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Buergers'_Tree-kangaroo,_Dendrolagus_goodfellowi.JPG  License:
Public Domain  Contributors: Justin Griffiths
Image:Lynx lynx.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lynx_lynx.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bdk, Conscious, Franz Xaver, Liné1, Petwoe, SteffenB, 1
anonymous edits
Image:Bunyip 1890.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bunyip_1890.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Macfarlane, J.
Image:Canvey.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Canvey.JPG  License: Attribution  Contributors: Angr, Kryptid, Perfectblue97
File:Tyto pollens.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tyto_pollens.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Original uploader was Apokryltaros at
en.wikipedia
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 439

Image:Sea serpent.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sea_serpent.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Fred J, Holt, Lupo, Mgiganteus, Mu, Shalom, Siebrand
Image:Elwetritschen-Brunnen in Neustadt 09.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Elwetritschen-Brunnen_in_Neustadt_09.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
User:Immanuel Giel
File:Moths attracted by floodlight.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Moths_attracted_by_floodlight.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Chrisahn, Fir0002,
Ingolfson, Leonardorejorge
File:Eunectes murinus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eunectes_murinus.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Dysmorodrepanis, Geofrog,
Liné1, Manuel Anastácio, Taragui, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Megatherum_DB.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Megatherum_DB.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was ДиБгд at ru.wikipedia
Image:Amphiptera pacifica.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Amphiptera_pacifica.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mgiganteus1
Image:St augustine carcass.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:St_augustine_carcass.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Mgiganteus, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Highfin.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Highfin.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Kryptid
File:Rùa Hoàn Kiếm 01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rùa_Hoàn_Kiếm_01.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: haithanh
Image:The hodag.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_hodag.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Unknown
File:エゾオオカミ剥製・開拓記念館１９８４０９１４.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:エゾオオカミ剥製・開拓記念館１９８４０９１４.jpg  License: GNU
Free Documentation License  Contributors: Original uploader was Ｋａｔｕｕｙａ at ja.wikipedia
Image:Issie.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Issie.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:蒲生直義
Image:Rabbit shopes papilloma virus 3.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rabbit_shopes_papilloma_virus_3.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0
 Contributors: FlickreviewR, Hydrargyrum, Liné1, Rl
Image:Hirokawa Kaijin.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hirokawa_Kaijin.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: 広川 懈
Image:Kappa water imp 1836.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kappa_water_imp_1836.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Amcaja, Siebrand, Zeimusu
Image:Colossal octopus by Pierre Denys de Montfort.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Colossal_octopus_by_Pierre_Denys_de_Montfort.jpg  License: Public
Domain  Contributors: († 1820)
Image:Lake Kussharo01.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lake_Kussharo01.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:221.20
Image:Oreswamp.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oreswamp.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Perfectblue97, 1 anonymous edits
Image:Dinosauroid.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dinosauroid.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Jim from London
Image:Maltese Tiger.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maltese_Tiger.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Photo by
Mamapajama97 on Flickr.com, edited by uploader (colour of the animal)
Image:Manananggal of Philippine Mythology Commons.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Manananggal_of_Philippine_Mythology_Commons.jpg  License: Creative
Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: Original uploader was Rodsan18 at en.wikipedia (Original text : Original illustration of Dragonbite (copyright holder ©)')
File:The ya-te-veo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_ya-te-veo.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: J. W. Buel
Image:Thylacoleo BW.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thylacoleo_BW.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: User:ArthurWeasley
Image:Varanus priscus Melbourne Museum.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Varanus_priscus_Melbourne_Museum.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Cas
Liber
Image:Megalodon shark jaws museum of natural history 068.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Megalodon_shark_jaws_museum_of_natural_history_068.jpg
 License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Spotty11222 at en.wikipedia
Image:Alekoko fishpond.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alekoko_fishpond.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0  Contributors: Collin Grady
Image:Minhocao.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Minhocao.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Kryptid
Image:Giant Haasts eagle attacking New Zealand moa.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Giant_Haasts_eagle_attacking_New_Zealand_moa.jpg  License: unknown
 Contributors: Avenue, Franz Xaver, FunkMonk, G.dallorto, Infrogmation, Innotata, Johann, Kahuroa, Kevmin, Lamiot, Liné1, MPF, Quadell, Semnoz, Timo Müller, Tony Wills, Wst, Yerpo, 3
anonymous edits
Image:Allghoikhorkhoi.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Allghoikhorkhoi.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Original uploader was Pieter0024 at en.wikipedia
Image:Mothman statue 2005.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mothman_statue_2005.JPG  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User Kevin
Myers on en.wikipedia
Image:Stegosaurus BW.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stegosaurus_BW.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: User:ArthurWeasley
Image:Laonaga.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Laonaga.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Adam Carr
Image:Bariloche-11-2003.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bariloche-11-2003.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ALE!, Albasmalko, Arcibel, Denniss,
HenkvD, Juiced lemon, Xmort, 7 anonymous edits
Image:Ogopogo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ogopogo.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: B. K.
Image:Popelick2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Popelick2.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Ihcoyc
Image:QingQilin.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:QingQilin.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: User:Leonard G.
Image:Rhinodolph.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rhinodolph.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: User:Wolfychan
Image:The Sea Monk.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Sea_Monk.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Kwh
Image:Myakka skunk ape 2.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Myakka_skunk_ape_2.png  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Bastique,
Elembis, Infrogmation
Image:Skvader.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Skvader.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Fred J, Zejo
Image:Slow Down.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Slow_Down.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NOAA
Image:Smilodon californicus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Smilodon_californicus.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:Postdlf
Image:Storsjöodjuret.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Storsjöodjuret.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Andreas Eriksson
Image:Eunectes murinus2.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eunectes_murinus2.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
User:Dawson
Image:Tatzelwurm.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tatzelwurm.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Kryptid
File:Trunkowhale.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trunkowhale.JPG  License: unknown  Contributors: Bill Asmussen
Image:Tsuchinoko photo 01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tsuchinoko_photo_01.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Stray Sloth
Image:Wolpertinger.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wolpertinger.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Rainer Zenz
Image:Yerencave.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yerencave.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: User:Rolfmueller
Image:Yetiscalp.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yetiscalp.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: Nuno Nogueira (Nmnogueira)
Original uploader was Nmnogueira at en.wikipedia
Image:Yowie-statue-Kilcoy-Queensland.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Yowie-statue-Kilcoy-Queensland.JPG  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
2.1  Contributors: User:Seo75
Image:Panthera pardus adersi.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Panthera_pardus_adersi.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: Helle V.
Goldman e Jon Winther-Hansen
Image:Cuviers beaked whale-swfsc.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cuviers_beaked_whale-swfsc.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NMFS Southwest
Fisheries Science Center
Image:Erich von Daniken.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Erich_von_Daniken.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:
User:snek01
Image:Graham-Hancock.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Graham-Hancock.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0  Contributors: [Cpt.Muji]
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 440

Image:sthelens1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sthelens1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Harry Glicken, USGS/CVO
Image:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 035.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_035.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:
AndreasPraefcke, Anne97432, Butko, Diligent, EDUCA33E, Emijrp, Foroa, G.dallorto, Goldfritha, Mattes, Ranveig, Shakko, Stilfehler, Vincent Steenberg
Image:Image-Evolution of psychogenic modes.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Image-Evolution_of_psychogenic_modes.png  License: GNU Free Documentation
License  Contributors: . Original uploader was Bookish at en.wikipedia
Image:Priory of Sion Logo.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Priory_of_Sion_Logo.png  License: unknown  Contributors: Elcobbola
Image:Nicolas Poussin 052.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nicolas_Poussin_052.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: EDUCA33E, G.dallorto, GeorgHH,
Mattes, Miniwark, Paris 16, Rauenstein, Tetraktys, Wst, 1 anonymous edits
Image:leonardo self.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Leonardo_self.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Attributed to Leonardo da Vinci
File:NEO ararat big.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:NEO_ararat_big.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NASA/JSC
File:The grave monument of the prophet Noah.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_grave_monument_of_the_prophet_Noah.JPG  License: Public Domain
 Contributors: User:Самый древний
File:The Structure Claimed to be the Noah's Ark near the Mount Ararat in Turkey.jpg  Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Structure_Claimed_to_be_the_Noah's_Ark_near_the_Mount_Ararat_in_Turkey.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0
 Contributors: User:Mfikretyilmaz
File:1905 2fnl Velikoe v malom i antikhrist.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1905_2fnl_Velikoe_v_malom_i_antikhrist.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors:
User:Ludvikus
Image:1905 Velikoe v malom - Serge Nilus - Title page - Facsimile - 1920.jpg  Source:
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was Ludvikus at en.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Angusmclellan, Skier Dude, MatthewGall2005 at en.wikipedia.
File:1905 Velikoe v malom - Serge Nilus - Title page - Facsimile - 1920.jpg  Source:
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Image:1912ed TheProtocols by Nilus.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:1912ed_TheProtocols_by_Nilus.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: AnonMoos,
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Humus sapiens at en.wikipedia
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Quibik
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(sculptor), Wenceslaus Hollar
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File:Francis Bacon, Viscount St Alban from NPG (2).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Francis_Bacon,_Viscount_St_Alban_from_NPG_(2).jpg  License: Public
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File:Jarry_velo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jarry_velo.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Bohème, Man vyi, Mu, Uhrwerk (kei), Waldir, Wst, 2
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 441

Image:IndianaPiBillCircle.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:IndianaPiBillCircle.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Henning Makholm
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License 442

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